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+} + +.rightnote, .pagenum, .linenum, .pagenum a +{ +color: #AAAAAA; +} + +a.hidden:hover, a.noteref:hover +{ +color: red; +} + + +</style></head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Philippine Islands, by John Foreman + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Philippine Islands + +Author: John Foreman + +Release Date: September 30, 2007 [EBook #22815] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS *** + + + + +Produced by Jeroen Hellingman and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net/ + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<div class="front"> +<div class="div1"> +<p></p> +<div id="d0e87" class="figure"><img border="0" src="images/p000.jpg" alt="The Author." width="512" height="855"><p class="figureHead">The Author.</p> +</div><p> +</p> +</div> +<div class="titlePage"> +<h1 class="docTitle">The Philippine Islands</h1><br><h1 class="docTitle">A Political, Geographical, Ethnographical, Social and Commercial History of the Philippine Archipelago</h1><br><h1 class="docTitle">Embracing the Whole Period of Spanish Rule</h1><br><h1 class="docTitle">With an Account of the Succeeding American Insular Government</h1> +<h2 class="byline"> By <span class="docAuthor">John Foreman</span>, F.R.G.S. + +</h2> +<h2 class="docImprint"> Third Edition, Revised and Enlarged with Maps and Illustrations + +<br>London: T. Fisher Unwin +<br>1, Adelphi Terrace. +<br>MCMVI + +</h2> +</div> +<div class="div1"> +<h2 class="normal">Table of Contents</h2> +<ul> +<li><a href="#d0e126">Preface to the First Edition</a></li> +<li><a href="#d0e151">Preface to the Third Edition</a></li> +<li><a href="#d0e176">Table of Contents</a></li> +<li><a href="#d0e1583">List of Illustrations</a></li> +<li><a href="#d0e1857">Introduction</a></li> +<li><a href="#d0e2041">General Description of the Archipelago</a></li> +<li><a href="#d0e2314">Discovery of the Archipelago</a></li> +<li><a href="#d0e2612">Philippine Dependencies, Up To 1898: The Ladrones, Carolines and Pelew Islands</a></li> +<li><a href="#d0e2763">Attempted Conquest by Chinese</a></li> +<li><a href="#d0e3055">Early Relations With Japan</a></li> +<li><a href="#d0e3191">Conflicts with the Dutch</a></li> +<li><a href="#d0e3389">British Occupation of Manila</a></li> +<li><a href="#d0e3704">The Chinese</a></li> +<li><a href="#d0e3914">Wild Tribes and Pagans</a></li> +<li><a href="#d0e4263">Mahometans and Southern Tribes</a></li> +<li><a href="#d0e5268">Domesticated Natives—Origin—Character</a></li> +<li><a href="#d0e6181">The Religious Orders</a></li> +<li><a href="#d0e6541">Spanish Insular Government</a></li> +<li><a href="#d0e7406">Spanish-Philippine Finances</a></li> +<li><a href="#d0e9101">Trade of the Islands: Its Early History</a></li> +<li><a href="#d0e10111">Agriculture</a></li> +<li><a href="#d0e10690">Manila Hemp—Coffee—Tobacco</a></li> +<li><a href="#d0e11471">Sundry Forest and Farm Produce: Maize—Cacao—Coprah, Etc.</a></li> +<li><a href="#d0e13813">Mineral Products: Coal—Gold—Iron—Copper—Sulphur, Etc.</a></li> +<li><a href="#d0e14081">Domestic Live-stock—Ponies, Buffaloes, Etc.</a></li> +<li><a href="#d0e14313">Manila Under Spanish Rule</a></li> +<li><a href="#d0e14973">The Tagálog Rebellion of 1896–98: First Period</a></li> +<li><a href="#d0e16238">The Tagálog Rebellion of 1896–98: Second Period: American Intervention</a></li> +<li><a href="#d0e17962">An Outline of the War of Independence, Period 1899–1901</a></li> +<li><a href="#d0e18317">The Philippine Republic in the Central and Southern Islands</a></li> +<li><a href="#d0e18975">The Spanish Prisoners</a></li> +<li><a href="#d0e19178">End of the War of Independence and After</a></li> +<li><a href="#d0e19504">Modern Manila</a></li> +<li><a href="#d0e20496">The Land of the Moros: “Allah Akbar!”</a></li> +<li><a href="#d0e21329">The Spanish Friars, After 1898</a></li> +<li><a href="#d0e22333">Trade and Agriculture Since the American Advent</a></li> +<li><a href="#d0e22688">Trade Statistics</a></li> +<li><a href="#d0e26368">Chronological Table of Leading Events</a></li> +<li><a href="#d0e27361">Index</a></li> +</ul> +</div><div class="div1"> +<p class="aligncenter">Printed and bound by Hazell, Watson and Viney, LD., London and Aylesbury. + +<a id="d0e125"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e125">v</a>]</span></p> +</div> +<div id="d0e126" class="div1"> +<h2 class="normal">Preface to the First Edition</h2> +<p>It would be surprising if the concerns of an interesting Colony like the <span class="smallcaps">Philippine Islands</span> had not commanded the attention of literary genius. + +</p> +<p>I do not pretend, therefore, to improve upon the able productions of such eminent writers as Juan de le Concepcion, Martinez +Zúñiga, Tomás de Comyn and others, nor do I aspire, through this brief composition, to detract from the merit of Jagorʼs work, +which, in its day, commended itself as a valuable book of reference. But since then, and within the last twenty years, this +Colony has made great strides on the path of social and material progress; its political and commercial importance is rapidly +increasing, and many who know the Philippines have persuaded me to believe that my notes would be an appreciated addition +to what was published years ago on this subject. + +</p> +<p>The critical opinions herein expressed are based upon personal observations made during the several years I have travelled +in and about all the principal islands of the Archipelago, and are upheld by reference to the most reliable historical records. + +</p> +<p>An author should be benevolent in his judgement of men and manners and guarded against mistaking isolated cases for rules. +In matters of history he should neither hide the truth nor twist it to support a private view, remembering how easy it is +to criticize an act when its sequel is developed: such will be my aim in the fullest measure consistent. + +</p> +<p>By certain classes I may be thought to have taken a hypercritical view of things; I may even offend their susceptibilities—if +I adulated them I should fail to chronicle the truth, and my work would be a deliberate imposture. + +</p> +<p>I would desire it to be understood, with regard to the classes and <a id="d0e144"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e144">vi</a>]</span>races in their collectedness, that my remarks apply only to the large majority; exceptions undoubtedly there are—these form +the small minority. Moreover, I need hardly point out that the native population of the capital of the Philippines by no means +represents the true native character, to comprehend which, so far as its complicacy can be fathomed, one must penetrate into +and reside for years in the interior of the Colony, as I have done, in places where extraneous influences have, as yet, produced +no effect. + +</p> +<p>There may appear to be some incongruity in the plan of a work which combines objects so dissimilar as those enumerated in +the Contents pages, but this is not exclusively a History, or a Geography, or an Account of Travels—it is a concise review +of all that may interest the reader who seeks for a general idea of the condition of affairs in this Colony in the past and +in the present. + +</p> +<p>J. F. + +<a id="d0e150"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e150">vii</a>]</span></p> +</div> +<div id="d0e151" class="div1"> +<h2 class="normal">Preface to the Third Edition</h2> +<p>The success which has attended the publication of the Second Edition of this work has induced me to revise it carefully throughout, +adding the latest facts of public interest up to the present period. + +</p> +<p>Long years of personal acquaintance with many of the prime movers in the Revolutionary Party enabled me to estimate their +aspirations. My associations with Spain and Spaniards since my boyhood helped me, as an eye-witness of the outbreak of the +Rebellion, to judge of the opponents of that movement. My connection with the American Peace Commission in Paris afforded +me an opportunity of appreciating the noble desire of a free people to aid the lawful aspirations of millions of their fellow-creatures. + +</p> +<p>My criticism of the regular clergy applies only to the four religious confraternities in their lay capacity of government +agents in these Islands and not to the Jesuit or the Paul fathers, who have justly gained the respect of both Europeans and +natives: neither is it intended, in any degree, as a reflection on the sacred institution of the Church. + +</p> +<p>I take this opportunity of acknowledging, with gratitude, my indebtedness to Governor-General Luke E. Wright, Major-General +Leonard Wood, Colonel Philip Reade, Major Hugh L. Scott, Captain E. N. Jones, Captain C. H. Martin, Captain Henry C. Cabell, +Captain George Bennett, Captain John P. Finley, Dr. David P. Barrows, Mr. Tobias Eppstein, and many others too numerous to +mention, who gave me such valuable and cordial assistance in my recent investigations throughout the Archipelago. + +</p> +<p>This book is not written to promote the interests of any person or party, and so far as is consistent with guiding the reader +to a fair appreciation of the facts recorded, controversial comment has been avoided, for to pronounce a just dictum on the +multifarious questions <a id="d0e164"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e164">viii</a>]</span>involved would demand a catholicity of judgement never concentrated in the brain of a single human being. + +</p> +<p>I am persuaded to believe that the bare truth, unvarnished by flattery, will be acceptable to the majority, amongst whom may +be counted all those educated Americans whose impartiality is superior to their personal interest in the subject at issue. + +</p> +<p>It is therefore confidently hoped that the present Edition may merit that approval from readers of English which has been +so graciously accorded to the previous ones. + +</p> +<p>J. F. <i>September</i>, 1905. + +<a id="d0e175"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e175">ix</a>]</span></p> +</div> +<div id="d0e176" class="div1"> +<h2 class="normal">Table of Contents</h2> +<p><a href="#d0e1857"><span class="smallcaps">Introduction</span></a> + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Chapter</span> I + +</p> +<p><a href="#d0e2041"><span class="smallcaps">General Description of the Archipelago</span></a> + +</p> +<ul> +<li>Geographical features of the Islands. Limits. Mountains. 13 + +</li> +<li>Rivers. Lakes. Volcanoes. Eruptions of the Mayon and Taal Volcanoes. 14 + +</li> +<li>Monsoons. Seasons. Temperature. Rains. Climate. Earthquakes. 22</li> +</ul><p> + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Chapter</span> II + +</p> +<p><a href="#d0e2314"><span class="smallcaps">Discovery of the Archipelago</span></a> + +</p> +<ul> +<li>Hernando de Maghallanes. Treaty of Tordesillas. 24 + +</li> +<li>Discovery of Magellan Straits and the Ladrone Islands. 27 + +</li> +<li>Death of Maghallanes. Elcanoʼs voyage round the world. 28 + +</li> +<li>The Loaisa expedition. The Villalobos expedition. Andrés de Urdaneta. 31 + +</li> +<li>Miguel de Legaspi; his expedition; he reaches Cebú; dethrones King Tupas. 33 + +</li> +<li>Manila is proclaimed the capital of the Archipelago. 36 + +</li> +<li>Martin de Goiti. Juan Salcedo. Native Local Government initiated. 37</li> +</ul><p> + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Chapter</span> III + +</p> +<p><a href="#d0e2612"><span class="smallcaps">Philippine Dependencies, Up To 1898</span></a> + +</p> +<ul> +<li>The Ladrone, Caroline, and Pelew Islands. 39 + +</li> +<li>First mission to the Ladrone Islands. Pelew Islanders. Caroline Islanders. 40 + +</li> +<li>Spainʼs possession of the Caroline Islands disputed by Germany. 44 + +</li> +<li>Posadillo, Governor of the Caroline Islands, is murdered. 45 + +</li> +<li>The Ladrone, Caroline, and Pelew Islands (except Guam) sold to Germany. 46</li> +</ul><p> + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Chapter</span> IV + +</p> +<p><a href="#d0e2763"><span class="smallcaps">Attempted Conquest by Chinese</span></a> + +</p> +<ul> +<li>Li-ma-hong, a Chinese corsair, attacks Manila. 47 + +</li> +<li>He settles in Pangasinán; evacuates the Islands. 49 + +</li> +<li>Rivalry of lay and Monastic authorities. Philip II.ʼs decree of Reforms. 51 +<a id="d0e263"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e263">x</a>]</span></li> +<li>Manila Cathedral founded. Mendicant friars. Archbishopric created. 55 + +</li> +<li>Supreme Court suppressed and re-established. Church and State contentions. 57 + +</li> +<li>Murder of Gov.-General Bustamente Bustillo. The monks in open riot. 60</li> +</ul><p> + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Chapter</span> V + +</p> +<p><a href="#d0e3055"><span class="smallcaps">Early Relations with Japan</span></a> + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">The Catholic Missions</span> + +</p> +<ul> +<li>The Emperor of Japan demands the surrender of the Islands. 63 + +</li> +<li>Fray Pedro Bautistaʼs mission; he and 25 others are crucified. 65 + +</li> +<li>Jesuit and Franciscan jealousy. The martyrsʼ mortal remains lost at sea. 67 + +</li> +<li>Emperor Taycosama explains his policy. Further missions and executions. 68 + +</li> +<li>Missionary martyrs declared saints. Emperor of Japan sends a shipment of lepers. 70 + +</li> +<li>Spaniards expelled from Formosa by the Dutch. Missions to Japan abandoned. 71</li> +</ul><p> + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Chapter</span> VI + +</p> +<p><a href="#d0e3191"><span class="smallcaps">Conflicts with the Dutch</span></a> + +</p> +<ul> +<li>The Spanish expedition to the Moluccas fails. 72 + +</li> +<li>Chinese mutiny, murder the Spanish leader, and take the ship to Cochin China. 73 + +</li> +<li>Expeditions of Bravo de Acuna and Pedro de Heredia. Battle of Playa Honda. 74 + +</li> +<li>Koxinga, a Chinese adventurer, threatens to attack the Colony. 76 + +</li> +<li>Vittorio Riccio, an Italian monk, visits Manila as Koxingaʼs ambassador. 77 + +</li> +<li>Chinese goaded to rebellion; great massacre. 77 + +</li> +<li>Vicissitudes of Govs.-General. Defalcations. Impeachments. 78 + +</li> +<li>Gov.-General Fajardo de Tua kills his wife and her paramour. 80 + +</li> +<li>Separation of Portugal and Spain (1640). Spanish failure to capture Macao. 81 + +</li> +<li>Nunneries. Mother Ceciliaʼs love adventures. Santa Clara Convent. 81 + +</li> +<li>The High Host is stolen. Inquisition. Letter of Anathema. 82 + +</li> +<li>The Spanish Prime Minister Valenzuela is banished to Cavite. 83 + +</li> +<li>Monseigneur Maillard de Tournon, the Papal Legate. 84 + +</li> +<li>His arrogance and eccentricities; he dies in prison at Macao. 85 + +</li> +<li>Question of the <i lang="la">Regium exequatur</i>. Philip V.ʼs edict of punishments. 86 +</li> +</ul><p> + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Chapter</span> VII + +</p> +<p><a href="#d0e3389"><span class="smallcaps">British Occupation of Manila</span></a> + +</p> +<ul> +<li>Coalition of France and Spain against England by the “Family Compact.” 87 + +</li> +<li>Simon de Anda y Salazár usurps the Archbishop-Governorʼs authority. 88 + +</li> +<li>British bombard Manila. Archbishop-Governor Rojo capitulates. 89 + +</li> +<li>British in possession of the City. Sack and pillage. Agreed Indemnity. 90 + +</li> +<li>Simon de Anda y Salazár defies Governor Rojo and declares war. 91 + +</li> +<li>British carry war into the provinces. Bustos opposes them. 92 + +</li> +<li>Bustos completely routed. Chinese take the British side. 93 + +</li> +<li>Massacre of Chinese. Villa Cortaʼs fate. The <i>Philipino</i> treasure. 94 + +</li> +<li>Simon de Anda y Salazár offers rewards for British heads. 95 +<a id="d0e373"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e373">xi</a>]</span></li> +<li>Austin friars on battle-fields. Peace of Paris (Feb. 10, 1763). 96 + +</li> +<li>Archbishop-Governor Rojo dies. La Torre appointed Gov.-General. 97 + +</li> +<li>British evacuate Manila. La Torre allows Anda to receive back the City. 98 + +</li> +<li>Anda goes to Spain; is rewarded by the King; returns as Gov.-General. 99 + +</li> +<li>Anda is in conflict with the out-going Governor, the Jesuits, and the friars. 99 + +</li> +<li>Anda dies in hospital (1776). His burial-place and monument. 100 + +</li> +<li>Rebellion succeeds the war. Ilocos Rebellion led by Diego de Silan. 100 + +</li> +<li>Revolt in Bojol Island led by Dagóhoy. 101 + +</li> +<li>Revolts in Leyte Island, Surigao (Mindanao Is.), and Sámar Island. 102 + +</li> +<li>Rebellion of “King” Málong and “Count” Gumapos. 103 + +</li> +<li>Rebellion of Andrés Novales. Execution of A. Novales and Ruiz. 104 + +</li> +<li>Apolinario de la Cruz declares himself “King of the Tagálogs.” 105 + +</li> +<li>General Marcelo Azcárraga, Spanish War Minister, Philippine born. 105 + +</li> +<li>The Cavite Conspiracy of 1872. The Secret Society of Reformers. 106 + +</li> +<li>The Philippine Martyrs, Dr. Búrgos and Fathers Zamora and Gomez. 107 + +</li> +<li>Illustrious exiles—Dr. Antonio M. Regidor and José M. Basa. 108</li> +</ul><p> + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Chapter</span> VIII + +</p> +<p><a href="#d0e3704"><span class="smallcaps">The Chinese</span></a> + +</p> +<ul> +<li>The China-Manila trade in the days of Legaspi. 109 + +</li> +<li>The <i>Alcayceria</i>. The <i>Parian</i>. Chinese banished. Restrictions. 110 + +</li> +<li>The Chinese as immigrants; their comparative activity. 112 + +</li> +<li>Chinese mandarins come to seek the “Mount of Gold” in Cavite. 114 + +</li> +<li>The Chinese are goaded to revolt. Saint Francisʼ victory over them. 115 + +</li> +<li>Massacre of Foreigners. The Chinese Traders; their Guilds. 116 + +</li> +<li>Chinese patron saint; population. The <i>Sangley</i>. The <i>Macao</i>. 118 + +</li> +<li>Restrictions on Chinese immigration. Their gradual exclusion. 119</li> +</ul><p> + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Chapter</span> IX + +</p> +<p><a href="#d0e3914"><span class="smallcaps">Wild Tribes and Pagans</span></a> + +</p> +<ul> +<li>The <i>Aetas</i> or <i>Negritos</i> or <i>Balugas</i>. 120 + +</li> +<li>The <i>Gaddanes</i>. The <i>Itavis</i>. The <i>Igorrotes</i>. The <i>Ibanacs</i>. 122 + +</li> +<li>Attempt to subdue the <i>Igorrotes</i>. Its failure. 124 + +</li> +<li>The <i>Calingas</i>. The <i>Igorrote-Chinese.</i> The <i>Tinguianes</i>. 125 + +</li> +<li>The <i>Basanes</i>. The <i>Manguianes</i>. The <i>Hindoos</i>. <i>Albinos</i>. 128 +</li> +</ul><p> + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Chapter</span> X + +</p> +<p><a href="#d0e4263"><span class="smallcaps">Mahometans and Southern Tribes</span></a> + +</p> +<ul> +<li>Early history of the Mahometans, called Moros. 129 + +</li> +<li>The First Expedition against the Mindanao Moros. 130 + +</li> +<li>Gov.-General Corcuera effects a landing in Sulu Island. 131 + +</li> +<li>The scourge of Moro Piracy. Devastation of the coasts. Captives. 132 + +</li> +<li>Zamboanga Fort; cost of its maintenance. Fighting Friars. 133 +<a id="d0e532"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e532">xii</a>]</span></li> +<li>Vicissitudes of Sultan Mahamad Alimudin. 134 + +</li> +<li>The Sultan appeals to his suzerainʼs delegate and is made prisoner. 134 + +</li> +<li>His letter to Sultan Muhamad Amirubdin. 135 + +</li> +<li>The charges against the Sultan. Extermination of Meros decreed. 136 + +</li> +<li>Mindanao and Sulu Moros join forces. Extermination impossible. 137 + +</li> +<li>The Treaty with Sultan Mahamad Alimudin. 138 + +</li> +<li>The Claveria and Urbiztondo expeditions against Moros. 139 + +</li> +<li>Gov.-General Malcampo finally annexes Joló (1876). 140 + +</li> +<li>Spain appoints Harun Narrasid Sultan of Sulu (1885). 141 + +</li> +<li>The ceremony of investiture. Opposition to the nominee. 142 + +</li> +<li>Datto Utto defies the Spaniards. Terreroʼs expedition (Jan., 1887). 143 + +</li> +<li>Colonel Arolasʼ victory at Maybun (Sulu Is.) (April, 1887). 144 + +</li> +<li>The Marahui Campaign (1895). The Moro tribes. 145 + +</li> +<li>The <i>Juramentado</i>. Moro dress; character; arts; weapons. 146 + +</li> +<li>Moro customs. The <i>Pandita</i>. The <i>Datto</i>. 148 + +</li> +<li>Joló (Sulu) town. H.H. the Sultan of Sulu. 149 + +</li> +<li>A <i>juramentado</i> runs <i>amok</i>. Across Sulu Island to Maybun. 152 + +</li> +<li>The Sultanʼs official reception. Subuános of Zamboanga. 154 + +</li> +<li>Climate in the South. Palaúan Island. Spanish settlers. 157 + +</li> +<li>Across Palaúan Island. The <i>Tugbanúas</i> tribe. 158 + +</li> +<li>Their dress, customs, and country. 159 + +</li> +<li>Efforts to colonize Paláuan Island. The Moro problem. 160</li> +</ul><p> + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Chapter</span> XI + +</p> +<p><a href="#d0e5268"><span class="smallcaps">Domesticated Natives—Origin—Character</span></a> + +</p> +<ul> +<li>Theory concerning the first inhabitants of these Islands. 163 + +</li> +<li>Their advent before the Spanish Conquest. 165 + +</li> +<li>Japanese and Chinese early immigrants. 166 + +</li> +<li>Native character; idiosyncracies and characteristics. 167 + +</li> +<li>Notion of sleep. “Castila!”. 169 + +</li> +<li>Tagálog and Visayo hospitality. The nativeʼs good qualities. 172 + +</li> +<li>Native aversion to discipline; bravery; resignation; geniality. 175 + +</li> +<li>Mixed races. Native physiognomy; marriages; minorsʼ rights. 176 + +</li> +<li>Family names. The <i>Catapúsan</i>. 179 + +</li> +<li>Dancing; the <i>Balitao</i>; the <i>Comitan</i>. The <i>Asuan</i>. 180 + +</li> +<li>Mixed marriages. The Half-caste (<i>Mestizo</i>). 181 + +</li> +<li>The Shrines and Saints. The Holy Child of Cebú. St. Francis of Tears. 183 + +</li> +<li>Our Lady of Cagsaysay. The Virgin of Antipolo. 184 + +</li> +<li>Miraculous Saints. <i lang="es">Santones</i>. Native Conception of Religion. 187 + +</li> +<li>Musical talent. Slavery. Education in Spanish times. 190 + +</li> +<li>The Intellectuals. The Illiterates. State aid for Schools. 192 + +</li> +<li>The Athenæum. Girlsʼ Colleges. St. Thomasʼ University. 194 + +</li> +<li>The Nautical School. The provincial student. Talented natives. 195 + +</li> +<li>Diseases. Leprosy. Insanity. Death-rate. Sanitation. 197</li> +</ul><p> + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Chapter</span> XII + +</p> +<p><a href="#d0e6181"><span class="smallcaps">The Religious Orders</span></a> + +</p> +<ul> +<li>Their early co-operation a necessity. 199 + +</li> +<li>Their power and influence. 200 +<a id="d0e677"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e677">xiii</a>]</span></li> +<li>Opinions for and against that power. 201 + +</li> +<li>The Spanish parish priest. Father Piernavieja. 202 + +</li> +<li>Virtueless friars. Monastic persecution. 204 + +</li> +<li>The Hierarchy. The Orders. Church revenues and State aid. 206 + +</li> +<li>Rivalry of Religious Orders. Papal intervention to ensure peace. 209</li> +</ul><p> + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Chapter</span> XIII + +</p> +<p><a href="#d0e6541"><span class="smallcaps">Spanish Insular Government</span></a> + +</p> +<ul> +<li>The <i lang="es">Encomiendas</i>. The Trading-Governors. 211 + +</li> +<li>The Judge-Governors (<i lang="es">Alcálde Máyor</i>). The Reforms of 1886. 213 + +</li> +<li>Cost of Spanish Insular Government. The Provincial Civil Governorʼs duties. 214 + +</li> +<li>The position of Provincial Civil Governor. Local Funds. Provincial poverty. 216 + +</li> +<li>Highways and Public Works. Cause of national decay. 218 + +</li> +<li>Fortunes made easily. Peculations. Town Local Government. 220 + +</li> +<li>The <i lang="es">Gobernadorcillo</i> (petty-governor). The <i lang="es">Cabeza de Barangay</i> (Tax-collector). 222 + +</li> +<li>The <i lang="es">Cuadrillero</i> (guard). The <i lang="es">Fallas</i> (tax). The <i lang="es">Cédula personal</i>. 224 + +</li> +<li>The <i lang="es">Tribunal</i> (town hall). Reforms affecting travellers. 225 +</li> +</ul><p> + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Chapter</span> XIV + +</p> +<p><a href="#d0e7406"><span class="smallcaps">Spanish-Philippine Finances</span></a> + +</p> +<ul> +<li>Philippine budgets. Curious items of revenue and expenditure. 227 + +</li> +<li>Spanish-Philippine army, police, and constabulary statistics. 230 + +</li> +<li>The armed forces in the olden times. 232 + +</li> +<li>Spanish-Philippine navy and judicial statistics. 233 + +</li> +<li>Prison statistics. Brigandage. The brigandsʼ superstition. 235 + +</li> +<li>A chase for brigands. The <i lang="tl">anting-anting</i>. Pirates. 237 + +</li> +<li>The notorious Tancad. Dilatory justice. A <i lang="fr">cause célèbre</i>. 239 + +</li> +<li>Spanish-Philippine Criminal Law procedure. 241</li> +</ul><p> + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Chapter</span> XV + +</p> +<p><a href="#d0e9101"><span class="smallcaps">Trade of the Islands from Early Times</span></a> + +</p> +<ul> +<li>Its early history. Its State galleons. 243 + +</li> +<li>The <i lang="es">Consulado</i> merchants. The Mexican subsidy. 244 + +</li> +<li>In the days of the Mexican galleons. The <i lang="es">Obras Pias</i>. 245 + +</li> +<li>Losses of the treasure-laden galleons. Trade difficulties. 246 + +</li> +<li>The period of restrictions on trade. Prohibitory decrees. 248 + +</li> +<li>The Manila merchants alarmed; appeal to the King. 249 + +</li> +<li>Penalties on free-traders. Trading friars. The budget for 1757. 250 + +</li> +<li>Decline of trade. Spanish trading-company failures. 252 + +</li> +<li>The <i lang="es">Real Compañia de Filipinas</i>; its privileges and failure. 253 + +</li> +<li>The dawn of free trade. Foreign traders admitted. 254 + +</li> +<li>Manila port, unrestrictedly open to foreigners (1834), becomes known to the world. 256 +<a id="d0e816"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e816">xiv</a>]</span></li> +<li>Pioneers of foreign trade. Foreign and Philippine banks. 257 + +</li> +<li>The Spanish-Philippine currency. Mexican-dollar smuggling. 259 + +</li> +<li>Ports of Zamboanga, Yloilo, Cebú, and Sual opened to foreign trade. 261 + +</li> +<li>Mail service. Carrying-trade. Middlemen. Native industries. 263 + +</li> +<li>The first Philippine Railway. Telegraph service. Seclusion of the Colony. 265</li> +</ul><p> + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Chapter</span> XVI + +</p> +<p><a href="#d0e10111"><span class="smallcaps">Agriculture</span></a> + +</p> +<ul> +<li>Interest on loans to farmers. Land values and tenure in Luzon Island. 269 + +</li> +<li>Sugar-cane lands and cultivation. Land-measures. 271 + +</li> +<li>Process of sugar-extraction. Labour conditions on sugar-estates. 273 + +</li> +<li>Sugar statistics. Worldʼs production of cane and beet sugar. 275 + +</li> +<li>Rice. Rice-measure. Rice machinery; husking; pearling; statistics. 276 + +</li> +<li>Macan and Paga rice. Rice planting and trading. 278</li> +</ul><p> + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Chapter</span> XVII + +</p> +<p><a href="#d0e10690"><span class="smallcaps">Manila Hemp—Coffee—Tobacco</span></a> + +</p> +<ul> +<li><i lang="la-x-bio">Musa textilis</i>. Extraction and uses of the fibre. Machinery. 281 + +</li> +<li>Hemp experiments in British India. Cultivation. Qualities. 283 + +</li> +<li>Labour difficulties. Statistics. Albay province (local) land-measure. 286 + +</li> +<li>Coffee. Coffee dealing and cultivation. 289 + +</li> +<li>Tobacco. The Government Tobacco Monopoly. 292 + +</li> +<li>Tobacco-growing by compulsory labour. Condition of the growers. 294 + +</li> +<li>Tobacco Monopoly abolished. Free trade in tobacco. 296 + +</li> +<li>Tobacco-trading risks; qualities; districts. Cigar values. 299</li> +</ul><p> + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Chapter</span> XVIII + +</p> +<p><a href="#d0e11471"><span class="smallcaps">Sundry Forest and Farm Produce</span></a> + +</p> +<ul> +<li>Maize. Cacao-beans. Chocolate. 300 + +</li> +<li>Cacao cultivation. Castor oil. Gogo. 302 + +</li> +<li>Camote. Gabi. Potatoes. Mani (pea-nut). Areca-nut. Buyo. 303 + +</li> +<li>Cocoanuts. Extraction of Tuba (beverage). 304 + +</li> +<li>Cocoanut-oil extraction. Coprah. Coir. 305 + +</li> +<li>Nipa palm. Cogon-grass. Cotton-tree. 307 + +</li> +<li>Buri palm. Ditá. Palma brava. Bamboo. 308 + +</li> +<li>Bojo. Bejuco (Rattan-cane). Palásan (Bush-rope). 310 + +</li> +<li>Gum mastic. Gutta-percha. Wax. Cinnamon. Edible Birdʼs-nest. 311 + +</li> +<li>Balate (Trepang). Sapan-wood. Tree-saps. 312 + +</li> +<li>Hardwoods; varieties and qualities. 313 + +</li> +<li>Molave wood tensile and transverse experiments. 315 + +</li> +<li>Relative strengths of hardwoods. Timber trade. 317 + +</li> +<li>Fruits; the Mango; the Banana; the Papaw, etc. 318 + +</li> +<li>Guavas; Pineapples; Tamarinds; the Mabolo. 320 + +</li> +<li>Sundry vegetable produce. Flowers. 321 +<a id="d0e922"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e922">xv</a>]</span></li> +<li>Botanical specimens—curious and beautiful. Orchids. 322 + +</li> +<li>Firewoods; Locust beans; <i>Amor seco</i>. 324 + +</li> +<li>Botanical names given to islands, towns etc. 324 + +</li> +<li>Medicinal herbs, roots, leaves and barks. Perfumes. 325</li> +</ul><p> + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Chapter</span> XIX + +</p> +<p><a href="#d0e13813"><span class="smallcaps">Mineral Products</span></a> + +</p> +<ul> +<li>Coal import. Coal-mining ventures. 326 + +</li> +<li>Comparative analyses of coal. 328 + +</li> +<li>Gold-mining ventures. The Paracale and Mambulao mines. 329 + +</li> +<li>Iron-mining ventures. Failures, poverty and suicide. 332 + +</li> +<li>Copper. Marble. Stone. Gypsum. Sulphur. Mineral oil. 334</li> +</ul><p> + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Chapter</span> XX + +</p> +<p><a href="#d0e14081"><span class="smallcaps">Domestic Live-stock—Ponies, Buffaloes, Etc</span>.</a> + +</p> +<ul> +<li>Ponies. Horses. Buffaloes (<i>carabaos</i>). 336 + +</li> +<li>Donkeys. Mules. Sheep. Fish. Insects. Reptiles. Snakes. 338 + +</li> +<li>Butterflies. White ants. Bats. Deer. Wild boars. 340 + +</li> +<li>Fowls. Birds. The Locust plague. Edible insects. 341</li> +</ul><p> + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Chapter</span> XXI + +</p> +<p><a href="#d0e14313"><span class="smallcaps">Manila Under Spanish Rule</span></a> + +</p> +<ul> +<li>The fortified city. The moats. The drawbridges. 343 + +</li> +<li>Public buildings in the city. The port in construction. 344 + +</li> +<li>Manila Bay. Corregidor Island and Marivéles. 345 + +</li> +<li>The Pasig River. Public lighting. Tondo suburb. 346 + +</li> +<li>Binondo suburb. Chinese and native artificers. 347 + +</li> +<li>Easter week. The vehicle traffic. 348 + +</li> +<li>The Theatres. The <i>Carrillo</i>. The “<i>Moro Moro</i>” performance. 349 + +</li> +<li>The bull-ring. Annual feasts. Cock-fighting. 350 + +</li> +<li>European club. Hotels. The Press. Spanish journalism. 351 + +</li> +<li>Botanical gardens. Dwelling-houses. 353 + +</li> +<li>Manila society. Water-supply. Climate. 354 + +</li> +<li>Population of the Islands in 1845; of Manila in 1896. 355 + +</li> +<li>Typhoons and earthquakes affecting Manila. 356 + +</li> +<li>Dress of both sexes. A “first-class” funeral. 357 + +</li> +<li>Excursions from Manila. Los Baños. 359 + +</li> +<li>The story of Los Baños and Jalajala. The legend of Guadalupe Church. 360</li> +</ul><p> + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Chapter</span> XXII + +</p> +<p><a href="#d0e14973"><span class="smallcaps">The Tagálog Rebellion of 1896–98</span></a> + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">First Period</span> + +</p> +<ul> +<li>The <i lang="es">Córtes de Cadiz</i>. Philippine deputies in the Peninsula. 362 + +</li> +<li>The Assembly of Reformists. Effect of the Cavite Rising of 1872. 363 +<a id="d0e1049"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e1049">xvi</a>]</span></li> +<li>Official acts conducive to rebellion. The <i>Katipunan</i> League. 364 + +</li> +<li>Arrest of prominent Filipinos. The first overt act of rebellion. 366 + +</li> +<li>War commences. The Battle of San Juan del Monte. 368 + +</li> +<li>Execution of Sancho Valenzuela and others. 369 + +</li> +<li>Andrés Bonifacio heads the movement. He is superseded by Emilio Aguinaldo. 370 + +</li> +<li>Imus (Cavite) is captured by the rebels. The history of Imus. 372 + +</li> +<li>Atrocities of the rebels. Rebel victory at Binacayan. 373 + +</li> +<li>Execution of 13 rebels in Cavite. The rebel chief Llaneras in Bulacan. 374 + +</li> +<li>Volunteers are enrolled. Tragedy at Fort Santiago; cartloads of corpses. 375 + +</li> +<li>A court-martial cabal. Gov.-General Blanco is recalled. 376 + +</li> +<li>The rebels destroy a part of the railway. They threaten an assault on Manila. 377 + +</li> +<li>General Camilo Polavieja succeeds Blanco as Gov.-General. 378 + +</li> +<li>General Lachambre, the Liberator of Cavite. Polavieja returns to Spain. 379 + +</li> +<li>Dr. José Rizal, the Philippine ideal patriot; his career and hopes. 381 + +</li> +<li>His return to Manila; banishment, liberation, re-arrest, and execution. 383 + +</li> +<li>The love-romance of Dr. José Rizalʼs life. 387 + +</li> +<li>General Primo de Rivera succeeds Polavieja as Gov.-General. 389 + +</li> +<li>The Gov.-General decrees concentration; its bad effect. 391 + +</li> +<li>The rebels define their demands in an exhortation to the people. 392 + +</li> +<li>Emilio Aguinaldo now claims independence. 394 + +</li> +<li>Don Pedro A. Paterno acts as peace negotiator. 395 + +</li> +<li>The Protocol of Peace between the Rebels and the Gov.-General. 396 + +</li> +<li>The alleged Treaty of Biac-na-bató (Dec. 14, 1897). 397 + +</li> +<li>The Primo de Rivera-Paterno agreement as to indemnity payment. 398 + +</li> +<li>Emilio Aguinaldo in exile. Peace rejoicings. Spain defaults. 399 + +</li> +<li>The rebel chiefs being in exile, the people are goaded to fresh revolt. 400 + +</li> +<li>The tragedy of the <i lang="es">Calle de Camba</i>. Cebú Island rises in revolt. 401 + +</li> +<li>The Cebuánosʼ raid on Cebú City; Lutao in flames; piles of corpses. 402 + +</li> +<li>Exciting adventures of American citizens. Heartrending scenes in Cebú City. 404 + +</li> +<li>Rajahmudah Datto Mandi visits Cebú. Rebels in Bolinao (Zambales). 406 + +</li> +<li>Relief of Bolinao. Father Santos of Malolos is murdered. 408 + +</li> +<li>The peacemaker states his views on the reward he expects from Spain. 409 + +</li> +<li>Don Máximo Paterno, the Philippine “Grand Old Man”. 411 + +</li> +<li>Biographical sketch of his son, Don Pedro A. Paterno. 411 + +</li> +<li>General Basilio Augusti succeeds Primo de Rivera as Gov.-General. 413 + +</li> +<li>The existence of a Peace Treaty with the rebels is denied in the Spanish <i>Cortés</i>. 414 +</li> +</ul><p> + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Chapter</span> XXIII + +</p> +<p><a href="#d0e16238"><span class="smallcaps">The Tagálog Rebellion of 1896–98</span></a> + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Second Period</span> + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">American Intervention</span> + +</p> +<ul> +<li>Events leading to the Spanish-American War (April–Aug., 1898). 417 + +</li> +<li>Events preliminary to the naval Battle of Cavite (May 1, 1898). 419 + +</li> +<li>Aspirations of the Revolutionary Party. 420 + +</li> +<li>Revolutionary exhortation denouncing Spain. 421 + +</li> +<li>Allocution of the Archbishop of Madrid to the Spanish army. 423 + +</li> +<li>Gov.-General Basilio Augusti issues a call to arms. 424 +<a id="d0e1162"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e1162">xvii</a>]</span></li> +<li>His proclamation declaring a state of war with America. 425 + +</li> +<li>War in the Islands approaching. Flight of non-combatants. 426 + +</li> +<li>The naval Battle of Cavite. Destruction of the Spanish Fleet. 427 + +</li> +<li>The Stars and Stripes hoisted at Cavite. 429 + +</li> +<li>The first news of the naval defeat raises panic in Madrid. 431 + +</li> +<li>Emilio Aguinaldo returns from exile to Cavite (May 19, 1898). 432 + +</li> +<li>Revolutionary exhortation to the people to aid America. 433 + +</li> +<li>In the beleaguered city of Manila. German attitude. 434 + +</li> +<li>The merchantsʼ harvest. Run on the <i lang="es">Banco Español-Filipino</i>. 435 + +</li> +<li>General Aguinaldo becomes Dictator. Filipinos congratulate America. 436 + +</li> +<li>Conditions in and around Manila. Señor Paternoʼs pro-Spanish Manifesto. 438 + +</li> +<li>The revolutionistsʼ refutation of Señor Paternoʼs manifesto. 440 + +</li> +<li>General Monetʼs terrible southward march with refugees. 445 + +</li> +<li>Terror-stricken refugeesʼ flight for life. The <i>Macabebes</i>. 446 + +</li> +<li>The Revolutionary Government proclaimed. Statutes of Constitution. 448 + +</li> +<li>Message of the Revolutionary President accompanying the proclamation. 454 + +</li> +<li>The Revolutionistsʼ appeal to the Powers for recognition. 457 + +</li> +<li>Spain makes peace overtures to America. The Protocol of Peace. 458 + +</li> +<li>The Americans prepare for the attack on Manila. 460 + +</li> +<li>The Americans again demand the surrender of Manila. 461 + +</li> +<li>The Americansʼ attack on Manila (Aug. 13, 1898). 462 + +</li> +<li>Spainʼs blood-sacrifice for “the honour of the country”. 464 + +</li> +<li>Capitulation of Manila to the Americans (Aug. 14, 1898). 465 + +</li> +<li>The Americansʼ first measures of administration in Manila. 467 + +</li> +<li>Trade resumed. Liberty of the Press. Malolos (Bulacan) the rebel capital. 468 + +</li> +<li>General Aguinaldoʼs triumphal entry into Malolos. 470 + +</li> +<li>The Paris Peace Commission (Oct.-Dec., 1898). 471 + +</li> +<li>Peace concluded in Paris between America and Spain (Dec. 10, 1898). 472 + +</li> +<li>Innovations in Manila customs. Spanish government in Visayas. 473 + +</li> +<li>Strained relations between the rebels and the Americans. 475 + +</li> +<li>Rebels attack the Spaniards in Visayas. The Spaniards evacuate the Visayas. 476 + +</li> +<li>The end of Spanish rule. The rebelsʼ disagreement. 478 + +</li> +<li>Text of the Treaty of Peace between America and Spain. 479</li> +</ul><p> + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Chapter</span> XXIV + +</p> +<p><a href="#d0e17962"><span class="smallcaps">An Outline of the War of Independence Period, 1899–1901</span></a> + +</p> +<ul> +<li>Insurgents prepare for the coming conflict. 484 + +</li> +<li>Anti-American manifesto. The Philippine Republic. 486 + +</li> +<li>The war begins; the opening shot. Battle of Paco. 487 + +</li> +<li>Fighting around Manila; Gagalanging. Manila in flames. 489 + +</li> +<li>Battle of Marilao. Capture of Malolos, the insurgent capital. 490 + +</li> +<li>Proclamation of American intentions. Santa Cruz (La Laguna) captured. 493 + +</li> +<li>Effect of the war on public opinion in America. 495 + +</li> +<li>Insurgent defeat. Calumpit captured. Insurgents ask for an armistice. 496 + +</li> +<li>Insurgent tactics. General Lawton in Cavite. 499 + +</li> +<li>Violent death of General Antonio Luna. 501 + +</li> +<li>General Aguinaldoʼs manifesto; his pathetic allusion to the past. 502 +<a id="d0e1268"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e1268">xviii</a>]</span></li> +<li>Insurgents destroy the s.s. <i>Saturnus</i>. Death of General Lawton. 503 + +</li> +<li>War on the wane. Many chiefs surrender. 505 + +</li> +<li>Partial disbandment of the insurgent army urged by hunger. 506 + +</li> +<li>Capture of General Emilio Aguinaldo (March 23, 1901). 507 + +</li> +<li>He swears allegiance to America. His home at Canit (Cavite Viejo). 509</li> +</ul><p> + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Chapter</span> XXV + +</p> +<p><a href="#d0e18317"><span class="smallcaps">The Philippine Republic in the Central and Southern Islands</span></a> + +</p> +<ul> +<li>The Spaniards evacuate Yloilo (Dec., 1898). Native Government there. 511 + +</li> +<li>General Miller demands the surrender of Yloilo. The Panay army. 512 + +</li> +<li>Riotous insurgent soldiery. Flight of civilians. 513 + +</li> +<li>The Yloilo native Government discusses the crisis in open assembly. 514 + +</li> +<li>Mob riot. Yloilo in flames. Looting, anarchy, and terrorism. 515 + +</li> +<li>Bombardment of Yloilo. The American forces enter and the insurgents vanish. 516 + +</li> +<li>Surrender of insurgent leaders. Peace overtures. “Water-cure”. 517 + +</li> +<li>Formal surrender of the Panay army remnant at Jaro (Feb. 2, 1901). 518 + +</li> +<li>Yloilo town. Native Government in Negros Island. Peaceful settlement. 519 + +</li> +<li>An armed rabble overruns Negros Island. 521 + +</li> +<li>Native Government in Cebú Island. American occupation of Cebú City. 522 + +</li> +<li>Cebuáno insurgents on the warpath. Peace signed with Cebuános. 524 + +</li> +<li>Reformed government in Cebú Island. Cebú City. 526 + +</li> +<li>American occupation of Bojol Island. Insurgent rising quelled. 528 + +</li> +<li>Native Government in Cottabato. Slaughter of the Christians. 529 + +</li> +<li>The Spaniardsʼ critical position in Zamboanga (Mindanao Is.). 531 + +</li> +<li>Rival factions and anarchy in Zamboanga. Opportune American advent. 532 + +</li> +<li>The Rajahmudah Datto Maudi. Zamboanga town. 534 + +</li> +<li>Sámar and Marinduque Islands under native leaders. 535 + +</li> +<li>Slaughter of American officers and troops at Balangiga (Sámar Is.). 536</li> +</ul><p> + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Chapter</span> XXVI + +</p> +<p><a href="#d0e18975"><span class="smallcaps">The Spanish Prisoners</span></a> + +</p> +<ul> +<li>The approximate number of Spanish prisoners and their treatment. 537 + +</li> +<li>The Spanish Governmentʼs dilemma in the matter of the prisoners. 538 + +</li> +<li>Why the prisoners were detained. Baron Du Maraisʼ ill-fated mission. 539 + +</li> +<li>Further efforts to obtain their release. The captors state their terms. 541 + +</li> +<li>Discussions between Generals E. S. Otis and Nicolás Jaramillo. 542 + +</li> +<li>The Spanish commissionersʼ ruse to obtain the prisonersʼ release fails. 543 + +</li> +<li>The end of the Spaniardsʼ captivity. 544</li> +</ul><p> + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Chapter</span> XXVII + +</p> +<p><a href="#d0e19178"><span class="smallcaps">End of the War of Independence and After</span></a> + +</p> +<ul> +<li>The last of the recognized insurgent leaders. Notorious outlaws. 545 + +</li> +<li>Apolinario Mabini. Brigands of the old and of the new type. 546 + +</li> +<li>Ferocity of the new caste of brigands. 548 +<a id="d0e1375"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e1375">xix</a>]</span></li> +<li>The Montalón and Felizardo outlaw bands. 549 + +</li> +<li>The “Guards of Honour.” The <i>Pulaján</i> in gloomy Sámar. 550 + +</li> +<li>Army and Constabulary Statistics. Insurgent navy. 553 + +</li> +<li>Sedition. Seditious plays. 554 + +</li> +<li>Landownership is conducive to social tranquillity. 555</li> +</ul><p> + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Chapter</span> XXVIII + +</p> +<p><a href="#d0e19504"><span class="smallcaps">Modern Manila</span></a> + +</p> +<ul> +<li>Innovations under American rule. 556 + +</li> +<li>Clubs. Theatres. Hotels. “Saloons.” The Walled City. 558 + +</li> +<li>The Insular Government. Feast-days. Municipality. 560 + +</li> +<li>Emoluments of high officials. The Schurman Commission. 561 + +</li> +<li>The Taft Commission. The “Philippines for the Filipinos” doctrine. 563 + +</li> +<li>The Philippine Civil Service. Civil government established. 565 + +</li> +<li>Constabulary. Secret Police. The Vagrant Act. 567 + +</li> +<li>Army strength. Military Division. Scout Corps. 569</li> +</ul><p> + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Chapter</span> XXIX + +</p> +<p><a href="#d0e20496"><span class="smallcaps">The Land of the Moros</span></a> + +</p> +<ul> +<li>The Bates Agreement with the Sultan of Sulu. 571 + +</li> +<li>The warlike <i>Dattos</i> and their clansmen. 573 + +</li> +<li>Captain Pershingʼs brilliant exploits around Lake Lanao. 574 + +</li> +<li>Storming the <i>Cottas</i>. American pluck. 575 + +</li> +<li>American policy in Moroland. Maj.-General Leonard Wood. 576 + +</li> +<li>Constitution of the Moro Province. 577 + +</li> +<li>Municipalities. Tribal Wards. Moro Province finances. 578 + +</li> +<li>Moro Province armed forces. Gen. Woodʼs victory at Kudaran͠gan. 580 + +</li> +<li>Datto Pedro Cuevas of Basílan Island. His career. 582 + +</li> +<li>General Wood in Sulu Island. Panglima Hassan. Major H. L. Scott. 584 + +</li> +<li>Major Hugh L. Scott vanquishes Panglima Hassan. A <i>bichâra</i>. 585 + +</li> +<li>Joló town. H.H. The Sultan of Sulu. 587 + +</li> +<li>American policy towards the Moro chiefs. 588 + +</li> +<li>The Manguiguinʼs eventful visit to Zamboanga. 589 + +</li> +<li>Education and progress in the Moro Province. 591 + +</li> +<li>What the Moro Province needs. The prospect therein. 592</li> +</ul><p> + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Chapter</span> XXX + +</p> +<p><a href="#d0e21329"><span class="smallcaps">The Spanish Friars, After 1898</span></a> + +</p> +<ul> +<li>Free cult. Causes of the anti-friar feeling. 594 + +</li> +<li>Attitude of the Philippine clergy. Monsignor Chapelle. 596 + +</li> +<li>The question of the friarsʼ lands. American view. 597 + +</li> +<li>The American Government negotiates with the Holy See. 599 + +</li> +<li>The Popeʼs contrary view of the friarsʼ case. 600 + +</li> +<li>The friarsʼ-lands purchase. The approximate acreage. Monsignor Guidi. 601 +<a id="d0e1491"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e1491">xx</a>]</span></li> +<li>The anti-friar feeling diminishes. The Philippine Independent Church. 602 + +</li> +<li>The head of the Philippine Independent Church throws off allegiance to the Pope. 604 + +</li> +<li>Conflict between Catholics and Schismatics. 606 + +</li> +<li>Aglipayan doctrine. Native clergy. Monsignor Agius. 607 + +</li> +<li>American education. The Normal School. The Nautical School. 608 + +</li> +<li>The School for Chinese. The Spanish Schools. 610 + +</li> +<li>The English language for Orientals. Native politics. 611 + +</li> +<li>The Philippine Assembly. The cry for “independence”. 612 + +</li> +<li>The native interpretation of the term “Protection”. 613 + +</li> +<li>Capacity for self-government. Population. Benguet road. 614 + +</li> +<li>Census Statistics. Regulations affecting foreign travellers. 616 + +</li> +<li>Administration of justice. Provincial Courts. Justices of the peace. 618</li> +</ul><p> + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Chapter</span> XXXI + +</p> +<p><a href="#d0e22333"><span class="smallcaps">Trade and Agriculture Since the American Advent</span></a> + +</p> +<ul> +<li>Trade in war-time. After-effect of war on trade and agriculture. 620 + +</li> +<li>Losses in tilth-cattle. The Congressional Relief Fund. 621 + +</li> +<li>Fruitless endeavours to replace the lost buffalo herds. 622 + +</li> +<li>Government supplies rice to the needy. Plantersʼ embarrassments. 623 + +</li> +<li>Agitation for an Agricultural Bank. Bureau of Agriculture. 624 + +</li> +<li>Land-tax. Manila Port Works. The Southern ports. 626 + +</li> +<li>Need of roads. Railway projects. 627 + +</li> +<li>The carrying-trade. The Shipping Law. Revenue and Expenditure. 628 + +</li> +<li>The Internal Revenue Law. Enormous increase in cost of living. 630 + +</li> +<li>“The Democratic Labour Union.” The Chinese Exclusion Act. 632 + +</li> +<li>Social position of the Chinese in the Islands since 1898. 634 + +</li> +<li>The new Philippine currency (<i>Peso Conant</i>). 635 + +</li> +<li>American Banks. The commercial policy of the future. 637 + +</li> +<li>Trade Statistics. Total Import and Export values. Hemp shipments. 639 + +</li> +<li>Total Chief Exports. Total Sugar Export. 640 + +</li> +<li>Tobacco, Cigar, and Coprah shipments. Values of Coprah and Cocoanut-oil. 644 + +</li> +<li>Sapan-wood, Gum Mastic, and Coffee shipments. 646 + +</li> +<li>Gold and Silver Imports and Exports. Tonnage. Exchange. 647 + +</li> +<li>Proportionate table of Total Exports. 648 + +</li> +<li>Proportionate table of Total Imports. 649 + +</li> +<li>Proportionate table of Staple Exports and Rice Imports. 650</li> +</ul><p> + + +</p> +<p><a href="#d0e26368"><span class="smallcaps">Chronological Table of Leading Events</span></a>. 651 + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Index</span>. 655 + +<a id="d0e1582"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e1582">xxi</a>]</span></p> +</div> +<div id="d0e1583" class="div1"> +<h2 class="normal">List of Illustrations</h2> +<ul> +<li><span class="smallcaps"><a href="#d0e87">The Author</a></span> <i>Frontispiece</i></li> +<li><span class="smallcaps"><a href="#d0e2175">Taal Volcano</a></span> <i>Facing</i> 16 +</li> +<li><span class="smallcaps"><a href="#d0e2190">Mavon Volcano</a></span> 16 +</li> +<li><span class="smallcaps"><a href="#d0e2297">Effect of the Hurricane of September 26, 1905</a></span> 23 +</li> +<li><span class="smallcaps"><a href="#d0e3982">A Negrito Family</a></span> 120 +</li> +<li><span class="smallcaps"><a href="#d0e4106">An Igorrote Type (Luzon)</a></span> 128 +</li> +<li><span class="smallcaps"><a href="#d0e4242">A Pagan Type (Mindanao)</a></span> 128 +</li> +<li><span class="smallcaps"><a href="#d0e4218">A Tagálog Girl</a></span> 128 +</li> +<li><span class="smallcaps"><a href="#d0e4327">Moro Weapons</a></span> 132 +</li> +<li><span class="smallcaps"><a href="#d0e4800">A Scene in the Moro Country</a></span> 148 +</li> +<li><span class="smallcaps"><a href="#d0e4810">Zamboanga Fortress (“Fuerza del Pilar”)</a></span> 148 +</li> +<li><span class="smallcaps"><a href="#d0e5295">A Visayan Girl</a></span> 164 +</li> +<li><span class="smallcaps"><a href="#d0e5302">A Tagálog Girl</a></span> 164 +</li> +<li><span class="smallcaps"><a href="#d0e5467">A Visayan Planter</a></span> 172 +</li> +<li><span class="smallcaps"><a href="#d0e5476">A Chinese Half-caste</a></span> 172 +</li> +<li><span class="smallcaps"><a href="#d0e5687">A Tagálog Milkwoman</a></span> 182 +</li> +<li><span class="smallcaps"><a href="#d0e5697">A Tagálog Townsman</a></span> 182 +</li> +<li><span class="smallcaps"><a href="#d0e6075">Middle-class Tagálog Natives</a></span> 196 +</li> +<li><span class="smallcaps"><a href="#d0e9121">A Spanish-Mexican Galleon</a></span> 244 +</li> +<li><span class="smallcaps"><a href="#d0e9128">A Canoe</a></span> 244 +</li> +<li><span class="smallcaps"><a href="#d0e9152">A Casco (Sailing-barge)</a></span> 244 +</li> +<li><span class="smallcaps"><a href="#d0e9167">A Prahu (Sailing-canoe)</a></span> 244 +</li> +<li><span class="smallcaps"><a href="#d0e10373">A Sugar-estate House, Southern Philippines</a></span> 275 +</li> +<li><span class="smallcaps"><a href="#d0e10916">Shipping Hemp in the Provinces</a></span> 288 +</li> +<li><span class="smallcaps"><a href="#d0e12810">Botanical Specimen</a></span> 321 +</li> +<li><span class="smallcaps"><a href="#d0e12994">Botanical Specimen</a></span> 322 +</li> +<li><a id="d0e1723"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e1723">xxii</a>]</span><span class="smallcaps"><a href="#d0e13124">Botanical Specimen</a></span> <i>Facing</i> 323 +</li> +<li><span class="smallcaps"><a href="#d0e13578">Botanical Specimen</a></span> 324 +</li> +<li><span class="smallcaps"><a href="#d0e14344">The Old Walls of Manila City</a></span> 344 +</li> +<li><span class="smallcaps"><a href="#d0e14432"><i>La Escolta</i> in the Business Quarter of Manila</a></span> 347 +</li> +<li><span class="smallcaps"><a href="#d0e14921">A Riverside Washing-scene</a></span> 359 +</li> +<li><span class="smallcaps"><a href="#d0e15348">Dr. José Rizal</a></span> 381 +</li> +<li><span class="smallcaps"><a href="#d0e15371">Don Felipe Agoncillo</a></span> 381 +</li> +<li><span class="smallcaps"><a href="#d0e15709">General Emilio Aguinaldo</a></span> 396 +</li> +<li><span class="smallcaps"><a href="#d0e15732">Don Pedro a Paterno</a></span> 396 +</li> +<li><span class="smallcaps"><a href="#d0e16618">Admiral Patricio Montojo</a></span> 430 +</li> +<li><span class="smallcaps"><a href="#d0e16611">Admiral George Dewey</a></span> 430 +</li> +<li><span class="smallcaps"><a href="#d0e16633">General Basilio Augusti</a></span> 430 +</li> +<li><span class="smallcaps"><a href="#d0e16598">Maj.-General Wesley Merritt</a></span> 430 +</li> +<li><span class="smallcaps"><a href="#d0e16664">Archbishop Bernardino Nozaleda</a></span> 430 +</li> +<li><span class="smallcaps"><a href="#d0e17983">Tagálog Bowie-knives and Weapons</a></span> 485 +</li> +<li><span class="smallcaps"><a href="#d0e18910">A Pandita (Mahometan Priest)</a></span> 534 +</li> +<li><span class="smallcaps"><a href="#d0e18925">Rajahmudah Datto Mandi and Wife</a></span> 534 +</li> +<li><span class="smallcaps"><a href="#d0e19625">Santa Cruz Church (Manila Suburb)</a></span> 559 +</li> +<li><span class="smallcaps"><a href="#d0e21044">Panglima Hassan (of Sulu)</a></span> 584 +</li> +<li><span class="smallcaps"><a href="#d0e21079">A Mindanao Datto and Suite</a></span> 584 +</li> +<li><span class="smallcaps"><a href="#d0e21561">The Rt. Rev. Bishop Gregorio Aglípay</a></span> 604 +</li> +<li><span class="smallcaps"><a href="#d0e22444">A Roadside Scene in Bulacan Province</a></span> 627 +</li> +</ul> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Maps</span> + +</p> +<ul> +<li><span class="smallcaps"><a href="#d0e15191">The Province of Cavite</a></span> 371 +</li> +<li><span class="smallcaps">Map of the Archipelago</span> <i>at the end</i></li> +</ul><p> + + + +</p> +</div> +</div><a id="d0e1855"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e1855">1</a>]</span><div class="body"> +<div id="d0e1857" class="div1"> +<h2 class="normal">Introduction</h2> +<div class="epigraph"> +<p>“<i>Nothing extenuate, +<br>Nor set down aught in malice</i>.” +<br> <span class="smallcaps">Othello</span>, Act V., Sc. 2. + +</p> +</div> +<p>During the three centuries and a quarter of more or less effective Spanish dominion, this Archipelago never ranked above the +most primitive of colonial possessions. + +</p> +<p>That powerful nation which in centuries gone by was built up by Iberians, Celts, Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Visigoths, Romans, +and Arabs was in its zenith of glory when the conquering spirit and dauntless energy of its people led them to gallant enterprises +of discovery which astonished the civilized world. Whatever may have been the incentive which impelled the Spanish monarchs +to encourage the conquest of these Islands, there can, at least, be no doubt as to the earnestness of the individuals entrusted +to carry out the royal will. The nerve and muscle of chivalrous Spain ploughing through a wide unknown ocean in quest of glory +and adventure, the unswerving devotion of the ecclesiastics to the cause of Catholic supremacy, each bearing intense privations, +cannot fail to excite the wonder of succeeding generations. But they were satisfied with conquering and leaving unimproved +their conquests, for whilst only a small fraction of this Archipelago was subdued, millions of dollars and hundreds of lives +were expended in futile attempts at conquest in Gamboge, Siam, Pegu, Moluccas, Borneo, Japan, etc.—and for all these toils +there came no reward, not even the sterile laurels of victory. The Manila seat of government had not been founded five years +when the Governor-General solicited royal permission to conquer China! + +</p> +<p>Extension of dominion seized them like a mania. Had they followed up their discoveries by progressive social enlightenment, +by encouragement to commerce, by the concentration of their efforts in the development of the territory and the new resources +already under their sway, half the money and energy squandered on fruitless and inglorious expeditions would have sufficed +to make high roads crossing and recrossing the Islands; tenfold wealth would have accrued; civilization would <a id="d0e1879"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e1879">2</a>]</span>have followed as a natural consequence; and they would, perhaps even to this day, have preserved the loyalty of those who +struggled for and obtained freer institutions. But they had elected to follow the principles of that religious age, and all +we can credit them with is the conversion of millions to Christianity and the consequent civility at the expense of cherished +liberty, for ever on the track of that fearless band of warriors followed the monk, ready to pass the breach opened for him +by the sword, to conclude the conquest by the persuasive influence of the Holy Cross. + +</p> +<p>The civilization of the world is but the outcome of wars, and probably as long as the world lasts the ultimate appeal in all +questions will be made to force, notwithstanding Peace Conferences. The hope of ever extinguishing warfare is as meagre as +the advantage such a state of things would be. The idea of totally suppressing martial instinct in the whole civilized community +is as hopeless as the effort to convert all the human race to one religious system. Moreover, the common good derived from +war generally exceeds the losses it inflicts on individuals; nor is war an isolated instance of the few suffering for the +good of the many. “<i lang="la">Salus populi suprema lex</i>.” “Nearly every step in the worldʼs progress has been reached by warfare. In modern times the peace of Europe is only maintained +by the equality of power to coerce by force. Liberty in England, gained first by an exhibition of force, would have been lost +but for bloodshed. The great American Republic owes its existence and the preservation of its unity to this inevitable means, +and neither arbitration, moral persuasion, nor sentimental argument would ever have exchanged Philippine monastic oppression +for freedom of thought and liberal institutions. + +</p> +<p>The right of conquest is admissible when it is exercised for the advancement of civilization, and the conqueror not only takes +upon himself, but carries out, the moral obligation to improve the condition of the subjected peoples and render them happier. +How far the Spaniards of each generation fulfilled that obligation may be judged from these pages, the works of Mr. W. H. +Prescott, the writings of Padre de las Casas, and other chroniclers of Spanish colonial achievements. The happiest colony +is that which yearns for nothing at the hands of the mother country; the most durable bonds are those engendered by gratitude +and contentment. Such bonds can never be created by religious teaching alone, unaccompanied by the twofold inseparable conditions +of moral and material improvement. There are colonies wherein equal justice, moral example, and constant care for the welfare +of the people have riveted European dominion without the dispensable adjunct of an enforced State religion. The reader will +judge the merits of that civilization which the Spaniards engrafted on the races they subdued; for as mankind has no philosophical +criterion of truth, it is a matter of opinion where the unpolluted fountain of the truest <a id="d0e1888"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e1888">3</a>]</span>modern civilization is to be found. It is claimed by China and by Europe, and the whole universe is schismatic on the subject. +When Japan was only known to the world as a nation of artists, Europe called her barbarous; when she had killed fifty thousand +Russians in Manchuria, she was proclaimed to be highly civilized. There are even some who regard the adoption of European +dress and the utterance of a few phrases in a foreign tongue as signs of civilization. And there is a Continental nation, +proud of its culture, whose sense of military honour, dignity, and discipline involves inhuman brutality of the lowest degree. + +</p> +<p>Juan de la Concepcion,<a id="d0e1892src" href="#d0e1892" class="noteref">1</a> who wrote in the eighteenth century, bases the Spaniardsʼ right to conquest solely on the religious theory. He affirms that +the Spanish kings inherited a divine right to these Islands, their dominion being directly prophesied in Isaiah xviii. He +assures us that this title from Heaven was confirmed by apostolic authority,<a id="d0e1898src" href="#d0e1898" class="noteref">2</a> and by “the many manifest miracles with which God, the Virgin, and the Saints, as auxiliaries of our arms, demonstrated its +unquestionable justice.” Saint Augustine, he states, considered it a sin to doubt the justice of war which God determines; +but, let it be remembered, the same <i>savant</i> insisted that the world was flat, and that the sun hid every night behind a mountain! + +</p> +<p>An apology for conquest cannot be rightly based upon the sole desire to spread any particular religion, more especially when +we treat of Christianity, the benign radiance of which was overshadowed by that debasing institution the Inquisition, which +sought out the brightest intellects only to destroy them. But whether conversion by coercion be justifiable or not, one is +bound to acknowledge that all the urbanity of the Filipinos of to-day is due to Spanish training, which has raised millions +from obscurity to a relative condition of culture. The fatal defect in the Spanish system was the futile endeavour to stem +the tide of modern methods and influences. + +</p> +<p>The government of the Archipelago alone was no mean task. + +</p> +<p>A group of islands inhabited by several heathen races—surrounded by a sea exposed to typhoons, pirates, and Christian-hating +Mussulmans—had to be ruled by a handful of Europeans with inadequate funds, bad ships, and scant war material. For nearly +two centuries the financial administration was a chaos, and military organization hardly existed. Local enterprise was disregarded +and discouraged so long as abundance of silver dollars came from across the Pacific. Such a short-sighted, unstable dependence +left the Colony resourceless when bold foreign traders stamped out monopoly and brought commerce to its natural <a id="d0e1915"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e1915">4</a>]</span>level by competition. In the meantime the astute ecclesiastics quietly took possession of rich arable lands in many places, +the most valuable being within easy reach of the Capital and the Arsenal of Cavite. Landed property was undefined. It all +nominally belonged to the State, which, however, granted no titles; “squatters” took up land where they chose without determined +limits, and the embroilment continues, in a measure, to the present day. + +</p> +<p>About the year 1885 the question was brought forward of granting Government titles to all who could establish claims to land. +Indeed, for about a year, there was a certain enthusiasm displayed both by the applicants and the officials in the matter +of “<span lang="es">Titulos Reales</span>.” But the large majority of landholders—among whom the monastic element conspicuously figured—could only show their title +by actual possession.