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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, Vegetable Teratology, by Maxwell T. Masters,
+Illustrated by E. M. Williams
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: Vegetable Teratology
+ An Account of the Principal Deviations from the Usual Construction of Plants
+
+
+Author: Maxwell T. Masters
+
+
+
+Release Date: November 6, 2007 [eBook #23354]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII)
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK VEGETABLE TERATOLOGY***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Charlene Taylor, Leonard Johnson, and the Project
+Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team (https://www.pgdp.net)
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
+ file which includes the original illustrations.
+ See 23354-h.htm or 23354-h.zip:
+ (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/3/3/5/23354/23354-h/23354-h.htm)
+ or
+ (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/3/3/5/23354/23354-h.zip)
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+ Words enclosed between equal signs were in bold face (=bold=).
+
+ A list of corrections is at the end of the book.
+
+
+
+
+
+The Ray Society.
+Instituted MDCCCXLIV.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+_This volume is issued to the Subscribers to the_ RAY SOCIETY _for
+the Year_ 1868.
+
+London:
+MDCCCLXIX.
+
+VEGETABLE TERATOLOGY,
+
+An Account of the Principal Deviations from the Usual
+Construction of Plants
+
+by
+
+MAXWELL T. MASTERS, M.D., F.L.S.
+
+With Numerous Illustrations by E. M. Williams.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+London:
+Published for the Ray Society by
+Robert Hardwicke, 192. Piccadilly.
+MDCCCLXIX.
+
+
+
+
+TO
+JOSEPH DALTON HOOKER, M.D.,
+D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., ETC. ETC.
+DIRECTOR OF THE ROYAL GARDENS, KEW,
+
+
+This Volume
+IS
+GRATEFULLY INSCRIBED.
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS.
+
+
+ PAGE
+
+INTRODUCTION xxi
+
+
+BOOK I.
+
+DEVIATIONS FROM ORDINARY ARRANGEMENT 1
+
+
+PART I.--UNION OF ORGANS 8
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+COHESION 9
+
+Cohesion between axes of same plant, 9--Fasciation, 11--Cohesion
+of foliar organs, 21--Of margins of single organs, 21--Tubular
+petals, 23--Cohesion of several organs by their margins, 25--Of
+the sepals, 27--Of the petals, 28--Of the stamens, 29--Of the
+pistils, 29--Ascidia or pitchers, 30.
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+ADHESION 32
+
+Adhesion of foliar organs, 32--Of leaves by their surfaces,
+33--Of foliar to axile organs, 34--Of sepals to petals, 34--Of
+stamens to petals, 34--Of stamens to pistils, 35--Miscellaneous
+adhesions, 35--Of fruit to branch, 36--Synanthy, 36--Syncarpy,
+45--Synspermy, 50--Between axes of different plants of same
+species, 50--And of different species, 55--Synophty.
+
+
+PART II.--INDEPENDENCE OF ORGANS 58
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+FISSION 59
+
+Fission of axile organs, 60--Of foliar organs, 61--Of petals,
+66--Of stamens, 68--Of carpels, 68.
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+DIALYSIS 69
+
+Dialysis of margins of individual parts, 70--Of margins of parts
+of same whorl-calyx, 70--Of corolla, 71--Of stamens, 73--Of
+carpels, 73.
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+SOLUTION 76
+
+Solution of calyx from ovary, 77--Of stamens from petals, 82.
+
+
+PART III.--ALTERATIONS OF POSITION 83
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+DISPLACEMENT 84
+
+Displacement of bulbs, 84--Of inflorescence, 85--Of leaves,
+87--Of parts of flowers, 91--Of carpels, 96--Of placentas and
+ovules, 96.
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+PROLIFICATION 100
+
+Prolification of the inflorescence, 102--Median foliar,
+103--Median floral, 105--Lateral foliar, 106--Lateral floral,
+107--Prolification of the flower, 115--Median foliar,
+116--Median floral, 119--Axillary prolification, 138--Foliar,
+141--Floral, 142--Complicated prolification, 151--Of embryo,
+155.
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+HETEROTAXY 156
+
+Formation of adventitious roots, 156--Of shoots below the
+cotyledons, 161--Adventitious leaves, 162--On scapes,
+163--Production of leaves or scales in place of flower-buds,
+164--Viviparous plants, 168--Formation of buds on leaves,
+170--In pith, 171--On bulbs, 172--Production of gemmae in place
+of spores, 173--Of flowers on leaves, 174--Of flower-buds in
+place of leaf-buds, 176--Of flowers on spines, 177--Of
+flower-buds on petals, 177--On fruits, 178--In ovaries, 180--Of
+stamens in ovaries, 182--Of pollen in ovules, 185--Homomorphic
+flowers of Compositae, 188--Heterotaxy affecting the
+inflorescence, 188--Supra-soriferous ferns, 190.
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+HETEROGAMY 190
+
+Change in the position of male and female flowers, 191--From
+monoecious to dioecious condition, 193--From dioecious to
+monoecious, 193--From hermaphroditism to unisexuality,
+195--From unisexuality to hermaphroditism, 197--Pollen replaced
+by ovules, 201.
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+ALTERATIONS IN THE DIRECTION OF ORGANS 201
+
+Fastigiation, 202--Eversion, 204--Altered direction of leaves,
+205--Altered direction of flower, 206--Reflexion,
+209--Gymnaxony, 211.
+
+
+BOOK II.
+
+DEVIATIONS FROM ORDINARY FORM 213
+
+
+PART I.--STASIMORPHY 216
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+PERSISTENCE OF JUVENILE FORMS 217
+
+Stasimorphy in leaves of Conifers, 217--Regular peloria, 219.
+
+
+PART II.--PLEIOMORPHY 228
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+IRREGULAR PELORIA 228
+
+
+PART III.--METAMORPHY 240
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+PHYLLODY 241
+
+Phyllody of bracts, 242--In inflorescence of Conifers, 245--Of
+calyx, 245--Of corolla, 251--Of stamens, 253--Of pistils,
+256--Of ovules, 262--Changes in nucleus of ovule, 269--Phyllody
+of accessory organs, 272--Chloranthy, 273--General remarks on,
+278.
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+METAMORPHY OF FLORAL ORGANS 281
+
+Sepalody of petals, 282--Petalody of calyx, calycanthemy,
+283--Petalody of stamens, 285--Of anther, 291--Of connective,
+293--Compound stamens, 294--Petalody of pistils, 296--Of ovules,
+297--Of accessory organs, 297--Staminody of the bracts, 298--Of
+sepals and petals, 298--Of pistils, 299--Of accessory organs,
+301--Pistillody of perianth, 302--Of sepals, 302--Of stamens,
+303--Of ovules, 310.
+
+
+PART IV.--HETEROMORPHY 311
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+DEFORMITIES 311
+
+Formation of tubes, 312--In flower, 314--Spurs, 315--Contortion,
+316--Spiral torsion, 319--Of leaf, 326--Adventitious tendrils,
+326--Interrupted growth, 327--Cornute leaves, 328--Flattening,
+328.
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+POLYMORPHY 329
+
+Heterophylly, 330--Dimorphism, 333--Sports or bud-variations,
+336.
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+ALTERATIONS OF COLOUR 337
+
+Albinism, 337--Virescence, 338--Chromatism, 339.
+
+
+BOOK III.
+
+
+DEVIATIONS FROM ORDINARY NUMBER 340
+
+
+PART I.--INCREASED NUMBER OF ORGANS 343
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+MULTIPLICATION OF AXILE ORGANS--INFLORESCENCE 346
+
+Multiplication of branches, 346--Plica, 346--Polyclady,
+347--Multiplication of branches of inflorescence, 348--Of bulbs,
+350--Of florets, 351.
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+MULTIPLICATION OF FOLIAR ORGANS 352
+
+Pleiophylly, 353--Multiplication of stipules, bracts, &c.,
+357--Polyphylly, 358--Increased number of leaves in a whorl,
+358--Polyphylly of bracts, 358--Of calyx, 358--Of corolla,
+359--Of androecium, 361--Of gynoecium, 363--Of flower in
+general, 365--Increased number of ovules and seeds, 367--Of
+embryos, 369--Of cotyledons, 370--Pleiotaxy, or multiplication
+of whorls, 371--Pleiotaxy of bracts, 371--Of calyx, 374--Of
+perianth, 375--Of corolla (hose in hose), 376--Androecium,
+379--Androecium of Orchids, 380--Pleiotaxy of gynoecium,
+388--Increased number of flowers in an inflorescence, 391.
+
+
+PART II.--DIMINISHED NUMBER OF ORGANS 392
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+SUPPRESSION OF AXILE ORGANS 393
+
+Acaulosia, 393--Non-development of peduncle, 393--Nature of
+calyx-tube (Casimir de Candolle), 394--Suppression of columella,
+395.
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+SUPPRESSION OF FOLIAR ORGANS 395
+
+Aphylly, 395--Meiophylly, 396--Of calyx or perianth, 396--Of
+corolla, 397--Of androecium, 398--Of gynoecium, 399--Of
+flower, 400--Meiotaxy, 403--Of calyx, 403--Of corolla, 403--Of
+androecium, 405--Of gynoecium, 406--Of ovules or seeds,
+407--Of flower, 408--General remarks on suppression, 409.
+
+
+BOOK IV.
+
+DEVIATIONS FROM ORDINARY SIZE AND CONSISTENCE 413
+
+
+PART I--HYPERTROPHY 416
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+ENLARGEMENT 417
+
+Of axile organs, 418--Knaurs, 419--Enlargement of buds, 420--Of
+flower-stalk, 421--In pears, 423--Of placenta, 424--Of leaves,
+426--Development of parts usually abortive, 427--Enlargement of
+perianth, 428--Of androecium, 430--Of gynoecium, 430--Of
+fruit, 431--Alterations of consistence, 432.
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+ELONGATION 488
+
+Elongation of root, 434--Of inflorescence, 434--Of
+flower-stalks, 435--Of leaves, 437--Of parts of flower, 438--Of
+thalamus and placenta, 440--Apostasis, 440.
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+ENATION 443
+
+Excrescences from axile organs, warts, 444--Enation from leaves,
+445--From sepals, 448--From petals, 448--Catacorolla,
+451--Enation from stamens, 453--From carpels, 453.
+
+
+PART II.--ATROPHY 454
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+ABORTION 455
+
+Abortion of axile organs, 455--Of receptacle, 457--Of leaves,
+458--Of perianth, calyx, and corolla, 460--Of stamens, 463--Of
+pollen, 463--Of pistil, fruit, &c., 464--Of ovules,
+466--Depauperated ferns, 466--General remarks, 467.
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+DEGENERATION 470
+
+Formation of scales, 470--Of hairs, 472--Of glands, 473--Of
+tendrils, 473.
+
+
+GENERAL CONCLUSIONS.
+
+General morphology of the leaf and axis, 476.--Homology,
+476--Special morphology, 479--Calyx-tube, 480--Androecium,
+482--Inferior ovary, 482--Placentation, 483--Structure of the
+ovule, 484--Leaves of Conifers, 484--Relative position of
+organs, 484--Law of alternation, 485--Co-relation,
+486--Compensation, 488--Teratology and classification, 488.
+
+
+APPENDIX.
+
+Double flowers, varieties of, 491--Causes of production,
+491--Relation to variegated foliage, 497--List of plants
+producing, 499.
+
+
+NOTE 508
+
+INDEX TO SUBJECTS 511
+
+INDEX OF NAMES OF PLANTS 517
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+
+FIG. PAGE
+
+ 1. Diagram of regular pentamerous flower 4
+ 2. Cohesion of branch _Dipsacus sylvestris_ 10
+ 3. Fasciated lettuce ('Gard. Chron.') 11
+ 4. Fasciation in _Asparagus_ 12
+ 5. Fasciation in _Pinus Pinaster_ 13
+ 6. Fasciation and spiral torsion in _Asparagus_
+ ('Gard. Chron.') 14
+ 7. Fasciation in scape of dandelion 16
+ 8. Pitcher on leaf of _Pelargonium_ 22
+ 9. Transition from flat to tubular segments of the perianth in
+ _Eranthis_ 24
+ 10. Pitcher of _Crassula arborescens_ (C. Morren) 26
+ 11. Gamopetalous corolla, _Papaver bracteatum_ 28
+ 12. Adhesion of petaloid stamen to segment of perianth,
+ _Crocus_ 35
+ 13. Adhesion of petal, stamen and carpel,
+ _Cheiranthus Cheiri_ 36
+ 14. Synanthy. _Campanula Medium_ ('Gard. Chron.') 37
+ 15, 16. Synanthic flowers of _Calanthe vestita_ 39
+ 17. Synanthy in _Digitalis purpurea_ ('Gard. Chron.') 40
+ 18. Synanthy in _Calceolaria_ 41
+ 19, 20. Syncarpic apples 47
+ 21. Adhesion of two stems of oak ('Gard. Chron.') 51
+ 22. Adhesion of branches of elm ('Gard. Chron.') 52
+ 23. Adhesion of two roots of carrot, one white, the other red
+ ('Gard. Chron.') 53
+ 24. Section through inverted and adherent mushrooms 54
+ 25. Bifurcated male catkin, _Cedrus Libani_ 61
+ 26. Bifurcated leaf, _Lamium album_ 62
+ 27. Bifurcated leaf, _Pelargonium_ 63
+ 28. Bifurcated frond, _Scolopendrium_ 64
+ 29. Three-lobed lip of _Oncidium_ 68
+ 30. Dialysis of corolla in _Correa_ 71
+ 31. Dialysis of corolla in _Campanula_ (De Candolle) 72
+ 32. Anomalous form of orange 74
+ 33, 34. Disjoined carpels of orange (Maout) 75
+ 35. Proliferous rose (Bell Salter) 78
+ 36, 37. Apple flower, with detached calyx, &c. 79
+ 38. Flower of _OEnanthe crocata_, with detached calyx, &c. 80
+ 39. Anomalous bulbs of tulip 85
+ 40. Displaced leaf of _Gesnera_ (C. Morren) 88
+ 41. Leaves of _Pinus pinea_ 89
+ 42. Deranged leaves of yew 90
+ 43. Cohesion of sepals and displacement of parts of _Oncidium
+ cucullatum_ 92
+ 44. Malformed flower of _Cypripedium_ 93
+ 45. Diagram of the same 93
+ 46. Diagram of natural structure in _Cypripedium_ 93
+ 47. Diagram of malformed flower of _Lycaste Skinneri_ 93
+ 48. Diagram of malformed flower of _Dendrobium nobile_ 94
+ 49. Natural arrangement in same flower 94
+ 50. Diagram of malformed violet 94
+ 51. Monstrous flower of _Cerastium_ ('Gard. Chron.') 97
+ 52. Inflorescence of _Polyanthus_, with tufts of leaves
+ at the summit 105
+ 53. Lateral prolification in inflorescence of _Pelargonium_ 108
+ 54. Paniculate inflorescence of _Plantago major_ 109
+ 55. Branched spike and leafy bracts of the same 110
+ 56. Inflorescence of _Plantago lanceolata_, with leaves
+ and secondary flower-stalks at its summit 111
+ 57. Branched inflorescence of _Reseda Luteola_ 112
+ 58. Thalamus of strawberry prolonged into a leafy branch
+ ('American Agriculturist') 116
+ 59. Flower of _Verbascum_, with dialysis of calyx and
+ corolla and prolonged thalamus 116
+ 60. Median floral prolification of _Dianthus_ 120
+ 61. Leafy carpels and prolification of _Daucus Carota_ 123
+ 62. Median floral prolification of _Delphinium_ 126
+ 63. Median prolification, &c., of _Orchis pyramidalis_ 128
+ 64. Proliferous rose (Bell Salter) 130
+ 65. Axillary floral prolification of _Nymphaea Lotus_
+ ('Gard. Chron.') 144
+ 66. Axillary floral prolification of _Dianthus_ 146
+ 67. Proliferous rose 151
+ 68. Proliferous rose ('Gard. Chron.') 152
+ 69. Diagram of prolified orchid 153
+ 70. Diagram of prolified orchis 154
+ 71. Adventitious roots from petiole of celery 158
+ 72. Germinating plant of mango 159
+ 73, 74. Adventitious roots from leaves 160
+ 75. Hip of rose bearing leaf 162
+ 76. Leaves proceeding from the ovary of _Nymphaea_ sp. 162
+ 77. Flower-stalk of dandelion, with leaves 163
+ 78. Tuft of leaves in place of flowers in _Valeriana_ sp. 165
+ 79. Scale-bearing spikelets of _Willdenovia_ 167
+ 80. "Rose Willow" 167
+ 81. Viviparous flowers of _Aira vivipara_ 169
+ 82. Formation of shoot on leaf of _Episcia bicolor_ 171
+ 83. Adventitious buds on root of sea-kale 172
+ 84, 85. Production of adventitious bulbs in hyacinth ('Gard.
+ Chron.') 172
+ 86. Adventitious buds on hyacinth ('Gard. Chron ') 173
+ 87-92. Nepaul barley 174, 175
+ 93. Formation of buds on fruit of _Opuntia_ 179
+ 94. Flower-bud in the pod of _Sinapis_ 181
+ 94*, 95. Adventitious pod in silique of _Cheiranthus_ 182
+ 96, 97. Grapes, with adventitious fruits in interior 183
+ 98. Stamens in ovary of _Baeckea diosmifolia_ 184
+ 99. Pollen in ovule of passion flower (S. J. Salter) 185
+100. Female flowers at the summit of the inflorescence of
+ _Carex acuta_ 192
+101. Monoecious hop ('Gard. Chron.') 193
+102. Superior ovary, &c, of fuchsia 198
+103. Hermaphrodite flower of _Carica_ 199
+104. Ovuliferous anthers of _Cucurbita_ sp. 200
+105, 106. Prolonged inflorescence of fig 205
+107. Hollow turnip, with inverted leaves 206
+108. Normal flower of _Gloxinia_ 207
+109. Regular peloria of _Gloxinia_ 207
+110, 111. Structural details of erect _Gloxinia_ 208
+112. Reflected corolla of azalea 209
+113, 114. Enlarged and erect placenta of _Cuphea miniata_
+ (C. Morren) 210
+115. Dimorphic leaves of _Juniperus sinensis_ 217
+116. Regular peloria of _Delphinium_ 219
+117. Structural details of the preceding 219
+118. Regular peloria of violet 220
+119. Double-flowered regular violet 220
+120. Regular peloria of _Eccremocarpus scaber_ 222
+121. Regular peloria of _Cattleya_ 223
+122. Peloria of _Calceolaria_ 230
+123. Peloric flower of _Aristolochia_ 232
+124, 125. Peloric flowers of _Corydalis_ 236
+126. Rose plantain 242
+127. Leafy bracts in _Plantago major_ 243
+128. Leafy scales of _Dahlia_ 244
+129. Leafy sepals of rose 246
+130. Leafy sepals of Fuchsia ('Gard. Chron.') 247
+131. Leafy calyx of primrose 248
+132. Leafy calyx of melon 248
+133. Leafy sepals and petals of _Geranium_ 251
+134. Leafy stamens of _Petunia_ 254
+135, 136. Leafy anthers of _Jatropha_ (Mueller) 255
+137. Proliferous rose, with leafy carpels, &c. (Bell Salter) 257
+138. Cucumber, with adventitious leaf attached (S. J. Salter) 258
+139. Leafy carpels in flower of _Triumfetta_ 260
+140. Leafy ovules of _Sinapis_ 264
+141, 142. Leafy ovules of _Trifolium repens_ (Caspary) 265
+143. Portion of leafy carpel of _Delphinium_, with ovules
+ (Cramer) 266
+144, 145. Enlarged view of section of leafy carpel, &c., of
+ _Delphinium_ (Cramer) 267
+146. Placentae of _Dianthus_, bearing ovules and carpels
+ ('Gard. Chron.') 268
+147. Ovules passing into carpels, _Dianthus_
+ ('Gard. Chron.') 268
+148. Leafy shoot in place of ovule of _Gaillardia_ 270
+149, 150. Leafy sepals, petals, &c., of _Epilobium_ 273
+151. Leafy carpel of rose, with deformed ovules 274
+152. Flower of St. Valery apple 282
+153. Petaloid calyx of _Mimulus_ 284
+154. Double stellate columbine 287
+155. Four-winged filaments of Rhododendron 290
+156. Diagram of malformed flower of _Catasetum_ 291
+157. Petaloid stamen of _Viola_ 292
+158. Double columbine 293
+159. Petaloid stamens of _Hibiscus_ 293
+160. Displaced coloured leaf, &c., of tulip 302
+161. Supernumerary carpels in orange (Maout) 303
+162. Pistilloid stamens of poppy 304
+163. Pistilloid stamens of wallflower, &c. 306
+164. Passage of stamen to carpel in lily 307
+165. Transition of stamens to carpels,
+ _Sempervivum tectorum_ 309
+166. Ascidia of cabbage 312
+167. Stalked pitcher on lettuce leaf 313
+168. Tubular petal of _Primula sinensis_ 315
+169. Spurs on flower of _Calceolaria_ 316
+170. Contorted stem of _Juncus_ 317
+171. Contorted branch of _Crataegus_ 317
+172. Spirally-twisted stem of teazel 321
+173. Spirally-twisted stem _Galium_ 323
+174. Spirally-twisted root ('Gard. Chron.') 324
+175. Interrupted growth of radish (American Agriculturist) 327
+176. Interrupted growth in apple 327
+177. Polymorphous leaves of lilac 331
+178. Adventitious growth on frond of _Pteris quadriaurita_ 333
+179, 180. Coloured flower-stalks of feather hyacinth
+ (C. Morren) 347, 348
+181. Multiplication of catkins, _Corylus_ 349
+182. Branched inflorescence of broccoli ('Gard. Chron.') 351
+183, 184. Supernumerary leaf of elm 353, 354
+185. Supernumerary leaf of hazel 355
+186. Multiplication of parts of flower in a plum ('Gard. Chron.') 366
+187. Wheat-ear carnation 372
+188. Multiplication of bracts in _Delphinium Consolida_ 373
+189. Multiplication of bracts in _Pelargonium_ 373
+190. Double white lily 376
+191. Double flower of _Campanula rotundifolia_ 378
+192. Diagram of usual arrangement of parts in _Orchis_
+ (Darwin) 381
+193. Diagram of malformed flower of _Ophrys aranifera_ 385
+194. Malformed flower of _Ophrys aranifera_ 385
+195. Diagram of malformed flower of _Orchis mascula_
+ (Cramer) 386
+196. Multiplication of carpels, Tulip 388
+197. Section of St. Valery apple 388
+198. Regular dimerous flower of _Calanthe vestita_ 402
+199. Regular dimerous flower of _Odontoglossum Alexandrae_ 402
+200. Hypertrophied branch of _Pelargonium_ 418
+201. Tubers in the axils of leaves of the potato 420
+202. Hypertrophied pedicels of ash 421
+203, 204. Hypertrophy and elongation of flower-stalk, &c., in
+ pears 422, 423
+205. Hypertrophied perianth, _Cocos nucifera_ 428
+206. Elongation of flower-stalk, _Ranunculus acris_ 436
+207. Linear leaf-lobes of parsley 438
+208. Passage of pinnate to palmate leaves in horse-chestnut 439
+209. Elongation of thalamus, apostasis, &c., in flower of
+ _Delphinium_ (Cramer) 441
+210. Adventitious growths from cabbage leaf 445
+211. Crested fronds of _Nephrodium molle_ 447
+212. Supernumerary petals, &c., _Datura fastuosa_ 450
+213. Supernumerary petaloid segments in flower of _Gloxinia_ 451
+214. Catacorolla of _Gloxinia_ (E. Morren) 452
+215. Atrophied leaves of cabbage 460
+216. Abortion of petals, pansy 461
+217. Flower of _Oncidium abortivum_ 462
+218. Bladder plum 464
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+Till within a comparatively recent period but little study was given to
+exceptional formations. They were considered as monsters to be shunned,
+as lawless deviations from the ordinary rule, unworthy the attention of
+botanists, or at best as objects of mere curiosity. By those whose
+notions of structure and conformation did not extend beyond the details
+necessary to distinguish one species from another, or to describe the
+salient features of a plant in technical language; whose acquaintance
+with botanical science might almost be said to consist in the
+conventional application of a number of arbitrary terms, or in the
+recollection of a number of names, teratology was regarded as a chaos
+whose meaningless confusion it were vain to attempt to render
+intelligible,--as a barren field not worth the labour of tillage.
+
+The older botanists, it is true, often made them the basis of satirical
+allusions to the political or religious questions of the day, especially
+about the time of the Reformation, and the artists drew largely upon
+their polemical sympathies in their representations of these anomalies.
+Linnaeus treated of them to some extent in his 'Philosophia,' but it is
+mainly to Angustin Pyramus De Candolle that the credit is due of calling
+attention to the importance of vegetable teratology. This great
+botanist, not only indirectly, but from his personal research into the
+nature of monstrosities, did more than any of his predecessors to rescue
+them from the utter disregard, or at best the contemptuous indifference,
+of the majority of botanists. De Candolle gave a special impetus to
+morphology in general by giving in his adhesion to the morphological
+hypotheses of Goethe. These were no mere figments of the poet's
+imagination, as they were to a large extent based on the actual
+investigation of normal and abnormal organisation by Goethe both alone,
+and also in conjunction with Batsch and Jaeger.
+
+De Candolle's example was contagious. Scarcely a botanist of any
+eminence since his time but has contributed his quota to the records of
+vegetable teratology, in proof of which the names of Humboldt, Robert
+Brown, the De Jussieus, the Saint Hilaires, of Moquin-Tandon, of
+Lindley, and many others, not to mention botanists still living, may be
+cited. To students and amateurs the subject seems always to have
+presented special attractions, probably from the singularity of the
+appearances presented, and from the fact that in many cases the
+examination of individual instances of malformation can be carried on,
+to a large extent, without the lengthened or continuous investigation
+and critical comparative study required by other departments of
+botanical science. Be this as it may, teratology owes a very large
+number of its records to this class of observers.
+
+While the number of scattered papers on vegetable teratology in various
+European languages is so great as to preclude the possibility of
+collating them all, there is no general treatise on the subject in the
+English language, with the exception of Hopkirk's 'Flora Anomala,' a
+book now rarely met with, and withal very imperfect; and this
+notwithstanding that Robert Brown early lent his sanction to the
+doctrines of Goethe, and himself illustrated them by teratological
+observations. In France, besides important papers of Turpin, Geoffroy de
+Saint Hilaire, Brongniart, Kirschleger and others, to which frequent
+allusion is made in the following pages, there is the classic work of
+Moquin-Tandon, which was translated into German by Schauer. Germany has
+also given us the monographs of Batsch, Jaeger, Roeper, Engelmann,
+Schimper, Braun, Fleischer, Wigand, and many others. Switzerland has
+furnished the treatises of the De Candolles, and of Cramer; Belgium,
+those of Morren, &c., all of which, as well as many others that might be
+mentioned, are, with the exception of Moquin-Tandon's 'Elements,' to be
+considered as referring to limited portions only and not to the whole
+subject.[1]
+
+In the compilation of the present volume great use has been made of the
+facts recorded in the works just cited, and especially in those of
+Moquin-Tandon, Engelmann, and Morren. A very large number of
+communications on teratological subjects in the various European
+scientific publications have also been laid under contribution. In most
+cases reference has been given to, and due acknowledgment made of, the
+sources whence information has been gathered. Should any such reference
+be omitted, the neglect must be attributed to inadvertence, not to
+design. In selecting illustrations from the immense number of recorded
+facts, the principle followed has been to choose those which seemed
+either intrinsically the most important, or those which are recorded
+with the most care. In addition to these public sources of information,
+the author has availed himself of every opportunity that has offered
+itself of examining cases of unusual conformation in plants. For many
+such opportunities the author has to thank his friends and
+correspondents. Nor has he less reason to be grateful for the
+suggestions that they have made, and the information they have supplied.
+In particular the writer is desirous of acknowledging his obligations to
+the Society, under whose auspices this work is published, and to Mr. S.
+J. Salter, to whom the book in some degree owes its origin.
+
+The drawings, where not otherwise stated, have been executed either from
+the author's own rough sketches, or from the actual specimens, by Mr. E.
+M. Williams. A large number of woodcuts have also been kindly placed at
+the disposal of the author by the proprietors of the 'Gardeners'
+Chronicle.'[2]
+
+
+As it is impossible to frame any but a purely arbitrary definition of
+teratology or to trace the limits between variation and malformation, it
+may suffice to say that vegetable teratology comprises the history of
+the irregularities of growth and development in plants, and of the
+causes producing them. These irregularities differ from variations
+mainly in their wider deviation from the customary structure, in their
+more frequent and more obvious dependence on external causes rather than
+on inherent tendency, in their more sudden appearance, and lastly in
+their smaller liability to be transmitted by inheritance.
+
+What may be termed normal morphology includes the study of the form,
+arrangement, size and other characteristic attributes of the several
+parts of plants, their internal structure, and the precise relation one
+form bears to another. In order the more thoroughly to investigate these
+matters it is necessary to consider the mode of growth, and specially
+the plan of evolution or development of each organ. This is the more
+needful owing to the common origin of things ultimately very different
+one from the other, and to the presence of organs which, in the adult
+state, are identical or nearly so in aspect, but which nevertheless are
+very unlike in the early stages of their existence.[3] Following Goethe,
+these changes in the course of development are sometimes called
+metamorphoses. In this way Agardh[4] admits three kinds of
+metamorphosis, which he characterises as: 1st. Successive metamorphoses,
+or those changes in the course of evolution which each individual organ
+undergoes in its passage from the embryonic to the adult condition, or
+from the simple and incomplete to the complex and perfect. 2. Ascending
+metamorphoses, including those changes of form manifested in the same
+adult organism by the several parts of which it consists--those parts
+being typically identical or homologous, such as the parts of the
+flower, or, in animals, the vertebrae, &c. 3. Collateral metamorphoses,
+comprising those permutations of form and function manifested in
+homologous organs in the different groups of organisms, classes, orders,
+genera, species, &c.
+
+Thus, in the first instance, we have a comparative examination of the
+form of each or any separate part of the same individual at different
+epochs in its life-history; in the second we have a similar comparison
+instituted between the several parts of the same organism which
+originally were identical in appearance, but which have in course of
+evolution altered in character. In the third form we have the
+comparative view not of one organ at different times, nor of the several
+parts of one organism, but of the constituent elements pertaining to
+those aggregates of individuals to which naturalists apply the terms
+classes, orders, &c.
+
+In successive metamorphosis we have a measure of the amount of change
+and of the perfection of structure to which each separate organ attains.
+
+In ascending metamorphosis we have a gauge of the extent of alteration
+that may take place in the several homologous organs under existing
+circumstances.
+
+In collateral metamorphosis, in the same way, we have an illustration of
+the degree of change possible in aggregates of organisms under existing
+circumstances.
+
+Now it is clear that from an investigation of all three classes just
+mentioned, we shall be able to gain an idea of those points which are
+common to all parts, to all individuals or to all aggregates, and those
+that are peculiar to some of them, and, by eliminating the one from the
+other, we shall arrive at conclusions which will be more or less
+generally accurate or applicable, according to the ability of the
+student and the extent to which the comparative analysis is earned. It
+is thus that morphologists have been enabled to frame types or standards
+of reference, and systematists to collocate the organisms they deal with
+into groups. These standards and groups are more or less artificial
+(none can be entirely natural) in proportion to the amount of knowledge
+possessed by their framers, and the use they make of it.
+
+From this point of view teratological metamorphosis of all three kinds
+demands as much attention as that which is called normal. We can have no
+thorough knowledge of an organ, of an individual which is an aggregate
+of organs, or of an aggregate of individuals of whatever degree, unless
+we know approximately, at least, what are the limits of each. It is not
+possible to trace these limits accurately in the case of natural
+science, but the larger our knowledge and the wider our generalisations,
+the closer will be our approach to the truth.
+
+
+The most satisfactory classification of malformations would be one
+founded upon the nature of the causes inducing the several changes.
+Thus, in all organised beings, there is a process of growth, mere
+increase in bulk as it were, and a process of evolution or
+metamorphosis, in accordance with which certain parts assume a
+different form from the rest, in order the better to fit them for the
+performance of different offices. Should growth and development be
+uniform and regular, that is in accordance with what is habitual in any
+particular species, there is no monstrosity, but if either growth or
+development be in any way irregular, malformation results. Hence,
+theoretically, the best way of grouping cases of malformation would be
+according as they are the consequences of:--1st. Arrest of Growth;
+2ndly. Excessive Growth; 3rdly. Arrest of Development; 4thly, of
+Excessive or Irregular Development.
+
+In practice, however, there are so many objections to this plan that it
+has not been found practicable to carry it out. The inability arises to
+a great extent from our ignorance of what should be attributed to arrest
+of growth, what to excess of development, and so on. Moreover, a student
+with a malformed plant before him must necessarily ascertain in what way
+it is malformed before he can understand how it became so, and for this
+purpose any scheme that will enable him readily to detect the kind of
+monstrosity he is examining, even though it be confessedly artificial
+and imperfect will be better than a more philosophical arrangement which
+circumstances prevent him from employing.
+
+The plan followed in this volume is a slight modification of that
+adopted by Moquin-Tandon, and with several additions. In it the aim is
+to place before the student certain salient and easily recognisable
+points by reference to which the desired information can readily be
+found. Under each subdivision will be found general explanatory remarks,
+illustrative details, and usually a summary of the more important facts
+and the inferences to be derived from them. Bibliographical references
+and lists of the plants most frequently affected with particular
+malformations are also given. In reference to both these points it must
+be remembered that absolute completeness is not aimed at; had such
+fullness of detail been possible of attainment it would have
+necessitated for its publication a much larger volume than the
+present.[5] It is hoped that both the lists of books and of plants are
+sufficiently full for all general purposes.[6]
+
+In the enumeration of plants affected with various malformations the !
+denotes that the writer has himself seen examples of the deviation in
+question in the particular plant named, while the prefix of the *
+indicates that the malformation occurs with special frequency in the
+particular plant to which the sign is attached.
+
+Teratological alterations are rarely isolated phenomena, far more
+generally they are associated with other and often compensatory changes.
+Hence it is often necessary, in studying any given malformation, to
+refer to two or more subdivisions, and in this way a certain amount of
+repetition becomes unavoidable. The details of the several cases of
+malformation given in these pages are generally arranged according to
+their apparent degree of importance. Thus, in a case of prolification
+associated with multiplication of the petals, the former change is a
+greater deviation from the customary form than the latter, hence
+reference should be made, in the first instance, to the sections
+treating on prolification, and afterwards to those on multiplication. To
+facilitate such research, numerous cross references are supplied.
+
+In the investigation of teratological phenomena constant reference must
+be made to the normal condition, and _vice versa_, else neither the one
+nor the other can be thoroughly understood. It cannot, however, be
+overlooked that the form and arrangement called normal are often merely
+those which are the most common, while the abnormal or unusual
+arrangement is often more in consonance with that considered to be
+typical than the ordinary one. Thus, too, it is often found that the
+structural arrangements, which in one flower are normal, are in another
+abnormal, in so far that they are not usual in that particular instance.
+
+For purposes of reference, a standard of comparison is required; and
+this standard, so long as its nature is not overlooked, may, indeed must
+be, to some extent, an arbitrary one. Thus in the phanerogamous plants
+there is assumed to exist, in all cases, an axis (stem, branches, roots,
+thalamus, &c.), bearing leaves and flowers. These latter consist of four
+whorls, calyx, corolla, stamens, and pistils, each whorl consisting of
+so many separate pieces in determinate position and numbers, and of
+regular proportionate size. A very close approach to such a flower
+occurs normally in _Limnanthes_ and _Crassula_, and, indeed, in a large
+proportion of all flowers in an early stage of development. To a
+standard type, such as just mentioned, all the varied forms that are met
+with, either in normal or abnormal morphology, may be referred by
+bearing in mind the different modifications and adaptations that the
+organs have to undergo in the course of their development. Some parts
+after a time may cease to grow, others may grow in an inordinate degree,
+and so on; and thus, great as may be the ultimate divergences from the
+assumed standard, they may all readily be explained by the operation,
+simply or conjointly, of some of the four principal causes of
+malformation before alluded to. The fact that so many and such varied
+changes can thus readily be explained is not only a matter of
+convenience, but may be taken as evidence that the standard of reference
+is not wholly arbitrary and artificial, but that it is a close
+approximation to the truth.
+
+It has already been said that an arrangement like that here considered
+as typical is natural to some flowers in their adult state, and to a
+vast number in their immature condition. It would be no extravagant
+hypothesis to surmise that this was the primitive structure of the
+flower in the higher plants. Variations from it may have arisen in
+course of time, owing to the action of an inherent tendency to vary, or
+from external circumstances and varied requirements which may have
+induced corresponding adaptations, and which may have been transmitted
+in accordance with the principle of hereditary transmission. This
+hypothesis necessarily implies a prior simplicity of organisation, of
+which, indeed, there is sufficient proof; many cases of malformation
+can thus be considered as so many reversions to the ancestral form.
+
+Thus, teratology often serves as an aid in the study of morphology in
+general, and also in that of special groups of plants, and hence may
+even be of assistance in the determination of affinities. In any case
+the data supplied by teratology require to be used with caution and in
+conjunction with those derived from the study of development and from
+analogy. It is even possible that some malformations, especially when
+they acquire a permanent nature and become capable of reproducing
+themselves by seed, may be the starting-point of new species, as they
+assuredly are of new races, and between a race and a species he would be
+a bold man who would undertake to draw a hard and fast line.[7]
+
+Discredit has been cast on teratology because it has been incautiously
+used. At one time it was made to prove almost everything; what wonder
+that by some, now-a-days, it is held to prove nothing. True the evidence
+it affords is sometimes negative, often conflicting, but it is so rather
+from imperfect interpretation than from any intrinsic worthlessness. If
+misused the fault lies with the disciple, not with Nature.
+
+Teratology as a guide to the solution of morphological problems has been
+especially disparaged in contrast with organogeny, but unfairly so.
+There is no reason to exalt or to disparage either at the expense of the
+other. Both should receive the attention they demand. The study of
+development shows the primitive condition and gradual evolution of parts
+in any given individual or species; it carries us back some stages
+further in the history of particular organisms, but so also does
+teratology. Many cases of arrest of development show the mode of growth
+and evolution more distinctly, and with much greater ease to the
+observer, than does the investigation of the evolution of organs under
+natural circumstances. Organogeny by no means necessarily, or always,
+gives us an insight into the principles regulating the construction of
+flowers in general. It gives us no archetype except in those
+comparatively rare cases where primordial symmetry and regularity exist.
+When an explanation of the irregularity of development in these early
+stages of the plant's history is required, recourse must be had to the
+inferences and deductions drawn from teratological investigations and
+from the comparative study of allied forms precisely as in the case of
+adult flowers.
+
+The study of development is of the highest importance in the examination
+of plants as individuals, but in regard to comparative anatomy and
+morphology, and specially in its relation to the study of vegetable
+homology it has no superiority over teratology. Those who hold the
+contrary opinion do so, apparently, because they overlook the fact that
+there is no distinction, save of degree, to be drawn between the laws
+regulating normal organisation, and those by which so-called abnormal
+formations are regulated.
+
+It is sometimes said, and not wholly without truth, that teratology, as
+it stands at present, is little more than a record of facts, but in
+proportion as the laws that regulate normal growth are better
+understood, so will the knowledge of those that govern the so-called
+monstrous formations increase. Sufficient has been already said to
+prove that there is no intrinsic difference between the laws of growth
+in the two cases. As our knowledge increases we shall be enabled to
+ascertain approximately of what extent of variation a given form is
+capable, under given conditions, and to refer all formations now
+considered anomalous to a few well-defined forms. Already teratology has
+done much towards showing the erroneous nature of many morphological
+statements that still pass current in our text-books, though their
+fallacy has been demonstrated again and again. Thus organs are said to
+be fused which were never separate, disjunctions and separations are
+assigned to parts that were never joined, adhesions and cohesions are
+spoken of in cases where, from the nature of things, neither adhesion
+nor cohesion could have existed. Some organs are said to be atrophied
+which were never larger and more fully developed than they now are, and
+so on. So long as these expressions are used in a merely conventional
+sense and for purposes of artificial classification or convenience, well
+and good, but let us not delude ourselves that we are thus contributing
+to the philosophical study either of the conformation of plants or of
+the affinities existing between them. What hope is there that we shall
+ever gain clear conceptions as to the former, as long as we tie
+ourselves down to formulas which are the expressions of facts as they
+appear to be, rather than as they really are? What chance is there of
+our attaining to comprehensive and accurate views of the genealogy and
+affinities of plants as long as we are restricted by false notions as to
+the conformation and mutual relation of their parts?[8]
+
+That teratology may serve the purposes of systematic botany to a greater
+extent than might at first be supposed becomes obvious from a
+consideration of such facts as are mentioned under the head of Peloria,
+while the presence of rudimentary organs, or the occasional appearance
+of additional parts, or other changes, may, and often do, afford a clue
+to the relationship existing between plants--a relationship that might
+otherwise be unsuspected. So, too, some of the alterations met with
+appear susceptible of no other explanations than that they are
+reversions to some pre-existing form, or, at any rate, that they are
+manifestations of a phase of the plant affected different from that
+which is habitual, and due, as it were, to a sort of allotropism.
+
+The mutations and perversions of form, associated as they commonly are
+with corresponding changes of function, show the connection between
+teratology and physiology--a connection which is seen to be the more
+intimate when viewed in the light afforded by the writings and
+experiments of Gaertner, Sprengel, and St. Hilaire, and, in our own
+times, especially by the writings and experiments of Mr. Darwin, whose
+works on the 'Origin of Species,' and particularly on the 'Variation of
+Animals and Plants under Domestication' comprise so large a collection
+of facts for the use of students in most departments of biology. It
+will suffice to allude, in support of these statements, to the writings
+of Mr. Darwin on such subjects as rudimentary organs, the use or disuse
+of certain parts according to circumstances, the frequently observed
+tendency of some flowers to become structurally unisexual, the liability
+of other flowers perfectly organised to become functionally imperfect,
+at least so far as any reciprocal action of the organs of the same
+flower is concerned, reversions, classification, general morphology, and
+other subjects handled at once with such comprehensive breadth and
+minute accuracy of detail by our great physiologist.
+
+In the following pages alterations of function, unless attended by
+corresponding alterations of form, are either only incidentally alluded
+to, or are wholly passed over; such, for instance, as alterations in the
+period of flowering, in the duration of the several organs, and so
+forth.[9] Pathological changes, lesions caused by insect puncture or
+other causes, also find no place in this book, unless the changes are of
+such a character as to admit of definite comparison with normal
+conformation. Usually such changes are entirely heteromorphous, and, as
+it were, foreign to the natural organisation.
+
+The practical applications of teratology deserve the attention of those
+cultivators who are concerned in the embellishment of our gardens and
+the supply of our tables. The florist lays down a certain arbitrary
+standard of perfection, and attempts to make flowers conform to that
+model. Whether it be in good taste or not to value all flowers, in
+proportion as they accord with an artificial and comparatively inelastic
+standard of this kind, we need not stop to enquire; suffice it to say,
+that taking the matter in its broadest sense, the aim of the florist is
+to produce large, symmetrical flowers, brightly and purely coloured, or
+if parti-coloured, the colours must be distinct, harmonious, or
+contrasted. When all this is done, the flower, in most instances,
+becomes 'monstrous' of the eyes in the botanist, though all the more
+interesting to the student of morphology on that account. In like manner
+the double flowers, the "breaks," the "sports" which the florist
+cultivates so anxiously, are all of them greater or less deviations from
+the ordinary form, while the broccolies, the cabbages, and many other
+products of our kitchen gardens and fields owe the estimation in which
+they are held entirely to those peculiarities which, by an unhappy
+application of words, are called monstrous by botanists. Grafting,
+layering, the "striking" of cuttings, the formation of adventitious
+roots and buds, processes on which the cultivator so greatly relies for
+the propagation and extension of his plants, are also matters with which
+teratology concerns itself. Again the difficulty experienced
+occasionally in getting vines, strawberries, &c., to set properly, may
+sometimes be accounted for by that inherent tendency which some plants
+possess of exchanging an hermaphrodite for a unisexual condition.
+
+For reasons then of direct practical utility, no less than on purely
+scientific grounds, it is desirable to study these irregularities of
+growth, their nature, limits, and inducing causes; and to this end it is
+hoped the present work may, in some degree, contribute.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] An excellent summary of the history of Vegetable Teratology is given
+in Kirschleger's 'Essai historique de la Teratologie Vegetale,'
+Strasburg, 1845.
+
+[2] In some instances diagrams and formulae are given in explanation of
+the conformation of monstrous flowers; in general these require no
+further explanation than is given in the text, unless it be to state
+that the horizontal line--is intended to indicate the cohesion of the
+parts over which it is placed, while the vertical line | signifies the
+adhesion of the organs by whose side it is placed. The formula
+
+ S S S S S
+ ------------------------
+ | P P P P P
+ |
+ | ST ST ST ST ST
+
+shows that the sepals (S) are distinct, the petals (P) coherent, and the
+stamens (ST) adherent to the petals.
+
+[3] Wolff was the first to call attention to the great importance of the
+study of development. He was followed by Turpin, Mirbel, Schleiden,
+Payer, and others, and its value is now fully recognised by botanists.
+
+[4] Agardh, "Theoria Syst. Plant.," p. xxiii.
+
+[5] In the memoirs of Hopkirk, Kirschleger, Cramer, Hallier, and others,
+malformations are arranged primarily according to the organs affected,
+an arrangement which has only convenience to justify it. It is hoped
+that the index and the headings to the paragraphs in the present volume
+will suit the convenience of the reader as well as if the more
+artificial plan just alluded to had been adopted.
+
+[6] Cryptogamous plants are only incidentally alluded to in these pages,
+owing to their wide difference in structure from flowering plants.
+Attention may, also, here be called to a paper of M. de Seynes in a
+recent number of the Bulletin of the Botanical Society of France, vol.
+xiv, p. 290, tab. 5 et 6, in which numerous cases of malformation among
+agarics are recorded. See also same publication, vol. iv, p. 744; vol.
+v, p. 211; vol. vi, p. 496.
+
+[7] On this subject see a paper of M. Naudin in the 'Comptes Rendus,'
+1867, t. 64, pp. 929-933.
+
+[8] It is probable that many terms and expressions calculated to mislead
+in the way above mentioned are made use of in the following pages. The
+inconsistency manifested by their use may be excused on the ground of
+ignorance of the true structure, and by the circumstance that in many
+cases facts alone are recorded without an explanation of them being
+offered. Moreover, it is desirable to act in conformity with the usual
+practice of botanical writers, and not to change established
+terminology, even if suspected to convey false ideas, until the true
+condition of affairs be thoroughly well ascertained by organogenetic
+research or other means.
+
+[9] A curious illustration of the latter class of alterations came under
+the writer's notice last summer (1868), and which he has reason to
+believe has not been previously recorded, viz. the persistence in an
+unwithered state of the petals at the base of the ripe fruit, in a
+strawberry. All the fruits on the particular plants alluded to were thus
+provided as it were with a white frill. Whether this be a constant
+occurrence in the particular variety is not known.
+
+
+
+
+VEGETABLE TERATOLOGY.
+
+
+
+
+BOOK I.
+
+DEVIATIONS FROM THE ORDINARY ARRANGEMENT OF ORGANS.
+
+
+As full details relating to the disposition or arrangement of the
+general organs of flowering plants are given in all the ordinary
+text-books, it is only necessary in this place to allude to the main
+facts at present known, and which serve as the standard of comparison
+with which all morphological changes are compared.
+
+Even in the case of the roots, which appear to be very irregular in
+their ramification, it has been found that, in the first instance at
+least, the rootlets or fibrils are arranged in regular order one over
+another, in a certain determinate number of vertical ranks, generally
+either in two or in four, sometimes in three or in five series. This
+regularity of arrangement (Rhizotaxy), first carefully studied by M.
+Clos, is connected with the disposition of the fibro-vascular bundles in
+the body of the root. This primitive regularity is soon lost as the
+plant grows.
+
+In the case of the leaves there are two principal modes of arrangement,
+dependent, as it would seem, on their simultaneous or on their
+successive development; thus, if two leaves on opposite sides of the
+stem are developed at the same time, we have the arrangement called
+opposite; if there are more than two, the disposition is then called
+verticillate or whorled. On the other hand, if the leaves are developed
+in succession, one after the other, they are found to emerge from the
+stem in a spiral direction. In either case the leaves are arranged in a
+certain regular manner, according to what are called the laws of
+Phyllotaxis, which need not be entered into fully here; but in order the
+better to estimate the teratological changes which take place, it may be
+well to allude to the following circumstances relating to the
+alternation of parts. The effect of this alternation is such, that no
+two adjacent leaves stand directly over or in front one of the other,
+but a little to one side or a little higher up. Now, in the alternate
+arrangement the successive leaves of each spiral cycle alternate one
+with another till the coil is completed. For the sake of clearness this
+may be illustrated thus:--Suppose the spiral cycle to comprise five
+leaves, numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, then 2 would intervene between 1 and 3,
+and so on, while the sixth leaf would be the commencement of a new
+series, and would be placed exactly over 1. This arrangement may be thus
+formularised:
+
+ 6 7 8 9 10
+ 1 2 3 4 5
+
+In the verticillate or simultaneous arrangement of leaves the case is
+somewhat different. Let us suppose a whorl of eight leaves, surmounted
+by a similar whorl of eight. In such a case it will generally be found
+that the whorls alternate one with another, as may be represented by
+this symbol:
+
+ 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
+ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
+
+The simplest illustration of this arrangement is seen in the case of
+decussate leaves, where those organs are placed in pairs, and the pairs
+cross one another at right angles. This may be expressed by the
+following symbol:
+
+ 7 8
+ 5 6
+ 3 4
+ 1 2
+
+Thus, while in both the annular and the spiral modes of development the
+individual members of each complete series necessarily alternate one
+with another, in the former case the series themselves alternate, while
+in the successive arrangement they are placed directly one over the
+other. There are, of course, exceptions, but the rule is as has been
+stated, and the effect is to prevent one leaf from interfering with the
+development and growth of its neighbours.
+
+In the case of the whorled or simultaneous arrangement the conditions of
+growth must be uniform on all sides, but in the successive or spiral
+disposition the conditions influencing growth act with unequal force, on
+different sides of the stem, at the same time. In the whorl there is an
+illustration of radiating symmetry, while in the spiral arrangement
+there is a transition to the bilateral symmetry. There are frequent
+passages from one to the other even under normal circumstances; thus,
+while the one arrangement obtains in the ordinary leaves, the parts of
+the flower may be disposed according to the other method. In the annular
+disposition it generally happens that the rings are separated one from
+the other by the development of the stem between them, the internodes
+between the constituent leaves themselves of course being undeveloped;
+on the other hand, in the spiral or successive arrangement there is no
+such alternate growth and arrest of growth of the stem between the
+leaves, or between successive cycles, but the growth is, under favorable
+conditions, continuous--leaf is separated from leaf, and cycle from
+cycle, by the continually elongating stem. Thus, the two modes of growth
+correspond precisely with those observed in the case of definite and
+indefinite inflorescence respectively.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Diagram showing the arrangement of parts in a
+complete, regular, pentamerous flower: _s_, sepals; _p_, petals; _st_,
+stamens; _o_, ovaries.]
+
+The same arrangements, that are observed in the disposition of the
+leaves, apply equally well to the several parts of the flower; thus, in
+what is for convenience considered the typical flower, there is a calyx
+of five or more distinct sepals, equal in size, and arranged in a whorl,
+a corolla of a similar number of petals alternating with the sepals,
+five stamens placed in the same position with reference to the petals,
+and five carpels alternating with the stamens. Throughout this book this
+arrangement is taken as the standard of reference. Nevertheless the
+spiral order does occur in the floral leaves as well as in those of the
+stem; it often happens, especially when the organs are numerous, that
+they form spiral series; and the same holds good very generally, when
+the parts of the flower are uneven in number, as in the very common
+quincuncial arrangement of the sepals, &c.
+
+To these general remarks, intended to show the agreement between the
+disposition of the leaves of the stem and those of the flower, it is
+merely necessary to add that the arrangement of the placentas, as well
+as that of the ovules borne on them, is also definite, and takes place
+according to methods explained in all the text-books, and on which,
+therefore, it is not necessary to dilate in this place.
+
+The branches of the stem or axis correspond for the most part in
+disposition with that of the leaves from the axils of which they
+originate, subject, however, to numerous disturbing causes, and to
+alterations from the usual or typical order brought about by the
+development of buds. These latter organs, as it seems, may be found in
+almost any situation, though their ordinary position is in the axil of a
+leaf or at the end of a stem or branch.
+
+The points just mentioned are of primary importance in structural
+botany, and as such are seized on not only by the morphologist, but by
+the systematic botanist, who finds in them the characters by which he
+may separate one group from another. Thanks to the labours of those
+observers who have devoted their attention to that difficult but most
+important branch of study, organogeny, or the investigation of the
+development of the various organs, and to the researches of the students
+of comparative anatomy or morphology, the main principles regulating the
+arrangement and form of the organs of flowering plants seem to be fairly
+well established, though in matters of detail much remains to be
+cleared up, even in such important points as the share which the axis
+takes in the construction of the flower and fruit, the nature of the
+placenta, the construction of the ovules, and other points.
+
+The facts already known justify the adoption of a standard or typical
+arrangement as just mentioned. The intrinsic value of this type is shown
+by the facility with which all varieties of form or arrangement may be
+explained by reference to certain modifications of it. It must, however,
+be considered as an abstraction, and should be looked on in the light
+rather of a scaffolding, which enables us to see the building and its
+several parts, than of the edifice itself, but which latter, from our
+imperfect knowledge and limited powers, we could not see without some
+such assistance.
+
+The typical form may be, hypothetically at least, considered as the
+primitive one transmitted by hereditary descent from generation to
+generation, and modified to suit the requirements of the individual, or
+in accordance with circumstances. If it be borne in mind that it is but
+an artificial contrivance, more or less true--a means to an end, and not
+the end itself--no harm will arise from its employment; and as knowledge
+increases, or as circumstances demand, the hypothetical type can be
+replaced by another more in accordance with the actual state of science.
+
+
+Teratological changes in the arrangement of organs depend upon arrest of
+growth, as when parts usually spirally arranged remain verticillate,
+owing to the non-development of the internodes, or to excessive growth,
+or development; but in many instances it is impossible, without
+studying the development of the malformed flower, to ascertain whether
+the altered arrangement is due to an excessive or to a diminished
+action. Practically, however, it is of comparatively little importance
+to know whether, say, the isolation of parts, that are usually combined
+together, is congenital (_i.e._ the result of an arrest of growth
+preventing their union), or whether it be due to a separation of parts
+primitively undivided; the effect remains the same, though the cause may
+have been very different.
+
+The principal alterations to be mentioned under this head may therefore
+be conveniently arranged under the following categories:--Union,
+Independence, Displacement, Prolification, Heterotaxy, and Heterogamy.
+
+
+
+
+PART I.
+
+UNION OF ORGANS.
+
+
+The union of parts, usually separate in their adult condition, is of
+very common occurrence as a malformation. The instances of its
+manifestation admit of being grouped under the heads of Cohesion, where
+parts of the same whorl, or of the same organ, are united together; and
+of Adhesion, where the union takes place between members of different
+whorls, or between two or more ordinarily wholly detached and distinct
+parts. In either case, the apparent union may be congenital (that is,
+the result of a primitive integrity or a lack of separation), or it may
+really consist in a coalition of parts originally distinct and separate.
+In practice it is not always easy to distinguish between these two
+different conditions. Indeed, in most cases it cannot be done without
+tracing the development of the flower throughout all its stages. It is
+needless to make more than a passing allusion to the frequency with
+which both congenital integrity or subsequent coalescence of organs
+exist under ordinary circumstances. Considered as a teratological
+phenomenon, union admits of being grouped into several subdivisions,
+such as Cohesion, Adhesion, Synanthy, Syncarpy, Synophty, &c. Each of
+these subdivisions will be separately treated, but it maybe here said
+that, in all or any case, the degree of fusion may be very slight, or it
+may be so perfect that there may be a complete amalgamation of two or
+more parts, while to all outward appearance the organ may be single.
+The column of Orchids may be referred to as an illustration under
+natural circumstances of the complete union of many usually distinct
+parts.
+
+In the uncertainty that exists in many cases as to the real nature of
+the occurrence, it would be idle to attempt to explain the causes of
+fusions. It is clear, however, that an arrest of development will tend
+towards the maintenance of primordial integrity (congenital fusion), and
+that pressure will induce the coalition of organs primarily distinct.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+COHESION.
+
+
+Following Augustin Pyranius De Candolle, botanists have applied the term
+cohesion to the coalescence of parts of the same organ or of members of
+the same whorl; for instance, to the union of the sepals in a
+gamosepalous calyx, or of the petals in a gamopetalous corolla. It may
+arise either from a union between organs originally distinct, or more
+frequently from a want of separation between parts, which under general
+circumstances become divided during their development. Nothing is more
+common as a normal occurrence, while viewed as a teratological
+phenomenon it is also very frequent. For the purposes of convenience it
+admits of subdivision into those cases wherein the union takes place
+between the branches of the same plant, or between the margins of the
+same leaf-organ, or between those of different members of the same
+whorl.
+
+=Cohesion between the axes of the same plant.=--This cohesion may occur
+in various manners. Firstly. The branches of the main stem may become
+united one to the other. Secondly. Two or more stems become joined
+together. Thirdly. The branches become united to the stem; or, lastly,
+the roots may become fused one with another.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2--Cohesion of two branches in _Dipsacus
+sylvestris_.]
+
+The first of these is most commonly met with, doubtless owing to the
+number of the branches and the facilities for their union. An
+illustration of it is afforded by the figure (fig. 2), showing cohesion
+affecting the branches of a teazle (_Dipsacus sylvestris_). Union of the
+branches may be the result of an original cohesion of the buds, while in
+other cases the fusion does not take place until after development has
+proceeded to some extent. Of this latter kind illustrations are common
+where the branches are in close approximation; if the bark be removed by
+friction the two surfaces are very likely to become united (natural
+grafting). Such a union of the branches is very common in the ivy, the
+elder, the beech, and other plants. It may take place in various
+directions, lengthwise, obliquely, or transversely, according to
+circumstances. This mode of union belongs, perhaps, rather to the domain
+of pathology than of teratology. Some of the instances that have been
+recorded of very large trees, such as the chestnut of Mount AEtna, are
+really cases where fusion has taken place between several of the
+branches, or suckers, thrown out from the same original stem.[10] The
+same process of grafting occurs sometimes in the roots, as in _Taxus
+baccata_ mentioned by Moquin, and also in the aerial roots of many of
+the tropical climbing plants, such as _Clusia rosea_, &c.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Fasciation in Lettuce.]
+
+=Fasciation.=--In the preceding instances of union between the branches,
+&c., the actual number of the fused parts is not increased; but if it
+happen that an unusual number of buds be formed in close apposition, so
+that they are liable to be compressed during their growth, union is very
+likely to take place, the more so from the softness of the young
+tissues. In this way it is probable that what is termed fasciation is
+brought about. This is one of the most common of all malformations, and
+seems to affect certain plants more frequently than others. In its
+simplest form it consists of a flat, ribbon-like expansion of the stem
+or branch; cylindrical below, the branches gradually lose their pristine
+form, and assume the flattened condition.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Fasciation in _Asparagus_.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Fasciated branch of _Pinus Pinaster_.]
+
+Very generally the surface is striated by the prominence of the woody
+fibres which, running parallel for a time, converge or diverge at the
+summit according to the shape of the branch. If the rate of growth be
+equal, or nearly so, on both sides, the stem retains its straight
+direction, but it more generally happens that the growth on one side is
+more rapid and more vigorous than on the other, and hence arises that
+curvature of the fasciated branch so commonly met with, _e.g._ in the
+ash (_Fraxinus_), wherein it has been likened to a shepherd's crook. It
+is probable that almost any plant may present this change. It occurs
+alike in herbaceous and in woody plants, originating in the latter case
+while the branches are still soft. It may be remarked that, in the case
+of herbaceous plants, the fasciation always affects the principal stem,
+while, on the other hand, in the case of trees and shrubs the deformity
+occurs most frequently in the branches; thus, while in the former it
+may be said that the whole of the stem is more or less affected, in the
+latter it is rare to see more than one or two branches of the same tree
+thus deformed. It is a common thing for the fasciated branch to divide
+at the summit into a number of subdivisions. These latter may be
+deformed like the parent branch, or they may resume the ordinary aspect
+of the twigs.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Fasciation and spiral torsion in the stem of
+_Asparagus_.]
+
+Sometimes the flattened stem is destitute of buds, at other times, these
+organs are scattered irregularly over its surface or are crowded
+together in a sort of crest along the apex. When, as often happens, the
+deformity is accompanied with a twisting of the branch spirally, the
+buds may be placed irregularly, or in other cases along the free edge of
+the spiral curve. In a specimen of _Bupleurum falcatum_ mentioned by
+Moquin the spiral arrangement of the leaves was replaced by a series of
+perfect whorls, each consisting of five, six, seven, or eight segments,
+and there was a flower-stalk in the axil of each leaf.
+
+When flowers are borne on these fasciated stems they are generally
+altered in structure; sometimes the thalamus itself becomes more or less
+fasciated or flattened, and the different organs of the flower are
+arranged on an elliptical axis. A case of this nature is described by
+Schlechtendal ('Bot. Zeit.,' 1857, p. 880), in _Cytisus nigricans_, and
+M. Moquin-Tandon describes an instance in the vine in one flower of
+which sepals, petals, stamens, and ovary were abortive, while the
+receptacle was hypertrophied and fasciated, and bore on its surface a
+few adventitious buds.[11] The pedicels of _Streptocarpus Rexii_ have
+also been observed in a fasciated state.[12]
+
+It has been occasionally observed that the fasciated condition is
+hereditary; thus, Moquin relates that some seeds of a fasciated
+_Cirsium_ reproduced the same condition in the seedlings,[13] while a
+similar tendency is inherited in the case of the cockscomb (_Celosia_).
+
+With reference to the nature of the deformity in question there is a
+difference of opinion; while most authors consider it to be due to the
+causes before mentioned, Moquin was of opinion that fasciation was due
+to a flattening of a single stem or branch. Linnaeus, on the other hand,
+considered such stems to be the result of the formation of an unusual
+number of buds, the shoots resulting from which became coherent as
+growth proceeded:--"_Fasciata dici solet planta cum plures caules
+connascuntur, ut unus ex plurimis instar fasciae evadat et compressus_"
+(Linn., 'Phil. Bot.,' 274). A similar opinion was held by J. D. Major in
+a singular book entitled 'De Planta, Monstrosa, Gottorpiensi,'
+Schleswig, 1665, wherein the stem of a _Chrysanthemum_ is depicted in
+the fasciated condition.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Fasciation in the scape of the Dandelion
+(_Leontodon Taraxacum_).]
+
+The striae, which these stems almost invariably present, exhibit the
+lines of junction, and the spiral or other curvatures and contraction,
+which are so often met with, may be accounted for by the unequal growth
+of one portion of the stem as contrasted with that of another. Against
+this view Moquin cites the instances of one-stemmed plants, such as
+_Androsace maxima_, but, on the other hand, those herbaceous plants
+having usually but a single stem not unfrequently produce several which
+may remain distinct, but not uncommonly become united together. Prof.
+Hincks[14] cites cases of this kind in _Primula vulgaris_, _Hieracium
+aureum_, and _Ranunculus bulbosus_. I have myself met with several cases
+of the kind in _Primula veris_, in the Polyanthus, in the Daisy, and in
+the _Leontodon Taraxacum_, in which latter a fusion of two or more
+flower-stems bearing at the top a composite flower, and made up of two,
+three, four, or more flowers combined together, and containing all the
+organs that would be present in the same flowers if separate, is very
+common.
+
+Moquin's second objection is founded upon the fact that, in certain
+fasciated stems, the branches are not increased in number or altered in
+arrangement from what is usual; but however true this may be in
+particular cases, it is quite certain that in the majority of instances
+a large increase in the number of leaves and buds is a prominent
+characteristic of fasciated stems.
+
+Another argument used by the distinguished French botanist to show that
+fasciated stems are not due to cohesion of two or more stems, is founded
+on the fact that a transverse section of a fasciated stem generally
+shows an elliptical outline with but a single central canal. On the
+other hand, if two branches become united and a transverse section be
+made, the form of the cut surface would be more or less like that of the
+figure 8[Symbol: 8 turned 90 deg.], although in old stems this may give
+place to an elliptical outline, but even then traces of two medullary
+canals may be found. This argument is very deceptive, for the appearance
+of the transverse section must depend, not only on the intimacy of their
+union, but also on the internal structure of the stems themselves. When
+two flowers cohere without much pressure they exhibit uniting circles
+somewhat resembling the figure of 8[Symbol: 8 turned 90 deg.], but when
+more completely combined they have an outline of a very elongated figure,
+and something similar is to be expected in herbaceous stems. Even the
+elongated pith of a transversely cut, woody, fasciated stem only marks
+the intimate union of several branches, and Prof. Hincks, whose views
+the writer entirely shares, has noticed instances of the union of two,
+and of only two, stems where the internal appearance was the same as in
+other fasciations.
+
+Moquin, moreover, raises the objection that it is unlikely that several
+branches should become united lengthwise in one plane only, and,
+further, that in the greater number of fasciations all the other
+branches which should be present are to be found--not one is wanting,
+not one has disappeared, as might have been anticipated had fusion taken
+place. In raising this objection, Moquin seems not sufficiently to have
+considered the circumstance that the buds in these cases are in one
+plane from the first, and are all about equal in point of age and size.
+
+The last objection that Moquin raises to the opinion that fasciation is
+the result of a grafting process is, that in such a case, examples
+should be found wherein the branches are incompletely fused, and where
+on a transverse section traces of the medullary canals belonging to each
+branch should be visible. The arrangement of leaves or buds on the
+surface should also in such a case indicate a fusion of several spiral
+cycles or whorls. To this it may be replied that such cases are met with
+very frequently indeed. A figure is given by De Candolle[15] of a stem
+of _Spartium junceum_ having several branches only imperfectly
+fasciated.
+
+Fasciated stems, then, seem to be best explained, as is stated by Prof.
+Hincks, "on the principle of adhesion arising in cases where from
+superabundant nourishment, especially if accompanied by some check or
+injury, numerous buds have been produced in close proximity, and the
+supposition that these growths are produced by the dilatation of a
+single stem is founded on a false analogy between fasciated stems and
+certain other anomalous growths."
+
+It will not, of course, be forgotten that this fasciated condition
+occurs so frequently in some plants as almost to constitute their
+natural state, _e.g._ _Sedum cristatum_, _Celosia_, &c. This condition
+may be induced by the art of the gardener--"_Fit idem arte, si plures
+caules enascentes cogantur penetrare coarctatum spatium et parturiri
+tanquam ex angusto utero, sic saepe in Ranunculo, Beta, Asparago,
+Hesperide Pinu, Celosia, Tragopogone, Scorzonera Cotula foetida_,"
+Linnaeus op. cit.
+
+Plot, in his 'History of Oxfordshire,' considers fasciation to arise
+from the ascent of too much nourishment for one stalk and not enough for
+two, "which accident of plants," says Plot, the German virtuosi ('Misc.
+Curios. Med. Physic. Acad. Nat. Cur.,' Ann. i, Observ. 102,) "think only
+to happen after hard and late winters, by reason whereof, indeed, the
+sap, being restrained somewhat longer than ordinary, upon sudden thaws
+may probably be sent up more forcibly, and so produce these fasciated
+stalks, whereas the natural and graduated ascent would have produced
+them but single." Prof. Hincks' explanation is, however, more near to
+the truth, and his opinion is borne out by the frequency with which this
+change is met with in certain plants which are frequently forced on
+during their growth, as lettuce, asparagus, endive, &c., all of which
+are very subject to this change. In the 'Transactions of the
+Horticultural Society of London,' vol. iv, p. 321, Mr. Knight gives an
+account of the cultivation of the cockscomb, so as to ensure the
+production of the very large flower-stalks for which this plant is
+admired. The principal points in the culture were the application of a
+large quantity of stimulating manure and the maintenance of a high
+temperature. One of them so grown measured eighteen inches in width.
+
+The list which is appended is intended to show those plants in which
+fasciation has been most frequently observed. It makes no pretension to
+be complete, but is sufficiently so for the purpose indicated: the *
+denotes the especial frequency of the change in question; the !
+indicates that the writer has himself seen the plant, so marked,
+affected in this way. The remainder have been copied from various
+sources.
+
+ EXOGENS.
+
+ [Greek: alpha]. _Herbaceous._
+
+ Ranunculus tripartitus.
+ * bulbosus!
+ Philonotis.
+ Delphinium elatum.
+ * sp.!
+ Hesperis matronalis.
+ *Cheiranthus Cheiri!
+ *Matthiola incana!
+ *Brassica oleracea! var. pl. inflor.
+ Linum usitatissimum!
+ Althaea rosea!
+ Lavatera trimestris.
+ Geranii sp.
+ Tropaeolum majus!
+ Viola odorata inflor.!
+ Reseda odorata!
+ Fragaria vesca.
+ Ervum lens.
+ Trifolium resupinatum.
+ repens!
+ pratense!
+ Saxifraga mutata.
+ irrigua.
+ Bupleurum falcatum.
+ Bunium flexuosum.
+ *Sedum reflexum!
+ cristatum!
+ Epilobium augustifolium!
+ Momordica Elaterium!
+ Gaura biennis.
+ Cotula foetida.
+ Barkhausia taraxacifolia.
+ Carlina vulgaris!
+ Apargia autumnalis.
+ *Leontodon Taraxacum inflor.!
+ Centaurea Scabiosa.
+ *Cichorium Intybus!
+ Hieracium Pilosella.
+ aureum.
+ umbellatum.
+ *Chrysanthemum Leucanthemum.
+ indicum!
+ Anthemis nobilis.
+ arvensis.
+ Cirsium lanceolatum.
+ Conyza squarrosa!
+ Inula dysenterica!
+ Tragopogon porrifolium.
+ Cnicus palustris.
+ Carduus arvensis!
+ Helianthus tuberosus!
+ annuus.
+ Cineraria palustris.
+ Helianthus sp.!
+ Dahlia variabilis.
+ Bellis perennis inflor.!
+ Coreopsis sp.!
+ Crepis virens.
+ Lactuca sativa!
+ Zinnia elegans.
+ *Campanula medium!
+ rapunculoides.
+ thyrsoidea.
+ Dipsacus pilosus.
+ fullonum.
+ silvestris.
+ Knautia arvensis.
+ Phyteuma orbiculare.
+ Jasione montana.
+ *Linaria purpurea!
+ Antirrhinum majus!
+ Veronica amethystea.
+ Veronica maritima.
+ sp.
+ Russellia juncea!
+ Digitalis purpurea!
+ Ajuga pyramidalis.
+ Hyssopus officinalis.
+ Dracocephalum moldavicum.
+ Myosotis scorpioides.
+ Echium pyrenaicum.
+ simplex.
+ Stapeliae sp.
+ Lysimachia vulgaris!
+ Androsace maxima.
+ Primula veris inflor.!
+ denticulata inflor.!
+ Polemonium coeruleum.
+ Convolvulus sepium!
+ arvensis!
+ Plantago media.
+ *Euphorbia Characias.
+ exigua.
+ * Cyparissias.
+ Suaeda maritima.
+ *Celosia sp.
+ Beta vulgaris inflor.!
+ Phytolacca sp.
+
+ [Greek: beta]. _Woody._
+
+ Berberis vulgaris.
+ Hibiscus syriacus!
+ Acer pseudo-platanus!
+ Dodonaea viscosa.
+ Sterculia platanifolia.
+ Euonymus japonicus!
+ Vitis vinifera inflor.!
+ Spartium Scoparium!
+ Spartium junceum!
+ Cytisus Laburnum.
+ nigricans.
+ Chorozema ilicifolium.
+ Amorpha sp.
+ Phaseolus sp.
+ Prunus sylvestris.
+ Laurocerasus!
+ Rosa sp.!
+ Spiraea sp.!
+ Cotoneaster microphylla!
+ Ailanthus glandulosus.
+ *Fraxinus Ornus!
+ * excelsior!
+ Melia Azedarach.
+ Xanthoxylum sp.!
+ Sambucus nigra.!
+ Aucuba japonica.
+ Erica sp. cult.
+ Jasminum nudiflorum!
+ officinale!
+ Olea europoea.
+ Punica Granatum.
+ Ilex aquifolium!
+ Daphne indica.
+ Daphne odora.
+ Suaeda fruticosa.
+ Ulmus campestris.
+ Alnus incana.
+ Salix vitellina, &c.!
+ Thuja orientalis.
+ Pinus pinaster!
+ sylvestris!
+ Abies excelsa!
+ Taxus baccata.
+ Larix europoea.
+
+ ENDOGENS.
+
+ Lilium Martagon.
+ candidum!
+ *Fritillaria imperialis!
+ Asparagus officinalis!
+ Hyacinthus orientalis!
+ Tamus communis!
+ Narcissi sp.!
+ Gladiolus sp.
+ Zea Mays.
+ Filices.
+
+ See also--Moquin-Tandon, 'Elem. Ter. Veget.,' p. 146; C. O.
+ Weber, 'Verhandl. Nat. Hist.,' Vereins, f. d. Preuss., Rheinl.
+ und Westphal., 1860, p. 347, tab. vii; Hallier, 'Phytopathol.,'
+ p. 128; Boehmer, 'De plantis Fasciatis,' Wittenb., 1752.
+
+=Cohesion of foliar organs.=--This takes place in several ways, and in
+very various degrees; the simplest case is that characterised by the
+cohesion of the margins of the same organ, as in the condition called
+perfoliate in descriptive works, and which is due either to a cohesion
+of the margins of the basal lobes of the leaf, or to the development of
+the leaf in a sheathing or tubular manner. As an abnormal occurrence, I
+have met with this perfoliation in a leaf of _Goodenia ovata_. The
+condition in question is often loosely confounded with connation, or the
+union of two leaves by their bases. In other cases the union takes place
+between the margins of two or more leaves.
+
+=Cohesion of margins of single organs.=--The leaves of Hazels may often
+be found with their margins coherent at the base, so as to become
+peltate, while in other cases, the disc of the leaf is so depressed that
+a true pitcher is formed. This happens also in the Lime _Tilia_, in
+which genus pitcher- or hood-like leaves (_folia cucullata_) may
+frequently be met with. There are trees with leaves of this character in
+the cemetery of a Cistercian Monastery at Sedlitz, on which it is said
+that certain monks were once hung: hence the legend has arisen, that the
+peculiar form of the leaf was given in order to perpetuate the memory of
+the martyred monks. ('Bayer. Monogr. _Tiliae_,' Berlin, 1861.) It is also
+stated that this condition is not perpetuated by grafting.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Pitcher-shaped leaf of _Pelargonium_.]
+
+I have in my possession a leaf of _Antirrhinum majus_, and also a
+specimen of _Pelargonium_, wherein the blade of the leaf is funnel-like,
+and the petiole is cylindrical, not compressed, and grooved on the upper
+surface, as is usually the case. A comparison of the leaves of
+_Pelargonium peltatum_ with those of _P. cucullatum_ ('Cav. Diss.,'
+tab., 106) will show how easy the passage is from a peltate to a tubular
+leaf. In these cases the tubular form may rather be due to dilatation
+than to cohesion. M. Kickx[16] mentions an instance of the kind in the
+leaves of a species of _Nicotiana_, and also figures the leaf of a rose
+in which two opposite leaflets presented themselves in the form of
+stalked cups. Schlechtendal[17] notices something of the same kind in
+the leaf of _Amorpha fruticosa_; Treviranus[18] in that of _Aristolochia
+Sipho_.
+
+M. Puel[19] describes a leaf of _Polygonatum multiflorum_, the margins
+of which were so completely united together, as only to leave a circular
+aperture at the top, through which passed the ends of the leaves. The
+Rev. Mr. Hincks, at the meeting of the British Association at Newcastle
+(1838), showed a leaf of a Tulip, whose margins were so united that the
+whole leaf served as a hood, and was carried upwards by the growing
+flower like the calyptra of a Moss.
+
+The margins of the stipules are also occasionally united, so as to form
+a little horn-shaped tube. I have met with instances of this kind in the
+common white clover, _Trifolium repens_, where on each side of the base
+of the petiole the stipules had the form just indicated. That the bracts
+also may assume this condition, may be inferred from the peculiar
+horn-like structures of _Marcgraavia_, which appear to originate from the
+union of the margins of the reflected leaf.
+
+=Tubular petals= occur normally in some flowers, as _Helleborus_,
+_Epimedium_, _Viola_, &c., and as an exceptional occurrence I have seen
+them in _Ranunculus repens_, while in _Eranthis hyemalis_ transitions
+may frequently be seen between the flat outer segments of the perianth
+and the tubular petals. To Dr. Sankey, of Sandywell Park, I am indebted
+for the flower of a Pelargonium, in which one of the petals had the
+form of a cup supported on a long stalk. This cup-shaped organ was
+placed at the back of the flower, and had the dark colour proper to the
+petals in that situation. I have seen a petal of Clarkia similarly
+tubular, while some of the cultivated varieties of _Primula sinensis_
+exhibit tubular petals so perfect in shape as closely to resemble
+perfect corollas.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--_Eranthis hyemalis_. Transition from flat sepal
+to tubular petal.]
+
+Like the petals, the stamens, and even the styles, assume a hollow
+tubular form. This change of form in the case of the stamens is, of
+course, usually attended by the petaloid expansion of the filament, or
+anther, and the more or less complete obliteration of the pollen sacs,
+as in Fuchsias, and in some double-flowered Antirrhinums.[20] So also in
+some semi-double varieties of _Narcissus poeticus_, and in _Aquilegia_.
+By the late Professor Charles Morren, this affection of the stamens and
+pistils was called _Solenaidie_,[21] but as a similar condition exists
+in other organs, it hardly seems worth while to adopt a special term for
+the phenomenon, as it presents itself in one set of organs.
+
+In many of these cases it is difficult to say whether the cup-like or
+tubular form is due to a dilatation or hollowing out of the organ
+affected, or to a fusion of its edges. The arrangement of the veins will
+in some cases supply the clue, and in others the regularity of form
+will indicate the nature of the malformation, for in those instances
+where the cup is the result of expansion, its margin is more likely to
+be regular and even than in those where the hollow form is the result of
+fusion.
+
+=Cohesion of several organs by their margins:--leaves, &c.=--The union
+of the margins of two or more different organs is of more common
+occurrence than the preceding, the leaves being frequently subjected to
+this change. Occasionally, the leaflets of a compound leaf have been
+observed united by their margins, as in the strawberry, the white
+trefoil, and others. Sometimes the union takes place by means of the
+stalks only. I have an instance of this in a Pelargonium, in _Tropaeolum
+majus_, and _Strelitzia regina_; in other cases, the whole extent of the
+leaf becomes joined to its neighbour, the leaves thus becoming
+completely united by their edges, as in those of _Justicia_,
+_oxyphylla_.[22] M. Clos[23] has observed the same thing in the leaves
+of the lentil _Ervum lens_, conjoined with fasciation of the stem, and
+many other examples might be given. Some of the recorded cases are
+probably really due to fission of one leaf into two rather than to
+fusion. Although usually the lower portions of the leaf are united
+together, leaving the upper parts more or less detached, there are some
+instances in which the margins of the leaf at their upper portion have
+been noticed to be coherent, while their lower portions, with their
+stalks, were completely free.[24]
+
+Cohesion of the leaves frequently accompanies the union of the branches
+and fasciation as might have been anticipated. Moquin cites the
+fenestrated leaves of _Dracontium pertusum_, as well as some cases of a
+similar kind that are occasionally met with, as instances of the
+cohesion of the margins at the base and apex of the leaf, which thus
+appears perforated. This appearance, however, is probably due to some
+other cause. When the leaves are verticillate and numerous, and they
+become coherent by their margins, they form a foliaceous tube around the
+stem. When there are but two opposite leaves, and these become united by
+their margins, we have a state of things precisely resembling that to
+which the term connate is applied.
+
+Fusion of the edges of the cotyledons also occasionally takes place, as
+in _Ebenus cretica_.[25] It has also been observed in _Tithonia_, and is
+of constant occurrence in the seed leaves of some _Mesembryanthema_.
+This condition must be carefully distinguished from the very similar
+appearance produced by quite a different cause, viz., the splitting of
+one cotyledon into two, which gives rise to the appearance as if two
+were partially united together.
+
+Some of the ascidia or pitcher-like formations are due to the cohesion
+of the margins of two leaves, as in a specimen of _Crassula
+arborescens_, observed by C. Morren.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Two-leaved pitcher of _Crassula arborescens_,
+after C. Morren.]
+
+The stipules may also be fused together in different ways; their edges
+sometimes cohere between the leaf and the stem, and thus form a solitary
+intra-axillary stipule. At other times they become united in such a
+manner as to produce a single notched stipule opposite to the leaf.
+Again, in other cases, they are so united on each side of the stem, that
+in place of four there seem only to exist two, common to the two leaves
+as in the Hop.
+
+To the Rev. M. J. Berkeley I am indebted for specimens of a curious
+pitcher-like formation in the garden Pea. The structure in question
+consisted of a stalked foliaceous cup proceeding from the inflorescence.
+On examination of the ordinary inflorescence, there will be seen at the
+base of the upper of two flowers a small rudimentary bract, having a
+swollen circular or ring-like base, from which proceeds a small
+awl-shaped process, representing the midrib of an abortive leaf. In some
+of Mr. Berkeley's specimens, the stipules were developed as leafy
+appendages at the base of the leaf-stalk or midrib, the latter retaining
+its shortened form, while, in others, the two stipules had become
+connate into a cup, and all trace of the midrib was lost. The cup in
+question would thus seem to have been formed from the connation of two
+stipules which are ordinarily abortive.
+
+Cohesion of the bracts by their edges, so as to form a tubular
+involucre, or by their surfaces, so as to form a cupule, is not of
+uncommon occurrence, under natural conditions, and may be met with in
+plants which ordinarily do not exhibit this appearance.
+
+=Cohesion of the sepals= in a normally polypetalous calyx renders the
+latter gamosepalous, and is not of uncommon occurrence, to a partial
+extent, though rarely met with complete. I have observed a junction of
+the sepals to be one of the commonest malformations among Orchids,
+indeed such a state of things occurs normally in _Masdevallia
+Cypripedium_, &c. An illustration of this occurrence is given by Mr. J.
+T. Moggridge in _Ophrys insectifera_, in 'Seemann's Journal of Botany,'
+1866, p. 168, tab. 47. In Orchids, this cohesion of sepals is very often
+co-existent with other more important changes, such as absence of the
+labellum, dislocation of the parts of the flower, &c.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.--Gamopetalous flower of _Papaver bracteatum_.]
+
+=Cohesion of the petals.=--Linnaeus mentions the occurrence of cohesion
+of the petals in _Saponaria.[26]_ Moquin notices a Rose in which the
+petals were united into a long tube, their upper portions were free and
+bent downwards, forming a sort of irregular limb. An instance of the
+polypetalous regular perianth of _Clematis viticella_ being changed into
+a monopetalous irregular one, like the corolla of Labiates, is recorded
+by Jaeger.[27] There is in cultivation a variety of _Papaver
+bracteatum_, in which the petals are united by their margins so as to
+form a large cup. Under normal circumstances, the petals become fused
+together by their edges along their whole extent, at the base only, at
+the apex only, as in the Vine, or at the base and apex, leaving the
+central portions detached. Indications of the junction of the petals may
+generally be traced by the arrangement of the veins, or by the notches
+or lobes left by imperfect union. In Crocuses I have frequently met with
+cohesion of the segments of the perianth, by means of their surfaces,
+but the union was confined to the centre of the segment, leaving the
+rest of the surfaces free.
+
+=Cohesion of the stamens.=--Under natural circumstances, cohesion of the
+stamens is said to take place either by the union of their filaments, so
+as to form one, two, or more parcels (Monadelphia, Diadelphia,
+Polyadelphia); at other times, by the cohesion of the anthers
+(Syngenesia), in which latter case the union is generally very slight.
+It must be remembered, however, that the so-called cohesion of the
+filaments is in many cases due rather to the formation of compound
+stamens, _i.e._ to the formation from one original staminal tubercle of
+numerous secondary ones, so that the process is rather one of over
+development than of fusion or of disjunction. These conditions may be
+met with as accidental occurrences in plants or in flowers, not usually
+showing this arrangement. Thus, for instance, Professor Andersson, of
+Stockholm, describes a monstrosity of _Salix calyculata_, in which the
+stamens were so united together as to form a tube open at the top like a
+follicle.[28] This is an exaggerated degree of that fusion which exists
+normally in _Salix monandra_, in Cucurbits and other plants.
+
+=Cohesion of the pistils= is also of very frequent occurrence in plants,
+under ordinary circumstances, but is less commonly met with than might
+have been expected as a teratological phenomenon.
+
+ Further details relating to cohesion of the various parts of
+ the flower are cited in Moquin-Tandon, 'El. Ter. Veg.,' p. 248;
+ 'Weber. Verhandl. Nat. Hist. Vereins f. d. Preuss. Rheinl. und
+ Westphal.,' 1860, p. 332, tabs. 6 et 7.
+
+=Formation of ascidia or pitchers.=--In the preceding paragraphs, the
+formation of tubular or horn-like structures, from the union of the
+margins of one organ, or from the coalescence, or it may be from the
+want of separation of various organs, has been alluded to, so that it
+seems only necessary now, by way of summary, to mention the
+classification of ascidia proposed by Professor Charles Morren[29], who
+divides the structures in question into two heads, according as they are
+formed from one or more leaves. The following list is arranged according
+to the views of the Belgian savant, and comprises a few additional
+illustrations. Those to which the ! is affixed have been seen by the
+writer himself; the * indicates the more frequent occurrence of the
+phenomenon in some than in other plants. Those plants, such as
+_Nepenthes_, &c., which occur normally and constantly, are not here
+included. Possibly some of the cases would be more properly classed
+under dilatation or excavation.
+
+ ASCIDIA.
+
+ A. _Monophyllous_.
+
+ 1. Sarracenia-like pitchers, formed by a single leaf, the edges
+ of which are united for the greater portion of their length,
+ but are disunited near the top, so as to leave an oblique
+ aperture.
+
+ *Brassica oleracea (several of the cultivated varieties)!
+ *Tilia europaea!
+ Pelargonium inquinans!
+ Staphylea pinnata.
+ Amorpha fruticosa.
+ Pisum sativum!
+ Lathyrus tuberosus.
+ Vicia sp.
+ Gleditschia sp.
+ Ceratonia siliqua.
+ Trifolium repens!
+ Cassia marylandica.
+ Mimosa Lophantha.
+ Rosa centifolia.
+ gallica.
+ Begonia sp.
+ Bellis perennis!
+ Nicotiana sp.
+ Goodenia ovata!
+ Antirrhinum majus!
+ Vinca rosea.
+ Polygonum orientale.
+ Aristolochia sipho?
+ Codiaeum variegatum var.!
+ Spinacia oleracea.
+ Corylus avellana!
+ Polygonatum multiflorum.
+ Xanthosoma appendiculatum!
+
+ 2. Calyptriform or hood-like pitchers, formed by the complete
+ union of the margins, and falling off by a transverse fissure
+ (as in the calyx of Escholtzia).
+
+ Tulipa Gesneriana.
+
+ B. _Polyphyllous._
+
+ 1. Diphyllous, formed by the union of two leaves into a single
+ cup, tube, or funnel, &c.
+
+ Pisum sativum (stipules)!
+ Crassula arborescens.
+ Polygonatum multiflorum.
+
+ 2. Triphyllous, formed by the union of three leaves.
+
+ Paris quadrifolia var.
+
+ Besides the above varieties of ascidia formed from the union of
+ one or more leaves, there are others which seem to be the
+ result of a peculiar excrescence or hypertrophy of the leaf.
+ Such are some of the curious pitcher-like structures met with
+ occasionally in the leaves of cabbages, lettuces, Aristolochia,
+ &c. See Hypertrophy, cup-like deformities, &c.
+
+ In addition to other publications previously mentioned,
+ reference may be made to the following treatises on the subject
+ of ascidia:--Bonnet, 'Rech. Us. Feuilles,' p. 216, tab. xxvi,
+ f. 1, _Brassica_; De Candolle, 'Trans. Hort. Soc.,' t. v, pl.
+ 1, _Brassica_; Id., 'Org. Veget.,' I, 316; 'Bull. Soc. Bot.
+ Fr.,' I, p. 62, _Polygonatum_; 'Bull. Acad. Belg.,' 1851, p.
+ 591, _Rosa_; Hoffmann, 'Tijdschrift v. Natuur. Geschied.,' vol.
+ viii, p. 318, tab. 9, _Ceratonia_; C. Mulder, 'Tijdschrift,
+ &c.,' vol. vi, p. 106, tab. 5, 6, _Trifolium_, _Mimosa_,
+ _Staphylea_;' Molkenboer,' p. 115, t. 4, _Brassica_.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[10] See a curious instance of this kind in the branches of _Pinus_.
+'Regel. Garten Flora,' vol. 8, tab. 268.
+
+[11] 'Bull. Soc. Bot. France,' 1860, p. 881.
+
+[12] Ibid., 1861, p. 708.
+
+[13] Ibid., 1860, p. 923.
+
+[14] 'Proc. Linn. Soc.,' April 5, 1853.
+
+[15] 'Organ. Veget.,' pl. iii, fig. 1.
+
+[16] 'Bull. Acad. Roy. Bruxelles,' t. xviii, p. i and p. 591.
+
+[17] 'Linnaea,' tom. 13, p. 383.
+
+[18] 'Verhandl. Nat. Hist. Vereins,' 1859, Bonn, tom. xvi, tab. 3.
+
+[19] 'Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr.,' vol. i, p. 62.
+
+[20] 'Report of Internat. Bot. Congress,' London, 1866, p. 131, tab.
+vii, figs. 10-13.
+
+[21] 'Bull. Acad. Roy. Belg.,' t. xviii, 2nd part, p. 179.
+
+[22] D. C., 'Organ. Veget.,' pl. xvii, fig. 3, and pl. xlviii, fig. 2.
+
+[23] 'Mem. Acad. Toulouse,' 1862.
+
+[24] Bonnet, 'Recherches Us. feuill.,' pl. xxi, fig. 2.
+
+[25] De Candolle, 'Mem. Leg.,' pl. v, fig. 14.
+
+[26] 'Phil. Bot.,' Sec. 125.
+
+[27] 'Nov. Act. Acad. Nat. Cur.,' 14, p. 642, t. xxxvii.
+
+[28] 'Journal of the Linn. Soc. Bot.,' vol. iv, p. 55.
+
+[29] 'Bull. Acad. Roy. Bruxelles,' 1838, t. v, p. 582. 'Bull. Acad. Roy.
+Belg.,' 1852, t. xix, part iii, p. 437.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+ADHESION.
+
+
+Adhesion, so called, occurs either from actual union of originally
+distinct members of different whorls or from the non-occurrence of that
+separation which usually takes place between them. It is thus in some
+degree a graver deviation than cohesion, and is generally a consequence
+of, or at least is coexistent with, more serious changes; thus if two
+leaves of the same whorl are coherent the change is not very great, but
+if two leaves belonging to different whorls, or two leaves in the same
+spiral cycle are adherent, a deformation in the axis or a certain amount
+of dislocation must almost necessarily exist. Adhesion as a normal
+occurrence is usually the result of a lack of separation rather than of
+union of parts primitively separate. Instances of adhesion between
+different organs is seen under ordinary circumstances in the bract of
+the Lime tree, which adheres to the peduncle, also in _Neuropeltis_,
+while in _Erythrochiton hypophyllanthus_ the cymose peduncles are
+adherent to the under surface of the leaf.
+
+Adhesion between the axes of the same plant is sufficiently treated of
+under the head of Cohesion, from which it is in this instance impossible
+to make a distinction. Adhesion of the inflorescence is necessarily a
+frequent accompaniment of fasciation and cohesion of the branches.
+
+=Adhesion of foliar organs= may occur either between the margins or
+between the surfaces of the affected parts; in the former case there is
+almost necessarily more or less displacement and change of direction,
+such as a twisting of the stem and a vertical rather than a horizontal
+attachment of the foliar organ to it; hence it generally forms but a
+part of other and more important deviations.
+
+=Adhesion of leaves by their surfaces.=--The union of leaves by their
+surfaces is not of very frequent occurrence, many of the instances cited
+being truly referable to other conditions. Bonnet describes the union of
+two lettuce leaves, and Turpin that of two leaves of _Agave americana_,
+in which latter the upper surface of one leaf was adherent to the lower
+surface of the leaf next above it, and I have myself met with similar
+instances in the wallflower and in lettuce and cabbage leaves; other
+instances have been mentioned in _Saxifraga_, _Gesnera_, _&c._[30]
+
+In these cases, owing to the non-development of the internodes, the
+nascent leaves are closely packed, and the conditions for adhesion are
+favorable, but in most of the so-called cases of adhesion of leaf to
+leaf by the surface, a preferable explanation is afforded either by an
+exuberant development (hypertrophy) or by chorisis (see sections on
+those subjects). Thus, when a leaf of this kind is apparently so united,
+that the lower surface of one is adherent to the corresponding surface
+of another, the phenomenon is probably due rather to extra development
+or to fission. There is an exception to this, however, in the case of
+two vertically-erect leaves on opposite sides of the stem; here the two
+upper or inner surfaces may become adherent, as in an orange, where two
+leaves were thus united, the terminal bud between them being suppressed
+or abortive.
+
+Adhesion between the membranous bract of _Narcissus poeticus_ and the
+upper surface of the leaf is described by Moquin.[31] The same author
+mentions having seen a remarkable example of adhesion in the involucels
+of _Caucalis leptophylla_, the bracts of which were soldered to the
+outer surface of the flowers. M. Bureau[32] mentions an instance
+wherein the spathe of _Narcissus biflorus_ was partially twisted in such
+a manner that the lower surface of its median nerve was adherent to the
+corresponding surface of one of the sepals, mid-rib to mid-rib, thus
+apparently confirming a law of G. de Hilaire, that when two parts of the
+same individual unite, they generally do so by the corresponding
+surfaces or edges, but the rule is probably not so general in its
+application as has been supposed.
+
+=Adhesion of foliar to axile organs.=--The appendicular organs may
+likewise be found united to the axile ones. This union takes place in
+many ways; sometimes the leaves do not become detached from the stem for
+a considerable distance, as in the so-called decurrent leaves, at other
+times the leaves are prolonged at their base into lobes, which are
+directed along the stem, and are united with it. Turpin records a
+tendril of a vine which was fused with the stem for some distance, and
+bore leaves and other tendrils. Union of the leaf or bract with the
+flower-stalk is not uncommon. It occurs normally in the Lime and other
+plants.
+
+=Adhesion of the sepals to the petals= is spoken of by Morren as
+calyphyomy, [Greek: kalyx phyomai.][33] Moquin cites an instance in
+_Geranium nodosum_, in which one petal was united by its lower surface
+to one of the segments of the calyx. A similar circumstance has been
+observed in _Petunia violacea_ by Morren. Duchartre describes an
+instance wherein one of the outer sepals of _Cattleya Forbesii_ was
+adherent to the labellum.[34]
+
+=Adhesion of the stamens to the petals= is of common occurrence under
+natural circumstances. Cassini has described a malformation of
+_Centaurea collina_, in which two of the five stamens were completely
+grafted with the corolla, the three others remaining perfectly free.
+Adhesion of the petals to the column is not of infrequent occurrence
+among Orchids. I have observed cases of the adhesion of the segments of
+the perianth to the stamen in _Ophrys aranifera_, _Odontoglossum_, _sp_.
+&c. It is the ordinary condition in _Gongora_ and some other genera. I
+have seen it also in _Lilium lancifolium_. Some forms of _Crocus_,
+occasionally met with, present a very singular appearance, owing to the
+adhesion of the stamens to the outer segments of the perianth, the
+former, moreover, being partially petaloid in aspect. M. de la Vaud[35]
+speaks of a similar union in _Tigridia pavonia_. Morren[36] describes a
+malformation of _Fuchsia_ wherein the petals were so completely adherent
+to the stamens, that the former were dragged out of their ordinary
+position, so as to become opposite to the sepals; the fusion was here so
+complete that, no trace of it could be seen externally. It should be
+remarked that it was the outer series of stamens that were thus
+fused.[37]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.--_Crocus._ Adhesion of petaloid stamens to
+perianth.]
+
+=Adhesion of stamens to pistils.=--The stamens also may be united to the
+pistils, as in gynandrous plants. Moquin speaks of such a case in a
+_Scabious_; M. Clos in _Verbascum australe_.[38] I have seen cases of
+the same kind in the Wallflower, Cowslip (_Primula veris_), Tulip,
+Orange, in the garden Azalea and other plants.
+
+=Miscellaneous adhesions.=--Sometimes organs, comparatively speaking,
+widely separated one from the other, become united together. Miquel has
+recorded the union of a stigma with the middle lobe of the lower lip of
+the corolla of _Salvia pratensis_.[39] In the accompanying figure [fig.
+13], taken from a double wallflower, there is shown an adhesion between
+a petal and an open carpel on the one side, and a stamen on the other.
+
+Moquin speaks of some pears, which were united, at an early stage, with
+one or two small leaves borne by the peduncle and grafted to the fruit
+by the whole of their upper surface. As the pear increased in size the
+leaves became detached from it, leaving on the surface of the fruit an
+impression of the same form as the leaf, and differing in colour from
+the rest of the surface of the fruit. Traces of the principal nerves
+were seen on the pear.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.--_Cheiranthus cheiri_. Adhesion of petal to
+stamen and open carpel.]
+
+It is curious to notice how very rare it is for the calyx to adhere to
+the ovary in flowers where that organ is normally superior. The "_calyx
+inferus_" seems scarcely ever to become "_calyx superus_," while, on the
+other hand, the "_calyx normaliter superus_" frequently becomes inferior
+from detachment from, or from want of union with the surface of the
+ovary.
+
+=Adhesion of fruit to branch.=--Of this Mr. Berkeley[40] cites an
+instance in a vegetable marrow (_Cucumis_), where a female flower had
+become confluent with the branch, at whose base it was placed, and also
+with two or more flowers at the upper part of the same branch, so as to
+make an oblique scar running down from the apex of the fruit to the
+branch.
+
+=Synanthy.=--Adhesion of two or more flowers takes place in various
+ways; sometimes merely the stalks are united together, so that we have
+a single peduncle, bearing at its extremity two flowers placed in
+approximation very slightly adherent one to the other. In this manner I
+have seen three flowers of the vegetable marrow on a common stalk, the
+flowers themselves being only united at the extreme base. Occasionally
+cases may be met with wherein the pedicels of a stalked flower become
+adherent to the side of a sessile flower. I have noticed this commonly
+in _Umbelliferae_. Union of this kind occurs frequently in the common
+cornel (_Cornus_), wherein one of the lower flowers becomes adherent to
+one of the upper ones. In De Candolle's 'Organographie Vegetale,' Plates
+14 and 15, are figured cases of fusion of the flower stems of the
+Hyacinth and of a _Centaurea_. In other cases the union involves not
+only the stalk but the flowers themselves; thus fusion of the flowers is
+a common accompaniment of fasciation, as was the case in the _Campanula_
+figured in the cut (fig. 14).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.--Synanthic flowers of _Campanula medium_.]
+
+Synanthy may take place without much derangement of the structure of
+either flower, or the union may be attended with abortion or suppression
+of some of the parts of one or both flowers. Occasionally this union is
+carried to such an extent that a bloom appears to be single, when it is,
+in reality, composed of two or more, the parts of which have become not
+only fused, but, as it were, thrust into and completely incorporated one
+with another, and in such a manner as to occupy the place of some parts
+of the flower which have been suppressed. It must not be overlooked that
+this adhesion of one flower to another is a very common occurrence under
+natural circumstances, as in _Lonicera_, in the common tomato, in
+_Pomax_, _Opercularia_, _Symphyomyrtus_, &c., while the large size of
+some of the cultivated sunflowers is in like manner due to the union of
+two or more flower-heads.
+
+One of the simplest instances of synanthy is that mentioned by M.
+Duchartre,[41] in which two flowers of a hyacinth were united together
+simply by means of two segments of the perianth one from each flower. A
+similar occurrence has been cited by M. Gay in _Narcissus chrysanthus_.
+In like manner the blossoms of Fuchsias or Loniceras occasionally become
+adherent merely by their surface, without involving any other change in
+the conformation of the flowers. M. Maugin alludes to a case of this
+kind in _Aristolochia Clematitis_.[42]
+
+But it is more usual for some of the organs to be suppressed, so that
+the number of existing parts is less than would be the case in two or
+more uncombined flowers. A few illustrations will exemplify this. In two
+flowers of _Matthiola incana_, that I observed to be joined together,
+there were eight sepals, eight petals, and ten perfect stamens, eight
+long and two short, instead of twelve. Closer examination showed that
+the point of union between the two flowers occurred just where, under
+ordinary circumstances, the two short stamens would be. In this instance
+but little suppression had occurred. In similar flowers of _Narcissus
+incomparabilis_ I remarked a ten-parted perianth, ten stamens within a
+single cup, two styles, and a five-celled ovary. Here, then, it would
+appear that two segments of the perianth, two stamens, and one carpel
+were suppressed. In a Polyanthus there were nine sepals, nine petals,
+nine stamens, and a double ovary.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.--Union of three flowers of _Calanthe vestita_.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.--Shows the abortion of the central spur in
+synanthic flowers of _Calanthe vestita_.]
+
+As an illustration of a more complicated nature reference may be made to
+three flowers of _Aconitum Napellus_, figured by A. de Chamisso,
+'Linnaea,' vol. vii, 1832, p. 205, tab. vii, figs. 1, 2. In this specimen
+the two outer blossoms had each four sepals present, namely, the upper
+hooded one, one of the lateral sepals, and both of the inferior ones;
+the central flower had only the upper sepal and one other, probably one
+of the lower sepals; thus there were but ten sepals instead of fifteen.
+The nectary-like petals, the stamens, and pistils were all present in
+the lateral flowers, but were completely suppressed in the middle one. A
+less degree of suppression was exemplified in a triple flower of
+_Calanthe vestita_ sent me by Dr. Moore, of Glasnevin, in which all the
+parts usually existing in three separate flowers were to be found, with
+the exception of the spur belonging to the labellum of the middle flower
+(figs. 15, 16).
+
+One of the most common malformations in the Foxglove (_Digitalis_)
+results from the fusion of several of the terminal flowers into one. In
+these cases the number of parts is very variable in different instances;
+the sepals are more or less blended together, and the corollas as well
+as the stamens are usually free and distinct, the latter often of equal
+length, so that the blossom, although truly complex, is, as to its
+external form, less irregular than under natural circumstances. The
+centre of these flowers is occupied by a two to five-celled pistil,
+between the carpels of which, not unfrequently, the stem of the plant
+projects, bearing on its sides bracts and rudimentary flowers. (See
+Prolification.) An instance of this nature is figured in the 'Gardeners'
+Chronicle,' 1850, p. 435, from which the cut (fig. 17) is borrowed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.--Synanthy and other changes in a Foxglove.]
+
+One of the most singular recorded instances of changes connected with
+fusion of the flowers is that cited by Reinsch,[43] where two female
+flowers of _Salix cinerea_ were so united with a male one as to produce
+an hermaphrodite blossom.
+
+It follows, from what has been said, that the number of parts that are
+met with in these fused flowers varies according to the number of
+blossoms and of the organs which have been suppressed. Comparatively
+rarely do we find all the organs present; but when two flowers are
+united together we find every possible variety between the number of
+parts naturally belonging to the two flowers and that belonging to a
+single one. Sometimes instances are met with wherein the calyx does not
+present the normal number of parts, while the other parts of the flower
+are in excess. I have seen in a _Calceolaria_ a single calyx, with the
+ordinary number of sepals, enclosing two corollas, adherent simply by
+their upper lips, and containing stamens and pistils in the usual way.
+In this instance, then, the sepals of one flower must have been
+suppressed, while no such suppression took place in the other parts of
+the flower.
+
+Professor Charles Morren paid special attention to the various methods
+in which the flowers of Calceolarias may become fused, and to the
+complications that ensue from the suppression of some parts, the
+complete amalgamation of others, &c. Referring the reader to the Belgian
+savant's papers for the full details of the changes observed, it is only
+necessary to allude to a few of the most salient features.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18.--Synanthic flowers of Calceolaria in which, with
+two upper lips, there was but a single lower one.]
+
+Sometimes the upper lips of two flowers are fused into one, the two
+lower remaining distinct. In other cases, the upper lip disappears
+altogether, while there are two lower lips placed opposite one another;,
+of the stamens, sometimes the outermost, at other times the innermost
+disappear.[44]
+
+Occasionally there appears to be, as it were, a transference of the
+parts of one flower to another. One of the simplest and most
+intelligible cases of this kind is recorded by Wigand in the 'Flora' for
+1856, in a compound flower of _Polygonatum anceps_, in which within a
+twelve-parted perianth there were twelve stamens and two pistils, one
+four-celled, the other two-celled; hence it would appear as if a carpel
+belonging to one flower had become united to those constituting the
+pistil of the adjacent one. Among Orchids this fusion of some of the
+elements of different flowers, together with the suppression of others,
+is carried to such an extent as to render the real structure difficult
+to decipher. Sometimes flowers of _Ophrys aranifera_, at first sight
+seeming normal as to the number, and almost so as regards the
+arrangement of their parts, have yet, on examination, proved to be the
+result of a confluence of two flowers. Mr. Moggridge has observed
+similar phenomena in the same species at Mentone.
+
+Sometimes the fusion affects flowers belonging to different branches of
+the same inflorescence, as in _Centranthus ruber_, described by
+Buchenau, 'Flora,' 1857, p. 293, and even a blossom of one generation of
+axes may be united with a flower belonging to another generation. Thus
+M. Michalet[45] speaks of a case wherein the terminal flower of
+_Betonica alopecuros_ was affected with Peloria, and fused with an
+adjacent one belonging to a secondary axis of inflorescence, and not yet
+expanded. This latter flower had no calyx, but in its place were three
+bracts, surrounding the corolla; this again was united to the calyx of
+the terminal bloom in a most singular manner, the limb of the corolla
+and that of the calyx being so joined one to the other as to form but a
+single tube. It is not uncommon, as has been before stated, to find two
+corollas enclosed within one calyx, but this is probably the only
+recorded instance of the fusion of the calyx and corolla of two
+different flowers belonging to two different axes.
+
+From the preceding details, as well as from others which it is not
+necessary to give in this place, it would appear that synanthy is more
+liable to occur where the flowers are naturally crowded together[46]
+than where they are remote; so too, the upper or younger portions of the
+inflorescence are those most subject to this change. In like manner the
+derangements consequent on the coalescence of flowers are often more
+grave in the central organs, which are most exposed to pressure, and
+have the least opportunities of resisting the effects of that agency,
+than they are in the outer portions of the flowers where growth is less
+restricted.
+
+Morren in his papers on synanthic _Calceolarias_, before referred to,
+considers that the direction in which fusion acts is centripetal, _e.g._
+from the circumference towards the centre of the flower, thus reversing
+the natural order of things. He considers that there is a radical
+antagonism between the normal organizing forces and the teratological
+disorganizing forces, and explains in this way the frequent sterility of
+monsters from an imperfect formation of stamens, or pistils, or both.
+
+The greater tendency in synanthic flowers of parts of one whorl to
+adhere to the corresponding organs in another flower has often been
+remarked, though the dislocation of parts may be so great as to prevent
+this from being carried out in all cases. It appears also that synanthy
+is more frequently met with among flowers which have an inferior ovary
+than in those in which the relative position of the organ in question
+is reversed. This remark applies particularly to individual cases; the
+proportion as regards the genera may not be so large. The explanation of
+this must of course depend on the circumstances of each particular case;
+and it would be wrong to attempt to lay down a general rule, when
+organogenists have not yet fully decided in what plants the inferior
+ovary is an axial structure, and in what others the appearance is due to
+the adhesion of the base of the calyx to the carpels.
+
+The list which follows is not intended as a complete one, but it may
+serve to show what plants are more particularly subject to this anomaly;
+the * indicates unusual frequency of occurrence, the ! signifies that
+the writer has himself seen instances in the plants named. Many of the
+recorded cases of Synanthy are really cases of adhesion of the
+inflorescence rather than of the flowers.
+
+ Ranunculus Lingua.
+ bulbosus!
+ Aconitum Napellus.
+ Delphinium sp.!
+ Matthiola incana!
+ Arabis sagittata.
+ Silene sp.
+ Reseda odorata!
+ Vitis vinifera.
+ Citrus aurantium.
+ *Fuchsia var. hort.!
+ OEnothera sp.
+ Saxifraga sp.
+ Podalyria myrtillifolia.
+ Prunus Armeniaca.
+ spinosa.
+ Pyrus Malus.
+ Persica vulgaris.
+ Crataegus monogyna.
+ Robinia pseudacacia.
+ Gleditschia triacanthos.
+ Syringa persica.
+ Cornus sanguinea.
+ Viburnum sp.
+ *Lonicera sp. plur!
+ Centranthus ruber!
+ Valantia cruciata.
+ Centaurea moschata.
+ Jacea.
+ Zinnia elegans.
+ Zinnia revoluta.
+ Helianthus sp.!
+ Spilanthes oleracea.
+ Dahlia.
+ *Leontodon Taraxacum!
+ Senecio Doria.
+ Cichorium Intybus.
+ Lactuca sativa.
+ Anthemis retusa.
+ *Campanula medium!
+ persicifolia.
+ Azalea indica!
+ Vinca minor.
+ Atropa Belladonna.
+ *Solanum Lycopersicum!
+ *Petunia violacea!
+ Galeopsis ochroleuca.
+ Betonica alopecuros.
+ *Digitalis purpurea!
+ *Antirrhinum majus!
+ *Linaria purpurea!
+ *Pedicularis sylvatica!
+ *Calceolaria var. hort.!
+ Scrophularia nodosa.
+ Salpiglossis straminea.
+ Streptocarpus Rexii.
+ *Gesnera var. hort.!
+ AEschynanthus sp.!
+ Thyrsacanthus rutilans!
+ Anagallis collina.
+ *Primula veris!
+ Auricula.
+ *Primula acaulis, var. umbellata!
+ elatior?
+ * sinensis!
+ Aristolochia Clematitis.
+ Blitum sp.
+ Chenopodium sp.
+ Rumex sp.
+ Salix cinerea.
+ *Hyacinthus orientalis!
+ Lilium bulbiferum!
+ croceum, et sp. alix, pl.
+ Tulipa, sp.
+ Polygonatum anceps.
+ Fritillaria imperalis!
+ Agave americana.
+ Iris versicolor.
+ sambucina.
+ Crocus, sp.
+ Colchicum autumnale.
+ Narcissus incomparabilis!
+ Tazetta.
+ biflorus.
+ chrysanthus.
+ *Ophrys aranifera!
+ Calanthe vestita!
+ Oncidium bicolor.
+ ornithorhyncum.
+ &c. &c.
+
+ In addition to the works before cited, additional information
+ on this subject may be gained from the following:--Jaeger,
+ 'Missbilld.,' p. 92. v. Schlechtend, 'Bot. Zeit.,' 1856,
+ _Robinia_. Weber, 'Verhandl. Nat. Hist. Vereins. Preuss.
+ Rheinl.,' 1849, p. 290, _Primula_. Hincks, 'Rep. Brit. Assoc.
+ Newcastle,' 1838, _Salpiglossis_. Clos, 'Mem. Acad. Toulouse,'
+ vol. vi, 1862, _Anagallis_. Wigand, 'Flora,' 1856, tab. 8,
+ _Pedicularis_. Henfrey, 'Botan. Gazette,' i, p. 280, _Reseda_.
+ P. Reinsch, 'Flora,' 1860, tab. 7, _Petasites_. Weber,
+ Verhandl. Nat. Hist. Vereins. f.d. Preuss. Rheinl. u.
+ Westphal.,' 1860, p. 332, tabs. 6 et 7, _Prunus_, _Persica_,
+ _Campanula_, _Taraxacum_, _Saxifraga_, _Silene_, _Hyacinthus_,
+ _&c._ Miquel, 'Linnaea,' xi, p. 423, _Colchicum_. Michel,
+ 'Traite du Citronnier,' tab. 6, _Citrus_.
+
+=Syncarpy.=--In the preceding section it has been shown that the
+carpels, like other parts of the flower, are subject to be united
+together. This union may either take place between the carpels of a
+single flower or between the pistils of different flowers. In the latter
+case the other floral whorls are generally more or less altered. Where,
+however, the ovary is, as it is called, inferior, it may happen that the
+pistils of different flowers may coalesce more or less without much
+alteration in the other parts of the flower, as happens normally in many
+_Caprifoliaceae_, _Rubiaceae_, &c. &c. In some of these cases it must be
+remembered that the real structure of the apparent fruit is not made out
+beyond dispute, the main points of controversy being as to what, if any,
+share the dilated fruit-stalk or axis takes in the formation of such
+organs. Again, it will be borne in mind that in some cases the so-called
+fruit is made up of a number of flowers all fused together, as in the
+Mulberry or the Pineapple, in which plants what is, in ordinary
+language, called the fruit really consists of the whole mass of flowers
+constituting the inflorescence fused together. Union of the fruits may
+also in some cases take place between the carpels after the fall of the
+other floral whorls, particularly when the outer layers of the pericarp
+assume a succulent condition, so that under the general head of syncarpy
+really different conditions are almost necessarily grouped together,
+and, in seeking to investigate the causes of the phenomenon, the
+particular circumstances of each individual case must be taken into
+account. Syncarpy takes place in various degrees; sometimes only the
+stalks are joined; at other times the whole extent of the fruit, as in
+cherries, &c. This peculiarity did not escape the observant mind of
+Shakespeare--
+
+ "A double cherry seeming parted.
+ But yet a union in partition,
+ Two lovely berries moulded on one stem."
+ 'Midsummer Night's Dream,' act iii, sc. 2.
+
+A similar union has been observed in peaches, gooseberries, gourds,
+melons, and a great many other fruits. In the Barbarossa grape I have
+frequently seen a fusion of two, three, four or more berries quite at
+the end of the bunch, so that the clusters were terminated by a compound
+grape. Seringe has remarked sometimes two, sometimes three, fruits of
+_Ranunculus tripartitus_ soldered together. He has also seen three
+melons similarly joined.[47] Turpin mentions having seen a complete
+union between the three smooth and leathery pericarps which are
+naturally separate and enclosed within the spiny cupule of the
+chestnut.[48] Poiteau and Turpin have figured and described in their
+treatise on fruit trees, under the name of Nefle de Correa, four or five
+medlars, joined together and surmounted by all the persistent leaflets
+of the calyces.[49]
+
+A very remarkable example of Syncarpy has been recorded by E. Koenig
+in which nine strawberries were borne on one stem (_Fragaria
+botryformis_),[50] and a similar malformation has been observed in the
+Pineapple.
+
+When two fruits are united together they may be of about equal size,
+while in other cases one of the two is much smaller than the other. This
+was the case in two cucumbers given to me by Mr. James Salter. These
+were united together along their whole length excepting at the very
+tips; the upper one of the two was much larger than the lower, and
+contained three cells, the lower fruit was one-celled by suppression.
+Both fruits were curved, the curvature being evidently due to the more
+rapid growth of the upper as compared with the lower one.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19.--Adhesion of two apples.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20.--Section of united apples.]
+
+In many of these cases, where the fruits are united by their bases, the
+summits become separated one from the other, so as to resemble the
+letter V. Such divergence is of frequent occurrence where fruits are
+united by their stalks, because, as growth goes on, the tendency must
+necessarily be towards separation and divergence of the tips of the
+fruit.
+
+In some cases of Syncarpy the fusion and interpenetration of the carpels
+is carried to such an extent that it is very difficult to trace on the
+outer surface the lines of union. The fruit in these cases resembles a
+single one of much larger size than usual. Moquin mentions a double
+apple in which the connection was so close that the fruit was not very
+different in form from what is customary, and a similar thing happens
+with the tomato. In the case of stone-fruits it sometimes happens, not
+only that the outer portions are adherent, but that the stones are so
+likewise.
+
+M. Roeper has observed two apples grafted together, one of which had
+its stalk broken, and seemed evidently borne and nourished by the other
+apple;[51] and a similar occurrence happens not infrequently in the
+cucumber. Moquin has seen three united cherries having only a single
+stalk jointed to the central fruit, the lateral cherries having each a
+slight depression or cicatrix marking the situation of the suppressed
+stalks. Schlotterbec has figured three apples presenting precisely
+similar appearances.[52]
+
+Fusion of two or more nuts (_Corylus_) is not uncommon; I have seen as
+many as five so united.[53] In these cases the fruits may be united
+together in a ring or in linear series.
+
+In some _Leguminosae_, contrary to the general rule in the order, more
+than one carpel is found; thus peas, French beans, and other similar
+plants, are occasionally met with having two or more pods within the
+same calyx, and in _Gleditschia triacanthos_ and _Caesalpinia digyna_
+this is so commonly the case as to be considered almost the normal
+state. (De Cand. 'Mem. Leg.,' pl. 2, fig. 6; pl. 3, fig. 2.) At times
+these carpels become fused together, and it becomes difficult, when the
+traces of the flower have disappeared, to ascertain whether these
+carpels were formed in one flower, or whether they were the result of
+the fusion of several blossoms. I have seen an instance of this kind in
+a plum in which there were two carpels in the same flower, the one being
+partially fused to the other. The nature of such cases may usually be
+determined by an inspection of the peduncle which shows no traces of
+fusion. (See chapter on Multiplication.)
+
+When, however, the fruits are sessile, and they become grafted together,
+the kind of syncarpy is difficult to distinguish. It, may, nevertheless,
+be said as a general rule that the union brought about by the
+approximation of two fruits, after the fall of the floral whorls, is
+never so complete or so intimate as that determined by synanthy; and
+also that in those cases where there are supernumerary carpels in the
+flower, and those carpels become united together, they are rarely so
+completely fused that their individuality is lost.
+
+An analogous phenomenon takes place not uncommonly in mosses, the spore
+capsules of which become united together in various ways and degrees.
+Schimper[54] cites the following species as subject to this
+anomaly:--_Buxbaumia indusiata_, _Leskea sericea_, _Hypnum lutescens_,
+_Anomodon alternatus_, _Clinacium dendroides_, _Bryum caespititium_,
+_Brachythecium plumosum_, _Mnium serratum_, _Splachnum vasculosum_. It
+has also been observed in _Trichostomum rigidulum_ and _Hypnum
+triquetrum_.
+
+ In addition to the authorities already mentioned, the reader
+ may consult Moquin-Tandon, 'El. Ter. Veg.,' p. 270. Turpin.
+ 'Mem. greffe. Ann. Sc. Nat.,' ser. i, t. xxiv, p. 334. De
+ Candolle, 'Organ. Veget.,' t. i. Duhamel, 'Phys. des Arbres,'
+ t. i, p. 304, tab. xiii, xiv. Weber. 'Verhandl. Nat. Hist.
+ Vereina f. d. Preuss. Rheinl. u. Westphal.,' 1860, p. 332, tab.
+ vi. et vii.
+
+=Synspermy, or Union of the Seeds.=--Seeds may be united together in
+various degrees, either by their integuments,[55] or by their inner
+parts. Such union of the seeds, however, is of rare occurrence. It takes
+place normally, to a slight extent, in certain cultivated forms of
+cotton, wherein the seeds are aggregated together into a reniform mass,
+whence the term kidney cotton. Union of the parts of the embryo is
+treated under another head (see Synophty).
+
+=Adhesion between the axes of different plants.=--Under this head may be
+classed the union that takes place between the stems, branches, or roots
+of different plants of the same species, and that which occurs between
+individuals of different species; the first is not very different in its
+nature from cohesion of the branches of the same plant (figs. 21, 22).
+It finds its parallel, under natural circumstances, among the lower
+cryptogams, in which it often happens that several individual plants,
+originally distinct, become inseparably blended together into one mass.
+In the gardening operations of inarching, and to some extent in budding,
+this adhesion of axis to axis occurs, the union taking place the more
+readily in proportion as the contact between the younger growing
+portions of the two axes respectively is close. The huge size of some
+trees has been, in some cases, attributed to the adnation of different
+stems. This is said to be the case with the famous plane trees of
+Bujukdere, near Constantinople, and in which nine trunks are more or
+less united together.[56]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21.--Adhesion of two distinct stems of oak, or
+possibly cohesion of branches of the same tree. 'Gard. Chron.,' 1846, p.
+252.]
+
+A similar anastomosis may take place in the roots. Lindley cites a case
+wherein two carrots, of the white Belgian and the red Surrey varieties
+respectively, had grown so close to each other that each twisted half
+round the other, so that they ultimately became soldered together; the
+most singular thing with reference to this union was, that the red
+carrot (fig. 23, _b_), with its small overgrown part above the
+junction, took the colour and large dimensions of the white Belgian
+(_d_), which, in like manner, with its larger head above the joining
+(_a_), took the colour and small dimensions of the red one at and below
+the union (_e d_). The respective qualities of the two roots were thus
+transposed, while the upper portions or crowns were unaffected: the root
+of one, naturally weak, became distended and enlarged by the abundant
+matter poured into it by its new crown; and in like manner the root of
+the other, naturally vigorous, was starved by insufficient food derived
+from the new crown, and became diminutive and shrunken (see Synophty).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22.--Adhesion of the branches of two elms. 'Gard.
+Chron.,' 1849, p. 421.]
+
+The explanation of the fact that the stumps of felled fir trees
+occasionally continue to grow, and to deposit fresh zones of wood over
+the stump, depends on similar facts. In _Abies pectinata_, says
+Goeppert,[57] the roots of different individuals frequently unite; hence
+if one be cut down, its stump may continue to live, being supplied with
+nourishment from the adjacent trees to which it is adherent by means of
+its roots.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23.--Adhesion of two roots of carrot. 'Gard.
+Chron.,' 1851, p. 67.]
+
+A not uncommon malformation in mushrooms arises from the confluence of
+their stalks (fig. 24), and when the union takes place by means of the
+pilei, it sometimes happens, during growth, that the one fungus is
+detached from its attachment to the ground, and is borne up with the
+other, sometimes, even, being found in an inverted position on the top
+of its fellow.[58]
+
+The garden operations of budding, grafting and inarching have already
+been alluded to as furnishing illustrations of adhesion, but it may be
+well to refer briefly to certain other interesting examples of adhesion
+induced artificially; thus, the employment of the root as a stock,
+"root-grafting," is now largely practised with some plants, as affording
+a quicker means of propagation than by cuttings; and a still more
+curious illustration may be cited in the fact that it has also been
+found possible to graft a scion on the leaf in the orange.[59]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24.--Section through two adherent mushrooms, the
+upper one inverted.]
+
+Mr. Darwin, in his work on the 'Variation of Animals and Plants,' vol.
+i, p. 395, alludes to the two following remarkable cases of
+fusion:--"The author of 'Des Jacinthes' (Amsterdam, 1768, p. 124) says
+that bulbs of blue and red hyacinths may be cut in two, and that they
+will grow together, and throw up a united stem (and this Mr. Darwin has
+himself seen), with flowers of the two colours on the opposite sides.
+But the remarkable point is, that flowers are sometimes produced with
+the two colours blended together." In the second case related by Mr.
+Trail, about sixty blue and white potatoes were cut in halves through
+the eyes or buds, and the halves were then joined, the other buds being
+destroyed. Union took place, and some of the united tubers produced
+white, others blue, while some produced tubers partly white and partly
+blue.
+
+=Adhesion of the axes of plants belonging to different species is a=
+more singular occurrence than the former, and is of some interest as
+connected with the operation of grafting. As a general rule
+horticulturists are of opinion, and their opinion is borne out by facts,
+that the operation of grafting, to be successful, must be practised on
+plants of close botanical affinity. On the other hand, it is equally
+true that some plants very closely allied cannot be propagated in this
+manner. Contact between the younger growing tissues is essential to
+successful grafting as practised by the gardener, and is probably quite
+as necessary in those cases where the process takes place naturally.
+Although there is little doubt but that some of the recorded instances
+of natural or artificial grafting of plants of distant botanical
+affinities are untrustworthy, yet the instances of adhesion between
+widely different plants are too numerous and too well attested to allow
+of doubt. Moreover, when parasitical plants are considered, such as the
+Orobanches, the Cuscutas, and specially the mistleto (_Viscum_), which
+may be found growing on plants of very varied botanical relationship,
+the occurrence of occasional adhesion between plants of distant affinity
+is not so much to be wondered at. Union between the haulms of wheat and
+rye, and other grasses, has been recorded[60]. Moquin-Tandon[61] relates
+a case wherein, by accident, a branch of a species of _Sophora_ passed
+through the fork, made by two diverging branches of an elder
+(_Sambucus_), growing in the Jardin des Plantes of Toulouse. The branch
+of the _Sophora_ contracted a firm adhesion to the elder, and what is
+remarkable is that, although the latter has much softer wood than the
+former, yet the branch of the harder wooded tree was flattened, as if
+subjected to great pressure[62]. It is possible that some of the cases
+similar to those spoken of by Columella, Virgil[63], and other classical
+writers, may have originated in the accidental admission of seeds into
+the crevices of trees; in time the seeds grew, and as they did so, the
+young plants contracted an adhesion to the supporting tree. Some of the
+instances recorded by classical writers may be attributed to intentional
+or accidental fallacy, as in the so-called "greffe des charlatans" of
+more modern days.
+
+Adhesion of the roots of different species has been effected
+artificially, as between the carrot and the beet root, while Dr. Maclean
+succeeded in engrafting, on a red beet, a scion of the white Silesian
+variety of the same species. In all these cases, even in the most
+successful grafts, the amount of adhesion is very slight; the union in
+no degree warrants the term fusion, it is little but simple contact of
+similar tissues, while new growing matter is formed all round the cut
+surfaces, so that the latter become gradually imbedded in the newly
+formed matter.
+
+=Synophty or adhesion of the embryo.=--This often occurs partially in
+the embryo plants of the common mistleto (_Viscum_), but is not of
+common occurrence in other plants, even in such cases as the orange
+(_Citrus_), the _Cycadeae_, _Coniferae_, &c., where there is frequently
+more than one embryo in the seed. Alphonse De Candolle has described and
+figured an instance of the kind in _Euphorbia helioscopia_, wherein two
+embryo plants were completely grafted together throughout the whole
+length of their axes, leaving merely the four cotyledons separate. A
+similar adnation has been observed by the same botanist in _Lepidium
+sativum_ and _Sinapis ramosa_, as well as in other plants.[64] I have
+met with corresponding instances in _Antirrhinum majus_ and in _Crataegus
+oxyacantha_, in the latter case complicated with the partial atrophy of
+one of the four cotyledons. It is necessary to distinguish between such
+cases and the fallacious appearances arising from a division of the
+cotyledons. M. Morren has figured and described the union of two roots
+of carrot (_Daucus_), which were also spirally twisted. He attributes
+this union to the blending of two radicles, and applies the term
+"rhizocollesy" to this union of the roots.[65] Mr. Thwaites cites a case
+wherein two embryos were contained in one seed in a _Fuchsia_, and had
+become adherent. What is still more remarkable, the two embryos were
+different, a circumstance attributable to their hybrid origin, the seed
+containing them being the result of the fertilisation of _Fuchsia
+coccinea_ (quere _F. magellanica?_) by the pollen of _F. fulgens_.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[30] Wydler, 'Flora,' 1852, p. 737, tab. ix.
+
+[31] 'El. Ter. Veg.,' p. 254.
+
+[32] 'Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr.,' 1857, p. 451.
+
+[33] 'Bull. Acad. Belg.,' vol. xix, part ii, p. 335.
+
+[34] 'Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr.,' 1860, p. 25.
+
+[35] 'Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr.,' 1861, p. 147.
+
+[36] 'Bull. Acad. Belg.,' vol. xviii, part ii, p. 498.
+
+[37] See also Prillieux, 'Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr.,' 1861, p. 195.
+
+[38] 'Mem. Acad. Toulouse,' 5th Series, vol. iii.
+
+[39] Linnaea, vol. ii. p. 607.
+
+[40] 'Journal Roy. Hort. Soc.,' new ser., vol. i. 1866, p. 200.
+
+[41] 'Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr.,' 1861, p. 159.
+
+[42] Ibid., 1859, p. 467.
+
+[43] 'Flora,' 1858, p. 65, tab. ii.
+
+[44] C. Morren. 'Bull. Acad. Belg.,' vol. xv (Fuchsia, p. 89); vol.
+xviii, p. 591. (Lobelia, p. 142); vol. xix, p. 352; vol. xx, p. 4.
+
+[45] 'Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr.,' vol. vii, p. 625.
+
+[46] Cramer, 'Bildungsabweichungen,' p. 56, tab. vii, fig. 10, figures a
+case wherein the two central flowers of the capitulum of _Centaurea
+Jacea_ were united together.
+
+[47] 'Bull. Bot.' tab. iii, figs. 4-6.
+
+[48] 'Mem. greffe Ann. Science Nat.,' ser. i, t. xxiv, p. 334.
+
+[49] "Mespilus portentosa." Poit. et Turp., 'Pomol. Franc.,' liv, xxxi,
+p. 202, pl. 202.
+
+[50] Duchesne, 'Hist. Nat. Frais.,' p. 79.
+
+[51] De Cand., 'Phys. Veget.,' tom. ii, p. 781.
+
+[52] Sched. de monstr. plant. 'Act. Helv.,' tab. i, fig. 8.
+
+[53] 'Mem. greffe,' loc. cit., tab. xxiv, p. 334.
+
+[54] 'Bull. Soc. Bot. Franc.,' 8, pp. 73 and 351, tab. ii; and Roese.
+'Bot. Zeit.,' x, p. 410.
+
+[55] _Nymphaea lutea_, _AEsculus Hippocastanum_, &c. See Moquin, 'El.
+Ter. Veg.,' p. 277.
+
+[56] C. Martins, 'Promenade Botanique,' p. 8.
+
+[57] 'Ann. Sc. Nat.,' t. xix, 1843, p. 141, tab. iv.
+
+[58] 'Ann. Nat. Hist.,' ser. 2, vol. ix, tab. xvi. 'Phytologist,' 1857.
+p. 352, &c.
+
+[59] Quoted from the 'Revue Hortic.' in 'Gard. Chron.,' 1866, p. 386.
+
+[60] Senebier, 'Phys Veget.,' t. iv, p. 426. The same author also cites
+Romer as having found two plants of _Ranunculus_, from the stem of which
+emerged a daisy. As it is not an uncommon practice to stick a daisy on a
+buttercup, it is to be hoped no hoax was played off on M. Romer.
+
+[61] 'El. Ter. Veg.,' p. 289.
+
+[62] An instance of this kind is cited in Dr. Robson's memoir of the
+late Charles Waterton, from which it appears that two trees, a spruce
+fir and an elm, were originally planted side by side, and had been
+annually twisted round each other, so that they had in places grown one
+into the other, with the result of stunting the growth of both trees,
+thus illustrating, according to the opinion of the eccentric naturalist
+above cited, the incongruous union of Church and State!
+
+[63] See Daubeny, 'Lectures on Roman Husbandry,' p. 156.
+
+[64] A. P. De Candolle, 'Organ Veget.,' t. ii, p. 72, tab. liv, fig. 1.
+
+[65] 'Bull. Acad. Belg.,' t. xx, part i, 1852, p. 43.
+
+
+
+
+PART II.
+
+INDEPENDENCE OR SEPARATION OF ORGANS.
+
+
+Under this head are included all those instances wherein organs usually
+entire, or more or less united, are, or appear to be, split or
+disunited. It thus includes such cases as the division of an ordinarily
+entire leaf into a lobed or partite one, as well as those characterised
+by the separation of organs usually joined together. Union, as has been
+stated in a previous chapter, is the result either of persistent
+integrity or of a junction of originally separate organs, after their
+formation; so in like manner, the separation or disjunction of parts may
+arise from the absence of that process of union which is habitual in
+some cases, or from an actual _bona fide_ separation of parts originally
+united together. In the former case, the isolation of parts arises from
+arrest of development, while in the latter it is due rather to luxuriant
+growth. A knowledge, as well of the ordinary as of the unusual course,
+of development in any particular flower is thus required in order to
+ascertain with accuracy the true nature of the separation of parts. The
+late Professor Morren[66] proposed the general term Monosy ([Greek:
+monosis]) for all these cases of abnormal isolation, subdividing the
+group into two, as follows--1, Adesmy ([Greek: a-desmos]), including
+those cases where the separation is congenital; and 2, Dialysis ([Greek:
+dialyo]), comprising those instances where the isolation is truly a
+result of the separation of parts previously joined together. Adesmy,
+moreover, was by the Belgian savant said to be homologous when it
+occurred between members of the same whorl, _e.g._ between the sepals of
+an ordinary monosepalous calyx, or heterologous when the separation took
+place between members of different whorls, as when the calyx is detached
+from the ovary, &c. The former case would thus be the converse of
+cohesion, the latter of adhesion.
+
+To the adoption of these words there is this great objection, that we
+can but rarely, in the present state of our knowledge, tell in which
+group any particular illustration should be placed.
+
+The terms adopted in the present work are, for the most part, not
+necessarily intended to convey any idea as to the organogenetic history
+of the parts affected. Where a single organ, that is usually entire,
+becomes divided the term Fission is used; in cases where parts of the
+same whorl become isolated, the word Dialysis is employed, and in the
+same sense in which it is generally used by descriptive botanists, and
+where the various whorls become detached one from the other, the
+occurrence is distinguished by the application of the term Solution.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[66] 'Bull. Acad. Belg.,' t. xix, part iii, 1852, p. 315.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+FISSION.
+
+
+When an organ becomes divided it receives at the hands of descriptive
+botanists the appellations cleft, partite, or sect, according to the
+depth of the division; hence in considering the teratological instances
+of this nature, the term fission has suggested itself as an appropriate
+one to be applied to the subdivision of an habitually entire or
+undivided organ. It thus corresponds pretty nearly in its application
+with the term Chorisis or "dedoublement," or with the "disjonctions qui
+divisent les organes" of Moquin-Tandon.[67] It is usually, but not
+always, a concomitant with hypertrophy, and dependent on luxuriance of
+growth.
+
+It must be understood therefore that the term, as generally applied,
+does not so much indicate the cleavage of a persistent organ, as it does
+the formation and development of two or more growing points instead of
+one, whence results a branching or forking (di-tri-chotomy) of the
+affected organ. In some instances it seems rather to be due to the
+relative deficiency of cellular, as contrasted with fibro-vascular
+tissue.
+
+=Fission of axile organs.=--This condition is scarcely to be
+distinguished from multiplication of the axile organs (which see). A
+little attention, however, will generally show whether the unusual
+number of branches is a consequence of the development of a large number
+of distinct shoots, as happens, for instance, when a tree is pollarded,
+or of a division of one. M. Fournier[68] gives as an illustration the
+case of a specimen of _Ruscus aculeatus_ in which there occurred a
+division of the foliaceous branches into two segments, reaching as far
+as the insertion of the flower, but no further. He also mentions lateral
+cleavage effected by a notching of the margin, the notch being anterior
+to the flowers and always directed towards their insertion. In the
+allied genus _Danae_, Webb, 'Phyt. Canar.,' p. 320, describes the
+fascicles of flowers as in "crenulis brevibus ad marginem ramulorum
+dispositis." Sometimes, on the other hand, _Danae_ has a fascicle of
+flowers inserted on the middle of the upper surface, as in _Ruscus_.
+Wigand mentions an instance in _Digitalis lutea_, where the upper part
+of the stem was divided into six or seven racemes; possibly this was a
+case of fasciation, but such a division of the inflorescence is by no
+means uncommon in the spicate species of _Veronica_. I have also seen
+it in _Plantago lanceolata_, _Reseda luteola_, _Campanula medium_,
+_Epacris impressa_, and a bifurcation of the axis of the spikelet within
+the outer glumes in _Lolium perenne_[69] and _Anthoxanthum odoratum_. In
+the Kew Museum is preserved a cone of _Abies excelsa_,[70] dividing into
+two divisions, each bearing bracts and scales. A similar thing
+frequently occurs in the male catkins of _Cedrus Libani_ (fig. 25).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25.--Bifurcated male inflorescence, _Cedrus
+Libani_.]
+
+This subdivision of axial organs is not unfrequently the result of some
+injury or mutilation, thus Duval Jouve alludes to the frequency with
+which branched stems are produced in the various species of _Equisetum_,
+as a consequence of injuries to the main stem, but this is rather to be
+considered as a multiplication of parts than as a subdivision of one.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26.--Bifurcated leaf of _Lamium album_, &c.]
+
+=Fission of foliar organs.=--Many leaves exhibit constantly the process
+of fission, such as the _Salisburia adiantifolia_, and which is due
+perhaps as much to the absence or relatively small proportion of
+cellular as compared with vascular tissue, as to absolute fission. In
+the same way we have laciniated leaves of the Persian lilac, _Syringa
+persica_, and Moquin mentions instances in a species of _Mercurialis_
+in which the leaves were deeply slashed. In _Chenopodium Quinoa_ the
+leaves were so numerous and the clefts so deep, that the species was
+hardly recognisable, while on a branch of _Rhus Cotinus_ observed by De
+Candolle the lobes were so narrow and so fine as to give the plant the
+aspect of an _Umbellifer_. Wigand ('Flora,' 1856, p. 706) speaks of the
+leaves of _Dipsacus fullonum_ with bi-partite leaves; Moquin mentions
+the occurrence of a leaf of an oleander bi-lobed at the summit, so as to
+give the appearance of a fusion of two leaves. Steinheil has recorded an
+instance in _Scabiosa atropurpurea_ in which one of the stem leaves
+presented the following peculiarities. It was simple below, but divided
+above into two equal lobes, provided each with a median nerve.[71]
+Steinheil has also recorded a _Cerastium_ in which one of the leaves was
+provided with two midribs; above this leaf was a group of ternate
+leaves. I have seen similar instances in the common Elm, _Ulmus
+campestris_, and also in the common nettle, _Urtica dioica_, the leaves
+of which latter thus resembled those of _Urtica biloba_, which are
+habitually bilobed at the summit. M. Clos[72] mentions an instance where
+the terminal leaf and first bract of _Orchis sambucina_ were divided
+into two segments. The same author also mentions the leaves of
+_Anemiopsis californica_, which were divided in their upper halves each
+into two lobes--also leaves of a lentil springing from a fasciated stem
+and completely divided into two segments, but with only a single bud in
+the axil. The axillary branches in like manner showed traces of
+cleavage. Fig. 26 represents a case of this kind in _Lamium album_,
+conjoined with suppression of the flowers on one side of the stem. I
+have also in my herbarium a leaf of _Arum maculatum_, with a stalk
+single at the base, but dividing into two separate stalks, each bearing
+a hastate lamina, the form of which is so perfect that were it not from
+the venation of the sheath it would be considered that there was here a
+union of two leaves rather than a bifurcation of one. A garden
+Pelargonium presented the same appearance.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27.--Bifurcated leaf of _Pelargonium_.]
+
+Fern fronds are particularly liable to this kind of subdivision, and
+they exhibit it in almost every degree, from a simple bifurcation of the
+frond to the formation of large tufts of small lobes all formed on the
+same plan by the repeated forking of the pinnules. These may be
+considered as cases of hypertrophy.
+
+Moquin-Tandon, at a meeting of the Botanical Society of France (April
+3rd, 1858) exhibited a leaf of _Cerasus Lauro-Cerasus_ divided in such a
+manner as to resemble a leaf of _Citrus_ or of _Phyllarthron_. In this
+case, therefore, the disunion must have taken place laterally, and not
+from apex towards base, as is most common. The leaves of the common
+horse-radish, _Cochlearia Armoracia_, are very subject to this pinnated
+subdivision of the margin, and numerous other illustrations might be
+given.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28.--Bifurcated frond, _Scolopendrium vulgare_.]
+
+A. Braun describes a singular case in a leaf of _Irina glabra_
+wherein the blade of the leaf on one side was deeply and irregularly
+laciniated, the other side remaining entire. (Verhandl., d. 35,
+Naturforscherversammlung, tab. 3.) Laciniate varieties of plants are of
+frequent occurrence in gardens where they are often cultivated for their
+beauty or singularity; thus, there are laciniated alders, fern-leaved
+beeches and limes, oak-leaved laburnums, &c. A list of several of these
+is subjoined. A similar fission takes place constantly in the cotyledons
+of some plants, sometimes, as in _Coniferae_, to such an extent as to
+give an appearance as if there were several cotyledons.[73]
+
+It is not always easy to recognise, at a first glance, whether the
+division be the result of disunion or of an incomplete union of two
+leaves, but we may be guided by the number of leaves in the cycle or the
+whorl. The number is complete in cases of partial disjunction, while in
+cases of fusion it is incomplete. Again, in instances of disjunction,
+there is only one point of origin, but, when two leaves are grafted
+together, two such points may generally be detected at the base of the
+leaf, or a transverse section of the leaf-stalk will show indications of
+fusion. The number and position of the midribs will also serve as a
+guide, as in cases of fusion there are generally two or more midribs,
+according to the number of fused leaves; but as Moquin well remarks,
+this latter character cannot be always depended upon, for the median
+nerve may divide without any corresponding separation of the cellular
+portions of the leaf. The author just quoted cites examples of this kind
+in _Cardamine pratensis_, _Hedera Helix_, _Plantago major_, _Geranium
+nodosum_.
+
+The following list of plants commonly producing leaves that are cleft or
+divided, to a greater extent than is usual in the species, is mainly
+taken from one given by Schlechtendal, 'Bot. Zeit.,' 1844, p. 441, with
+additions from other sources. The ! indicates that the author has
+himself met with the deviation in question. Many are cultivated as
+garden varieties under the names here given.
+
+ Trollius europaeus dissectus.
+ Chelidonium majus laciniatum!
+ Glaucium luteum.
+ Brassica oleracea!
+ Tilia parvifolia laciniata.
+ asplenifolia!
+ Acer platanoides laciniatum.
+ crispum.
+ AEsculus Hippocastanum incisum!
+ asplenifolium.
+ Vitis vinifera apiifolia!
+ laciniosa.
+ Ilex Aquifolium!
+ Rhus Toxicodendron quercifolium.
+ Cotinus.
+ Ervum Lens.
+ Cytisus Laburnum quercifolium!
+ incisum.
+ Rubus fraticosus laciniatus!
+ Pyrcis communis.
+ Cerasus Lauro-cerasus.
+ Apium graveolens!
+ Pimpinella magna.
+ Saxifraga.
+ Crataegus Oxyacantha laciniata.
+ quercifolia!
+ Ribes nigrum.
+ Sambucus nigra laciniata!
+ racemosa laciniata.
+ Dipsacus fullonum.
+ Scabiosa atropurpurea!
+ Symphoricarpus racemosus.
+ Helianthus sp.!
+ Lonicera Periclymenum quercifolia!
+ Syringa persica laciniata!
+ Syringa vulgaris!
+ Nerium Oleander!
+ Lamium purpureum.
+ album!
+ Salvia officinalis.
+ Solanum Dulcamara!
+ Fraxinus excelsior crispa.
+ Veronica austriaca.
+ Polemonium caeruleum.
+ Juglans regia laciniata!
+ heterophylla.
+ filicifolia.
+ Anemiopsis californica.
+ Chenopodium Quinoa.
+ Ulmus americana incisa.
+ Fagus sylvatica heterophylla!
+ laciniata!
+ aspleniifolia!
+ incisa.
+ salicifolia!
+ Mercurialis perennis.
+ Urtica dioica.
+ Quercus Cerris laciniata!
+ pubescens filicina.
+ Betula populifolia laciniata.
+ alba dalecarlica.
+ Alnus incana laciniata!
+ glutinosa laciniata!
+ quercifolia.
+ oxyacanthifolia.
+ Corylus Avellana heterophylla!
+ laciniata!
+ urticifolia.
+ Carpinus Betulus incisa!
+ quercifolia.
+ heterophylla.
+ Castanea vesca heterophylla.
+ quercifolia.
+ incisa.
+ Populus alba acerifolia.
+ palmata.
+ quercifolia.
+ balsamifera.
+ Orchis sambucina.
+ Arum maculatum.
+ Filices sp. pl.
+
+ See also Schlechtendal, 'Bot. Zeit.,' tom. xiii, p. 823. A.
+ Braun, loc. supra citat. For Ferns too numerous for insertion,
+ see Moore, 'Nature-Printed Ferns,' 8vo ed., 2 vols. Clos, 'Mem.
+ Acad. Toulouse,' 1862, p. 51.
+
+=Fission of the petals, &c.=--The floral leaves are subject to a similar
+process of cleavage to that which has just been mentioned as taking
+place in the leaves. This, indeed, occurs very often as a normal
+occurrence as in the petals of mignonette (_Reseda_), or those of
+_Alsine media_ and many other plants. Here, however, we have only to
+allude to those instances in which the cleavage occurs in flowers whose
+sepals or petals are usually entire. Under this category Moquin mentions
+a petal of _Brassica oleracea_ completely split into two. Linne in his
+'Flora Lapponica' (pp. 145 and 164) mentions quadrifid petals of
+_Lychnis dioica_, and much divided petals of _Rubus arcticus_. Among
+other plants subject to this division of sepals or petals may be
+mentioned as having come within the writer's personal observation,
+_Ranunculus Lingua_, _R. acris_, _Papaver somniferum_, and others of
+this genus, _Saponaria sp._, _Dianthus_, _Narcissus_, &c.
+
+In some of the garden varieties of _Cyclamen_ the corolla looks at first
+sight as if double, and the plan of the flower is oblong or elliptical,
+instead of circular. In these flowers each lobe of the corolla is
+divided almost to the base into two lobes, so that there appear to be
+ten lobes to the corolla instead of five, as usual. The stamens are
+normal in form and number in these flowers.
+
+In the paroquet tulips of gardeners the segments of the perianth are
+deeply and irregularly gashed, the segments occasionally becoming rolled
+up and their margins coherent so as to form little tubular spurs. I have
+also noticed the segments of the perianth in _Crocus_ and _Colchicum_
+deeply cleft, so much so sometimes, as to equal in this particular the
+stigmas. In the flowers of a species of _Oncidium_, communicated to me
+by Mr. Currey, the lip was divided into three segments perfectly
+distinct one from the other, but confluent with the column; the two side
+pieces had callosities at the upper edge close to the base, the central
+piece had a similar wartlike process in its centre. In these flowers the
+ovary, the stigma, and the anther were all in a rudimentary condition.
+Some verbenas raised by Mr. Wills offer a curious illustration of this
+condition. It will be remembered that some of the lobes or petals of a
+verbena are normally divided at the base to a slight degree, but in the
+flowers in question this is carried to such an extent that the enlarged
+lobes are pushed into the centre of the flower and simulate, at a first
+glance, a distinct and separate organ, though in reality it is but an
+enlargement of what occurs normally.[74]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29.--Flower of _Oncidium sp._ seen from the back.
+The lip is divided into three unequal segments.]
+
+Moquin mentions having seen the stamens of _Matthiola incana_ and
+_Silene conica_ completely divided, each section bearing half an anther,
+exactly as happens in _Polygalaceae_. In tulips and lilies the same
+author mentions division of the anther only, the filament remaining
+entire, as happens naturally in many species of _Vaccinium_.
+
+A division of the individual carpels occurs very frequently when those
+organs become more or less leafy, as in _Trifolium repens_, and other
+plants to be hereafter mentioned.
+
+The instances given in this chapter have all been cases wherein the
+division or the accessory growth has taken place in one plane only and
+that plane the same as that of the affected organ, but there are other
+examples, probably equally due to fissiparous division, where the new
+growth is either parallel to, or even at angle with the primary organ.
+Of such nature are some of those instances wherein two leaves appear to
+be placed back to back. These partake of the nature of excrescences or
+of exaggerated developments, and hence will be more fully treated of
+under the head of hypertrophy. It must be remembered that in some of
+these cases the fission may be a resumption of characters proper to the
+species under natural conditions, but lost by cultivation or otherwise.
+Thus, Mr. Buckman accounts for "finger-and-toe" in root-crops on the
+principle of reversion to the wild form.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[67] Loc. cit., p. 295.
+
+[68] 'Bull. Soc. Bot. France,' 1857, p. 758.
+
+[69] Masters, 'Jourl. Linn. Soc.,' vol. vii, p. 121.
+
+[70] Cramer, 'Bildungsabweichungen,' p. 4, tab. vi, fig. 4, figures a
+case of the same kind in _Pinus Cembra_.
+
+[71] 'Ann. des Science Nat.,' 2nd series, t. iv, p. 147, tab. v, figs. 3
+and 4.
+
+[72] 'Mem. Acad. Scien. Toulouse,' 5th series, vol. iii.
+
+[73] Duchartre, 'Ann. Sc. Nat.,' 3rd series, 1848, vol. x, p. 207.
+
+[74] Masters, 'Rep. Bot. Congress,' London, 1866, p. 136, tab. 7, f. 15,
+16.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+DIALYSIS.
+
+
+This term is here made use of in the same sense as in descriptive
+botany, to indicate the isolation of parts of the same whorl; it is thus
+the opposite of cohesion. Morren, as has been previously stated,
+employed the word in a different sense, while Moquin-Tandon[75] included
+cases of this description under the category of "Disjonctions qui
+isolent les organes."
+
+Dialysis, as here understood, may be the result of an arrest of
+development, in consequence of which parts that under ordinary
+circumstances would become fused, do not do so; or, on the other hand,
+it may be the result of an actual separation between parts primitively
+undivided. As it is not possible in every case to distinguish between
+the effects of these two diverse causes, no attempt is here made to do
+so.
+
+=Dialysis of the margins of individual foliar organs.=--In cases where
+the leaf or leaf-like organ is ordinarily tubular or horn-like in form,
+owing to the cohesion of its edges, it may happen either from lack of
+union or from actual separation of the previously united edges, that the
+tubular shape is replaced by the ordinary flattened expansion. Thus, in
+_Eranthis hyemalis_, wherein the petals (nectaries) are tubular and the
+sepals flat, I have met with numerous instances of transition from the
+one form to the other, as shown in fig. 9, p. 24.
+
+It is, however, in the carpels that this separation occurs most
+frequently. When these organs appear under the guise of leaves, as they
+often do, their margins are disunited, so that the carpel becomes flat
+or open. This happens in the strawberry (_Fragaria_), the columbine
+(_Aquilegia_), in _Trifolium repens_, _Ranunculus Ficaria_, &c.[76]
+
+=Dialysis of the parts of the same whorl:--calyx.=--The separation of an
+ordinarily coherent series into its constituent parts is necessarily of
+more common occurrence than the foregoing. As here understood, it is the
+precise converse of cohesion, and it may be represented diagrammatically
+by a dotted line above the letters denoting the sepals, petals, &c. When
+this change happens in the calyx we have the gamosepalous condition
+replaced by the polysepalous one, as thus represented:
+
+ .............
+ S S S S S
+instead of
+ _____________
+ S S S S S
+
+as in a calyx of five coherent sepals.
+
+Detachment of this kind occurs not unfrequently, as in _Primula
+vulgaris_, _Trifolium repens_, &c. In _Rosaceae_ and _Pomaceae_ this
+separation of the calyx is of the more moment, as it has reference to
+the structure of the inferior ovary, as will be more fully mentioned
+hereafter. Here, however, a case recorded by M. J. E. Planchon may be
+alluded to[77] wherein a quince fruit (_Cydonia_) was surmounted by five
+leaves, the surface of the pome being marked by as many prominences,
+which apparently corresponded to the five stalks of the calycine leaves.
+In this specimen, then, the inferior position of the ovary appeared to
+be not so much due to an expansion of the fruit stalk, as to the fusion
+of the hypertrophied stalks of the sepals. Some of the malformations
+among Cucurbits point to a similar structure. It is probable that in
+many of these cases the so-called inferior ovary is partly axial partly
+foliar, _i.e._, sepaline, and partly carpellary in its nature.
+
+Dialysis of the sepals in calyces that are usually gamosepalous has been
+most frequently observed in _Rosaceae_, _Pomaceae_, _Umbelliferae_, less
+commonly in _Leguminosae_, also in the following genera:--_Primula_,
+_Symphytum_, _Gentiana_, _Campanula_, &c.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30.--Dialysis of the sepals and petals in _Correa_.]
+
+=Dialysis of the corolla= is likewise of frequent occurrence, either
+partially or to such an extent as to render the corolla truly
+polypetalous. Among _Labiatae_ the upper lip of the corolla may be often
+met with partially cleft, as it is constantly in _Phlomis biloba_, or
+more markedly among the _Lobeliaceae_.
+
+In the _Compositae_, a similar separation of the petals is not
+infrequent, thus showing frequent transitional stages between the
+labiatifloral and tubulifloral divisions respectively. The ligulate
+corollas also may often be found in Chrysanthemums, Dahlias, &c., more
+or less deeply divided into their component parts.
+
+A more complete separation occurs not unfrequently in _Campanula_,
+_Rhododendron_, _Phlox_, _&c._ Figs. 30 and 31 illustrate dialysis of
+the corolla; the first in _Correa_, the second in _Campanula_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31.--Dialysis of the corolla in _Campanula sp._,
+after De Candolle.]
+
+In the last-named genus, _C. rotundifolia_ has been found with
+polypetalous flowers in a wild state in the mountains of Canton
+Neufchatel, Switzerland, and gave rise to the creation of a new genus.
+This form is now introduced into gardens.
+
+It must be remembered that in some genera, where this separation of the
+petals has been met with, there are species in which a similar isolation
+occurs normally, as in _Rhododendron_. _R. linearilobum_, a Japanese
+species, offers a good illustration of this.
+
+The following list contains the names of the genera in which this
+separation of the petals of an ordinarily gamopetalous flower takes
+place most frequently.
+
+ Correa.
+ Campanula! sp. pl.
+ Polemonium.
+ Phlox!
+ Coboea!
+ Rhododendron!
+ Erica!
+ Rhodora.
+ Azalea!
+ Compositae! sp. pl.
+ Lonicera!
+ Convolvulus!
+ Pharbitis.
+ Antirrhinum!
+ Verbascum!
+ Mimulus.
+ Digitalis!
+ Orobanche.
+ Solanum.
+ Nicotiana.
+ Gentiana!
+ Anagallis.
+ Primula!
+ Lamium!
+ Convallaria!
+ Lilium!
+ Colchicum!
+ &c. &c.
+
+This list does not include those very numerous cases in which this
+change is associated with more or less complete frondescence or leafy
+condition of the petals.
+
+=Dialysis of the stamens.=--A similar isolation of the stamens occurs
+occasionally; for instance, when Mallows (_Malvaceae_) become double, one
+of the first stages of the process is often the disjunction of the
+stamens, and a similar dissociation occurs in _Leguminosae_ and
+_Compositae_, as in _Tragopogon_, as related by Kirschleger, in
+_Hypochaeris_ by Wigand, and in _Coreopsis_ by Schlechtendal.
+
+=Dialysis of the carpels.=--In the case of the carpels this disunion is
+more frequent than in the stamens. M. Seringe[78] figures carpels of
+_Diplotaxis tenuifolia_ more or less completely separated one from the
+other; indeed, this separation is very common amongst _Cruciferae_ and
+_Umbelliferae_.
+
+Generally speaking, the disunion is complicated with frondescence--but
+not always so. I have, in my herbarium, specimens of _Convallaria
+majalis_, _Commelyna sp._, and of _Lilium auratum_, in all of which the
+three carpels are completely disjoined, and present three styles, three
+stigmas, &c., without any other change. Engelmann[79] speaks of three
+classes of this malformation. 1st, that in which the carpels separate
+one from the other without opening, as in the lily just alluded to; 2nd,
+that in which the ovary remains closed, but loses its internal
+partitions, as in a case mentioned by Moquin in _Stachys sylvatica_, in
+which, owing to imperfect disjunction, the two bi-lobed carpels were
+changed into a nearly one-celled capsule;[80] and 3rd, those cases in
+which the carpels are open and foliaceous.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32.--Anomalous form of orange.]
+
+Disjunction is more frequent in dry fruits than in fleshy ones. In the
+latter instance it happens at an early stage of existence, and the
+pericarp becomes more or less leafy, losing its faculty of becoming
+fleshy, as in _Prunus Cerasus_ and _Amygdalus persica_; nevertheless,
+fleshy fruits sometimes become disunited. I have seen a case similar to
+that mentioned by M. Alphonse de Candolle in _Solanum esculentum_, in
+which the pericarp became ruptured, and the placentas protruded. A like
+occurrence has also been observed in a species of _Melastoma_.[81] This
+is analogous to what happens in _Caulophyllum_ and _Slateria_.
+Disjunction of the carpels is not rare in oranges. Sometimes this takes
+place regularly, at other times irregularly; occasionally in such a
+manner as to give the appearance of a hand and fingers to the fruit. Of
+one of these, Ferrari,[82] in the curious volume below cited, speaks
+thus: "Arbor profusissima, quia dat utraque manu; imo quia vere manus
+dat in poma conversis; utque magis munifica sit poma ipsa convertit in
+manus."
+
+M. Duchartre[83] mentions a semi-double flower of orange with eight to
+ten distinct carpels in a whorl, and occasionally several whorls one
+above another. De Candolle[84] considers the rind of the orange as a
+production from the receptacle, and this view is confirmed by the
+specimens of Duchartre, in which the carpels were quite naked or had a
+common envelope truncated, and open above to allow of the passage of the
+styles and stigmas.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33.--Orange. Showing disjunction of carpels, after
+Maout.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34.--Section of orange shown in fig. 33 after
+Maout.]
+
+It frequently happens in conjunction with this separation of the carpels
+one from the other, that a lack of union manifests itself between the
+margins of the individual carpels themselves. Very numerous cases of
+this kind have been recorded, and the double tulips of gardens may be
+referred to as showing this condition very frequently. In connection
+with this detachment of the carpels, a change in the mode of
+placentation is often to be observed, or two or more kinds may be seen
+in the same pistil, as in double-flowered saponarias, many Crucifers,
+&c., as alluded to under the head of displacements of the placenta.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[75] _Loc. cit._, p. 298.
+
+[76] Masters in Seemann's 'Journal of Botany,' 1867, p. 158.
+
+[77] Bull. Soc. Bot. France,' t. xiii, 1866, p. 234.
+
+[78] 'Bull. Bot.,' pl. i, figs. 8-12.
+
+[79] 'De Anthol.,' p. 37.
+
+[80] Moquin, loc. cit., p. 305.
+
+[81] 'Neue Denkschr. der Allg. Schweiz. Gesell.,' band v, pl. ii. p. 5.
+
+[82] 'Hesperides,' auctore Ferrario. Rome, 1646, fig. 415, pp. 213 and
+215. See also Michel, 'Traite du Citronnier.'
+
+[83] 'Ann. des Science Nat.,' 3rd series, 1844, vol. i, p. 294.
+
+[84] 'Org. Veget.,' vol. ii., p. 41.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+SOLUTION.
+
+
+The isolation or separation of different whorls that are ordinarily
+adherent together is by no means of rare occurrence. Were it not that
+the isolation is often congenital, the word detachment would be an
+expressive one to apply to these cases, but as the change in question
+occurs quite as often from a want of union, an arrest or stasis of
+development, as from a _bona fide_ separation, the word solution seems
+to be, on the whole, the best. It corresponds in application to the word
+_liber_ (_calyx liber_, &c.), in general use by descriptive botanists.
+As here employed, the term nearly corresponds with the "adesmie
+heterologue" of Morren. Moquin Tandon does not make any special
+subdivision for the class of cases here grouped together, but places
+them all under "Disjonctions qui isolent les organes." It seems,
+however, desirable to have a separate word to express the converse
+condition of adhesion, and for this purpose the term solution, as above
+stated, is here employed. Diagrammatically, the condition may be
+expressed by placing a dotted line at the side of the letters thus:
+
+ : s s s s s :
+ : c c c c c :
+
+would indicate the disjunction of the sepals from the carpels (c), in
+contradistinction to adhesion, which may be represented by the unbroken
+line thus:
+
+ | s s s s s |
+ | c c c c c |
+
+=Solution of the calyx from the ovary.=--Of all the instances of
+adhesion which take place under ordinary circumstances, that between the
+calyx and the ovary is perhaps the most common. The _calyx adhaerens_ or
+_superus_ is a structural characteristic to which all botanists attach
+considerable importance; so that when exceptional cases occur in which
+the calyx becomes detached from the ovary, becomes, that is, _inferus_
+or _liber_, a proportionate degree of interest attaches to the
+irregularity. It is not within the scope of the present work to inquire
+whether this detachment be real or merely apparent, arising from a want
+of union between parts ordinarily united together. This point must be
+left to the organogenists to decide in each particular case. So also the
+question as to what share, if any, the expanded and dilated flower-stalk
+may take in what are usually called inferior ovaries, can be here only
+incidentally touched upon.
+
+Among _Rosaceae_, the change in question is very common, especially in
+conjunction with an elongation of the axis of the flower (apostasis) and
+with prolification, though it is by no means always co-existent with
+these malformations. When this alteration in the apparent relative
+position of calyx and carpels occurs in roses (_Rosa_) the appearances
+are generally such as to indicate that the "hip" of the rose is a
+dilatation of the peduncle, continuous above with the coherent bases of
+the sepals; this inference seems also to be borne out by what happens in
+the _Pomaceae_. In some cases in this sub-order, the calyx becomes
+detached from the carpels, so that the latter organs become more or less
+"superior," and distinct one from the other. This happens constantly in
+the double-flowered thorn, _Crataegus Oxyacantha_, in some blossoms of
+which the hollowed end of the peduncle still invests the base of the
+carpels, leaving the upper portions detached. In apples flowers are
+occasionally met with of greater size than usual and on longer stalks,
+so that the whole looks more like a rose than an apple blossom. In these
+cases it will usually be found that the calyx consists of distinct
+sepals, without a trace of the ordinary swelling beneath the flower. The
+petals are often more numerous than usual; the stamens variously
+changed, and the carpels sometimes absent; at other times, as in the
+instance figured in the adjacent woodcuts, figs. 36, 37, consisting of
+separate, superior ovaries, sometimes destitute of ovules, or, at other
+times, having two of these bodies.[85]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35.--Proliferous Rose. Showing an absence of the
+usual dilatation of the flower-stalk, and other changes.]
+
+This condition accords precisely with the account of the development of
+the flowers in _Pomaceae_ as given by Payer, Caspary, and others, so that
+the flowers above described would owe their deficiency of the swollen
+receptacle to an arrest of development. M. Germain de Saint Pierre,
+among other malformations of the rose, presented to the Botanical
+Society of France in 1854[86] two specimens which are of special
+interest as relating to this contested point. In the one, the swollen
+portion beneath the flower was surmounted by five perfect leaves, as,
+indeed, is not infrequent in such malformations; here, then, the calyx
+could have had little or no share in the production of the swelling in
+question. In the other, the swollen portion was actually above the
+insertion of the sepals here represented by five perfect leaves.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36.--Section through Apple blossom, showing
+detachment of calyx from ovaries, absence of dilated flower-stalk, &c.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 37.--Calyx detached from carpels in Apple.]
+
+On the other hand, M. Planchon's specimen of the Quince before alluded
+to, not to mention other instances, tends to show that the bases of the
+sepals do sometimes enter into the composition of the pome. And, indeed,
+in many of these cases it would be impossible to say where the axial or
+receptacular portion ended, and the foliar portion began. As both from
+normal organogeny as well as from unusual conformation contradictory
+inferences may be drawn, it would obviously be unsafe to attempt the
+explanation of the so-called calyx-tube in general from any particular
+instances; so far as _Rosaceae_ are concerned, there is so much variation
+in the relative position of calyx and carpels under ordinary
+circumstances, that it is no matter for surprise that similar
+diversities should exist in teratological cases. A similar remark will
+apply to _Saxifragaceae_, _Cucurbitaceae_, _Myrtaceae_, _Bruniaceae_,
+_Rubiaceae_, and other families of like conformation.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38.--Flower of _OEnanthe crocata_, in which the
+five sepals were completely detached from the ovaries, here three in
+number and destitute of stylopods.]
+
+In _Umbelliferae_, a detachment of the calyx from the ovaries frequently
+occurs, sometimes without any other change; at other times attended by
+more serious alterations. So far as can be judged from exceptional
+occurrences of this kind, it would appear that in this order the axis or
+flower-stalk does not, in any material degree, enter into the
+composition of the fruit.
+
+In the Rubiaceous genus _Bikkhia_, as mentioned by Duchartre, the ovary
+is completely inferior, but when the fruit arrives at maturity four
+small leaves are detached from its surface which had previously adhered
+to it, and which it seems reasonable to consider as the sepals.
+
+In _Campanulaceae_ a similar separation of calyx from the ovary may be
+occasionally met with. On the other hand, the occasional formation of a
+leaf on the inferior ovary of those plants would indicate the axial
+nature of the fruit. In _Campanumaea_ and _Cyclodon_ the calyx is
+inferior, while the corolla is superior. In the last-named genus this
+peculiarity "is carried to the highest degree, the sepals being, in _C.
+parviflorum_, placed on the peduncle of the flower far removed from the
+base of the corolla and ovary, whilst in _C. truncatum_ and in
+_Campanumaea_ they adhere to the base of the tube of the corolla."[87] In
+this order, then, as in _Saxifragaceae_, _Bruniaceae_, &c., no hasty
+conclusion should be drawn as to the nature of the fruit. In _Brunia
+microphylla_ the ovary is superior, enclosed within but not adnate to
+the cup-like calyx, to which latter, however, the petals and stamens are
+attached.
+
+In _Onagraceae_ (_Jussieua_), as also in _Cactaceae_ (_Opuntia_), buds
+have been observed on the surface and edges of the inferior ovary.
+Indeed, in the former genus, they have been produced artificially, but
+as buds may be formed on foliar as well as on axial organs, the fact
+cannot be made great use of in support either of the foliar or axial
+nature of the inferior ovary. In _Epilobium_, I have met with four
+perfect leaves at the summit of the ovary, in the place usually occupied
+by the sepals. This would also favour the notion that the axis entered
+into the constitution of the fruit in this genus.
+
+Mr. B. Clarke, in his 'New Arrangement of Phanerogamous Plants,' p. 4,
+cites a case wherein the perianth was completely detached from the
+surface of the ovary in _Cannabis sativa_.
+
+It must be borne in mind that some of the recorded instances of change
+in the relative position of the calyx and pistil ought more properly to
+be referred to a substitution of carpels for stamens, as in _Begonia_,
+_Fuchsia_, &c. Among _Cucurbitaceae_, examples have been recorded, both
+of the detachment of the calyx from the ovary,[88] and of the partial
+conversion of some of the anthers of the male flower to carpels.
+
+The very singular mode of germination of _Sechium edule_ in which the
+fruit, instead of rotting, becomes thickened into a kind of rhizome or
+tuber, is a fact that should not be overlooked in investigating the true
+nature of the fruit in this order.
+
+The following are the genera in which the change has been most
+frequently observed:
+
+ *Rosa!
+ *Pyrus!
+ *Crataegus!
+ *Daucus!
+ Pastinaca.
+ Torilis.
+ Apium.
+ OEnanthe!
+ Heracleum,
+ Athamanta.
+ Selinum.
+ Carum.
+ Imperatoria.
+ Rudbeckia!
+ *Campanula!
+ Lonicera!
+ Cucumis!
+ Cannabis.
+
+=Solution of the stamens from the petals.=--A separation of the stamens
+from the petals in flowers, wherein those organs are usually adherent
+one to the other does not often occur unattended by other changes. It
+has been observed in _Cobaea scandens_ (Turpin), in _Antirrhinum majus_,
+and in many double flowers.
+
+Partial detachment of the stamens from the styles occurs frequently in
+semi-double flowers of _Orchis_.[89]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[85] 'Gard. Chron.,' 1865, p. 554; 1867, p. 599.
+
+[86] 'Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr.' 1854, p. 303.
+
+[87] Hook et Thoms, 'Praecurs. ad Flor. Ind.,' Journ. Linn. Soc., vol.
+ii, 1858, p. 6.
+
+[88] Lindley, 'Veget. Kingd.,' p. 315.
+
+[89] Masters, 'Journal of Linnean Society,' 1866, vol. viii, p. 207. On
+the subject of this chapter the reader should also consult
+Moquin-Tandon, 1. c., p. 298. Engelmann, 'De Antholysi,' p. 37, tab. v.
+C. Morren, 'Bull. Acad. Belg.,' xix, part 3, p. 318. Cramer,
+'Bildungsabweichungen,' p. 64. Fleischer, 'Missbild. Cultur. Pflanzen.'
+As to the nature of inferior ovaries, see also Payer, 'Bull. Soc. Bot.
+Fr.' i, 1854, p. 283. Germain de Saint Pierre, _ibid._, p. 302. Caspary,
+'Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr.,' t. vi, 1859, p. 235. Schleiden, 'Principles of
+Botany,' English translation, p. 368. Duchartre, 'Elements de
+Botanique,' p. 574. Le Maout et Decaisne, 'Traite general de Botanique,'
+p. 57. Bentham, 'Journ. Linn. Soc.,' vol. x, p. 104 (Structure of
+_Myrtaceae_), and other treatises on Organography.
+
+
+
+
+PART III.
+
+ALTERATIONS OF POSITION.
+
+
+Necessarily connected with changes in the arrangement of organs are
+similar alterations in their position; so closely, indeed, that but for
+convenience sake, it would be unnecessary to treat them separately.
+There are, however, some anomalous developments affecting the relative
+position of organs that could hardly be treated of under any of the
+preceding paragraphs. There are, also, certain rare instances where an
+organ is not so much displaced as misplaced; that is to say, it is
+developed on or from a portion of the plant, which under usual
+circumstances does not produce such an organ. In the former instance,
+the altered position is due to or coexistent with other changes, but in
+the latter case the new growth may spring from organs otherwise in
+nowise different from ordinary. The word Displacement is here used to
+signify the unusual position of an organ; while Heterotaxy may serve to
+include those cases where a new growth makes its appearance in an
+unwonted situation, as, for instance, a leaf-bud on a root, &c.
+Prolification is also included under this heading, the unusual position
+of the buds in these cases being of graver import than the mere increase
+in number. Alterations in the position of the sexual organs are spoken
+of under the head of Heterogamy.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+DISPLACEMENT.
+
+
+Real or apparent displacement of organs from their usual position is an
+almost necessary consequence of, or is, at least, coexistent with a
+large number of teratological phenomena. It is obvious that abnormal
+unions or disunions, suppressions, hypertrophies, &c., are very liable
+to bring about or to be accompanied with changes in the position, either
+of the parts directly affected or of adjoining organs.
+
+In this place, then, it is merely necessary to allude to some of the
+more important displacements, and to refer for further details to the
+sections relating to those irregularities of growth on which the
+displacement depends.
+
+=Displacement of bulbs.=--I owe to the kindness of Mr. James Salter a
+tulip bulb which had been dug up after flowering, and from the base of
+which were suspended several small bulbs; and I have since seen another
+specimen showing the same unusual arrangement. The explanation of these
+formations seems to be that they correspond to the bulbils ordinarily
+found in the axils of the scales of the parent organ, and which, in some
+way or another, have been displaced and thrust into the ground.
+Professor de Vriese figures something of the same kind in _Ixia
+carminosa_.[90]
+
+Of somewhat different nature to those above described was an anomaly
+described by M. Gay at a meeting of the Botanical Society of France,
+April 8th, 1859. The plant affected was _Leucoium aestivum_, and the
+changes observed were apparently attributable to a simple separation of
+two leaves that are usually contiguous. "Suppose," says M. Gay in
+describing this malformation, "the first leaf of the terminal bud
+separated by a long internode from the other leaves, which remain
+closely packed; and further, suppose an evident thickening of the upper
+portion of the lengthened internode, and there will be not only a single
+bulb, bearing with the leaves of the present year all the remnants of
+the leaves of the two preceding years, but two bulbs placed one above
+another, on the same axis, separated by the length of the internode."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39.--Unusual position of bulbs of tulip; the
+parent-bulb cut open.]
+
+The formation of bulbs in the axils of the leaves, as happens
+occasionally in tulips, is further alluded to under the head of
+hypertrophy.
+
+=Displacements affecting the inflorescence.=--These are, for the most
+part, dependent on hypertrophy, elongation, atrophy, spiral torsion,
+&c., but there are a few instances of a different nature, which may here
+be alluded to as not being coincident with any of the phenomena just
+mentioned. Sometimes these deviations from the ordinary position have
+the more interest as affecting characters used to distinguish genera;
+thus one of the distinctions between rye-grass (_Lolium_) and wheat
+(_Triticum_) resides in the relative position of the spikelets and the
+main stem; in _Triticum_ the spikelets are placed with their backs
+against the rachis, in _Lolium_ with one edge against it; but in a
+specimen of rye-grass that has come under my own observation, the
+arrangement was that of _Triticum_.
+
+M. Kirschleger relates having found a specimen of _Leucanthemum
+pratense_, in which the ligulate female flowers were growing singly in
+the axils of the upper leaves of the stem.[91] The ordinary capitulum
+would here seem to have been replaced by a spike or a raceme. A less
+degree of this change wherein a few flowers may be found, as it were,
+detached from the ordinary capitulum may often be observed in
+_Compositae_, _Dipsacaceae_, &c. I have also met with specimens of _Lamium
+album_ in which some of the fascicles or clusters of flowers in place of
+being placed at the same level on opposite sides of the stem were placed
+alternately one above another.
+
+Caspary[92] mentions a flower of _Aldrovanda vesiculosa_, which was
+elevated on a stalk that was adherent to the stem for a certain
+distance, and then separated from it. This flower, with the leaf to
+which it was axillary, evidently belonged to the whorl beneath, where
+there was a corresponding deficiency. Another flower of the same plant
+bore on its pedicel a small leaf, which was doubtless the bract raised
+above its ordinary position.
+
+M. Fournier mentions an instance in _Pelargonium grandiflorum_, where,
+owing to the lengthening of the axis, the pedicels, instead of being
+umbellate, had become racemose; and I owe to the kindness of Dr. Sankey
+a somewhat similar specimen, but in a less perfect condition. Here there
+was but a single flower, and that rudimentary, placed at the extremity
+of the axis. There were several bracts beneath this flower disposed
+spirally in the 1/3 arrangement, all being empty, excepting the terminal
+one. In like manner, a head of flowers becomes sometimes converted into
+an umbel.
+
+=Displacement of leaves.=--A cohesion of parts will sometimes give rise
+to an apparent displacement, but the true nature of the malformation
+can, in general, be readily made out.
+
+Steinheil[93] found a specimen of _Salvia Verbenaca_, the leaves of
+which presented very curious examples of displacement arising from
+cohesion. Two of these leaves placed at the base of a branch were
+completely fused in their lower thirds, and divided into two distinct
+lobes at the upper part; each of these lobes seemed to be as large as
+the limb of an ordinary leaf. Above these was another very broad one,
+apparently entire, but evidently produced by a complete cohesion of two.
+This completely fused leaf alternated in position with the imperfectly
+fused one below it; the alternation is explained by supposing that the
+opposite leaves of each pair were directed one towards the other, and
+became fused, and that thus resulted the displacement. The dislocation
+of the organs took place in one direction for one pair of leaves, and in
+another direction for the other pair, hence the alternation. Thus,
+leaves normally opposite and decussate may, by fusion, become alternate.
+A similar instance occurred to the writer in _Lysimachia vulgaris_,
+wherein the changes arising from fusion and suppression of parts, &c.,
+were very considerable; as far as the leaves were concerned they
+presented the following arrangement in succession from below
+upwards:--first verticillate, then opposite, then spirally alternate,
+lastly opposite.[94] The term "diremption" has sometimes been applied to
+cases where leaves are thus apparently dragged out of position.
+
+In _Tradescantia virginica_ I have met with opposite connate leaves;
+the altered position, however, being due to the union of two stems.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40.--Large-coloured leaf occupying the position of
+the inflorescence in _Gesnera_, after Morren.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 41.--Ordinary arrangement of leaves in fascicles of
+three in _Pinus pinea_ and unusual arrangement of leaves of same plant
+in spires.]
+
+Twisting of the stem is a frequent cause of the displacement of leaves
+(see spiral torsion), as also hypertrophy, whether that excess of
+development take place laterally or lengthwise (see elongation). Atrophy
+or suppression will also frequently bring about an alteration in the
+position of leaves; sometimes in such a manner that the place of the
+suppressed organ is occupied by another one. One of the most curious
+instances of displacement of leaves arising from suppression is that
+mentioned by Morren,[95] where, in _Gesnera Geroltiana_, a large leaf
+apparently occupied the extremity of the axis, a position which, under
+ordinary circumstances, no leaf could assume. The explanation given by
+the Belgian professor is, that the axis in this case, instead of
+throwing off a pair of leaves, one on each side, had from some cause or
+another produced only one; this one not only being much larger than
+ordinary, but brightly coloured, thus assuming some of the
+characteristics as well as the position of the inflorescence.
+
+Alterations in the usual arrangement of leaves, however, are not always
+dependent on or coexistent with other teratological changes, but may
+simply depend on a natural elongation of the internodes, or on fission
+or multiplication; for instance, in some conifers, such as the Larch,
+(_Abies Larix_) or _Pinus pinea_, there may be found at different stages
+in the growth of the branches leaves in crowded fascicles or tufts;
+while, when growth is more rapid, the leaves may be disposed in a spiral
+or alternate manner.
+
+In the yew (_Taxus_) the leaves at the ends of the shoots not
+unfrequently lose their usual distichous arrangement and become arranged
+in a close spiral manner, the elongation of the shoot being arrested.
+This appears to be the result of the injury effected by some insect.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 42.--Altered arrangement of leaves of yew, _Taxus
+baccata_.]
+
+So, too, the alteration from verticillate to spiral, or _vice versa_,
+may take place without any other notable change.[96] This may frequently
+be seen in Rhododendrons.
+
+=Displacement of the parts of the flower.=--This subject is partly
+touched on in the chapters on solution, adhesion, and in those on
+hypertrophy, elongation, prolification, &c., so that in this place it is
+only requisite to offer a few general remarks, and to refer to other
+sections for further details. Morren, in referring to displacement of
+the floral organs, mentions an instance in a _Fuchsia_, wherein the four
+petals in place of being alternate with the sepals were placed in front
+of them, owing to the adhesion that had taken place between the petals
+and the stamens. He speaks of this transposition as metaphery.[97] The
+same author also gives an account of the displacement of several of the
+organs of the flower in _Cypripedium insigne_, the displacement being
+consequent, apparently, on a spiral torsion proceeding from right to
+left, and involving the complete or partial suppression of several of
+the organs of the flower. The dislocation of organs in a spiral
+direction led Morren to apply the term "speiranthie" to similar
+deviations from the usual construction. Changes of this kind among
+_Orchidaceae_ are by no means uncommon; the following may be cited by way
+of illustration. In a specimen of _Oncidium cucullatum_ furnished me by
+Mr. Anderson, well known for his success as a cultivator of these
+plants, there was, associated with a cohesion of one sepal with another,
+and probably dependent on the same cause, a displacement of the sepals
+and petals--so that all were dragged out of place. This dislocation may
+be better appreciated by the accompanying formula than even by the
+woodcut. Let the usual arrangement be thus represented:
+
+ S
+
+ P ST P
+
+ L
+
+ S S
+
+S standing for sepal, P for petal, L for lip, ST for stamen; then the
+dislocated form may be represented thus:
+
+ S
+
+ P P
+
+ T
+ S
+
+ S_S
+ L
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 43.--Flower of _Oncidium cucullatum_, showing union
+of two lower sepals, displacement of column and lip, &c.]
+
+In a specimen of _Cypripedium_ also furnished by Mr. Anderson the
+appearance was as represented in the accompanying figure and diagrams,
+figs. 44, 45. Referring to the plan of the natural arrangement at fig.
+46, it will be seen that an explanation of the peculiar appearance of
+the flower may be arrived at by supposing a disunion and lateral
+displacement of the upper segment of the outer perianth together with
+the complete absence of the lower one. In the second or inner whorl of
+the perianth the lip is merely a little oblique on one side, but the
+lateral petals are distorted, displaced, and adherent one to the other
+and to the column, while the posterior shield-like rudimentary anther is
+completely wanting.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 44.--Malformed flower of _Cypripedium_.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 45.--Diagram of malformed _Cypripedium_. _o_, outer
+segments; _i_, inner segments of perianth; _e_, lip; _s_, stigma; _a_,
+anther.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 46--- Diagram showing ordinary arrangement in
+_Cypripedium_. _o_, outer, _i_, inner segments of perianth; _e_, lip,
+_a_, anther, _a'_, abortive stamen; _s_, stigma.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 47.--Plan of flower of _Lycaste Skinneri_ showing
+displacement of organs.]
+
+In a specimen of _Lycaste Skinneri_ similar changes were observed, as
+shown in the plan, fig. 47. Here the posterior sepal was deficient, the
+two lateral ones were present, one of them with a long tubular spur, _o
+o_; of the two lateral petals, _i i_, one was twisted out of place, so
+as partially to occupy the place of the deficient sepal; the lip was
+represented by two three-lobed segments, _l_, one above and within the
+other. The column and ovary of this flower were in their normal
+condition.
+
+Cohesion of two or more segments of the perianth is frequently
+associated with displacements of this nature: thus, in a flower of
+_Dendrobium nobile_, a diagram of which is given at fig. 48, the
+uppermost sepal was coherent with one of the lateral ones, and at the
+same time diminished in size, and, as it were, dragged out of position.
+All the other organs of the flower are also more or less displaced,
+forming a minor degree of the change already alluded to, and which
+Morren termed speiranthy. The changes will be better appreciated by
+comparing them with fig. 49, a diagram showing the natural arrangement
+of parts in this species.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 48.--Plan of malformed flower of _Dendrobium
+nobile_.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 49.--Plan of natural arrangement in _Dendrobium
+nobile_. The x x represent processes of the column, perhaps rudiments of
+stamens.]
+
+Sometimes the displacement seems consequent on hypertrophy of one of the
+parts of the flower, the disproportionate size of one organ pushing the
+others out of place. This was the case in a violet, fig. 50, in which
+one of the sepals _s_ was greatly thickened, and the petals and stamens
+were displaced in consequence.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 50.--Plan of flower of violet showing displacement
+of petals, &c. At _b_ was a rudiment of a stamen.]
+
+It is curious to observe in many of these cases that the transposed
+organ not only occupies the place of a suppressed or abortive organ,
+but frequently assumes its colour, and, to some extent, its function.
+This has been alluded to in the case of the leaf of _Gesnera_ (see p.
+88) and in Orchids this replacement seems to be very common; thus, in
+addition to the cases before mentioned, in a flower of an Odontoglossum,
+for which I am indebted to Professor Oliver, the two lateral sepals were
+united together and occupied the position of the labellum, which was
+absent. A similar occurrence happens occasionally in _Lycaste Skinneri_,
+thus recalling the structure of _Masdevallia_, where the labellum is
+normally very small. The arrangement in Lycaste may thus be symbolised:
+
+ S
+ P st P
+ +
+ S S
+ ___
+
+[Transcriber's note: The underscores represent a horizontal curly brace
+in the original.]
+
+the + indicating the position of the absent labellum.
+
+Cases of this kind are the more interesting from their relation to the
+fertilization of these flowers by insects; it seems as though, when the
+labellum, which performs so important an office in attracting and
+guiding insects, is deficient, its place is supplied by other means.
+
+Displacement of the parts of the flower from elongation of the
+receptacle is a not infrequent teratological occurrence, resulting
+sometimes in the conversion of the verticillate into the spiral
+arrangement. Instances of this are cited under Elongation,
+Prolification, &c. In this place it is merely necessary to refer to a
+curious circumstance that is met with in some double flowers, owing to
+this separation of some parts of the flower and the cohesion or adhesion
+of others. Thus, in some double flowers of _Primula sinensis_ and in the
+Pea (_Pisum sativum_), I have seen a gradual passage of sepals to
+petals, so that the calyx and corolla formed one continuous sheet,
+winding spirally around the central axis of the flower, after the
+fashion of a spiral tube.[98]
+
+=Displacement of the carpels= arises from one or other of the causes
+above alluded to, and when suppression takes place in this whorl it
+generally happens that the place of the suppressed organ is occupied by
+one of the remaining ones, which thus becomes partially dislocated.
+
+=Displacement of the placentas and ovules= is a necessary result of many
+of the changes to which the carpels are subject. The disjunction or
+dialysis of the carpels, for instance, frequently renders axile
+placentation marginal. Moreover, it frequently happens, when the carpels
+become foliaceous and their margins are disconnected, that the ovules,
+in place of being placed on the suture, or rather on the margins of the
+altered carpel, are placed on the surface of the expanded carpel. Thus,
+in some double flowers of _Ranunculus Ficaria_ that came under the
+writer's notice the carpels were open, _i.e._ disunited at the margins,
+and each bore two imperfect ovules upon its inner surface a little way
+above the base, and midway between the edges of the carpel and the
+midrib, the ovules being partly enclosed within a little depression or
+pouch, similar to the pit on the petals. On closer examination the
+ovules were found to spring from the two lateral divisions of the
+midrib, the vascular cords of which were prolonged under the form of
+barred or spiral fusiform tubes into the outer coating of the ovule. In
+this instance, then, the ovules did not originate from the margins of
+the leaf, nor from a prolonged axis, but they seemed to spring, in the
+guise of little buds, from the inner surface of the carpellary leaf.[99]
+
+The occurrence, also, of different forms of placentation in different
+flowers on the same plant is no unusual thing in malformed flowers;
+thus, in double flowers of _Saponaria officinalis_ I have met with
+sutural, parietal, and free central placentation in the same plant.[100]
+
+Professor Babington describes in the 'Gardeners' Chronicle,' 1844, p.
+557, a curious flower of _Cerastium_, in which, in addition to other
+changes, the five carpellary leaves "were partially turned in without
+touching the placenta, which bears a cluster of ovules, and is perfectly
+clear of all connection with those partitions" (fig. 51). See also
+Lindley, 'Veg. Kingdom,' p. 497.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 51.--1. Monstrous flower of a _Cerastium_; sepals
+and petals leafy. 2. Stamens and pistils separate. 3. Ovary cut open to
+show the imperfect dissepiments and the attachment of the ovules. 4. A
+deformed ovule.]
+
+M. Baillon[101] records flowers of _Bunias_, some with ovules on the
+margins of the carpels, others with a central branch bearing the ovules;
+hence he concludes very justly that no fair inference can be drawn from
+these facts as to the normal placentation of Cruciferae.
+
+The same excellent observer has recorded the occurrence of free central
+placentation in malformed flowers of _Trifolium repens_.[102]
+
+In malformed flowers of _Digitalis_ the change from axile to parietal
+placentation may often be seen. Mr. Berkeley describes an instance of
+this nature where the placentas were strictly parietal, and therefore
+receded from the distinctive characters of the order, and approximated
+to those of _Gesneraceae_.
+
+The same author alludes to certain changes in the same flower where two
+open carpels "were soldered together laterally, as was clear by the
+rudiments of two styles, the placenta being produced only at the two
+united edges, the outer margins remaining in the normal condition. This
+may possibly tend to the explanation of some cases of anomalous
+placentation, for the only indication of the true nature of the
+placentation is afforded by the two rudimentary styles, in the absence
+of which the spongy receptacle of the seeds must have been supposed to
+spring from the medial nerve."
+
+In other cases the placentas were parietal above, but axile at the base
+of the capsule, a striking instance of the facility with which axile
+placentation becomes parietal, the change being here effected by the
+prolongation of the axis, and the formation on it of a second whorl of
+carpellary leaves.
+
+In double flowers of _Primulaceae_ similar alterations in the
+placentation may often be observed. I have seen in _Primula sinensis_
+sutural, parietal, axile, and free central placentation all on the same
+plant; nay, even in the same capsule the ovules may be attached in
+various ways, and transitions from one form of placentation to another
+are not infrequent. The late Professor E. Forbes describes[103] an
+instance of true foliar and true axile placentation in the same flower
+in _Vinca minor_.
+
+These and many similar changes, which it is not necessary further to
+allude to, are not so much to be wondered at when it is borne in mind
+how slight an alteration suffices to produce a change in the mode of
+placentation, and how frequent is the production of adventitious buds or
+of foliar outgrowths, as may be seen in the sections relating to those
+subjects and to Substitutions.
+
+It will be remembered, also, how, in certain natural orders, under
+ordinary circumstances, considerable diversity in placentation exists,
+according as the margins of the carpels are merely valvate or are
+infolded so as to reach the centre. Often this diversity is due merely
+to the changes that take place during growth; thus, the placentation of
+_Caryophylleae_, _Cucurbitaceae_, _Papaveraceae_, and many other orders,
+varies according to the age of the carpel, and if any stasis or arrest
+of development occurs the placentation becomes altered accordingly.
+
+It is not necessary, in this place, to enter into the question whether
+the placenta is, in all cases whatsoever, a dependence of the axis, as
+Payer, Schleiden, and others, have maintained, or whether it be foliar
+in some cases, axial in others. This question must be decided by the
+organogenists; teratologically, however, there can be no doubt that
+ovules may be formed from both foliar and axial organs, and, moreover,
+that, owing to the variability above referred to, both in what are
+called natural and in what are deemed abnormal conditions, it can rarely
+happen that any safe inferences as to the normal or typical placentation
+of any family of plants can be drawn from exceptional or monstrous
+formations.
+
+On the subject of placentation the following authors may be consulted:
+
+ R. Brown, 'Ann. Nat. Hist.,' 1843, vol. xi, 35. Brongniart,
+ 'Ann. Sc. Nat.,' 1834, ser. 2. i, p. 308. Alph. De Candolle,
+ 'Neue Denkschrift der Allg. Schweizer Gesellsch.,' Band v.
+ 1841, p. 9. Duchartre, 'Ann. Sc. Nat.,' 3rd ser., 1844, vol.
+ ii, p. 290. Ibid., 'Elem. Bot.,' p. 574; 'Rev. Bot.,' 1846-7,
+ p. 213. Babington, 'Gard. Chron.,' 1844, p. 557. Lindley,
+ 'Elements,' p. 89; 'Veg. King.,' pp. 313, 497, &c. Berkeley,
+ 'Gard. Chron.,' 1850, p. 612. Unger, 'Nov. Act. Acad. Nat.
+ Cur.,' 1850; and in Henfrey's, 'Bot. Gazette,' 1851, p. 70.
+ Schleiden, 'Principles,' English edit., p. 385. Payer, 'Elem.
+ Bot.,' pp. 196, 211, 224. Baillon, 'Adansonia.' iii, p. 310.
+ tab. iv. Cramer, 'Bildungsabweichungen,' p. 20, &c. Clos, 'Ann.
+ Sc. Nat.,' 5th ser., iii, 313, as well as any of the general
+ treatises on botany. Reference may also be made to the chapters
+ on Prolification and Substitutions (in the case of the carpels
+ and ovules), and to the authorities therein cited.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[90] 'Tijdschr. voor. nat. Gesch.,' viii, 1841. tab. ii, p. 178.
+
+[91] Communication to the Internat. Bot. Congress, Paris, 1867.
+
+[92] 'Bot. Zeit.,' 1859, p. 117, tab. v.
+
+[93] 'Ann. Sc. Nat.,' ser. 2, vol. iv, 1835, p. 143. tab. v.
+
+[94] See Kirschleger, 'Flora.' 1844. p. 566 (_Scabiosa_).
+
+[95] 'Bull. Acad. Belg.,' t. xvii. part ii, p. 387.
+
+[96] 'Clos. Mem. Acad. Toulouse,' 5th ser., t. vi. pp. 51, 70.
+
+[97] 'Bull. Acad. Roy. Belg.,' xviii. part ii, p. 505, and vol. xvii,
+part i, p. 196, and vol. xix. part i. p. 260.
+
+[98] See also Schlechtendal, 'Bot. Zeit.,' iv, p. 804. _Primula veris,
+partibus perigonii spirae in modum confluentibus._
+
+[99] Seemann's 'Journal of Botany,' vol. v, 1867, p. 158.
+
+[100] 'Journ. Linn. Soc.,' i, 1857, p. 161. _c. xylog._
+
+[101] 'Adansonia,' ii, 306.
+
+[102] 'Adansonia,' iv, p. 70, t. i.
+
+[103] Henfrey's 'Bot. Gazette,' i, 265.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+PROLIFICATION.
+
+
+Moquin-Tandon and other writers have classed the production of buds in
+unwonted situations under the head of multiplication, but, as the
+altered arrangement is of graver import than the mere increase in
+number, it seems preferable to place these cases under this heading
+rather than under that of alterations of number.
+
+The adventitious bud may be a leaf-bud or a flower-bud; it may occupy
+the centre of a flower, thus terminating the axis, or it may be axillary
+to some or other of its component parts, or, again, it may be
+extra-floral. In this last case the prolification is of the
+inflorescence, and is hardly distinguishable from multiplication or
+subdivision of the common flower-stalk. In accordance with these
+differences we have median, axillary, and extra-floral prolification,
+each admitting of subdivision into a leafy or a floral variety,
+according to the nature of the adventitious bud. Under the head of each
+variety certain special peculiarities are noticed, but it may here be
+advisable to add a few general remarks on the subject.
+
+Axillary prolification is a much less frequent malformation than the
+median form. If only the number of orders and genera be reckoned, the
+truth of this statement will be scarcely recognised; but if individual
+cases could be estimated, the difference in frequency between the two
+would be very much more obvious. This may, perhaps, be explained by the
+fact that the branch has a greater tendency to grow in length than it
+has to develop buds from the axils of the leaves. The flower is admitted
+to be homologous with the branch, and it is also known that, up to a
+certain time, the branch-bud or leaf-bud and the flower-bud do not
+essentially differ.[104] At a later stage the difference between the two
+is manifested, not only in the altered form of the lateral organs in the
+flower-bud, but in the tendency to an arrest of growth, thus limiting
+the length of the central axial portion. Now, in prolified flowers the
+functions and, to a considerable extent, the appearance of a leaf-bud or
+of a branch are assumed, and with them the tendency to grow in length is
+developed. Median prolification, therefore, in this sense, is a further
+step in retrograde metamorphosis than is the axillary form. To grow in
+length, and to produce axillary buds, are alike attributes of the
+branch; but the former is much more frequently called into play than the
+latter; for the same reason, median prolification is more common than
+the axillary form. This is borne out by the frequency with which
+apostasis, or the separation of the floral whorls one from another, to a
+greater degree than usual, is met with in prolified flowers.
+
+In both forms the adventitious growth is much more frequently a
+flower-bud or an inflorescence than a leaf-bud or a branch. This may be
+due to the position of the flowers on a portion of the stem of the plant
+especially devoted to the formation of flower-buds, to the more or less
+complete exclusion of leaf-buds, _i.e._ on the inflorescence. This
+conjecture is borne out by the comparative rarity with which
+prolification has been observed in flowers that are solitary in the
+axils of the ordinary leaves of the plant. If the lists of genera
+appended hereto be perused, it will be seen that nearly all the cases
+occur in genera where the inflorescence is distinctly separated from the
+other branches of the stem. In direct proportion, then, to the degree in
+which one region of the axis or certain branches of a plant are devoted
+to the formation of flower-buds to the exclusion of leaf-buds, is the
+frequency with which those flowers become affected with floral
+prolification.
+
+Flowers produced upon indefinite inflorescences are liable to be
+affected with either form of prolification more frequently than those
+borne upon definite inflorescences. Prolification in both varieties is
+also more frequently met with in branched inflorescences than in those
+in which the flowers are sessile; but the degree of branching seems less
+material, inasmuch as this malformation is more commonly recorded as
+occurring in racemes than in the more branched panicles, &c. From the
+similar arrest of growth in length, in the case of the flower, to that
+which occurs in the stem in the case of definite inflorescence, it might
+have been expected that axillary prolification would be more frequent in
+plants having a cymose arrangement of their flowers than in those whose
+inflorescence is indefinite; such, however, is not the case. The reason
+for this may be sought for in the lengthening of the floral axis, so
+common in prolified flowers--a condition the reverse of that which
+happens in the case of definite inflorescence.
+
+Median prolification occurs frequently in double flowers; the axillary
+variety, on the other hand, is most common in flowers whose lateral
+organs have assumed more or less of the condition of leaves. The other
+coincident changes are alluded to elsewhere or do not present useful
+points of comparison, and may therefore be passed over.
+
+=Prolification of the inflorescence.=--This consists in the formation of
+leaf-buds or of an undue number of flower-buds on the inflorescence. It
+must be distinguished from virescence, or the mere green colour of the
+floral organs, and from chloranthy, in which all or the greater portion
+of the parts of the flower are replaced by leaves. Prolification is, in
+fact, a formation of supernumerary buds, leafy or floral, as the case
+may be, these buds being sessile or stalked, the ordinary buds being not
+necessarily changed. Prolification of the inflorescence, like the other
+varieties, admits of subdivision, not only according to the foliar or
+floral nature of the bud, but according to its position, terminal or
+median and lateral.
+
+Terminal prolification of the inflorescence, whether leafy or floral, is
+hardly to be looked upon in the light of a malformation[105] seeing that
+a similar condition is so commonly met with normally, as in _Epacris_,
+_Metrosideros_, _Bromelia_, _Eucomis_, &c., wherein the leafy axis
+projects beyond the inflorescence proper; or as in _Primula imperialis_,
+in which plant, as also in luxuriant forms of _P. sinensis_, tier after
+tier of flowers are placed in succession above the primary umbel.
+Nevertheless, when we meet with such conditions in plants which, under
+ordinary circumstances, do not manifest them, we must consider them as
+coming under the domain of teratology.
+
+=Median foliar prolification of the inflorescence= is frequently met
+with in _Coniferae_, and has of late attracted unwonted attention from
+the researches of Caspary, Baillon, and others, on the morphology of
+these plants. The scales and bracts of the cone in these abnormal
+specimens frequently afford transitional forms of the greatest value in
+enabling morphologists to comprehend the real nature of the floral
+structure. It would be irrelevant here to enter into this subject;
+suffice it merely to say that an examination of very numerous specimens
+of this kind, in the common larch and in _Cryptomeria Japonica_, has
+enabled me to verify nearly the whole of Caspary's observations. A
+similar prolongation of the axis occurred in some of the male catkins of
+_Castanea vesca_, each of which had a tuft of small leaves at their
+extremity. In the common marigold and in _Lotus corniculatus_ I have
+also seen instances of this kind. Kirschleger[106] describes a tuft of
+leaves as occurring on the apex of the flowering spike after the
+maturation of the fruit in _Plantago_, and a similar growth frequently
+takes place in the common wallflower, in _Antirrhinum majus_, &c. In
+cases where a renewal of growth in the axis of inflorescence has taken
+place after the ripening of the fruit, the French botanists use the term
+recrudescence, but the growth in question by no means always occurs
+after the ripening of the fruit, but frequently before. Professor Braun
+cites the case of a specimen of _Plantago lanceolata_, in which the
+spike was surmounted by a tuft of leaves and roots, as well as a still
+more singular instance in _Eryngium viviparum_, in which not only did
+particular branches terminate in rosettes of leaves provided with roots,
+but similar growths proceeded from the heads of flowers themselves.
+Baron de Melicoq[107] gives a case in _Primula variabilis_, in which at
+the top of the flower-stalk, in the centre of six flowers, was placed a
+complete plant in miniature, having three leaves, from the axil of one
+of which proceeded a rudimentary flower. Mr. W. B. Jeffries also
+forwarded me a polyanthus (fig. 52) in which the peduncle was surmounted
+by a small plant, forming a crown above the ordinary flower-stalk, just
+as the crown of the pineapple surmounts that fruit. A similar instance
+was exhibited at the Scientific Committee of the Horticultural Society
+on July 11th, 1868, by Mr. Wilson Saunders; the species in this case was
+_P. cortusoides_. To Mr. R. Dean I am indebted for a similar proliferous
+cyclamen, which seems similar to one mentioned by Schlechtendal.[108]
+This author alludes to an analogous circumstance in the inflorescence of
+_Cytisus nigricans_, where, however, the change was not so great as in
+the preceding cases. The instances just cited all occur in plants having
+an indefinite form of inflorescence; but the production of a tuft of
+leaves or of a leafy shoot above or beyond the inflorescence is not
+confined to plants with this habit of growth, for Jacquin figures and
+describes an instance of this nature in the cymose flower-stems of a
+Sempervivum. "_Hi racemi_," says he, "_ultra flores producuntur in
+ramos, foliosos duo bifidos qui tandem trium unciarum longitudinem
+adepti fuerunt_."[109]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 52.--Inflorescence of _Polyanthus_, bearing a tuft
+of leaves at the top of the scape intermixed with the flowers.]
+
+=Median floral prolification of the inflorescence=, wherein a new
+inflorescence projects beyond the primary one, is not uncommon in plants
+having their flowers arranged in close heads or umbels, as in the
+common wild celery and other _Umbelliferae_.[110] I have also met with
+it in _Trifolium repens_, in the umbellate variety of the common
+primrose, and in the scarlet geranium. Engelmann cites it in _Triticum
+repens_, Roeper in _Euphorbia palustris_.[111]
+
+=Lateral foliar prolification of the inflorescence= is of more common
+occurrence than the preceding. I have met with it, amongst other plants,
+frequently in _Brassica oleracea_, _Pelargonium zonale_, SCABIOSA,
+BELLIS, and many other composites, also in _Leguminosae_, e.g. _Lupinus_,
+_Trifolium_, _Coronilla_, &c. Prof. Oliver forwarded me a specimen of
+_Euphorbia geniculata_ in which, in addition to other changes, there was
+a series of stalked buds bearing tufts of green scales, but without any
+trace of stamens or pistil; these adventitious buds occurred within the
+ordinary involucre of the plant, between it and the stamens. The pistil
+was unaffected in some cases, while in some others it was entirely
+wanting, the gynophore being surmounted by a cup-like involucre, divided
+into three acutely pointed lobes, each with a midrib; these encircled a
+series of stalked involucels, as before, and among which were scattered
+a few stamens, some perfect, others partially frondescent.
+
+In a specimen of _Scrophularia nodosa_ examined by me one of the lateral
+buds on each of the cymes was represented, not by a flower, but by a
+tuft of leaves, the other buds being unchanged. As the inflorescence was
+much contracted in size, the appearance of the whole plant was greatly
+changed.
+
+Many of the instances of so-called viviparous plants, _e.g._, _Polygonum
+viviparum_, may be cited under this head.[112] Many species of _Allium_,
+_Lilium_, _Saxifraga_, _Begonia_, _Achimenes_, normally produce
+leaf-buds or bulbs in the inflorescence; so, too, leafy shoots are
+sometimes found in _Alisma natans_, _Juncus uliginosus_, _Chlorophytum
+Sternbergianum_, &c. As an accidental occurrence, a similar thing has
+been noticed in _Lychnis coronaria_, _Phaius grandifolius_, _Oncidium
+cebolleta_, _Epidendrum elongatum_,[113] &c. &c.
+
+Here, too, may be mentioned those cases wherein a leaf-bud is found upon
+the surface of the so-called inferior ovary; generally a leaf only is
+found, but a leaf-bud may also originate in this situation, and in
+either case the inference is that the ovary is, in part at least, made
+of the dilated and hollowed axis. Leaves may occasionally be found in
+this way on the so-called calyx-tube or on the inferior ovaries of
+roses, pears, apples, _Pereskia_, _Crataegus tanacetifolia_, &c.
+
+The fruits of _Opuntia Salmania_ and of _O. fragilis_ ('Bull. Soc. Bot.
+France,' vol. i, p. 306; vol. v, p. 115) have been observed to form
+small fruit-like branches around their summits. This circumstance is
+more fully treated of in the succeeding chapter relating to Heterotaxy.
+
+=Lateral floral prolification of the inflorescence.=--This, which is
+termed by Engelmann Ecblastesis foliorum sub floralium,[114] is much the
+most common of all these deviations, and it is met with in every degree,
+from the presence of a single supernumerary flower in the axil of a
+bract to the existence of a small cluster or panicle of such flowers.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 53.--Lateral prolification in inflorescence of
+_Pelargonium_.]
+
+It is common in the _Anemone coronaria_ and _hortensis_, also in the
+common scarlet _Pelargonium_ (fig. 53). It has been frequently recorded
+in _Poterium sanguisorba_, and in _Sanguisorba officinalis_, and is
+especially common in _Umbelliferae_, _Dipsacaceae_, and _Compositae_; a
+familiar illustration in the latter order is afforded by the
+hen-and-chicken daisy. In some species of Compositae, indeed, it is a
+normal and constant occurrence, while in other cases, such as _Filago
+germanica_, usually described as proliferous, there is not, strictly
+speaking, any prolification, for the branching of the stalk takes place
+below the inflorescence, and the branches originate from the axils of
+ordinary leaves, not from the floral leaves or bracts. _Convolvulus
+Sepium_ is very commonly subject to the production of flower-buds from
+the axils of the floral leaves. The several species of Plantain
+(_Plantago_) seem very liable to this and similar changes.
+Schlechtendal[115] gives a summary of the various kinds of malformation
+affecting the inflorescence in _Plantago_, and divides them into five
+groups, as follows:--1st, bracteate, wherein the inferior bracts are
+quite leaf-like, as is frequently seen in _Plantago major_. 2nd,
+roseate; bracts leafy in tufts or rosettes, without flowers, as in the
+so-called rose plantain, common in old-fashioned gardens in this
+country. 3rd, polystachyate; spike-branched, bearing other spikes in the
+axils of the bracts, as in _P. lanceolata_, _P. maritima_, &c. 4th,
+proliferous, where the flower-stalk bears a rosette, a spike, or a head
+with other rosettes. 5th, paniculate, in which the inflorescence has
+become a much-branched pyramidal panicle, covered with little bracts,
+and with very rudimentary flowers.[116] The first two groups belong
+rather to frondescence of the bracts; but with regard to the whole of
+them it will easily be surmised that intermediate forms occur, linking
+one group to the other, and defying exact allocation in either. Thus, in
+the borders of richly cultivated fields in the neighbourhood of London I
+have frequently gathered specimens of _Plantago major_ with a branched
+spike provided with large leafy bracts, the branches of the spike being
+but little less in diameter than the ordinary single spike. These
+specimens would therefore seem to be intermediate between
+Schlechtendal's bracteate and polystachyate divisions. Wigand[117] also
+describes an anomalous specimen of _Plantago major_ similar to those
+just mentioned, but having small lateral spikes in place of large ones.
+The instance quoted from Professor Braun would fall under the roseate
+section, as would also that of Kirschleger, though we are expressly told
+that the tuft of leaves in this last case was not developed until after
+the ripening of the seed-vessel. One of the characters of the roseate
+group, according to Schlechtendal, is the absence of flowers, but most
+persons who have had the opportunity of watching the growth of the rose
+plantain must have observed the occasional production of flowers,
+sometimes stalked, in the axils of the leafy bracts, and at the same
+time have noticed that the internodes become elongated, so that an
+approach is made to the ordinary spike-like form of the inflorescence.
+The proliferous group would include such specimens as that of _P.
+lanceolata_ mentioned by Dr. Johnston,[118] wherein were several
+spikes, some sessile, others stalked and pendent, the whole intermixed
+with leaves and disposed in a rose-like manner. I have myself gathered
+specimens of this nature, occurring in the same plant, at Shanklin, Isle
+of Wight (fig. 56).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 54.--_Plantago major_, with panicled inflorescence.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 55.--Inflorescence of _Plantago major_, with bracts
+partly replaced by leaves and spike branched.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 56.--Inflorescence of _Plantago lanceolata_, bearing
+a tuft of leaves and flowers at the end of the flower-scape.]
+
+It is rather singular that each species of _Plantago_ seems to have its
+own perverse mode of growth; for instance, the bracteate, polystachyate
+and paniculate forms are almost exclusively confined to _P. major_, the
+roseate form to _P. media_, the proliferous form to _P. lanceolata_.
+
+The instances wherein flower-buds originate from the surface of an
+inferior ovary, as in those cases where the top of the stem is dilated
+so as to form part of the fruit, would be properly classed under the
+head of prolification of the inflorescence. As, however, there is still
+some difference of opinion as to the correct morphological
+interpretation to be put on some of these cases, it has been thought
+better to include them under the head of heterotaxy than of
+prolification.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 57.--Branched inflorescence of _Reseda luteola_.]
+
+Some of the cases of prolification of the inflorescence resulting in a
+branching of an ordinarily simple inflorescence, as in _Reseda luteola_
+(fig. 57), might equally well be placed with fission or multiplication
+of the axile organs. Branched spikes of this character are not so common
+among Orchids as might be expected. Professor Reichenbach enumerates a
+few instances in the Report of the International Botanical Congress of
+London, 1866, p. 121, and the same author gives an illustration in his
+'Orchidographia Europoea,' tab. 150.
+
+In Grasses, as indeed in other plants with a spicate inflorescence, this
+change occurs not unfrequently. The common Ray Grass (_Lolium_) is
+especially subject to the change in question, and among cultivated
+cereals, maize and wheat occasionally show this tendency to subdivision.
+One variety of the latter grain is cultivated in hot countries under the
+name of Egyptian wheat--_Triticum vulgare_, var. _compositum_.
+
+Prolification of the inflorescence has been most frequently observed in
+the following genera:
+
+ _Leafy_. _Floral_.
+
+ Ranunculaceae Ranunculus. Ranunculus!
+ Anemone. Anemone.
+ Cruciferae. *Brassica!
+ Caryophyllaceae. Lychnis!
+ Dianthus!
+ Geraniaceae. *Pelargonium! *Pelargonium!
+ Leguminosae. *Trifolium! Trifolium!
+ Lotus! Lotus!
+ Coronilla!
+ Cytisus. Cytisus.
+ Rosaceae. Poterium.
+ *Pyrus! *Pyrus!
+ *Crataegus! Crataegus!
+ *Rosa. Rosa!
+ Sanguisorba.
+
+ Philadelphaceae. Philadelphus.
+ Crassulaceae. Sempervivum.
+ Echeveria.
+ Crassula.
+ Ficoideae. ?Tetragonia.
+ Cactaceae. Opuntia. Opuntia.
+ Pereskia.
+ Saxifragaceae. Saxifraga!
+ Umbelliferae. Seseli.
+ *Apium!
+ Cnidium.
+ Chaerophyllum.
+ Eryngium. Eryngium.
+ Silaus.
+ Heracleum! Heracleum!
+ Hydrocotyle. Hydrocotyle.
+ Daucus.
+ Carum.
+ Selinum.
+ Angelica!
+ Conium.
+ Astrantia.
+ OEnanthe. OEnanthe.
+ Begoniaceae. Begonia!
+ Valerianaceae. Valeriana.
+ Dipsacaceae. *Scabiosa! *Scabiosa!
+ Knautia! Knautia!
+ Compositae. *Bellis!
+ Centaurea.
+ Calendula. Calendula.
+ Anthemis.
+ Coreopsis.
+ Apargia.
+ Lampsana.
+ Carlina.
+ Arnoseris.
+ Tragopogon! Tragopogon!
+ Rudbeckia!
+ Senecio!
+ Carlina.
+ Bidens! Pyrethrum.
+ Filago.
+ Hedypnois.
+ Cirsium.
+ Lactuca.
+ Campanulaceae. Prismatocarpus.
+ Lobeliaceae. Jasione.
+ Ericaceae. Azalea!
+ Convolvulaceae. Convolvulus! Convolvulus!
+ Calystegia!
+ Scrophulariaceae. Scrophularia!
+ Antirrhinum!
+ Gesneraceae. Achimenes!
+ Primulaceae. Primula! Primula!
+ Cyclamen! Cyclamen!
+ Plumbaginaceae. Armeria.
+ Plantaginaceae. *Plantago! *Plantago!
+ Polygonaceae. Polygonum!
+ Euphorbiaceae. Euphorbia!
+ Urticaceae. Ficus.
+ Amentaceae. Corylus!
+ Castanea! Castanea.
+ Coniferae. *Larix!
+ *Cryptomeria!
+ Taxodium! Pinus.
+ Orchidaceae. Phaius! Ophrys!
+ Epidendrum!
+ Oncidium!
+ Liliaceae. *Allium!
+ *Ornithogalum!
+ *Lilium!
+ Amaryllidaceae. Fourcroya
+ Alismaceae. Alisma!
+ Palmaceae. Cocos.
+ Juncaceae. *Juncus!
+ Restiaceae. Restio! Restio!
+ Elegia! Elegia!
+ Willdenovia! Willdenovia!
+ Cyperaceae. Carex.
+ Graminaceae. Dactylis.
+ *Lolium!
+ Festuca.
+ *Zea!
+ *Triticum!
+ *Hordeum!
+ Secale.
+ Phleum.
+
+In addition to the papers already cited the following works may be
+consulted with reference to prolification of the inflorescence:
+
+ Moquin-Tandon. 'El. Ter. Veg.,' p. 376. Engelmann, 'De
+ Antholysi,' Secs. 85-87. Fleischer, 'Missbild. Versch. Cultur.
+ Pflanz.' For figures of Hen and Chicken Daisy (_Bellis
+ prolifera_). see Lobel, 'Ic.,' 477. Sweert, 'Florileg.,' pl.
+ 98, f. 5. 'Hort. Eystett. Plant. Vern.,' fol. iv, f. i. &c. For
+ similar malformations in marigold (_Calendula_), see Lobel,
+ 'Ic.,' 553. 'Act. Acad. Nat. Cur.,' vol. x, p. 208. Jaeger,
+ 'Missbilld.,' 192-195. 'Hort. Eystett.,' pl. aestiv. fol. iii,
+ f. i. Klinsmann, 'Linnaea,' t. x, p. 607.
+
+ For monstrous plantains, in addition to previous citations, see
+ Camerarius, 'Epist.,' p. 261, _P. rosea_. Matthioli,
+ 'Krauterb,' 245. Lobel, 'Stirp. Advers. Nov.,' p. 128, _P.
+ major paniculata._ J. Bauhin, 'Hist. Plant.,' i, p. 503 _b_.
+ Ibid., p. 503, _a_, _c_, _P. major rosea_, _bracteata
+ paniculata_, _prolifera_, &c. 'Hort. Eystett.,' pl. aestiv., t.
+ vii, f. 2, _P. rosea_ et _P. bracteata_. Lobel, 'Stirp. Hist.,'
+ p. 162. Dodonaeus, 'Pempt.,' 1-4, cap. xxiii, P. major spica
+ multiplex, _i.e._ paniculata. Gerard, 'Herbal.' Clusius,
+ 'Plant. Rar. Hist.,' lib. v, p. 109-10, _Plantago augustifolia
+ Gareti prolifera_. Marchand, 'Adansonia,' iv, p. 156.
+
+ _Coniferae._--Richard, 'Mem. Conif.,' tab. xiii, f. 9. A. Braun,
+ 'Das Individ.,' 1853, p. 65. De Cand., 'Organogr.,' tab. xxxvi.
+ Wigand, 'Bot. Untersuch.,' 154. Schlechtendal, 'Bot. Zeit.,'
+ 1859, p. 239. Caspary, 'De Abiet. flor. fem. struct. morphol.'
+ Parlatore, 'Ann. Sc. Nat.,' 1862, vol. xvi, p. 215. Cramer,
+ 'Bildungsabweich.,' p. 4, &c., &c.
+
+ _Gramineae._--Bauhin, 'Pinax.,' 21. Morison, 'Hist. Plant.,' t.
+ i. Winckler, 'Ephem. Nat. Cur.,' dec. i, ann. 7, 8, p. 151.
+ Irmisch, 'Flora,' 1858, p. 40, &c.
+
+ See also under Chloranthy, Viviparous plants, &c.
+
+=Prolification of the flower.=--In the preceding sections the formation
+of adventitious buds of a leafy or floral nature on the inflorescence
+has been considered. A similar production of buds may take place in the
+flower itself, either from its centre or from the axil of some of its
+constituent parts. Prolification of the flower is therefore median or
+axillary, and the adventitious bud itself may be of a leafy or a floral
+nature.
+
+=Median leafy prolification.=--In this malformation the centre of the
+flower is occupied by a bud or a branch; the growing point or
+termination of the axis which ordinarily ceases to grow after the
+formation of the carpels, takes on new growth. This is well shown in the
+accompanying illustration (fig. 58), representing the thalamus of a
+strawberry prolonged beyond the fruits into a small leaf-bearing branch.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 58.--Receptacle of strawberry prolonged into a leafy
+branch. From the 'American Agriculturist.']
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 59.--Flower of _Verbascum_ with five disunited
+sepals, five similar green petals, and a prolonged branch in the centre
+of the flower.]
+
+In other cases the carpels are entirely absent and their place is
+supplied by a leafy shoot as in a species of _Verbascum_, which came
+under my own observation. In this case the petals were virescent, and
+the stamens and pistils were entirely absent, hence in truth, the
+so-called flower more nearly resembled a branch. In a flower of a May
+Duke cherry, for which I am indebted to Mr. Salter, there was a gradual
+change from the floral to the foliar condition; thus there were five
+distinct lanceolate sepals, the arrangement of whose veins betokened
+that they were leaf-sheaths rather than perfect leaves, ten petals
+partly foliaceous and sheath-like as to their venation, one of them
+funnel-shaped, but whether from dilatation or cohesion of the margins
+could not be determined. The stamens were eight or ten in number, their
+connectives prolonged into foliaceous or petaloid appendages, so that
+the filament represented the stalk of the leaf. The pistil was entirely
+absent and its place was supplied by a branch with numerous perfectly
+formed stipulate leaves.
+
+Some flowers of _Anagallis arvensis_ described by Dr. Marchand[119] are
+so interesting and show so well the gradual stages by which this
+malformation is arrived at, that it is desirable to cite the summary of
+Dr. Marchand's researches as given in the 'Gardeners' Chronicle' by Mr.
+Berkeley, taking that instance first in which the parts of the flower
+departed least from the normal condition, and then the others in their
+proper order. In all the parts there was a greater or less tendency to
+assume a green tint; in some they were entirely green, in others the
+brighter colours were confined to the more recently developed parts.
+
+"1. In the first case then, the sepals and petals were in their normal
+position, though rather more dilated than usual; the anthers were
+fertile, the principal change existing in the ovary, the upper part of
+which was wanting, so that the ovules were exposed seated on the central
+placenta.
+
+2. In the next step the calyx, more developed than usual, was separated
+from the corolla by a long peduncle, and the ovary, which was ovate,
+contained instead of a placenta a sort of plumule or young shoot.
+
+3. In this case the corolla and calyx were distant from each other;
+there was no trace of stamens, but the axis was continued from the
+centre of the corolla, and ended in a leaf-bud.
+
+4. The calyx and corolla nearly as before, but instead of stamens a
+whorl of little leaves was developed, in the centre of which the axis
+was continued, bearing at its tip two whorls of leaflets, alternately
+three and three.
+
+5. In this case two out of the five stamens were normal, the other three
+changed into leaves, showing clearly the origin of the leaflets, in the
+last case, which took the place of the stamens.
+
+6. The ovary varied in different flowers. In some the placenta was
+crowned with ovules; in others the ovules were replaced by a single
+whorl of leaflets; in others there was every shade of change from
+ordinary ovules to perfect leaflets; while in others, again, every ovule
+was converted into a leaf with a long petiole.
+
+7. In these flowers shoots were developed in the axils of the sepals, or
+on the face of the petals between the point of their insertion and that
+of the stamens, and, what is most curious, in the interior of the
+ovaries round the foot of the placenta.
+
+8. Here, again, a very singular condition presented itself: the calyx
+and corolla separated from each other, the stamens partly developed, the
+axis continued beyond the corolla, branched and bearing normal leaves so
+as exactly to resemble an ordinary stem, while in consequence of the
+calyx and corolla being bent down to the ground, adventitious roots were
+developed from the axis on the under side above each of them. In another
+case, where the calyx and corolla were approximated, the ovary was open
+above, and sent out six shoots from within, perfectly developed, clearly
+representing the central placenta and five axile buds, and each giving
+out a number of adventitious roots at its base."
+
+In other genera of the same order (_Primulaceae_) an extension of the
+placenta into a leafy branch has been observed, as in _Lysimachia_,
+where in one case the prolonged placenta was removed and struck as a
+cutting.[120]
+
+In _Ericaceae_ too, the axile placenta has been seen ovuliferous at the
+base and prolonged above into a leafy branch.[121]
+
+=Median floral prolification.=--This is of more frequent occurrence than
+the preceding. The prolonged axis is more frequently terminated by a
+flower-bud than by a leaf-bud, though it must be remarked, that the
+lengthened and protruded stem frequently bears leaves upon its sides,
+even if it terminate in a flower, and thus the new growth partakes of a
+mixed leafy and floral nature. Instances of this kind have long been
+familiar to observers, and have always excited attention from the
+singularity of their appearance. In one of the old stained-glass
+windows, apparently of Dutch manufacture, in the Bodleian Picture
+Gallery at Oxford, is a representation of a _Ranunculus_ affected with
+median floral prolification.[122] In pinks the affection is not
+unfrequently met with. Fig. 60 shows an instance of the kind copied from
+Schotterbec.
+
+A singular instance of prolification in the central flower of one of the
+verticillasters of _Phlomis fruticosa_ fell under my own notice; it was
+a case wherein the calyx was torn on one side, and one of its lobes had
+become petaloid. Between the calyx and the corolla were three or four
+spathulate, hairy, bract-like organs; the corolla and stamens were
+unchanged; but in place of the usual four-lobed ovary there was a single
+carpel with a basilar style, terminated by a forked stigma. Occupying
+the place of the other lobes of the pistil was an oblong woolly
+flower-bud, consisting of calyx, corolla, and stamens, but with no trace
+of pistil. I have been unable to find recorded any instance of
+malformation among Labiates or Borages at all similar to this. It
+differed from most other examples of prolification in that the axis was
+not prolonged, the adventitious bud occupying precisely the position of
+the three lobes of the ovary that were absent. The sole remaining carpel
+had a style and a stigma as perfect in appearance as though the pistil
+had been complete.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 60.--Flower of _Dianthus_ affected with median
+floral prolification.]
+
+In a flower of _Conostephium_ (_Epacridaceae_) forwarded to me by Mr.
+Bentham, there was a similar adventitious bud placed by the side of the
+pistil, but as the latter contained the usual number of cells it is
+probable that the supernumerary bud in this case originated rather from
+the side than the end of the axis.
+
+Certain families of plants present this deviation from their ordinary
+structure with greater frequency than others: the following orders seem
+to be the most frequently affected by it: _Ranunculaceae_,
+_Caryophyllaceae_, _Rosaceae_; while it is commonly met with in
+_Scrophulariaceae_, _Primulaceae_ and _Umbelliferae_. Of genera which seem
+peculiarly liable to it may be mentioned the following: _Anemone_,
+_Ranunculus_, _Cheiranthus_, _Dianthus_, _Dictamnus_, _Daucus_, _Rosa_,
+_Geum_, _Pyrus_, _Trifolium_, _Antirrhinum_, _Digitalis_, _Primula_.
+
+A reference to the subjoined list of genera affected by this
+malformation, and the knowledge of its comparatively greater frequency
+in some than in others of them, will show that it is more often met with
+in plants having an indefinite form of inflorescence than in those
+having a definite one. The change may affect some only, or the whole of
+the flowers constituting an inflorescence; and though it is by no means
+a constant occurrence, it very frequently happens that the central or
+terminal flower in a definite inflorescence is alone affected, the
+others remaining in their ordinary condition, as in pinks (_Dianthus_);
+and in the indefinite forms of inflorescence, it is equally common that
+the uppermost flower or flowers are the most liable to be thus affected.
+
+In those plants which present this deviation from the ordinary condition
+with the greatest frequency, it often happens that the axis is normally
+more or less prolonged, either between the various whorls of the flower,
+as in the case of the gynophore, &c., or into the cavity of the carpels,
+as in the instances of free central placentation. To bear out this
+assertion, the following instances taken from those genera having
+definite inflorescence, and which are very commonly affected with
+prolification, may be cited; thus, in _Anemone_ and _Ranunculus_ the
+thalamus is prolonged to bear the numerous carpels; in _Dianthus_ there
+is a marked internode separating the carpels from the other parts of the
+flower; in _Primulaceae_ central prolification is very common, and this
+is one of the orders where the placenta seems from the researches of
+Duchartre and others, to be truly a production of the axis within the
+carpels;[123] in _Thesium_ also, another genus with free central
+placenta, this malformation has been found.
+
+So also among plants with indefinite inflorescence, prolification seems
+very frequently to affect those wherein the axis is normally prolonged;
+thus it is common in _Dictamnus_, which plant has an internode
+supporting the pistil; it is frequent among _Umbelliferae_, where the
+carpophore may be truly considered an axile production; it is common
+among _Rosaceae_ and _Ranunculaceae_, in many of which the axis or
+thalamus is well-marked, and it is by no means infrequent in the flowers
+of the Orange, where the floral internodes are also slightly elongated;
+on the other hand, there is no case on record in _Magnoliaceae_, and some
+other orders where the floral part of the axis is at some point or other
+elongated; still, on the whole, there can be but little doubt that there
+is a real relation between prolification and the normal extension of the
+floral internodes.
+
+Under these circumstances, those instances wherein the parts of the
+flower become separated one from the other by the elongation of the
+internodes (apostatis), constitute a lesser degree of the same change,
+which operates most completely in the formation of a new bud at the
+extremity of the prolonged axis. Some specimens of _Geum rivale_ (a
+plant very liable to become prolified) in my possession show this very
+clearly. In the wild plant the thalamus is elevated on a short stalk; in
+the abnormal ones the thalamus is simply upon a longer stalk than usual,
+or in a more advanced stage of the deviation the lengthened thalamus
+takes the form of a branch provided with leaves and terminated by a
+flower; it is noticeable, also, in these specimens, that the sepals of
+the lower flower have assumed entirely the dimensions and appearance of
+leaves.
+
+Median prolification has occasionally been recorded in flowers that
+have, in their ordinary condition, but one carpel, as in _Leguminosae_
+and in _Santalaceae_. In _Leguminosae_, as also in _Amygdalus_, it would
+seem as if the adventitious bud were strictly a lateral and axillary
+production, and moreover that the carpel itself is not strictly terminal
+but lateral in position, though apparently terminal from the abortion of
+other carpels. In the only recorded instance that I am aware of, of this
+malformation affecting the genus _Thesium_, the pistil was altogether
+absent, and occupying its place was the new bud or branch.[124]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 61.--_Daucus Carota_, showing leafly carpels,
+prolification, &c.]
+
+As the carpels are not unfrequently absent in cases of median
+prolification, it has been thought that the pistil in such cases was
+metamorphosed into a stem bearing leaves or flowers. Setting aside the
+physiological difficulties in the way of accepting such an opinion, an
+examination of any number of cases is sufficient to refute it; for, as
+Moquin well remarks, the carpels may frequently be found either in an
+unaltered condition or more or less modified.
+
+If the pistil be normally syncarpous, its constituent carpels, if
+present at all in the prolified flower, become disjoined one from the
+other to allow of the passage between them of the prolonged axis; thus
+in some malformed flowers of _Daucus Carota_ gathered in Switzerland
+(fig. 61), not only was the calyx partially detached from the pistil,
+but the carpels themselves were leaf-like, disjoined, and unprovided
+with ovules; between them rose a central prolongation of the axis, which
+almost immediately divided into two branches, each terminated by a small
+umbel of perfect flowers, surrounded by minute bracts.[125]
+
+Not only are the carpels thus frequently separated one from the other by
+the prolonged axis, but they undergo commonly a still further change in
+becoming more or less completely foliaceous, as in the _Daucus_ just
+mentioned, where the carpels were prolonged into two lance-shaped
+leaves, whose margins in some cases were slightly incurved at the apex,
+forcibly calling to mind the long "beaks" that some Umbelliferous genera
+have terminating their fruits--for instance, _Scandix_. Dr. Norman, in
+the fourth series of the 'Annales des Sciences,' vol. ix, has described
+a prolification of the flower of _Anchusa ochroleuca_, in which the
+pistil consisted of two leaves, situated antero-posteriorly on a long
+internode, with a small terminal flower-bud between them; and numerous
+similar instances might be cited.
+
+In this place may also be noticed those instances wherein the placenta
+elongates so much that the pericarp becomes ruptured to allow of the
+protrusion of the placenta, although this prolongation is not attended
+by the formation of new buds. Cases of this kind occurring in
+_Melastoma_ and _Solanum_ have been put on record by M. Alph. de
+Candolle.[126] This is a change analogous with that which occurs in some
+species of _Leontice_ or _Caulophyllum_, as commented on by Robert
+Brown. See 'Miscellaneous Botanical Works' of this author, Ray Society,
+vol. i, p. 359.
+
+If the pistil be apocarpous, and the carpels arranged spirally on an
+elevated thalamus, it then frequently happens that the carpels,
+especially the upper ones, become carried up with the prolonged axis,
+more widely separated one from the other than below, and particularly
+liable to undergo various petalloid or foliaceous changes as in
+proliferous _Roses_, _Potentilla_, &c.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 62.--Median floral prolification, &c., in flower of
+_Delphinium_.]
+
+Fig. 62, copied from Cramer, shows an instance of this kind in
+_Delphinium elatum_, where not only is the thalamus prolonged, and the
+carpels separated, but from the axils of some of the latter which have
+assumed from the disunion of their margins somewhat of the appearance of
+leaves, other flowering branches proceed--axillary prolification. If, on
+the other hand, the carpels be few in number, and placed in a
+verticillate manner, the axis then generally passes upwards without any
+change in the form or position of the carpels being apparent, as in a
+proliferous columbine, figured in the 'Linnean Transactions,' vol.
+xxiii, tab. 34, fig. 5.
+
+When a flower with the ovary naturally inferior or adherent to the calyx
+becomes prolified, a change in the relative position of the calyx and
+ovary almost necessarily takes place, the latter becoming superior or
+detached from the calyx; this has been already alluded to in
+_Umbelliferae_. In a species of _Campanula_ examined by me, the calyx was
+free, the corolla double, the stamens with petaloid filaments, and in
+the place of the pistil there was a bud consisting of several series of
+green bracts, arranged in threes, and enclosing quite in the centre
+three carpellary leaves detached from one another and the other parts of
+the flower, and open along their margins, where the ovules were placed.
+In other similar instances in the same species of _Campanula_, the
+styles were present, forming below an imperfect tube which surrounded
+the adventitious bud; in another, contrary to what occurs usually in
+such cases, the ovary was present in its usual position, but surmounted
+by a bud of leafy scales, enclosed within the base of a tube formed by
+the union of the styles. A similar relative change in the position of
+the calyx and the ovary takes place when the _Compositae_ are affected
+with central prolification, or even in that lesser degree of change
+which merely consists in the separation and disunion of the parts of the
+flower, but which in these flowers appear to be, as it were, the first
+stage towards prolification. I owe to the kindness of Professor Oliver a
+sketch of a species of _Rudbeckia_? showing this detachment of the calyx
+from the ovary. In a monstrous _Fuchsia_ that I have had the opportunity
+of recently examining, the calyx was similarly detached from the ovary
+simultaneously with the extension of the axis. Here the petals were
+increased in number and variously modified, the stamens also; while in
+the centre and at the top of the flower, conjoined at the base with some
+imperfect stamens, was a carpel open along its ovuliferous margins. Such
+instances as these seem to be the first stages of a change which,
+carried out more perfectly, would result in the formation of a new bud
+on the extremity of the prolonged axis.
+
+In _Orchidaceae_, among which family I have now met with several
+instances of prolification, the ovary seems usually to be absent. Fig.
+63 shows a prolified flower of _Orchis pyramidalis_ in which the
+perianth was nearly regular, the central portions of the flower absent,
+and their place supplied by a new miniature raceme. This specimen was
+forwarded to me by Dr. Moore, of Glasnevin.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 63.--Median prolification in _Orchis pyramidalis_,
+the outer segments of the perianth regular and reflexed.]