<a id="d0e1922src" href="#d0e1922" class="noteref">3</a> It might have been sufficient, but the fact is that the clergy favoured neither the granting of “Titulos Reales” nor the +establishment of the projected Real Estate Registration Offices. + +</p> +<p>Agrarian disputes had been the cause of so many armed risings against themselves in particular, during the nineteenth century, +that they opposed an investigation of the land question, which would only have revived old animosities, without giving satisfaction +to either native or friar, seeing that both parties were intransigent.<a id="d0e1933src" href="#d0e1933" class="noteref">4</a> + +</p> +<p>The fundamental laws, considered as a whole, were the wisest devisable to suit the peculiar circumstances of the Colony; but +whilst many of them were disregarded or treated as a dead letter, so many loopholes were invented by the dispensers of those +in operation as to render the whole system a wearisome, dilatory process. Up to the last every possible impediment was placed +in the way of trade expansion; and in former times, when worldly majesty and sanctity were a joint idea, the struggle with +the King and his councillors for the right of legitimate traffic was fierce. + +</p> +<p>So long as the Archipelago was a dependency of Mexico (up to 1819) not one Spanish colonist in a thousand brought any cash +capital to this colony with which to develop its resources. During the first two centuries and a quarter Spainʼs exclusive +policy forbade the establishment of any foreigner in the Islands; but after they did settle there they were treated with such +courteous consideration by the Spanish officials that they could often secure favours with greater ease than the Spanish colonists +themselves. + +</p> +<p>Everywhere the white race urged activity like one who sits behind a <a id="d0e1942"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e1942">5</a>]</span>horse and goads it with the whip. But good advice without example was lost to an ignorant class more apt to learn through +the eye than through the ear. The rougher class of colonist either forgot, or did not know, that, to civilize a people, every +act one performs, or intelligible word one utters, carries an influence which pervades and gives a colour to the future life +and thoughts of the native, and makes it felt upon the whole frame of the society in embryo. On the other hand, the value +of prestige was perfectly well understood by the higher officials, and the rigid maintenance of their dignity, both in private +life and in their public offices, played an important part in the moral conquest of the Filipinos. Equality of races was never +dreamed of, either by the conquerors or the conquered; and the latter, up to the last days of Spanish rule, truly believed +in the superiority of the white man. This belief was a moral force which considerably aided the Spaniards in their task of +civilization, and has left its impression on the character of polite Philippine society to this day. + +</p> +<p>Christianity was not only the basis of education, but the symbol of civilization; and that the Government should have left +education to the care of the missionaries during the proselytizing period was undoubtedly the most natural course to take. +It was desirable that conversion from paganism should precede any kind of secular tuition. But the friars, to the last, held +tenaciously to their old monopoly; hence the University, the High Schools, and the Colleges (except the Jesuit Schools) were +in their hands, and they remained as stumbling-blocks in the intellectual advancement of the Colony. Instead of the State +holding the fountains of knowledge within its direct control, it yielded them to the exclusive manipulation of those who eked +out the measure as it suited their own interests. + +</p> +<p>Successful government by that sublime ethical essence called “moral philosophy” has fallen away before a more practical <i>régime</i>. Liberty to think, to speak, to write, to trade, to travel, was only partially and reluctantly yielded under extraneous pressure. +The venality of the conquerorʼs administration, the judicial complicacy, want of public works, weak imperial government, and +arrogant local rule tended to dismember the once powerful Spanish Empire. The same causes have produced the same effects in +all Spainʼs distant colonies, and to-day the mother country is almost childless. Criticism, physical discovery of the age, +and contact with foreigners shook the ancient belief in the fabulous and the supernatural; the rising generation began to +inquire about more certain scientific theses. The immutability of Theology is inharmonious to Science—the School of Progress; +and long before they had finished their course in these Islands the friars quaked at the possible consequences. The dogmatical +affirmation “<i lang="la">qui non credit anathema sit</i>,” so indiscriminately used, had lost its power. Public opinion protested against an order of things which checked the social +and material onward <a id="d0e1954"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e1954">6</a>]</span>movement of the Colony. And, strange as it may seem, Spain was absolutely impotent, even though it cost her the whole territory +(as indeed happened) to remedy the evil. In these Islands what was known to the world as the Government of Spain was virtually +the Executive of the Religious Corporations, who constituted the real Government, the members of which never understood patriotism +as men of the world understand it. Every interest was made subservient to the welfare of the Orders. If, one day, the Colony +must be lost to <i>them</i>, it was a matter of perfect indifference into whose hands it passed. It was their happy hunting-ground and last refuge. But +the real Government could not exist without its Executive; and when that Executive was attacked and expelled by America, the +real Government fell as a consequence. If the Executive had been strong enough to emancipate itself from the dominion of the +friars only two decades ago, the Philippines might have remained a Spanish colony to-day. But the wealth in hard cash and +the moral religious influence of the Monastic Orders were factors too powerful for any number of executive ministers, who +would have fallen like ninepins if they had attempted to extricate themselves from the thraldom of sacerdotalism. Outside +political circles there was, and still is in Spain, a class who shrink from the abandonment of ideas of centuriesʼ duration. +Whatever the fallacy may be, not a few are beguiled into thinking that its antiquity should command respect. + +</p> +<p>The conquest of this Colony was decidedly far more a religious achievement than a military one, and to the <i>friars of old</i> their nationʼs gratitude is fairly due for having contributed to her glory, but that gratitude is not an inheritance. + +</p> +<p>Prosperity began to dawn upon the Philippines when restrictions on trade were gradually relaxed since the second decade of +last century. As each year came round reforms were introduced, but so clumsily that no distinction was made between those +who were educationally or intellectually prepared to receive them and those who were not; hence the small minority of natives, +who had acquired the habits and necessities of their conquerors, sought to acquire for <i>all</i> an equal status, for which the masses were unprepared. The abolition of tribute in 1884 obliterated caste distinction; the +university graduate and the herder were on a legal equality if they each carried a <i lang="es">cédula personal</i>, whilst certain Spanish legislators exercised a rare effort to persuade themselves and their partisans that the Colony was +ripe for the impossible combination of liberal administration and monastic rule. + +</p> +<p>It will be shown in these pages that the government of these Islands was practically as theocratic as it was civil. Upon the +principle of religious pre-eminence all its statutes were founded, and the reader will now understand whence the innumerable +Church and State contentions originated. Historical facts lead one to inquire: How far was Spain ever a <i>moral</i> potential factor in the worldʼs progress? Spanish colonization <a id="d0e1977"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e1977">7</a>]</span>seems to have been only a colonizing mission preparatory to the attainment, by her colonists, of more congenial conditions +under other <i>régimes</i>; for the repeated struggles for liberty, generation after generation, in all her colonies, tend to show that Spainʼs sovereignty +was maintained through the inspiration of fear rather than love and sympathy, and that she entirely failed to render her colonial +subjects happier than they were before. + +</p> +<p>One cannot help feeling pity for the Spanish nation, which has let the Pearl of the Orient slip out of its fingers through +culpable and stubborn mismanagement, after repeated warnings and similar experiences in other quarters of the globe. Yet although +Spainʼs lethargic, petrified conservatism has had to yield to the progressive spirit of the times, the loss to her is more +sentimental than real, and Spaniards of the next century will probably care as little about it as Britons do about the secession +of their transatlantic colonies. + +</p> +<p>Happiness is merely comparative: with a lovely climate—a continual summer—and all the absolute requirements of life at hand, +there is not one-tenth of the misery in the Philippines that there is in Europe, and none of that forlorn wretchedness facing +the public gaze. Beggary—that constant attribute of the highest civilization—hardly exists, and suicide is extremely rare. +There are no ferocious animals, insects, or reptiles that one cannot reasonably guard against; it is essentially one of those +countries where “manʼs greatest enemy is man.” There is ample room for double the population, and yet a million acres of virgin +soil only awaiting the co-operation of husbandman and capitalist to turn it to lucrative account. A humdrum life is incompatible +here with the constant emotion kept up by typhoons, shipwrecks, earthquakes, tidal waves, volcanic eruptions, brigands, epidemics, +devastating fires, etc. + +</p> +<p>It is a beautiful country, copiously endowed by Nature, where the effulgent morning sun contributes to a happy frame of mind—where +the colonistʼs rural life passes pleasantly enough to soothe the longing for “home, sweet home.” + +</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<p class="line" style=""><span>“And yet perhaps if countries we compare +</span></p> +<p class="line" style=""><span>And estimate the blessings which they share, +</span></p> +<p class="line" style=""><span>Though patriots flatter, yet shall wisdom find +</span></p> +<p class="line" style=""><span>An equal portion dealt to all mankind.”</span></p> +</div> +</div> +<p>Such is Americaʼs new possession, wherein she has assumed the moral responsibility of establishing a form of government on +principles quite opposite to those of the defunct Spanish <i>régime</i>: whether it will be for better or for worse cannot be determined at this tentative stage. Without venturing on the prophetic, +one may not only draw conclusions from accomplished facts, but also reasonably assume, in the light of past events, what might +have happened under other circumstances. There is scarcely a Power which has not, in the zenith of its prosperity, <a id="d0e2002"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e2002">8</a>]</span>consciously or unconsciously felt the “divine right” impulse, and claimed that Providence has singled it out to engraft upon +an unwilling people its particular conception of human progress. The venture assumes, in time, the more dignified name of +“mission”; and when the consequent torrents of blood recede from memory with the ebbing tide of forgetfulness, the conqueror +soothes his conscience with a profession of “moral duty,” which the conquered seldom appreciate in the first generation. No +unforeseen circumstances whatever caused the United States to drift unwillingly into Philippine affairs. The war in Cuba had +not the remotest connexion with these Islands. The adversaryʼs army and navy were too busy with the task of quelling the Tagálog +rebellion for any one to imagine they could be sent to the Atlantic. It was hardly possible to believe that the defective +Spanish-Philippine squadron could have accomplished the voyage to the Antilles, in time of war, with every neutral port <i lang="fr">en route</i> closed against it. In any case, so far as the ostensible motive of the Spanish-American War was concerned, American operations +in the Philippines might have ended with the Battle of Cavite. The Tagálog rebels were neither seeking nor desiring a change +of masters, but the state of war with Spain afforded America the opportunity, internationally recognized as legitimate, to +seize any of the enemyʼs possessions; hence the acquisition of the Philippines by conquest. Up to this point there is nothing +to criticize, in face of the universal tacit recognition, from time immemorial, of the right of might. + +</p> +<p>American dominion has never been welcomed by the Filipinos. All the principal Christianized islands, practically representing +the whole Archipelago, except Moroland, resisted it by force of arms, until, after two years of warfare, they were so far +vanquished that those still remaining in the field, claiming to be warriors, were, judged by their exploits, undistinguishable +from the brigand gangs which have infested the Islands for a century and a half. The general desire was, and is, for sovereign +independence; and although a pro-American party now exists, it is only in the hope of gaining peacefully that which they despaired +of securing by armed resistance to superior force. The question as to how much nearer they are to the goal of their ambition +belongs to the future; but there is nothing to show, by a review of accomplished facts, that, without foreign intervention, +the Filipinos would have prospered in their rebellion against Spain. Even if they had expelled the Spaniards their independence +would have been of short duration, for they would have lost it again in the struggle with some colony-grabbing nation. A united +Archipelago under the Malolos Government would have been simply untenable; for, apart from the possible secessions of one +or more islands, like Negros, for instance, no Christian Philippine Government could ever have conquered Mindanao and the +Sulu Sultanate; indeed, the attempt might have brought about <a id="d0e2009"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e2009">9</a>]</span>their own ruin, by exhaustion of funds, want of unity in the hopeless contest with the Moro, and foreign intervention to terminate +the internecine war. Seeing that Emilio Aguinaldo had to suppress two rivals, even in the midst of the bloody struggle when +union was most essential for the attainment of a common end, how many more would have risen up against him in the period of +peaceful victory? The expulsion of the friars and the confiscation of their lands would have surprised no one cognizant of +Philippine history. But what would have become of religion? Would the predominant religion in the Philippines, fifty years +hence, have been Christian? Recent events lead one to conjecture that liberty of cult, under native rule, would have been +a misnomer, and Roman Catholicism a persecuted cause, with the civilizing labours of generations ceasing to bear fruit. + +</p> +<p>No generous, high-minded man, enjoying the glorious privilege of liberty, would withhold from his fellow-men the fullest measure +of independence which they were capable of maintaining. If Americaʼs intentions be as the world understands them, she is endeavouring +to break down the obstacles which the Filipinos, desiring a lasting independence, would have found insuperable. America claims +(as other colonizing nations have done) to have a “mission” to perform, which, in the present case, includes teaching the +Filipinos the art of self-government. Did one not reflect that America, from her birth as an independent state, has never +pretended to follow on the beaten tracts of the Old World, her brand-new method of colonization would surprise her older contemporaries +in a similar task. She has been the first to teach Asiatics the doctrine of equality of races—a theory which the proletariat +has interpreted by a self-assertion hitherto unknown, and a gradual relinquishment of that courteous deference towards the +white man formerly observable by every European. This democratic doctrine, suddenly launched upon the masses, is changing +their character. The polite and submissive native of yore is developing into an ill-bred, up-to-date, wrangling politician. +Hence rule by coercion, instead of sentiment, is forced upon America, for up to the present she has made no progress in winning +the hearts of the people. Outside the high-salaried circle of Filipinos one never hears a spontaneous utterance of gratitude +for the boon of individual liberty or for the suppression of monastic tyranny. The Filipinos craving for immediate independence, +regard the United States only in the light of a useful medium for its attainment, and there are indications that their future +attachment to their stepmother country will be limited to an unsentimental acceptance of her protection as a material necessity. + +</p> +<p>Measures of practical utility and of immediate need have been set aside for the pursuit of costly fantastic ideals, which +excite more the wonder than the enthusiasm of the people, who see left in abeyance the reforms they most desire. The system +of civilizing the natives on a <a id="d0e2015"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e2015">10</a>]</span>curriculum of higher mathematics, literature, and history, without concurrent material improvement to an equal extent, is +like feeding the mind at the expense of the body. No harbour improvements have been made, except at Manila; no canals have +been cut; few new provincial roads have been constructed, except for military purposes; no rivers are deepened for navigation, +and not a mile of railway opened. The enormous sums of money expended on such unnecessary works as the Benguet road and the +creation of multifarious bureaux, with a superfluity of public servants, might have been better employed in the development +of agriculture and cognate wealth-producing public works. The excessive salaries paid to high officials seem to be out of +all proportion to those of the subordinate assistants. Extravagance in public expenditure necessarily brings increasing taxation +to meet it; the luxuries introduced for the sake of American trade are gradually, and unfortunately, becoming necessities, +whereas it would be more considerate to reduce them if it were possible. It is no blessing to create a desire in the common +people for that which they can very well dispense with and feel just as happy without the knowledge of. The deliberate forcing +up of the cost of living has converted a cheap country into an expensive one, and an income which was once a modest competence +is now a miserable pittance. The infinite vexatious regulations and complicated restrictions affecting trade and traffic are +irritating to every class of business men, whilst the Colonyʼs indebtedness is increasing, the budget shows a deficit, and +agriculture—the only local source of wealth—is languishing. + +</p> +<p>Innovations, costing immense sums to introduce, are forced upon the people, not at all in harmony with their real wants, their +instincts, or their character. What is good for America is not necessarily good for the Philippines. One could more readily +conceive the feasibility of “assimilation” with the Japanese than with the Anglo-Saxon. To rule and to assimilate are two +very different propositions: the latter requires the existence of much in common between the parties. No legislation, example, +or tuition will remould a peopleʼs life in direct opposition to their natural environment. Even the descendants of whites +in the Philippines tend to merge into, rather than alter, the conditions of the surrounding race, and <i>vice versa</i>. It is quite impossible for a race born and living in the Tropics to adopt the characteristics and thought of a Temperate +Zone people. The Filipinos are not an industrious, thrifty people, or lovers of work, and no power on earth will make them +so. The Colonyʼs resources are, consequently, not a quarter developed, and are not likely to be by a strict application of +the theory of the “Philippines for the Filipinos.” But why worry about their lethargy, if, with it, they are on the way to +“perfect contentment”?—that summit of human happiness which no one attains. Ideal government may reach a point where its exactions +tend to make life a <a id="d0e2022"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e2022">11</a>]</span>burden; practical government stops this side of that point. White men will not be found willing to develop a policy which +offers them no hope of bettering themselves; and as to labour—other willing Asiatics are always close at hand. Uncertainty +of legislation, constantly changing laws, new regulations, the fear of a tax on capital, and general prospective insecurity +make large investors pause. + +</p> +<p>Democratic principles have been too suddenly sprung upon the masses. The autonomy granted to the provinces needs more control +than the civil government originally intended, and ends in an appeal on almost every conceivable question being made to one +man—the Gov.-General: this excessive concentration makes efficient administration too dependent on the abilities of one person. +There are many who still think, and not without reason, that ten years of military rule would have been better for the people +themselves. Even now military government might be advantageously re-established in Sámar Island, where the common people are +not anxious for the franchise, or care much about political rights. A reasonable amount of personal freedom, with justice, +would suffice for them; whilst the trading class would welcome any effective and continuous protection, rather than have to +shift for themselves with the risk of being persecuted for having given succour to the <i>pulajanes</i> to save their own lives and property. + +</p> +<p>Civil government, prematurely inaugurated, without sufficient preparation, has had a disastrous effect, and the present state +of many provinces is that of a wilderness overrun by brigand bands too strong for the civil authority to deal with. But one +cannot fail to recognize and appreciate the humane motives which urged the premature establishment of civil administration. +Scores of nobodies before the rebellion became somebodies during the four or five years of social turmoil. Some of them influenced +the final issue, others were mere show-figures, really not more important than the <i>beau sabreur</i> in comic opera. Yet one and all claimed compensation for laying aside their weapons, and in changing the play from anarchy +to civil life these actors had to be included in the new cast to keep them from further mischief. + +</p> +<p>The moral conquest of the Philippines has hardly commenced. The benevolent intentions of the Washington Government, and the +irreproachable character and purpose of its eminent members who wield the destiny of these islanders, are unknown to the untutored +masses, who judge their new masters by the individuals with whom they come into close contact. The hearts of the people cannot +be won without moral prestige, which is blighted by the presence of that undesirable class of immigrants to whom Maj.-General +Leonard Wood refers so forcibly in his “First Report of the Moro Province.” In this particular region, which is ruled semi-independently +of the Philippine Commission, the peculiar conditions require a special legislation. But, apart from this, the common policy +of its enlightened Gov.-General would serve <a id="d0e2036"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e2036">12</a>]</span>as a pattern of what it might be, with advantage, throughout the Archipelago. + +</p> +<p>So much United States money and energy have been already expended in these Islands, and so far-reaching are the pledges made +to their inhabitants, that American and Philippine interests are indissolubly associated for many a generation to come. It +does not necessarily follow that the fullest measure of national liberty will create real personal liberty. Such an idea does +not at all appeal to Asiatics, according to whose instinct every man dominates over, or is dominated by, another. If America +should succeed in establishing a permanently peaceful independent Asiatic government on democratic principles, it will be +one of the unparalleled achievements of the age. + +<a id="d0e2040"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e2040">13</a>]</span></p> +<div class="footnotes"> +<hr class="fnsep"> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e1892" href="#d0e1892src" class="noteref">1</a></span> “<span lang="es">Historia General de Philipinas</span>,” Chap. I., Part I., Vol. I., by Juan de la Concepcion published in 14 vols., Manila, 1788. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e1898" href="#d0e1898src" class="noteref">2</a></span> “<span lang="es">No es necessario calificar el derecho á tales reinos ó dominios, especialmente entre vasallos de reyes tan justos y Cathólicos +y tan obedientes hijos de la suprema autoridad apostólica con cuia facultad han ocupado estas regiones.</span>”—<i>Ibid.</i></p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e1922" href="#d0e1922src" class="noteref">3</a></span> “<span lang="la">Dominium a possessione coepisse dicitur</span>.”—<i>Law maxim</i>. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e1933" href="#d0e1933src" class="noteref">4</a></span> In September, 1890, a lawsuit was still pending between the Dominican Corporation and a number of native residents in Calamba +(Laguna) who disputed the Dominicansʼ claim to lands in that vicinity so long as the Corporation were unable to exhibit their +title. For this implied monastic indiscriminate acquisition of real estate several of the best native families (some of them +personally known to me) were banished to the Island of Mindoro. +</p> +</div> +</div> +<div id="d0e2041" class="div1"> +<h2 class="normal">General Description of the Archipelago</h2> +<p>The Philippine Islands, with the Sulu Protectorate, extend a little over 16 degrees of latitude—from 4° 45′ to 21° N., and +longitude from 116° 40′ to 126° 30′ E.—and number some 600 islands, many of which are mere islets, besides several hundreds +of rocks jutting out of the sea. The 11 islands of primary geographical importance are Luzon, Mindanao, Sámar, Panay, Negros, +Palaúan (Parágua), Mindoro, Leyte, Cebú, Masbate, and Bojol. Ancient maps show the islands and provinces under a different +nomenclature. For example: (old names in parentheses) Albay (Ibalon); Batangas (Comintan); Basílan (Taguima); Bulacan (Meycauayan); +Cápis (Panay); Cavite (Cauit); Cebú (Sogbu); Leyte (Baybay); Mindoro (Mait); Negros (Buglas); Rizal (Tondo; later on Manila); +Surigao (Caraga); Sámar (Ibabao); Tayabas (Calilayan). + +</p> +<p>Luzon and Mindanao united would be larger in area than all the rest of the islands put together. Luzon is said to have over +40,000 square miles of land area. The northern half of Luzon is a mountainous region formed by ramifications of the great +cordilleras, which run N. to S. All the islands are mountainous in the interior, the principal peaks being the following, +viz.:— + + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 80%;" width="60%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i> </i></td> +<td valign="top" width="20%" class="alignright"><i>Feet above sea level +</i></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Halcon (Mindoro) + +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">8,868 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Apo<a id="d0e2062src" href="#d0e2062" class="noteref">1</a> (Mindanao) + +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">8,804 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Mayon (Luzon) + +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">8,283 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">San Cristóbal (Luzon) + +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">7,375 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Isarog (Luzon) + +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">6,443 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Banájao (Luzon) + +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">6,097 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Labo (Luzon) + +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">5,090 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">South Caraballo (Luzon) + +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">4,720 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Caraballo del Baler (Luzon) + +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3,933 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Maquíling (Luzon) + +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3,720</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>Most of these mountains and subordinate ranges are thickly covered with forest and light undergrowth, whilst the stately trees +are gaily festooned with clustering creepers and flowering parasites of the most brilliant hues. The Mayon, which is an active +volcano, is comparatively bare, whilst also the Apo, although no longer in eruption, exhibits <a id="d0e2110"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e2110">14</a>]</span>abundant traces of volcanic action in acres of lava and blackened scoriae. Between the numberless forest-clad ranges are luxuriant +plains glowing in all the splendour of tropical vegetation. The valleys, generally of rich fertility, are about one-third +under cultivation. + +</p> +<p>There are numerous rivers, few of which are navigable by sea-going ships. Vessels drawing up to 13 feet can enter the Pasig +River, but this is due to the artificial means employed. + +</p> +<p>The principal Rivers are:—In <i>Luzon Island</i> the Rio Grande de Cagayán, which rises in the South Caraballo Mountain in the centre of the island, and runs in a tortuous +stream to the northern coast. It has two chief affluents, the Rio Chico de Cagayán and the Rio Magat, besides a number of +streams which find their way to its main course. Steamers of 11-feet draught have entered the Rio Grande, but the sand shoals +at the mouth are very shifty, and frequently the entrance is closed to navigation. The river, which yearly overflows its banks, +bathes the great Cagayan Valley,—the richest tobacco-growing district in the Colony. Immense trunks of trees are carried down +in the torrent with great rapidity, rendering it impossible for even small craft—the <i>barangayanes</i>—to make their way up or down the river at that period. + +</p> +<p>The Rio Grande de la Pampanga rises in the same mountain and flows in the opposite direction—southwards,—through an extensive +plain, until it empties itself by some 20 mouths into the Manila Bay. The whole of the Pampanga Valley and the course of the +river present a beautiful panorama from the summit of Arayat Mountain, which has an elevation of 2,877 feet above the sea +level. + +</p> +<p>The whole of this flat country is laid out into embanked rice fields and sugar-cane plantations. The towns and villages interspersed +are numerous. All the primeval forest, at one time dense, has disappeared; for this being one of the first districts brought +under European subjection, it supplied timber to the invaders from the earliest days of Spanish colonization. + +</p> +<p>The Rio Agno rises in a mountainous range towards the west coast about 50 miles N.N.W. of the South Caraballo—runs southwards +as far as lat. 16°, where it takes a S.W. direction down to lat. 15° 48′—thence a N.W. course up to lat. 16°, whence it empties +itself by two mouths into the Gulf of Lingayen. At the highest tides there is a maximum depth of 11 feet of water on the sand +bank at the E. mouth, on which is situated the port of Dagupan. + +</p> +<p>The Bicol River, which flows from the Bató Lake to the Bay of San Miguel, has sufficient depth of water to admit vessels of +small draught a few miles up from its mouth. + +</p> +<p>In <i>Mindanao Island</i> the Butuan River or Rio Agusan rises at a distance of about 25 miles from the southern coast and empties itself on the northern +coast, so that it nearly divides the island, and is navigable for a few miles from the mouth. +<a id="d0e2135"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e2135">15</a>]</span></p> +<p>The Rio Grande de Mindanao rises in the centre of the island and empties itself on the west coast by two mouths, and is navigable +for some miles by light-draught steamers. It has a great number of affluents of little importance. + +</p> +<p>The only river in <i>Negros Island</i> of any appreciable extent is the Danao, which rises in the mountain range running down the centre of the island, and finds +its outlet on the east coast. At the mouth it is about a quarter of a mile wide, but too shallow to permit large vessels to +enter, although past the mouth it has sufficient depth for any ship. I went up this river, six hoursʼ journey in a boat, and +saw some fine timber near its banks in many places. Here and there it opens out very wide, the sides becoming mangrove swamps. + +</p> +<p>The most important Lakes are:—In <i>Luzon Island</i> the Bay Lake or Laguna de Bay, supplied by numberless small streams coming from the mountainous district around it. Its greatest +length from E. to W. is 25 miles, and its greatest breadth N. to S. 21 miles. In it there is a mountainous island—Talim,—of +no agricultural importance, and several islets. Its overflow forms the Pasig River, which empties itself into the Manila Bay. +Each wet season—in the middle of the year—the shores of this lake are flooded. These floods recede as the dry season approaches, +but only partially so from the south coast, which is gradually being incorporated into the lake bed. + +</p> +<p>Bombon Lake, in the centre of which is a volcano in constant activity, has a width E. to W. of 11 miles, and its length from +N. to S. is 14 miles. The origin of this lake is apparently volcanic. According to tradition it was formed by the terrific +upheaval of a mountain 7,000 or 8,000 feet high, in the year 1700. It is not supplied by any streams emptying themselves into +it (further than two insignificant rivulets), and it is connected with the sea by the Pansipít River, which flows into the +Gulf of Balayan at lat. 13° 52′ N. + +</p> +<p>Cagayán Lake, in the extreme N.E. of the island, is about 7 miles long by 5 miles broad. + +</p> +<p>Lake Bató, 3 miles across each way, and Lake Buhi, 3 miles N. to S. and 2½ miles wide, situated in the eastern extremity of +Luzon Island, are very shallow. + +</p> +<p>In the centre of Luzon Island, in the large valley watered by the above-mentioned Pampanga and Agno Rivers, are three lakes, +respectively Canarem, Mangabol, and Candava; the last two being lowland meres flooded and navigable by canoes in the rainy +season only. + +</p> +<p>In <i>Mindoro Island</i> there is one lake called Naujan, 2½ miles from the N.E. coast. Its greatest width is 3 miles, with 4 miles in length. + +</p> +<p>In <i>Mindanao Island</i> there are the Lakes Maguindanao or Boayan, in the centre of the island (20 miles E. to W. by 12 N. to S.); Lanao, 18 miles +distant from the north coast; Liguasan and Buluan towards the <a id="d0e2166"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e2166">16</a>]</span>south, connected with the Rio Grande de Mindanao, and a group of four small lakes on the Agusuan River. + +</p> +<p>The Lanao Lake has great historical associations with the struggles between Christians and Moslems during the period of the +Spanish dominion, and is to this day a centre of strife with the Americans. + +</p> +<p>In some of the straits dividing the islands there are strong currents, rendering navigation of sailing vessels very difficult, +notably in the San Bernadino Straits separating the Islands of Luzon and Sámar, the roadstead of Yloilo between Panay and +Guimarrás Islands, and the passage between the south points of Cebú and Negros Islands. + +</p> +<p>Most of the islets, if not indeed the whole Archipelago, are of volcanic origin. There are many volcanoes, two of them in +frequent intermittent activity, viz. the Mayon, in the extreme east of Luzon Island, and the Taal Volcano, in the centre of +Bombon Lake, 34 miles due south of Manila. Also in Negros Island the Canlaúan Volcano—N. lat. 10° 24′—is occasionally in visible +eruption. In 1886 a portion of its crater subsided, accompanied by a tremendous noise and a slight ejection of lava. In the +picturesque Island of Camiguín a volcano mountain suddenly arose from the plain in 1872. + +</p> +<p></p> +<div id="d0e2175" class="figure"><img border="0" src="images/p016-1.jpg" alt="Taal Volcano." width="512" height="291"><p class="figureHead">Taal Volcano.</p> +</div><p> + +</p> +<p>The <i>Mayon Volcano</i> is in the north of the Province of Albay; hence it is popularly known as the Albay Volcano. Around its base there are several +towns and villages, the chief being Albay, the capital of the province; Cagsaua (called Darága) and Camáling on the one side, +and Malinao, Tobaco, etc., on the side facing the east coast. The earliest eruption recorded is that of 1616, mentioned by +Spilbergen. In 1769 there was a serious eruption, which destroyed the towns of Cagsaua and Malinao, besides several villages, +and devastated property within a radius of 20 miles. Lava and ashes were thrown out incessantly during two months, and cataracts +of water were formed. In 1811 loud subterranean noises were heard proceeding from the volcano, which caused the inhabitants +around to fear an early renewal of its activity, but their misfortune was postponed. On February 1, 1814,<a id="d0e2184src" href="#d0e2184" class="noteref">2</a> it burst with terrible violence. Cagsaua, Badiao, and three other towns were totally demolished. Stones and ashes were ejected +in all directions. The inhabitants fled to caves to shelter themselves. So sudden was the occurrence, that many natives were +overtaken by the volcanic projectiles and a few by lava streams. In Cagsaua nearly all property was lost. Father Aragoneses +estimates that 2,200 persons were killed, besides many being wounded. + +</p> +<p></p> +<div id="d0e2190" class="figure"><img border="0" src="images/p016-2.jpg" alt="Mavon Volcano." width="512" height="293"><p class="figureHead">Mavon Volcano.</p> +</div><p> + +</p> +<p>Another eruption, remarkable for its duration, took place in 1881–82, and again in the spring of 1887; but only a small quantity +of ashes was thrown out, and did very little or no damage to the property in the surrounding towns and villages. +<a id="d0e2196"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e2196">17</a>]</span></p> +<p>The eruption of July 9, 1888, severely damaged the towns of Libog and Legaspi; plantations were destroyed in the villages +of Bigaá and Bonco; several houses were fired, others had the roofs crushed in; a great many domestic animals were killed; +fifteen natives lost their lives, and the loss of live-stock (buffaloes and oxen) was estimated at 500. The ejection of lava +and ashes and stones from the crater continued for one night, which was illuminated by a column of fire. + +</p> +<p>The last great eruption occurred in May, 1897. Showers of red-hot lava fell like rain in a radius of 20 miles from the crater. +In the immediate environs about 400 persons were killed. In the village of Bacacay houses were entirely buried beneath the +lava, ashes, and sand. The road to the port of Legaspi was covered out of sight. In the important town of Tobaco there was +total darkness and the earth opened. Hemp plantations and a large number of cattle were destroyed. In Libog over 100 inhabitants +perished in the ruins. The hamlets of San Roque, Misericordia, and Santo Niño, with over 150 inhabitants, were completely +covered with burning <i>débris</i>. At night-time the sight of the fire column, heaving up thousands of tons of stones, accompanied by noises like the booming +of cannon afar off, was indescribably grand, but it was the greatest public calamity which had befallen the province for some +years past. + +</p> +<p>The mountain is remarkable for the perfection of its conic form. Owing to the perpendicular walls of lava formed on the slopes +all around, it would seem impossible to reach the crater. The elevation of the peak has been computed at between 8,200 and +8,400 feet. I have been around the base on the E. and S. sides, but the grandest view is to be obtained from Cagsaua (Darága). +On a clear night, when the moon is hidden, a stream of fire is distinctly seen to flow from the crest. + +</p> +<p><i>Taal Volcano</i> is in the island of the Bombon Lake referred to above. The journey by the ordinary route from the capital would be about +60 miles. This volcano has been in an active state from time immemorial, and many eruptions have taken place with more or +less effect. The first one of historical importance appears to have occurred in 1641; again in 1709 the crater vomited fire +with a deafening noise; on September 21, 1716, it threw out burning stones and lava over the whole island from which it rises, +but so far no harm had befallen the villagers in its vicinity. In 1731 from the waters of the lake three tall columns of earth +and sand arose in a few days, eventually subsiding into the form of an island about a mile in circumference. In 1749 there +was a famous outburst which dilacerated the coniform peak of the volcano, leaving the crater disclosed as it now is. Being +only 850 feet high, it is remarkable as one of the lowest volcanoes in the world. + +</p> +<p>The last and most desolating of all the eruptions of importance occurred in the year 1754, when the stones, lava, ashes, and +waves of <a id="d0e2212"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e2212">18</a>]</span>the lake, caused by volcanic action, contributed to the utter destruction of the towns of Taal, Tanaúan, Sala, and Lipa, and +seriously damaged property in Balayán, 15 miles away, whilst cinders are said to have reached Manila, 34 miles distant in +a straight line. One writer says in his MS.,<a id="d0e2214src" href="#d0e2214" class="noteref">3</a> compiled 36 years after the occurrence, that people in Manila dined with lighted candles at midday, and walked about the +streets confounded and thunderstruck, clamouring for confession during the eight days that the calamity was visible. The author +adds that the smell of the sulphur and fire lasted six months after the event, and was followed by malignant fever, to which +half the inhabitants of the province fell victims. Moreover, adds the writer, the lake waters threw up dead alligators and +fish, including sharks. + +</p> +<p>The best detailed account extant is that of the parish priest of Sala at the time of the event.<a id="d0e2222src" href="#d0e2222" class="noteref">4</a> He says that about 11 oʼclock at night on August 11, 1749, he saw a strong light on the top of the Volcano Island, but did +not take further notice. At 3 oʼclock the next morning he heard a gradually increasing noise like artillery firing, which +he supposed would proceed from the guns of the galleon expected in Manila from Mexico, saluting the Sanctuary of Our Lady +of Cagsaysay whilst passing. He only became anxious when the number of shots he heard far exceeded the royal salute, for he +had already counted a hundred times, and still it continued. So he arose, and it occurred to him that there might be a naval +engagement off the coast. He was soon undeceived, for four old natives suddenly called out, “Father, let us flee!” and on +his inquiry they informed him that the island had burst, hence the noise. Daylight came and exposed to view an immense column +of smoke gushing from the summit of the volcano, and here and there from its sides smaller streams rose like plumes. He was +joyed at the spectacle, which interested him so profoundly that he did not heed the exhortations of the natives to escape +from the grand but awful scene. It was a magnificent sight to watch mountains of sand hurled from the lake into the air in +the form of erect pyramids, and then falling again like the stream from a fountain jet. Whilst contemplating this imposing +phenomenon with tranquil delight, a strong earthquake came and upset everything in the convent. Then he reflected that it +might be time to go; pillars of sand ascended out of the water nearer to the shore of the town, and remained erect, until, +by a second earthquake, they, with the trees on the islet, were violently thrown down and submerged in the lake. The earth +opened out here and there as far as the shores of the Laguna de Bay, and the lands of <a id="d0e2225"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e2225">19</a>]</span>Sala and Tanaúan shifted. Streams found new beds and took other courses, whilst in several places trees were engulfed in the +fissures made in the soil. Houses, which one used to go up into, one now had to go down into, but the natives continued to +inhabit them without the least concern. The volcano, on this occasion, was in activity for three weeks; the first three days +ashes fell like rain. After this incident, the natives extracted sulphur from the open crater, and continued to do so until +the year 1754. + +</p> +<p>In that year (1754), the same chronicler continues, between nine and ten oʼclock at night on May 15, the volcano ejected boiling +lava, which ran down its sides in such quantities that only the waters of the lake saved the people on shore from being burnt. +Towards the north, stones reached the shore and fell in a place called Bayoyongan, in the jurisdiction of Taal. Stones and +fire incessantly came from the crater until June 2, when a volume of smoke arose which seemed to meet the skies. It was clearly +seen from Bauan, which is on a low level about four leagues (14 miles) from the lake. + +</p> +<p>Matters continued so until July 10, when there fell a heavy shower of mud as black as ink. The wind changed its direction +and a suburb of Sala, called Balili, was swamped with mud. This phenomenon was accompanied by a noise so great that the people +of Batangas and Bauan, who that day had seen the galleon from Acapulco passing on her home voyage, conjectured that she had +saluted the Shrine of Our Lady of Cagsaysay on her way. The noise ceased, but fire still continued to issue from the crater +until September 25. Stones fell all that night; and the people of Taal had to abandon their homes, for the roofs were falling +in with the weight upon them. The chronicler was at Taal at this date, and in the midst of the column of smoke a tempest of +thunder and lightning raged and continued without intermission until December 4. + +</p> +<p>The night of All Saintsʼ day (Nov. 1) was a memorable one, for the quantity of falling fire-stones, sand, and ashes increased, +gradually diminishing again towards November 15. Then, on that night, after vespers, great noises were heard. A long melancholy +sound dinned in oneʼs ears; volumes of black smoke rose; an infinite number of stones fell, and great waves proceeded from +the lake, beating the shores with appalling fury. This was followed by another great shower of stones, brought up amidst the +black smoke, which lasted until 10 oʼclock at night. For a short while the devastation was suspended prior to the last supreme +effort. All looked half dead and much exhausted after seven months of suffering in the way described.<a id="d0e2233src" href="#d0e2233" class="noteref">5</a> It was resolved to remove the image of Our Lady of Cagsaysay and put in its place the second image of the Holy Virgin. +<a id="d0e2236"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e2236">20</a>]</span></p> +<p>On November 29, from seven oʼclock in the evening, the volcano threw up more fire than all put together in the preceding seven +months. The burning column seemed to mingle with the clouds; the whole of the island was one ignited mass. A wind blew. And +as the priests and the mayor (<i>Alcalde</i>) were just remarking that the fire might reach the town, a mass of stones was thrown up with great violence; thunderclaps +and subterranean noises were heard; everybody looked aghast, and nearly all knelt to pray. Then the waters of the lake began +to encroach upon the houses, and the inhabitants took to flight, the natives carrying away whatever chattels they could. Cries +and lamentations were heard all around; mothers were looking for their children in dismay; half-caste women of the Parian +were calling for confession, some of them beseechingly falling on their knees in the middle of the streets. The panic was +intense, and was in no way lessened by the Chinese, who took to yelling in their own jargonic syllables. + +</p> +<p>After the terrible night of November 29 they thought all was over, when again several columns of smoke appeared, and the priest +went off to the Sanctuary of Cagsaysay, where the prior was. Taal was entirely abandoned, the natives having gone in all directions +away from the lake. On November 29 and 30 there was complete darkness around the lake vicinity, and when light reappeared +a layer of cinders about five inches thick was seen over the lands and houses, and it was still increasing. Total darkness +returned, so that one could not distinguish anotherʼs face, and all were more horror-stricken than ever. In Cagsaysay the +natives climbed on to the housetops and threw down the cinders, which were over-weighting the structures. On November 30 smoke +and strange sounds came with greater fury than anything yet experienced, while lightning flashed in the dense obscurity. It +seemed as if the end of the world was arriving. When light returned, the destruction was horribly visible; the church roof +was dangerously covered with ashes and earth, and the chronicler opines that its not having fallen in might be attributed +to a miracle! Then there was a day of comparative quietude, followed by a hurricane which lasted two days. All were in a state +of melancholy, which was increased when they received the news that the whole of Taal had collapsed; amongst the ruins being +the Government House and Stores, the Prison, State warehouses and the Royal Rope Walk, besides the Church and Convent. + +</p> +<p>The Gov.-General sent food and clothing in a vessel, which was nearly wrecked by storms, whilst the crew pumped and baled +out continually to keep her afloat, until at length she broke up on the shoals at the mouth of the Pansipit River. Another +craft had her mast split by a flash of lightning, but reached port. + +</p> +<p>With all this, some daft natives lingered about the site of the town of Taal till the last, and two men were sepulchred in +the Government House ruins. A woman left her house just before the roof <a id="d0e2248"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e2248">21</a>]</span>fell in and was carried away by a flood, from which she escaped, and was then struck dead by a flash of lightning. A man who +had escaped from Mussulman pirates, by whom he had been held in captivity for years, was killed during the eruption. He had +settled in Taal, and was held to be a perfect genius, for he could mend a clock! + +</p> +<p>The road from Taal to Balayan was impassable for a while on account of the quantity of lava. Taal, once so important as a +trading centre, was now gone, and Batangas, on the coast, became the future capital of the province. + +</p> +<p>The actual duration of this last eruption was 6 months and 17 days. + +</p> +<p>In 1780 the natives again extracted sulphur, but in 1790 a writer at that date<a id="d0e2256src" href="#d0e2256" class="noteref">6</a> says that he was unable to reach the crater owing to the depth of soft lava and ashes on the slopes. + +</p> +<p>There is a tradition current amongst the natives that an Englishman some years ago attempted to cut a tunnel from the base +to the centre of the volcanic mountain, probably to extract some metallic product or sulphur. It is said that during the work +the excavation partially fell in upon the Englishman, who perished there. The cave-like entrance is pointed out to travellers +as the <i lang="es">Cueva del Inglés</i>. + +</p> +<p>Referring to the volcano, Fray Gaspar de San Agustin in his History<a id="d0e2269src" href="#d0e2269" class="noteref">7</a> remarks as follows:—“The volcano formerly emitted many large fire-stones which destroyed the cotton, sweet potato and other +plantations belonging to the natives of Taal on the slopes of the (volcano) mountain. Also it happened that if three persons +arrived on the volcanic island, one of them had infallibly to die there without being able to ascertain the cause of this +circumstance. This was related to Father Albuquerque,<a id="d0e2272src" href="#d0e2272" class="noteref">8</a> who after a fervent deesis entreating compassion on the natives, went to the island, exorcised the evil spirits there and +blessed the land. A religious procession was made, and Mass was celebrated with great humility. On the elevation of the Host, +horrible sounds were heard, accompanied by groaning voices and sad lamentations; two craters opened out, one with sulphur +in it and the other with green water (sic), which is constantly boiling. The crater on the Lipa side is about a quarter of +a league wide; the other is smaller, and in time smoke began to ascend from this opening so that the natives, fearful of some +new calamity, went to Father Bartholomew, who repeated the ceremonies already described. Mass was said a second time, so that +since then the volcano has not thrown out any more fire or <a id="d0e2275"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e2275">22</a>]</span>smoke.<a id="d0e2277src" href="#d0e2277" class="noteref">9</a> However, whilst Fray Thomas Abresi was parish priest of Taal (about 1611), thunder and plaintive cries were again heard, +therefore the priest had a cross, made of Anobing wood, borne to the top of the volcano by more than 400 natives, with the +result that not only the volcano ceased to do harm, but the island has regained its original fertile condition.” + +</p> +<p>The Taal Volcano is reached with facility from the N. side of the island, the ascent on foot occupying about half an hour. +Looking into the crater, which would be about 4,500 feet wide from one border to the other of the shell, one sees three distinct +lakes of boiling liquid, the colours of which change from time to time. I have been up to the crater four times; the last +time the liquids in the lakes were respectively of green, yellow, and chocolate colours. At the time of my last visit there +was also a lava chimney in the middle, from which arose a snow-white volume of smoke. + +</p> +<p>The Philippine Islands have numberless creeks and bays forming natural harbours, but navigation on the W. coasts of Cebú, +Negros and Palaúan Islands is dangerous for any but very light-draught vessels, the water being very shallow, whilst there +are dangerous reefs all along the W. coast of Palaúan (Parágua) and between the south point of this island and Balábac Island. + +</p> +<p>The S.W. monsoon brings rain to most of the islands, and the wet season lasts nominally six months,—from about the end of +April. The other half of the year is the dry season. However, on those coasts directly facing the Pacific Ocean, the seasons +are the reverse of this. + +</p> +<p>The hottest season is from March to May inclusive, except on the coasts washed by the Pacific, where the greatest heat is +felt in June, July, and August. The temperature throughout the year varies but slightly, the average heat in Luzon Island +being about 81° 50′ Fahr. In the highlands of north Luzon, on an elevation above 4,000 feet, the maximum temperature is 78° +Fahr. and the minimum 46° Fahr. Zamboanga, which is over 400 miles south of Manila, is cooler than the capital. The average +number of rainy days in Luzon during the years 1881 to 1883 was 203. + +</p> +<p>Commencing July 11, 1904, three days of incessant rain in Rizal Province produced the greatest inundation of Manila suburbs +within living memory. Human lives were lost; many cattle were washed away; barges in the river were wrenched from their moorings +and dashed against the bridge piers; pirogues were used instead of vehicles in the thoroughfares; considerable damage was +done in the shops and many persons had to wade through the flooded streets knee-deep in water. + +</p> +<p>The climate is a continual summer, which maintains a rich verdure throughout the year; and during nine months of the twelve +an alternate <a id="d0e2292"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e2292">23</a>]</span>heat and moisture stimulates the soil to the spontaneous production of every form of vegetable life. The country generally +is healthy. + +</p> +<p>The whole of the Archipelago, as far south as 10° lat., is affected by the monsoons, and periodically disturbed by terrible +hurricanes, which cause great devastation to the crops and other property. The last destructive hurricane took place in September, +1905. + +</p> +<p></p> +<div id="d0e2297" class="figure"><img border="0" src="images/p023.jpg" alt="In Rizal Province (Near Manila). Effect of the Hurricane of September 26, 1905." width="720" height="486"><p class="figureHead">In Rizal Province (Near Manila). Effect of the Hurricane of September 26, 1905.</p> +</div><p> + +</p> +<p>Earthquakes are also very frequent, the last of great importance having occurred in 1863, 1880, 1892, 1894, and 1897. In 1897 +a tremendous tidal wave affected the Island of Leyte, causing great destruction of life and property. A portion of Taclóban, +the capital of the island, was swept away, rendering it necessary to extend the town in another direction. + +</p> +<p>In the wet season the rivers swell considerably, and often overflow their banks; whilst the mountain torrents carry away bridges, +cattle, tree trunks, etc., with terrific force, rendering travelling in some parts of the interior dangerous and difficult. +In the dry season long droughts occasionally occur (about once in three years), to the great detriment of the crops and live-stock. + +</p> +<p>The southern boundary of the Archipelago is formed by a chain of some 140 islands, stretching from the large island of Mindanao +as far as Borneo, and constitutes the Sulu Archipelago, the Sultanate of which was under the protection of Spain (<i>vide</i> Chap. <a href="#d0e20496">xxix</a>.). It is now being absorbed, under American rule, in the rest of the Archipelago, under the denomination of Moro Province +(q.v.). + +<a id="d0e2313"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e2313">24</a>]</span></p> +<div class="footnotes"> +<hr class="fnsep"> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e2062" href="#d0e2062src" class="noteref">1</a></span> According to the Spanish Hydrographic Map, it is 8,813 feet: the Pajal and Montano Expedition (1880) made it 10,270 feet; +the Schadenberg and Koch Expedition (1882) computed it at 10,827 feet. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e2184" href="#d0e2184src" class="noteref">2</a></span> <i>Vide</i> pamphlet published immediately after the event by Father Francisco Aragoneses, P.P. of Cagsaua, begging alms for the victims. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e2214" href="#d0e2214src" class="noteref">3</a></span> “<span lang="es">Hist. de la Prov. de Batangas,” por D. Pedro Andrés de Castro y Amadés.</span> Inedited MS. in the Bauan Convent, Batangas. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e2222" href="#d0e2222src" class="noteref">4</a></span> MS. exhaustive report of the eruptions of Taal Volcano in 1749 and 1754, dated December 22, 1754, compiled by Fray Francisco +Vencuchillo. Preserved in the archives of the Corporation of Saint Augustine in Manila. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e2233" href="#d0e2233src" class="noteref">5</a></span> Still it appears that all classes were willing to risk their lives to save their property. They were not forcibly detained +in that plight. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e2256" href="#d0e2256src" class="noteref">6</a></span> “<span lang="es">Hist. de la Prov. de Batangas,” por Don Pedro Andrés de Castro y Amadés</span>. Inedited MS. in the Bauan Convent, Province of Batangas. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e2269" href="#d0e2269src" class="noteref">7</a></span> “Hist. de Filipinas,” by Dr. Gaspar de San Agustin, 2 vols. First part published in Madrid, 1698, the second part yet inedited +and preserved in the archives of the Corporation of Saint Augustine in Manila. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e2272" href="#d0e2272src" class="noteref">8</a></span> P.P. of Taal from 1572 to 1575. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e2277" href="#d0e2277src" class="noteref">9</a></span> In the same archives of the Saint Augustine Corporation in Manila an eruption in 1641 is recorded. +</p> +</div> +</div> +<div id="d0e2314" class="div1"> +<h2 class="normal">Discovery of the Archipelago</h2> +<p>The discoveries of Christopher Columbus in 1492, the adventures and conquests of Hernan Cortés, Blasco Nuñez de Balboa and +others in the South Atlantic, had awakened an ardent desire amongst those of enterprizing spirit to seek beyond those regions +which had hitherto been traversed. It is true the Pacific Ocean had been seen by Balboa, who crossed the Isthmus of Panamá, +but how to arrive there with his ships was as yet a mystery. + +</p> +<p>On April 10, 1495, the Spanish Government published a general concession to all who wished to search for unknown lands. This +was a direct attack upon the privileges of Columbus at the instigation of Fonseca, Bishop of Búrgos, who had the control of +the Indian affairs of the realm. Rich merchants of Cadiz and Seville, whose imagination was inflamed by the reports of the +abundance of pearls and gold on the American coast, fitted out ships to be manned by the roughest class of gold-hunters: so +great were the abuses of this common licence that it was withdrawn by Royal Decree of June 2, 1497. + +</p> +<p>It was the age of chivalry, and the restless cavalier who had won his spurs in Europe lent a listening ear to the accounts +of romantic glory and wealth attained across the seas. That an immense ocean washed the western shores of the great American +continent was an established fact. That there was a passage connecting the great Southern sea—the Atlantic—with that vast +ocean was an accepted hypothesis. Many had sought the passage in vain; the honour of its discovery was reserved for Hernando +de Maghallanes (Portuguese, Fernão da Magalhães). + +</p> +<p>This celebrated man was a Portuguese noble who had received the most complete education in the palace of King John II. Having +studied mathematics and navigation, at an early age he joined the Portuguese fleet which left for India in 1505 under the +command of Almeida. He was present at the siege of Malacca under the famous Albuquerque, and accompanied another expedition +to the rich Moluccas, or Spice Islands, when the Islands of Banda, Tidor, and Ternate were discovered. It was here he obtained +the information which led him to contemplate the voyage which he subsequently realized. +<a id="d0e2325"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e2325">25</a>]</span></p> +<p>On his return to Portugal he searched the Crown Archives to see if the Moluccas were situated within the demarcation accorded +to Spain.<a id="d0e2328src" href="#d0e2328" class="noteref">1</a> In the meantime he repaired to the wars in Africa, where he was wounded in the knee, with the result that he became permanently +lame. He consequently retired to Portugal, and his companions in arms, jealous of his prowess, took advantage of his affliction +to assail him with vile imputations. The King Emmanuel encouraged the complaints, and accused him of feigning a malady of +which he was completely cured. Wounded to the quick by such an assertion, and convinced of having lost the royal favour, Maghallanes +renounced for ever, by a formal and public instrument, his duties and rights as a Portuguese subject, and henceforth became +a naturalized Spaniard. He then presented himself at the Spanish Court, at that time in Valladolid, where he was well received +by the King Charles I., the Bishop of Búrgos, Juan Rodriguez Fonseca, Minister of Indian Affairs, and by the Kingʼs chancellor. +They listened attentively to his narration, and he had the good fortune to secure the personal protection of His Majesty, +himself a well-tried warrior, experienced in adventure. + +</p> +<p>The Portuguese Ambassador, Alvaro de Acosta, incensed at the success of his late countryman, and fearing that the project +under discussion would lead to the conquest of the Spice Islands by the rival kingdom, made every effort to influence the +Court against him. At the same time he ineffectually urged Maghallanes to return to Lisbon, alleging that his resolution to +abandon Portuguese citizenship required the sovereign sanction. Others even meditated his assassination to save the interests +of the King of Portugal. This powerful opposition only served to delay the expedition, for finally the King of Portugal was +satisfied that his Spanish rival had no intention to authorize a violation of the Convention of Demarcation. + +</p> +<p>Between King Charles and Maghallanes a contract was signed in Saragossa by virtue of which the latter pledged himself to seek +the discovery of rich spice islands within the limits of the Spanish Empire. If he should not have succeeded in the venture +after ten years from the date of sailing he would thenceforth be permitted to navigate and trade without further royal assent, +reserving one-twentieth of his net gains for the Crown. The King accorded to him the title of Cavalier and invested him with +the habit of St. James and the hereditary government <a id="d0e2335"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e2335">26</a>]</span>in male succession of all the islands he might annex. The Crown of Castile reserved to itself the supreme authority over such +government. If Maghallanes discovered so many as six islands, he was to embark merchandise in the Kingʼs own ships to the +value of one thousand ducats as royal dues. If the islands numbered only two, he would pay to the Crown one-fifteenth of the +net profits. The King, however, was to receive one-fifth part of the total cargo sent in the <i>first</i> return expedition. The King would defray the expense of fitting out and arming five ships of from 60 to 130 tons with a total +crew of 234 men; he would also appoint captains and officials of the Royal Treasury to represent the State interests in the +division of the spoil. + +</p> +<p>Orders to fulfil the contract were issued to the Crown officers in the port of Seville, and the expedition was slowly prepared, +consisting of the following vessels, viz.: The commodore ship <i>La Trinidad</i>, under the immediate command of Maghallanes; the <i>San Antonio</i>, Captain Juan de Cartagena; the <i>Victoria</i>, Captain Luis de Mendoza; the <i>Santiago</i>, Captain Juan Rodriguez Serrano; and the <i>Concepcion</i>, Captain Gaspar de Quesada. + +</p> +<p>The little fleet had not yet sailed when dissensions arose. + +</p> +<p>Maghallanes wished to carry his own ensign, whilst Doctor Sancho Matienza insisted that it should be the Royal Standard. + +</p> +<p>Another, named Talero, disputed the question of who should be the standard-bearer. The King himself had to settle these quarrels +by his own arbitrary authority. Talero was disembarked and the Royal Standard was formally presented to Maghallanes by injunction +of the King in the Church of Santa Maria de la Victoria de la Triana, in Seville, where he and his companions swore to observe +the usages and customs of Castile, and to remain faithful and loyal to His Catholic Majesty. + +</p> +<p>On August 10, 1519, the expedition left the port of San Lúcar de Barrameda in the direction of the Canary Islands. + +</p> +<p>On December 13 they arrived safely at Rio Janeiro. + +</p> +<p>Following the coast in search of the longed-for passage to the Pacific Ocean, they entered the Solis River—so called because +its discoverer, João de Solis, a Portuguese, was murdered there. Its name was afterwards changed to that of Rio de la Plata +(the Silver River). + +</p> +<p>Continuing their course, the intense cold determined Maghallanes to winter in the next large river, known then as San Julian. + +</p> +<p>Tumults arose; some wished to return home; others harboured a desire to separate from the fleet, but Maghallanes had sufficient +tact to persuade the crews to remain with him, reminding them of the shame which would befall them if they returned only to +relate their failure. He added that, so far as he was concerned, nothing but death would deter him from executing the royal +commission. + +</p> +<p>As to the rebellious captains, Juan de Cartagena was already put in <a id="d0e2375"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e2375">27</a>]</span>irons and sentenced to be cast ashore with provisions, and a disaffected French priest for a companion. The sentence was carried +out later on. Then Maghallanes sent a boat to each of three of the ships to inquire of the captains whom they served. The +reply from all was that they were for the King and themselves. Thereupon 30 men were sent to the <i>Victoria</i> with a letter to Mendoza, and whilst he was reading it, they rushed on board and stabbed him to death. Quesada then brought +his ship alongside of the <i>Trinidad</i>, and, with sword and shield in hand, called in vain upon his men to attack. Maghallanes, with great promptitude, gave orders +to board Quesadaʼs vessel. The next day Quesada was executed. After these vigorous but justifiable measures, obedience was +ensured. + +</p> +<p>Still bearing southwards within sight of the coast, on October 28, 1520, the expedition reached and entered the seaway thenceforth +known as the Magellan Straits, dividing the Island of Tierra del Fuego from the mainland of Patagonia.<a id="d0e2385src" href="#d0e2385" class="noteref">2</a> + +</p> +<p>On the way one ship had become a total wreck, and now the <i>San Antonio</i> deserted the expedition; her captain having been wounded and made prisoner by his mutinous officers, she was sailed in the +direction of New Guinea. The three remaining vessels waited for the <i>San Antonio</i> several days, and then passed through the Straits. Great was the rejoicing of all when, on November 26, 1520, they found +themselves on the Pacific Ocean! It was a memorable day. All doubt was now at an end as they cheerfully navigated across that +broad expanse of sea. + +</p> +<p>On March 16, 1521, the Ladrone Islands were reached. There the ships were so crowded with natives that they were obliged to +be expelled by force. They stole one of the shipʼs boats, and ninety men were sent on shore to recover it. After a bloody +combat the boat was regained, and the fleet continued its course westward until it hove to off an islet, then called Jomonjol, +now known as Malhou, situated in the channel between Sámar and Dinagat Islands (<i>vide</i> map). Then coasting along the north of the Island of Mindanao, they arrived at the mouth of the Butuan River, where they +were supplied with provisions by the chief. It was Easter week, and on this shore the first Mass was celebrated in the Philippines. +The natives showed great friendliness, in return for which Maghallanes took formal possession of their territory in the name +of Charles I. The chieftain himself volunteered to pilot the ships to a fertile island, the kingdom of a relation of his, +and, passing between the Islands of Bojol and Leyte, the expedition arrived on April 7 at Cebú, where, on receiving the news, +over two thousand men appeared on the beach in battle array with lances and shields. + +</p> +<p>The Butuan chief went on shore and explained that the expedition brought people of peace who sought provisions. The King agreed +to a <a id="d0e2406"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e2406">28</a>]</span>treaty, and proposed that it should be ratified according to the native formula—drawing blood from the breast of each party, +the one drinking that of the other. This form of bond was called by the Spaniards the <i lang="es">Pacto de sangre</i>, or the Blood compact (q.v.). + +</p> +<p>Maghallanes accepted the conditions, and a hut was built on shore in which to say Mass. Then he disembarked with his followers, +and the King, Queen, and Prince came to satisfy their natural curiosity. They appeared to take great interest in the Christian +religious rites and received baptism, although it would be venturesome to suppose they understood their meaning, as subsequent +events proved. The princes and headmen of the district followed their example, and swore fealty and obedience to the King +of Spain. + +</p> +<p>Maghallanes espoused the cause of his new allies, who were at war with the tribes on the opposite coast, and on April 25, +1521, he passed over to Magtan Island. In the affray he was mortally wounded by an arrow, and thus ended his brief but lustrous +career, which fills one of the most brilliant pages in Spanish annals. + +</p> +<p>Maghallanes called the group of islands, so far discovered, the Saint Lazarus Archipelago. In Spain they were usually referred +to as the Islas del Poniente, and in Portugal as the Islas del Oriente. + +</p> +<p>On the left bank of the Pasig River, facing the City of Manila, stands a monument to Maghallanesʼ memory. Another has been +erected on the spot in Magtan Island, where he is supposed to have been slain on April 27, 1521. Also in the city of Cebú, +near the beach, there is an obelisk to commemorate these heroic events. + +</p> +<p>It was perhaps well for Maghallanes to have ended his days out of reach of his royal master. Had he returned to Spain he would +probably have met a fate similar to that which befell Columbus after all his glories. The <i>San Antonio</i>, which, as already mentioned, deserted the fleet at the Magellan Straits, continued her voyage from New Guinea to Spain, +arriving at San Lúcar de Barrameda in March, 1521. The captain, Alvaro Mesquita, was landed as a prisoner, accused of having +seconded Maghallanes in repressing insubordination. To Maghallanes were ascribed the worst cruelties and infraction of the +royal instructions. Accused and accusers were alike cast into prison, and the King, unable to lay hands on the deceased Maghallanes, +sought this heroʼs wife and children. These innocent victims of royal vengeance were at once arrested and conveyed to Búrgos, +where the Court happened to be, whilst the <i>San Antonio</i> was placed under embargo. + +</p> +<p>On the decease of Maghallanes, the supreme command of the expedition in Cebú Island was assumed by Duarte de Barbosa, who, +with twenty-six of his followers, was slain at a banquet to which they had been invited by Hamabar, the King of the island. +Juan Serrano had so ingratiated himself with the natives during the sojourn on shore that his life was spared for a while. +Stripped of his raiment and armour, he was <a id="d0e2429"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e2429">29</a>]</span>conducted to the beach, where the natives demanded a ransom for his person of two cannons from the shipsʼ artillery. Those +on board saw what was passing and understood the request, but they were loath to endanger the lives of all for the sake of +one—”<i lang="la">Melius est ut pereat unus quam ut pereat communitas</i>” (Saint Augustine)—so they raised anchors and sailed out of the port, leaving Serrano to meet his terrible fate. + +</p> +<p>Due to sickness, murder during the revolts, and the slaughter in Cebú, the exploring party, now reduced to 100 souls all told, +was deemed insufficient to conveniently manage three vessels. It was resolved therefore to burn the most dilapidated one—the +<i>Concepcion</i>. At a general council, Juan Caraballo was chosen Commander-in-Chief of the expedition, with Gonzalo Gomez de Espinosa as +Captain of the <i>Victoria</i>. The royal instructions were read, and it was decided to go to the Island of Borneo, already known to the Portuguese and +marked on their charts. On the way they provisioned the ships off the coast of Palaúan Island (Parágua), and thence navigated +to within ten miles of the capital of Borneo (probably Brunei). Here they fell in with a number of native canoes, in one of +which was the Kingʼs secretary. There was a great noise with the sound of drums and trumpets, and the ships saluted the strangers +with their guns. + +</p> +<p>The natives came on board, embraced the Spaniards as if they were old friends, and asked them who they were and what they +came for. They replied that they were vassals of the King of Spain and wished to barter goods. Presents were exchanged, and +several of the Spaniards went ashore. They were met on the way by over two thousand armed men, and safely escorted to the +Kingʼs quarters. After satisfying his Majestyʼs numerous inquiries, Captain Espinosa was permitted to return with his companions. +He reported to Caraballo all he had seen, and in a council it was agreed that the town was too large and the armed men too +numerous to warrant the safety of a longer stay. However, being in need of certain commodities, five men were despatched to +the town. As days passed by, their prolonged absence caused suspicion and anxiety, so the Spaniards took in reprisal the son +of the King of Luzon Island, who had arrived there to trade, accompanied by 100 men and five women in a large prahu. The prince +made a solemn vow to see that the five Spaniards returned, and left two of his women and eight chiefs as hostages. Then Caraballo +sent a message to the King of Borneo, intimating that if his people were not liberated he would seize all the junks and merchandise +he might fall in with and kill their crews. Thereupon two of the retained Spaniards were set free, but, in spite of the seizure +of craft laden with silk and cotton, the three men remaining had to be abandoned, and the expedition set sail. + +</p> +<p>For reasons not very clear, Caraballo was deprived of the supreme command and Espinosa was appointed in his place, whilst +Juan Sebastian Elcano was elected Captain of the <i>Victoria</i>. With a native pilot, captured <a id="d0e2449"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e2449">30</a>]</span>from a junk which they met on the way, the ships shaped their course towards the Moluccas Islands, and on November 8, 1521, +they arrived at the Island of Tidor. Thus the essential object of the expedition was gained—the discovery of a western route +to the Spice Islands. + +</p> +<p>Years previous the Portuguese had opened up trade and still continued to traffic with these islands, which were rich in nutmegs, +cloves, cinnamon, ginger, sage, pepper, etc. It is said that Saint Francis Xavier had propagated his views amongst these islanders, +some of whom professed the Christian faith. + +</p> +<p>The King, richly attired, went out with his suite to receive and welcome the Spaniards. He was anxious to barter with them, +and when the <i>Trinidad</i> was consequently laden with valuable spices it was discovered that she had sprung a leak. Her cargo was therefore transferred +to the sister ship, whilst the <i>Trinidad</i> remained in Tidor for repairs, and Elcano was deputed to make the voyage home with the <i>Victoria</i>, taking the western route of the Portuguese in violation of the Treaty of Tordesillas. Elcanoʼs crew consisted of fifty-three +Europeans and a dozen natives of Tidor. The <i>Victoria</i> started for Spain at the beginning of the year 1522; passed through the Sunda Straits at great risk of being seized by the +Portuguese; experienced violent storms in the Mozambique Channel, and was almost wrecked rounding the Cape of Good Hope. A +few of the crew died—their only food was a scanty ration of rice—and in their extreme distress they put in at Santiago Island, +350 miles W. of Cape Verd, to procure provisions and beg assistance from the Portuguese Governor. It was like jumping into +the lionʼs mouth. The Governor imprisoned those who went to him, in defence of his Sovereignʼs treaty rights; he seized the +boat which brought them ashore; inquired of them where they had obtained the cargo; and projected the capture of the <i>Victoria</i>. + +</p> +<p>Captain Elcano was not slow to comprehend the situation; he raised anchor and cleared out of the harbour, and, as it had happened +several times before, those who had the misfortune to be sent ashore were abandoned by their countrymen. + +</p> +<p>The <i>Victoria</i> made the port of San Lúcar de Barrameda on September 6, 1522, so that in a little over three years Juan Sebastian Elcano +had performed the most notable voyage hitherto on record—it was the first yet accomplished round the world. It must, however, +be borne in mind that the discovery of the way to the Moluccas, going westward, was due to Maghallanes—of Portuguese birth—and +that the route thence to Europe, continuing westward, had long before been determined by the Portuguese traders, whose charts +Elcano used. + +</p> +<p>When Elcano and his 17 companions disembarked, their appearance was most pitiable—mere skeletons of men, weather-beaten and +famished. The City of Seville received them with acclamation; but their first act was to walk barefooted, in procession, holding +lighted <a id="d0e2479"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e2479">31</a>]</span>candles in their hands, to the church to give thanks to the Almighty for their safe deliverance from the hundred dangers which +they had encountered. Clothes, money, and all necessaries were supplied to them by royal bounty, whilst Elcano and the most +intelligent of his companions were cited to appear at Court to narrate their adventures. His Majesty received them with marked +deference. Elcano was rewarded with a life pension of 500 ducats (worth at that date about £112 10s.), and as a lasting remembrance +of his unprecedented feat, his royal master knighted him and conceded to him the right of using on his escutcheon a globe +bearing the motto, “<i lang="la">Primus circundedit me</i>.” + +</p> +<p>Two of Elcanoʼs officers, Miguel de Rodas and Francisco Alva, were each awarded a life pension of 50,000 maravedis (worth +at that time about 14 guineas), whilst the King ordered one-fourth of that fifth part of the cargo, which by contract with +Maghallanes belonged to the State Treasury, to be distributed amongst the crew, including those imprisoned in Santiago Island. + +</p> +<p>The cargo of the <i>Victoria</i> consisted of twenty-six and a half tons of cloves, a quantity of cinnamon, sandal wood, nutmegs, etc. Amongst the Tidor Islanders +who were presented to the King, one of them was not allowed to return to his native home, because he had carefully inquired +the value of the spices in the Spanish bazaars. + +</p> +<p>Meanwhile the <i>Trinidad</i> was repaired in Tidor and on her way to Panamá, when continued tempests and the horrible sufferings of the crew determined +them to retrace their course to the Moluccas. In this interval Portuguese ships had arrived there, and a fort was being constructed +to defend Portuguese interests against the Spaniards, whom they regarded as interlopers. The <i>Trinidad</i> was seized, and the Captain Espinosa with the survivors of his crew were granted a passage to Lisbon, which place they reached +five years after they had set out with Maghallanes. + +</p> +<p>The enthusiasm of King Charles was equal to the importance of the discoveries which gave renown to his subjects and added +glory to his Crown. Notwithstanding a protracted controversy with the Portuguese Court, which claimed the exclusive right +of trading with the Spice Islands, he ordered another squadron of six ships to be fitted out for a voyage to the Moluccas. +The supreme command was confided to Garcia Yofre de Loaisa, Knight of Saint John, whilst Sebastian Elcano was appointed captain +of one of the vessels. After passing through the Magellan Straits, the Commander Loaisa succumbed to the fatigues and privations +of the stormy voyage. Elcano succeeded him, but only for four days, when he too expired. The expedition, however, arrived +safely at the Moluccas Islands, where they found the Portuguese in full possession and strongly established, but the long +series of combats, struggles and altercations which ensued between the rival Powers, in which Captain Andrés de Urdaneta prominently +figured, left no decisive advantage to either nation. +<a id="d0e2501"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e2501">32</a>]</span></p> +<p>But the King was in no way disheartened. A third expedition—the last under his auspices—was organized and despatched from +the Pacific Coast of Mexico by the Viceroy, by royal mandate. It was composed of two ships, two transports and one galley, +well manned and armed, chosen from the fleet of Pedro Alvarado, the late Governor of Guatemala. Under the leadership of Ruy +Lopez de Villalobos it sailed on November 1, 1542; discovered many small islands in the Pacific; lost the galley on the way, +and anchored off an island about 20 miles in circumference which was named Antonia. They found its inhabitants very hostile. +A fight ensued, but the natives finally fled, leaving several Spaniards wounded, of whom six died. Villalobos then announced +his intention of remaining here some time, and ordered his men to plant maize. At first they demurred, saying that they had +come to fight, not to till land, but at length necessity urged them to obedience, and a small but insufficient crop was reaped +in due season. Hard pressed for food, they lived principally on cats, rats, lizards, snakes, dogs, roots and wild fruit, and +several died of disease. In this plight a ship was sent to Mindanao Island, commanded by Bernado de la Torre, to seek provisions. +The voyage was fruitless. The party was opposed by the inhabitants, who fortified themselves, but were dislodged and slain. +Then a vessel was commissioned to Mexico with news and to solicit reinforcements. On the way, Volcano Island (of the Ladrone +Islands group) was discovered on August 6, 1543. A most important event followed. The island, now known as Sámar, was called +the <i lang="es">Isla Philipina</i>, and a galiot was built and despatched to the group (it is doubtful which), named by this expedition the <i>Philippine Islands</i> in honour of Philip, Prince of Asturias, the son of King Charles I., heir apparent to the throne of Castile, to which he +ascended in 1555 under the title of Philip II. on the abdication of his father. + +</p> +<p>The craft returned from the Philippine Islands laden with abundance of provisions, with which the ships were enabled to continue +the voyage. + +</p> +<p>By the royal instructions, Ruy Lopez de Villalobos was strictly enjoined not to touch at the Moluccas Islands, peace having +been concluded with Portugal. Heavy gales forced him nevertheless to take refuge at Gilolo. The Portuguese, suspicious of +his intentions in view of the treaty, arrayed their forces against his, inciting the King of the island also to discard all +Spanish overtures and refuse assistance to Villalobos. The discord and contentions between the Portuguese and Spaniards were +increasing; nothing was being gained by either party. Villalobos personally was sorely disheartened in the struggle, fearing +all the while that his opposition to the Portuguese in contravention of the royal instructions would only excite the Kingʼs +displeasure and lead to his own downfall. Hence he decided to capitulate with his rival and accepted a safe conduct for himself +and party to Europe in Portuguese ships. They arrived at Amboina Island, where Villalobos, already <a id="d0e2514"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e2514">33</a>]</span>crushed by grief, succumbed to disease. The survivors of the expedition, amongst whom were several priests, continued the +journey home via Cochin China, Malacca and Goa, where they embarked for Lisbon, arriving there in 1549. + +</p> +<p>In 1558 King Charles was no more, but the memory of his ambition outlived him. His son Philip, equally emulous and unscrupulous, +was too narrow-minded and subtly cautious to initiate an expensive enterprise encompassed by so many hazards—as materially +unproductive as it was devoid of immediate political importance. Indeed the basis of the first expedition was merely to discover +a Western route to the rich Spice Islands, already known to exist; the second went there to attempt to establish Spanish empire; +and the third to search for, and annex to, the Spanish Crown, lands as wealthy as those claimed by, and now yielded to, the +Portuguese. + +</p> +<p>But the value of the Philippine Islands, of which the possession was but recent and nominal, was thus far a matter of doubt. + +</p> +<p>One of the most brave and intrepid captains of the Loaisa expedition—Andrés de Urdaneta—returned to Spain in 1536. In former +years he had fought under King Charles I., in his wars in Italy, when the study of navigation served him as a favourite pastime. +Since his return from the Moluccas his constant attention was given to the project of a new expedition to the Far West, for +which he unremittingly solicited the royal sanction and assistance. But the King had grown old and weary of the world, and +whilst he did not openly discourage Urdanetaʼs pretensions he gave him no effective aid. At length, in 1553, two years before +Charles abdicated, Urdaneta, convinced of the futility of his importunity at the Spanish Court, and equally unsuccessful with +his scheme in other quarters, retired to Mexico, where he took the habit of an Augustine monk. Ten years afterwards King Philip, +inspired by the religious sentiment which pervaded his whole policy, urged his Viceroy in Mexico to fit out an expedition +to conquer and christianize the Philippine Islands. Urdaneta, now a priest, was not overlooked. Accompanied by five priests +of his Order, he was entrusted with the spiritual care of the races to be subdued by an expedition composed of four ships +and one frigate well armed, carrying 400 soldiers and sailors, commanded by a Basque navigator, Miguel Lopez de Legaspi. This +remarkable man was destined to acquire the fame of having established Spanish dominion in these Islands. He was of noble birth +and a native of the Province of Guipúzcoa in Spain. Having settled in the City of Mexico, of which place he was elected Mayor, +he there practised as a notary. Of undoubted piety, he enjoyed reputation for his justice and loyalty; hence he was appointed +General of the forces equipped for the voyage. + +</p> +<p>The favourite desire to possess the valuable Spice Islands still lurked in the minds of many Spaniards. Amongst them was Urdaneta, +<a id="d0e2524"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e2524">34</a>]</span>who laboured in vain to persuade the Viceroy of the superior advantages to be gained by annexing New Guinea instead of the +Philippines, whence the conquest of the Moluccas would be but a facile task. However, the Viceroy was inexorable and resolved +to fulfil the royal instructions to the letter, so the expedition set sail from the Mexican port of Navidad for the Philippine +Islands on November 21, 1564. + +</p> +<p>The Ladrone Islands were passed on January 9, 1565, and on the 13th of the following month the Philippines were sighted. A +call for provisions was made at several small islands, including Camiguín, whence the expedition sailed to Bojol Island. A +boat despatched to the port of Butuan returned in a fortnight with the news that there was much gold, wax, and cinnamon in +that district. A small vessel was also sent to Cebú, and on its return reported that the natives showed hostility, having +decapitated one of the crew whilst he was bathing. + +</p> +<p>Nevertheless, General Legaspi resolved to put in at Cebú, which was a safe harbour; and on the way there the ships anchored +off Limasana Island (to the south of Leyte). Thence, running south-west, the port of Dapítan (Mindanao Is.) was reached. + +</p> +<p>Prince Pagbuaya, who ruled there, was astonished at the sight of such formidable ships, and commissioned one of his subjects, +specially chosen for his boldness, to take note of their movements, and report to him. His account was uncommonly interesting. +He related that enormous men with long, pointed noses, dressed in fine robes, ate stones (hard biscuits), drank fire, and +blew smoke out of their mouths and through their nostrils. Their power was such that they commanded thunder and lightning +(discharge of artillery), and that at meal times they sat down at a clothed table. From their lofty port, their bearded faces, +and rich attire, they might have been the very gods manifesting themselves to the natives; so the Prince thought it wise to +accept the friendly overtures of such marvellous strangers. Besides obtaining ample provisions in barter for European wares, +Legaspi procured from this chieftain much useful information respecting the condition of Cebú. He learnt that it was esteemed +a powerful kingdom, of which the magnificence was much vaunted amongst the neighbouring states; that the roadstead was one +of great safety, and the most favourably situated amongst the islands of the painted faces.<a id="d0e2532src" href="#d0e2532" class="noteref">3</a> + +</p> +<p>The General resolved, therefore, to filch it from its native king and annex it to the Crown of Castile. + +</p> +<p>He landed in Cebú on April 27, 1565, and negotiations were entered into with the natives of that island. Remembering, by tradition, +the pretensions of the Maghallanesʼ party, they naturally opposed this <a id="d0e2545"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e2545">35</a>]</span>renewed menace to their independence. The Spaniards occupied the town by force and sacked it, but for months were so harassed +by the surrounding tribes that a council was convened to discuss the prudence of continuing the occupation. The General decided +to remain; little by little the natives yielded to the new condition of things, and thus the first step towards the final +conquest was achieved. The natives were declared Spanish subjects, and hopeful with the success thus far attained, Legaspi +determined to send despatches to the King by the priest Andrés de Urdaneta, who safely arrived at Navidad on October 3, 1565, +and proceeded thence to Spain. In a letter written by Legaspi in 1567 he alluded, for the first time, to the whole archipelago +as the Islas Filipinas. + +</p> +<p>The pacification of Cebú and the adjacent islands was steadily and successfully pursued by Legaspi; the confidence of the +natives was assured, and their dethroned King Tupas accepted Christian baptism, whilst his daughter married a Spaniard. + +</p> +<p>In the midst of the invadersʼ felicity the Portuguese arrived to dispute the possession, but they were compelled to retire. +A fortress was constructed and plots of land were marked out for the building of the Spanish settlersʼ residences; and finally, +in 1570, Cebú was declared a city, after Legaspi had received from his royal master the title of Gov.-General of all the lands +which he might be able to conquer. + +</p> +<p>In May, 1570, Captain Juan Salcedo, Legaspiʼs grandson, was despatched to the Island of Luzon to reconnoitre the territory +and bring it under Spanish dominion. + +</p> +<p>The history of these early times is very confused, and there are many contradictions in the authors of the Philippine chronicles, +none of which seem to have been written contemporaneously with the first events. It appears, however, that Martin de Goiti +and a few soldiers accompanied Salcedo to the north. They were well received by the native chiefs or petty kings Lacandola, +Rajah of Tondo (known as Rajah Matandá, which means in native dialect the aged Rajah), and his nephew the young Rajah Soliman +of Manila. + +</p> +<p>The sight of a body of European troops armed as was the custom in the 16th century, must have profoundly impressed and overawed +these chieftains, otherwise it seems almost incredible that they should have consented, without protest, or attempt at resistance, +to (for ever) give up their territory, yield their independence, pay tribute,<a id="d0e2557src" href="#d0e2557" class="noteref">4</a> and become the tools of invading foreigners for the conquest of their own race without recompense whatsoever. +<a id="d0e2570"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e2570">36</a>]</span></p> +<p>A treaty of peace was signed and ratified by an exchange of drops of blood between the parties thereto. Soliman, however, +soon repented of his poltroonery, and roused the war-cry among some of his tribes. To save his capital (then called Maynila) +falling into the hands of the invaders he set fire to it. Lacandola remained passively watching the issue. Soliman was completely +routed by Salcedo, and pardoned on his again swearing fealty to the King of Spain. Goiti remained in the vicinity of Manila +with his troops, whilst Salcedo fought his way to the Bombon Lake (Taal) district. The present Batangas Province was subdued +by him and included in the jurisdiction of Mindoro Island. During the campaign Salcedo was severely wounded by an arrow and +returned to Manila. + +</p> +<p>Legaspi was in the Island of Fanay when Salcedo (some writers say Goiti) arrived to advise him of what had occurred in Luzon. +They at once proceeded together to Cavite, where Lacandola visited Legaspi on board, and, prostrating himself, averred his +submission. Then Legaspi continued his journey to Manila, and was received there with acclamation. He took formal possession +of the surrounding territory, declared Manila to be the capital of the Archipelago, and proclaimed the sovereignty of the +King of Spain over the whole group of islands. Gaspar de San Agustin, writing of this period, says: “He (Legaspi) ordered +them (the natives) to finish the building of the fort in construction at the mouth of the river (Pasig) so that His Majestyʼs +artillery might be mounted therein for the defence of the fort and the town. Also he ordered them to build a large house inside +the battlement walls for Legaspiʼs own residence—another large house and church for the priests, etc. ... Besides these two +large houses, he told them to erect a hundred and fifty dwellings of moderate size for the remainder of the Spaniards to live +in. All this they promptly promised to do, but they did not obey, for the Spaniards were themselves obliged to terminate the +work of the fortifications.” + +</p> +<p>The City Council of Manila was constituted on June 24, 1571. On August 20, 1572, Miguel Lopez de Legaspi succumbed to the +fatigues of his arduous life, leaving behind him a name which will always hold a prominent place in Spanish colonial history. +He was buried in Manila in the Augustine Chapel of San Fausto, where hung the Royal Standard and the heroʼs armorial bearings +until the British troops occupied the city in 1763. A street in Manila and others in provincial towns bear <a id="d0e2577"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e2577">37</a>]</span>his name. Near the Luneta Esplanade, Manila, there is a very beautiful Legaspi (and Urdaneta) monument, erected shortly after +the Rebellion of 1896. + + +</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<p class="line" style=""><span>“Death makes no conquest of this conqueror, +</span></p> +<p class="line" style=""><span>For now he lives in fame, though not in life.”</span></p> +</div> +</div> +<p><i>Richard III.</i>, Act 3, Sc. 1. + + +</p> +<p>In the meantime Salcedo continued his task of subjecting the tribes in the interior. The natives of Taytay and Cainta, in +the Spanish military district of Mórong, (now Rizal Province) submitted to him on August 15, 1571. He returned to the Laguna +de Bay to pacify the villagers, and penetrated as far as Camarines Norte to explore the Bicol River. Bolinao and the provinces +of Pangasinán and Ilocos yielded to his prowess, and in this last province he had well established himself when the defence +of the capital obliged him to return to Manila. + +</p> +<p>At the same time Martin de Goiti was actively employed in overrunning the Pampanga territory with the double object of procuring +supplies for the Manila camp and coercing the inhabitants on his way to acknowledge their new liege lord. It is recorded that +in this expedition Goiti was joined by the Rajahs of Tondo and Manila. Yet Lacandola appears to have been regarded more as +a servant of the Spaniards <i lang="la">nolens volens</i> than as a free ally, for, because he absented himself from Goitiʼs camp “without licence from the <i lang="es">Maestre de Campo</i>,” he was suspected by some writers of having favoured opposition to the Spaniardsʼ incursions in the Marshes of Hagonoy (Pampanga +coast, N. boundary of Manila Bay). + +</p> +<p>The district which constituted the ancient province of Taal y Balayan, subsequently denominated Province of Batangas, was +formerly governed by a number of caciques, the most notable of whom were Gatpagil and Gatjinlintan. They were usually at war +with their neighbours. Gatjinlintan, the cacique of the Batangas River (Pansipít?) at the time of the conquest, was famous +for his valour. Gatsun͠gayan, who ruled on the other side of the river, was celebrated as a hunter of deer and wild boar. +These men were half-castes of Borneo and Aeta extraction, who formed a distinct race called by the natives Daghagang. None +of them would submit to the King of Spain or become Christians, hence their descendants were offered no privileges. + +</p> +<p>The Aetas collected tribute. Gabriel Montoya, a Spanish soldier of Legaspiʼs legion, partially conquered those races, and +supported the mission of an Austin friar amongst them. This was probably Fray Diego Móxica, who undertook the mission of Batangas +on its separation from the local administration of Mindoro Island in 1581. The first Governor of San Pablo or Sampaloc in +the name of the King of Spain was appointed by the soldier Montoya, and was called Bartolomé Maghayin; the second was Cristóbal +Soman͠galit and the third was Bernabé Pindan, all of whom had adopted Christianity. Bay, on the <a id="d0e2602"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e2602">38</a>]</span>borders of the lake of that name, and four leagues from San Pablo, was originally ruled by the cacique Agustin Maglansan͠gan. +Calilayan, now called Tayabas, was founded by the woman Ladía, and subsequently administered by a native <i>Alcalde</i>, who gave such satisfaction that he was three times appointed the Kingʼs lieutenant and baptized as Francisco de San Juan. + +</p> +<p>San Pablo, the centre of a once independent district, is situated at the foot of the mountains of San Cristóbal and Banájao, +from which over fourteen streams of fresh water flow through the villages. + +</p> +<p>The system established by Juan Salcedo was to let the conquered lands be governed by the native caciques and their male successors +so long as they did so in the name of the King of Castile. Territorial possession seems to have been the chief aim of the +earliest European invaders, and records of having improved the condition of the people or of having opened up means of communication +and traffic as they went on conquering, or even of having explored the natural resources of the colony for their own benefit, +are extremely rare. + +<a id="d0e2611"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e2611">39</a>]</span></p> +<div class="footnotes"> +<hr class="fnsep"> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e2328" href="#d0e2328src" class="noteref">1</a></span> During the previous century jealousy had run so high between Spain and Portugal with regard to their respective colonization +and trading rights, that the question of demarcation had to be settled by the Pope Alexander VI., who issued a bull dated +May 4, 1493, dividing the world into two hemispheres, and decreeing that all heathen lands discovered in the Western half, +from the meridian 100 leagues W. of Cape Verd Island, should belong to the Spaniards; in the Eastern half to the Portuguese. +The bull was adopted by both nations in the Treaty of Tordesillas (June 7, 1494). It gave rise to many passionate debates, +as the Spaniards wrongly insisted that the Philippines and the Moluccas came within the division allotted to them by Pontifical +donation. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e2385" href="#d0e2385src" class="noteref">2</a></span> Probably so called from the enormous number of <i>patos</i> (ducks) found there. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e2532" href="#d0e2532src" class="noteref">3</a></span> The Visayos, inhabiting the central group of the Archipelago, tattooed themselves; a cutaneous disease also disfigured the majority; +hence for many years their islands were called by the Spaniards <i lang="es">Islas de los pintados</i>. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e2557" href="#d0e2557src" class="noteref">4</a></span> Legaspi and Guido Lavezares, under oath, made promises of rewards to the Lacandola family and a remission of tribute in perpetuity, +but they were not fulfilled. In the following century—year 1660—it appears that the descendants of the Rajah Lacandola still +upheld the Spanish authority, and having become sorely impoverished thereby, the heir of the family petitioned the Governor +(Sabiniano Manrique de Lara) to make good the honour of his first predecessors. Eventually <a id="d0e2560"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e2560">36n</a>]</span>the Lacandolas were exempted from the payment of tribute and poll-tax for ever, as recompense for the filching of their domains. + +</p> +<p class="footnote">In 1884, when the fiscal reforms were introduced which abolished the tribute and established in lieu thereof a document of +personal identity (<i lang="es">cedula personal</i>), for which a tax was levied, the last vestige of privilege disappeared. + +</p> +<p class="footnote">Descendants of Lacandola are still to be met with in several villages near Manila. They do not seem to have materially profited +by their transcendent ancestry—one of them I found serving as a waiter in a French restaurant in the capital in 1885. +</p> +</div> +</div> +<div id="d0e2612" class="div1"> +<h2 class="normal">Philippine Dependencies, Up To 1898</h2> +<h2 class="normal">The Ladrones, Carolines and Pelew Islands</h2> +<p>In 1521 Maghallanes cast anchor off the Ladrone Islands (situated between 17° and 20° N. lat. by 146° E. long.) on his way +to the discovery of those Islands afterwards denominated the Philippines. This group was named by him Islas de las Velas.<a id="d0e2619src" href="#d0e2619" class="noteref">1</a> Legaspi called them the Ladrones.<a id="d0e2624src" href="#d0e2624" class="noteref">2</a> Subsequently several navigators sighted or touched at these Islands, and the indistinct demarcation which comprised them +acquired the name of Saint Lazarusʼ Archipelago. + +</p> +<p>In 1662 the Spanish vessel <i>San Damian</i>, on her course from Mexico to Luzon, anchored here. On board was a missionary, Fray Diego Luis de San Victores, who was so +impressed with the dejected condition of the natives, that on reaching Manila he made it his common theme of conversation. +In fact, so importunately did he pursue the subject with his superiors that he had to be constrained to silence. In the following +year the Governor, Diego Salcedo, replied to his urgent appeal for a mission there in terms which permitted no further solicitation +in that quarter. But the friar was persistent in his project, and petitioned the Archbishopʼs aid. The prelate submitted the +matter to King Philip IV., and the friar himself wrote to his father, who presented a memorial to His Majesty and another +to the Queen beseeching her influence. Consequently in 1666 a Royal Decree was received in Manila sanctioning a mission to +the Ladrones. + +</p> +<p>Fray Diego took his passage in the galleon <i>San Diego</i>, and having arrived safely in the Viceregal Court of Mexico, he pressed his views on the Viceroy, who declared that he had +no orders. Then the priest appealed to the Viceroyʼs wife, who, it is said, was entreating her husbandʼs help on bended knee, +when an earthquake occurred which considerably damaged the city. It was a manifestation from heaven, the wily priest avowed, +and the Viceroy, yielding to the superstition of the age, complied with the friarʼs request. + +</p> +<p>Therefore, in March, 1668, Fray Diego started from Acapulco in <a id="d0e2641"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e2641">40</a>]</span>charge of a Jesuit mission for the Ladrones, where they subsequently received a pension of ₱3,000 per annum from Queen Maria +Ana, who, meanwhile, had become a widow and Regent. To commemorate this royal munificence, these Islands have since been called +by the Spaniards “Islas Marianas,” although the older name—Ladrones—is better known to the world. + +</p> +<p>When the mission was fairly established, troops were sent there, consisting of twelve Spaniards and nineteen Philippine natives, +with two pieces of artillery. + +</p> +<p>The acquiescence of the Ladrone natives was being steadily gained by the old policy of conquest, under the veil of Christianity, +when they suddenly rebelled against the strangerʼs religion, which brought with it restraint of liberty and a social dominion +practically amounting to slavery. Fortunately, Nature came again to the aid of Fray Diego, for, whilst the natives were in +open revolt, a severe storm levelled their huts to the ground, and the priest having convinced them that it was a visitation +from heaven, peace was concluded. + +</p> +<p>Fray Diego left the mission for Visayas, where he was killed. After his departure the natives again revolted against servile +subjection, and many priests were slain from time to time—some in the exercise of their sacerdotal functions, others in open +warfare. + +</p> +<p>In 1778 a Governor was sent there from Mexico with thirty soldiers, but he resigned his charge after two yearsʼ service, and +others succeeded him. + +</p> +<p>The Islands are very poor. The products are Rice, Sago, Cocoanuts, and Cane-sugar to a small extent; there are also pigs and +fowls in abundance. The Spaniards taught the natives the use of fire. They were a warlike people; every man had to carry arms. +Their language is Chamorro, much resembling the Visayan dialect. The population, for a hundred years after the Spanish occupation, +diminished. Women purposely sterilised themselves. Some threw their new born offspring into the sea, hoping to liberate them +from a world of woe, and that they would regenerate in happiness. In the beginning of the 17th century the population was +further diminished by an epidemic disease. During the first century of Spanish rule, the Government were never able to exact +the payment of tribute. Up to the Spanish evacuation the revenue of these Islands was not nearly sufficient to cover the entire +cost of administration. About twenty years ago Governor Pazos was assassinated there by a rebellious group. + +</p> +<p>There were nine towns with parish priests. All the churches were built of stone, and roofed with reed thatching, except that +of the capital, which had an iron roof. Six of the towns had Town Halls made of bamboo and reed grass; one had a wooden building, +and in two of them (including the capital) the Town Halls were of stone. +<a id="d0e2655"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e2655">41</a>]</span></p> +<p>The Seat of Government was at Agaña (called in old official documents the “City of San Ignacio de Agaña”). It is situated +in the Island of Guam, in the creek called the Port of Apra. Ships have to anchor about two miles off Punta Piti, where passengers, +stores, and mails are conveyed to a wooden landing-stage. Five hundred yards from here was the Harbour-masterʼs office, built +of stone, with a tile roof. From Punta Piti there was a bad road of about five miles. The situation of Agaña seems to be ill-suited +for communication with vessels, and proposals were ineffectually made by two Governors, since 1835, to establish the capital +town elsewhere. The central Government took no heed of their recommendations. In Agaña there was a Government House, a Military +Hospital and Pharmacy, an Artillery Dépôt and Infantry Barracks, a well-built Prison, a Town Hall, the Administratorʼs Office +(called by the natives “the shop”), and the ruins of former public buildings. It is a rather pretty town, but there is nothing +notable to be seen. + +</p> +<p>The natives are as domesticated as the Philippine Islanders, and have much better features. Spanish and a little English are +spoken by many of them, as these Islands in former years were the resort of English-speaking whalemen. For the Elementary +Education of the natives, there was the College of San Juan de Letran for boys, and a girlsʼ school in Agaña; and in 7 of +the towns there was, in 1888, a total of 4 schools for boys, 5 schools for girls, and 9 schools for both sexes, under the +direction of 20 masters and 6 mistresses. + +</p> +<p>When the Ladrone Islands (Marianas) were a dependency of the Spanish-Philippine General-Government, a subsidized mail steamer +left Manila for Agaña, and two or three other ports, every three months. + +</p> +<hr class="tb"><p> + + +</p> +<p>An island was discovered by one of the Spanish galleon pilots in 1686, and called <span class="smallcaps">Carolina</span>, in honour of Charles II. of Spain, but its bearings could not be found again for years. + +</p> +<p>In 1696 two canoes, with 29 Pelew Islanders, drifted to the coast of Sámar Island, and landed at the Town of Guivan. They +were 60 days on the drift, and five of them died of privations. They were terror-stricken when they saw a man on shore making +signs to them. When he went out to them in a boat, and boarded one of the canoes, they all jumped out and got into the other; +then when the man got into that, they were in utter despair, considering themselves prisoners. + +</p> +<p>They were conducted to the Spanish priest of Guivan, whom they supposed would be the King of the Island, and on whom would +depend their lives and liberty. They prostrated themselves, and implored his mercy and the favour of sparing their lives, +whilst the priest did all he could, by signs, to reassure them. + +</p> +<p>It happened that there had been living here, for some years, two other strange men brought to this shore by currents and contrary +<a id="d0e2675"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e2675">42</a>]</span>winds. These came forward to see the novelty, and served as interpreters, so that the newcomers were all lodged in native +houses in twos and threes, and received the best hospitality. + +</p> +<p>They related that their Islands numbered 32, and only produced fowls and sea-birds. One man made a map, by placing stones +in the relative position of the Islands. When asked about the number of the inhabitants, one took a handful of sand to demonstrate +that they were countless. There was a King, they explained, who held his court in the Island of Lamurrec, to whom the chiefs +were subject. They much respected and obeyed him. Among the castaways was a chief, with his wife—the daughter of the King. + +</p> +<p>The men had a leaf-fibre garment around their loins, and to it was attached a piece of stuff in front, which was thrown over +the shoulders and hung loose at the back. The women were dressed the same as the men, except that their loin vestment reached +to their knees. The Kingʼs daughter wore, moreover, tortoise-shell ornaments. + +</p> +<p>They were afraid when they saw a cow and a dog, their Island having no quadrupeds. Their sole occupation consisted in providing +food for their families. Their mark of courtesy was to take the hand of the person whom they saluted and pass it softly over +the face. + +</p> +<p>The priest gave them pieces of iron, which they prized as if they had been of gold, and slept with them under their heads. +Their only arms were lances, with human bones for points. They seemed to be a pacific people, intelligent and well-proportioned +physically. Both sexes wore long hair down to their shoulders. + +</p> +<p>Very content to find so much luxury in Sámar, they offered to return and bring their people to trade. The Jesuits considered +this a capital pretext for subjecting their Islands, and the Government approved of it. At the instance of the Pope, the King +ordered the Gov.-General, Domingo Zabálburu, to send out expeditions in quest of these Islands; and, between 1708 and 1710, +several unsuccessful efforts were made to come across them. In 1710, two islands were discovered, and named San Andrés. Several +canoes arrived alongside of the ship, and the occupants accepted the Commanderʼs invitation to come on board. They were much +astonished to see the Spaniards smoke, and admired the iron fastenings of the vessel. When they got near shore, they all began +to dance, clapping their hands to beat time. They measured the ship, and wondered where such a large piece of wood could have +come from. They counted the crew, and presented them with cocoanuts, fish, and herbs from their canoes. The vessel anchored +near to the shore, but there was a strong current and a fresh wind blowing, so that it was imprudent to disembark. However, +two priests insisted upon erecting a cross on the shore, and were accompanied by the quarter-master and an officer of the +troops. The weather compelled the master to weigh anchor, and the vessel set sail, leaving <a id="d0e2687"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e2687">43</a>]</span>on land the four Europeans, who were ultimately murdered. For a quarter of a century these Islands were lost again to the +Spaniards. + +</p> +<p>In 1721 two Caroline prahus were wafted to the Ladrone Islands, where D. Luiz Sanchez was Governor. The Caroline Islanders +had no idea where they had landed, and were quite surprised when they beheld the priest. He forcibly detained these unfortunate +people, and handed them over to the Governor, whom they entreated, with tears—but all in vain—to be allowed to return to their +homes. There they remained prisoners, until it suited the Governorʼs convenience to send a vessel with a priest to their Island. +The priest went there, and thence to Manila, where a fresh expedition was fitted out. It was headed by a missionary, and included +a number of soldiers whom the natives massacred soon after their arrival. All further attempt to subdue the Caroline Islands +was necessarily postponed. + +</p> +<p>The natives, at that time, had no religion at all, or were, in a vague sense, polytheists. Their wise men communicated with +the souls of the defunct. They were polygamists, but had a horror of adultery. Divorce was at once granted by the chiefs on +proof of infidelity. They were cannibals. In each island there was a chief, regarded as a semi-spiritual being, to whom the +natives were profoundly obedient. Huts were found used as astrological schools, where also the winds and currents were studied. +They made cloth of plantain-fibre—hatchets with stone heads. Between sunset and sunrise they slept. When war was declared +between two villages or tribes, each formed three lines of warriors, 1st, young men; 2nd, tall men; 3rd, old men; then the +combatants pelted each other with stones and lances. A man <i lang="fr">hors de combat</i> was replaced by one of the back file coming forward. When one party acknowledged themselves vanquished, it was an understood +privilege of the victors to shower invectives on their retiring adversaries. They lived on fruits, roots and fish. There were +no quadrupeds and no agriculture. + +</p> +<p>Many Spanish descendants were found, purely native in their habits, and it was remembered that about the year 1566, several +Spaniards from an expedition went ashore on some islands, supposed to be these, and were compelled to remain there. + +</p> +<p>The Carolines (“Islas Carolinas”) and Pelews (“Islas Palaos”) comprise some 48 groups of islands and islets, making a total +of about 500. Their relative position to the Ladrone Islands is—of the former, S.S.W. stretching to S.E.; of the latter, S.W. +Both groups lie due E. of Mindanao Island (<i>vide</i> map). The principal Pelew Islands are Babel-Druap and Kosor—Yap and Ponapé (Ascencion Is.) are the most important of the +Carolines. The centres of Spanish Government were respectively in Yap and Babel-Druap, with a Vice-Governor of the Eastern +Carolines in Ponapé—all formerly dependent on the General-Government in Manila. The Carolines and Pelews were included in +<a id="d0e2703"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e2703">44</a>]</span>the Bishopric of Cebú, and were subject, judicially, to the Supreme Court of Manila. + +</p> +<p>These Islands were subsequently many times visited by ships of other nations, and a barter trade gradually sprang up in dried +cocoanut kernels (coprah) for the extraction of oil in Europe and America. Later on, when the natives were thoroughly accustomed +to the foreigners, British, American, and German traders established themselves on shore, and vessels continued to arrive +with European and American manufactures in exchange for coprah, trepang, ivory-nuts, tortoise-shell, etc. + +</p> +<p>Anglo-American missionaries have settled there, and a great number of natives profess Christianity in the Protestant form. +Religious books in native dialect, published in Honolulu (Sandwich Is.) by the Hawaiian Evangelical Association, are distributed +by the American missionaries. I have one before me now, entitled “Kapas Fel, Puk Eu,” describing incidents from the Old Testament. +A few of the natives can make themselves understood in English. Besides coprah (the chief export) the Islands produce Rice, +Yams, Bread-fruit (<i>rima</i>), Sugar-cane, etc. Until 1886 there was no Government, except that of several petty kings or chiefs, each of whom still rules +over his own tribe, although the Protestant missionaries exercised a considerable social influence. + +</p> +<p>In 1885 a Spanish naval officer, named Capriles, having been appointed Governor of the Islands, arrived at Yap, ostensibly +with the object of landing to hoist the Spanish flag as a signal of possession, for it was known in official quarters that +the Germans were about to claim sovereignty. However, three days were squandered (perhaps intentionally) in trivial formalities, +and although two Spanish men-oʼ-war—the <i>Manila</i> and the <i>San Quintin</i>—were already anchored in the Port of Yap, the German warship <i>Iltis</i> entered, landed marines, and hoisted their national flag, whilst the Spaniards looked on. Then the German Commander went +on board the <i>San Quintin</i> to tell the Commander that possession of the Islands had been taken in the name of the Emperor of Germany. Neither Capriles, +the appointed Governor, nor España, the Commander of the <i>San Quintin</i>, made any resistance; and as we can hardly attribute their inactivity to cowardice, presumably they followed their Governmentʼs +instructions. Capriles and España returned to Manila, and were both rewarded for their inaction; the former being appointed +to the Government of Mindoro Island. In Manila an alarming report was circulated that the Germans contemplated an attack upon +the Philippines. Earthworks were thrown up outside the city wall; cannons were mounted, and the cry of invasion resounded +all over the Colony. Hundreds of families fled from the capital and environs to adjacent provinces, and the personal safety +of the German residents was menaced by individual patriotic enthusiasts. + +</p> +<p>In Madrid, popular riots followed the publication of the incident. The German Embassy was assaulted, and its escutcheon was +burnt in <a id="d0e2731"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e2731">45</a>]</span>the streets by the indignant mob, although, probably, not five per cent. of the rioters had any idea where the Caroline Islands +were situated, or anything about them. Spain acted so feebly, and Germany so vigorously, in this affair, that many asked—was +it not due to a secret understanding between the respective Ministries, disrupted only by the weight of Spanish public opinion? +Diplomatic notes were exchanged between Madrid and Berlin, and Germany, anxious to withdraw with apparent dignity from an +affair over which it was probably never intended to waste powder and shot, referred the question to the Pope, who arbitrated +in favour of Spain. + +</p> +<p>But for these events, it is probable that Spain would never have done anything to demonstrate possession of the Caroline Islands, +and for 16 months after the question was solved by Pontific mediation, there was a Spanish Governor in Yap—Sr. Elisa—a few +troops and officials, but no Government. No laws were promulgated, and everybody continued to do as heretofore. + +</p> +<p>In Ponapé (Ascencion Is.) Sr. Posadillo was appointed Governor. A few troops were stationed there under a sub-lieutenant, +whilst some Capuchin friars—European ecclesiastics of the meanest type—were sent there to compete with the American Protestant +missionaries in the salvation of nativesʼ souls. A collision naturally took place, and the Governor—well known to all of us +in Manila as crack-brained and tactless—sent the chief Protestant missionary, Mr. E. T. Doane, a prisoner to Manila on June +16, 1887.