+
+As might be expected, it very rarely happens that median prolification
+occurs without some other deviation in one or more parts of the flower
+being simultaneously manifested. Some of these changes have been already
+mentioned, but others are commonly met with, as, for instance, the
+multiplication or doubling, as it is termed, of the petals; others,
+though less frequent, are of more interest. Fusion of two or more
+flowers in association with prolification is especially common in
+cultivated specimens of _Digitalis purpurea_; the uppermost flowers of
+the raceme become fused together so as to form one large, regular,
+erect, cup-shaped corolla, to the tube of which the stamens are
+attached, in greater number than ordinary, and all of equal length; the
+bracts and sepals are confusedly arranged on the exterior of the flower;
+while in the centre, in the place usually occupied by the pistil, there
+rises a conical prolongation of the axis, bearing at its outer or lower
+portion a number of open carpels, provided, it may be, with styles and
+ovules; these enclose an inner series of scale-like bracts, from whose
+axils proceed more or less perfect florets; so that in the most highly
+developed stage a perfect raceme of flowers may be seen to spring from
+the centre of a cup-shaped regular flower, whose lobes show its compound
+character. All intermediate stages of this malformation may be found
+from cases where there is a simple fusion of two flowers with a second
+verticil of carpels within the outer, up to such cases as those which
+have been just mentioned. It is worthy of special remark, that in all
+these cases the flowers at the uppermost part of the raceme are alone
+affected, and that, in addition to the prolification, there is fusion of
+two or more flowers, and regularity in the form of the compound corolla
+and stamens.
+
+The calyx of a prolified flower is either unchanged, or it is modified
+in harmony with the changes in the central part of the flower. If the
+ovary be normally superior or free from the calyx, then the latter is
+comparatively rarely altered; for instance, in proliferous pinks
+(_Dianthus_) the calyx is seldom affected, except, indeed, in those
+instances where the floral axis is prolonged, and produces from its side
+a successive series of sepals, as in what is called the wheat-ear
+carnation; but though these instances may be, as I believe, an imperfect
+degree of prolification, they do not affect the general truth of the
+above opinion, that the calyx, if it be free from the ovary, is but
+rarely changed in a prolified flower; but that this is not a universal
+rule is shown by proliferous flowers of _Geum rivale_, where the sepals
+are usually large and leaf-like, as they likewise are frequently in
+proliferous roses and pears.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 64.--Proliferous rose. Hip absent, sepals leafy,
+stamens wanting, axis prolonged bearing supplementary flower, &c. (Bell
+Salter).]
+
+Proliferous roses have a special interest, inasmuch as they show very
+conclusively that the so-called calyx-tube of these plants is merely a
+concave and inverted thalamus, which, in prolified specimens, becomes
+elongated (fig. 64) after the fashion of _Geum rivale_, &c.[127]
+Occasionally from the middle of the outer surface of the urn-shaped
+thalamus proceeds a perfect leaf, which could hardly be produced from
+the united sepals or calyx-tube; a similar occurrence in a pear is
+figured in Keith's 'Physiological Botany,' plate ix, fig. 12.
+
+The change which the calyx undergoes when flowers with an habitually
+adherent ovary become prolified, and wherein the calyx is disjoined from
+the ovary, has been before mentioned, but it may also be stated that,
+under such circumstances, the constituent sepals are frequently
+separated one from the other, and not rarely assume more or less of the
+appearance of leaves, as in proliferous flowers of _Umbelliferae_,
+_Campanulaceae_, _Compositae_, &c.
+
+As to the corolla, it was long since noticed that prolification was
+especially liable to occur in double flowers; indeed, Dr. Hill, who
+published a treatise on this subject, setting forth the method of
+artificially producing prolified flowers, deemed the doubling to be an
+almost necessary precursor of prolification;[128] but, though frequently
+so, it is not invariably the case that the flower so affected is
+double--_e.g._ _Geum_. If double, the doubling may arise from actual
+multiplication of the petals, or from the substitution of petals for
+stamens and pistils, according to the particular plant affected.
+Occasionally in prolified flowers the parts of the corolla, like those
+of the calyx, become foliaceous, and in the case of proliferous pears
+fleshy and succulent. There is in cultivation a kind of _Cheiranthus_?
+in which there is a constant repetition of the calyx and corolla,
+conjoined with an entire absence of the stamens and pistils; a short
+internode separates each flower from the one above it, and thus
+frequently ten or a dozen of these imperfect flowers may be seen on the
+end of a flower-stalk, giving an appearance as if they were strung like
+beads, at regular intervals, on a common stalk. I have seen a similar
+instance in a less degree in a species of _Helianthemum_.
+
+The stamens are subject to various changes in prolified flowers; they
+assume, for instance, a leaf-like or petal-like condition, or take on
+them more or less of a carpellary form, or they may be entirely absent;
+but none of these changes seem to be at all necessarily connected with
+the proliferous state of the flower. Of more interest is the alteration
+in the position of these organs which sometimes necessarily accrues from
+the elongation of the axis and the disjunction of the calyx; thus, in
+proliferous roses the stamens become strictly hypogynous, instead of
+remaining perigynous. In _Umbelliferae_ the epigynous condition is
+changed for the perigynous, &c.
+
+The condition of the pistillary organs in prolified flowers has already
+been alluded to. Hitherto those instances have been considered in which
+either the carpels were absent, or the new bud proceeded from between
+the carpels. There is also an interesting class of cases where the
+prolification is strictly intra-carpellary; the axis is so slightly
+prolonged that it does not protrude beyond the carpels, does not
+separate them in any way, but is wholly enclosed within their cavity.
+Doubtless, in many cases, this is merely a less perfect development of
+that change in which the axis protrudes beyond the carpels. This
+intra-carpellary prolification occurs most frequently in plants having a
+free central placenta, though it is not confined to them, as it is
+recorded among _Boragineae_. A remarkable instance of this is described
+by Mr. H. C. Watson in the first volume of Henfrey's 'Botanical
+Gazette,' p. 88. In this specimen a raceme of small flowers was included
+within the enlarged pericarp of a species of _Anchusa_. But the most
+curious instances of this form of prolification are, no doubt, those
+which are met with among _Primulaceae_ and other orders with free central
+placentation.
+
+Duchartre, in his memoir on the organogeny of plants with a free central
+placenta, in the 'Ann. des Sc. Nat.,' 3 ser., 1844, p. 290, among other
+similar instances, mentions two flowers of _Cortusa Matthioli_, wherein
+the placenta was ovuliferous at the base; but the upper portion, instead
+of simply elongating itself into a sterile cone, had produced a little
+flower with its parts slightly different from those of the normal
+flowers. M. Alph. de Candolle has likewise described somewhat similar
+deviations, and one in particular in _Primula Auricula_, where the
+elongated placenta gave off long and dilated funiculi bearing ovules,
+while other funiculi were destitute of these bodies, but were much
+dilated and foliaceous in appearance.[129] In some flowers of
+_Rhododendron_ I have observed a similar condition of the ovules, which,
+moreover, in the primary flowers, were attached to the walls of the
+carpels--parietal placentation.
+
+In speaking of these as cases of intra-carpellary prolification, it is,
+of course, impossible to overlook the fact that they differ in degree
+only from those cases where the lengthened axis projects beyond the
+cavity of the carpels; nevertheless they seem to demand special notice,
+because in these particular plants the placenta or its prolongation
+appears never to protrude beyond the carpels, or at least very rarely.
+There are, however, numerous instances of such an extension of the
+placenta and of prolification occurring among _Primulaceae_ in
+conjunction with the more or less complete arrest of growth of the
+carpels.[130] An instance of this kind has come under my own notice in a
+monstrosity of the chinese primrose, in which the carpels were reduced
+to a hardly discernible rim surrounding an umbel of five rays, each
+terminated by a small normally constituted flower-bud.
+
+The ovules of a prolified flower are either unaffected, or they occur in
+a rudimentary form, or, lastly, they may be present in the guise of
+small leaves.
+
+Under the term prolification of the fruit two or three distinct kinds of
+malformation appear to have been included. The term seems usually to be
+applied to those cases where from the centre of one fruit a branch
+bearing leaves, flowers, or another fruit, is seen to project, as
+happens occasionally in pears. Now, in many instances, not only the
+fruit, is repeated, but also the outer portions of the flower, which
+wither and fall away as the adventitious fruit ripens; so that at length
+the phenomenon of one fruit projecting from another is produced. It is
+obvious that this form of prolification in no wise differs from ordinary
+central prolification. Sometimes some of the whorls of the adventitious
+flower are suppressed; thus, M. Duchartre describes some orange blossoms
+as presenting alternating series of stamens and pistils one above
+another, while the calyces and corollas belonging to each series of
+stamens and pistils were entirely suppressed.[131] In other cases,
+doubtless, the carpellary whorl is alone repeated, the other whorls of
+the adventitious flower being completely absent.
+
+Another condition, apparently sometimes mistaken for prolification of
+the fruit, is that in which the carpellary whorl becomes multiplied; so
+that there is a second or even a third series within the outer whorl of
+carpels. If the axis be at all prolonged, then these whorls are
+separated one from the other, and produce in this way an appearance of
+prolification. This happens frequently in oranges, as in the variety
+called Mellarose.[132]
+
+Moquin has given an explanation of the St. Valery Apples, wherein the
+petals are sepaloid, the stamens absent, and where there is a double row
+of carpels, by supposing these peculiarities to be due to "a
+prolification combined with penetration and fusion of two or more
+flowers," but it is surely more reasonable to conceive a second row of
+carpels placed above the first by the prolongation of the central part
+of the axis. Supposing this view to be correct, the inner calyx-like
+whorl might be considered either as a repetition of the calycine whorl,
+or it might be inferred that the corolla was present in the guise of a
+second calyx.
+
+Moquin-Tandon suggests another explanation--namely, that though the
+stamens are absent in these curious flowers, at least in their ordinary
+shape, they are represented by the lower row of carpels, which become,
+in process of development, fused with the upper or true carpels. If this
+were so, surely some intermediate conditions between stamen and carpel
+would occasionally be present; but such does not appear to be the
+case.[133]
+
+In some of the instances of so-called proliferous pears the carpels
+would seem to be entirely absent, and the dilated portion of the axis to
+be alone repeated. Thus, the axis dilates to form the lower fruit
+without any true carpels being produced, but at its summit a whorl of
+leaves (sepals) is formed; above these another swelling of the axis
+takes place also without the formation of carpels, and this, it may be,
+is terminated in its turn by a branch producing leaves. In these cases
+there is no true prolification, but simply an extension of the axis.
+That the outer portion (so-called calyx-tube) of these fruits is really
+an axile product there can now be little doubt; and, as if to show their
+axile nature, they occasionally produce leaves from their sides, as
+before mentioned. Moquin, in the tenth volume of the 'Bulletin of the
+Botanical Society of France,' p. 73, says that when the case is one of
+prolification the lower fruit is larger and is formed of a fleshy mass;
+moreover, the line of demarcation between the fruits is more distinct,
+and there are traces of the seed-bearing cavity in the interior, and of
+calycine lobes at the top. On the other hand, if the case be one of
+hypertrophy merely, the lowermost fruit is the smallest, and there is no
+trace of seed-bearing cavity nor of sepals. See also under Hypertrophy.
+
+Some other malformations usually referred to prolification of the fruit
+seem due to branching of the inflorescence, as in _Plantago_, wheat,
+maize; or to a simple extension of the axis beyond its ordinary limit,
+as in some cones of firs, &c. It is obvious that the true fruits in
+these cases are in no wise affected.
+
+From these considerations it would appear better to abandon the use of
+the expression prolification of the fruit, as unnecessary where it is
+really applicable, and as delusive in the numerous other cases where it
+is employed.
+
+Median prolification of one or other kind has been met with in the
+following genera:
+
+ _Leafy_. _Floral_.
+
+ Ranunculaceae. Clematis.
+ Anemone! *Anemone!
+ Ranunculus! *Ranunculus!
+ Delphinium.
+ Caltha.
+ Aquilegia!
+ Cruciferae. Bunias.
+ *Cheiranthus!
+ Erucago.
+ *Matthiola!
+ Sisymbrium!
+ Brassica!
+ Nasturtium.
+ Hesperis.
+ Sinapis!
+ Diplotaxis.
+ Lunaria.
+ Erysimum.
+ Alyssum.
+ Peltaria.
+ Cardamine!
+ Cleome.
+ Cistaceae. Helianthemum!
+ Caryophylleae. Dianthus! *Dianthus!
+ Silene!
+ Lychnis!
+ Violaceae. Viola!
+ Tiliaceae. Triumfetta!
+ Geraniaceae. Geranium!
+ Sapindaceae. Pavia! Pavia!
+ Malvaceae. Paritium.
+ Hibiscus!
+ Malpighiaceae. Byrsonima!
+ Rutaceae. Genera not specified. *Dictamnus!
+ Resedaceae. Reseda.
+ Caylussa!
+ Aurantiaceae. *Citrus!
+ Vitaceae. Vitis. Vitis.
+ Umbelliferae. Heracleum.
+ Angelica.
+ Thysselinum.
+ *Athamanta.
+ *Daucus!
+ *Torilis.
+ Rosaceae. *Rosa! *Rosa!
+ *Geum! *Geum!
+ Agrimonia. Amygdalus.
+ Prunus!
+ Spiraea! Spiraea!
+ Rubus.
+ *Pyrus! *Pyrus!
+ ?Leguminosae Trifolium!
+ Medicago!
+ Melilotus.
+ Pisum!
+ Cucurbitaceae. Cucumis.
+ Passifloraceae. Passiflora.
+ Philadelphaceae. Philadelphus.
+ Onagraceae. Epilobium!
+ Epacridaceae. Epacris!
+ Ericaceae. *Erica.
+ Rhododendron!
+ Convolvulaceae. Convolvulus.
+ Gentianaceae. Gentiana. Gentiana.
+ Apocynaceae. Vinca.
+ Jasminaceae. Jasminum!
+ Scrophulariaceae. Verbascum! Antirrhinum!
+ *Digitalis!
+ *Linaria!
+ Veronica.
+ Orobanchaceae. Orobanche.
+ Labiatae. Genera not specified. Stachys.
+ Phlomis!
+ Hydrophyllaceae. Hydrophyllum.
+ Boraginaceae. Anchusa.
+ Symphytum.
+ Primulaceae. *Dodecatheon. *Cortusa.
+ *Anagallis! *Anagallis!
+ *Primula.
+ Dipsacaceae. Scabiosa.
+ Compositae. Hieracium! Hieracium!
+ Cirsium. Cirsium.
+ Hypochaeris. Calendula!
+ Spilanthes.
+ Carthamus.
+ Coreopsis.
+ Campanulaceae. Campanula. *Campanula!
+ Polygonaceae. Genera not specified. Rumex.
+ Santalaceae. Thesium.
+ Liliaceae. Genera not specified. Tulipa!
+ Hemerocallis!
+ Asphodelus.
+ Hyacinthus!
+ Iridaceae. Iris.
+ Amaryllidaceae. Narcissus!
+ Leucojum.
+ Orchidaceae. Orchis!
+ Habenaria.
+ Cyperaceae. Carex.
+ Gramineae. Phleum.
+
+=Axillary prolification= is the term applied to those cases wherein one
+or more adventitious buds spring from the axils of one or more of the
+parts of the flower. Engelmann makes use of the word ecblastesis to
+denote the same condition. Both terms are open to the objection that
+they do not clearly enable us to distinguish prolification occurring
+within the flower from a similar state originating outside the flower,
+within the bracts of the inflorescence. This latter condition, called by
+Moquin-Tandon lateral prolification (see Prolification of the
+Inflorescence), is as truly axillary as that to which the name is
+restricted. In consequence of certain peculiarities in the structure of
+some flowers, to be hereafter alluded to, it is not in all cases easy to
+decide whether the new growth springs from the interior of the flower,
+or from the inflorescence beneath the flower.
+
+The accessory bud presents itself as a leaf-bud, a branch, a flower-bud,
+or a miniature inflorescence; it may be sessile, but is far more
+frequently stalked, and in more than half the number of cases it is a
+flower-bud or an inflorescence. There may be one or more of these buds;
+if two only, then they are usually placed directly opposite one to the
+other, on the opposite sides of the flower.
+
+It will be seen, from the appended list, that the orders and genera in
+which this description of adventitious growth occurs most frequently are
+the following:--_Cruciferae_, especially the genus _Brassica_;
+_Caryophyllaceae_, e.g. _Dianthus_; _Resedaceae_; _Leguminosae_, e.g.
+_Melilotus_, _Trifolium_, &c.; _Rosaceae_, e.g. _Rosa_, _Potentilla_,
+&c.; _Umbelliferae_, and _Campanulaceae_. For the most part, these are
+groups also peculiarly liable to central prolification.
+
+All the parts of the flower may be thus affected; but, as might have
+been anticipated from the foliaceous nature of the sepals, the new bud
+usually arises from within the axil of one of those organs. Next in
+frequency to the calyx, the pistil is subjected to this change--the
+carpels in such a case being disunited and leaf-like. The petals rank
+next, and lastly the stamens; these latter, indeed, are usually, but not
+invariably, absent, the new growth occupying their position. Hence it
+may well be that when such is the case, there is no real axillary
+prolification, but rather the substitution of a bud for a stamen.
+Generally, however, the position of the accessory bud is such that it
+may properly be referred to the axil of an undeveloped or rudimentary
+stamen.
+
+The largest number of instances of this malformation, not merely
+generically, but also individually, occurs in plants the members of
+whose floral whorls are not united one to the other; thus, it is far
+more common in polypetalous plants than in gamopetalous ones. In the
+prolified flowers belonging to the latter group, the sepals, if not
+actually uncombined, are only united for a short distance. The same
+relationship, but in a much less degree, exists in the case of median
+prolification, as that aberration is likewise most commonly met with in
+polypetalous flowers. Another feature of interest is the rarity with
+which axillary prolification is found in irregular gamopetalous blooms.
+It may be that the irregular and comparatively excessive growth in some
+parts of these flowers, as compared with others, may operate in checking
+any luxuriant tendency in other directions.
+
+As in the case of median prolification, plants having an indefinite
+inflorescence are more liable to be affected with ecblastesis than those
+having a definite one. The degree of branching of the inflorescence may
+be noticed, as this deformity is far more common in plants whose
+peduncles are branched than in those which have either a solitary flower
+or an unbranched flower-stalk. More than two thirds of the entire number
+of genera cited as the subjects of this malformation have a branched
+inflorescence of some form or other; and about two thirds of the cases
+occur in genera having some form of indefinite inflorescence. If
+individual instances could be accurately computed, the proportion would
+be even higher.
+
+Fully three fourths of the entire number of genera recorded as
+occasionally the subjects of this irregularity possess in their usual
+state some peculiarity of the thalamus; for instance, in about a third
+of the whole number of genera the thalamus is more or less prolonged
+between some or other of the floral whorl, e.g. _Caryophyllaceae_,
+_Potentilla_, _Anemone_, _Dictamnus_, _Umbelliferae_, &c. About one
+fourth of the genera have numerous stamens or numerous carpels, or both,
+springing naturally from the thalamus. In others (about one sixth) the
+thalamus is enlarged into a disc, or else presents one or more
+glandular swellings, _e.g._ _Reseda_, _Nymphaea_, _Cruciferae_. In the
+last-named family, as has been already remarked, prolification is very
+common. It would be interesting to ascertain precisely what part of an
+inflorescence is most liable to this affection; but as information on
+this point is but rarely given in the records of these cases, I can only
+give the results of my own observations, which go to show that, in a
+many-flowered inflorescence, those flowers at the outside, or at the
+lower portion, seem to be more frequently the subjects of this change
+than those situated elsewhere. This may probably be accounted for by the
+fact that the malformation is met with most generally in plants with an
+indefinite form of inflorescence, and therefore the lowermost or
+outermost flowers are most fully nourished; the upper flowers being in a
+less advanced condition, the change is more likely to be overlooked in
+them; or it may be that from the unusual luxuriance in the lower
+flowers, the upper ones may be either present in their ordinary
+condition, or may be (as indeed frequently happens) stunted in the size
+and proportion of their several parts.
+
+=Axillary foliar prolification of the flower.=--The formation of an
+adventitious leaf-bud in the axil of any of the parts of the flower is
+not of such common occurrence as the development of a flower-bud in
+similar situations, nor is it so frequent as median foliar
+prolification. I have seen leafy shoots proceeding from the axils of the
+sepals in the flowers of _Brassica_, and a similar occurrence has been
+noticed in _Caltha palustris_, _Herreria parviflora_, and other plants.
+Dr. Marchand's flowers of _Anagallis_, previously referred to at p. 117,
+showed good illustrations of this occurrence, as also some specimens
+described by Kirschleger in _A. phoenicea_.[134] Steinheil has figured
+and described[135] a flower of _Scabiosa_ in which there was an
+adventitious formation of leafy shoots in the axil of the outer calyx.
+In some flowers, such as _Convolvulus_, _Anemone_, &c., the exact nature
+of the sub-floral leaves is uncertain, _i.e._ it is open to doubt
+whether the organs in question are bracts or leaves pertaining to the
+inflorescence, or whether they are really parts of the flower. When
+leafy shoots are formed in the axils of such organs, the adventitious
+growth may be referred to extra-floral prolification, prolification of
+the inflorescence that is, or to axillary prolification, according to
+the view taken of the real nature of the sub-floral leaves. So far as
+the mere occurrence of prolification is concerned, it is not very
+material which view be adopted. The same remark applies to cases where
+leaf-buds occur on the outer surface of inferior ovaries, as in
+_Rosaceae_, _Pomaceae_, _Philadelphus_, or _Tetragonia expansa_, as
+elsewhere mentioned.
+
+It would seem more consistent with the general arrangements of parts,
+that the adventitious buds should be formed more frequently outside than
+within the flower proper.
+
+Knight[136] figures and describes the occurrence of small tubers or
+fleshy leaf-buds in the axils of the sepals of a potato, a curious
+illustration of the real morphological nature of the tuber.
+
+=Axillary floral prolification of the flower.=--As already stated, this
+is of more common occurrence than the formation of a leaf-bud in a
+similar situation. Any of the parts of the flower may thus subtend a
+flower-bud, though probably the new buds more frequently originate in
+the axils of the sepals than in the other whorls. In _Cruciferae_ the
+change in question is, relatively speaking, very common. In cauliflowers
+and broccoli I have frequently met with stalked flowers proceeding from
+the axils of the sepals, so also in some fuchsias I have seen a ring of
+stalked flower-buds alternating with the petals, which, together with
+the stamens and pistil, remained unaffected. The number of parts in the
+supernumerary structures is generally less than the normal flowers.
+
+In Mr. Herbert Spencer's 'Principles of Biology,' part iv, p. 37, are
+figured and described some monstrous inflorescences in _Angelica_ and
+other _Umbelliferae_, from which, amongst other things, the author draws
+the conclusion that there is no absolute distinction between leaf and
+branch. Without staying for the moment to discuss this matter, it may
+here be said that the Umbellifers in question apparently owe their
+peculiarities rather to axillary prolification within the flower, or to
+prolification of the inflorescence, than to an actual transformation of
+a flower or any portion of a flower into an umbellule.[137]
+
+In the 'Gardeners' Chronicle,' 1855, p. 551, an instance is figured of
+the production of a supernumerary flower proceeding from the axil of a
+stamen in a species of _Nymphaea_ (fig. 65). The ovary in this case was
+wanting, but in its place was a tuft of small leaves. It is curious that
+among Dr. Kirk's drawings of east tropical African plants now at Kew,
+there should be one representing a precisely similar state of things.
+The species in both instances was _Nymphaea Lotus_, or a cultivated
+variety of it.
+
+M. Wesmael[138] describes a very singular case of what appears to have
+been referable to axillary prolification in the flowers of _Carex
+acuta_. The rachillus is described as prolonged through the utricle by
+the side of the stigmas, bearing on its side a bract, then a secondary
+utricle, from the axil of which sprung a short stem surmounted by an
+ovary. Wigand, 'Flora,' 1856, mentions a similar change in _Carex
+glauca_. In this instance the base of the female inflorescence bore
+lateral spikes, which projected from the utricles; some of these
+adventitious spikes were female, others female below and male above,
+others, again, wholly male.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 65.--Flower of _Nymphaea Lotus_, var., showing
+axillary floral prolification. The section also shows the tuft of leaves
+that occupied the place of the ovary.]
+
+Various changes in the form and arrangement of the several floral whorls
+accompany axillary prolification; some of these affect the particular
+organ or organs implicated, and these only, while in other cases some
+other parts of the flower likewise undergo modification. The changes
+most commonly met with are such as may be classed under Goethe's theory
+of retrograde metamorphosis; for instance, if a supplementary bud be
+developed in the axil of a sepal, that sepal is likely to be more than
+ordinarily leaf-like in appearance. The dislocation of the affected
+sepal from its fellows is a very frequent occurrence; in cases of this
+kind the detached sepal is placed below the others, thus approximating,
+in position as well as in function, to the bracts. In some of the
+instances of proliferous pears, on which I shall have occasion to
+comment, the sepals are described as sharing in the succulent character
+of the fruit.
+
+The petals, under such circumstances, often exist in the guise of sepals
+or of small leaves; and instances are recorded wherein the place of the
+calyx and corolla was supplied by a succession of overlapping green
+scales, from the axils of which the new buds arose. M. Germain de Saint
+Pierre records such a case in _Trifolium repens_, wherein the calyx and
+corolla were replaced by overlapping scales, in the axils of each one of
+which arose a flower; above there was a row of stamens, and in the
+centre a pistil in the guise of a trifoliate leaf.[139] Such instances
+seem to afford an extreme degree of a more common change, viz., the
+diminished size and contracted appearance of the sepals and petals when
+affected with axillary prolification. They have also a close
+relationship to such developments as we see in the wheat-ear carnation,
+in certain species of the genus _Maesa_ and others, wherein the calyx is
+repeated over and again, to the partial or complete suppression of the
+other parts of the flower. All these cases may be in part explained by
+the operation of the principle of compensation.
+
+So far as the androecium is concerned, the stamens either remain
+unaltered, or they are present in a more or less petal-like condition;
+but it far more frequently happens that the stamens are entirely
+suppressed, the adventitious bud supplying their place; thus was it in
+the _Dianthus_ represented in the adjoining woodcut, fig. 66, where the
+stamens were entirely absent, and their places supplied by
+flower-bearing branches. This _Dianthus_ has the more interest from its
+similarity to the one described by Goethe, Metam. der Pflanzen, cap.
+16, sect. 105; but in that instance median prolification also existed.
+For my specimens I am indebted to Mr. T. Moore.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 66.--Flower of _Dianthus_ sp., calyx removed; petals
+turned down so as to show the stalked flower-buds springing from their
+axils.]
+
+The pistil, too, is necessarily subject to very grave alterations when
+affected with this malformation. It is separated into its constituent
+carpels; and these assume a leaf-like aspect, and are in the great
+majority of instances destitute of ovules. Indeed, virescence or
+chloranthy is very intimately connected with this aberration, as might
+have been anticipated, for if the parts of the flower assume more or
+less of the condition of stem-leaves or bracts, it is quite natural to
+expect that they will partake likewise of the attributes of leaves, even
+at the expense of their own peculiar functions.
+
+It occasionally happens that an adventitious bud arises from the axil of
+a monocarpellary pistil. This takes place sometimes in _Leguminosae_, and
+seems to have been more frequently met with in _Trifolium repens_ than
+in other plants. The species named is, as is well known, particularly
+subject to a reversion of the outer whorls of the flower to leaves, and
+even to a leaf-like condition of the pistil. There are on record
+instances wherein a leaf-bud has been placed in the axil of a more or
+less leaf-like carpel; while at other times a second imperfect carpel
+has been met with in the axil of the first.[140] I have myself seen
+numerous imperfectly developed cases of this kind.
+
+It may be asked whether such cases are not more properly referable to
+central prolification--whether the axis is not in such flowers
+terminated by two, rather than by one carpel? It is, however, generally
+admitted by morphologists that the solitary carpel of _Leguminosae_ is
+not terminal, but is the sole existing member of a whorl of carpels, all
+the other members of which are suppressed as a general rule, though
+exceptional instances of the presence of two and even of five carpels
+have been described.[141]
+
+Again, the adventitious bud or carpel is placed, not laterally to the
+primary one, or opposite to it, on the same level, but slightly higher
+up--in fact, in the axil of the primary carpellary leaf. Griffith
+figures and describes[142] an instance of the kind in a species of
+_Melilotus_. The stalk of the ovary is mentioned as having a sheathing
+base, bearing in its axil a prolongation of the axis of inflorescence,
+in the form of a short spike with hairy bracts and imperfect flowers,
+the latter having a well-formed calyx and rudimentary petals and
+stamens. Griffith infers, from this specimen, that the legume is not to
+be considered as a terminal leaf.
+
+_List of Genera in which Axillary Prolification has been observed._
+
+ Order Genus. Leaf-bud Flower-bud or From what organ.
+ or Branch Inflorescence
+
+ Ranunculaceae Clematis Flower-bud Sepals.
+ Caltha Ditto Ditto.
+ Aconitum Ditto.
+ Delphinium Ditto Sepals, carpels,
+ &c.
+ Anemone! Ditto Involucre?
+ Nymphaeaceae Nymphaea! Fruit?
+ Nymphaea Flower Petal.
+ Cruciferae *Brassica! Leaf-bud Flower-bud Sepals and
+ petals.
+ Brassica! Ditto Stamens.
+ Brassica! Ditto Ditto Pistil.
+ Cardamine! Ditto Sepals.
+ Matthiola! Ditto Sepals and
+ petals.
+ Cheiranthus! Ditto Sepals.
+ Erysimum Ditto Sepals and
+ pistils.
+ Lepidium! Ditto Petals and
+ stamens.
+ Arabis Ditto Sepals.
+ Diplotaxis Flower, Pistil, calyx
+ inflorescence and corolla.
+ Capsella
+ Capparidaceae Cleome Flower-bud Sepals.
+ Resedaceae *Reseda Ditto Ditto.
+ Caryophyllaceae Arenaria Branch Ditto.
+ Agrostemma Leaf-bud Ditto.
+ *Lychnis Ditto
+ Stellaria Ditto
+ Silene Ditto
+ *Gypsophila Ditto Ditto Sepals and
+ stamens.
+ *Dianthus! Ditto Ditto Sepals.
+ Dianthus! Ditto Inflorescence Petals and
+ stamens.
+ Cucubalus Sepals
+ Saponaria! Sepals and
+ petals.
+ Malvaceae Alcea Flower-bud Stamen.
+ Aurantiaceae Citrus! Ditto Ditto.
+ Rutaceae Dictamnus! Ditto Pistil leafy.
+ Tropaeolaceae Tropaeolum! Ditto Petals.
+ Celastraceae Celastrus Ditto Sepals.
+ Leguminosae *Melilotus! Inflorescence Sepals and
+ petals.
+ Medicago Flower-bud Sepals.
+ Coronilla Ditto Ditto.
+ Trifolium! Ditto Second carpel Pistil.
+ axillary to
+ first
+ Melilotus! Ditto Ditto
+ Trifolium! Flower-bud Sepals and
+ petals.
+ Rosaceae Pyrus! Fruit? Fruit?
+ Cerasus! Flower-bud Petals and
+ stamens.
+ Potentilla! Ditto Leafy carpels.
+ Crataegus! Ditto Petals.
+ *Rosa! Ditto Ditto Sepals, petals,
+ stamens and
+ pistil.
+ Myrtaceae Lecythis Ditto Fruit?
+ Tetragoniaceae Tetragonia? Ditto Ditto.
+ Cactaceae Opuntia! Fruit-like Tufts of spines.
+ branch
+ Pereskia Ditto Sepals?
+ Echinocactus Ditto Ditto.
+ Philadelphaceae Philadelphus Ditto Sepals.
+ Umbelliferae *Athamanta Ditto Calyx.
+ *Daucus! Ditto Calyx and
+ pistil.
+ Bupleurum Ditto Calyx and
+ pistil.
+ Torilis Ditto Calyx and
+ pistil.
+ Apium Flower-bud Calyx and
+ pistil.
+ Pastinaca Ditto Ditto ditto.
+ Heracleum! Ditto Ditto ditto.
+ Angelica! Umbel Ditto ditto.
+ Campanulaceae *Campanula! Branch Sepals.
+ Prismatocarpus Ditto Fruit Sepals, &c.
+ Gentianaceae Gentiana! Flower-bud Sepals.
+ Convolvulaceae *Convolvulus! Ditto Outer calyx.
+ Solanaceae Solanum! Ditto Sepals.
+ Solanum Tubers Sepals and
+ petals.
+ Scrophulariaceae *Digitalis! Ditto Petals, &c.
+ Veronica Raceme Calyx.
+ Primulaceae Anagallis! Branch Ditto Petals.
+ Primula Ditto Petals and
+ carpels.
+ Polygonaceae Rumex Ditto Sepals.
+ Santalaceae Thesium Leaf-bud In place of
+ stamens and
+ pistils, both
+ absent.
+ Euphorbiaceae? Euphorbia? Ditto Outer bracts?
+ Orchidaceae Orchis! Flower-bud Perianth.
+ Amaryllidaceae Leucoium Ditto Ditto.
+ Iridaceae Iris Ditto Pistil.
+ Liliaceae Herreria Ditto Sepals.
+ Hyacinthus Flower and Perianth.
+ raceme
+ Convallaria Flower-bud Ditto.
+ Allium Ditto Ditto.
+ Cyperaceae Carex Inflorescence Utricle.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 67.--Proliferous Rose. Calyx leafy; petals normal,
+some reflexed; stamens and pistil absent; in their places a branch with
+leaves and flowers.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 68.--Rose exhibiting median, axillary, lateral,
+floral, and leafy prolification in same flower.]
+
+=Complicated prolification.=--From what has been before stated it may be
+seen that prolification of two or more kinds may coexist in the same
+flower. Mixed leafy and floral prolification is not unfrequent in
+proliferous roses, where a shoot is, as it were, prolonged through the
+centre of the original flower and terminated by a second flower, or
+even by a cluster, as is well shown in the accompanying figure (fig.
+67). Median and axillary prolification, also, not unfrequently coexist
+in the same flower; thus, in a proliferous rose forwarded to me by Mr.
+W. Thomson (fig. 68), the following changes were observed:--the swollen
+portion below the calyx, the "hip," was entirely absent; the sepals were
+leaf-like in aspect, the petals unaffected; above the petals the axis
+was prolonged for a short distance and then bore a circlet of miniature,
+sessile roses, destitute, indeed, of calyx, but provided with numerous
+petals, stamens, and pistils. Above these lateral flowers, the prolonged
+axis bore a number of scales in many rows. The scales were in their turn
+surmounted by a whorl of five perfect leaves, beyond which, again, the
+axis was prolonged into a leafy shoot terminated by a flower bud, the
+whole constituting a remarkably complicated admixture of elements
+belonging to the flower, the bud, the inflorescence, and the
+leafshoot.[143]
+
+Proliferous flowers of Orchids also occasionally present great
+complexity in the arrangement of their parts. An instance of this kind
+was described by myself from specimens furnished by Dr. Moore, of
+Glasnevin, in the 'Journal of the Linnean Society,' vol. ix, p. 349,
+tabs. x, xi, and from which the following summary is extracted:
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 69.--Proliferous Orchis. Diagram showing the
+arrangement of the several organs in the seven outer circles of the
+flower. Each whorl is numbered, and the position of the axillary buds
+shown by the small circles.]
+
+The primary flowers were composed of five distinct whorls, and of at
+least two others less perfectly developed. These primary flowers did not
+give rise to median formations, but they produced secondary buds in the
+axils of the segments of the perianth. These latter buds were themselves
+the subject of tertiary prolification of both kinds, median and
+axillary. The tertiary median growths, like the primary flower, did not
+develop median buds, but only lateral ones--quaternary axillary
+prolification.
+
+The accompanying diagrams are intended to show the plan of arrangement
+in these flowers. Fig. 69 shows the disposition of parts in the primary
+flower and the situation of the axillary buds. Fig. 70 shows the primary
+flower without any central prolongation, but giving off axillary buds,
+two of which are shown in the diagram, 2, 2; these are, each of them,
+the subject of both median, 3, 3, and axillary prolification, 4', 4'.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 70.--Diagram to explain the construction of the
+double-flowered _Orchis_.
+
+1. The primary flower, with no median bud, the position of which, had it
+been present, is shown by the dotted line.
+
+2. Two axillary buds proceeding from 1, and themselves giving origin to
+
+3, 3. Median buds, and 3', 3', axillary buds.
+
+4' 4'. Axillary buds, proceeding from 3. No median bud is produced from
+3; its situation, had it been present, is indicated by the dotted line.]
+
+In _Narcissus major_ a similar combination of both forms of
+prolification exists, as described by Morren.[144]
+
+On the general subject of Prolification in flowers, in addition to the
+authorities already cited, the reader may refer to the following among
+many others:
+
+ Linnaeus, 'Prolepsis,' Secs. vi et vii. Goethe, 'Versuch.
+ Metamorph.,' cap. xv and xvi Secs. 103-106. Moquin-Tandon,' El.
+ Ter. Veg.,' p. 362, &c. Engelmann, 'De Antholys.,' Secs. 52-62,
+ &c. Cramer, 'Bildungsabweichungen,' &c. _Orchidaceae_,
+ _Umbelliferae_, _Compositae_, _Leguminosae_, _Primulaceae_,
+ _Ranunculaceae_. Fleischer, 'Missbild. Cultur Gewachs.'
+ Schlechtendal, 'Linnaea,' xv, p. 408, _Rosa_. 'Bot. Zeit.' vol.
+ xx, 1862, p. 382, _Cyclamen_. 'Bot. Zeit.,' vol. xx, p. 301,
+ _Asphodelus_; et _Lilium_. Seringe, 'Bull. Bot.,' i, t. xi, f.
+ 7, 8, _Arabis_, _Diplotaxis_. Clos, 'Mem. Acad. Toulouse,' 5th
+ ser., 1862, _Papaver_. Wigand, 'Flora,' 1856, p. 716,
+ _Hypochaeris_; et 'Bot. Untersuch.,' p. 19. Buchenau,'
+ Flora,' 1857, p. 295, _Reseda_. Roeper, 'Bot. Zeit.,' 1852, p.
+ 427, _Orchis_. Presl., 'Linnaea,' vi, p. 599, tab. ix, figs.
+ 5-8, _Sisymbrium_, Vrolik., 'Flora,' 1846, p. 97, t. i et ii,
+ id. 1844, t. i, _Digitalis_. See also Schlechtendal, 'Bot.
+ Zeit.,' vol. ix, 1851, p. 579. Klinsmann, 'Linnaea,' x, p. 604,
+ t. v, _Hesperis_. Fuckel, 'Flora,' 1848, p. 609. _Melilotus_.
+ De Candolle, 'Organogr.,' i, 396, t. 33. Turpin, 'Atlas de
+ Goethe,' p. 65, t. 5, figs. 12, 13. Fenzl. 'Sitzungsbericht d.
+ k. Akad. d. Wissensch. Wien.,' heft, iii, tabs. 3, 4, _Rosa_.
+ Kirschleger, 'Flora,' 1845, 613, _Dianthus_, _Rosa_.
+ 'Institut.,' 1841, No. 413, p. 421, _Tragopogon_. Baron de
+ Melicoq., 'Ann. Sc. Nat.,' 3rd ser., vol. v. 1846, p. 61,
+ _Antirrhinum_. Reichenbach, 'Icon. Fl. Germ.,' tab. 100,
+ _Reseda_--"monstrosa anticipatio Euphorbiacearum et
+ Capparidearum." Duhamel, 'Phys. Arbres.,' liv. iii, cap. 3, p.
+ 303, pl. xii, f. 306, _Rosa_. Caspary, 'Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr.,'
+ vol. vi, 1859, p. 235, Rev. Bibl., _Pyrus_. Eichler, 'Flora,'
+ 1865, tab. ix, _Cleome_. Lindley, 'Elements of Botany,' p. 63,
+ &c., _Rosa_, _Epacris_, _Anagallis_, _Pyrus_. Irmish, 'Flora,'
+ 1858, p. 38, _Pyrus_; and 'Bot. Zeit.,' xix, 1861, p. 342,
+ _Hyacinthus_. Duchartre, 'Bull. Soc. Bot. France,' 1861, p.
+ 451, _Rosa_. Weber, 'Verhandl. Nat. Hist. Verein. Rhein.
+ Preuss., &c.' 1858 et 1860. Landrin, 'Mem. Soc. Sc. Nat. Seine
+ et Oise,' 1866?[145] Masters, 'Trans. Linn. Soc.,' vol. xxiii,
+ p. 359, tab. 34 and p. 481, tab. 54.
+
+=Prolification of the embryo.=--This term was applied by Moquin-Tandon
+to a peculiar condition of the almond (_Amygdalus_), in which, indeed,
+it is not of unfrequent occurrence. In these cases one almond encloses
+within its cotyledons a second embryo, and this, again, in some
+instances, a third, the little plants being thus packed like so many
+boxes one within the other. The supplementary embryos are, in the ripe
+state at least, quite separate and detached one from another. These
+cases differ from the ordinary instances wherein there is an increased
+number of embryos in one seed in their position. In the latter case, as
+often happens in the seeds of the orange, the new products are placed by
+the side one of another.[146]
+
+For other cases of prolification or the adventitious formation of buds
+on leaves, roots, &c., see under Heterotaxy.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[104] Linn., 'Prolepsis,' Sec. vii; Goethe, 'Metamorph.,' Secs. 96,
+103, 106.
+
+[105] "Diaphysis inflorescentiarum." Engelmann, 'De Anthol.,' Sec. 85.
+
+[106] 'Flora,' 1844, p. 565.
+
+[107] 'Ann. Sc. Nat.,' ser. 3, vol. v, 1846, p. 64.
+
+[108] 'Bot Zeit.,' vol. xx, p. 382.
+
+[109] 'Miscel. Austriac. Bot.,' vol. i, Vindob, 1778, p. 133.
+
+[110] "_Umbellati dum prolificantur, augent umbellulam, ut ex umbellula
+simplici altera exeat_." 'Linn. Phil. Bot.,' Sec. 124.
+
+[111] 'En. Euphorb.,' p. 36.
+
+[112] Meisner. 'Mon. Gen. _Polygoni_ Prodrom.,' p. 20, tab. v, considers
+the bulbils of this plant to be modifications of the pedicels of the
+flower.
+
+[113] See A. Braun. 'Ann. Scienc. Nat.,' 4th series, 1860, vol. xiv, p.
+13.
+
+[114] "_Prolificatio e latere ex calyci communi proles plurimos
+pedunculatos emittens, fit in compositis aggregatis proprie dictis._"
+'Linn. Phil. Bot.,' Sec. 124.
+
+[115] 'Bot. Zeit.,' 1857, p. 873. See also 'Verhandl. Nat. Hist.
+Vereins. Preuss. Rheinl. u. Westphal.,' 1854, t. ix.
+
+[116] "Pannicula spicatim sparsa onusta innumera foetura herbaceorum
+flosculorum racematim cohaerentium," 'Lobel. Stirp. Hist.,' p. 163. This
+is the "Besome Plantain, or Plantain with spoky tufts," of Ray,
+'Synopsis,' p. 314. Gerard's 'Herbal,' Ed. Johnson, p. 420. Parkinson,
+'Theat. Bot.,' p. 494. Baxter, 'Loudon. Mag. Nat. Hist.,' vol. ix. p.
+204, and vol. iii, p. 482. fig. 118.
+
+[117] 'Flora.' 1856. p. 706.
+
+[118] 'Flora of Berwick-on-Tweed,' vol. i. p. 38.
+
+[119] 'Adansonia,' vol. iv. 1864, p. 150, tab. vii. 'Gard. Chron.,'
+November 19th, 1864.
+
+[120] 'Ann. Sc. Nat.,' ser. 3, tom. ii, p. 290; and 'Adansonia,' iii,
+tab. iv; see also Bureau, in 'Bull. Soc. Bot. France,' x, p. 191.
+
+[121] Baillon, 'Adansonia,' i, 286.
+
+[122] See also figure in 'Hort. Eystett. Ic. Plant. Vern.,' fol. 15,
+fig. 1. _Ranunculus asiaticus_.
+
+[123] Duchartre, 'Ann. des sc. nat.,' 3me serie, vol. ii, 1844, p. 293.
+
+[124] Reissek, 'Linnaea,' vol. xvii, 1843, p. 641, tab. xix.
+
+[125] The tube of the calyx in these specimens was traversed by ten
+ribs, apparently corresponding to the primary ridges of the normal
+fruit; these ribs were destitute of spines, and the bristly secondary
+ridges were entirely absent. Those portions of the carpels which were
+detached from the calyx had each three ribs, a central and two lateral
+ones, which appeared to be continuous with the ribs of the calyx
+below,--although in the case of the calyx there were ten, in the case of
+the carpels six ribs, three to each. This diversity in number is thus
+explained:--A circle of vascular tissue ran round the interior of the
+calyx-tube, at its junction with the limb, and at the point of insertion
+of the petals and stamens. The vascular circle seemed to be formed from
+the confluence of the ten ribs from below. Of the five ribs in each half
+of the calyx, the three central ones were joined together just at the
+point of confluence with the vascular circle, above which they formed
+but a single rib--that traversing the centre of the carpellary leaf; the
+two lateral ribs of each half of the calyx seemed to be continuous,
+above the vascular rim, with the lateral ribs of the carpel; these
+lateral ribs were connected on either side with the central one by short
+branches of communication. The disposition of the ten ribs may be thus
+represented:--
+
+ 1 1 1 1 1 1
+ 3 2 3 2 3 3 2 3 2 3
+ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
+
+The lower line of figures represents the calycine ribs, the middle row
+shows how each of these ribs is divided at the vascular rim, and the
+uppermost row shows their distribution above the rim. From this it will
+be seen that six of the calycine ribs divide into three branches, one
+prolonged upwards as a lateral or median rib into the carpellary leaf,
+the other running horizontally to join with similar branches sent out
+from the neighbouring rib; the four intermediate calycine ribs divide
+into two branches only, which join the side branches of the first
+mentioned, but have no direct upward prolongation into the carpel. The
+ten ridges are placed opposite to the sepals and petals.
+
+[126] 'Neue Denkschriften der allgemeine Schweizerischen Gesellschaft,'
+band 5. 1841. tab. 2.
+
+[127] Bell Salter, 'Gard. Chron.,' March 13th, 1847, and 'Ann. Nat.
+Hist.,' 1847, vol. xix, p. 471. &c.
+
+[128] 'The Origin and Production of Proliferous Flowers, with the
+Culture at large for raising Double Flowers from Single, and Proliferous
+from the Double.' By J. Hill, M.D. London, 1759.
+
+[129] A. de Candolle, 'Neue Denkschriften,' op. cit., p. 9; also Unger
+as cited in 'Botanical Gazette,' May, 1351. p. 70.
+
+[130] Duchartre, op. cit.
+
+[131] 'Ann. Sc. Nat.,' 1844, vol. i, p. 297.
+
+[132] Maout, 'Lecons Elementaires de Botanique,' vol. ii. p. 488;
+Ferrari. 'Hesperides.' pls. 271, 315, 405.
+
+[133] Moquin-Tandon, loc. cit., p. 386, &c.; see also Trecul, in the
+'Bull. Soc. Bot. France,' tom. i, p, 307.
+
+[134] 'Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr.,' 1863, vol. x, p. 461.
+
+[135] 'Ann. Sc. Nat.,' 1835, p. 65. See also Le Maout, 'Lecons
+Element.,' vol. ii, p. 426.
+
+[136] 'Proc. Hort. Soc.,' vol. i, p. 39, fig. 2.
+
+[137] See also 'Nat. Hist. Review,' 1865, p. 377.
+
+[138] 'Acad. Roy. Belg.,' April 11th. 1863.
+
+[139] 'Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr.,' tom. iii, 1856, p. 479.
+
+[140] 'Linnaea,' vol. xv, p. 266, _c. ic._ Caspary, 'Schriften d.
+Physik.-Oek. Gesell. zu Koenigsberg,' bd. ii, p. 5, tab. iii, fig. 39,
+&c.
+
+[141] Lindley, 'Veg. King.,' p. 545; also Clarke on the Position of
+Carpels, Linn. Soc.,' December, 1850. 'Proc. Linn. Soc.,' ii, p. 105.
+
+[142] 'Notulae,' vol. i, Dicot. p. 127. 'Atlas,' pl. xliii.
+
+[143] Moquin-Tandon gives the following references to cases of
+proliferous roses, but some I have not been able to verify. 'Journ. des
+Sav.,' 22 Mai 1679. Hottinger, 'Ephem. Nat. Cur.,' dec. 3 ann. 9 et 10,
+p. 249. Marchant, 'Mem. Acad. Scienc. Paris.' 1707, p. 488. Preussius,
+'Ephem. Nat. Cur.,' cent. 7 et 8. App. p. 83. Schuster, 'Act. Acad. Nat.
+Cur.,' vol. vi, p. 185. Spadoni, 'Mem. Soc. Ital.,' t. v, p. 488. See
+also at the end of this section for numerous other references.
+
+[144] 'Bull. Acad. Belg.,' t. xx, part ii, p. 271. See also Bellynck,
+'Bull. Soc. Bot. Belg.,' t. vi, ex. 'Bull. Soc. Bot. France,' t. xiv,
+1867, Rev. Bibl., p. 241. _Orchis ustulata_.
+
+[145] I have not been able to meet with this, but it is said to contain
+a paper on prolification, with numerous bibliographical references.
+
+[146] 'El. Ter. Veg.,' p. 364, Adnot.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+HETEROTAXY.
+
+
+Under this category are here included a variety of deviations from the
+ordinary arrangement and position of parts which cannot conveniently be
+classed under the preceding or under other headings. The term heterotaxy
+is intended to apply to the production of organs in situations where,
+under usual circumstances, they would not be formed. It thus does not
+include cases of substitution, where one part is replaced by another, or
+more or less metamorphosed, nor cases of multiplication, nor of
+prolification which are characterised not only by the production of
+members in unwonted situations, but also in unwonted numbers. From the
+very nature of the anomalies, and specially from the scanty knowledge we
+possess concerning their mode of development, it is not possible to
+allocate them in all cases correctly, and moreover many of them might as
+well be placed in one group as in another.
+
+=Formation of adventitious roots.=--This is of exceedingly common
+occurrence in a vast number of plants, so much so that in most cases it
+cannot be considered as in any way abnormal; there are, however, a few
+instances where the formation of these organs may be considered to come
+within the scope of teratology, or, at least, where their production is
+the result of injury or of some unfavorable condition to which the plant
+is exposed.
+
+Thus the production of adventitious roots on the stem of the vine is
+considered to be due to untoward circumstances impairing the proper
+action of the ordinary subterranean roots. So, too, the formation of
+roots on the upper portions of stems that are more or less decayed
+below, as in old willows, is to be considered as an attempt to obtain
+fresh supplies through a more vigorous and healthy channel.
+
+A similar occurrence often arises as a consequence of some injury.
+Virgil had this circumstance in view when he wrote
+
+ "_Quin et, caudicibus sectis, mirabile dictu,
+ Truditur e sicco radix oleagina ligno._"--'Georg.' Bk. ii.
+
+I have seen many specimens of adventitious roots produced on the olive
+in the way just mentioned.
+
+In the 'Gardeners' Chronicle,' January 8th, 1853, p. 21, is described a
+curious formation of roots in the fissure between two divisions of a
+laburnum stem. In the same journal, January 1st, 1853, p. 4, Mr. Booth
+mentions the case of a Cornish elm, the trunk of which was divided at
+the top into two main divisions, and from the force of the wind or from
+some other cause the stem was split down for several feet below the
+fork. Around the edges of the fracture, layers of new bark were formed,
+from which numerous roots issued, some measuring an inch in diameter and
+descending into the cleft portion of the tree: similar instances must be
+familiar to all observers.
+
+It may happen that these roots sent down into the cavity of a decaying
+trunk may, after a time, become completely concealed within it, by the
+gradual formation and extension of new wood over the orifice of the
+cavity formed by the death and decay of the old wood. Such is presumed
+to be the explanation of a specimen of this kind in the possession of
+the writer, and taken from a cavity in an apparently solid block of
+rosewood; externally there were no marks to indicate the existence of a
+central space, but when the block was sawn up for the use of the
+cabinet-maker, this root-like structure was found in the centre and
+attached to one end of the cavity.
+
+The production of roots which ultimately serve as props to support the
+branches, or as buttresses to compensate for the increasing weight of
+branches and foliage, is also a familiar occurrence. The huge gnaurs and
+burrs met with occasionally on some trees often produce great
+quantities, not only of adventitious buds, but of roots also.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 71.--Production of adventitious roots from leaf
+stalk of celery.]
+
+The leaves, equally with the stems, have the power of emitting roots
+under certain conditions, as when the leaves are in close contact with
+moist soil or as the result of injury. This happens in some plants more
+readily than in others--_Bryophyllum calycinum_ is a well-known
+instance. Mr. Berkeley has described the formation of roots from the
+fractured leaves of celery,[147] and also in a cabbage where a snail
+"having gnawed a hole into the middle of a leaf at its junction with the
+stem, a fascicle of roots was formed, bursting through the tissue lining
+the cavity, and covered with abundant delicate hairs after the fashion
+of ordinary radicles."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 72.--Germinating plant of mango, showing production
+of roots from one of the cotyledons (from the Kew Museum).]
+
+The production of adventitious roots is not limited to the ordinary
+leaves of the plant, but may be manifested on the cotyledons; thus
+Irmisch describes cases of this kind in the cotyledons of _Bunium
+creticum_ and _Carum Bulbocastanum_.[148] I have figured and described
+an analogous case in the cotyledons of the Mango (fig. 72).[149]
+
+To this formation of adventitious roots the gardener owes the power he
+has of propagating plants by cuttings, _i.e._, small portions of the
+stem with a bud or buds attached, or in some cases from portions of the
+leaves, of the roots themselves, or even of the fruit, as in the case of
+the cactus (Baillon). Care also has to be exercised in grafting certain
+fruit trees not to allow the grafted portion to be too close to the
+ground, else the scion throws out roots into the soil, and the object of
+the cultivator is defeated.
+
+[Illustration: FIGS. 73 and 74 show formation of roots from leaves
+induced by the art of the gardener.]
+
+Layering is another garden operation dependent on the formation of these
+organs, and advantage is also sometimes taken of this tendency of some
+plants to produce roots when injured to reduce the dimensions of a plant
+when getting too large for the house in which it is growing. By
+gradually inducing the production of new roots from the central or upper
+portions of the stem, it becomes possible, after a time, to sever the
+connection between the original roots and the upper portion of the
+trunk, and thus secure a shortened plant.
+
+ On the subject of adventitious roots, &c., reference may be
+ made to Trecul, 'Ann. Sc. Nat.,' 1846, t. v, p. 340, et vi, p.
+ 303. Duchartre, 'Elements de Botanique,' p. 219. Lindley,
+ 'Theory and Practice of Horticulture.' Thomson's 'Gardener's
+ Assistant,' pp. 374, _et seq._; and any of the ordinary
+ botanical text-books.
+
+=Formation of adventitious buds on roots.=--One of the characteristics
+by which roots are distinguished from stems in a general way consists in
+the absence of buds; but, as is well known, they may be formed on the
+roots under certain circumstances, and in certain plants, e.g., _Pyrus
+Japonica_, _Anemone Japonica_, &c. What are termed suckers, owe their
+origin to buds formed in this situation.
+
+If roots be exposed or injured, they will frequently emit buds. The
+well-known experiment of Duhamel, in which a willow was placed with the
+branches in the soil and the roots in the air, and emitted new buds from
+the latter and new roots from the former, depended on this production of
+adventitious organs of either kind.
+
+Gardeners often avail themselves of the power that the roots have of
+producing buds to propagate plants by cuttings of the roots, but in many
+of these cases the organ "parted" or cut is really an underground stem
+and not a true root.
+
+M. Claas Mulder has figured and described a case in the turnip-radish of
+the unusual formation of a leafy shoot from the root, apparently after
+injury.[150] From the figure it appears as if the lower portion of the
+root had been split almost to the extremity, while the upper portion
+seems to have a central cavity passing through it. From the angle,
+formed by the split segments below, proceeds a tuft of leaves, some of
+which appear to have traversed the central cavity and to have emerged
+from the summit, mingling with the other leaves in that situation. The
+production of a flower-bud has even been noticed on the root of a
+species of _Impatiens_.
+
+=Formation of shoots beneath the cotyledons.=--The tigellar or axial
+portion of the embryo plant, as contrasted with the radicle proper, is
+very variously developed in different cases; sometimes it is a mere
+"collar" bearing the cotyledons, while at other times it is of
+considerable size. Generally it does not give origin to shoots or leaves
+other than the seed-leaves, but occasionally shoots may be seen
+projecting from it below the level of the cotyledons. This happens
+frequently in seedling plants of _Anagallis arvensis_, _Euphorbia_
+_peplus_, and other species, _Linaria vulgaris_, some _Umbelliferae_,
+&c.[151]
+
+=Adventitious formation of leaves.=--The term phyllomania has been
+vaguely applied both to the production of an unwonted number of leaves
+and to their development in unusual situations. Under the present
+heading the latter class of cases are alone included. The extraordinary
+tendency in some Begonias to develop leaves or leafy excrescences from
+their surfaces is elsewhere alluded to, and is, in reality, a species of
+hypertrophy or over-luxuriant growth.
+
+In some flowers where the inferior ovary is supposed to be, in part at
+least, formed by a dilatation of the top of the flower-stalk, leaves
+have been met with proceeding from the surface of the ovary or fruit, as
+in _Crataegus tanacetifolia_, roses, pears, gooseberries, &c. In a
+specimen of _Nymphaea alba_ I have met with scale-like leaves projecting
+from the surface of the fruit (or torus?), and which did not appear to
+be metamorphosed stamens or styles (fig. 76).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 75.--Leaf proceeding from hip of the Rose.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 76.--Leaves proceeding from the ovary of
+_Nymphaea_.]
+
+For other illustrations of increased leaf-formation, see Multiplication
+of foliar organs.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 77.--_Leontodon_. Scape with two leaves; the bracts
+of the involucre are also leafy.]
+
+=Production of leaves on a usually leafless inflorescence.=--The
+development of the bracts of an inflorescence to such an extent that
+they resemble ordinary leaves is elsewhere alluded to as of common
+occurrence. It happens far less frequently that leaves are developed on
+an inflorescence usually destitute of them, without any metamorphosis or
+substitution, and without any formation of adventitious buds, such as
+happens in prolification. Such a partial change from a floriferous to a
+foliiferous branch may be seen in a specimen of _Sambucus nigra_ in the
+Smithian herbarium in the Linnean Society, where the ultimate branches
+of the cyme bear small leaves. My attention was directed to this
+specimen by the Rev. W. Newbould.
+
+Jacquin figures an analogous case in _Sempervivum sediforme_,[152] in
+which the branches of the inflorescence were prolonged into leafy
+shoots.
+
+Sometimes from the side of a flower-stalk or scape, which usually does
+not bear leaves, those organs are produced. The common dandelion,
+_Taraxacum_, sometimes offers an illustration of this, and also the
+daisy (_Bellis_).[153] In a specimen of fasciated cowslip given me by
+Mr. Edgeworth there was a similar formation of leaves on the flattened
+stalk.
+
+=Production of leaves or scales in place of flower-buds.=--The position
+of the leaf and of the flower-buds respectively is, in most plants, well
+defined, but occasionally it happens that the former is formed where,
+under ordinary circumstances, the latter organ should be. This may
+happen without the formation of any transitional organs between the two,
+and without actual increase in the number of the buds. Where there is
+evidently a passage from leaf-bud to flower-bud, or _vice versa_, the
+case would be one of metamorphy. If the number of buds be augmented, or
+they be mixed with the flower-buds, then it would be referable to leafy
+prolification of the inflorescence. There remains a class of cases
+wherein there is a complete substitution of one structure for the other,
+it may be without the slightest indication of transition between the
+two, and without any admixture of leaf-buds among flower-buds, or any
+absolute increase in the number of organs, as in Prolification. Such a
+case is represented in fig. 78, which shows a portion of the stem of a
+species of _Valeriana_, bearing at the summit, not an inflorescence, but
+a tuft of leaves without the slightest indication of flowers.
+
+Drs. Hooker and Thomson relate that in Northern India the flowers of
+_Anemone rivularis_ are very generally absent, and their place supplied
+by tufts or umbels of leaves.[154] In the collection of the late Mr. N.
+B. Ward was a specimen of lupin in which the flowers were all absent,
+and their place supplied by tufts of leaves.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 78.--Tuft of leaves replacing the inflorescence in a
+species of _Valeriana_.]
+
+A similar appearance has been noticed in _Compositae_, and I owe to the
+kindness of Professor Oliver the communication of a specimen of a
+species of _Bidens_ from Peru, in which the capitula, instead of
+consisting of florets, as usual, contained tufts of linear ciliolated
+bracts within the involucre, without a trace of flowers. In the eleventh
+volume of the 'Linnaea,' 1837, p. 301, Von Cesati figures and describes
+an analogous case in _Carduus crispus_. The same author[1] records a
+similar instance in the umbel of _Seseli coloratum_, where the place of
+the flowers was occupied by stalked tufts of leaves. In the 'Gardeners'
+Chronicle,' October 6th, 1860, p. 894, is mentioned an instance where
+the blossoms of the pea were entirely absent, and their place supplied
+by accumulations of small, ovate, green scales, thus presenting an
+appearance similar to that brought about by the inordinate
+multiplication of the sepals in the "wheat-ear carnation," and in the
+Sweet William, and not unlike the condition met with in _Bryophyllum
+proliferum_. In _Digitalis purpurea_ a similar anomaly is sometimes met
+with.
+
+In the apple I have observed leafy shoots bearing terminal tufts of
+leaves where the flower should have been, so that what, under ordinary
+circumstances would be a corymb of flowers, is here represented by a
+series of tufts of leaves. In the cultivated azaleas also, leafy shoots
+occupying the position of the flower may occasionally be met with.
+
+In _Bouchea hyderabadensis_ I have seen the inflorescence more than
+usually branched and covered with little tufts of bracts, without a
+trace of true flower. A similar condition seems not infrequent in
+_Gentiana Amarella_, as I have not only met with the plant myself in
+this condition, but have been favoured with specimens by Mr. Pamplin,
+Mr. Darwin, and others. In _Phyteuma spicatum_ an analogous appearance
+has been recorded.
+
+Among Griffith's collections from Affghanistan is a species of willow
+(_Salix_) in which the inflorescence replaced by a much branched
+panicle, bearing a quantity of minute bracts, in the axils of which
+nestle numerous small buds. In another specimen the inflorescence
+preserves its usual catkin-like shape, but the flowers are replaced by
+little tufts of leaves. M. Germain de Saint Pierre mentions a case
+wherein the flowers of _Alisma parnassifolia_ were completely replaced
+by leaf-buds.[155]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 79.--Spikelets of _Willedenovia_, composed entirely
+of scales to the exclusion of flowers.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 80.--Rose Willow, _Salix_, sp.]
+
+Here, also, may be mentioned the curious aggregations of scales which
+occur in some grasses, in _Restiaceae_, _Juncaceae_, and other orders, in
+which the inflorescence is made up of collections of scales or bracts
+with no trace of floral structure. Fig. 79 shows this in a species of
+_Willdenovia_, and a very good example is figured in a bamboo,
+_Pseudostachyum polymorphum_, by General Munro.[156]
+
+"Rose willows" (fig. 80) owe their peculiar appearance to a similar
+cause, the scales of the catkin being here replaced by closely crowded
+leaves. These aggregations of scales or leaves are not confined to the
+inflorescence, but may be found in other parts of the plant, and may be
+frequently met with in the willow, birch, oak, &c., generally as the
+result of insect puncture. On the other hand, the production of leaves
+or leaf-buds in place of flowers is, as is well known, generally the
+consequence of an excess of nutrition, and of the continuance rather
+than of the arrest of vegetative development.[157] It has even been
+asserted that a flower-bud may be transformed into a leaf-bud by
+removing the pistil at a very early stage of development, but this
+statement requires further confirmation.[158]
+
+=Viviparous plants.=--The spikelets of certain grasses are frequently
+found with some of their constituent parts completely replaced by
+leaves, like those of the stem, while the true flowers are usually
+entirely absent. A shoot, in fact, is formed in place of a series of
+flowers. In these cases it generally happens that the outermost glumes
+are changed, sometimes, however, even the outer and inner paleae are
+wholly unchanged, while there is no trace of squamulae or of stamens and
+pistils within them, but in their place is a small shoot with miniature
+leaves arranged in the ordinary manner.
+
+The grasses most commonly affected in this manner are _Dactylis
+glomerata!_, _Poa bulbosa!_, _Poa annua!_, _P. trivialis!_,
+_pratensis!_, _alpina!_, _angustifolia_, and _laxa_, _Cynosurus
+cristatus_, _Festuca nemoralis_, _F. ovina!_, _Glyceria fluitans!_, _Gl.
+aquatica_, _Aira alpina!_, _caespitosa!_, _Phleum phalaroides_, _Lolium
+perenne!_, _Alopecurus pratensis!_, _Agrostis alba_, _Holcus mollis!_
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 81.--Portion of panicle of _Aira vivipara_ and
+separate floret.]
+
+From an examination of the structure of viviparous grasses Von Mohl was
+led to the conclusion that the lower palea is to be considered as a
+bract, and not a perianthial leaf, because the base of the palea
+surrounds the stem or axis of the spikelet entirely, and both its
+margins cohere towards its lower extremity.[159]
+
+A similar condition occurs not infrequently in _Polygonum viviparum_,
+and in _Juncaceae_, _Cyperaceae_, &c.
+
+In the genus _Allium_ an analogous formation of little buds or bulbils
+takes place in lieu of flowers; this is specially the case with _A.
+vineale_, the flowers of which are rarely seen.
+
+Other illustrations of a similar character, where the adventitious
+leaf-buds are mixed in amongst the flower-buds, are cited under the head
+of Prolification of the Inflorescence.
+
+=Formation of buds on leaves.=--The formation of little bulbs upon the
+surfaces or edges of leaves, forming what are called viviparous leaves,
+has long been familiar to botanists amongst Alliums. Professor Alexander
+Braun,[160] who has paid much attention to this subject, divides cases
+of this kind according to the position of the buds; thus, for instance,
+they are sometimes formed upon the upper portion of the leaf or petiole,
+as in many ferns, in _Nymphaea guineensis_, some _Arads_, &c. The same
+condition has been met with as a teratological occurrence in the leaves
+of _Cardamine pratensis_, _Hyacinthus Pouzolzii_, _Drosera
+intermedia_,[161] _Arabis pumila_, _Chelidonium majus_, _Chirita
+sinensis_,[162] _Episcia bicolor_,[163] _Zamia_, &c.[164] Many species
+of _Begonia_ possess the power of emitting buds from the petioles and
+veins of the leaf; the little ramenta or scales which so plentifully
+beset the surface of some of these plants likewise, in some instances,
+pass gradually into leaves. _B. phyllomaniaca_, Mart., is the species
+best known as manifesting this tendency, but others have it also.[165]
+
+Buds are also very often formed upon the margins of the leaf, the best
+known instance of which occurs in _Bryophyllum calycinum_;
+Weinmann[166] figures an instance of this kind in _Alchemilla minima_,
+or they may occur upon the lower surface of the leaf, as in
+_Ornithogalum scilloides_ and _longe-bracteatum_. M. Duchartre[167]
+mentions a case in the tomato in which the leaves gave origin to small
+leaf-bearing branches, which, of course, must have originated from buds,
+just in the same way as in the _Drosera_ before mentioned.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 82.--Formation of shoot on leaf of _Episcia
+bicolor_.]
+
+Gardeners occasionally avail themselves of this formation of buds from
+leaves to propagate plants, _e.g._ _Hoya_, _Gesnera_, _Gloxinia_, &c.
+
+=Formation of buds in the pith.=--This is said to be a normal condition
+in the curious _Stangeria paradoxa_,[168] and Mr. Berkeley records an
+instance of this in sea-kale[169] (fig. 83) where the crown had been
+injured, and buds were seen sprouting from its centre.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 83.--Adventitious buds in sea kale.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 84.--Hyacinth bulb cut across to induce the
+formation of new bulbs.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 85.--Showing the formation of new bulbs on the cut
+edges of an old hyacinth bulb.]
+
+It will be remarked that the adventitious production of buds, like that
+of roots, is very often consequent on decay or injury. The Dutch
+bulb-growers have availed themselves of this latter circumstance in the
+propagation of hyacinths. Mr. Fortune, who published some articles on
+this subject in the 'Gardener's Chronicle,'[170] describes two special
+modes as adopted by these skilful horticulturists--the one to make two
+or three deep cuts at the base of the bulb, destroying the nascent
+flower-stalk when, after a time, small bulbs are formed along the edges
+of the cut surfaces (figs. 84, 85). The other method is effected by
+scooping out the interior of the base of the bulb, thus leaving exposed
+the cut ends of the sheathing leaves arranged concentrically; along
+these lines the new bulbs are, after some time, formed in great numbers
+(fig. 86).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 86.--Showing the production of small bulbs on the
+inner surface of the scooped-out bulb of hyacinth.]
+
+For the formation of supernumerary leaves on the surface of the normal
+one, see Multiplication and Hypertrophy.
+
+=Production of gemmae in place of spores.=--An instance of this is
+recorded by Dr. Montagne[171] in the case of a moss, _Encamptodon
+perichaetialis_, in which, in the interior of the capsule, in lieu of
+spores numerous minute gemmae of the same nature as those in the cup of
+_Marchantia_ were seen.
+
+=Formation of flowers on leaves.=--It is very doubtful whether a
+flower-bud has ever been found actually on a leaf. Mere adhesion of the
+pedicels of the leaf, such as happens in _Ruscus_, in _Helwingia_,
+_Erythrochiton hypophyllanthus_, and a few other plants, is, of course,
+not really to be considered in the light of an actual growth from the
+leaf, and it is very doubtful in the present state of our knowledge
+whether the case of the Nepaul barley should find a place here, but for
+convenience sake it is placed in this section, as it is uncertain at
+present where it properly belongs.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 87.--Three-lobed end of outer palea of Nepaul barley
+bearing supplementary florets.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 88.--Three spikelets of Nepaul barley.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 89.--Lip of outer palea of Nepaul barley.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 90.--Supplementary rachillus or outer palea of
+Nepaul barley bearing florets.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 91.--Diagram showing arrangement of supplementary
+rachillus and florets.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 92.--Supplementary floret of Nepaul barley; palea
+removed.]
+
+This curious plant has been described and figured by Irmisch in the
+13th volume of the 'Linnaea,' p. 124, t. iv; also by Professor Henslow,
+'Hooker's Journal of Botany,' 1849, vol. i, p. 33, tabs. 2, 3. The lower
+palea of this plant forms an inverted flower-bud upon its midrib. In
+some fresh specimens which I have lately examined I find the structure
+to be as follows:--On each notch of the rachis there are three spikelets
+(fig. 88), each one-flowered, and each provided with two linear glumes;
+the outer palea in all cases is three-lobed at the summit, the central
+lobe being oblong and hollow, forming a kind of hood (figs. 87-89), and
+covered with hairs, which are directed downwards towards the centre of
+the plant. The two lateral lobes are more pointed than the central one;
+like it they are provided with hairs, but the hairs, in this case, are
+turned away from the centre of the plant. The cavity of the side lobes
+is generally empty, but that of the central lobe is occupied by a very
+slender stalk, which is apparently the termination of the midrib, but
+which is bent inwards at an acute angle, so as to occupy the hollow
+space (figs. 90-91). On this slender axis are developed two florets,
+more or less imperfect in their structure. Only one of the florets that
+I have seen contained a perfect ovary. The tips of the lateral lobes of
+the paleae in the primary flower are sometimes extended into a long awn.
+A similar awn may also be occasionally found on the tips of the paleae of
+the rudimentary florets. The occurrence of an adventitious axial
+structure with rudimentary flowers has been adduced in support of the
+opinion that the lower paleae is, at least so far as its midrib is
+concerned, an axial rather than a foliar structure, but in the present
+uncertain state of our knowledge as to the morphology of grasses it is
+hazardous to risk any explanation founded on so exceptional a case as
+that of the Nepaul barley.[172]
+
+=Production of flower-buds in place of leaf-buds.=--Under natural
+circumstances this does not appear to be of so common occurrence as the
+change above alluded to, but by the art of the gardener the change is
+often effected. In rhododendrons and in peach trees and roses I have met
+with this change occurring without human agency. The means adopted by
+the gardener are such as check the luxuriance of the leaf-shoots,[173]
+and this is effected in various ways, as by continuous "pinching" or
+removal of the leaf-buds, by pruning, ringing the bark, confining the
+roots, limiting the supply of nutriment, and other means all based on
+the same principle. Some of the Cape bulbs (_Cyrtanthus_) are known not
+to produce their flowers till their leaves have received, in some
+manner, a check. Fires which often destroy the herbage thus have the
+effect of throwing the plant into bloom. A very remarkable instance is
+recorded of the production of flower-buds after an injury to the
+leaf-buds in the 'Bulletin of the Botanical Society of France,' vol. ix,
+p. 146. It appears that during the war of the French against the Arabs
+in Algiers, the latter planted several hundreds of Agaves with a view to
+obstruct the passage of the French cavalry. The soldiers hacked these
+plants with their sabres, and cut out the central tuft of leaves, or the
+heart, as gardeners call it. The following season almost every one of
+these Agaves sent up their large handsome flower-spikes. It is well
+known that, under ordinary circumstances, these plants do not flower
+except at long intervals of time.
+
+=Presence of flowers on spines.=--That the spine, as a contracted
+branch, should occasionally produce flowers is not to be wondered at,
+though the occurrence is by no means common. M. Baillon showed at a
+meeting of the Botanical Society of France ('Bulletin,' vol. v, 1858, p.
+316) a branched spine of _Gleditschia_ bearing a flower at the end of
+each of the sub divisions. This was, therefore, strictly analogous with
+those cases in which the peduncle is normally spiney.
+
+=Formation of flower-bud on the petals.=--An instance of this, it is
+believed, the only one on record, is cited in the 'Gardeners' Chronicle'
+for 1865, p. 760, by the Rev. M. J. Berkeley, who describes the
+formation of a flower-bud on the surface of a petal of _Clarkia
+elegans_. Reasoning from analogy there seems no reason why buds should
+not be formed on the petals as well as on the leaves.
+
+=Formation of buds on fruits.=--This is a point of some moment with
+reference to the share which the axis takes in the production of
+"inferior" fruits. A very frequent malformation in pears is one wherein
+a second pear proceeds from the centre of the first, and even a third
+from the centre of the second.[174] Pears are occasionally also observed
+arising either from the axils of the sepals of the primary pear or from
+the axil of leaves originating on the outer surface of the fruits--using
+the term fruit in its popular sense. These cases afford strong
+confirmation of the view that the outer portion of the so-called fruit
+in these plants is rather to be considered as an expansion and
+hollowing-out of the flower-stalk, than as formed from the calyx-tube.
+It is noteworthy that the true carpels and seeds are frequently entirely
+absent in these cases.[175] Further reference to these fruits will be
+made under the head of Hypertrophy.
+
+M. Trecul has described and figured an instance in a species of
+_Prismatocarpus_, in which a second flower proceeded from the axil of a
+bract attached to the side of the fruit of the first flower.[176] A
+similar growth was observed in the fruit of _Philadelphus speciosus_ by
+M. A. Gris, who observed that the so-called calyx-tube was provided with
+two small bracts, from the axil of one of which proceeded a small
+flower-bud.[177]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 93.--Small buds projecting from the edges of the
+fruit in _Opuntia_.]
+
+The fruits of _Opuntia Salmiana_, _O. fragilis_,[178] _O. monacantha_,
+and of some species of _Echinocactus_, have been observed to form small
+fruit-like branches around their summits. M. Napoleon Doumet describes
+the fruit as ripening as usual, but as being destitute of seeds in the
+interior; after a little while the fruit begins to wither, and then a
+circle of small buds, like those of the stem, may be seen at the top of
+the fruit, each bud springing from the axil of a little tuft of wool and
+spines found on the fruit. These little buds elongate into long shoots,
+produce flowers the following year, which flowers exhibit the same
+peculiarity. Gasparini and Tenore are said to have recorded the same
+fact as long since as 1832. The specimen from which the figure (fig. 93)
+was taken produced its fruits in the Royal Gardens at Kew, and is now
+preserved in the museum of that establishment. The adventitious growth
+in these cases appears to arise from the tufts of spines, which, it has
+been suggested, are the homologues of the sepals. There can, however, be
+little doubt that the outer and lower portion of the fruit of _Opuntia_
+and its allies is a dilatation of the flower-stalk. This is borne out by
+the fruits of _Pereskia_, which bear leaves on their surface arranged
+spirally; indeed, the fruits of _Pereskia Bleo_ are mentioned as
+producing buds from their summits, in the same way as the _Opuntia_
+just cited. _P. Bleo_ is said, by M. Delavaud,[179] to present this
+anomaly as a constant occurrence. On the summit of the primary fruit,
+arising apparently from the axils of the sepals, or of small leafy
+bracts in that situation, are a series of fruit-like branches, which, in
+their turn, are surmounted by others, even to the fourth generation.
+
+The fruits of _Tetragonia expansa_ frequently have attached to their
+side a secondary flower or fruit in such a position as to lead to the
+inference that it springs from the upper portion of the peduncle which
+is dilated to invest the true carpels. In other instances it is due to
+an adhesion of the pedicel to the side of the fruit. In either case the
+production of an adventitious bud might be considered as an illustration
+of prolification of the inflorescence, though not as was supposed by
+Moquin and others of axillary prolification.[180]
+
+Buds have also been produced artificially on the surface of some of the
+fruits in the construction of which the axis is supposed to share; thus,
+the unripe fruits of some species of _Lecythis_ were stated by Von
+Martius, at a meeting of the German Naturalists at Carlsruhe, to produce
+buds when placed in the earth. The fruit of these plants is probably of
+the same nature as that of the _Pomaceae_, and Baillon[181] succeeded in
+producing buds on the surface of the inferior ovary of _Jussiaea_.
+
+Some of the cases just mentioned have been considered to be instances of
+prolification of the fruit, but the fruit has little to do with the
+appearances in question.
+
+=Formation of adventitious flowers and fruits within the ovary.=--This
+generally arises either from substitution of a flower-bud for an ovule
+or from prolification; there are certain cases, however, where the new
+growth seems not to be either due to metamorphosis or to prolification
+strictly.
+
+The cut, fig. 94, represents a case where, in the dilated upper portion
+of the ovary of _Sinapis arvensis_, two flower-buds were found
+projecting from a raised central line, corresponding, as it would seem,
+to the midrib, and not to the margins of the carpel. Similar cases have
+occurred in _Nasturtium amphibium_, _Brassica Rapa_, and _Passiflora
+quadrangularis_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 94.--Distended pod of _Sinapis arvensis_ bearing in
+the interior stalked flower buds.]
+
+In Bromfield's 'Flora Vectensis,' p. 35, the following account is given
+of an abnormal development in _Cardamine pratensis_: "On the lower part
+of the corymb were several seed vessels on pedicels changed from their
+usual linear to an ovate elliptical figure, so as to resemble a
+silicula. These, on being opened, were found to contain petals of the
+usual colour, which in the pods above had burst from their confinement
+and appeared as semi-double flowers; the valves of the pod answering to
+the true calyx. * * * From their verticillate arrangement it is evident
+that these petaloid expansions were not transformed seeds, but simply a
+development of the common axis within the ovary into an abortive whorl
+of floral organs, besides which there were evident rudiments both of
+stamens and germens in the centre of the bundle." Baillon[182] also
+records a case of the same nature in _Sinapis arvensis_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 94*.--Portion of the interior of the silicle in
+_Cheiranthus Cheiri_, showing adventitious pod in the place of an
+ovule.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 95.--Adventitious pod from fig. 94, enlarged.]
+
+Here, too, may also be mentioned the presence of an adventitious siliqua
+within the ordinary one attached along the same line as the ovules, and
+partially divided by a replum into two cavities. In this case there was
+nothing to indicate the presence of floral envelopes (figs. 94, 95). A
+similar occurrence has been brought under my notice in some grapes which
+were observed to be cracking before they were perfectly ripe, and in
+which adventitious fruits were found within the parent grape, occupying
+the position of seeds (figs. 96, 97).
+
+Similar anomalous growths are noticed under the heads of Substitution
+and Prolification.
+
+=Formation of stamens within the cavity of the ovary.=--The only
+instance of this that has come under the author's observation occurred
+in some flowers of _Baeckea diosmaefolia_, Rudge, for an examination of
+which he is indebted to Mr. Bentham.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 96.--Section of Barbarossa grape showing
+adventitious grape in the position of a seed.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 97.--Grape with supplementary fruit in the interior]
+
+In the normal flower there is a turbinate hollow calyx, whose limb is
+divided into five serrated lobes; alternating with these latter, and
+springing from the throat of the calyx, are the petals. Originating from
+the same annular disk as the petals are the stamens, seven or eight in
+number. The ovary is partially adherent, is surmounted by a style, and
+has two or three loculi with an axile placenta, to which several small
+curved ovules are attached. The malformed flowers did not present
+anything peculiar in their outer parts, nor did the ovary, partially
+immersed within the expanded top of the flower-stalk and the calyx-tube,
+which is continuous with that organ, show externally any indication of
+the change within. On cutting it across, however, in any direction,
+numerous perfect stamens (filaments and anthers) were seen projecting
+from the walls of the cavity (fig. 98). In most of the flowers the ovary
+was one-celled; but in a few there was the usual axile placenta; yet
+even in these latter cases the stamens originated from the walls of the
+cavity, and not from the placenta. The stamens presented different
+degrees of development; in some cases they were fully formed, the
+anther-lobes open, and the pollen exposed; while in other instances the
+filaments were involute or circinate, just as the ordinary stamens are
+in the unexpanded flower-bud. In some cases imperfect stamens were
+found, mere barren filaments, with or without rudimentary anthers at the
+top. In no instance was there a perfect ovule, or, indeed, any trace of
+ovules. The stamens appeared to be arranged irregularly on the walls of
+the ovarian cavity; and while they were certainly more numerous at the
+lower portion (that now generally considered to be formed by the
+cup-like end of the pedicel), they were not wanting in the upper half of
+the ovary (or that which is probably formed from the carpellary leaves).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 98.--1. Vertical section of flower of _Baeckea
+diosmaefolia_, showing stamens within the ovary; magnified ten times. 2.
+Transverse section of ovary. 3. Stamen. 4. Imperfect stamen.]
+
+This case differs from most that have been recorded, and in which there
+has been a more or less complete substitution of anther for carpel, or
+where the tissues of the carpel have produced pollen, and so taken upon
+themselves the appearance and functions of anthers. Instances of this
+latter kind are not uncommon; but in the _Baeckea_ there were perfect
+stamens proceeding from perfect and completely closed ovaries.
+Moquin-Tandon[183] cites from Agardh an instance which seems more
+closely to resemble the state of things in the _Baeckea_, and which
+occurred in a double hyacinth, wherein both anthers and ovules were
+borne on the same placenta. Probably, though the fact is not stated, the
+ovary of the hyacinth was open; and we are told that the flower was
+double--that it was, in fact, modified and changed in more organs than
+one; while in the _Baeckea_ nothing at all unusual was observed till the
+ovary was cut open. The style was present even in those flowers where
+there was no axile placenta; hence in these cases it could not be, as
+Lindley stated it to be in the closely allied _Babingtonia_, a
+prolongation of the placenta.[184]
+
+=Formation of pollen within the ovules.=--This has now been recorded in
+two instances by Mr. S. J. A. Salter in _Passiflora caerulea_ and in _P.
+palmata_,[185] and by the author in _Rosa arvensis_.[186]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 99.--Pollen within the ovule of _Passiflora_ (after
+Salter).]
+
+In the case of the passion-flower there were various malformations in
+the ovaries, which were all more or less split open at the distal end,
+indicating a tendency towards dialysis. The pollen-bearing ovules were
+borne on the edges of these ovaries, and presented various intermediate
+conditions between anthers and ovules, commencing at the distal
+extremity of the carpel with a bi-lobed anther, and passing in series to
+the base of the ovary, an antheroid body of ovule-like form, a modified
+ovule containing pollen, an ovule departing from a perfectly natural
+condition only in the development of a few grains of pollen in its
+nucleus, and, finally, a perfect, normal ovule.
+
+In the flowers of the Rose the stamens exhibited almost every
+conceivable gradation between their ordinary form and that of the
+carpels, while some of the ovules contained pollen in greater or less
+abundance. Speaking generally, the most common state of things in these
+flowers was the occurrence on the throat of the calyx, in the position
+ordinarily occupied by the stamens, and sometimes mingled with those
+organs, of twisted, ribbon-like filaments, which bore about the centre
+one or more pendulous, anatropous ovules on their margins. Immediately
+above the latter organs were the anther-lobes, more or less perfectly
+developed, and surmounting these a long style, terminating in a fringed,
+funnel-shaped stigma. Sometimes the ovules were perfect, at other times
+the nucleus protruded through the foramen, while in a third set the
+nucleus was included within the tegument, the ovules having in all
+respects their natural external conformation, containing, however, not
+only pollen-grains, but also a layer of those peculiar spheroidal cells,
+including a fibrous deposit, which are among the normal constituents of
+the anther. In one case, where the coat of the ovule was imperfect, and
+allowed the nucleus to protrude, the pollen was evidently contained
+within the central mass of the structure. In this instance the fibrous
+cells were not detected, these being only found in cases where the
+investment of the ovule was perfect; and hence it seems likely that the
+fibrous cells were part of the coat of the ovule, while the pollen was
+formed within the nucleus. In no case was any trace of embryo sac to be
+seen.
+
+The main interest, as Mr. Salter remarks, in these cases is
+physiological; so far as structure alone is concerned, there does not
+appear any reason why pollen-grains should not be developed in any
+portion of the plant; the mother cells in which the pollen is formed not
+differing, to all outward appearance, from any other cells, unless it be
+in size.
+
+The fundamental unity of construction in all the organs of plants could
+hardly be better illustrated than by these cases; while, in spite of
+their exceptional nature, they must be of great interest
+physiologically, as showing the wide limits of possible variation which
+thus may even involve the sex, "for an ovule to develop pollen within
+its interior," says Mr. Salter, "is equivalent to an ovum in an animal
+being converted into a capsule of spermatozoa. It is a conversion of
+germ into sperm, the most complete violation of individuality and unity
+of sex. * * * * The occurrence of an antheroid ovule and a normal ovule
+on the same carpellary leaf realises the simplest and the most absolute
+form of hermaphroditism."
+
+It must, however, be remarked that the term substitution would be
+preferable to conversion. There is, at present, no evidence to show that
+the germinal vesicles were present in these cases; on the other hand, it
+seems most probable that they were not, so that the presence of the
+pollen-cells must be considered as simply adventitious. It can hardly be
+that they were, in the first instance, germinal vesicles, which, in
+course of time, became so modified as to assume the appearance of
+pollen-grains. Between the nucleus of the ovule and the tubercle of
+cellular tissue constituting the primordial anther, there is little or
+no difference, so that it may be said that, for a time, there is no
+distinction of sex in the nascent flower, but as development goes on,
+the difference becomes perceptible. It cannot at present be stated what
+precise circumstances induce the one mass to form mother-cells and
+pollen-grains, and the other to develop an embryo sac and germinal
+vesicles. Position and external circumstances may have some indirect
+effect, and it may, perhaps, be significant that in all the instances of
+polliniferous ovules, the ovular structures have been exposed on an open
+carpel or otherwise, in place of being confined within the cavity of a
+closed ovary, as under ordinary circumstances. Even among Conifers the
+ovuligerous scales are so closely packed that there is little or no
+exposure of the ovules. But, apart from all speculative notions as to
+the relation between the structure and functions of the anther and of
+the ovule respectively, and of the possibility or the reverse of
+parthenogenesis, it will clearly be necessary in any future alleged
+occurrence of the latter phenomenon to ascertain whether any or all of
+the apparent ovules are, or are not, anthers in disguise.
+
+=Homomorphic flowers of "Compositae."=--In a large section of the
+_Compositae_ there is, as is well known, a distinction between the
+florets of the "disc" and those of the "ray," the latter being ligulate,
+the former tubular.
+
+In what are erroneously called double flowers in this order, _e.g._ in
+the Chrysanthemum, Dahlia, &c. &c., the florets are all ligulate. This
+change is sometimes classed with peloria, but there is no abnormal
+regularity in these cases. On the other hand, were the ligulate florets
+to be all replaced by tubular ones, the term peloria would be more
+strictly applicable. It will be remembered that in the sub-order
+_Liguliflorae_, the florets are naturally all ligulate, so that the
+change above mentioned is not in itself a very grave one.
+
+=Heterotaxy affecting the inflorescence.=--Under the head of
+Prolification, Heterogamy, &c., various deviations from the normal
+inflorescence are alluded to. In this place, therefore, it is only
+necessary to mention certain rare deviations from the customary
+arrangement of the inflorescence, such as the change from a definite
+centrifugal form of inflorescence to an indefinite centripetal one. This
+occurs occasionally in roses, where the shoot, instead of terminating in
+a flower-bud, lengthens and bears the flower-bud on its sides as in a
+raceme.
+
+In the hyacinth, the inflorescence of which is properly indefinite, the
+terminal flower may frequently be found to expand first, though in order
+of development it may have been the last formed.
+
+It occasionally happens that certain plants will, contrary to their
+usual custom, bloom twice in the same season; this usually arises from
+the premature development of buds which, under ordinary circumstances,
+would not unfold till the following spring. In these instances of what
+the French term "fleuraison anticipee," the position of inflorescence is
+not changed, but there are other cases where the position of the
+inflorescence is altered, as in the laburnum, where, in some seasons,
+racemes may be seen springing from short lateral "spurs" along the sides
+of the branches, as well as from the extremities of long shoots.
+
+Of a similar nature are those cases wherein stems or branches usually
+sterile become fertile; this happens in _Equisetaceae_,[187] in
+_Restiaceae_, and other orders. In the equisetums, the condition in
+question has been specially noticed to occur after prolonged drought.
+
+_Equisetaceae_ are likewise subject to an anomaly called by Duval Jouve
+interruption of the spike, and wherein the scales bearing the spore
+cases are separated by whorls of branches instead of forming one compact
+unbroken spike as usual.
+
+This alternation of the organs of vegetation and reproduction may also
+be seen occasionally in _Typha_, and other plants.
+
+Kirschleger describes a case in which the male catkins of _Salix
+cinerea_ were placed at the ends of the branches instead of being
+lateral productions; moreover the usual articulation was not formed, so
+that the catkin was persistent instead of deciduous.[188]
+
+=Supra-soriferous ferns.=--In the great majority of ferns the sori or
+clusters of spore cases are placed on the under surface of the fronds;
+nevertheless, a few cases are on record where the fructification is
+produced on the upper as well as on the lower surface, and sometimes
+abundantly so. This occasionally happens from the elongation of the
+normally placed sorus, which thus extends to the margin, and returns on
+the upper side, when the sori chance to be placed opposite to the
+marginal crenatures. But it is also frequently the case that the sori
+are produced on the upper side, distinctly within the margin, and where
+there are no corresponding sori beneath. Those varieties which have the
+margin crenated or lobed seem most liable to assume this abnormal
+supra-soriferous condition. Among the ferns in which this condition has
+been observed are the following: _Scolopendrium vulgare_, _Polypodium
+anomalum_, Hook., _Asplenium Trichomanes_, _Cionidium Moorei_.[189]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[147] 'Gard. Chron.' 1852, p. 51.
+
+[148] 'Flora.' 1858, pp. 32-42.
+
+[149] 'Journ. Linn. Soc.,' vol. vi; "Botany," 1862, p. 24.
+
+[150] 'Tijdschrift voor Natuur. Geschied,' 1836, vol. iii, tab. vii, p.
+171.
+
+[151] Roeper, 'Enum. Euphorb.,' p. 19. Bernhardi, 'Linnaea,' vii, p.
+561, tab. xiv, f. 1. Wydler, "Subcotyled. sprossbildung," 'Flora,' 1850,
+p. 337. Hooker, 'Trans. Linn. Soc.,' vol. xxiv, p. 20 (_Welwitschia_).
+
+[152] 'Misc. Austriac. ad Bot.,' vol. i, p. 133, t. 5.
+
+[153] See also Carriere, 'Revue Horticole,' 1866, p. 442; and as to
+pears, Radlkofer in 'Bericht ueber die Thaetigkert der Baierischen
+Gartenbau Gesellschaft,' 1862, p. 74, t. i.
+
+[154] 'Flora Indica,' p. 23.
+
+[155] 'Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr.,' 1856, p. 53.
+
+[156] 'Trans. Linn. Soc.' xxvi, p. 142, tab. iv, B.
+
+[157] "Si arbusculam, quae in olla antea posita, quotannis floruit et
+fructus protulit, deinde deponamus in uberiori terra calidi caldarii,
+proferet illa per plures annos multos ac frondosos ramos, sine ullo
+fructu. Id quod argumento est, folia inde crescere, unde prius enati
+sunt flores; quemadmodum vicissim, quod in folia nunc succrescit, id,
+natura ita moderante, in flores mutatur, si eadem arbor iterum in olla
+seritur."--Linnaeus, 'Prolepsis,' Sec. iii.
+
+[158] 'Rev. Hortic.' May, 1868, 'Gardeners' Chronicle,' 1868, pp. 572,
+737.
+
+[159] Cited in 'Annals Nat. Hist.,' 1845, vol. xv, p. 177.
+
+[160] 'Ann. Scienc. Nat.,' vol. xiv, 1860, p. 13.
+
+[161] Naudin, 'Ann. Sc. Nat.,' 2nd ser., 1840, vol. xiv, p. 14, fig. 6,
+pl. i (_Drosera_). St. Hilaire, 'Comptes Rendus,' ix, p. 437.
+
+[162] Hance, 'Hook. Journ. Botany,' 1849, vol. i, p. 141, pl. v.
+
+[163] Booth, 'Gard. Chron.,' Jan. 1st, 1853, p. 4.
+
+[164] Lindley, 'Theory of Horticulture,' ed. 2, p. 273.
+
+[165] 'Hook. Journ. of Botany,' 1852, iv, p. 206. See also the curious
+_Begonia gemmipara_, 'Hook. fil. Illust. Himal. Plant.,' t. xiv.
+
+[166] 'Phytanth.,' n. 36, _d._
+
+[167] 'Ann. Scienc. Nat.,' 3rd series. 1853. vol. xix, p. 251, tab. 14.
+
+[168] Carriere, 'Revue Horticole.' 1868, p. 184.
+
+[169] 'Gard. Chron.,' 1858, p. 556.
+
+[170] 1863, p. 556, &c.
+
+[171] 'Ann. Nat. Hist.,' 1845, vol. xvi, p. 355.
+
+[172] See also Lindley, 'Veg. Kingd.,' p. 109 et 116_a_, where the views
+of Raspail, R. Brown, Mohl, Henslow, and others, are discussed.
+
+[173] It has been observed that if a plant is supplied with copious
+nourishment the flowering-period is delayed; but that moderate or even
+scanty nourishment accelerates it. Goethe, 'Metam.,' Sec. 30. See also
+Wolff, 'Theoria Generationis,' 1759; Linn. 'Prolepsis,' Secs. 3 and 10.
+
+[174] Moquin-Tandon, p. 384; also Lindl., 'Elements of Botany,' p. 65,
+fig. 130; "Theory of Horticulture," p. 86. 'Gard. Chron.,' 1851, p. 723;
+Irmish, 'Flora,' 1858, p. 38, &c.
+
+[175] Caspary, 'Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr.,' vol. vi, 1859, p. 235; also Payer,
+ibid., vol. i, 1854. p. 283.
+
+[176] Trecul, 'Ann. Sc. Nat.,' 2nd ser., vol. xx, p. 339.
+
+[177] 'Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr.,' vol. vii, 1858, p. 331.
+
+[178] 'Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr.,' vol. i. p. 306, vol. v, p. 115. 'Illustr.
+Hortic.,' xii, 1865, Misc. 79. 'Rev. Horticole,' 1860 p. 204, et 1867 p.
+43.
+
+[179] 'Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr.,' 1858, p. 685.
+
+[180] The structure of this flower is discussed at some length in a
+paper by the author on axillary prolification. 'Trans. Linn. Soc.,' vol.
+xxiii, p. 486, t. liv. fig. 3. See also 'Clos. Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr.,'
+vol. v, 1855, p. 672. Seringe et Heyland, 'Bull. Bot.,' i, p. 8. 'Pallas
+Enum. Plant. Hort. Demidoff,' append, c, ic.
+
+[181] 'Adansonia,' i, 181.
+
+[182] 'Adansonia.' vol. iii, p. 351, tab. xii.
+
+[183] 'Elem. Terat. Veget.,' p, 218.
+
+[184] Masters, 'Journ. Linn. Soc.,' vol. ix, 1866, p. 334.
+
+[185] 'Trans. Linn. Soc.,' vol. xxiv, p. 143. tab. xxiv.
+
+[186] 'Brit. Assoc. Report,' Dundee, 1867; and Seemann's 'Journal of
+Botany,' 1867, p. 319, tab. lxxii, figs. B 1-9.
+
+[187] Duval Jouve, 'Hist. Equiset. France.' 1864, p. 154.
+
+[188] 'Flora,' t. xxiv, 1841, p. 340.
+
+[189] Moore, 'Nature-Printed British Ferns,' 8vo edition, vol. ii. p.
+135. tab. lxxxv, B, &c.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+HETEROGAMY.
+
+
+This term is here intended to apply to all those cases in which the
+arrangement of the sexual organs is different from what it is
+habitually. It is evident that in many instances there is no
+malformation, no monstrosity, but rather a restoration of organs
+habitually suppressed, a tendency towards structural completeness
+rather than the reverse. It must be also understood that the following
+remarks apply to structural points only, and are not intended to include
+the question of function. The occurrence of heteromorphic unions renders
+it necessary to keep in mind that plants hermaphrodite as to structure
+are by no means necessarily so as to function.
+
+The simplest case of this alteration in the relative position of the
+sexes is that which occurs in monoecious plants, where the male and
+female flowers have a definite position, but which in exceptional
+instances is altered.
+
+=Change in the relative position of male and female flowers= may thus
+occur in any monoecious plant. Cultivated maize, _Zea Mays_,
+frequently exhibits alterations of this kind; under ordinary
+circumstances, the male inflorescence is a compound spike, occupying the
+extremity of the stem, while the female flowers are borne in simple
+spikes at a lower level, but specimens may now and then be found where
+the sexes are mixed in the same inflorescence; the upper branching
+panicle usually containing male flowers only, under these circumstances,
+bears female flowers also.[190] In like manner, but less frequently, the
+female inflorescence occasionally produces male flowers as well.
+
+Among the species of _Carex_ it is a common thing for the terminal spike
+to consist of male flowers at the top, and female flowers at the base;
+the converse of this, where the female flowers are at the summit of the
+spike, is much more uncommon. An illustration of this occurrence is
+given in the figure (fig. 100). Among the _Coniferae_ numerous instances
+have been recorded of the presence of male and female flowers on the
+same spike, thus Mr. now Professor Alexander Dickson exhibited at the
+Botanical Society of Edinburgh in July, 1860, some malformed cones of
+_Abies excelsa_, in which the inferior part of the axis was covered with
+stamens, whilst the terminal portion produced bracts and scales like an
+ordinary female cone. The stamens of the lower division were serially
+continuous with the bracts above. Some of the lower scales of the female
+portion were in the axils of the uppermost stamens, which last were
+somewhat modified, the anther cells being diminished, whilst the
+scale-like crest had become more elongated and pointed, in fact, more or
+less resembling the ordinary bracts.[191] Mohl, Schleiden, and A. Braun
+have observed similar cones in _Pinus alba_, and Cramer figures and
+describes androgynous cones in _Larix microcarpa_. C. A. Meyer ('Bull.
+Phys. Math.,' t. x, 1850) also describes some catkins of _Alnus
+fruticosa_ which bore male flowers at the top, and female flowers at the
+base.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 100.--Spike of _Carex acuta_, with female flowers at
+the summit.]
+
+ On the subject of this section the reader may consult A.
+ Braun,. 'Das Individ.,' 1853, p. 65. Caspary, 'De Abietin.
+ flor. fem. struct. morphol.' Schleiden. 'Principles,' English
+ edition, p. 299. Mohl, 'Verm. Schrift.,' p. 45. Meyen in
+ 'Wiegm. Archiv.,' 1838, p. 155. Cramer, 'Bildungsabweich,' p.
+ 4, tab. v, figs. 13-17. Parlatore, 'Ann. Sc. Nat.,' ser. iv,
+ vol. xvi, p. 215, tab. 13A. See also under the head of
+ Prolification, Substitutions, &c.
+
+=Change from the monoecious to the dioecious condition.=--This is of
+less frequent occurrence than might have been anticipated. In the
+'Gardeners' Chronicle,' 1847, pp. 541 and 558, several instances are
+noted of walnut trees bearing female flowers to the exclusion of males.
+The mulberry tree has also been noticed to produce female blossoms only,
+while in other plants male flowers only are developed.
+
+It seems probable that the age of the plant may have something to do
+with this production of flowers of one sex to the exclusion of the
+other.
+
+=Change from the dioecious to the monoecious condition.--Androgynism.=--
+This is of far more common occurrence than the preceding.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 101.--Monoecious inflorescence of Hop.]
+
+In the hop (_Humulus Lupulus_), when monoecious, the female catkins
+are usually borne on the ends of the branches as shown in the cut (fig.
+101), and a similar thing has been noticed in _Urtica dioica_ by Clos,
+'Bull. Soc. Bot. France,' vol. 9, p. 7.
+
+Baillon ('Etudes du groupe des Euphorbiacees,' p. 205) mentions the
+following species of that order as having been seen by him with
+monoecious inflorescence: _Schismatopera distichophylla_, _Mozinna
+peltata_, _Hermesia castaneifolia_. Oliver mentions ('Hook. Icon.
+Plant.,' t. 1044) that in _Leitneria floridana_ the upper scales of the
+male catkin occasionally subtend an ovary.
+
+It would seem that external conditions have some effect in determining
+the formation of one sex, as in some species of _Carex_, while in the
+case of _Salix repens_, Hampe[192] says that when grown partially or for
+a time under water, those twigs which are thrust up above the surface
+bear female flowers, while those twigs that blossom after the water is
+dried up, produce male flowers only.
+
+Carriere[193] says that a plant of _Stauntonia latifolia_ which for some
+years produced stamens only, now produces flowers of both sexes; it was
+dioecious, but is now monoecious. The same author alludes to a
+similar occurrence in _Juniperus Virginiana_. The hops is also said to
+vary in sexual characteristics from time to time.[194] In addition to
+the genera, already named, in which this production of flowers of both
+sexes has been observed may be mentioned _Taxus! Gunnera! Urtica!
+Mercurialis! Restio! Cannabis! Salix! Humulus!_ as well as others in
+which the change is less frequent.
+
+Among cryptogams a similar change occurs. As an illustration may be
+cited _Leucobryum giganteum_, as quoted from Mueller in Henfrey's
+'Botanical Gazette,' i, p. 100.
+
+ As to androgynous willows, in addition to the references given
+ under the head of Substitution of stamens for pistils, see
+ Schlechtendal, 'Flora Berol.,' ii. p. 259. Tausch, 'Bot.
+ Zeit.,' 1833, i. p. 229. Koch, 'Synops. Flor. Germ.,' 740.
+ Host, 'Flor. Aust,.' ii, p. 641 (_S. mirabilis_). See also
+ Hegelmaier, 'Wuerttemberg Naturwissenshaft Jahreshefte,' 1866,
+ p. 30. Other references to less accessible works are given in
+ 'Linnaea,' xiv, p. 372.
+
+=Change from hermaphroditism to unisexuality.=--Many flowers ordinarily
+hermaphrodite as to structure, become unisexual by the abortion or
+suppression of their stamens, or of their carpels, as the case may be.
+This phenomenon is lessened in interest since the demonstration of the
+fact by Darwin and others, that many plants, structurally hermaphrodite,
+require for the full and perfect performance of their functions the
+cooperation of the stamens and pistils, belonging to different
+individuals of the same species.
+
+Some of the _Ranunculaceae_ constantly exhibit a tendency towards the
+dioecious condition, and the rarity with which perfect seeds of
+_Ranunculus Ficaria_ are formed is to be attributed, in great measure,
+to the deficiency of pollen in the anthers of these flowers. _Ranunculus
+auricomus_ also is frequently sterile. Specimens of _Ranunculus
+bulbosus_ may be met with in which every flower is furnished with
+carpels, most of which have evidently been fertilised, although there
+are no perfect stamens in the flowers.
+
+Knight and other vegetable physiologists have been of opinion that a
+high temperature favours the production of stamens, while a lower degree
+of heat is considered more favorable to the production of pistils, and
+in this way the occurrence of "blind" strawberries has been accounted
+for. Mr. R. Thompson, writing on this subject, speaks of a plantation of
+Hautbois strawberries which in one season were wholly sterile, and
+accounts for the circumstance as follows: the plants were taken from the
+bearing beds the year previous, and were planted in a rich well-manured
+border, in which they started rapidly into too great luxuriance, the
+growth being to leaves rather than to fruit. The following season these
+same plants bore a most abundant crop, hence these plants were
+accidentally prevented from perfecting their female organs.[195]
+
+Mr. Darwin[196] cites from various sources the following details
+relating to strawberries which it may be useful to insert in this place,
+as throwing some light upon the production of unisexual flowers.
+"Several English varieties, which in this country are free from any such
+tendency, when cultivated in rich soils under the climate of North
+America commonly produce plants with separate sexes. Thus, a whole acre
+of Keen's seedlings in the United States has been observed to be almost
+sterile in the absence of male flowers; but the more general rule is,
+that the male plants over-run the females.... The most successful
+cultivators in Ohio plant, for every seven rows of pistillate flowers,
+one row of hermaphrodites, which afford pollen for both kinds; but the
+hermaphrodites, owing to their expenditure in the production of pollen,
+bear less fruit than the female plants."
+
+_Stratiotes aloides_ has been said to produce its carpels with greater
+abundance towards the northern limits of its geographical distribution,
+and its stamens, on the other hand, are stated to be more frequently
+developed in more southern districts.
+
+_Honckenya peploides_ affords another illustration of the sexual
+arrangements in the flower being altered as it would seem by climatal
+conditions. Thus, in the United States, according to Professor Asa Gray,
+the flowers are frequently hermaphrodite, while in this country they are
+usually sub-dioecious.[197]
+
+Treviranus[198] says that the flowers of _Hippuris_ and _Callitriche_
+are apt to be hermaphrodite in summer, but female only at a later
+period.
+
+For further remarks on this subject, see sections relating to
+suppression of stamens and pistils.
+
+=Change from unisexuality to hermaphroditism.=--This occurrence depends
+on one of two causes, either organs are developed (stamens or pistils as
+the case may be), which are habitually absent in the particular flower;
+or some of the stamens may be more or less completely converted into or
+replaced by pistils, or _vice versa_.
+
+The first condition is the opposite of suppression; it is, as it were, a
+restoration of symmetry, and might be included under the head of regular
+peloria, inasmuch as certain organs which habitually undergo suppression
+at a certain stage in their development, by exception, go on growing,
+and produce a perfect, instead of an imperfect flower. In teratological
+records it is not always stated clearly to which of the two above-named
+causes the unusual hermaphroditism belongs, though it is generally easy
+to ascertain this point. Very many, perhaps all, diclinous flowers may,
+under certain conditions, become perfect, at least structurally. I have
+myself seen hermaphrodite flowers in _Cucurbita_,[199] _Mercurialis_,
+_Cannabis_, _Zea Mays_, and _Aucuba japonica_, as well as in many
+_Restiaceae_, notably _Cannamois virgata_ and _Lepyrodia hermaphrodita_.
+_Spinacia oleracea_, _Rhodiola rosea_, _Cachrys taurica_, and _Empetrum
+nigrum_ are also occasionally hermaphrodite.
+
+Gubler[200] alludes to a similar occurrence in _Pistacia Lentiscus_,
+wherein, however, he adds that there was a deficiency of pollen in the
+flowers.
+
+Schnizlein[201] observed hermaphrodite flowers in the beech, _Fagus
+sylvatica_, the ovaries being smaller than usual, and the stamens
+epigynous.
+
+Baillon[202] enumerates the following _Euphorbiaceae_ as having
+exceptionally produced hermaphrodite flowers, _Crozophora tinctoria_,
+_Suregada_ sp., _Phyllanthus longifolius_, _Breynia_ sp., _Philyra
+brasiliensis_, _Ricinus communis_, _Conceveiba macrophylla_, _Cluytia
+semperflorens_, _Wall_, non _Roxb_. _Mercurialis annua_ and
+_Cleistanthus polystachyus_.
+
+In some of these cases the hermaphroditism is due to the development of
+anthers on the usually barren staminodes, though, in other cases, the
+stamens would seem to be separate, independent formations, as they do
+not occupy the same relative position that the ordinary stamens would do
+if developed.[203]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 102.--Flower of _Fuchsia_ in which the calyx was
+leafy, the petals normal (reflexed in the figure), the stamens partially
+converted into ovaries, the ordinary inferior ovary being absent. See
+Substitution.]
+
+Robert Brown[204] observed stamens within the utricle of _Carex acuta_,
+and Gay is stated by Moquin ('El. Ter. Veg.,' p. 343) to have observed
+a similar occurrence in _Carex glauca_.
+
+Paasch[205] observed a similar occurrence in _C. caespitosa_, and
+Schauer, in _C. paludosa_,[206] though in the latter instance the case
+seems to have been one of transformation or substitution rather than one
+of hermaphroditism.
+
+The second cause of this pseudo-hermaphroditism is due either to the
+more or less perfect mutation of male and female organs, or it may be to
+the complete absence of one and its replacement by another, as when out
+of many stamens, one or more are deficient, and their places occupied by
+carpels. This happens very frequently in willows and poplars, and has
+been seen in the beech.[207]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 103.--Hermaphrodite flower of _Carica Papaya_.]
+
+In _Begonia frigida_[208] the anomaly is increased by the position of
+the ovaries above, the perianth, a position due, not to any solution or
+detachment of the latter from the former, but simply to the presence of
+ovaries where, under ordinary circumstances, stamens only are formed,
+as happened also in a garden variety of a _Fuchsia_, wherein, however,
+the change was less perfect than in the _Begonia_, and in which, as the
+flower is naturally hermaphrodite, the alteration is of the less
+importance.
+
+[Illustration FIG. 104.--Ovuliferous anthers--_Cucurbita_.]
+
+In hermaphrodite flowers of _Carica Papaya_ (fig. 103) there is a single
+row of five stamens instead of two rows of five each as in the normal
+male flowers, the position of the second or inner row of stamens being
+occupied by five carpels, which, however, are not adherent to the
+corolla as the stamens are, thus, supposing the arrangement of parts in
+the normal male flowers to be as follows:
+
+ ---------------------------
+ s s s s s
+ ---------------------------
+ | p p p p p
+ | st st st st st
+ | st st st st st
+ |
+
+That of the hermaphrodite blossoms would be, in brief, as follows:
+
+ | 5 s
+ |------------
+ | 5 p
+ | 5 st
+ | 5 c
+ |
+
+One of the most curious cases of this kind recorded is one mentioned by
+Mr. Berkeley,[209] wherein a large white-seeded gourd presented a
+majority of flowers in which the pollen was replaced by ovules. It would
+seem probable from the appearances presented by the figure that these
+ovules were, some of them, polliniferous, like those of the
+_Passiflora_, &c., described at p. 185, but nothing is stated on the
+subject.
+
+See also section on Regular Peloria, Substitution, Pistillody of the
+stamens, &c.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[190] See also Clos., 'Mem. Acad. Toulouse,' sixth ser., t. iii, pp.
+294-305. Scott, 'Trans. Bot. Soc. Edinburgh,' t. viii, p. 60. Wigand,
+'Flora,' 1856, p. 707.
+
+[191] Professor Dickson concludes from the examination of these
+structures that the male cone, consisting of simple stamens developed on
+one common axis, must be regarded as a simple male flower, while the
+axillary scales of the female cone are by him compared with the
+flattened shoots of _Ruscus_.
+
+[192] 'Linnaea,' xiv, 367.
+
+[193] Rev. Hortic.,' January, 1867.
+
+[194] See Royle, 'Man. Materia Medica,' ed. 1, p. 567.
+
+[195] Thomson, 'Gardener's Assistant,' p. 577.
+
+[196] 'Variation of Animals and Plants,' i, 353.
+
+[197] Babington, 'Ann. Nat. Hist.,' vol. ix, 1852, p. 156.
+
+[198] 'Phys. der Gewaechse,' ii, p. 323.
+
+[199] See also Schlechtendal, 'Linnaea,' viii, p. 623, and Lindley, 'Veg.
+Kingd.,' p. 315.
+
+[200] 'Bull. Soc. Bot. France,' vol. ix, p. 81.
+
+[201] Cited in Henfrey, 'Bot. Gazette.' 3, p. 11.
+
+[202] Baillon. 'Etudes du Groupe des Euphorbiacees,' p. 205, tab. xv,
+fig. 19, tab. xix, fig. 31.
+
+[203] See also Guillemin, 'Mem. Soc. Nat. Hist. Paris,' I, p. 16;
+hermaphrodite flowers in _Euphorbia esula_.
+
+[204] 'Prod. Flor. N. Holl.,' p. 242.
+
+[205] 'Bot. Zeit.,' 1837, p. 335.
+
+[206] 'Pflanz, Terat.,' von Moquin-Tandon, p. 208.
+
+[207] Schnizlein, loc. cit.
+
+[208] 'Bot. Mag.,' tab. 5160, fig. 4. See also 'Gard. Chron.,' 1860, pp.
+146, 170; 1861, p. 1092.
+
+[209] 'Gard. Chron.,' 1851, p. 499.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+ALTERATIONS IN THE DIRECTION OF ORGANS.
+
+
+The deviations from the ordinary direction of organs partake for the
+most part more of the nature of variations than of absolute malposition
+or displacement. It must also be borne in mind how frequently the
+direction of the leaves, or of the flower, varies according to the
+stage of development which it has arrived at, to unequal or
+disproportionate growth of some parts, or to the presence of some
+impediment either accidental or resulting from the natural growth of the
+plant. These and other causes tend to alter the direction of parts very
+materially.
+
+=Change in the direction of axile organs, roots, stems, &c.=--The roots
+frequently exhibit good illustrations of the effect of the causes above
+mentioned in altering the natural direction. The roots are put out of
+their course by meeting with any obstacle in their way. Almost the only
+exception to the rule in accordance with which roots descend under
+natural circumstances, is that furnished by _Trapa natans_, the roots of
+which in germination are directed upwards towards the surface of the
+water. So in _Sechium edule_, the seed of which germinates while still
+in the fruit, the roots are necessarily, owing to the inverted position
+of the embryo, directed upwards in the first instance.
+
+A downward direction of the stem or branches occurs in many weak-stemmed
+plants growing upon rocks or walls, or in trees with very long slender
+branches as in _Salix Babylonica_, and the condition may often be
+produced artificially as in the weeping ash.
+
+The opposite change occurs in what are termed fastigiate varieties,
+where the branches, in place of assuming more or less of a horizontal
+direction, become erect and nearly parallel with the main stem as in the
+Lombardy poplar, which is supposed to be merely a form of the black
+Italian poplar.
+
+M. de Selys-Longchamps has described a similar occurrence in another
+species of Poplar (_P. virginiana_ Desf.), and amongst a number of
+seedling plants fastigiate varieties may frequently be found, which may
+be perpetuated by cuttings or grafts, or sometimes even by seed; hence
+the origin of fastigiate varieties of elms, oaks, thorns, chestnuts, and
+other plants which may be met with in the nurseries.
+
+Sometimes when the top of the main stem is destroyed by disease or
+accident, one of the heretofore lateral shoots takes its place, and
+continues the development of the tree in the original direction. It is
+often an object with the gardener to restore the symmetry of an injured
+tree so that its beauty may ultimately not be impaired.[210]
+
+Climate appears sometimes to have some influence on the direction of
+branches, thus Dr. Falconer, as quoted by Darwin,[211] relates that in
+the hotter parts of India "the English Ribston-pippin apple, a Himalayan
+oak, a Prunus and a Pyrus all assume a fastigiate or pyramidal habit,
+and this fact is the more interesting as a Chinese tropical species of
+_Pyrus_ naturally has this habit of growth. Nevertheless many of the
+fastigiate varieties seen in gardens have originated in this country by
+variation of seeds or buds."