<a id="d0e2737src" href="#d0e2737" class="noteref">3</a> He was sent back free to Ponapé by the Gov.-General, but, during his absence, the eccentric Posadillo exercised a most arbitrary +authority over the natives. The chiefs were compelled to serve him as menials, and their subjects were formed into gangs, +to work like convicts; native teachers were suspended from their duties under threat, and the Capuchins disputed the possession +of land, and attempted to coerce the natives to accept their religion. + +</p> +<p>On July 1 the natives did not return to their bondage, and all the soldiers, led by the sub-lieutenant, were sent to bring +them in by force. A fight ensued, and the officer and troops, to the last man, were killed or mortally wounded by clubs, stones +and knives. The astonished Governor fortified his place, which was surrounded by the enemy. The tribes of the chiefs Nott +and Jockets were up in arms. There was the hulk <i lang="es">Da. Maria de Molina</i> anchored in the roadstead, and the Capuchins fled to it on the first alarm. The Governor escaped from his house on the night +of July 4 with his companions, and rushed to the sea, probably intending to swim out to the hulk. But who knows? He and all +his partisans were chased and killed by the natives. + +</p> +<p>On September 21 the news of the tragedy reached Manila by the man-oʼ-war <i>San Quintin.</i> About six weeks afterwards, three men-oʼ-war <a id="d0e2750"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e2750">46</a>]</span>were sent to Ponapé with infantry, artillery, a mountain battery, and a section of Engineers—a total of about 558 men—but +on their arrival they met an American warship—the <i>Essex</i>—which had hastened on to protect American interests. The Spaniards limited their operations to the seizure of a few accused +individuals, whom they brought to Manila, and the garrison of Yap was increased to 100 men, under a Captain and subordinate +officers. The prisoners were tried in Manila by court-martial, and I acted as interpreter. It was found that they had only +been loyal to the bidding of their chiefs, and were not morally culpable, whilst the action of the late Governor of Ponapé +met with general reprobation. + +</p> +<p>Again, in July, 1890, a party of 54 soldiers, under Lieutenant Porras, whilst engaged in felling timber in the forest, was +attacked by the Malatana (Caroline) tribe, who killed the officer and 27 of his men. The news was telegraphed to the Home +Government, and caused a great sensation in Madrid. A conference of Ministers was at once held, and the Cánovas del Castillo +Ministry cabled to the Gov.-General Weyler discretionary power to punish these islanders. Within a few months troops were +sent from Manila for that purpose. Instead, however, of chastising the <i>Kanakas</i>, the Government forces were repulsed by them with great slaughter. The commissariat arrangements were most deficient: my +friend Colonel Gutierrez Soto, who commanded the expedition, was so inadequately supported by the War Department that, yielding +to despair, and crestfallen by reason of the open and adverse criticism of his plan of campaign, he shot himself. + +</p> +<p>Under the Treaty of Paris (1898) the Island of Guam (Ladrone group) was ceded by Spain to the United States, together with +the Philippine Islands. The remainder of the Ladrone group, the Caroline and the Pelew Islands were sold by Spain to Germany +in June, 1899. + +<a id="d0e2762"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e2762">47</a>]</span></p> +<div class="footnotes"> +<hr class="fnsep"> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e2619" href="#d0e2619src" class="noteref">1</a></span> <i>Velas</i>, Spanish for sails. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e2624" href="#d0e2624src" class="noteref">2</a></span> <i>Ladrones</i>, Spanish for thieves. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e2737" href="#d0e2737src" class="noteref">3</a></span> Mr. Doane is reported to have died in Honolulu about June, 1890 +</p> +</div> +</div> +<div id="d0e2763" class="div1"> +<h2 class="normal">Attempted Conquest by Chinese</h2> +<p>On the death of General Legaspi, the Government of the Colony was assumed by the Royal Treasurer, Guido de Lavezares, in conformity +with the sealed instructions from the Supreme Court of Mexico, which were now opened. During this period, the possession of +the Islands was unsuccessfully disputed by a rival expedition under the command of a Chinaman, Li-ma-hong, whom the Spaniards +were pleased to term a pirate, forgetting, perhaps, that they themselves had only recently wrested the country from its former +possessors by virtue of might against right. On the coasts of his native country he had indeed been a pirate. For the many +depredations committed by him against private traders and property, the Celestial Emperor, failing to catch him by cajolery, +outlawed him. + +</p> +<p>Born in the port of Tiuchiu, Li-ma-hong at an early age evinced a martial spirit and joined a band of corsairs which for a +long time had been the terror of the China coasts. On the demise of his chief he was unanimously elected leader of the buccaneering +cruisers. At length, pursued in all directions by the imperial ships of war, he determined to attempt the conquest of the +Philippines. Presumably the same incentives which impelled the Spanish mariners to conquer lands and overthrow dynasties—the +vision of wealth, glory and empire,—awakened a like ambition in the Chinese adventurer. It was the spirit of the age.<a id="d0e2770src" href="#d0e2770" class="noteref">1</a> In his sea-wanderings he happened to fall in with a Chinese trading junk returning from Manila with the proceeds of her cargo +sold there. This he seized, and the captive crew were constrained to pilot his fleet towards the capital of Luzon. From them +he learnt how easily the natives had been plundered by a handful of foreigners—the probable extent of the opposition he might +encounter—the defences established—the wealth and resources of the district, and the nature of its inhabitants. +<a id="d0e2776"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e2776">48</a>]</span></p> +<p>His fleet consisted of 62 war ships or armed junks, well found, having on board 2,000 sailors, 2,000 soldiers, 1,500 women, +a number of artisans, and all that could be conveniently carried with which to gain and organize his new kingdom. On its way +the squadron cast anchor off the Province of Ilocos Sur, where a few troops were sent ashore to get provisions. Whilst returning +to the junks, they sacked the village and set fire to the huts. The news of this outrage was hastily communicated to Juan +Salcedo, who had been pacifying the Northern Provinces since July, 1572, and was at the time in Villa Fernandina (now called +Vigan). Li-ma-hong continued his course until calms compelled his ships to anchor in the roads of Caoayan (Ilocos coast), +where a few Spanish soldiers were stationed under the orders of Juan Salcedo, who still was in the immediate town of Vigan. +Under his direction preparations were made to prevent the enemy entering the river, but such was not Li-ma-hongʼs intention. +He again set sail; whilst Salcedo, naturally supposing his course would be towards Manila, also started at the same time for +the capital with all the fighting men he could collect, leaving only 30 men to garrison Vigan and protect the State interests +there. + +</p> +<p>On November 29, 1574, the squadron arrived in the Bay of Manila, and Li-ma-hong sent forward his Lieutenant Sioco—a Japanese—at +the head of 600 fighting men to demand the surrender of the Spaniards. A strong gale, however, destroyed several of his junks, +in which about 200 men perished. + +</p> +<p>With the remainder he reached the coast at Parañaque, a village seven miles south of Manila. Thence, with tow-lines, the 400 +soldiers hauled their junks up to the beach of the capital. + +</p> +<p>Already at the village of Malate the alarm was raised, but the Spaniards could not give credit to the reports, and no resistance +was offered until the Chinese were within the gates of the city. Martin de Goiti, the <i lang="es">Maestre de Campo</i>,<a id="d0e2788src" href="#d0e2788" class="noteref">2</a> second in command to the Governor, was the first victim of the attack. + +</p> +<p>The flames and smoke arising from his burning residence were the first indications which the Governor received of what was +going on. The Spaniards took refuge in the Fort of Santiago, which the Chinese were on the point of taking by storm, when +their attention was drawn elsewhere by the arrival of fresh troops led by a Spanish sub-lieutenant. Under the mistaken impression +that these were the vanguard of a formidable corps, Sioco sounded the retreat. A bloody hand-to-hand combat followed, and +with great difficulty the Chinese collected their dead and regained their junks. + +</p> +<p>In the meantime Li-ma-hong, with the reserved forces, was lying in the roadstead of Cavite, and Sioco hastened to report to +him the result <a id="d0e2797"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e2797">49</a>]</span>of the attack, which had cost the invader over one hundred dead and more than that number wounded. Thereupon Li-ma-hong resolved +to rest his troops and renew the conflict in two daysʼ time under his personal supervision. The next day Juan Salcedo arrived +by sea with reinforcements from Vigan, and preparations were unceasingly made for the expected encounter. Salcedo having been +appointed to the office of <i lang="es">Maestre de Campo</i>, vacant since the death of Goiti, the organization of the defence was entrusted to his immediate care. + +</p> +<p>By daybreak on December 3 the enemyʼs fleet hove-to off the capital, where Li-ma-hong harangued his troops, whilst the cornets +and drums of the Spaniards were sounding the alarm for their fighting men to assemble in the fort. + +</p> +<p>Then 1,500 chosen men, well armed, were disembarked under the leadership of Sioco, who swore to take the place or die in the +attempt. Sioco separated his forces into three divisions. The city was set fire to, and Sioco advanced towards the fort, into +which hand-grenades were thrown, whilst Li-ma-hong supported the attack with his shipsʼ cannon. + +</p> +<p>Sioco, with his division, at length entered the fort, and a hand-to-hand fight ensued. For a while the issue was doubtful. +Salcedo fought like a lion. Even the aged Governor was well to the front to encourage the deadly struggle for existence. The +Spaniards finally gained the victory; the Chinese were repulsed with great slaughter, and their leader having been killed, +they fled in complete disorder. Salcedo, profiting by the confusion, now took the offensive and followed up the enemy, pursuing +them along the sea-shore, where they were joined by the third division, which had remained inactive. The panic of the Chinese +spread rapidly, and Li-ma-hong, in despair, landed another contingent of about 500 men, whilst he still continued afloat; +but even with this reinforcement the <i>morale</i> of his army could not be restored. + +</p> +<p>The Chinese troops therefore, harassed on all sides, made a precipitate retreat on board the fleet, and Li-ma-hong set sail +again for the west coast of the island. Foiled in the attempt to possess himself of Manila, Li-ma-hong determined to set up +his capital in other parts. In a few days he arrived at the mouth of the Agno River, in the province of Pangasinán, where +he proclaimed to the natives that he had gained a signal victory over the Spaniards. The inhabitants there, having no particular +choice between two masters, received Li-ma-hong with welcome, and he thereupon set about the foundation of his new capital +some four miles from the mouth of the river. Months passed before the Spaniards came in force to dislodge the invader. Feeling +themselves secure in their new abode, the Chinese had built many dwellings, a small fortress, a pagoda, etc. At length an +expedition was despatched under the command of Juan Salcedo. This was composed of about 250 Spaniards and 1,600 natives well +equipped with small arms, ammunition and artillery. The flower of <a id="d0e2813"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e2813">50</a>]</span>the Spanish Colony, accompanied by two priests and the Rajah of Tondo, set out to expel the formidable foe. Li-ma-hong made +a bold resistance, and refused to come to terms with Salcedo. In the meantime, the Viceroy of Fokien, having heard of Li-ma-hongʼs +daring exploits, had commissioned a ship of war to discover the whereabouts of his imperial masterʼs old enemy. The envoy +was received with delight by the Spaniards, who invited him to accompany them to Manila to interview the Governor. + +</p> +<p>Li-ma-hong still held out, but perceiving that an irresistible onslaught was being projected against him by Salcedoʼs party, +he very cunningly and quite unexpectedly slipped away, and sailed out of the river with his ships by one of the mouths unknown +to his enemies.<a id="d0e2817src" href="#d0e2817" class="noteref">3</a> In order to divert the attention of the Spaniards, Li-ma-hong ingeniously feigned an assault in an opposite quarter. Of course, +on his escape, he had to abandon the troops employed in this manoeuvre. These, losing all hope, and having indeed nothing +but their lives to fight for, fled to the mountains. Hence it is popularly supposed that from these fugitives descends the +race of people in the hill district north of that province still distinguishable by their oblique eyes and known by the name +of Igorrote-Chinese. + +</p> +<p>“<i lang="fr">Aide-toi et Dieu tʼaidera</i>” is an old French maxim, but the Spaniards chose to attribute their deliverance from their Chinese rivals to the friendly +intervention of Saint Andrew. This Saint was declared thenceforth to be the Patron Saint of Manila, and in his honour High +Mass was celebrated in the Cathedral at 8 a.m. on the 30th of each November. In Spanish times it was a public holiday and +gala-day, when all the highest civil, military and religious authorities attended the <i lang="es">Funcion votiva de San Andrés</i>. This opportunity to assert the supremacy of ecclesiastical power was not lost to the Church, and for many years it was the +custom, after hearing Mass, to spread the Spanish national flag on the floor of the Cathedral for the metropolitan Archbishop +to walk over it. However, a few years prior to the Spanish evacuation the Gov.-General refused to witness this antiquated +formula and it subsequently became the practice to carry the Royal Standard before the altar. Both before and after the Mass, +the bearer (<i>Alférez Real</i>), wearing his hat and accompanied by the Mayor of the City, stood on the altar floor, raised his hat three times, and three +times dipped the flag before the Image of Christ, then, facing the public, he repeated this ceremony. On Saint Andrewʼs Eve +the Royal Standard was borne in procession from the Cathedral through the principal streets of the city, escorted by civil +functionaries and followed by a band of music. This ceremony was known as the <i lang="es">Paseo del Real Pendon</i>. +<a id="d0e2837"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e2837">51</a>]</span></p> +<p>According to Juan de la Concepcion, the Rajahs<a id="d0e2840src" href="#d0e2840" class="noteref">4</a> Soliman and Lacandola took advantage of these troubles to raise a rebellion against the Spaniards. The natives, too, of Mindoro +Island revolted and maltreated the priests, but all these disturbances were speedily quelled by a detachment of soldiers. + +</p> +<p>The Governor willingly accepted the offer of the commander of the Chinese man-oʼ-war to convey ambassadors to his country +to visit the Viceroy and make a commercial treaty. Therefore two priests, Martin Rada and Gerónimo Martin, were commissioned +to carry a letter of greeting and presents to this personage, who received them with great distinction, but objected to their +residing in the country. + +</p> +<p>After the defeat of Li-ma-hong, Juan Salcedo again set out to the Northern Provinces of Luzon Island, to continue his task +of reducing the natives to submission. On March 11, 1576, he died of fever near Vigan (then called Villa Fernandina), capital +of the Province of Ilocos Sur. A year afterwards, what could be found of his bones were placed in the ossuary of his illustrious +grandfather, Legaspi, in the Augustine Chapel of Saint Fausto, Manila. His skull, however, which had been carried off by the +natives of Ilocos, could not be recovered in spite of all threats and promises. In Vigan there is a small monument raised +to commemorate the deeds of this famous warrior, and there is also a street bearing his name in Vigan and another in Manila. +</p> +<hr class="tb"><p> + +</p> +<p>For several years following these events, the question of prestige in the civil affairs of the Colony was acrimoniously contested +by the Gov.-General, the Supreme Court, and the ecclesiastics. + +</p> +<p>The Governor was censured by his opponents for alleged undue exercise of arbitrary authority. The Supreme Court, established +on the Mexican model, was reproached with seeking to overstep the limits of its functions. Every legal quibble was adjusted +by a dilatory process, impracticable in a colony yet in its infancy, where summary justice was indispensable for the maintenance +of order imperfectly understood by the masses. But the fault lay less with the justices than with the constitution of the +Court itself. Nor was this state of affairs improved by the growing discontent and immoderate ambition of the clergy, who +unremittingly urged their pretensions to immunity from State control, affirming the supramundane condition of their office. + +</p> +<p>An excellent code of laws, called the <i lang="es">Leyes de Indias</i>, in force in Mexico, was adopted here, but modifications in harmony with the special conditions of this Colony were urgently +necessary, whilst all the branches of government called for reorganization or reform. Under these circumstances, the Bishop +of Manila, Domingo Salazar,<a id="d0e2858src" href="#d0e2858" class="noteref">5</a> took the <a id="d0e2861"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e2861">52</a>]</span>initiative in commissioning an Austin friar, Alonso Sánchez, to repair firstly to the Viceroy of Mexico and afterwards to +the King of Spain, to expose the grievances of his party. + +</p> +<p>Alonso Sánchez left the Philippines with his appointment as procurator-general for the Augustine Order of monks. As the execution +of the proposed reforms, which he was charged to lay before His Majesty, would, if conceded, be entrusted to the control of +the Government of Mexico, his first care was to seek the partisanship of the Viceroy of that Colony; and in this he succeeded. +Thence he continued his journey to Seville, where the Court happened to be, arriving there in September, 1587. He was at once +granted an audience of the King, to present his credentials and memorials relative to Philippine affairs in general, and ecclesiastical, +judicial, military and native matters in particular. The King promised to peruse all the documents, but suffering from gout, +and having so many and distinct State concerns to attend to, the negotiations were greatly delayed. Finally, Alonso Sánchez +sought a minister who had easy access to the royal apartments, and this personage obtained from the King permission to examine +the documents and hand to him a succinct <i>résumé</i> of the whole for His Majestyʼs consideration. A commission was then appointed, including Sánchez, and the deliberations lasted +five months. + +</p> +<p>At this period, public opinion in the Spanish Universities was very divided with respect to Catholic missions in the Indies. +Some maintained that the propaganda of the faith ought to be purely Apostolic, such as Jesus Christ taught to His disciples, +inculcating doctrines of humility and poverty without arms or violence; and if, nevertheless, the heathens refused to welcome +this mission of peace, the missionaries should simply abandon them in silence without further demonstration than that of shaking +the dust off their feet. + +</p> +<p>Others held, and amongst them was Sánchez, that such a method was useless and impracticable, and that it was justifiable to +force their religion upon primitive races at the point of the sword if necessary, using any violence to enforce its acceptance. + +</p> +<p>Much ill-feeling was aroused in the discussion of these two and distinct theories. Juan Volante, a Dominican friar of the +Convent of Our Lady of Atocha, presented a petition against the views of the Sánchez faction, declaring that the idea of ingrafting +religion with the aid of arms was scandalous. Juan Volante was so importunate that he had to be heard in Council, but neither +party yielded. At length, the intervention of the Bishops of Manila, Macao and Malacca and several captains and governors +in the Indies influenced the King to put an end to the controversy, on the ground that it would lead to no good. + +</p> +<p>The King retired to the Monastery of the Escorial, and Sánchez was cited to meet him there to learn the royal will. About +the same time the news reached the King of the loss of the so-called Invincible Armada, <a id="d0e2876"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e2876">53</a>]</span>sent under the command of the incompetent Duke of Medina Sidonia to annex England. Notwithstanding this severe blow to the +vain ambition of Philip, the affairs of the Philippines were delayed but a short time. On the basis of the recommendation +of the junta, the Royal Assent was given to an important decree, of which the most significant articles are the following, +namely:—The tribute was fixed by the King at ten reales (5s.) per annum, payable by the natives in gold, silver or grain, +or part in one commodity and part in the other. Of this tribute, eight reales were to be paid to the Treasury, one-half real +to the bishop and clergy (<i>sanctorum</i> tax), and one-and-a-half reales to be applied to the maintenance of the soldiery. Full tribute was not to be exacted from +the natives still unsubjected to the Crown. Until their confidence and loyalty should be gained by friendly overtures, they +were to pay a small recognition of vassalage, and subsequently the tribute in common with the rest. + +</p> +<p>Instead of one-fifth value of gold and hidden treasure due to His Majesty (<i lang="es">real quinto</i>), he would thenceforth receive only one-tenth of such value, excepting that of gold, which the natives would be permitted +to extract free of rebate. + +</p> +<p>A customs duty of three per cent. <i lang="la">ad valorem</i> was to be paid on merchandise sold, and this duty was to be spent on the army. + +</p> +<p>Export duty was to be paid on goods shipped to New Spain (Mexico), and this impost was also to be exclusively spent on the +armed forces. These goods were chiefly Chinese manufactures. + +</p> +<p>The number of European troops in the Colony was fixed at 400 men-at-arms, divided into six companies, each under a captain, +a sublieutenant, a sergeant, and two corporals. Their pay was to be as follows, namely:—Captain ₱35, sub-lieutenant ₱20, sergeant +₱10, corporal ₱7, rank and file ₱6 per month; besides which, an annual gratuity of ₱10,000 was to be proportionately distributed +to all. + +</p> +<p>Recruits from Mexico, for military service in the Islands, were not to enlist under the age of 15 years. + +</p> +<p>The Captain-General was to have a body-guard of 24 men (Halberdiers) with the pay of those of the line, under the immediate +command of a Captain to be paid ₱15 per month. + +</p> +<p>Salaries due to State employees were to be punctually paid when due; and when funds were wanted for that purpose, they were +to be supplied from Mexico. + +</p> +<p>The King made a donation of ₱12,000, which, with another like sum to be contributed by the Spaniards themselves, would serve +to liquidate their debts incurred on their first occupation of the Islands. + +</p> +<p>The Governor and Bishop were recommended to consider the project of a refuge for young Spanish women arrived from Spain and +Mexico, and to study the question of dowries for native women married to poor Spaniards. +<a id="d0e2905"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e2905">54</a>]</span></p> +<p>The offices of Secretaries and Notaries were no longer to be sold, but conferred on persons who merited such appointments. + +</p> +<p>The governors were instructed not to make grants of land to their relations, servants or friends, but solely to those who +should have resided at least three years in the Islands, and have worked the lands so conceded. Any grants which might have +already been made to the relations of the governors or magistrates were to be cancelled. + +</p> +<p>The rent paid by the Chinese for the land they occupied was to be applied to the necessities of the capital. + +</p> +<p>The Governor and Bishop were to enjoin the judges not to permit costly lawsuits, but to execute summary justice verbally, +and so far as possible, fines were not to be inflicted. + +</p> +<p>The City of Manila was to be fortified in a manner to ensure it against all further attacks or risings. + +</p> +<p>Four penitentiaries were to be established in the Islands in the most convenient places, with the necessary garrisons, and +six to eight galleys and frigates well armed and ready for defence against the English corsairs who might come by way of the +Moluccas. + +</p> +<p>In the most remote and unexplored parts of the Islands, the Governor was to have unlimited powers to act as he should please, +without consulting His Majesty; but projected enterprises of conversion, pacification, etc., at the expense of the Royal Treasury, +were to be submitted to a Council comprising the Bishop, the captains, etc. The Governor was authorized to capitulate and +agree with the captain and others who might care to undertake conversions and pacifications on their own account, and to concede +the title of <i lang="es">Maestre de Campo</i> to such persons, on condition that such capitulations should be forwarded to His Majesty for ratification. + +</p> +<p>Only those persons domiciled in the Islands would be permitted to trade with them. + +</p> +<p>A sum of ₱1,000 was to be taken from the tributes paid into the Royal Treasury for the foundation of the Hospital for the +Spaniards, and the annual sum of ₱600, appropriated by the Governor for its support, was confirmed. Moreover, the Royal Treasury +of Mexico was to send clothing to the value of 400 ducats for the Hospital use. + +</p> +<p>The Hospital for the natives was to receive an annual donation of ₱600 for its support, and an immediate supply of clothing +from Mexico to the value of ₱200. + +</p> +<p>Slaves held by the Spaniards were to be immediately set at liberty. No native was thenceforth to make slaves. All new-born +natives were declared free. The bondage of all existing slaves from ten years of age was to cease on their attaining twenty +years of age. Those above twenty years of age were to serve five years longer, and then become free. At any time, notwithstanding +the foregoing conditions, they would be entitled to purchase their liberty, <a id="d0e2931"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e2931">55</a>]</span>the price of which was to be determined by the Governor and the Bishop.<a id="d0e2933src" href="#d0e2933" class="noteref">6</a> + +</p> +<p>There being no tithes payable to the Church by Spaniards or natives, the clergy were to receive for their maintenance the +half-real above mentioned in lieu thereof, from the tribute paid by each native subjected to the Crown. When the Spaniards +should have crops, they were to pay tithes to the clergy (<i lang="es">diezmos prediales</i>). + +</p> +<p>A grant was made of 12,000 ducats for the building and ornaments of the Cathedral of Manila, and an immediate advance of 2,000 +ducats on account of this grant was made from the funds to be remitted from Mexico. + +</p> +<p>Forty Austin friars were to be sent at once to the Philippines, to be followed by missionaries from other corporations. The +King allowed ₱500 to be paid against the ₱1,000 passage money for each priest, the balance to be defrayed out of the common +funds of the clergy, derived from their share of the tribute. + +</p> +<p>Missionaries in great numbers had already flocked to the Philippines and roamed wherever they thought fit, without licence +from the Bishop, whose authority they utterly repudiated. + +</p> +<p>Affirming that they had the direct consent of His Holiness the Pope, they menaced with excommunication whosoever attempted +to impede them in their free peregrination. Five years after the foundation of Manila, the city and environs were infested +with niggardly mendicant friars, whose slothful habits placed their supercilious countrymen in ridicule before the natives. +They were tolerated but a short time in the Islands; not altogether because of the ruin they would have brought to European +moral influence on the untutored tribes, but because the Bishop was highly jealous of all competition against the Augustine +Order which he assisted. Consequent on the representations of Alonso Sánchez, His Majesty ordained that all priests who went +to the Philippines were, in the first place, to resolve never to quit the Islands without the Bishopʼs sanction, which was +to be conceded with great circumspection and only in extreme cases, whilst the Governor was instructed not to afford them +means of exit on his sole authority. + +</p> +<p>Neither did the Bishop regard with satisfaction the presence of the Commissary of the Inquisition, whose secret investigations, +shrouded with mystery, curtailed the liberty of the loftiest functionary, sacred or civil. At the instigation of Alonso Sánchez, +the junta recommended the King to recall the Commissary and extinguish the office, but <a id="d0e2954"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e2954">56</a>]</span>he refused to do so. In short, the chief aims of the Bishop were to enhance the power of the friars, raise the dignity of +the Colonial mitre, and secure a religious monopoly for the Augustine Order. + +</p> +<p>Gomez Perez Dasmariñas was the next Governor appointed to these Islands, on the recommendation of Alonso Sánchez. In the Royal +Instructions which he brought with him were embodied all the above-mentioned civil, ecclesiastical and military reforms. At +the same time, King Philip abolished the Supreme Court. He wished to put an end to the interminable lawsuits so prejudicial +to the development of the Colony. Therefore the President and Magistrates were replaced by Justices of the Peace, and the +former returned to Mexico in 1591. This measure served only to widen the breach between the Bishop and the Civil Government. +Dasmariñas compelled him to keep within the sphere of his sacerdotal functions, and tolerated no rival in State concerns. +There was no appeal on the spot against the Governorʼs authority. This restraint irritated and disgusted the Bishop to such +a degree that, at the age of 78 years, he resolved to present himself at the Spanish Court. On his arrival there, he explained +to the King the impossibility of one Bishop attending to the spiritual wants of a people dispersed over so many Islands. For +seven years after the foundation of Manila as capital of the Archipelago, its principal church was simply a parish church. +In 1578 it was raised to the dignity of a Cathedral, at the instance of the King. Three years after this date the Cathedral +of Manila was solemnly declared to be a “Suffragan Cathedral of Mexico, under the advocation of Our Lady of the Immaculate +Conception”; Domingo Salazár being the first Bishop consecrated. He now proposed to raise the Manila See to an Archbishopric, +with three Suffragan Bishops. The King gave his consent, subject to approval from Rome, and this following in due course, +Salazár was appointed first Archbishop of Manila, but he died before the Papal Bull arrived, dated August 14, 1595, officially +authorizing his investiture. + +</p> +<p>In the meantime, Alonso Sánchez had proceeded to Rome in May, 1589. Amongst many other Pontifical favours conceded to him, +he obtained the right for himself, or his assigns, to use a die or stamp of any form with one or more images, to be chosen +by the holder, and to contain also the figure of Christ, the Very Holy Virgin, or the Saints Peter or Paul. On the reverse +was to be engraven a bust portrait of His Holiness, with the following indulgences attached thereto, viz.:—“To him who should +convey the word of God to the infidels, or give them notice of the holy mysteries—each time 300 yearsʼ indulgence. To him +who, by industry, converted any one of these, or brought him to the bosom of the Church—full indulgence for all sins.” A number +of minor indulgences were conceded for services to be rendered to the Pontificate, and for the praying so many Pater Nosters +and Ave Marias. This Bull was dated in Rome July 28, 1591. +<a id="d0e2960"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e2960">57</a>]</span></p> +<p>Popes Gregory XIV. and Innocent IX. granted other Bulls relating to the rewards for using beads, medals, crosses, pictures, +blessed images, etc., with which one could gain nine plenary indulgences every day or rescue nine souls from purgatory; and +each day, twice over, all the full indulgences yet given in and out of Rome could be obtained for living and deceased persons. + +</p> +<p>Sánchez returned to Spain (where he died), bringing with him the body of Saint Policarp, relics of Saint Potenciana, and 157 +Marytrs; amongst them, 27 popes, for remission to the Cathedral of Manila. + +</p> +<p>The Supreme Court was re-established with the same faculties as those of Mexico and Lima in 1598, and since then, on seven +occasions, when the Governorship has been vacant, it has acted <i>pro tem</i>. The following interesting account of the pompous ceremonial attending the reception of the Royal Seal, restoring this Court, +is given by Concepcion.<a id="d0e2970src" href="#d0e2970" class="noteref">7</a> He says:—“The Royal Seal of office was received from the ship with the accustomed solemnity. It was contained in a chest +covered with purple velvet and trimmings of silver and gold, over which hung a cloth of silver and gold. It was escorted by +a majestic accompaniment, marching to the sounds of clarions and cymbals and other musical instruments. The <i>cortége</i> passed through the noble city with rich vestments, with leg trimmings and uncovered heads. Behind these followed a horse, +gorgeously caparisoned and girthed, upon whose back the President placed the coffer containing the Royal Seal. The streets +were beautifully adorned with exquisite drapery. The High Bailiff, magnificently robed, took the reins in hand to lead the +horse under a purple velvet pall, bordered with gold. The magistrates walked on either side; the aldermen of the city, richly +clad, carried their staves of office in the august procession, which concluded with a military escort, standard bearers, etc., +and proceeded to the Cathedral, where it was met by the Dean, holding a Cross. As the company entered the sacred edifice, +the Te Deum was intoned by a band of music.” + +</p> +<p>In 1886 a Supreme Court, exactly similar to, and independent of, that of Manila, was established in the City of Cebú. The +question of precedence in official acts having been soon after disputed between the President of the Court and the Brigadier-Governor +of Visayas, it was decided in favour of the latter, on appeal to the Gov.-General. In the meantime, the advisability of abolishing +the Supreme Court of Cebú, was warmly debated by the public. +</p> +<hr class="tb"><p> + +</p> +<p>For many years after the conquest, deep religious sentiment pervaded the State policy, and not a few of the Governors-General +acquired fame for their demonstrations of piety. Nevertheless, the conflictive ambition <a id="d0e2985"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e2985">58</a>]</span>of the State and Church representatives was a powerful hindrance to the progress of the Colony. + +</p> +<p>The quarrel between Sebastian Hurtado de Corcuera (1635–44) and the Archbishop arose from a circumstance of little concern +to the Colony. The Archbishop ordered a military officer, who had a slave, either to sell or liberate her. The officer, rather +than yield to either condition, wished to marry her, but failing to obtain her consent, he stabbed her to death. He thereupon +took asylum in a convent, whence he was forcibly removed, and publicly executed in front of Saint Augustineʼs Church by order +of the Governor. The Archbishop protested against the act, which, in those days, was qualified as a violation of sanctuary. + +</p> +<p>The churches were closed whilst the dispute lasted. The Jesuits, always opposed to the Austin friars, sided with the Governor. +The Archbishop therefore prohibited them to preach outside their churches in any public place, under pain of excommunication +and 4,000 ducats fine, whilst the other priests agreed to abstain from attending their religious or literary <i>réunions</i>. Finally, a religious council was called, but a coalition having been formed against the Archbishop, he was excommunicated—his +goods distrained—his salary stopped, and he was suspended in his archiepiscopal functions under a penalty of 4,000 ducats +fine. At this crisis, he implored mercy and the intervention of the Supreme Court. The magistrates decided against the prelateʼs +appeal, and allowed him twelve hours to comply, under pain of continued excommunication and a further fine of 1,000 ducats. +The Archbishop thereupon retired to the Convent of Saint Francis, where the Governor visited him. The Archbishop subsequently +made the most abject submission in an archiepiscopal decree which fully sets forth the admission of his guilt. Such a violent +settlement of disputes did not long remain undisturbed, and the Archbishop again sought the first opportunity of opposing +the lay authority. In this he can only be excused—if excuse it be—as the upholder of the traditions of cordial discord between +the two great factions—Church and State. The Supreme Court, under the presidency of the Governor, resolved therefore to banish +the Archbishop from Manila. With this object, 50 soldiers were deputed to seize the prelate, who was secretly forewarned of +their coming by his co-conspirators. On their approach he held the Host in his hand, and it is related that the sub-lieutenant +sent in charge of the troops was so horrified at his mission that he placed the hilt of his sword upon the floor and fell +upon the point, but as the sword bent he did not kill himself. The soldiers waited patiently until the Archbishop was tired +out and compelled, by fatigue, to replace the Host on the altar. Then they immediately arrested him, conducted him to a boat +under a guard of five men, and landed him on the desert Island of Corregidor. The churches were at once reopened; the Jesuits +preached <a id="d0e2994"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e2994">59</a>]</span>where they chose; terms were dictated to the contumacious Archbishop, who accepted everything unconditionally, and was thereupon +permitted to resume his office. The acts of Corcuera were inquired into by his successor, who caused him to be imprisoned +for five years; but it is to be presumed that Corcuera was justified in what he did, for on his release and return to Spain, +the King rewarded him with the Governorship of the Canary Islands. + +</p> +<p>It is chronicled that Sabiniano Manrique de Lara (1653–63), who arrived in the galleon <i>San Francisco Xavier</i> with the Archbishop Poblete, refused to disembark until this dignitary had blessed the earth he was going to tread. It was +he too who had the privilege of witnessing the expurgation of the Islands of the excommunications and admonitions of Rome. +The Archbishop brought peace and goodwill to all men, being charged by His Holiness to sanctify the Colony. + +</p> +<p>The ceremony was performed with great solemnity, from an elevation, in the presence of an immense concourse of people. Later +on, the pious Governor Lara was accused of perfidy to his royal master, and was fined ₱60,000, but on being pardoned, he retired +to Spain, where he took holy orders. + +</p> +<p>His successor, Diego Salcedo (1663–68), was not so fortunate in his relations with Archbishop Poblete, for during five years +he warmly contested his intervention in civil affairs. Poblete found it hard to yield the exercise of veto in all matters +which, by courtesy, had been conceded to him by the late Governor Lara. The Archbishop refused to obey the Royal Decrees relating +to Church appointments under the Royal patronage, such preferments being in the hands of the Gov.-General as vice-royal patron. +These decrees were twice notified to the Archbishop, but as he still persisted in his disobedience, Salcedo signed an order +for his expulsion to Marivéles. This brought the prelate to his senses, and he remained more submissive in future. It is recorded +that the relations between the Governor and the Archbishop became so strained that the latter was compelled to pay a heavy +fine—to remain standing whilst awaiting an audience—to submit to contumely during the interviews—and when he died, the Governor +ordered royal feasts to celebrate the joyful event, whilst he prohibited the <i lang="la">de profundis</i> Mass, on the ground that such would be inconsistent with the secular festivities. + +</p> +<p>The King, on being apprised of this, permitted the Inquisition to take its course. Diego Salcedo was surprised in his Palace, +and imprisoned by the bloodthirsty agents of the <i>Santo Oficio</i>. Some years afterwards, he was shipped on board a galleon as a prisoner to the Inquisitors of Mexico, but the ship had to +put back under stress of weather, and Salcedo returned to his dungeon. There he suffered the worst privations, until he was +again embarked for Mexico. On this voyage <a id="d0e3013"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e3013">60</a>]</span>he died of grief and melancholy. The King espoused the cause of the ecclesiastics, and ordered Salcedoʼs goods, as well as +those of his partisans, to be confiscated. + +</p> +<p>Manuel de Leon (1669–77) managed to preserve a good understanding with the clergy, and, on his decease, he bequeathed all +his possessions to the Obras Pias (q.v.). + +</p> +<p>Troubles with the Archbishop and friars were revived on the Government being assumed by Juan de Nárgas (1678–84). In the last +year of his rule, the Archbishop was banished from Manila. It is difficult to adequately appreciate the causes of this quarrel, +and there is doubt as to which was right—the Governor or the Archbishop. On his restoration to his See, he was one of the +few prelates—perhaps the only one—who personally sought to avenge himself. During the dispute, a number of friars had supported +the Government, and these he caused to stand on a raised platform in front of a church, and publicly recant their former acts, +declaring themselves miscreants. Juan de Nárgas had just retired from the Governorship after seven yearsʼ service, and the +Archbishop called upon him likewise to abjure his past proceedings and perform the following penance:—To wear a penitentʼs +garb—to place a rope around his neck, and carry a lighted candle to the doors of the cathedral and the churches of the Parian, +San Gabriel and Binondo, on every feast day during four months. Nargas objected to this degradation, and claimed privilege, +arguing that the Archbishop had no jurisdiction over him, as he was a Cavalier of the Military Order of St. James. But the +Archbishop only desisted in his pretensions to humiliate Nárgas when the new Governor threatened to expel him again. + +</p> +<p>Fernando Bustamente Bustillo y Rueda (1717–19) adopted very stringent measures to counteract the Archbishopʼs excessive claims +to immunity. Several individuals charged with heinous crimes had taken church asylum and defied the civil power and justice. +The Archbishop was appealed to, to hand them over to the civil authorities, or allow them to be taken. He refused to do either, +supporting the claim of immunity of sanctuary. At the same time it came to the knowledge of the Governor that a movement had +been set on foot against him by those citizens who favoured the Archbishopʼs views, and that even the friars had so debased +themselves as to seek the aid of the Chinese residents against the Governor. José Torralba (q.v.), the late acting-Governor, +was released from confinement by the Governor, and reinstated by him as judge in the Supreme Court, although he was under +an accusation of embezzlement to the extent of ₱700,000. The Archbishop energetically opposed this act. He notified to Torralba +his excommunication and ecclesiastical pains, and, on his own authority, attempted to seize his person in violation of the +privileges of the Supreme Court. Torralba, with his sword and shield in hand, expelled <a id="d0e3021"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e3021">61</a>]</span>the Archbishopʼs messenger by force. Then, as judge in the Supreme Court, he hastened to avenge himself of his enemies by +issuing warrants against them. They fled to Church asylum, and, with the moral support of the Archbishop, laughed at the magistrates. +There the refugees provided themselves with arms, and prepared for rebellion. When the Archbishop was officially informed +of these facts, he still maintained that nothing could violate their immunity. The Governor then caused the Archbishop to +be arrested and confined in a fortress, with all the ecclesiastics who had taken an active part in the conspiracy against +the Government. + +</p> +<p>Open riot ensued, and the priests marched to the Palace, amidst hideous clamourings, collecting the mob and citizens on the +way. It was one of the most revolting scenes and remarkable events in Philippine history. Priests of the Sacred Orders of +Saint Francis, Saint Dominic, and Saint Augustine joined the Recoletos in shouting “<span lang="es">Viva la Iglesia</span>,” “<span lang="es">Viva nuestro Rey Don Felipe Quinto</span>.”<a id="d0e3031src" href="#d0e3031" class="noteref">8</a> The excited rabble rushed to the Palace, and the Guard having fled, they easily forced their way in. One priest who impudently +dared to advance towards the Governor, was promptly ordered by him to stand back. The Governor, seeing himself encircled by +an armed mob of laymen and servants of Christ clamouring for his downfall, pulled the trigger of his gun, but the flint failed +to strike fire. Then the crowd took courage and attacked him, whilst he defended himself bravely with a bayonet, until he +was overwhelmed by numbers. From the Palace he was dragged to the common jail, and stabbed and maltreated on the way. His +son, hearing of this outrage, arrived on horseback, but was run through by one of the rebels, and fell to the ground. He got +up and tried to cut his way through the infuriated rioters, but was soon surrounded and killed, and his body horribly mutilated. + +</p> +<p>The populace, urged by the clerical party, now fought for the liberty of the Archbishop. The prison doors were broken open, +and the Archbishop was amongst the number of offenders liberated. The prelate came in triumph to the Palace, and assumed the +Government in October, 1719. The mob, during their excesses, tore down the Royal Standard, and maltreated those whom they +met of the unfortunate Governorʼs faithful friends. A mock inquiry into the circumstances of the riot was made in Manila in +apparent judicial form. Another investigation was instituted in Mexico, which led to several of the minor actors in this sad +drama being made the scapegoat victims of the more exalted criminals. The Archbishop held the Government for nine years, and +was then transferred to the Mexican Bishopric of Mechoacan. + +</p> +<p>Pedro Manuel de Arandia (1754–59) is said to have expired of <a id="d0e3038"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e3038">62</a>]</span>melancholy, consequent, in a measure, on his futile endeavours to govern at peace with the friars, who always secured the +favour of the King. + +</p> +<p>On four occasions the Supreme State authority in the Colony has been vested in the prelates. Archbishop Manuel Rojo, acting-Governor +at the time of the British occupation of Manila in 1763, is said to have died of grief and shame in prison (1764) through +the intrigues of the violent Simon de Anda y Salazar (q.v.). + +</p> +<p>José Raon was Gov.-General in 1768, when the expulsion of the Jesuits was decreed. After the secret determination was made +known to him, he was accused of having divulged it, and of having concealed his instructions. He was thereupon placed under +guard in his own residence, where he expired (<i>vide</i> Simon de Anda y Salazár). + +</p> +<p>Domingo Moriones y Murillo (1877–80), it is alleged, had grave altercations with the friars, and found it necessary to remind +the Archbishop Payo that the supreme power in the Philippines belonged to the State—not to the Church representative. + +</p> +<p>From the earliest times of Spanish dominion, it had been the practice of the natives to expose to view the corpses of their +relations and friends in the public highways and villages whilst conveying them to the parish churches, where they were again +exhibited to the common gaze, pending the pleasure of the parish priest to perform the last obsequies. This outrage on public +decorum was proscribed by the Director-General of Civil Administration in a circular dated October, 18, 1887, addressed to +the Provincial Governors, enjoining them to prohibit such indecent scenes in future. Thereupon the parish priests simply showed +their contempt for the civil authorities by simulating their inability to elucidate to the native petty governors the true +intent and meaning of the order. At the same time, the Archbishop of Manila issued instructions on the subject to his subordinates +in very equivocal language. The native local authorities then petitioned the Civil Governor of Manila to make the matter clear +to them. The Civil Governor forthwith referred the matter back to the Director-General of Civil Administration. This functionary, +in a new circular dated November 4, confirmed his previous mandate of October 18, and censured the action of the parish priests, +who “in improper language and from the pulpit,” had incited the native headmen to set aside his authority. The author of the +circular sarcastically added the pregnant remark, that he was penetrated with the conviction that the Archbishopʼs sense of +patriotism and rectitude <i>would deter him from subverting the law</i>. This incident seriously aroused the jealousy of the friars holding vicarages, and did not improve the relations between +Church and State. + +<a id="d0e3054"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e3054">63</a>]</span></p> +<div class="footnotes"> +<hr class="fnsep"> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e2770" href="#d0e2770src" class="noteref">1</a></span> Guido de Lavezares deposed a Sultan in Borneo in order to aid another to the throne, and even asked permission of King Philip +II. to conquer China, which of course was not conceded to him. <i>Vide</i> also the history of the destruction of the Aztec (Mexican) and Incas (Peruvian) dynasties by the Spaniards, in W. H. Prescottʼs +“Conquest of Mexico” and “Conquest of Peru.” +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e2788" href="#d0e2788src" class="noteref">2</a></span> <i lang="es">Maestre de Campo</i> (obsolete grade) about equivalent to the modern General of Brigade. This officer was practically the military governor. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e2817" href="#d0e2817src" class="noteref">3</a></span> According to Juan de la Concepcion, in his “<span lang="es">Hist. Gen. de Philipinas</span>,” Vol. I., p. 431, Li-ma-hong made his escape by cutting a canal for his ships to pass through, but this would appear to +be highly improbable under the circumstances. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e2840" href="#d0e2840src" class="noteref">4</a></span> Some authors assert that only Soliman rebelled. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e2858" href="#d0e2858src" class="noteref">5</a></span> Domingo Salazar, the first Bishop of Manila, took possession in 1581. He and one companion were the only Dominicans in the +Islands until 1587. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e2933" href="#d0e2933src" class="noteref">6</a></span> Bondage in the Philippines was apparently not so necessary for the interests of the Church as it was in Cuba, where a commission +of friars, appointed soon after the discovery of the Island, to deliberate on the policy of partially permitting slavery there, +reported “that the Indians would not labour without compulsion and that, unless they laboured, they could not be brought into +communication with the whites, nor be converted to Christianity.” <i>Vide</i> W. H. Prescottʼs Hist. of the Conquest of Mexico,” tom. II., Chap, i., p. 104, ed. 1878. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e2970" href="#d0e2970src" class="noteref">7</a></span> “<span lang="es">Hist. Gen. de Philipinas</span>,” by Juan de la Concepcion, Vol. III., Chap, ix., p. 365, published at Manila, 1788. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e3031" href="#d0e3031src" class="noteref">8</a></span> “Long live the Church,” “Long live our King Philip V.” +</p> +</div> +</div> +<div id="d0e3055" class="div1"> +<h2 class="normal">Early Relations With Japan</h2> +<p>Two decades of existence in the 16th century was but a short period in which to make known the conditions of this new Colony +to its neighbouring States, when its only regular intercourse with them was through the Chinese who came to trade with Manila. +Japanese mariners, therefore, appear to have continued to regard the north of Luzon as “no-manʼs-land”; for years after its +nominal annexation by the Spaniards they assembled there, whether as merchants or buccaneers it is difficult to determine. +Spanish authority had been asserted by Salcedo along the west coast about as far as lat. 18° N., but in 1591 the north coast +was only known to Europeans geographically. So far, the natives there had not made the acquaintance of their new masters. + +</p> +<p>A large Spanish galley cruising in these waters met a Japanese vessel off Cape Bojeador (N.W. point), and fired a shot which +carried away the strangerʼs mainmast, obliging him to heave-to. Then the galley-men, intending to board the stranger, made +fast the sterns, whilst the Spaniards rushed to the bows; but the Japanese came first, boarded the galley, and drove the Spaniards +aft, where they would have all perished had they not cut away the mizzenmast and let it fall with all sail set. Behind this +barricade they had time to load their arquebuses and drive back the Japanese, over whom they gained a victory. The Spaniards +then entered the Rio Grande de Cagayán, where they met a Japanese fleet, between which they passed peacefully. On shore they +formed trenches and mounted cannons on earthworks, but the Japanese scaled the fortifications and pulled down the cannons +by the mouths. + +</p> +<p>These were recovered, and the Spanish captain had the cannon mouths greased, so that the Japanese tactics should not be repeated. +A battle was fought and the defeated Japanese set sail, whilst the Spaniards remained to obtain the submission of the natives +by force or by persuasion. + +</p> +<p>The Japanese had also come to Manila to trade, and were located in the neighbouring village of Dilao,<a id="d0e3066src" href="#d0e3066" class="noteref">1</a> where the Franciscan friars undertook <a id="d0e3069"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e3069">64</a>]</span>their conversion to Christianity, whilst the Dominican Order considered the spiritual care of the Chinese their especial charge. + +</p> +<p>The Portuguese had been in possession of Macao since the year 1557, and traded with various Chinese ports, whilst in the Japanese +town of Nagasaki there was a small colony of Portuguese merchants. These were the indirect sources whence the Emperor of Japan +learnt that Europeans had founded a colony in Luzon Island; and in 1593 he sent a message to the Governor of the Philippines +calling upon him to surrender and become his vassal, threatening invasion in the event of refusal. The Spanish colonies at +that date were hardly in a position to treat with haughty scorn the menaces of the Japanese potentate, for they were simultaneously +threatened with troubles with the Dutch in the Moluccas, for which they were preparing an armament (<i>vide</i> Chap. <a href="#d0e3191">vi</a>.). The want of men, ships, and war material obliged them to seek conciliation with dignity. The Japanese Ambassador, Farranda +Kiemon, was received with great honours and treated with the utmost deference during his sojourn in Manila. + +</p> +<p>The Governor replied to the Emperor, that being but a lieger of the King of Spain—a mighty monarch of unlimited resources +and power—he was unable to acknowledge the Emperorʼs suzerainty; for the most important duty imposed upon him by his Sovereign +was the defence of his vast domains against foreign aggression; that, on the other hand, he was desirous of entering into +amicable and mutually advantageous relations with the Emperor, and solicited his conformity to a treaty of commerce, the terms +of which would be elucidated to him by an envoy. + +</p> +<p>A priest, Juan Cobo, and an infantry captain were thereupon accredited to the Japanese Court as Philippine Ambassadors. On +their arrival they were, without delay, admitted in audience by the Emperor; the treaty of commerce was adjusted to the satisfaction +of both parties; and the Ambassadors, with some Japanese nobles, set sail for Manila in Japanese ships, which foundered on +the voyage, and all perished. + +</p> +<p>Neither the political nor the clerical party in Manila was, however, dismayed by this first disaster, and the prospect of +penetrating Japan was followed up by a second expedition. + +</p> +<p>Between the friars an animated discussion arose when the Jesuits protested against members of any other Order being sent to +Japan. Saint Francis Xavier had, years before, obtained a Papal Bull from Pope Gregory XIII., awarding Japan to his Order, +which had been the first to establish missions in Nagasaki. Jesuits were still there in numbers, and the necessity of sending +members of rival religious bodies is not made clear in the historical records. The jealous feud between those holy men was +referred to the Governor, who naturally decided against the Jesuits, in support of the Kingʼs policy of grasping territory +under the cloak of piety. A certain Fray Pedro Bautista was chosen as Ambassador, and in his suite were three other priests. +These <a id="d0e3087"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e3087">65</a>]</span>embarked in a Spanish frigate, whilst Farranda Kiemon, who had remained in Manila the honoured guest of the Government, took +his leave, and went on board his own vessel. The authorities bade farewell to the two embassies with ostentatious ceremonies, +and amidst public rejoicings the two ships started on their journey on May 26, 1593. After 30 daysʼ navigation one ship arrived +safely at Nagasaki, and the other at a port 35 miles further along the coast. + +</p> +<p>Pedro Bautista, introduced by Ferranda Kiemon, was presented to the Emperor Taycosama, who welcomed him as an Ambassador authorized +to <i>negotiate a treaty of commerce, and conclude an offensive and defensive alliance for mutual protection.</i> The Protocol was agreed to and signed by both parties, and the relations between the Emperor and Pedro Bautista became more +and more cordial. The latter solicited, and obtained, permission to reside indefinitely in the country and send the treaty +on by messenger to the Governor of the Philippines; hence the ships in which the envoys had arrived remained about ten months +in port. A concession was also granted to build a church at Meaco, near Osaka, and it was opened in 1594, when Mass was publicly +celebrated. + +</p> +<p>In Nagasaki the Jesuits were allowed to reside unmolested and practise their religious rites amongst the Portuguese population +of traders and others who might have voluntarily embraced Christianity. Bautista went there to consult with the chief of the +Jesuit Mission, who energetically opposed what he held to be an encroachment upon the monopoly rights of his Order, conceded +by Pope Gregory XIII. and confirmed by royal decrees. Bautista, however, showed a permission which he had received from the +Jesuit General, by virtue of which he was suffered to continue his course pending that dignitaryʼs arrival. + +</p> +<p>The Portuguese merchants in Nagasaki were not slow to comprehend that Bautistaʼs coming with priests at his command was but +a prelude to Spanish territorial conquest, which would naturally retard their hoped-for emancipation from the Spanish yoke.<a id="d0e3098src" href="#d0e3098" class="noteref">2</a> Therefore, in their own interests, they forewarned the Governor of Nagasaki, who prohibited Bautista from continuing his +propaganda against the established religion of the country in contravention of the Emperorʼs commands; but as Bautista took +no heed of this injunction, he was expelled from Nagasaki for contumacy. + +</p> +<p>It was now manifest to the Emperor that he had been basely deceived, and that under the pretext of concluding a commercial +and political treaty, Bautista and his party had, in effect, introduced themselves into his realm with the clandestine object +of seducing his subjects from their allegiance, of undermining their consciences, perverting them from the religion of their +forefathers, and that all this would bring about the dismemberment of his Empire and the overthrow of his <a id="d0e3103"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e3103">66</a>]</span>dynasty. Not only had Taycosama abstained from persecuting foreigners for the exercise of their religious rites, but he freely +licensed the Jesuits to continue their mission in Nagasaki and wherever Catholics happened to congregate. He had permitted +the construction of their temples, but he could not tolerate a deliberate propaganda which foreshadowed his own ruin.<a id="d0e3105src" href="#d0e3105" class="noteref">3</a> + +</p> +<p>Pedro Bautistaʼs designs being prematurely obstructed, he took his passage back to Manila from Nagasaki in a Japanese vessel, +leaving behind him his interpreter, Fray Jerome, with the other Franciscan monks. An Imperial Decree was then issued to prohibit +foreign priests from interfering with the religion of Japanese subjects; but this law having been set at naught by Bautistaʼs +colleagues, one was arrested and imprisoned, and warrants were issued against the others; meanwhile the Jesuits in Nagasaki +were in no way restrained. + +</p> +<p>The Governor of Nagasaki caused the Franciscan propagandists to be conducted on board a Portuguese ship and handed over to +the charge of the captain, under severe penalties if he aided or allowed their escape, but they were free to go wherever they +chose outside the Japanese Empire. The captain, however, permitted one to return ashore, and for some time he wandered about +the country in disguise. + +</p> +<p>Pedro Bautista had reached Manila, where the ecclesiastical dignitaries prevailed upon the Governor to sanction another expedition +to Japan, and Bautista arrived in that country a second time with a number of Franciscan friars. The Emperor now lost all +patience, and determined not only to repress these venturesome foreigners, but to stamp out the last vestige of their revolutionary +machinations. Therefore, by Imperial Decree, the arrest was ordered of all the Franciscan friars, and all natives who persisted +in their adhesion to these missionariesʼ teachings. Twenty-six of those taken were tried and condemned to ignominious exhibition +and death—the Spaniards, because they had come into the country and had received royal favours under false pretences, representing +themselves as political ambassadors and suite—the Japanese, because they had forsworn the religion of their ancestors and +bid fair to become a constant danger and source of discord in the realm. Amongst these Spaniards was Pedro Bautista. After +their ears and noses had been cut off, they were promenaded from town to town in a cart, finally entering Nagasaki on horseback, +each bearing the sentence of death on a breast-board. + +</p> +<p>On a high ground, near the city and the port, in front of the Jesuitsʼ church, these 26 persons were crucified and stabbed +to death with lances, in expiation of their political offences. It was a sad fate for men who conscientiously believed that +they were justified in violating rights and <a id="d0e3116"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e3116">67</a>]</span>laws of nations for the propagation of their particular views; but can one complain? Would Buddhist missionaries in Spain +have met with milder treatment at the hands of the Inquisitors?<a id="d0e3118src" href="#d0e3118" class="noteref">4</a> + +</p> +<p>Each Catholic body was supposed to designate the same road to heaven—each professed to teach the same means of obtaining the +grace of God; yet, strange to say, each bore the other an implacable hatred—an inextinguishable jealousy! If conversion to +Christianity were for the glory of God only, what could it have mattered whether souls of Japanese were saved by Jesuits or +by others? For King Philip it was the same whether his political tools were of one denomination or the other, but many of +the Jesuits in Japan happened to be Portuguese. + +</p> +<p>The Jesuits in Manila probably felt that in view of their opposition to the Franciscan missions, public opinion might hold +them morally responsible for indirectly contributing to the unfortunate events related; therefore, to justify their acts, +they formally declared that Pedro Bautista and his followers died excommunicated, because they had disobeyed the Bull of Pope +Gregory XIII. + +</p> +<p>The general public were much excited when the news spread through the city, and a special Mass was said, followed by a religious +procession through the streets. The Governor sent a commission to Japan, under the control of Luis de Navarrete, to ask for +the dead bodies and chattels of the executed priests. The Emperor showed no rancour whatsoever; on the contrary, his policy +was already carried out; and to welcome the Spanish lay deputies, he gave a magnificent banquet and entertained them sumptuously. +Luis de Navarrete having claimed the dead bodies of the priests, the Emperor at once ordered the guards on the execution ground +to retire, and told Navarrete that he could dispose as he pleased of the mortal remains. Navarrete therefore hastened to Nagasaki, +but before he could reach there, devout Catholics had cut up the bodies, one carrying away a head, another a leg, and so forth. +It happened, too, that Navarrete died of disease a few days after his arrival in Nagasaki. His successor, Diego de Losa, recovered +the pieces of the deceased priests, which he put into a box and shipped for Manila, but the vessel and box of relics were +lost on the way. + +</p> +<p>Diego de Losa returned to Manila, the bearer of a polite letter and very acceptable presents from the Emperor to the Governor +of the Philippines. + +</p> +<p>The letter fully expatiated on recent events, and set forth a well-reasoned justification of the Emperorʼs decrees against +the priests, in terms which proved that he was neither a tyrant nor a wanton savage, <a id="d0e3134"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e3134">68</a>]</span>but an astute politician. The letter stated, that under the pretext of being ambassadors, the priests in question had come +into the country and had taught a diabolical law belonging to foreign countries, and which aimed at superseding the rites +and laws of his own religion, confused his people, and destroyed his Government and kingdom; for which reason he had rigorously +proscribed it. Against these prohibitions, the religious men of Luzon preached their law publicly to humble people, such as +servants and slaves. Not being able to permit this persistence in law-breaking, he had ordered their death by placing them +on crosses; for he was informed that in the kingdom where Spaniards dominated, this teaching of their religious doctrine was +but an artifice and stratagem by means of which the civil power was deceitfully gained. He astutely asks the Gov.-General +if he would consent to Japanese preaching their laws in his territory, perturbing public peace with such novelties amongst +the lower classes? + +</p> +<p>Certainly it would be severely repressed, argued the Emperor, adding that in the exercise of his absolute power and for the +good of his subjects, he had avoided the occurrence in his dominions of what had taken place in those regions where the Spaniards +deposed the legitimate kings, and constituted themselves masters by religious fraud. + +</p> +<p>He explains that the seizure of the cargo of a Spanish ship was only a reprisal for the harm which he had suffered by the +tumult raised when the edict was evaded. But as the Spanish Governor had thought fit to send another ambassador from so far, +risking the perils of the sea, he was anxious for peace and mutual good-feeling, but only on the precise condition that no +more individuals should be sent to teach a law foreign to his realm, and under these unalterable conditions the Governorʼs +subjects were at liberty to trade freely with Japan; that by reason of his former friendship and royal clemency, he had refrained +from killing all the Spaniards with the priests and their servants, and had allowed them to return to their country. + +</p> +<p>As to religion itself, Taycosama is said to have remarked that among so many professed, one more was of little consequence,—hence +his toleration in the beginning, and his continued permission to the Jesuits to maintain their doctrines amongst their own +sectarians. Moreover, it is said that a map was shown to Taycosama, marking the domains of the King of Spain and Portugal, +and that in reply to his inquiry: “How could one man have conquered such vast territory?”—a certain Father Guzman (probably +a Portuguese) answered: “By secretly sending religious men to teach their doctrine, and when a sufficient number of persons +were so converted, the Spanish soldiery, with their aid, annexed their country and overthrew their kings.” Such an avowal +naturally impressed Taycosama profoundly.<a id="d0e3142src" href="#d0e3142" class="noteref">5</a> +<a id="d0e3148"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e3148">69</a>]</span></p> +<p>In Seville there was quite a tumult when the details of the executions in Japan were published. + +</p> +<p>In the meantime, the lamentable end of the Franciscan missionaries did not deter others from making further attempts to follow +their example. During the first 20 years of the 17th century, priests succeeded in entering Japan, under the pretence of trading, +in spite of the extreme measures adopted to discover them and the precautions taken to uproot the new doctrine, which it was +feared would become the forerunner of sedition. Indeed, many Japanese nobles professing Christianity had already taken up +their residence in Manila, and were regarded by the Emperor as a constant danger to his realm, hence he was careful to avoid +communication with the Philippines. During the short reigns of Dayfusama and his son Xogusama, new decrees were issued, not +against foreign Christians, but against those who made apostates amongst the Japanese; and consequently two more Spanish priests +were beheaded. + +</p> +<p>In September, 1622, a large number of Spanish missionaries and Christian Japanese men and children were executed in Nagasaki. +Twenty-five of them were burnt and the rest beheaded, their remains being thrown into the sea to avoid the Christians following +their odious custom of preserving parts of corpses as relics. Two days afterwards, four Franciscan and two Dominican friars +with five Japanese were burnt in Omura. Then followed an edict stating the pains and penalties, civil deprivations, etc., +against all who refused to abandon their apostasy and return to the faith of their forefathers. Another edict was issued imposing +death upon those who should conduct priests to Japan, and forfeiture of the ships in which they should arrive and the merchandise +with which they should come. To all informers against native apostates the culpritsʼ estates and goods were transferred as +a reward. + +</p> +<p>A Spanish deputation was sent to the Emperor of Japan in 1622, alleging a desire to renew commercial relations, but the Emperor +was so exasperated at the recent defiance of his decrees that he refused to accept the deputiesʼ presents from the Philippine +Government, and sent them and the deputation away. + +</p> +<p>Still there were friars in Manila eager to seek martyrdom, but the Philippine traders, in view of the danger of confiscation +of their ships and merchandise if they carried missionaries, resolved not to despatch vessels to Japan if ecclesiastics insisted +on taking passage. The Government supported this resolution in the interests of trade, and formally prohibited the transport +of priests. The Archbishop of Manila, on his part, imposed ecclesiastical penalties on those of his subordinates who should +clandestinely violate this prohibition. + +</p> +<p>Supplicatory letters from Japan reached the religious communities in Manila, entreating them to send more priests to aid in +the spread of Christianity; therefore the chiefs of the Orders consulted together, <a id="d0e3161"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e3161">70</a>]</span>bought a ship, and paid high wages to its officers to carry four Franciscan, four Dominican and two Recoleto priests to Japan. +When the Governor, Alonso Fajardo de Tua, heard of the intended expedition, he threatened to prohibit it, affirming that he +would not consent to any more victims being sent to Japan. Thereupon representatives of the religious Orders waited upon him, +to state that if he persisted in his prohibition, upon his conscience would fall the enormous charge of having lost the souls +which they had hoped to save. The Governor therefore retired from the discussion, remitting the question to the Archbishop, +who at once permitted the ship to leave, conveying the ten priests disguised as merchants. Several times the vessel was nearly +wrecked, but at length arrived safely in a Japanese port. The ten priests landed, and were shortly afterwards burnt by Imperial +order. + +</p> +<p>In Rome a very disputed inquiry had been made into the circumstances of the Franciscan mission; but, in spite of the severe +ordeal of the <i lang="la">diaboli advocatus</i>, cononization was conceded to Pedro Bautista and his companions. + +</p> +<p>In 1629 the Papal Bull of Urban VIII., dated September 14, 1627, was published in Manila, amidst public feasts and popular +rejoicing. The Bull declared the missionaries of Japan to be Saints and Martyrs and Patron Saints of the second class. Increased +animation in favour of missions to Japan became general in consequence. Ten thousand pesos were collected to fit out a ship +to carry 12 priests from Manila, besides 24 priests who came from Pangasinán to embark privately. The ship, however, was wrecked +off the Ilocos Province coast (Luzon Is.), but the crew and priests were saved. + +</p> +<p>A large junk was then secretly prepared at a distance from Manila for the purpose of conveying another party of friars to +Japan; but, just as they were about to embark, the Governor sent a detachment of soldiers with orders to prevent them doing +so, and he definitely prohibited further missionary expeditions. + +</p> +<p>In 1633 the final extinction of Christians was vigorously commenced by the Emperor To-Kogunsama; and in the following year +79 persons were executed. The same Emperor sent a ship to Manila with a present of 150 lepers, saying that, as he did not +permit Christians in his country, and knowing that the priests had specially cared for these unfortunate beings, he remitted +them to their care. The first impulse of the Spaniards was to sink the ship with cannon shots, but finally it was agreed to +receive the lepers, who were conducted with great pomp through the city and lodged in a large shed at Dilao (now the suburb +of Paco). This gave rise to the foundation of the Saint Lazarusʼ (Lepersʼ) Hospital, existing at the present day.<a id="d0e3177src" href="#d0e3177" class="noteref">6</a> The Governor replied <a id="d0e3180"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e3180">71</a>]</span>to the Emperor that if any more were sent he would kill them and their conductors. + +</p> +<p>The Emperor then convoked a great assembly of his vassal kings and nobles, and solemnly imposed upon them the strict obligation +to fulfil all the edicts against the entry and permanence of Christians, under severe penalties, forfeiture of property, deprivation +of dignities, or death. So intent was this Prince on effectually annihilating Christianity within his Empire, that he thenceforth +interdicted all trade with Macao; and when in 1640 his decree was disregarded by four Portuguese traders, who, describing +themselves as ambassadors, arrived with a suite of 46 Orientals, they were all executed. + +</p> +<p>In the same year the Governor of the Philippines called a Congress of local officials and ecclesiastics, amongst whom it was +agreed that to send missionaries to Japan was to send them directly to death, and it was thenceforth resolved to abandon Catholic +missions in that country. + +</p> +<p>Secret missions and consequent executions still continued until about the year 1642, when the Dutch took Tanchiu—in Formosa +Island—from the Spaniards, and intercepted the passage to Japan of priests and merchants alike. The conquest of Japan was +a feat which all the artifice of King Philip IV.ʼs favourites and their monastic agents could not compass. + +</p> +<p>In 1862, during the Pontificate of Pius IX., 620 missionaries who had met with martyrdom in Japan, in the 17th century, were +canonized with great pomp and appropriate ceremony in Rome. + +<a id="d0e3190"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e3190">72</a>]</span></p> +<div class="footnotes"> +<hr class="fnsep"> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e3066" href="#d0e3066src" class="noteref">1</a></span> Now the suburb of Paco. Between 1606 and 1608, owing to a rising of the Japanese settlers, their dwellings in Dilao were sacked +and the settlement burnt. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e3098" href="#d0e3098src" class="noteref">2</a></span> Portugal was forcibly annexed to the Spanish Crown from 1581 to 1640. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e3105" href="#d0e3105src" class="noteref">3</a></span> Philip II.ʼs persecution of religious apostates during the “Wars of the Flanders” was due as much to the fact that Protestantism +was becoming a political force, threatening Spainʼs dominion, as to Catholic sentiment. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e3118" href="#d0e3118src" class="noteref">4</a></span> Religious intolerance in Spain was confirmed in 1822 by the New Penal Code of that date; the text reads thus: “<span lang="es">Todo él que conspirase directamente y de hecho á establecer otra religion en las Españas, ó á que la Nacion Española deje +de profesar la religion Apostolica Romana es traidor y sufrirá la pena de muerte.” Articulo 227 del Código Penal presentado +á las Cortes en 22 de Abril de 1821 y sancionado en 1822</span>.” +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e3142" href="#d0e3142src" class="noteref">5</a></span> “<span lang="es">Hist. Gen. de Philipinas</span>,” by Juan de la Concepeion Vol. III., Chap. viii. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e3177" href="#d0e3177src" class="noteref">6</a></span> This hospital was rebuilt with a legacy left by the Gov.-General Don Manuel de Leon in 1677. It was afterwards subsidized +by the Government, and was under the care of the Franciscan friars up to the close of the Spanish dominion. +</p> +</div> +</div> +<div id="d0e3191" class="div1"> +<h2 class="normal">Conflicts with the Dutch</h2> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Consequent</span> on the union of the Crowns of Portugal and Spain (1581–1640), the feuds, as between nations, diplomatically subsided, although +the individual antagonism was as rife as ever. + +</p> +<p>Spanish and Portuguese interests in the Moluccas, as elsewhere, were thenceforth officially mutual. In the Molucca group, +the old contests between the once rival kingdoms had estranged the natives from their ancient compulsory alliances. Anti-Portuguese +and Philo-Portuguese parties had sprung up amongst the petty sovereignties, but the Portuguese fort and factory established +in Ternate Island were held for many years, despite all contentions. But another rivalry, as formidable and more detrimental +than that of the Portuguese in days gone by, now menaced Spanish ascendancy. + +</p> +<p>From the close of the 16th century up to the year of the “Family Compact” Wars (1763), Holland and Spain were relentless foes. +To recount the numerous combats between their respective fleets during this period, would itself require a volume. It will +suffice here to show the bearing of these political conflicts upon the concerns of the Philippine Colony. The Treaty of Antwerp, +which was wrung from the Spaniards in 1609, 28 years after the union of Spain and Portugal, broke the scourge of their tyranny, +whilst it failed to assuage the mutual antipathy. One of the consequences of the “Wars of the Flanders,” which terminated +with this treaty, was that the Dutch were obliged to seek in the Far East the merchandise which had hitherto been supplied +to them from the Peninsula. The short-sighted policy of the Spaniards in closing to the Dutch the Portuguese markets, which +were now theirs, brought upon themselves the destruction of the monopolies which they had gained by the Union. The Dutch were +now free, and their old tyrantʼs policy induced them to establish independently their own trading headquarters in the Molucca +Islands, whence they could obtain directly the produce forbidden to them in the home ports. Hence, from those islands, the +ships of a powerful Netherlands Trading Company sallied forth from time to time to meet the Spanish galleons from Mexico laden +with silver and manufactured <a id="d0e3202"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e3202">73</a>]</span>goods. Previous to this, and during the Wars of the Flanders, Dutch corsairs hovered about the waters of the Moluccas, to +take reprisals from the Spaniards. These encounters frequently took place at the eastern entrance of the San Bernadino Straits, +where the Dutch were accustomed to heave-to in anticipation of the arrival of their prizes. In this manner, constantly roving +about the Philippine waters, they enriched themselves at the expense of their detested adversary, and, in a small degree, +avenged themselves of the bloodshed and oppression which for over sixty years had desolated the Low Countries. + +</p> +<p>The Philippine Colony lost immense sums in the seizure of its galleons from Mexico, upon which it almost entirely depended +for subsistence. Being a dependency of New Spain, its whole intercourse with the civilized world, its supplies of troops and +European manufactured articles, were contingent upon the safe arrival of the galleons. Also the dollars with which they annually +purchased cargoes from the Chinese for the galleons came from Mexico. Consequently, the Dutch usually took the aggressive +in these sea-battles, although they were not always victorious. When there were no ships to meet, they bombarded the ports +where others were being built. The Spaniards, on their part, from time to time fitted out vessels to run down to the Molucca +Islands to attack the enemy in his own waters. + +</p> +<p>During the Governorship of Gomez Perez Dasmariñas (1590–93), the native King of Siao Island—one of the Molucca group—came +to Manila to offer homage and vassalage to the representative of the King of Spain and Portugal, in return for protection +against the incursions of the Dutch and the raids of the Ternate natives. Dasmariñas received him and the Spanish priests +who accompanied him with affability, and, being satisfied with his credentials, he prepared a large expedition to go to the +Moluccas to set matters in order. The fleet was composed of several frigates, 1 ship, 6 galleys, and 100 small vessels, all +well armed. The fighting men numbered 100 Spaniards, 400 Pampanga and Tagálog arquebusiers, 1,000 Visaya archers and lancers, +besides 100 Chinese to row the galleys. This expedition, which was calculated to be amply sufficient to subdue all the Moluccas, +sailed from Cavite on October 6, 1593. The sailing ships having got far ahead of the galleys, they hove-to off Punta de Azúfre +(N. of Maricaban Is.) to wait for them. The galleys arrived; and the next day they were able to start again in company. Meanwhile, +a conspiracy was formed by the Chinese galleymen to murder all the Spaniards. Assuming these Chinese to be volunteers, their +action would appear to be extremely vile. If, however, as is most probable, they were pressed into this military service to +foreigners, it seems quite natural, that being forced to bloodshed without alternative, they should first fight for their +own liberty, seeing that they had come to the Islands to trade. + +</p> +<p>All but the Chinese were asleep, and they fell upon the Spaniards in <a id="d0e3210"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e3210">74</a>]</span>a body. Eighteen of the troops and four slaves escaped by jumping into the sea. The Governor was sleeping in his cabin, but +awoke on hearing the noise. He supposed the ship had grounded, and was coming up the companion <i lang="fr">en déshabille</i>, when a Chinaman clove his head with a cutlass. The Governor reached his state-room, and taking his Missal and the Image +of the Virgin in his hand, he died in six hours. The Chinese did not venture below, where the priests and armed soldiers were +hidden. They cleared the decks of all their opponents, made fast the hatches and gangways, and waited three days, when, after +putting ashore those who were still alive, they escaped to Cochin China, where the King and Mandarins seized the vessel and +all she carried. On board were found 12,000 pesos in coin, some silver, and jewels belonging to the Governor and his suite. +Thus the expedition was brought to an untimely end. The King of Siao, and the missionaries accompanying him, had started in +advance for Otong (Panay Is.) to wait for the Governor, and there they received the news of the disaster. + +</p> +<p>Amongst the most notable of the successful expeditions of the Spaniards, was that of Pedro Bravo de Acuña, in 1606, which +consisted of 19 frigates, 9 galleys, and 8 small craft, carrying a total of about 2,000 men, and provisions for a prolonged +struggle. The result was that they subdued a petty sultan, friendly to the Dutch, and established a fortress on his island. + +</p> +<p>About the year 1607 the Supreme Court (the Governorship being vacant from 1606 to 1608), hearing that a Dutch vessel was hovering +off Ternate, sent a ship against it, commanded by Pedro de Heredia. A combat ensued. The Dutch commander was taken prisoner +with several of his men, and lodged in the fort at Ternate, but was ransomed on payment of ₱50,000 to the Spanish commander. +Heredia returned joyfully to Manila, where, much to his surprise, he was prosecuted by the Supreme Court for exceeding his +instructions, and expired of melancholy. The ransomed Dutch leader was making his way back to his headquarters in a small +ship, peacefully, and without threatening the Spaniards in any way, when the Supreme Court treacherously sent a galley and +a frigate after him to make him prisoner a second time. Overwhelmed by numbers and arms, and little expecting such perfidious +conduct of the Spaniards, he was at once arrested and brought to Manila. The Dutch returned 22 Spanish prisoners of war to +Manila to ransom him, but whilst these were retained, the Dutch commander was nevertheless imprisoned for life. + +</p> +<p>Some years afterwards a Dutch squadron anchored off the south point of Bataan Province, not far from Punta Marivéles, at the +entrance to Manila Bay. Juan de Silva, the Governor (1609–16), was in great straits. Several ships had been lost by storms, +others were away, and there was no adequate floating armament with which to meet the enemy. However, the Dutch lay-to for +five or six <a id="d0e3221"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e3221">75</a>]</span>months, waiting to seize the Chinese and Japanese tradersʼ goods on their way to the Manila market. They secured immense booty, +and were in no hurry to open hostilities. This delay gave de Silva time to prepare vessels to attack the foe. In the interval +he dreamt that Saint Mark had offered to help him defeat the Dutch. On awaking, he called a priest, whom he consulted about +the dream, and they agreed that the nocturnal vision was a sign from Heaven denoting a victory. The priest went (from Cavite) +to Manila to procure a relic of this glorious intercessor, and returned with his portrait to the Governor, who adored it. +In haste the ships and armament were prepared. On Saint Markʼs day, therefore, the Spaniards sallied forth from Cavite with +six ships, carrying 70 guns, and two galleys and two launches, also well armed, besides a number of small, light vessels to +assist in the formation of line of battle. + +</p> +<p>All the European fighting men in Manila and Cavite embarked—over 1,000 Spaniards—the flower of the Colony, together with a +large force of natives, who were taught to believe that the Dutch were infidels. On the issue of this dayʼs events perchance +depended the possession of the Colony. Manila and Cavite were garrisoned by volunteers. Orations were offered in the churches. +The Miraculous Image of Our Lady of the Guide was taken in procession from the Hermitage, and exposed to public view in the +Cathedral. The Saints of the different churches and sanctuaries were adored and exhibited daily. The Governor himself took +the supreme command, and dispelled all wavering doubt in his subordinates by proclaiming Saint Markʼs promise of intercession. +On his ship he hoisted the Royal Standard, on which was embroidered the Image of the Blessed Virgin, with the motto “<i lang="la">Mostrate esse Matrem</i>” and over a beautifully calm sea he led the way to battle and to victory. + +</p> +<p>A shot from the Spanish heavy artillery opened the bloody combat. The Dutch were completely vanquished, after a fierce struggle, +which lasted six hours. Their three ships were destroyed, and their flags, artillery, and plundered merchandise, to the value +of ₱300,000, were seized. This famous engagement was thenceforth known as the Battle of Playa Honda. + +</p> +<p>Again, in 1611, under de Silva, a squadron sailed to the Moluccas and defeated the Dutch off Gilolo Island. + +</p> +<p>In 1617 the Spaniards had a successful engagement off the Zambales coast with the Dutch, who lost three of their ships. + +</p> +<p>In July, 1620, three Mexican galleons were met by three Dutch vessels off Cape Espíritu Santo (Sámar Is.), at the entrance +of the San Bernadino Straits, but managed to escape in the dark. Two ran ashore and broke up; the third reached Manila. After +this, the Gov.-General, Alonso Fajardo de Tua, ordered the course of the State ships to be varied on each voyage. +<a id="d0e3236"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e3236">76</a>]</span></p> +<p>In 1625 the Dutch again appeared off the Zambales coast, and Gerónimo de Silva went out against them. The Spaniards, having +lost one man, relinquished the pursuit of the enemy, and the Commander was brought to trial by the Supreme Court. + +</p> +<p>In 1626, at the close of the Governorship of Fernando de Silva, a Spanish Colony was founded on Formosa Island, but no supplies +were sent to it, and consequently in 1642 it surrendered to the Dutch, who held it for 20 years, until they were driven out +by the Chinese adventurer Koxinga. And thus for over a century and a half the strife continued, until the Dutch concentrated +their attention on the development of their Eastern Colonies, which the power of Spain, growing more and more effete, was +incompetent to impede. +</p> +<hr class="tb"><p> + +</p> +<p>In the middle of the 17th century the Tartars invaded China and overthrew the Min Dynasty—at that time represented by the +Chinese Emperor Yunglic. He was succeeded on the throne by the Tartar Emperor Kungchi, to whose arbitrary power nearly all +the Chinese Empire had submitted. Amongst the few Mongol chiefs who held out against Ta-Tsing dominion was a certain Mandarin +known by the name of Koxinga, who retired to the Island of Kinmuen, where he asserted his independence and defied his nationʼs +conqueror. Securely established in his stronghold, he invited the Chinese to take refuge in his island and oppose the Tartarʼs +rule. Therefore the Emperor ordered that no man should inhabit China within four leagues of the coast, except in those provinces +which were undoubtedly loyal to the new Government. The coast was consequently laid bare; vessels, houses, plantations, and +everything useful to man, were destroyed in order to cut off effectually all communications with lands beyond the Tartar Empire. +The Chinese from the coast, who for generations had earned a living by fishing, etc., crowded into the interior, and their +misery was indescribable. + +</p> +<p>Koxinga, unable to communicate with the mainland of the Empire, turned his attention to the conquest of Formosa Island, at +the time in the possession of the Dutch. According to Dutch accounts the European settlers numbered about 600, with a garrison +of 2,200. The Dutch artillery, stores, and merchandise were valued at ₱8,000,000, and the Chinese, who attacked them under +Koxinga, were about 100,000 strong. The settlement surrendered to the invadersʼ superior numbers, and Koxinga established +himself as King of the Island. Koxinga had become acquainted with an Italian Dominican missionary named Vittorio Riccio, whom +he created a Mandarin, and sent him as Ambassador to the Governor of the Philippines. Riccio therefore arrived in Manila in +1662, the bearer of Koxingaʼs despatches calling upon the Governor to pay tribute, under threat of the Colony being attacked +by Koxinga if his demand were refused. +<a id="d0e3247"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e3247">77</a>]</span></p> +<p>The position of Riccio as a European friar and Ambassador of a Mongol adventurer was as awkward as it was novel. He was received +with great honour in Manila, where he disembarked, and rode to the Government House in the full uniform of a Chinese envoy, +through lines of troops drawn up to salute him as he passed. At the same time, letters from Formosa had also been received +by the Chinese in Manila, and the Government at once accused them of conniving at rebellion. All available forces were concentrated +in the capital; and to increase the garrison the Governor published a decree, dated May 6, 1662, ordering the demolition of +the forts of Zamboanga, Ylígan (Mindanao Is.), Calamianes and Ternale<a id="d0e3250src" href="#d0e3250" class="noteref">1</a> (Moluccas). + +</p> +<p>The only provincial fort preserved was that of Surigao (then called Caraga), consequently in the south the Mahometans became +complete masters on land and at sea for half a year. + +</p> +<p>The troops in Manila numbered 100 cavalry and 8,000 infantry. Fortifications were raised, and redoubts were constructed in +which to secrete the Treasury funds. When all the armament was in readiness, the Spaniards incited the Chinese to rebel, in +order to afford a pretext for their massacre. + +</p> +<p>Two junk masters were seized, and the Chinese population was menaced; therefore they prepared for their own defence, and then +opened the affray, for which the Government was secretly longing, by killing a Spaniard in the market-place. Suddenly artillery +fire was opened on the Parian, and many of the peaceful Chinese traders, in their terror, hanged themselves; many were drowned +in the attempt to reach the canoes in which to get away to sea; some few did safely arrive in Formosa Island and joined Koxingaʼs +camp, whilst others took to the mountains. Some 8,000 to 9,000 Chinese remained quiet, but ready for any event, when they +were suddenly attacked by Spaniards and natives. The confusion was general, and the Chinese seemed to be gaining ground; therefore +the Governor sent the Ambassador Riccio and a certain Fray Joseph de Madrid to parley with them. The Chinese accepted the +terms offered by Riccio, who returned to the Governor, leaving Fray Joseph with the rebels; but when Riccio went back with +a general pardon and a promise to restore the two junk masters, he found that they had beheaded the priest. A general carnage +of the Mongols followed, and Juan de la Concepcion says<a id="d0e3259src" href="#d0e3259" class="noteref">2</a> that the original intention of the Spaniards was to kill every Chinaman, but that they desisted in view of the inconvenience +which would have ensued from the want of tradesmen and mechanics. Therefore they made a virtue of a necessity, <a id="d0e3265"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e3265">78</a>]</span>and graciously pardoned in the name of His Catholic Majesty all who laid down their arms. + +</p> +<p>Riccio returned to Formosa Island, and found Koxinga preparing for warfare against the Philippines, but before he could carry +out his intentions he died of fever. The chiefs successor, of a less bellicose spirit, sent Riccio a second time to Manila, +and a treaty was agreed to, re-establishing commercial relations with the Chinese. Shortly after Koxingaʼs decease a rebellion +was raised in Formosa; and the Island, falling at length into the hands of a Tartar party, became annexed to China under the +new dynasty. Then Riccio was called upon to relate the part he had taken in Koxingaʼs affairs, and he was heard in council. +Some present were in favour of invading the Philippines in great force because of the cruel and unwarranted general massacre +of the Chinese in cold blood; but Riccio took pains to show how powerful Spain was, and how justified was the action of the +Spaniards, as a measure of precaution, in view of the threatened invasion of Koxinga. The Chinese party was appeased, but +had the Tartars cared to take up the cause of their conquered subjects, the fate of the Philippines would have been doubtful. +</p> +<hr class="tb"><p> + +</p> +<p>The rule of the Governors-General of the Islands was, upon the whole, benignant with respect to the natives who manifested +submission. Apart from the unconcealed animosity of the monastic party, the Gov.-Generalʼs liberty of action was always very +much locally restrained by the Supreme Court and by individual officials. The standing rule was, that in the event of the +death or deprivation of office of the Gov.-General, the Civil Government was to be assumed by the Supreme Court, and the military +administration by the senior magistrate. Latterly, in the absence of a Gov.-General, from any cause whatsoever, the sub-inspector +of the forces became Acting-Gov.-General. + +</p> +<p>Up to the beginning of the last century the authority of the Kingʼs absolute will was always jealously imposed, and the Governors-General +were frequently rebuked for having exercised independent action, taking the initiative in what they deemed the best policy. +But Royal Decrees could not enforce honesty; the peculations and frauds on the part of the secular authorities, and increasing +quarrels and jealousies amongst the several religious bodies, seemed to annihilate all prospect of social and material progress +of the Colony. As early as the reign of Philip III. (1598–1621) the procurators of Manila had, during three years, been unsuccessfully +soliciting from the mother country financial help for the Philippines to meet official discrepancies. The affairs of the Colony +were eventually submitted to a special Royal Commission in Spain, the result being that the King was advised to abandon this +possession, which was not only unproductive, but had become a costly centre of disputes and bad feeling. However, Fray Hernando +de Moraga, a missionary from the <a id="d0e3275"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e3275">79</a>]</span>Philippines, happened to be in the Peninsula at the time, and successfully implored the King to withhold his ratification +of the recommendation of the Commission. His Majesty avowed that even though the maintenance of this Colony should exhaust +his Mexican Treasury, his conscience would not allow him to consent to the perdition of souls which had been saved, nor to +relinquish the hope of rescuing yet far more in these distant regions. + +</p> +<p>During the first two centuries following the foundation of the Colony, it was the custom for a Royal Commission to be appointed +to inquire into the official acts of the outgoing Governor before he could leave the Islands—<i lang="es">Hacérle la residencia</i>, as it was called. + +</p> +<p>Whilst on the one hand this measure effectually served as a check upon a Governor who might be inclined to adopt unjustifiable +means of coercion, or commit defalcations, it was also attended with many abuses; for against an energetic ruler an antagonistic +party was always raised, ready to join in the ultimate ruin of the Governor who had aroused their susceptibilities by refusing +to favour their nefarious schemes. Hence when a <i>prima facie</i> case was made out against a Governor, his inexperienced successor was often persuaded to consent to his incarceration whilst +the articles of impeachment were being investigated. + +</p> +<p>Sebastian Hurtado de Corcuera (1635–44) had been Governor of Panamá before he was appointed to the Philippines. During his +term of office here he had usually sided with the Jesuits on important questions taken up by the friars, and on being succeeded +by Diego Fajardo, he was brought to trial, fined ₱ 25,000, and put into prison. After five yearsʼ confinement he was released +by Royal Order and returned to Spain, where the King partially compensated him with the Government of the Canary Islands. + +</p> +<p>Juan Vargas (1678–84) had been in office for nearly seven years, and the Royal Commissioner who inquired into his acts took +four years to draw up his report. He filled 20 large volumes of a statement of the charges made against the late Governor, +some of which were grave, but the majority of them were of a very frivolous character. This is the longest inquiry of the +kind on record. + +</p> +<p>Acting-Governor José Torralba (1715–17) was arrested on the termination of his Governorship and confined in the Fortress of +Santiago, charged with embezzlement to the amount of ₱ 700,000. He had also to deposit the sum of ₱ 20,000 for the expenses +of the inquiry commission. Several other officials were imprisoned with him as accomplices in his crimes. He is said to have +sent his son with public funds on trading expeditions around the coasts, and his wife and young children to Mexico with an +enormous sum of money defrauded from the Government. Figures at that date show, that when he took the Government, there was +a balance in the Treasury of ₱ 238,849, and <a id="d0e3293"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e3293">80</a>]</span>when he left it in two years and a half, the balance was ₱ 33,226, leaving a deficit of ₱ 205,623, whilst the expenses of +the Colony were not extraordinary during that period. Amongst other charges, he was accused of having sold ten Provincial +Government licences (<i>encomiendas</i>), many offices of notaries, scriveners, etc., and conceded 27 monthsʼ gambling licences to the Chinese in the Parian without +accounting to the Treasury. He was finally sentenced to pay a fine of ₱ 100,000, the costs of the trial, the forfeiture of +the ₱ 20,000 already deposited, perpetual deprivation of public office, and banishment from the Philippine Islands and Madrid. +When the Royal Order reached Manila he was so ill that his banishment was postponed. He lived for a short time nominally under +arrest, and was permitted to beg alms for his subsistence within the city until he died in the Hospital of San Juan de Dios +in 1736. + +</p> +<p>The defalcations of some of the Governors caused no inconsiderable anxiety to the Sovereign. Pedro de Arandia, in his dual +capacity of Gov.-General and Chief Justice (1754–59), was a corrupt administrator of his countryʼs wealth. He is said to have +amassed a fortune of ₱ 25,000 during his five yearsʼ term of office, and on his death he left it all to pious works (<i>vide</i> “Obras pias”). + +</p> +<p>Governor Berenguer y Marquina (1788–93) was accused of bribery, but the King absolved him. + +</p> +<p>In the last century a Governor of Yloilo is said to have absconded in a sailing-ship with a large sum of the public funds. +A local Governor was then also <i>ex-officio</i> administrator; and, although the system was afterwards reformed, official extortion was rife throughout the whole Spanish +administration of the Colony, up to the last. + +</p> +<p>A strange drama of the year 1622 well portrays the spirit of the times—the immunity of a Gov.-General in those days, as well +as the religious sentiment which accompanied his most questionable acts. Alonso Fajardo de Tua having suspected his wife of +infidelity, went to the house where she was accustomed to meet her paramour. Her attire was such as to confirm her husbandʼs +surmises. He called a priest and instructed him to confess her, telling him that he intended to take her life. The priest, +failing to dissuade Fajardo from inflicting such an extreme penalty, took her confession and proffered her spiritual consolation. +Then Fajardo, incensed with jealousy, mortally stabbed her. No inquiry into the occurrence seems to have been made, and he +continued to govern for two years after the event, when he died of melancholy. It is recorded that the paramour, who was the +son of a Cádiz merchant, had formerly been the accepted <i>fiancé</i> of Fajardoʼs wife, and that he arrived in Manila in their company. The Governor gave him time to confess before he killed +him, after which (according to one account) he caused his house to be razed to the ground, and the land on which it stood +to be strewn with salt. Juan de la Concepcion, <a id="d0e3315"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e3315">81</a>]</span>however, says that the house stood for one hundred years after the event as a memorial of the punishment. + +</p> +<p>In 1640 Olivarez, King Philip IV.ʼs chief counsellor, had succeeded by his arrogance and unprecedented policy of repression +in arousing the latent discontent of the Portuguese. A few years previously they had made an unsuccessful effort to regain +their independent nationality under the sovereignty of the Duke of Braganza. At length, when a call was made upon their boldest +warriors to support the King of Spain in his protracted struggle with the Catalonians, an insurrection broke out, which only +terminated when Portugal had thrown off, for ever, the scourge of Spanish supremacy. + +</p> +<p>The Duke of Braganza was crowned King of Portugal under the title of John IV., and every Portuguese colony declared in his +favour, except Ceuta, on the African coast. The news of the separation of Portugal from Spain reached Manila in the following +year. The Gov.-General at that time—Sebastian Hurtado de Corcuera—at once sent out an expedition of picked men under Juan +Claudio with orders to take Macao,—a Portuguese settlement at the mouth of the Canton River, about 40 miles west of Hongkong. +The attempt miserably failed, and the blue-and-white ensign continued to wave unscathed over the little territory. The Governor +of Macao, who was willing to yield, was denounced a traitor to Portugal, and killed by the populace. Juan Claudio, who was +taken prisoner, was generously liberated by favour of the Portuguese Viceroy of Goa, and returned to Manila to relate his +defeat.<a id="d0e3321src" href="#d0e3321" class="noteref">3</a> + +</p> +<p>The Convent of Santa Clara was founded in Manila in 1621 by Gerónima de la Asuncion, who, three years afterwards, was expelled +from the management by the friars because she refused to admit reforms in the conventual regulations. The General Council +subsequently restored her to the matronship for 20 years. Public opinion was at this time vividly aroused against the superiors +of the convents, who, it was alleged, made serious inroads on society by inveigling the marriageable young women into taking +the veil and to live unnatural lives. The public demanded that there should be a fixed limit to the number of nuns admitted. +An ecclesiastic of high degree made strenuous efforts to rescue three nuns who had just been admitted, but the abbess persistently +refused to surrender them until her excommunication was published on the walls of the nunnery. + +</p> +<p>In 1750 a certain Mother Cecilia, who had been in the nunnery of Santa Catalina since she was 16 years of age, fell in love +with a Spaniard who lived opposite, named Francisco Antonio de Figueroa, and begged <a id="d0e3328"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e3328">82</a>]</span>to be relieved of her vows and have her liberty restored to her. The Archbishop was willing to grant her request, which was, +however, stoutly opposed by the Dominican friars. On appeal being made to the Governor, as viceregal patron, he ordered her +to be set at liberty. The friars nevertheless defied the Governor, who, to sustain his authority, was compelled to order the +troops to be placed under arms, and the commanding officer of the artillery to hold the cannons in readiness to fire when +and where necessary. In view of these preparations, the friars allowed the nun to leave her confinement, and she was lodged +in the College of Santa Potenciana pending the dispute. Public excitement was intense. The Archbishop ordered the girl to +be liberated, but as his subordinates were still contumacious to his bidding, the Bishop of Cebú was invited to arbitrate +on the question, but he declined to interfere, therefore an appeal was remitted to the Archbishop of Mexico. In the meantime +the girl was married to her lover, and long afterwards a citation arrived from Mexico for the woman to appear at that ecclesiastical +court. She went there with her husband, from whom she was separated whilst the case was being tried, but in the end her liberty +and marriage were confirmed. + +</p> +<p>During the Government of Niño de Tabora (1626–32), the High Host and sacred vessels were stolen from the Cathedral of Manila. +The Archbishop was in consequence sorely distressed, and walked barefooted to the Jesuitsʼ convent to weep with the priests, +and therein find a solace for his mental affliction. It was surmised that the wrath of God at such a crime would assuredly +be avenged by calamities on the inhabitants, and confessions were made daily. The friars agreed to appease the anger of the +Almighty by making public penance and by public prayer. The Archbishop subjected himself to a most rigid abstinence. He perpetually +fasted, ate herbs, drank only water, slept on the floor with a stone for a pillow, and flagellated his own body. On Corpus +Christi day a religious procession passed through the public thoroughfares solemnly exhorting the delinquents to restore the +body of Our Saviour, but all in vain. The melancholy prelate, weak beyond recovery from his self-imposed privations, came +to the window of his retreat as the <i>cortége</i> passed in front of it, and there he breathed his last. + +</p> +<p>As in all other Spanish colonies, the Inquisition had its secret agents or commissaries in the Philippines. Sometimes a priest +would hold powers for several years to inquire into the private lives and acts of individuals, whilst no one knew who the +informer was. The Holy Office ordered that its <i>Letter of Anathema</i>, with the names in full of all persons who had incurred pains and penalties for heresy, should be read in public places every +three years, but this order was not fulfilled. The <i>Letter of Anathema</i> was so read in 1669, and the only time since then up to the present day was in 1718. +</p> +<hr class="tb"><p> +<a id="d0e3345"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e3345">83</a>]</span></p> +<p>During the minority of the young Spanish King Charles II. the regency was held by his mother, the Queen-Dowager, who was unfortunately +influenced by favourites, to the great disgust of the Court and the people. Amongst these sycophants was a man named Valenzuela, +of noble birth, who, as a boy, had followed the custom of those days, and entered as page to a nobleman—the Duke del Infantado—to +learn manners and Court etiquette. + +</p> +<p>The Duke went to Italy as Spanish ambassador, and took Valenzuela under his protection. He was a handsome and talented young +fellow, learned for those times,—intelligent, well versed in all the generous exercises of chivalry, and a poet by nature. +On his return from Italy with the Duke, his patron caused him to be created a Cavalier of the Order of Saint James. The Duke +shortly afterwards died, but through the influence of the Dowager-Queenʼs confessor—the notorious Nitard, also a favourite—young +Valenzuela was presented at Court, where he made love to one of the Queenʼs maids-of-honour—a German—and married her. The +Prince, Don Juan de Austria, who headed the party against the Queen, expelled her favourite (Nitard) from Court, and Valenzuela +became Her Majestyʼs sole confidential adviser. Nearly every night, at late hours, the Queen went to Valenzuelaʼs apartment +to confer with him, whilst he daily brought her secret news gleaned from the courtiers. The Queen created him Marquis of San +Bartolome and of Villa Sierra, a first-class Grandee of Spain, and Prime Minister. He was a most perfect courtier; and it +is related of him that when a bull-fight took place, he used to go to the royal box richly adorned in fighting attire, and, +with profound reverence, beg Her Majestyʼs leave to challenge the bull. The Queen, it is said, never refused him the solicited +permission, but tenderly begged of him not to expose himself to such dangers. Sometimes he would appear in the ring as a cavalier, +in a black costume embroidered with silver and with a large white-and-black plume, in imitation of the Queenʼs half mourning. +It was much remarked that on one occasion he wore a device of the sun with an eagle looking down upon it, and the words, “<i>I alone have licence</i>.” + +</p> +<p>He composed several comedies, and allowed them to be performed at his expense for the free amusement of the people. He also +much improved the city of Madrid with fine buildings, bridges, and many public works to sustain his popularity amongst the +citizens. + +</p> +<p>The young King, now a youth, ordered a deer hunt to be prepared in the Escorial grounds; and during the diversion His Majesty +happened to shoot Valenzuela in the muscle of his arm, whether intentionally or accidentally is not known. However, the terrified +Queen-mother fainted and fell into the arms of her ladies-in-waiting. This circumstance was much commented upon, and contributed +in no small degree to the public odium and final downfall of Valenzuela in 1684. At length Don Juan de Austria returned to +the Court, when the young King was of an age <a id="d0e3357"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e3357">84</a>]</span>to appreciate public concerns, and he became more the Court favourite than ever Valenzuela or Nitard had been during the Dowager-Queenʼs +administration. Valenzuela fell at once from the exclusive position he had held in royal circles and retired to the Escorial, +where, by order of Don Juan de Austria, a party of young noblemen, including Don Juanʼs son, the Duke of Medina Sidonia, the +Marquis of Valparaiso, and others of rank, accompanied by 200 horsemen, went to seize the disfavoured courtier. He was out +walking at the time of their arrival, but he was speedily apprised of the danger by his bosom friend, the Prior of Saint Jerome +Monastery. The priest hid him in the roof of the monastery, where, being nearly suffocated for want of ventilation, a surgeon +was sent up to bleed him and make him sleep. The search party failed to find the refugee, and were about to return, when the +surgeon treacherously betrayed the secret to them, and Valenzuela was discovered sleeping with arms by his side. He was made +prisoner, confined in a castle, degraded of all his honours and rank, and finally banished by Don Juan de Austria to the furthermost +Spanish possession in the world—the Philippines,—whilst his family was incarcerated in a convent at Talavera in Spain. + +</p> +<p>When the Pope heard of this violation of Church asylum in the Escorial committed by the nobles, he excommunicated all concerned +in it; and in order to purge themselves of their sin and obtain absolution, they were compelled to go to church in their shirts, +each with a rope around his neck. They actually performed this penance, and then the Nuncio accredited to the Spanish Court, +Cardinal Mellini, relieved them of their ecclesiastical pains and penalties. + +</p> +<p>Valenzuela was permitted to establish a house within the prison of Cavite, where he lived for several years as a State prisoner +and exile. When Don Juan de Austria died, the Dowager-Queen regained in a measure her influence at Court, and one of the first +favours she begged of her son, the King, was the return of Valenzuela to Madrid. The King granted her request, and she at +once despatched a ship to bring him to Spain, but the Secretary of State interfered and stopped it. Nevertheless, Valenzuela, +pardoned and liberated, set out for the Peninsula, and reached Mexico, where he died from the kick of a horse. +</p> +<hr class="tb"><p> + +</p> +<p>In 1703 a vessel arrived in Manila Bay from India, under an Armenian captain, bringing a young man 35 years of age, a native +of Turin, who styled himself Monseigneur Charles Thomas Maillard de Tournon, Visitor-General, Bishop of Savoy, Patriarch of +Antioch, Apostolic Nuncio and Legate <i lang="la">ad latere</i> of the Pope. He was on his way to China to visit the missions, and called at Manila with eight priests and four Italian families. + +</p> +<p>Following the custom established with foreign ships, the custodian of the Fort of Cavite placed guards on board this vessel. +This act seems to have aroused the indignation of the exalted stranger, who assumed a <a id="d0e3372"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e3372">85</a>]</span>very haughty tone, and arrogantly insisted upon a verbal message being taken to the Governor (Domingo Sabalburco) to announce +his arrival. In Manila these circumstances were much debated, and at length the Governor instructed the custodian of Cavite +Fort to accompany the stranger to the City of Manila. On his approach a salute was fired from the city battlements, and he +took up his residence in the house of the Maestre de Campo. There the Governor went to visit him as the Popeʼs legate, and +was received with great arrogance. However, the Governor showed no resentment; he seemed to be quite dumfounded by the Patriarchʼs +dignified airs, and consulted with the Supreme Court about the irregularity of a legate arriving without exhibiting the <i lang="la">regium exequatur</i>. The Court decided that the stranger must be called upon to present his Papal credentials and the royal confirmation of his +powers with respect to Spanish dominions, and with this object a magistrate was commissioned to wait upon him. The Patriarch +treated the commissioner with undisguised contempt, expressing his indignation and surprise at his position being doubted; +he absolutely refused to show any credentials, and turned out the commissioner, raving at him and causing an uproarious scandal. +At each stage of the negotiations with him the Patriarch put forward the great authority of the Pope, and his unquestionable +right to dispose of realms and peoples at his will, and somehow this ruse seemed to subdue everybody; the Governor, the Archbishop, +and all the authorities, civil and ecclesiastical, were overawed. The Archbishop, in fact, made an unconditional surrender +to the Patriarch, who now declared that all State and religious authority must be subordinate to his will. The Archbishop +was ordered by him to set aside his Archiepiscopal Cross, whilst the Patriarch used his own particular cross in the religious +ceremonies, and left it in the Cathedral of Manila on his departure. He went so far as to cause his master of the ceremonies +to publicly divest the Archbishop of a part of his official robes and insignia, to all which the prelate meekly consented. +All the chief authorities visited the Patriarch, who, however, was too dignified to return their calls. Here was, in fact, +an extraordinary case of a man unknown to everybody, and refusing to prove his identity, having absolutely brought all the +authority of a colony under his sway! He was, as a matter of fact, the legate of Clement XI. + +</p> +<p>The only person to whom he appears to have extended his friendship was the Maestre de Campo, at the time under ecclesiastical +arrest. The Maestre de Campo was visited by the Patriarch, who so ingeniously blinded him with his patronage, that this official +squandered about ₱20,000 in entertaining his strange visitor and making him presents. The Patriarch in return insisted upon +the Governor and Archbishop pardoning the Maestre de Campo of all his alleged misdeeds, and when this was conceded he caused +the pardon to be proclaimed in a public Act. All the Manila officials were treated by the Patriarch with open disdain, <a id="d0e3379"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e3379">86</a>]</span>but he created the Armenian captain of the vessel which brought him to Manila a knight of the “Golden Spur,” in a public ceremony +in the Maestre de Campoʼs house in which the Gov.-General was ignored. + +</p> +<p>From Manila the Patriarch went to China, where his meddling with the Catholic missions met with fierce opposition. He so dogmatically +asserted his unproved authority, that he caused European missionaries to be cited in the Chinese Courts and sentenced for +their disobedience; but he was playing with fire, for at last the Emperor of China, wearied of his importunities, banished +him from the country. Thence he went to Macao, where, much to the bewilderment of the Chinese population, he maintained constant +disputes with the Catholic missionaries until he died there in 1710 in the Inquisition prison, where he was incarcerated at +the instance of the Jesuits. + +</p> +<p>When King Philip V. became aware of what had occurred in Manila, he was highly incensed, and immediately ordered the Gov.