+
+M. Carriere has also recorded a curious circumstance with reference to
+the fastigiate variety of the false acacia _Robinia pseudacacia_; he
+states that if a cutting or a graft be taken from the upper portion of
+the tree, the fastigiate habit will be reproduced, and the branches will
+be furrowed and covered with short prickles; but if the plant be
+multiplied by detaching portions of the root-stock, then instead of
+getting a pyramidal tree with erect branches, a spreading bushy shrub is
+produced, with more or less horizontal, cylindrical branches, destitute
+of prickles.[212]
+
+=Eversion of the axis.=--In the case of the fig, the peculiar
+inflorescence is usually explained on the supposition that the
+termination of the axis becomes concave, during growth, bearing the true
+flowers in the hollow thus formed. The cavity in this case would
+probably be due not to any real process of excavation, but to a
+disproportionate growth of the outer as contrasted with the central
+parts of the fig. Some species of _Sempervivum_ have a similar mode of
+growth, so that ultimately a kind of tube is formed, lined by the
+leaves, the central and innermost being the youngest. The hip of the
+Rose may be explained in a similar manner by the greater proportionate
+growth of the outer as contrasted with the central portions of the apex
+of the flower-stalk. In cases of median prolification, already referred
+to, the process is reversed, the central portions then elongate into a
+shoot and no cavity is formed. A fig observed by Zuccarini (figs. 105,
+106) appears to have been formed in a similar manner, the flower-bearing
+summit of the stalk not being contracted as usual, the flowers projected
+beyond the orifice of the fig. If this view be correct the case would be
+one rather of lengthening of the axis than of absolute eversion since it
+was never inverted.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 105.--Fig showing prolonged inflorescence and
+projecting flowers.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 106.--Section of the same.]
+
+=Altered direction of leaves.=--The leaves partake more or less of the
+altered direction of the axis, as in fastigiate elms, but this is not
+universally the case, for though the stem is bent downwards the leaves
+may be placed in the opposite direction; thus in some specimens of
+_Galium Aparine_ growing on the side of a cliff from which there had
+been a fall of chalk, the stems, owing apparently to the landslip, were
+pendent, but the leaves were abruptly bent upwards.
+
+One of the most singular instances of an inverted direction of the
+leaves is that presented by a turnip (fig. 107) presented to the Museum
+of King's College, London, by the late Professor Edward Forbes. The
+turnip is hollow in the interior and the majority of the leaves
+springing from its apex instead of ascending into the light and air
+become bent downwards so as to occupy the cavity, and in such a manner
+as to bring to mind the position of an inverted embryo in a seed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 107.--Hollow turnip, showing some of the leaves
+inverted and occupying the cavity.]
+
+=Altered direction of the flower and its parts.=--The changes which take
+place in the relative position either of the flower as a whole or of its
+several parts during growth are well known, as also are the relations
+which some of these movements bear to the process of fertilisation, so
+that but little space need here be given to the subject beyond what is
+necessary to point out the frequent changes of direction which
+necessarily accompany various deviations from the ordinary form and
+arrangement of parts.
+
+In cases where an habitually irregular flower becomes regular, the
+change in form is frequently associated with an alteration in direction
+both of the flower as a whole and, to a greater or less extent, of its
+individual members, for instance of _Gloxinia_, the normal flowers of
+which are irregular and pendent, there is now in common cultivation a
+peloriate race in which the flowers are regular in form and erect in
+position.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 108.--Flower of normal _Gloxinia_.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 109.--Flower of _Gloxinia_, erect and regular
+(regular _Peloria_).]
+
+Fig. 108 shows the usual irregular form of _Gloxinia_, with which may be
+contrasted figs. 109, 110 and 111.
+
+Fig. 109 shows the regular erect form; fig. 110 the calyx of the same
+flower; while in fig. 111 are shown the stamens and style of the two
+plants respectively. In the upper figure the style of the peloriate
+variety is shown as nearly straight, and the stamens undergo a
+corresponding change. No doubt the relative fertility and capacity for
+impregnation of the two varieties is affected in proportion to the
+change of form. The Gloxinia affords an instance of regular congenital
+peloria in which the regularity of form and the erect direction are due
+to an arrest, not of growth, but of development, in consequence of which
+the changes that ordinarily ensue during the progress of the flower from
+its juvenile to its fully formed condition do not take place.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 110.--Calyx of erect _Gloxinia_.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 111.--Stamens of erect regular, and of pendent
+irregular-flowered _Gloxinia_.]
+
+A similar alteration accompanies this form of peloria in other flowers
+(see Peloria). A change in direction may result also from other
+circumstances than those just alluded to. Abortion or suppression of
+organs will induce such an alteration; thus in a flower of _Pelargonium_
+now before me three of the five carpels, from some cause or other, are
+abortive and much smaller than usual, and the style and the beak-like
+torus are bent downwards towards the stunted carpels instead of being,
+as they usually are, straight.
+
+Amongst orchids, where the pedicel of the flower or the ovary is
+normally twisted, so that the labellum occupies the anterior or inferior
+part of the flower, it frequently happens, in cases of peloria and other
+changes, that the primitive position is retained, the twist does not
+take place, and so with other resupinate flowers. In Azaleas a curious
+deflexion of the parts of the flower may occasionally be met with. Fig.
+112 shows an instance of this in which the corolla, the stamens and the
+style were abruptly bent downwards: as young flowers of this singular
+variety have not been examined it is difficult to form an opinion as to
+the cause of this variation. In one plant the change occurred in
+connection with the suppression of all the flowers but one in the
+cluster, or rather the place of the flowers was occupied by an equal
+number of leafy shoots.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 112.--Flower of _Azalea_, showing the corolla
+reflected.]
+
+Moquin[213] mentions a flower of _Rosa alpina_ in which two of the
+petals were erect, while the remaining ones were much larger and
+expanded horizontally. The same author quotes from M. Desmoulins the
+case of a species of _Orobanche_, in which a disjunction of the petals
+constituting the upper lip took place, thus liberating the style and
+allowing it to assume a vertical direction.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 113.--Flower of _Cuphea miniata_ enlarged, showing
+protrusion and hypertrophy of an erect placenta, after Morren.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 114.--Placenta from the flower shown at fig. 113;
+the ovary is membranous and torn, the placenta, erect and ovuliferous,
+after Morren.]
+
+M. Carriere[214] has described an instance wherein two apples were
+joined together, a larger and a smaller one; the former was directed
+away from the centre of the tree as usual, while the smaller one was
+pointed in exactly the opposite direction. The larger fruit had the
+customary parchment-like carpels, the smaller was destitute of them.
+
+Sometimes the direction assumed by one flower as an abnormal occurrence
+is the same as that which is proper to an allied species or genus under
+natural circumstances; thus flowers of the vine (_Vitis_) have been met
+with in which the petals were spreading like a star (_fleurs
+avalidouires_), as in the genus _Cissus_.[215]
+
+Morren describes a curious condition in some flowers of _Cuphea
+miniata_, in which the placenta protruded through an orifice in the
+ovary, and losing the horizontal direction became erect (figs. 113,
+114). A similar occurrence happened in _Lobelia erinus_. To this
+condition the Belgian savant gave the name of gymnaxony.[216]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[210] The following details as to the method pursued by Mr. McNab, of
+the Edinburgh Botanic Garden, may not be uninteresting in this place.
+They are from the pen of Mr. Anderson, and originally appeared in the
+'Gardeners' Chronicle.'
+
+"The mode of inducing leaders to proceed from laterals is a matter of
+comparatively little concern among the generality of deciduous trees,
+for they are often provided with subsidiary branches around the leader,
+at an angle of elevation scarcely less perpendicular, but the laterals
+of all Conifers stand, as nearly as possible, at right angles. Imagine
+the consternation of most people when the leader of, say, _Picea
+nobilis_, _P. Nordmanniana_, or _P. Lowii_ is destroyed."
+
+In a specimen of the latter plant the leader had been mischievously
+destroyed, to remedy which Mr. McNab adopted means which Mr. Anderson
+goes on to describe. "Looking from the leader downward to the first tier
+of laterals, there appeared to have been a number of adventitious
+leaf-buds created, owing to the coronal bud being destroyed. These were
+allowed to plump up unmolested until the return of spring, when every
+one was scarified or rubbed off but the one nearest the extremity. To
+assist its development and restrain the action of the numerous laterals,
+every one was cut back in autumn, and this restraint upon the sap acted
+so favorably upon the incipient leader as to give it the strength and
+stamina of the original leader, so that nothing detrimental was evident
+twelve months after the accident had happened, and only a practical eye
+could detect that there had been any mishap at all. This beautifully
+simple process saved the baby tree.
+
+"Another example of retrieving lost leaders may be quoted as
+illustrative of many in similar circumstances. _Picea Webbiana_ had its
+leader completely destroyed down to the first tier of laterals. There
+was no such provision left for inducing leaf-buds as was the case with
+_P. Lowii_ above referred to. Resort must, therefore, be had to one of
+the best favoured laterals, but how is it to be coaxed from the
+horizontal position of a lateral to the perpendicular position of a
+leader? The uninitiated in these matters, and, in fact, practical
+gardeners generally, would at once reply, by supporting to a stake with
+the all-powerful Cuba or bast-matting. But no. A far simpler method than
+that, namely, by fore-shortening all the laterals of the upper tier but
+the one selected for a leader. Nature becomes the handmaid of art here;
+for without the slightest prop the lateral gradually raises itself
+erect, and takes the place of the lost leader. All that the operator
+requires to attend to is the amputation of the laterals until this
+adventitious fellow has gained a supremacy. Singular provision in nature
+this, which, thanks to the undivided attention of a careful observer,
+has been fully appreciated and utilized."
+
+[211] 'Variation of Animals and Plants,' ii, p. 277.
+
+[212] Quoted in 'Gard. Chron.,' 1867, p. 654.
+
+[213] Loc. cit., p. 315.
+
+[214] 'Rev. Hortic.,' 1868, p. 110.
+
+[215] Planchon and Mares, 'Ann. Sc. Nat.,' 5 ser., tom. vi, 1866, p.
+228, tab. xii.
+
+[216] 'Bull. Acad. Belg.,' xviii, part ii, p. 293.
+
+
+
+
+BOOK II.
+
+DEVIATIONS FROM THE ORDINARY FORM OF ORGANS.
+
+
+In a morphological point of view the form of the various parts or organs
+of plants and the changes to which they are subjected during their
+development are only second in importance to the diversities of
+arrangement and, indeed, in some cases, do not in any degree hold a
+second place.
+
+Taken together, the arrangement, form, and number of the several parts
+of the flower, make up what has been termed the symmetry of the
+flower.[217] Referring to the assumed standard of comparison, see p. 4,
+it will be seen that in the typically regular flower all the various
+organs are supposed to be regular in their dimensions and form. At one
+time it was even supposed that all flowers, no matter how irregular
+they subsequently became, began by being strictly symmetrical or
+regular, and that subsequent alterations were produced by inequality of
+growth or development. The researches of organogenists have, however,
+dispelled this idea of unvarying primordial regularity, by showing that
+in many cases flowers are irregular from the very first, that some begin
+by being irregular, and subsequently become regular, and even in some
+cases resume their original condition during the course of their
+development.[218] Under these circumstances an artificial standard of
+comparison becomes almost an absolute necessity for the time being.
+
+Changes of form very generally, but not always, are accompanied with a
+change in regularity: thus a flower habitually bi-lateral may assume the
+characters of radiating symmetry and _vice versa_. Increase or decrease
+of size very frequently also are co-existent with an alteration in the
+usual form.
+
+In the case of the arrangement of organs it is often difficult or
+impossible, in the present state of our knowledge, to determine whether
+a given arrangement is congenital or acquired subsequently to the first
+development, whether for instance an isolation of parts be due to
+primordial separation or to a subsequent disunion of originally combined
+organs, see p. 58. With reference to the changes in the form of organs,
+however, it is in general more easy to ascertain the proximate cause of
+the appearance, and thus teratological changes of form may be grouped
+according as they are due to, 1, arrest of development; 2, undue or
+excessive development; 3, perverted development; and 4, irregular
+development; hence the use of the following terms--Stasimorphy,
+Pleiomorphy, Metamorphy, and Heteromorphy--to include teratological
+changes really or apparently due to one or other of the causes above
+mentioned. The classification here adopted is of course to a
+considerable extent an arbitrary one and subject to correction or
+modification, as the knowledge of the development of the flowers in the
+various genera of plants advances.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[217] The word symmetry has been used in very different senses by
+different botanists, sometimes as synonymous with "regularity," at other
+times to express the assumed typical form of a flower. Payer understands
+it to be that arrangement of parts which permits of the whole flower
+being divided vertically into two symmetrical halves (bi-lateral
+symmetry). Others, again, have applied the term symmetry to the number
+of the parts of the flower, reserving the terms "regularity" or
+"irregularity" for the form. It is here used in a general sense to
+express the plan of the flower, and thus includes the arrangement, form,
+and number of its component elements.
+
+[218] See Baillon, 'Adansonia,' v, 176.
+
+
+
+
+PART I.
+
+STASIMORPHY.[219]
+
+
+Deviations from the ordinary form of organs arising from stasis or
+arrest of development are included under this heading.
+
+There are many cases in which the forms proper to a juvenile condition
+of the plant are retained for a much longer period than ordinary, or
+even throughout the life of the individual growth goes on, but
+"development" is checked. Such conditions may even be propagated by seed
+or bud. It is a very general thing for botanists to consider these cases
+as reversions to a simpler, primitive type, and this may be so; but on
+the other hand, they may be degenerations from a complex type, or they
+may have no direct relation to any antecedent condition. Stasimorphic
+changes affecting principally the relative size of organs--such, for
+instance, as the non-development of internodes, or the atrophy or
+suppression of parts will be found mentioned in the sections relating to
+those subjects. In the present part those alterations which affect the
+form of organs principally are treated of.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[219] [Greek: Stasis-morphosis].
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+PERSISTENCE OF JUVENILE FORMS.
+
+
+The retention in adult life of a form characteristic of an early stage
+of development, and therefore usually transient, may be manifested in
+any of the organs of the plant. As these cases are for the most part
+treated under separate headings, it is here only necessary to allude to
+a few, which it is difficult to allocate satisfactorily, while the
+reader may be referred for other instances of like nature to the
+sections on Peloria, Atrophy, Suppression, Dimorphy, Substitutions, &c.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 115.--_Juniperus sinensis_. Two forms of leaves on
+branches of the same shrub.]
+
+=Stasimorphy in the leaves of conifers.=--In many conifers the leaves
+produced in the young state of the plant are different, both in
+arrangement and form, from those subsequently developed (see pp. 89,
+90). But it occasionally happens that the plant continues to form
+throughout its existence leaves such as are usually produced only in a
+young state; thus M. Gubler ('Bull. Soc. Bot., Fr.,' vol. viii, 1861, p.
+527) describes a plant of _Pinus pinea_ in which the primordial, usually
+transitory, foliage was permanent, leaves of the ordinary shape not
+being developed at all. It more often happens that some only of the
+leaves retain their young form while others assume other shapes, see
+fig. 115. This happens frequently in the larch and constantly in the
+Chinese juniper when it has arrived at a considerable age. In _Cupressus
+funebris_ two forms of leaves may often be found on the same plant, the
+one representing the juvenile state, the other the more developed
+condition. What is very singular, is that a cutting taken from the
+branch with leaves of the young form grows up into a shrub bearing
+leaves of no other shape, so that an ordinary observer unacquainted with
+the history of the plant would imagine that he had to deal with two
+distinct species. This fact is the more interesting when compared with
+the alternation of generations which takes place among the lower
+animals.
+
+The regular development of all the parts of the flower in a plant
+habitually producing irregular flowers is referred to under the head of
+Peloria, but it still remains to consider those examples in which some
+only of the parts of the flower are affected in this manner.[220] Most
+of these cases are elsewhere referred to in this volume under the
+particular form of malformation assumed; but the following case may here
+be noticed as not coming under any of the previous heads. It is an
+instance recorded by Professor Babington ('Phytologist,' August, 1853),
+and in which the pod of _Medicago maculata_, which is usually rolled up
+like a snail shell and provided with spines, was sickle-shaped and
+unarmed.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[220] See a paper of Professor C. Morren's on "Floral Stesomy" in 'Bull.
+Acad. Belg.,' t. xix, part ii, p. 519.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+REGULAR PELORIA.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 116.--Regular Peloria, _Delphinium_.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 117.--Sepal, petal, &c., of regular-flowered
+_Delphinium_.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 118--Regular peloria, _Viola_.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 119--Double Violet, flower regular, petals
+multiplied, stamens and pistils petaloid.]
+
+When an habitually irregular flower becomes regular, it does so in one
+of two ways; either by the non-development of the irregular portions, or
+by the formation of irregular parts in increased number, so that the
+symmetry of the flower is rendered perfect, as in the original peloria
+of Linnaeus, and which may be called irregular peloria, while the former
+case may be called regular peloria. This latter appearance is therefore
+congenital, and due to an arrest of development.[221] As the true nature
+of these cases has not been in all cases recognised (even Moquin places
+them under the head of deformities--they being less entitled to rank in
+that class than are the usual flowers), it may be well to cite a few
+instances taken from various families. In _Delphinium peregrinum_ I have
+met with perfectly regular flowers having five sepals and five oblong
+stalked petals, and a similar occurrence has been noted in other
+species of this genus. Baillon,[222] in referring to these flowers,
+points out the resemblance that they bear to the double varieties of
+_Nigella_. In the stellate columbines (_Aquilegia_) of gardens the
+tubular petals are replaced by flat ones often in increased numbers. In
+violets both forms of peloria occur, that in which there is an unusual
+number of spurs, and that in which there are no spurs (var. anectaria).
+In the more perfect forms of regular peloria occurring in the last-named
+genus the following changes may be noticed: 1, an alteration in the
+direction of the flower so that it remains in an erect position, and is
+not bent downwards as usual; 2, equality of proportion in the sepals and
+petals; 3, absence of spurs, as also of hairs on the lateral petals; 4,
+equal stamens whose anthers are sometimes entirely destitute of the
+prolonged crest which forms so prominent a feature under ordinary
+circumstances; 5, erect, not curved styles, and the stigmas not
+prolonged into a beak, but having a more or less capitate form; ovary
+with three or five cells, ovules normal.
+
+These are cases where the change in question is most strongly marked,
+the bi-lateral is completely replaced by the radiating symmetry. The
+absence of the usual nectary, and of hairs on the side petals, the
+alterations in the form of the style, etc., all show how much the
+process of fertilisation must be altered from that which occurs under
+ordinary circumstances. In some of the double violets now cultivated in
+gardens, a similar regularity of proportion in the parts of the flower
+may be seen combined with the substitution of petals for stamens and
+pistils, and with the development of an increased number of petal-like
+organs.[223] Between these cases and the ordinary spurred forms as well
+as those with an increased number of spurs, many intermediate forms may
+be met with. That such regularity should occur in this family is not to
+be wondered at seeing that there is a whole subdivision of the order
+(_Alsodeiae_) in which regular flowers are the rule.
+
+In cultivated Pelargoniums the central flower of the umbel or "truss"
+frequently retains its regularity of proportion, so as closely to
+approximate to the normal condition in the allied genus _Geranium_; this
+resemblance is rendered greater by the fact that, under such
+circumstances, the patches of darker colour characteristic of the
+ordinary flower are completely wanting; the flower is as uniform in
+colour as in shape. Even the nectary which is adherent to the upper
+surface of the pedicel in the normal flower disappears--sometimes
+completely, at other tunes partially. The direction of the stamens and
+style, and even that of the whole flower, becomes altered from the
+inclined to the vertical position. In addition to these changes, which
+are those most commonly met with, the number of the parts of the flower
+is sometimes augmented, and a tendency to pass from the verticillate to
+the spiral arrangement manifested. Schlechtendal mentions some flowers
+of _Tropaeolum majus_ in which the flowers were perfectly regular and
+devoid of spurs[224], while in the double varieties, now commonly grown
+in greenhouses, the condition of parts is precisely the same as in the
+double violet before alluded to. Among the _Papilionaceae_ the Laburnum
+and others have been noticed to produce occasionally a perfectly regular
+flower in the centre, or at the extremity of the inflorescence, though
+the peloria in this flower is usually irregular. In the Gentianaceous
+genus _Halenia_, _H. heterantha_ is remarkable for the absence of spurs.
+Amongst _Gesneraceae_, _Bignoniaceae_, _Scrophulariaceae_, and other
+families of like structure, regular peloria is not uncommon. Fig. 120
+represents a case of this kind in _Eccremocarpus scaber_, conjoined, as
+is frequently the case, with dialysis or separation of the petals.[225]
+Many of the cultivated Gloxinias also show erect, regular, five
+stamened flowers, but these are probably cases of irregular peloria.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 120.--Regular peloria, _Eccremocarpus scaber_.]
+
+A solitary flower of _Pedicularis sylvatica_ was found by the Marquis of
+Stafford near Dunrobin Castle in Sutherlandshire, in which the usual
+ringent form of the corolla was replaced by the form called
+salver-shaped. There were six stamens, four long and two short. Sir W.
+Hooker and Mr. Borrer are stated to have found a similar flower in the
+same locality in 1809.[226]
+
+The passage of ligulate to tubular corollas among _Compositae_ is not of
+such common occurrence as is the converse change. I owe to Mr. Berkeley
+the communication of a capitulum of a species of _Bidens_, in which
+there was a transition from the form of ligulate corollas to those that
+were deeply divided into three, four, or five oblong lobes. These then
+were instances of regular peloria.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 121.--Flower of _Cattleya marginata_. Lip replaced
+by a flat petal.]
+
+In _Orchidaceae_ a similar change is not by any means infrequent; in a
+few, indeed, a regular flower is the normal character, as in
+_Dendrobium normale_, _Oncidium heteranthum_, _Thelymitra_, etc. Fig.
+121, reduced from a cut in the 'Gardeners' Chronicle,' 1854, p. 804,
+represents an instance of this kind in _Cattleya marginata_.
+
+From the same journal the following account of a case of peloria in
+_Phalaenopsis Schilleriana_ is also cited as a good illustration of this
+peculiar change. The terminal flower differed entirely from all the
+others; instead of the peculiar labellum there were three petals all
+exactly alike, and three sepals also exactly alike; the petals resembled
+those of the other flowers of the spike, and the upper sepal also; but
+the two lower sepals had no spots, and were not reflexed as in the
+ordinary way: thus, these six parts of the flower were all in one plane,
+and being close together at their edges, made almost a full round
+flower; the column and pollen-glands were unaffected. Professor
+Reichenbach also exhibited at the Amsterdam Botanical Congress, of 1865,
+a flower of _Selenipedium caudatum_ with a flat lip.
+
+M. Gris[227] has placed on record some interesting cases of peloria of
+this kind in _Zingiber zerumbet_; in the more complete forms the
+androecium or staminal series was composed of six distinct pieces, the
+three inner of which were fertile, while in the ordinary flower the
+androecium is composed of two pieces, "a lip" and a fertile stamen.
+"Is it not a matter of regret," says M. Gris, "to be obliged to call the
+latter the normal flower?"
+
+Under this head may likewise be mentioned those cases in which the
+normal, or at least the typical symmetry of the flower is restored by
+the formation of parts usually suppressed; thus Moquin cites an abnormal
+flower of _Atriplex[228] hortensis_ described by M. Fenzl as having a
+true calyx within the two bracts that usually alone encircle the
+stamens. Adanson, also cited by Moquin, found a specimen of _Bocconia_
+with a corolla. _Arum maculatum_ has likewise been met with provided
+with a genuine perianth as in _Acorus_ and other Orontiads. The unusual
+development of the sexual organs in diclinous flowers has been alluded
+to under the head of heterogamy, and other cases where the symmetry of
+the flower is rendered regular, by the development of parts ordinarily
+suppressed, will be found in the chapters relating to deviations from
+the usual number of organs.
+
+This change, or rather this persistence of a form that is usually
+transient, is generally accompanied by some other alterations. Change of
+direction, as has been already mentioned, is one of the most common of
+these; separation of the petals (_Antirrhinum_, _Verbascum_, &c.), and
+even their appearance in leaf-like guise, are not infrequent
+(_Delphinium_, _Antirrhinum_, _Verbascum_, &c.) At other times
+multiplication or increased number of the whorls of petals takes place,
+often, but not always, at the expense of the sexual organs of the
+flower. Perhaps even more frequent is the increased number of parts in
+the same whorl in cases of regular peloria; thus, in the Pelargoniums
+before alluded to, the parts of the flower are frequently regulated by
+the number six instead of five.
+
+This form of peloria is most generally met with in flowers that are
+placed at the end or in the centre of the inflorescence, or in such
+flowers as occur singly at the end of the flower-stalk, as in
+_Tropaeolum_, _Viola_, &c. It would hence seem as if the freedom from
+pressure or restriction on one side allowed the flower to develop
+equally in all directions, and thus to produce regularity of form.
+
+It is obvious, from what has been before said, that the process of
+fertilisation is in many cases interfered with and altered by the change
+in the conformation or the flower.
+
+From overlooking the occasional existence of this form of peloria, new
+genera have sometimes been formed on insufficient grounds. The genus
+_Aceranthus_, for instance, consists of species of _Epimedium_ in which
+the customary spurs are not formed.[229]
+
+The occurrence both of regular and irregular peloria on the same plant
+has frequently been observed in _Linaria_. It has also been remarked
+that the seedlings raised from these forms are not always constant;
+thus, the late Mr. Crocker, formerly foreman in the Royal Gardens, Kew,
+informed me that he fertilised some flowers of a drooping Gloxinia with
+their own pollen, and that when the seedlings blossomed a large number
+of them produced the erect regular flowers.
+
+From what has been already said it will be seen that regular peloria is
+closely allied to what Morren called epanody, or a return to the normal
+condition. The reversion of a monstrous form to the normal one, as, for
+instance, when the fern-leaved beech reverts to the normal type, was
+called by the same author epistrophy.[230]
+
+The following are the genera in which regular peloria has been most
+often observed. It must, however, be remarked that in some of the
+flowers recorded as peloric there is no indication as to which form of
+peloria the case should be referred to. For other illustrations refer to
+chapters on Heterogamy, Number, Irregular Peloria, &c.
+
+ *Delphinium peregrinum!
+ *Nigella damascena!
+ *Aquilegia vulgaris!
+ *Viola odorata!
+ hirta.
+ Epimedium, sp.
+ *Pelargonium zonale!
+ * inquinans!
+ Tropaeolum majus!
+ *Wistaria sinensis.
+ Lupinus.
+ *Cytisus Laburnum!
+ Trifolium repens!
+ *Compositae, gen. pl.!
+ Lonicera Periclymenum!
+ Streptocarpus Rexii.
+ *Digitalis purpurea.
+ *Scrophularia aquatica.
+ *Pentstemon.
+ *Linaria vulgaris!
+ *Antirrhinum majus!
+ Verbascum nigrum!
+ Columnea Schiedeana.
+ Halenia heterantha.
+ Galeobdolon luteum.
+ Prunella vulgaris!
+ Salvia, sp.!
+ Teucrium campanulatum.
+ Betonica alopecuros.
+ Eccremocarpus scaber.
+ Pedicularis sylvatica.
+ Zingiber Zerumbet.
+ Phalaenopsis amabilis!
+ Phalaenopsis Schilleriana.
+ Habenaria.
+ *Orchis morio.
+ mascula.
+ *Dendrobium, sp.
+ Atriplex, sp.
+ Cattleya Mossiae!
+ marginata.
+ Calanthe vestita!
+ Oncidium, sp.!
+ Selenipedium caudatum.
+ Arum maculatum.
+
+In addition to the references already given, further information on this
+subject may be gained from consulting the following publications. See
+also Irregular Peloria.
+
+ Giraud, 'Bot. Soc. Edinb.,' Dec. 12, 1839, _Antirrhinum_.
+ Dareste, 'Ann. Sc. Nat.,' ser. 2, 1842, xviii, p. 220,
+ _Delphinium_. C. Morren, 'Fuchsia,' p. 90, _Calceolaria_,
+ 'Bull. Acad. Belg.,' xx, part ii, p. 57; and E. Morren, 'Bull.
+ Acad. Belg.,' 2nd ser., xix. p. 224, _Gloxinia_. Richard, 'Mem.
+ Soc. d'hist. nat.,' ii, p. 212, tab. 3. Lindley, 'Journ. Linn.
+ Soc.,' iii, p. 9, _Dendrobium_. Michalet, 'Bull. Soc, Bot.
+ France,' vii, p. 625, _Betonica_. Gubler, 'Bull. Soc. Bot.
+ Fr.,' ix, 81, 'Des anomalies aberrantes et regularisantes.'
+ Reichenbach fil. 'De pollinis orchid. genesi ac structura,'
+ 1852, _Oncidium_. Clos, 'Mem. Acad. Toulouse,' vi, 1862,
+ _Salvia_. Caspary, 'Verhandl. Phys. OEkon. Gesell.
+ Koenigsberg,' 1860, i, 59, _Columnea_. Bureau, 'Bull. Soc. Bot.
+ Fr.,' 1861, vol. viii, p. 710, _Streptocarpus_. Darwin,
+ 'Variation of Animals and Plants,' ii, pp. 59 and 396. Godron,
+ 'Ex. Bull. Bot. Soc. Fr.,' xiv, p. 165, 'Rev. Bibl.,'
+ _Wistaria_. Marchand, 'Adansonia,' iv, p. 172, _Lonicera_.
+ Baillon, 'Adansonia,' v, p. 177, 'Sur la regularite transitoire
+ de quelques fleurs irreg.,' shows that during the development
+ of some flowers which begin and end by being irregular, there
+ is an intermediate state when all the parts are regular. Helye,
+ 'Revue Horticole,' Sept., 1868, p. 327. In this last paper,
+ published as this sheet is going through the press, the author
+ states that he has raised from seed three generations of plants
+ of _Antirrhinum_ with regular spur-less flowers. The original
+ wild plant was only partially peloric, but all the flowers
+ produced on its descendants were regular.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[221] "On the existence of two forms of Peloria," by M. T. Masters.
+'Nat. Hist. Review,' April, 1863.
+
+[222] Baillon, 'Adansonia,' iv. p. 149.
+
+[223] Similar cases are figured in 'Hort. Eystettens. Ic. Pl. Vern.'
+fol. 4, f. 1, 2. _Viola martia_ multiplici flore.
+
+[224] 'Linnaea,' 1837, p. 128.
+
+[225] M. Bureau, 'Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr.,' ix, p. 91, describes two genera
+of _Bignoniaceae_ in which the flowers are _normally_ regular and six
+parted.
+
+[226] See 'Trans. Linn. Soc.,' vol. x. p. 227.
+
+[227] 'Ann. Sc. Nat.,' ser. 4, 1859. tom. xi, p. 264, tab. 3.
+
+[228] 'El. Ter. Veg.,' p. 342.
+
+[229] Marchand, 'Adansonia,' vol. iv, p. 127.
+
+[230] 'Bull. Acad. Belg.,' xvii. p. 17. "Fuchsia," p. 169.
+
+
+
+
+PART II.
+
+PLEIOMORPHY.[231]
+
+
+Most irregular flowers owe their irregularity to an unequal development
+of some of their organs as compared with that of others. When such
+flowers become exceptionally regular they do so either because
+development does not keep pace with growth, and a regular flower is thus
+the result of an arrest of the former process (regular peloria), or
+because the comparatively excessive development, which usually occurs in
+a few parts is, in exceptional cases manifested by all, hence the flower
+becomes regular from the increase in number of its irregular elements.
+These latter cases, then, are due to an excess of development, hence the
+application of the term pleiomorphy. It must be understood that mere
+increase in the number of the organs of a flower is not included under
+this head, but under that of deviations from the ordinary number of
+parts.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[231] [Greek: Pleios-morphosis].
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+IRREGULAR PELORIA.
+
+
+The term peloria was originally given by Linne to a malformation of
+_Linaria vulgaris_, with five spurs and five stamens, which was first
+found in 1742 near Upsal. This was considered so marvellous a
+circumstance that the term peloria, from the Greek [Greek: pelor], a
+prodigy, was applied to it.[232] After a time other irregular flowers
+were found in like condition, and so the term peloria became applied to
+all cases wherein, on a plant habitually producing irregular flowers,
+regular ones were formed. The fact that this regularity might arise from
+two totally different causes was overlooked, or at least not fully
+recognised, even by Moquin-Tandon himself. Where a flower retains
+throughout life the same relative size in its parts that it had when
+those parts first originated the result is, of course, a regular flower,
+as happens in violets and other plants. This kind of peloria may for
+distinction sake be called regular or congenital peloria (see chapter on
+that subject); but where a flower becomes regular by the increase in
+number of its irregular portions, as in the _Linaria_ already alluded
+to, where not only one petal is spurred, but all five of them are
+furnished with such appendages, and which are the result of an irregular
+development of those organs, the peloria is evidently not congenital,
+but occurs at a more or less advanced stage of development. To this
+latter form of peloria it is proposed to give the distinctive epithet of
+irregular.
+
+Peloria is either complete or incomplete; it is complete when the flower
+appears perfectly symmetrical, it is incomplete when only a portion of
+the flower is thus rendered regular. It is very common, for instance, to
+find violets or Linarias with two or three spurs, and these intermediate
+stages are very interesting, as they serve to show in what way the
+irregularity is brought about. In _Antirrhinum_, _Linaria_, &c.,
+intermediate forms show very clearly that it is to the repetition of the
+form usually assumed by the petals of the lower lip that the condition
+is due. This is also obvious in peloric flowers of the _Calceolaria_.
+The perfect peloria of this flower is in general erect, with five
+regular sepals, a regular corolla contracted at the base and at the
+apex, but distended in the centre so as to resemble a lady's sleeve,
+tight at the shoulder and wrist, and puffed in the centre!
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 122.--Peloric flower of _Calceolaria_.]
+
+Morren[233] describes a form intermediate between the ordinary
+slipper-shaped corolla and the perfect peloria just described, and which
+he calls sigmoid peloria. This flower is intermediate in direction
+between the erect peloria and the ordinary reflected flower. The tube is
+curved like a swan's neck and is dilated in front into two hollow
+bosses, such as we see in the lower lip of an ordinary flower; beyond
+these it is contracted and is prolonged into a slender beak terminating
+in two hollow teeth, between which is the narrow orifice of the
+corolla. The colour at the base of the tube inside is as in the perfect
+peloria; while round the summit of the tube, in both cases, the
+intensity of colour is greatest on the outside. Now, in a normal flower
+the deepest colour is within just opposite the orifice of the corolla;
+this deep colour is also seen outside of the central and most elevated
+portions of the lower lip. In the peloria the deep colour at the base of
+the tube represents that which is near the orifice under ordinary
+circumstances, while the outer patch of colour at the apex corresponds
+to that formed on the upper surface of the lower lip. On the other hand,
+in peloric flowers of _Cytisus Laburnum_, _Clitoria Ternatea_,
+_Trifolium repens_, and other Papilionaceae, it is the "standard," the
+form of which is repeated. In the case of peloric aconites[234] the
+lateral and sometimes the inferior coloured sepals assume the hooded
+form usually peculiar to the upper sepal only, the number of the petals
+or nectaries being correspondingly increased. Balsams become peloric by
+the augmentation in the number of spurs.[235] So when orchids are
+affected with irregular peloria it is the form of the labellum that is
+repeated, the accessory lips being sometimes the representatives of
+stamens, which are usually suppressed in these flowers,[236] but at
+other times the appearance is due simply to the fact that all three
+petals assume the form usually confined to the lip, the staminal column
+being unaffected, except that its direction and relative position with
+reference to the other parts of the flower is different from ordinary.
+This was the case in some flowers of _Phalaenopsis equestris_ sent to me
+by Mr. Wentworth Buller. Fig. 123 represents a flower of _Aristolochia
+caudata_ with two lips, for which I am indebted to Mr. W. H. Baxter.
+
+From these cases it is evident that the flowers in question become
+regular by the repetition of the irregular parts.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 123.--Two-lipped flower of _Aristolochia caudata_.]
+
+It is probable that peloria may occur in any habitually irregular
+flower, and that, if more attention were directed to the subject,
+illustrations might be obtained from a larger number of natural families
+than can be done at present. It is, however, necessary to exercise
+discrimination, and not to attribute to peloria all the cases that at
+first sight appear to be so referable. Thus, Professor Dickson exhibited
+at the Botanical Society of Edinburgh, December 13th, 1860, four
+abnormal flowers of the common Indian cress (_Tropaeolum majus_), each
+presenting a supernumerary spur. On these he remarked that "in
+_Tropaeolum_ the posterior part of the receptacle between the insertion
+of the petals and that of the stamens is dilated so as to form the spur
+which is so characteristic in the genus. The position of the spur in a
+line with the posterior sepal has led many botanists to consider it as a
+process of that sepal, but the fact of its being situated within the
+insertion of the petals is conclusive as to its receptacular origin. In
+the flowers exhibited the supernumerary spur (as if to show its want of
+connection with any sepal) was placed exactly between a lateral sepal
+and one of the anterior sepals, sometimes on the one side of the flower
+and sometimes on the other. These additional spurs were precisely
+similar to the normal ones, except that they were a little shorter. This
+abnormality, although at first sight seeming to indicate a pelorian
+tendency, is no approximation to regularity, from the fact of the extra
+spur being differently placed, with regard to the sepals, from the
+normal one."
+
+Peloria of this kind, when perfect, is very often associated with other
+alterations. Change of direction is one of the most common of these; the
+usually drooping flower becomes erect, the stamens and style also are
+changed in direction, while, not unfrequently, either the one or the
+other (most often the stamens) are entirely suppressed. With this
+suppression an increase in the size of the flower very generally
+coincides. The number of parts is also frequently increased; thus, in
+_Antirrhinum majus_ the corolla, when subjected to peloria, is very
+generally six-parted, and has six stamens. Fusion of one or more flowers
+is also a common accompaniment of peloria, as in _Digitalis purpurea_,
+in which plant prolification often adds increased complexity to the
+flower.
+
+It has been stated by Moquin and others that the uppermost flower of an
+inflorescence is the most subject to peloria; the uppermost flower of
+_Teucrium campanulatum_, for instance, is very generally regular. In
+_Calceolaria_ it is the central terminal flower which is usually
+peloriated; on the other hand, in _Linaria_ and _Antirrhinum_ the lower
+flowers, or those on the secondary branches, are quite as often affected
+as the primary ones. Cassini considered that the spur of _Linaria_ was
+developed from the lower petal rather than from the upper ones, because
+there is more room on the side of the flower farthest from the stem than
+on the opposite side. With reference to this point, M. Godron remarks
+that in habitually irregular flowers the apex of the peduncle is
+oblique, and hence the flowers are bent downwards or spread
+horizontally, but if the receptacle be quite flat and level then the
+flower is regular. The oblique position causes some of the organs to
+press on others, and hence induces abortion and suppression of some
+parts and increased growth in others that are not subjected to pressure.
+In a terminal peloriated flower of aconite, described by this
+naturalist, the flower was removed so far from the nearest bracts that
+all its parts had the chance of growing regularly. In ordinary cases M.
+Godron considers that the compression of the lateral bracts is the cause
+of the irregularity of the androecium and of the receptacle.[237]
+
+It has also been somewhat too generally stated that peloria occurs
+principally on luxuriant vigorous plants. It seems quite as often to
+happen in plants characterised by their deficiencies in this respect. On
+this point M. de Melicoq[238] says, referring to _Linaria vulgaris_
+affected with peloria, that on the weakest plants the peloriated flower
+was at the top of the stem; while in stronger plants, with more numerous
+flowers and larger foliage, the peloriated flowers were principally to
+be found in the centre and at the base of the inflorescence, and their
+pedicels were much longer than usual.
+
+Linne, as has been already stated, considered these flowers to be
+sterile, and only capable of multiplication by division of the root, but
+Willdenow obtained seeds from the _Linaria_ which reproduced the
+anomaly when sown in rich soil. Baron Melicoq obtained similar
+results.[239] Mr. Darwin[240] raised sixteen seedling plants of a
+peloric _Antirrhinum_, artificially fertilised by its own pollen, all of
+which were as perfectly peloric as the parent plant. On the other hand,
+the same observer alludes to the tendency that these peloric plants have
+to revert to the usual form, as shown by the fact that when the peloric
+flowers were crossed with pollen from flowers of the ordinary shape, and
+_vice versa_, not one of the seedlings, in either case, bore peloric
+flowers. Hence, says Mr. Darwin, there is in these flowers "a strong
+latent tendency to become peloric, and there is also a still greater
+tendency in all peloric plants to reacquire their normal irregular
+structure." So that there are two opposed latent tendencies in the same
+plant. A similar remark has been made with reference to malformations in
+general by other observers.
+
+It would be very interesting if some competent naturalist would collect
+information as to whether any variations in degree of fertility exist in
+the three forms of flowers in _Linaria_, viz. the ordinary one-spurred
+form, which is intermediate between the spur-less and the five-spurred
+form. It must be remembered, however, that in the latter cases the
+stamens are often deficient. In the _Compositae_, where there are regular
+flowers in the disc and irregular ones in the ray, sexual differences,
+as is well known, accompany the diversities in form.
+
+To Mr. Darwin the author is indebted for the communication of some
+flowers of _Corydalis tuberosa_ (figs. 124, 125), provided with two
+spurs of nearly equal size. To these flowers allusion is made in the
+work already quoted[241] in the following terms:--"_Corydalis tuberosa_
+properly has one of its two nectaries colourless, destitute of nectar,
+only half the size of the other, and therefore to a certain extent in a
+rudimentary state; the pistil is curved towards the perfect nectary, and
+the hood formed of the inner petals slips off the pistil and stamens in
+one direction alone, so that when a bee sucks the perfect nectary the
+stigma and stamens are exposed and rubbed against the insect's body. In
+several closely allied genera, as in _Dielytra_, there are two perfect
+nectaries; the pistil is straight, and the hood slips off on either
+side, according as the bee sucks either nectary." In the flowers of
+_Corydalis_, which were provided with two perfect nectaries containing
+nectar, Mr. Darwin considers that there has been a redevelopment of a
+partially aborted organ, accompanied by a change in the direction of the
+pistil, which becomes straight, while the hood formed by the petals
+slips off in either direction, "so that these flowers have acquired the
+perfect structure, so well adapted for insect agency, of _Dielytra_ and
+its allies."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 124.--Two-spurred flowers of _Corydalis_.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 125.--Section through two-spurred flowers of
+_Corydalis_, Magnified.]
+
+Peloria, then, is especially interesting physiologically as well as
+morphologically; it is also of value in a systematic point of view, as
+showing how closely the deviations from the ordinary form of one plant
+represent the ordinary condition of another; thus, the peloric
+Calceolarias resemble the flowers of _Fabiana_, and De Candolle,[242]
+comparing the peloric flowers of _Scrophulariaceae_ with those of
+_Solanaceae_, concluded that the former natural order was only an
+habitual alteration from the type of the latter. Peloric flowers of
+_Papilionaceae_ in this way are indistinguishable from those of
+_Rosaceae_. In like manner we may trace an analogy between the normal
+one-spurred _Delphinium_ and the five-spurred columbine (_Aquilegia_),
+an analogy strengthened by such a case as that of the five-spurred
+flower of _Delphinium elatum_ described by Godron.[243] The _Corydalis_,
+before referred to, is another illustration of the same fact, the
+structure being the same as in _Dielytra_, &c.
+
+The ordinary irregular flowers may possibly be degenerated descendants
+of a more completely organized ancestor, and some of the cases of
+peloria may therefore be instances of reversion; some ancient _Linaria_
+may, perhaps, have had all its petals spur-shaped, and the cases of
+irregular peloria now found may be reversions to that original form.
+When both regular and irregular forms of peloria occur on the same
+plant, as they frequently do in _Linaria_, the one may be perhaps
+considered as a reversion to a very early condition, the other to a
+later state, when all the petals were irregularly formed. But before we
+can assert the truth of this surmise we must have better evidence as to
+what the original condition really was than we have at present.
+
+The proximate cause of irregular peloria has been considered to be
+excess of nourishment, but evidence as to this point is very
+conflicting. Willdenow states that "radices peloriae, solo sterili
+plantatae, degenerant in Linariam," ('Sp. Plant.,' iii, p. 254); but this
+opinion is counterbalanced by that of others, while the frequent
+existence of both forms on the same plant, at the same time, seems to
+negative the supposition of any direct effect from external
+circumstances.
+
+The following are the plants in which irregular peloria has been most
+often observed:
+
+ Aconitum Napellus.
+ Delphinium elatum!
+ Corydalis tuberosa.
+ *Viola odorata!
+ hirta.
+ Impatiens Balsamina.
+ Clitoria Ternatea.
+ Cytisus Laburnum!
+ Trifolium repens!
+ Lupinus polyphyllus!
+ *Gloxinia, var. cult.!
+ *Linaria vulgaris!
+ spuria.
+ Elatine.
+ triphylla.
+ aeruginea.
+ triornithophora.
+ pilosa.
+ chalepensis.
+ cymbalaria!
+ purpurea!
+ decumbens.
+ Pelisseriana.
+ origanifolia.
+ Digitalis orientalis.
+ * purpurea!
+ Calceolaria crenatiflora.
+ rugosa.
+ * var. cult.!
+ Chelone barbata.
+ *Antirrhinum majus!
+ Rhinanthus crista galli.
+ Pedicularis sylvatica.
+ Pedicularis euphrasioides.
+ Scrophularia aquatica!
+ Sesamum indicum.
+ Lamium.
+ Mentha.
+ Sideritis.
+ Nepeta diffusa.
+ Galeopsis Ladanum.
+ Tetrahit.
+ Galeobdolon luteum.
+ Teucrium campanulatum!
+ Plectranthus fruticosus.
+ Cleonia lusitanica.
+ Dracocephalum austriacum.
+ Phlomis fruticosa!
+ Vitex incisa.
+ Aristolochia, sp.!
+ Ophrys aranifera!
+ Orchis simia.
+ pyramidalis!
+ latifolia!
+ morio!
+ papilionacea.
+ mascula.
+ latiflora.
+ conopsea.
+ Habenaria bifolia.
+ Corallorhiza innata.
+ Aceras anthropophora.
+ Cattleya Moasiae!
+ Phalaenopsis equestris!
+ Pogonia ophioglossoides!
+
+The literature of peloria is very extensive. The following are the
+principal papers, not already mentioned, which relate to the subject,
+arranged under the genera, placing those first which are most subject to
+this anomaly (see also Regular Peloria).
+
+ _Linaria_.--Adanson, 'Fam. Plant.,' t. i, p. 110. Jussien,
+ 'Gen. Plant.,' p. 120. Poiret, 'Encycl. Method, Suppl.,' t.
+ iii, Jaeger, 'Missbilld. der Gewachs.,' pp. 94, 97, and 313.
+ Cassini, 'Op. Phytol.,' t. ii, p. 331. Ratzebourg, 'Animadv. ad
+ pelor. spectand.,' 1825. Turpin. 'Ic. Veget.,' tab. xx, f. 16.
+ Curtis, 'Flor. Londin.,' i, 118. Hopkirk, 'Flora Anom.,' pl.
+ vii, figs. 1, 2, 3. Haller, 'Act. Helvet.,' 2, p. 25, t. iv. De
+ Candolle, 'Flore Franc.,' t. iii, p. 583. Sowerby, 'Engl.
+ Bot.,' iv, 260, ed. Syme, tab. 963. Chavannes, 'Mon.
+ Antirrhin.' Delavaud, 'Bull. Soc. Bot. France,' 1858, p. 689;
+ id., 1860, p. 175. Heufler, 'Linnaea,' xvii, tab. ii. Weber,
+ 'Verhandl. des Nat. Hist. Vereins. f. d. Rh. Preuss.,' 1850,
+ tab. i, figs. 1-8. 'Verh. Nat. Hist. Ver. Rh. Preus.,' 1849,
+ vol. vi, p. 290, tab. xiii.--_Antirrhinum_, Clos, 'Mem. Acad.
+ Toulous.,' vi, 1862. Chavannes, 'Mon. Antirrh.,' p. 62.
+ Fresenius, 'Mus. Senkenb.,' ii, t. iv, fig. 10. 'Bot. Soc.
+ Edinb.,' 1851, July 10.--_Calceolaria_, Chamisso, 'Linnaea,' t.
+ vii, p. 206. Guillemin, 'Archiv. Bot.,' t. ii, p. 1 et 136.
+ Schlechtendal, 'Linnaea,' xii, p. 686. Ernst Meyer, 'Linnaea,'
+ xvi, 26, tab. iii. Morren, 'Bull. Acad. Belg.,' t. xv, n. 7, et
+ t. xviii, p. 583. 'Gard. Chron.,' 1850, p. 389; ibid., 1866, p.
+ 612.--_Viola_, Leers, 'Flor. Herborn.,' p. 145. De Candolle,
+ 'Organ. Veget.,' t. i, p. 519, pl. xlv. Forbes, 'Proc. Linn.
+ Soc.,' June 6, 1848, p. 382. Hildebrand, 'Bot. Zeit.,' 1862,
+ vol. xx, tab. viii.--_Orchidaceae_, His, 'Jourl. Phys.,' 65, p.
+ 241. Wydler, 'Arch. Bot.,' t. ii, p. 310, tab. xvi. R. Brown,
+ 'Obs. organ. Orchid.,' p. 698. A. Richard, 'Mem. soc. d'hist.
+ nat.,' t. i, p. 212. Greville, 'Flora Edinens.,' p. 87
+ (_Corallorhiza_). Curtis, 'Flora Londinensis,' t. lxxxii.
+ Morren, C., 'Bull. Acad. Roy. Belg.,' t. xix, part ii, p. 171.
+ Clos, 'Mem. Acad. Sc. Toulous.,' 5 ser., vol. iii. Caspary,
+ 'Schrift. K. Gesellsch. Koenigsberg,' 1860, i, 59. Masters,
+ 'Jourl. Linn. Soc.,' vol. viii, p. 208 (_Ophrys_, _Pogonia_).
+ Duchartre, 'Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr.,' vol. vii, 1860, p. 26,
+ _Cattleya_. Cramer, 'Bildungsabweich.'--_Limosella_, Baillon,
+ 'Adansonia,' i, p. 305. (Flower normally irregular, becoming
+ regular "a force d'irregularite.")--_Chelone_, Chamisso,
+ 'Linnaea,' vii, p. 206,--_Clitoria_, Bonavia, 'Gard. Chron.,'
+ 1868, p. 1013. In this latter communication, published as this
+ sheet is passing through the press, the author gives an
+ interesting account of the transitional stages between the
+ ordinary papilionaceous condition and the regular form which is
+ like that of a Rosaceous plant. The peloric form is stated to
+ be transmitted by seed.
+
+ For other references see Moq.-Tandon, 'El. Terat. Veget.,' p.
+ 186. Hallier, 'Phytopathol.,' p. 151.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[232] 'Amoen. Acad.,' i, p. 55, t. iii (1744):--The following note
+refers to Linne's notion that these forms were due to hybridization. It
+is extracted from Gmelin's edition of the 'Systema Naturae,' 1791, p.
+931. "_Linariae_ proles hybrida, ejusdemque qualitatis et constans,
+radicibus infinite sese multiplicans charactere fructificationis
+diversissima, corolla regulari, quinque-corniculata, pentandra, ut genus
+proprium absolute constitueret et distinctissimum, nisi fructus
+frequentissime abortiret. Naturae prodigium. Ita quidem a Linne.
+Verisimilor autem videtur ea opinio, quae peloriam pro peculiari
+degeneratione monstrosa floris habet, in quam inclinare hoc genus
+(Linaria) prae aliis, similis a forma deflexio in aliis speciebus, e.g.
+_spurio Elatine_, _cymbalaria_, observata, ... Merk., 'Goett. gel.
+Anz.,' 1774, n. 121. Linck, 'Annal. Naturg.,' i, p. 32."
+
+[233] 'Bull. Acad. Belg.,' xviii, part i, p. 591. Lobelia, p. 137.
+
+[234] See also Seringe, 'Esquisse d'une Monogr. du genre _Aconitum_,' p.
+124.
+
+[235] Schlotterbec, 'Act. Helvet.,' t. ii, pl. i, Roeper. Balsam, p. 10,
+note.
+
+[236] Masters. "Peloria, &c., _Ophrys aranifera_," 'Journ. Linn. Soc.,'
+viii, p. 207.
+
+[237] Godron, "Mem. sur les Fumariees a fl. irreg.," 'Ann. Sc. Nat.,'
+ser. 5, vol. ii, tab. xvii, p. 280.
+
+[238] 'Bull. Soc. Bot. France,' vol. v, 1858, p. 701.
+
+[239] 'Bull. Soc. Bot. France,' vol. vi, 1859, p. 717.
+
+[240] 'Variation of Anim. and Plants,' ii, p. 70.
+
+[241] Loc. cit., p. 59.
+
+[242] 'Theor. Elem.,' ed. 2, p. 266.
+
+[243] Cited in 'Bull. Soc. Bot. France,' vol. xiii (Rev. Bibl.), p. 81.
+
+
+
+
+PART III.
+
+METAMORPHY.
+
+
+Much of the objection with which Goethe's famous essay on the
+'Metamorphosis of Plants' was met on its publication may be traced to a
+misapprehension of the sense in which Goethe employed the word. As used
+by him, it had nearly the same signification as now applied to the word
+development by organogenists. It does not necessarily imply that there
+has been a change in any particular organ, but rather that there has
+been, to some extent, a change in the plan of construction, in
+accordance with which a deviation from the customary form results. The
+particular organ was never anything else than what it is; it has not
+been metamorphosed in the ordinary sense of the word; for instance, in a
+double flower, where the stamens are, as it is said, changed or
+metamorphosed into petals, no absolute change really has taken
+place--the petal was never a stamen, although it occupies the position
+of the latter, and may be considered a substitute for it.
+
+The term metamorphosis, then, really implies an alteration in the
+organizing force, taking effect at a very early period of the life of
+the flower, at or before the period when the primitive aggregation of
+cells, of which it is at that time composed, becomes separated or
+"differentiated" into the several parts of the flower. In other words,
+the "development" of the flower pursues a different course from what is
+usual. In the preceding sections the effects of arrest and of excess in
+this process have been partly treated of; other deviations arising from
+similar causes will be mentioned elsewhere, but, under the present
+heading, are specially included cases not of merely diminished or
+increased, but of perverted development; the natural process is here not
+necessarily checked or enhanced, but it is changed. Hence, in the
+present work, the term metamorphy is employed to distinguish cases where
+the ordinary course of development has been perverted or changed. As it
+is applied solely for teratological purposes, the ordinary acceptation
+of the term, as nearly synonymous with "development," is not interfered
+with.
+
+In order to avoid other possible misapprehensions, the terms retrograde
+and progressive metamorphosis employed by Goethe are not herein used,
+their place being, to a great extent, supplied by the more intelligible
+expressions arrest or excess of development.[244]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[244] See Goethe, 'Versuch. der Metam. der Pflanzen,' 1790. English
+translation by Emily M. Cox, in Seemann's 'Journal of Botany,' vol. i,
+1863, p. 327. For a brief sketch of the origin and progress of the
+theory of vegetable morphology, prior to the publications of Wolff,
+Linne, and Goethe, as well as for an attempt to show what share each of
+these authors had in the establishment of the doctrine, the reader is
+referred to an article in the 'Brit. and For. Medico-Chirurgical
+Review,' January, 1862, entitled "Vegetable Morphology: its History and
+Present Condition," by Maxwell T. Masters.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+PHYLLODY.
+
+
+This condition, wherein true leaves are substituted for some other
+organs,[245] must be distinguished from Virescence, q. v., in which the
+parts affected have simply the green colour of leaves, without their
+form or structure. The appearance of perfect leaves, in place of other
+organs, is frequently looked on as due to retrograde metamorphosis, or
+to an arrest of development. But this is not strictly correct; for
+instance, suppose a petal, which is very generally merely the sheath of
+a leaf, with the addition of colouring matter, to be replaced by a
+perfect leaf, one in which all three constituent parts, sheath, stalk,
+and blade, are present, it surely can hardly be said that there has been
+any retrogression or arrest of development in the formation of a
+complete in place of an incomplete organ. The term retrograde here is
+used in a purely theoretical sense, and cannot be held to imply any
+actual degradation. Morphologically, as has been stated, the case is one
+of advance rather than the reverse, and hence the assignment of
+instances of this nature to a perversion of development, rather than to
+a diminution or to an exaltation of that process, seems most consistent
+with truth. The affected organs have really undergone no actual change,
+simply the direction of the organising force has been altered at a very
+early state, so that the usual differentiation of parts has not taken
+place.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 126.--'Rose plantain,' _Plantago media var._, spike
+contracted; bracts leafy.]
+
+=Phyllody of the bracts.=--As bracts are very generally imperfect
+organs, so their replacement by perfect leaves is not attributable to
+arrest of development or retrograde metamorphosis, but the reverse. The
+bracts of some species of _Plantago_[246] are very subject to this
+change. Thus, in the rose plantain of gardens, _P. media_ (fig. 126),
+the bracts are leafy and the axis depressed or not elongated, so that it
+is surmounted by a rosette of small leafy organs. A similar condition of
+the bracts, unattended with arrest of growth in the axis, is common in
+_P. major_ (fig. 127) and in _P. lanceolata_ (see p. 108). It also
+occurs in the bracts of _Corydalis solida_, _Amorpha fruticosa_, _Ajuga
+reptans_, _Parthenium inodorum_, _Centaurea Jacea_, in the involucral
+bracts of the dandelion, the daisy, and many other composites. In the
+'Gardeners Chronicle,' 1852, p. 579, is figured a dahlia in which the
+bracts of the involucre and the scales of the receptacle had all assumed
+the form, texture, and venation of leaves.[247]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 127.--Leaf-like bracts in _Plantago major_.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 128.--Dahlia. Scales of receptacle leafy.]
+
+In _Umbelliferae_ the substitution of leaves for involucral bracts is not
+infrequent. It has been observed among other plants in _Angelica
+Razoulzii_, _Carum carui_, _Daucus Carota_, &c. The scales of the hop
+(_Humulus Lupulus_) not infrequently manifest this change, as do also
+the bracts of many amentaceous plants, _e.g._ in the male catkins of
+the walnut, the female catkins of the alder,[248] of some willows,[249]
+&c. The bracts of some _Euphorbiaceae_, as _E. pusilla_, _E. Lathyris_,
+_E. Cyparissias_, have been observed to undergo a similar
+alteration.[250]
+
+Amongst monocotyledons an analogous change occurs not unfrequently, as
+in some commelynaceous plants, _e.g._ _Tradescantia_, in _Musa_, &c.
+
+The spathe of _Arum maculatum_ is sometimes represented by a stalked
+leaf similar to that which occurs, under ordinary circumstances, in
+_Spathiphyllum_, but in which genus the spadix is more or less adherent
+to the leaf-like spathe.[251] In _Schoenus cephalotes_ a similar
+exaggerated development of the bracts is figured by Rottboell.[252]
+
+=Phyllody in inflorescence of Conifers.=--This demands passing notice by
+reason of the interest attaching to the morphological construction of
+these plants. The elongation of the axis which occurs in the female
+cones has been already alluded to under the head of prolification of the
+inflorescence. This change is frequently associated with a more or less
+foliaceous condition of the bracts, which, indeed, may be seen to be
+serially continuous, both above and below, with the ordinary leaves. The
+scales, too, become notched and bipartite, and show, between the lobes,
+the rudiment of a bud, which in a further stage becomes developed into a
+shoot bearing leaves. Such a change has been described by Parlatore in
+_Abies Brunoniana_, and examples may frequently be met with in the larch
+(_Larix europaea_), and specially in _Cryptomeria japonica_.[253] The
+scales of the male catkins of conifers likewise occasionally assume the
+appearance of leaves; this may be seen in monstrous catkins of
+_Araucaria_, as also in _Podocarpeae_ and _Cupressineae_ (Eichler).
+
+=Phyllody of the calyx.=--Sepals under ordinary circumstances are so
+like leaves, that it is not wonderful that they are often replaced by
+those organs.[254] A singular instance of this has been mentioned as
+occurring in _Cakile maritima_, wherein the sepals were found by M.
+Fournier to be pinnatifid like the ordinary leaves of the plant.[255]
+The sepals of _Ranunculaceae_ and _Rosaceae_, for example, _Rosa_, _Geum_,
+are particularly liable to this change.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 129.--Flower of rose, sepals replaced by five
+perfect leaves; axis prolonged through the flower in the form of a leafy
+branch.]
+
+In a species of _Geranium_ recently examined the sepals presented
+themselves in the form of three-lobed leaflets; so in fuchsias and in
+_Epilobium hirsutum_ the sepals occasionally are not distinguishable
+from ordinary leaves (fig. 130). In roses, the change in question is a
+very frequent accompaniment of prolification (fig. 129). In the peach
+also this replacement of the sepals is sometimes carried to such an
+extent, that five perfect, bistipulate leaves occur in the place of the
+calyx, but when this is the case it usually happens that the pistil is
+abortive.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 130.--Fuchsia, with one of the sepals leaf-like.]
+
+De Candolle[256] figures a curious instance wherein the pappus of
+_Podospermum laciniatum_ was replaced by five linear, foliaceous lobes.
+A similar change has been noticed in other composites, as in _Tragopogon
+pratense_. Engelmann mentions as subject to this hypertrophy of the
+pappus, as it may be termed, _Scorzonera octangularis_ and _Senecio
+vulgaris_. Wigand has observed a similar transformation in a species of
+_Centranthus_ (_Valerianaceae_).
+
+In some cases the phyllody of the sepals has a special interest, as
+bearing on the question whether what is termed calyx-tube is or is not a
+portion of the calyx, and whether the sepals are modifications of the
+blade or of the sheath of the leaf. Thus in the primrose the phyllodic
+sepals seem to show clearly that the sepals are in that plant of a
+laminar nature (fig. 131). The so-called calyx-tube of roses is
+elsewhere alluded to. The leaf-like organs sometimes seen at the apex of
+a cucumber would seem to support the view that there was really a
+calyx-tube in _Cucurbitaceae_ adherent to the carpels. It is also shown
+in the cut, fig. 132, borrowed from the 'Gardeners' Chronicle,' 1859,
+p. 654.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 131.--Primrose. Calyx of foliaceous segments.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 132.--Leafy calyx of melon.]
+
+Under ordinary circumstances, the sepals may be considered as the
+representatives of the sheath of the leaf (cataphyllary) or of the blade
+(euphyllary), the arrangement of the veins being different in the two
+cases; thus, in the vagina or sheath, there are generally several large
+veins of about equal size, either convergent towards the apex, or
+divergent; on the other hand, in the blade, there is usually but one
+central vein, the midrib, larger than the rest, and the smaller veins
+come off at a less acute angle, and are more reticulated.[257]
+
+Now, when phyllomorphy occurs in sepals which ordinarily are vaginal, it
+is obvious that the case is one, not merely of increased relative
+growth, but also of the appearance or development of an organ habitually
+suppressed; on the other hand, when phyllomorphy occurs in sepals which
+usually are laminar in form and nervation, the case is one of unusual
+growth or hypertrophy, and not of the development of an organ habitually
+suppressed, so that the amount of change is greater in the former than
+in the latter instance.
+
+Under normal circumstances it will be found that laminar venation is
+most common in gamosepalous and vaginal venation in polysepalous
+calyces. And the same holds good in cases where the calyx is abnormally
+leafy. The complete leaf development shows itself more frequently among
+the monosepalous plants than in the polysepalous ones, as shown even in
+the subjoined list of species. This statement would be more fully
+verified were it possible to state the frequency with which the
+condition occurred in _individual plants_, when it would be found that
+phyllody of the calyx occurs much more often in individual gamosepalous
+plants than in polysepalous ones.
+
+Phyllody of the calyx has been most often observed in the following
+plants:
+
+ Ranunculus acris!
+ Delphinium Ajacis.
+ Caltha palustris.
+ Anemone Pulsatilla.
+ sylvestris!
+ nemorosa!
+ hortensis!
+ coronaria!
+ *Papaver orientale.
+ Escholtzia crocea.
+ Cakile maritima.
+ Diplotaxis tenuifolia.
+ Thlaspi arvense.
+ Cheiranthus Cheiri.
+ incanus.
+ Sinapis arvensis.
+ Brassica oleracea!
+ Peltaria alliacea.
+ *Sisymbrium officinale.
+ Caryophyllaceae,[258] sp. pl.
+ Geranium, sp.!
+ *Fuchsia, var. hort.!
+ Epilobium hirsutum!
+ Cucurbita Pepo!
+ *Rosa, var. hort.!
+ Potentilla nepalensis.
+ Fragaria sp.
+ Geum rivale.
+ Amygdalus communis.
+ Persica vulgaris.
+ Cerasus!
+ Pyrus Malus.
+ Daucus Carota.
+ Athamanta Cervaria.
+ *Trifolium repens!
+ Centranthus macrosiphon.
+ Tragopogon pratense.
+ orientale.
+ Scorzonera octangularis.
+ Hypochaeris radicata.
+ *Senecio vulgaris!
+ Podospermum laciniatum.
+ Cirsium arvense.
+ Carduus heterophyllus
+ tataricus.
+ Campanula, sp.
+ Convolvulus sepium.
+ *Primula officinalis, var. cult!
+ acaulis.
+ elatior.
+ Gentiana campestris.
+ *Petunia violacea!
+ Lycium europaeum.
+ Laurus Sassafras.
+ Tulipa Gesneriana.
+ Convallaria maialis.
+ Colchicum autumnale! (virescent?)
+
+ Consult also Turpin, 'Atlas de Goethe,' t. iv, f. 12, _Lycium_.
+ Engelmann, 'De Anthol.,' Sec. 35, p. 31. This author figures
+ phyllodic sepals in _Senecio vulgaris_, tab. v, figs. 24-26;
+ _Campanula_, tab. iii, f. 15, 16; _Athamanta cervaria_, tab. v,
+ f. 14. Lindley, 'Elements of Botany,' 1847, pp. 64, 73, &c.
+ 'Gard. Chron.,' 1858, p. 685; 1859, p. 654, _Cucurbita_.
+ Petunnikoff, 'Bull. Soc. Imp. Moscow,' 1862, _Cirsium_. Braun,
+ 'Rejuvenescence,' Ray Society's Transl. See succeeding
+ paragraphs.
+
+=Phyllody of the corolla.=--The petals also are frequently replaced by
+leaves, though in many of the recorded instances the change has been one
+of colour only; these latter are strictly cases of virescence. M.
+Seringe[259] speaks of a flower of _Peltaria alliacea_ in which the
+calyx was petal-like, while the corolla was leafy as if there had been
+transposition of the two organs, a very rare, if not unparalleled,
+instance. In a flower of _Campanula Medium_, provided, as is often the
+case, with a double corolla, the outer corolla was slit down on one
+side, the edges of the cleft being leafy.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 133.--Sepals and petals to leaves. _Geranium_.]
+
+The frondescent petals are very often completely disjoined, as in
+_Verbascum nigrum_, and _Lonicera Periclymenum_, in which, moreover,
+median prolification generally coexists. In the case of _Tropaeolum
+majus_, the ordinary leaves of which are peltate and orbicular, the
+petals when frondescent have not the peltate arrangement, but are
+spathulate, and provided with very long, narrow stalks, so that, in some
+cases, they are, more properly speaking, enlarged virescent petals than
+true leaves; in other instances, however, the arrangement of the veins
+is more like that of the true leaves than that of the petals.
+
+As might be expected, frondescence of the petals is frequently
+accompanied by other changes of a similar nature in other parts of the
+flower, and sometimes by the abortion of the sexual organs. Thus, in
+_Actaea spicata_, as observed by Fresenius, the petals were replaced by
+true petiolate, palminerved, lobed leaves, the stamens and pistils
+being abortive. In _Ranunculus_ the leaves that appear in the place of
+the petals have no scale at their base, and in _Tropaeolum_ the calyx (or
+receptacle) is free from the usual spur.
+
+The absolute frequency of this occurrence seems to be greatest in those
+flowers which are normally polypetalous. The petals of these flowers, as
+a general rule, are more like the leaf-sheaths than the leaf-blades as
+to their venation, hence it would seem that the phyllomorphic condition
+in these petals is a manifestation of a greater degree of organizing
+force than that which occurs in those cases where the petals are
+normally present in the form of contracted blades or laminae. (See the
+remarks in the preceding section.)
+
+Frondescence of the petals has been observed most frequently in the
+following cases; some, perhaps, were cases merely of virescence, q. v.;
+see also under Chloranthy, Prolification.
+
+ Ranunculus repens!
+ Delphinium Ajacis.
+ crassicaule.
+ Aquilegia vulgaris.
+ Actaea spicata.
+ *Brassica oleracea!
+ Diplotaxis muralis.
+ Hesperis matronalis.
+ Thlaspi bursa pastoris.
+ Sisymbrium tenuifolium.
+ Turritis glabra.
+ Raphanus sativus.
+ Peltaria alliacea.
+ Alyssum incanum.
+ Erysimum Barbarea.
+ officinale!
+ cheiranthoides.
+ Cheiranthus Cheiri.
+ *Dictamnus Fraxinella!
+ Lychnis sylvestris.
+ dioica!
+ Alsine media.
+ Cerastium vulgatum!
+ triviale.
+ Reseda lutea.
+ Phyteuma.
+ Malva sylvestris.
+ *Tropaeolum majus!
+ Geranium, sp.!
+ Triumfetta, sp.!
+ Epilobium hirsutum!
+ OEnothera striata.
+ Rubus, sp.
+ *Rosa, var. cult.!
+ *Trifolium repens!
+ Spiraea oblongifolia.
+ Amygdalus communis.
+ *Rosa!
+ Cerasus vulgaris!
+ Persica vulgaris!
+ Potentilla nepalensis.
+ Geum rivale.
+ Daucus Carota!
+ Heracleum Sphondylium.
+ Torilis Anthriscus.
+ Echinophora maritima.
+ Campanula rapunculoides.
+ glomerata.
+ Phyteuma spicatum.
+ Calendula officinalis.
+ Cirsium tricephalodes.
+ Senecio vulgaris.
+ Scabiosa columbaria.
+ agrestis.
+ Lonicera xylosteum.
+ Periclymenum.
+ Gentiana Amarella.
+ Gilia glomeriflora.
+ *Symphytum officinale.
+ Petunia violacea!
+ Verbascum, sp.
+ Antirrhinum majus!
+ Stachys sylvatica.
+ *Anagallis phoenicea?
+ Primula sinensis!
+ Polemonium coeruleum.
+
+ See Moquin-Tandon, 'El. Terat. Veg.,' p. 203. Engelmann, 'De
+ Anthol.,' Sec. 38 _et seq._; tab. ii, figs. 8-14, _Gilia_; tab.
+ v, 23-26, _Senecio_; tab. v, f. 1-13, _Torilis_; tab. iv, f. 3,
+ _Erysimum_. 'Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr.,' vol. ii, 1855, p. 479,
+ _Primula sinensis_. Giraud, 'Edinb. Phil. Magazine,' 1839,
+ _Antirrhinum_. Jaeger, 'Act. Acad. Caes. Nat. Cur.,' vol. xiii,
+ 2, p. 1, tab. xli, _Tropaeolum_. Bischoff, 'Lehrbuch,' 11, 2, p.
+ 27, _note_, _Tropaeolum_. Fresenius, 'Mus. Senkenb.,' ii, 35,
+ tab. 4, fig. 5, _Actaea_. See also succeeding paragraphs and
+ sections in Chloranthy, Virescence, &c.
+
+=Phyllody of the stamens= happens less frequently than the corresponding
+condition in the neighbouring organs. The structure of the anther is so
+much removed from that of the leaf, that the change of the stamen from
+its ordinary condition to that of a leaf must be regarded as indicating
+a greater degree of perverted development than that which occurs in
+those cases where less highly differentiated organs, such as the sepals,
+petals, and pistils, are thus altered.[260]
+
+In all cases it is desirable to ascertain, if possible, what parts of
+the stamen are thus transformed. In some Petunias the filaments are
+unchanged, but in place of the anther is a small lamina, representing
+precisely the blade of an ordinary leaf. Sometimes the connective only
+is replaced by a leaf. One of the most interesting cases of this kind
+that has fallen under the writer's observation was in _Euphorbia
+geniculata_, in which, in addition to other changes mentioned under
+prolification of the inflorescence, some of the stamens were partly
+frondescent, half the anther being perfect, the other half leaf-like.
+Another filament bore just above the usual joint three leaflets, two
+lateral ones, somewhat conduplicate, and a third central one, half
+anther, half leaflet.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 134.--Flower of a _Petunia_, opened to show the
+stamens partially replaced by stalked leaves.]
+
+In the case of frondescent flowers of _Tropaeolum majus_ the stamens are
+usually absent or atrophied, but in other instances the filament is
+present as usual, representing the stalk of the leaf, and surmounted by
+a small lamina, but this latter, in place of being nearly flat, is
+pinched up in the centre from back to front, and surmounted by a
+two-lobed anther, so that the general appearance of the whole structure
+is that of a central anther, supported at the base on each side by two
+concave leaf-lobes, or it might be compared with a three-lobed leaf, the
+terminal lobe represented by the anther.
+
+In _Jatropha Pohliana_, Muell. (_Adenorophium luxurians_, Pohl.), a
+singular condition has been observed by M. Mueller (Argov.). In this
+flower the anther, in place of being represented by the flat blade of a
+single leaf, had the appearance as if two such blades were present and
+coherent one with the other by their midribs, along their upper or inner
+surfaces, which were directed towards the centre of the flower (fig.
+136), thus resembling the cases of adhesion of leaves by their surfaces
+already referred to (p. 33). In other cases, in the same plant, the
+anther appeared as if formed by two collateral leaves, the faces looking
+towards the circumference of the flower, and their margins so folded
+together as to represent an open anther lobe (fig. 135). These cases are
+apparently due, not to the formation and adhesion of two leaves, but
+rather to the exuberant development of one leaf into two blades.[261]
+The bearings of these and other similar malformations on the morphology
+of the anther are alluded to under the head of petalody of the anther.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 135.--Phylloid anther of _Jatropha_, after Mueller
+(Arg.).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 136.--Leaf-like anther of _Jatropha Pohliana_, after
+Mueller.]
+
+Phyllody of the stamens has been most often observed in the following
+plants:
+
+ Anemone nemorosa.
+ coronaria.
+ Delphinium crassicaule.
+ Nymphaea dentata.
+ Tropaeolum majus!
+ Dictamnus albus.
+ *Trifolium repens!
+ Torilis anthriscus.
+ Heracleum Sphondylium.
+ Daucus Carota
+ Epilobium hirsutum!
+ *Rosa, var. cult.!
+ Lonicera Periclymenum.
+ Anagallis arvensis.
+ Primula sinensis!
+ Petunia, var. cult.
+ Jatropha Pohliana.
+ Euphorbia goniculata.
+
+In addition to the foregoing there are very numerous instances of
+similar substitution in chloranthic flowers. In the above list only
+those cases are given wherein the leafy change is confined to the
+stamens, or, at least, to a few only of the other parts of the flower.
+
+=Phyllody of the pistils.=[262]--This is of more common occurrence than
+is the corresponding change in the case of the stamens. It is of
+interest, as it sometimes serves to illustrate the morphological nature
+of the pistil. Of this the double-flowering cherry is a well-known
+illustration, the pistil being here represented by two small foliar
+laminae, whose midribs are prolonged with a short style, terminated by an
+imperfect stigma. It is usually the basal portion of the pistil, the
+ovary, which is thus specially affected, the margins being also often
+disunited so as to expose the ovules. These latter organs may be absent
+or they may themselves be the subjects of foliaceous development.
+Moquin[263] relates having found in the neighbourhood of Montpellier a
+flower of a tulip the ovary of which was represented by true leaves,
+which bore on their margins the ovules, and thus presented a striking
+analogy with the carpels of those Sterculias, like _S. platanifolia_,
+which are foliaceous in texture and open very early in the course of
+their development. A similar occurrence has also been frequently
+noticed in the Columbine and also in _Cruciferae_ and _Umbelliferae_. M.
+Germain de St. Pierre mentions an instance wherein the carpels of _Salix
+Babylonica_ were converted into two leaves, provided with stipules. All
+the flowers of the catkins were similarly changed, so that it became
+permanent, and resembled a branch.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 137.--Rose, in which the axial portion of the flower
+was elongated and the carpels were more or less replaced by leaves.]
+
+Substitutions of this kind form the green "eyes" or centres of certain
+varieties of _Ranunculus_ and _Anemone_.
+
+In proliferous roses, or in cases where the central axis of the flower
+is prolonged, it frequently happens that the pistils are more or less
+replaced by leaves. Fig. 137, from a specimen of Dr. Bell Salter's,
+given in the 'Gardeners' Chronicle,' shows the passage, from below
+upwards, of the ordinary carpels to perfect leaves; the so-called
+calyx-tube being completely deficient and the ovaries entirely superior.
+Like most similar specimens, this one bears out the notion that what is
+called the calyx-tube in roses is really an expansion and dilatation of
+the top of the flower-stalk.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 138.--Cucumber with leaf attached.]
+
+Fig. 138, for which I am indebted to Mr. S. J. Salter, represents a very
+singular conformation in the cucumber, described by that gentleman in
+'Henfrey's Botanical Gazette,' i, p. 208, and considered by him to be
+due to the foliaceous condition of one of the three carpels of which the
+fruit is composed. The portion near the peduncle was binary, while the
+distal extremity of the fruit was ternary. The main difficulties
+attending the acceptance of this explanation reside in the peculiar
+reversed position of the leaf, and in the fact that the fruit of the
+_Cucurbitaceae_ is probably of axial nature, the dilated and succulent
+end of the peduncle adhering to and usually concealing the carpels; in
+some cases, however, these latter project beyond the axial portion,
+leaving no doubt as to the true nature of the structure in these
+particular instances.
+
+Admitting the axial nature of the fruit, it might be supposed that in
+Mr. Salter's cucumber an adventitious leaf had been given off from the
+axis, but even on that supposition the reversed position offers a
+difficulty, and there still remains to be explained the fact that the
+proximal part of the fruit was binary in its constitution, the distal
+end ternary.
+
+M. Norman[264] mentions a case wherein the carpels of _Anchusa
+ochroleuca_ were replaced by two leaves; from this he draws the
+inference that the pistil of borages and labiates is really composed of
+two leaves, placed fore and aft, the margins of the leaves being
+congenitally fused. This tallies well with the account given of the
+development of these plants by Payer, Germain de St. Pierre, and others.
+
+In an Indian species of _Triumfetta_, not only were the petals
+virescent, but the ovary also was much enlarged, and in some flowers it
+was divided half way down into five lanceolate leaves (fig. 139), the
+sepals and stamens being in their normal condition.
+
+In the preceding instances the foliaceous condition has pervaded the
+entire pistil, or at any rate the basal portion or ovary, and it may be
+noticed that the ovary is thus shown to consist in some cases of the
+sheath of the leaf, as in _Aquilegia_; in other cases of the blade, as
+in _Cerasus_, _Daucus_, &c.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 139.--Flower of _Triumfetta_, sp., carpels
+represented by five leaves.]
+
+There are cases, however, in which a part only of the pistillary
+structure thus becomes foliaceous. Linnaeus, 'Prolepsis,' Sec. 9,
+mentions some flowers of _Carduus heterophyllus_ and _C. tataricus_ in
+which the style had grown into two green leaflets, and in which the calyx
+and corolla were also leaf-like. A very singular instance is recorded by
+Baillon,[265] wherein the pistil of _Trifolium repens_ consisted of
+three carpels, either separate, or combined so as to form a one-celled
+ovary with three parietal, pluri-ovulate placentae; the ovary in these
+flowers was formed of the basal vaginiform part of the leaf; the three
+styles were formed by the petioles, while the stigmas were represented
+by trifoliolate leaves. The back of the leaf in these cases is usually
+directed away from the centre of the flower. When this change occurs it
+is commonly attended by an increased number of parts, as in the trefoil
+just mentioned, or in the double cherry, where usually two foliaceous
+carpels may be met with, and sometimes more.
+
+The change is also of interest when it affects such orders as the
+_Umbelliferae_, which have their ovaries inferior under ordinary
+circumstances; but when these organs assume a leafy condition they
+become superior also, _i.e._ they are detached from the calyx.
+
+As regards the position of the ovules in these foliaceous pistils, they
+may be placed, as in _Aquilegia_, _Delphinium_, &c., on the edges of the
+carpel or on the surface, as in some flowers of _Ranunculus repens_ and
+_R. Ficaria_. A similar position of the ovules is recorded in the case
+of the vine (_Vitis_), where the pistil consisted of leaves bearing the
+ovules on their inner surface.[266] The supposed causes of this and
+other similar malformations are alluded to under the head of chloranthy,
+but it may be here remarked that semi-double flowers, fertilised by the
+pollen of similar flowers, are said to produce flowers with a centre of
+small green leaves, this central tuft resulting from the expansion and
+frondescence of the pistils.
+
+As this condition rarely occurs without corresponding changes in other
+parts of the flower, further remarks on this subject will be found in
+the chapter relating to Chloranthy.
+
+Phyllody of the pistil has been most frequently recorded in the
+following plants:
+
+ Paeonia officinalis.
+ Ranunculus repens!
+ *Aquilegia vulgaris!
+ Delphinium elatum.
+ crassicaule.
+ Ajacis.
+ amaenum.
+ Nymphaea dentata.
+ Sinapis arvensis!
+ Diplotaxis tenuifolia.
+ *Brassica oleracea!
+ *Sisymbrium officinale!
+ Dianthus. sp
+ Reseda Phyteuma.
+ Triumfetta, sp.!
+ Lychnis dioica.
+ Cerastium, sp.!
+ *Dictamnus Fraxinella!
+ Cerasus avium.
+ vulgaris!
+ *Rosa, var. cult.!
+ *Daucus Carota!
+ Heracleum, sp.
+ Epilobium hirsutum!
+ Lathyrus latifolius.
+ *Trifolium repens!
+ hybridum.
+ Melilotus, sp.
+ Medicago, sp.
+ Lonicera Periclymenum.
+ Carduus heterophyllus.
+ tataricus.
+ Scrophularia aquatica.
+ Symphytum officinale.
+ Anchusa ochroleuca.
+ paniculata.
+ *Primula sinensis!
+ Salix babylonica.
+ Hyacinthus, sp.
+ Tulipa, sp.
+
+Some of the above are probably cases of mere virescence rather than of
+phyllody. For further illustrations, references to authorities, &c., see
+under Chloranthy, Virescence, Prolification, &c.
+
+=Phyllody of the ovules.=--Pending the settlement of the existing
+differences of opinion with reference to the morphological nature of the
+ovule and its component parts, much interest attaches to the
+malformations to which they are occasionally subject. Considered purely
+in a teratological point of view, it seems clear that the ovular coats
+are usually, if not always, of foliar nature, while the central nucleus
+is an axial organ; but if this be so there still remains the question
+whether the leafy coats of the ovule are processes of the carpel itself,
+or distinct independent formations, like the scales of a leaf-bud; as to
+this latter point, the evidence is at present very conflicting. Prof.
+Al. Braun, who has devoted much attention to the subject, describes and
+figures ovules of _Nigella_ and _Adonis_, wherein the outer coat of the
+ovule was converted into a leafy, lobed mass, like the ordinary leaves,
+and these he considers to be a portion, not of the carpel, but of the
+ovular bud; he, however, hesitates to pronounce an opinion on the nature
+of the pedicel of the ovule. In _Primulaceae_, wherein ovular changes are
+very common, the leafy coat of the ovule would seem, from the nature of
+the placenta, to be independent of the carpel. Morren, who studied the
+changes in the ovules of _Primula sinensis_, applied the term
+lepyrophylly ([Greek: lepyron], a scale) to the foliaceous condition of
+the testa in this plant. Unger[267] describes a series of malformations
+in _Primula sinensis_, consisting chiefly of reversions of the part of
+the flower to leaves. The carpels were entirely absent in this case, and
+the place of the free central placenta was occupied by a circle of
+leaves, sometimes bearing imperfect ovules on their edges. An instance
+of a similar kind has been described by A. de Candolle.[268]
+
+In these flowers the placenta seemed to be composed of several funiculi
+soldered together, and bearing imperfect ovules. In other cases no
+traces of ovules are visible, but the funiculi are in a foliaceous
+condition. Moquin also alludes to a case of the same nature in _Cortusa
+Mathioli_, in which the funiculi bore little rounded leaves. Brongniart
+has described some malformations of _Primula sinensis_ in which the
+ovules were transformed wholly or partially into small leaves with three
+to five lobes.[269] Dr. Marchand[270] mentions similar changes in
+_Anagallis arvensis_ and _Lonicera Periclymenum_.
+
+Cramer[271] figures ovules of _Primula sinensis_ in the form of stalked
+leaves, often becoming infolded at the margins, and giving origin to a
+small nucleus on their inner surface.
+
+M. Tassi[272] records an instance in _Symphytum officinale_ wherein the
+ovules were replaced by two small linear leaves arising entirely from
+the axis, and not from the carpels.
+
+In most of the foregoing illustrations the foliar portion of the ovule
+must have been independent of the carpel; this independence is less
+manifest, though probably as real in the cases now to be mentioned. In
+_Sinapis_ and in _Brassica oleracea_ foliaceous ovules may occasionally
+be seen, attached to the placenta by long stalks. No trace of the
+nucleus is visible in these specimens.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 140.--_Sinapis_, replum and ovules; the dotted line
+shows the position of the carpels.]
+
+Griffith, in alluding to a similar case in _Sinapis_,[273] describes the
+ovules as foliaceous, and having their backs turned away from the axis,
+the raphe being next to the axis and representing the midrib the funicle
+corresponding to the petiole. The outer tegument of the ovule, according
+to Griffith, is a leaf united along its margins, but always more or less
+open at its apex. No inversion can, therefore, really take place in
+anatropous ovules, but the blade of the leaf is bent back on the
+funicle, with which its margins also cohere.
+
+Caspary, in an elaborate paper on phyllomorphy occurring in _Trifolium
+repens_, figures foliaceous ovules springing from the edge of an open,
+leafy carpel. The nucleus of the ovule, in these cases, appears to
+originate as a little bud from the surface of the leafy ovule (figs.
+141, 142).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 141.--Leafy ovules, &c., _Trifolium repens_.]
+
+In a species of _Triumfetta_ (see p. 260), of which I examined dried
+specimens, the ovary was open and partly foliaceous; it bore on its
+infolded margins ten erect leaflets, representing so many ovules; each
+leaflet was conduplicate, the back being turned towards the placenta.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 142.--Leafy ovules of _Trifolium repens_, showing
+formation of nucleus, &c. After Caspary.]
+
+On the other hand, there are cases in which the leafy coat of the ovule,
+in place of being a distinct organ, seems to originate from the margin
+of the carpellary leaf itself--to be, as it were, a lobule or small
+process of the carpel, and not an absolutely new growth. Thus,
+Planchon[274], from an examination of some monstrous flowers of _Drosera
+intermedia_, was led to the inference that the ovules are analogous to
+hairs on the margins of the leaves. This acute botanist was enabled to
+trace all the gradations between the simple cup formed by the
+confluence of four glanduliferous hairs and the concave leaf and the
+perfect ovule.
+
+Brongniart[275] records ovules of _Delphinium elatum_ existing in the
+form of marginal lobes of the carpellary leaf itself; so that each ovule
+corresponds to a lobe or large tooth of this leaf, the funiculus, as
+well as the raphe, being formed by the median nerve of the lateral lobe.
+M. Clos[276] mentions a similar instance in _Aquilegia Skinneri_; and
+another is figured in Lindley's 'Elements of Botany,' p. 88, f. 180.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 143.--Portion of an open foliaceous carpel of
+_Delphinium_, with ovules on the lobules.]
+
+Cramer[277], from an examination of several ovular malformations, as
+well as from the investigation of the mode of evolution of the ovules,
+is led to a similar conclusion with reference to the production of
+ovules from the modified lobes of the carpellary leaf. Figs. 143-145,
+copied from Cramer, show how the nucleus of the ovule is formed as a new
+growth from the surface of the lobes of the leaf in _Delphinium elatum_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 144.--Section through marginal lobe of carpel
+(_Delphinium_), showing the nucleus (_n_).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 145.--Section through marginal lobe of carpel,
+showing nucleus and tegument (_Delphinium_).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 146.--1. Placenta of _Dianthus_, bearing ovules and
+carpels. 2. One of the ovaries separated.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 147.--Ovules of _Dianthus_ passing into carpels.]
+
+One of the most singular instances of ovular malformation in record is
+that cited by the Rev. M. J. Berkeley, in the 'Gardener's Chronicle,'
+September 28th, 1850, p. 612. The plant was a carnation, and its
+placenta bore, not only ovules, but also carpels (fig. 146), the latter
+originating in a perverted development of the former, so that many
+intermediate stages could be traced between the ordinary ovule and the
+ovary (fig. 147, 1, _a_, 2, _b_). Some of these carpels, thus derived
+from the ovules, themselves bore secondary ovules on a marginal
+placenta, as shown in the sections at _c_, _d_, _e_. Could such a change
+occur in the animal kingdom, there would be the unfertilised ovum
+converted into an ovary, and this again bearing Graafian vesicles! In
+Mr. Berkeley's carnation the change was not so great, seeing that the
+nucleus of the ovule was not developed, and sufficient evidence has been
+above given as to the foliar nature of the primine, while for a leaf to
+be folded up so as to form a carpel is an ordinary occurrence.
+
+It is worthy of remark that in these foliaceous ovules there is never
+more than one coat, the secondine and other integuments do not make
+their appearance in these cases, and that very generally the change in
+question accompanies a similar foliaceous condition in the carpel, the
+margins of which are more or less disunited.
+
+Prof. A. Braun remarks that up to this date no such change has been
+observed in the ovules of Monocotyledons.
+
+=Changes in the nucleus of the ovule.=--The preceding remarks have had
+reference especially to the ovular coats, but it is desirable also to
+allude to certain points connected with the nucleus. Very frequently,
+when the coat of the ovule is phylloid, as before described, the nucleus
+is altogether wanting, though sometimes it is present as a small
+cellular papilla; very rarely is it to be found in its perfect state.
+Occasionally the nucleus is present in the guise of a small elongated
+branch. Wigand cites ovular buds in every stage of progress into a
+branch, sometimes even bearing indications of anthers. Wydler has
+observed a similar occurrence in ovules of _Alliaria officinalis_, and
+Schimper has described and figured specimens of _Nigella damascena_ in
+which the outer coats of the ovule were but little changed, while the
+nucleus was replaced by a leafy shoot. On one of the leaves of this
+latter was found an imperfect ovule--an ovule on an ovule!
+
+Fig. 148 shows a floret of a species of _Gaillardia_, in which the ovule
+was replaced by a leafy shoot which had made its way through a chink in
+the ovary. In this specimen, however, there was no evidence to show
+whether the shoot in question was a perverted development of the
+nucleus, or whether it was wholly independent of the ovule.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 148.--Floret of _Gaillardia_, showing leafy shoot
+occupying the place of the ovule.]
+
+From this occasional elongation of the nucleus, as well as from the
+foliar nature of the ovular coats, Prof. Alex. Braun arrives at the
+conclusion that the ovule is to be looked on as a bud, the ovular
+coatings, so often variable in number, representing the scales of the
+bud, the nucleus corresponding to the end of the axis or growing point.
+Griffith had previously expressed the same opinion from his observations
+on malformed ovules of _Sinapis_ and _Lonicera_, while Caspary's
+conclusions from the foliaceous ovules of _Trifolum repens_ are somewhat
+similar. The latter observer considers that the funiculus, with the
+integuments, is the equivalent of a leaflet, the petiolule or midrib of
+which answers to the funiculus, and its hollow expansion to the
+integument. The nucleus itself is considered to be a new formation
+analogous to a shoot.
+
+M. van Tieghem's conclusion[278] from the examination, of flowers of
+_Tropaeolum majus_, in which the ovules were replaced by perfect peltate
+leaves, is that the ovules are foliar productions springing, not
+directly from a prolonged floral axis, as in _Primulaceae_, but from
+branches of the axis arising from the axils of the carpellary leaves.
+
+Phyllody of the ovules has been met with most often in the following
+species:
+
+ *Aquilegia vulgaris!
+ Skinneri.
+ Delphinium crassicaule.
+ elatum.
+ dictyocarpum.
+ Ajacis.
+ Nigella damascena.
+ Adonis autumnalis.
+ Cheiranthus Cheiri!
+ Nasturtium, sp.
+ Sisymbrium officinale!
+ Brassica napus!
+ * olcracea!
+ *Alliaria officinalis!
+ Sinapis arvensis!
+ Turritis, sp.
+ Thlaspi arvense.
+ Erucastrum Pollichii.
+ Stellaria media.
+ *Reseda lutea.
+ Drosera intermedia.
+ Agrostemma Githago.
+ Stellaria media.
+ Triumfetta, sp.!
+ Tropaeolum majus!
+ Dictamnus albus.
+ Fraxinella!
+ Caram carui
+ Pastinaca sativa.
+ Torilis anthriscus.
+ Thysselinum palustre.
+ Epilobium palustre.
+ Rosa, sp.
+ Fragaria alpina.
+ *Trifolium repens!
+ Medicago maculata.
+ Desmodium canadense.
+ Melilotus macrorhiza.
+ Lonicera, sp.
+ Gaillardia!
+ Crepis, sp.
+ Phyteuma odorata.
+ Symphytum Zeyheri.
+ * officinale.
+ Stachys sylvatica.
+ Anagallia arvensis.
+ phoenicea.
+ Lysimachia ephemerum.
+ *Primula sinensis!
+ Auricula.
+ praenitens.
+ Gilia glomeruliflora.
+ Rumex arifolius.
+ scutatus.
+ Salix capraea.
+
+The following list of publications relating to ovular malformations is
+copied from A. Braun, 'Ueber Polyembryonie und Keimung von Caelobogyne'
+(Appendix),[279] to which are also added some others not alluded to by
+that author and not specially referred to in the preceding pages:
+
+ Jaeger, 'Missbilld. d. Gewaechse,' p. 78, 79, f. 47. Roeper,
+ 'Enum. Euphorb.,' 1824. p. 45, _Delphinium_.--Schimper,
+ 'Flora,' 1829, pp. 437-8, et 'Mag. fur Pharmacie de Geiger,'
+ 1829-30, pl. iv-vi, text wanting, _Primula_, _Reseda_,
+ _Cheiranthus_.--Engelmann, 'De Antholysi,' 1832.--Valentin,
+ 'Act. Acad. Nat. Cur.,' 1839, p. 225, _Lysimachia_.--Unger,
+ 'Act. Acad. Nat. Cur.,' xxii, 11, 1850, p. 543, t. 5 B,
+ _Primula_.--'Flora (B. Z.)', 1842, p. 369, t. ii,
+ _Trifolium_.--Brongniart, 'Ann. Sc. Nat.,' 1834, ii, p. 308;
+ also 'Archives Mus. d'Hist. Nat.,' 1844, t. iv, p. 43, pl. iv,
+ v, _Primula_.--Reissek, 'Linnaea,' xvii, 1843,
+ _Alliaria_.--Wydler, 'Denkshrift. d. Regensb. Bot. Gesell.,'
+ 1855, iv, s. 77, t. vii, _Alliaria_.--Wigand. 'Grundlegung der
+ Pflanzen Teratol.,' 1850, p. 39, _Turritis_.--Wigand, 'Bot.
+ Untersuchungen,' 1853, p. 23, _Rosa_, _Turritis_,
+ _Crepis_.--Germain de St. Pierre, 'L'lnstitut,' 1853, n. 1051,
+ p. 351.--Rossmann, "Entwicklung der Eiknospen aus dem
+ Fruchtblatte," &c., 'Flora,' 1855, pp. 647 and 705.--Dareste,
+ 'Ann. Sc. Nat.,' 1842, p. 220, _Delphinium_.--Fresenius, 'Mus.
+ Senkenb.,' ii, p. 39, t. iv, f. 9, _Primula_.--Schultz, 'Flora
+ o. d. Bot. Zeit.,' 1834, xvii, p. 121, _Nasturtium_.--Seringe
+ and Heyland, 'Bull. Bot.,' 1-7, _Diplotaxis_.--Clos, 'Mem.
+ Acad. Toulouse,' vi, 1862, _Delphinium_.--Morren, C., 'Bull.
+ Acad. Belg.,' xix, part ii, p. 519, _Primula_.--Caspary,
+ 'Schrift. d. Physik. OEk. Gesell. zu Koenigsberg,' band ii, p.
+ 51, tabs. ii, iii. Fleischer, 'Ueber Missbildungen
+ Verschiedener Cultur Pflanzen.,' &c., Esslingen, 1862. Cramer,
+ 'Bildungsabweich,' p. 68, &c. &c., _Trifolium._--Moquin-Tandon,
+ 'El. Terat. Veg.,' p. 206, _Cortusa_.--Guillard, 'Bull. Soc.
+ Bot. Fr.,' 1857, vol. iv, p. 761, _Stellaria_.--Moelkenboer,
+ 'Tijdschrift v. Natuurl. Geschied.,' 1843, p. 355, t. vi, vii,
+ _Primula_.--Van Tieghem, 'Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr.,' 1865, p, 411,
+ _Tropaeolum_.
+
+=Phyllody in accessory organs.=--In addition to the ordinary organs of
+the plant, what are termed the accessory organs, such as hairs, spines,
+&c., sometimes become foliaceous. It is not to be wondered at that
+spines, when they represent the framework of a leaf, become sometimes
+clothed with cellular tissue, and thus become indeed true leaves. This
+happens occasionally in _Berberis;_ a similar thing occurs in the
+stipules of some _Leguminosae_; the scales of some begonias; the tendrils
+of _Bignonia_, _Cobaea_, &c.
+
+The presence of two small green laminae on the outer side of the two
+posterior stamens in _Antirrhinum majus_ has also been met with. The
+adventitious organs appeared as if they were developments from the
+thalamus--a kind of foliaceous disc, in fact.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 149.--Leafy petal of _Epilobium_.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 150.--Chloranthy, &c. _Epilobium hirsutum_.]
+
+=Chloranthy.=--The term phyllomorphy is applied to the individual parts
+of the flower which assume the form and appearance of leaves. By
+chloranthy it is to be understood that all, or the great majority of the
+organs of the flower assume these conditions.[280] In chloranthy, as
+here defined, there is no unusual number of buds, as there is in
+prolification, but the appearance of the flower-bud is so changed as to
+make it resemble more closely a leaf-bud than a flower-bud. There is not
+necessarily any increase in the number, or any alteration in the
+position of the buds, but the form and appearance of the latter differ
+from what is usual. Chloranthy, then, is a more complete form of
+frondescence. Owing to the vagueness with which the word has been
+applied by various authors, it becomes very difficult to ascertain
+whether the recorded instances of chloranthy were really illustrations
+of what is here meant by that term, or whether they were cases of mere
+virescence (green colour, without other perceptible change), or of
+prolification (formation of adventitious buds). It is, therefore, quite
+possible that some of the instances to be now mentioned were not
+strictly cases of chloranthy.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 151.--_a._ Open leafy carpel of "green rose," with
+two deformed ovules. _b._ Ovule separate. _c._ Primine removed. _d._
+Secondine and nucleus, with the bulbous end that projects through the
+micropyle.]
+
+Seringe[281] has described a malformation in _Diplotaxis tenuifolia_ in
+which all the floral organs were replaced by sixteen distinct leaflets
+which had preserved their proper relative position. The _Cruciferae_, of
+which family the last-named plant is a member, are particularly liable
+to this malformation, as also are the _Rosaceae_, as will be seen from
+the following illustrations. Roses indeed often exhibit alterations of
+this kind as the commencement of prolification. There is also in
+cultivation a rose[282] called the green rose, "Rose bengale a fleurs
+vertes," in which all the parts of the flower are represented by leaves.
+One of the most remarkable features in this plant is, that the carpels
+have often two ovules on their margins. Now, Payer, in his
+"Organogenie," has shown that at a certain period of the development of
+the ordinary rose flower the ovary contains two collateral ovules, of
+which one becomes in process of time suppressed.[283] _Geum coccineum_
+has been found by Wigand with its flowers in this condition.[284]
+
+Lindley[285] figures a very interesting illustration in _Potentilla
+nepalensis_, in which some of the flowers have their component parts
+leafy, in others the receptacle lengthens, till in extreme cases the
+whole of the floral apparatus is represented by a branch bearing a
+rosette of leaves.
+
+A particular variety of the Alpine strawberry is also described as
+occasionally subject to this transformation. In these flowers the calyx
+remains normal, while all the other parts of the flower, even to the
+coating of the ovule, assume a leaf-like condition.[286]
+
+Among _Leguminosae_ a partial leafy condition (frondescence), or a more
+complete degree of the same change, (chloranthy) is not infrequent,
+particularly in _Trifolium repens_. In this species the changes are so
+common, so various and important, that they may be alluded to in some
+little detail. M. Germain de Saint Pierre,[287] in commenting on the
+frequency with which the flowers of this plant are more or less
+frondescent, remarks that although all the flowers on one plant may be
+affected, they are all changed in the same manner, but on different
+specimens different degrees of transformation are found. In all the
+corolla and stamens are comparatively little removed from the ordinary
+form, the calyx and pistil, however, have a particular tendency to
+assume a foliar condition. The author just cited arranges the
+malformations of this plant under three heads, as follows:
+
+ 1. Calyx-teeth larger than usual, sometimes dentate at the
+ margin; petals more or less regular and disposed to run away
+ from the papilionaceous form; filaments free; anthers normal;
+ carpel transformed into a true leaf with a long stalk provided
+ at the base, with two stipules, terminal leaflet, solitary,
+ green, with no trace of ovules. Sometimes a second carpellary
+ leaf, similar to the first, is formed; in other cases the
+ central axis of the flower is occasionally prolonged into a
+ head of young flowers--median prolification. In some few
+ instances the calyx is not at all altered, but the carpellary
+ leaf is trifoliolate, or even quinquefoliolate, the corolla
+ being then absent. The heads of flowers in this first form have
+ the aspect of little tufts of leaves.
+
+ 2. Each of the teeth of the calyx is represented by a long
+ stalk, terminated by a single articulated leaflet, the
+ bi-labiate form of the calyx is still recognisable; the two
+ upper petals are united, the three lower separate; the tube of
+ the calyx is not deformed and seems to be formed of the
+ petioles of the sepals united by their stipules. In this second
+ class of cases the corolla is papilionaceous, the filaments
+ free, the carpellary leaf on a long stalk provided with
+ stipules, its blade more or less like the usual carpel, with
+ its margins disunited or more commonly united with the ovules
+ in the interior, sometimes represented by a foliaceous, dentate
+ primine only. In one case the carpel was closed above, gaping
+ below, where it gave origin to several leaflets, the lower ones
+ oval, dentate, like ordinary leaflets, the upper ones merely
+ lanceolate, leafy lobes, representing the primine reduced to a
+ foliaceous condition. Inflorescence--a head with leafy flowers
+ on long stalks, which are longer at the circumference than in
+ the centre.
+
+ 3. Calyx-teeth lance-shaped, acuminate; corolla more or less
+ regular, arrested in its development and scarcely exceeding the
+ tube of the calyx within which it is crumpled up; stamens but
+ little changed; carpellary leaf on a short stalk, not exceeding
+ the calyx tube, but the ovarian portion very long, and provided
+ with abortive ovules.
+
+ These three groups will be found to include most of the forms
+ under which frondescence of the clover blossoms occurs, but
+ there are, of course, intermediate forms not readily to be
+ grouped under either of the above heads. Such are the cases
+ brought under the notice of the British Association at
+ Birmingham in 1849 by Mr. R. Austen, in some of which the
+ petals and stamens even were represented by leaves.
+
+Although, on the whole, chloranthy is most frequent in the families
+already alluded to, yet it is by no means confined to them, as the
+examples now to be given amply show. Specimens of _Nymphaea Lotus_ have
+been seen in which all the parts of the flower, even to the stigmas,
+were leafy, while the ovules were entirely wanting.
+
+Planchon[288] figures and describes a flower of _Drosera intermedia_
+that had passed into a chloranthic condition, excepting the calyx, which
+was unchanged; the petals, like the valves of the ovary, were provided
+with stipules, and were circinate in vernation.
+
+M. A. Viaud-Grand-Marais[289] records an interesting example of
+chloranthy, in which the sepals, petals, pistils, and ovules of
+_Anagallis arvensis_ were all foliaceous. Similar changes have not
+unfrequently been met with in _Dictamnus Fraxinella_.
+
+M. Germain de Saint Pierre has also recorded the following deviations in
+the flowers of _Rumex arifolius_ and _R. scutatus_; in these specimens
+the calyx was normal, the petals large, foliaceous, shaped like the
+stem-leaves, the stamens were absent, the three carpels fused into a
+triangular leafy pod, as long again as the perianth, the stigmas normal
+or wanting, the ovule represented by a thick funicle, terminated by a
+foliaceous appendage analogous to the primine.[290]
+
+In grasses it frequently happens that the flowers are replaced by
+leaf-buds; this condition is alluded to elsewhere under the head of
+viviparous grasses, but in this place may be mentioned a less degree of
+change, and which seems to have been a genuine case of chloranthy in
+_Glyceria fluitans_, the spikelet of which, as observed by Wigand,[291]
+consisted below of the ordinary unchanged glumes, but the remaining
+paleae as well as the lodicles and stamens were represented by ligulate
+leaves. The plant, it is stated, was affected by a parasitic fungus. On
+the other hand, General Munro, in his valuable monograph of the
+_Bambusaceae_,[292] refers to an illustration in which "the lowest glumes
+generally, and the lowest paleae occasionally, had the appearance of
+miniature leaves, with vaginae, ligules and cilia, enveloping, however,
+perfect fertile spiculae; as progress is made towards the top of the
+spike, the ligule first, then the cilia, and finally, the leaf-like
+extension disappears, and the uppermost glumes assume the ordinary shape
+and form of those organs."
+
+=General remarks on chloranthy and frondescence.=--Moquin remarks with
+justice that the position of the flowers on the axis is of importance
+with reference to the existence of chloranthy. Terminal flowers are more
+subject to it than lateral ones, and if the latter, by accident, become
+terminal, they seem peculiarly liable to assume a foliaceous condition.
+Kirschleger says, that in _Rubus_ there are two sorts of chloranthy,
+according as the anomaly affects the ordinary flowering branches, or the
+leafy shoots of the year, the summits of which, instead of developing in
+the customary manner, terminate each in one vast and long inflorescence,
+very loose and indeterminate, and with axillary flowers.[293]
+
+On the whole, taking in consideration cases of partial frondescence, as
+well as those in which most of the parts of the flower are affected,
+phyllody would seem to be most common in the petals and carpels, least
+so in the case of the stamens and sepals. It is more common among
+polysepalous and polypetalous plants than in those in which the sepals
+or petals are united together.
+
+The causes assigned for these phenomena are chiefly those of a nature to
+debilitate or injure the plant; thus it has been frequently observed to
+follow the puncture of an insect. M. Guillard[294] gives an instance in
+_Stellaria media_ where the condition appeared to be due to the attacks
+of an insect _Thrips fasciata_. Still more commonly it arises from the
+attacks of parasitic fungi, _e.g._ _Uredo candida_, in Crucifers, &c.
+
+In other cases it has been observed when the plants have been growing in
+very damp places, or in very wet seasons, or in the shade, or where the
+plant has been much trampled on. This happens frequently with _Trifolium
+repens_. The frequency with which the change is encountered in this
+particular species is very remarkable; it is difficult to see why one
+species should be so much more subject to the kind of change than
+another of nearly identical conformation.
+
+It might at first be supposed that the same causes that bring about the
+complete substitution of leaf-buds for flower-buds (see Heterotaxy)
+would operate also in the partial substitution of leaves for other parts
+of the flower, but it will be seen that the inducing cause, whether
+similar or not in the two cases respectively, acts at different times;
+in the one case, it is not brought into play until the rudiments of the
+flower are already formed, whereas in the other the influence is exerted
+prior to the formation of the flower. So that while the formation of
+leaf-buds in place of flower-buds may be and generally is due to an
+excess of nutrition, inducing over activity of the vegetative organs,
+the production of phyllomorphic or chloranthic flowers may be owing
+rather to a perversion of development arising from injury or from some
+debilitating agency. The discrepancies in the assigned causes for the
+conditions above mentioned may, therefore, in great measure, be
+attributed to the different periods at which the causes in question
+operate.
+
+The following list may serve as a guide to the plants most frequently
+the subjects of chloranthy, but reference should also be made to
+preceding and subsequent sections, and to that relating to prolification
+of the inflorescence.
+
+ Aquilegia vulgaris.
+ Chelidonium majus.
+ Corydalis aurea.
+ Nymphaea Lotus!
+ *Brassica oleracea!
+ Bunias.
+ Hesperis matronalis.
+ *Sinapis arvensis!
+ Sisymbrium officinale.
+ Erucastrum canariense.
+ Diplotaxis tenuifolia.
+ Lychnis dioica!
+ Cerastium glomeratum!
+ triviale.
+ Stellaria media.
+ Poterium polygamum.
+ Torilis anthriscus.
+ Seseli, sp.
+ Selinum caruifolium.
+ Epilobium hirsutum!
+ Begonia fuchsioides.
+ Gomphia, sp.
+ Scabiosa Columbaria.
+ Dipsacus fullonum.
+ Matricaria Parthenium.
+ Calendula officinalis.
+ Campanula pyramidalis.
+ Reseda odorata!
+ Vitis vinifera.
+ Dictamnus Fraxinella!
+ Triumfetta, sp.!
+ *Tropaeolum majus!
+ Rhamnus Frangula.
+ *Trifolium repens!
+ Lupinus, sp.
+ Rosa diversifolia!
+ Potentilla nepalensis.
+ argentea.
+ Fragaria vesca!
+ Geum rivale.
+ Rubus fruticosus.
+ caesius.
+ Saxifraga foliosa.
+ Verbascum phlomoides.
+ Scrophularia nodosa.
+ aquatica!
+ *Primula sinensis!
+ Lysimachia Ephemerum.
+ Anagallis arvensis.
+ Webbiana.
+ Nicotiana rustica.
+ Anchusa ochroleuca.
+ Myosotis caespitosa.
+ Stachys sylvatica.
+ Gilia capitata.
+ Euphorbia segetalis.
+ Rumex arifolius.
+ scutatus.
+ Juncus lampocarpus.
+ uliginosus.
+
+In addition to the publications before cited the following may be named
+as containing valuable information on the subject of this chapter.
+
+ Jaeger, 'Missbild. Gewaechs.,' 1814, p. 83, _Trifolium repens_.
+ For other accounts of similar malformations in the same plant,
+ see Schmitz, 'Linnaea,' xv, p. 268. Unger, 'Flora' (B. Z.) xxv,
+ p. 369. Caspary, 'Schrift. der. Physik. oekon. Gesellsch. zu
+ Koenigsberg,' 2, 1861, p. 51, tabs. ii, iii. Fleischer,
+ 'Missbilld. verschied. Cult. Pflanz.,' 1862, p. 55, &c., t. v,
+ vii, &c. For _Primula_ see Brongniart, 'Ann. Sc. Nat.,' ser. 2,
+ t. i, p. 308. A. P. and Alph. De Candolle in 'Neue
+ Denkschrift.' Morren, C., 'Bull. Acad. Roy. Belg.,' xix, part
+ 2, p. 539. Molkenboer, 'Tijdschr. voor Natuurl. Geschied.,'
+ 1843, p. 355, tabs. vi, vii. Marchand, 'Adansonia,' iv, p. 167
+ and p. 159. _Anagallis_, p. 171, _Lonicera_, p. 83, _Juncus_.
+ For other plants see Fresenius, 'Mus. Senk.,' 2, p. 35, &c.
+ Norman, 'Ann. Sc. Nat.,' ser. 4, 1858, vol. ix, p. 220. Christ,
+ 'Flora' (B. Z.) 1867, p. 376, tabs. v, vi, _Stachys_. Cramer,
+ 'Bildungsabweich.,' p. 26, &c. Baillon, 'Adansonia,' ii, p.
+ 300. Moquin-Tandon, 'El. Ter. Veg.,' p. 230. Schauer's
+ translation, p. 220. Hallier, 'Phytopathologie,' p. 160.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[245] Engelmann makes use of the word frondescence in the same cases.
+'De Anthol.,' p. 32, Sec. 38, while Morren adopts the term Phyllomorphy,
+'Lobelia,' p. 95.
+
+[246] See Schlechtendal, 'Bot. Zeit.,' vol. xv, 1857, p. 873; also
+Marchand, 'Adansonia,' iv, p. 156.
+
+[247] For instances of similar changes in _Composites_, see De Candolle,
+'Prod.,' t. vi, p. 571, _Centaurea Jacea phyllocephala_. Clos, 'Ann. Sc.
+Nat.,' ser. iii, tom. xvi, 1851, p. 41. 'Science Gossip,' 1865, p. 104,
+&c.
+
+[248] Kickx, 'Bull. Acad. Belg.,' t. xviii, part 2, p. 288.
+
+[249] Weber, 'Verhandl. Nat. Hist. Vereins. f. Preuss.,' &c., 1860, p.
+381.
+
+[250] Weber, loc. cit.
+
+[251] Sauter, 'Flora v. Bot. Zeit.,' 1831, p. 11.
+
+[252] 'Descr. et Icon. Plant.' tab. 20.
+
+[253] For references see p. 115; see also to Eichler, 'Excurs.
+Morpholog. de format. flor. Gymnosperm.,' in "Mart. Flor. Brasil,"
+abstracted in English in 'Natural History Review,' April, 1864.
+
+[254] "Calyx tunc plane non differt a foliis proxime ipsi
+praecedentibus." Wolff, 'Theor. Gener.,' Sec. 114. Linn., 'Proleps.,'
+Sec. 6. Goethe, 'Versuch.,' Secs. 31-38.
+
+[255] 'Bull. Soc. Bot. France,' vol. viii, 1861, p. 697.
+
+[256] 'Organ. Veget.,' t. i, p. 492, pl. xxxii, f. 6.
+
+[257] This distinction between laminar and vaginal venation is well seen
+in cases like _Mussaenda_, _Calycophyllum_, or _Dipterocarpus_, where
+the enlarged calycine segment has a strictly vaginal arrangement of its
+veins, very different from that which occurs in the true leaf-blades.
+These are cases, therefore, where the sheath of the leaf is unusually
+enlarged, and are not to be referred, as is often done, to metamorphosis
+of one or more sepals to perfect leaves. Prolified roses, cherries, &c.,
+furnish frequently parallel cases. With reference to _Mussaenda_, C.
+Morren held the view that the petal-like sepal was really a bract
+adherent to the calyx, and incorporating with itself one of the calycine
+lobes--"soudee au calice et ayant devoree, en englobant dans sa propre
+masse, un lobe calicinal." The Belgian _savant_ considers this somewhat
+improbable explanation as supported by a case wherein there were five
+calyx lobes of uniform size, and a detached feather-veined leaf
+proceeding from the side of the ovary lower down ('Bull. Acad. Belg.,'
+xvii, p. 17, _Fuchsia_, p. 169).
+
+[258] In this order _Agrostemma Githago_ offers an illustration of a
+normally leafy calyx.
+
+[259] 'Bull. Bot.,' i, p. 6.
+
+[260] Wolff's original opinion was that the stamens were equivalent to
+so many buds placed in the axil of the petals or sepals (see 'Theoria
+Generationis,' 1759, Sec. 114)--an opinion which more recently has received
+the support of Agardh and Endlicher. Wolff himself, however, seems to
+have abandoned his original notion, for in his memoir, "De formatione
+intestinorum praecipue tum et de amnio spurio aliisque partibus embryonis
+gallinacei, nondum visis," &c., in 'Comm. Acad. Petrop.,' xii, p. 403,
+anno 1766, he considers the stamens as essentially leaves. See also
+Linn. 'Prolepsis,' Sec. viii; Goethe, 'Metam.,' Sec. 46.
+
+[261] Mueller (Argov.), in 'Mem. Soc. Phys. et d'Hist. Nat. Genev.,' t.
+xvii.
+
+[262] "If we keep in view the observations which have now been made, we
+shall not fail to recognise the leaf in all seed-vessels,
+notwithstanding their manifold forms, their variable structure, and
+different combinations."--(Goethe, 'Metam.,' Sec. 78.) Wolff, 'N. Comm.
+Acad. Petrop.,' 1766, xii, p. 403, expresses precisely the same opinion
+as to the nature of the seed-vessel.
+
+[263] 'El. Terat. Veg.,' p. 205.
+
+[264] 'Ann. Sc. Nat.,' 4th series, vol. ix, p. 209.