-General +to Mexico, declaring him disqualified for life to serve under the Crown. The senior magistrates of the Supreme Court were +removed from office. Each priest who had yielded to the legateʼs authority without previously taking cognisance of the <i lang="la">regium exequatur</i> was ordered to pay ₱1,000 fine. The Archbishop was degraded and transferred from the Archbishopric of Manila to the Bishopric +of Guadalajara in Mexico. In spite of this punishment, it came to the knowledge of the King that the ex-Archbishop of Manila, +as Bishop of Guadalajara, was still conspiring with the Patriarch to subvert civil and religious authority in his dominions, +with which object he had sent him ₱1,000 from Mexico, and had promised a fixed sum of ₱1,000 per annum, with whatever further +support he could afford to give him. Therefore the King issued an edict to the effect that any legate who should arrive in +his domains without royal confirmation of his Papal credentials should thenceforth be treated simply with the charity and +courtesy due to any traveller; and in order that this edict should not be forgotten, or evaded, under pretext of its having +become obsolete, it was further enacted that it should be read in full on certain days in every year before all the civil +and ecclesiastical functionaries. + +<a id="d0e3388"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e3388">87</a>]</span></p> +<div class="footnotes"> +<hr class="fnsep"> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e3250" href="#d0e3250src" class="noteref">1</a></span> From this date the Molucca Islands were definitely evacuated and abandoned by the Spaniards, although as many men and as much +material and money had been employed in garrisons and conveyance of subsidies there as in the whole Philippine Colony up to +that period. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e3259" href="#d0e3259src" class="noteref">2</a></span> “<span lang="es">Hist. Gen. de Philipinas</span>,” by Juan de la Concepcion, Vol. VII., p. 48, published at Manila, 1788. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e3321" href="#d0e3321src" class="noteref">3</a></span> Macao is held by the Portuguese since 1557. During the Union of Spain and Portugal (1581–1640), the Dutch made two unsuccessful +attempts to seize it (1622 and 1627). This colony was the great European-Chinese emporium prior to Hong-Kong (1841), and paid +crown rent to China up to 1848. +</p> +</div> +</div> +<div id="d0e3389" class="div1"> +<h2 class="normal">British Occupation of Manila</h2> +<p>In 1761 King George III. had just succeeded to the throne of England, and the protracted contentions with France had been +suspended for a while. It was soon evident, however, that efforts were being made to extinguish the power and prestige of +Great Britain, and with this object a convention had been entered into between France and Spain known as the “Family Compact.” +It was so called because it was an alliance made by the three branches of the House of Bourbon, namely, Louis XV. of France, +Charles III. of Spain, and his son Ferdinand, who, in accordance with the Treaty of Vienna, had ascended the throne of Naples. +Spain engaged to unite her forces with those of France against England on May 1, 1762, if the war still lasted, in which case +France would restore Minorca to Spain. Pitt was convinced of the necessity of meeting the coalition by force of arms, but +he was unable to secure the support of his Ministry to declare war, and he therefore retired from the premiership. The succeeding +Cabinet were, nevertheless, compelled to adopt his policy, and after having lost many advantages by delaying their decision, +war was declared against France and Spain. + +</p> +<p>The British were successful everywhere. In the West Indies the Caribbean Islands and Havana were captured with great booty +by Rodney and Monckton, whilst a British Fleet was despatched to the Philippine Islands with orders to take Manila. + +</p> +<p>On September 14, 1762, a British vessel arrived in the Bay of Manila, refused to admit Spanish officers on board, and after +taking soundings she sailed again out of the harbour. + +</p> +<p>In the evening of September 22 the British squadron, composed of 13 ships, under the command of Admiral Cornish, entered the +bay, and the next day two British officers were deputed to demand the surrender of the Citadel, which was refused. Brigadier-General +Draper thereupon disembarked his troops, and again called upon the city to yield. This citation being defied, the bombardment +commenced the next day. The fleet anchored in front of a powder-magazine, took possession of the churches of Malate, Ermita, +San Juan de Bagumbayan, and Santiago. Two picket-guards made an unsuccessful sortie against them. The <a id="d0e3400"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e3400">88</a>]</span>whole force in Manila, at the time, was the Kingʼs regiment, which mustered about 600 men and 80 pieces of artillery. The +British forces consisted of 1,500 European troops (one regiment of infantry and two companies of artillery), 3,000 seamen, +800 Sepoy fusileers, and 1,400 Sepoy prisoners, making a total of 6,830 men, including officers.<a id="d0e3402src" href="#d0e3402" class="noteref">1</a> + +</p> +<p>There was no Gov.-General in the Philippines at the time, and the only person with whom the British Commander could treat +was the acting-Governor, the Archbishop Manuel Antonio Rojo, who was willing to yield. His authority was, however, set aside +by a rebellious war party, who placed themselves under the leadership of a magistrate of the Supreme Court, named Simon de +Anda y Salazar. This individual, instead of leading them to battle, fled to the Province of Bulacan the day before the capture +of Manila in a prahu with a few natives, carrying with him some money and half a ream of official stamped paper.<a id="d0e3407src" href="#d0e3407" class="noteref">2</a> He knew perfectly well that he was defying the legal authority of the acting-Governor, and was, in fact, in open rebellion +against his mandate. It was necessary, therefore, to give an official colour to his acts by issuing his orders and proclamations +on Government-stamped paper, so that their validity might be recognized if he subsequently succeeded in justifying his action +at Court. + +</p> +<p>On September 24 the Spanish batteries of San Diego and San Andres opened fire, but with little effect. A richly laden galleon—the +<i>Philipino</i>—was known to be on her way from Mexico to Manila, but the British ships which were sent in quest of her fell in with another +galleon—the <i>Trinidad</i>—and brought their prize to Manila. Her treasure amounted to about ₱2,500,000.<a id="d0e3420src" href="#d0e3420" class="noteref">3</a> + +</p> +<p>A Frenchman resident in Manila, Monsieur Faller, made an attack on the British, who forced him to retire, and he was then +accused by the Spaniards of treason. Artillery fire was kept up on both sides. The Archbishopʼs nephew was taken prisoner, +and an officer was sent with him to hand him over to his uncle. However, a party of natives fell upon them and murdered them. +The officerʼs head having been cut off, it was demanded by General Draper. Excuses were made for not giving it up, and the +General determined thenceforth to continue the warfare with vigour and punish this atrocity. The artillery was increased by +another battery of three mortars, placed behind the church of Santiago, and the bombardment continued. + +</p> +<p>Five thousand native recruits arrived from the provinces, and out <a id="d0e3433"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e3433">89</a>]</span>of this number 2,000 Pampangos were selected. They were divided into three columns, in order to advance by different routes +and attack respectively the churches of Santiago, Malate, and Ermita, and the troops on the beach. At each place they were +driven back. The leader of the attack on Malate and Ermita—Don Santiago Orendain—was declared a traitor. The two first columns +were dispersed with great confusion and loss. The third column retreated before they had sustained or inflicted any loss. +The natives fled to their villages in dismay, and on October 5 the British entered the walled city. After a couple of hoursʼ +bombardment, the forts of San Andrés and San Eugenio were demolished, the artillery overturned, and the defendersʼ fusileers +and sappers were killed. + +</p> +<p>A council of war was now held by the Spaniards. General Draper sustained the authority of the Archbishop against the war party, +composed chiefly of civilians determined to continue the defence in spite of the opinion of the military men, who argued that +a capitulation was inevitable. But matters were brought to a crisis by the natives, who refused to repair the fortifications, +and the Europeans were unable to perform such hard labour. Great confusion reigned in the city—the clergy fled through the +Puerta del Parian, where there was still a native guard. According to Zúñiga, the British spent 20,000 cannon balls and 5,000 +shells in the bombardment of the city. + +</p> +<p>Major Fell entered Manila (Oct. 6) at the head of his troops, and General Draper followed, leading his column unopposed, with +two field-pieces in the van, whilst a constant musketry fire cleared the Calle Real (the central thoroughfare) as they advanced. +The people fled before the enemy. The gates being closed, they scrambled up the walls and got into boats or swam off. + +</p> +<p>Colonel Monson was sent by Draper to the Archbishop-Governor to say that he expected immediate surrender. This requisition +was disputed by the Archbishop, who presented a paper purporting to be terms of capitulation. The Colonel refused to take +it, and demanded an unconditional surrender. Then the Archbishop, a Colonel of the Spanish troops, and Colonel Monson went +to interview the General, whose quarters were in the Palace. The Archbishop, offering himself as a prisoner, presented the +terms of capitulation, which provided for the free exercise of their religion; security of private property; free trade to +all the inhabitants of the Islands, and the continuation of the powers of the Supreme Court to keep order amongst the ill-disposed. +These terms were granted, but General Draper, on his part, stipulated for an indemnity of four millions of pesos, and it was +agreed to pay one half of this sum in specie and valuables and the other half in Treasury bills on Madrid. The capitulation, +with these modifications, was signed by Draper and the Archbishop-Governor. The Spanish Colonel took the document to the Fort +to have it countersigned by the <a id="d0e3441"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e3441">90</a>]</span>magistrates, which was at once done; the Fort was delivered up to the British, and the magistrates repaired to the Palace +to pay their respects to the conquerors. + +</p> +<p>When the British flag was seen floating over the Fort of Santiago there was great cheering from the British Fleet. The Archbishop +stated that when Draper reviewed the troops, more than 1,000 men were missing, including sixteen officers. Among these officers +were a Major fatally wounded by an arrow on the first day of the assault, and the Vice-Admiral, who was drowned whilst coming +ashore in a boat. + +</p> +<p>The natives who had been brought from the provinces to Manila were plundering and committing excesses in the city, so Draper +had them all driven out. Guards were placed at the doors of the nunneries and convents to prevent outrages on the women, and +then the city was given up to the victorious troops for pillage during three hours. Zúñiga, however, remarks that the European +troops were moderate, but that the Indian contingents were insatiable. They are said to have committed many atrocities, and, +revelling in bloodshed, even murdered the inhabitants. They ransacked the suburbs of Santa Cruz and Binondo, and, acting like +savage victorious tribes, they ravished women, and even went into the highways to murder and rob those who fled. The three +hours having expired, the troops were called in, but the following day a similar scene was permitted. The Archbishop thereupon +besought the General to put a stop to it, and have compassion on the city. The General complied with this request, and immediately +restored order under pain of death for disobedience. Some Chinese were in consequence hanged. General Draper himself killed +one whom he found in the act of stealing, and he ordered that all Church property should be restored, but only some priestsʼ +vestments were recovered. + +</p> +<p>Draper demanded the surrender of Cavite, which was agreed to by the Archbishop and magistrates, but the Commanding Officer +refused to comply. The Major of that garrison was sent with a message to the Commander, but on the way he talked with such +freedom about the surrender to the British, that the natives quitted their posts and plundered the Arsenal. The Commander, +rather than face humiliation, retired to a ship, and left all further responsibility to the Major. + +</p> +<p>Measures were now taken to pay the agreed indemnity. However, the consequent heavy contributions levied upon the inhabitants, +together with the silver from the pious establishments, church ornaments, plate, the Archbishopʼs rings and breast-cross, +only amounted to ₱546,000. The British then proposed to accept one million at once and draw the rest from the cargo of the +galleon <i>Philipino</i>, should it result that she had not been seized by the British previous to the day the capitulation was signed—but the one +million was not forthcoming. The day before the capture of Manila a royal messenger had been sent off with ₱111,000, <a id="d0e3454"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e3454">91</a>]</span>with orders to hide them in some place in the Laguna de Bay. The Archbishop now ordered their return to Manila, and issued +a requisition to that effect, but the Franciscan friars were insubordinate, and armed the natives, whom they virtually ruled, +and the treasure was secreted in Majayjay Convent (Tayabas Province). Thence, on receipt of the Archbishopʼs message, it was +carried across country to a place in North Pampanga, bordering on Cagayán and Pangasinán. The British, convinced that they +were being duped, insisted on their claim. Thomas Backhouse, commanding the troops stationed at Pasig, went up to the Laguna +de Bay with 80 mixed troops, to intercept the bringing of the <i>Philipino</i> treasure. He attacked Tunasan, Vinan and Santa Rosa, and embarked for Pagsanján, which was then the capital of the Laguna +Province. The inhabitants, after firing the convent and church, fled. Backhouse returned to Calamba, entered the Province +of Batangas, overran it, and made several Austin friars prisoners. In Lipa he seized ₱3,000, and established his quarters +there, expecting that the <i>Philipino</i> treasure would be carried that way; but on learning that it had been transported by sea to a Pampanga coast town, Backhouse +returned to his post at Pasig. + +</p> +<p>In the capitulation, the whole of the Archipelago was surrendered to the British, but the magistrate Simon de Anda determined +to appeal to arms. Draper used stratagem, and issued a proclamation commiserating the fate of the natives who paid tribute +to Spaniards, and assuring them that the King of England would not exact it. The Archbishop, as Governor, became Draperʼs +tool, sent messages to the Spanish families, persuading them to return, and appointed an Englishman, married in the country, +to be Alderman of Tondo. Despite the strenuous opposition of the Supreme Court, the Archbishop, at the instance of Draper, +convened a council of native headmen and representative families, and proposed to them the cession of all the Islands to the +King of England. Draper clearly saw that the ruling powers in the Colony, judging from their energy and effective measures, +were the friars, so he treated them with great respect. The Frenchman Faller, who unsuccessfully opposed the British assault, +was offered troops to go and take possession of Zamboanga and assume the government there, but he refused, as did also a Spaniard +named Sandoval. + +</p> +<p>Draper returned to Europe; Major Fell was left in command of the troops, whilst Drake assumed the military government of the +city, with Smith and Brock as council, and Brereton in charge of Cavite. Draper, on leaving, gave orders for two frigates +to go in search of the <i>Philipino</i> treasure. The ships got as far as Capul Island and put into harbour. They were detained there by a ruse on the part of a +half-caste pilot, and in the meantime the treasure was stealthily carried away. + +</p> +<p>Simon de Anda, from his provincial retreat, proclaimed himself Gov.-General. He declared that the Archbishop and the magistrates, +<a id="d0e3471"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e3471">92</a>]</span>as prisoners of war, were dead in the eye of the law; and that his assumption of authority was based upon old laws. None of +his countrymen disputed his authority, and he established himself in Bacolor. The British Council then convened a meeting +of the chief inhabitants, at which Anda was declared a seditious person and deserving of capital punishment, together with +the Marquis of Monte Castro, who had violated his <i lang="fr">parole dʼhonneur</i>, and the Provincial of the Austin Friars, who had joined the rebel party. All the Austin friars were declared traitors for +having broken their allegiance to the Archbishopʼs authority. The British still pressed for the payment of the one million, +whilst the Spaniards declared they possessed no more. The Austin friars were ordered to keep the natives peaceable if they +did not wish to provoke hostilities against themselves. At length, the British, convinced of the futility of decrees, determined +to sally out with their forces, and 500 men under Thomas Backhouse went up the Pasig River to secure a free passage for supplies +to the camp. Whilst opposite to Maybonga, a Spaniard, named Bustos, and his Cagayán troops fired on them. The British returned +the fire, and Bustos fled to Mariquina. The British passed the river, and sent an officer with a white flag of truce to demand +surrender. Bustos was insolent, and threatened to hang the officer if he returned. Backhouseʼs troops then opened fire and +placed two field-pieces, which completely scared the natives, who fled in such great confusion that many were drowned in the +river. Thence the British drove their enemy before them like a flock of goats, and reached the Bamban River, where the Sultan +of Sulu<a id="d0e3476src" href="#d0e3476" class="noteref">4</a> resided with his family. The Sultan, after a feigned resistance, surrendered to the British, who fortified his dwelling, +and occupied it during the whole of the operations. There were subsequent skirmishes on the Pasig River banks with the armed +insurgents, who were driven as far as the Antipolo Mountains. + +</p> +<p>Meanwhile, Anda collected troops; and Bustos, as his Lieutenant-General, vaunted the power of his chief through the Bulacan +and Pampanga Provinces. A Franciscan and an Austin friar, having led troops to Masilo, about seven miles from Manila, the +British went out to dislodge them, but on their approach most of the natives feigned they were dead, and the British returned +without any loss in arms or men. + +</p> +<p>The British, believing that the Austin friars were conspiring against them in connivance with those inside the city, placed +these friars in confinement, and subsequently shipped away eleven of them to Europe. For the same reason they at last determined +to enter the Saint Augustine Convent, and on ransacking it, they found that the priests had been lying to them all the time. +Six thousand pesos in coin were found hidden in the garden, and large quantities of wrought silver elsewhere. The whole premises +were then searched, and all the valuables were seized. A British expedition went out to Bulacan, sailing across the Bay and +up <a id="d0e3489"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e3489">93</a>]</span>the Hagonoy River, where they disembarked at Malolos on January 19, 1763. The troops, under Captain Eslay, of the Grenadiers, +numbered 600 men, many of whom were Chinese volunteers. As they advanced from Malolos, the natives and Spaniards fled. On +the way to Bulacan, Bustos came out to meet them, but retreated into ambush on seeing they were superior in numbers. Bulacan +Convent was defended by three small cannons. As soon as the troops came in sight of the convent, a desultory fire of case-shot +made great havoc in the ranks of the resident Chinese volunteers forming the British vanguard. At length the British brought +their field-pieces into action, and pointing at the enemyʼs cannon, the first discharge carried off the head of their artilleryman +Ybarra. The panic-stricken natives decamped; the convent was taken by assault; there was an indiscriminate fight and general +slaughter. The <i>Alcalde</i> and a Franciscan friar fell in action; one Austin friar escaped, and another was seized and killed to avenge the death of +the British soldiers. The invading forces occupied the convent, and some of the troops were shortly sent back to Manila. Bustos +reappeared near the Bulacan Convent with 8,000 native troops, of whom 600 were cavalry, but they dared not attack the British. +Bustos then manoeuvred in the neighbourhood and made occasional alarms. Small parties were sent out against him, with so little +effect that the British Commander headed a body in person, and put the whole of Bustosʼ troops to flight like mosquitoes before +a gust of wind, for Bustos feared they would be pursued into Pampanga. After clearing away the underwood, which served as +a covert for the natives, the British reoccupied the convent; but Bustos returned to his position, and was a second time as +disgracefully routed by the British, who then withdrew to Manila. + +</p> +<p>At this time it was alleged that a conspiracy was being organized amongst the Chinese resident in the Province of Pampanga +with the object of assassinating Anda and his Spanish followers. The Chinese cut trenches and raised fortifications, avowing +that their bellicose preparations were only to defend themselves against the possible attack of the British; whilst the Spaniards +saw in all this a connivance with the invaders. The latter no doubt conjectured rightly. Anda, acting upon the views of his +party, precipitated matters by appearing with 14 Spanish soldiers and a crowd of native bowmen to commence the slaughter in +the town of Guagua. The Chinese assembled there in great numbers, and Anda endeavoured in vain to induce them to surrender +to him. He then sent a Spaniard, named Miguel Garcés, with a message, offering them pardon in the name of the King of Spain +if they would lay down their arms; but they killed the emissary, and Anda therefore commenced the attack. The result was favourable +for Andaʼs party, and great numbers of the Chinese were slain. Many fled to the fields, where they were pursued by the troops, +whilst those who were captured were hanged. Such was the inveterate hatred which <a id="d0e3496"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e3496">94</a>]</span>Anda entertained for the Chinese, that he issued a general decree declaring all the Chinese traitors to the Spanish flag, +and ordered them to be hanged wherever they might be found in the provinces. Thus thousands of Chinese were executed who had +taken no part whatever in the events of this little war. + +</p> +<p>Admiral Cornish having decided to return to Europe, again urged for the payment of the two millions of pesos instalment of +the indemnity. The Archbishop was in great straits; he was willing to do anything, but his colleagues opposed him, and Cornish +was at length obliged to content himself with a bill on the Madrid Treasury. Anda appointed Bustos <i>Alcalde</i> of Bulacan, and ordered him to recruit and train troops, as he still nurtured the hope of confining the British to Manila—perhaps +even of driving them out of the Colony. + +</p> +<p>The British in the city were compelled to adopt the most rigorous precautions against the rising of the population within +the walls, and several Spanish residents were arrested for intriguing against them in concert with those outside. + +</p> +<p>Several French prisoners from Pondicherry deserted from the British; and some Spanish regular troops, who had been taken prisoners, +effected their escape. The Fiscal of the Supreme Court and a Señor Villa Corta were found conspiring. The latter was caught +in the act of sending a letter to Anda, and was sentenced to be hanged and quartered—the quarters to be exhibited in public +places. The Archbishop, however, obtained pardon for Villa Corta on the condition that Anda should evacuate the Pampanga Province: +Villa Corta wrote to Anda, begging him to accede to this, but Anda absolutely refused to make any sacrifice to save his friendʼs +life, and at the same time he wrote a disgraceful letter to the Archbishop, couched in such insulting terms that the British +Commander burnt it without letting the Archbishop see it. Villa Cortaʼs life was saved by the payment of ₱3,000. + +</p> +<p>The treasure brought by the <i>Philipino</i> served Anda to organize a respectable force of recruits. Spaniards who were living in the provinces in misery, and a crowd +of natives always ready for pay, enlisted. These forces, under Lieut.-General Bustos, encamped at Malinta, about five miles +from Manila. The officers lodged in a house belonging to the Austin friars, around which the troops pitched their tents—the +whole being defended by redoubts and palisades raised under the direction of a French deserter, who led a company. From this +place Bustos constantly caused alarm to the British troops, who once had to retreat before a picket-guard sent to carry off +the church bells of Quiapo. The British, in fact, were much molested by Bustosʼ Malinta troops, who forced the invaders to +withdraw to Manila and reduce the extension of their outposts. This measure was followed up by a proclamation, dated January +23, 1763, in which the British Commander alluded to Bustosʼ troops as “canaille and robbers,” and offered a reward of ₱5,000 +<a id="d0e3512"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e3512">95</a>]</span>for Andaʼs head, declaring him and his party rebels and traitors to their Majesties the Kings of Spain and England. Anda, +chafing at his impotence to combat the invading party by force of arms, gave vent to his feelings of rage and disappointment +by issuing a decree, dated from Bacolor (Pampanga), May 19, 1763, of which the translated text reads as follows, viz.:— + + +</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p>“Royal Government Tribunal of these Islands for His Catholic Majesty:—Whereas the Royal Government Tribunal, Supreme Government +and Captain-Generalship of His Catholic Majesty in these Islands are gravely offended at the audacity and blindness of those +men, who, forgetting all humanity, have condemned as rebellious and disobedient to both their Majesties, him, who as a faithful +vassal of His Catholic Majesty, and in conformity with the law, holds the Royal Tribunal, Government and Captain-Generalship; +and having suffered by a reward being offered by order of the British Governor in council to whomsoever shall deliver me alive +or dead; and by their having placed the arms captured in Bulacan at the foot of the gallows—seeing that instead of their punishing +and censuring such execrable proceedings, the spirit of haughtiness and pride is increasing, as shown in the proclamation +published in Manila on the 17th instant, in which the troops of His Majesty are infamously calumniated—treating them as blackguards +and disaffected to their service—charging them with plotting to assassinate the English officers and soldiers, and with having +fled when attacked—the whole of these accusations being false: Now therefore by these presents, be it known to all Spaniards +and true Englishmen, that Messrs. Drake, Smith and Brock who signed the proclamation referred to, must not be considered as +vassals of His Britannic Majesty, but as tyrants and common enemies unworthy of human society, and therefore, I order that +they be apprehended as such, and I offer ten thousand pesos for each one of them alive or dead. At the same time, I withdraw +the order to treat the vassals of His Britannic Majesty with all the humanity which the rights of war will permit, as has +been practised hitherto with respect to the prisoners and deserters.” +</p> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>Anda had by this time received the consent of his King to occupy the position which he had usurped, and the British Commander +was thus enabled to communicate officially with him, if occasion required it: Drake therefore replied to this proclamation, +recommending Anda to carry on the war with greater moderation and humanity. + +</p> +<p>On June 27, 1763, the British made a sortie from the city to dislodge Bustos, who still occupied Malinta. The attacking party +consisted of 350 fusileers, 50 horsemen, a mob of Chinese, and a number of guns and ammunition. The British took up quarters +on one side of the river, whilst Bustos remained on the other. The opposing parties exchanged fire, but neither cared nor +dared to cross <a id="d0e3522"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e3522">96</a>]</span>the water-way. The British forces retired in good order to Masilo, and remained there until they heard that Bustos had burnt +Malinta House, belonging to the Austin friars, and removed his camp to Meycauayan. Then the British withdrew to Manila in +the evening. On the Spanish side there were two killed, five mortally wounded, and two slightly wounded. The British losses +were six mortally wounded and seven disabled. This was the last encounter in open warfare. Chinamen occasionally lost their +lives through their love of plunder in the vicinity occupied by the British. + +</p> +<p>During these operations the priesthood taught the ignorant natives to believe that the invaders were infidels—and a holy war +was preached. The friars, especially those of the Augustine Order,<a id="d0e3526src" href="#d0e3526" class="noteref">5</a> abandoned their mission of peace for that of the sword, and the British met with a slight reverse at Masilo, where a religious +fanatic of the Austin friars had put himself at the head of a small band lying in ambush. + +</p> +<p>On July 23, 1763, a British frigate brought news from Europe of an armistice, and the preliminaries of peace, by virtue of +which Manila was to be evacuated (Peace of Paris, February 10, 1763), were received by the British Commander on August 27 +following, and communicated by him to the Archbishop-Governor for the “Commander-in-Chief” of the Spanish arms. Anda stood +on his dignity, and protested that he should be addressed directly, and be styled Captain-General. On this plea he declined +to receive the communication. Drake replied by a manifesto, dated September 19, to the effect that the responsibility of the +blood which might be spilt in consequence of Andaʼs refusal to accept his notification would rest with him. Anda published +a counter-manifesto, dated September 28, in Bacolor (Pampanga), protesting that he had not been treated with proper courtesy, +and claiming the governor-generalship. + +</p> +<p>Greater latitude was allowed to the prisoners, and Villa Corta effected his escape disguised as a woman. He fled to Anda,—the +co-conspirator who had refused to save his life,—and their superficial friendship was renewed. Villa Corta was left in charge +of business in Bacolor during Andaʼs temporary absence. Meanwhile the Archbishop became ill; and it was discussed who should +be his successor in the government in the event of his death. Villa Corta argued that it fell to him as senior magistrate. +The discussion came to the knowledge of Anda, and seriously aroused his jealousy. Fearing conspiracy against <a id="d0e3539"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e3539">97</a>]</span>his ambitious projects, he left his camp at Polo, and hastened to interrogate Villa Corta, who explained that he had only +made casual remarks in the course of conversation. Anda, however, was restless on the subject of the succession, and sought +the opinion of all the chief priests and the bishops. Various opinions existed. Some urged that the decision be left to the +Supreme Court; others were in favour of Anda, whilst many prudently abstained from expressing their views. Anda was so nervously +anxious about the matter that he even begged the opinion of the British Commander, and wrote him on the subject from Bacolor +(Pampanga) on November 2, 1763. + +</p> +<p>Major Fell seriously quarrelled with Drake about the Frenchman Faller, whom Admiral Cornish had left under sentence of death +for having written a letter to Java accusing him of being a pirate and a robber. Drake protected Faller, whilst Fell demanded +his execution, and the dispute became so heated that Fell was about to slay Drake with a bayonet, but was prevented by some +soldiers. Fell then went to London to complain of Drake, hence Andaʼs letter was addressed to Backhouse, who took Fellʼs place. +Anda, who months since had refused to negotiate or treat with Drake, still claimed to be styled Captain-General. Backhouse +replied that he was ignorant of the Spaniardsʼ statutes or laws, but that he knew the Governor was the Archbishop. Anda thereupon +spread the report that the British Commander had forged the Preliminaries of Peace because he could no longer hold out in +warfare. The British necessarily had to send to the provinces to purchase provisions, and Anda caused their forage parties +to be attacked, so that the war really continued, in spite of the news of peace, until January 30, 1764. On this day the Archbishop +died, sorely grieved at the situation, and weighed down with cares. He had engaged to pay four millions of pesos and surrender +the Islands, but could he indeed have refused any terms? The British were in possession; and these conditions were dictated +at the point of the bayonet. + +</p> +<p>Immediately after the funeral of the Archbishop, Anda received despatches from the King of Spain, by way of China, confirming +the news of peace to his Governor at Manila. Then the British acknowledged Anda as Governor, and proceeded to evacuate the +city. But rival factions were not so easily set aside, and fierce quarrels ensued between the respective parties of Anda, +Villa Corta, and Ustariz as to who should be Governor and receive the city officially from the British. Anda, being actually +in command of the troops, held the strongest position. The conflict was happily terminated by the arrival at Marinduque Island +of the newly-appointed Gov.-General, from Spain, Don Francisco de La Torre. A galley was sent there by Anda to bring His Excellency +to Luzon, and he proceeded to Bacolor, where Anda resigned the Government to him on March 17, 1764. + +</p> +<p>La Torre sent a message to Backhouse and Brereton—the commanding <a id="d0e3547"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e3547">98</a>]</span>officers at Manila and Cavite,—stating that he was ready to take over the city in due form, and he thereupon took up his residence +in Santa Cruz, placed a Spanish guard with sentinels from that ward as far as the Pontoon Bridge (Puente de Barcas, which +then occupied the site of the present Puente de España), where the British advance-guard was, and friendly communication took +place. Governor Drake was indignant at being ignored in all these proceedings, and ordered the Spanish Governor to withdraw +his guards, under threat of appealing to force. Backhouse and Brereton resented this rudeness and ordered the troops under +arms to arrest Drake, whose hostile action, due to jealousy, they declared unwarrantable. Drake, being apprised of their intentions, +escaped from the city with his suite, embarked on board a frigate, and sailed off. + +</p> +<p>La Torre was said to be indisposed on the day appointed for receiving the city. Some assert that he feigned indisposition +as he did not wish to arouse Andaʼs animosity, and desired to afford him an opportunity of displaying himself as a delegate, +at least, of the highest local authority by receiving the city from the British, whilst he pampered his pride by allowing +him to enter triumphantly into it. As the city exchanged masters, the Spanish flag was hoisted once more on the Fort of Santiago +amidst the hurrahs of the populace, artillery salutes, and the ringing of the church bells. + +</p> +<p>Before embarking, Brereton offered to do justice to any claims which might legitimately be established against the British +authorities. Hence a sloop lent to Drake, valued at ₱4,000, was paid for to the Jesuits, and the ₱3,000 paid to ransom Villa +Cortaʼs life was returned, Brereton remarking, that if the sentence against him were valid, it should have been executed at +the time, but it could not be commuted by money payment. At the instance of the British authorities, a free pardon was granted +and published to the Chinese, few of whom, however, confided in it, and many left with the retiring army. Brereton, with his +forces, embarked for India, after despatching a packet-boat to restore the Sultan of Sulu to his throne. In connection with +this expedition, 150 British troops temporarily remained on the Island of Balambangan, near Balabac Island, and Anda sent +a messenger to inquire about this. The reply came that the Moros, in return for British friendliness, invited the hundred +and fifty to a feast and treacherously slew 144 of them. + +</p> +<p>During this convulsed period, great atrocities were committed. Unfortunately the common felons were released by the British +from their prisons, and used their liberty to perpetrate murders and robbery in alliance with those always naturally bent +that way. So great did this evil become, so bold were the marauders, that in time they formed large parties, infested highways, +attacked plantations, and the poor peasantry had to flee, leaving their cattle and all their belongings in <a id="d0e3555"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e3555">99</a>]</span>their power. Several avenged themselves of the friars for old scores—others settled accounts with those Europeans who had +tyrannized over them of old. The Chinese, whether so-called Christians or pagans, declared for and aided the British. + +</p> +<p>The proceedings of the choleric Simon de Anda y Salazár were approved by his Sovereign, but his impetuous disposition drove +from him his best counsellors, whilst those who were bold enough to uphold their opinions against his, were accused of connivance +with the British. Communications with Europe were scant indeed in those days, but Anda could not have been altogether ignorant +of the causes of the war, which terminated with the Treaty of Paris. + +</p> +<p>A few months afterwards Anda returned to Spain and was received with favour by the King, who created him a Cavalier of the +Order of Charles III. with a pension of 4,000 reales (about £40), and awarded him a pension of 3,000 pesos, and on November +6, 1767, appointed him a Councillor of Castile. In the course of the next three years Gov.-General José Raon, who superseded +La Torre, had fallen into disgrace, and in 1770 Anda was appointed to the governor-generalship of the Islands, specially charged +to carry out the royal will with respect to the expulsion of the Jesuits and the defence of Crown rights in ecclesiastical +matters. + +</p> +<p>Anda at once found himself in conflict with the Jesuits, the friars, and the out-going Gov.-General Raon. As soon as Raon +vacated his post, Anda, as Gov.-General, had his predecessor confined in the Fort of Santiago, where he died. At the same +time he sent back to Spain two magistrates who had sided with Raon, imprisoned other judges, and banished military officers +from the capital. Andaʼs position was a very peculiar one. A partisan of the friars at heart, he had undertaken the defence +of Crown interests against them, but, in a measure, he was able to palliate the bitterness he thus created by expelling the +Jesuits, who were an eyesore to the friars. The Jesuits might easily have promoted a native revolt against their departure, +but they meekly submitted to the decree of banishment and left the Islands, taking away nothing but their clothing. Having +rid himself of his rivals and the Jesuits, Anda was constantly haunted by the fear of fresh conflict with the British. He +had the city walls repaired and created a fleet of ships built in the provinces of Pangasinán, Cavite, and Zambales, consisting +of one frigate of war with 18 cannon, another with 32 cannon, besides 14 vessels of different types, carrying a total of 98 +cannon and 12 swivel guns, all in readiness for the British who never reappeared. + +</p> +<p>Born on October 28, 1709, in the Province of Alava, Spain, Simon de Andaʼs irascible temper, his vanity, and his extravagant +love of power created enmities and brought trouble upon himself at every step. Exhausted by six years of continual strife +in his private and official <a id="d0e3565"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e3565">100</a>]</span>capacities, he retired to the Austin Friarsʼ Hospital of San Juan de Dios, in Cavite, where, on October 30, 1776, he expired, +much to the relief of his numerous adversaries. The last resting-place of his mortal remains is behind the altar of the Cathedral, +marked by a tablet; and a monument erected to his memory—107 years after his death—stands on the quayside at the end of the +Paseo de Santa Lucia, near the Fort of Santiago, Manila. + +</p> +<p>Consequent on the troubled state of the Colony, a serious rebellion arose in Ylogan (Cagayán Province) amongst the Timava +natives, who flogged the Commandant, and declared they would no longer pay tribute to the Spaniards. The revolt spread to +Ilocos and Pangasinán; in the latter province Don Fernando Araya raised a troop of 30 Spaniards with firearms, and 400 friendly +natives with bows and arrows, and after great slaughter of the rebels the ringleaders were caught, and tranquillity was restored +by the gallows. + +</p> +<p>A rising far more important occurred in Ilocos Sur. The <i>Alcalde</i> was deposed, and escaped after he had been forced to give up his staff of office. The leader of this revolt was a cunning +and wily Manila native, named Diego de Silan, who persuaded the people to cease paying tribute and declare against the Spaniards, +who, he pointed out, were unable to resist the English. The City of Vigan was in great commotion. The Vicar-General parleyed +in vain with the natives; then, at the head of his troops, he dispersed the rebels, some of whom were taken prisoners. But +the bulk of the rioters rallied and attacked, and burnt down part of the city. The loyal natives fled before the flames. The +Vicar-Generalʼs house was taken, and the arms in it were seized. All the Austin friars within a large surrounding neighbourhood +had to ransom themselves by money payments. Silan was then acknowledged as chief over a large territory north and south of +Vigan. He appointed his lieutenants, and issued a manifesto declaring Jesus of Nazareth to be Captain-General of the place, +and that he was His <i>Alcalde</i> for the promotion of the Catholic religion and dominion of the King of Spain. His manifesto was wholly that of a religious +fanatic. He obliged the natives to attend Mass, to confess, and to see that their children went to school. In the midst of +all this pretended piety, he stole cattle and exacted ransoms for the lives of all those who could pay them; he levied a tax +of ₱100 on each friar. Under the pretence of keeping out the British, he placed sentinels in all directions to prevent news +reaching the terrible Simon de Anda. But Anda, though fully informed by an Austin friar of what was happening, had not sufficient +troops to march north. He sent a requisition to Silan to present himself within nine days, under penalty of arrest as a traitor. +Whilst this order was published, vague reports were intentionally spread that the Spaniards were coming to Ilocos in great +force. Many deserted Silan, but he contrived to deceive even the clergy and others by his feigned piety. <a id="d0e3577"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e3577">101</a>]</span>Silan sent presents to Manila for the British, acknowledging the King of England to be his legitimate Sovereign. The British +Governor sent, in return, a vessel bearing despatches to Silan, appointing him <i>Alcalde</i>. Elated with pride, Silan at once made this public. The natives were undeceived, for they had counted on him to deliver them +from the British; now, to their dismay, they saw him the authorized magistrate of the invader. He gave orders to make all +the Austin friars prisoners, saying that the British would send other clergy in their stead. The friars surrendered themselves +without resistance and joined their Bishop near Vigan, awaiting the pleasure of Silan. The Bishop excommunicated Silan, and +then he released some of the priests. The christian natives having refused to slay the friars, a secret compact was being +made, with this object, with the mountain tribes, when a Spanish half-caste named Vicos obtained the Bishopʼs benediction +and killed Silan; and the Ilocos rebellion, which had lasted from December 14, 1762, to May 28, 1763, ended. + +</p> +<p>Not until a score of little battles had been fought were the numerous riots in the provinces quelled. The loyal troops were +divided into sections, and marched north in several directions, until peace was restored by March, 1765. Zúñiga says that +the Spaniards lost in these riots about 70 Europeans and 140 natives, whilst they cost the rebels quite 10,000 men. +</p> +<hr class="tb"><p> + +</p> +<p>The submission made to the Spaniards, in the time of Legaspi, of the Manila and Tondo chiefs, was but of local importance, +and by no means implied a total pacific surrender of the whole Archipelago; for each district had yet to be separately conquered. +In many places a bold stand was made for independence, but the superior organization and science of the European forces invariably +brought them final victory. + +</p> +<p>The numerous revolutionary protests registered in history against the Spanish dominion show that the natives, from the days +of Legaspi onwards, only yielded to a force which they repeatedly, in each generation, essayed to overthrow. But it does not +necessarily follow that either the motives which inspired the leaders of these social disturbances, or the acts themselves, +were, in every case, laudable ones. + +</p> +<p>The Pampanga natives were among the first to submit, but a few years afterwards they were in open mutiny against their masters, +who, they alleged, took their young men from their homes to form army corps, and busily employed the able-bodied men remaining +in the district to cut timber for Government requirements and furnish provisions to the camp and to the Arsenal at Cavite. + +</p> +<p>In 1622 the natives of Bojol Island erected an oratory in the mountain in honour of an imaginary deity, and revolted against +the tyranny of the Jesuit missionaries. They proclaimed their intention to regain their liberty, and freedom from the payment +of tribute to <a id="d0e3594"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e3594">102</a>]</span>foreigners, and taxes to a Church they did not believe in. Several towns and churches were burnt, and Catholic images were +desecrated, but the rebels were dispersed by the Governor of Cebú, who, with a considerable number of troops, pursued them +into the interior. In the same island a more serious rising was caused in 1744 by the despotism of a Jesuit priest named Morales, +who arrogated to himself governmental rights, ordering the apprehension of natives who did not attend Mass, and exercising +his sacerdotal functions according to his own caprice. The natives resisted these abuses, and a certain Dagóhoy, whose brotherʼs +body had been left uninterred to decompose by the priestʼs orders, organized a revenge party, and swore to pay the priest +in his own coin. The Jesuit was captured and executed, and his corpse was left four days in the sun to corrupt. Great numbers +of disaffected natives flocked to Dagóhoyʼs standard. Their complaint was, that whilst they risked their lives in foreign +service for the sole benefit of their European masters, their homes were wrecked and their wives and families maltreated to +recover the tribute. Dagóhoy, with his people, maintained his independence for the space of 35 years, during which period +it was necessary to employ constantly detachments of troops to check the rebelsʼ raids on private property. On the expulsion +of the Jesuits from the Colony, Recoleto friars went to Bojol, and then Dagóhoy and his partisans submitted to the Government +on the condition of all receiving a full pardon. + +</p> +<p>In 1622 an insurrection was set on foot in Leyte Island against Spanish rule, and the Governor of Cebú went there with 40 +vessels, carrying troops and war material, to co-operate with the local Governor against the rebels. The native leader was +made prisoner, and his head placed on a high pole to strike terror into the populace. Another prisoner was garrotted, four +more were publicly executed by being shot with arrows, and another was burnt. + +</p> +<p>In 1629 an attempt was made in the Province of Surigao (then called Caraga), in the east of Mindanao Island, to throw off +the Spanish yoke. Several churches were burnt and four priests were killed by the rebels, and the rising was only quelled +after three yearsʼ guerilla warfare. + +</p> +<p>In 1649 the Gov.-General decided to supply the want of men in the Arsenal at Cavite and the increasing necessity for troops, +by pressing the natives of Sámar Island into the Kingʼs service. Thereupon a native headman named Sumoroy killed the priest +of Ybabao, on the east coast of Sámar, and led the mob who sacked and burnt the churches along the coast. The Governor at +Catbalogan got together a few men, and sent them into the mountains with orders to send him back the head of Sumoroy, but +instead of obeying they joined the rebels and sent him a pigʼs head. The revolt increased, and General Andrés Lopez Azáldegui +was despatched to the island <a id="d0e3602"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e3602">103</a>]</span>with full powers from the Gov.-General, whilst he was supported on the coast by armed vessels from Zamboanga. Sumoroy fled +to the hills, but his mother was found in a hut; and the invading party wreaked their vengeance on her by literally pulling +her to pieces. Sumoroy was at length betrayed by his own people, who carried his head to the Spanish Captain, and this officer +had it exhibited on a pole in the village. Some years afterwards another rebel chief surrendered, under a pardon obtained +for him by the priests, but the military authorities imprisoned and then hanged him. + +</p> +<p>The riots of 1649 extended to other provinces for the same cause. In Albay, the parish priest of Sorsogón had to flee for +his life; in Masbate Island, a sub-lieutenant was killed; in Zamboanga, a priest was murdered; in Cebú, a Spaniard was assassinated; +and in Surigao (then called Caraga) and Butuan, many Europeans fell victims to the fury of the populace. To quell these disturbances, +Captain Gregorio de Castillo, stationed at Butuan, was ordered to march against the rebels with a body of infantry, but bloodshed +was avoided by the Captain publishing a general pardon in the name of the King, and crowds of insurgents came to the camp +in consequence. The Kingʼs name, however, was sullied, for very few of those who surrendered ever regained their liberty. +They were sent prisoners to Manila, where a few were pardoned, others were executed, and the majority became galley-slaves. + +</p> +<p>In 1660 there was again a serious rising in Pampanga, the natives objecting to cut timber for the Cavite Arsenal without payment. +The revolt spread to Pangasinán Province, where a certain Andrés Málong was declared king, and he in turn gave to another—Pedro +Gumapos—the title of “Count.” Messages were sent to Zambales and other adjacent provinces ordering the natives to kill the +Spaniards, under pain of incurring “King” Málongʼs displeasure. + +</p> +<p>Three army-corps were formed by the rebels: one of 6,000 men, under Melchor de Veras, for the conquest of Pampanga; another +of 3,000 men, led by the titular count Gumapos, to annex Ilocos and Cagayán, whilst the so-called King Málong took the field +against the Pangasinán people at the head of 2,000 followers. Ilocos Province declared in his favour, and furnished a body +of insurgents under a chief named Juan Manzano, whilst everywhere on the march the titular kingʼs troops increased until they +numbered about 40,000 men. On the way many Spaniards—priests and laymen—were killed. The Gov.-General sent by land to Pampanga +200 Spanish troops, 400 Pampangos and half-breeds, well armed and provisioned, and Mount Arayat was fortified and garrisoned +by 500 men. By sea: two galleys, six small vessels, and four cargo launches—carrying 700 Spaniards and half-breeds, and 30 +Pampangos—went to Bolinao, in Zambales Province. The rebels were everywhere routed, and their chiefs were hanged—some in Pampanga +and others in Manila. +<a id="d0e3610"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e3610">104</a>]</span></p> +<p>Almost each generation has called forth the strong arm of the conqueror to extinguish the flame of rebellion in one island +or another, the revolt being sometimes due to sacerdotal despotism, and at other times to official rapacity. + +</p> +<p>In the last century, prior to 1896, several vain attempts to subvert Spanish authority were made, notably in 1811 in Ilocos, +where the fanatics sought to establish a new religion and set up a new god. An attempt was then made to enlist the wild tribes +in a plot to murder all the Spaniards, but it was opportunely discovered by the friars and suppressed before it could be carried +out. + +</p> +<p>In June, 1823, an order was received from Spain to the effect that officers commissioned in the Peninsula should have precedence +of all those appointed in the Colony, so that, for instance, a lieutenant from Spain would hold local rank above a Philippine +major. The Philippine officers protested against this anomaly, alleging that the commissions granted to them in the name of +the Sovereign were as good as those granted in Spain. The Gov.-General refused to listen to the objections put forward, and +sent Captain Andrés Novales and others on board a ship bound for Mindanao. Novales, however, escaped to shore, and, in conspiracy +with a certain Ruiz, attempted to overthrow the Government. At midnight all Manila was aroused by the cry of “Long live the +Emperor Novales!” Disaffected troops promenaded the city; the people sympathized with the movement; flags were waved as the +rebels passed through the streets; the barrack used by Novalesʼ regiment was seized; the Cathedral and Town Hall were occupied, +and at 6 oʼclock in the morning Andrés Novales marched to Fort Santiago, which was under the command of his brother Antonio. +To his great surprise, the brother Antonio stoutly refused to join in the rising, and Andrésʼ expostulations and exhortations +were finally met with a threat to fire on him if he did not retire. Meanwhile, the Gov.-General remained in hiding until he +heard that the fort was holding out against Andrésʼ assault, when he sent troops to assist the defenders. Hemmed in between +the fort and the troops outside, Andrés Novales and Ruiz made their escape, but they were soon taken prisoners. Andrés Novales +was found hiding underneath the drawbridge of the <i lang="es">Puerta Real</i>. The Gov.-General at once ordered Andrés Novales, Ruiz, and Antonio Novales to be executed. The Town Council then went in +a body to the Gov.-General to protest against the loyal defender of Fort Santiago being punished simply because he was Andrés +Novalesʼ brother. The Gov.-General, however, threatened to have shot any one who should say a word in favour of the condemned. + +</p> +<p>In a garden of the episcopal palace, near the ancient <i lang="es">Puerta del Postigo</i>, the execution of the three condemned men was about to take place, and crowds of people assembled to witness it. At the critical +moment an assessor of the Supreme Court shouted to the Gov.-General <a id="d0e3625"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e3625">105</a>]</span>that to take the life of the loyal defender of the fort, solely on the ground of his relationship to the rebel leader, would +be an iniquity. His words found a sympathetic echo among the crowd, and the Gov.-General, deadly pale with rage, yielded to +this demonstration of public opinion. Antonio Novales was pardoned, but the strain on his nerves weakened his brain, and he +lived for many years a semi-idiot in receipt of a monthly pension of 14 pesos. + +</p> +<p>In 1827 the standard of sedition was raised in Cebú and a few towns of that island, but these disturbances were speedily quelled +through the influence of the Spanish friars. + +</p> +<p>In 1828 a conspiracy of a separatist tendency was discovered, and averted without bloodshed. + +</p> +<p>In 1835 Feliciano Páran took the field against the Spaniards in Cavite Province, and held out so effectually that the Gov.-General +came to terms with him and afterwards deported him to the Ladrone Islands. + +</p> +<p>In 1836 there was much commotion of a revolutionary character, the peculiar feature of it being the existence of pro-friar +and anti-friar native parties, the former seeking to subject absolutely the civil government to ecclesiastical control.<a id="d0e3635src" href="#d0e3635" class="noteref">6</a> + +</p> +<p>In 1841 a student for the priesthood, named Apolinario de la Cruz, affected with religious mania, placed himself at the head +of a fanatical party in Tayabas, ostensibly for the purpose of establishing a religious sect. Some thousands of natives joined +the movement, and troops had <a id="d0e3649"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e3649">106</a>]</span>to be sent to suppress the rising. Having assumed the title of King of the Tagálogs, he pretended to have direct heavenly +support, telling the ignorant masses that he was invulnerable and that the soldiersʼ bullets would fly from them like chaff +before the wind. + +</p> +<p>In 1844, during a rising at Jimamaylan, in Negros Island, the Spanish Governor was killed. The revolt is said to have been +due to the Governor having compelled the State prisoners to labour for his private account. + +</p> +<p>In 1854 a Spanish half-caste, named Cuesta, came back from Spain with the rank of major, and at once broke out into open rebellion. +The cry was for independence, and four Luzon provinces rose in his support; but the movement was crushed by the troops and +Cuesta was hanged. + +</p> +<p>In 1870 a certain Camerino raised rebellion in Cavite province, and after many unsuccessful attempts to capture him he came +to terms with the Gov.-General, who gave him a salaried employment for a couple of years and then had him executed on the +allegation that he was concerned in the rising of Cavite Arsenal. + +</p> +<p>In 1871 there existed a Secret Society of reformers who used to meet in Santa Cruz (Manila) at the house of the Philippine +priest, Father Mariano.<a id="d0e3659src" href="#d0e3659" class="noteref">7</a> From the house proper a narrow staircase led to a cistern about 25 feet square, in the side of which there was a door which +closed perfectly. The cistern was divided into two unequal parts, the top compartment being full of water, whilst the lower +part served as the reformersʼ conference room, so that if search were made, the cistern was, in fact, a cistern. + +</p> +<p>Among the members of this confraternity were Father Agustin Mendoza, the parish priest of Santa Cruz; Dr. José Búrgos, also +a native priest; Máximo Paterno, the father of Pedro A. Paterno; Ambrosio Rianzares Bautista; and others still living (some +personally known to me), under the presidency of José Maria Basa (now residing in Hong-Kong). This Secret Society demanded +reforms, and published in Madrid their organ, <i lang="es">Eco de Filipinas</i>, copies of which reached the Islands. The copy for the paper was the result of the societyʼs deliberations. The monks, incensed +at its publication, were, for a long time, puzzled to find out whence the information emanated. Many of the desired reforms +closely affected the position of the regular clergy, the Philippine priests, led by Dr. Búrgos, urging the fulfilment of the +Council of Trent decisions, which forbade the friars to hold benefices unless there were no secular priests available. + +</p> +<p>It appears that the friars, nevertheless, secured these ecclesiastical <a id="d0e3672"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e3672">107</a>]</span>preferments by virtue of Papal Bulls of Pius V. and subsequent Popes, who authorized friars to act as parish priests, not +in perpetuity, but so long as secular clergymen were insufficient in number to attend to the cure of souls. The native party +consequently declared that the friars retained their incumbencies illegally and by intrusion, in view of the sufficiency of +Philippine secular priests. Had the Council of Trent enactments been carried out to the letter, undoubtedly the religious +communities in the Philippines would have been doomed to comparative political impotence. The friars, therefore, sought to +embroil Dr. Búrgos and his party in overt acts of sedition, in order to bring about their downfall and so quash the movement. +To this end they contrived to draw a number of Manila and Cavite natives into a conspiracy to subvert the Spanish Government. +The native soldiers of the Cavite garrison were induced to co-operate in what they believed to be a genuine endeavour to throw +off the Spanish dominion. They were told that rockets fired off in Manila would be the signal for revolt. It happened, however, +that they mistook the fireworks of a suburban feast for the agreed signal and precipitated the outbreak in Cavite without +any support in the capital. The disaffected soldiers seized the Arsenal, whilst others attacked the influential Europeans. +Colonel Sábas was sent over to Cavite to quell the riot, and after a short, but stubborn resistance, the rebels were overcome, +disarmed, and then formed up in line. On Colonel Sábas asking if there were any one who would not cry, “<i lang="es">Viva España!</i>” one man stepped forward a few paces out of the ranks. The Colonel shot him dead, and the remainder were marched to prison. + +</p> +<p>The ruse operated effectually on the lay authorities, who yielded to the Spanish monksʼ demand that the extreme penalty of +the law should be inflicted upon their opponents. Thereupon, Dr. José Búrgos (aged 30 years), Father Jacinto Zamora (aged +35 years), and Father Mariano Gomez<a id="d0e3679src" href="#d0e3679" class="noteref">8</a> (a dotard, 85 years of age) were executed (February 28, 1872) on the <i>Luneta</i>, the fashionable esplanade outside the walled city, facing the sea. + +</p> +<p>The friars then caused a bill of indictment to be put forward by the Public Prosecutor, in which it was alleged that a Revolutionary +Government had been projected. The native clergy were terror-stricken. It was decreed that whilst the Filipinos already acting +as parish priests would not be deposed, no further appointments would be made, and the most the Philippine novice could aspire +to would be the position of coadjutor—practically servant—to the friar incumbent. Moreover, the opportunity was taken to banish +to the Ladrone (Marianas) Islands many members of wealthy and influential families whose passive resistance was an eyesore +to the friars. Among these was the late Máximo Paterno <a id="d0e3687"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e3687">108</a>]</span>(q.v.), the father of Pedro A. Paterno; also Dr. Antonio M. Regidor y Jurado and José Maria Basa, who are still living.<a id="d0e3689src" href="#d0e3689" class="noteref">9</a> + +</p> +<p>In 1889 I visited a penal settlement—La Colonia Agrícola de San Ramón—in Mindanao Island, and during my stay at the directorʼs +house I was every day served at table by a native convict who was said to have been nominated by the Cavite rebels to the +Civil Governorship of Manila. There was, however, no open trial from which the public could form an opinion of the merits +of the case, and the idea of subverting the Spanish Government would appear to have been a fantastic concoction for the purposes +stated. But from that date there never ceased to exist a secret revolutionary agitation which culminated in the events of +1898. + +<a id="d0e3703"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e3703">109</a>]</span></p> +<div class="footnotes"> +<hr class="fnsep"> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e3402" href="#d0e3402src" class="noteref">1</a></span> Zúñigaʼs History, Vol II., Chap xii., English translation, published in London, 1814. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e3407" href="#d0e3407src" class="noteref">2</a></span> <span lang="es">Crónica de los P. P. Dominicos</span>, Vol. IV., pp. 637 to 650, edition of Rivadenayra, published in Madrid. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e3420" href="#d0e3420src" class="noteref">3</a></span> This money constituted the Manila merchantsʼ specie remittances from Acapulco, together with the Mexican subsidy to support +the administration of this Colony, which was merely a dependency of Mexico up to the second decade of last century (<i>vide</i> Chap. <a href="#d0e9101">xv</a>.). +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e3476" href="#d0e3476src" class="noteref">4</a></span> Vicissitudes of Sultan Mahamad Alimudin (<i>vide</i> Chap. <a href="#d0e4263">x</a>.). +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e3526" href="#d0e3526src" class="noteref">5</a></span> So tenacious was the opposition of the Austin friars, both in Manila and the provinces, that the British appear to have regarded +them as their special foes. + +</p> +<p class="footnote">From the archives of Bauan Convent, Province of Batangas, I have taken the following notes, viz.:—The Austin friars lost ₱ +238,000 and 15 convents. Six of their estates were despoiled. The troops killed were 300 Spaniards, 500 Pampanga natives, +and 300 Tagálog natives. Besides the Austin friars from the galleon <i>Trinidad</i>, who were made prisoners and shipped to Bombay, 10 of their Order were killed in battle and 19 were captured and exiled to +India and Europe. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e3635" href="#d0e3635src" class="noteref">6</a></span> The prominent men in this movement were the brothers Palmero, maternal uncles of the well-known Spanish soldier-politician, +General Marcelo Azcárraga. + +</p> +<p class="footnote">Born in 1832 in Manila, General Marcelo Azcárraga was the son of José Azcárraga, a Biscayan Spaniard, and his creole wife +Dr. Maria Palmero. José Azcárraga was a bookseller, established in the <i>Escolta</i> (Binondo), in a building (burnt down in October, 1885) on the site where stood the General Post Office up to June, 1904. +In the fire of 1885 the first MS. of the first edition of this work was consumed, and had to be re-written. José Azcárraga +had several sons and daughters. His second son, Marcelo, first studied law at St. Thomasʼ University, and then entered the +Nautical School, where he gained the first prize in mathematics. Sent to Spain to continue his studies, he entered the Military +School, and in three yearsʼ time obtained the rank of Captain. For his services against the OʼDonnell revolutionary movement +(1854) in Madrid, he was promoted to Major. At the age of twenty-three he obtained the Cross of San Fernando (with pension). +Having served Spain with distinction in several important missions to Mexico, Cuba, and Sto. Domingo, he returned to Cuba +and espoused the daughter of the great banker, Fesser, who gave him a fortune of £20,000 on the day of his marriage. In the +year of Isabella II.ʼs deposition (1868) he returned to Spain, promoted the Bourbon restoration, and became Lieut.-General +on the proclamation of Alfonso XII. (1875). He then became successively M.P., Senator by election, and life Senator. He was +Minister of War under Cánovas del Castillo, on whose assassination (Aug. 8, 1897) he became Prime Minister of the Interim +Government specially charged to keep order until after the unpopular marriage of the Princess of Asturias. After several Ministerial +changes he again took the leadership of the Government, was lately President of the Senate, and on his retirement, at the +age of seventy-two, he received the <i>Toison de Oro</i> (Golden Fleece)—the most elevated Order in Spain. On his motherʼs side he descends from the Philippine creole family of the +Conde de Lizárraga, and is uncle to the Conde de Albay, better known in Philippine society as Señor Govantes. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e3659" href="#d0e3659src" class="noteref">7</a></span> It was practically a secret branch of the <i lang="es">Junta General de Reformas</i> authorized to discuss reforms, and created by the Colonial Minister Becerra during the governor-generalship of General La +Torre in the time of the Provisional Government in Spain which succeeded the deposed Queen Isabella II. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e3679" href="#d0e3679src" class="noteref">8</a></span> He was the grandfather of one of the most conspicuous surviving generals of the Tagálog Rebellion (1896) and the War of Independence +(1899). +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e3689" href="#d0e3689src" class="noteref">9</a></span> José Maria Basa was the son of Matias Basa, a builder and contractor by trade, who made a contract with the Spanish Government +to fill up the stream which branched from the Pasig River and crossed the <i>Escolta</i> (Manila), where now stands the street called <i lang="es">Calle de San Jacinto</i>. In consideration of this work he was permitted to build houses on the reclaimed land, provided he made a thoroughfare where +the former bed of the rivulet existed. This undertaking made his fortune. His son, José Maria, had several trading schemes, +the most prosperous of which was his distillery at Trozo (Manila), which brought him large profits, and was a flourishing +concern in 1872. On being amnestied, he established himself in Hong-Kong, where he is still living with his family in easy +circumstances and highly respected. His unbounded hospitality to all who know him, and especially to his countrymen, has justly +earned for him in Hong-Kong the title of the “Father of the Filipinos.” + +</p> +<p class="footnote">Dr. Antonio Maria Regidor y Jurado, a young lawyer, was arrested and banished to the Ladrone Islands, whence he afterwards +escaped to Hong-Kong in a foreign vessel, disguised as a priest. From that Colony he found his way to France, where he intended +to settle, but eventually established himself in London, where he still holds a high position as a Spanish consulting lawyer. +By his marriage with an Irish lady, he has a son and several charming daughters, his well-appointed home being the rendezvous +of all the best class of Filipinos who visit the British metropolis. +</p> +</div> +</div> +<div id="d0e3704" class="div1"> +<h2 class="normal">The Chinese</h2> +<p>Long before the foundation of Manila by Legaspi in 1571 the Chinese traded with these Islands. Their <i lang="es">locus standi</i>, however, was invariably a critical one, and their commercial transactions with the semi-barbarous Philippine Islanders were +always conducted afloat. Often their junks were boarded and pillaged by the natives, but, in spite of the immense risk incurred, +the Chinese lacked nothing in their active pursuit. Their chief home port was Canton. + +</p> +<p>Legaspi soon perceived the advantages which would accrue to his conquest by fostering the development of commerce with these +Islands; and, as an inducement to the Chinese to continue their traffic, he severely punished all acts of violence committed +against them. + +</p> +<p>In the course of time the Chinese had gained sufficient confidence under European protection, to come ashore with their wares. +In 1588, Chinese were already paying rent for the land they occupied. Some writers assert that they propagated their religious +doctrines as well as their customs, but nothing can be found to confirm this statement, and a knowledge of Chinese habits +inclines one to think it most improbable. In their trading junks they frequently carried their idols, as a Romish priest carries +his missal when he travels. The natives may have imitated the Chinese religious rites years before the Spaniards came. There +is no evidence adduced to prove that they made any endeavour to proselytize the natives as the Spaniards did. On the other +hand, there is reason to believe that some idols, lost by the Chinese in shipwreck and piratical attacks, have been, and still +are, revered by the natives as authenticated miraculous images of Christian Saints (<i>vide</i> “Holy Child of Cebú” and “Our Lady of Cagsaysay”). + +</p> +<p>The Chinese contributed, in a large measure, to bring about a state of order and prosperity in the new Colony, by the introduction +of their small trades and industries; and their traffic in the interior, and with China, was really beneficial, in those times, +to the object which the conquerors had in view. So numerous, however, did they become, that it was found necessary to regulate +the growing commerce and the <i lang="la">modus vivendi</i> of the foreign traders. +<a id="d0e3724"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e3724">110</a>]</span></p> +<p>In the bad weather they were unable to go to and from their junks, and, fearing lest under such circumstances the trade would +fall off, the Government determined to provide them with a large building called the <i>Alcayceria</i>. The contract for its construction was offered to any private person or corporation willing to take it up on the following +terms, viz.:—The original cost, the annual expense of maintenance, and the annual rents received from the Chinese tenants +were to be equally shared by the Government and the contractor. The contract was accepted by a certain Fernando de Mier y +Noriega, who was appointed bailiff of the <i>Alcayceria</i> for life, and the employment was to be hereditary in his family, at a salary of 50 pesos per month. However, when the plan +was submitted to the Government, it was considered too extensive, and was consequently greatly reduced, the Government defraying +the total cost (₱ 48,000). The bailiffʼs salary was likewise reduced to ₱ 25 per month, and only the condition of sharing +rent and expense of preservation was maintained. The <i>Alcayceria</i>, was a square of shops, with a back store, and one apartment above each tenement. It was inaugurated in 1580, in the Calle +de San Fernando, in Binondo, opposite to where is now the Harbour-Masterʼs Office, and within firing range of the forts. In +the course of years this became a ruin, and on the same site Government Stores were built in 1856. These, too, were wrecked +in their turn by the great earthquake of 1863. In the meantime, the Chinese had long ago spread far beyond the limits of the +<i>Alcayceria</i>, and another centre had been provided for them within the City of Manila. This was called the <i>Parian</i>, which is the Mexican word for market-place. It was demolished by Government order in 1860, but the entrance to the city +at that part (constructed in 1782) still retains the name of <i lang="es">Puerta del Parian</i>. + +</p> +<p>Hence it will be seen that from the time of the conquest, and for generations following, the Spanish authorities offered encouragement +and protection to the Chinese. + +</p> +<p>Dr. Antonio Morga, in his work on the Philippines, p. 349, writes (at the close of the 16th century): “It is true the town +cannot exist without the Chinese, as they are workers in all trades and business, and very industrious and work for small +wages.” + +</p> +<p>Juan de la Concepcion writes<a id="d0e3751src" href="#d0e3751" class="noteref">1</a> (referring to the beginning of the 17th century); “Without the trade and commerce of the Chinese, these dominions could not +have subsisted.” The same writer estimates the number of Chinese in the Colony in 1638 at 33,000.<a id="d0e3757src" href="#d0e3757" class="noteref">2</a> + +</p> +<p>In 1686 the policy of fixing the statutory maximum number of Chinese at 6,000 was discussed, but commercial conveniences outweighed +its adoption. Had the measure been carried out, it was <a id="d0e3762"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e3762">111</a>]</span>proposed to lodge them all in one place within easy cannon range, in view of a possible rising. + +</p> +<p>In 1755 it was resolved to expel all non-Christian Chinese, but a term was allowed for the liquidation of their affairs and +withdrawal. By June 30, 1755, the day fixed for their departure from Manila, 515 Chinamen had been sharp enough to obtain +baptism as Christians, in order to evade the edict, besides 1,108 who were permitted to remain because they were studying +the mysteries and intricacies of Christianity. 2,070 were banished from Manila, the expulsion being rigidly enforced on those +newly arriving in junks. + +</p> +<p>Except a few Europeans and a score of Western Asiatics, the Chinese who remained were the only merchants in the Archipelago. +The natives had neither knowledge, tact, energy, nor desire to compete with them. The Chinese were a boon to the Colony, for, +without them, living would have been far dearer—commodities and labour of all kinds more scarce, and the export and import +trade much embarrassed. The Chinese and the Japanese are really the people who gave to the natives the first notions of trade, +industry, and fruitful work. The Chinese taught them, amongst many other useful things, the extraction of saccharine juice +from the sugar-cane, the manufacture of sugar, and the working of wrought iron. They introduced into the Colony the first +sugar-mills with vertical stone crushers, and iron boiling-pans. + +</p> +<p>The history of the last 150 years shows that the Chinese, although tolerated, were always regarded by the Spanish colonists +as an unwelcome race, and the natives have learnt, from example, to despise them. From time to time, especially since the +year 1763, the feeling against them has run very high. + +</p> +<p>The public clamoured for restrictions on their arrival, impediments to the traffic of those already established there, intervention +of the authorities with respect to their dwellings and mode of living, and not a few urged their total expulsion. Indeed, +such influence was brought to bear on the Indian Council at Madrid during the temporary Governorship of Juan Arechedera, Bishop +of Nueva Segovia (1745–50), that the Archbishop received orders to expel the Chinese from the Islands; but, on the ground +that to have done so would have <i>prejudiced public interests</i>, he simply archived the decree. Even up to the close of Spanish rule, the authorities and the national trading class considered +the question from very distinct points of view; for the fact is, that only the mildest action was taken—just enough to appease +the wild demands of the people. Still, the Chinaman was always subject to the ebb and flow of the tide of official goodwill, +and only since 1843 were Chinese shops allowed to be opened on the same terms as other foreigners. There are now streets of +Chinese shops. + +</p> +<p>The Chinaman is always ready to sell at any price which will leave him a trifling nett gain, whereas the native, having earned +sufficient for <a id="d0e3777"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e3777">112</a>]</span>his immediate wants, would stubbornly refuse to sell his wares except at an enormous profit. + +</p> +<p>Again, but for Chinese coolie competition,<a id="d0e3781src" href="#d0e3781" class="noteref">3</a> constant labour from the natives would have been almost unprocurable. The native day-labourer would work two or three days, +and then suddenly disappear. The active Chinaman goes day after day to his task (excepting only at the time of the Chinese +New Year, in January or February), and can be depended upon; thus the needy native was pushed, by alien competition, to bestir +himself. In my time, in the port of Yloilo, four foreign commercial houses had to incur the expense and risk of bringing Chinese +coolies for loading and discharging vessels, whilst the natives coolly lounged about and absolutely refused to work. Moreover, +the exactions of the native create a serious impediment to the development of the Colony. Only a very small minority of the +labouring class will put their hands to work without an advance on their wages, and will often demand it without any guarantee +whatsoever. If a native is commissioned to perform any kind of service, he will refuse to stir without a sum of money beforehand, +whilst the Chinese very rarely expect payment until they have given value for it. Only the direst necessity will make an unskilled +native work steadily for several weeks for a wage which is only to be paid when due. There is scarcely a single agriculturist +who is not compelled to sink a share of his capital in making advances to his labourers, who, nevertheless, are in no way +legally bound thereby to serve the capitalist; or, whether they are or not, the fact is, that a large proportion of this capital +so employed must be considered lost. There are certain lines of business quite impossible without the co-operation of Chinese, +and their exclusion will be a loss to the Colony. + +</p> +<p>Taxes were first levied on the Mongol traders in 1828. In 1852 a general reform of the fiscal laws was introduced, and the +classification of Chinese dealers was modified. They were then divided into four grades or classes, each paying contributions +according to the new tariff. + +</p> +<p>In 1886 the universal depression, which was first manifest in this Colony in 1884, still continued. Remedies of most original +character were suggested in the public organs and private circles, and a renewed spasmodic tirade was directed against the +Chinese. A petition, made and signed by numbers of the retail trading class, was addressed to the Sovereign; but it appears +to have found its last resting-place in the Colonial Secretaryʼs waste-paper basket. The Americans in the United States and +Mexico were in open riot against the Celestials—the Governments of Australia had imposed a capitation tax on their entry<a id="d0e3791src" href="#d0e3791" class="noteref">4</a>—in <a id="d0e3794"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e3794">113</a>]</span>British Columbia there was a party disposed to throw off its allegiance to Great Britain rather than forego its agitation +against the Chinese. Why should not the Chinese be expelled from the Philippines, it was asked, or at least be permitted only +to pursue agriculture in the Islands? In 1638, around Calamba and along the Laguna shore, they tilled the land; but the selfishness +and jealousy of the natives made their permanence impossible. In 1850 the Chinese were invited to take up agriculture, but +the rancorous feeling of the natives forced them to abandon the idea, and to seek greater security in the towns. + +</p> +<p>The chief accusation levelled against the Chinaman is, that he comes as an adventurer and makes money, which he carries away, +without leaving any trace of civilization behind him. The Chinese immigrant is of the lowest social class. Is not the dream +of the European adventurer, of the same or better class, to make his pile of dollars and be off to the land of his birth? +If he spends more money in the Colony than the Chinaman does, it is because he lacks the Chinamanʼs self-abnegation and thriftiness. +Is the kind of civilization taught in the colonies by low-class European settlers superior? + +</p> +<p>The Chinaman settled in the Philippines under Spanish rule was quite a different being to the obstinate, self-willed, riotous +coolie in Hong-Kong or Singapore. In Manila he was drilled past docility—in six months he became even fawning, cringing, and +servile, until goaded into open rebellion. Whatever position he might attain to, he was never addressed (as in the British +Colonies) as “Mr.” or “Esq<sup>re</sup>,” or the equivalent, “Señor D.,” but always “Chinaman ——” (“Chino ——”). + +</p> +<p>The total expulsion of the Chinese in Spanish times would have been highly prejudicial to trade. Had it suited the State policy +to check the ingress of the Chinese, nothing would have been easier than the imposition of a ₱50 poll tax. To compel them +to take up agriculture was out of the question in a Colony where there was so little guarantee for their personal safety. +The frugality, constant activity, and commendable ambition of the Celestial clashes with the dissipation, indolence and want +of aim in life of the native. There is absolutely no harmony of thought, purpose, or habit between the Philippine Malay native +and the Mongol race, and the consequence of Chinese coolies working on plantations without ample protection would be frequent +assassinations and open affray. Moreover, a native planter could never manage, to his own satisfaction or interest, an estate +worked with Chinese labour, but the European might. The Chinese is essentially of a commercial bent, and, in the Philippines +at least, he prefers taking his chance as to the profits, in the bubble and risk of independent speculation, rather than calmly +labour at a fixed wage which affords no stimulus to his efforts. + +</p> +<p>Plantations worked by Chinese owners with Chinese labour might nave succeeded, but those who arrived in the Colony brought +no capital, and the Government never offered them gratuitous allotment of property. <a id="d0e3807"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e3807">114</a>]</span>A law relating to the concession of State lands existed (”<i lang="es">Terrenos baldíos</i>” and “<i lang="es">Colonias agrícolas</i>”), but it was enveloped in so many entanglements and so encompassed by tardy process and intricate conditions, that few Orientals +or Europeans took advantage of it. + +</p> +<p>History records that in the year 1603 two Chinese Mandarins came to Manila as Ambassadors from their Emperor to the Gov.-General +of the Philippines. They represented that a countryman of theirs had informed His Celestial Majesty of the existence of a +mountain of gold in the environs of Cavite, and they desired to see it. The Gov.-General welcomed them, and they were carried +ashore by their own people in ivory and gilded sedan-chairs. They wore the insignia of High Mandarins, and the Governor accorded +them the reception due to their exalted station. He assured them that they were entirely misinformed respecting the mountain +of gold, which could only be imaginary, but, to further convince them, he accompanied them to Cavite. The Mandarins shortly +afterwards returned to their country. The greatest anxiety prevailed in Manila. Rumours circulated that a Chinese invasion +was in preparation. The authorities held frequent councils, in which the opinions were very divided. A feverish consternation +overcame the natives, who were armed, and ordered to carry their weapons constantly. The armoury was overhauled. A war plan +was discussed and adopted, and places were singled out for each division of troops. The natives openly avowed to the Chinese +that whenever they saw the first signs of the hostile fleet arriving they would murder them all. The Chinese were accused +of having arms secreted; they were publicly insulted and maltreated; the cry was falsely raised that the Spaniards had fixed +the day for their extermination; they daily saw weapons being cleaned and put in order, and they knew that there could be +no immediate enemy but themselves. There was, in short, every circumstantial evidence that the fight for their existence would +ere long be forced upon them. + +</p> +<p>In this terrible position they were constrained to act on the offensive, simply to ensure their own safety. They raised fortifications +in several places outside the city, and many an unhappy Chinaman had to shoulder a weapon reluctantly with tears in his eyes. +They were traders. War and revolution were quite foreign to their wishes. The Christian rulers compelled them to abandon their +adopted homes and their chattels, regardless of the future. What a strange conception the Chinese must have formed of His +Most Catholic Majesty! In their despair many of them committed suicide. Finally, on the eve of Saint Francisʼ Day, the Chinese +openly declared hostilities—beat their war-gongs, hoisted their flags, assaulted the armed natives, and threatened the city. +Houses were burnt, and Binondo was besieged. They fortified Tondo; and the next morning Luis Perez Dasmariñas, an ex-Gov.-General, +led the troops against them. He was joined by 100 picked <a id="d0e3819"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e3819">115</a>]</span>Spanish soldiers under Tomás de Acuña. The nephew of the Governor and the nephew of the Archbishop rallied to the Spanish +standard nearly all the flower of Castilian soldiery—and hardly one was left to tell the tale! The bloodshed was appalling. +The Chinese, encouraged by this first victory, besieged the city, but after a prolonged struggle they were obliged to yield, +as they could not provision themselves. + +</p> +<p>The retreating Chinese were pursued far from Manila along the Laguna de Bay shore, thousands of them being overtaken and slaughtered +or disabled. Reinforcements met them on the way, and drove them as far as Batangas Province and into the Mórong district (now +included in Rizal Province). The natives were in high glee at this licence to shed blood unresisted—so in harmony with their +natural instincts. It is calculated that 24,000 Chinese were slain or captured in this revolt. + +</p> +<p>The priests affirm positively that during the defence of the city Saint Francis appeared in person on the walls to stimulate +the Christians—thus the victory was ascribed to him. + +</p> +<p>This ruthless treatment of a harmless and necessary people—for up to this event they had proved themselves to be both—threatened +to bring its own reward. They were the only industrious, thriving, skilful, wealth-producing portion of the population. There +were no other artificers or tradespeople in the Colony. Moreover, the Spaniards were fearful lest their supplies from China +of food for consumption in Manila,<a id="d0e3827src" href="#d0e3827" class="noteref">5</a> and manufactured articles for export to Mexico, should in future be discontinued. Consequently they hastened to despatch +an envoy to China to explain matters, and to reassure the Chinese traders. Much to their surprise, they found the Viceroy +of Canton little concerned about what had happened, and the junks of merchandise again arrived as heretofore. + +</p> +<p>Notwithstanding the memorable event of 1603, another struggle was made by the Chinese 36 years afterwards. In 1639, exasperated +at the official robbery and oppression of a certain doctor, Luis Arias do Mora, and the Governor of the Laguna Province, they +rose in open rebellion and killed these officials in the town of Calamba. So serious was the revolt that the Gov.-General +went out against them in person. The rebels numbered about 30,000, and sustained, for nearly a year, a petty warfare all around. +The images of the Saints were promenaded in the streets of Manila; it was a happy thought, for 6,000 Chinese coincidentally +surrendered. During this conflict an edict was published ordering all the Chinese in the provinces to be slain. + +</p> +<p>In 1660 there was another rising of these people, which terminated in a great massacre. + +</p> +<p>The Spaniards now began to reflect that they had made rather a <a id="d0e3842"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e3842">116</a>]</span>bad bargain with the Mongol traders in the beginning, and that the Government would have done better had they encouraged commerce +with the Peninsula. Up to this time the Spaniards had vainly reposed on their laurels as conquerors. They squandered lives +and treasure on innumerable fruitless expeditions to Gamboge, Cochin China, Siam, Pegu, Japan, and the Moluccas, in quest +of fresh glories, instead of concentrating their efforts in opening up this Colony and fostering a Philippine export trade, +as yet almost unknown, if we exclude merchandise from China, etc., in transit to Mexico. From this period restrictions were, +little by little, placed on the introduction of Chinese; they were treated with arrogance by the Europeans and Mexicans, and +the jealous hatred which the native to this day feels for the Chinaman now began to be more openly manifested. The Chinaman +had, for a long time past, been regarded by the European as a necessity—and henceforth an unfortunate one. + +</p> +<p>Nevertheless, the lofty Spaniard who by favour of the King had arrived in Manila to occupy an official post without an escudo +too much in his pocket, did not disdain to accept the hospitality of the Chinese. It was formerly their custom to secure the +goodwill and personal protection of the Spanish officials by voluntarily keeping lodging-houses ready for their reception. +It is chronicled that these gratuitous residences were well furnished and provided with all the requisites procurable on the +spot. For a whole century the Spaniards were lulled with this easy-going and felicitous state of things, whilst the insidious +Mongol, whose clear-sighted sagacity was sufficient to pierce the thin veil of friendship proffered by his guest, was ever +prepared for another opportunity of rising against the dominion of Castile, of which he had had so many sorry experiences +since 1603. The occasion at last arrived during the British occupation of Manila in 1763. The Chinese voluntarily joined the +invaders, but were unable to sustain the struggle, and it is estimated that some 6,000 of them were murdered in the provinces +by order of the notorious Simon de Anda (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e3489">93</a>). They menaced the town of Pasig—near Manila—and Fray Juan de Torres, the parish priest, put himself at the head of 300 natives, +by order of his Prior, Fray Andrés Fuentes, to oppose them, and the Chinese were forced to retire. + +</p> +<p>On October 9, 1820, a general massacre of Chinese, British, and other foreigners took place in Manila and Cavite. Epidemic +cholera had affected the capital and surrounding districts; great numbers of natives succumbed to its malignant effects, and +they accused the foreigners of having poisoned the drinking-water in the streams. Foreign property was attacked and pillaged—even +ships lying in the bay had to sail off and anchor out afar for safety. The outbreak attained such grave proportions that the +clergy intervened to dissuade the populace from their hallucination. The High Host was carried through the <a id="d0e3854"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e3854">117</a>]</span>streets, but the rioters were only pacified when they could find no more victims. + +</p> +<p>Amongst other reforms concerning the Chinese which the Spanish colonists and Manila natives called for in 1886, through the +public organs, was that they should be forced to comply with the law promulgated in 1867, which provided that the Chinese, +like all other merchants, should keep their trade-books in the Spanish language. The demand had the appearance of being based +on certain justifiable grounds, but in reality it was a mere ebullition of spite intended to augment the difficulties of the +Chinese. + +</p> +<p>The British merchants and bankers are, by far, those who give most credit to the Chinese. The Spanish and native creditors +of the Chinese are but a small minority, taking the aggregate of their credits, and instead of seeking malevolently to impose +new hardships on the Chinese, they could have abstained from entering into risky transactions with them. All merchants are +aware of the Chinese trading system, and none are obliged to deal with them. A foreign house would give a Chinaman credit +for, say, £300 to £400 worth of European manufactured goods, knowing full well, from personal experience, or from that of +others, that the whole value would probably never be recovered. It remained a standing debt on the books of the firm. The +Chinaman retailed these goods, and brought a small sum of cash to the firm, on the understanding that he would get another +parcel of goods, and so he went on for years.<a id="d0e3860src" href="#d0e3860" class="noteref">6</a> Thus the foreign merchants practically sunk an amount of capital to start their Chinese constituents. Sometimes the acknowledged +owner and responsible man in one Chinese retail establishment would have a share in, or own, several others. If matters went +wrong, he absconded abroad, and only the one shop which he openly represented could be embargoed, whilst his goods were distributed +over several shops under any name but his. It was always difficult to bring legal proof of this; the books were in Chinese, +and the whole business was in a state of confusion incomprehensible to any European. But these risks were well known beforehand. +It was only then that the original credit had to be written off by the foreigner as a nett loss—often small when set against +several years of accumulated profits made in successive operations. + +</p> +<p>The Chinese have guilds or secret societies for their mutual protection, and it is a well-ascertained fact that they had to +pay the Spanish authorities very dearly for the liberty of living at peace with their fellow-men. If the wind blew against +them from official quarters the affair brought on the <i>tapis</i> was hushed up by a gift. These peace-offerings, at times of considerable value, were procured by a tax privately levied on +each Chinaman by the headmen of their guilds. <a id="d0e3871"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e3871">118</a>]</span>In 1880–83 the Gov.-General and other high functionaries used to accept Chinese hospitality, etc. + +</p> +<p>In December, 1887, the Medal of Civil Merit was awarded to a Chinaman named Sio-Sion-Tay, resident in Binondo, whilst the +Government for several years had made contracts with the Chinese for the public service. Another Chinaman, christened in the +name of Cárlos Palanca, was later on awarded the Grand Cross of Isabella the Catholic, with the title of Excellency. + +</p> +<p>Many Chinese have adopted Christianity, either to improve their social standing, or to be enabled thereby to contract marriage +with natives. Their intercessor and patron is <i>Saint Nicholas</i>, since the time, it is said, that a Chinaman, having fallen into the Pasig River, was in danger of being eaten by an alligator, +and saved himself by praying to that saint, who caused the monster to turn into stone. The legendary stone is still to be +seen near the left bank of the river. + +</p> +<p>There appears to be no perfectly reliable data respecting the number of Chinese residents in the Archipelago. In 1886 the +statistics differed largely. One statistician published that there was a total of 66,740 men and 194 women, of whom 51,348 +men and 191 women lived in Manila and suburbs, 1,154 men and 3 women in Yloilo, and 983 men in Cebú, the rest being dispersed +over the coast villages and the interior. The most competent local authorities in two provinces proved to me that the figures +relating to their districts were inexact, and all other information on the subject which I have been able to procure tends +to show that the number of resident Chinese was underrated. I estimate that just before the Rebellion of 1896 there were 100,000 +Chinese in the whole Colony, including upwards of 40,000 in and around the capital. + +</p> +<p>Crowds of Chinese passed to these Islands <i>via</i> Sulu (Joló), which, as a free port, they could enter without need of papers. Pretending to be resident colonists there, they +managed to obtain passports to travel on business for a limited period in the Philippines, but they were never seen again +in Sulu. + +</p> +<p>In Spanish times the Chinaman was often referred to as a <i>Macao</i> or a <i>Sangley</i>. The former term applied to those who came from Southern China (Canton, Macao, Amoy, etc.). They were usually cooks and domestic +servants. The latter signified the Northern Chinaman of the trading class. The popular term for a Chinaman in general was +a <i>Suya</i>. + +</p> +<p>In Manila and in several provincial towns where the Chinese residents were numerous, they had their own separate “Tribunals” +or local courts, wherein minor affairs were managed by petty governors of their own nationality, elected bi-annually, in the +same manner as the natives. In 1888 the question of admitting a Chinese Consulate in the Philippines was talked of in official +circles, which proves that the Government was far from seeing the “Chinese question” in the same light as the Spanish or native +merchant class. In the course of time they acquired a certain <a id="d0e3900"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e3900">119</a>]</span>consideration in the body politic, and deputations of Chinese were present in all popular ceremonies during the last few years +of Spanish rule. + +</p> +<p>Wherever the Chinese settle they exhibit a disposition to hold their footing, if not to strengthen it, at all hazards, by +force if need be. In Sarawak their Secret Societies threatened to undermine the prosperity of that little State, and had to +be suppressed by capital punishment. Since the British occupation of Hong-Kong in 1841, there have been two serious movements +against the Europeans. In 1848 the Chinese murdered Governor Amiral of Macao, and the colonists had to fight for their lives. +In Singapore the attempts of the Chinese to defy the Government called for coercive measures, but the danger is small, because +the immigrant Chinaman has only the courage to act in mobs. + +</p> +<p>In Australia and the United States it was found necessary to enact special laws regulating the ingress of Mongols. Under the +Spanish-Philippine Government the most that could be said against them, as a class, was that, through their thrift and perseverance, +they outran the shopkeeping class in the race of life. + +</p> +<p>The Insular Government “Chinese Exclusion Act,” at present in operation, permits those Chinese who are already in the Islands +to remain conditionally, but rigidly debars fresh immigration. The corollary is that, in the course of a few years, there +will be no Chinese in the Philippines. The working of the above Act is alluded to in Chapter <a href="#d0e22333">xxxi</a>. + +</p> +<p>Under a native Government their lot is not likely to be a happy one. One of the aims of the Tagálog Revolutionists was to +exclude the Chinese entirely from the Islands. + + +<a id="d0e3913"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e3913">120</a>]</span></p> +<div class="footnotes"> +<hr class="fnsep"> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e3751" href="#d0e3751src" class="noteref">1</a></span> “<span lang="es">Hist. Gen. de Philipinas</span>,” by Juan de la Concepcion, Vol. IV., p. 53. Published in Manila, 1788. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e3757" href="#d0e3757src" class="noteref">2</a></span> Ibid., Vol. V., p. 429. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e3781" href="#d0e3781src" class="noteref">3</a></span> About two per thousand of the resident Chinese were <i>not</i> originally coolies. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e3791" href="#d0e3791src" class="noteref">4</a></span> General Wong Yung Ho, accompanied by a Chinese Justice of the High Court, visited Australia in the middle of the year 1887. +In a newspaper of that Colony, it was reported that after these persons had been courteously entertained and shown the local +institutions and industries, they had the effrontery to protest against the State Laws, and asked for a repeal of the “poll +tax”—considered there the only check upon a Chinese coolie inundation! +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e3827" href="#d0e3827src" class="noteref">5</a></span> Just before the naval engagement of Playa Honda between Dutch and Spanish ships (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e3221">75</a>) the Dutch intercepted Chinese junks on the way to Manila, bringing, amongst their cargoes of food, as many as 12,000 capons. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e3860" href="#d0e3860src" class="noteref">6</a></span> Since about the year 1885, this system, which entailed severe losses, gradually fell into disuse, and business on <i>cash terms</i> became more general. +</p> +</div> +</div> +<div id="d0e3914" class="div1"> +<h2 class="normal">Wild Tribes and Pagans</h2> +<p>The population of the Philippines does not consist of one homogeneous race; there are Mahometans, Pagans, and Christians, +the last being in the majority. The one tribe is just as much “Filipino” as the other, and, from the point of view of nationality, +they are all equally fellow-countrymen.<a id="d0e3919src" href="#d0e3919" class="noteref">1</a> So far as tradition serves to elucidate the problem of their origin, it would appear that the Filipinos are a mixed people, +descendants of Papuan, Arabian, Hindoo, Malay, Japanese, Chinese, and European forefathers.<a id="d0e3930src" href="#d0e3930" class="noteref">2</a> + +</p> +<p>According to the last census (1903), the uncivilized population amounted to 8½ per cent. of the whole. + +</p> +<p>The chief of these tribes are the <i>Aetas</i>, or <i>Negritos</i>, the <i>Gaddanes</i>, <i>Itavis, Igorrotes, Igorrote-Chinese, Tinguianes, Tagbunuas, Batacs, Manobos</i>, etc. Also among the southern races of Mindanao Island, referred to in Chapters <a href="#d0e4263">x</a>. and <a href="#d0e20496">xxix</a>., there are several pagan tribes interspersed between the Mahometan clans. + +</p> +<p>I have used only the generic denominations, for whilst these tribes are sub-divided (for instance, the <i>Buquils</i> of Zambales, a section of the <i>Negritos</i>; the <i>Guinaanes</i>, a sanguinary people inhabiting the mountains of the Igorrote district, etc.), the fractions denote no material physical +or moral difference, and the local names adopted by the different clans of the same race are of no interest to the general +reader. The expression <i>Bukidnon</i>, so commonly heard, does not signify any particular caste, but, in a general sense, the people of the mountain (<i>bukid</i>). + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Aetas</span>, or <span class="smallcaps">Negritos</span>, numbering 22,000 to 24,000, inhabit the mountain regions of Luzon, Panay, Negros, and some smaller islands. <a id="d0e3979"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e3979">121</a>]</span>They are dark, some of them being as black as African negroes. Their general appearance resembles that of the Alfoor Papuan +of New Guinea. They have curly matted hair, like Astrakhan fur. The men cover only their loins, and the women dress from the +waist to the knees. They are a spiritless and cowardly race. They would not deliberately face white men in anything like equal +numbers with warlike intentions, although they would perhaps spend a quiverful of arrows from behind a tree at a retreating +foe. + +</p> +<p></p> +<div id="d0e3982" class="figure"><img border="0" src="images/p120.jpg" alt="A Negrito Family." width="336" height="512"><p class="figureHead">A Negrito Family.</p> +</div><p> + +</p> +<p>The <i>Aeta</i> carries a bamboo lance, a palm-wood bow, and poisoned arrows when out on an expedition. He is wonderfully light-footed, and +runs with great speed after the deer, or climbs a tree like a monkey. Groups of fifty to sixty souls live in community. Their +religion seems to be a kind of cosmolatry and spirit-worship. Anything which for the time being, in their imagination, has +a supernatural appearance is deified. They have a profound respect for old age and for their dead. They are of extremely low +intellect, and, although some of them have been brought up by civilized families living in the vicinity of the <i>Negrito</i> mountainous country, they offer little encouragement to those who would desire to train them. Even when more or less domesticated, +the <i>Negrito</i> cannot be trusted to do anything which requires an effort of judgement. At times his mind seems to wander from all social +order, and an apparently overwhelming eagerness to return to his native haunts disconcerts all oneʼs plans for his civilization. + +</p> +<p>For a long time they were the sole masters of Luzon Island, where they exercised seignorial rights over the Malay immigrants, +until these arrived in such numbers, that the <i>Negritos</i> were forced to retire to the highlands. The taxes imposed upon primitive Malay settlers by the <i>Negritos</i> were levied in kind, and when payment was refused, they swooped down in a posse, and carried off the head of the defaulter. +Since the arrival of the Spaniards, the terror of the white man has made them take definitely to the mountains, where they +appear to be very gradually decreasing. + +</p> +<p>The Spanish Government, in vain, made strenuous efforts to implant civilized habits among this weak-brained race. + +</p> +<p>In 1881 I visited the Cápas Missions in Upper Pampanga. The authorities had established there what is called a <i>real</i>,—a kind of model village of bamboo and palm-leaf huts,—to each of which a family was assigned. They were supplied with food, +clothing and all necessaries of life for one year, which would give them an opportunity of tilling the land and providing +for themselves in future. But they followed their old habits when the year had expired and the subsidy ceased. On my second +visit they had returned to their mountain homes, and I could see no possible inducement for them to do otherwise. The only +attraction for them during the year was the fostering of their inbred <a id="d0e4012"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e4012">122</a>]</span>indolence; and it ought to have been evident that as soon as they had to depend on their own resources they would adopt their +own way of living—free of taxes, military service, and social restraint—as being more congenial to their tastes. + +</p> +<p>Being in the Bataan Province some years ago, I rode across the mountain range to the opposite coast with a military friend. +On our way we approached a Negrito <i>real</i>, and hearing strange noises and extraordinary calls, we stopped to consult as to the prudence of riding up to the settlement. +We decided to go there, and were fortunate enough to be present at a wedding. The young bride, who might have been about thirteen +years of age, was being pursued by her future spouse as she pretended to run away, and it need hardly be said that he succeeded +in bringing her in by feigned force. She struggled, and again got away, and a second time she was caught. Then an old man +with grey hair came forward and dragged the young man up a bamboo ladder. An old woman grasped the bride, and both followed +the bridegroom. The aged sire then gave them a douche with a cocoa-nut shell full of water, and they all descended. The happy +pair knelt down, and the elder having placed their heads together, they were man and wife. We endeavoured to find out which +hut was allotted to the newly-married couple, but we were given to understand that until the sun had reappeared five times +they would spend their honeymoon in the mountains. After the ceremony was concluded, several present began to make their usual +mountain-call. In the lowlands, the same peculiar cry serves to bring home straggling domestic animals to their nocturnal +resting-place. + +</p> +<p>There is something picturesque about a well-formed, healthy Negrita damsel, with jet-black piercing eyes, and her hair in +one perfect ball of close curls. The men are not of a handsome type; some of them have a hale, swarthy appearance, but many +of them present a sickly, emaciated aspect. A Negrita matron past thirty is perhaps one of the least attractive objects in +humanity. + +</p> +<p>They live principally on fish, roots, and mountain rice, but they occasionally make a raid on the neighbouring valleys and +carry off the herds. So great was their cattle-stealing propensity in Spanish times, that several semi-official expeditions +were sent to punish the marauders, particularly on the Cordillera de Zambales, on the west side of Luzon Island. + +</p> +<p>The husbandry of the Negritos is the most primitive imaginable. It consists of scraping the surface of the earth—without clearance +of forest—and throwing the seed. They never “take up” a piece of land, but sow in the manner described wherever they may happen +temporarily to settle. + +</p> +<p>The <span class="smallcaps">Gaddanes</span> occupy the extreme N.W. corner of Luzon Island, and are entirely out of the pale of civilization. I have never heard <a id="d0e4030"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e4030">123</a>]</span>that any attempt has been made to subdue them. They have a fine physical bearing; wear the hair down to the shoulders; are +of a very dark colour, and feed chiefly on roots, mountain rice, game, fruits, and fish. They are considered the only really +warlike and aggressively savage tribe of the north, and it is the custom of the young men about to marry to vie with each +other in presenting to the sires of their future brides all the scalps they are able to take from their enemies, as proof +of their manly courage. This practice prevails at the season of the year when the tree, commonly called by the Spaniards “the +fire-tree,” is in bloom. The flowers of this tree are of a fire-red hue, and their appearance is the signal for this race +to collect their trophies of war and celebrate certain religious rites. When I was in the extreme north, in the country of +the <i>Ibanacs</i>,<a id="d0e4035src" href="#d0e4035" class="noteref">3</a> preparing my expedition to the <i>Gaddanes</i> tribe, I was cautioned not to remain in the Gaddanes country until the fire-tree blossomed. The arms used by the <i>Gaddanes</i> are frightful weapons—long lances with tridented tips, and arrows pointed with two rows of teeth, made out of flint or sea-shells. +These weapons are used to kill both fish and foe. + +</p> +<p>The <span class="smallcaps">Itavis</span> inhabit the district to the south of that territory occupied by the <i>Gaddanes</i>, and their mode of living and food are very similar. They are, however, not so fierce as the <i>Gaddanes</i>, and if assaults are occasionally made on other tribes, it may be rather attributed to a desire to retaliate than to a love +of bloodshed. Their skin is not so dark as that of their northern neighbours—the <i>Gaddanes</i> or the partially civilized <i>Ibanacs</i>—and their hair is shorter. + +</p> +<p>The <span class="smallcaps">Igorrotes</span> are spread over a considerable portion of Luzon, principally from N. lat. 16° 30′ to 18°. They are, in general, a fine race +of people, physically considered, but semi-barbarous and living in squalor. They wear their hair long. At the back it hangs +down to the shoulders, whilst in front it is cut shorter and allowed to cover the forehead half-way like a long fringe. Some +of them, settled in the districts of Lepanto and El Abra, have a little hair on the chin and upper lip. Their skin is of a +dark copper tinge. They have flat noses, thick lips, high cheek-bones, and their broad shoulders and limbs seem to denote +great strength, but their form is not at all graceful. + +</p> +<p>Like all the wild races of the Philippines, the <i>Igorrotes</i> are indolent to the greatest degree. Their huts are built bee-hive fashion, and they creep into them like quadrupeds. Fields +of sweet potatoes and sugar-cane are under cultivation by them. They cannot be forced or persuaded to embrace the Western +system of civilization. Adultery is little known, but if it occurs, the dowry is returned and the divorce settled. Polygamy +seems to be permitted, but little practised. Murders are <a id="d0e4074"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e4074">124</a>]</span>common, and if a member of one hut or family group is killed, that family avenges itself on one of the murdererʼs kinsmen, +hence those who might have to “pay the piper” are interested in maintaining order. In the Province of La Isabela, the Negrito +and Igorrote tribes keep a regular <i>Dr.</i> and <i>Cr.</i> account of heads. In 1896 there were about 100,000 head-hunting <i>Igorrotes</i> in the Benguet district. This tribe paid to the Spaniards a recognition of vassalage of one-quarter of a peso <i>per capita</i> in Benguet, Abra, Bontoc, and Lepanto. + +</p> +<p>Their aggressions on the coast settlers have been frequent for centuries past. From time to time they came down from their +mountain retreat to steal cattle and effects belonging to the domesticated population. The first regular attempt to chastise +them for these inroads, and afterwards gain their submission, was in the time of Governor Pedro de Arandia (1754–59), when +a plan was concerted to attack them simultaneously from all sides with 1,080 men. Their ranches and crops were laid waste, +and many <i>Igorrotes</i> were taken prisoners, but the ultimate idea of securing their allegiance was abandoned as an impossibility. + +</p> +<p>In 1881 General Primo de Rivera, at the head of a large armed force, invaded their district with the view of reducing them +to obedience, but the apparent result of the expedition was more detrimental than advantageous to the project of bringing +this tribe under Spanish dominion and of opening up their country to trade and enlightened intercourse. Whilst the expeditionary +forces were not sufficiently large or in a condition to carry on a war <i>à outrance</i> successfully, to be immediately followed up by a military system of government, on the other hand, the feeble efforts displayed +to conquer them served only to demonstrate the impotence of the Europeans. This gave the tribes courage to defend their liberty, +whilst the licence indulged in by the white men at the expense of the mountaineers—and boasted of to me personally by many +Spanish officers—had merely the effect of raising the veil from their protestations of goodwill towards the race they sought +to subdue. The enterprise ignominiously failed; the costly undertaking was an inglorious and fruitless one, except to the +General, who—being under royal favour since, at Sagunta, in 1875, he “pronounced” for King Alfonso—secured for himself the +title of Count of La Union. + +</p> +<p>The <i>Igorrotes</i> have, since then, been less approachable by Europeans, whom they naturally regard with every feeling of distrust. Rightly +or wrongly (if it can be a matter of opinion), they fail to see any manifestation of ultimate advantage to themselves in the +arrival of a troop of armed strangers who demand from them food (even though it be on payment) and perturbate their most intimate +family ties. They do not appreciate being “civilized” to exchange their usages, independence, and comfort for even the highest +post obtainable by a native in the <a id="d0e4103"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e4103">125</a>]</span>provinces, which then was practically that of local head servant to the district authority, under the name of Municipal Captain. +To roam at large in their mountain home is far more enjoyable to them than having to wear clothes; to present themselves often, +if not to habitually reside, in villages; to pay taxes, for which they would get little return—not even the boon of good highroads—and +to act as unsalaried tax-collectors with the chance of fine, punishment, and ruin if they did not succeed in bringing funds +to the Public Treasury. + +</p> +<p></p> +<div id="d0e4106" class="figure floatRight" style="width: 220px"><img border="0" src="images/p128-1.jpg" alt="An Igorrote Type (Luzon)." width="220" height="303"><p class="figureHead">An Igorrote Type (Luzon).