+
+[265] 'Adansonia,' iv, p. 70. A similar deviation has been observed by
+M. van Tieghem in the ovary of _Tropaeolum majus_, 'Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr.,'
+1865, p. 411.
+
+[266] Planchon et Mares, 'Ann. Sc. Nat.,' ser. 5, vol. vi, 1866, p. 228,
+tab. xii.
+
+[267] 'Act. Acad. Nat. Cur.,' 22, 11. 1850, p. 543, t. v, vi.
+
+[268] 'Neue Denkschrift der allg. Schweiz. Gesellsch.,' band v. p. 9,
+tab. 3, 4.
+
+[269] 'Ann. Sc. Nat.,' 2 ser., vol. i, p. 308, pl. ix, c.
+
+[270] 'Adansonia,' vol. iv, pp. 159, 171.
+
+[271] 'Bildungsabweichungen,' &c., tab. iv, figs. 1, 2, 21, 28, 29, &c.
+
+[272] 'Bull. Soc. Bot. France,' viii, p. 395.
+
+[273] 'Notulae,' p. 125, atlas, pl. xxxv; and 'Journals of Travels,'
+1847, p. 475, _Lonicera_.
+
+[274] 'Ann. Science Nat.,' 3rd ser., vol. ix, p. 86, tabs. 5, 6.
+
+[275] 'Comptes Rendus,' vol. xviii, March 25th, 1864, and 'Ann. Sc.
+Nat.,' 3 ser., vol. ii, p. 32.
+
+[276] 'Mem. Acad. Sc. Toulous.,' ser. 5, vol. iii.
+
+[277] 'Bildungsabweich. Pflanz. Famil.,' p. 89, tab. xi.
+
+[278] 'Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr.,' 1865, p. 411.
+
+[279] Translated in 'Ann. Sc. Nat.,' 4th series, t. xiv, p. 24.
+
+[280] The calyx is not unfrequently excepted.
+
+[281] 'Bull. Bot.,' t. i, p. 6.
+
+[282] Lindley, 'Theor. Horticult.,' ed. 2, p. 84, f. 17.
+
+[283] Gris, 'Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr.,' 1858, vol. v, p. 261, and 'Ann. Sc.
+Nat.,' ser. 4, vol. ix, p. 80. Planchon, 'Flore des Serres,' vol. i,
+1856, p. 129.
+
+[284] 'Flora,' 1856, p. 711.
+
+[285] 'Theory of Horticult.,' ed. 2, p. 90, f. 25.
+
+[286] As considerable interest attaches to the "Plymouth strawberry,"
+and very little is known of it in this country, or on the continent, the
+author gladly avails himself of this opportunity of inserting an account
+of it, for which he is indebted to the kindness of Dr. Robert Hogg.--The
+Plymouth Strawberry (_Fragaria vesca fructu hispido_) is a sort of
+botanical Dodo upon which many have written, and which few have seen.
+Many years have elapsed since it was first discovered; and although a
+century and a half have passed since there was any evidence of its
+existence, it serves still as an illustration for students in morphology
+of one of those strange abnormal structures with which the vegetable
+kingdom abounds.
+
+It is to old John Tradescant we are indebted for the earliest record of
+this plant. Johnson, in his edition of 'Gerard,' says; "Mr. John
+Tradescant hath told me that he was the first that tooke notice of this
+strawberry, and that in a woman's garden at Plimouth, whose daughter had
+gathered and set the roots in her garden, in stead of the common
+strawberry; but she, finding the fruit not to answer her expectation,
+intended to throw it away; which labour he spared her in taking it and
+bestowing it among the louers of such varieties, in whose garden it is
+yet preserved." Doubtless one of those "lovers" was his friend John
+Parkinson, who, in the year 1629, thus wrote concerning it: "One
+strawberry more I promised to shew you, which, although it be a wilde
+kinde, and of no vse for meate, yet I would not let this discourse passe
+without giuing you the knowledge of it. It is in leafe much like vnto
+the ordinary, but differeth in that the flower, if it haue any, is
+greene, or rather it beareth a small head of greene leaues, many set
+thicke together like vnto a double ruffe, in the midst whereof standeth
+the fruit, which, when it is ripe, sheweth to be soft and somewhat
+reddish, like vnto a strawberry, but with many small harmlesse prickles
+on them which may be eaten and chewed in the mouth without any maner of
+offence and is somewhat pleasant as a strawberry; it is no great bearer,
+but those it doth beare, are set at the toppes of the stalks close
+together, pleasant to behold, and fit for a gentlewoman to weare on her
+arme, &c., as a rairitie in stead of a flower."
+
+Merret, in his 'Pinax.' published in 1667, says he found it growing in
+the woods of Hyde Park and Hampstead, and Zanoni was the first to figure
+it (with the exception of Parkinson's rude woodcut) in his 'Istoria
+Botanica,' published in 1675. It is mentioned by Morison and also by
+Ray, the latter of whom inserts it in his Synopsis, but without any
+habitat; though in his 'Historia Plantarum' he says: "Cantabrigiae in
+horto per aliquot annos colui." From this time henceforth the Plymouth
+strawberry has become a botanical Dodo, nothing more having been seen or
+heard of it except the mere record of the name. In 1766, M. Duchesne
+informed the world of the generosity of "M. Monti, Docteur de
+Philosophie et de Medecine a Boulogne en Italie," who divided with him a
+dried specimen taken from his own herbarium, "Ce present pretieux m'ote
+toute incertitude sur la nature de ce Fraisier et sur ses caracteres
+monstrueux. Il paroit ne pas avoir aujourd'hui plus d'existence."
+
+[287] 'Bull. Soc. Bot. France,' 1856, vol. iii, p. 477.
+
+[288] 'Ann. Sc. Nat.,' 3 ser., vol. ix, p. 86, tabs. v, vi.
+
+[289] 'Bull. Soc. Bot. France,' vol. viii, 1861, p. 695.
+
+[290] Ibid., vol. iii, 1856, p. 475.
+
+[291] 'Flora,' 1856, p. 712.
+
+[292] 'Trans. Linn. Soc.,' vol. xxvi, p. 37.
+
+[293] 'Bull. Soc. Bot. France,' 1862, vol. ix, p. 36, tab. i, and also
+p. 291.
+
+[294] Ibid., 1857, vol. iv, p. 761.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+METAMORPHY OF THE FLORAL ORGANS.
+
+
+One of the main arguments adduced by Goethe and others in support of the
+now generally received doctrine of the essential morphological identity
+of the various whorls of the flower is derived from the frequent
+appearance of one organ in the guise of another. The several parts of
+the flower become, as it is said, metamorphosed; sometimes the change
+is complete, while at other times there may be every conceivable
+intermediate condition between one form and another. The sense in which
+the terms metamorphosis, substitution, transformation, and the like, are
+herein used has already been explained. For the convenience of
+arrangement, metamorphosis of the parts of the flower may be divided
+into several subdivisions, according to the particular organ affected,
+and according to the special kind or degree of change manifested, the
+main subdivisions being here classed as Sepalody, Petalody, Staminody,
+and Pistillody.
+
+=Sepalody of the petals.=--This change, spoken of by most authors as
+retrograde metamorphosis of the petals into sepals, or as a substitution
+of sepals for petals, is obviously a condition that is in most cases
+hardly distinguishable from virescence of the corolla, or from
+multiplication of the sepals. Nor is this of much consequence unless
+there are some special structural features which render the
+discrimination a matter of importance, in which case the difficulty is
+generally easily surmounted. The flower of the Saint-Valery Apple may
+perhaps be cited under this head. In the flower in question there are
+neither stamens nor petals, unless the second or inner of sepals be
+considered as sepaloid petals (fig. 152).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 152.--Flower of St. Valery apple, with sepaloid
+petals.]
+
+M. Alph. de Candolle[295] describes an instance in _Primula Auricula_ in
+which the corolla had assumed the appearance of the calyx, but neither
+calyx nor corolla in this case possessed perfect stomata.
+
+This malformation is much less common than the converse one of
+calycanthemy. Many of the recorded instances of so-called metamorphosis
+of the parts of the flower to sepals have occurred in monocotyledonous
+plants, or others in which the calyx and corolla are of the same colour,
+and constitute what is frequently termed the perianth; and as this is
+usually brightly coloured (not green) it is more convenient to group the
+metamorphoses in question under the general term Petalody, which thus
+includes all those cases in which the organs of the flower appear in the
+form of coloured petal-like organs, whether they be true petals or
+segments of a coloured perianth. As the morphological difference between
+the organs is one of position merely, there is little objection to be
+raised to this course, the less so as the term petalody merely conveys
+an idea of resemblance and not of absolute identity.
+
+Petaloid coloration of the ordinary leaves, or of the bracts, is
+mentioned under the chapter relating to colour.
+
+=Petalody of the calyx--Calycanthemy.=--As with the bracts, so the calyx
+in certain instances is naturally coloured, as in _Delphinium_,
+_Tropaeolum_, and others. In _Mussaenda_, _Calycophyllum_, _Usteria_, &c.,
+one or more of the calyx lobes become enlarged normally. Considered
+teratologically, petaloid coloration of the sepals is either general or
+partial; in the latter case the nerves retain their green colour
+longest. There is in cultivation a variety of the primrose called
+_Primula calycanthema_, in which the upper part of the calyx becomes
+coloured, so that the flower seems to have two corollas placed one
+within the other; a similar thing happens in _Mimulus_, in which plant,
+as the calyx is permanent while the corolla is deciduous, the coloured
+calyx is a great advantage in a horticultural point of view. Morren[296]
+says that in order to produce the fine colour of the calyx of _Primula
+officinalis_ (var. _smaragdina_) the Belgian gardeners cut away the
+corolla in a very early stage, and that in consequence the colouring
+matter proper to the corolla is developed in the tube of the calyx, the
+edges of the limb remaining green, the middle of the limb being purple
+(_Primula tricolor_).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 153.--Flower of _Mimulus_, with petaloid calyx.]
+
+Under this head may be mentioned the occurrence of tubular sepals in
+place of the ordinary flat ones in _Helleborus olympicus_; only two of
+the sepals were thus affected in a specimen recently observed--a third
+exhibited an intermediate condition.
+
+The normal coloration of the calyx occurs most frequently in
+polysepalous calyces; teratological coloration, on the other hand,
+occurs especially in gamosepalous flowers. This assertion is borne out
+by the frequency of the change in the plants already mentioned, and also
+in the following:--_Campanula persicifolia_, _Anagallis arvensis_,
+_Gloxinia_, _Syringa persica_,[297] _Calceolaria_, _&c. &c_. In the
+last-named plant one or more of the lobes of the calyx may frequently be
+seen replaced by a slipper-like petal.
+
+Among polysepalous plants petaloid sepals have been observed in
+_Ranunculus auricomus_, _Rubus caesius_, _&c._ Fleischer also describes a
+case of this kind in _Carum carui_.[298]
+
+It will be seen from the above that in the majority of cases there is no
+real metamorphosis or substitution of petal for calyx, but simply an
+alteration in colour; nevertheless, a change in form may accompany a
+change of colour: this happens especially if there has been any
+displacement of organs. Thus, if, in an orchidaceous plant, a sepal be
+displaced from any cause, or a petal be twisted out of its natural
+position to occupy the place of an absent sepal, that petal will be
+sepal-like in form, and _vice versa_.
+
+=Petalody of the stamens.=--A petaloid condition of the stamens is one
+of the commonest of all malformations. A large number of so-called
+double flowers (flores pleni)[299] owe their peculiar appearance to this
+circumstance.
+
+It is necessary to distinguish carefully this petaloid development of
+the stamens from the corresponding condition of the pistils, and from
+that kind of doubling which is a result of multiplication of the
+corolla, as in _Datura_, _Campanula_, _Primula_, &c. (flores duplices,
+triplices, &c.), or from that produced by true median prolification
+(flores geminati, &c.).
+
+In cases of true petaloid development of the stamens there are usually
+numerous intermediate forms between that of the true petals and that of
+the perfect stamens; indeed, in _Nymphaea_, _Canna_, and in some other
+plants, such a transition occurs normally. Petalody of the stamens may
+occur either without material change in the flower or it may exist in
+combination or in conjunction with an increased development of parts
+(Multiplication), or with a similar change in the carpels, and it is
+either partial or complete.
+
+Among the flowers in which petaloid development of the stamens happens
+most frequently may be mentioned those in which the calyx is normally
+coloured, as in _Nigella damascena_, _Aguilegia_, and _Delphinium_.
+
+M. Alph. de Candolle, in the 'Neue Denkschriften,' 1841, described and
+figured a singular form of _Viola odorata_, known under the name of
+"Bruneau," in Switzerland, in which the stamens are absent, and their
+place supplied by a second row of petals, within which is a third series
+of petals, representing, says M. de Candolle, the inner row of stamens
+that theory suggests should exist in the natural condition. Moreover,
+the carpels in this variety are five in number instead of three. In
+_Erica Tetralix_ the corolla may not unfrequently be found divided to
+the base into its constituent petals, and the place of the stamens
+occupied by a series of petal-like structures entirely destitute of
+anther.
+
+In monocotyledonous flowers, especially those with a coloured perianth,
+the substitution of segments of the perianth for stamens occurs not
+unfrequently. M. Seringe has observed this in the stamens of _Lilium
+Martagon_, and there is in cultivation a variety of the white lily,
+_Lilium candidum_, sometimes called the double white lily, in which the
+segments of the perianth, in place of being arranged in two rows, are
+greatly increased in number, and disposed in a spiral manner. In these
+flowers, not only are the stamens and pistils thus modified, but also
+the upper leaves of the stem. In so-called double tulips there is
+likewise a replacement of stamens by coloured segments of the perianth,
+but this happens generally in connection with an increase in the number
+of organs. Moquin-Tandon remarks having seen in a garden in the environs
+of Montpelier a tulip, the stamens of which showed all possible stages
+of transition between the form proper to them and that of the perianth.
+The pistil in this case was transformed into several small leaves.
+Similar appearances have been observed in Iris, Hyacinths, Narcissus,
+Colchicum, and Crocus. M. Fournier[300] describes a flower of _Narcissus
+Tazetta_ from within the normal perianth of which sprang a second one,
+equally provided with a cup and occupying the space usually filled by
+the stamens. Flowers of _Narcissus poeticus_ may also be met with in
+which the stamens are replaced by six distinct segments exactly
+resembling those of the perianth in miniature.[301]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 154.--Double columbine, _Aquilegia_--petalody of the
+filament.]
+
+From an examination of these flowers it becomes evident that
+petalification is brought about in different flowers in different ways;
+sometimes it is the filament which becomes petaloid, sometimes the
+anther-lobes, while at other times it is the connective which assumes
+the appearance of petals.[302] For instance, in _Solanum tuberosum_,
+_S. Dulcamara_, in _Anagallis_, in _Fuchsia_, and some other plants, the
+anther-lobes themselves become petaloid, while the filament remains
+unchanged.
+
+In gardens two distinct varieties of Columbine are cultivated, the one
+in which the filaments are dilated into the form of flat petals almost
+entirely or quite destitute of anthers, while in the other the filament
+is present in its usual form, but the anther is developed in the shape
+of a tubular hood or spur.
+
+De Candolle[303] observes that in the _Ranunculaceae_ the species of
+_Clematis_ become double by the expansion of the filament, those of
+_Ranunculus_ by the dilatation of the anther, and those of _Helleborus_
+by the petal-like development of both filament and anther. In some cases
+even on the same plant all three modifications may be seen, as in
+Camellias, some of which may be found with petaloid filaments with
+anthers on the top, others with the filaments unchanged, but supporting
+petaloid anthers, while in others it is the connective alone which is
+petal-like. Where the flower naturally contains a large number of
+stamens, as in Mallows, Roses, Magnolias, &c., petaloid expansion of the
+filament is most common, though it is by no means confined to such
+flowers, the change occurring in _Allamanda cathartica_, _Jasminum
+grandiflorum_, and many other flowers with few stamens. A similar change
+in the anther and connective takes place more frequently in flowers
+where the number of stamens is smaller, but there are of course numerous
+exceptions to this rule.
+
+In those cases where there is more than one row of stamens, the
+outermost are most liable to this change: thus in _Saxifraga decipiens_,
+as shown by Ch. Morren,[304] the outer series of stamens--those opposite
+to the sepals--become first affected, and, at a more advanced stage, the
+inner row also; and this is the case in most flowers that have their
+stamens in two rows. Occasionally it happens that an outer series of
+stamens is abortive, or wholly suppressed, while the inner row becomes
+petalodic; this was the case in some flowers of _Lilium auratum_ lately
+exhibited by Messrs. Veitch.
+
+Those flowers in which only a portion of the stamens undergo this change
+are called semi-double, while in other cases that will be hereafter
+mentioned, not only are the stamens thus rendered petaloid, but their
+number is also augmented, as in most double roses, pinks, anemones,
+poppies, &c.
+
+In some double flowers, in which the stamens assume more or less
+completely the appearance of petals, a singular appearance is afforded
+by the presence of four wing-like processes emanating from the central
+filaments, two on each side, so that the arrangement may be compared to
+two sheets of paper folded in the centre and adherent in that situation,
+though perfectly separate elsewhere, except sometimes at the top, where
+they form a sort of hood. This change results from an imperfect petalody
+of the anther; the two wings on each side of the central vascular cord
+represent the front and back walls of an anther lobe, or rather of that
+portion of the anther which, under ordinary circumstances, produces
+pollen. In the malformed flowers no pollen is formed, at least in the
+more complete states of the malformation, but the walls of the anther
+lobe become preternaturally enlarged, and petaloid in texture and
+appearance. This change occurs in some semi-double rhododendrons and
+azaleas, in crocuses, and in a species of violet found at Mentone by Mr.
+J. T. Moggridge.
+
+There are numerous intermediate forms wherein the wing-like processes
+may be traced all the way along the filament till they ultimately lose
+themselves in the anther-lobes, with which they become continuous. In
+some cases, as in _Crocus_ and _Rhododendron_, this is shown even more
+clearly by the existence of two perfect pollen-sacs or quarter-anthers,
+the remaining portions being petaloid and continuous with the dilated
+filament. Not unfrequently these semi-petaloid stamens adhere to the
+fronts of the petals, and then it appears, at a first glance, as if
+three organs were stuck together, one in front of another, while in
+reality there are but two.[305] (See _ante_, p. 35, fig. 12.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 155.--Four-winged filaments of _Rhododendron_.]
+
+The change in the anther, above alluded to, must not be mistaken for
+that far more common one in which only a small portion of the anther
+becomes petaloid, forming a sort of lateral wing or appendage to the
+polliniferous portion, as happens normally in _Pterandra_, and is common
+in some double fuchsias. In this latter instance there is but a single
+wing, and the nature of the case is obvious.
+
+Double flowers of _Orchidaceae_ generally arise from petalification of
+the filaments, with or without other coincident changes. What makes
+double flowers in this order the more interesting is the development, in
+a petaloid condition, of some or all of those stamens which under
+ordinary circumstances are wholly suppressed, so that the morphological
+structure of the flower, at first a matter of theory, becomes actually
+realised. Fig. 156 is a diagram showing the presence of two additional
+labella within the ordinary one in a species of _Catasetum_, and
+representing two petaloid stamens, thus evidently completing the outer
+staminal whorl, of which there is usually but a single representative
+(see Peloria, Multiplication, Prolification). In some of these double
+orchids it is, however, necessary not to confound a petaloid condition
+of the existing column with the development of usually suppressed
+stamens in a petaloid form. Thus, in _Lycaste Skinneri_ the column is
+frequently provided with two petal-like wings, which might readily be
+supposed to be two stamens of the inner whorl adherent to the column; a
+little attention, however, to the relative position of these
+adventitious wings is generally sufficient to enable the observer to
+ascertain the true nature of the appearance.[306]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 156.--Diagram of flower of _Catasetum_, with two
+labella.]
+
+Some forms of duplicate or hose in hose corollas are apparently due, not
+so much to the formation of a second corolla within the first, as to the
+presence of an inner series of petal-like stamens, which, by their
+cohesion, form a second pseudo-corolla within the first. The staminal
+nature of this pseudo-corolla is inferred from the occasional presence
+of anthers on it.[307] In _Datura fastuosa_, as well as in _Gloxinia_, a
+pseudo-corolla of this kind sometimes occurs with the addition of a
+series of petaloid stamens attached to its outer surface.[308]
+
+When the petalody specially affects the anther-lobes, as in _Arbutus_,
+_Petunia_, _Fuchsia_, _&c._, the venation of the petal-like portion is
+very frequently laminar, thus tending to show that the anther is in
+such cases really a modification of the blade of the leaf; but as, on
+the other hand, we often find petal-like filaments bearing pollen-sacs
+on their sides, it is clear that we must not attribute the formation of
+pollen to the blade of the leaf only, but we must admit that it may be
+formed in the filament as well.[309]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 158.--Portion of a double columbine (_Aquilegia_),
+showing petalody of the connective.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 159.--Petaloid stamens, _Hibiscus_.]
+
+Petalody of the connective is of less frequent occurrence than the
+corresponding change in the other portions of the stamen. It may be seen
+in some forms of double columbine,[310] in which the connective forms a
+tubular petal or nectary, and in double petunias and fuchsias. When it
+occurs, the true anther-lobes are usually atrophied, and little or no
+pollen is formed.
+
+An occurrence of this nature in _Tacsonia pinnatistipula_, in
+conjunction with the partial detachment of the stamens from the
+gynophore, led Karsten to establish a genus which he called
+_Poggendorffia_.[311]
+
+From the subjoined list of genera in which petalody of the stamens, in
+some form or other, has been observed, it will be seen that it happens
+more often in plants with numerous distinct organs (Polypetalae,
+Polyandria, Polygynia, &c.) than in other plants with a smaller number
+of parts, and which are more or less adherent one to the other. The
+tendency to petalification is, moreover, greater among those plants
+which have their floral elements arranged in spiral series, than among
+those where the verticillate arrangement exists; and in any given
+flower, if the stamens are spirally arranged while the carpels are
+grouped in whorls, the former will be more liable to petalody than the
+latter, and _vice versa_. It has been before remarked, that this
+condition is far more common in plants whose petals, &c., have straight
+veins, like those in the sheath of a leaf, than in those the venation of
+which is reticulate, as in the blade of the leaf. It must also be
+remembered that in the same genus, even in the same species, different
+kinds of doubling occur. Familiar illustrations of this are afforded in
+the case of anemones, columbines, fuchsias, and other plants.
+
+The existence of "compound stamens" in some flowers, as pointed out by
+Payer, and others, and the researches of Dr. Alexander Dickson, confer
+additional importance on the subject of petalody, and necessitate the
+examination of double flowers with special reference to these compound
+stamens, and to the order of their development.[312] The presence of
+these compound stamens affords a satisfactory explanation of the
+appearance in some double _Malvaceae_, wherein the tufts of adventitious
+petals are very liable to be mistaken for buds, produced by axillary
+prolification in the axils of the petals, but which are in reality
+compound and petaloid stamens. At other times, however, true axillary
+prolification exists in these flowers; but then the supplemental florets
+have always a calyx, which is wanting in the other instances.
+
+Petalody of the stamens has been met with most frequently in the
+following genera:
+
+ *Ranunculus!
+ *Anemone!
+ *Papaver!
+ *Clematis!
+ *Hepatica!
+ *Ficaria!
+ Thalictrum.
+ *Caltha!
+ *Trollius!
+ *Nigella!
+ *Aquilegia!
+ *Delphinium!
+ *Adonis!
+ *Paeonia!
+ *Nelumbium!
+ *Nymphaea!
+ *Berberis!
+ *Papaver!
+ *Chelidonium!
+ Sanguinaria.
+ Podophyllum.
+ *Mathiola!
+ *Cheiranthus!
+ *Iberis!
+ *Cardamine!
+ *Hesperis.
+ *Barbarea!
+ *Sinapis!
+ *Brassica!
+ *Helianthemum!
+ *Viola!
+ *Dianthus!
+ *Saponaria!
+ *Lychnis!
+ *Silene!
+ *Sagina!
+ *Hibiscus!
+ *Althaea!
+ *Malva!
+ AEsculus!
+ *Geranium!
+ *Pelargonium.
+ *Tropaeolum!
+ Oxalis!
+ *Impatiens!
+ *Camellia!
+ Thea!
+ Trifolium!
+ Medicago!
+ *Ulex!
+ Spartianthus.
+ Clitoria.
+ Pisum!
+ Orobus!
+ Genista!
+ Spartium!
+ Cytisus!
+ Anthyllis.
+ Coronilla.
+ Lotus!
+ *Rosa!
+ *Kerria!
+ *Spiraea!
+ *Fragaria!
+ *Potentilla!
+ *Crataegus!
+ Cydonia.
+ *Pyrus!
+ Eriobotrya!
+ *Amygdalus!
+ *Prunus!
+ *Myrtus!
+ *Punica!
+ *Philadelphus!
+ *Deutzia!
+ *Fuchsia!
+ Godetia!
+ Clarkia!
+ Portulaca!
+ Ribes!
+ Saxifraga!
+ Daucus.
+ Ixora.
+ Serissa!
+ Gardenia!
+ Lonicera!
+ Sambucus.
+ Viburnum.
+ Scabiosa.
+ *Campanula!
+ Platycodon!
+ Calluna!
+ Azalea!
+ Rhododendron!
+ *Arbutus!
+ *Erica!
+ *Anagallis!
+ *Primula!
+ *Jasminum!
+ Syringa!
+ *Vinca!
+ *Nerium!
+ Allamanda!
+ Tabernaemontana.
+ *Calystegia!
+ Convolvulus!
+ Ipomoea.
+ *Datura!
+ *Petunia!
+ Solanum!
+ Orobanche.
+ Gentiana.
+ Mimulus.
+ *Antirrhinum!
+ Gratiola!
+ *Digitalis!
+ *Linaria!
+ Veronica!
+ Calceolaria!
+ Achimenes.
+ Gloxinia!
+ Clerodendron!
+ Bignonia.
+ Cyclamen!
+ Mirabilis.
+ Laurus!
+ Gladiolus!
+ Crocus!
+ Iris!
+ *Galanthus!
+ Leucojum!
+ Sternbergia!
+ Hippeastrum.
+ *Narcissus!
+ *Orchis!
+ Catasetum!
+ Hydrocharis.
+ Asphodelus.
+ *Tulipa!
+ Scilla.
+ *Convallaria!
+ Fritillaria!
+ *Lilium!
+ *Hyacinthus!
+ *Polianthes!
+ *Hemerocallis!
+ *Colchicum!
+ *Sagittaria!
+ *Tradescantia!
+ Commelyna!
+ Tofieldia.
+
+=Petalody of the pistils.=--Taken by itself, this is much less common
+than the corresponding change in the stamens. It generally affects the
+style and stigma only, as happens normally in _Petalostylis_, _Iris_,
+&c., but this is by no means always necessarily the case. In some of the
+cultivated varieties of _Anemone_ and _Ranunculus_ all the parts of the
+flower remain in their normal state, except the pistils, which latter
+assume a petaloid appearance.
+
+Many of the double flowers owe their peculiar appearance to the
+combination of the following appearances--a petal-like form of the
+stamens, increase in the number of these organs and similar changes
+affecting the pistils, and is applied to several distinct conditions. If
+in any given flower all the stamens and all the pistils become wholly
+petaloid, no pollen is formed, and of course no seeds can be produced,
+but this very rarely happens, as usually some pollen is produced, and
+some ovules capable of being fertilised are developed.
+
+In double flowers of _Primula sinensis_ it frequently happens that the
+capsule is either partially leafy or partly petal-like; in either case
+the fruit is open at the extremity, and often destitute of the style and
+stigma. It is, however, doubtful if the ovules can be fertilised in
+these flowers.
+
+The following list comprises the names of those genera in which this
+change has been most frequently observed, independently of corresponding
+alterations in the stamens, but it is more usual for both sets of organs
+to be similarly affected.
+
+ *Ranunculus!
+ *Anemone!
+ Nigella.
+ *Papaver!
+ *Dianthus!
+ Saponaria!
+ Viola!
+ Camellia!
+ Alcea.
+ Hibiscus!
+ Amygdalus!
+ Lonicera!
+ Scabiosa.
+ AEschynanthus!
+ Primula!
+
+=Petalody of the ovules.=--The principal changes which occur in the
+ovule have already been alluded to at pp. 262-272; it may here be
+stated, however, that the ovules are occasionally represented by small
+stalked petal-like structures. This happens with especial frequency
+among _Cruciferae_.[313]
+
+=Petalody of the accessory organs.=--A petaloid condition of the disc,
+of the scales, or other excrescences from the axis or from the lateral
+portions of the flower, is of frequent occurrence, though it is but
+rarely that the change is of any great importance in a morphological
+point of view. C. Morren has given the name adenopetaly to a case
+wherein one of the glands at the base of the petals in _Lopezia_ was
+replaced by a petal.[314] A similar change may be seen in the double
+Oleander.
+
+=Staminody of the bracts.=--An instance of this has been already alluded
+to in _Abies excelsa_, as observed by Prof. Dickson, and in which some
+of the bracts were seen assuming the form and characteristic of the
+stamens see _ante_: p. 192. Signor Licopoli met with a similar
+substitution of anthers for bracts in _Melianthus major_.[315]
+
+=Staminody of the sepals and petals.=--In the first named this is of
+very rare occurrence. M. Gris has recorded an instance in _Philadelphus
+speciosus_[316] which appears to be the only case on record. The
+corresponding change in the case of the petals is far more common. De
+Candolle cites in illustration of this occurrence flowers of the common
+haricot, in which the alae and carina of the corolla were thus
+changed.[317] There is in cultivation a form of _Saxifraga granulata_
+wherein the petals are replaced by stamens, so that there are fifteen
+stamens. A similar change has been observed in _Capsella
+bursa-pastoris_.
+
+Cramer figures and describes a stamen occupying the place of a petal in
+_Daucus Carota_.[318] Turpin[319] describes a similar occurrence in
+_Monarda fistulosa_, in which the lower lip terminated in an anther, but
+this may have been a case of adhesion. Moquin cites from Chamisso,
+_Digitalis purpurea_, and from Jussieu, _Asphodelus ramosus_, as having
+presented this change, and Wiegmann[320] has seen anthers developed on
+the awns of _Avena chinensis_. In semi-double flowers of _Ophrys
+aranifera_ and _Orchis mascula_, the lateral petals are occasionally
+partially antheroid, and others occur in which two of the outer series
+of stamens, which are ordinarily suppressed, are present, but in a
+petaloid state. Reichenbach[321] figures an illustration of this change,
+and also Moggridge.[322]
+
+=Staminody of the pistils.=--The existence of this change has been
+denied by several authors, nevertheless, it is of sufficiently common
+occurrence. Alexander Braun notices the transformation of pistils into
+stamens in Chives (_Allium Scorodoprasum_), and in which three stamens
+appeared in the place of as many pistils, and had extrorse anthers,
+while the six normal anthers are introrse. In the horse-radish
+(_Armoracia rusticana_), two of the carpels are frequently converted
+into stamens, while two other organs absent from the normal flower make
+their appearance as carpels. Roeper has observed this phenomenon in
+_Euphorbia palustris_,[323] and in _Gentiana campestris_.[324] In these
+examples one of the carpels was apparently absent, and its place
+supplied by an anther. Roeper has also mentioned a balsam with a
+supernumerary stamen occupying exactly the position of a carpel.[325]
+
+Agardh has observed a similar thing in a hyacinth, one half of the fruit
+of which contained seeds, and the other half, anthers. B. Clarke
+mentions an instance in _Mathiola incana_ in which the carpels were
+disunited, and antheriferous at the margin.[326]
+
+The passage of pistils to stamens in willows has been frequently
+remarked, as in _Salix babylonica_, _silesiaca_, _cinerea_, _Caprea_ and
+_nigricans_. One of the most curious illustrations of this
+transformation in this genus is given by Henry and Macquart (Erst.
+Jahrb. des bot. Vereines am m. et n. Rhein., 1837). In the flowers in
+question the series of changes were as follows:--first, the ovary opened
+by a slit, and then expanded into a cup; next, anther-cells were
+developed on the margin of the cup, with stigmas alternating with them,
+the ovules at the same time disappearing; lastly, the margin became
+divided, and bore three perfect anthers, which in the more perfect
+states were raised on three filaments.
+
+_Campanula persicifolia_, _C. rapunculoides_, and _C. glomerata_ have
+been observed to present an anther surmounting the pistil.[327] Double
+tulips often present this change, and a like appearance has been
+observed in _Galanthus nivalis_, and _Narcissus Tazetta_.
+
+Moquin mentions the existence of this condition in a female plant of
+maize, some of the pistils of which were wholly or partially converted
+into anther-like organs. Mohl has recorded an analogous malformation in
+_Chamaerops humilis_, and in which the three carpels were normally
+formed, and only differed from natural ovaries in this, that along the
+two edges of the ventral suture there was a yellow thickening, which a
+cross section of the ovary showed to be an anther-lobe filled with
+pollen.[328]
+
+In _Tofieldia calyculata_ a similar substitution of a stamen for a
+carpel has been observed by Klotsch,[329] and Weber[330] gives other
+instances in _Prunus_ and _Paeonia_. Corresponding alterations may be met
+with in cultivated tulips, in the cowslip and other plants. In most of
+the above cases the transmutation has been perfect, but in quite an
+equal number of cases a portion only of the carpel is thus changed,
+generally the style or the stigma; thus Baillon describes the stigmas of
+_Ricinus communis_ as having been in one instance antheriferous.[331]
+Moggridge figures a flower of _Ophrys insectifera_ in which the
+rostellate process was replaced by an anther.[332]
+
+Mohl remarks that the change of pistils into stamens is more common in
+monocarpellary pistils than it is in those which are made up of several
+carpels. It seems clear that in this transformation the lobes of the
+anther and the development of pollen have no relation to the production
+of ovules.
+
+=Staminody of the accessory organs of the flower.=--The scales that are
+met with in some plants, either as excrescences from the petals, or as
+imperfect representatives of stamens or other organs, are occasionally
+staminoid; thus the scales of _Saponaria officinalis_, of _Silene_,
+_Nerium Oleander_, the rays of _Passiflora_, the corona of _Narcissus_,
+have all been observed occasionally to bear anthers.[333] In the case of
+_Narcissus_ the loose spongy tissue of the corona seems to have the
+nearest analogy to the anther-lobes, while the prolonged connective is
+more like the ordinary segments of the perianth in texture. The species
+in which this change may most frequently be observed are, _N. poeticus_,
+_N. incomparabilis_, and _N. montanus_.
+
+M. Bureau found in some flowers of _Antirrhinum majus_ two petal-like
+bodies standing up in front of, or opposite to the two petals of the
+upper lip,[334] and similar developments in which each of the two
+adventitious segments are surmounted by an anther may be met with
+frequently. It does not follow because these organs bear anthers that
+they are morphologically true stamens. They are really scales, &c.,
+taking on themselves accidentally the characters proper to stamens.
+
+=Pistillody of the perianth.=--The passage of the segments of the
+perianth into carpels has been observed frequently in _Tulipa
+Gesneriana_, the change in question being generally attended by a
+partial virescence. M. Gay is said by Moquin to have observed a flower
+of _Crocus nudiflorus_ in which the segments of the perianth were cleft
+and fringed at the same time, so that they presented the appearance of
+the stigmas.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 160.--Flower of tulip, allowing vertical attachment
+of a leaf, and also the existence of ovules on the margins of the
+segments of the perianth. Some of the parts are removed.]
+
+=Pistillody of the sepals.=--In some double flowers of the garden pea
+communicated by Mr. Laxton, among other peculiarities was a
+supernumerary 5-6-leaved calyx, some of the segments of which were of a
+carpellary nature, and bore imperfect ovules on their margins, while at
+their extremities they were drawn out into styles.[335]
+
+=Pistillody of the stamens.=--This change whereby the stamens assume more
+or less the appearance of pistils is more commonly met with than is the
+metamorphosis of the envelopes of the flower into carpels. In some cases
+the whole of the stamen appears to be changed, while in others it is the
+filament alone that is altered, the anther being deficient, or
+rudimentary; while, in a third class of cases, the filament is
+unaffected, and the anther undergoes the change in question. In those
+instances in which the filament appears to be the portion most
+implicated, it becomes dilated so as to resemble a leaf-sheath rather
+than a leaf-stalk, as it does usually.
+
+One of the most curious cases of this kind is that recorded in the
+'Botanical Magazine,' (tab. 5160, f. 4) as having occurred in _Begonia
+frigida_ already alluded to, and in which, in the centre of a male
+flower, were four free ovoid ovaries alternating with as many stamens.
+In the normal flowers of this plant, as is well known, the male flowers
+have several stamens, while in the female flowers the ovary is strictly
+inferior, so that, in the singular flower just described, the perianth
+was inferior instead of being superior, as it is usually. It should be
+added also that the perianth in these malformed flowers was precisely
+like that which occurs ordinarily in the male flowers.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 161.--Supernumerary carpels in the orange, arising
+from substitution of pistils for stamens.]
+
+In some varieties of the orange, called by the French "bigarades
+cornues," the thalamus of the flower, which is usually short, and
+terminated by a glandular ring-like disc, is prolonged into a little
+stalk or gynophore, bearing a ring of supernumerary carpels. These
+carpels are isolated one from another, and are formed by the
+transformation of the filaments of the stamens.[336]
+
+The additional carpels in the case of the apple of St. Valery, in which
+the petals are of a green colour, like the sepals, are by some
+attributed to the transformation of the stamens into carpels. These
+adventitious carpels frequently contain imperfect ovules and form a
+whorl above the normal ones. (See _Pyrus dioica_ of Willdenow.)[337] A
+similar change occasionally happens in the stamens of _Magnolia
+fuscata_, while in double tulips this phenomenon is very frequent, and
+among them may be found all stages of transition between stamens and
+pistils, and many of the parts combining the characters of both.[338]
+Dunal and Campdera have described flowers of _Rumex crispus_, with seven
+pistils, occupying the place of as many stamens.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 162.--Substitution of carpels for stamens in
+_Papaver_.]
+
+In _Papaver bracteatum_ a considerable number of the stamens sometimes
+become developed into pistils, especially those which are nearest to
+the centre of the flower, and in these flowers the filaments are said to
+become the ovaries, while the anthers are curled so as to resemble
+stigmas. A similar change is not infrequent _Papaver somniferum_.
+Goeppert, who found numerous instances of the kind in a field near
+Breslau, says the peculiarity was reproduced by seed for two years in
+succession.[339] Wigand ('Flora,' 1856, p. 717) has noticed among other
+changes the pistil of _Gentiana Amarella_ bearing two sessile anthers.
+_Polemonium caeruleum_ is another plant very subject to this change.
+Brongniart[340] describes a flower of this species in which the stamens
+were represented by a circle of carpels united to each other so as to
+form a sheath around the central ovary. By artificial fertilization M.
+Brongniart obtained fertile seeds from the central normal ovary as well
+as from the surrounding metamorphosed stamens.
+
+_Cheiranthus Cheiri_ has long been known as one of the plants most
+subject to this anomaly. De Candolle even mentions it in his 'Prodromus'
+as a distinct variety, under the name of _gynantherus_. Brongniart (loc.
+cit.) thus refers to the _Cheiranthus_:--"Sometimes these six carpellary
+leaves are perfectly free, and in this case they spread open, presenting
+two rows of ovules along their inner edges, or these edges maybe
+soldered together, forming a kind of follicle like that of the
+columbine; at other times, these staminal pistils are fused into two
+lateral bundles of three in each bundle, or into a single cylinder which
+encircles the true pistil. In a third set of cases these outer carpels
+are only four in number, two lateral and two antero-posterior, all fused
+in such a manner as to form around the normal pistil a prism-shaped
+sheath, with four sides presenting four parietal placentae, corresponding
+to the lines of junction of the staminal carpels."
+
+In the accompanying figures (fig. 163, _a-d_) the nature of this change
+is illustrated. In some of the specimens it is easy to see that the two
+shorter stamens undergo the change into carpels later and less perfectly
+than the four longer ones, and not infrequently the outer pair are
+altogether absent. In most of the flowers of this variety the petals are
+smaller and less perfectly developed than usual.[341]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 163.--_Cheiranthus Cheiri_, var. _gynantherus_. _a._
+Sepals and petals removed to show carpellodic stamens. _b._ The same
+laid open. _c._ Transverse section. _d._ Plan of flower with four
+carpel-like stamens, &c.]
+
+In _Lilium tigrinum_, some specimens of which were gathered by Mr. J.
+Salter, in addition to various degrees of synanthy and other changes,
+some of the stamens were developed in the form of carpels, adherent by
+their edges so as to form an imperfect tube or sheath around the normal
+pistil. Fig. 164 shows one of the intermediate organs from these
+flowers, in which half the structure seems devoted to the formation of
+ovules, while the other half bears a one-celled anther. Lindley[342] has
+also described a case of this kind in a species of _Amaryllis_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 164.--Structure half anther, half carpel, _Lilium_.]
+
+In _Saxifraga crassifolia_ it sometimes happens that mixed with the
+stamens, and originating with them, are a number of distinct and
+perfectly formed carpels, wholly separated from the normal carpels, in
+the centre of the flower. In this particular instance there is usually
+no intermediate condition between the stamen and the pistil.
+Guillemin[343] also describes a transformation of the stamens into
+carpels in _Euphorbia esula_.
+
+When the anther is involved it may be only partially so, or almost the
+whole organ may be transformed. As instances of very partial change may
+be cited the passage of the connective into a stigma in _Thalictrum
+minus_, or the passage of the points of the anthers into imperfect
+styles in some species of bamboo.[344]
+
+In _Rosa arvensis_ similar transformations have been observed of a
+slightly more complex character than those just mentioned, and passing
+into more important changes, especially to the formation of pollen
+within ovules, formed on the edges of an open carpellodic anther (see p.
+186).
+
+Mr. Berkeley has recorded an analogous case in a gourd in which the
+stamens bore numerous ovules (p. 200), and Baillon describes another
+gourd in which certain fleshy appendages surrounding the androecium
+were provided with ovules.[345]
+
+Payer, in his 'Organogenie,' p. 38, mentions a stamen of _Dionaea_
+bearing not only an anther, but likewise an ovule.
+
+_Sempervivum tectorum_ and _S. montanum_, have long been noticed as
+being very prone to present this change. Mohl[346] remarks that, in the
+transformation of the stamens to the pistil in the common houseleek, the
+filament of the stamen generally preserves its form, the anthers alone
+undergoing change. At other times, however, the transformation takes
+place at the same time, both in the filament and in the anther. When the
+stamens are numerous some of them remain in their normal state, while
+others, and especially the inner ones, undergo a change. Sometimes all
+the stamens are changed simultaneously, while at other times some of
+these organs may be found in which the anther is partially filled with
+ovules, and partially with pollen.
+
+In the accompanying figures (fig. 165, _a-h_) a series of intermediate
+stages is shown between the ordinary stamen of _Sempervivum tectorum_
+and the ordinary carpel, from which it will be seen that the filament is
+little, if at all, affected, and that in those cases where there is a
+combination of the attributes of the stamen and of the pistil in the
+same organ the pollen is formed in the upper or inner surface of the
+leaf-organ, while the ovules arise from the opposite surface from the
+free edge, (_b_, _c_, _d_, _e_, _f_, _g_).
+
+In a drawing made by the Rev. G. E. Smith of a malformed flower of
+_Primula acaulis_, and which the writer has had the opportunity of
+examining, the stamens are represented as detached from the corolla, and
+their anthers replaced by open carpels, with ovules arising, not only
+from their edges, but also from their surfaces, while the apex of the
+carpellary leaf was drawn out into a long style, terminated by a
+flattened spathulate stigma.
+
+_Delphinium elatum_ is one of the plants in which this change has been
+most frequently noticed.[347]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 165.--_Sempervivum tecotorum._ _a._ Normal stamen.
+_h._ Normal carpel. _b_, _c_, _e_, _f_, _g_. Structure partly staminal,
+partly carpellary. _d._ Transverse section through _c_, showing pollen
+internally, ovules externally.]
+
+In willows the change of pistils into staminal organs has been
+frequently observed. In _Salix babylonica_ Prof. Schnizlein has
+described various transition stages between the carpels and the stamens,
+and in one instance, in addition to this change, a perfect cup-shaped
+perianth was present, as happens normally in _Populus_[348]. Mr. Lowe
+also records the conversion of stamens into ovaries in _Salix
+Andersoniana_, and this by every conceivable intermediate
+gradation.[349]
+
+The following list will serve to show what plants are most subject to
+this anomaly. It is difficult to draw any accurate inference from this
+enumeration, but attention may be called to the frequency of this
+occurrence in certain plants, such as the _Sempervivum_, the wallflower,
+the poppy, and the heath. Why these plants should specially be subject
+to these changes cannot be at present stated.
+
+By the student of animal physiology such a change as above
+described--equivalent to the substitution of an ovary or a uterus for a
+testis--would be looked on as next to impossible; the simpler and less
+specialised structure of plants renders such a change in them far more
+easy of comprehension.
+
+ Thalictrum minus.
+ Delphinium elatum.
+ Magnolia fuscata.
+ Bocconia cordata.
+ *Papaver bracteatum!
+ * somniferum!
+ nudicaule.
+ Dionaea muscipula!
+ Barbarea vulgaris.
+ *Cheiranthus Cheiri!
+ Cochlearia Armoracia.
+ Tropaeolum majus.
+ Citrus Aurantium.
+ *Sempervivum tectorum!
+ montanum.
+ Begonia frigida!
+ Cucumis, sp.
+ Cucurbita Pepo.
+ Pyrus Malus.
+ Rosa arvensis!
+ Saxifraga crassifolia!
+ Myrtus, sp.
+ Campanula rapunculoides.
+ Polemonium caeruleum.
+ Gentiana Amarella.
+ *Erica Tetralix.
+ Stachys germanica.
+ Primula acaulis.
+ Rumex crispus.
+ *Salix, sp. plur.!
+ Euphorbia esula.
+ Glochidion.
+ Asphodelus ramosus.
+ Amaryllis.
+ Lilium tigrinum!
+ longiflorum.
+ *Tulipa Gesneriana!
+ var. cult. plurim.!
+ Hemerocallis.
+ Zea Mays.
+ Bambusa, sp.
+
+=Pistillody of the ovule.=--An instance of this extraordinary
+transformation in the carnation, as observed by the Rev. Mr. Berkeley,
+is given at p. 268.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[295] 'Neue Denkschrift. Schweiz. Gesellsch.,' band v, p. 9.
+
+[296] 'Bull. Acad. Belg.,' xix, part 2, p. 93.
+
+[297] Schlechtendal, 'Linnaea,' ix, p. 737.
+
+[298] Misbilld., 'Cult. Gewachs.,' p. 32.
+
+[299] Linn., 'Phil. Botan.,' Sec. 120.
+
+[300] 'Bull. Soc. Bot. France,' 1859, vol. vi, p. 199.
+
+[301] Seemann's 'Journal of Botany,' vol. iii, p. 105; also Morren,
+'Bull. Acad. Belg.,' vol. xx, part 2, p. 264.
+
+[302] Morren, 'Bull. Belg.,' xviii, p. 503.
+
+[303] 'Organ. Veg.,' t. i, p. 513.
+
+[304] 'Bull. Acad. Roy. Belg.,' tome xvii; and Lobelia, p. 65.
+
+[305] Masters, "On Double Flowers," 'Rep. Internat. Bot. Congress,'
+London, 1866. p. 127.
+
+[306] See also C. Morren, "Sur les vraies fleurs doubles chez les
+Orchidees," 'Bull. Acad. Roy. Belg.,' vol. xix, part ii, 1852. p. 171.
+
+[307] C. Morren, 'Bull. Acad. Belg.,' vol. xx, 1853, part ii, p. 284
+(_Syringa_).
+
+[308] 'Rep. Bot. Congress,' London, 1866, p. 135, t. vii, f. 14.
+
+[309] Although it is generally admitted that the filament of the stamen
+corresponds to the stalk of the leaf, and the anther to the leaf-blade,
+yet there are some points on which uncertainty still rests. One of these
+is as to the sutures of the anther. Do these chinks through which the
+pollen escapes correspond (as would at first sight seem probable) to the
+margins of the antheral leaf, or do they answer to the lines that
+separate the two pollen-cavities on each half of the anther one from the
+other? Professor Oliver, 'Trans. Linn. Soc.,' vol. xxiii, 1862, p. 423,
+in alluding to the views held by others on this subject, concludes, from
+an examination of some geranium flowers in which the stamens were more
+or less petaloid, that Bischoff's notion as to the sutures of the anther
+is correct, viz., that they are the equivalents of the septa of
+untransformed tissue between the pollen-sacs. Some double fuchsias
+('Gard. Chron.,' 1863, p. 989) add confirmation to this opinion. In
+these flowers the petals were present as usual, but the stamens were
+more or less petaloid, the filaments were unchanged, but the anthers
+existed in the form of a petal-like cup from the centre of which
+projected two imperfect pollen-lobes (the other two lobes being
+petaloid). Now, in this case, the margins of the anther were coherent to
+form the cup, and the pollen was emitted along a line separating the
+polliniferous from the petaloid portion of the anther. This view is also
+borne out by the double-flowered _Arbutus Unedo_, and also by what
+occurs in some double violets, wherein the anther exists in the guise of
+a broad lancet-shaped expansion, from the surface of which project four
+plates (fig. 157), representing apparently the walls of the pollen-sacs,
+but destitute of pollen; the chink left between these plates corresponds
+thus to the suture of the normal anther.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 157.--Petaloid stamen of _Viola_, with four
+projecting plates.]
+
+The inner or upper portion of the anther-leaf is that which is most
+intimately concerned in the formation of pollen; it comparatively rarely
+(query ever) happens that the back or lower surface of the antheral leaf
+is specially devoted to the formation of pollen. On the other hand, in
+cases like those of the common houseleek, where we meet with petaloid
+organs combining the attributes of anthers and of carpels, we find the
+inner layers devoted to the production of pollen, the outer to the
+formation of ovules.
+
+That the pollen-lobes are not to be taken as halves of a staminal leaf,
+but rather as specialised portions of it, not necessarily occupying half
+its surface, is shown also in the case of double-flowered _Malvaceae_, in
+which the stamens are frequently partly petal-like, partly divided into
+numerous separate filaments, each bearing a one-, or it may be even a
+two-lobed anther. This circumstance is confirmatory of the opinion held
+by Payer, Duchartre, Dickson, and other organogenists, as to the
+compound nature of the stamens in these plants. The stamens are here
+analogues not of a simple entire leaf, but of a lobed, digitate, or
+compound leaf, each subdivision bearing its separate anther. On this
+subject the reader may consult M. Mueller's paper on the anther of
+_Jatropha Pohliana_, _&c._, referred to at page 255.
+
+[310] See C. Morren, "On Spur-shaped Nectarines," &c., 'Ann. Nat.
+Hist.,' March, 1841, p. 1. tab. 11.
+
+[311] Karsten, 'Flor. Columb. Spec.,' tab. xxix.
+
+[312] See Dickson, "On Diplostemonous Flowers," 'Trans. Bot. Soc.
+Edin.,' vol. viii, p. 100; and on the Androecium of _Mentzelia_,
+_&c_., in Seemann's 'Journal of Botany,' vol. iii, p. 209, and vol. iv
+(1866) p. 273 (_Potentilla_, _&c._).
+
+[313] See Baillon, 'Adansonia,' iii, p. 351, tab. 12, _Sinapis_.
+
+[314] 'Bull. Acad. Belg.,' xvii, part i, p. 516, c. tab., and
+'_Lobelia_,' p. 83.
+
+[315] Cited in 'Bull. Soc. Bot. France,' xiv, p. 253 ('Rev. Bibl.').
+
+[316] 'Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr.,' 1858, p. 331.
+
+[317] 'Mem. Legum.,' p. 44.
+
+[318] 'Bildungsabweich, 'Pflanz. Fam.,' tab. 8, f. 12.
+
+[319] 'Atlas de Goethe' p. 55, t. 4, f. 18.
+
+[320] Wiegmann, 'Bot. Zeit.,' 1831, p. 5, tab. i.
+
+[321] 'Ic. Flor. Germ.,' xiii, tab. 112, cccclxiv, f. 2.
+
+[322] Seemann's 'Journal of Botany,' 1867, p. 317, t. 72, A (_Ophrys_).
+
+[323] 'Enum. Euphorb.' p. 53.
+
+[324] 'Linnaea.' i, p. 457.
+
+[325] 'De Balsam,' p. 17.
+
+[326] B. Clarke, 'Arrangement of Phaenog. Plants,' p. 23.
+
+[327] See 'Engelmann,' p. 26, tab. 3, f. 10, 11, 14.
+
+[328] 'Ann. Sc. Nat.,' ser. 2, t. viii, 1837, p. 58.
+
+[329] 'Bot. Zeit.,' 4, 1846, 889.
+
+[330] 'Verhandl. Nat. Hist. Ver. Preuss. Rheinl. und Westph.,' 1858,
+1860, p. 381. Cramer also, 'Bildungsabweich,' p. 90, cites a case in
+_Paeonia_ where the carpel was open and petaloid, and bore an anther on
+one margin, and four ovules on the other.
+
+[331] 'Euphorbiaceae,' p. 205.
+
+[332] Seemann's 'Journ. Bot.,' iv, p. 168, tab. 47, f. 1.
+
+[333] Moquin-Tandon, l. c., 220, _Passiflora_. Masters, 'Journ. Linn.
+Soc.,' 1857, p. 159, _Saponaria_. Seemann's 'Journ. Botany,' vol. iii,
+p. 107, _Narcissus_.
+
+[334] 'Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr.,' 1857, p. 452.
+
+[335] 'Gardeners' Chronicle,' 1866, p. 897.
+
+[336] Maout, 'Lecons Element.,' vol. ii, p. 488.
+
+[337] Poiteau and Turpin, 'Arb. Fruit,' t. 37, and Trecul, 'Bull Soc.
+Bot. France,' vol. i. p. 307.
+
+[338] Clos, 'Mem. Acad. Toulouse,' 5 ser., vol. iii.
+
+[339] 'Bot. Zeit.,' 1850, t. viii, pp. 514, 664. 'Flora,' (B. Z.) 1832,
+t. xv, p. 252; also cited in 'Ann. des Serres et des jardins,' vi, pp.
+241-5. See also Schlechtendal, 'Bot. Zeit.,' 1845, t. 3, p. 6.
+
+[340] 'Bull. Soc. Bot. France,' t. viii, p. 453.
+
+[341] See also Allmann, 'Rep. Brit. Assoc.,' July, 1851.
+
+[342] 'Theory of Horticulture,' ed. 2, p. 82.
+
+[343] 'Mem. Soc. Hist. Nat. Paris.' i, 16.
+
+[344] Gen. Munro, 'Trans. Linn. Soc.,' xxvii, p. 7.
+
+[345] 'Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr.,' 1857, p. 21.
+
+[346] 'Ann. Scienc. Nat.,' t. viii, 1837, p. 50, and 'Bot. Zeit.' (R.),
+1836, t. xix, p. 513, &c. See also MM. Sourd Dussiples and G. Bergeron,
+'Bull. Soc. Bot. France,' viii, p. 349; Von Schmidel, 'Icon. plant. et
+Anal. part.' 1782, p. 210, fig. 54.
+
+[347] Godron, 'Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr.,' xiii, p. 82, Rev. Bibl.
+
+[348] Cited in Henfrey, 'Bot. Gazette,' iii, p. 12.
+
+[349] 'Ann. Nat. Hist.,' September, 1856, p. 56. See also Kirschleger,
+'Flora (Bot. Zeit.),' xxiv, 1841, p. 340, _Salix alba_. Henschel, 'Flora
+(Bot. Zeit.),' 1832, t. xv, p. 253, _S. cinerea_. Hartmann, 'Flora (Bot.
+Zeit.),' xxiv, p. 199, _S. nigricans_. Meyer, C. A., 'Bull. Phys.
+Math.,' t. x, _S. alba_.
+
+
+
+
+PART IV.
+
+HETEROMORPHY.
+
+
+There are certain malformations that have little in common beyond this,
+that they cannot readily be allocated in either of the great groups
+proposed by writers on teratology. There are also deformities which,
+unlike the majority of deviations from the ordinary structure, are
+absolute and not relative. While the latter are due to an exaggeration,
+or to an imperfection of development, or, it may be, to a partial
+perversion in organization, the former differ from the normal standard,
+not merely in degree, but absolutely. This is often the case when
+disease or injury affects the plant; for instance, in the case of galls
+arising from insect-puncture the structure is rather a new growth
+altogether, than dependent on mere hypertrophy of the original tissues.
+These absolute deformities arising from the causes just mentioned belong
+rather to pathology than to teratology strictly so called; but, under
+the head of deformities, may be mentioned sundry deviations not
+elsewhere alluded to.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+DEFORMITIES.
+
+
+The special meaning here attached to the term deformity is sufficiently
+explained in the preceding paragraph; it remains to give a few
+illustrations, and to refer to other headings, such as Heterotaxy,
+Hypertrophy, Atrophy, &c., for malformations capable of more rigid
+classification than those here alluded to.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 166.--Portion of the under surface of a
+cabbage-leaf, with horn-like excrescences projecting from it.]
+
+=Formation of tubes.=--The production of ascidia or pitchers from the
+cohesion of the margins of one or more leaves has been already alluded
+to (see pp. 21, 30), but there is another class of cases in which the
+tubular formation is due, not so much to the union of the margins of a
+leaf as to the disproportionate growth of some portions as contrasted
+with others, whence arises either a depressed cavity, as in the case of
+a leaf, or an expanded and excavated structure, when the stem or some
+portion of it is affected.
+
+The fruit of the rose, the apple, the fig, and many others, is now
+generally admitted to be composed externally of the dilated end of the
+flower-stalk in which the true carpels become imbedded. Between such
+cases and that of a peltate leaf with a depressed centre, such as often
+occurs, to some extent, in _Nelumbium_, there is but little difference.
+
+In cabbages and lettuces there not unfrequently occurs a production of
+leaf-like processes projecting from the primary blade at a right angle
+(see Enation). Sometimes these are developed in a tubular form, so as to
+form a series of little horn-like tubes, or shallow troughs, as in
+_Aristolochia sipho_. At other times the nerves or ribs of the leaf
+project beyond the blade, and bear at their extremities structures
+similar to those just described.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 167.--Lettuce leaf, bearing on the back a stalked
+cup, arising from the dilatation of the stalk (?).]
+
+In a variety of _Codiaeum variegatum_ a similar formation may be seen to
+a minor extent. Even the common _Scolopendrium vulgare_ occasionally
+produces small pitchers of this character, as in the varieties named
+_perafero-corautum_, Moore, and _peraferum_, Woll.[350]
+
+In carnations leaves may sometimes be seen from both surfaces, from
+which project long, sharp-pointed tubular spurs at irregular intervals.
+A very singular illustration of this is figured by Trattinick,[351], in
+which the leaves, epicalyx, sepals, and petals, were all provided with
+tubular spurs.
+
+In _Cephalotus follicularis_ rudimentary or imperfect pitchers may be
+frequently met with, in which the stalk of the leaf is tubular and bears
+at its extremity a very small rudimentary leaf-blade. It is not in all
+cases easy to trace the origin and true nature of the ascidium, as the
+venation is sometimes obscure. If there be a single well-marked midrib
+the probability is that the case is one of cohesion of the margins of
+the leaf; but if the veins are all of about equal size, and radiate from
+a common stalk, the pouch-like formation is probably due to dilatation
+and hollowing of the petiole. Again, when the result of a union of the
+margins of the leaf, the pitcher is generally less regular than when
+formed from the hollowed end of a leaf-stalk. Further information is
+especially needed as to the mode of development and formation of these
+tubular organs, so as to ascertain clearly when they are the result of a
+true cupping process, and when of cohesion of the margins of one or more
+leaves. (See Cohesion, p. 31. For bibliographical references consult
+also A. Braun, 'Flora v. Bot. Zeit.,' 1835, t. xviii, p. 41,
+_Aristolochia_.)
+
+=Tubular formations in the flower.=--A similar formation of tubes
+happens in some double flowers; for instance, it is not infrequent in
+double flowers of _Primula sinensis_, in which tubular petal-like
+structures are attached to the inner surface of the corolla; sometimes
+these petaloid tubes replace the stamens, while at other times they
+appear to have no relation to those organs. In the particular flowers
+now alluded to the tubular form seems due to a dilatation, and not to a
+cohesion of the margins. (See Cohesion, p. 23.) These tubular petals
+resemble in form and colour almost precisely the normal corolla in
+miniature, but are not surrounded by a calyx, nor do they contain
+stamens, while the less perfect forms show clearly their origin from a
+single tube-like organ.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 168.--Corolla of _Primula sinensis_ turned back to
+show a tubular petal springing from it. One only is shown for the sake
+of clearness; they are generally numerous.]
+
+The formation of spurs or spur-like tubes in a quasi-regular manner has
+been spoken of under the head of Irregular Peloria, p. 228, but we
+occasionally meet with tubular processes which seem to occur in an
+irregular manner, and to have no reference to the symmetrical plan of
+the flower, and which are due probably to the same causes as those which
+induce hypertrophy. Such spurs have frequently been seen on the corolla
+of _Digitalis purpurea_, _Antirrhinum majus_,[352] _Tulipa Gesneriana_,
+and occasionally on the sepals of _Fuchsia_. They are very frequent in
+some seasons in the corolla of certain calceolarias (_C. floribunda_).
+By Morren this production of adventitious spurs was called
+"Ceratomanie."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 169.--Corolla of _Calceolaria_, showing irregular
+tubular spurs projecting from the lower lip.]
+
+Similar processes may sometimes be seen in the capsules of _Linaria
+vulgaris_, as also in the fruits of some of the Solanums, quite without
+reference to the arrangement of the carpels, so that their production
+seems to be purely irregular.
+
+Morren, as previously remarked, gave the name "Solenaidie" to tubular
+deformities affecting the stamens, a term which has not been generally
+adopted; the deformity in question is by no means of uncommon occurrence
+in some double or partially pelorised flowers, as _Antirrhinum_,
+_Linaria_, &c. A similar formation of conical out-growths may frequently
+be met with in the fruits quite irrespectively of any disjunction of the
+carpels.
+
+=Contortion.=--An irregular twisting or bending of the stem or branches
+is by no means of uncommon occurrence, the inducing causes being often
+some restriction to growth in certain directions, or the undue or
+disproportionate growth in one direction, as contrasted with that in
+another. Hence it may arise from insect-puncture, parasitic growth, or
+any obstacle to the natural development. Frequently it exists in
+conjunction with fasciation, the ends of the branches being curved round
+like a shepherd's crook, from the growth on one side being so much
+greater than on the other. Sometimes it is a mere exaggeration of a
+normal condition; thus, in what are termed flexuose stems the stem
+twists alternately to one side or another, frequently in association
+with an oblique form of the leaf. This state is sometimes present to an
+extreme degree, as in some varieties of shrubs (_Crataegus_, _Robinia_,
+&c.) cultivated for their singularly tortuous branches.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 170.--Portion of the culm of a _Juncus_, bent
+irregularly.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 171.--Portion of a branch of _Crataegus oxyacantha_,
+var. _tortuosa_.]
+
+Such cases as those just mentioned, however, are but slightly irregular
+compared to others in which the deformity exists to such an extent that
+the traces of the ordinary mode of growth are almost obliterated. M.
+Moquin-Tandon[353] alludes to a case of this kind in a species of pine
+(_Pinus_), in which a branch ended in four unequal divisions, which were
+strongly curved from without inwards, then became united in pairs, these
+latter in their turn blending into a single mass.
+
+In the case of some beeches growing in the forest of Verzy, near Rheims,
+the trunks of the trees are contorted in every direction, and, at a
+height of from fifteen to twenty feet, a number of branches are also
+given off, also much contorted, and occasionally intergrafted, so that
+it seems as if a heavy weight had been placed on the trees and literally
+flattened them. Similar malformations may occasionally be met with in
+the branches of the oak, and commonly in the weeping ash.
+
+M. Fournier[354] mentions the stems of _Ruscus aculeatus_ rolled in a
+circle, others twisted spirally.
+
+The phenomenon is not confined to woody plants, but has been met with in
+chicory, in _Antirrhinum_, and other herbaceous species.
+
+It is very difficult in some cases to separate these instances of
+irregular torsion from those in which the twisting takes place in a more
+or less regular spiral direction. In the former case the fibres of the
+plant are only indirectly involved, but in the latter the fibres
+themselves are coiled spirally from right to left, or _vice versa_
+(spiral torsion), while not unfrequently both conditions may be met with
+at the same time.
+
+The leaves also are subject to similar deformities, of which a notable
+illustration has been recorded in the case of the date palm, _Phoenix
+dactylifera_, originally observed by Goethe, and figured and described
+by Jaeger;[355] the leaves are folded and twisted in every direction, in
+consequence of the fibrous band or cord which surrounds the leaves, and
+which generally breaks as the leaflets increase in size, remaining from
+some cause or other unbroken, and thus serving to restrain the growth.
+
+A similar irregularity of growth occurs, not unfrequently, in the case
+of crocus leaves, when in the course of their growth, as they push their
+way through the soil, their progress becomes checked either by a stone
+or even by frost.
+
+=Spiral torsion.=--Growth in a spiral direction, and the arrangement of
+the various organs of the plant in a spiral manner, are among the most
+common of natural phenomena in plants.[356] Fibres are coiled spirally
+in the minute vessels of flowering plants, and are not wholly wanting
+even among fungi. The leaf-organs are very generally spirally arranged;
+the leaf-stalks are often so twisted as to bring leaves on one plane
+which otherwise would occupy several. In the leaf itself we have a
+spiral twist taking place constantly in _Alstroemeria_, in _Avena_, and
+other plants. A similar tendency is manifested in the flower-stalks, as
+in _Cyclamen_ and _Vallisneria_, and the whole inflorescence, as in
+_Spiranthes_. Even the bark and wood of trees is often disposed
+spirally. This is very noticeable in some firs, and in the bark of the
+sweet chestnut (_Castanea_), of _Thuja occidentalis_, and other trees.
+The knaurs or excrescences which are sometimes found on the roots or
+stems of trees afford other illustrations of this universal tendency.
+These bodies consist of a number of embryo buds, which, from some cause
+or other, are incapable of lengthening. On examination every rudimentary
+or undeveloped bud may be seen to be surrounded by densely crowded
+fibres arranged spirally.
+
+The axes of nearly all twining plants are themselves twisted, and
+twisted in a direction corresponding to the spontaneous revolving
+movement exhibited by these plants, as in the hop, the convolvulus,
+passion flower, &c., the degree of twisting being dependent to a great
+extent on the roughness of the surface around which the stem
+twines[357].
+
+Considered as an exceptional occurrence, it occurs frequently in certain
+plants, and, when it affects the stem or branches, necessarily causes
+some changes in the arrangement of the parts attached to them; thus,
+spiral torsion of the axial organs is generally accompanied by
+displacement of the leaves, whorled leaves becoming alternate, and
+opposite or whorled leaves becoming arranged on one side of the stem
+only. Frequently also this condition is associated with fasciation, or,
+at least, with a distended or dilated state. An illustration of this in
+_Asparagus_ has been figured at p. 14.
+
+Very often the leaves are produced in a spiral line round the stem, as
+in a specimen of _Dracocephalum speciosum_ described and figured by C.
+Morren. The leaves of this plant are naturally rectiserial and
+decussate, but, in the twisted stem the leaves were curviserial, and
+arranged according to the 5/13 plan. Now, referring to the ordinary
+notation of alternate leaves, we shall have the first leaf covered by
+the fifth, with two turns of the spiral; since decussate leaves result
+from two conjugate lines, the formula will be necessarily 2/5. The
+fraction 5/13 hence comes regularly into the 2/5 series (2/5, 3/8,
+5/13). Thus, the leaves in assuming a new phyllotaxy, take one quite
+analogous to the normal one.
+
+One of the most curious instances that have fallen under the writer's
+own observation occurred in the stem of _Dipsacus fullonum_. (See
+'Proceedings of the Linnean Society,' March 6, 1855, vol. ii, p. 370).
+The stem was distended, and hollow, and twisted on itself; its fibres,
+moreover, were arranged in an oblique or spiral direction; the branches
+or leaf-stalks, which usually are arranged in an opposite and decussate
+manner, were, in this case, disposed in a linear series, one over the
+other, following the line of curvature of the stem. When the course of
+the fibres was traced from the base of one of the stalks, upward around
+the stem, a spiral was found to be completed at the base of the second
+stalk, above that which was made the starting point. Now, if opposite
+leaves depend on the shortened condition of the internode between the
+two leaves, then, in the teazel-stem just described, each turn of the
+spiral would represent a lengthened internode; and, if the fibres of
+this specimen could be untwisted, and made to assume the vertical
+direction, and, at the same time, the internodes were shortened, the
+result would be the opposition of the branches and the decussation of
+the pairs; this explanation is borne out by the similar twisting which
+takes place so frequently in the species of _Galium_ and other
+_Rubiaceae_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 172.--Twisted stem of _Dipsacus fullonum_.]
+
+G. Franc[358] was one of the first to notice this twisting in _Galium_,
+and M. Duchartre,[359] in mentioning a similar instance, gives the
+following explanation of the appearance which will be found to apply to
+most of these cases. In the normal stem of _Galium Mollugo_ the
+branches are opposite in each verticil and crossed in the two
+successive ones. The stem is four-angled, each angle having a nerve.
+Each of these nerves, springing from the origin of a branch in one
+whorl, terminates in the interval which separates the point of origin of
+the two branches in the whorl next above it. In the deformed stem one of
+the nerves corresponds to the insertion of a branch, its neighbour is in
+the adjoining vacant space; hence it results that four nerves correspond
+to two branches and to two consecutive interspaces, and hence the
+analogy between a single normal internode provided with its two branches
+and its four nerves. What confirms this inference is that the nerve,
+which begins at the point of origin of a branch, after making one spiral
+turn round the stem, terminates in the interval that separates the two
+following branches, just as in a branch of the normal stem it ends in
+the upper whorl between the two next branches. The torsion, then, in
+this _Galium_ caused the separation of the two opposite branches of the
+same verticil, and placed them one above another, and this being
+reproduced in all the whorls, all the branches come to be arranged on
+the same longitudinal line. The leaves are susceptible of the same
+explanation; they are inserted in groups of three or four in one arc
+round the origin of each branch. In the malformation each series or
+group of four leaves, with its central branch, is equivalent to half a
+whorl of the natural plant with its axillary branch. In other words, the
+malformation consists in a torsion of the stem, which separates each
+whorl into two distinct halves; these half-whorls, with their axillary
+branches, are placed on a single longitudinal series one above another.
+This case is quoted at some length, as it is an admirable example of a
+very common form of malformation in these plants.
+
+In some parts of Holland where madder is cultivated a similar
+deformation is particularly frequent. The leaves, however, are not
+always grouped in the way in which they were described by M. Duchartre,
+but more commonly form a single continuous line; when arranged in
+leaf-whorls it generally happens that some of the leaves are turned
+downwards, while others are erect. It has been said that this condition
+occurs particularly frequently in plants growing in damp places. It is
+certainly true that spiral torsion of the stem is specially frequent in
+the species of _Equisetum_, most of which grow in such spots. In these
+plants either the whole of the upper part of the stem is thus twisted,
+or a portion only: thus Reinsch[360] cites a case in _Equisetum
+Telmateia_, where the upper and lower portions of the stem were normal,
+while the intermediate portion was twisted spirally. In this instance
+the whorl next beneath the spiral had twenty-eight branchlets, and that
+immediately above it thirty. Along the course of the spire there were
+two hundred and three; dividing this latter number by the mean of the
+two preceding, it was seen that the spire included the constituents of
+seven ordinary verticils.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 173.--Stem of _Galium_ spirally twisted. From a
+specimen communicated by Mr. Darwin.]
+
+Here also may be mentioned a curious bamboo, the stem of which is
+preserved in the British Museum, and in which the internodes, on the
+exterior, and the corresponding diaphragms and cavities within are
+spiral or oblique in direction.
+
+The root is also subject to the same malformation, the inducing cause
+being usually some obstruction to downward growth, as when a plant has
+been grown in a small pot, and becomes, as gardeners say, pot-bound.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 174.--Showing "pot-bound" root twisted spirally
+(from the 'Gard. Chron.,' 1849).]
+
+The axial portion of the flower, the thalamus, is also occasionally
+twisted in a spiral direction, the lateral parts of the flower being in
+consequence displaced. Morren spoke of this displacement of the floral
+organs as "speiranthie."[361]
+
+Morren draws a distinction between spiral-torsion or spiralism and the
+less regular torsion spoken of in the preceding section; in the former
+case not only is the axis twisted, but its constituent fibres also. The
+condition in question in some cases seems to be inherited in the
+seedling plants.
+
+The following is a list of the plants in which spiral torsion of the
+stem or branches has been most frequently observed. (See also under
+Fasciation and Contortion.)
+
+ Hesperis matronalis.
+ Dianthus barbatus.
+ Pyrus Malus.
+ torminalis.
+ Cercis siliquastrum!
+ Punica Granatum.
+ Robinia pseudacacia!
+ Rubia tinctorum.
+ Dipsacus fullonum!
+ pilosus.
+ Gmelini.
+ Scabiosa arvensis.
+ *Valeriana officinalis!
+ dioica!
+ Galium aparine!
+ * Mollugo!
+ verum!
+ Hippuris vulgaris!
+ Veronica spicata.
+ longifolia.
+ Hyssopus officinalis.
+ Thymus Serpyllum.
+ Lamium purpureum!
+ Dracocephalum speciosum.
+ Mentha aquatica.
+ Mentha viridis.
+ Fraxinus vulgaris!
+ Sambucus nigra.
+ Zinnia.
+ Phylica.
+ Beta.
+ Rumex, sp.
+ Ulmus campestris.
+ Casuarina rigida.
+ Abies excelsa!
+ Lilium Martagon!
+ candidum.
+ *Asparagus officinalis!
+ Sagittaria sagittifolia.
+ Epipactis palustris.
+ Triticum repens!
+ Lolium perenne!
+ Phleum pratense.
+ Juncus conglomeratus!
+ Scirpus lacustris.
+ Equisetum Telmateia.
+ limosum.
+ fluviatile.
+ arvense!
+
+Among the more important papers relating to this subject may be
+mentioned:
+
+ Moquin-Tandon, 'El. Ter. Veg.,' p. 181. Kros, 'De Spira in
+ plantis conspicua.' Morren, 'Bull. Acad. Roy. Belg.,' 1851,
+ tom. xviii, part i, p. 27. Milde, 'Nov. Act. Acad. Leop. Carol.
+ Nat. Cur., 1839. Ibid., vol. xxvi, part ii, p. 429,
+ _Equisetum_. Irmisch, 'Flora,' 1858, t. ii, _Equisetum_.
+ Vrolik, 'Nouv. Mem. Instit. Amsterdam,' _Lilium_.
+ Schlechtendal, 'Bot. Zeit.,' xiv, p. 69, et v, p. 66. De
+ Candolle, 'Organ. Veget., t. i, p. 155, tab. xxxvi, _Mentha_,
+ _&c._ Alph. de Candolle, 'Neue Denkschr. Allg. Schweiz.
+ Gesellschft.,' band v, tab. vi, _Valeriana_. Duchartre, 'Ann.
+ Sc. Nat.,' ser. 3, vol. i, p. 292. 'Gardeners' Chronicle,' July
+ 5, 1856, p. 452, _c. ic. xylogr._, spiral branches from
+ Guatemala--tree not known.
+
+=Spiral twisting of the leaf= is scarcely of so common occurrence as the
+corresponding condition in the stem. In _Alstroemeria_ it occurs
+normally, as also in some grasses. In the variety _annularis_ of _Salix
+babylonica_ the leaf is constantly coiled round spirally. A similar
+contortion occurs in a variety of _Codiaeum variegatum_ lately introduced
+from the islands of the South Seas by Mr. J. G. Veitch.
+
+Fern fronds are occasionally found twisted in the same manner, _e.g._
+_Scolopendrium vulgare_ var. _spirale_.[362]
+
+=Adventitious tendrils.=--Under ordinary circumstances tendrils may be
+described as modifications of the leaf, the stipule, the branch, or of
+the flower stalk, so that it is not a matter of surprise to find
+tendrils occasionally springing from the sepals or petals, as indeed
+happens normally in _Hodgsonia_, _Strophanthus_, _&c._
+
+M. Decaisne[363] found a flower of the melon in which one of the
+segments of the calyx was prolonged into a tendril, and Kirschleger
+records a similar instance in the cucumber, while Mr. Holland ('Science
+Gossip,' 1865, p. 105) mentions a case in which one of the prickles on
+the fruit of a cucumber had grown out into a tendril.
+
+In _Cobaea scandens_ the foliar nature of the tendril is shown by the
+occasional presence of a small leaflet on one of the branches of the
+tendril, and a similar appearance may frequently be seen in
+_Eccremocarpus scaber_. On the other hand, in the vine, the axial nature
+of the tendril is revealed by the not infrequent presence of flowers or
+berries on them, as also in _Modecca_ and some _Passifloraceae_.
+
+Darwin, speaking of the tendrils of _Bignonia capreolata_, says it is a
+highly remarkable fact that a leaf should be metamorphosed into a
+branched organ, which turns from the light, and which can, by its
+extremities, either crawl like a root into crevices, or seize hold of
+minute projecting points, these extremities subsequently forming
+cellular masses, which envelope by their growth the first fibres and
+secrete an adhesive cement.
+
+=Interrupted growth.=--This term is here used in the same sense as in
+ordinary descriptive botany, as when an "interruptedly pinnate" leaf is
+spoken of. A similar alternation may be observed occasionally as a
+teratological occurrence, though it is not easy to account for it.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 175.--Interrupted growth of Radish (from the
+'American Agriculturist.')]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 176.--Interrupted growth in Apple.]
+
+Fig. 175 shows an instance of the kind in a radish, and fig. 176 a
+similar deformity in the case of an apple, the dilatation of the
+flower-stalk below the ordinary fruit producing an appearance as if
+there were two fruits one above another.
+
+In leaves this peculiar irregularity of development is more common.
+
+In some varieties of _Codiaeum variegatum_ the leaves resemble those of
+_Nepenthes_, as the basal portion is broad, and terminates in a
+projecting midrib destitute of cellular covering, and this again
+terminates in a small pouch or pitcher. Somewhat similar variations may
+be found in ferns, especially _Scolopendrium vulgare_.
+
+Instead of the pouch there is formed sometimes in the plant last
+mentioned a supplementary four-lobed lamina, the four lobes being in two
+different planes, and diverging from the midrib, so that the section
+would resemble [Symbol: Sideways X], the point of intersection of the x
+representing the position of the midrib. This four-winged lamina is thus
+very similar to the four-winged filaments described and figured at p.
+289, and to the leaf-like anther of _Jatropha_ described by M. Mueller,
+p. 255.
+
+=Cornute leaves= (_Folia cornuta_).--The condition to which this term
+applies is that in which the midrib, after running for a certain
+distance, generally nearly to the point of the leaf, suddenly projects,
+often in a plane different from that of the leaf, and thus forms a small
+spine-like out-growth. Should this happen to be terminated by a second
+laminar portion, an interrupted leaf would be formed. In _Scolopendrium
+vulgare_ and other ferns this condition has been noticed, as also in
+some of the varieties of _Codiaeum variegatum_ already referred to.
+
+=Flattening.=--There are some plants whose stem or branches, instead of
+assuming the ordinary cylindrical form, are compressed or flattened;
+such are some species of _Epiphyllum_, _Coccoloba_, _Bauhinia_, &c. The
+same thing occurs in the leaf-like branches of _Ruscus_, the
+flower-stalks of _Xylophylla_, _Phyllanthus_, _Pterisanthes_. Martins
+proposes to apply the word 'cladodium' to such expansions, just as the
+term phyllodium is applied to the similar dilatation of the leaf-stalks.
+If we exclude instances of fasciation, _i.e._ where several branches
+are fused together and flattened, we must admit that this flattening
+does not occur very often as a teratological appearance.
+
+Mr. Rennie figures and describes a root of a tree which had become
+greatly flattened in its passage between the stones at the bottom of a
+stream, and had become, as it were, moulded to the stones with which it
+came into contact.[364]
+
+The spadix of _Arum_, as also of the cocoa-nut palm, has been observed
+flattened out, apparently without increase in the number of organs.
+
+When the blade of the leaf is suppressed it often happens that the stalk
+of the leaf is flattened, as it were, by compensation, and the petiole
+has then much the appearance of a flat ribbon (phyllode). This happens
+constantly in certain species of _Acacia_, _Oxalis_, &c., and has been
+attributed, but doubtless erroneously, to the fusion of the leaflets in
+an early state of development and in the position of rest.[365]
+
+In some water plants, as _Sagittaria_, _Alisma_, _Potamogeton_, &c., the
+leaf-stalks are apt to get flattened out into ribbon-like bodies; and
+Olivier has figured and described a _Cyclamen_, called by him _C.
+linearifolium_, in which, owing to the suppression of the lamina, the
+petiole had become dilated into a ribbon-like expansion--deformation
+rubanee of Moquin.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[350] Moore, 'Nature Printed Ferns,' 8vo edition, vol. ii, p. 154, et p.
+173.
+
+[351] 'Flora (B. Z.),' 1821, vol. iv, p. 717, c. tab.
+
+[352] Chavannes, 'Mon. Antirrh.'
+
+[353] 'Bull. Soc. Bot. France,' t. vii, 1860, p. 877.
+
+[354] Ibid., t. iv, 1857, p. 759.
+
+[355] Jaeger, "De monstrosa folii _Phoenicis dactyliferae_
+conformatione a Goetheo olim observata," 'Act. Acad. Leop. Car. Nat.
+Cur.,' vol. xvii, suppl., p. 293, c. tab. color. iv.
+
+[356] See Goethe, 'Ueber die spiral Tendenz.'
+
+[357] See Darwin "On Climbing Plants," 'Journ. Linn. Soc. Botany,' vol.
+ix, p. 5.
+
+[358] 'Ephem. Nat. Cur.,' dec. 2, ann. 1, 1683, p. 68, fig. 14.
+
+[359] 'Ann. des Scienc. Nat.,' third series, vol. i, 1844, p. 292.
+
+[360] 'Flora' Feb. 4, 1858, p. 69, tab. ii, f. 3, and also 'Flora,'
+1860, p. 737, tab. vii, f. 9.
+
+[361] 'Bull. Acad, Belg.,' t. xvii, p. 196, "Lobelia," p. 53, c. tab.
+
+[362] Moore, 'Nature-printed Ferns,' 8vo edition, vol. ii, p. 183.
+
+[363] 'Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr.,' 1860, vol. vii, p. 461. See also Naudin,
+'Ann. Sc. Nat.,' 4 ser., t. iv, p. 5. Clos, 'Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr.,' t.
+iii, p. 546.
+
+[364] London's 'Magazine Nat. Hist.,' vol. ii, p. 463.
+
+[365] C. Morren, 'Bull. Acad. Belg.,' 1852, t. xix, part iii, p. 444.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+POLYMORPHY.
+
+
+Usually the several organs of the same individual plant do not differ to
+any great extent one from another. One adult leaf has nearly the same
+appearance and dimensions as another; one flower resembles very closely
+another flower of the same age and so on. Nevertheless it occasionally
+happens that there is a very considerable difference in form in the same
+organs, not only at different times, but it may also be at the same
+time. Descriptive botanists recognise this occurrence in the case of
+leaves, and apply the epithet heterophyllous to plants possessed of
+these variable foliar characters. In the case of the flower, where
+similar diversity of form occasionally exists, the term dimorphism is
+used.
+
+As these phenomena appear constantly in particular plants, they are
+hardly to be looked on, under such circumstances, as abnormal, but where
+they occur in plants not usually polymorphic, they may be considered as
+coming within the scope of teratology.
+
+=Heterophylly.=--As a general rule, the leaves or leaf-organs in each
+portion of a plant, from the rhizome or underground axis, where it
+exists, to the carpellary leaf, have their own special configuration,
+subject only to slight variations, dependent upon age, conditions of
+growth, &c. The cotyledons are very uniform in shape in each plant, and
+are scarcely ever subject to variation. The leaves near the base of the
+stem, the root-leaves as they are not unfrequently called, sometimes
+differ in form from the stem-leaves; these again differ from the bracts
+or leaves in proximity to the flower. The floral envelopes themselves,
+as well as the bud-scales, all have their own allotted form in
+particular plants, a form by which they may, in most cases, be readily
+recognised. Hence, then, in the majority of plants there is naturally
+very considerable difference in the form of the leaf-organs, according
+to the place they occupy and the functions they have to fulfil; but, in
+addition to this, it not unfrequently happens that the leaf-organs in
+the same portion of the stem are subject to great variation in form.
+This is the condition to which the term heterophylly properly applies.
+The variation in form is usually dependent on a greater or less degree
+of lobing of the margin of the leaf; thus, in the yellow jasmine, almost
+every intermediate stage may be traced from an ovate entire leaf to one
+very deeply and irregularly stalked. _Broussonettia papyrifera_, and
+_Laurus Sassafras_, and the species of _Panax_, may be mentioned as
+presenting this condition. Sometimes in the last-named genus, as also in
+_Pteridophyllum_, every gradation between simple and compound leaves may
+be traced. The horse-radish (_Cochlearia Armoracia_) may also be
+instanced as a common illustration of polymorphism in the leaves. In
+ferns it is likewise of frequent occurrence, markedly so in
+_Scolopendrium D'Urvillei_, in which plant every gradation from a simple
+oblong frond to an exceedingly divided one may be found springing from
+the same rhizome at the same time.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 177.--_Syringa persica laciniata_, showing
+polymorphous leaves.]
+
+A similar protean state, but little less remarkable, occurs in many of
+our British ferns, notably in _Scolopendrium vulgare_, of which Mr.
+Moore enumerates no fewer than 155 varieties,[366] many of the forms
+occurring on the same plant at the same time. Cultivators have availed
+themselves of this tendency to produce multiform foliage, not only for
+the purposes of decoration or curiosity, as in the many cut-leaved or
+crisped-leaved varieties, but also for more material uses, as, for
+instance, the many varieties of cabbages, of lettuces, &c. Most of these
+variations are mentioned under the head of the particular morphological
+change of which they are illustrations.
+
+The effect of a change in the conditions of growth in producing
+diversity in the form of the leaf may be here alluded to. _Ficus
+stipulata_, a plant used to cover the walls of plant-stoves in this
+country, and growing naturally on walls in India, like ivy, produces
+leaves of very different form, size, and texture, when grown as a
+standard, from what it does when adhering to a wall. _Marcgraavia
+umbellata_ furnishes another example of a similar nature, as indeed, to
+a less extent, does the common ivy.
+
+Allusion has been already made to the occasional persistence of forms in
+adult life, which are commonly confined to a young state, as in the case
+of some conifers which present on the same plant, at the same time, two
+different forms of leaves. Mention has also been made of the presence of
+adventitious buds on leaves and in other situations. The leaves that
+spring from these buds are usually of the same form as the other leaves
+of the plant, but now and then they differ. Of this a remarkable
+illustration is afforded by a fern, _Pteris quadriaurita_, in which the
+fronds emerging from an adventitious bud are very different from the
+ordinary fronds.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 178.--Portion of a frond of _Pteris quadriaurita_,
+with an adventitious bud, the form of the constituent foliage of which
+is very different from that of the parent frond.]
+
+=Dimorphism.=--This term, applied specially to the varied form which the
+flowers or some of their constituent elements assume on the same plant,
+is an analogous phenomenon to what has been above spoken of as
+heterophylly, and, like it, it cannot, except under special
+circumstances, be considered as of teratological importance. A few
+illustrative cases, however, may here be cited.
+
+Sir George Mackenzie describes a variety of the potato[367] (_Solanum
+tuberosum_), which produces first double and sterile flowers, and
+subsequently single fertile ones; the other portions of the plant do not
+differ much.
+
+_Stackhousia juncea_, according to Clarke, has mixed with its perfect
+flowers a number of apetalous blossoms destitute of anthers.[368]
+
+This peculiarity is well exemplified in the tribe _Gaudichaudieae_ of the
+order _Malpighiaceae_. A. de Jussieu, in his monograph, speaks of these
+flowers as being very small, green, destitute of petals, or nearly so,
+with a single, generally imperfect anther; the carpels also are more or
+less imperfect, but not sufficiently so to prevent some seeds from being
+formed. A similar production of imperfect flowers has been noticed in
+many other orders, _e.g._ _Violaceae_, _Campanulaceae_, &c. In some cases
+these supplementary blossoms are more fertile and prolific in good seeds
+than are the normally constructed flowers. M. Durieu de Maisonneuve
+alludes to a case where flowers of this description are produced below
+the surface of the ground. The plant in question is _Scrophularia
+arguta_, and it appears that towards the end of the summer the lowest
+branches springing from the stem bend downwards, and penetrate the soil;
+the branches immediately above the lowest ones also bend downwards, but
+do not always enter the earth. These branches bear fertile flowers:
+those which are completely below the soil are completely destitute of
+petals; those which are on the surface have a four-lobed corolla whose
+divisions are nearly equal, like those of _Veronica_.[369]
+
+To Sprengel, and specially to Darwin, physiologists are indebted for the
+demonstration of the relation of di- and trimorphic flowers to
+fertilisation. In certain genera of orchids, such as _Catasetum_, &c.,
+flowers of such different form are produced that botanists, without
+hesitation, considered them as belonging to different genera, until the
+fact of their occasional production on the same plant showed that they
+were not of even specific importance. It was reserved for Mr. Darwin to
+show experimentally that these very different flowers are really sexual
+forms of one and the same species, ordinarily occurring on different
+plants, i.e. dioecious, but occasionally formed on the same spike. The
+same excellent observer has demonstrated that the di- and trimorphic
+forms of _Primula_, of _Linum_, _Lythrum_, and other plants--forms
+differing mainly in the relative length of the stamens and styles, are
+also connected with striking differences in the number of perfect seeds
+produced. The most perfect degree of fertility is obtained when the
+stigma of one form is fertilised by the pollen taken from stamens of a
+corresponding height. On the other hand, when the union is, as Mr.
+Darwin states, illegitimate, that is, when the pollen is taken from
+stamens not corresponding in length to the style, more or less complete
+sterility ensues in the progeny, sometimes even utter infertility, such
+as happens when two distinct species are crossed, so that, in point of
+fact, the offspring of these illegitimate unions correspond almost
+precisely to hybrids.[370]
+
+Mere variations of form arising from hybridisation or other causes
+hardly fall within the limits of this work, though it is quite
+impossible to say where variations end and malformations begin. There
+are, however, two or three cases cited by Mr. Darwin[371] from Gallesio
+and Risso to which it is desirable to allude. Gallesio impregnated an
+orange with pollen from a lemon, and the fruit borne on the mother tree
+had a raised stripe of peel like that of a lemon both in colour and
+taste, but the pulp was like that of an orange, and included only
+imperfect seeds. Risso describes a variety of the common orange which
+produces "rounded-oval leaves, spotted with yellow, borne on petioles,
+with heart-shaped wings; when these leaves fall off they are succeeded
+by longer and narrower leaves, with undulated margins, of a pale green
+colour, embroidered with yellow, borne on foot-stalks without wings.
+The fruit whilst young is pear-shaped, yellow, longitudinally striated
+and sweet; but, as it ripens, it becomes spherical, of a reddish-yellow,
+and bitter."
+
+=Sports or bud variations.=--These curious departures from the normal
+form can only be mentioned incidentally in this place, as they pertain
+more to variation than to malformation.
+
+The occasional production of shoots bearing leaves, flowers, or fruits
+of a different character from those found on the normal plant, is a fact
+of which gardeners have largely availed themselves in the cultivation of
+new varieties. The productions in question have been attributed to
+various causes, such as cross-breeding, grafting, budding, dissociation
+of hybrid characters, or reversion to some ancestral form, all of which
+explanations may be true in certain cases, but none of them supply the
+clue to the reason why one particular branch should be so affected, and
+the rest not; or why the same plant, at the same time, as often happens
+in Pelargoniums, should produce two, three, or more "sports" of a
+different character.
+
+These bud variations may be perpetuated by grafts or by cuttings,
+sometimes even by seed. With reference to cuttings a curious
+circumstance has been observed, viz., that if taken from the lower part
+of the stem, near the root, the peculiarity is not transmitted, but the
+young plant reverts to the characters of the typical form (Carriere).
+This circumstance, however, is not of universal occurrence.
+
+For further particulars on this interesting subject the reader is
+referred to Darwin's 'Variation of Animals and Plants,' i, p. 373, where
+numerous references are given, and wherein certain well-known and highly
+remarkable instances, such as the _Cytisus Adami_, the trifacial orange,
+&c., are discussed.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[366] 'Nature-printed Ferns,' 8vo edition, vol. ii, p. 197.
+
+[367] 'Gard. Chron.,' 1845. p. 790.
+
+[368] 'A New Arrangement of Phaenog. Plants,' p. 36.
+
+[369] 'Bull. Soc. Bot. France,' 1856, t. iii, p. 569.
+
+[370] The reader will find an abstract of Mr. Darwin's views in his work
+on the 'Variation of Animals and Plants,' vol. ii, p. 181.
+
+[371] Loc. cit., i, 336.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+ALTERATIONS OF COLOUR.[372]
+
+
+Changes in the colour of the several organs of plants are more often
+either pathological or the result of variation than of malformation
+properly so called.
+
+Alterations in colour arise from a diminished or an increased amount of
+colouring matter, or from an unusual distribution of the solid or fluid
+matters on which the colour depends. The superposition of cells
+containing colouring material of different tints produces naturally a
+very different set of hues from those which are manifested when the
+colours are not blended. Referring the reader to the ordinary text-books
+on vegetable physiology and chemistry for details as to the nature and
+disposition of colouring materials in plants under natural
+circumstances, it will only be necessary to cite a few instances of
+deviation from the general colour of plants or their organs.
+
+=Albinism.=--This change is due to the deficient formation of green
+colouring matter or chlorophyll, and is more a pathological condition
+than a deformity.
+
+It seems necessary to draw a distinction between this state and ordinary
+blanching or etiolation. In the former case chlorophyll seems never to
+be formed in the affected parts, even if they be exposed to light, while
+an etiolated organ, when placed under favorable circumstances, speedily
+assumes a green colour. In _Richardia aethiopica_ one or more leaves
+become occasionally as white as the spathe is usually.
+
+=Virescence.=--Engelmann[373] pointed out that, so far as flowers were
+concerned, there are two ways in which they assume a green colour,
+either by a simple development of chlorophyll in place of the colouring
+matter proper to the flower, or by an actual development of leaf-like
+organs in the room of the petals--frondescence. Morren[374] judiciously
+proposed to keep these two conditions separate, calling the one
+virescence, the other frondescence (see p. 241).
+
+Many of the cases recorded as reversions of the parts of the flower to
+leaves are simply instances of virescence; indeed, it is not in all
+cases easy to distinguish between the two states. The examination of the
+arrangement of the veins is often of assistance in determining this
+point; for instance, if, under ordinary circumstances, the venation of
+the petal be such as is characteristic of the sheath of the leaf, while
+in the green-coloured flower of the same species the venation is more
+like that which belongs to the blade of the leaf, the inference would,
+of course, be that the green colour was due to frondescence or phyllody.
+
+The persistence or duration of petals is often increased when they are
+subject to this change; instead of falling off speedily they become
+persistent when so affected.
+
+Some flowers are more liable to virescence than others. The common
+honeysuckle, _Lonicera Periclymenum_, is one of these, and it is
+noticeable in this plant that the calyx remains unaffected--a
+circumstance which Morren says shows the distinctness of virescence from
+frondescence; for, in this instance, we have the most foliaceous portion
+of the flower remaining unchanged, while the corolla and other organs,
+usually less leaf-like in their nature, assume a green colour; but this
+may rather be attributed to the axial nature of the so-called adherent
+calyx. The stamens in these green-flowered honeysuckles are usually
+green also, but with abortive anthers, and the pistil also is in a
+rudimentary condition. _Umbelliferae_ are not unfrequently subject to
+this change, _e.g._, _Torilis Anthriscus_, _Daucus Carota_, _Heracleum
+Sphondylium_, _Carum carui_, &c. _Primulaceae_, again, are frequently
+subject to virescence. Among _Compositae_ the following species are
+recorded as having had green flowers--_Cirsium tricephalodes_, _Senecio
+vulgaris_, _Calendula officinalis_, _Pyrethrum Parthenium_, _Carduus
+crispus_, _Hypochaeris radicata_, _Hieracium prealtum_, _Cirsium
+arvense_, _Coreopsis Drummondi_.[375] In _Ranunculaceae_ virescence has
+been observed in _Delphinium elatum_, _crassicaule_ and _Ajacis_,
+_Anemone hortensis_ and _nemorosa_, _Aquilegia vulgaris_, _Ranunculus
+Philonotis_.
+
+Many of these cases, and others that might be cited, are probably
+instances of frondescence or phyllody (see p. 241).
+
+=Chromatism.=--This term is here intended to apply specially to those
+cases in which any organ of a plant assumes a colour approximating to
+that of the petals, or in which the normal green is replaced by tints of
+some other colour. To a certain extent the change in question is the
+same as that spoken of under the head of petalody (see p. 283), but
+there are cases in which, while the ordinary situation and form are
+those of leaves, the coloration is that of the petals. Such was the case
+in the _Gesnera_ mentioned by Morren (see p. 88), and in which a leaf
+occupied the position of an inflorescence, and became brightly coloured.
+In tulips the presence of a highly coloured leaf on the flower-stalk,
+below the flower, is not uncommon. So also the bracts or leaves below
+the perianth in _Anemone coronaria_ and _hortensis_ not unfrequently
+assume the coloration usually confined to the parts of the perianth. A
+similar illustration has presented itself, as this sheet is passing
+through the press, in which two of the leaflets of the compound leaf of
+a rose were brightly coloured like the petals, the others being of
+their ordinary green colour.
+
+The occurrence of coloured bracts, as in _Poinsettia_, _Bougainvillea_,
+&c., is very common under natural conditions, and need not here be
+further alluded to.
+
+Increased intensity of colour often accompanies teratological changes;
+an instance has just been alluded to in the _Gesnera_; the feather
+hyacinth, _Muscari comosum_, furnishes another illustration, the
+adventitious pedicels being brightly coloured.
+
+In fasciated stems, also, of herbaceous plants, it not unfrequently
+happens that the upper portions of the stem are brightly coloured.
+
+The occurrence of flowers or fruits of different colours on the same
+plant, or even in the same cluster, is a phenomenon which does not come
+within the scope of the present book; the reader may, however, be
+referred to the excellent summary on this subject published by Mr.
+Darwin in his work on the 'Variation of Animals and Plants under
+Domestication.'
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[372] These deviations are treated of under the head of alterations of
+form, because they are not, in a teratological point of view, of
+sufficient importance to demand a specific heading, while they appeal to
+the sight in the same way as the deviations from the customary forms of
+organs.
+
+[373] 'De Antholys,' p. 32, Sec. 38.
+
+[374] 'Bull. Acad. Belg.,' xvii, part 2, p. 131, c. tab.
+
+[375] See Cramer, 'Bildungsabweich,' pp. 17, 55, 82, 65. See also Lucas,
+'Verhandl. des Bot. Vereins. Brandenb.,' heft 1, 2, _Anchusa_. Christ,
+'Flora,' 1867. pp. 376, tab. 5, 6, _Stachys_.
+
+
+
+
+BOOK III.
+
+DEVIATIONS FROM THE ORDINARY NUMBER OF ORGANS.
+
+
+To a certain extent the number of the organs of a plant is of even
+greater consequence for purposes of classification than either their
+form or their arrangement; for instance, the number of cotyledons in the
+embryo is made the chief basis of separation between the two great
+groups of flowering plants, the monocotyledons and the dicotyledons. In
+the one group, moreover, the parts of the flower are arranged in groups
+or whorls of five; in the other the arrangement is ternary. In mosses
+the teeth of the peristome are arranged in fours, or in some multiple of
+that number. So far as the larger groups are concerned, and also in
+cases where the actual number of parts is small, the numerical relations
+above described are very constant; on the other hand, in the minor
+subdivisions, and especially where the absolute number of parts is
+large, considerable variation may occur, so that descriptive botanists
+frequently make use of the term indefinite, and apply it to cases where
+the number of parts is large and variable, or, at any rate, not easy to
+be estimated.
+
+Considered teratologically, the changes, as regards the number of
+organs, are readily grouped into those consequent on a decreased and
+into those resulting from an increased development. The alteration may
+be absolute or relative. There may be an actual deficiency in the number
+of parts or an increase in their number, but in either case the change
+may be simply a restoration of the primitive number, a species of
+peloria, in fact. An increased number of parts, moreover, may depend not
+so much on the formation of additional parts as on the subdivision of
+one.
+
+It seems also desirable to treat separately those cases in which there
+is an increased number of buds either leaf-buds or flower-buds, as the
+case may be, as happens in what is termed prolification. This formation
+of buds occurring, as it does, often in unwonted situations is treated
+of under the head of alterations of arrangement, the mere increase in
+number being considered of subordinate importance as contrasted with the
+altered disposition (see p. 100).
+
+
+
+
+PART I.
+
+INCREASED NUMBER OF ORGANS.
+
+
+An augmentation in the number of parts may arise from several causes,
+and may sometimes be more apparent than real. True multiplication exists
+simply as a result of over-development; the affected organs are repeated
+sometimes over and over again each in their proper relative position,
+and without any transmutation of form.
+
+Metamorphy, on the other hand, often gives rise to the impression that
+parts are increased in number, when it may be that the stamens and
+pistils, one or both, are not so much increased in number as altered in
+appearance. The double anemones and ranunculus of gardens, amongst many
+other analogous illustrations, may be mentioned. In these flowers, owing
+to the petalody of the stamens and pistils, one or both, an impression
+of exaggerated number is produced, which is by no means necessarily a
+true one. Fission or lateral subdivision also gives rise to an apparent
+increase in number; thus, some so-called double flowers, the elements of
+which appeared to be increased in numbers, owe the appearance merely to
+the laciniation or subdivision of their petals.
+
+The French botanists, following Dunal and Moquin, attribute an increase
+in the number of whorls in the corolla, and other parts of the flower,
+to a process which they call chorisis, and they consider the
+augmentation to be due to the splitting of one petal, for instance, into
+several;--somewhat in the same manner as one may separate successive
+layers of talc one from the other.
+
+English botanists, on the other hand, have been slow to admit any such
+process, because, in most instances, no alteration in the law of
+alternation takes place in these double flowers, and in those few cases
+where the law is apparently infringed, the deviation is explained by the
+probable suppression of parts, which were they present would restore the
+natural arrangement of the flower; and, that this is no imaginary or
+purely theoretical explanation, is shown by some of the _Primulaceae_,
+wherein a second row of stamens is occasionally present in the adult
+condition, and renders the floral symmetry perfect.
+
+The double daffodil, where there are from forty to fifty petaloid organs
+instead of fifteen, and wherein each piece exhibits a more or less
+perfect coronal lobe at the junction of the claw and the limb, has been
+cited as an objection to chorisis, though it is difficult to see on what
+grounds.
+
+In _Delphinium_, as shown by Braun,[376] the stamens and carpels are
+members of a continuous spiral series, and in the double balsam an extra
+corolline whorl is produced, without the suppression of the stamens, in
+the following manner: the ordinary stamens are replaced by petals, the
+carpels by stamens, while an additional whorl of carpels is produced at
+the summit of the axis. In this instance, therefore, the doubling is
+distinctly referrible to an absolute increase in the number of whorls,
+and not to chorisis.[377]
+
+On the other hand, it must be admitted that there are many cases which
+are not to be explained in any other way than that suggested by the
+French botanists before alluded to. Probably, the main difficulty in the
+way of accepting the doctrine of chorisis is the unfortunate selection
+of the word used to designate the process; this naturally suggests a
+splitting of an organ already perfectly formed into two or more
+portions, either in the same plane as the original organs, "parallel
+chorisis;" or at right angles to it "collateral chorisis." Indeed,
+before so much attention had been paid to the way in which the floral
+organs are developed, it was thought that an actual splitting and
+dilamination did really take place; Dunal and Moquin both assert as
+much. The truth would rather seem to be that, in the so-called parallel
+chorisis at least, the process is one of hypertrophy and
+over-development rather than of splitting. The adventitious petal or
+scale is an excrescence or an outgrowth from the primary organ, and
+formed subsequently to it.
+
+In the case of "compound stamens" the original stamens are first
+developed each from its own cellular "mamelon," or growing point; and,
+after a time, other secondary growing points emerge from the primary
+one, and in this way the stamens are increased in number, without
+reference, necessarily, to the so-called law of alternation. Outgrowths
+from leaves, multiplying the laminar surface, are alluded to under the
+head of hypertrophy, and it is probable that some of the cases of
+duplication of the flower, or of the formation of adventitious segments
+outside the ordinary corolla as alluded to in succeeding paragraphs (see
+Pleiotaxy of the corolla), are due to a similar process.[378]
+
+The formation of parts in unwonted numbers may be merely a reversion to
+what is supposed to have been the original form, and in this way there
+may be a restoration of parts that are usually undeveloped or
+suppressed. There can be little or no doubt that there are in reality
+six stamens in _Orchidaceae_, of which one only, under ordinary
+circumstances, is developed. When the numerical symmetry is restored, as
+it sometimes is, it is obvious that the augmentation that occurs is of a
+different character from that arising from a repetition or renewed
+development of organs. When the increased number arises from
+multiplication proper, or from repetition, the ordinary laws of
+alternation are not interfered with, but if from chorisis or
+"dedoublement," it may happen that the normal arrangement is disturbed.
+
+Without studying the mode of development, it is not in all cases
+possible to tell under which of the above categories any particular
+instance should be placed; hence, in the following sections, except
+where otherwise stated, the cases are grouped according to the
+appearance presented in the adult condition, rather than to the way in
+which the changes from the typical condition are brought about. With
+reference to the foliar organs it is necessary to distinguish those
+cases in which there is, from any cause, an augmentation in the number
+of component parts of a whorl, from those in which the increase takes
+place in the numbers of the whorls themselves.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[376] Braun, 'Pringsheim Jahrbuch f. Wiss. Bot.,' 1858, 1, p. 307, tab.
+22, 23.
+
+[377] Henfrey, 'Jour. Linn. Soc. Bot.,' vol. iii, p. 159.
+
+[378] On the subject of chorisis or dedoublement the reader may
+profitably consult Moquin-Tandon, 'Ess. sur les Dedoublements,' and the
+same author in 'Ann. Sc. Nat.,' t. xxvii, p. 236. and 'El. Ter. Veget.,'
+p. 337. Dunal, 'Consid. Org. Fleur.,' Montpell., 1829, p. 32, note 3. A.
+de St. Hilaire in 'Ann. Sc. Nat.,' ser. 3, t. iii, p. 355, adnot.
+Lindley, 'Elements of Botany,' p. 76. Asa Gray. 'Botanical Text Book.'
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+MULTIPLICATION OF AXILE ORGANS, INFLORESCENCE, ETC.
+
+
+By Linne an undue number of branches was designated as "plica," from the
+analogy with the disease of the hair known as plica polonica: "_Plicata
+dicitur planta, cum arbor vel ramus excrescit minimis intertextis
+ramulis, tanquam plica polonica ex pilis, ceu instar nidi Picae, quod
+vulgo a genio ortum arbitratur; frequens apud nos in Betula, praesertim
+Norlandiae, in Carpino Scaniae, nec infrequens in Pinu._"[379]
+
+By some of the older authors this condition was called polyclady. In
+some cases, it would seem to be due to fungi as in the witches' brooms
+(hexenbesen) of the German forests; in other instances, it is a result
+of mutilation as after the operation of pollarding.
+
+Moquin-Tandon[380] mentions a case in a grafted ash in the botanic
+garden of Toulouse, where below the graft there was a large swelling,
+from which proceeded more than a thousand densely-packed, interlacing
+branches.
+
+This must have been similar to the condition so commonly met with in the
+birch, and frequently in the hornbeam and the thorn, and which has
+prompted so many a schoolboy to climb the tree in quest of the apparent
+nest. It is probable that some of the large "gnaurs" or "burrs," met
+with in elms, &c., also in certain varieties of apples, are clusters of
+adventitious buds, some of which might, and sometimes do, lengthen out
+into branches.
+
+An increased number of branches also necessarily arises when the
+flower-buds are replaced by leaf-buds.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 179.--Flower stalks of _Bellevalia comosa_, nat.
+size, after Morren.]
+
+Occasionally, a great increase in the number of pedicels, or
+flower-stalks, may be met with in conjunction with a decreased number
+of flowers, as in the wig-plant (_Rhus Cotinus_), or the
+feather-hyacinth (_Bellevalia comosa_). In these cases the supernumerary
+pedicels are often brightly coloured. To this condition Morren gave the
+name mischomany, from [Greek: mischos], a pedicel, a term which has not
+generally been adopted.[381]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 180.--Tuft of branches at the end of the
+inflorescence of _Bellevalia comosa_, enlarged after Morren.]
+
+M. Fournier[382] describes a case in the butcher's broom (_Ruscus
+aculeatus_), wherein from the axil of the minute leaf subtending the
+flower a secondary flattened branch proceeded.
+
+Duchartre[383] cites the case of a hyacinth which, in addition to the
+usual scape, had a second smaller one by its side terminated by a
+solitary flower; indeed, such an occurrence is not uncommon.
+
+Some tulips occasionally present three or four, or more, flowers on one
+inflorescence, but whether from a branching of the primary scape, or
+from the premature development of some of the axillary bulbils into
+flowering stems which become adherent to the primary flower-stalk,
+cannot, in all cases, be determined. Certainly, in some cases examined
+by me the latter was the case.[384]
+
+Under this head, too, may be included those cases wherein an ordinarily
+spicate inflorescence becomes paniculate owing to the branching of the
+axis and the formation of an unwonted number of secondary buds.
+Instances of this kind may be met with in willows, hazels, alders, and
+other amentaceous plants. In the case of the hazel the unusual
+development of male catkins sometimes coincides with an alteration in
+their position, instead of being placed near the axil of a leaf; they
+become terminal. Jaeger figures and describes a bunch of _Pinus
+sylvestris_ bearing in one case seventy minute cones, and in another
+fifty-nine. These cones preserved the same spiral arrangement among
+themselves which is proper to the leaves. These latter, indeed, replaced
+the strobili above.[385]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 181.--Increased number of male catkins in the hazel
+_Corylus avellana_.]
+
+M. Reichardt describes an analogous case in the same species, and
+attributes the inordinate number of cones to a fungus (_Peridermium
+pini_). In this case there were no less than 227 cones, but each one
+half the size of the ordinary cones.[386]
+
+Of a similar character is the many-headed pineapple. Among grasses such
+a branching of the inflorescence is exceedingly common,--which is the
+more readily understood as the normal inflorescence is in so many cases
+paniculate. Cultivators have, in some instances, availed themselves of
+this peculiarity, as in the Egyptian wheat or corn of abundance
+(_Triticum compositum_), certain varieties of Maize, etc. Similar
+exuberant growths occur in _Orchidaceae_, in _Cyperaceae_, e.g. _Carex_,
+in _Restiaceae_, and indeed they may be found in any plant with a similar
+form of inflorescence. In all these cases the branching begins at the
+lower part of the spike, and extends from below upwards in an indefinite
+manner, even although the primary inflorescence be definite.
+
+Among the _Equisetaceae_ a similar plurality of spikes occurs often as a
+result of mutilation.[387] The deviation in question might in some
+instances be turned to good account, as in the _Triticum_ before
+mentioned or as in the broccoli shown at fig. 182, though it must be
+added that the apparent advantages are often counterpoised by some
+undesirable qualities or by some circumstance which prevents us availing
+ourselves of the new condition.
+
+=Multiplication of Bulbs.=--This occurrence has been briefly alluded to
+previously (see p. 84). The most curious cases are those in which one
+bulb is placed on the top of another as happened in some bulbs of
+_Leucoium aestivum_ described by M. Gay.[388] Irmisch described a similar
+phenomenon in _L. vernum_; and Mr. Moggridge has communicated drawings
+of a similar formation in the same species grown in the neighbourhood of
+Mentone.
+
+From the instances cited it is clear that branching of the inflorescence
+occurs most frequently in those plants naturally characterised by a
+dense compact mode of growth, whether that be definite or indefinite, as
+in spikes, umbels, capitula, &c.; so that compound spikes, umbels, &c.,
+are formed in the place of simple ones (see also prolification of the
+inflorescence, p. 102).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 182.--Broccoli, with six perfect heads on one stalk
+('Gard. Chron.,' 1856, Oct. 25).]
+
+=Increased number of florets= in the individual spikelets of grasses is
+also met with under some circumstances. I have seen this in _Hordeum_
+and _Lolium_, and an instance is figured in _Avena_ by Dr.
+Wiegmann.[389] M. Duval Jouve[390] records a similar occurrence in
+_Catabrosa aquatica_, the spikelets of which contained from two to seven
+flowers.[391]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[379] 'Phil Bot.,' Sec. 274.
+
+[380] 'El. Ter. Veget.,' p. 392.
+
+[381] 'Bull. Acad. Belg.,' xvii, part ii, p. 38.
+
+[382] 'Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr.,' vol. iv, 1857. p. 760.
+
+[383] Ibid., vol. viii, 1861, p. 159.
+
+[384] See 'Gard. Chron.,' July, 1866, p. 656, and Clusius, 'Plant.
+Rar.,' lib. 2, p. 143, _Tulipa serotina_ [Greek: polyklades], _minor_,
+_&c._ Hort. Eysttett. Plant. Vern.,' fol. 12.
+
+[385] 'Jaeger de Pini sylvestris monstrositate,' Stuttgardt, 1828.
+
+[386] Cited in 'Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr.,' xiv, p. 265.
+
+[387] Duval Jouve, 'Hist. Nat. Equiset. Fr.,' tab. 8, also Milde, 'Nov.
+Act. Acad. Nat. Cur.,' t. xxvi, part 2. For branched inflorescence of
+orchids, see 'Reichenbach Proc. Lond. Bot. Congress,' 1866, p. 121.
+
+[388] 'Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr.,' vi, 266, vii, 457. Irmisch, 'Knollen und
+Zwiebelgew.,' tab. 7, figs. 10, 11.
+
+[389] 'Flora,' 1831, p. 5, tab. i; see also Hanstein, 'Flora,' 1857, p.
+513. Schlechtendal, 'Bot. Zeit.,' xviii, p. 381.
+
+[390] 'Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr.,' ix, p. 8.
+
+[391] It will be seen, from what has been just said, that in some of the
+cases where the axile organs, branches, &c., appear to be multiplied,
+the increased number is due to subdivision rather than to renewed
+formation (see Fission). Of this last description is an instance which
+came under the writer's notice after the section relating to that
+subject was in print, and which may therefore here be alluded to. The
+instance is that of the subdivision of the leaf-like organs of
+_Sciadopitys verticillata_. In one instance the pseudo leaf divided, and
+from the division proceeded a little axis, bearing at its summit a
+verticil of pseudo leaves. This division and formation of new axes and
+verticils affords ample confirmation of the opinion thrown out by
+Professor Alexander Dickson, that the apparent leaves of this plant were
+really branches: see 'Revue Horticole,' 1867, and 'Report. Bot.
+Congress,' London, 1866, p. 124.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+MULTIPLICATION OF FOLIAR ORGANS.
+
+
+The cases referrible to this head may be ranged under two sections
+according as the increase is due to plurality of ordinarily single
+organs, or to an increase in the number of verticils or whorls.
+
+When, in place of a single leaf organ two or more are really or in
+appearance present the occurrence may be due to one of several causes;
+among them may be mentioned an actual formation of parts in unwonted
+number, hypertrophy or enation, chorisis or fission, disjunction,
+adhesion of one leaf to another or to the stem, as in some of the leaves
+called "geminate," wherein the two leaves, though apparently in
+juxtaposition, yet originate from different parts of the stem, but by
+coalescence or lack of separation produce the impression as if they
+sprang from the same node. In the adult state it is not always possible
+to ascertain with certainty to which of these causes the increase in the
+number of leaves is due, though a clue to the real state of things may
+be gained from attention to the distribution of the veins, to the
+arrangement or phyllotaxy of the leaves, the size and position of the
+supernumerary organs, &c.
+
+The term "phyllomania," as ordinarily used, is applied to an unwonted
+development of leafy tissue, as in some begonias where the scales or
+ramenta are replaced by small leaflets, or as in some cabbage leaves,
+from the surface of which project, at right angles to the primary
+plane, other secondary leafy plates; but these are, strictly speaking,
+cases of hypertrophy (see Hypertrophy).
+
+Those instances in which the actual number of leaves is increased, so
+that in place of one there are more leaflets, may be included under the
+term "pleiophylly," which may serve to designate both the appearance of
+two or more leaves in the place usually occupied by a single one, and
+also those normally compound leaves in which the number of leaflets is
+greater than usual.
+
+The increased number of leaves in a whorl may well be designated as
+"polyphylly," using the word in the same sense as in ordinary
+descriptive botany, while "pleiotaxy" may be applied to those cases in
+which the number of whorls is increased.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 183.--Supernumerary leaflet, _Ulmus campestris_.]
+
+=Pleiophylly.=--As above stated, this term is proposed to designate
+those cases in which there is an absolute increase in the number of
+leaves starting from one particular point, as well as those in which the
+number of leaflets in a compound leaf is preternaturally increased. The
+simplest cases are such as are figured in the adjacent cuts, wherein, in
+place of a single leaf, two are produced in the elm. In the one case the
+new leaflet springs from the apex of the petiole and partially fills
+the space consequent on the obliquity of the base of the leaf. In the
+other it would seem as if two distinct leaves emerged from the stem in
+juxtaposition. This is probably due to a lateral chorisis or subdivision
+of the primitive tubercle or growing point, followed by a like
+subdivision of the vascular bundle supplying it. There are certain
+varieties of elm that very generally present this anomaly on their rank,
+coarse, growing shoots. In these cases the new growths have the same
+direction as the primary one, but in other cases the supplementary
+production is exactly reversed in direction. Thus, in the common hazel
+(_Corylus_) a second smaller leaf proceeding from the end of the
+leaf-stalk at the base of the primary one may frequently be seen. M.
+Germain de Saint Pierre records an instance in a mulberry leaf, from the
+base of which proceeded a large leafy expansion divided into two
+tubular, horn-like projections, and in the centre a thread-like process
+representing the midrib and terminated by a small two-lipped limb.[392]
+Dr. Ferdinand Mueller speaks of a leaf of _Pomaderris elliptica_ as
+bearing a secondary leaf on its under surface.[393]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 184.--Supernumerary leaf, _Ulmus montana_.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 185.--Supernumerary leaf of hazel.]
+
+The leaves of _Heterocentron macrodon_ have likewise been observed
+occasionally to produce leaflets from their upper surface.
+
+To this production of leaves from leaves the late Professor Morren
+applied the term "autophyllogeny."[394] The Belgian botanist figures a
+small perfect leaf springing from the nerves of the upper surface of the
+primary leaf in a species of _Miconia_. As in the hazel, the direction
+of the adventitious leaf is inversely that of the primary one, the upper
+surface of the supernumerary leaflet being turned towards the
+corresponding surface of the normal leaf. A similar occurrence took
+place in _Gesnera zebrina_, but the new growth in this case sprang from
+the lower face of the leaf. Morren explains the appearances in question
+by supposing that the supplementary leaf is one of a pair belonging to a
+bud borne on a slender stalk. This stalk and one of the bud-leaves are
+supposed to be inseparably united with the primary leaf. But there is
+no reason at all for supposing the existence of adhesion in these cases;
+no trace of any such union is to be seen. A much more natural
+explanation is that, from some cause or another, development at the apex
+of the petiole or on the surface of the nerves, instead of taking place
+in one plane only, as usual, takes place in more than one, thus showing
+the close relationship, if not the intrinsic identity, between the
+leaf-stalk and its continuation, the midrib, with the branch and its
+subdivisions. The form of the leaf-stalk and the arrangement of the
+vascular bundles in a circle in the case of the hazel, before alluded
+to, bear out this notion. Such cases are significant in reference to the
+notion propounded by M. Casimir de Candolle, that the leaf is the
+equivalent of a branch in which the upper portion of the vascular circle
+is abortive.[395]
+
+Compound leaves, as has been stated, occasionally produce an extra
+number of leaflets; one of the most familiar illustrations of this is in
+the case of the four-leaved shamrock (_Trifolium repens_), which was
+gathered at night-time during the full moon by sorceresses, who mixed it
+with vervain and other ingredients, while young girls in search of a
+token of perfect happiness made quest of the plant by day. Linne, who in
+this matter, at any rate, had less than his usual feeling for romance,
+says of the four-leaved trefoil that it differs no more from the
+ordinary trefoil than a man with six fingers differs from one provided
+with the ordinary number. It should be stated that five and six
+adventitious leaflets are found almost as frequently as four.
+
+Walpers describes a case where the leaf of _T. repens_ bore seven
+leaflets. Schlechtendal alludes to a similar increase in number in
+_Cytisus Laburnum_, and many other instances might be cited.
+
+ For figures or descriptions of four-leaved shamrocks the reader
+ is referred to Lobel, 'Stirp. Advers.,' Nov., p. 382.
+ Tabernaemontanus 'Krauterbuch,' S. 222. Schlechtendal, 'Bot.
+ Zeit.,' ix, p. 583, xiv, p. 71. Maugin, 'Bull. Soc Bot. Fr.,'
+ 1866, t. xiii, p. 279. See also Cramer, 'Bildungsabweich,' p.
+ 92. Walpers, 'Linnaea,' 1840, p. 362 (7-leaved). Schlechtendal,
+ 'Bot. Zeit.,' 1844, p. 457, _Cytisus_. Wigand, 'Flora,' 1856,
+ p. 706.
+
+Frondiferous leaves have much the appearance of branches provided with
+leaves, and they may be compared with those instances in which an
+adventitious bud is placed on the surface or edges of the leaves, as in
+_Gesnera_, _Cardamine_, &c. In truth, the two conditions merge one into
+the other, as in some begonias, where the ramenta often become leaf-like
+and bear small bulbils in the axil.
+
+When frondiferous leaves die the appendages die also, but when a true
+bud has been formed on a leaf it does not of necessity die with the leaf
+that bears it, but separates from it and continues to grow
+independently.
+
+=Increased number of stipules, spathes, &c.=--Seringe relates the
+occasional presence of two or three additional stipules upon the
+leaf-stalks of _Salix fragilis_, and even makes a variety (_Salix
+pendula_, var. _multistipulata_).
+
+An increase in the number of the spathes has been often noticed in
+Arads[396]. Prof. Alex. Braun has studied this subject in some
+detail[397]. In _Calla palustris_ the shoot which continues the growth
+of the plant proceeds from the axil of the last leaf but one; the very
+last leaf producing no bud, but if accidentally a shoot is developed in
+this latter situation it produces flowers at once. No leaves are formed,
+but, on the contrary, two or three spathes surround the spadix, so that
+the presence of an increased number of spathes in this plant is
+associated with the development of a side shoot from the axil of the
+last leaf, the situation whence, under natural circumstances, no shoot
+at all issues. The supernumerary spathes are not always on the same
+level, but may be separated by a considerable interval. They vary very
+much in size, and sometimes assume the form and appearance of leaves.
+Similar anomalies occur in other Arads as _Arum maculatum_, _Richardia
+aethiopica_, and _Anthurium Scherzerianum_, frequently combined with a
+leaf-like appearance of the spathes and sometimes with a subdivision of
+the spadix into two or three branches.
+
+Engelmann relates the occurrence of an increased number of glumes in
+_Bromus velutinus_ associated with suppression of the flowers.
+
+=Polyphylly.=--As previously explained, this term is here applied to
+those cases in which the members of any particular whorl are increased
+in number, the whorls themselves not necessarily being augmented.
+
+The simplest cases of this kind are those in which we meet with an
+unusual number of leaves in a whorl.
+
+=Increased number of leaves in a whorl.=--This may arise from actual
+multiplication, or from lateral chorisis, or fission. The true nature of
+the case may usually be ascertained by an examination of the
+distribution of the veins of the leaves, or of the fibrous cords of the
+stem, by the relative position of the supernumerary organs, &c.
+
+Among plants with normally opposite leaves the following occasionally
+produce them in whorls of three:--_Lonicera brachypoda_, _L. Xylosteum_,
+_Weigela rosea_, _Cornus mas_, _Vinca minor_, &c.
+
+_Paris quadrifolia_ may frequently be met with five leaves in its whorl,
+or even six.[398]
+
+=Increased number of bracts.=--This is not of infrequent occurrence; one
+of the most curious instances is that recorded by Mr. Edwards[399] in
+_Cerastium glomeratum_, where, in place of the usual pair of bracts at
+the base of the head of flowers, there was a whorl of six or eight,
+forming an involucre. The flowers in this case were apetalous and
+imperfect.
+
+=Polyphylly of the calyx.=--This may occur without any other
+perceptible change, while at other times the number of the other parts
+of the flower is proportionately increased. In a flower of a plum six
+sepals in place of five sometimes exist; a precisely similar occurrence
+in the flowers of the elder (_Sambucus_), the _Fuchsia_, and of
+_OEnanthe crocata_, may occasionally be met with. In the latter case,
+indeed, there are sometimes as many as ten segments to the calyx, and
+this without the other parts of the flower being correspondingly
+augmented. Among monocotyledons a similar increase is not uncommon, as
+in _Tulipa_, _Allium_, _Iris_, _Narcissus_, &c.
+
+In some plants there seems to exist normally much variation in the
+number of parts; thus in some species of _Lacistema_ in adjacent flowers
+the calyx may be found with four, five, or six segments.
+
+Most of these cases of polyphylly affecting the calyx may be explained
+by lateral chorisis or fission.
+
+=Polyphylly of the corolla.=--This may happen in connection with similar
+alterations in the calyx and stamens, or sometimes as an isolated
+occurrence. In the latter case it may be due to lateral chorisis, to
+substitution, or to the development of organs usually suppressed; thus,
+when in aconites we meet with four or five horn-like nectaries (petals)
+instead of two only, as usual, the supernumerary ones are accounted for
+by the inordinate development of parts which ordinarily are in an
+abortive or rudimentary state only. This is borne out by what happens in
+_Balsamineae_. In the common garden balsam the fifth petal is
+occasionally present, while in _Hydrocera triflora_ this petal is always
+present.
+
+In a flower of a _Cyclamen_ recently examined there were ten petals in
+one series, the additional five being evidently due to the subdivision
+of the five primary ones; the natural circular plan of the flower was
+here replaced by an elliptical one. A similar occurrence takes place in
+the flowers of maples (_Acer_), which sometimes show an increased number
+of parts in their floral whorls and an elliptical outline. Whether the
+additional organs in this last case are the result of complete lateral
+chorisis or of multiplication proper I do not know.
+
+Orchids are very subject to an increase in the number of their labella.
+As illustrations may be cited an instance recorded by Mr. J. T.
+Moggridge in a flower of _Ophrys insectifera_, and in which there were
+two labella without any other visible deviation from the ordinary
+conformation.[400]
+
+I am indebted to Mr. Hemsley for the communication of a similar specimen
+in _O. apifera_, in which there were two divergent lips, each with the
+same peculiar markings. One of the sepals in this flower was adherent to
+one of the lateral petals. This augmentation of the labella depends
+sometimes on the separation, one from the other, of the elements of
+which the lip is composed, at other times on the development, in the
+guise of lips, of stamens which are usually suppressed (see p. 380).
+
+The following enumeration will suffice to show the genera in which an
+increased number of petals or perianth-segments in any given whorl most
+frequently occurs.
+
+ Anemone!
+ Ranunculus!
+ Aconitum!
+ Raphanus.
+ Bunias.
+ Saponaria.
+ Dianthus!
+ Pelargonium!
+ Hibiscus.
+ Fuchsia.
+ Sarothamnus!
+ Lotus!
+ Ulex!
+ Prunus!
+ Trifolium.
+ OEnanthe and Umbellif. pl.!
+ Sambucus!
+ Bryonia.
+ Campanula.
+ Solanum.
+ Veronica.
+ Cyclamen!
+ Primula!
+ Anagallis!
+ Plumbago.
+ Jasminum.
+ Syringa!
+ Tradescantia.
+ Iris.
+ Tigridia.
+ Narcissus.
+ Tulipa.
+ Convallaria!
+ Paris!
+ Hyacinthus!
+ Allium!
+ Ornithogalum.
+ Orchideae, sp. pl.!
+
+ For other illustrations see multiplication of whorls, petalody;
+ see also Moquin, loc. cit., p. 350. Engelmann, loc. cit., p.
+ 20, Sec. 18. Cramer, loc. cit., p. 25.
+
+=Polyphylly of the androecium.=--An increased number of stamens
+frequently accompanies the corresponding alterations in other whorls,
+and seems, if anything, to be more frequent among monocotyledonous
+plants than among dicotyledonous ones; thus, we occasionally find
+tetramerous flowers in _Crocus_, _Hyacinthus_, _Tulipa_, _Iris_,
+_Tigridia_, &c., and more rarely in _Yucca_ (_Y. flexilis_[401]).
+
+The increased number of stamens in a single whorl may result from a
+development of organs usually suppressed, and constitute a form of
+regular peloria as in _Linaria_, wherein a fifth stamen is occasionally
+met with. Among normally didynamous plants such numerical restitution,
+so to speak, is not unusual; thus, in _Veronica_ four and five stamens
+occur. Fresenius has seen five stamens in _Lamium_, _Mentha_,
+_Chelone_;[402] Bentham in _Melittis_, and other instances are cited
+under the head of peloria. Chorisis may also serve to account for some
+of these cases; thus, Eichler[403] figures a flower of _Matthiola annua_
+with five long stamens instead of four; one of the long pairs of stamens
+has here undergone a greater degree of repetition than usual. De
+Candolle[404] cites and figures a curious form of _Capsella
+Bursa-pastoris_ sent him by Jacquin, and which was to some extent
+reproduced by seed. In the flowers of this variety there were no petals,
+but ten stamens; hence De Candolle inferred that the petals were here
+replaced by stamens, but Moquin[405] objects, and with justice, to this
+view, as the ten stamens are all on the same line; he considers the
+additional stamens to be the result of chorisis. Buchenau[406] mentions
+the presence of seven stamens in another Crucifer, _Ionopsidium
+acaule_. Here the supernumerary organ was placed between two of the long
+stamens. The effect of chorisis in producing an augmentation of parts is
+well seen in some plants that have some of their flowers provided with
+staminodes or abortive stamens, and others with clusters or phalanges of
+perfect stamens. Thus, in the female flowers of _Liquidambar_ there are
+five small staminodes without anthers, whereas in the male flower the
+stamens are numerous and grouped together in phalanges, so that the
+relation of simple to compound stamens is in this case readily seen, as
+also in many _Malvaceae_, _Sterculiaceae_, _Byttneriaceae_, _Tiliaceae_, and
+_Myrtaceae_. It is probably the idea of splitting or dilamination
+involved in the word chorisis that has led many English botanists to
+hesitate about accepting the notion. Had they looked upon the process as
+identical with that by which a branched inflorescence replaces an
+unbranched one, or a compound leaf takes the place of a simple one, the
+objections would not have been raised with such force. The process
+consists, in most cases, not so much in actual cleavage of a
+pre-existing organ as in the development of new-growing points from the
+old ones.
+
+An illustration given by Moquin from Dunal[407] goes far to support the
+notion here adopted. The majority of the stamens of laurels (_Laurus_)
+have, says M. Dunal, on each side of the base of their filaments a small
+glandular bifid appendage; these excrescences are liable to be changed
+into small stamens. The male flowers have a four-leaved calyx, and
+sometimes eight stamens, each with two glands, four in one row, opposite
+to the sepals, four in a second series alternating with the first. More
+generally two of the stamens are destitute of glands, but have in their
+place a perfectly developed stamen, so that in these latter flowers
+there are twelve stamens.
+
+M. Clos[408] mentions a flower of rue (_Ruta_) wherein there were two
+stamens joined together below and placed in front of a petal, as in
+_Peganum_.
+
+Buchenau[409] mentions a flower of _Lotus uliginosus_ in which there
+were eleven stamens, namely, two free and nine monadelphous; and
+Hildebrand describes an analogous increase in a flower of _Sarothamnus
+scoparius_ in which, in conjunction with a seven-toothed calyx, there
+were two carinas and fourteen stamens. It would seem probable in this
+case that there was a coalescence of two flowers at an early date and
+consequent suppression of some of the parts of the flower. Whether this
+was the case or not in this particular illustration, it is nevertheless
+certain that many of the recorded instances of increased number in the
+organs of a flower are really the results of a fusion of two or more
+flowers, though frequently in the adult state but few traces of the
+coalescence are to be seen.
+
+=Polyphylly of the gynoecium.=--Moquin[410] remarks that, as the
+pistils are, generally speaking, more or less subject to pressure, owing
+to their central position, and it may be added owing to their later
+development, than the other parts of the flower, they are more subject
+to suppression than to multiplication; nevertheless, augmentation in the
+number of carpels does occasionally take place, especially when the
+other parts of the flower are also augmented in number. Sometimes this
+increase in the number of carpels is due to pure multiplication, without
+any other change. At other times the increase is due to a substitution
+of stamens or other organs for carpels (see Substitutions). In other
+cases the augmentation seems to be due to the development of parts
+usually suppressed; for instance, in _Antirrhinum_, where there are
+usually only two carpels present, but where, under peculiar
+circumstances, five may be found--thus rendering the symmetry
+complete.[411] In _Papilionaceae_, wherein usually only one carpel is
+developed, we occasionally find two, or even more, as in _Wistaria_,
+_Gleditschia_, _Trifolium_, &c. In _Prunus_ and _Amygdalus_ from two to
+five carpels are occasionally to be found,[412] in _Mimosa_ five, in
+_Umbelliferae_ three to five; in some composites, _e.g._ _Spilanthes_,
+five carpels have also been noticed; in _Cruciferae_ three and four, in
+grasses three.[413] The double cocoa-nut affords an illustration of the
+development of two carpels out of three, one only generally arriving at
+perfection. Triple nuts (_Corylus_) also owe their peculiarity to the
+equal development of all three carpels which exist in the original
+flower, but of which, under ordinary circumstances, two become abortive.
+It is necessary, however, to distinguish these cases from those in which
+two embryos are developed in one seed.
+
+The following list may serve to show in what genera this change has been
+most frequently noticed, and it may be said in general terms that
+_Cruciferae_, _Umbelliferae_, and _Liliaceae_, are the orders most
+frequently affected. Cases of peloria are not included in the subjoined
+list.
+
+ Nigella.
+ Aquilegia.
+ Paeonia!
+ Delphinium!
+ Iberis.
+ Diplotaxis.
+ Lunaria.
+ Ricotiana.
+ Octadenia.
+ Draba!
+ Lepidium.
+ *Cheiranthus!
+ Dianthus.
+ Brassica!
+ Parnassia.
+ *Acer!
+ Ptelea.
+ Citrus!
+ Philadelphus.
+ Prunus!
+ Amygdalus!
+ Crataegus!
+ Fuchsia!
+ Trapa!
+ Cassia.
+ Cercis.
+ Medicago.
+ *Phaseolus!
+ Wistaria.
+ Gleditschia.
+ Affonsea.
+ Trifolium!
+ Archidendron.
+ Mimosa.
+ Robinia.
+ Diphaca.
+ Coesalpinia.
+ Vicia.
+ Anthyllis.
+ Cucurbita.
+ Passiflora!
+ Sambucus!
+ *OEnanthe!
+ Daucus!
+ Angelica!
+ Heracleum!
+ Silaus.
+ Carum.
+ Thysselinum.
+ Campanula!
+ Spilanthes.
+ Chrysanthemum.
+ Anagallis.
+ Primula!
+ Fraxinus!
+ Lycium.
+ Cobaea.
+ Datura!
+ Solanum!
+ Sesamum.
+ Sideritis.
+ Coleus.
+ Veronica!
+ *Digitalis!
+ Antirrhinum!
+ Linaria.
+ Gloxinia!
+ Symphytum.
+ Anchusa.
+ Polygonum.
+ Euphorbia.
+ Cneorum.
+ Mercurialis!
+ Chenopodium.
+ Suaeda.
+ Beta.
+ Corylus!
+ Lambertia.
+ Cocos!
+ Tigridia.
+ Tulipa!
+ Iris!
+ Narcissus!
+ Allium!
+ Ornithogalum.
+ Gagea!
+ Tradescantia!
+ Schoenodon.
+ Bambuseae.
+
+ A few additional references may here be given to papers where
+ an increased number of carpels is described:--Engelmann, 'De
+ Antholys,' Sec. 17, p. 19. Bernhardi, 'Flora,' 1838, p. 129.
+ Schkuhr., 'Bot. Handb.,' t. 179. Godron, 'Ann. Sc. Nat.,' ser.
+ 5, vol. ii, p. 280, tab. xviii, _pluricarpellary Crucifers_.
+ Weber, 'Verhandl. Nat. Hist. Vereins. Rhein. Pruss.,' &c.,
+ 1860, _Cerasus_, &c., &c. Baillon, 'Adansonia,' iv, p. 71,
+ _Trifolium_. Schlechtendal, 'Bot. Zeit.,' xv, p. 67, _Datura_,
+ three-celled fruit; 'Bot. Zeit.,' xiii, p. 823, _Phaseolus_,
+ double pistil--a common case. Cramer, 'Bildungsabweich,' p. 99,
+ reference to several leguminous plants with polycarpellary
+ pistils. Munro, Gen., 'Linn. Trans.,' vol. xxvi, p. 26,
+ _Bambuseae_. Alph. de Candolle, 'Neue Denkschrift,'
+ _Cheiranthus_. Schimper, 'Flora,' 1829, ii, p. 433. Wigand,
+ 'Bot. Untersuch.' Fleischer, 'Missbild. Cultur Pfl.' Cramer,
+ 'Bildungsabweich,' p. 65, _Umbelliferae_.
+
+=Polyphylly of the flower in general.=--Although, for the sake of
+convenience, multiplication has here been treated of as it affects the
+members of individual whorls of the flower, yet it must be remembered
+that, in general, the augmentation is not confined to one whorl, but
+affects several; thus, if the sepals are increased, the petals are
+likely to be so likewise, and so forth. One of the most curious
+illustrations of this is that recorded by Mr. Berkeley[414] in a plum,
+wherein there was an increased number of sepals, a corresponding
+augmentation in the petals, while the pistil was composed of two and
+sometimes three carpels distinct from the calyx and from each other. In
+the flowers there did not appear to be any definite relation in the
+position of the parts either with reference one to another or to the
+axis.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 186.--Plum. Increased number of parts in the
+calycine, corolline, and carpellary whorls respectively.]
+
+In _Primulaceae_ this general augmentation has been frequently
+noticed.[415]
+
+Among _Orchideae_ the instance related by Dr. Seubert is worth alluding
+to here. This botanist observed and figured a flower of _Orchis
+palustris_ with tetramerous arrangement of parts, that is to say there
+were four outer segments to the perianth, four petals, of which two
+were lip-like, four stamens, three of which were rudimentary, and an
+ovary with four parietal placentae.[416]
+
+The following list will serve to show in what plants this general
+augmentation of parts has been observed most frequently:
+
+ Ranunculus.
+ Clematis!
+ Delphinium.
+ Brassica!
+ Ruta.
+ Acer!
+ Prunus!
+ Rosa!
+ Rubus.
+ Philadelphus!
+ Chrysosplenium.
+ Umbelliferae, sp. pl.!
+ *Fuchsia!
+ OEnothera.
+ Adoxa.
+ Bryonia.
+ Cucumis!
+ Campanula!
+ Sambucus!
+ *Primula!
+ Anagallis!
+ Lycium.
+ Solanum.
+ Symphytum.
+ Syringa!
+ Linaria.
+ Chenopodium.
+ *Paris!
+ Convallaria!
+ Allium.
+ *Lilium!
+ *Tulipa!
+ Ornithogalum.
+ *Gagea!
+ Tradescantia!
+ Orchideae, sp. pl.!
+
+=Increased number of ovules or seeds.=--This appears not to be of very
+frequent occurrence, at least in those plants where the number of these
+organs is normally small; where, as in _Primula_, the ovules and seeds
+are produced in large quantities, it is not practicable to ascertain
+whether the number be augmented or not in any particular case. Very
+probably, the attachment or source of origin of the ovules determines,
+in some measure, their number. Thus, in the case of marginal
+placentation the number must be limited by the narrow space from which
+they proceed, whereas in parietal and free central placentation the
+ovules are generally numerous. In the latter case, however, it will be
+remembered that solitary ovules are not rare. An increased number of
+ovules is generally remarked in conjunction with some other change, such
+as a foliaceous condition of the carpel, in which the margins are
+disunited. In such cases the ovules may occupy the margin or may be
+placed a short distance within it, as in the case of some open carpels
+of _Ranunculus Ficaria_,[417] and in which two ovules were borne in
+shallow depressions on the upper or inner surface of the open carpel and
+supplied with vascular cords from the central bundle or midrib. The
+outer coating of the ovule here contained barred or spiral fusiform
+vessels derived from the source just indicated.
+
+In the very common cases where the pistil of _Trifolium repens_ becomes
+foliaceous (see Frondescence), the outer ovules are generally two or
+more instead of being solitary. So, also, in the Rose with polliniferous
+ovules (see p. 274). Among _Umbelliferae_ affected with frondescence of
+the pistil a similar increase in the number of ovules takes place. It
+will be borne in mind that in most, if not all, these cases the
+structure of the ovule is itself imperfect.[418]
+
+What are called in popular parlance double almonds or double nuts
+(_Corylus_) are cases where two seeds are developed in place of one.
+
+In the 'Revue Horticole,' 1867, p. 382, mention is made of a bush which
+produces these double nuts each year--in fact, it never produces any
+single-seeded fruit. The plant was a chance seedling, perhaps itself the
+offspring of a double-seeded parent. It would be interesting to observe
+if the character be retained by the original plant, and whether it can
+be perpetuated by seed or by grafting.
+
+It is necessary to distinguish in the case of the nut between additional
+seeds or ovules, as just described, and the double, triple, or fourfold
+nuts that are occasionally met with, and which are the result either of
+actual multiplication of the carpels or of the continued development of
+some of the carpels which, under ordinary circumstances cease to grow
+(see _ante_, p. 364). In the case of a ripe nut with two seeds it might
+be impossible to tell whether the adventitious seed were the product of
+multiplication, or whether it belonged, in the first instance, to the
+same carpel as that producing the fellow-seed, or to a different and now
+obliterated ovary. In all probability, however, the second seed would be
+accounted for by the development of two seeds in one carpellary cavity.
+
+There is still another condition occasionally met with in the almond,
+and which must be discriminated from the more common multiplication of
+the seed, and which is the multiplication of the embryos within the
+seed, and which furnishes the subject of the succeeding paragraph.
+
+=Increased number of embryos.=--A ripe seed usually contains but a
+single embryo, although in the ovular state preparation is commonly made
+for more; and, indeed, in certain natural orders plurality of embryos in
+the same seed does occur, as in _Cycadeae_ and _Coniferae_. In the seeds
+of the orange (_Citrus_), in those of some _Euphorbiaceae_, &c., there
+are frequently two or more additional embryos. A similar occurrence has
+been recorded in the mango, for a specimen of which I am indebted to the
+Rev. Mr. Parish, of Moulmein.[419]
+
+Plurality of embryos has also been observed in--
+
+ Raphanus sativus.
+ *Citrus Aurantium!
+ Diosma, sp.
+ Hypericum perforatum.
+ Triphasia aurantiaca.
+ *AEsculus Hippocastanum!
+ Euonymus latifolius.
+ *Mangifera indica!
+ Eugenia Jambos.
+ Amygdalus vulgaris!
+ Vicia, sp.
+ Cassia, sp.
+ *Viscum album!
+ Daucus Carota.
+ Ardisia serrulata!
+ Cynanchum nigrum.
+ fuscatum.
+ Euphorbia rosea.
+ Coelebogyne ilicifolia.
+ Allium fragrans.
+ Funckia, sp.
+ Carex maritima.
+ Zea Mays.
+
+ See Schauer's translation of Moquin-Tandon, 'El. Terat.
+ Veget.,' p. 245, adnot., and 'Al. Braun Polyembryonie.'
+
+=Increased number of the cotyledons.=--Although the presence of one or
+of two cotyledons in the embryo is generally accepted as a valuable
+means of separating flowering plants into two primary groups, yet, like
+all other means of discrimination, it occasionally fails, and, indeed,
+almost always requires to be taken in conjunction with some other
+character. There are cases among flowering plants where the embryo is
+homogeneous in its structure, there are others in which the number of
+the cotyledons is more than two. Thus, in some seeds of _Cola acuminata_
+the cotyledons vary in number from two to five. I have not been able to
+ascertain precisely whether this multiplication of the cotyledons is
+characteristic of all the seeds of particular trees, or whether some
+only are thus affected. Some fruits that I examined bore out the latter
+view, as in the same pod were seeds with two, three, and four cotyledons
+respectively.
+
+I have also seen three cotyledons present in embryo-plants of _Correa_,
+_Crataegus Oxyacantha_, _Dianthus sinensis_, _Daucus Carota_, _Cerasus
+Lauro-cerasus_. De Candolle alludes to a case of the kind in the bean,
+and figures a species of _Solanum_ with three cotyledons.[420] Jaeger
+alludes to a similar instance in _Apium Petroselinum_;[421] Ehrenberg to
+one in the marigold (_Calendula_);[422] Reinsch to an analogous
+appearance in the beech (_Fagus_), associated with a union of the
+margins of two out of the three cotyledons, and of those of two out of
+the three leaves next adjacent.[423] This fusion seems frequently to
+accompany increase in the number of cotyledons. It was so in the
+_Correa_, and in the _Crataegus_ previously mentioned. Some of these
+cases may be accounted for by chorisis or by a cleavage of the original
+cotyledons, as happens, according to Duchartre,[424] in some Coniferae,
+which he considers to be improperly termed polycotyledonous. Whether
+this holds good in the Loranths, where (_Nuytsia_, _Psittacanthus_) an
+appearance of polycotyledony exists, is not stated. In the case of the
+rue (_Ruta_) figured by M. A. de Jussieu[425] this splitting of one
+cotyledon into two is sufficiently evident, as is also the case in the
+sycamore (_Acer pseudo-platanus_), seedlings of which may often be met
+with divided cotyledons.
+
+In other instances a fusion of two embryo plants may give rise to a
+similar appearance, as in the _Euphorbia_ and _Sinapis_ found by M.
+Alph. de Candolle (see _ante_, p. 56).
+
+=Pleiotaxy or multiplication of whorls.=--In the preceding section
+notice has been taken of the increased number of parts in a single
+whorl, but an augmentation of the number of distinct whorls is still
+more frequently met with. Many of the so-called double flowers owe their
+peculiarity to this condition. The distinction between the two modes in
+which the parts of the flower are increased in number has been pointed
+out by Engelmann, Moquin, and others, and the two seem to require
+distinctive epithets; hence the application of the terms polyphylly and
+pleiotaxy, as here proposed.
+
+=Pleiotaxy in the bracts.=--An increase in the number of bracts has been
+met with very constantly in a species of _Maesa_, and in a peculiar
+variety of carnation, called the wheat-ear carnation.[426] In some of
+these cases the increase in the number of bracts is attended by a
+corresponding suppression in the other parts of the flower. Such a
+condition has been frequently met with in _Gentiana Amarella_, where the
+bracts are increased in number, coloured purple, and destitute of any
+true floral organs. A similar condition exists in some varieties of
+_Plantago major_ (var. _paniculata_), as has been previously stated, p.
+109.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 187.--Wheat-ear carnation. The appearance is due to
+the multiplication of the bracts and the suppression of the other parts
+of the flower.]
+
+It has been noticed also in the common pea, _Pisum sativum_, and M.
+Lortet[427] records a case of the kind in _Erica multiflora_, the
+flowers of which, under ordinary circumstances, are arranged in
+clusters, but in this case the pedicels were more closely crowded than
+usual, and were covered for their whole length with small rose-coloured
+bracts arranged in irregular whorls, the upper ones sometimes enclosing
+imperfect flowers. In the 'Gardeners' Chronicle,' 1865, p. 769, is
+figured a corresponding instance of _Delphinium Consolida_, in which the
+bracts were greatly increased in number, petaloid, and, at the same
+time, the central organs of the flower were wholly wanting.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 188.--_Delphinium Consolida_. Multiplication of
+bracts at the expense of the other parts of the flower.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 189.--Multiplication of bracts, &c., _Pelargonium_.]
+
+In flowers of _Pelargonium_ may occasionally be seen a repetition of the
+whorls of bracts, in conjunction with suppression and diminished size of
+some of the other portions of the flower (fig. 189).
+
+The common foxglove (_Digitalis purpurea_) has likewise occasionally
+been observed subject to a similar malformation.
+
+_Cornus mas_ and _C. suecica_ sometimes show a triple involucre.[428]
+Irmish[429] records an analogous case in _Anemone Hepatica_, wherein the
+involucre was doubled. Similar augmentation occurs in cultivated
+Anemone. In addition to the plants already mentioned, Engelmann[430]
+mentions as having produced bracts in unwonted numbers, _Lythrum
+Salicaria_, _Plantago major_, _Veronica spicata_, _Echium vulgare_,
+_Melilotus arvensis_, and _Rubus fruticosus_.
+
+It must here be remarked that this great number of the bracts occurs
+naturally in such plants as _Godoya_, in which the bracts, or, as some
+consider them, the segments of the calyx, are very numerous, and
+arranged in several overlapping segments.
+
+In some of the cultivated double varieties of _Nigella_ the finely
+divided involucral bracts are repeated over and over again, but on a
+diminished scale, to the exclusion of all the other parts of the flower.
+
+=Pleiotaxy or repetition of the calyx.=--The true calyx is very seldom
+affected in this manner, unless such organs as the epicalyx of mallows,
+_Potentilla_, &c., be considered as really parts of the calyx.
+
+In _Linaria vulgaris_ Roeper observed a calyx consisting of a double
+series, each of five sepals, in conjunction with other changes.[431] It
+is also common in double columbines, delphiniums, nigellas, &c.
+
+In the 'Revue Horticole,' 1867, p. 71, fig. 9, is described and figured
+by M. B. Verlot a curious variety of vine grown for years in the Botanic
+Garden at Grenoble, under the name of the double-flowered vine. The
+place of the flower is occupied by a large number of successive whorls
+of sepals disposed in regular order, and without any trace of the other
+portions of the flower. It is, in fact, more like a leaf-bud than a
+flower. The outermost whorls of this flower open at the time when the
+ordinary flowers of vines do; the second series are gradually produced,
+and expand about the time when the ovaries of the normal flowers begin
+to swell; a third series then gradually forms, and so on, until frost
+puts a stop to the growth. This malformation, it appears, is produced
+annually in certain varieties of vine, and may be perpetuated by
+cuttings.
+
+The flower of the St. Valery apple, already alluded to under the head of
+sepalody, might equally well be placed here. It is not very material
+whether the second whorl of organs be regarded as a repetition of the
+calyx or as a row of petals in the guise of sepals.
+
+Engelmann[432] cites the following plants as occasionally presenting a
+repetition of the calyx, in most cases with a suppression of the other
+floral whorls:--_Stachys lanata_, _Myosotis palustris_, _Veronica
+media_, _Aquilegia vulgaris_, _Nigella damascena_, _Campanula
+rapunculoides_.
+
+=Pleiotaxy in the perianth.=--Increase in the number of whorls in the
+perianth is common in lilies, narcissus, hyacinths, &c. It may be also
+met with occasionally among orchids. The lily of the valley
+(_Convallaria maialis_) seems also to be particularly subject to an
+increase in the number of parts of which its perianth consists, the
+augmentation being due partly to repetition or pleiotaxy, partly to the
+substitution of petaloid segments for stamens and pistils.[433]
+
+In this place may also be mentioned the curious deviation from the
+ordinary structure occasionally met with in _Lilium candidum_, and known
+in English gardens as the double white lily. In this case there are no
+true flowers, but a large number of petal-like segments disposed in an
+irregular spiral manner at the extremity of the stem, some of the
+uppermost being occasionally verticillate.[434]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 190.--Double white lily. Multiplication of
+perianth-segments and other changes.]
+
+=Pleiotaxy of the corolla.=--With reference to double flowers, it was
+remarked by Linne that polypetalous flowers were, as he said,
+multiplied, while monopetalous flowers were duplicated, or triplicated,
+as the case may be,[435] a statement that is true in the main, though
+it requires modification. In the case of polypetalous, or rather
+dialypetalous flowers, the petals may be very largely increased by
+multiplication, as in roses, anemones, pinks, &c. In the last-named
+genus the number is often so much increased that the calyx splits from
+the tension exercised on it by the increasing mass within. This
+multiplication may happen without any metamorphy or substitution of
+petals for stamens, though, in the majority of cases, it is associated
+with such a change. It is curious to observe in some of these flowers
+that the total number of parts is not greatly increased; thus, in some
+of the double-flowered _Leguminosae_, such as _Ulex europaeus_ and _Lotus
+corniculatus_, the petals are repeated once or twice, the stamens are
+petalodic, but reduced in number, while the carpels are usually entirely
+wanting. Thus, owing to the diminished number of parts in the inner
+whorls of the flower, these very double-looking blooms do not contain
+any greatly increased number of parts.[436]
+
+Flowers that, under ordinary circumstances, are gamopetalous, become, in
+some instances, multiplied by the formation of additional segments, just
+as in the case of polypetalous corollas; but in these cases the corollas
+become polypetalous, their petals do not cohere one with another. Among
+double flowers of this character may be mentioned _Campanula
+rotundifolia_, _Gardenia_ sp., _Nerium Oleander_, _Serissa_ sp.,
+_Arbutus Unedo_, &c. The change is associated with petalody of the
+stamens and pistils.
+
+A more frequent change among the monopetalous orders is the duplication
+or triplication of the corolla, in consequence of which there appear to
+be a series of corollas enclosed one within the other, the lobes of
+which generally alternate with one another, but which sometimes are
+superposed. This happens occasionally in the primrose (_Primula
+acaulis_), and constitutes the variety called by the gardeners "hose in
+hose."
+
+The same condition occurs frequently in some species of _Datura_ and
+_Campanula_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 191.--_Campanula rotundifolia_. "Double flowers"
+resulting from dialysis and multiplication of the petals.]
+
+In _Antirrhinum majus_ double flowers of this character sometimes occur;
+the outermost corolla is normal, the succeeding ones usually have their
+petals separate one from the other; the stamens are sometimes present,
+sometimes absent, and at other times petalodic. Similar occurrences may
+be met with in labiates and jasmines, and in _Erica hyemalis_.
+
+Mr. W. B. Hemsley has kindly furnished me with flowers of a similar kind
+occurring in wild specimens of _Epacris impressa_,[437] and there are
+analogous phenomena in the common honeysuckle (_Lonicera Periclymenum_),
+in which three corollas and no stamens often occur.
+
+This duplication may either be accounted for on the theory of chorisis
+above alluded to, or by supposing that the extra corolline whorl is due
+to a series of confluent petalodic stamens; that the latter is the true
+explanation, in certain cases at least, is shown by some flowers of
+_Datura fastuosa_, in which the second corolla was partially staminal in
+its appearance, and bore nearly perfect anthers, in addition to the five
+ordinary stamens, which were unaltered either in form or position. Some
+partially virescent honeysuckle flowers have a similar structure.
+
+There are other cases of apparent multiplication or duplication, due,
+probably, rather to the formation of outgrowths from the petals than to
+actual augmentation of their number. These excrescences occur sometimes
+on the inner surface of the petals, or of the corolla; at other times on
+the outer surface, as in some gloxinias, &c. This matter will be more
+fully treated of under the head of hypertrophy and enation.
+
+=Pleiotaxy of the androecium.=--An increase in the number of whorls in
+the stamens is very common, especially in cases where the number of
+circles of stamens is naturally large. The augmentation of the number of
+stamens is still more frequent where these organs are arranged, not in
+verticils, but in one continuous spiral line.
+
+In _Cruciferae_ there is always an indication of two whorls of stamens,
+and this indication is rendered even more apparent in some varieties
+accidentally met with. So in _Saponaria_, in _Dianthus_, and other
+_Caryophylleae_, three and four verticils of stamens have been met with.
+In _Lonicera Periclymenum_ a second whorl of stamens more or less
+petalodic sometimes occurs.
+
+Moquin mentions a variety of _Rubus fruticosus_ in which nearly 900
+petaloid organs existed in the place of the twenty-five or thirty
+stamens natural to the plant, the other organs of the flower being in
+their ordinary condition, with the exception of the pistil, which did
+not attain its full size. Baillon records the occasional existence of
+two rows of stamens in _Ditaxis lancifolia_.
+
+=Increased number of stamens in orchids, &c.=--Various deviations from
+the ordinary type of orchid structure have been already alluded to under
+the head of displacement, fusion, peloria, substitution, &c., but the
+alterations presented by the androecium in this family are so
+important in reference to what is considered its natural conformation,
+that it seems desirable, in this place, to enter upon the teratological
+appearances presented by the androecium in this order, in somewhat
+greater detail than usual. The ordinary structure of the flower with its
+three sepals, two petals, labellum, column; and inferior ovary, is well
+known. Such a conformation would be wholly anomalous and inexplicable
+were it not that the real number and arrangement of parts have been
+revealed by various workers labouring to the same end in different
+fields. Thus, Robert Brown, Link, Bauer, Darwin, and others, paid
+special attention to the minute anatomy and mode of distribution of the
+vessels; Irmisch, Crueger, Payer, and others, to the evolution of the
+flower; Lindley, St. Hilaire, and Reichenbach, to the comparison of the
+completed structures in the various genera and species; while the
+teratological observers have been numerous, as will be seen from the
+selected references cited at the end of this paragraph and in other
+places. The result of this manifold study has been a pretty general
+agreement that the structure of the order (omitting minor details) is as
+follows:--A six-parted perianth in two rows, the outer three (sepals)
+generally regular and equal in shape; of the inner three (petals or
+tepals) two are regular, and one, the labellum very irregular,
+consisting not only of a petal, but of two abortive stamens incorporated
+with it. The column is considered to be made up of one perfect and three
+abortive stamens, in inseparable connection with three styles. By some,
+however, it is supposed that all the stamens are confluent with the
+column and none with the lip.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 192.--Diagram showing the arrangement of parts in an
+orchid flower. According to Crueger, the stamens A 2, A 3, should be
+distinct from the lip. The uppermost figure 2 should have been 1. (See
+text.)]
+
+In either case it is admitted that there are six stamens in two rows.
+The first row consists of one posterior stamen, which is generally
+perfect, and two abortive stamens incorporated with the labellum. The
+second row also consists of three stamens, all of which are usually
+abortive and inseparable from the column. Traces of them may
+occasionally be met with in the form of tubercles or wing-like processes
+from the column. In _Cypripedium_, while the ordinary stamen of the
+outer row is deficient, two of the inner series are present. The
+diagram, fig. 192, will serve to show the arrangement of the parts as
+above described. + represents the situation of the stem or axis; on the
+opposite side is the bract; between these are placed the sepals, one
+posterior or next the axis (incorrectly numbered 2 in the plan), two
+lateral 1, 1; next in order follow the petals, 2, 2, 2, two lateral and
+somewhat posterior, one larger (the lip), anterior; the outer series of
+stamens are represented by A 1, A 2, A 3, the two latter being fused
+with the labellum; _a_ 1, _a_ 2, _a_ 3 represent the position of the
+inner verticil of stamens, while s, s, s denote the three carpels. It is
+foreign to the purpose of this book to detail the varied evidence in
+support of this explanation of the homologies of orchid flowers.[438]
+All that can be done in these pages is to set forth the evidence
+furnished by teratology as to this matter--evidence for the most part
+accumulated and recorded without any special reference to any theory of
+orchid structure.
+
+The following details all refer to flowers in which the number of
+stamens in orchidaceous plants was increased beyond what is necessary.
+They are arranged with reference to the number of adventitious organs,
+beginning with those in which the number was smallest, and proceeding
+thence to those in which it was greatest. In some cases it has not been
+possible to ascertain whether the adventitious organs were really
+restorations of the numerical symmetry, substitutions of one part for
+another, stamen for petal, &c., or wholly adventitious productions.
+Unless otherwise stated, the interpretation put upon the facts thus
+recorded is that of the present writer, and not necessarily that of the
+original observer.
+
+ Mr. J. T. Moggridge has described and figured a flower of
+ _Ophrys insectifera_ in which there was a vestige of a second
+ stamen present, probably one of the inner series fig. 192
+ (_a_^2).[439] The same observer also records the presence of a
+ second anther between the lobes of the normal one. This can
+ hardly be referred to either of the typical stamens, but would
+ seem to be a perverted development of the rostellum.[440]
+
+ Roeper is stated by Cramer[441] to have seen a specimen of
+ _Orchis morio_ with two stamens.
+
+ In a flower of _Habenaria chlorantha_, described by the late
+ Professor Henslow,[442] the outer three stamens are suppressed,
+ while two of the inner group are present, as happens normally
+ in _Cypripedium_.
+
+ A flower of _Cattleya violacea_ afforded a similar
+ illustration; but in this case only one of the inner stamens
+ was developed, and this in the form of a small petal, partly
+ adherent to the column.
+
+ In _Dendrobium normale_, Falconer, not only is the perianth
+ regular, but the column is triandrous,[443] the three stamens
+ (according to the diagram of its structure given by Lindley)
+ pertaining to the outer row.
+
+ In a specimen of _Dendrobium hoemoglossum_ kindly forwarded
+ from Ceylon by Mr. Thwaites there were three stamens present,
+ of which one posterior belonged to the outer series A 1, and
+ two lateral to the inner _a_ 1, _a_ 2, fig. 192.
+
+ M. His observed, several years in succession, some flowers of a
+ species of _Ophrys_ with three sepals, no lateral petals, one
+ lip, and three perfect stamens. In this case probably the two
+ supernumerary stamens were petals which had assumed an
+ anther-like character.
+
+ Wydler describes a flower of _Ophrys aranifera_ in which one
+ outer and two inner stamens were present.[444] I have myself
+ met with three such flowers in the same species. The stamens
+ present were A 1, _a_ 1, _a_ 2.
+
+ Dr. J. E. Gray exhibited at the Botanical Society of London, in
+ August, 1843, a specimen of _Ophrys apifera_ with a triandrous
+ column, the supernumerary anthers belonging, apparently, to the
+ inner whorl.
+
+ In his 'Catalogue of the Plants of South Kent,' p. 56, tab. iv,
+ f. 16, the Rev. G. E. Smith describes and figures a flower of
+ _O. aranifera_ with a triandrous column, seemingly of the same
+ kind as that spoken of by Dr. Gray.
+
+ Mr. Moggridge met with a triandrous flower in the same species,
+ and refers the appearance to "a fusion of two flowers,
+ accompanied by suppression and modification."[445] As, however,
+ no details are given in support of this opinion, it may be
+ conjectured that the two additional stamens were members of the
+ inner whorl _a_ 1, _a_ 2, and thus the conformation would be
+ the same as in the flowers just mentioned. The figures given by
+ Mr. Moggridge bear out this latter view, while they lend no
+ support to the hypothesis advanced by him. Nevertheless, no
+ decided opinion can be pronounced by those who have not had the
+ opportunity of examining the flowers in question.
+
+ Alphonse de Candolle[446] figures a flower of _Maxillaria_ in
+ exactly the same condition, so far as the stamens are
+ concerned, as in the Ophrys flowers just mentioned. It is
+ curious to observe that in many of these cases the two lateral
+ petals are suppressed.
+
+ Von Martius mentions the occurrence of three anthers
+ (_naturaliter conformatae_) in _Orchis morio_.[447] Richard,
+ as cited by Moquin-Tandon, Lindley, and others, describes and
+ figures a peloria of _Orchis latifolia_ with regular triandrous
+ flowers.[448]
+
+ The writer has examined, in the Royal Gardens at Kew, a flower
+ of _Cattleya crispa_ in which were three stamens, the central
+ one normal; the two lateral ones, belonging probably to the
+ inner whorl, were in appearance like the lateral petals, and
+ one of them was adherent to the central perfect column.
+ Duchartre[449] mentions a flower of _Cattleya Forbesii_ in
+ which there were two labella in addition to the ordinary one,
+ the column being in its normal condition. From the analogy of
+ other cases it would appear as if the additional labella in
+ this instance were the representatives of two stamens of the
+ outer whorl. Beer likewise has put on record the existence of a
+ triandrous _Cattleya_.[450]
+
+ A specimen of _Catasetum eburneum_ forwarded by Mr. Wilson
+ Saunders was normal so far as the sepals and two lateral petals
+ were concerned, but the anterior petal or labellum was flat and
+ in form quite like the two lateral ones; the column was normal
+ and in the situation of the two anterior stamens of the outer
+ series A 2, A 3, were two labella of the usual form (fig. 156,
+ p. 291). Perhaps the _Oncidium_ represented at p. 68, fig. 29,
+ may also be explained on the supposition that the two lateral
+ lobes of the labellum in this flower were the representatives
+ of stamens.
+
+ In Fig. 193 is shown the arrangement of parts in a flower of
+ _Ophrys aranifera_. Here there were three sepals, two lateral
+ petals, one of which was adherent to the side of the column;
+ the central labellum was seemingly deficient, but there were
+ two pseudo-labella placed laterally in the position of the two
+ antero-lateral stamens of the outer series (A 2, A 3). Within
+ these was another perfect stamen occupying the position of the
+ anterior stamen of the inner series (_a_ 3). In another flower
+ of the same species, gathered at the same time (fig. 194),
+ there were three sepals not at all different from those of the
+ normal flower. The three petals next in succession were also,
+ in form and position, in their ordinary state. In colour,
+ however, the two upper lateral petals differed from what is
+ customary, in having the same purplish-brown tint which
+ characterises the lip. Within these petals, at the upper part
+ of the flower, there was the ordinary column, and at the
+ opposite side, alternating with the petals before mentioned,
+ two additional lip-like petals, one provided with a half-anther
+ containing a single perfectly formed pollen-mass (A 2, A 3). It
+ is, perhaps, worthy of notice that the arrangement of the
+ coloured spots on the true labellum, and that on the
+ adventitious lips, replacing the two lower of the outer
+ stamens, were not of a similar character. The supernumerary
+ lips had the [Greek: pi]-shaped marking which is so common in
+ this species, while the true lip was, as to its spots, much
+ more like _O. apifera_. Alternating with this last whorl were
+ three columns, all apparently perfectly formed and differing
+ only from the ordinary one in their smaller size and
+ corresponding to _a_ 1, _a_ 2, _a_ 3. The ovary in this flower
+ was two-celled, with four parietal placentas, thus giving an
+ appearance as though there had been a fusion of two or more
+ flowers associated with suppression and other changes. The
+ position of the supernumerary organs and the absence of any
+ positive sign of fusion in the bracts or other part of the
+ flower, seemed, however, to negative the idea of fusion.[451]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 193.--Diagram showing the arrangement of
+ parts in a malformed flower of _Ophrys aranifera_ (see p.
+ 384).]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 194.--Malformed flower of _Ophrys
+ aranifera_ with two supernumerary lips and three additional
+ stamens.]
+
+ A similar illustration, for a knowledge of which the writer is
+ indebted to the kindness of Professor Asa Gray and Mr. Darwin,
+ occurred in some specimens of _Pogonia ophioglossoides_
+ collected by Dr. J. H. Paine in a bog near Utica, New York. It
+ will be seen from the following description that these flowers
+ presented an almost precisely similar condition to those of the
+ _Ophrys aranifera_ just mentioned. "The peculiarities of these
+ flowers," writes Professor Gray, "are that they have three
+ labella, and that the column is resolved into small petaloid
+ organs. The blossom is normal as to the proper perianth, except
+ that the labellum is unusually papillose, bearded almost to the
+ base. The points of interest are, first, that the two accessory
+ labella are just in the position of the two suppressed stamens
+ of the outer series, viz. of A2 and A3, as represented in the
+ diagram, fig. 192; and there is a small petaloid body on the
+ other side of the flower, answering to the other stamen, A1.
+ Secondly, in one of the blossoms, and less distinctly in
+ another, two lateral stamens of the inner series (_a_1 and
+ _a_2) are represented each by a slender naked filament. There
+ are remaining petaloid bodies enough to answer for the third
+ stamen of the inner series and for the stigmas, but their order
+ is not well to be made out in the dried specimens." It may here
+ be mentioned that _Isochilus_ is normally triandrous.
+
+ A tetrandrous flower of _Cypripedium_ has also been recorded.
+
+ In _Isochilus_, according to Cruger, there are often five
+ stamens, and there are several, besides those already
+ mentioned, in which six more or less perfect stamens have been
+ seen--of these the following may be taken as illustrations. A
+ hexandrous flower of _Orchis militaris_ has been recorded by
+ Kirschleger,[452] and in the accompanying diagram (fig. 195),
+ from Cramer,[453] of a monstrous flower of _Orchis mascula_,
+ there is one perfect stamen of the outer row and two lip-like
+ stamens of the same series, while the inner verticil comprises
+ one perfect and two abortive stamens.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 195.--Diagram of flower of _Orchis mascula_
+ with two additional lips, two perfect and two imperfect stamens
+ (after Cramer).]
+
+ Morren[454] describes some flowers of _Orchis morio_ in which
+ there were three sepals, three petals, and within the latter
+ two other ternary series of petals; this would seem to be a
+ case of petalody of all six stamens. Morren, however, seems to
+ have considered the additional segments as repetitions of the
+ corolline whorl, though he describes a central mass as the
+ column bearing a "_souvenir_ of the anther." Nevertheless,
+ there is no decisive evidence either in his figure or his
+ description in support of his opinion as to the nature of the
+ central mass, which might be a distorted condition of the
+ styles, or, as is more probable, a rudimentary and irregular
+ flower. Morren also describes another flower of the same plant
+ in which there were three sepals, two lateral petals partially
+ lip-like in aspect, a third labellum normal, two additional
+ labella representing the two anterior stamens of the outer
+ whorl, while more or less developed rudiments of the remaining
+ four stamens also exist.
+
+ While, in most cases, the supernumerary stamens can, by reason
+ of their relative position, their complete or partial
+ antheriferous nature, be safely referred to one or other of the
+ six stamens, making up a typical orchid flower, there are other
+ specimens in which the additional stamens are altogether
+ adventitious, and do not admit of reference to the homologue.
+ Thus it was in a specimen of _Odontoglossum Alexandrae_ examined
+ by the writer, and in which, within a normally constructed
+ perianth, there were six columns, all polliniferous, but
+ arranged in so confused and complicated a manner that it was
+ impossible to make out any definite relation in their position.
+ There was nothing to indicate a fusion of flowers, but rather
+ an extension of the centre of the flower, and consequent
+ displacement of the stamens, &c. Again, the existence of
+ adventitious stamens does not necessarily imply the development
+ of organs usually suppressed, inasmuch as they may result from
+ the assumption by the lateral petals of staminal
+ characteristics.
+
+ Nevertheless, as far as teratology is concerned, specimens may
+ be found in which some or all of the usually suppressed stamens
+ of _Orchidaceae_ may be found. These stamens may be all perfect
+ (polliniferous), or, as is more frequently the case, more or
+ less petal-like. Moreover, when the stamens are petalodic, the
+ form assumed is usually that of the labellum.
+
+ The presence of stamens in undue numbers in orchids is very
+ generally, but not always, attended by some coincident
+ malformation, of which the most frequent is cohesion of two or
+ more sepals, and consequent displacement or adhesion of one
+ petal to the side of the column. Petalody of the styles and
+ median prolification are also sometimes found in association
+ with an augmented number of stamens.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 196.--Increased number of carpels, tulip.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 197.--Fruit of St. Valery apple cut lengthwise.]
+
+=Pleiotaxy of the gynoecium.=--An increase in the number of whorls of
+which the pistil consists is not of very frequent occurrence. Generally
+after the formation of the whorl of carpels, the energy of the growing
+point ceases, or if by chance it be continued, the result is more
+generally the production of a new flower-bud (median prolification) than
+the repetition of the carpellary series. It is necessary also to
+distinguish between the veritable augmentation of the pistil and the
+semblance of it, brought about by the substitution of carpels for some
+other organs, as pistillody of the stamens, and even of the segments of
+the perianth, is not very unfrequent, as has already been stated under
+the head of substitution. Again, the increased number of carpels which
+is sometimes met with in such flowers, as _Magnolia_ or _Delphinium_,
+where the ovaries are arranged in spiral series, is not strictly
+referable to the present category.
+
+The orange is one of the plants most frequently subject to an
+augmentation in the number of carpellary whorls; sometimes this is due
+to the stamens assuming the guise of carpels, but at other times the
+increase occurs without any alteration in the stamens or other organs.
+If the adventitious carpels be exposed, they are covered with yellow
+rind, while those portions that are covered by the primary carpels are
+destitute of rind. Some varieties of the double tulip are very subject
+to a similar change, but, in this case, the petals and the stamens very
+frequently become more or less carpellary in their nature. Fig. 196
+represents an increased number of whorls of carpels in the variety
+called "rex rubrorum," the segments of the perianth having been removed.
+
+In the St. Valery apple, already referred to, there is a second whorl of
+carpels above the first, a fact which has been made use of to explain
+the similar structure of the pomegranate.
+
+The tomato (_Lycopersicum esculentum_) is another plant in which an
+adventitious series is frequently produced, and generally in combination
+with the primary series.
+
+In the Chinese primrose (_Primula sinensis_) a supernumerary whorl is
+frequently met with, generally associated with other changes in the
+construction and arrangement of the parts of the flower.
+
+M. de Candolle[455] mentions a flower of _Gentiana purpurea_ with four
+carpels in one series, and five others in the circle immediately above
+them. Wigand[456] alludes to an instance wherein there was a second pair
+of carpels above the first in _Vinca herbacea_. Dr. Sankey has forwarded
+flowers of a _Pelargonium_ having a double series of carpels, eight in
+the outer row, five in the inner, and this condition is stated to exist
+in the flowers of the same plant for two years consecutively. In
+_Aquilegia_ I have met with a similar increase in the whorls of
+carpels.[457] Meissner records a similar augmentation in _Polygonum
+orientale_.[458]
+
+Wigand[459] describes and figures a flower of _Vinca minor_, in which
+there were two carpels intervening between the ordinary pair, and a
+similar illustration has been observed by the writer in _Allamanda
+cathartica_. Eichler[460] has put on record a similar case in a
+capparid.
+
+Marchand[461] mentions a polycarpellary berberid (_Epimedium
+Musschianum_). The supernumerary carpels in this flower were placed on a
+short axis, which originated in the axils of the stamens, and as these
+latter organs were present in their usual number and position, the
+adventitious carpels could not be considered as resulting from a
+transformation, or substitution of carpels for stamens.
+
+Lastly, the instance cited by Dr. Allman[462] in _Saxifraga Geum_ may be
+alluded to. Here there was a row of adventitious carpels between the
+stamens and pistils, the backs of the carpels being turned towards the
+axis of the flowers. Dr. Allman explains the presence of the
+supernumerary parts by the supposed production of a whorl of secondary
+axes between the stamens and the centre of the flower. These axes are
+further supposed to bear imperfect flowers, of which the additional
+carpels are the only traces, but this explanation seems forced.
+
+In addition to the references already cited the following may be given:
+
+ Duchartre, 'Ann. Sc. Nat.,' 4 ser., vii, p. 23 (Tulip).
+
+ Ferrari, 'Hesperides,' pp. 271, 395, 405. Duchartre, 'Ann. Sc.
+ Nat.,' 4 ser., 1844, vol. i, p. 294. Maout, 'Lecons Element.,'
+ vol. ii, pp. 488-9. Clos, 'Ann. Sc. Nat.,' 1865, p. 317
+ (_Citrus Aurantium_).
+
+ Clos, 'Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr.,' vol. xiii; 'Rev. Bibl.,' p. 75.
+ Pasquale, 'Reddicont Accad. Sc. Fis. e Math. Napoli.' Octr.
+ 1866 (_Solanum Lycopersicum_).
+
+On the general subject of multiplication, in addition to previous
+citations, the reader may be referred to A. P. de Candolle, 'Theorie
+Element. Bot.,' ed. 3, p. 89.
+
+=Increased number of flowers in an inflorescence.=--This happens
+generally as a result of over luxuriant growth, and scarcely demands
+notice here, being rather referable to variation than to malformation.
+The increased number of florets in the spikelets of some grasses has
+already been alluded to (p. 351). Thus spikelets of wheat occasionally
+produce more than the three florets which are proper to them.[463] It
+will be remembered that in this as in many other grasses there are
+rudimentary florets, and it is no matter for surprise that these florets
+should occasionally be fully developed.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[392] 'Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr.,' vol. vii, 1860, p. 587.
+
+[393] 'Fragment. Phyt. Austral.,' part xx, p. 270.
+
+[394] 'Bull. Acad. Belg.,' xvi, pt. i, p. 60, "Fuchsia," p. 125, c. ic.
+
+[395] "Theorie de la feuille," 'Arch. des Sciences Bibl. Univers.,'
+1868.
+
+[396] See Engelmann, 'De Antholysi,' p. 16, section 12.
+
+[397] Verhandl. des Botanisch. Vereins Brandenburg,' 1859, 1 heft.
+
+[398] See Henslow. 'Mag. Nat, Hist.' 1832, vol. v, p. 429.
+
+[399] 'Phytologist,' September, 1857.
+
+[400] Seemann's 'Journal of Botany,' iv, p. 168, t. 47, f. 3.
+
+[401] 'Illust. Hortic.,' 1866, misc., p. 97.
+
+[402] See Fresenius, 'Mus. Senkenb.,' bd. 2, p. 43. Schlechtendal, 'Bot.
+Zeit.,' iv, pp. 403, 492, _Veronica tetrandra_.
+
+[403] 'Flora,' 1865, tab. 6, fig. 8.
+
+[404] 'Org. Veget.,' t. i, p. 497, pl. 42, f. 3.
+
+[405] 'El. Ter. Veg.,' p. 354.
+
+[406] Cited in "Rev. Bibl." of 'Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr.,' 1866, p. 171.
+
+[407] Loc. cit., 351.
+
+[408] 'Mem. Acad. Toulous.,' vi, 1862, ex 'Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr.,' "Rev.
+Bibl.," vol. ix, 1862. p. 127.
+
+[409] 'Flora.' 1857. p. 289.
+
+[410] L. c., p. 354.
+
+[411] Giraud, 'Ed. Phil. Mag.,' Dec., 1839.
+
+[412] See _Cerasus Caproniana_, D. C. 'Plant. Rar. Hort. Genev.,' tab.
+18.
+
+[413] Nees, 'Linnaea,' v, p. 679, tab. 11 (_Schoenodorus_).
+
+[414] 'Gard. Chron.,' 1852, p. 452.
+
+[415] See Cramer, 'Bildungsabweich.' pp. 16, 24.
+
+[416] 'Linnaea,' 1842, p. 389, c. ic.
+
+[417] Seemann's 'Journal of Botany,' 1867, vol. v, p. 158.
+
+[418] Cramer, 'Bildungsabweich,' p. 66, _Astrantia major_, _Eryngium_,
+to which may be added _Daucus_, _Heracleum_, &c.
+
+[419] See also Reinwardt, 'Nov. Act. Acad. Nat. Cur.,' 12, 1, 37; and
+Masters, 'Journ. Linn. Soc.,' vi, p. 24.
+
+[420] 'Organog. Veget.,' tab. 53.
+
+[421] 'Missbild.,' p. 206.
+
+[422] Ehrenberg, 'Flora,' 1846, p. 704.
+
+[423] 'Flora,' 1860, tab. 7.
+
+[424] 'Ann. Sc. Nat.,' 3 ser., t. x, p. 207.
+
+[425] 'Mem. Mus.,' xii. t. 17.
+
+[426] 'Nov. Act. Acad. Nat. Cur.,' xv, tab. xxviii, f. 3; 'Bot. Mag.,'
+t. 1622. "Caryophyllus spicam frumenti referens." A similar malformation
+in _Dianthus barbatus_ is not uncommon. It has lately been introduced
+into gardens under the name of _Dianthus_ "_mousseux_," but is not
+likely to find favour with gardeners.
+
+[427] 'Bull. Soc. Bot. France,' t. vi, 1859. p. 268.
+
+[428] Weber, 'Verhandl. Nat. Hist. Vereins. Rhein. Pruss.,' 1860.
+
+[429] 'Bot. Zeit.,' 1848, p. 217.
+
+[430] 'De Anthol.,' p. 17, Sec. 12.
+
+[431] 'Linnaea,' vol. ii, 1827, p. 85.
+
+[432] 'De Antholysi,' p. 17, tab. iii, f. 15, 16; Weinmann, 'Phytanth.
+iconogr.,' nro. 292.
+
+[433] See Hildebrand, 'Bot. Zeit.,' 1862, p. 209, tab. viii; Cramer,
+'Bildungsabweich.,' p. 7, tab. xiii; Engelmann, 'De Antholysi,' p. 18,
+&c. For similar changes in _Gagea arvensis_ see Wirtgen, 'Flora,' 1838,
+t. xxi. p. 350, and 'Flora.' 1846, p. 353. Some of these are cases of
+synanthy.
+
+[434] Schlechtendal, 'Bot. Zeit.,' xx, 1862, p. 301.
+
+[435] 'Phil. Bot.,' Sec. 126.
+
+[436] C. Morren, 'Bull. Acad. Belg.,' xix, part ii, p. 17.
+
+[437] 'Seemann's Journal of Botany,' iii, p. 354.
+
+[438] On this point the reader will find an excellent summary in
+Lindley's 'Vegetable Kingdom,' cd. iii, p. 183_a_, and in Darwin,
+'Fertilisation of Orchids,' p. 292. See also Crueger,'Journ. Linn. Soc.,'
+t. viii, p. 134.
+
+[439] 'Seemann's Journal of Botany,' vol. iv, p. 168, tab. 47.
+
+[440] Ibid., t. iv. 1866, p. 168, t. xlvii, f. 1.
+
+[441] 'Bildungsabweich,' p. 8; see also 'Bot. Zeit.,' 1852, p. 425.
+
+[442] 'Journ. Linn. Soc.,' t. ii, p. 104. tab. 1, fig. B.
+
+[443] Lindl., "Orchid. Ind.," 'Jour. Linn. Soc.,' iii, p. 9.
+
+[444] 'Arch. Bot.,' ii, p. 300, tab. xvi, f. 11.
+
+[445] 'Seemann's Journal of Botany,' v, p. 318, tab. lxxii, figs. A 4, 4
+_a_.
+
+[446] "Monstr. Veg.," in 'Neue Denkschrift,' p. 17, tab. vii.
+
+[447] 'Flora,' t. viii, 1825, p. 736.
+
+[448] 'Mem. Soc. d'Hist. Nat.,' ii, 1, p. 212, tab. iii.
+
+[449] 'Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr.,' t. vii, 1860, p. 26.
+
+[450] 'Beitr. Morphol. und Biol. Orchid.,' quoted by Cramer;
+'Bildungsabweich,' p. 9.
+
+[451] Masters, 'Journ. Linn. Soc.,' viii, p. 207. See also Rodigas,
+'Bull. Soc. Bot. Belg.,' iv, p. 266, for similar changes in _Cypripedium
+Hookerae_.
+
+[452] Kirschleger, 'Flora,' 1844, p. 131.
+
+[453] 'Bildungsabweich,' p. 11, tab. xiv, f. 3.
+
+[454] 'Bull. Acad. Roy. Belg.,' t. xix, part 2, p. 171.
+
+[455] 'Organogr. Veget.,' t. i, p. 509, tab. 40, figs. 6, 7.
+
+[456] 'Flora,' 1856, p. 715.
+
+[457] 'Linn. Trans.,' t. xxiii, p. 364, tab. 34, fig. 5.
+
+[458] 'Monog. Polygon,' pl. 3, K. f. 12.
+
+[459] 'Flora,' 1856, tab. viii.
+
+[460] Ibid., 1865, tab. ix, f. 6.
+
+[461] 'Adansonia,' vol. iv, 1864, p. 127.
+
+[462] 'Ann. Nat. Hist.,' 1845, vol. xvi, p. 126.
+
+[463] See Schlechtendal, 'Bot. Zeit.,' t. xviii, p. 381 (_Triticum_);
+also 'Flora,' t. xiv, 1831, p. 5 (_Avena_).
+
+
+
+
+PART II.
+
+DIMINISHED NUMBER OF ORGANS.
+
+
+A diminution in the number of parts is generally due to suppression,
+using that word as the equivalent of non-development. It corresponds
+thus in meaning with the _Fehlschlagen_ of the Germans, the _avortement
+complete_ of Moquin and other French writers. It differs from atrophy,
+or partial abortion, inasmuch as the latter terms apply to instances
+wherein there has been a partial development, and in which evolution has
+gone on to a certain extent, but has, from some cause or other, been
+checked. These cases will be found under the head of diminished size of
+organs. As the word abortion is used by different authors in different
+ways, it is the more necessary to be as precise as possible in the
+application of the term. In the present work abortion is used to apply
+to cases wherein parts have been formed, but wherein growth has been
+arrested at a certain stage, and which, therefore, have either remained
+_in statu quo_, while the surrounding parts have increased, or have,
+from pressure or other causes, actually diminished in size.
+
+In practice, however, it is not always possible to discriminate between
+those instances in which there has been a true suppression, an absolute
+non-development of any particular organ, and those in which it has been
+formed, and has grown for a time, but has afterwards ceased to do so,
+and has been gradually obliterated by the pressure exercised by the
+constantly increasing bulk of adjacent parts, or possibly has become
+incorporated with them. In the adult flower the appearances are the
+same, though the causes may have been different.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+SUPPRESSION OF AXILE ORGANS.
+
+
+Absolute suppression of the main axis is tantamount to the non-existence
+of the plant, so that the terms "acaulescent," "acaulosia," etc, must be
+considered relatively only, and must be taken to signify an atrophied or
+diminished size of the stem, arising from the non-development of the
+internodes.
+
+The absence of lateral branches or divisions of the axis is of frequent
+occurrence, and is dependent on such causes as the following:--deficient
+supply of nutriment, position against a wall or other obstacle, close
+crowding of individual plants, too great or too little light, too rich
+or too poor a soil, &c.
+
+Probably the absence of the swollen portion below the flower in the case
+of many proliferous roses, double-flowered apples, as already referred
+to, may be dependent on the non-development of the extremity of the
+peduncle or flower-stalk. Thus, in a double-flowered apple recently
+examined, there was a sort of involucel of five perfect leaves, then
+five sepals surrounding an equal number of petals, numerous stamens, and
+five styles, but not a trace of an expanded axis, nor of any portion of
+the carpels, except the styles. The views taken as to the nature of this
+and similar malformations must depend on the opinion held as to the
+nature of inferior pistils, and on the share, if any, that the expanded
+axis takes in their production. As elsewhere said, the evidence
+furnished by teratology is conflicting, but there seems little or
+nothing to invalidate the notion that the end of the flower-stalk and
+the base of the calyx may, to a varying extent, in different cases,
+jointly be concerned in the formation of the so-called calyx-tube and of
+the inferior ovary. Obviously it is not proper to apply to all cases
+where there is an inferior ovary the same explanation as to how it is
+brought about.
+
+As these pages are passing through the press, M. Casimir de Candolle has
+published a different explanation as to the nature of the hip of the
+rose, having been led to his opinion by the conclusion that he has
+arrived at, that the leaf is to be considered in the light of a
+flattened branch, whose upper or posterior surface is more or less
+completely atrophied.
+
+According to M. de Candolle, the calyx-tube, in the case of the rose, is
+neither a whorl of leaves, nor a concave axis in the ordinary sense in
+which those terms are used, but is rather to be considered as a
+ring-like projection from an axis arrested in its ulterior development.
+The secondary projections from the original one correspond to an equal
+number of vascular bundles, and develope into the sepals, petals,
+stamens, and ovaries. If these organs remained in a rudimentary
+condition, the tube of the calyx would be reduced to the condition of a
+sheathing leaf. The rose flower, then, according to M. de Candolle, may
+be considered as a sheathing leaf, whose fibro-vascular system is
+complete, and from which all possible primary projections are
+developed.[464]
+
+If, as M. de Candolle considers, the leaf and the branch differ merely
+in the fact that the vascular system is complete in the latter, and
+partly atrophied in the former, it would surely be better to consider
+the "calyx-tube" of the rose as a concave axis rather than as a leaf,
+seeing that he admits the fibro-vascular system to be complete in the
+case of the rose.
+
+With reference to this point the reader is referred to Mr. Bentham's
+account of the morphology and homologies of the _Myrtaceae_ in the
+'Journal of the Linnean Society,' vol. x, p. 105. See also _ante_, pp.
+71, 77.
+
+Some doubts also exist as to the nature of the beak or columella of such
+fruits as those of _Geraniaceae_, _Malvaceae_, _Umbelliferae_,
+_Euphorbiaceae_, &c. The nature of the organ in question may probably be
+different in the several orders named; at any rate the subject cannot be
+discussed in this place, and it is mentioned here because, now and then,
+it happens that the organ in question is completely wanting, and hence
+affords an illustration of suppression.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[464] 'Theorie de la feuille.' p. 24.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+SUPPRESSION OF FOLIAR ORGANS.
+
+
+This subject may be considered, according as the separate leaves of the
+stem or of the flower are affected, and according as either the number
+of members of distinct whorls, or that of the whorls themselves, is
+diminished.
+
+The terms aphylly, meiophylly, and meiotaxy may be employed, according
+as the individual leaves are altogether wanting, or with reference to
+the diminished number of parts in a whorl, or a decrease in the
+verticils.
+
+=Aphylly.=--Entire suppression of the leaves is a rare phenomenon. Under
+ordinary circumstances it occurs in most _Cactaceae_, in some of the
+succulent Euphorbias, and other similar plants, where the epidermal
+layers of the stem fulfil the functions of leaves. But even in these
+plants leaf-like organs are present in some stage or another of the
+plant's life.
+
+Partial suppression of the leaf occurs sometimes in compound leaves,
+some or other of the leaflets of which are occasionally suppressed.
+Sometimes, as Moquin remarks, it is the terminal leaflet which is
+wanting, when the appearance is that of _Cliffortia_, at other times the
+lateral leaflets are deficient, as in _Citrus_ or _Phyllarthron_.
+_Ononis monophylla_ and _Fragaria monophylla_ may be cited as instances
+of the suppression of the lateral leaflets. If the blade of the leaf
+disappears entirely, we have then an analogous condition to that of the
+phyllodineous acacias.
+
+With reference to the strawberry just mentioned, Duchesne, 'Hist. Nat.
+Frais.,' p. 133, says that this was a seedling raised from the _fraisier
+des bois_, and the characters of which were reproduced by seed, and have
+now become fixed. The monophyllous condition has been considered to be
+the result of fusion of two or more leaflets, but however true this may
+be in some cases, it is not the case with this strawberry. M. Paillot
+states that he has found the variety in a wild state.[465]
+
+In like manner varieties of the following plants occur with simple
+leaves, _Rosa berberifolia_ (_Lowea_), _Rubus Idaeus_, _Robinia
+pseudacacia_, _Fraxinus excelsior_, _Sambucus nigra_, _Juglans nigra_,
+&c.
+
+In one instance seen by the writer every portion of the leaf of a rose
+was deficient, except the stipules and a small portion of the petiole.
+(See abortion.)
+
+=Meiophylly.=--A diminished number of leaves in a whorl occasionally
+takes place; thus, in some of the _Stellatae_, and frequently in _Paris
+quadrifolia_, the number of leaves in the verticil is reduced. Care must
+be exercised in such instances that an apparent diminution arising from
+a fusion of two or more leaves be not confounded with suppression.
+
+=Meiophylly of the calyx or perianth.=--A lessened number of sepals is
+not a very common occurrence among dicotyledonous plants. Seringe
+figures a proliferous flower of _Arabis alpina_ with two sepals only,
+and a similar occurrence has been noticed in _Diplotaxis tenuifolia_.
+
+In _Cattleya violacea_ the writer has met with a flower in which the
+uppermost sepal was entirely wanting, while two of the lateral petals
+were fused together. Moquin records that in some of the flowers of
+_Chenopodiaceae_, in which the inflorescence is dense, a suppression of
+two or three sepals sometimes occurs. The species mentioned are _Ambrina
+ambrosioides_, _Chenopodium glaucum_, and _Blitum polymorphum_.
+
+=Meiophylly of the corolla.=--Suppression of one or more petals is of
+more frequent occurrence than the corresponding deficiency in the case
+of the sepals. Among _Caryophyllaceae_ imperfection as regards the
+numerical symmetry of the flower is not uncommon, as in species of
+_Cerastium_, _Sagina_, _Dianthus_, &c. In _Ranunculaceae_ the petals are
+likewise not unfrequently partially or wholly suppressed. A familiar
+illustration of this is afforded by _Ranunculus auricomus_, in which it
+is the exception to find the corolla perfect.[466] Some varieties of
+_Corchorus acutangulus_ in west tropical Africa are likewise subject to
+the same peculiarity. Amongst _Papilionaceae_ absence of the carina or of
+the alae is not uncommon, as in _Trifolium repens_, _Faba vulgaris_, &c.
+
+Moquin relates a case of the kind in the haricot bean, in which the
+carina was entirely absent, and another in the pea, where both carina
+and alae were missing, thus reducing the flower to the condition that is
+normal in _Amorpha_ and _Afzelia_. Suppression of the upper lip in such
+flowers as _Calceolaria_ has been termed by Morren "apilary."
+
+In _Orchidaceae_ entire absence of the labellum, frequently without any
+other perceptible change, is of common occurrence. The writer has seen
+numerous specimens of the kind in _Ophrys apifera_ and _O. aranifera_;
+also in _Dendrobium nobile_, _AErides odoratum_, _Cypripedium villosum_,
+_Listera ovata_, &c. Morren[467] mentions analogous deficiencies in
+_Zygopetalum maxillare_, _Calanthe_ sp., and _Cattleya Forbesii_. In
+most of these there was also a fusion of the two lower sepals, which
+were so twisted out of place as to occupy the situation usually held by
+the labellum. At the same time the column was partially atrophied. To
+this deficiency of the lip the author just quoted proposed to apply the
+term acheilary, [Greek: a-cheilarion]. Mr. Moggridge has communicated to
+the author an account of certain flowers of _Ophrys aranifera_, in which
+the petals were deficient, sometimes completely, at other times one or
+two only were present.
+
+=Meiophylly of the androecium.=--Suppression of one or more stamens,
+independently of like defects in other whorls, is not uncommon, even as
+a normal occurrence, _e.g._ in _Carlemannia_, where the flower, though
+regular, has only two stamens, and other similar deficiencies are common
+in Dilleniads.
+
+Seringe relates the occurrence of suppression of some of the stamens in
+_Diplotaxis tenuifolia_,[468] St. Hilaire in _Cardamine hirsuta_, others
+in _C. sylvatica_.
+
+In _Caryophyllaceae_ suppression of one or more stamens has been observed
+in _Mollugo cerviana_, _Arenaria tetraquetra_, _Cerastium_, &c.[469]
+Among violets the writer has observed numerous flowers in which two or
+three stamens were suppressed. Chatin[470] alludes to a similar
+reduction in _Tropaeolum_, while in flowers that are usually didynamous
+absence of two or more of the stamens is not unfrequent, _e.g._ in
+_Antirrhinum_, _Digitalis_, while in a flower of _Catalpa_ a solitary
+perfect stamen, and a complete absence of the sterile ones usually
+present, have been observed. This might have been anticipated from the
+frequent deficiencies in the staminal whorl in these plants under what
+are considered to be normal conditions. Reduction of the staminal whorl
+is also not unfrequent in _Trifolium repens_ and _T. hybridum_, and has
+been seen in _Delphinium_, &c.[471]
+
+=Meiophylly of the gynoecium.=--Numerical inequality in the case of
+the pistil, as compared with the other whorls of the flower, is of such
+common occurrence, under ordinary circumstances, that in some text-books
+it is looked on as the normal condition, and a flower which is isomerous
+in the outer whorls is by some writers not considered numerically
+irregular if the number of the carpels does not coincide with that of
+the other organs.
+
+But in this place it is only necessary to allude to deviations from the
+number of carpels that are ordinarily found in the particular species
+under observation. As illustrations the following may be
+cited:--_Arenaria tetraqueta_, which has normally three styles, and a
+six-valved capsule, has been seen with two styles, and a four or
+five-valved capsule. Moquin relates an instance in _Polygala vulgaris_
+where there was but a single carpel, a condition analogous to that which
+occurs normally in the allied genus _Mozinna_. _Reseda luteola_
+occasionally occurs with two carpels only, while Aconites, Delphiniums,
+Nigellas, and Paeonies frequently experience a like diminution in their
+pistil.
+
+In a flower of _Papaver Rhaeas_ the writer has recently met with an ovary
+with four stigmas and four parietal placentae only, and to Mr.
+Worthington Smith he is indebted for sketches of crocus blooms with two,
+and in one instance only a solitary carpel.
+
+Moquin cites the fruit of a wild bramble (_Rubus_) in which all the
+little drupes which go to make up the ordinary fruit were absent, except
+one, which thus resembled a small cherry. In _Crataegus_ the pistil is
+similarly reduced to a single carpel, as in _C. monogyna_.
+
+The writer has on more than one occasion met with walnuts (_Juglans_)
+with a single valve and a single suture.[472] If the ovary of _Juglans_
+normally consisted of two valvate carpels, the instances just alluded to
+might possibly be explained by the suppression of one carpel, but the
+ovary in _Juglans_ is at first one-celled according to M. Casimir de
+Candolle.
+
+Among monocotyledons _Convallaria majalis_ may be mentioned as very
+liable to suffer diminution in the number of its carpels, either
+separately or in association with other changes.[473]
+
+=Meiophylly of the flower as a whole.=--In the preceding sections a
+reduction in the parts of each individual whorl has been considered
+without reference to similar diminution in neighbouring verticils. It
+more commonly happens, nevertheless, that a defect in one series is
+attended by a corresponding imperfection in adjoining ones. Thus
+trimerous fuchsias and tetramerous jasmines may frequently be met with,
+and Turpin describes a tetramerous flower of _Cobaea scandens_. Perhaps
+monocotyledonous plants are more subject to this numerical reduction of
+the parts of several verticils than are other flowering plants. Thus, in
+both _Lilium lancifolium_ and _L. auratum_ the writer has frequently met
+with pentamerous flowers. In _Convallaria maialis_ a like deviation not
+unfrequently occurs.[474] M. Delavaud has recorded a similar occurrence
+in a tulip.[475]
+
+Dimerous crocuses may also sometimes be met with. In one flower of this
+nature the segments of the perianth were arranged in decussating pairs,
+and the four stamens were united by their filaments so as to form two
+pairs.
+
+M. Fournier mentions something of the same kind in the flower of an
+_Iris_.[476]
+
+Orchids seem peculiarly liable to the decrease in the number of their
+floral organs. Prillieux[477] mentions a flower of _Cattleya
+amethystina_ wherein each whorl of the perianth consisted of two
+opposite segments.
+
+The same observer has put on record instances of a similar kind in
+_Epidendrum Stamfordianum_. In one flower of the last-named species the
+perianth consisted of one sepal only, and one lip-like petal placed
+opposite to it.[478] Morren[479] describes a flower of _Cypripedium
+insigne_, in which there were two sepals and two petals. Of a similar
+character was the flower found by Mr. J. A. Paine, and described in the
+following terms by Professor Asa Gray in the 'American Journal of
+Science,' July, 1866:--"The plant" (_Cypripedium candidum_) "bears two
+flowers: the axillary one is normal; the terminal one exhibits the
+following peculiarities. The lower part of the bract forms a sheath
+which encloses the ovary. The labellum is wanting; and there are two
+sterile stamens, the supernumerary one being opposite the other, _i.e._
+on the side of the style where the labellum belongs. Accordingly the
+first impression would be that the labellum is here transformed into a
+sterile stamen. The latter, however, agrees with the normal sterile
+stamen in its insertion as well as in shape, being equally adnate to the
+base of the style. Moreover, the anteposed sepal is exactly like the
+other, has a good midrib and an entire point. As the two sterile stamens
+are anteposed to the two sepals, so are the two fertile stamens to the
+two petals, and the latter are adnate to the style a little higher than
+the former. The style is longer than usual, is straight and erect; the
+broad, disciform stigma therefore faces upwards; it is oval and
+symmetrical, and a light groove across its middle shows it to be
+dimerous. The placentae, accordingly, are only two. The groove on the
+stigma and the placentae are in line with the fertile stamens.
+
+Here, therefore, is a symmetrical and complete, regular, but dimerous
+orchideous flower, the first verticil of stamens not antheriferous, the
+second antheriferous, the carpels alternate with these; and here we have
+clear (and perhaps the first direct) demonstration that the orchideous
+type of flower has two stamineal verticils, as Brown always insisted."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 198.--Regular dimerous flower of _Calanthe
+vestita_.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 199.--Regular dimerous flower of _Odontoglossum
+Alexandrae_.]
+
+Dr. Moore, of Glasnevin, kindly forwarded to the writer a flower of
+_Calanthe vestita_ (fig. 198), in which there were two sepals only,
+anterior and posterior, and two petals at right angles to the two
+sepals. The lip was entirely wanting, but the column and ovary were in
+their usual condition. In _Odontoglossum Alexandrae_ a similar reduction
+of parts has been observed by the author (fig. 199).
+
+It is curious to observe in these flowers how precisely one sepal
+occupies the position of the labellum, and how the lateral petals are
+displaced from the position they usually occupy, so as to form a regular
+flower, the segments of which decussate, thus giving rise to a species
+of regular peloria.
+
+The genus _Maelenia_ was established on a malformed flower of _Orchis_ of
+similar character to those above mentioned.
+
+=Meiotaxy of the calyx.=--As already mentioned, this term is here
+employed to denote those illustrations in which entire whorls are
+suppressed. Complete deficiency of the calyx in a dichlamydeous flower
+seems seldom or ever to occur; the nearest approach to it would be in
+those cases where the calyx is, as it is termed, "obsolete," but here it
+is chiefly the limb of the calyx which is atrophied, the lower portion
+being more or less adherent to the ovary. In what are termed
+monochlamydeous flowers both calyx and corolla are wanting, as in
+_Salicineae_ and many other orders.
+
+=Meiotaxy of the corolla.=--Deficiency of the entire corolla occurs in
+conjunction with similar reductions in other organs, or as an isolated
+phenomenon in the many apetalous varieties of plants recorded in books.
+Deficiency of the corolla was observed in _Campanula perfoliata_ and
+_Ruellia clandestina_ by Linne, who calls such blooms _flores
+mutilati_.[480] Drs. Hooker and Thomson relate a similar occurrence in
+_Campanula canescens_ and _C. colorata_. Some plants seem as a normal
+occurrence to produce flowers of different construction, and are hence
+termed dimorphic, as in many _Malpighiaceae_, _Violaceae_, _Oxalidaceae_,
+in some of the flowers of which the petals are altogether wanting, while
+in others the corolla is developed as usual. This deficiency of the
+corolla is frequently, but not invariably, associated with an increased
+fertility. Thus, in some violets the flowers produced in summer, and in
+which the petals are either entirely suppressed or are more or less
+atrophied, are always fertile, while the blossoms developed in spring,
+and in which the petals are always present, are much less fertile. In
+_Oxalis Acetosella_ there are two forms of flower, the one with, the
+other without, petals, but both seem equally fertile. Linne remarks that
+many plants which, in warm latitudes, produce a corolla, do not do so
+when grown in colder climates. Thus, certain species of _Helianthemum_
+are apetalous in Lapland. In the Pyrenees, according to Bentham, the
+flowers of _Ajuga iva_ are constantly deprived of their corolla.[481]
+
+Apetalous flowers have been noted most frequently in the following
+plants:
+
+ Aconitum, sp. pl.!
+ Cardamine impatiens.
+ Cheiranthus Cheiri!
+ Viola odorata!
+ Cerastium vulgatum!
+ Alsine media.
+ Stellaria.
+ Lychnis dioica!
+ Dianthus barbatus, and other Caryophylleae.
+ Helianthemum, sp.!
+ Oxalis Acetosella.
+ Balsamineae.
+ Malpighiaceae.
+ Rosa centifolia.
+ arvensis!
+ Crataegus!
+ Medicago lupulina.
+ Melilotus officinalis.
+ Ononis minutissima.
+ Saxifraga longifolia.
+ Verbascum Thapsus.
+ Ajuga iva.
+ Teucrium Botrys.
+ Lamium purpureum!
+ amplexicaule.
+ Polemonium caeruleum.
+ Campanula, sp. pl.!
+ Ruellia clandestina.
+ Lonicera Periclymenum!
+ Tradescantia, sp.!
+ Hymenocallis.
+
+ The following references apply some to apetalous and others to
+ dimorphic flowers, but it must be remembered that the latter
+ plants are not necessarily wanting in petals or stamens, &c.,
+ though the functional activity of the parts may be impaired:
+
+ A. de Jussien, 'Monogr. Malpigh.,' pp. 82, 334. Torrey, 'Fl.
+ New York,' i, p. 428. Hooker and Thomson, 'Journ. Linn. Soc.,'
+ ii, p. 7, Guillemin, 'Archiv. de Botan.,' i, p. 412. Michalet,
+ 'Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr.,' vii. p. 465. Mueller, 'Bot. Zeit.,' 1857,
+ p. 729. 'Natural History Review,' July, 1862, p. 235.
+
+=Meiotaxy of the androecium.=--Complete suppression of the stamens
+occurs normally in the female flowers of unisexual plants, and, as an
+accidental occurrence, is not very uncommon. _Erica Tetralix_ is one of
+the plants in which this is said to happen. The variety _anandra_ is
+said to have been known in France since 1635. Cornuti speaks of it in
+his 'Enchiridion.' In 1860 M. du Parquet discovered it in peaty woods
+near Nangis (Seine et Marne).
+
+Many _Umbelliferae_, such as _Trinia vulgaris_, present a like
+deficiency, while it is of common occurrence among _Rosaceae_ and
+_Pomaceae_. In the latter group the St. Valery apple, so often referred
+to, is an illustration. To obtain fruits from this variety it is
+necessary to apply pollen from another flower, a proceeding made the
+occasion of festivity and rejoicing by the villagers in some parts of
+France. In some of the _Artemisias_, especially in _Artemisia
+Tournefortiana_, all the florets have been noticed to be female, owing
+to the suppression of the stamens, and this suppression is associated
+with a change in the form of florets.[482] Mr. Moggridge has
+communicated to the author flowers of _Thymus Serpyllum_ from a plant in
+which all the stamens were deficient, the flower being otherwise normal.
+
+M. Dupont has given a list of nineteen species of _Chenopodiaceae_ in
+which female flowers are occasionally produced, owing to the entire
+suppression of the staminal whorl.[483]
+
+Flowers the subjects either of regular or irregular peloria, _q. v._,
+are often destitute of some or all their stamens, _e.g._ _Calceolaria_,
+_Linaria_, _Viola_, &c., while in cases of synanthy suppression of some
+of the parts of the flower, and specially of the stamens, is of very
+common occurrence.
+
+Suppression of the androecium as a teratological occurrence has been
+most frequently noticed in the following plants, omitting members of
+those families whose floral construction is normally incomplete in the
+majority of instances, and exclusive also of cases of substitution. See
+also under Heterogamy.
+
+ Ranunculus Ficaria!
+ auricomus!
+ bulbosus!
+ Cruciferae, sp. pl.
+ Violaceae, sp. pl.
+ Honckenya peploides.
+ Stellaria.
+ Caryophyllaceae, sp. pl.
+ Malpighiaceae, sp. pl.
+ Tropaeolum majus!
+ Fragaria vesca!
+ Rubus, sp.
+ Pyrus Malus.
+ Agrimonia vulgaris.
+ Rosaceae, sp. pl.
+ Trifolium hybridum.
+ repens.
+ Umbelliferae, sp. pl.
+ Onagraceae, sp. pl.
+ Hippuris vulgaris.
+ Callitriche vernalis.
+ autumnalis.
+ Lonicera Periclymenum.
+ Erica Tetralix.
+ Thymus Serpyllum.
+ Calceolaria.
+ Compositae, sp. pl.
+ Chenopodiaceae, sp. pl.
+ Stratiotes aloides.
+
+=Meiotaxy of the gynoecium.=--Complete suppression of the pistil is of
+more frequent occurrence than that of the stamens, hence more flowers
+become accidentally unisexual by suppression of the pistil than by
+deficiency of the stamens.
+
+In many _Umbelliferae_, e.g. _Torilis Anthriscus_, _Cicuta virosa_, the
+central flowers are often male, owing to the suppression of the pistil.
+In many double flowers, owing to the excessive multiplication of
+petaloid stamens, the pistil is suppressed, in which cases it often
+happens that the flower is depressed in the centre, as in some garden
+varieties of _Ranunculus_. Schlechtendal, in describing a flower of
+_Colchicum autumnale_, in which the perianth was virescent, says that,
+although the stamens were present, the pistil was absent.
+
+In proliferous flowers the pistil is often completely defective, its
+place being occupied by the adventitious bud or axis.
+
+As in other cases of like nature, suppression of the pistil is very
+frequently consequent on fusion of flowers or other changes. Thus Morren
+relates an instance of synanthy in the flowers of _Torenia scabra_,
+accompanied by resorption or disappearance of some parts and spiral
+torsion of others. The pistil was entirely absent in this instance.[484]
+
+M. Gaetano Licopoli places on record an instance where the petals and
+carpels of _Melianthus major_ were suppressed.[485]
+
+On the whole, the pistil seems less subject to changes of this character
+than the androecium.
+
+Suppression of the pistil has been most frequently recorded in flowers
+(normally bisexual) of--
+
+ Ranunculus!
+ Aconitium!
+ Delphinium!
+ Paeonia.
+ Caryophylleae!
+ Umbelliferae.
+ Trifolium repens.
+ hybridum.
+ Compositae, sp. pl.
+ Datura.
+ Torenia asiatica.
+ Colchicum autumnale.
+
+=Suppression of ovules,--abortion of seeds.=--The two cases are taken
+together, as the effects are similar, though it must be remembered that
+in the one case the ovules at any rate have been formed, but their
+development has been arrested, while in the other they have never
+existed. The precise cause that has determined the absence of seed
+cannot in all cases be ascertained in the adult condition, hence it is
+convenient to treat the two phenomena under one head.
+
+Many plants in other than their native climates either produce no fruit
+at all, or the fruits that are produced are destitute of seed, _e.g._
+_Musa_, _Artocarpus_, &c. Some of the cultivated varieties of the grape
+and of the berberry produce no seeds.
+
+Suppression or abortion of the seed is frequently associated with the
+excessive development either in size or number of other portions of the
+plant, or with an altered condition, as when carpels become foliaceous
+and their margins detached. Hybridisation and cross fertilisation are
+also well-known agents in diminishing the number and size of seeds.
+
+=Meiotaxy of the parts of the flower in general.=--In the preceding
+sections suppression has been considered as it affected individual
+members of a whorl or separate whorls. It rarely happens, however, that
+the suppression is limited in this way. More generally several of the
+parts of the flower are simultaneously affected in the same manner.
+
+A few illustrations are all that is necessary to give as to this point.
+
+One of the most familiar instances is that of the cauliflower or
+broccoli, where the common flower-stalk is inordinately thickened and
+fleshy, while the corolla and inner parts of the flower are usually
+entirely suppressed; the four sepals can, however, generally be
+detected.
+
+Maximowicz describes a _Stellaria_ (_Kraschenikovia_) in which the upper
+flowers are male only, while the lower ones, which ultimately become
+buried in the soil, have neither petals, stamens, nor styles, but the
+walls of the capsule are fleshy, and enclose numerous seeds.[486]
+
+Kirschleger[487] mentions a variety of _Lonicera Caprifolium_, which was
+not only destitute of petals but of stamens also.
+
+In some species of _Muscari_ and _Bellevalia_ the uppermost flowers of
+the raceme show more or less complete suppression of almost all the part
+of which the flower normally consists. In those cases where an imperfect
+perianth exists, but in which the stamens and pistils are entirely
+suppressed, Morren applies the term Cenanthy, [Greek: kenos], empty.
+
+=Complete suppression of the flower.=--It is not necessary in this place
+to allude to that deficient production of flowers characteristic of what
+is termed by gardeners a "sky bloomer." In such plants often the
+requisite conditions are not complied with, and the skill of the
+gardener is shown in his attempt to discover and allow the plant to
+avail itself of the necessary requirements. We need here only allude to
+those instances in which provision is made for the production of
+flowers, and yet they are not produced. A good illustration of this is
+afforded by the feather-hyacinth, _Hyacinthus comosus_, in which the
+flowers are almost entirely suppressed, while the pedicels are
+inordinately increased in number, and their colour heightened. Something
+similar occurs in several allied species, and in _Bowiea volubilis_. The
+wig plant (_Rhus Cotinus_) affords another illustration of the same
+thing. Some tendrils also owe their appearance to the absence of
+flowers, being modified peduncles; proofs of this may frequently be met
+with in the case of the vine.
+
+In _Lamium album_ I have seen one of the verticillasters on one side of
+the stem completely wanting, the adjacent leaf being, however, as fully
+formed as usual.
+
+=General remarks on suppression.=--On comparing together the various
+whorls of the flower in reference to suppression, and, it may be added,
+to atrophy, we find that these phenomena occur most rarely in the calyx,
+more frequently in the corolla, and very often in the sexual
+organs and seeds; hence it would seem as if the uppermost and most
+central organs, those most subject to pressure and latest in date of
+development--formed, that is, when the formative energies of the plant
+are most liable to be exhausted--are the most prone to be suppressed or
+arrested in their development. When the plants in which these
+occurrences happen most frequently are compared together, it may be seen
+that partial or entire suppression of the floral envelopes, calyx, and
+corolla, is far more commonly met with in the polypetalous and
+hypogynous groups than in the gamopetalous or epigynous series.
+
+The orders in which suppression (speaking generally) occurs most often
+as a teratological occurrence are the following:--_Ranunculaceae_,
+_Cruciferae_, _Caryophyllaceae_, _Violaceae_, _Leguminosae_, _Onagraceae_,
+_Jasminaceae_, _Orchidaceae_. It will be observed that these are all
+orders wherein suppression of the whole or part of the outer floral
+whorls takes place in certain genera as a constant occurrence.
+
+Again, it may be remarked that many of these orders show a tendency
+towards a regular diminution of the assumed normal number of their
+parts; thus, among _Onagraceae_, _Circeia_ and _Lopezia_ may be referred
+to, the former normally dimerous, the latter having only one perfect
+petal. So in fuchsias, a very common deviation consists in a trimerous
+and rarely a dimerous symmetry of the flower.
+
+Although, if the absolute number of genera or orders be counted, there
+appears to be little difference in the frequency of the occurrence of
+suppression in irregular flowers as contrasted with regular flowers, yet
+if the individual instances could be counted in the two groups
+respectively it would be found that suppression is more common among
+irregular than in regular flowers. Thus, the number of individual
+instances of flowers in which the perianth is defective is comparatively
+large among _Violaceae_, _Leguminosae_, and _Orchidaceae_. This statement
+hardly admits of precise statistical proof; still, it is believed that
+any observer who pays attention to the subject must come to the same
+conclusion. This is but another illustration of the fact that conditions
+which are abnormal in one plant constitute the natural arrangement in
+others.
+
+As to the suppressions that occur in the case of the sexual organs, and
+the relations they bear to dimorphism, diclinism, &c., but little stress
+has been laid on them in this place, because their chief interest is in
+a physiological point of view, and is treated of in the writings of
+Mohl, Sprengel, Darwin, Hildebrand, and others. All that need be said
+here is, that teratology affords very numerous illustrations of those
+intermediate conditions which are also found, under natural
+circumstances, between the absolutely unisexual flowers, male or female,
+and the structurally hermaphrodite ones. Rudimentary stamens or pistils
+are of very common occurrence in monstrous flowers. See Chapter on
+Heterogamy, &c.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[465] 'Rev. Hortic.,' 1866, p. 467.
+
+[466] De Rochebrune, 'Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr.,' ix, p. 281. The author
+points out seven grades between complete absence of petals and their
+presence in the normal number in this plant. See also Gaudin, in 'Koch.
+Fl. Helv.;' Koch. 'Synops. Fl. Germ.;' Cramer, 'Bildungsabweich,' p. 85.
+
+[467] 'Bull. Acad. Belg.,' t. xix, part 1, p. 255.
+
+[468] 'Bull. Bot.,' i, p. 7, tab. i, f. 7.
+
+[469] See Gay, 'Ann. Sc. Nat.,' iii, p. 27.
+
+[470] 'Ann. Sc. Nat.,' 4 ser., v, p. 305.
+
+[471] Cramer, 'Bildungsabweich,' p. 90.
+
+[472] See also Clos, 'Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr.,' xiii, p. 96, adnot.
+
+[473] See Cramer, 'Bildungsabweich,' p. 7. Hildebrand, 'Bot. Zeit.,' xx,
+1862, p. 209.
+
+[474] See Hildebrand, 'Bot. Zeit.,' xx, 1862, p. 209.
+
+[475] 'Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr.,' viii, p. 287.
+
+[476] 'Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr.,' vol. viii, 1861, p. 152.
+
+[477] Ibid., ix, p. 275.
+
+[478] Ibid., 1861, vol. viii, p. 149.
+
+[479] 'Lobelia,' p. 55.
+
+[480] 'Phil. Bot.,' p. 119.
+
+[481] 'Cat. Plant. Pyr,' p. 58.
+
+[482] Moquin-Tandon, loc. cit., p. 328.
+
+[483] For other instances see Chatin in 'Ann. Sc. Nat.,' 4 ser., vol. v,
+p. 305.
+
+[484] See also Morren. 'Bull. Acad. Belg.,' xv, Fuchsia, p. 67.
+
+[485] Cited in 'Bull. Soc. Bot., France,' t. xiv ("Rev. Bibl."), p. 253.
+
+[486] 'Primit. Flor. Amurens.' p. 57.
+
+[487] 'Flora.' 1848. p. 484.
+
+
+
+
+BOOK IV.
+
+DEVIATIONS FROM THE ORDINARY SIZE AND CONSISTENCE OF ORGANS.
+
+
+In the animal kingdom the entire adult organism, as well as each of its
+separate parts, has certain dimensions, beyond which, under ordinary
+circumstances, it does not pass, either in the one direction or the
+other. It may not be easy or possible to state what the limits are, but,
+practically, this inability to frame a precise limitation is productive
+of no inconvenience. It is universally admitted that a certain animal
+attains such and such dimensions, and that one organ has a certain
+proportionate size as contrasted with another. The same rules hold good
+in the case of plants, though in them it is vastly more difficult to
+ascertain what may be called the normal dimensions or proportions.
+Nevertheless observation and experience soon show what may be termed the
+average size of each plant, and any disproportion between the several
+organs is speedily detected.
+
+When there is a general reduction in size throughout all the organs of a
+plant, or throughout all the nutritive organs, stem, leaves, &c., and
+the several portions participate in this diminished size, we have what
+are generally termed "dwarf varieties," dwarf in comparison, that is,
+with the ordinary condition of the plants; on the other hand, if the
+entire plant, or, at least, if the whole of one set of organs be
+increased in size beyond the recognised average, we have large
+varieties, often qualified by such terms as _macrophylla_, _longifolia_,
+_macrantha_, &c. &c. In all these cases either the entire plant or whole
+series of organs are alike increased or diminished beyond average
+limits; and such variations are often very constant, and are transmitted
+by hereditary transmission. It may be supposed that such deviations may
+have originated, in the first instance, either from excessive use, or
+from disuse, or from the agency of certain conditions promoting or
+checking growth, as the case may be; but whether or no, it is certain
+that these variations often persist under different conditions, and that
+they often retain their distinctive characters side by side with plants
+presenting the normal average dimensions. In other cases the variations
+in size are of a less general character, and affect certain organs of a
+whorl in a relative manner, as, for instance, in the case of didynamous
+or tetradynamous stamens, where two or four stamens are longer than
+their fellows, the long or short stamens and styles of di- and
+tri-morphic flowers, &c. These differences are sometimes connected with
+the development of parts in succession, and not simultaneously.
+
+Teratological deviations of size differ from those of which mention has
+just been made chiefly in this, that they are more limited in their
+manifestations. It is not, as a rule, the whole plant, or the whole
+series of nutritive or of reproductive organs, that are affected, but it
+is certain parts only; the alteration in size is more a relative change
+than an absolute one.
+
+For convenience sake the teratological alterations of size may be
+divided into those which are the result of increased growth and those
+which arise from diminished action. It will be seen, therefore, that in
+these instances it is the bulk of the organs that is increased, not
+their number; moreover, their development or metamorphosis is not
+necessarily altered. In connection with increased size an alteration of
+consistence is so frequent that the two phenomena are here taken
+together. It will be borne in mind that the changes of consistence from
+membranous to succulent or woody are very frequent in the ordinary
+course of development. They may also occur as accidental phenomena, or
+the normal conditions of any particular flower or fruit may be exactly
+reversed, the usually succulent fruit becoming dry and capsular, and so
+forth.
+
+
+
+
+PART I.
+
+HYPERTROPHY.
+
+
+The term hypertrophy may serve as a general one to comprise all the
+instances of excessive growth and increased size of organs, whether the
+increase be general or in one direction merely. General hypertrophy is
+more a variation than a deformity, unless indeed it be caused by insect
+puncture or the presence of a fungus, in which case the excessive size
+results from a diseased condition. For our present purpose hypertrophy
+may be considered as it affects the axile or the foliar organs, and also
+according to the way in which the increased size is manifested, as by
+increased thickness or swelling--intumescence, or by augmented
+length-elongation, by expansion or flattening, or, lastly, by the
+formation of excrescences or outgrowths, which may be classed under the
+head of luxuriance or enation.
+
+As size must be considered in this place relatively, it is not possible
+to lay down any precise line separating what are considered to be the
+normal dimensions from those which are abnormal.
+
+In practice no inconvenience will be found to accrue from this inability
+to establish a fixed rule, and we may say that an hypertrophied organ is
+one which, from some cause or other, attains dimensions which are not
+habitual to the plant in its usual, healthy, well-formed state.
+
+It will be seen that under this general head of hypertrophy, increase of
+size, however brought about, is included; thus, not only increase in
+length, but also in thickness; alterations of substance or consistence,
+no less than of dimensions, are here grouped together. The alterations
+of consistence resulting from an inordinate development of cellular,
+fibrous, or ligneous tissue, are, of course, strictly homologous with
+the similar changes which occur, under ordinary circumstances, during
+the ripening of fruits or otherwise.
+
+Hypertrophy, whatever form it may assume, may be so slight as not
+perceptibly to interfere with the functions of the part affected, or it
+may exist to such an extent as to impair the due exercise of its office.
+It may affect any or all parts of the plant, and is generally coexistent
+with, if not actually dependent on, some other malformation. Thus, the
+inordinate growth of some parts is most generally attended by deficiency
+in the size and number of others, as in the peripheral florets of
+_Viburnum_ or _Hydrangea_, where the corollas are relatively very large,
+and the stamens and pistils abortive.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+ENLARGEMENT.
+
+
+A swollen or thickened condition (_renflement_) is usually the result of
+a disproportionate formation of the cellular tissue as contrasted with
+the woody framework of the plant. We see marked instances of it in
+cultivated carrots and turnips, the normal condition of the roots or
+root-stocks in these plants being one of considerable hardness and
+toughness, and their form slender, tapering, and more or less branched.
+
+The disproportionate development of cellular tissue is also seen in
+tubers and bulbs, and in the swollen stems of such plants as
+_Echinocactus_, _Adenium obesum_, some species of _Vitis_, &c. So, too,
+the upper portion of the flower-stalk occasionally becomes much
+dilated, so as ultimately to form a portion of the fruit. But it is not
+necessary to give farther illustrations of this common tendency in some
+organs to become hypertrophied. As a result of injury from insects or
+fungi, galls and excrescences of various kinds are very common, but
+their consideration lies beyond the scope of the present work.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 200.--_Pelargonium_, one branch of which was
+hypertrophied.]
+
+=Enlargement of axile organs.=--All the species of _Pelargonium_,
+_Geranium_, _Mirabilis,_ as well as those of _Caryophylleae_ and other
+orders, have tumid nodes as a normal occurrence. In the genus
+_Pelargonium_ this swelling is sometimes not confined to the nodes, but
+extends to the interspaces between them, _e.g._ _P. spinosum_. This
+condition, which happens as a natural feature in the species just named,
+may also occur as an exceptional thing in others. The author is indebted
+to Dr. Sankey for a branch of _Pelargonium_ which was thus thickened,
+the remaining branches not being in any way affected. The leaves on the
+swollen branch were smaller than the others, and their stalks more
+flattened. There was, in this instance, no trace of fungus or insect to
+account for the swelling of a single branch, which might, therefore, be
+due to bud-variation, perhaps to reversion to some ancestral form. The
+repeated cross fertilisations to which Pelargoniums have been subjected
+render this hypothesis not an improbable one.
+
+As an accompaniment to a spiral torsion of the woody fibres, this
+distension of the stem is frequently met with, as in _Valeriana_,
+_Dipsacus,_ &c. (See Spiral Torsion.)
+
+=Knaurs.=--On certain trees, such as the oak, the hornbeam, some species
+of _Crataegus_, &c., hard woody lumps may occasionally be seen
+projecting, varying greatly in size, from that of a pea to that of a
+cocoa-nut. They are covered with bark, and consist in the interior of
+very hard layers of wood disposed irregularly, so as to form objects of
+beauty for cabinet-makers' purposes. From the frequent presence of small
+atrophied leaf-buds on their surface, it would seem as if the structures
+in question were shortened branches, in which the woody layers had
+become inordinately developed, as if by compensation for the curtailment
+in length.[488] The cause of their formation is not known, but it has
+been ascertained that they are not due to insect agency. Knaurs may
+occasionally be used for purposes of propagation, as in the case of the
+"uovoli of the olive" and the "burrs" that are formed on some varieties
+of apple, from which both roots and leaf-shoots are produced in
+abundance.
+
+A distinction must be drawn between those instances in which the
+swelling is solid throughout from the excessive formation of cellular
+tissue, and those wherein it is hollow from the more rapid growth of the
+outer as contrasted with the inner portions. These latter cases might be
+classed under the head of distension.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 201.--Formation of tubers or hypertrophied buds in
+the axils of leaves in the potato.]
+
+=Enlargement of the buds= may be seen in the case of bulbs and tubers.
+Occasionally these organs are developed in the axils of leaves, when
+their nature becomes apparent. A swollen bud or bulbil in this
+situation is not uncommon in some cultivated tulips and lilies. The
+presence of small tubers in the axils of the leaves in the potato, as
+shown in fig. 201, is also not unfrequent.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 202.--Inflorescence of ash (_Fraxinus_), with
+hypertrophied pedicels, flowers absent.]
+
+=Enlargement of the flower-stalk.=--The cauliflower and broccoli afford
+familiar illustrations of hypertrophy of the flower-stalk, accompanied
+by a corresponding defective development of the flowers. In the case of
+the ash the terminal pedicels occasionally become swollen and distorted,
+while the flowers are completely deficient, as shown in the adjacent cut
+(fig. 202).
+
+In grapes a similar condition may occasionally be met with in which the
+terminal pedicels become greatly swollen and fused into a solid mass. It
+would seem probable that this change is due to insect puncture, or to
+the effect of fungus growth at an early stage of development, but as to
+this point there is at present no evidence.[489]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 203.--Monstrous pear, showing extension and
+ramification of the succulent floral axis. The bases of the sepals are
+also succulent.]
+
+In the apple a dilatation of the flower-stalk below the ordinary fruit
+may occasionally be observed, thus giving rise to the appearance of two
+fruits superposed and separated one from the other by a constriction.
+(See fig. 176, p. 327.) The lower swelling is entirely axial in these
+cases, as no trace of carpels is to be seen. M. Carriere[490] mentions
+an instance wherein from the base of one apple projected a second
+smaller one, destitute of carpels, but surmounted by calyx-lobes as
+usual. The direction of this supernumerary apple was the exact opposite
+of that of the primary fruit.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 204.--Monstrous pear, showing extension and swelling
+of axis, &c.]
+
+In pears, quinces, and apples, a not uncommon deviation is one in which
+the axis is prolonged beyond the ordinary fruit, like which it is much
+swollen. Occasionally the axis is not only prolonged, but even ramifies,
+the branches partaking of the succulent character of the ordinary pome.
+Such instances are frequently classed under the head of prolification,
+but they have in general no claim to be considered in this light, for
+the reasons already given in the chapter relating to that subject. (See
+p. 135.)[491]
+
+A very curious illustration of hypertrophy of the flower-stalk is
+recorded and figured by M. Carriere[492] in the cherry. The calyx in
+these fruits was completely superior, the succulent portion of the fruit
+being made up of the dilated extremity of the peduncle, and possibly in
+part of the base of the calyx. The general appearance was thus that of a
+crab-apple. There was no stone in the interior, but simply a rudimentary
+kernel or seed.[493]
+
+Moquin-Tandon records an instance in which the stamens of each
+individual flower in the inflorescence of a vine were hypertrophied, the
+sepals, petals, and other organs of the flower, being proportionately
+diminished.[494]
+
+In this place may also be mentioned the hypertrophied condition of the
+placenta observed by Alphonse de Candolle in a species of _Solanum_, and
+also in a species of _Melastoma_. Not only was the placenta unusually
+large in these flowers, but it also protruded beyond the ovary.[495] A
+similar state of things in _Lobelia_ and _Cuphea_ has already been
+alluded to under the head of Alterations of Direction (p. 210).
+
+The following singular growth in a tomato is described by the Rev. M.
+J. Berkeley in the 'Gardeners' Chronicle' for 1866, p. 1217, and appears
+to have been an extension of the placenta:--"On the first glance it
+seemed as if an unusually large grape-stone had accidentally fallen on
+the upper surface of the fruit, and was attached by the narrow base. The
+process was, however, five lines long, and much narrowed below, besides
+which, though it was pale green above, the base was coral-red, like the
+tomato itself. It grew on a narrow and shallow crack on the surface of
+the fruit, and was found below to communicate directly with a
+fibro-vascular bundle, which entered into the composition of a portion
+of the placenta. On making a vertical section, instead of being
+succulent, as I expected, it was white and spongy within, with several
+lacunae, and one or two irregular fibro-vascular bundles, with highly
+developed spiral vessels threading the centre. These vessels, moreover,
+were tinged with brown, as in many cases of diseased tissues. There was
+not the slightest appearance of placentae or anything indicating an
+abortive fruit. On closer examination the cuticle was found to consist
+of thick-walled cells, exactly like those of the tomato, while the
+spongy mass consisted of a similar tissue to the fleshy portion of the
+fruit, but with far less wrinkled walls, and more indistinct
+intercellular spaces. The most striking point, however, was the immense
+quantity of very irregular and unequal starch-grains with which they
+were gorged, which gave a peculiar sparkling appearance to them when
+seen _en masse_. I am inclined to regard the body rather as an abortive
+axis than an undeveloped fruit. In almost all, if not all, these cases
+of abnormal growth, whether from leaves, petioles, fruit, or other
+portions of the plant, we find an immediate connection with one or more
+spiral vessels, which if not existent at first are developed sooner or
+later. In the present case the connection of the fibro-vascular tissue
+of the fruit and abnormal growth was plain enough, but whether it
+existed when the body was first given off I am unable to say, as it was
+fully developed when the fruit was brought to me."
+
+=Enlargement of the leaves.=--Increase in the size or substance of
+leaves takes places in several ways, and affects the whole or only
+certain portions of them. The simplest form of this malformation is met
+with in our cabbages, which, by the art of the gardener, have been made
+to produce leaves of greater size and thickness than those which are
+developed in the wild form. In such instances the whole substance of the
+leaf is increased in bulk, and the increase affects the fibrous
+framework of the leaves as well as the cellular portions, though the
+exaggerated development of the latter is out of proportion to that of
+the former.
+
+In some species of _Podocarpus_ there may occasionally be seen at the
+base of the branchlets a dozen or more fleshy scales, of a rose colour,
+passing gradually into the ordinary leaves of the plant, and evidently
+analogous to the three fleshy confluent bracts which surround the ripe
+fruit.
+
+In other instances, while the fibrous framework of the leaf retains its
+usual degree of development, the cellular parenchyma is developed in
+excess, and, if the increase is so arranged that the number of
+superposed layers of the cellular tissue is not increased, or their
+thickness exaggerated, then we get such leaves as those of the "kail,"
+or of the "Savoys" leaves, which are technically called by descriptive
+botanists "folia bullata." In such leaves the disc of the leaf, rather
+than the margin, is increased and its surface is thrown up into little
+conical projections, which are hollow on the under side.
+
+But leaves may increase beyond their usual size without such grave
+alterations of form as those to which allusion has just been made. It is
+well known that if a tree be cut down and new shoots be sent out from
+the stump, the leaves formed on these shoots very often greatly exceed
+the ordinary ones in dimensions. Such cases as this hardly come under
+the head of malformations. But where one part only of the leaf is
+excessively developed, the other portion remaining in its ordinary
+condition, there can be no hesitation in ranking the phenomenon as
+teratological.
+
+Thus, Moquin says that the median nerve may be prolonged beyond the
+blade of the leaf in the form of a short strap or ribbon-like
+excrescence, while, at other times, the lateral parts of the leaf are
+subjected to undue development. He refers to a case cited by
+Schlotterbec[496] in which each side of the leaves of a yellow "violier"
+(wallflower) was dilated into a kind of projecting lobe on either side
+of the true apex of the leaf, thus rendering it in appearance
+three-lobed. M. Delavaud[497] puts on record a case of hypertrophy in
+the leaves of the common elm, resulting in the formation of an
+additional lobe and a return to the tricostate type. A leaf so affected
+is stated to have presented the appearance of a fusion of two leaves.
+(See also Multiplication of leaves, p. 353.)
+
+The hypertrophied and coloured leaf of _Gesnera_ occupying the place of
+the absent inflorescence has been previously alluded to under the head
+of displacement (p. 88).
+
+In some instances hypertrophy is the opposite of suppression; as in the
+case previously mentioned, where the stipule in the inflorescence of a
+pea, which is usually undeveloped and rudimentary, was developed in the
+form of a leafy cup or pitcher.
+
+Another instance of the development of parts usually suppressed, is
+afforded by the bud-scales of _Magnolia fuscata_, which may sometimes be
+found with small but perfect leaves projecting from them, the leaf in
+this case being the lamina which is ordinarily abortive, while the
+scales are the representatives of the stipules. This condition is said
+by Hooker and Thomson ('Flora Indica,' p. 73) to be constant in
+_Magnolia Campbelli_.
+
+=Enlargement of the perianth, &c.=--One or all the segments of the
+perianth may be subjected to hypertrophy; thus, the utricle of _Carex
+vulpina_ may frequently be observed to attain four or five times its
+usual size, the contained ovary remaining unaffected. This condition is
+generally the result of insect puncture. The growth of parasitic fungi
+will produce a similar result, as is often seen in the common shepherd's
+purse, _Thlaspi bursa pastoris_, and other _Cruciferae_. The perianth of
+_Rumex aquaticus_ has been also observed to be occasionally
+hypertrophied in conjunction with a similar condition of the pistil and
+with atrophy of the ovules.
+
+Moquin relates having found flowers of _Salsola Kali_ and of
+_Chenopodium murale_ in which some of the segments of the perianth were
+five or six times larger than they should be.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 205.--Hypertrophy of the perianth in _Cocos
+nucifera_.]
+
+The adjoining woodcut represents a singular condition of some cocoa-nuts
+in the Kew Museum, the appearance of which is due apparently to an
+hypertrophied condition of the segments of the perianth, which have not
+only increased in length as the central nut has ripened, but have
+developed in their tissues that fibrous tissue which ordinarily is found
+in the pericarp only. This view of the structure of these nuts is borne
+out by the fact that, under normal circumstances, the base of the
+perianth contains a considerable amount of fibrous material. In the
+present case this has increased to such an extent that the fruit appears
+surrounded by a double husk, by an inner one as usual, and by an outer
+six-parted one.
+
+It will be remembered that in some of the _Cinchonaceae_, e.g.
+_Mussaenda_, _Pinckneya_, _Calycophyllum_, one or more of the calycine
+lobes are normally dilated and petaloid, the others remaining small and
+comparatively inconspicuous. Inequality in size is, indeed, a common
+occurrence in the sepals of many natural orders--_Polygalaceae_,
+_Leguminosae_, _Labiatae_, &c. The flowers of a rose are mentioned by
+Moquin as having presented an enlargement of the calyx without any other
+alterations in form. Schlechtendal has noticed the same thing in
+_Papaver Rhoeas_, Reichenbach in _Campanula persicifolia_, and A. de
+Candolle in _C. Rapunculus_. M. Brongniart also has recorded[498] a
+remarkable variety of _Primula sinensis_ cultivated in the Jardin des
+Plantes at Paris, wherein the calyx is enormously developed. MM.
+Fournier and Bonnet have described flowers of _Rubus_ with hypertrophied
+calyx in conjunction with atrophy and virescence of the petals and other
+changes.[499]
+
+The corolla may be hypertrophied in some cases, though the change is
+more rare than in most other organs. Moquin-Tandon mentions as subject
+to this anomaly species of _Galeopsis_, _Prunella_, _Scabiosa_, and
+_Dipsacus_, and also mentions a remarkable variety of _Viola odorata_
+cultivated in the neighbourhood of Toulouse. The same learned author
+also alludes to the so-called double Composites, viz. those in which the
+usually tubular florets of the disc assume the form and proportions of
+those of the ray, but these are hardly cases of hypertrophy.
+
+=Enlargement of the androecium.=--Dunal[500] alludes to a curious
+instance in a species of _Verbascum_, the lower flowers of which had
+hairy stamens as usual, but the filaments of the topmost flower were
+quite destitute of hairs, and dilated like a flat ribbon.
+
+Moquin relates having found in the neighbourhood of Toulouse a plant of
+_Solanum Dulcamara_ in which all the upper flowers had two or three
+stamens of larger dimensions than the others. This happens habitually in
+_Solanum tridynamum_ and _S. Amazonicum_, and to a less extent in _S.
+vespertilio_ and _S. cornutum_; also in some species of _Hyoscyamus_.
+These cases show the close affinity between the _Solanaceae_ and the
+_Scrophulariaceae_.
+
+=Enlargement of the gynoecium.=--In some flowers which have become
+accidentally female the pistil becomes unusually large, and even to such
+an extent as to prevent the passage of the pollen. Moquin remarks having
+seen this enlargement in the pistils of _Suaeda fruticosa_ and _Kochia
+scoparia_. The flowers of these Chenopods, under these circumstances,
+resemble the female flowers of some nettles. The styles of _Anemone_ are
+also much enlarged as the result of cultivation, and from their petaloid
+appearance resemble those of the _Iris_ (Goethe). MM. Seringe and
+Heyland[501] have figured some anomalous flowers of _Diplotaxis
+tenuifolia_ in which the pistil, more or less distended and deformed,
+was considerably elongated below, so that it seemed to be borne upon a
+long stalk, analogous to that of fruits of Capparids. Dr. Klinsman[502]
+mentions an instance of a similar kind combined with hypertrophy of the
+sepals and pistils; indeed, the alteration is not uncommon among
+Crucifers. _Pyrethrum inodorum_ is very subject to hypertrophy. The
+styles of its radial florets become elongated without any other
+alteration; at the same time the small corollas become green, and show a
+tendency to assume a foliaceous condition. Sometimes the hypertrophy
+affects also the styles of the central florets, and these also become
+enlarged to double or treble their usual dimensions.
+
+Linne has remarked that the ovary of _Tragopogon_ sometimes assumes very
+large dimensions, as also does the pappus. He mentions a double-flowered
+variety, the ovaries of which become ten or twelve times larger than
+ordinary. M. Clos[503] records an instance in _Rumex scutatus_ wherein
+the pistil was hypertrophied or club-shaped, and open at the top, or in
+other cases funnel-shaped, three-lobed at the summit, each lobe
+terminated by a style. One of the most frequent causes tending to the
+hypertrophy of the pistil is attributable to the puncture of insects;
+thus, when the ovary of _Juncus articulatus_ is thus punctured, it
+acquires a size two or three times larger than ordinary, becoming at the
+same time sterile.[504]
+
+Occasionally the enlargement may be due to a fusion or incorporation of
+other elements; thus, M. Lemaire describes an instance in which the
+style of _Sinningia purpurea_ was much larger than ordinary, tubular,
+bearing three small lobes, and altogether bearing much resemblance to
+the column or "gynosteme" of Orchids. This appearance was due to the
+cohesion and intimate union of the styles with three abortive
+stamens.[505]
+
+=Enlargement of the fruit.=--Most cultivated fruits are in a state of
+true hypertrophy. Girod de Chantrans, after many trials, succeeded in
+producing a peculiar variety of pea with pods double the ordinary
+size.[506] M. Clos[507] mentions a case wherein the carpels of
+_Delphinium dictyocarpum_ were hypertrophied. The change in size may or
+may not be attended by a difference in form; thus, in certain
+_Leguminosae_, as _Medicago lupulina_, _Melilotus leucantha_, the carpels
+are sometimes hypertrophied and elongated, so as to resemble a claw or
+hook.[508]
+
+The fruit of the common groundsel (_Senecio vulgaris_) is in its normal
+condition two or three times shorter than the involucre, and cylindrical
+for its whole length, but it frequently happens that the fruits become
+as long as the involucre itself, and taper from the base upwards, so as
+to become beaked. Under this head may also be mentioned the fleshy
+bulbils that are found in the capsules of _Crinum_, _Amaryllis_, and
+_Agave_. These are true seeds enormously dilated.[509] In these seeds
+the outer coating becomes very thick and fleshy, and is traversed by
+spiral vessels.
+
+It is obvious that very important results in a practical point of view
+may be and have been arrived at by cultivators availing themselves of
+this tendency of plants to increase in dimensions under certain
+circumstances. It is needless to do more than refer to the many fruits,
+vegetables, and cereals, which have thus become enlarged and improved by
+careful selection and rearing.
+
+=Alterations of consistence= often accompany changes in size. The change
+may be one whereby the tissues become unusually hardened, by the
+excessive formation of secondary woody deposits, or softer and more
+succulent than ordinary, from the formation of an inordinate amount of
+loose cellular tissue. Generally speaking, the appearances presented in
+such cases are not sufficiently striking to demand notice other than as
+regards their size. One illustration, however, may be cited from its
+singularity. This was the case of a dahlia, in which the centre of the
+flower was occupied by a projecting knob as large as a walnut, brown in
+colour, and very hard in texture. This knob was nothing but the enlarged
+and indurated extremity of the common receptacle, destitute of the
+scales and florets which usually spring from it. No insect-puncture
+could be detected, and no other reason for this peculiarity could be
+ascertained.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[488] On the subject of knaurs, the reader is referred to Trecul, 'Ann.
+Sc. Nat.,' 3 ser., vol. xx, p. 65; Lindley, 'Theory of Horticulture;'
+Rev. M. J. Berkeley, 'Gardeners' Chronicle,' 1855, p. 756.
+
+[489] Jaeger, 'Flora.' 1860. p. 49, tab. i.
+
+[490] 'Revue Horticole,' 1868, p. 110, figs. 12, 13.
+
+[491] The reader may also refer for further information on the subject
+of malformed pears to Irmisch. 'Flora,' 1858, p. 38, tab. i; Lindley,
+'Theory of Horticulture'; Caspary, 'Bull. Soc. Bot. France,' vol. vi,
+1859 (Rev. Bibl.), p. 235; Duhamel, 'Phys. Arbr.,' liv. iii, cap. 3. p.
+393, fig. 308; Bonnet, 'Recherch. Us. feuilles,' tab. xxvi, fig. 2;
+Moquin-Tandon, 'El. Ter. Veg.,' p. 384, &c. Some of the cases recorded
+are, however, instances of true prolification.
+
+[492] 'Revue Horticole' 1868, p. 310.
+
+[493] The interest of this accident is great, as showing how an
+habitually superior ovary may become inferior--a change so rare in its
+occurrence that its existence has been denied, and thus forming a marked
+contrast with the frequency with which the converse change of an
+inferior ovary to a superior one, from want of union with the calyx or
+from imperfect development of the peduncle, may be observed. It is also
+interesting as showing how the peduncle may become swollen, and at the
+same time how the woody deposit of the endocarp may, as if by
+compensation, be deficient. And, again, the malformation is not without
+significance in regard to the relationship between the drupaceous and
+the pomaceous subdivisions of _Rosaceae_. The case would fitly be
+included under alterations of position, but the sheets relating to that
+subject were printed off before the publication of M. Carriere's notice.
+
+[494] 'Bull. Soc. Bot. France,' 1860, vol. vii, p. 881.
+
+[495] "Monstr. Veget.," in 'Neue Denkschrift.'
+
+[496] "Sched. de Monst. Plant." in 'Act. Helvet.,' t. ii, pl. ii, f. 14.
+
+[497] 'Bull. Soc. Bot. France,' vol. viii, 1861, p. 144.
+
+[498] 'Ann. Sc. Nat.,' ser. 2, t. i, p. 308, pl. ix _c_, fig. 1.
+
+[499] 'Bull. Soc. Bot. France,' 1862, t. ix, p. 37.
+
+[500] 'Consid. org. Fleur.,' Montpell., 1829, 25, 26, pl. ii, f. 18 and
+19.
+
+[501] 'Bull. Bot.,' t. i, p. 7, tab. 1.
+
+[502] 'Linnaea,' vol. x, p. 604, tab. 5.
+
+[503] 'Mem. Acad. Sc. Toulouse,' 5 ser., vol. iii.
+
+[504] 'Re. nosol. Veget.,' pp. 342.
+
+[505] 'Illustr. Hortic.,' 1868, Misc., p. 62.
+
+[506] 'Ann. Soc. Linn.,' Paris, t. i, p. 139.
+
+[507] 'Mem. Acad. Toulouse,' t. 6, 1862.
+
+[508] 'D. C. Prod.,' ii, pp. 172, 187.
+
+[509] Richard, "Obs. sur les bulbilles des Crinum;" 'Ann. Sc. Nat.,' t.
+ii, p. 12. pl. i, fig. 1, 2. See also A. Braun, "Memoire sur les graines
+charnues des Amaryllidees," &c.; 'Ann. Sc. Nat.,' 1860, vol. xiv, p. 1,
+tab. 1.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+ELONGATION.
+
+
+The class of cases coming under this head are sufficiently indicated by
+the name. There are many instances of this phenomenon occurring under
+different conditions, which, though unusual, can hardly be called
+abnormal, such, for instance, as the great lengthening of roots in their
+search for water, the excessive elongation that takes place in plants
+when grown at a distance from the light, in their endeavour to attain to
+which they become, as gardeners phrase it, "drawn." A similar result is
+brought about in forests or plantations, where long spars are required,
+by allowing the trees to grow very close to each other, so as to prevent
+the lateral extension of the branches. When plants grow in running
+water their roots, stems, and sometimes their leaves, become excessively
+elongated, as in _Ranunculus fluitans_, the flower-stalks of _Valisneria
+spiralis_, &c. These are cases of variation rather than of malformation,
+but are none the less curious, or sometimes perplexing; thus, Lapeyrouse
+described, in his 'Supplement a la flore des Pyrenees,' p. 27, under
+the name _Potamogeton bifolium_, a plant which Mr. Bentham subsequently
+discovered to be nothing but a flowerless variety of _Vicia Faba_
+distorted by its growth in water.[510]
+
+=Elongation of the root.=--This, as already remarked, is more often a
+variation than a malformation, and is usually due to the presence of
+water at a distance necessitating growth at the extremities of the root,
+or to the presence of some obstacle, such as a stone, to avoid which the
+root elongates till it has passed the obstruction. Occasionally in
+Crocus corms some of the fibrils may be met with much lengthened and
+thickened, and invested with a fleshy sheath. It is not certain,
+however, that these structures are roots; possibly, nay probably, they
+may be processes from the stem thrust downwards into the soil, similar
+to the formations already described in the tulip (p. 85, fig. 39).
+
+=Elongation of the inflorescence.=--Under this heading it is necessary
+to consider lengthening of the common rachis in the case of an aggregate
+inflorescence, and lengthening of the individual flower-stalks, whether
+they be solitary or portions of a multiple inflorescence. The two
+phenomena may occur together, but they are quite as often independent
+one of the other. Thus, among _Umbelliferae_ the umbels are occasionally
+met with supported on unusually long stalks, while the pedicels of the
+individual flowers may or not be increased in length; so also with some
+of the Composites, or the heads of flowers of some _Leguminosae_,
+_Trifolium repens_, &c. &c.
+
+Another illustration of the sort is that recorded by M. Fournier,
+wherein the usually umbellate inflorescence of _Pelargonium_ was,
+through the lengthening of the main stalk, transformed into a raceme.
+Among Composites a similar change may sometimes be met with.
+
+MM. Clos and De Schoenefeld have recorded the existence of a variety of
+the sweet chestnut (_Castanea_)in which the female catkins were as long,
+and bore nearly as many flowers, as the male spikes. This is stated to
+be of constant occurrence in some localities, and to be accompanied by a
+diminished size of the fruits. A similar elongation has been observed in
+the case of the walnut, catkins of which have been seen bearing thirty
+to thirty-five large nuts.[511]
+
+In the strobile of the hop, _Humulus Lupulus_, a like elongation may
+sometimes be met with, generally in association with a more or less
+leafy condition of some of the scales.
+
+Of a similar character, but complicated with extrusion or eversion of an
+ordinarily concave axis, is the fig described by Zuccarini,[512] and
+from the appearances presented by which that author draws the inference
+that the peculiar appearance of the fig is due to the formation of a
+large number of small bracts blended together for the greater part of
+their length, and accompanied by the suppression of the internodes, and
+consequent shortening of the axis. In the monstrous fruit the axis is
+prolonged, and forms a kind of raceme or catkin, surrounded at the base
+by numerous bracts, as in many _Amentaceae_. (See p. 204, figs. 105,
+106.)
+
+A lengthening of the axis of the female strobiles of _Coniferae_ is not
+of infrequent occurrence in _Cryptomeria japonica_, _Larie europaea_,
+&c., and this is usually associated, as has been before stated, with a
+leaf-like condition of the bracts, and sometimes even with the
+development of leaf-bearing shoots in place of the scales. (See under
+Prolification of Inflorescence and Phyllomorphy, and for references, p.
+115.)
+
+=Elongation of the secondary flower-stalks.=--In the previous section
+the effect of elongation of the main rachis has been considered. A
+corresponding deviation occurs in the peduncles or pedicels, and
+sometimes alters the general character of the inflorescence very
+considerably, converting a spike into a raceme, a raceme into a corymb,
+a capitulum into an umbel, and so forth. A few such cases may here be
+alluded to. Fig. 206 represents a specimen of _Ranunculus acris_, in
+which the lower and lateral flower-stalks were not only increased in
+number, but so much lengthened as to form a flat-topped inflorescence--a
+corymbose cyme. In many leguminous plants, as in _Trifolium repens_,
+_Lotus corniculatus_, &c., what is usually a compact spike, or head of
+flowers, becomes a raceme from the elongation of the pedicels. In
+_Umbelliferae_ a similar change occurs, by virtue of which sometimes the
+umbels themselves, and at other times the florets, are raised on
+unusually long stalks, as in _Angelica Razoulzii_, _Carum Carui_,
+_Thysselinum palustre_.[513] In _Compositae_, when affected by an
+analogous change, the capitulum assumes the appearance of a simple
+umbel, as in _Hypochaeris radicata_, _Senecio vulgaris_, and other
+plants.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 206.--Inflorescence of _Ranunculus acris_, with
+secondary peduncles lengthened.]
+
+In some of the double-flowered apples which have been previously alluded
+to, the flower-stalk is inordinately long when compared with the
+adjacent ones. Possibly in some of these cases the absence of the usual
+swelling of the upper part of the peduncle may be connected with its
+increased length. One of the most striking instances of lengthened
+flower-stalk occurred in an apple flower, wherein there was no swelling
+beneath the calyx, while the latter was represented by five perfect
+stalked leaves.
+
+=Elongation of the leaves.=--In the case of water plants this change
+keeps pace with the corresponding growth of the stem, _e.g._
+_Ranunculus fluitans_, and in terrestrial plants there are varieties
+termed longifoliar, from the unusual length of the leaves. A similar
+lengthening occurs in the involucral leaves of _Umbelliferae_ and
+_Compositae_, changing very materially the general aspect of the
+inflorescence. Occasionally, also, the leaf-lobes of parsley (_Apium
+Petroselinum_) and other crested-leaved plants may be observed to lose
+their ordinary wavy form, and to be lengthened into flat riband-like
+segments, as shown in fig. 207.
+
+The only further illustrations that it is requisite to give of such
+changes in this place are those occurring in lobed or compounded leaves,
+which, from a lengthening of the midrib or central stalk, convert a
+digitate or palmate leaf into a pinnate one. In these instances the
+lobes or leaflets become separated one from another by a kind of
+apostasis. This change may be frequently seen in the horse-chestnut,
+particularly in the young shoots formed after the trees have been pruned
+or pollarded. In the adjoining cut the intermediate stages between a
+palmate or digitate leaf to a pinnate one may be seen. The specimens
+from which the drawing was made were taken from the same tree at the
+same time.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 207.--Portion of leaf of parsley, showing the change
+from short wavy to long flat leaf-lobes.]
+
+In the white clover, _Trifolium repens_, a similar transition may often
+be observed, as also in some species of _Potentilla_.[514]
+
+=Elongation of the parts of the flower.=--The only circumstance that
+needs especial mention under this section is the great lengthening that
+sometimes takes place in the carpels, sometimes as a result of injury
+from insects or fungus, at other times without assignable cause.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 208.--Leaves of horse-chestnut, _AEsculus_, showing
+passage from digitate to pinnate leaves.]
+
+In the case of inferior ovaries this lengthening is, perhaps, even more
+common, as in _Umbelliferae_, _Compositae_, &c. The common groundsel
+(_Senecio vulgaris_) is especially liable to this form of enlargement of
+the pistil, either in association with a leafy condition of the pappus
+or without any such change.
+
+=Elongation of the thalamus, placenta, &c.=--In some plants, as in
+_Magnolia_ or _Myosurus_, the thalamus becomes much elongated, and bears
+the carpels disposed spirally around it. A similar lengthening occurs in
+malformed flowers, usually in association with a similar change in the
+lower or outer part of the flower, by virtue of which the whorls become
+separated from each other (Apostasis). Elongation and protrusion of the
+placenta have been already alluded to at p. 119, and also at p. 125. In
+some of these cases the elongated placenta has taken the form of a
+leaf-bearing shoot.[515]
+
+=Apostasis.=--Engelmann made use of this term to express the separation
+of parts one from another by the unusual elongation of the
+internodes.[516] He drew a distinction between the separation of
+individual organs one from the other, and the corresponding displacement
+of whorls. The subject has already been, to a considerable degree,
+treated of in these pages under the head of dialysis, displacement, and
+prolification, and but little need here be added. With reference to the
+distance between one whorl and another, it will be remembered that,
+although in the majority of cases the floral whorls are packed closely
+together, yet in other instances the floral axis becomes elongated, and
+thus separates the whorls one from another, by structures such as the
+gynophores, androphores, &c., of _Passifloreae_, _Caryophylleae_,
+_Capparideae_, &c. &c.
+
+A similar elongation of the thalamus, bringing about the separation of
+the floral whorls, or of their constituent parts, is very commonly met
+with in association with median prolification. Where the individual
+floral elements are thus thrown out of their usual verticillate
+arrangement, they naturally assume a spiral disposition, and are, in
+some cases, united by their margins, so that a spiral sheet or tube is
+formed, surrounding the axis. This frequently occurs in double flowers
+of the Chinese primrose, _Primula sinensis_.
+
+Engelmann[517] figures a case wherein the calyx of _Anagallis
+phoenicea_ was separated by a rather long internode from the corolla,
+and a like illustration in _Torilis Anthriscus_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 209.--Flower of _Delphinium_, showing apostasis of
+carpels, from lengthening of the thalamus, &c. (Cramer.)]
+
+A frequent change in Crucifers is due to the formation of a long stalk
+bearing the pod, and thus giving rise to the appearance met as a
+constant occurrence in Capparids.
+
+In _Tropaeolum majus_ a similar elevation of the pistil may occasionally
+be seen.
+
+The adjacent figure of a monstrous _Delphinium_ taken from Cramer
+illustrates well the elongation of the floral axis and the apostasis of
+the carpels. In this instance the axis is terminated by a second flower
+(median prolification).
+
+One of the best-marked illustrations of these changes occurs in a
+permanent malformation of _Epilobium hirsutum_, specimens of which were
+originally obtained from the late Professor Henslow. The several floral
+parts are here, some virescent, others truly foliaceous, and each whorl
+is separated from its neighbour by a rather long internode. In _Fuchsia_
+and _Campanula_ a like change may occasionally be observed.
+
+Engelmann, in addition to those previously mentioned, cites the
+following plants as having manifested this change:
+
+_*Convallaria majalis!_, _*Tulipa Gesneriana!_, _Veronica Chamaedrys_,
+_Orobanche gracilis_, _Solanum Lycopersicum_, _Gentiana campestris_,
+_Hypericum_, _Helleborus fetidus_, _Caltha palustris_, _Brassica
+oleracea!_ and many _Rosaceae_, _Caryophylleae_, _Cruciferae_, and
+_Ranunculaceae_. (See Dialysis, Median Prolification, &c.)
+
+Apostasis of the sub-floral or involucral leaves is not of infrequent
+occurrence in malformations affecting _Compositae_ and _Umbelliferae_. In
+the following genera it has been observed with especial
+frequency:--_Torilis Anthriscus_, _Eryngium_, _Athamanta Cervaria_,
+_Leontodon_, _Tragopogon pratense!_, _Wedelia perfoliata!_ In garden
+anemones, also, it is a common deviation.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[510] 'Cat. Plant.,' Lang., p. 113.
+
+[511] 'Bull. Soc. Bot. France,' t. i, 1854, p. 173, and t. xiii, p. 96.
+
+[512] 'Abhandl. Math. Phys. Class.,' Band. iv, Abhandl. i, tab. i.
+
+[513] See Cramer, 'Bildungsabweich,' pp. 62-79, and Fleischer,
+'Missbild, der Culturpflanzen.'
+
+[514] Schlechtendal, 'Bot. Zeit.,' 1844, p. 457; 'Linnaea,' xi, p. 301,
+xiv, p. 363; 'Bot. Zeit.,' 1856, p. 72; Masters, 'Rep. Brit. Assoc.,'
+Manchester, 1861; Coultas, 'What may be learnt from a tree,' p. 118.
+
+[515] For further details refer to the chapter on Displacements, p. 86.
+
+[516] 'De Antholysi,' p. 42, Sec. 49.
+
+[517] Loc. cit., tab. 2, f. 6.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+ENATION.
+
+
+Under the above heading are included certain forms arising from excess
+not of growth, but of development, and consisting in the formation of
+supplementary lobes or excrescences from various organs.
+
+The new formations are not due either to a repetition or to a partition
+of any organ, but are out-growths from others previously formed.
+
+In prolification and in multiplication the adventitious structures are
+of independent origin. In fission the new developments grow
+simultaneously with the older ones, of which, indeed, they are mere
+repetitions. Moreover, in fission the supplementary lobes do not, in
+general, project a plan different from that of the original structure,
+at least in the first instance, though their direction may ultimately
+become changed.
+
+In enation the new growth projects from a previously formed organ after
+it has attained to considerable size, or even after its ordinary
+proportions have been attained, and it sprouts out from the beginning in
+a plane which is at a considerable angle to that of the parent organ,
+and it is sometimes of a different structure from it, and has different
+functions to fulfil.
+
+Many of the instances that occur of scales projecting from petals, as in
+_Caryophylleae_, _Sapindaceae_, &c., the coronal filaments of
+passion-flowers, the cup of _Narcissus_, the appendages that beset the
+segments of the perianth in _Lilium lancifolium_, and other similar
+growths, may be referred to a like process. In many cases this has been
+proved by a study of the development of the flower, from which it
+appears that the growths in question are developed subsequently to the
+formation of the ordinary floral whorls. It is requisite, however, to be
+cautious in pronouncing upon the exact nature of these bodies, in the
+absence of a knowledge of their period and mode of formation. They may
+be mere outgrowths from one or other of the customary whorls, or they
+may represent abortive stamens or petals, &c. Where circumstances
+prevent the course of development from being traced, something may be
+inferred as to their real nature from their position in regard to the
+other parts of the flower, from their anatomical structure, and from
+analogy or comparison with like organs in other plants. The period of
+their formation is, perhaps, of less importance than was at one time
+supposed, since it is well ascertained that, in some cases, the
+formation of the parts of the flower, _e.g._ the stamens of mallows,
+follows a centrifugal rather than a centripetal order.
+
+In the case of monstrous developments of this nature too much care can
+hardly be exercised, and the observer should rarely venture on an
+explanation of the nature of the case from the evidence afforded by the
+monstrous growth apart from that to be derived from the study of the
+development and organization of the normal flower and from analogous
+formations in allied plants.
+
+=Excrescences from axile organs--Warts.=--In a preceding paragraph the
+formation of gnaurs has been alluded to. There are other outgrowths,
+called warts, occasionally met with in trees, and which are more closely
+connected with the central tissues of the stem, while at the same time
+they are not provided with buds, in which two particulars warts differ
+from gnaurs.
+
+Excrescences of this kind often attain a very large size, and may be
+seen on old elms and other trees, but, as their formation is probably
+more pathological than teratological, no further notice of these
+structures need here be given. No special notice need here be taken of
+the tubercles on the roots of so many _Leguminosae_, nor of the peculiar
+excrescences on the roots of _Taxodium distichum_, as these appear to be
+normal formations. But it may be well to mention in this place an
+anomalous development which occurs occasionally in _Ruscus aculeatus_,
+and in which, from the upper surface of the ordinary flattened leaf-like
+branch, projects at right angles a second similar branch, so that in
+section the appearance would be like that of the inverted letter t;
+thus, [Symbol: Inverted upper-case T].
+
+=Enation from foliar organs--Leaves.=--The development of adventitious
+lobes from leaves may take place either from their surfaces or their
+margins. A few illustrations may be given of each. In cabbage leaves a
+formation of adventitious laminae projecting at right angles from the
+primary one may frequently be observed. In the instance figured (fig.
+210) the new growths proceeded almost exclusively from the thick midrib,
+which, in the figure, is shown cut through just above the base. Not only
+is the ordinary semilunar band of vascular tissue to be here seen, but a
+similar broken line of vessels exists on the upper side of the
+leaf-stalk; thus the whole structure resembles that of a stem or a
+branch as much as that of a true leaf.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 210.--Section through base of midrib of cabbage
+leaf, showing supplementary laminae, &c.]
+
+The development of secondary leaves from the surfaces of primary ones
+(phyllomania, autophyllogeny) has already been alluded to at p. 355.
+
+Some of the cases wherein a leaf seems to have a double lamina may be
+alluded to here, though possibly they would more properly be referred to
+fission. The appearance presented is as if four wings projected from the
+midrib, so that a cross section would be nearly in the form of
+[Symbol: )O( turned 90 degrees.]. In an orange leaf presenting this
+appearance the lower surface of one lamina was, as usual, dull in
+colour, while the upper surface of the subjacent lamina was likewise
+dull; hence the impression might arise that this was an instance of the
+adhesion of two leaves back to back, but the petioles were not twisted,
+as they must have been had two leaves thus been united, and neither in
+the petiole nor in the midrib was there the slightest indication of
+fusion, the vascular bundles being arranged in a circular manner, not in
+a horseshoe-like arrangement, as would have been the case had adhesion
+taken place.[518] (See p. 33.)
+
+Such leaves as those of the hedgehog holly, _Ilex Aquifolium_, var.
+_feroae_, and, to a less extent, bullate leaves, may also be mentioned
+here as illustrations of hypertrophy or enation.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 211.--_Nephrodium molle_. Ordinary frond and forked
+and crested varieties of the same, the crest arising from the inordinate
+development of the margins of the pinnules.]
+
+When the increased development occurs at the margin of the leaves,
+especially, the result is a wavy or crisped appearance, "folia undulata,
+_vel_ crispa."[519] These conditions occur normally in such leaves as
+those of _Rumex crispus_, _Malva crispa_, &c., and are developed to an
+extreme degree in garden varieties of parsley, some kails, &c., as well
+as in many ferns, but these are probably cases rather of fission than
+enation as here understood.[520]
+
+=Enation from the sepals.=--The basal lobes of the calyx in _Campanula
+Medium_, under normal circumstances, may be referred to in illustration
+of this occurrence, while the adventitious spurs on the calyx of some
+monstrous flowers seem due also to a like cause. These have already been
+alluded to at p. 315.
+
+=Enation from the corolla.=--The instances of this are more frequent
+than in the case of the calyx, and admit of classification according as
+they occur in polypetalous or gamopetalous flowers, on the outer or
+inner surface of the petals, &c. Under natural circumstances the
+formation of scales, lobes, &c., from the petals, as in some
+_Caryophylleae_, _Sapindaceae_, &c. &c., may be explained, as already
+remarked, by this process, rather than by fission, chorisis, or by
+substitution of petals for stamens, &c. Each case must, however, be
+examined on its own merits, as it is not safe to decide upon the
+arrangement of parts in one flower by simply referring to the analogy of
+others. In the following illustrations the course of development has
+not, in all cases, been observed, and hence the explanation here given
+must be taken with some reserve; for should it prove that the
+adventitious lobes, &c., are formed simultaneously with the ordinary
+petals, the case will be one of chorisis rather than of enation, as here
+understood. Again, it may be that the supernumerary organs really
+represent petals or stamens in disguise, though this hypothesis demands
+the further assumption (in order to account for the interference with
+the law of alternation) that suppression of certain organs has taken
+place.
+
+Taking first those instances in which the supplementary petals appear on
+the inner surface of the corolla, as being at once the most frequent,
+and as presenting the closest analogy, with similar conformations, under
+natural circumstances, certain double-flowered varieties of the Chinese
+primrose, _Primula sinensis_, may be mentioned. In these flowers the
+calyx is normal, the tube of the corolla is traversed by ten vascular
+bundles, and the limb is divided into ten fimbriated lobes. About
+halfway up the tube, on the inner surface, are given off five
+supernumerary petals, opposite to as many lobes of the corolla. Some of
+the supplementary petals have a stamen in front of them, in the same
+relative position as in the normal flower. In some cases the back or
+outer surface of the supplementary petal is turned towards the inner or
+upper surface of the primary corolla, thus [Symbol: ((turned 90 degrees
+cw]; while, in other instances, the front of the adventitious lobe is
+directed towards the corresponding surface of the original petal, thus
+[Symbol: () turned 90 degrees]. Whether these supernumerary petals are
+formed by chorisis or by enation cannot, with certainty, be determined
+without examining the early stages of development.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 212.--_Datura fastuosa._ True corolla turned back to
+show the supernumerary corolla with the petal-like segments attached to
+its outer surface (reduced).]
+
+Of more interest are those instances where the adventitious growth is on
+the outside of the corolla; thus in a garden azalea there was
+intermediate between the calyx and the corolla, both of which were
+normal, a series of five petalodes, alternating with the sepals, and,
+therefore, opposite to the lobes of the corolla, and adherent with them
+at the very base, though elsewhere detached. These petalodes were
+concave on the surface looking towards the calyx, and were there
+brightly coloured, while the tint of the opposite surface looking
+towards the corolla was of a duller hue, corresponding with that of the
+outside of the corolla-tube. This arrangement of the colour was thus
+precisely similar to that which occurred in the four-winged leaves
+already referred to at p. 446. In some flowers of _Datura fastuosa_ a
+similar series of excrescences was observed; the calyx and the corolla
+were normal within the latter, intervening between it and the stamens
+was a second corolla produced by duplication, and adherent to the inner
+surface of this latter were five stamens. So far there was nothing very
+peculiar; it remains to say, however, that on the outer surface of the
+second corolla were five petal-like lobes closely adherent to it below,
+but partially detached above. The colour of the adventitious segments
+was paler on the outside than on the inner surface, as in the corolla
+itself. The position of the several parts was such that they were
+opposite one to the other; hence, while the lobes of the inner corolla
+were opposite to those of the outer one, the intermediate petalodes were
+opposite to both; thus:
+
+ S S S S S
+ --------------------------
+ P P P P P
+ X X X X X
+ --------------------------
+ P P P P P
+ st st st st st
+
+The X indicating the position of the petalodes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 213.--Gloxinia, with supernumerary segments on the
+outside of the true corolla.]
+
+A still more singular case is that of a variety of the Gloxinia,
+described originally by Professor Edouard Morren,[521] but which is now
+becoming common in English gardens. When first observed these flowers
+were observed to produce petaloid segments outside the ordinary corolla,
+and partially adherent to (or rather, not completely separated from it)
+much as in the azalea before mentioned, the outer surface being brightly
+coloured, like the inner surface of the corolla in ordinary gloxinias.
+Being encouraged and tended by gardeners, in course of time, instead of
+a series of petalodes, more or less distinct from one another, a second
+corolla or "catacorolla" was formed outside the primary one, so that a
+hose in hose flower was produced, but, in this case, the supplementary
+flower was formed on the outside and not within the ordinary corolla.
+Moreover, the disposition of the colour was reversed, for in the
+outermost corolla the richest hues were on the outer surface, while in
+the inner or true corolla they were on the inside.
+
+Professor Morren considers the adventitious petalodes as rudiments of so
+many supplementary flowers, axillary to the calyx, and adnate to the
+corolla; each lobe then would, in this view, represent an imperfect
+flower, and the completed catacorolla would be formed of a series of
+confluent flowers of this description. But this view involves the
+assumption of the suppression of all the parts of the flower, except the
+lobes in question.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 214.--"Catacorolla" of _Gloxinia_, formed from the
+union of adventitious petalodes on the outside of the true corolla
+(after Morren).]
+
+The view here propounded that the lobes in question are enations from
+the true petals, which become confluent, so as to form the catacorolla,
+is surely more simple, involves no assumptions of suppression of parts;
+and moreover, is borne out by the examination of some flowers, where the
+production of these adventitious lobes from the outside of the minute
+partially developed petals could be distinctly seen.
+
+=Enation from the stamens.=--An illustration of this process occurred in
+some double-flowered rhododendrons, which presented the following
+arrangement of parts:--calyx and corolla normal; within the latter eight
+petal-like stamens, forming a pseudo-corolla. The appearance presented
+by the petaloid filaments and anthers was as if they were adnate to the
+centre of the petals, but, on closer examination, it appeared that the
+petaloid expansion to which the dilated filament was apparently
+attached, was equally a part of the stamens; in other words, that the
+filament was provided with four petal-like wings, two on each side
+[Symbol: 00 topped by (turned cw 90 deg., an o above and another ( turned cw
+above that]. This disposition was well seen in the anther, half of which
+was, in some cases, petaloid like the filament; in fact, the inner wing
+of the latter was directly continuous with the petal-like expansion from
+the anther. A section through the latter showed, going from within
+outwards, the cut edges of two perfect polliniferous lobes in the
+centre; and on either side the petaloid wing representing the remaining
+anther-lobe; outside these were the edges of the remaining wings, one on
+each side. (See p. 290, fig. 155.)
+
+=Enation from the carpels.=--The only instances of this that need be
+referred to are such cases as those in which spur-like projections,
+horns, tubercles, or winged expansions, are formed from the surface of
+the ovary during the course of its development. The extraordinary
+cornute oranges described and figured by Ferrari, Gallesio, and other
+writers on the genus _Citrus_, may be mentioned under this head. A
+similar formation occurs in the fruit of some species of _Solanum_. (See
+p. 316.)
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[518] It is desirable in this place to allude to a singular case of
+fissiparous division of a leaf of _Prunus Laurocerasus_ described by
+Prof. Alexander Dickson ('Seemann's Journ. Botany,' vol. v, 1867, p.
+323), and which did not come under the writer's notice till after the
+sheet relating to fission, p. 61, had been sent to press. Dr. Dickson
+thus speaks of this abnormal leaf:--"The petiole (unchanged) supported
+two laminae, placed back to back, and united by their midribs (_i.e._ not
+separated) to within about an inch from their extremities, which were
+perfectly free from each other. These laminae stood vertically, their
+edges being directed towards and away from the axis; and as they were
+placed back to back, the shining surfaces, corresponding in structure to
+the normal upper leaf-surface, were directed laterally outwards. In the
+axil of this abnormal leaf were two axillary buds. The existence of two
+leaf-apices and two axillary buds shows that this was not due to an
+accidental exuberance of development, but to fissiparous division,
+which, had it been complete, would have resulted in the replacement of a
+single leaf by two leaves. The arrangement in Prof. Dickson's leaf may
+be thus represented: [Symbol: )OO( with X above]. The nature of the case
+may be even better seen by comparison with the normal arrangement, which
+would be [Symbol: (OX turned 90 degrees ccw], while in those cases where
+the fission of the leaf occurs in the same plane as that of the primary
+lamina, as where a leaf splits into two lobes at the apex, with a midrib
+to each, the arrangement is as follows: [Symbol: OX turned 90 degrees
+ccw, with 2 arcs below forming a half circle], the X in all cases
+representing the position of the axis, the O that of the axillary bud,
+and the [Symbol: ( turned 90 degrees ccw] that of the laminae."
+
+[519] Linn., 'Phil. Bot.,' Sec. 274. The term "_crispa_" is surely
+preferable to that of Re, "phyllorhyseme."
+
+[520] See C. Morren, "Consid. sur les deformations," &c., in 'Bull.
+Acad. Belg.,' 1852, tom, xix, part 3, p. 444; and as to ferns, see
+Moore, 'Nature-Printed British Ferns,' 8vo ed., where numerous
+illustrations are given.
+
+[521] 'Bull. Acad. Belg.,' t. xix, p. 224, tab. i; and 'Gardeners'
+Chronicle,' 1865, p. 865.
+
+
+
+
+PART II.
+
+ATROPHY.
+
+
+Under the head of atrophy are included those cases wherein the organs
+affected are actually present, but in a dwarfed and stunted condition as
+compared with surrounding parts.
+
+The diminished size is, in such instances, obviously due to a partial
+development and to an arrest of growth at a certain stage, from the
+operation of various causes, either external or inherent to the
+organization itself. It may affect any part of the plant, and exists, in
+very varying degree, in different instances, being sometimes so slight
+in amount as not to preclude the exercise of the functions of the part;
+while in others, the structure is so incomplete that the office cannot
+be performed. These differences depend, of course, upon the stage of
+development which the organ had reached when its growth was checked. For
+practical purposes atrophy may be distinguished from suppression by the
+fact that in the latter case a certain element of the flower or plant
+which, under ordinary circumstances, is present, is entirely wanting,
+while, in the former class, it exists but in a rudimentary condition.
+
+Again, atrophy is to be separated from that general diminution in the
+size of the whole plant or of distinct parts of that plant which is
+comprised under the term "nanism." Thus the several dwarf varieties of
+plants (var. _nanae_), or those in which the leaves or flowers are
+smaller than usual (var. _parvifoliae_, v. _parviflorae_), are truly
+regarded as variations, and not as malformations properly so called.
+
+Atrophy is partial and special in its operation, nanism is general.
+
+Under ordinary circumstances atrophy is exemplified by the presence of
+rudimentary or imperfect organs, as, for instance, in _Pentstemon_,
+_Scrophularia_, &c., where one stamen is atrophied.
+
+For convenience sake atrophy may be divided into abortion and
+degeneration, the first including cases where, from arrest of
+development occurring at an early stage, organs are present; but in a
+much smaller and more rudimentary condition than usual, their form and
+general appearance, except so far as regards their dimensions, not being
+materially altered. On the other hand, in cases of degeneration,
+development is not entirely checked, but rather perverted, so that not
+only the dimensions are lessened, but the form is altered.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+ABORTION.
+
+
+The sense in which this term is here understood has been explained in
+the preceding paragraph. It is only necessary to say further, that cases
+of abortion are to be distinguished from those of suppression, on the
+one hand, and those of degeneration on the other. In suppression there
+is from the first an absolute deficiency of a particular organ. In
+degeneration the part is present, but in a diminished and perverted
+condition. In abortion it exists, but in a stunted and dwarfed, but not
+otherwise permuted state.
+
+=Abortion of axile organs.=--When the main stem is arrested in its
+growth, the habit and general appearance of the plant are materially
+altered, as in the so-called stemless plants, _plantae acaules_. In these
+the internodes are so slightly developed that the leaves are closely
+crowded in tufts or rosettes. When this shortening of the stem
+(acaulosia) occurs, without other considerable change in other organs,
+the deviation is classed under the head of variation rather than of
+monstrosity; and, indeed, in very many plants, this arrested growth of
+the axis is the rule rather than the exception. When occurring in an
+abnormal manner, atrophy of the stem is most frequently attended by
+other more or less grave alterations in other structures; thus
+Moquin-Tandon[522] cites an instance of _Camphorosma monspeliaca_,
+wherein the stems presented the form of very short, hard, woody
+tubercles, thickly clothed with deformed leaves, and invested by a vast
+number of hairs, longer and more dense than usual. A similar deformity
+sometimes occurs in an Indian species of _Artabotrys_; in these
+specimens the branchlets are contracted in length, and bear numerous
+closely packed scaly leaves, densely hairy, and much smaller than
+ordinary.
+
+Spines and thorns may he looked on as atrophied branches, and seem to
+result from poorness of soil, as the same plants, which, in hungry land,
+produce spines, develop their branches to the full extent when grown
+under more favorable conditions.[523]
+
+In the birch an arrest of development in some of the branches is of
+common occurrence. The branch suddenly ceases to grow in length; at the
+same time it thickens at the end into a large bulbous knob, from which
+are developed a profusion of small twigs, whose direction is sometimes
+exactly the reverse of that of the main branch. (See p. 347.)
+
+The branches of the common spruce fir, especially the lateral ones, when
+attacked by a particular species of aphis, are very apt to be developed
+into a cone-like excrescence.[524]
+
+A shortened condition of the flower-stalks occurs occasionally, greatly
+altering the general character of the inflorescence. This has been
+observed in pelargoniums and in the Chinese primrose, in both of which
+the effect was to replace the umbellate form of inflorescence by a
+capitate one.
+
+=Abortion of the receptacle.=--Here may be mentioned those cases of
+flowers with habitually inferior ovary (real or apparent), in which the
+receptacle fails, from some cause or other, to dilate as usual. This has
+already been alluded to under the head of Prolification, Displacements,
+&c. (pp. 78, 130, &c., figs. 35-37, 64, &c.), and hence requires only
+incidental comment in this place. There are, however, certain other
+cases of a similar nature which may here be referred to; such as the
+abortive condition of the inferior ovary, or rather of the receptacle,
+that usually encircles the ovary in _Compositae_ and _Umbelliferae_. In
+the former natural order the following plants have been met with in this
+condition:--_*Tragopogon pratense!_, *_Cirsium arvense_, _Hypochaeris
+radicata_, _Senecio vulgaris!_, _Coreopsis Drummondi_. In the latter
+order, _Daucus Carota!_ _OEnanthe crocata!_ and _Thysselinum
+palustre_, seem most frequently to have been observed in this
+state.[525] In some gourds the receptacle may be seen partially
+developed only, and forming a kind of cup, from which the true carpels
+protrude.
+
+=Abortion of the leaves.=--Arrest of growth in the leaves occurs in
+different ways; sometimes the whole leaf is smaller than usual; at other
+times certain parts only are reduced in size; while, in a third class of
+cases, portions of the leaf are entirely suppressed.
+
+Moquin[526] mentions having seen the leaves of _Chenopodium vulvaria_,
+and of _Diplotaxis muralis_ reduced to a fourth of their natural size;
+and he alludes to other cases of the same nature, seen by other
+observers, in _Hypericum perforatum_ and _Blitum polymorphum_.
+
+_Nicandra physaloides_[527] has also been met with in a similar
+condition, which, indeed, is a common result of insect-puncture, and of
+fungous growth in plants. Those instances in which the leaf is
+diminished in size, without any attendant malformation in other organs,
+may be regarded rather as variations than as monstrosities, as in the
+case of the entire-leaved varieties of those plants which ordinarily
+have cut or divided leaves, _e.g._ _Plantago Coronopus_, var.
+_integrifolia_, _Papaver Rhoeas integrifolia_, &c. &c. The same remark
+may be made of those specimens in which one part of the leaf is
+developed to a less extent than another, as happens in the submerged
+leaves of such plants as _Ranunculus aquatilis_, _Cabomba aquatica_, the
+spiney leaves of _Berberis_, the fenestrated leaves of _Ouvirandra_, &c.
+In the illustrations last cited the relative deficiency of one portion,
+as contrasted with another, takes place as a constant occurrence, and is
+uniform and regular throughout the whole leaf. When, on the other hand,
+the deficiency in question happens accidentally and irregularly, the
+change may be considered as a malformation. One side of the blade of the
+leaf is frequently affected in this manner, the other portions remaining
+unaffected. It would appear as if any plant might be thus altered, but
+the following species appear to be particularly subject to this change:
+_AEesculus Hippocastanum_, _Digitalis purpurea_, _Morus alba_, _Fagus
+silvatica contracta_ (hort.), _Codiaeum variegatum_ var. _erosum_
+(hort.), _Broussonettia papyrifera_, _Scolopendrium vulgare_, &c.
+
+Frequently this irregular diminution in proportion is coexistent with an
+unusual degree of cleavage or laciniation of the margin, as in _Acer
+platanoides laciniatum_, _Tilia asplenifolia_, _Alnus imperialis_
+(hort.), _Fagus silvatica_ var. (hort.), &c.
+
+In the case of what are sometimes termed interrupted leaves, the laminar
+portions of the leaf are here and there deficient on both sides of the
+midrib, leaving small portions of the latter, as it were, denuded and
+connecting the segments of the laminae one with the other. This has been
+observed amongst other plants in _Veronica latifolia_, _Broussonettia
+papyrifer_, _Codiaeum variegatum_ var. _interruptum_ (hort.),
+_Scolopendrium vulgare_, &c.[528] (See p. 328.)
+
+In some of the leaves which have been already referred to in
+illustration of the inordinate growth of the cellular portions, the
+increased development of parenchyma is associated with a contracted
+state of the midrib and its branches, producing a puckered appearance of
+the leaf, an exaggerated degree of that change which produces what are
+termed "folia bullata." In illustration may be cited various species of
+_Mentha_, _Perilla_, _Coleus_, _Fagus silvatica crispa_, _Cytisus_,
+_Laburnum_ var., and other forms, cultivated in gardens for their
+singularity.
+
+Entire absence of the stalk of the leaf occurs normally in sessile
+leaves; on the other hand the blade of the leaf is only occasionally
+developed in the phyllodineous Acacias, in some species of _Oxalis_,
+_Indigofera_, _Lebeckia_, _Ranunculus_, _Bupleurum_, &c.
+
+De Candolle,[529] from a consideration of _Strelitzia juncea_, in which
+the petiole alone is developed, was led to the inference that in many
+monocotyledonous plants the blade of the leaf was never developed, the
+portion present being the sheath or stalk, unprovided with limb. The
+correctness of this inference is shown, amongst other things, by the
+occasional presence of a leaf-blade in _Strelitzia juncea_ itself.
+
+Occasionally the laminar portions of the leaf are completely wanting,
+leaving only the main ribs, as in the case of _Berberis_, while the
+adjoining figure (fig. 215) represents an instance of a cabbage wherein
+the innermost leaves are represented by thick fleshy cylindrical bodies
+corresponding to the midribs of the ordinary leaves. There is in
+cultivation a variety of the cabbage which constantly presents this
+peculiarity.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 215.--Inner leaves of cabbage reduced to their
+midribs.]
+
+The suppression of one or more leaflets of a compound leaf has already
+been referred to at p. 396.
+
+=Abortion of the perianth, calyx, and corolla.=--Illustrations of
+partial development in these organs are not rare, under ordinary
+circumstances, as for instance the "obsolete" calyx of Umbellifers. In
+the cauliflower the branches of the inflorescence are contracted in
+length, while their succulence is much increased; at their extremities
+they bear crowds of imperfect flowers, in which the calyx only is
+visible, and that only in a rudimentary and partially developed
+condition. Imperfect development of the whole or of some of the
+constituent parts is more common in the case of the corolla than in that
+of the calyx. In _Arenaria serpyllifolia_ the petals, especially in
+autumn, are only one fourth the length of the sepals. _Anagallis
+phoenicea_, _Honckenya peploides_, _Arabis alpina_, _Ranunculus
+auricomus_, _Rubus fruticosus_, and _Geranium columbinum_, also
+frequently afford illustrations of this circumstance.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 216.--Abortion of four out of five petals, _Viola
+tricolor_, side and front views.]
+
+At fig. 216 is represented a pansy in which four of the five petals were
+very small and colourless, while the lower spurred petal was of the
+usual size and colour. In this flower the stamens and pistils were
+wholly suppressed, and the flower-stalk, instead of being bent near the
+flower, retained its primary straight direction. Similar atrophic
+conditions of the corolla occur habitually among _Violaceae_.
+
+The diminished size of the petals sometimes coexists with an increase in
+their number, as in a flower of _Streptocarpus Rexii_, mentioned by
+Bureau.[530]
+
+Among monocotyledons this partial development seems to be even more
+frequent than in dicotyledons. In addition to the well-known cases of
+certain species of _Bellevalia_ and _Muscari_, wherein the uppermost
+flowers of the raceme are more or less atrophied (see p. 347, fig.
+179), a few less common illustrations may be cited. In crocuses it is
+not a very uncommon circumstance to find the three inner segments of the
+perianth smaller than natural, and generally unequal in size. This
+occurs without any other perceptible change in the flower.
+
+Schlechtendal[531] mentions a flower of _Fritillaria imperialis_ in
+which the perianthial leaves were relatively very small, and destitute
+of the usual nectary, while the stamens, on the other hand, were of
+their natural size and appearance. Fresenius[532] records a similar
+occurrence in the same plant.
+
+Morren[533] gives details of like appearances in _Hymenocallis
+americana_, and Delavaud[534] in _Tigridia pavonia_.
+
+In certain orchids an arrested development of the perianth is habitual,
+as in _Oncidium abortivum_ (fig. 217), where, on a large branching
+panicle, numerous abortive, but few perfect, flowers are produced.
+In a similar way the petals and labellum of _Odontoglossum
+Uro-Skinneri_ have been found reduced to filamentous processes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 217.--Flower of _Oncidium abortivum_, magnified.]
+
+=Abortion of the stamens.=--Atrophy of one or more stamens is of very
+common occurrence, as a general rule, in many genera of plants, _e.g._
+_Scrophularia_, _Erodium_, many _Restiaceae_, &c. &c. As a strictly
+teratological condition atrophy of the stamens is more rare than
+complete suppression. It has been noticed in _Arabis alpina_, _Cerastium
+glomeratum_, _C. tetrandrum_, _Rhamnus catharticus_, _Anemone_,
+_Hepatica_, &c. It happens frequently among Orchids both wild and
+cultivated. In the _Hymenocallis_ flowers described by the elder Morren,
+four out of five stamens were atrophied. In other flowers, otherwise
+perfectly formed, one abortive stamen was found bearing a spherical
+indehiscent anther. All these atrophied anthers of _Hymenocallis_ were
+found to contain pollen, differing at first sight but little from what
+is usual, but presenting this important peculiarity, that while the
+normal pollen does not burst until it comes into contact with the
+stigma, in the abnormal flowers the outer coat of the pollen-grains
+split while still within the anther, from which latter, indeed, they
+could not escape, owing to the indehiscent nature of the latter. Again,
+the pollen-tube of the abnormal grains cracked, in its turn, on mere
+exposure to the air, and liberated the fovilla, so that the pollen of
+these atrophied anthers was necessarily impotent, because it opened
+before it could be applied to the stigma, even had that been rendered
+possible by the opening of the anther.
+
+An abortive condition of the stamens and of the pollen, is of very
+common occurrence among hybridised plants. Gaertner and other writers
+have spoken of this defective condition as contabescence.[535] It forms
+one reason for the sterility so frequently observed in the case of true
+hybrids. In some hybrid passion-flowers, while all other parts of the
+flower were apparently perfect, even to the ovules, the stamens were
+atrophied, and distorted, and contained little or no pollen; the few
+grains of the latter being smaller than usual. (See under Heterogamy,
+pp. 193-196, and p. 398.)
+
+=Abortion of the pistil, fruit, &c.=--Traces of the carpels occur in
+many male flowers of unisexual plants, _e.g._ _Sterculiaceae_,
+_Euphorbiaceae_, _Restiaceae_, &c. &c., and in some natural orders there
+appears to be a tendency towards a dioecious condition, _e.g._
+_Caryophylleae_, as in _Lychnis dioica_, _Silene otites_, _Arenaria
+tetraquetra_, &c. The last-named plant is stated to have, in some cases,
+imperfect pistils; in others, rudimentary stamens; while a third set of
+flowers are hermaphrodite.[536] The ovary of aconites, according to
+Moquin, is very subject to atrophy.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 218.--Bladder plum.]
+
+During the maturation of the pistil, and its passage to the fruit, great
+changes of consistence frequently take place, owing to the development
+of cellular tissue, or of woody matter, according as the fruit is
+succulent or woody. It sometimes happens that, owing to some disturbing
+causes, the changes that usually occur fail to do so; thus, the stone of
+plums is occasionally deficient, as in what are termed bladder-plums
+(fig. 218); some of these, consisting merely of a thin bladder, are
+curiously like the pods of _Colutea_.[537]
+
+MM. Fournier and Bonnet[538] describe a fruit of a _Rubus_, with
+perfectly dry fruits, like those of a _Geum_, and this form was
+considered by Steudel to form a distinct species. It is, however, merely
+a variety in which the fruits have not become succulent.[539]
+
+Schlechtendal describes[540] the ordinarily baccate fruit of a vine as
+becoming dry, and even dehiscing by valves like a capsule.
+
+In maize it occasionally happens that one or two of the longitudinal
+series of fruits become abortive, leaving a smooth furrow, at first of a
+greenish colour, but ultimately of a reddish yellow. Often a second row
+of fruits, opposite to the first, is also atrophied, so that the whole
+spike changes its cylindrical form for a flattened one.[541] See also
+under Heterogamy, Meiophylly, &c.
+
+=Abortion of the ovules.=--In the case of a pluri-ovulate ovary it
+rarely happens that all the ovules attain to maturity, some never get
+fertilised, others, pressed on by their neighbours on either side,
+become impeded in their development, and finally disappear, or remain as
+rudiments.[542] This is the case, under ordinary circumstances, and
+still more so in the case of hybrid plants, or of monsters. Where the
+outer coats of the ovule become more or less leafy in appearance (see p.
+262), the inner investments become more or less atrophied, or are even
+more frequently entirely suppressed, as is also the nucleus.
+
+In other cases, a simple arrest of development takes place; the ovule,
+for instance, which should be anatropal, remains straight, while the
+integuments, checked in their development, form imperfect sheaths from
+which the shrivelled nucleus protrudes.
+
+=Depauperated Ferns.=--The preceding illustrations have been taken from
+flowering plants chiefly, but a similar defective development is
+manifested in cryptogamous plants. The contraction and imperfect
+development of the fronds of some varieties of ferns, hence called
+depauperated, may receive passing notice, as also the cases in which the
+sori or clusters of spore cases are denuded of their usual covering,
+owing to the abortion or imperfect development of the indusium, as in
+what are termed exindusiate varieties.[543]
+
+=General remarks on abortion, coincident changes, &c.=--Reference has
+already been made, while treating of hypertrophy, suppression, &c., to
+certain other changes affecting the flower at the same time. Atrophy of
+one organ or set of organs, for instance, is frequently accompanied by a
+compensating hypertrophy or by an increased number of other parts. In
+the feather-hyacinth, _Muscari comosum_, var., _monstrosum_, the absence
+of flowers is compensated for by the inordinate formation of brightly
+coloured threads which appear to be modified pedicels (see pp. 347,
+348); so also in the wig plant, _Rhus Cotinus_. So the atrophy of the
+stamens, in some flowers, is coincident with the hypertrophy of the
+pistil. Thus, Unger, 'Denkschr. d. Kais. Acad. der Wissensch. Math. Nat.
+Classe,' Mai 25, 1848, p. 103, tab. ix, describes a case wherein the
+corolla and stamens of _Desmodium marylandicum_ were atrophied, while
+the calyx and legume, on the other hand, were hypertrophied.
+
+Fusion of the members of one whorl with one another, or with the
+components of an adjacent series, often entails atrophy or suppression,
+either in the united organs themselves, or in adjacent ones. A
+foliaceous condition of the outer portions of a flower is very generally
+attended by atrophy or complete suppression of the inner portions.
+
+From this point of view the observations of Morren[544] on the different
+degrees of atrophy up to complete suppression, observable in the flowers
+of _Bellevalia comosa_, are of importance. According to this observer,
+the most highly differentiated parts, such as the stigmas, the ovules,
+and the anthers, are the first to disappear, the filaments often being
+developed without anthers. Ultimately a deformed and empty perianth
+alone remains. In the ordinary course of things the mouth of the
+perianth is open, but in some of these malformations it is closed, and
+when that happens, the effects of atrophy are the more observable in the
+stamens and pistils.
+
+The impotence of the pollen in certain atrophied flowers, as noticed by
+the same observer, is of much interest, especially in reference to the
+sexual relationship between the different forms in polymorphic flowers
+as studied by Mr. Darwin.
+
+A change in direction may also be noted as a common accompaniment of
+atrophy or suppression; thus, in a capsule of _Veronica Beccabunga_,
+which was one-celled by the abortion of one carpel, the style was
+lateral instead of terminal.
+
+As to the causes of these structural deviations but little is known;
+certain of them have been already alluded to. In some cases atrophy and
+suppression maybe regarded as permanent states of a condition usually
+transitory, but this is clearly not always the case. Among external
+causes anything bringing about an enfeebled condition might be supposed
+to lead to atrophy, or suppression of some parts.
+
+Gaertner[545] attributes the arrested development and fall of flowers to
+some among the following causes:--1. non-application of the pollen of
+the same variety, and consequent imperfect fertilisation; 2. any
+considerable injury to the calyx, &c.; 3. destruction of the style or
+stigma before the fertilisation of the ovary; 4. application to the
+stigma of imperfect or heterogeneous pollen or indifferent pulverulent
+matter; 5. defective conceptive power in the ovary.
+
+Abortion of the ovules is considered by the same authority to be due
+to--1. deficiency of heat; 2. excess of moisture; 3. peculiar formation
+of the ovary; 4. over-luxuriant development of roots or buds; 5.
+peculiar conditions of cultivation; thus, cuttings and layers produce
+sterile and abortive seeds much more frequently than plants of the same
+species raised from seed; 6. abortion of the seed is often combined with
+luxuriant development of the walls of the fruit.
+
+Temperature and climatal changes in general seem not to be without
+effect, as has been already mentioned in the case of _Arenaria
+tetraquetra_, which is polygamous when growing in mountain districts.
+Other illustrations of a similar character are mentioned under the head
+of Heterogamy (p. 196).
+
+Pressure has been already alluded to as one of the most obvious of the
+inducing causes of atrophy and suppression.
+
+In the case of _Ranunculus auricomus_ before cited, in which the petals
+are rarely perfect, M. de Rochebrune considers that the deficiencies in
+question depend, in great measure, on the amount of moisture in the
+localities where the plant grows. In most places the flowers and carpels
+are apt to become more or less abortive, while the leaves are luxuriant;
+while, in dry places, the foliage is small, but the flowers are more
+perfect. This is quite consonant with other facts relating to the
+development of flowers or of leaves in general.
+
+But while external agencies undoubtedly play some part in bringing about
+these changes, it is almost certain that internal causes inherent to the
+organization of the plant are more important. Mr. Darwin[546] accounts
+for the existence of rudimentary organs by the operation of the general
+rule of inheritance, and explains their stunted condition as the effect
+of disuse, not so much, of course, in the particular flower as in its
+predecessors. This disuse may be the result of the superior efficacy of
+foreign pollen as contrasted with that formed in the individual flower
+itself. In this way many hermaphrodite flowers tend to become
+dioecious, as in _Caryophyllaceae_, _Orchidaceae_, _Plantaginaceae_,
+_Primulaceae_ and other orders.
+
+Although many of the circumstances above mentioned apply to plants whose
+structure is habitually rudimentary, there is no reason why they may
+not, under due restrictions, be applied to plants whose organs are only
+occasionally defective.
+
+ For further remarks on the subject of Abortion, the reader is
+ referred to the sections relating to suppression, etc., also to
+ Moquin-Tandon, 'El. Terat. Veget.,' p. 120; C. Morren, "De
+ l'atrophie en general," in 'Bull. Acad. Belg.,' t. xviii, 1851,
+ part i, p. 275.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[522] 'El. Ter. Veg.,' p. 132.
+
+[523] _Spinosae arbores cultura saepius deponunt spinas in hortis_, 'Linn.
+Phil. Bot.,' Sec. 272.
+
+[524] Mr. Selby, in his 'History of British Forest Trees,' p. 465, gives
+the following account of the formation of this peculiar growth:--"In the
+autumn the parent aphis deposits her eggs at the base of the embryo
+leaves, within the bud destined to produce the shoots of the following
+year. When these begin to burst and expand in spring, the leaves, at
+whose bases the eggs have been deposited, instead of increasing in
+length, enlarge at the base, and form a cell or cyst whose mouth is at
+first closed by a red velvety-looking substance. If opened in this state
+a nest of small greenish aphides is distinctly visible, and at a certain
+period, or when they have acquired maturity, which is towards the end of
+the summer, the mouth of the cell opens and the insects fly off to
+inflict a similar injury upon the nascent buds of the year. In some
+instances the leaves of only a portion of the circumference of a shoot
+are affected, in which case, though a slight distortion may take place,
+the branch is not prevented from elongating; but in others, where the
+whole of the leaves around the shoot are converted into nidi, elongation
+is prevented and distortion to a great extent takes place."
+
+[525] See Cramer, 'Bildungsabweich.,' pp. 53, 64, for further
+references.
+
+[526] 'El. Ter. Veg.,' p. 124.
+
+[527] Schlechtendal, 'Bot. Zeit.,' 1857, vol. xv, p. 67.
+
+[528] On the subject of this paragraph the reader may consult A. Braun,
+"Ueber abnorme Blattbildung," &c., in 'Verhandl.,' d. 35,
+'Naturforscherversammlung;' Jaeger, 'Flora,' 1850. p. 481, tab. 4,
+_Digitalis_.
+
+[529] 'Org. Veget.,' i. p. 286.
+
+[530] 'Bull. Soc. Bot. France, vol. viii, 1861, p. 710.
+
+[531] 'Linnaea,' 1830, vol. v, p. 492.
+
+[532] 'Mus. Senkenb.,' ii. p. 45.
+
+[533] 'Bull. Acad. Roy. Belg.,' 1851, t. xviii. part i, p. 275.
+
+[534] 'Bull. Soc. Bot. France,' vol. viii, 1861, p. 147.
+
+[535] See Darwin, 'Variation of Domest. Anim. and Plants,' ii, 165.
+
+[536] Gay, 'Ann. Sc. Nat.,' ser. i, 1824, t. iii, p. 44.
+
+[537] See De Candolle, 'Mem. Legum.,' tab. 3, f. 1; Wyville Thomson,
+'Trans. Bot. Soc. Edinb.,' 1851, July 10th; Berkeley, 'Gardeners'
+Chronicle,' June 22nd, 1867, p. 654. A similar case is described by Dr.
+Robb, in Sir W. Hooker's 'Journal of Botany,' 1841, vol. iii, p. 99,
+with illustrative figures. The specimens there described were produced
+at New Brunswick, where plum trees flower very freely, but seldom
+produce ripe fruit. Dr. Robb's account is as follows:--"In the summer of
+1839 I had an opportunity of watching the process of destruction among
+the plums, and it was as follows--Before or soon after the segments of
+the corolla had fallen off, the ovarium had become greenish yellow,
+soft, and flabby. As the fruit continued to increase in magnitude, its
+colour grew darker and of a more ruddy yellow, and at the end of a
+fortnight or three weeks the size of the abortive fruit rather exceeded
+that of a ripe walnut. In fact, an observer might imagine himself to be
+walking amongst trees laden with ripe apricots, but, like the fabled
+fruit on the banks of the Dead Sea, these plums, though tempting to the
+eye, when examined, were found to be hollow, containing air, and
+consisting only of a distended skin, insipid, and tasteless. By-and-bye
+a greenish mould is developed on the surface of the blighted fruit; then
+the surface becomes black and shrivelled, and at the expiration of a
+month from the time of flowering the whole are rotten and decomposed.
+The flower appears about the beginning of June, and before August there
+is hardly a plum to be seen. It is curious that where two flower-stalks
+arise from one point of the branch, one will often go on to ripen in the
+normal way, while the other will become abortive, as above described."
+
+In a specimen described by Mr. Berkeley there were two distinct ovules
+of equal size close to the apex of the fruit, connected with the base by
+vessels running down the walls. It should be observed that there is a
+worthless variety of plum, Kirke's stoneless, or Sans Noyau, in which
+the kernel is not surrounded by any bony deposit.
+
+[538] 'Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr.,' 1862, vol. ix, pp. 37 et 291.
+
+[539] Carl Schimp, 'Fl. Friburg,' vii, p. 745; Hook, fil., 'Journ. Linn.
+Soc.,' vi, p. 9.
+
+[540] 'Linnaea,' vol. v, 1830, p. 493.
+
+[541] Moquin-Tandon, 'El. Ter. Veg.,' p. 325.
+
+[542] Alph. De Candolle states that the position of the abortive ovules
+affords a good character for discriminating between certain species of
+_Quercus_, 'Bibl. Univ. Genev.,' 1862, t. xv, p. 929.
+
+[543] See Moore, 'Nature-Printed Ferns,' 8vo, for numerous illustrations
+both of depauperate and exindusiate ferns. _Scolopendrium vulgare_ seems
+to be one of the ferns most commonly affected in this way. Moore, loc.
+cit., vol. ii, pp. 135, 147, 159, 165, &c.
+
+[544] 'Bull. Acad. Belg.,' t. xvii, p. 38, t. 1; Lobelia, p. 85.
+
+[545] Cited in 'Henfrey's Botanical Gazette,' i, p. 179.
+
+[546] 'Origin of Species,' p. 450.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+DEGENERATION.
+
+
+While the terms atrophy and abortion apply in the main to a mere
+diminution of size, as contrasted with the ordinary standard,
+degeneration may be understood to apply to those cases in which not only
+is the absolute bulk diminished, but the whole form is altered and
+depauperated. Degeneration, thus, is the result not so much of a
+deficiency in growth as of a perversion of development.
+
+Under natural, _i.e._ habitual circumstances, the formation of pappus
+in place of a leafy calyx may be considered as an illustration of
+degeneration. It is evident, however, that no very decided line of
+demarcation can be drawn between cases of perversion and of arrest of
+development.
+
+=Formation of scales.=--These may be mere epidermal excrescences, or
+they may be the abortive rudiments of leaves. Of this latter nature are
+the "cataphyllary" leaves which invest the root stocks of so many
+perennial plants, the perulae of leaf-buds, or the paleae on the common
+receptacle of composite flowers. Other illustrations of a like character
+are to be met with in the membranous scales that represent leaves in
+_Ruscus_, _Asparagus_, _Pinus_, &c. Similar productions are met with
+within the flower, where they may occur as the representatives of
+sepals, petals, stamens, or pistils, or as mere excrescences. (See
+Enation.) Whole families of plants, _e.g._ _Sapindaceae_, are
+characterised by the presence of these organs, which are often of great
+interest to the morphologist as indicating the true symmetry of the
+flower, while they have acquired fresh importance since the publication
+of Mr. Darwin's work on the 'Origin of Species,' wherein we are taught
+to regard these rudiments as, in many cases, vestiges of organs that
+were more completely developed in the progenitors of the present race of
+plants, and the exercise of whose functions, from some cause or other,
+having been rendered impossible, the structures become, in process of
+time, proportionately stunted.
+
+Thus, in dioecious plants we frequently find traces of stamens in the
+female flowers, and rudiments of the pistil in the male flower,
+indicating, according to the Darwinian hypothesis, that the ancestors of
+these plants were hermaphrodite (see Heterogamy).
+
+Mr. Darwin has also shown that, in some cases, the utmost degree of
+fertility is attained, not from the action of the pollen on the stigma
+of the same flower, but on the influence of the male element of one
+blossom upon the female organs of another flower on another individual
+plant.
+
+Hence, in such plants there is a tendency to a separation of the sexes,
+while, from what has been before stated, it might be expected that
+rudiments of the male or female organs would be found, and also as a
+result of the operation of the law of inheritance. On the same
+principles it is easy to understand the occasional presence of the
+perfect in place of the rudimentary organs, as in _Dianthus_.
+
+In some instances the assumption of a scale-like form by any organ is
+attended by a change in texture, the organs becoming dry and scarious,
+or fleshy. Moquin cites in illustration of the first phenomenon the
+flower of a _Vicia_, in which the petals were thick and fleshy, like the
+scales of a bulb; and of the second the leaves of a _Chrysanthemum_,
+which were replaced by small, glossy scales, like those which invest
+ordinary leaf-buds. Sometimes the entire flower is replaced by
+accumulations of small, acute, green scales. Cases of this kind, wherein
+the flowers of a pea and of the foxglove were replaced by collections of
+small ovate green scales packed one over the other till they resembled
+the strobile of a hop, have been already alluded to. Most of these
+scales are represented as having had other accumulations of scales in
+their axils.
+
+Similar collections of scales may frequently be met with in the birch
+and in the oak, and probably represent abortive leaf-buds. Other cases
+of a like kind in _Gentiana Amarella_, where the scales are coloured,
+are mentioned elsewhere.
+
+In some kinds of _Campanula_ a similar change is not uncommon.
+
+=Formation of hairs, spines, &c.=--The adventitious production of hairs
+is likewise frequently due to an arrested growth, in some cases arising
+from pressure impeding the proper development of the organ. In other
+cases the formation of hair seems to accompany the diminished
+development of some organ, as on the barren pedicels of the wig plant,
+_Rhus Cotinus_. A similar production of hair may be noticed in many
+cases where the development of a branch or of a flower is arrested, and
+this occurs with especial frequency where the arrest in growth is due to
+the puncture of an insect, or to the formation of a gall. In such cases
+the hairs are mere excrescences from the epidermis.
+
+Prickles differ but little from hairs save in their more woody texture,
+but true spines or thorns are modifications either of a leaf or of a
+branch. Their presence seems often dependent on the soil in which the
+plants grow, or on other external circumstances.
+
+They occur normally in the sepals of _Paronychia serpyllifolia_ and
+other plants.
+
+=Formation of glands.=--Under this name are associated a number of
+(generally) rudimentary organs very different in their morphological
+nature and significance, and also in their functions. Some are truly
+glandular or secreting organs, while others have no visible office.
+Anything like a complete account of these structures would be out of
+place, and reference is only made to them here on account of the
+occasional existence of intermediate forms, which throw light on the
+morphological significance of these structures. Thus, in _Passiflora_
+and _Viburnum Opulus_, the so-called glands on the sides of the petiole
+appear to represent leaflets, and are not unfrequently developed as
+such.
+
+M. Dunal observed a flower of _Cistus vaginatus_ in which some of the
+stamens were replaced by an hypogynous disc.[547] Moquin has seen
+similar instances in the flowers of a Rose, _Hypericum_, and Poppy.
+
+M. Planchon[548] gives an account of some very curious malformations in
+_Drosera intermedia_, which go to show that the ovules are homologous
+with the glandular hairs on the margins of the leaves of these plants,
+an opinion corroborated by the researches of MM. Groenland and
+Trecul.[549]
+
+Dr. Hooker shows that the pitcher of _Nepenthes_ is due to a
+modification of a gland placed at the extremity of the midrib.[550]
+
+=Formation of tendrils.=--These are of very varied morphological import;
+sometimes they are degenerated peduncles, as in passion-flowers, or
+vines; at other times they are of foliar origin; or, again, they may
+proceed from the segments of the perianth, as in _Hodgsonia_ and some
+other cucurbitaceous plants. From their very different origin in
+different plants it is necessary to study the development in each case,
+and not apply to the generality what may be peculiar to one. In any case
+this formation in question generally belongs more to general morphology
+than to teratology.[551]
+
+Kirschleger, however, has recorded the existence of a cirrhose sepal in
+_Cucurbita Pepo_.[552]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[547] 'Consid. Org. Fleur.,' p. 44, pl. ii, fig. 23.
+
+[548] 'Ann. Sc. Nat.,' 3 ser., Bot. ix, pl. 6, ff. 1, 2.
+
+[549] 'Ann. Sc. Nat.,' 3 ser., Bot. 1855, pp. 297, et 303.
+
+[550] 'Trans. Linn. Soc.,' xxii, p. 415.
+
+[551] See Darwin, "On Climbing Plants," 'Journal of Linnean Society,'
+vol. ix, p. 1.
+
+[552] 'Flora,' 1845, p. 615.
+
+
+
+
+GENERAL CONCLUSIONS.
+
+
+At the end of many of the preceding sections, and whenever the
+requirements of the case demanded it, a brief summary of the main facts
+and of the inferences to be derived from them has been given. It may be
+useful to give in conclusion a few general remarks on the whole subject.
+
+It will be seen from the numerous facts herein cited, that the so-called
+monstrous formations (excluding morbid growths the result of disease or
+injury) present no peculiarities absolutely foreign to the normal
+organisation of plants. The difference between the natural and monstrous
+development is one of degree and frequency of occurrence, not of kind.
+
+Deviations from the customary form have been shown to arise from
+excessive or diminished growth, or from arrested or exalted development.
+Even in those instances where, for convenience' sake, the term perverted
+development has been used, it must be understood as applying only to the
+particular plant or organ under consideration, as the form assumed is
+perfectly in accordance with the ordinary conformation of some other
+plant or group of plants.
+
+The period at which malformations occur is a matter of some importance;
+this is, indeed, implied in the term arrest of development; evolution
+goes on with growth up to a certain point and is then stopped, and thus
+changes are brought about in the part affected of a different nature
+from those dependent on non-development or suppression.
+
+Some malformations are congenital, therefore, while others are
+acquired--in the former instance the disturbance is coeval in origin,
+and contemporaneous in its growth and development, with those of the
+affected part; in the latter case the organ may have attained its
+ordinary degree of perfection, or at least may have advanced some way
+towards it, before any deviation shows itself. True chorisis or fission,
+for instance, is usually a congenital affection, arising at a very early
+period of development, while enation takes place from structures which
+are all but complete as to their organisation, even though they may not
+have attained their full dimensions. The date of appearance is also of
+consequence in determining the true nature of some changes; it does not
+always follow, for instance, that because one organ occupies the
+position of another, it is of the same nature as the one whose place it
+fills. The presence of anthers on petals or on such organs as the corona
+of _Narcissus_ does not necessarily constitute those parts actual
+stamens, but rather staminodes. The true stamens are either wanting, or
+if present, they are in advance of their imitators as regards their
+development.
+
+=General morphology of the leaf and axis. Homology.= Since the time when
+Goethe's generalisations were adopted by A. P. De Caudolle, special
+attention has been given to the form and mode of development of the
+leaf-organ; for as it was well said by Wolff, if once the course of
+evolution and the structure of the leaf were known, those of the parts
+of the flower would follow as a matter of course.
+
+It is not necessary, in this place, to pursue the subject of the
+development and construction of the leaf further than they are
+illustrated by ordinary teratological phenomena.
+
+From this point of view perhaps the most interesting circumstance is the
+part that the sheath of the leaf plays.[553] In many cases of so-called
+metamorphosis, it is the sheath of the leaf that is represented and not
+the blade. In normal anatomy the sepals, petals, carpels, and even the
+stamens, as a general rule, correspond to the sheath rather than to the
+blade of the leaf, as may be seen by the arrangement of the veins. The
+blade of the leaf seems to be set apart for special respiratory and
+absorbent offices, while the sheath is in structure, if not in office,
+more akin to the stem. It would not be easy apart from their position to
+distinguish between a tubular sheathing leaf and a hollow stem. The
+development of adventitious growths by chorisis or enation has been
+frequently alluded to in the foregoing pages, and many illustrations
+have been given of the power that leaves have of branching in more than
+one plane, owing to the projection of secondary growing-points from the
+primary organ. These new centres of development are closely connected
+with the fibro-vascular system of the leaf, so that no sooner does a new
+growing point originate, than vessels are formed to connect the new
+growth with the general fibrous cord, see pp. 355, 445. This leads M.
+Casimir De Candollo to consider the entire leaf as a composite
+structure. The morphological unit, says he, is the cellular protrusion
+or growing point (_saillie_) and its corresponding fibro-vascular
+bundle.[554]
+
+The identity, in a morphological point of view, of the leaves and the
+lateral parts of the flower is so thoroughly recognised that little
+need be said on that score, save to repeat that the homology of the
+floral organs is usually not so much with the entire leaf as with its
+sheath.
+
+The most singular instances of morphological identity are those relating
+to the sexual organs. We have seen the gradual transition of stamens to
+pistils, and of pistils to stamens, the development of ovules on the
+edges of the anther, the co-existence of pollen with ovules on an
+antheroid body, and, stranger still, the actual development of pollen
+within the tissues of the ovule itself! From such facts, in addition to
+what we know of the relative position, internal structure, and mode of
+development of the organs, it is impossible to avoid coming to the
+conclusion that, however distinctly these parts may, under ordinary
+circumstances, be set apart for the performance of distinct functions,
+morphologically they are homologous.
+
+These ideas may be carried yet farther--the same sort of evidence, which
+is adduced in support of the morphological identity of leaves with the
+parts of the flower, may be advanced in confirmation of the opinion,
+that, morphologically, there is no distinction between axis and leaf.
+The leaf, according to this view, is a specialised portion of the axis
+set apart to do certain work, just as the petals, stamens, &c., are
+leaves told off for distinct uses. It is unnecessary to refer to the
+intermediate productions linking the leaf-form to that of the axis, all
+that is requisite here is to point out the facts that teratology lends
+in support of these views. These may be summed up by the statement that
+almost all those attributes which morphologists recognise as peculiar to
+one or the other organ respectively, may be and are manifested by both.
+We have the stem acquiring the characters of the leaf, and the leaf
+those of the stem. Thus we have seen leaves, leaf-buds, branches, and
+flower-buds springing from leaves or leaf-organs;[555] see pp. 174, 177,
+445, &c. The structure that we are apt to associate exclusively with
+one is found to pertain to the other. The arrangement of the vascular
+cords in the leaf-organ finds its counterpart in the axis, generally, it
+is true, modified to suit altered circumstances or diverse purposes. In
+some cases the disposition is absolutely indistinguishable in the two
+organs. It may then be said that the distinctions usually drawn between
+axis and leaf are not absolute, and that, however necessary such a
+separation may be for descriptive or physiological purposes,
+morphologically the two organs are identical. Again, it may be said that
+leaf and axis are two phases of the same organ,--an organ capable of
+existing in its undifferentiated state in the form of a thallus among
+Cryptogams, but which in the higher groups of plants becomes marked out
+into separate portions, each portion having its own distinct functions
+to fulfil for the common benefit of the whole organisation.[556]
+
+=Special morphology.=--Under this heading brief reference may be made to
+some of the organs whose morphological nature has been, and still is,
+much contested. It is clear that for the due elucidation of these
+matters, development and the comparative investigation of similar
+structures in different plants must be studied. Teratological data by
+themselves can no more be trusted to give a correct solution of any
+particular question, than the evidence furnished by other departments of
+botanical science taken separately. With this statement by way of
+caution, allusion may be made to some of the organs whose morphological
+construction is illustrated by the facts recorded in the present
+volume.
+
+=Calyx-tube.=--In descriptive botany it is the common practice to speak
+of a calyx-tube, by which is meant a tubular or sheathing portion at the
+base of the flower, below the sepals or calyx-lobes, and distinct or
+inseparable from the ovary. The question morphology has to solve is
+whether this tubular structure is to be considered as a portion of the
+axis, or whether it is to be regarded as composed of the confluent bases
+of the sepals.
+
+Mr. Bentham, who has recently reviewed the evidence as to the nature of
+the calyx-tube in his paper on _Myrtaceae_,[557] still holds to the
+notion that the "calyx-tube" or "hypanthium" is formed from the
+concretion of the basal portions of the sepals. He founds his
+conclusions upon such facts as the following: the circumstance that the
+point of origin of the leaf is not always the same as the point of
+disarticulation or separation from the axis, inasmuch as the basal
+portion of the leaf is often adherent to the stem for some distance,
+though still recognisable as foliar not axial in its nature. In the same
+manner, the corolla and androecium may be concrete at the base, so
+that the stamens are for convenience' sake described as inserted into
+the tube of the corolla, though it is generally admitted that both
+stamens and petals are really hypogynous, and it is not usual to
+consider the corolla-tube up to the divergence of the stamens as part of
+the receptacle. A similar remark applies to the carpels and placentas.
+Mr. Bentham further considers that the gradual disconnection of the
+various whorls, that may be traced in many plants, is a further proof of
+concretion, rather than of expansion of the axis, but this argument may
+fairly be met by the consideration that the several whorls emerge at
+different heights.[558]
+
+Organs originally free and distinct become ultimately combined at the
+base by the gradual protrusion from the receptacle of a ring or tube
+under them, as in the stamens of _Leguminosae_; yet, says Mr. Bentham, no
+one would propose to describe the staminal tube of monadelphous
+_Leguminosae_ as part of the receptacle and not of the stamens. Perhaps
+not, for descriptive purposes, but morphologically it would not be easy
+to separate such a tube from the receptacle. The principal kinds of
+malformation which have a bearing on this subject are mentioned at pp.
+77-81 and 247, from which it may be seen that the evidence furnished by
+teratology is conflicting. It would seem, indeed, that while in some
+families of plants there may be a real calyx-tube, in others the tubular
+portion is a sheath-like prolongation of the axis. In _Primula_ or
+_Pedicularis_, where the venation is clearly laminar, the tubular
+portion is distinctly calycine. In other cases the so-called calyx-tube
+seems as certainly to be an expansion of the receptacle, as in
+_Rosaceae_, _Myrtaceae_, _Melastomaceae_, _Passiflora_,[559] &c.
+
+Where the petals and stamens are described as being inserted into the
+throat of the calyx, or are perigynous, it may be assumed as a general
+rule, subject to but few exceptions, that the so-called calyx-tube is
+really a portion of the receptacle.[560] After all, this is very much a
+question of words, and for the following reasons,--very often the base
+of the calyx does evidently form a tube, and no one can say where the
+calyx ends and the receptacle begins. Again, many leaves are known to
+originate in the form of a ring-like protrusion from the axis, and from
+this primary ring originate secondary developments. Thus the asserted
+difference between a leaf, with such a history of development, and an
+axial structure becomes obliterated. From this point of view, peltate
+leaves like those of _Tropaeolum_ or _Nelumbium_ become very significant.
+In both the leaf-stalk is cylindrical and traversed, as in the case of
+all cylindrical leaf-stalks, by a circle of fibro-vascular cords, as in
+a branch, and which radiate in all directions in the blade of the leaf.
+Now, if (as often happens to a slight extent) the central portion of the
+leaf were much depressed, owing to the disproportionate growth of the
+peripheral, as contrasted with the central portions, we should have a
+funnel-like or tubular formation, precisely similar to many of the
+so-called calyx-tubes. And, if we further suppose new growths to
+originate from the sides of this funnel or tube, by chorisis or enation,
+we should have the homologue of a tubular calyx, to the inner surface of
+which are attached petals, stamens, &c. From the consideration of
+circumstances such as these just detailed, together with that of the
+arrangement of the vascular cords, M. Casimir De Candolle arrives at the
+conclusion that the calyx-tube is a ring-like projection from an axis
+whose further direct development is arrested. The secondary projections
+or growing-points correspond to the several fibro-vascular cords of the
+primary ring, and are ultimately developed into sepals, petals, stamens
+and ovaries (see pp. 394, 509).
+
+=Androecium.=--The main points of morphological interest relating to
+the androecium, referred to in this volume, are those concerning the
+structure of the anther (see p. 292), the compound nature of the stamens
+in some orders (see pp. 294, 345), and the nature of the androecium in
+orchids (see p. 380).
+
+=Inferior ovary.=--Is the pistil always foliar in its morphological
+nature, or is it, in some cases, as Schleiden taught, formed from the
+axis alone? To a great extent the reply to this question is dependent on
+the conclusions that may be arrived at as to the true nature of the
+calyx-tube. Considered from a teratological point of view, there is no
+reason for considering the inferior ovary to be purely axial. On the
+contrary, the evidence derived from this source supports the ordinary
+opinion that the carpels are invaginated within the expanded top of the
+flower-stalk and more or less adherent to it. Some of the gourds afford
+good illustrations of this, the upper part of the carpels in these
+fruits projecting beyond the axial portion. But this matter loses much
+of its importance if the morphological identity of axis and leaf-organ
+be conceded. The carpels in inferior ovaries seldom or never correspond
+to the lamina of the leaf, and between the vaginal portion of the
+carpellary leaf, and the axis who shall draw the distinction?
+
+=Placentation.=--Some botanists have considered the placentas to be
+portions of the carpel, and have compared the production of ovules on
+them to the formation of buds on the leaf of _Bryophyllum_. Others have
+been led to see in each placenta, even when it is, to all outward
+appearance, a portion of the carpellary leaf, a direct prolongation from
+the axis, adherent to the leaf. Teratology shows that ovules may be
+formed indifferently on leaf-organs or on stem-organs. Sutural,
+parietal, axile, free-central placentation, and, if there be more forms,
+all may be met with even in the same ovary (see pp. 96, 508). Now, if
+there were such special tendencies in the axis, as contrasted with the
+leaf, to produce ovules, it is hardly likely that such anomalous
+arrangements as those just mentioned would be as frequent as they are.
+But as leaves produce other leaves, from their edges or their surfaces,
+and as they form buds in the same situations, just as axial organs
+do,[561] there is surely little ground for considering the placentas, or
+ovuliferous portions of the plant, to be of necessity axial. Here again,
+much of the difficulty vanishes if the morphological identity of the
+leaf-form and of the stem-form be admitted.
+
+=Structure of the ovule.=--The nature of the ovule and of its coverings
+has been a fertile source of controversy. The teratological data bearing
+on this subject have been given at pp. 262-272. These data strongly
+support the notion of the foliar nature of the coatings, and of the
+axial nature of the nucleus, taking leaf and axis either in the ordinary
+sense, or as modifications one of the other. It has been shown that the
+ovular coats may themselves become carpels, and that ovules may be
+developed upon ovules, p. 268. Whether the intra-carpellary siliques of
+_Cheiranthus_, not uncommonly met with (p. 182), are instances of ovular
+transmutation may be open to doubt.
+
+The axial nature of the nucleus has been inferred from its position,
+mode of growth, and from its occasionally lengthening into a leafy or
+even a floriferous shoot. Probably it may occasionally be invested by
+sheathing coats, more analogous to tubular processes from the
+receptacle, than to foliar organs, as is the case in _Welwitschia_. The
+discussion of this matter, however, pertains rather to normal morphology
+than to teratology.
+
+=Morphology of conifers.=--The nature of the pseudo-leaves of
+_Sciadopitys_, and probably of other Conifers, is illustrated by
+teratology, as also is the true constitution of the scale of the cone
+(see pp. 192, 245, 352), though it must be admitted that little or no
+light is thrown on that much-contested point--the true nature of the
+ovule of Gymnosperms.
+
+=Relative position of organs.=--When organs are considered, not
+separately, but in their relations to each other, the appearances
+presented are referable to similar causes. Thus, the separation of parts
+usually united has been shown to depend on an excess of development,
+the persistent union of parts, usually separate in the adult state, has
+been traced to an arrest of the process of development, by no means
+necessarily coexistent with diminished growth. The diminished or
+increased number of parts is, in like manner, attributable to analogous
+causes, as also are the variations in arrangement and form, spoken of
+under the heads of Displacement, Peloria, Substitution, &c.
+
+In the instance of displacements, it has been shown how slight a change
+is required to transform the so-called inferior ovary into a superior
+one. A defective development of the top of the flower-stalk in some
+cases, in others a lack of union between the tube of the receptacle or
+of the calyx (comprising in those terms not only the apex of the
+receptacle, but the base of the sepals) and the carpels, suffice to
+bring about this change in a character which for systematic purposes is
+of great value.
+
+=Law of alternation.=--The circumstances that interfere with the law of
+alternation may be briefly alluded to. The deviations from the customary
+arrangement have been very generally attributed to suppression, or to
+chorisis. It is unquestionable that either of these affords an efficient
+explanation of the arrangement in question, as also does that
+modification of chorisis, as it may be considered, which has been
+treated of under the head of Enation. Spiral torsion of the axis would
+likewise bring about analogous results. Still, it is quite conceivable
+that opposition or superposition of organs may occur without the
+intervention of any such operations. This will be the more readily
+conceded when it is remembered that the phyllotaxis of leaves not
+unfrequently varies on different branches of the same individual tree,
+and that a similar variation in the flower would at once disturb the
+customary alternate arrangement. Coalescence of the vascular bundles in
+an unusual manner, and an irregular disposition of these cords have
+also been considered to bring about deviations from the rule of
+alternation, but in general the formation of the cords is subsequent to
+that of the growing points or mamelons.
+
+Adhesions, accompanied by displacements, occasionally produce similar
+deviations, the nature of which is usually easily detected.
+
+=Co-relation.=--The importance of this subject first prominently brought
+into notice by Geoffroy St. Hilaire gains in force daily. Rarely is a
+malformation an isolated phenomenon, almost always it is associated,
+from the operations of cause or effect, with some others. Instances of
+this co-relation have been cited in the preceding pages, and many more
+might have been mentioned, had the consideration of the relationship
+between form and function formed part of the plan of this volume. A
+change in itself slight, often acquires importance from its association
+with other alterations. This is particularly well seen in the case of
+the receptacle. Let an ordinarily concave thalamus remain, from
+defective development, flat, and how great the change in the appearance
+of the flower. Let the usually contracted receptacle be lengthened, and
+the whole aspect of the flowers so affected is altered to such an extent
+that, were their history not known, botanists would have no hesitation
+in assigning them to widely separate groups in their schemes of
+classification. Peloria, too, of either form, affords excellent
+illustrations of the co-existence of one changed condition with another.
+Not only is the form of one set of organs altered, but the number, the
+relative proportion, and the direction of the other organs of the flower
+are altered likewise.[562] Not only is the whole symmetry changed, but
+the physiological operations carried on in the flower undergo
+corresponding alterations.
+
+There are certain co-relations which do not appear to have hitherto
+attracted the attention they merit; such, for instance, is that which
+exists between the particular period at which an organ is developed and
+its position and form. In normal morphology this has, to some extent,
+been worked out, as in the case of definite and indefinite, centrifugal
+and centripetal inflorescences, and in the definite or indefinite
+formation of shoots, &c.
+
+Other instances may be cited in the frequent co-existence of regular
+flowers and definite inflorescence, the terminal position of many
+peloriated flowers, the relationship between indefinite inflorescence
+and prolongation of the axis, &c.
+
+Again, the simultaneous evolution of the parts of the flower and their
+consequent verticillate arrangement, are often associated with the
+production of different forms from those characteristic of organs
+developed in succession, and, in consequence, arranged spirally. In the
+case of simultaneous development we meet with a repetition of whorls,
+as in what are termed hose-in-hose flowers (flores duplicati,
+triplicati, &c.), and also with cases of peloria. In instances where the
+organs are formed successively in spiral order, we meet with such
+changes as median prolification, petalody, and phyllody. All these are
+alterations which we might anticipate from the activity of the growing
+point being checked at a certain stage in the one case, while it is
+continuous in the other. This relationship between the definite and
+indefinite modes of growth and the form of the several organs of the
+flower, is more constant in reality than it may appear to be from a
+perusal of the lists of genera in the foregoing pages, in which it was
+not possible to show sufficiently well the comparative frequency of any
+given changes in individual plants. Had it been possible to give
+statistics setting forth the frequency of certain deviations in plants
+or groups having a particular organisation, as compared with the rarity
+of their occurrence in other plants of a different conformation, these
+co-relationships would have been rendered much more evident. A hundred
+different plants, for instance, may be named in any particular list, of
+which fifty shall be of one type of structure, and the remainder of
+another. And the co-relative changes in each fifty may appear to be
+evenly balanced, but so far is this from being the case, that the
+frequency of the occurrence of a particular change, in one species in
+the list, may be so great as far to exceed the instances of its
+manifestation in all the rest put together. This difficulty is only very
+partially obviated by the addition of the * to signify especial
+frequency of occurrence of any given malformation in the plants to whose
+names it is affixed.
+
+=Compensation.=--But little further need be said on this head. An
+atrophied condition of one part is generally associated with an
+hypertrophied condition of another, and scarcely a change takes place in
+one direction, but it is associated with an inverse alteration in some
+other. This principle is not universal, and its application must not be
+unduly strained. It requires specially to be considered in reference to
+differences in the degree or kind of functional activity exercised by
+the organs implicated--points beyond the scope of the present volume.
+
+=Teratology and classification.=--Lastly, there remain to be mentioned
+the bearings of teratology on systematic botany. There are those who
+would entirely exclude teratology from such matters. It may be expedient
+to do so when the object sought is one of convenience and facility of
+determination only, but when broader considerations are concerned,
+teratology must no more be banished than variation. In most instances
+the one differs but in degree from the other. If variation affords aid
+in our speculations as to the affinities and genealogical descent of
+species and other groups, so does teratology, and in a far higher
+degree.
+
+Take the characters of exogens as distinct from endogens; even under
+ordinary circumstances, no absolute distinction can be drawn between
+them. There are plants normally of an intermediate character, while, to
+take exceptional instances, there are exogens with the leaves and
+flowers of endogens, and endogens whose outward organisation, at any
+rate, assimilates them to exogens. Diclinous or monochlamydeous plants
+owe their imperfect conformation to suppression, and may become
+structurally complete by a species of peloria. Structurally
+hermaphrodite flowers become unisexual by suppression, or are rendered
+incomplete by the non-development of one or more of their floral whorls.
+Hypogynous flowers become perigynous by adhesion, or by lack of
+separation; perigynous ones become hypogynous by an early detachment
+from the receptacle that bears them, or by the arrested development of
+an ordinarily cup-like receptacle.
+
+How the relative position of the carpels and the calyx may be altered
+has already been alluded to, as has also the circumstance that while it
+is common to find an habitually inferior or adherent ovary becoming
+superior or free, it is much more rare to find the superior ovary
+adherent to the receptacle or to the calyx.[563] Regular and irregular
+peloria, too, serve to show how slight are the boundaries, not only
+between different genera, but also between different families.
+
+While, therefore, teratology may be an unsafe guide in strictly
+artificial schemes, it is obvious that its teachings should have great
+weight in all philosophical systems of classification.
+
+The questions will constantly arise, does such and such a form represent
+the ancestral condition of certain plants? Is it a reversion to that
+form? or is it, on the other hand, the starting point of new forms?
+
+Such questions cannot receive at present any satisfactory answer, but
+the evidence we have seems to indicate that pre-existing forms were
+simpler, and less specialised in structure than those now existing, and
+hence if we meet with malformations of a simple kind, we may consider
+them as possible reversions; while, if they present features of
+increased complexity, and more sharply defined differentiation, we may
+assume them to be evidences of a progressive rather than of a
+retrogressive tendency.
+
+That monstrosities so called may become the starting points of new forms
+is proved by circumstance that, in many cases, the peculiarities are
+inherited so that a new "race" is produced and perpetuated: and if a new
+race, why not a new species? The difference is one of degree only.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[553] See Clos., 'Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr.,' 1856, vol. iii, p. 679.
+
+[554] 'Theorie de la Feuille,' p. 26.
+
+[555] An additional illustration of this may be cited, which has been
+brought under the notice of the writer by Dr. Welwitsch recently, and in
+which some of the leaflets of the pinnate leaf of a species of
+_Macrolobium_ were absent, and their place supplied by flowers arranged
+in cymes.
+
+[556] The presence of a bud at the extremity once considered to be an
+absolute distinction between branch and leaf, which latter never forms a
+bud exactly at the apex--is invalidated by the case of the Nepaul
+barley, p. 174.
+
+[557] 'Journ. Linn. Soc.,' vol. x, p. 103 _et seq._
+
+[558] See also the receptacular tube (ovary?) of _Baeckea_ bearing
+stamens, see p. 183. It would be natural to see stamens springing from
+the receptacle but not from the ovary.
+
+[559] In _Passiflora_ the organogeny of the flower clearly shows the
+truth of this assertion, as was indeed shown by Payer and Schleiden.
+
+[560] See Payer, 'Organ. Veget.'
+
+[561] It must, however, be borne in mind that no true leaf-organ has yet
+been seen with a bud at its exact apex (unless it be the nepaul barley),
+while in the case of an axial organ such a position of the bud is
+constant. The nearest approach is in the case of impari-pinnate leaves
+in which the terminal leaflet is jointed to the common rachis, and in
+the leaves of some _Meliaceae_ which continue to push forth new leaflets
+even after the leaf has attained maturity.
+
+[562] A singular instance of co-relation was shown by Mr. Saunders at
+the Scientific Committee of the Royal Horticultural Society, February
+16th, 1868, in a hyacinth with perfectly green, long, tubular, erect,
+not horizontally spreading flowers.
+
+[563] An illustration of this latter nature in the case of a cherry,
+which was surmounted by the calyx lobes, precisely as in the case of a
+pomaceous fruit, has been given at p. 424, _adnot._
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX
+
+DOUBLE FLOWERS.[564]
+
+
+In ordinary language, the epithet double flowers is applied to flowers
+of very varied structural conformation. The most common conditions
+rendering a flower double, in the popular acceptation of the term, are
+substitutions of petals or petal-like bodies for stamens and pistils,
+one or both. (See Petalody, p. 283.) Another very common mode of
+doubling is brought about by a real or apparent augmentation in the
+number of petals, as by multiplication, fission, or chorisis. (See pp.
+66, 343, 371, 376.) Sometimes even the receptacle of the flower within
+the outer corolla, divides, each subdivision becoming the centre of a
+new series of petals, as in some very luxuriant camellias and anemones.
+The isolation of organs which, under ordinary circumstances, are united
+together, is another circumstance, giving rise, in popular parlance, to
+the use of the term double flower. (See Adesmy, Solution, pp. 58, 76,
+82.) Prolification is another very frequent occurrence in the case of
+these flowers, while still other forms arise from laciniation of the
+petals, or from the formation of excrescences from the petals or
+stamens, in the form of supplementary petal-like lobes. (See Enation, p.
+443.)
+
+As these matters are all treated of under their respective headings, it
+is not necessary to allude to them again in detail. It may be well,
+however, to allude, in general terms, to the causes which have been
+assigned by various writers for their formation, and to the means which
+have been adopted by practical experimenters to secure the production of
+the flowers often so much esteemed by the florist. It must be admitted
+that, in spite of all that has been written on the subject, but very
+little is known about these matters. In the case of the stock the
+following means have been adopted by cultivators in order to obtain
+plants bearing double instead of single flowers. There is first the
+crossing of single flowers with double ones, effected by planting a
+double-flowered plant in proximity to a single-flowered one; but this,
+it is obvious, could lead to no important results, since the double
+flowers, having no pollen, could not possibly influence the seed, which
+is borne only by the single-flowered plants. Another plan is the
+degustation of the buds, that is to say, the chewing of the well-formed
+buds; it is held that the single plants can be recognised by their
+sweeter taste and greater consistence, and may thus be weeded out; but
+there is at least the disadvantage attending this method, that the
+plants, single as well as double, must all be grown up to the period
+when these buds are tolerably well advanced. A third method which has
+been adopted is, that of sowing the seeds at a particular lunar epoch,
+great confidence being placed in the plan of planting them during the
+last quarter of the moon, but such confidence is found to be misplaced.
+The plan of removing the stamens has had its supporters, but as this
+must be done at an early stage of development, and could only influence
+the result by diverting the vital force which would be expended in the
+maturation of the pollen, to the perfecting of the seeds, it is obvious
+that the plan is impracticable for all ordinary purposes, even if in any
+degree efficient, which from the plasticity of vegetable development,
+and the faculty of doubling which is inherent in the stock family, is
+not at all improbable. Still another mark, the presence of a fifth petal
+in the single or seed-bearing flower, has been held to indicate the
+assurance of obtaining a crop of double-flowered plants from seeds saved
+from flowers possessing this peculiarity. To a certain extent,
+doubtless, this expectation would be realised, owing to the plasticity
+and inherent quality just alluded to, but the proportion would be too
+small for any useful practical purpose.
+
+"The gardeners of Erfurt," observes M. Chate, who has written a
+book[565] on the subject, in which he makes known a means of obtaining
+double-flowered stocks founded on more than fifty years' practice in his
+family, "have, for a long time, to a certain extent monopolised the sale
+of seeds of these plants. To obtain these seeds, the Erfurt gardeners
+cultivate the flowers in pots, and place them on shelves in large
+greenhouses, giving them only sufficient water to prevent them from
+dying. So cultivated the plants become weakened, the pods shortened, and
+the seeds less numerous, and better ripened; and these seeds give from
+60 to 70 per cent. of double flowers.
+
+"The seeds from these plants are said to be mostly of an abnormal shape,
+which is so striking that experienced cultivators are able to separate
+those which would furnish double flowers from those which would produce
+single ones."
+
+M. Chate's method, which he calls the French one, gives still greater
+results, viz.: 80 per cent. of double flowers, and these produced by
+very simple means. "When my seeds," he observes, "have been chosen with
+care, I plant them, in the month of April, in good dry mould, in a
+position exposed to the morning sun, this position being the most
+favourable. At the time of flowering I nip off some of the flowering
+branches, and leave only ten or twelve pods on the secondary branches,
+taking care to remove all the small weak branches which shoot at this
+time. I leave none but the principal and the secondary branches to bear
+the pods. All the sap is employed in nourishing the seeds thus borne,
+which give a result of 80 per cent. of double flowers. The pods under
+this management are thicker, and their maturation is more perfect. At
+the time of extracting the seeds the upper portion of the pod is
+separated and placed aside, because it has been ascertained that the
+plants coming from the seeds situated in this portion of the pod, give
+80 per cent. of single flowers. They yield, however, greater variety
+than the others. This plan of suppressing that part of the pod which
+yields single flowers in the largest proportion, greatly facilitates the
+recognition of the single-flowered plants, because there remains to be
+eliminated from among the seedlings only from 10 to 15 per cent.
+
+This separation of the single from the double-flowered plants, M. Chate
+tells us is not so difficult as might be supposed. The single stocks, he
+explains, have deep green leaves (glabrous in certain species), rounded
+at the top, the heart being in the form of a shuttlecock, and the plant
+stout and thickset in its general aspect, while the plants yielding
+double flowers have very long leaves of a light green colour, hairy, and
+curled at the edges, the heart consisting of whitish leaves, curved so
+that they enclose it completely. Such is the substance of M. Chate's
+method of securing so large a proportion of double-flowered plants, and
+then of separating them from the remaining single ones--a method which
+commends itself to the good sense of the intelligent cultivator."[566]
+
+Signor Rigamonti, a great cultivator of pinks, asserted that he was able
+to distinguish double from single-flowered pinks, in the seedling state.
+According to this gentleman, those seedlings which produce three
+cotyledons in a whorl in place of two, form double flowers. In the case
+of _Primula sinensis_ the same results occurred. Some had three leaves
+in a ring, others two; most had the leaves standing one over the other
+as usual. These were divided into three sets, and when they flowered,
+the first lot were all double, the second semi-double, the third single.
+But these statements have not been confirmed by other observers; and the
+writer can safely assert that seedling pinks occasionally produce three
+cotyledons, and subsequently single flowers. He has never observed a
+double flower under these circumstances, though it is true his
+experience in this matter has been but small.
+
+A writer in Otto's 'Gartenzeitung,' considers that double flowers are a
+consequence of dryness of soil and atmosphere, and not of a luxurious
+soil, rich in nutritious matter, having arrived at this conclusion from
+an observation of the following circumstances:
+
+"Fifty years ago we saw _Kerria japonica_ in a hothouse with single
+flowers. Twenty years later we met with it in several gardens, in the
+open air, but always with double flowers. At this time we were assured
+that single-flowered plants were no more to be found in the whole of
+Europe, and botanists forming herbaria offered considerable sums for a
+branch of _K. japonica_ with single flowers. We were requested to take
+the plant in hand for the purpose of inducing it to produce single
+flowers. We were advised to plant it out in a rich soil, which was done,
+but, by chance, the situation was sloping, consequently it did not
+retain moisture, and all the flowers produced for several years in
+succession were double. Shortly after, the captain of an English ship
+again brought plants bearing normal flowers from Japan, which were soon
+spread over the continent, and of which we received one plant. After
+three years all the young plants raised from cuttings were
+double-flowered.
+
+"In the year 1820 we several times visited a garden in the neighbourhood
+of Vienna, well known on account of its plant culture. The gardener
+there possessed an immense plant of _Camellia japonica_ with single
+flowers, and some small plants raised from this by cuttings, but no
+other variety of camellia. He fertilised the flowers with their own
+pollen, harvested seeds, which he sowed, and the plants raised from them
+were placed in an extremely dry, lofty conservatory, where, after some
+years, instead of producing single flowers, they all produced double
+ones. The seedlings and mother plant were planted in one and the same
+kind of earth, and some of the flowers on the old plant also showed an
+inclination to become double.
+
+"This, at that time, to us, enigmatical phenomenon, was kept in mind
+until we had an opportunity of instituting comparisons between the
+climate of Japan and China and our own, and we then concluded that in
+the case of a plant imported from thence, and exposed to such different
+climatical influences, the origin of the greater or less imperfection of
+its sexual organs was probably owing to this change, as we had
+experienced in _Kerria_ and _Camellia_; and that the sterility of many
+other exotic plants might be attributed to the same cause. The
+difference in the climatical relations of Japan and Europe is very
+considerable. In Japan, previous to the new growth of _Kerria_ and
+_Camellia_, a rainy season of three months' duration prevails; in
+Europe, on the contrary, dry winds prevail especially in the eastern
+part, where our plains are often transformed into deserts. Is it,
+therefore, remarkable that a plant introduced from Japan into Europe,
+exposed to the influences of this great diversity of climate, should
+produce imperfect sexual organs incapable of further propagating the
+plant from seeds? A rich soil, with the necessary amount of moisture,
+will never engender double flowers."[567]
+
+Mr. Darwin[568] describes a peculiar form of _Gentiana Amarella_, in
+which the parts of the flower were more or less replaced by compact
+aggregations of purple scales in great numbers. A similar condition is,
+indeed, not uncommon in this plant, and, as Mr. Darwin also remarked, on
+hard, dry, bare, chalky banks, thus bearing out the views expressed by
+the writer in the 'Gartenzeitung' just cited. Some double flowers of
+_Potentilla reptans_ found growing wild near York, and transmitted to
+the writer by a correspondent, were observed growing along a high wall,
+in a dry border, close to a beaten path, bordering on a gravel pit,
+others were found on a raised bank, which, from its elevation and
+exposure to the sun, was particularly dry.
+
+On the other hand, the double-flowered _Cardamine pratensis_, which is
+occasionally found in a wild state, always grows in very wet places.
+
+Of late years a remarkable double-flowered race of _Primula sinensis_
+has been obtained. In particular, Messrs. Windebank and Kingsbury, of
+Southampton, have succeeded in raising a set of plants in which the
+flowers are very double and very attractive in a florist's point of
+view. The corollas in these flowers are not merely duplicated, but from
+their inner surface spring, in some cases, funnel-shaped or tubular
+petals (p. 315), so regular in form as quite to resemble a perfect
+corolla. These tubes are attached to the inner side of the tube of the
+corolla, in the same way as are the stamens, these latter organs being,
+it appears, absent. The carpels are present, but open at the top, and
+bear numerous ovules, hence it was at first surmised that these plants
+were obtained and perpetuated, by the application of pollen from single
+flowers to these double-flowered varieties.
+
+The raisers of this fine race however assert that "the double kinds are
+all raised from the seed obtained from _single_ flowers; the double
+blooms do not produce seed, as a rule, and even if they did yield seed,
+and it were to germinate, the plants so raised would simply produce
+single flowers." Semi-double flowers will produce seed, but it is
+necessary that they should be fertilised with the pollen from the single
+blooms. They rarely, however, if ever, produce really double flowers
+when so fertilised, and the number of semi-double flowers, even, is
+always small, the remainder, and, consequently, the larger part, proving
+single. To obtain double varieties, the raiser fertilises certain fine
+and striking single flowers, with the pollen of other equally fine
+single blooms, and the desired result is obtained. This is Messrs.
+Windebank and Kingsbury's _modus operandi_, the exact process or mode of
+accomplishment being, however, a professional secret.[569]
+
+From what has been said, as well as from other evidence which it is not
+necessary to detail in this place, it may be seen that the causes
+assigned by physiologists, and the plans proposed by cultivators for the
+production of double flowers, are reducible to three heads, which may be
+classed under Plethora, Starvation, and Sterility. These three seem
+inconsistent one with the other, but are not so much so as they at first
+sight appear to be.
+
+Tho advocates of the plethora theory have much in their favour: for
+instance, the greater frequency of double flowers among cultivated
+plants than among wild ones. The great preponderance of double flowers
+in plants derived from the northern hemisphere, when contrasted with
+those procured from the southern, as alluded to by Dr. Seemann, seems
+also to point to the effect of cultivation in producing these flowers.
+Now, although this is, to a large extent, due to the selection that has
+been for so long a period practised by gardeners, still that process
+will not account for the appearance of double flowers where no such
+selection has been exercised; as in the case of wild plants. Some double
+peas, observed by Mr. Laxton, appeared suddenly; they had not been
+selected or sought for, but they were produced, as it would appear, as a
+result of high cultivation, and during the period when the plant was in
+greatest vigour; and as the energies of the plant failed, so the
+tendency to produce double flowers ceased. Indeed, in reference to this
+subject, it is always important to bear in mind the time at which double
+flowers are produced; thus, an annual plant subjected to cultivation,
+will, it may be, produce single flowers for the firet year or two, then
+a few partially double flowers are formed, and from these, by careful
+selection and breeding, a double-flowered race may be secured.
+Sometimes, as in the peas before alluded to, in the same season the
+earlier blossoms are single, while later in the year double blossoms are
+produced. This happens, not only in annuals, but also in perennials, and
+is not infrequent in the apple; an illustration of this occurrence in
+this tree is given in the 'Gardeners' Chronicle' for 1865, p. 554.[570]
+Sometimes the flowers on a particular branch are double, while those on
+the rest of the plant are single.[571] On these points, the evidence
+furnished by a double white hawthorn in the Royal Botanic Gardens at
+Edinburgh is important. Professor Balfour kindly wrote as follows in
+reply to an inquiry respecting this plant:--"A double white hawthorn in
+the Royal Botanic Gardens produced double flowers in spring. It retained
+its leaves during autumn and winter, until the following spring. It then
+flowered in the second spring, but produced weak single flowers only,
+and has continued to do so ever since. The flowering has been always
+weak, since this change of flowers from double to single. Mr. M'Nab
+attributes the change in the duration of the leaves to the filling up of
+the ground round the tree, to the height of a foot and a half on the
+stem. He is now trying the effect of extra manure in giving extra vigour
+to the plant." Here, at least, the production of single flowers would
+seem to be the result of debilitating causes, connected with the unusual
+persistence of the leaves, &c., for while the tree was healthy, double
+flowers were produced.
+
+A similar illustration came under the writer's own notice. Some seedling
+balsams, of a strain which from long selection and hereditary tendency
+produces, year after year, double flowers were, in the spring (of 1866),
+allowed to remain in the seed-pans for many weeks after they were ready
+to be potted off; they were hence partly starved, and when they bloomed,
+they produced single flowers only. But these same plants, when more
+liberally treated, produced an abundance of double flowers. Moreover,
+other seedlings of the same batch, but sown later, and potted off at the
+usual time, produced double flowers as usual. Of a like character is the
+fact that the double _Ranunculus asiaticus_ loses its doubleness if the
+roots are planted in a poor soil.
+
+On the other hand, the way in which double stocks are stated to be
+produced at Erfurt, viz.: by giving the plants a minimum supply of
+water, and the other circumstances alluded to as showing the connection
+between the production of double flowers, and a deficiency of water, as
+well as the experiments of Mr. Monro, go to show that, so far from
+plethora, the inducing cause must be more nearly allied to inanition,
+though the impoverishing process is, to a certain extent, counteracted
+by only allowing a few of the seed-pods to ripen, and thus concentrating
+in a small number of flowers the nutriment intended for many.
+
+Professor Edward Morren ('Bull. Acad. Roy. Belg.,' 2me ser., vol. xix,
+p. 224) considers the existence of true variegation in leaves, and the
+production of double flowers, as antagonistic one to the other; the
+former is a sign of weakness, the latter of strength. But it would seem
+that the exceptions are so numerous--so many cases of the co-existence
+of variegated leaves, and double flowers are known, at least in
+individual plants if not in species--that no safe inferences can be
+drawn as to this point. Since the above remarks were printed, Professor
+Morren has published a second paper on the subject, upholding his former
+views as to the incompatibility of variegated foliage (not mere
+colouration) and double flowers. In this paper he criticises the
+objections raised by the present writer and others, and examines some
+of the alleged exceptions. Some of these the Belgian savant finds to
+prove his rule, inasmuch as although there is a co-existence of
+variegated foliage and double flowers in these illustrations, yet the
+plants are weakly, the flowers ill formed, or fall off before expansion.
+Admitting all this, there still remain cases in which double flowers and
+variegated foliage do exist in conjunction, and where the plants are
+vigorous and the flowers well developed. Instances of this are known to
+cultivators in species of _Dianthus_, _Hemerocallis_, _Althaea_,
+_Paeonia_, _Rosa_, _Ranunculus_, _Serissa_, _Saponaria_, etc., and
+probably the art of the cultivator would speedily be successful in
+raising other examples, were it a matter of importance or interest to
+them to do so. At any rate, the existence of a few unimpeachable
+illustrations is sufficient to support the opinion of the present
+writer, and objected to so strongly by M. Morren that, in the present
+state of our knowledge, "no safe inferences can be drawn" from the facts
+alluded to by the Belgian professor.[572]
+
+Mr. Darwin[573] has thrown out the suggestion that the cause for the
+appearance of double flowers may be sought for in some previous state of
+things, bringing about sterility or imperfect formation, or functional
+activity of the genitalia of the flower, and consequent compensatory
+increase of the petaline element, either in the form of an increased
+number of bracts, petals, &c., or in the substitution of petals for
+stamens and pistils, &c.
+
+In considering these points the question arises whether they can be
+reconciled one with another. And there is little doubt but that they may
+be. The production of a flower is preceded by an arrest of vegetation;
+this is obvious: the current of the plant's life becomes changed, the
+growth of the leaves is checked, the lengthening of the branches is
+arrested as the flower-bud forms; moreover, there is a close
+relationship in a large majority of flowers between the outer envelopes
+of the flower and the scales of a leaf-bud; this is especially so in
+regard to the venation, and is admitted by all morphologists. So far,
+then, it may be said that the production of a flower, like that of a
+bud, is due to a diminution of vegetative action; and as in double
+flowers we have, for the most part, merely a repetition and exuberant
+formation of floral envelopes, so we may attribute their formation to a
+continuance of the same feeble vegetative action as that which produced
+the first or normal series. How, then, can a copious supply of rich
+food, such as is provided by cultivation, produce double flowers? To
+this question, according to our theory, the reply would be that the
+quantity of food is excessive, more than the plant can properly digest;
+and hence vegetative action is stopped, at least partially--pretty much
+as it would be if the plant were placed in the opposite condition of
+starvation. The effect of supplying a plant (or an animal) with an
+excessive supply of food, which it cannot assimilate, is in many
+respects similar to that which results from partially cutting off the
+supplies. And the same reasoning applies to sterility. If by high
+culture, or the supply of an undue quantity of nourishment, the
+constitution of the plant be impaired, or if the plant be pampered, it
+is no wonderful thing that sterility should ensue. Hence, then, may it
+not be asserted as a general principle that in the production of double
+flowers a partial arrest of development, if not of growth, however
+produced, is an essential preliminary? All the attendant phenomena, such
+as the obliteration of the stamens, the augmentation in the number of
+floral whorls, the occurrence of prolification, are consistent with the
+supposition of a primary arrest of development, more or less complete,
+as the case may be: at one time permanent, at another time relaxed and
+intermittent, or in a third set of cases the vegetative activity or
+power of growth may be restored, and from the centre of the flower may
+spring a perfect branch with perfect leaves, the production of sheaths
+only being superseded by the development of leaves, in which all the
+parts--sheath, stalk, and blade--are present.
+
+When once the disposition to form double flowers is established, that
+tendency becomes hereditary: there are races of single Stocks in which,
+out of hundreds of plants, scarcely one double-flowered form is met
+with; but when the tendency to produce double blooms is set up, single
+flowers become the exception: thus, in the Balsams, before mentioned,
+not one in fifty now produces single flowers, and the seeds of these
+double Balsams produce double-flowered seedlings, with scarcely a
+"rogue" among them.
+
+The following list of plants producing double flowers of any kind is
+taken from that given in 'Seemann's Journal of Botany,' vol. ii, p. 177,
+and to which some additions have been made. Miscalled double flowers,
+such as those of the _Compositae_, _Viburnum Hydrangea_, &c., are
+excluded.
+
+RANUNCULACEAE.
+
+Clematis Viticella, _Linn._, S. Europe.
+ florida, _Thunb._, Japan.
+ Fortunei, _Moore_, Japan.
+ patens, _Desne_, Japan.
+Anemone japonica, _Sieb. et Zucc._, Japan.
+ coronaria, _Linn._, S. Europe, Asia Minor.
+ hortensis, var. _Linn._, S. Europe.
+ palmata, _Linn._, N. Africa, Spain, Portugal.
+ nemorosa, _Linn._, Europe, N. America, Siberia.
+ sylvestris, _Linn._, S. Europe, Siberia.
+Hepatica triloba, _Chaix._, Europe.
+Ranunculus bulbosus, _Linn._, Europe, N. Amer.
+ repens, _Linn._, Europe, Siberia, N. Amer.
+ acris, _Linn._, Europe, Siberia.
+ aconitifolius, _Linn._, Europe.
+ gramineus, _Linn._, Italy, France, Portugal, Switzerland.
+ bullatus, _Linn._, S. Europe.
+ asiaticus, _Linn._, The East.
+Ficaria ranunculoides, _Moench._, Europe.
+Thalictrum anemoides, _Michae._, N. America.
+Caltha palustris, _Linn._, Europe, Asia, N. America.
+Trollius europaeus, _Linn._, Europe.
+ nepalensis, Himalaya.
+Nigella damascena, _Linn._, Mediterranean.
+Aquilegia vulgaris, _Linn._, Europe.
+ canadensis, _Linn._, N. America.
+Delphinium Ajacis, _Linn._, S. Europe.
+ grandiflorum, _Linn._, Siberia, N. America.
+ Consolida, _Linn._, Europe, N. America.
+ cheilanthum, _Fisch._, Siberia.
+ elegans, _D. C._, North America.
+Adonis autumnalis, _Linn._, Europe.
+ vernalis, _Linn._, Europe, Asia.
+Paeonia Moutan, _Sims_, China, Japan.
+ officinalis, _Retz._, Europe.
+ tenuifolia, _Linn._, Tauria.
+ albiflora, _Pall._, Siberia.
+ paradoxa, _Andr._, S. Europe.
+
+NYMPHAEACEAE.
+
+Nelumbium speciosum, _Willd._, Africa, Asia.
+
+BERBERIDACEAE.
+
+Berberis, _sp. cult._
+
+PAPAVERACEAE.
+
+Papaver Rhoeas, _Linn._, Europe.
+ bracteatum, _Lindl._, Russia.
+ somniferum, _Linn._, S. Europe, Asia Minor, Egypt.
+Chelidonium majus, _Linn._, Europe, Asia.
+Sanguinaria canadensis, _Linn._, N. America.
+Podophyllum peltatum, _Linn._, N. America.
+
+CRUCIFERAE.
+
+Mathiola incana, _R. Br._, Mediterranean.
+ glabrata, _D. C._
+ annua, _Sweet._, South Europe, Syria.
+Cheiranthus Cheiri, _Linn._, Europe.
+Iberis umbellata, _Linn._, Europe.
+ amara, _Linn._, Europe.
+Cardamine pratensis, _Linn._, Europe, Asia, Africa, America.
+Hesperis matronalis, _Linn._, Europe, Siberia.
+Barbarea vulgaris, _R. Br._, Europe.
+Sinapis arvensis, _Linn._, Europe.
+Brassica oleracea. _Linn._, Europe.
+
+CISTACEAE.
+
+Helianthemum vulgare, _Spach._, Europe, N. Africa.
+
+VIOLACEAE.
+
+Viola odorata, _Linn._, Europe, Siberia.
+ grandiflora, _Linn._, Europe,
+ tricolor, _Linn._, Europe.
+
+CARYOPHYLLEAE.
+
+Dianthus barbatus, _Linn._, France, Germany.
+ chinensis, _D. C._, China.
+ Poiretianus, _Seringe_, ?
+ Caryophyllus, _Linn._, France, Italy.
+ arboreus, _Linn._, Crete.
+ hybridus (_gardens_).
+ corymbosus, _Sibth._, Asia Minor.
+ plumarius, _Linn._, Europe, Siberia, N. America.
+ deltoides, _Linn._, Europe.
+Saponaria officinalis, _Linn._, Europe.
+Lychnis sylvestris, _Schkr._, Europe.
+ vespertina, _Linn._, Europe.
+ flos cuculi, _Linn._, Europe.
+ Viscaria, _Linn._, Europe.
+ chalcedonica, _Linn._, Japan, Asia Minor.
+Silene inflata, _Sm._; _var._ maritima, _D. C._, Europe.
+
+ALSINEAE.
+
+Sagina procumbens, _Linn._, Europe.
+
+MALVACEAE.
+
+Hibiscus Rosa sinensis, _Linn._, E. Indies.
+ flavescens, _Cav._, China.
+ alba, _Hook._, China.
+ syriacus, _Linn._, Syria, Carniola.
+Althaea rosea, _Cav._, Caucasus, &c.
+Malva rotundifolia, _Linn._, Europe.
+ moschata, _D. C._, Europe.
+
+HIPPOCASTANEAE.
+
+AEsculus Hippocastanum, _Linn._, Europe, N. America.
+
+GERANIACEAE.
+
+Geranium pratense, _Linn._, Europe, Siberia.
+ sylvaticum. _Linn._, Europe.
+Pelargonium zonale, _Willd._, S. Africa.
+Tropaeolum majus, _Linn._, Peru.
+ minus, _Linn._, Peru.
+Oxalis cernua, _Thunb._, S. Africa.
+Impatiens Balsamina, _Linn._, E. Ind.
+
+TERNSTROEMIACEAE.
+
+Camellia reticulata, _Lindl._, China.
+ Sasanqua, _Thunb._, China.
+ japonica, _Linn._, Japan.
+Thea maliflora, _Seem._, Japan.
+
+AURANTIACEAE.
+
+Citrus Aurantium, _Linn._, Asia, South Europe.
+
+PAPILIONACEAE.
+
+Trifolium repens, _Linn._, Europe, S. America.
+Medicago sp., ?., Europe.
+Ulex europaeus, _Link._, Europe.
+Spartianthus junceus, _Linn._, S. Europe.
+Clitoria Ternatea, _Linn._, E. India.
+Orobus viscoides, _D. C._, Croatia, &c.
+ vernus, _Linn._, Europe.
+Genista tinctoria, _Linn._, Europe.
+ sibirica, _Linn._, Siberia.
+ scoparia, _Lam._, Europe.
+Cytisus albus, _Link._, Portugal.
+Anthyllis Vulneraria, _Linn._, Europe.
+Coronilla Emerus, _D. C._, Europe.
+Lotus corniculatus, _Linn._, Europe.
+
+ROSACEAE.
+
+Rosa lutea, _Mill._, Europe.
+ cinnamomea, _Linn._, Europe, N. America.
+ spinosissima, _Linn._, Central Asia.
+ Carolina, _Linn._, N. America.
+ villosa, _Linn._, Europe, Central Asia.
+ centifolia, _Linn._
+ damascena, _Linn._, Syria.
+ rubiginosa, _Linn._, Europe, Asia, N. America.
+ moschata, _Ait._, Madeira, N. Africa.
+ canina, _Linn._, Europe.
+ alba, _Linn._, Europe, Caucasus.
+ indica, _Linn._, China.
+ nivea, _D. C._, China.
+ Eglanteria, _Linn._, Europe.
+ gallica, _Linn._, Europe, Caucasus.
+ pimpinellifolia, _Linn._, Europe, Central Asia.
+ Banksiae, _R. Br._, China.
+ sulphurea, _Ait._, East.
+Rubus fruticosus, _Linn._, Europe.
+ rosifolius, _Linn._, Mauritius, E. India.
+ corylifolius, _Smith_, Europe.
+ caesius, _Linn._, Europe.
+Kerria japonica, _D. C._, Japan.
+Spiraea Filipendula, _Linn._, Europe.
+ Ulmaria, _Linn._, Europe.
+ prunifolia, _Sieb. et Zucc._, Japan.
+ Reevesii, _Lindl._, China.
+ strobilacea, _Sieb. et Zucc._, Japan.
+Fragaria vesca, _Linn._, Europe, N. America.
+Potentilla alpestris, _Hall. f._, Europe.
+ reptans, _Linn._, Europe, Asia.
+ Tormentilla, _Schrank_, Europe, Asia.
+ anserina, _Linn._, Europe.
+Geum rivale, _Linn._, Europe.
+
+POMACEAE.
+
+Crataegus Oxyacantha, _Linn._, Europe.
+ Crus galli, _Linn._, N. America.
+Cydonia japonica, _Pers._, Japan.
+Pyrus communis, _Linn._, Europe.
+ Malus, _Linn._, Europe.
+Eriobotrya japonica, _Lindl._, Japan.
+
+AMYGDALEAE.
+
+Amygdalus Persica, _Linn._, Persia.
+ communis, _Linn._, Mauritania.
+Prunus domestica, _Linn._, Europe.
+ spinosa, _Linn._, Europe, N. America.
+ avium, _Linn._, Europe.
+ Cerasus, _Linn._, Europe.
+ Kerii, _Steud._, Japan.
+ japonica, _Thunb._, China, Japan.
+ insititia, _Linn._, Europe.
+ triloba, _Lindl._, China.
+
+MYRTACEAE.
+
+Myrtus communis, _Linn._, S. Europe.
+Punica Granatum, _Linn._, S. Europe, Marocco.
+
+PHILADELPHACEAE.
+
+Philadelphus Coronarius, _linn._, S. Europe.
+Deutzia Crenata, _sieb. Et Zucc._, Japan.
+
+ONAGRACEAE.
+
+Fuchsia globosa, _Lindl._ (and var. hort. pl.), Mexico.
+Epilobium tetragonum, _D.C._, Europe.
+Clarkia pulchella, _Pursh._, California.
+ elegans, _Douglas_, N. America.
+
+PORTULACACEAE.
+
+Portulaca grandiflora, _Hook_, Chili.
+
+GROSSULARIACEAE.
+
+Ribes sanguineum, _Pursh._, N. America.
+
+SAXIFRAGACEAE.
+
+Saxifraga granulata, _Linn._, Europe.
+
+UMBELLIFERAE.
+
+Daucus Carota, _Linn._, Europe.
+
+RUBIACEAE.
+
+Ixora grandiflora, _De Cand._, E. India.
+Serissa foetida, _Comm._, China, Japan.
+Gardenia Fortuniana, _Hook._, China.
+ florida, _Linn._, China, E. India.
+ radicans, _Thunb._, Japan.
+
+CAPRIFOLIACEAE.
+
+Lonicera Periclymenum, _Linn._, Europe.
+Sambucus nigra, _Linn._, Europe.
+
+CAMPANULACEAE.
+
+Campanula latifolia, _Linn._, Europe, Asia.
+ Tenorei, _Morett_, Naples.
+ Trachelium, _Linn._, Europe.
+ Vidallii, _H. C. Wats._, Europe.
+ pyramidalis, _Linn._, S. Europe.
+ rotundifolia, _Linn._, Europe, N. America.
+ persicifolia, _Linn._, Europe.
+ glomerata, _Linn._, Europe, Asia.
+ Medium, _Linn._, Europe.
+ rhomboidea, _Linn._, Europe.
+Platycodon grandiflorum, _D. C._, Siberia.
+
+ERICACEAE.
+
+Calluna vulgaris, _Linn._, Europe, N. America.
+Rhododendron indicum, _Sweet._, E. India.
+ ponticum, _Linn._, Asia Minor.
+Azalea nudiflora, _Linn._, N. America.
+ glauca, _Lam._, N. America.
+Arbutus Unedo, _Linn._, S. Europe.
+Erica Tetralix, _Linn._, Europe.
+ cinerea, _Linn._, Europe.
+ hyemalis, gardens.
+
+EPACRIDACEAE.
+
+Epacris impressa, _R. Br._, Australia.
+
+PRIMULACEAE.
+
+Primula villosa, _Jacq._, Europe.
+ Auricula, _Linn._, Europe.
+ denticulata, _Smith_, E. India.
+ acaulis, _Jacq._, Europe.
+ clatior, _Jacq._, Europe.
+ praenitens, _Ker._ = sinensis, _Lindl._, China.
+Lysimachia Nummularia, _Roem et Schult._, Europe.
+Anagallis tenella, _Linn._, Europe.
+
+JASMINACEAE.
+
+Jasminum officinale, _Linn._, S. Europe.
+ Sambac., _Ait._, E. India.
+ hirsutum, _Hook._, China.
+ grandiflorum, _Lindl._, S. Europe.
+
+OLEACEAE.
+
+Syringa persica, _Linn._, Persia.
+ vulgaris, _Linn._, Europe, Persia.
+
+APOCYNEAE.
+
+Vinca minor, _Linn._, Europe.
+ major, _Linn._, Europe.
+Nerium odorum, _Ait._, E. India.
+ Oleander, _Linn._, S. Europe.
+Tabernaemontana coronaria, _Willd._, E. India.
+Allamanda cathartica, _Aubl._, S. America.
+
+CONVOLVULACEAE.
+
+Calystegia sepium, _R. Br._, Europe, America, Asia.
+ pubescens, _Lindl._, China.
+Convolvulus tricolor, _Linn._, S. Europe.
+Ipomoea pandurata, _Meyer_, S. America.
+
+SOLANACEAE.
+
+Datura cornigera, _Hook._, Peru.
+ fastuosa, _Linn._, S. America, Egypt.
+ arborea, _Linn._, S. America.
+ chlorantha, _Hook._
+ humilis, _Desf._
+Petunia nyctaginiflora, _Juss._, S. America.
+ violacea, _Hook_, S. America.
+Solanum Dulcamara, _Linn._, Europe.
+
+GENTIANACEAE.
+
+Gentiana Amarella, _Linn._, Europe.
+
+OROBANCHACEAE.
+
+Orobanche sp.
+
+SCROPHULARIACEAE.
+
+Mimulus luteus, _Linn._, Chili.
+Antirrhinum majus, _Linn._, S. Europe.
+Digitalis purpurea, _Linn._, Europe.
+Linaria vulgaris, _Mill._, Europe, N. America.
+Veronica, sp.
+Calceolaria, var. cult.
+
+GESNERACEAE.
+
+Achimenes longiflora, _D. C._, Mexico.
+Gloxinia var. hort.
+
+VERBENACEAE.
+
+Clerodendron fragrans, _Willd._, Japan.
+Verbena var. hort.
+
+NYCTAGINEAE.
+
+Mirabilis Jalapa, _Linn._, Trop. America.
+
+LAURINEAE.
+
+Laurus nobilis, _Linn._, S. Europe.
+ Sassafras, _Linn._, N. America.
+
+IRIDACEAE.
+
+Gladiolus tristis, _Linn._, Cape of Good Hope.
+Crocus aureus, _Sibth_, Europe, Asia Minor.
+ Susianus, _Curt._, Asia Minor.
+ pusillus, _Tenore_, Italy.
+ vernus, _Smith_, S. Europe.
+Iris sibirica, _Linn._, Europe.
+Iris Kaempferi, _Siebold_, Japan.
+
+AMARYLLIDACEAE.
+
+Galanthus nivalis, _Linn._, Europe.
+Leucoium vernum, _Linn._, Europe.
+Sternbergia lutea, _Gawl._, Europe, Asia Minor.
+Hippeastrum equestre, _Herb._, S. America.
+Narcissus cernuus, _Salisb._, S. Europe.
+ Telamonius, _Schult._, Europe.
+ lobularis, _Schult._
+ concolor, _Schult._, Portugal.
+ biflorus, _Curt._, Europe.
+ italicus, _Ker._, Italy.
+ incomparabilis, _Curt._, Italy.
+ Cypri, _Haw._, Cyprus.
+ Pseudo-Narcissus, _Linn._, Europe.
+ poeticus, _Linn._, Europe.
+ Jonquilla, _Linn._, S. Europe, East.
+ Tazetta, _Linn._, S. Europe.
+ poculiformis, _Salisb._, S. Europe.
+
+ORCHIDACEAE.
+
+Orchis Morio, _Linn._, Europe.
+ mascula, _Linn._, Europe.
+ pyramidalis, _Linn._, Europe.
+Ophrys fucifera, _Linn._, Europe.
+See also pp. 380, 509.
+
+HYDROCHARIDACEAE.
+
+Hydrocharis Morsus ranae, _Linn._, Europe.
+
+ASPHODELEAE.
+
+Asphodelus luteus, _Linn._, S. Europe.
+
+LILIACEAE.
+
+Tulipa Gesneriana, _Linn._, Asia Minor.
+ sylvestris, _Linn._, S. Europe.
+Scilla autumnalis, _Linn._, Europe.
+ nutans, _Smith_, S. Europe.
+Convallaria majalis, _Linn._, Europe, America.
+ Polygonatum, _Linn._, Europe.
+Trillium grandiflorum, _Spreng._, America.
+Fritillaria Meleagris, _Linn._, Europe.
+ imperialis, _Linn._, Persia.
+Lilium Martagon, _Linn._, Europe.
+ candidum, _Linn._, Syria, Persia.
+Hyacinthus orientalis, _Linn._, East.
+Polianthes tuberosa, _Linn._, E. India.
+Hemerocallis disticha, _Don._, Nepal.
+ Kwanso, gardens.
+ fulva, _Linn._, S. Europe.
+
+COLCHICACEAE.
+
+Colchicum autumnale, _Linn._, Europe.
+Tofieldia calyculata, _Wahl._, Europe.
+
+BUTOMACEAE.
+
+Sagittaria latifolia, _Willd._, N. America.
+ sagittifolia, _Linn._, Europe, Asia, America.
+
+COMMELYNACEAE.
+
+Tradescantia virginica, _Linn._, N. America.
+ alba, gardens.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[564] This appendix forms a portion of a paper published in the
+'Proceedings of the International Botanical Congress,' London, 1886, p.
+127, and which it has been deemed advisable to reproduce with sundry
+additions and modifications.
+
+[565] 'Traite des Giroflees,' per E. Chate.
+
+[566] Leading Article in the 'Gardeners' Chronicle,' p. 74, 1866.
+
+[567] Otto's 'Gartenzeitung,' 1866.
+
+[568] 'Gard. Chron.,' 1843, p. 628.
+
+[569] 'Gard. Chron.,' 1867, p. 381.--Art. "Chinese primroses."
+
+[570] See also p. 79, fig. 36. A similar flower is figured in 'Hort.
+Eystett. Ic. Arb. Vern.,' fol. 5. "Fructus nondum observatus est
+fortassis alimento uberius in flores refuso, nullus sperari possit."
+
+[571] See De Candolle, 'Plant. Rar. Genev.,' 1829, p. 91; and Alph. de
+Candolle.' Geog. Bot.,' p. 1080.
+
+[572] See 'Gardeners' Chronicle,' 1868, p. 1113.
+
+[573] Ibid., 1843, p. 628.
+
+
+
+
+NOTE.
+
+
+During the progress of the foregoing pages through the press, several
+additional illustrations of particular malformations have come under
+notice. Some of the more important of these may here be recorded.
+
+_Fasciation_ (see p. 11).--The following plants may be added to the
+list:--_Acer eriocarpum_, _Arabis albida_, _Brassica oleracea_, var.,
+_Guarea_, sp., _Artabotrys_ sp. In all, with the exception of the
+first-named, the fasciation occurred in the inflorescence. In some
+species of _Artabotrys_, indeed, fasciation and curvation of the
+inflorescence are common.
+
+_Synanthy_ (p. 39).--Several additional instances of adhesion of two or
+more flowers in _Calanthe vestita_, _C. Veitchii_, and other forms of
+this genus may be cited. These furnish further illustrations of the much
+greater liability of some plants to particular changes as compared with
+others. _Scilla bifolia_, _Gagea arvensis_, and _Viola odorata_ may be
+added to the list of synanthic plants.
+
+_Alterations of placentation, &c._ (see pp. 98, 483).--M. Casimir De
+Candolle, in a letter to the author, dated March 8th, 1869, thus writes
+of the existence of a double row of carpels in _Pyrus spectabilis_ and
+_Crataegus Oxyacantha_, "a longitudinal section of a double flower of
+_Pyrus spectabilis_ shows two rows of carpels, placed one above another.
+The arrangement of the vascular bundles shows that the upper row is
+external in relation to the lower series. The carpels of the latter are
+wholly coalescent as in a pear, while those of the upper verticil are
+only partially coherent or sometimes quite distinct. The placentation is
+constantly axile in the inferior row and parietal in the upper one. The
+number of ovules in each carpel of the superior row varies greatly, and
+they are often, but not always, inserted in two longitudinal ranks, as
+is constantly the case in the lower carpels. Double flowers of _Crataegus
+Oxyacantha_ present the same anomalies." For analogous instances in
+_Digitalis_, see p. 98. See also p. 380, _Saxifraga_.
+
+_Prolification_, p. 120.--A. P. De Candolle, "Organographie Vegetale,"
+tab. 40, figures an instance of suppression of one lobe of the ovary in
+_Iris chinensis_, and of the presence at the base of the flower of an
+adventitious and imperfect flower-bud, as in the _Phlomis_, mentioned at
+p. 119.
+
+_Monoecious Misleto_, p. 193.--In this specimen, exhibited at one of the
+meetings of the Scientific Committee of the Royal Horticultural Society
+in 1869, there were both male and female flowers on the same bush. The
+plant was of the male sex, with numerous long slender whip-like,
+somewhat pendulous, branches bearing comparatively large broad yellowish
+leaves, and fully developed male flowers at the end. From the side of
+one of these male branches, near the base, protruded a tuft of short,
+stiff branches, bearing small, narrow, dark green leaves, ripe berries
+and immature female flowers. There was no evidence of grafting or
+parasitism, of the female branch on the male, the bark and the wood
+being perfectly continuous so that the only tenable supposition is that
+this was a case of dimorphism.
+
+_Adventitious leaflet and pitcher_, see pp. 30 and 355. In a species of
+_Picrasma_, in which the leaves are impari-pinnate and spread
+horizontally, an adventitious leaflet was observed to project at right
+angles to the plane of the primary leaf. It emerged at a point nearly
+corresponding to that at which the normal pinnae were given off. The
+appearance presented was thus like that of a whorl of three leaves,
+except that the shining surface of the adventitious leaflet,
+corresponding to the upper face of the normal leaflets, was directed
+towards the axis, _i.e._, away from the corresponding portion of the
+neighbouring pinnae, while the dull surface, corresponding to the lower
+part of an ordinary leaflet, looked towards the apex of the main leaf,
+or away from the axis. In one instance, a stalked pitcher was given off
+from the same point as that from which the supernumerary leaflet
+emerged, the pitcher being apparently formed from the cohesion
+(congenital) of the margins of a leaflet.
+
+In the normal leaf of this plant there is between the bases of the
+pinnae, a small reddish gland or stipel? attached to, or projecting from,
+the upper surface of the rachis. It appeared from some transitional
+forms that the adventitious leaflet, just mentioned, was due to the
+exaggerated development of this gland, but no clue was afforded as to
+the origin of the ascidium. It was not practicable to examine the
+arrangement of the vascular bundles in the rachis.
+
+_Additional labella in Phaius._--A flower of _Phaius grandiflorus_ was
+found in the same condition as the _Catasetum_, mentioned at pp. 291 and
+382.
+
+_Tubular stem._--A species of _Sempervivum_, exhibited by Mr. Salter, of
+Hammersmith, at one of the summer exhibitions of flowers at the Royal
+Horticultural Society in 1868, under the name of _S. Bollei_, deserves
+notice from its bearing on the question of such structures as the
+calyx-tubes, the hip of the rose and such like, see pp. 394, 482. In
+this plant the leaves appeared to be arranged some on the outside,
+others on the inside, of an erect hollow cylinder, some six inches in
+height. The oldest leaves were outside, the youngest within, so that the
+appearance presented was as if the summit of the axis had been pushed or
+drawn in, much as the finger of a tight glove might be invaginated in
+withdrawing it from the hand.
+
+The plant in question thus furnishes an actual illustration of the
+supposititious case mentioned at p. 482.
+
+_Double flowers_, see pp. 499, et seq.--The following species may be
+added to those already recorded: _Lychnis coronaria_, _Hibiscus
+mutabilis_, _Lotus major_, _Pisum sativum_, _Godetia_ sp., _Ipomoea
+purpurea_, _Convolvulus minor_, _Heliotropium peruvianum_, _Trillium
+grandiflorum_, and _Phaius grandiflorus_.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX TO SUBJECTS.
+
+
+A.
+
+Abortion, 455, 467
+ of axile organs, 455
+ calyx, 460
+ corolla, 460
+ indusium, 467
+ leaves, 458
+ ovules, 466
+ perianth, 460
+ pistil, 464
+ receptacle, 457
+ stamens, 463
+
+Acaulescence, 393
+
+Acaulosia, 393, 456
+
+Acheilary, 398
+
+Adesiny, 58, 76
+
+Adhesion, 32
+ of axes, 50, 55
+ embryos, 56
+ leaves, 33
+ parts of flower, 34
+ roots, 53
+
+Adventitious buds, 156, 176
+ flowers, 174, 176, 180
+ gemmae, 173
+ leaves, 162
+ roots, 156
+ shoots, 161
+
+Albinism, 337
+
+Alternation, 3, 485
+
+Androecium, enlargement of, 430
+ meiophylly of, 398
+ meiotaxy of, 405
+ of orchids, 380
+ pleiotaxy of, 379
+ polyphylly of, 361
+
+Androgynism, 193
+
+Anther (see connective), contabescence of, 463
+ morphology of, 291
+ ovuliferous, 200
+ petalody of, 291
+ sutures of, 291
+
+Apilary, 397
+
+Apostasis, 440
+
+Aphylly, 395
+
+Arrangement, 1
+
+Ascidia, 30, 313
+ bibliography, 30
+ plants with, 30
+
+Atrophy, 454 (see abortion)
+
+Antophyllogeny, 355
+
+Avalidouires (vines), 211
+
+Axes, abortion of, 455
+ adhesion of, 50, 55
+ cohesion of, 9
+ enation from, 444
+ enlargement of, 418
+ fission of, 60
+ suppression of, 398
+
+Axile organs, see Axes
+
+
+B.
+
+Barley, Nepaul, 174
+
+Bigarades cornues, 303
+
+Bladder-plums, 465
+
+Bracts, multiplication of, 358
+ staminody of, 298
+ phyllody of, 242
+
+Buds, adventitious on fruits, 178
+ on leaves, 170, 174
+ in ovary, 180
+ on petals, 177
+ in pith, 171
+ on roots, 160 (see flower-buds, prolification)
+ variations of, 336
+
+Bulbs, displacement of, 84
+ multiplication of, 172, 350
+
+Burrs, 347, 420
+
+
+C.
+
+Catacorolla, 450
+
+Calycanthemy, 283
+Calyphyomy, 34
+
+Calyx, abortion of, 461
+ dialysis of, 70
+ meiophylly of, 396
+ meiotaxy of, 403
+ obsolete, 460
+ petalody of, 283
+ pleiotaxy of, 374
+ polyphylly of, 359
+ solution of from ovary, 77
+
+Calyx-tube, 394, 480, 509
+
+Carnation wheat-ear, 371
+
+Carpels (see Pistil, Fruit, Ovary), adventitious, 182
+ dialysis of, 73
+ enation from, 453
+ fission of, 68
+ in ovary, 182
+
+Cauliflower, 421
+
+Cenanthy, 408
+
+Chloranthy, 273, 279
+ bibliography, 280
+ remarks on, 279
+ plants subject to, 280
+
+Chorisis, 59, 343
+ parallel, 344
+ collateral, 344
+
+Chromatism, 339
+
+Cladodes, 328
+
+Classification, teratology in relation to, 488
+
+Cohesion of leaves, 21, 25
+ of petals, 28
+ pistils, 29
+ sepals, 27
+ stamens, 29
+ stems, 9
+
+Colour, alterations of, 337
+
+Columella, 395
+
+Coniferae, leaves of, 217, 352, 484
+ inflorescence of, 245
+ scales of, 192, 245, 484
+
+Compensation, 488
+
+Connective, petalody of, 293
+
+Consistence, alterations of, 432
+
+Contabescence, 463
+
+Contortion, 317
+
+Co-relation, 486
+
+Cornute leaves, 328
+
+Corolla, abortion of, 461
+ dialysis of, 71
+ duplicate, 376
+ hose in hose, 377
+ meiophylly of, 397
+ meiotaxy of, 403
+ pleiotaxy of, 374
+ polyphylly of, 359
+ virescence of, 338
+
+Cotyledons, increased number of, 370
+ shoots, below, 161
+
+Cuttings, formation of, 159
+
+
+D.
+
+Dedoublement, 59 (see Chorisis)
+
+Deflexion, 209
+
+Deformities, 311
+
+Degeneration, 470
+
+Depauperate ferns, 466
+
+Diadelphia, 29
+
+Dialysis, 58, 69
+ of calyx, 71
+ carpels, 73
+ corolla, 72
+ plants subject to, 72
+ of leaves--margins of, 70
+ stamens, 73
+
+Diaphysis, 103
+
+Dioecious plants, 192, 193
+
+Dimorphism, 333
+
+Dimorphic flowers, 403
+
+Direction, changes of, 201
+
+Diremption, 87
+
+Disjunction, see Dialysis, Fission, Solution
+
+Displacement, 84
+ of bulbs, 84
+ carpels, 96
+ flower-parts of, 91
+ inflorescence, 85
+ leaves, 87
+ ovules, 96
+ placentas, 96
+
+Distension, 419
+
+
+E.
+
+Ecblastesis, 107, 138
+
+Elongation, 433
+ of parts of flower, 438
+ flower-stalks, 435
+ inflorescence, 434
+ leaves, 437
+ nucleus of ovule, 269
+ placenta, 440
+ receptacle, 440
+ root, 434
+ thalamus, 440
+
+Embryos, adhesion of, 56
+ increased number of, 369
+
+Enation, 443
+ from axile organs, 444
+ carpels, 453
+ corolla, 449
+ foliar organs, 445
+ sepals, 448
+ stamens, 453
+
+Enlargement, 417
+ of androecium, 430
+ axile organs, 418
+ buds, 420
+ flower stalk, 421
+ fruit, 431
+ gynoecium, 430
+ perianth, 428
+ placenta, 425
+
+Epanody, 226
+
+Epistrophy, 226
+
+Etiolation, 337
+
+Eversion, 204
+
+Excrescences, 444 (see Enation)
+
+
+F.
+
+Fasciation, 11
+ plants affected with, 20, 508
+
+Fastigiation, 202
+
+Ferns, crested, 63, 447
+ depauperated, 466
+ exindusiate, 467
+ supra-soriferous, 189
+
+Filaments, see Stamens
+ petaloid, 290
+ 4-winged, 290
+
+Finger and toe, 69
+
+Fission, 59
+ of carpels, 68
+ leaf-organs, 61, 66
+ plants, subject to, 66
+ of petals, 66
+ stem-organs, 60
+ stamens, 68
+
+Flattening, 328
+
+Floral organs, displacement of, 91
+ elongation of, 439
+ metamorphy of, 281
+
+Florets, increased number of, 351, 390
+
+Flowers, adventitious, 174
+ on fruits, 177
+ on leaves, 174
+ in ovary, 180
+ on petals, 177
+ on spines, 177
+ apetalous, 404
+ double, 490, 510
+ hermaphrodite, 196
+ homomorphic, 188
+ increased number of, 390
+ mutilated, 403
+ unisexual, 193
+
+Flower-stalk, enlargement of, 421
+
+Flower-bud (see Prolification), replaced by leaves or scales, 164
+ in place of leaf-buds, 176
+
+Foliar organs (see leaves), adhesion of, 32
+
+Foliar organs, cohesion of, 21, 25
+ enation from, 445
+ fission of, 61
+ suppression of, 396
+
+Form, alterations of, 213
+ juvenile, persistence of, 217
+
+Frondescence, 241, 279, see Phyllody, Virescence
+
+Fruit, adhesion of, 44
+ enlargement of, 431
+
+
+G.
+
+Gemmae, formation of, 173
+
+Glands, formation of, 473
+
+Gnaurs, 158, 347, 417, 419
+
+Grafting, 53, 56
+
+Greffe des Charlatans, 56
+
+Growth interrupted, 327
+ irregular, 228
+
+Gymnaxony, 211
+
+Gynantherus, 305
+
+Gynoecium (see pistils)
+ enlargement of, 430
+ meiophylly of, 399
+ meiotaxy of, 406
+ pleiotaxy of, 388
+ polyphylly of, 363
+ suppression of, 406
+
+
+H.
+
+Hairs, formation of, 472
+
+Hermaphroditism, 197
+
+Heterogamy, 190
+
+Heteromorphy, 311
+
+Heterophylly, 330
+
+Heterotaxy, 156
+
+Homology, 476
+
+Homomorphy, 188
+
+Hose in hose corollas, 291, 377
+
+Hypertrophy, 415, see Enlargement
+
+
+I.
+
+Independence, 58
+
+Indusium, abortion of, 467
+
+Inflorescence, displacement of, 84
+ elongation of, 434
+ prolification of, 102, 115
+
+Interrupted growth, 327
+
+Inversion of organs, 206
+
+Irregularity, 213
+
+Irregular growth, 228
+
+
+K.
+
+Knaurs, (see gnaurs)
+
+Kail, 426
+
+
+L.
+
+Laciniation, see fission
+
+Layering, 156
+
+Leaders, formation of, 203
+
+Leaf-sheath, 477
+
+Leaves, see foliar organs
+ abortion of, 458
+ adhesion of,
+ by surfaces, 33
+ to stem, 34
+ adventitious, 162-165, 509
+ cornute, 328
+ displacement of, 86
+ elongation of, 437
+ enlargement of, 421
+ frondiferous, 355
+ geminate, 352
+ multiplication of, 358
+ nature of, 477
+ palmate-passage of to pinnate, 439
+ spiral torsion of, 326
+ supernumerary, 353
+
+Lily, double white, 375
+
+
+M.
+
+Meiotaxy of androecium, 405
+ of calyx, 403
+ corolla, 403
+ gynoecium, 405
+
+Meiophylly of androecium, 398
+ of calyx, 397
+ corolla, 397
+ gynoecium, 399
+ perianth, 397
+
+Mellarose, 134
+
+Metaphery, 91
+
+Metamorphy, 239, 281
+ calycanthemy, 283
+ chloranthy, 273
+ petalody, 283
+ phyllody, 241
+ pistillody, 302
+ sepalody, 282
+ staminody, 298
+
+Mischomany, 348
+
+Monadelphia, 29
+
+Monoecious, 192, 193, 509
+
+Monosy, 58
+
+Morphology, 479
+
+Multiplication, see pleiotaxy, pleiophylly
+ of bracts, 358, 371
+ bulbs, 350
+ cotyledons, 370
+ embryos, 369
+ florets, 351
+ foliar organs, 352
+ whorls, 371
+
+
+N.
+
+Nepaul Barley, 174
+
+Number, alterations of, 341
+ increased, 343, 353
+ diminished, 392
+
+
+O.
+
+Orchids, androecium of, 380
+ prolification in, 153
+
+Organs, rudimentary, see Atrophy
+
+Ovary, inferior, nature of, 394, 482
+ solution from calyx, 77
+ stamens in, 184
+
+Ovules, abortion of, 466
+ increase of, 367
+ in place of pollen, 200
+ polliniferous, 183
+ petalody of, 297
+ phyllody of, 262
+ pistillody of, 310
+ suppression of, 407
+ malformations of, 262
+ bibliography of, 272
+
+
+P.
+
+Parasitical plants, 55
+
+Peduncles, elongation of, 435
+
+Peloria, 207, 228
+ bibliography of, 227, 239
+ regular, 219
+ plants subject to, 226
+ irregular, 229
+ plants, subject to, 239
+
+Perianth, abortion of, 460
+ enlargement of, 428
+ meiophylly of, 396
+ pistillody of, 303
+ pleiotaxy of, 375
+
+Persistence, xxxvi _adnot._, 217
+
+Petalody, 283
+ of accessory organs, 297
+ anther, 291
+ calyx, 283
+ connective, 292
+ ovules, 297
+ pistils, 297
+ stamens, 284
+ plants, subject to, 295
+
+Petals, cohesion of, 28
+ enation from, 448
+ fission of, 66
+ phyllody of, 251
+ staminody of, 298
+ tubular, 23, 314
+
+Phyllode, 328
+
+Phyllody, 240 (see Virescence, Chloranthy)
+ of accessory organs, 272
+ bracts, 242
+ calyx, 244
+ plants subject to, 250
+ in Conifers, 245
+ of corolla, 251
+ plants subject to, 252
+ of ovules, 262
+ plants subject to, 271
+ pistils, 256
+ plants subject to, 261
+ stamens, 253
+ plants subject to, 256
+
+Phyllomania, 352
+
+Phyllomorphy, see Phyllody
+
+Phyllotaxy, 1, 320
+
+Pistil, abortion of, 464
+ cohesion of, 29
+ petalody of, 296
+ staminody of, 298
+
+Pistillody, 302
+ of ovules, 268, 310
+ perianth, 302
+ sepals, 302
+ stamens, 303
+ plants subject to, 310
+
+Pitchers, 30, 313, 509, see Ascidia
+
+Placentation, changes in, 96, 508
+ bibliography, 100
+ nature of, 483
+
+Placenta, elongation of, 439
+ enlargement of, 421
+
+Pleiomorphy, 228
+
+Pleiophylly, 353
+
+Pleiotaxy, 371
+ of androecium, 375
+ bracts, 371
+ calyx, 374
+ corolla, 376
+ gynoecium, 388
+ perianth, 375
+
+Plien, 346
+
+Plymouth Strawberry, 275
+
+Polyadelphia, 29
+
+Pollen in ovules, 183
+ abortion of, 463
+ replaced by ovules, 200
+
+Polyclady, 346
+
+Polycotyledony, 370
+
+Polyembryony, 369
+
+Polymorphy, 328
+
+Polyphylly of androecium, 361
+ of calyx, 350
+ corolla, 359
+ plants subject to, 360
+ of flower, 363
+ gynoecium, 363
+
+Polyphylly, bibliography, 364
+ plants subject to, 364
+
+Position, changes of, 83
+ relative, 485
+
+Prolification, 100
+ axillary, 138
+ foliar, 141
+ floral, 142
+ plants affected with, 148
+ bibliography of, 154
+ complicated, 151
+ of embryo, 155
+ of flower, 115
+ coincident changes, 128
+ median foliar, 116
+ median floral, 119, 508
+ plants affected with, 137
+ of fruit, 134
+ inflorescence, 102
+ bibliography, 115
+ median foliar, 103
+ median floral, 105
+ lateral floral, 107
+ lateral foliar, 106
+
+
+R.
+
+Receptacle, abortion of, 457
+ elongation of, 116, 440
+ spiral torsion of, 325
+
+Reflexion, 209
+
+Regularity, 213
+
+Rhizotaxy, 1
+
+Rose Willow, 166, 168
+
+Roots, adventitious, 156
+ elongation of, 434
+
+Rudimentary organs, 469
+
+
+S.
+
+Saint Valery Apple, 135, 282, 304, 375, 388
+
+Savoys, 426
+
+Scales, formation of, 164, 448, 470
+
+Scape, leaves on, 163
+
+Seeds, abortion of, 407
+ union of, 50
+
+Sepals, adhesion of, to petals, 34
+ cohesion of, 27
+ enation from, 448
+ phyllody of, 243
+ pistillody of, 303
+ staminody of, 298
+
+Sepalody, 282
+
+Separation, 58
+
+Sex, changes of, 190, 509
+
+Shamrock, four-leaved, 356
+
+Shoots below cotyledons, 167; _see_ Leaders
+
+Size, alterations in, 411
+
+Solenaidie, 21, 316
+
+Solution, 59, 76
+ bibliography, 82
+ of calyx, 77
+ plants subject to, 82
+ of stamens, 82
+
+Spathes, increased number of, 357
+
+Speiranthy, 91, 325
+
+Spiral torsion, 319
+ plants subject to, 325
+ of leaf, 326
+ of receptacle, 324
+
+Spines, 456
+
+Sports, 336
+
+Spurs, formation of, 228, 315
+
+Stamens, see Androecium
+ abortion of, 463
+ adhesion of, 34, 35
+ cohesion of, 29
+ compound, 294, 345
+ dialysis, 73
+ enation from, 453
+ fission of, 68
+ in ovary, 183
+ petalody of, 283
+ phyllody of, 253
+ pistillody of, 303
+ tubular, 316
+
+Staminody, of accessory organs, 301
+ of bracts, 298
+ petals, 298
+ pistils, 299
+ sepals, 298
+
+Stasimorphy, 216
+
+Stem, see axes
+
+Stipules, increased number of, 357
+
+Strawberry, Plymouth, 275
+ blind, 195
+
+Suppression, 393
+ of androecium, 405
+ flower, 408
+ foliar organs, 395
+
+Suppression of ovules, 407
+ remarks on, 409
+ of seeds, 407
+
+Symmetry, 213
+
+Synanthy, 37
+ bibliography, 45
+ plants subject to, 44, 508
+
+Syncarpy, 45
+
+Syngenesia, 29
+
+Synophty, 57
+
+Synspermy, 50
+
+
+T.
+
+Tendrils, adventitious, 326
+ formation of, 473
+
+Thalamus, see Receptacle
+
+Thorns, 456
+
+Torsion spiral, 319
+
+Tubers, 421
+ in axils of leaves, 142
+
+Tubes, formation of, 312, 509 (see Ascidia, Solenaidy, Spurs)
+
+Tubular petals, 314
+ stamens, 316
+
+
+U.
+
+Union, 8
+
+Unisexuality, 195
+
+Uovoli, 420
+
+
+V.
+
+Varieties, dwarf, 411
+
+Venation, 338
+
+Virescence, 338
+
+Viviparous plants, 106, 168
+
+
+W.
+
+Warts, 444
+
+Wheat-ear carnation, 371
+
+
+
+
+INDEX OF NAMES OF PLANTS.
+
+
+[In the following Index the names of the orders that are incidentally
+mentioned are printed in small capitals, those of the genera and species
+in ordinary type. The names are inserted as found in the several
+records, &c., without in general any attempt having been made to
+determine their accuracy. For this reason the authority for the specific
+name is rarely given, such citations being here unnecessary if not
+impracticable. It may, however, be assumed that the names made use of
+are those generally adopted by naturalists.
+
+This index will be found useful for statistical purposes. It will show
+at a glance, at least approximately, how often certain genera and
+species are affected with malformation, as contrasted with others. The
+nature of the malformation may of course be ascertained by referring to
+the particular page indicated by the number. The proportion of wild to
+cultivated plants may also be approximately ascertained, and the effects
+of cultivation estimated. The disproportionate frequency with which some
+species are affected, e.g., _Trifolium repens_, &c., as contrasted with
+other closely allied, and perhaps equally common species, under
+apparently identical conditions, is also made manifest.]
+
+
+
+A.
+
+Abies Brunoniana, 245
+ excelsa, 21, 61, 192, 298, 325, 456,
+ Larix, 90
+ pectinata, 52
+
+Acacia, 329
+
+Aceras anthropophora, 238
+
+Acer, 359, 364, 367, 508
+ platanoides, 66, 459
+ pseudo-platanus, 20, 371
+
+Aceranthus, 225, 226
+
+Achimenes, 106, 114, 296
+ longiflora, 506
+
+Aconitum, 148, 231, 359, 360, 399, 404,
+ 407, 464
+ Napellus, 39, 44, 238
+
+Acorus, 225
+
+Actaea spicata, 251, 252
+
+Adenium obesum, 417
+
+Adenorophium luxurians, 254
+
+Adonis, 262, 295
+ autumnalis, 500
+ vernalis, 500
+
+Adoxa, 367
+
+AErides odoratum, 398
+
+AEschynanthus, 44, 297
+
+AEsculus Hippocastanum, 50, 66, 295,
+ 369, 438, 459, 501
+
+Affonsea, 364
+
+Afzelia, 397
+
+Agaricus, xxiii, 54
+
+Agave, 177, 432
+ Americana, 33, 45
+
+Angelica, 365
+
+Agrimonia, 137, 406
+
+Agrostemma, 148
+ Githago, 271
+
+Agrostis alba, 169
+
+Ailanthus glandulosa, 21
+
+Aira alpina, 169
+ caespitosa, 169
+
+Ajuga Iva, 404
+ pyramidalis, 20
+ reptans, 243
+
+Alcea, 149, 297
+
+Alchemilla minima, 171
+
+Aldrovanda vesiculosa, 86
+
+Alisma, 115, 329
+ natans, 107
+ parnassifolia, 167
+
+ALISMACEAE, 115
+
+Allamanda, 296
+ cathartica, 288, 390, 505
+
+Allium, 106, 114, 170, 299, 360, 365, 367
+ fragrans, 369
+ vineale, 150
+
+Alliaria officinalis, 269, 271
+
+Almond, see _Amygdalus_.
+
+Alnus, 349
+ fruticosa, 192
+ imperialis, 459
+ incana, 21
+ glutinosa, 66, 244, 349
+ laciniata, 65
+
+Alopecurus pratensis, 169
+
+Alsine media, 67, 252, 404
+
+Alstroemeria, 319, 326
+
+Althaea, 295
+ rosea, 20, 501
+
+Alyssum, 137
+ incanum, 252
+
+AMARYLLIDACEAE, 115, 138, 150
+
+Amaryllis, 307, 310, 432
+
+Ambrina ambrosioides, 397
+
+AMENTACEAE, 114, 435
+
+Amorpha, 21, 397
+ fruticosa, 23, 30, 243
+
+AMYGDALEAE, 500; see _Rosaceae_
+
+Amygdalus, 122, 137, 155, 295, 297, 364
+ communis, 250, 252, 369, 503
+ Persica, 74, 176, 503
+
+Anagallis, 73, 138, 141, 150, 288, 296, 360, 365, 367
+ arvensis, 117, 161, 256, 263, 271, 278, 281, 284
+ collina, 44,
+ phoenicea, 141, 253, 271, 441, 461
+ tenella, 505
+ Webbiana, 281
+
+Anomodon alternatus, 49
+
+Ananassa, 350
+
+Anchusa, 132, 138, 339, 365
+ ochroleuca, 125, 259, 262, 281
+ paniculata, 262
+
+Androsace maxima, 16, 20
+
+Anemiopsis californica, 63, 66
+
+Anemone, 113, 121, 136, 140, 142, 148, 258, 289, 295, 296, 297, 360,
+ 374, 430, 463, 491, (see _Hepatica_)
+ coronaria, 107, 250, 256, 339, 499
+ hortensis, 107, 250, 339, 499
+ japonica, 161, 499
+ nemorosa, 250, 256, 339, 499
+ palmata, 499
+
+Anemone pavonina, 499
+ Pulsatilla, 250
+ rivularis, 165
+ sylvestris, 250, 499
+
+Angelica, 114, 137, 143, 150
+ Razoulzii, 244, 437
+
+Anthemis arvensis, 20
+ nobilis, 20
+ retusa, 44
+
+Anthoxanthum, 61
+ odoratum, 61
+
+Anthriscus, 442
+
+Anthurium Scherzerianum, 358
+
+Anthyllis, 295
+
+Antirrhinum majus, 20, 22, 24, 31, 44, 57, 73, 82, 104, 114, 121, 131,
+ 225, 226, 227, 230, 233, 235, 238, 253, 272, 296, 301, 315, 316,
+ 318, 363, 365, 378, 398, 505
+
+Apargia, 114
+ autumnalis, 20
+
+Apium, 82, 113, 150
+ graveolens, 66, 158
+ Petroselinum, 370, 437
+
+APOCYNACEAE, 137
+
+Apple, St. Valery, 135, 282, 304, 375, 388
+
+Aquilegia canadensis, 500
+ Skinneri, 266, 271
+ vulgaris, 24, 70, 127, 136, 220, 226, 252, 257, 260, 261, 271, 280,
+ 286, 287, 288, 293, 295, 74, 390, 500
+
+Arabis, 148, 508
+ alpina, 397, 461, 463
+ pumila, 170
+ sagittata, 44
+
+Araucaria, 245
+
+Arbutus Unedo, 291, 292, 296, 377, 504
+
+Archidendron, 365
+
+Ardisia serrulata, 369
+
+Arenaria serpyllifolia, 461
+ tetraquetra, 398, 399, 464, 469
+
+Armeria, 114
+
+Aristolochia Clematitis, 38, 45, 314
+ caudata, 231, 238
+ sipho, 23
+
+Armoracia rusticana, 64, 299
+
+Arnoseris, 114
+
+Artabotrys, 456, 508
+
+Artemisia, 405
+
+Artocarpus, 407
+
+Arum, 329
+ maculatum, 66, 225, 227, 245, 358
+
+Asparagus officinalis, 12, 19, 21, 320, 325, 471
+
+Asphodelus, 138, 296
+
+Asphodelus luteus, 506
+ ramosus, 298, 310
+
+Asplenium Trichomanes, 190
+
+Astrantia, 114
+ major, 368
+
+Athamanta, 82, 137, 149
+ Cervaria, 250, 442
+
+Atriplex, 227
+ hortensis, 224
+
+Atropa Belladonna, 44
+
+Aucuba, 21
+ japonica, 21, 197
+
+AURANTIACEAE, 137, 149, 502
+
+Avena, 319, 351, 391
+ chinensis, 298
+
+Azalea, 35, 114
+ glauca, 504
+ indica, 44, 73, 166, 209, 289, 296
+ nudiflora, 504
+
+
+B.
+
+Babingtonia, 185
+
+Baeckea diosmifolia, 183
+
+BALSAMINEAE, 359, 404, 501
+
+Balsam, see _Impatiens_
+
+Bamboo, see _Bambusa_
+
+Bambusa, 307, 310, 324, 365
+
+Barbarea, 295
+ vulgaris, 310, 500
+
+Barkhausia, taraxacifolia, 20
+
+Barley, Nepaul, 174
+
+Bauhinia, 328
+
+BEGONIACEAE, 114
+
+Begonia, 31, 81, 106, 114, 162, 170, 352
+ frigida, 199, 303, 310
+ fuchsioides, 281
+ phyllomaniaca, 170
+
+Bellevalia, 408, 461, 467
+ comosa, 348
+
+Bellis perennis, 17, 20, 31, 106, 114, 164, 244
+
+Berberis, 272, 295, 458, 460, 500
+ vulgaris, 20
+
+Beta, 19, 325, 365
+ vulgaris, 20
+
+Betonica Alopecuros, 42, 44, 226
+
+Betula alba, 66, 346, 456, 472
+ populifolia, 66
+
+Bidens, 114, 165, 223
+
+BIGNONIACEAE, 222
+
+Bignonia, 272, 296, 327
+
+Bikkhia, 80
+
+Blitum, 45
+ polymorphum, 397, 458
+
+Bocconia, 224
+ cordata, 310
+
+Bowiea volubilis, 409
+
+BORAGINACEAE, 132, 138
+
+Bouchea hyderabadensis, 166
+
+Bougainvillea, 339
+
+Brachythecium plumosum, 49
+
+Brassica, 20, 136, 139, 295, 364, 367
+ Napus, 27, 205
+ oleracea, 30, 33, 66, 67, 106, 113, 136, 141, 142, 148, 250, 252,
+ 264, 271, 280, 351, 408, 421, 426, 442, 445, 501, 508
+ Rapa, 181
+
+Breynia, 198
+
+Bromelia, 103
+
+Bromus velutinus, 358
+
+Broussonettia papyrifera, 331, 459
+
+Bruniaceae, 80, 81
+
+Brunia microphylla, 81
+
+Bryonia, 360, 367
+
+Bryophyllum calycinum, 158, 171, 483
+ proliferum, 166
+
+Bryum caespititium, 49
+
+Bunias, 97, 136, 280, 360
+
+Bunium creticum, 159
+ flexuosum, 20
+
+Bupleurum, 149, 459
+ falcatum, 15, 20
+
+BUTOMACEAE, 507
+
+Buxbaumia indusiata, 49
+
+Byrsonima, 137
+
+BYTTNERIACEAE, 362
+
+
+C.
+
+Cabomba aquatica, 458
+
+CACTACEAE, 81, 113, 149, 395
+
+Cactus, 160
+
+Cachrys taurica, 197
+
+Caesalpinia, 365
+ digyna, 48
+
+Cakile maritima, 246, 250
+
+Calanthe, 227, 398, 402, 508
+ vestita, 39, 45, 227, 402, 508
+
+Calceolaria, 41, 44, 230, 233, 284, 296, 397, 405, 406, 505
+ crenatifolia, 238
+ floribunda, 316
+ rugosa, 238
+
+Calendula, 114, 138, 339, 370
+ officinalis, 252, 280, 339
+
+Calla palustris, 357
+
+Callitriche, 196
+ autumnalis, 406
+ vernalis, 406
+
+Caltha, 136, 148, 295
+ palustris, 141, 250, 442, 500
+
+Calluna, 296, 504
+
+Calycophyllum, 249, 283, 429
+
+Calystegia, 114, 296
+
+Calystegia Sepium, 505
+ pubescens, 505
+
+Camellia japonica, 288, 295, 297, 491, 494, 502
+ reticulata, 502
+ Sasanqua, 502
+
+CAMPANULACEAE, 80, 114, 127, 131, 138, 139, 150, 334
+
+Campanula, 71, 72, 73, 82, 138, 150, 250, 285, 296, 365, 367, 404,
+ 442, 472
+ canescens, 403
+ colorata, 403
+ glomerata, 242, 300, 504
+ latifolia, 504
+ Medium, 20, 37, 44, 61, 251, 448, 504
+ persicifolia, 44, 284, 300, 429, 504
+ pyramidalis, 281, 504
+ Rapunculus, 429
+ rapunculoides, 20, 252, 300, 310, 375
+ rhomboidea, 504
+ rotundifolia, 377, 378, 504
+ Tenorei, 504
+ thyrsoidea, 20
+ Trachelium, 504
+ Vidallii, 504
+
+Campanumaea, 80, 81
+
+Camphorosma monspeliaca, 456
+
+Canna, 285
+
+Cannabis, 82, 194, 197
+ sativa, 81
+
+Cannamois virgata, 197
+
+CAPPARIDACEAE, 148, 390
+
+CAPRIFOLIACEAE, 45
+
+Capsella bursa pastoris, 298, 361
+
+Cardamine, 295, 357
+ hirsuta, 398
+ Impatiens, 404
+ pratensis, 65, 170, 181, 495, 500
+ sylvatica, 398
+
+Carduus arvensis, 20
+ crispus, 166, 339
+ heterophyllus, 260, 262, 250
+ tataricus, 250, 260, 262
+
+Carex, 115, 138, 150, 191, 194, 350
+ acuta, 143, 198
+ caespitosa, 199
+ glauca, 143, 199
+ maritima, 369
+ paludosa, 199
+ vulpina, 428
+
+Carica Papaya, 199
+
+Carlemannia, 398
+
+Carlina, 114
+ vulgaris, 20
+
+Carpinus, 346
+ Betulus, 66
+
+Carthamus, 138
+
+Carum, 82, 114, 365
+ Bulbocastanum, 159
+ Carui, 244, 271, 285, 339, 437
+
+CARYOPHYLLACEAE, 99, 113, 120, 137, 139, 140, 148, 250, 379, 397, 398,
+ 404, 406, 407, 410, 418, 442, 443, 448
+
+Casuarina rigida, 325
+
+Cassia, 364, 369
+ marylandica, 30
+
+Castanea vesca, 11, 66, 104, 114, 319, 435
+
+Catabrosa aquatica, 351
+
+Catalpa, 399
+
+Catasetum, 291, 296, 334
+ eburneum, 384
+
+Cattleya amethystina, 401
+ Forbesii, 34, 384, 398
+ marginata, 223, 227
+ Mossiae, 224, 227, 238
+ violacea, 383, 397
+
+Caucalis leptophylla, 33
+
+Caulophyllum, 75, 125
+
+Caylussa, 137
+
+Cedrus Libani, 61
+
+CELASTRACEAE, 149
+
+Celastrus, 149
+
+Celosia, 19, 20
+
+Centaurea, 37, 114
+ collina, 34
+ Jacea, 43, 243
+ Scabiosa, 20
+ moschata, 44
+
+Centranthus, 247
+ macrosiphon, 250
+ ruber, 42, 44
+
+Cephalotus follicularis, 314
+
+Cerastium, 62, 97, 262, 397, 398
+ glomeratum, 280, 358, 463
+ tetandrum, 463
+ triviale, 252, 280
+ vulgatum, 252, 404
+
+Cerasus, 74, 117, 149, 250, 260, 424, 489
+ avium, 262
+ caproniana, 364
+ Lauro-cerasus, 64, 66, 370
+ vulgaris, 252, 262
+
+Ceratonia Siliqua, 30
+
+Cercis, 364
+ siliquastrum, 325
+
+Chamaerops humilis, 300
+
+Chaerophyllum, 113
+
+Cheiranthus, 121, 131, 136, 148, 295, 364
+ Cheiri, 20, 33, 35, 36, 250, 252, 271, 404, 427, 500
+ var. gynantherus, 305, 310
+
+Cheiranthus incanus, 250
+
+Chelone, 361
+ barbata, 238
+
+Chelidonium majus, 66, 170, 280, 295, 500
+
+CHENOPODIACEAE, 397, 405, 406
+
+Chenopodium, 45, 365, 367
+ glaucum, 397
+ murale, 428
+ Quinoa, 62, 66
+ Vulvaria, 458
+
+Chirita sinensis, 170
+
+Chlorophytum Sternbergianum, 107
+
+Chorozema ilicifolium, 21
+
+Chrysanthemum, 16, 72, 365
+ indicum, 20, 188, 472
+ Leucanthemum, 20
+
+Chrysosplenium, 367
+
+Cichorium Intybus, 20, 44
+
+Cicuta virosa, 406
+
+CINCHONACEAE, 429
+
+Cionidium Moorei, 190
+
+Cirsium, 114, 138
+ arvense, 250, 457
+ lanceolatum, 20
+ tricephalodes, 252, 339
+
+Cissus, 211
+
+CISTACEAE, 137
+
+Cistus vaginatus, 473
+
+Citrus, 137, 149, 364, 453
+ Aurantium, 33, 35, 44, 56, 75, 134, 303, 310, 335, 369, 388, 389,
+ 391, 502
+
+Clarkia, 24, 295
+ elegans, 177, 503
+ pulchella, 503
+
+Cleistanthus polystachyus, 198
+
+Clematis, 136, 148, 288, 295, 367
+ florida, 499
+ Fortunei, 499
+ patens, 499
+ Viticella, 28, 499
+
+Cleome, 137, 148
+
+Cleonia lusitanica, 238
+
+Clerodendron fragrans, 506
+
+Cliffortia, 396
+
+Clinacium dendroides, 49
+
+Clitoria Ternatea, 231, 238, 295, 502
+
+Clusia rosea, 11
+
+Cluytia semperflorens, 198
+
+Cneorum, 365
+
+Cnicus palustris, 20
+
+Cnidium, 113
+
+Cobaea scandens, 73, 82, 272, 326, 365
+
+Coccoloba platycladon, 328
+
+Cochlearia Armoracia, 64, 299, 310, 331
+
+Cocos, 115, 365
+ nucifera, 429
+
+Codiaeum variegatum, 31, 314, 326, 328, 459
+
+Coelebogyne ilicifolia, 369
+
+Cola acuminata, 370
+
+Colchicum autumnale, 45, 67, 73, 250, 287, 296, 406, 407, 507
+
+Coleus, 365, 459
+
+Columnea Schiedeana, 226
+
+Columbine, see _Aquilegia_
+
+Colutea, 465
+
+Commelyna, 73, 296, 507
+
+COMMELYNACEAE, 245, 507
+
+COMPOSITAE, 72, 73, 86, 107, 114, 127, 131, 138, 165, 223, 226, 235,
+ 339, 406, 407, 430, 434, 437, 439, 442
+
+Conceveiba macrophylla, 198
+
+CONIFERAE, 56, 65, 103, 114, 191, 245, 369, 435
+
+Conium maculatum, 114
+
+Conostephium, 120
+
+Convallaria maialis, 73, 150, 250, 296, 360, 367, 375, 400, 442, 507
+ Polygonatum, 507
+
+CONVOLVULACEAE, 114, 137, 150
+
+Convolvulus, 73, 114, 137, 142, 150,
+ 296, 510
+ arvensis, 20
+ Sepium, 20, 108, 250
+ tricolor, 505
+
+Conyza squarrosa, 20
+
+Corallorhiza innata, 238
+
+Circeia, 410
+
+Corchorus acutangulus, 397
+
+Coreopsis, 20, 73, 114, 138
+ Drummondi, 339
+
+Cornus, 37, 44, 358
+ mas, 358, 374
+ sanguinea, 44
+ suecica, 374
+
+Coronilla, 106, 113, 149, 295
+ Emerus, 502
+
+Correa, 72, 73, 370
+
+Cortusa Mathioli, 133, 138, 263
+
+Corydalis aurea, 280
+ solida, 243
+ tuberosa, 235, 336, 238
+
+Corylas Avellana, 21, 31, 48, 66, 114,
+ 349, 354, 364, 365, 368
+
+Cotoneaster microphylla, 21
+
+Cotula foetida, 19, 20
+
+CRASSULACEAE, 113
+
+Crassula, 113
+ arborescens, 26, 31
+
+Crataegus, 82, 113, 149, 295, 364, 404, 419
+ Crus galli, 503
+ monogyna, 44, 400
+
+Crataegus Oxyacantha, 57, 66, 78, 317, 370, 503, 508
+ tanacetifolia, 107, 162
+
+Crepis, 271
+ virens, 20
+
+Crinum, 432
+
+Crocus, 29, 35, 45, 67, 287, 289, 296, 319, 361, 399, 400, 434, 462
+ aureus, 506
+ nudiflorus, 302
+ pusillus, 506
+ vernus, 506
+
+Crozophora tinctoria, 198
+
+CRUCIFERAE, 73, 76, 98, 113, 136, 139, 141, 148, 257, 297, 364, 379,
+ 406, 410, 428, 442, 500
+
+Cryptomeria japonica, 103, 114, 245, 435
+
+Cucubalus, 149
+
+Cucumis, 36, 82, 138, 248, 259, 326, 367
+
+CUCURBITACEAE, 71, 80, 81, 137, 247
+
+Cucurbita, 197, 201, 250, 307, 310, 365, 474
+
+Cuphea miniata, 211, 424
+
+Cupressus funebris, 218
+
+CYCADEAE, 56, 369
+
+Cyclamen, 67, 104, 114, 296, 319, 359, 360
+ linearifolium, 329
+
+Cyclodon, 80
+
+Cydonia vulgaris, 71, 79, 295, 423
+ japonica, 503
+
+Cynanchum fuscatum, 369
+ nigrum, 369
+
+Cynosurus cristatus, 169
+
+CYPERACEAE, 115, 138, 150, 169, 350
+
+Cypripedium, 27, 92, 381, 386
+ candidum, 401
+ Hookerae, 386
+ insigne, 91
+
+Cyrtanthus, 177
+
+Cytisus, 113, 295, 336
+ albus, 502
+ Laburnum, 21, 66, 157, 189, 222, 226, 231, 238, 356, 459
+ nigricans, 15, 104
+
+
+D.
+
+Dactylis, 115
+ glomerata, 169
+
+Dahlia, 44, 72, 188, 244, 433
+ variabilis, 20
+
+Danae, 60
+
+Daphne indica, 21
+ odora, 21
+
+Datura, 285, 291, 296, 365, 378, 407
+
+Datura arborea, 505
+ cornigera, 505
+ chlorantha, 505
+ fastuosa, 296, 379, 450, 505
+ humilis, 505
+
+Daucus Carota, 53, 57, 82, 113, 121, 124, 125, 137, 149, 244, 250, 252,
+ 256, 260, 262, 296, 298, 339, 365, 368, 369, 370, 457, 504
+
+Delphinium, 44, 136, 148, 225, 283, 286, 295, 344, 364, 367, 374, 388,
+ 399, 407
+ Ajacis, 250, 252, 261, 271, 339, 500
+ amoenum, 261
+ cheilanthum, 500
+ Consolida, 373, 500
+ crassicaule, 252, 256, 261, 271, 339
+ dictyocarpum, 271, 432
+ elatum, 20, 126, 237, 238, 261, 267, 271, 309, 310, 339
+ elegans, 500
+ grandiflorum, 500
+ peregrinum, 219, 226
+
+Dendrobium, 227
+ nobile, 94, 398
+ normale, 224, 383
+
+Desmodium canadense, 271
+ marylandicum, 467
+
+Deutzia, 295
+ crenata, 503
+
+Dianthus, 67, 113, 121, 129, 137, 139, 145, 146, 149, 166, 261, 268,
+ 289, 295, 297, 310, 360, 364, 371, 379, 397, 471
+ arboreus, 501
+ barbatus, 325, 404, 501
+ Caryophyllus, 501
+ corymbosus, 501
+ deltoides, 501
+ hybridus, 501
+ plumarius, 501
+ Poiretianus, 501
+ sinensis, 370, 501
+
+Dictamnus, 121, 122, 137, 140
+ albus, 256, 271
+ Fraxinella, 252, 262, 271, 278, 280
+
+Dielytra, 236, 237
+
+Digitalis lutea, 60
+ orientalis, 238
+ purpurea, 20, 40, 44, 73, 98, 121, 129, 137, 150, 226, 233, 238,
+ 296, 298, 315, 365, 373, 398, 459, 472, 505
+
+DILLENIACEAE, 398
+
+Dionaea, 308
+ Muscipula, 310
+
+Diosma, 369
+
+Diphaca, 365
+
+Diplotaxis, 136, 148, 364
+ muralis, 252, 458
+ tenuifolia, 73, 250, 261, 274, 280, 397, 398, 430
+
+DIPSACACEAE, 86, 107, 114, 138
+
+Dipsacus, 419, 429
+ fullonum, 20, 62, 66, 281, 320, 321, 325
+ Gmelini, 325
+ pilosus, 20, 325
+ sylvestris, 10, 20
+
+Dipterocarpus, 249
+
+Ditaxis lancifolia, 380
+
+Dodecatheon, 138
+
+Dodonaea viscosa, 20
+
+Draba, 364
+
+Dracocephalum austriacum, 238
+ moldavicum, 20
+ speciosum, 320, 325
+
+Dracontium pertusum, 25
+
+Drosera intermedia, 170, 265, 271, 277, 473
+
+
+E.
+
+Ebenus cretica, 26
+
+Eccremocarpus scaber, 222, 226, 326
+
+Echeveria, 113
+
+Echinophora maritima, 252
+
+Echium pyrenaicum, 20
+ simplex, 20
+ vulgare, 374
+
+Echinocactus, 149, 178, 417
+
+Elegia, 115
+
+Empetrum nigrum, 197
+
+Encamptodon perichaetialis, 174
+
+EPACRIDACEAE, 120, 137
+
+Epacris, 103, 137
+ impressa, 61, 379, 504
+
+Epidendrum, 114
+ elongatum, 107
+ Stamfordianum, 401
+
+Epimedium, 23, 226
+ Musschianum, 390
+
+Epiphyllum, 328
+
+Epipactis palustris, 325
+
+Epilobium, 81, 137, 273
+ angustifolium, 20
+ hirsutum, 246, 250, 252, 256, 262,
+ 281, 442
+ palustre, 271
+ tetragonum, 503
+
+Episcia bicolor, 170
+
+EQUISETACEAE, 189, 350
+
+Equisetum, 61, 325
+ fluviatile, 325
+ limosum, 325
+ Telmateia, 323, 325
+
+Eranthis hyemalis, 23, 70
+
+ERICACEAE, 114, 119, 137
+
+Erica, 21, 73, 137, 296
+ cinerea, 504
+ hyemalis, 378, 504
+ multiflora, 372
+ Tetralix, 286, 310, 405, 406, 504
+
+Eriobotrya japonica, 295
+
+Erodium, 463
+
+Ervum Lens, 20, 25, 66
+
+Erucago, 136
+
+Erucastrum Pollichii, 271
+ canariense, 280
+
+Eryngium, 113, 368, 442
+ viviparum, 104
+
+Erysimum, 136, 148
+ Barbarea, 252
+ cheiranthoides, 252
+ officinale, 252
+
+Erythrochiton hypophyllanthus, 32, 174
+
+Escholtzia crocea, 250
+
+Eucomis, 103
+
+Eugenia Jambos, 369
+
+Euonymus japonicus, 20
+ latifolius, 369
+
+EUPHORBIACEAE, 114, 150, 369, 395
+
+Euphorbia, 114, 150, 365, 371, 395
+ Characias, 20
+ Cyparissias, 20, 244
+ Esula, 198, 307, 310
+ exigua, 20
+ geniculata, 253, 256
+ helioscopia, 56
+ Lathyris, 244
+ rosea, 369
+ palustris, 106, 299
+ Peplus, 162
+ pusilla, 244
+ segetalis, 281
+
+
+F.
+
+Faba, see _Vicia_
+ vulgaris, 397
+
+Fabiana, 237
+
+Fagus silvatica, 65, 66, 197, 318, 370, 459
+
+Festuca, 115
+ nemoralis, 169
+ ovina, 169
+
+Ficaria, (see _Ranunculus Ficaria_)
+ ranunculoides, 70, 295, 500
+
+FICOIDEAE, 43
+
+Ficus Carica, 114, 204, 435
+ stipulata, 332
+
+Filago, 114
+ germanica, 108
+
+FILICES, 21, 190, 447
+
+Fourcroya, 115
+
+Fragaria, xxxvi _adnot._, 250, 295
+ alpina, 271
+ botryformis, 47
+ monophylla, 396
+ vesca, 20, 70, 116, 195, 275, 281, 406, 503
+
+Fraxinus excelsior, 13, 21, 66, 325, 396, 421
+ Ornus, 21
+
+Fritillaria imperialis, 21, 45, 296, 462, 506
+ Meleagris, 506
+
+Fuchsia, 35, 38, 44, 57, 81, 91, 127, 199, 247, 250, 288, 290, 291,
+ 292, 294, 295, 316, 359, 360, 364, 367, 400, 443
+ globosa, 503
+Funckia, 369
+
+
+G.
+
+Gagea, 365, 367
+ arvensis, 375, 508
+
+Gaillardia, 269, 271
+
+Galanthus, 296
+ nivalis, 300, 506
+
+Galeobdolon luteum, 226, 238
+
+Galeopsis, 429
+ Ladanum, 238
+ ochroleuca, 44
+ Tetrahit, 429
+
+Galium Aparine, 205, 325
+ Mollugo, 321, 325
+ verum, 325
+
+Gaudichaudieae, 334
+
+Gardenia, 296, 377
+ florida, 504
+ Fortuniana, 504
+ radicans, 504
+
+Gaura biennis, 20
+
+Genista, 295
+ tinctoria, 502
+ sibirica, 502
+ Scoparia, 502
+
+GENTIANACEAE, 137, 150, 505
+
+Gentiana, 71, 73, 137, 150, 252, 296
+ Amarella, 166, 305, 310, 371, 505
+ campestris, 250, 299, 442
+ purpurea, 389
+
+GERANIACEAE, 113, 137, 501
+
+Geranium, 20, 137, 221, 246, 250, 252, 292, 295, 418
+ columbinum, 461
+ nodosum, 34, 65
+ pratense, 501
+ sylvaticum, 501
+
+GESNERACEAE, 38, 114, 222, 505
+
+Gesnera, 33, 44, 95, 171, 339, 357, 427
+ Geroltiana, 88, 89
+ zebrina, 355
+
+Geum, 121, 137, 465
+ coccineum, 275
+ rivale, 122, 130, 131, 250, 252, 281, 503
+
+Gilia capitata, 281
+ glomeruliflora, 253, 271
+
+Gladiolus, 21, 296
+ tristis, 506
+
+Glancium luteum, 66
+
+Gleditschia, 30, 177, 364
+ triacanthos, 44, 48
+
+Glochidion, 310
+
+Gloxinia, 171, 206, 207, 222, 226, 238, 284, 291, 296, 365, 451, 506
+
+Glyceria aquatica, 169
+ fluitans, 169, 278
+
+Godetia, 295, 510
+
+Godoya, 374
+
+Gomphia, 281
+
+Gongora, 35
+
+Goodenia ovata, 21, 31
+
+GRAMINACEAE, 115, 138, 278, 350, 391
+
+Gratiola, 296
+
+Guarea, 508
+
+Gypsophila, 149
+
+
+H.
+
+Habenaria, 138, 238
+ chlorantha, 382
+
+Halenia, 222
+ heterantha, 222, 226
+
+Hedera Helix, 65
+
+Hedypnois, 114
+
+Helianthemum, 132, 137, 295, 404
+ vulgare, 501
+
+Helianthus, 38, 44, 66
+ annuus, 20
+ tuberosus, 20
+
+Helleborus, 23, 288
+ foetidus, 442
+ olympicus, 284
+
+Heliotropium peruvianum, 510
+
+Helwingia, 174
+
+Hemerocallis, 138, 296, 310, 507
+ disticha, 507
+ fulva, 507
+
+Hepatica, 295, 463
+ triloba, 500
+
+Heracleum, 82, 113, 137, 150, 262, 365, 368
+ Sphondylium, 252, 256, 339
+
+Hermesia castaneifolia, 194
+
+Herreria parviflora, 141, 150
+
+Hesperis, 19, 136, 295
+ matronalis, 20, 252, 280, 325, 500
+
+Heterocentron, 354
+
+Hibiscus, 137, 293, 295, 297, 360, 510
+ albus, 501
+ flavescens, 501
+ Rosa sinensis, 501
+ Syriacus, 20, 501
+
+Hieracium, 138
+ aureum, 17
+ praealtum, 339
+ Pilosella, 20
+ umbellatum, 20
+
+HIPPOCASTANEAE, 501
+
+Hippeastrum, 296
+ equestre, 506
+
+Hippuris, 196
+ vulgaris, 325, 406
+
+Hodgsonia, 326, 474
+
+Holeus mollis, 169
+
+Honckenya peploides, 196, 406, 461
+
+Hordeum, 115, 351
+ nepalense, 174, 175
+ trifurcatum, 174, 175
+
+Humulus Lupulus, 193, 244, 435, 472
+
+Hyacinthus, 138, 150, 262, 296, 360, 361, 486 _adnot_
+ comosus, 409
+ orientalis, 21, 45, 48, 54, 172, 189, 286, 299, 348, 507
+ Pouzolzii, 170
+
+Hydrangea, 417
+
+Hydrocera triflora, 359
+
+HYDROCHARIDACEAE, 506
+
+Hydrocharis, 296
+ morsus ranae, 506
+
+Hydrocotyle, 113
+
+HYDROPHYLLACEAE, 138
+
+Hydrophyllum, 138
+
+Hymenocallis, 404
+ americana, 462, 463
+
+Hyoscyamus, 430
+
+Hypericum, 442
+ perforatum, 369, 458
+
+Hypnum triquetrum, 49
+
+Hypochaeris, 73, 138
+ radicata, 250, 339, 437, 457
+
+Hyssopus officinalis, 20, 325
+
+
+I.
+
+Iberis, 295, 364
+ amara, 500
+ umbellata, 500
+
+Ilex Aquifolium, 21, 66, 447
+
+Impatiens, 161, 231, 295, 299
+ Balsamina, 238, 502
+
+Imperatoria, 82
+
+Indigofera, 459
+
+Inula, 20
+
+Ionopsidium acaule, 362
+
+Ipomoea, 296, 510
+ pandurata, 505
+
+IRIDACEAE, 138, 506
+
+Irina, 64
+ glabra, 65
+
+Iris, 138, 286, 296, 359, 360, 361, 365, 401, 430
+ Kaempferi, 506
+ sibirica, 506
+ versicolor, 45
+
+Isochilus, 386
+
+Ixia carminosa, 84
+
+Ixora, 296
+ grandiflora, 504
+
+
+J.
+
+Jasione, 20, 114
+
+JASMINACEAE, 137, 504
+
+Jasminum, 137, 296, 360, 400
+ grandiflorum, 288, 505
+ hirsutum, 505
+ nudiflorum, 21
+ officinale, 21, 505
+ Sambac, 505
+
+Jatropha Pohliana, 254, 256
+
+Juglans, 244, 400
+ nigra, 396
+ regia, 66, 193
+
+JUNCACEAE, 115, 167, 169
+
+Juncus, 115, 317
+ articulatus, 431
+ conglomeratus, 325
+ uliginosus, 107
+
+Juniperus virginiana, 194
+ sinensis, 217
+
+Jussicua, 81, 180
+
+Justicia oxyphylla, 25
+
+
+K.
+
+Kerria, 295
+
+Knautia arvensis, 20, 114
+
+Kochia Scoparia, 430
+
+
+L.
+
+LABIATAE, 138, 429
+
+Laburnum (see _Cylisus_), 65, 157, 189, 222, 226
+
+Lacistema, 359
+
+Lactuca, 114
+ sativa, 11, 20, 33, 44, 313
+
+Lambertia, 365
+
+Lampsana, 114
+
+Lamium, 73, 238, 361
+ album, 62, 63, 66, 86, 409
+ amplexicaule, 404
+ purpureum, 66, 325, 404
+
+Larix, 114
+ europaea, 21, 90, 245, 435
+ microcarpa, 192
+
+Lathyrus latifolius, 262
+ tuberosus, 30
+
+Laurus, 296, 362
+ nobilis, 506
+ Sassafras, 250, 331, 506
+
+Lavatera trimestris, 20
+
+Lebeckia, 459
+
+Lecythis, 149, 180
+
+LEGUMINOSAE, 48, 71, 73, 106, 113, 122, 137, 139, 146, 147, 149, 272,
+ 276, 429, 434, 444
+
+Leitneria floridana, 194
+
+Leontice, 125
+
+Leontodon, 17, 20, 44, 163, 243, 442
+
+Lepidium, 148, 364
+ sativum, 57
+
+Lepyrodia hermaphrodita, 197
+
+Leskea sericea, 49
+
+Leucanthemum, 86
+
+Leucobryum giganteum, 194
+
+Leucoium, 150, 296
+ aestivum, 84, 138, 350
+ vernum, 350, 506
+
+Lilium, 73, 106, 115, 296, 367, 375, 421
+ auratum, 73, 289, 400
+ bulbiferum, 45
+ candidum, 21, 286, 325, 375, 507
+ cruentum, 21
+ lancifolium, 35, 400, 443
+ longiflorum, 310
+ Martagon, 21, 286, 325, 507
+ tigrinum, 306, 310
+
+Linaria, 137, 229, 230, 233, 296, 316, 361, 365, 367, 405
+ aeruginea, 238
+ chalepensis, 238
+ Cymbalaria, 238
+ decumbens, 238
+ Elatine, 238
+ origanifolia, 238
+ Pelisseriana, 238
+ pilosa, 238
+ purpurea, 20, 44, 238
+ spuria, 238
+ triphylla, 238
+ vulgaris, 162, 226, 234, 235, 238, 316, 374, 505
+ triornithophora, 238
+
+Linum, 335
+
+Linum usitatissimum, 20
+
+Liquidambar, 362
+
+Listera ovata, 398
+
+LOBELIACEAE, 72, 114
+
+Lobelia, 211, 424
+
+Lolium, 86, 113, 115, 351
+ perenne, 61, 169, 325
+
+Lonicera, 38, 44, 73, 82, 226, 271, 281, 296, 297
+ brachypoda, 358
+ Caprifolium, 408
+ Periclymenum, 66, 226, 251, 256, 262, 263, 338, 379, 404, 406, 504
+ Xylosteum, 252, 358
+
+Lopezia, 298, 410
+
+Lotus, 113, 295, 360, 510
+ corniculatus, 104, 377, 436, 502
+ uliginosus, 363
+
+Lowea, 396
+
+Lunaria, 136, 364
+
+Lupinus, 106, 165, 226, 280
+ polyphyllus, 238
+
+Lycaste Skinneri, 93, 95, 291
+
+Lychnis, 113, 137, 148, 295
+ chalcedonica, 501
+ Coronaria, 107, 510
+ dioica, 67, 252, 262, 280, 404, 464
+ flos cuculi, 501
+ sylvestris, 252, 501
+ vespertina, 501
+ Viscaria, 501
+
+Lycium, 365, 367
+ europaeum, 250
+
+Lycopersicum, see _Solanum_
+ esculentum, 389
+
+Lysimachia, 119
+ Ephemerum, 271, 281
+ nummularia, 505
+ vulgaris, 20, 87
+
+Lythrum, 335
+ Salicaria, 374
+
+
+M.
+
+Maelenia, 403
+
+Maesa, 145, 371
+
+MAGNOLIACEAE, 122
+
+Magnolia, 288, 388, 440
+ Campbelli, 427
+ fuscata, 304, 310, 427
+
+MALPIGHIACEAE, 137, 334, 403, 404, 406
+
+Malus, 78, 79, 388, 389, see _Pyrus_
+
+MALVACEAE, 137, 149, 288, 292, 295, 362, 395
+
+Malva, 295
+ crispa, 448
+ moschata, 501
+ rotundifolia, 501
+ sylvestris, 252
+
+Mangifera, 159, 369
+
+Marchantia, 174
+
+Marcgraavia, 23
+ umbellata, 332
+
+Masdevallia, 27, 95
+
+Mathiola, 136, 148, 295
+ annua, 361, 500
+ incana, 20, 38, 44, 68, 299, 500
+ glabrata, 500
+
+Matricaria Parthenium, 281
+
+Maxillaria, 383
+
+Medicago, 137, 149, 262, 295, 364, 502
+ lupulina, 404, 432
+ maculata, 218, 271
+
+Melastoma, 74, 125, 424
+
+Melia Azedairach, 21
+
+Melianthus major, 298, 407
+
+Melilotus, 137, 139, 147, 149, 262
+ arvensis, 374
+ leucantha, 432
+ macrorhiza, 271
+ officinalis, 404
+
+Melittis, 361
+
+Mentha, 238, 361, 459
+ aquatica, 325
+ viridis, 325
+
+Mercurialis, 62, 194, 365
+ annua, 198
+ perennis, 66
+
+Mesembryanthemum, 26
+
+Metrosideros, 103
+
+Miconia, 355
+
+Mimosa, 365
+ Lophantha, 31
+
+Mimulus, 73, 284, 296
+ luteus, 505
+
+Mnium serratum, 49
+
+Mirabilis, 296, 418
+ Jalapa, 506
+
+Modecca, 326
+
+Mollugo Cerviana, 398
+
+Momordica Elaterium, 20
+
+Monarda fistulosa, 298
+
+Morus, 193, 354, 459
+
+Mozinna, 399
+ peltata, 194
+
+Musa, 245, 407
+
+Muscari, 408, 461
+ comosum, 340, 467
+
+MUSCI, 174
+
+Mussaenda, 249, 283, 429
+
+Myosotis caespitosa, 281
+ palustris, 375
+ scorpioides, 20
+
+Myosurus, 440
+
+Myristica moschata, 194
+
+MYRTACEAE, 80, 149, 362, 395
+
+Myrtus, 295, 310
+ communis, 503
+
+
+N.
+
+Narcissus, 21, 67, 138, 286, 296, 360, 365, 443
+ aureus, 506
+ biflorus, 34, 45, 506
+ chrysanthus, 38, 45
+ concolor, 506
+ Cypri, 506
+ Jonquilla, 506
+ incomparabilis, 38, 45, 301, 506
+ italicus, 506
+ lobularis, 506
+ major, 154
+ montanus, 301
+ poculiformis, 506
+ poeticus, 24, 33, 301, 506
+ pseudo-narcissus, 506
+ Tazetta, 45, 300, 506
+ Telamonius, 506
+
+Nasturtium, 136, 271
+ amphibium, 181
+
+Nelumbium, 295
+ speciosum, 500
+
+Nepeta diffusa, 238
+
+Nepenthes, 328, 473
+
+Nephrodium molle, 447
+
+Nerium Oleander, 62, 66, 296, 301, 377
+ odorum, 505
+
+Neuropeltis, 32
+
+Nicandra physaloides, 458
+
+Nicotiana, 23, 31, 73
+ rustica, 281
+
+Nigella, 220, 262, 295, 297, 364, 374, 399
+ damascena, 226, 269, 271, 286, 375, 500
+
+Nuytsia, 371
+
+NYMPHAEACEAE, 148
+
+Nymphaea, 50, 141, 143, 148, 285, 295
+ alba, 162
+ dentata, 256, 261
+ guineensis, 170
+ Lotus, 277, 280
+
+
+O.
+
+Octadenia, 364
+
+Odontoglossum Alexandrae, 387, 403
+ Uro Skinneri, 463
+
+OEnanthe, 82, 114, 360, 365, 457
+ crocata, 80, 359, 457
+
+OEnothera, 44, 367
+ striata, 252
+
+Olea europoea, 21, 157, 420
+
+ONAGRACEAE, 81, 137, 406, 503
+
+Oncidium, 67, 114, 227
+ abortivum, 462
+ bicolor, 45
+ Cebolleta, 107
+
+Oncidium cucullatum, 91
+ heteranthum, 224
+ ornithorhyncum, 43
+
+Ononis minutissima, 404
+ monophylla, 396
+
+Opercularia, 38
+
+Ophrys, 114
+ apifera, 360, 398
+ aranifera, 35, 42, 45, 238, 298, 383, 384, 385, 386, 398
+ insectifera, 27, 301, 382
+ fucifera, 506
+
+Opuntia, 81, 113, 149, 180
+ fragilis, 107, 178
+ monacantha, 178
+ Salmiana, 107, 178, 179
+
+ORCHIDACEAE, 27, 34, 42, 91, 112, 114, 128, 138, 150, 153, 209, 223,
+ 290, 345, 360, 366, 367, 380-387, 397
+
+Orchis, 138, 150, 153, 154, 227, 296
+ conopsea, 238
+ latifolia, 238
+ mascula, 153, 154, 238, 299, 387, 506
+ militaris, 387
+ Morio, 238, 382, 384, 387, 506
+ palustris, 366
+ papilionacea, 238
+ pyramidalis, 128, 238, 506
+ sambucina, 63, 66
+ simia, 238
+
+Ornithogalum, 114, 360, 365, 367
+ longebracteatum, 171
+
+OROBANCHACEAE, 137
+
+Orobanche, 73, 137, 209, 296, 505
+ gracilis, 442
+
+Orobus, 295
+ vernus, 502
+ viscosus, 502
+
+Ouvirandra, 458
+
+OXALIDACEAE, 403
+
+Oxalis, 295, 329, 404, 459
+ Acetosella, 404
+ carnea, 502
+
+
+P.
+
+Paeonia, 295, 300, 364, 399, 407
+ Moutan, 500
+ officinalis, 261
+ paradoxa, 500
+ tenuiflora, 500
+
+PALMACEAE, 155
+
+Panax, 331
+
+Papaver, 289, 295, 297, 473
+ bracteatum, 28, 304, 310, 500
+ nudicaule, 310
+ orientale, 250
+
+Papaver Rhoeas, 429, 458, 500
+ somniferum, 28, 305, 310, 500
+
+PAPAVERACEAE, 99, 500
+
+PAPILIONACEAE, 397, 502, see _Leguminosae_
+
+Paris quadrifolia, 31, 358, 360, 367, 396
+
+Paritium, 137
+
+Parnassia, 364
+
+Paronychia serpyllifolia, 473
+
+Parthenium inodorum, 243
+
+Passiflora, 137, 201, 301, 365, 463, 473
+ coerulea, 185
+ palmata, 185
+ quadrangularis, 181
+
+PASSIFLORACEAE, 137
+
+Pastinaca, 82
+ sativa, 272
+
+Pavia, 137
+
+Pedicularis, 238
+ euphrasioides, 238
+ sylvatica, 44, 223, 226, 238
+
+Peganum, 363
+
+Pelargonium, 22, 23, 25, 63, 107, 113, 208, 221, 225, 295, 336, 360,
+ 373, 389, 418, 419, 434
+ grandiflorum, 86
+ inquinans, 30, 226
+ zonale, 106, 226, 501
+
+Peltaria, 137
+ alliacea, 250, 251, 252
+
+Pentstemon, 226, 455
+
+Pereskia, 107, 113, 149
+ Bleo, 179
+
+Perilla, 459
+
+Persica (_Amygdalus_)
+ vulgaris, 44, 250, 252, 503
+
+Petalostylis, 296
+
+Petunia, 254, 256, 291, 296
+ nyctaginiflora, 505
+ violacea, 34, 44, 250, 253, 505
+
+Phaius grandiflorus, 107, 509, 510
+
+Phalaenopsis, 238
+ amabilis, 227
+ equestris, 231, 238
+ Schilleriana, 224
+
+Pharbitis, 73
+
+Phaseolus, 21, 298, 364
+
+PHILADELPHACEAE, 113, 137, 149
+
+Philadelphus, 113, 137, 142, 149, 295, 364, 367
+ coronarius, 503
+ speciosus, 178, 298
+
+Philyra brasiliensis, 198
+
+Phleum, 115, 138
+ phalaroides, 169
+ pratense, 325
+
+Phlomis, 138
+ biloba, 72
+ fruticosa, 119, 238
+
+Phlox, 73
+
+Phoenix dactylifera, 318
+
+Phylica, 325
+
+Phyllanthus longifolius, 198
+
+Phyllarthron, 64, 396
+
+Phyteuma odoratum, 271
+ orbiculare, 20
+ spicatum, 166, 252
+
+Phytolacca, 20
+
+Picea, see _Abies_
+ Lowii, 203
+ nobilis, 203
+ Nordmanniana, 203
+ Webbiana, 203
+
+Picrasma, 509
+
+Pimpinella magna, 66
+ Saxifragra, 66
+
+Pinckneya, 429
+
+Pinus, 11, 19, 114, 318, 346, 471, (see _Abies_, _Larix_, _Cedrus_)
+ alba, 192
+ pinea, 90, 218
+ Pinaster, 13, 21
+ sylvestris, 21, 349
+
+Pistacia Lentiscus, 197
+
+Pisum, 137, 295
+ sativum, 27, 30, 31, 95, 166, 302, 372, 432, 472, 502, 510
+
+Platycodon, 296
+ grandiflorum, 504
+
+PLANTAGINACEAE, 114
+
+Plantago, 114, 136
+ Coronopus, 458
+ lanceolata, 61, 104, 108, 110, 111, 243
+ media, 20, 111
+ major, 65, 108, 109, 111, 243, 372, 374
+ maritima, 108
+
+Platanus, 50
+
+Plectranthus fruticosus, 238
+
+PLUMBAGINACEAE, 114
+
+Plumbago, 360
+
+Poa alpina, 169
+ annua, 169
+ bulbosa, 169
+ pratensis, 169
+ trivialis, 169
+
+Podalyria myrtillifolia, 44
+
+Podocarpus, 426
+
+Podophyllum, 295
+ peltatum, 500
+
+Podospermum laciniatum, 247, 250
+
+Poggendorffia, 294
+
+Pogonia ophioglossoides, 238, 386
+
+Poinsettia, 340
+
+Polemonium coeruleum, 20, 66, 253, 305, 310, 404
+
+Polianthes, 296
+
+Polygala vulgaris, 399
+
+POLYGONACEAE, 114, 138, 150
+
+Polygonatum anceps, 42, 45
+ multifolium, 23, 31
+
+Polygonum, 114, 365
+ orientale, 31, 390
+ viviparum, 106, 169
+
+Polypodium anomalum, 190
+
+POMACEAE, 70, 71, 77, 79, 142, 405, 503
+
+Pomaderris elliptica, 355
+
+Pomax, 38
+
+Populus, 202, 309
+ alba, 66
+
+Portulaca, 295
+
+Potamogeton, 329
+ bifolium, 434
+
+Potentilla, 139, 140, 149, 295, 374, 438
+ alpestris, 503
+ argentea, 280
+ anserina, 503
+ major, 374
+ nepalensis, 250, 252, 275, 280
+ reptans, 503
+ Tormentilla, 503
+
+Poterium, 113
+ Sanguisorba, 107
+ polygamum, 281
+
+Primula, 71, 73, 114, 121, 138, 150, 296, 335, 360, 365, 367
+ acaulis (see _vulgaris_), 45, 248, 250, 308, 310, 377, 504
+ Auricula, 45, 133, 271, 282, 504
+ denticulata, 20, 504
+ elatior, 45, 250, 504
+ calycanthema, 283
+ imperialis, 103
+ officinalis, 250, 283
+ praenitens, 271, 504 (see _sinensis_)
+ sinensis, 24, 45, 95, 98, 103, 133, 253, 256, 262, 263, 271, 281,
+ 297, 314, 315, 389, 429, 441, 449
+ variabilis, 104
+ veris, 17, 20, 35, 39, 45, 105, 164
+ villosa, 504
+ vulgaris, 17, 70, 106 (see _acaulis_ and _officinalis_)
+
+PRIMULACEAE, 98, 114, 118, 121, 133, 138, 150, 262, 339, 366, 504
+
+Prismatocarpus, 114, 150, 178
+
+Prunella vulgaris, 226
+
+Prunus, 137, 203, 295, 300, 360, 364, 367 (see _Cerasus_, _Amygdalus_,
+ _Persica_)
+ Armeniaca, 44
+ Cerasus, 74
+ domestica, 366, 464
+ Lauro Cerasus, 21, 446
+ spinosa, 44
+
+Prunus sylvestris, 21
+
+Pseudostachyum polymorphum, 168
+
+Psittacanthus, 371
+
+Ptelea, 364
+
+Pterandra, 290
+
+Pteridophyllum, 331
+
+Pterisanthes, 328
+
+Pteris quadriaurita, 333
+
+Punica Granatum, 21, 295, 325
+
+Pyrethrum, 114
+ inodorum, 431
+ Parthenium, 339
+
+Pyrus, 82, 107, 113, 121, 137, 149, 203
+ communis (Pear), 36, 66, 162, 178, 422, 423, 503
+ dioica, 304
+ japonica, 161
+ Malus (Apple), 44, 78, 79, 166, 210, 250, 282, 295, 310, 325, 327,
+ 375, 406, 420, 503
+ spectabilis, 508
+ torminalis, 325
+
+
+Q.
+
+Quercus, 51
+ Cerris, 66
+ pubescens, 66
+
+
+R.
+
+Raphanus sativus, 161, 252, 327, 360, 369
+
+RANUNCULACEAE, 113, 122, 136, 148, 195, 246, 339, 410, 499
+
+Ranunculus, 19, 55, 113, 119, 258, 288, 295, 296, 297, 360, 367, 407
+ aconitifolius, 500
+ acris, 67, 250, 436, 500
+ aquatilis, 458
+ asiaticas, 500
+ auricomus, 195, 285, 397, 406, 461, 469
+ bulbosus, 17, 20, 44, 195, 406, 500
+ bullatus, 500
+ Ficaria, 70, 96, 195, 261, 368, 406
+ fluitans, 433, 437
+ gramineus, 500
+ Lingua, 44, 67
+ Philonotis, 20, 339
+ tripartitus, 20, 46
+ repens, 23, 252, 261, 500
+
+RESEDACEAE, 137, 148
+
+Reseda, 67, 137, 141, 148
+ lutea, 252, 271
+ Luteola, 61, 112, 399
+ odorata, 20, 44, 280
+ Phyteuma, 252, 261
+
+RESTIACEAE, 115, 167, 189, 350, 463
+
+Restio, 115, 194
+
+Rhamnus catharticus, 463
+ Frangula, 280
+
+Rhinanthus crista galli, 238
+
+Rhodiola rosea, 197
+
+Rhodora, 73
+
+Rhododendron, 72, 73, 91, 133, 137, 176, 289, 290, 296, 453
+ indicum, 504
+ linearilobum, 72
+
+Rhus Cotinus, 62, 66, 348, 409, 467, 472
+ Toxicodendron, 66
+
+Ribes, 296
+ nigrum, 66, 296
+ sanguineum, 503
+
+Richardia aethiopica, 337, 358
+
+Ricinus communis, 198, 300
+
+Ricotiana, 364
+
+Robinia, 365
+ Pseudacacia, 44, 204, 317, 325, 396
+
+ROSACEAE, 70, 71, 77, 80, 113, 121, 122, 137, 149, 246, 274, 405, 406,
+ 502
+
+Rosa, 21, 77, 79, 82, 113, 121, 130, 137, 139, 149, 151, 152, 162,
+ 176, 184, 185, 186, 204, 246, 247, 250, 257, 258, 262, 271, 274,
+ 288, 289, 295, 367, 368, 394, 473, 502
+ alpina, 209
+ arvensis, 307, 310, 404
+ Banksiae, 502
+ berberifolia, 396
+ canina, 502
+ centifolia, 31, 502
+ Carolina, 502
+ cinnamomea, 502
+ damascena, 502
+ diversifolia, 280
+ Eglanteria, 502
+ gallica, 31, 502
+ indica, 502
+ moschata, 502
+ nivea, 502
+ pimpinellifolia, 502
+ rubiginosa, 502
+ spinosissima, 502
+ sulphurea, 502
+
+RUBIACEAE, 45, 80
+
+Rubia tinctorum, 322, 325
+
+Rubus, 137, 252, 279, 399, 406, 429, 465
+ arcticus, 67
+ caesius, 281, 285, 502
+ corylifolius, 502
+ fruticosus, 66, 281, 374, 380, 461, 502
+ Idaeus, 396
+ rosifolius, 502
+
+Rudbeckia, 82, 114, 127
+
+Ruellia clandestina, 403, 404
+
+Rumex, 45, 138, 150, 325
+ arifolius, 278, 281
+ crispus, 304, 310, 448
+ scutatus, 278, 281, 431
+
+Ruscus, 328, 470
+ aculeatus, 60, 318, 348, 445
+
+Russellia juncea, 20
+
+RUTACEAE, 137, 149
+
+Ruta, 363, 367, 371
+
+
+S.
+
+Sagina, 397
+ procumbens, 501
+
+Sagittaria, 296, 329
+ latifolia, 507
+ sagittifolia, 325, 507
+
+Salisburia adiantifolia, 61
+
+Salix, 166, 168, 244, 310, 326, 349
+ babylonica, 202, 257, 262, 299, 309, 326
+ calyculata, 29
+ capraea, 271, 299
+ cinerea, 41, 45, 189, 299
+ fragilis, 357
+ monandra, 29
+ nigricans, 299
+ pendula, 357
+ repens, 194
+ silesiaca, 299
+ vitellina, 21
+
+Salpiglossis straminea, 44
+
+Salvia, 226
+ officinalis, 66
+ pratensis, 36
+ Verbenaca, 87
+
+Sambucus, 296, 359, 360, 365, 367
+ nigra, 21, 55, 66, 164, 325, 396
+ racemosa, 66
+
+Sanguinaria, 295
+ canadensis, 500
+
+Sanguisorba, 113
+ officinalis, 107
+
+SANTALACEAE, 122, 138, 150
+
+SAPINDACEAE, 137, 448
+
+Saponaria, 28, 67, 76, 149, 295, 297, 300, 360, 379
+ officinalis, 97, 301, 501
+
+Sarothamnus, 360, 363
+ Scoparius, 363
+
+Saxifraga, 33, 44, 106, 113, 296, 390
+ crassifolia, 307, 310
+ decipiens, 288
+ foliosa, 281
+ granulata, 298, 504
+ irrigua, 20
+ longifolia, 404
+
+Saxifraga mutata, 20
+
+SAXIFRAGACEAE, 80, 81
+
+Scabiosa, 35, 106, 114, 138, 141, 296, 297, 429
+ agrestis, 252
+ arvensis, 325
+ atropurpurea, 62, 66
+ Columbaria, 252, 281
+
+Scandix, 125
+
+Schismatopera distichophylla, 194
+
+Schoenodorus, 364 _adnot_
+
+Schoenus cephalotes, 245
+
+Schoenodon, 365
+
+Sciadopitys verticillata, 352
+
+Scilla, 296
+ autumnalis, 507
+ nutans, 507
+
+Scirpus lacustris, 325
+
+Scolopendrium D'Urvillei, 332
+ vulgare, 64, 314, 326, 328, 459, 467
+
+Scorzonera, 19
+ octangularis, 247, 250
+
+Scrophularia, 114, 455, 463
+ aquatica, 226, 238, 262, 281
+ arguta, 334
+ nodosa, 44, 106, 281
+
+SCROPHULARIACEAE, 114, 121, 137, 150, 222, 505
+
+Secale cereale, 55, 115
+
+Sechium edule, 81, 202
+
+Sedum cristatum, 18, 20
+ reflexum, 20
+
+Selenipedium caudatum, 224, 227
+
+Selinum, 82, 114
+ caruifolium, 281
+
+Sempervivum, 105, 113, 204, 509
+ montanum, 310
+ sediforme, 164
+ tectorum, 292 _adnot_, 308, 310
+
+Senecio, 44, 114
+ vulgaris, 247, 250, 252, 339, 432, 437, 439, 457
+
+Serissa, 296, 377, 504
+
+Sesamum, 365
+ indicum, 238
+
+Seseli, 113, 281
+ coloratum, 166
+
+Sideritis, 238, 365
+
+Silaus, 113, 365
+
+Silene, 44, 137, 148, 295, 301
+ conica, 68
+ Otites, 464
+ inflata, 501
+
+Sinapis, 57, 136, 270, 295, 371
+ arvensis, 181, 250, 261, 264, 271, 280, 501
+
+Sinningia purpurea, 431
+
+Sisymbrium, 136
+ officinale, 250, 261, 271, 280
+
+Sisymbrium tenuifolium, 252
+
+Slateria, 74
+
+SOLANACEAE, 150, 430, 505
+
+Solanum, 73, 125, 150, 296, 360, 365, 367, 370, 424, 453
+ amazonicum, 430
+ Dulcamara, 66, 288, 430, 504
+ esculentum, 74
+ cornutum, 430
+ Lycopersicum, 38, 44, 74, 171, 391, 442
+ tridynamum, 430
+ tuberosum, 54, 142, 288, 333, 420
+ Vespertilio, 430
+
+Sophora, 55
+
+Spartianthus, 295
+ junceus, 502
+
+Spartium, 295
+ junceum, 18, 21
+ Scoparium, 21
+
+Spathiphyllum, 245
+
+Spilanthes, 138, 365
+ oleracea, 44
+
+Spinacia oleracea, 31, 197
+
+Spiraea, 21, 137, 295
+ Filipendula, 503
+ oblongifolia, 252
+ prunifolia, 503
+ Reevesii, 503
+ strobilacea, 503
+ Ulmaria, 503
+
+Spiranthes, 319
+
+Splachnum vasculosum, 49
+
+Stachys, 138, 339, _adnot_
+ germanica, 310
+ lanata, 375
+ sylvatica, 74, 253, 271, 281
+
+Stackhousia juncea, 334
+
+Stangeria paradoxa, 172
+
+Stapelia, 20
+
+Staphylea pinnata, 30
+
+Stauntonia latifolia, 194
+
+Stellaria, 148, 404, 406
+ media, 271, 279, 280
+
+STELLATAE, 396, 408
+
+STERCULIACEAE, 362, 464
+
+Sterculia platanifolia, 20, 256
+
+Sternbergia, 296
+ lutea, 506
+
+Stratiotes aloides, 406
+
+Strelitzia juncea, 459
+ regina, 25
+
+Streptocarpus Rexii, 15, 44, 226, 227, 461
+
+Strophanthus, 326
+
+Suaeda, 365
+ fruticosa, 430
+ maritima, 20, 21
+
+Suregada, 198
+
+Symphoricarpus racemosus, 66
+
+Symphyomyrtus, 38
+
+Symphytum, 71, 138, 365
+ officinale, 253, 262, 263, 271
+ Zeyheri, 271
+
+Syringa, 296, 360, 367
+ persica, 44, 61, 66, 284, 505
+ vulgaris, 79, 505
+
+
+T.
+
+Tabernaemontana, 296
+ coronaria, 504
+
+Tacsonia pinnatistipula, 294
+
+Tamus communis, 21
+
+Taraxacum, 164 (see _Leontodon_)
+
+Taxodium, 114
+ distichum, 444
+
+Taxus baccata, 11, 21, 90
+
+Tetragonia, 113
+ expansa, 142, 180
+
+TETRAGONIACEAE, 149
+
+Teucrium campanulatum, 226, 233, 238
+
+Thalictrum, 205, 500
+ minus, 307, 310
+
+Thea, 295, 502
+
+Thelymitra, 224
+
+Thesium, 121, 123, 138, 150
+
+Thlaspi arvense, 250, 271
+ bursa-pastoris, 252, 428
+
+Thuja occidentalis, 319
+ orientalis, 21
+
+Thymus Serpyllum, 325, 405, 406
+
+Thysselinum, 137, 365
+ palustre, 437, 457
+
+Tigridia, 360, 361, 365
+ Pavonia, 35, 462
+
+Tilia asplenifolia, 66, 459
+ europaea, 22, 30, 65
+ parvifolia, 66
+
+Tiliaceae, 137, 362
+
+Tithonia, 26
+
+Tofieldia, 296
+ calyculata, 300
+
+Torenia scabra, 406
+
+Torilis, 82, 149
+ Anthriscus, 256, 271, 281, 339, 406, 441, 442
+
+Tradescantia, 245, 296, 360, 365, 367, 404
+ virginica, 88, 507
+
+Tragopogon, 19, 20, 73, 114, 431
+ orientale, 250
+ pratense, 247, 250, 442, 457
+
+Trapa natans, 202, 364
+
+Trichostomum rigidulum, 49
+
+Trifolium, 106, 113, 121, 137, 139, 149, 295, 360, 364
+
+Trifolium hybridum, 262, 399, 406, 407
+ pratense, 20
+ repens, 20, 23, 68, 70, 98, 145, 146, 226, 231, 238, 250, 252, 256,
+ 260, 262, 265, 271, 276, 279, 356, 368, 397, 399, 406, 407, 434,
+ 436, 438, 502
+ resupinatum, 20
+
+Trillium grandiflorum, 507, 510
+
+Trinia vulgaris, 405
+
+Triphasia aurantiaca, 369
+
+Triticum, 86, 115, 350, 391
+ repens, 106, 325
+ vulgare, 55, 113
+
+Triumfetta, 137, 252, 259, 260, 262, 265, 271, 280
+
+Trollius europaeus, 66, 295, 500
+
+TROPAEOLACEAE, 149, 501
+
+Tropaeolum, 149, 398, 283
+ majus, 20, 222, 225, 226, 232, 238, 251, 252, 254, 256, 271, 280,
+ 295, 310, 406, 442, 501
+ minus, 501
+
+Tulipa, 35, 45, 67, 75, 84, 85, 138, 262, 300, 302, 348, 359, 360,
+ 361, 365, 367, 388, 390, 421
+ Gesneriana, 31, 250, 310, 315, 442, 507
+ sylvestris, 507
+
+Turritis, 271
+ glabra, 252
+
+Typha, 189
+
+
+U.
+
+Ulex, 295, 360
+ europaeus, 377, 502
+
+Ulmus americana, 66
+ campestris, 31, 52, 62, 157, 325, 353, 427
+
+UMBELLIFERAE, 37, 71, 73, 80, 107, 113, 121, 127, 131, 132, 137, 139,
+ 140, 143, 149, 150, 162, 244, 257, 261, 339, 358, 395, 405, 406,
+ 407, 437, 439
+
+Uredo candida, 279
+
+URTICACEAE, 114
+
+Urtica dioica, 62, 66, 194
+
+Usteria, 283
+
+
+V.
+
+Vaccinium, 68
+
+Valantia cruciata, 44
+
+VALERIANACEAE, 114
+
+Valeriana, 114, 165, 419
+ dioica, 325
+ officinalis, 325
+
+Valisneria spiralis, 319, 433
+
+Verbascum, 73, 116, 137, 225, 253, 430
+ australe, 35
+ nigrum, 226, 251
+ phlomoides, 281
+ Thapsus, 404
+
+Verbena, 67, 68, 506
+
+Veronica, 60, 150, 296, 334, 360, 361, 365, 375, 505
+ austriaca, 66
+ Beccabunga, 468
+ Chamaedrys, 442
+ latifolia, 459
+ longifolia, 325
+ spicata, 325, 374
+
+Viburnum, 44, 296, 417
+ Opulus, 473
+
+Vicia, 30, 365, 369, 472
+ Faba, 434
+
+Vinca, 137, 296
+ herbacea, 389
+ major, 505
+ minor, 44, 99, 358, 390, 505
+ rosea, 31
+
+Viola, 23, 137, 225, 229, 289, 295, 297, 405
+ grandiflora, 501
+ hirta, 226, 238
+ odorata, 20, 94, 220, 226, 238, 286, 404, 429, 501, 508
+ tricolor, 461, 501
+
+VIOLACEAE, 137, 334, 403, 406, 500
+
+Viscum album, 56, 369, 509
+
+VITACEAE, 137
+
+Vitex incisa, 238
+
+Vitis, 417
+ vinifera, 20, 29, 34, 44, 66, 137, 157, 182, 183, 211, 280, 374,
+ 422, 424
+
+
+W.
+
+Wedelia perfoliata, 442
+
+Weigela rosea, 358
+
+Welwitschia, 162, _adnot_
+
+Wildenovia, 115, 167, 168
+
+Wistaria, 364
+ sinensis, 226
+
+
+X.
+
+Xanthosoma appendiculatum, 31
+
+Xanthoxylum, 21
+
+Xylophylla, 328
+
+
+Y.
+
+Yucca, 361
+ flexilis, 361
+
+
+Z.
+
+Zamia, 170
+
+Zea Mays, 21, 113, 136, 191, 197, 300, 310, 350, 369, 466
+
+Zingiber Zerumbet, 224, 227
+
+Zinnia, 44
+ elegans, 20
+
+Zygopetalum maxillare, 398
+
+
+
+
+ERRATA.
+
+
+The reader is requested to make the following corrections:--
+
+Page 182. Fig. 94 should be 94*.
+
+Page 194. The reference 3 applies not to the nutmeg but to the hop,
+figured at p. 193.
+
+Page 309. Fig. 165 legend--for _Sempervivun tecotorum_ read _Sempervivum
+tectorum_.
+
+
+
+PRINTED BY J. E. ADLARD, BARTHOLOMEW CLOSE.
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Notes:
+
+Page xx and 202:
+208. Passage of pinnate to palmate leaves in horse-chesnut 439
+'chesnut may be old spelling for chestnut?'. Changed as most are
+spelled chestnut.
+
+Page 65:
+Naturforscherversammlung
+Changed Naturvorschefversamlung to Naturforscherversammlung to match
+other occurrence. (See footnote 528).
+
+Page 145:
+So far as the andraecium is concerned, the stamens
+Changed to androecium to match other occurrences.
+
+Page 149:
+Echinocactus changed from Echinocatus to match other
+occurrences.
+
+Page 397:
+The species mentioned are _Ambrina ambrosiodes_,
+Changed to ambrosioides to match index page.
+
+Page 502:
+Medicago sp., ? ., Europe.
+The ? mark replaces a blank in original for a missing attribution.
+
+Page 503:
+ONAGRARIAE changed to ONAGRACEAE to match other occurrences, especially
+the index referrence.
+
+Footnote 126:
+'Neue Denkschriften der allgemeine Schweizerischen
+Gesellschaft,' Perhaps this should be: allgemeinen. Unchanged.
+
+Index
+Alstroemeria, 319, 326
+Changed to Alstroemeria to match referenced pages.
+
+DIPSACACEAE, 86, 107, 114, 138
+All dipsaceae changed to dipsacaceae to match index and current spelling.
+
+Errata changes listed were made.
+
+Inconsistent hyphenation:
+co-existent and coexistent
+Lauro-cerasus and Laurocerasus
+mid-rib and midrib
+outgrowth and out-growth
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK VEGETABLE TERATOLOGY***
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