</p> +</div><p> + +</p> +<p>As to Christianity, it would be as hard a task to convince them of what Roman Catholicism deems indispensable for the salvation +of the soul, as it would be to convert all England to the teachings of Buddha—although Buddhism is as logical a religion as +Christianity. Just a few of them, inhabiting the lowlands in the neighbourhood of Vigan and other christian towns, received +baptism and paid an annual tribute of half a peso from the year 1893 to 1896. + +</p> +<p>Being in Tuguegarao, the capital of Cagayán Province, about 60 miles up the Rio Grande, I went to visit the prisons, where +I saw many of the worst types of <i>Igorrotes</i>. I was told that a priest who had endeavoured to teach them the precepts of Christianity, and had explained to them the marvellous +life of Saint Augustine, was dismayed to hear an <i>Igorrote</i> exclaim that no coloured man ever became a white manʼs saint. Nothing could convince him that an exception to the rule might +be possible. Could experience have revealed to him the established fact—the remarkable anomaly—that the grossest forms of +immorality were only to be found in the trail of the highest order of white manʼs civilization? + +</p> +<p>The <i>Igorrotes</i> have worked the copper mines of their region for generations past, in their own primitive way, with astonishing results. +They not only annually barter several tons of copper ingots, but they possess the art of manufacturing pots, cauldrons, tobacco-pipes, +and other utensils made of that metal. They also understand the extraction of gold, which they obtain in very small quantities +by crushing the quartz between heavy stones. + +</p> +<p>Specimens of the different tribes and races of these Islands were on view at the Philippine Exhibition held in Madrid in 1887. +Some of them consented to receive Christian baptism before returning home, but it was publicly stated that the <i>Igorrotes</i> were among those who positively refused to abandon their own belief. + +</p> +<p>A selection of this tribe was included in the Filipinos on show at the San Louis Exhibition (U.S.A.) in 1904, and attracted +particular attention. Some of them liked the United States so much that they tried hard to break away from their keepers in +order to remain there. + +</p> +<p>The <span class="smallcaps">Calingas</span> are a branch of the <i>Igorrotes</i>, found along the Cagayán River around Ilagán. They are not only head-hunters, but cannibals. A friend of mine, an American +colonel, was up there some <a id="d0e4140"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e4140">126</a>]</span>time during the war, and explained to me the difficulty he had in convincing a Calinga chief that a manʼs head is his personal +property, and that to steal it is a crime. + +</p> +<p>The <span class="smallcaps">Igorrote-Chinese</span> are supposed to be the descendants of the Chinese who fled to the hills on the departure of the corsair Li-ma-hong from Pangasinán +Province in 1754 (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e2813">50</a>). Their intermarriage with the <i>Igorrote</i> tribe has generated a caste of people quite unique in their character. Their habits are much the same as those of the pure +<i>Igorrotes</i>, but with their fierce nature is blended the cunning and astuteness of the Mongol; and although their intelligence may be +often misapplied, yet it is superior to that of the pure <i>Igorrote</i>. In the Province of Pangasinán there are numbers of natives of Chinese descent included in the domesticated population, and +their origin is evidently due to the circumstances mentioned. + +</p> +<p>The <span class="smallcaps">Tingulanes</span> inhabit principally the district of El Abra (N.W. coast, Luzon Is.). They were nominally under the control of the Spanish +Government, who appointed their headmen petty governors of villages or ranches on the system adopted in the subdued districts. +According to Father Ferrando (63 years ago), the form of oath taken in his presence by the newly-elected headman on receiving +the staff of office was the following, viz.:—“May a pernicious wind touch me; may a flash of lightning kill me, and may the +alligator catch me asleep if I fail to fulfil my duty.” The headman presented himself almost when he chose to the nearest +Spanish Governor, who gave him his orders, which were only fulfilled according to the traditional custom of the tribe. Thus, +the headman, on his return to the ranche, delegated his powers to the council of elders, and according to their decision he +acted as the executive only. Whenever it was possible, they applied their own <i lang="la">lex non scripta</i> in preference to acting upon the Spanish Code. + +</p> +<p>According to their law, the crime of adultery is punished by a fine of 30 pesos value and divorce, but if the adultery has +been mutual, the divorce is pronounced absolute, without the payment of a fine. + +</p> +<p>When a man is brought to justice on an accusation which he denies, a handful of straw is burnt in his presence. He is made +to hold up an earthenware pot and say as follows:—“May my belly be converted into a pot like this, if I have committed the +deed attributed to me.” If the transformation does not take place at once, he is declared to be innocent. + +</p> +<p>The <i>Tinguianes</i> are pagans, but have no temples. Their gods are hidden in the mountain cavities. Like many other religionists, they believe +in the efficacy of prayer for the supply of their material wants. Hence if there be too great an abundance of rain, or too +little of it, or an epidemic disease raging, or any calamity affecting the community in general, the <i>Anitos</i> (images representing the gods or saints) are <a id="d0e4182"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e4182">127</a>]</span>carried round and exhorted, whilst Nature continues her uninterrupted course. The minister of <i>Anito</i> is also appealed to when a child is to be named. The infant is carried into the woods, and the pagan priest pronounces the +name, whilst he raises a bowie-knife over the newborn creatureʼs head. On lowering the knife, he strikes at a tree. If the +tree emits sap, the first name uttered stands good; if not, the ceremony is repeated, and each time the name is changed until +the oozing sap denotes the will of the deity. + +</p> +<p>The <i>Tinguianes</i> are monogamists, and generally are forced by the parents to marry before the age of puberty, but the bridegroom, or his father +or elder, has to purchase the bride at a price mutually agreed upon by the relations. These people live in cabins on posts +or trees 60 to 70 feet from the ground, and defend themselves from the attacks of their traditional enemies, the <i>Guinaanes</i>, by heaving stones upon them. Nevertheless, in the more secure vicinities of the christian villages, these people build their +huts similar to those of the domesticated natives. From the doors and window-openings skulls of buffaloes and horses are hung +as talismans. + +</p> +<p>Physically they are of fine form, and the nose is aquiline. They wear the hair in a tuft on the crown, like the Japanese, +but their features are similar to the ordinary lowland native. They are fond of music and personal ornaments. They tattoo +themselves and black their teeth; and for these, and many other reasons, it is conjectured that they descend from the Japanese +shipwrecked crews who, being without means at hand with which to return to their country, took to the mountains inland from +the west coast of Luzon. I spent several months with this tribe, but I have never seen a <i>Tinguian</i> with a bow and arrow; they carry the lance as the common weapon, and for hunting and spearing fish. + +</p> +<p>Their conversion to Christianity has proved to be an impossible task. A Royal Decree of Ferdinand VI.. dated in Aranjuez, +June 18, 1758, sets forth that the infidels called <i>Tinguianes, Igorrotes</i>, and by other names who should accept Christian baptism, should be exempt all their lives from the payment of tribute and +forced labour. Their offspring, however, born to them after receiving baptism, would lose these privileges as well as the +independence enjoyed by their forefathers. This penalty to future generations for becoming Christians was afterwards extended +to all the undomesticated races. + +</p> +<p>Many of these tribes did a little barter traffic with the Chinese, but—with the hope that necessity would bring them down +to the christian villages to procure commodities, and thus become socialized—the Government prohibited this trade in 1886. + +</p> +<p>The <i>Tinguianes</i> appear to be as intelligent as the ordinary subdued natives. They are by no means savages, and they are not entirely strangers +to domestic life. A great many Christian families of El Abra <a id="d0e4212"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e4212">128</a>]</span>and Ilocos Sur are of <i>Tinguian</i> origin, and I may mention here that the Ilocano dominated natives have the just reputation of being the most industrious +Philippine people. For this reason, Ilocano servants and workmen are sought for in preference to most others. + +</p> +<p></p> +<div id="d0e4218" class="figure"><img border="0" src="images/p128-2.jpg" alt="A Tagálog Girl" width="366" height="460"><p class="figureHead">A Tagálog Girl</p> +</div><p> + +</p> +<p>The <span class="smallcaps">Basanes</span> are a very timid people who inhabit the mountains of Mindoro Island. They have long, lank hair and whitish faces, and do +not appear to be of one of the original races. They are occasionally met with (when they do not hide themselves) in the cordillera +which runs north-west to south-east and then ends off in two spurs, between which, after passing Mount Halcon, there is a +large valley leading to the southern shore. The <i>Manguianes</i>, another Mindoro wild tribe, come to the coast villages sometimes to barter, and bring pieces of gold for the purpose. They +also wear gold jewellery made of the metal extracted by themselves. + +</p> +<p>There is another race of people whose source is not distinctly known, but, according to tradition, they descend from the Sepoys +who formed part of the troops under British command during the military occupation of Manila in 1763 (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e3400">88</a>). The legend is, that these <span class="smallcaps">Hindoos</span>, having deserted from the British army, migrated up the Pasig River. However that may be, the sharp-featured, black-skinned +settlers in the Barrio de Dayap, of Cainta Town (Mórong district), are decidedly of a different stock to the ordinary native. +The notable physical differences are the fine aquiline nose, bright expression, and regular features. They are Christians—far +more laborious than the Philippine natives, and are a law-abiding people. I have known many of them personally for years. +They were the only class who voluntarily presented themselves to pay the taxes to the Spaniards, and yet, on the ground that +generations ago they were intruders on the soil, they were more heavily laden with imposts than their fellow-neighbours until +the abolition of tribute in 1884. + + +</p> +<p></p> +<div id="d0e4242" class="figure floatLeft" style="width: 235px"><img border="0" src="images/p128-3.jpg" alt="A Pagan Type (Mindanao)." width="235" height="282"><p class="figureHead">A Pagan Type (Mindanao).</p> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>There are also to be seen in these Islands a few types of that class of tropical inhabitant, preternaturally possessed of +a white skin and extremely fair hair—sometimes red—known as <span class="smallcaps">Albinos</span>. I leave it to physiologists to elucidate the peculiarity of vital phenomena in these unfortunate abnormities of Nature. +Amongst others, I once saw in Negros Island a hapless young Albino girl, with marble-white skin and very light pink-white +hair, who was totally blind in the sunny hours of the day. + +</p> +<p>The <i>Mahometan</i> and other tribes, inhabiting the Sulu Sultanate, Mindanao, Palaúan (Parágua) and the adjacent islands of the South constituting +“Moroland,” are described in Chapters <a href="#d0e4263">x</a>. and <a href="#d0e20496">xxix</a>. + + +<a id="d0e4262"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e4262">129</a>]</span></p> +<div class="footnotes"> +<hr class="fnsep"> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e3919" href="#d0e3919src" class="noteref">1</a></span> In old writings, laws, and documents, and in ordinary parlance up to the evacuation by the Spaniards in 1898, the inhabitants +of these Islands (civilized or uncivilized) were almost invariably referred to as <i lang="es">Indios, Indigenas, Naturales, Mestizos, Españoles-Filipinos</i>, etc., the term “Filipino” being seldom used. The Revolution of 1896 generalized the appellation “Filipino” now in common +use. + +</p> +<p class="footnote">Throughout this work, “Filipino” is taken as the substantive and “Philippine” as the adjective, that being the correct English +form. + +</p> +<p class="footnote">The Americans, however, use “Filipino” both substantively and adjectivally.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e3930" href="#d0e3930src" class="noteref">2</a></span> For an exhaustive treatise on this subject the reader is recommended to peruse A. R. Wallaceʼs “The Malay Archipelago.” Published +in London, 1869. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e4035" href="#d0e4035src" class="noteref">3</a></span> The <i>Ibanacs</i> are the ordinary domesticated natives inhabiting the extreme north of Luzon and the banks of the Rio Grande de Cagayán for +some miles up. Some of them have almost black skins. I found them very manageable. +</p> +</div> +</div> +<div id="d0e4263" class="div1"> +<h2 class="normal">Mahometans and Southern Tribes</h2> +<p>Simultaneously with the Spanish conquest of the Philippines, two Borneo chiefs, who were brothers, quarrelled about their +respective possessions, and one of them had to flee. His partisans joined him, and they emigrated to the Island of Basílan,<a id="d0e4268src" href="#d0e4268" class="noteref">1</a> situated to the south of Zamboanga (Mindanao Is.). The <i>Moros</i>, as they are called in the Islands, are therefore supposed to be descended from the Mahometan Dyaks of Borneo. They were +a valiant, warlike, piratical people, who admired bravery in others—had a deep-rooted contempt for poltroons, and lavished +no mercy on the weak. + +</p> +<p>In the suite of this emigrant chief, called Paguian Tindig, catoe his cousin Adasaolan, who was so captivated by the fertility +of Basílan Island that he wished to remain there; so Tindig left him in possession and withdrew to Sulu Island, where he easily +reduced the natives to vassalage, for they had never yet had to encounter so powerful a foe. So famous did Paguian Tindig +become that, for generations afterwards, the Sultans of Sulu were proud of their descent from such a celebrated hero. After +the Spaniards had pacified the great Butuan chief on the north coast of Mindanao, Tindig consented to acknowledge the suzerainty +of their king, in exchange for undisturbed possession of the realm which he had just founded. + +</p> +<p>Adasaolan espoused the Princess Paguian Goan, daughter of Dimasangcay, King of Mindanao, by his wife Imbog, a Sulu woman, +and with this relationship he embraced the Mahometan faith. His ambition increased as good fortune came to him, and, stimulated +by the promised support of his father-in-law, he invaded Sulu, attacked his cousin Tindig, and attempted to murder him in +order to annex his kingdom. A short but fierce contest ensued. Tindigʼs fortified dwelling was besieged in vain. The posts +which supported the upper storey were greased with oil, and an entrance could not be effected. Wearied of his failures, Adasaolan +retired from the enterprise, and Tindig, in turn, declared war on the Basílan king after he had been to <a id="d0e4278"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e4278">130</a>]</span>Manila to solicit assistance from his Spanish suzerainʼs representative, who sent two armed boats to support him. + +</p> +<p>When Tindig, on his return from Manila, arrived within sight of Sulu, his anxious subjects rallied round him, and prepared +for battle. The two armed boats furnished by the Spaniards were on the way, but, as yet, too far off to render help, so Adasaolan +immediately fell upon Tindigʼs party and completely routed them. Tindig himself died bravely, fighting to the last moment, +and the Spaniards, having no one to fight for when they arrived, returned to Manila with their armed boats. + +</p> +<p>Adasaolan, however, did not annex the territory of his defeated cousin. Rajah Bongso succeeded Tindig in the Government of +Sulu, and when old age enfeebled him, he was wont to show with pride the scars inflicted on him during the war of independence. + +</p> +<p>Adasaolan then made alliances with Mindanao and Borneo people, and introduced the Mahometan religion into Sulu. Since then, +Sulu (called “Joló,” by the Spaniards) has become the Mecca of the Southern Archipelago.<a id="d0e4286src" href="#d0e4286" class="noteref">2</a> +</p> +<hr class="tb"><p> + +</p> +<p>The earliest records relating to Mindanao Island, since the Spanish annexation of the Philippines, show that about the year +1594 a rich Portuguese cavalier of noble birth, named Estevan Rodriguez, who had acquired a large fortune in the Philippines, +and who had a wealthy brother in Mexico, proposed to the Governor Perez Dasmariñas the conquest of this island. For this purpose +he offered his person and all his means, but having long waited in vain to obtain the royal sanction to his project, he prepared +to leave for Mexico, disgusted and disappointed. He was on the point of starting for New Spain; he had his ship laden and +his family on board, when the royal confirmation arrived with the new Governor, Dr. Antonio Morga (1595–96). Therefore he +changed his plans, but despatched the laden ship to Mexico with the cargo, intending to employ the profits of the venture +in the prosecution of his Mindanao enterprise. With the title of General, he and his family, together with three chaplain +priests, started in another vessel for the south. They put in at Otong (Panay Is.) on the way, and left there in April, 1596. +Having reached the great Mindanao River (Rio Grande), the ship went up it as far as Buhayen, in the territory of the chief +Silongan. A party under Juan de la Jara, the <i lang="es">Maestre de Campo</i>, was sent ashore to reconnoitre the environs. Their delay in returning caused alarm, so the General buckled on his shield, +and, with sword in hand, disembarked, accompanied by a Cebuáno servant and two Spaniards, carrying lances. On the way they +met a native, who raised his <i>campilán</i> to deal a blow, which the General received on his shield, and cut down the foe to the waist. <a id="d0e4299"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e4299">131</a>]</span>Then they encountered another, who clove the Generalʼs head almost in two, causing his death in six hours. The Cebuáno at +once ran the native through with a lance. This brave was discovered to be the youngest brother of the chief Silongan, who +had sworn to Mahomet to sacrifice his life to take that of the Castilian invader. + +</p> +<p>The Generalʼs corpse was sent to Manila for interment. The expedition led by the <i lang="es">Maestre de Campo</i> fared badly, one of the party being killed, another seriously wounded, and the rest fleeing on board. The next day it was +decided to construct trenches at the mouth of the river, where the camp was established. The command was taken by the <i lang="es">Maestre de Campo</i>, whose chief exploit seems to have been that he made love to the deceased Generalʼs widow and proposed marriage to her, which +she indignantly rejected. Nothing was gained by the expedition, and after the last priest died, the project was abandoned +and the vessel returned to Cebú. + +</p> +<p>In 1638 another expedition against the Moros was headed by the Gov.-General Sebastian Hurtado de Corcuera, who made the first +landing of troops in Sulu Island on April 17 of that year. He also established some military posts on the coast of Mindanao +Island, one of which was Sampanilla (now called Malábang) on the Illana Bay shore. Four years afterwards it was abandoned +until 1891, when General Weyler went there and had a fort built, which still exists. + +</p> +<p>It would appear that all over these Islands the strong preyed on the weak, and the boldest warrior or oppressor assumed the +title of Sultan, <i>Datto</i>, etc., over all the territory he could dominate, making the dignity hereditary. So far as can be ascertained, one of the +oldest titles was that of Prince of Sibuguey, whose territory was situated on the bay of that name which washes the N.E. coast +of Zamboanga Province. The title fell into disuse, and the grandson of the last prince, the present <i>Manguiguin</i>, or Sultan of Mindanao, resides at Dinas. The sultanate dates from the year 1640, but, in reality, there never was a sultan +with effective jurisdiction over the whole island, as the title would seem to imply. The Sultanʼs heir is styled the <i>Rajahmudah</i>. + +</p> +<p>The alliances effected between the Sulu and Mindanao potentates gave a great stimulus to piracy, which hitherto had been confined +to the waters in the locality of those islands. It now spread over the whole of the Philippine Archipelago, and was prosecuted +with great vigour by regular organized fleets, carrying weapons almost equal to those of the Spaniards. In meddling with the +Mahometan territories the Spaniards may be said to have unconsciously lighted on a hornetsʼ nest. Their eagerness for conquest +stirred up the implacable hatred of the Mahometan for the Christian, and they unwittingly brought woe upon their own heads +for many generations. Indeed, if half the consequences could have been foreseen, they surely never would have attempted to +gain what, up to their last day, they <a id="d0e4324"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e4324">132</a>]</span>failed to secure, namely, the complete conquest of Mindanao and the Sulu Sultanate. + + +</p> +<p></p> +<div id="d0e4327" class="figure"><img border="0" src="images/p132.jpg" alt="Weapons of the Moros." width="333" height="512"><p class="figureHead">Weapons of the Moros.</p> +<p>(Left) “Bárong”; (right) “Kris”; (centre) The Sultan of Suluʼs dress sword, presented to the author by His Excellency.</p> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>For over two and a half centuries Mahometan war-junks ravaged every coast of the Colony. Not a single peopled island was spared. +Thousands of the inhabitants were murdered, whilst others were carried into slavery for years. Villages were sacked; the churches +were looted; local trade was intercepted; the natives subject to Spain were driven into the highlands, and many even dared +not risk their lives and goods near the coasts. The utmost desolation and havoc were perpetrated, and militated vastly against +the welfare and development of the Colony. For four years the Government had to remit the payment of tribute in Negros Island, +and the others lying between it and Luzon, on account of the abject poverty of the natives, due to these raids. From the time +the Spaniards first interfered with the Mahometans there was continual warfare. Expeditions against the pirates were constantly +being fitted out by each succeeding Governor. Piracy was indeed an incessant scourge and plague on the Colony, and it cost +the Spaniards rivers of blood and millions of dollars only to keep it in check. + +</p> +<p>In the last century the Mahometans appeared even in the Bay of Manila. I was acquainted with several persons who had been +in Mahometan captivity. There were then hundreds who still remembered, with anguish, the insecurity to which their lives and +properties were exposed. The Spaniards were quite unable to cope with such a prodigious calamity. The coast villagers built +forts for their own defence, and many an old stone watch-tower is still to be seen on the islands south of Luzon. On several +occasions the Christian natives were urged, by the inducement of spoil, to equip corsairs, with which to retaliate on the +indomitable marauders. The Sulu people made captive the Christian natives and Spaniards alike, whilst a Spanish priest was +a choice prize. And whilst Spaniards in Philippine waters were straining every nerve to extirpate slavery, their countrymen +were diligently pursuing a profitable trade in it between the West Coast of Africa and Cuba! + +</p> +<p>One must admit that, indirectly, the Mahometan attacks had the good political effect of forcing hundreds of Christians up +from the coast to people and cultivate the interior of these Islands. + +</p> +<p>Due to the enterprise of a few Spanish and foreign merchants, steamers at length began to navigate the waters of the Archipelago, +provided with arms for defence, and piracy by Mahometans beyond their own locality was doomed. In the time of Gov.-General +Norzagaray (1857–60), 18 steam gunboats were ordered out, and arrived in 1860, putting a close for ever to this epoch of misery, +bloodshed, and material loss. The end of piracy brought repose to the Colony, and in no small degree facilitated its social +advancement. + +</p> +<p>During the protracted struggle with the Mahometans, Zamboanga (Mindanao Is.) was fortified, and became the headquarters of +the <a id="d0e4343"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e4343">133</a>]</span>Spaniards in the south. After Cavite it was the chief naval station, and a penitentiary was also established there.<a id="d0e4345src" href="#d0e4345" class="noteref">3</a> Its maintenance was a great burden to the Treasury—its existence a great eyesore to the enemy, whose hostility was much inflamed +thereby. About the year 1635 its abandonment was proposed by the military party, who described it as only a sepulchre for +Spaniards. The Jesuits, however, urged its continuance, as it suited their interests to have material support close at hand, +and their influence prevailed in Manila bureaucratic centres. + +</p> +<p>In 1738 the fixed annual expenses of Zamboanga fort and equipment were 17,500 pesos, and the incidental disbursements were +estimated at 7,500 pesos. These sums did not include the cost of scores of armed fleets which, at enormous expense, were sent +out against the Mahometans to little purpose. Each new (Zamboanga) Governor of a martial spirit, and desiring to do something +to establish or confirm his fame for prowess, seemed to regard it as a kind of duty to premise the quelling of imaginary troubles +in Sulu and Mindanao. Some, with less patriotism than selfishness, found a ready excuse for filling their own pockets by the +proceeds of warfare, in making feigned efforts to rescue captives. It may be observed, in extenuation, that, in those days, +the Spaniards believed from their birth that none but a Christian had rights, whilst some were deluded by a conscientious +impression that they were executing a high mission; myth as it was, it at least served to give them courage in their perilous +undertakings. Peace was made and broken over and over again. Spanish forts were at times established in Sulu, and afterwards +demolished. Every decade brought new devices to control the desperate foe. Several Governors-General headed the troops in +person against the Mahometans with temporary success, but without any lasting effect, and almost every new Governor made a +solemn treaty with one powerful chief or another, which was respected only as long as it suited both parties. This continued +campaign, the details of which are too prolix for insertion here, may be qualified as a religious war, for Roman Catholic +priests took an active part in the operations with the same ardent passion as the Mahometans themselves. Among these tonsured +warriors who acquired great fame <i>out</i> of their profession may be mentioned Father Ducos, the son of a Colonel, José Villanueva, and Pedro de San Agustin, the last +being known, with dread, by the Mahometans in the beginning of the 17th century under the title of the Captain-priest. One +of the most renowned kings in Mindanao was Cachil Corralat, an astute, far-seeing chieftain, who ably defended the independence +of his territory, and kept the Spaniards at bay during the whole of his manhood. + +</p> +<p>An interesting event in the Spanish-Sulu history is the visit of <a id="d0e4358"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e4358">134</a>]</span>the Sultan Mahamad Alimudin to the Gov.-General in 1750, and his subsequent vicissitudes of fortune. The first royal despatch +addressed by the King of Spain to the Sultan of Sulu was dated in Buen Retiro, July 12, 1744, and everything, for the time +being, seemed to augur a period of peace. In 1749, however, the Sultan was violently deposed by an ambitious brother, Prince +Bantilan, and the Sultan forthwith went to Manila to seek the aid of his suzerainʼs delegate, the Gov.-General of the Philippines, +who chanced to be the Bishop of Nueva Segovia. In Manila the Priest-Governor cajoled his guest with presents, and accompanied +him on horseback and on foot, with the design of persuading him to renounce his religion in favour of Christianity. The Sultan +finally yielded, and avowed his intention to receive baptism. Among the friars an animated discussion ensued as to the propriety +of this act, special opposition being raised by the Jesuits; but in the end the Sultan, with a number of his suite, outwardly +embraced the Christian faith. The Sultan at his baptism received the name of Ferdinand I. of Sulu; at the same time he was +invested with the insignia and grade of a Spanish Lieut.-General. Great ceremonies and magnificent feasts followed this unprecedented +incident. He was visited and congratulated by all the <i>élite</i> of the capital. By proclamation, the festivities included four daysʼ illumination, three daysʼ procession of the giants,<a id="d0e4363src" href="#d0e4363" class="noteref">4</a> three days of bull-fighting, four nights of fireworks, and three nights of comedy, to terminate with High Mass, a <i>Te Deum</i>, and special sermon for the occasion. + +</p> +<p>In the meantime, the Sultan had requested the Governor to have the Crown Prince, Princesses, and retainers escorted to Manila +to learn Spanish manners and customs, and on their arrival the Sultan and his male and female suite numbered 60 persons. The +Bishop-Governor defrayed the cost of their maintenance out of his private purse until after the baptism, and thenceforth the +Government supported them in Manila for two years. At length it was resolved, according to appearances, to restore the Sultan +Ferdinand I. to his throne. With that idea, he and his retinue quitted Manila in the Spanish frigate <i>San Fernando</i>, which was convoyed by another frigate and a galley, until the <i>San Fernando</i> fell in with bad weather off Mindoro Island, and had to make the Port of Calapan. Thence he proceeded to Yloilo, where he +changed vessel and set sail for Zamboanga, but contrary winds carried him to Dapítan (N.W. coast of Mindanao Is.), where he +landed and put off again in a small Visayan craft for Zamboanga, arriving there on July 12, 1751. Thirteen days afterwards +the <i>San Fernando</i>, which had been repaired, reached Zamboanga also. + +</p> +<p>Before Ferdinand I. left Manila he had (at the instance of the Spanish Gov.-General, José de Obando, 1750–54) addressed a +letter to <a id="d0e4384"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e4384">135</a>]</span>Sultan Muhamad Amirubdin, of Mindanao. The original was written by Ferdinand I. in Arabic; a version in Spanish was dictated +by him, and both were signed by him. These documents reached the Governor of Zamboanga by the <i>San Fernando</i>, but he had the original in Arabic retranslated, and found that it did not at all agree with the Sultanʼs Spanish rendering. +The translation of the Arabic runs thus:— + +</p> +<p>“I shall be glad to know that the Sultan Muhamad Amirubdin and all his chiefs, male and female, are well. I do not write a +lengthy letter, as I intended, because I simply wish to give you to understand, in case the Sultan or his chiefs and others +should feel aggrieved at my writing this letter in this manner, that I do so under pressure, being under foreign dominion, +and I am compelled to obey whatever they tell me to do, and I have to say what they tell me to say. Thus the Governor has +ordered me to write to you in our style and language; therefore, do not understand that I am writing you on my own behalf, +but because I am ordered to do so, and I have nothing more to add. Written in the year 1164 on the ninth day of the Rabilajer +Moon, Ferdinand I., King of Sulu, who seals with his own seal.” + +</p> +<p>This letter was pronounced treasonable. Impressed with, or feigning, this idea, the Spaniards saw real or imaginary indications +of a design on the part of the Sultan to throw off the foreign yoke at the first opportunity. All his acts were thus interpreted, +although no positive proof was manifest, and the Governor communicated his suspicions to Manila. There is no explanation why +the Spaniards detained the Sultan at Zamboanga, unless with the intention of trumping up accusations against him. The Sultan +arrived there on July 12, and nothing was known of the discrepancy between the letters until after July 25. To suppose that +the Sultan could ever return to reign peacefully as a Christian over Mahometan subjects was utterly absurd to any rational +mind. + +</p> +<p>On August 3 the Sultan, his sons, vassals, and chiefs were all cast into prison, without opposition, and a letter was despatched, +dated August 6, 1751, to the Governor in Manila, stating the cause. The Sultan was the first individual arrested, and he made +no difficulty about going to the fort. Even the Prince Asin, the Sultanʼs brother, who had voluntarily come from Sulu in apparent +good faith with friendly overtures to the Spaniards, was included among the prisoners. The reason assigned was, that he had +failed to surrender christian captives as provided. + +</p> +<p>The prisoners, besides the Sultan, were the following, viz.:— + + +</p> +<ul> +<li>Four sons of the Sultan. + +</li> +<li>Prince Asin (brother). + +</li> +<li>Prince Mustafá (son-in-law). + +</li> +<li>Princess Panguian Banquiling (sister). + +</li> +<li>Four Princesses (daughters). + +</li> +<li>Datto Yamudin (a noble). + +</li> +<li>160 ordinary male and female retainers. + +</li> +<li>Five brothers-in-law. + +</li> +<li>One Mahometan Cherif. + +</li> +<li>Seven Mahometan priests. + +</li> +<li>Concubines with 32 female servants.</li> +</ul><p> + +<a id="d0e4421"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e4421">136</a>]</span></p> +<p>The political or other crime (if any) attributed to these last is not stated, nor why they were imprisoned. The few weapons +brought, according to custom, by the followers of the Sultan who had come from Sulu to receive their liege-lord and escort +him back to his country, were also seized. + +</p> +<p>A decree of Gov.-General José de Obando set forth the following accusations against the prisoners, viz.:— + +</p> +<p>(1) That Prince Asin had not surrendered captives. (2) That whilst the Sultan was in Manila, new captives were made by the +party who expelled him from the throne. (3) That the number of arms brought to Zamboanga by Sulu chiefs was excessive. (4) +That the letter to Sultan Muhamad Amirubdin insinuated help wanted against the Spaniards. (5) That several Mahometan, but +no christian books were found in the Sultanʼs baggage. (6) That during the journey to Zamboanga he had refused to pray in +christian form. (7) That he had only attended Mass twice. (8) That he had celebrated Mahometan rites, sacrificing a goat; +and had given evidence in a hundred ways of being a Mahometan. (9) That his conversation generally denoted a want of attachment +to the Spaniards, and a contempt for their treatment of him in Manila,<a id="d0e4428src" href="#d0e4428" class="noteref">5</a> and, (10) that he still cohabited with his concubines, contrary to christian usage. + +</p> +<p>The greatest stress was laid on the recovery of the captive Christians, and the Gov.-General admitted that although the mission +of the fleet was to restore the Sultan to the throne (which, by the way, does not appear to have been attempted), the principal +object was the rescue of christian slaves. He therefore proposed that the liberty of the imprisoned nobles and chiefs should +be bartered at the rate of 500 christian slaves for each one of the chiefs and nobles, and the balance of the captives for +Prince Asin and the clergy. One may surmise, from this condition, that the number of Christians in captivity was very considerable. + +</p> +<p>A subsequent decree, dated in Manila December 21, 1751, ordered the extermination of the Mahometans with fire and sword; the +fitting out of Visayan corsairs, with authority to extinguish the foe, burn all that was combustible, destroy the crops, desolate +their cultivated land, make captives, and recover christian slaves. One-fifth of the spoil (the <i>Real quinto</i>) was to belong to the King, and the natives were to be exempt from the payment of tribute whilst so engaged. + +</p> +<p>Before giving effect to such a terrible, but impracticable resolution, it was thought expedient to publish a pamphlet styled +a “Historical Manifest,” in which the Gov.-General professed to justify his acts for public satisfaction. However, public +opinion in Manila was averse to the intended warfare, so to make it more popular, the Governor <a id="d0e4440"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e4440">137</a>]</span>abolished the payment of one-fifth of the booty to the King. An appeal was made to the citizens of Manila for arms and provisions +to carry on the campaign; they therefore lent or gave the following, viz.:—Twenty-six guns, 13 bayonets, 3 sporting guns, +15 carbines, 5 blunderbusses, 7 braces of pistols, 23 swords, 15 lances, 900 cannon balls, and 150 pesos from Spaniards, and +a few lances and 188 pesos from natives. + +</p> +<p>Meanwhile, Prince Asin died of grief at his position. + +</p> +<p>Under the leadership of the <i lang="es">Maestre de Campo</i> of Zamboanga, hostilities commenced. With several ships he proceeded to Sulu, carrying a large armament and 1,900 men. When +the squadron anchored off Sulu, a white and a red flag were hoisted from the principal fort, for the Spaniards to elect either +peace or war. Several Sulus approached the fleet with white flags, to inquire for the Sultan. Evasive answers were given, +followed by a sudden cannonade. + +</p> +<p>No good resulted to the Spaniards from the attack, for the Sulus defended themselves admirably. Tawi Tawi Island was next +assaulted. A captain landed there with troops, but their retreat was cut off and they were all slain. The Commander of the +expedition was so discouraged that he returned to Zamboanga and resigned. Pedro Gastambide then took command, but after having +attacked Basílan Island fruitlessly, he retired to Zamboanga. The whole campaign was an entire fiasco. It was a great mistake +to have declared a war of extermination without having the means to carry it out. The result was that the irate Sulus organized +a guerilla warfare, by sea and by land, against all Christians, to which the Spaniards but feebly responded. The “tables were +turned.” In fact, they were in great straits, and, wearied at the little success of their arms, endless councils and discussions +were held in the capital. + +</p> +<p>Meanwhile, almost every coast of the Archipelago was energetically ravaged. Hitherto the Spaniards had only had the Sulus +to contend with, but the licence given by the Gov.-General to reprisal excited the cupidity of unscrupulous officials, and, +without apparent right or reason, the <i lang="es">Maestre de Campo</i> of Zamboanga caused a Chinese junk from Amoy, carrying goods to a friendly Sultan of Mindanao, to be seized. After tedious +delay, vexation, and privation, the master and his crew were released and a part of the cargo restored, but the <i lang="es">Maestre de Campo</i> insisted upon retaining what he chose for his own use. This treachery to an amicable chief exasperated and undeceived the +Mindanao Sultan to such a degree that he forthwith took his revenge by co-operating with the Sulus in making war on the Spaniards. +Fresh fleets of armed canoes replenished the Sulu armadillas, ravaged the coasts, hunted down the Spanish priests, and made +captives. + +</p> +<p>On the north coast of Mindanao several battles took place. There is a legend that over 600 Mahometans advanced to the village +of Lubungan, but were repulsed by the villagers, who declared their <a id="d0e4461"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e4461">138</a>]</span>patron, Saint James, appeared on horseback to help them. Fray Roque de Santa Mónica was chased from place to place, hiding +in caves and rocks. Being again met by four Mahometans, he threatened them with a blunderbuss, and was left unmolested. Eventually +he was found by friendly natives, and taken by them to a wood, where he lived on roots. Thence he journeyed to Linao, became +raving mad, and was sent to Manila, where he died quite frantic, in the convent of his Order. + +</p> +<p>The Sultan and his fellow-prisoners had been conveyed to Manila and lodged in the Fortress of Santiago. In 1753 he petitioned +the Gov.-General to allow his daughter, the Princess Faatima, and two slaves to go to Sulu about his private affairs. A permit +was granted on condition of her returning, or, in exchange for her liberty and that of her two slaves, to remit 50 captives, +and, failing to do either, the Sultan and his suite were to be deprived of their dignities and treated as common slaves, to +work in the galleys, and to be undistinguished among the ordinary prisoners. On these conditions, the Princess left, and forwarded +50 slaves, and one more—a Spaniard, José de Montesinos—as a present. + +</p> +<p>The Princess Faatima, nevertheless, did return to Manila, bringing with her an Ambassador from Prince Bantilan, her uncle +and Governor of Sulu, who, in the meantime, had assumed the title of Sultan Mahamad Miududin. The Ambassador was Prince Mahamad +Ismael Datto Marayalayla. After an audience with the Governor, he went to the fort to consult with the captive Sultan, and +they proposed a treaty with the Governor, of which the chief terms were as follows, viz.:— + +</p> +<p>An offensive and defensive alliance. + +</p> +<p>All captives within the Sultanate of Sulu to be surrendered within one year. + +</p> +<p>All articles looted from the churches to be restored within one year. + +</p> +<p>On the fulfilment of these conditions, the Sultan and his people were to be set at liberty. + +</p> +<p>The treaty was dated in Manila March 3, 1754. The terms were quite impossible of accomplishment, for the Sultan, being still +in prison, had no power to enforce commands on his subjects. + +</p> +<p>The war was continued at great sacrifice to the State and with little benefit to the Spaniards, whilst their operations were +greatly retarded by discord between the officials of the expedition, the authorities on shore, and the priests. At the same +time, dilatory proceedings were being taken against the <i lang="es">Maestre de Campo</i> of Zamboanga, who was charged with having appropriated to himself othersʼ share of the war booty. Siargao Island (off the +N.E. point of Mindanao Is.) had been completely overrun by the Mahometans; the villages and cultivated land were laid waste, +and the Spanish priest was killed. + +</p> +<p>When the Governor Pedro de Arandia arrived in 1754, the Sultan took advantage of the occasion to put his case before him. +He had, indeed, experienced some of the strangest mutations of fortune, and <a id="d0e4484"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e4484">139</a>]</span>Arandia had compassion on him. By Arandiaʼs persuasion, the Archbishop visited and spiritually examined him, and then the +Sultan confessed and took the Communion. In the College of Santa Potenciana there was a Mahometan woman who had been a concubine +of the Sultan, but who now professed Christianity, and had taken the name of Rita Calderon. The Sultanʼs wife having died, +he asked for this ex-concubine in marriage, and the favour was conceded to him. The nuptials were celebrated in the Governorʼs +Palace on April 27, 1755, and the espoused couple returned to their prison with an allowance of 50 pesos per month for their +maintenance. + +</p> +<p>In 1755 all the Sultanʼs relations and suite who had been incarcerated in Manila, except his son Ismael and a few chiefs, +were sent back to Sulu. The Sultan and his chiefs were then allowed to live freely within the city of Manila, after having +sworn before the Governor, on bended knees, to pay homage to him, and to remain peaceful during the Kingʼs pleasure. Indeed, +Governor Arandia was so favourably disposed towards the Sultan Mahamad Alimudin (Ferdinand I.) that personally he was willing +to restore him to his throne, but his wish only brought him in collision with the clergy, and he desisted. + +</p> +<p>The British, after the military occupation of Manila in 1763, took up the cause of the Sultan, and reinstated him in Sulu. +Then he avenged himself on the Spaniards by fomenting incursions against them in Mindanao, which the Gov.-General, José Raon, +was unable to oppose for want of resources. The Mahometans, however, soon proved their untrustworthiness to friend and foe +alike. Their friendship lasted on the one side so long as danger could thereby be averted from the other, and a certain Datto +Teng-teng attacked the British garrison one night at Balambangan and slaughtered all but six of the troops (<i>vide</i> pp. <a href="#d0e3471">92</a>, <a href="#d0e3547">98</a>). + +</p> +<p>In 1836 the sovereignty of the Sultan was distinctly recognized in a treaty made between him and Spain, whereby the Sultan +had the right to collect dues on Spanish craft entering Joló, whilst Sulu vessels paid dues to the Spaniards in their ports +as foreign vessels. + +</p> +<p>In 1844 Gov.-General Narciso Claveria led an expedition against the Moros and had a desperate, but victorious, struggle with +them at the fort of Balanguigui (an islet 14 miles due east of Sulu Is.), for which he was rewarded with the title of Conde +de Manila. + +</p> +<p>The town of Sulu (Joló) was formerly the residence of the Sultanʼs Court. This Sovereign had arrogantly refused to check the +piratical cruisings made by his people against Spanish subjects in the locality and about the Islands of Calamianes; therefore, +on February 11, 1851, General Antonio de Urbiztondo, Marquis de la Solana (an ex-Carlist chief), who had been appointed Gov.-General +of the Philippines in the previous year, undertook to redress his nationʼs grievances by force. The Spanish flag was hoisted +in several places. Sulu town, which was shelled by the gunboats, was captured and held by the <a id="d0e4505"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e4505">140</a>]</span>invaders, and the Sultan Muhamed Pulalon fled to Maybun on the south coast, to which place the Court was permanently removed. +At the close of this expedition another treaty was signed (1851), which provided for the annual payment of ₱1,500 to the Sultan +and ₱600 each to three <i>dattos</i>, on condition that they would suppress piracy and promote mutual trade. Still the Mahometans paid the Spaniards an occasional +visit and massacred the garrison, which was as often replaced by fresh levies. + +</p> +<p>In 1876 the incursions of the Mahometans and the temerity of the chiefs had again attained such proportions that European +dominion over the Sulu Sultanate and Mindanao, even in the nominal form in which it existed, was sorely menaced. Consequent +on this, an expedition, headed by Vice-Admiral Malcampo, arrived in the waters of the Sultanate, carrying troops, with the +design of enforcing submission. The chief of the land forces appears to have had no topographical plan formed. The expedition +turned out to be one of discovery. The troops were marched into the interior, without their officers knowing where they were +going, and they even had to depend on Sulu guides. Naturally, they were often deceived, and led to precisely where the Mahometans +were awaiting them in ambush, the result being that great havoc was made in the advance column by frequent surprises. Now +and again would appear a few <i lang="es">juramentados</i>, or sworn Mahometans, who sought their way to Allah by the sacrifice of their own blood, but causing considerable destruction +to the invading party. With a kris at the waist, a javelin in one hand, and a shield supported by the other, they would advance +before the enemy, dart forward and backwards, make zigzag movements, and then, with a war-whoop, rush in three or four at +a time upon a body of Christians twenty times their number, giving no quarter, expecting none—to die, or to conquer! The expedition +was not a failure, but it gained little. The Spanish flag was hoisted in several places, including Sulu (Joló), where it remained +from <span id="d0e4515" class="corr" title="Source: Feruary">February</span> 29, 1876, until the Spanish evacuation of the Islands in 1898. +</p> +<hr class="tb"><p> + +</p> +<p>The Mahometans (called by the Spaniards <i>Moros</i>) now extend over nine-tenths of Mindanao Island, and the whole of the Sultanate of Sulu, which comprises Sulu Island (34 +miles long from E. to W., and 12 miles in the broadest part from N. to S.) and about 140 others, 80 to 90 of which are uninhabited. + +</p> +<p>The native population of the Sulu Sultanate alone would be about 100,000, including free people, slaves, and some 20,000 men-at-arms +under orders of the <i>Dattos</i>.<a id="d0e4530src" href="#d0e4530" class="noteref">6</a> The domains of His Highness reach westward as far as Borneo, where, up to 25 years ago, the Sultanate of <a id="d0e4533"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e4533">141</a>]</span>Brunei<a id="d0e4535src" href="#d0e4535" class="noteref">7</a> was actually tributary (and now nominally so) to that of Sulu. The Sultan of Sulu is also feudal lord of two vassal Sultanates +in Mindanao Island. There is, moreover, a half-caste branch of these people in the southern half of Palauan Island (Parágua) +of a very subdued and peaceful nature, compared with the Sulu, nominally under the Sulu Sultanʼs rule. + +</p> +<p>In Mindanao Island only a small coast district here and there was really under Spanish empire, although Spain (by virtue of +an old treaty, which never was respected to the letter) claimed suzerainty over all the territory subject to the Sultan of +Sulu. After the Sulu war of 1876 the Sultan admitted the claim more formally, and on March 11, 1877, a protocol was signed +by England and Germany recognizing Spainʼs rights to the Tawi Tawi group and the chain of islands stretching from Sulu to +Borneo. At the same time it was understood that Spain would give visible proof of annexation by establishing military posts, +or occupying these islands in some way, but nothing was done until 1880, when Spain was stirred into action by a report that +the Germans projected a settlement there. A convict corps at once took possession, military posts were established, and in +1882 the 6th Regiment of regular troops was quartered in the group at Bongao and Siassi. + +</p> +<p>Meanwhile, in 1880, a foreign colonizing company was formed in the Sultanate of Brunei, under the title of “British North +Borneo Co.” (Royal Charter of November 7, 1881). The company recognized the suzerain rights of the Sultan of Sulu, and agreed +to pay to him an annual sum as feudal lord. Spain protested that the territory was hers, but could show nothing to confirm +the possession. There was no flag, or a detachment of troops, or anything whatsoever to indicate that the coast was under +European protection or dominion. Notes were exchanged between the Cabinets of Madrid and London, and Spain relinquished for +ever her claim to the Borneo fief of Brunei. + +</p> +<p>The experience of the unfortunate Sultan Alimudin (Ferdinand I.) taught the Sulu people such a sad lesson that subsequent +sultans have not cared to risk their persons in the hands of the Spaniards. There was, moreover, a Nationalist Party which +repudiated dependence on Spain, and hoped to be able eventually to drive out the Spaniards. Therefore, in 1885, when the heir +to the throne, Mohammad Jamalul Kiram (who was then about 15 years old) was cited to Manila to receive his investiture at +the hands of the Gov.-General, he refused to comply, and the Government at once offered the Sultanate to his uncle, Datto +Harun Narrasid, who accepted it, and presented himself to the Gov.-General in the capital. + +</p> +<p>The ceremony of investiture took place in the Government House at Malacañan near Manila on September 24, 1886, when Datto +Harun took the oath of allegiance to the King of Spain as his sovereign lord, <a id="d0e4549"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e4549">142</a>]</span>and received from the Gov.-General, Emilio Terrero, the title of His Excellency <i>Paduca Majasari Maulana Amiril Mauminin Sultan Muhamad Harun Narrasid</i>, with the rank of a Spanish lieut.-general. The Gov.-General was attended by his Secretary, the Official Interpreter, and +several high officers. In the suite of the Sultan-elect were his Secretary, <i>Tuan Hadji Omar</i>, a priest, <i>Pandita Tuan Sik Mustafá</i>, and several <i>dattos</i>. For the occasion, the Sultan-elect was dressed in European costume, and wore a Turkish fez with a heavy tassel of black +silk. His Secretary and Chaplain appeared in long black tunics, white trousers, light shoes, and turbans. Two of the remainder +of his suite adopted the European fashion, but the others wore rich typical Moorish vestments. + +</p> +<p>The Sultan returned to his country, and in the course of three months the Nationalist Party chiefs openly took up arms against +the King of Spainʼs nominee, the movement spreading to the adjacent islands of Siassi and Bongao, which form part of the Sultanate.<a id="d0e4565src" href="#d0e4565" class="noteref">8</a> + +</p> +<p>The Mahometans on the Great Mindanao River, from Cottabato<a id="d0e4570src" href="#d0e4570" class="noteref">9</a> upwards, openly defied Spanish authority; and in the spring of 1886 the Government were under the necessity of organizing +an expedition against them. The Spaniards had ordered that native craft should carry the Spanish flag, otherwise they would +be treated as pirates or rebels. In March, 1887, the cacique of the Simonor ranche (Bongao Is.), named Pandan, refused any +longer to hoist the christian ensign, and he was pursued and taken prisoner. He was conveyed on the gunboat <i>Panay</i> to Sulu, and on being asked by the Governor why he had ceased to use the Spanish flag, he haughtily replied that “he would +only answer such a question to the Captain-General,” and refused to give any further explanation. Within a month after his +arrest the garrison of Sulu (Joló) was strengthened by 377 men, in expectation of an immediate general rising, which indeed +took place. The Spanish forces were led by Majors Mattos and Villa Abrille, under the command of Brig.-General Seriná. They +were stoutly opposed by a cruel and despotic chief, named Utto, who advanced at the head of his subjects and slaves. With +the co-operation of the gunboats up the river, the Mahometans were repulsed with great loss. + +</p> +<p>Scores of expeditions had been led against the Mindanao natives, and their temporary submission had usually been obtained +by the Spaniards—on whose retirement, however, the natives always reverted to their old customs, and took their revenge on +the settlers. Moreover, the petty jealousies existing between the highest officers in the south rendered every peaceful effort +fruitless. +<a id="d0e4584"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e4584">143</a>]</span></p> +<p>Datto Utto having defiantly proclaimed that no Spaniard should ever enter his territory, an armed expedition was fitted out; +and from the example of his predecessor in 1881 (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e4074">124</a>) the Gov.-General, Emilio Terrero, perchance foresaw in a little war the vision of titles and more material reward, besides +counterbalancing his increasing unpopularity in Manila, due to the influence of my late friend, the Government Secretary Felipe +Canga-Argüelles. Following in the wake of those who had successfully checked the Mahometans in the previous spring, he took +the chief command in person in the beginning of January, 1887, to force a recantation of Datto Uttoʼs utterances. + +</p> +<p>The petty Sultans of Bacat, Buhayen and Kudaran͠gan in vain united their fortunes with those of Utto. The stockades of cocoanut +trunks, <i>palma-bravas</i> (q.v.) and earth (<i>cottas</i>) were easily destroyed by the Spanish artillery, and their defenders fled under a desultory fire. There were very few casualties +on either side. Some of the Christian native infantry soldiers suffered from the bamboo spikes (Spanish, <i>puas</i>) set in the ground around the stockades, but the enemy had not had time to cover with brushwood the pits dug for the attacking +party to fall into. In about two months the operations ended by the submission of some chiefs of minor importance and influence; +and after spending so much powder and shot and Christian blood, the General had not even the satisfaction of seeing either +the man he was fighting against or his enemyʼs ally, the Sultan of Kudaran͠gan. This latter sent a priest, Pandita Kalibaudang, +and Datto Andig to sue for peace and cajole the General with the fairest promises. Afterwards the son and heir of this chief, +Rajahmudah Tambilanang, presented himself, and he and his suite of 30 followers were conducted to the camp in the steam launch +<i>Carriedo</i>. Utto, whose residence had been demolished, had not deigned to submit in person, but sent, as emissaries, Dattos Sirun͠gang, +Buat and Dalandung, who excused only the absence of Uttoʼs prime minister. Capitulations of peace were handed to Uttoʼs subordinates, +who were told to bring them back signed without delay, for despatches from the Home Government, received four or five weeks +previously, were urging the General to conclude this affair as speedily as possible. They were returned signed by Utto—or +by somebody else—and the same signature and another, supposed to be that of his wife, the Ranee Pudtli (a woman of great sway +amongst her people) were also attached to a letter, offering complete submission. + +</p> +<p>The Spaniards destroyed a large quantity of rice-paddy, and stipulated for the subsequent payment of a war indemnity in the +form of cannons (<i>lantacas</i>), buffaloes, and horses. + +</p> +<p>The General gave the emissaries some trifling presents, and they went their way and he his,—to Manila, which he entered in +state on March 21, with flags flying, music playing, and the streets decorated with bunting of the national colours, to give +welcome to the conqueror <a id="d0e4614"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e4614">144</a>]</span>of the Mahometan chief—whom he had never seen—the bearer of peace capitulations signed—by whom? As usual, a <i>Te Deum</i> was celebrated in the Cathedral for the victories gained over the infidels; the officers and troops who had returned were +invited by the Municipality to a theatrical performance, and the Gov.-General held a reception in the Palace of Malacañan. +Some of the troops were left in Mindanao, it having been resolved to establish armed outposts still farther up the river for +the better protection of the port and settlement of Cottabato. + +</p> +<p>Whilst the Gov.-General headed this military parade in the Cottabato district, the ill-feeling of the Sulu natives towards +the Spaniards was gradually maturing. An impending struggle was evident, and Colonel Juan Arolas, the Governor of Sulu, concentrated +his forces in expectation. The Sulus, always armed, prepared for events in their <i>cottas</i>; Arolas demanded their surrender, which was refused, and they were attacked. Two <i>cottas</i>, well defended, were ultimately taken, not without serious loss to the Spaniards. In the report of the slain a captain was +mentioned. Arolas then twice asked for authority to attack the Mahometans at Maybun, and was each time refused. At length, +acting on his own responsibility, on April 15, 1887, he ordered a gunboat to steam round to Maybun and open fire at daybreak +on the Sultanʼs capital, which was in possession of the party opposed to the Spanish nominee (Harun Narrasid). At 11 oʼclock +the same night he started across country with his troops towards Maybun, and the next morning, whilst the enemy was engaged +with the gunboat, he led the attack on the land side. The Mahometans, quite surprised, fought like lions, but were completely +routed, and the seat of the Sultanate was razed to the ground. It was the most crushing defeat ever inflicted on the Sulu +Nationalist Party. The news reached Manila on April 29, and great praise was justly accorded to Colonel Arolas, whose energetic +operations contrasted so favourably with the Cottabato expedition. All manner of festivities in his honour were projected +in Manila, but Arolas elected to continue the work of subduing the Moro country. Notwithstanding his well-known republican +tendencies, on September 20, 1887, the Queen-Regent cabled through her Ministry her acknowledgment of Colonel Arolasʼ valuable +services, and the pleasure it gave her to reward him with a Brig.-Generalʼs commission.<a id="d0e4627src" href="#d0e4627" class="noteref">10</a> + +</p> +<p>In 1895 an expedition against the Mahometans was organized under the supreme command of Gov.-General Ramon Blanco. It was +known as the Marahui (or Marauit) Campaign. The tribes around Lake Lanao (ancient name Malanao) and the Marahui district had, +for some time past, made serious raids on the Spanish settlement at Ylígan, which is connected with Lake Lanao by a river +navigable only by canoes. <a id="d0e4632"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e4632">145</a>]</span>Indeed, the lives and property of Christians in all the territory adjoining Yligan were in great jeopardy, and the Spanish +authorities were set at defiance. It was therefore resolved, for the first time, to attack the tribes and destroy their <i>cottas</i> around the lake for the permanent tranquillity of Yligan. The Spanish and native troops alike suffered great hardships and +privations. Steam launches in sections (constructed in Hong-Kong), small guns, and war material were carried up from Yligan +to the lake by natives over very rugged ground. On the lake shore the launches were fitted up and operated on the lake, to +the immense surprise of the tribes. From the land side their <i>cottas</i> were attacked and destroyed, under the command of my old friend Brig.-General Gonzalez Parrado. The operations, which lasted +about three months, were a complete success, and General Gonzalez Parrado was rewarded with promotion to General of Division. +Lake Lanao, with the surrounding district and the route down to Yligan, was in possession of the Spaniards, and in order to +retain that possession without the expense of maintaining a large military establishment, it was determined to people the +conquered territory with Christian families from Luzon and the other islands situated north of Mindanao. It was the attempt +to carry out this colonizing scheme which gave significance to the Marahui Expedition and contributed to that movement which, +in 1896, led to the downfall of Spanish rule in the Archipelago. + +</p> +<p>The last Spanish punitive expedition against the Mindanao Mahometans was sent in February, 1898, under the command of General +Buille. The operations lasted only a few days. The enemy was driven into the interior with great loss, and one chief was slain. +The small gunboats built in Hong-Kong for the Marahui Campaign—the <i>General Blanco, Corcuera</i>, and <i>Lanao</i>—again did good service. + +</p> +<p>There are three branches or tribes of the <i>Malanao</i> Moros around the Lake Lanao: + + +</p> +<ul> +<li>(1) <i>Bayabos</i>, at the north of the Lake, their centre being Marahui. + +</li> +<li>(2) <i>Onayans</i>, at the south of the Lake, their centre being Bayan. + +</li> +<li>(3) <i>Macui</i> tribe includes the remaining Lake Lanao people, except a few independent ranches to the east of the Macui, belonging to the +Bayabos. The Macui claim to be the most ancient, although no tribe can trace descent farther back than the 13th century. Intermarriage +has destroyed traces, but there are over a hundred sultans who claim to be of royal blood. +</li> +</ul><p> + + +</p> +<p>The other principal Mindanao tribes are as follows, viz.:—<i>Aetas</i>, in the regions near Mount Apo (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e3979">121</a>). + + +</p> +<ul> +<li><i>Bagobos</i>, on the foothills of Mount Apo. A peaceful people, disposed to work, and reputed to be human sacrificers. + +</li> +<li><i>Manobos</i>, in the valley of the Agusan River. There are also some on the Gulf of Davao and in the Cottabato district. + +</li> +<li><i>Samales</i> inhabit the small islands in the Gulf of Davao, but there is <a id="d0e4694"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e4694">146</a>]</span>quite a large colony of them at Magay, a suburb of Zamboanga, (from the neighbouring islets) under Rajahmudah Datto Mandi. + +</li> +<li><i>Subuanos</i> occupy the peninsula of the Zamboanga Province. They are docile and lazy, and much prone to stealing. They are far less courageous +than the <i>Samales</i>, by whom they are overawed. Some physiognomists consider them to be of the same caste as the <i>Manobos</i>, the <i>Guimbanos</i> of Sulu, and the <i>Samecas</i> of Basilan. + +</li> +<li><i>Tagubans</i> live on the north shore of the Gulf of Davao. + +</li> +<li><i>Tirurayas</i> inhabit the mountains to the west of the Rio Grande. +</li> +</ul><p> + + +</p> +<p>There is a large number of smaller tribes. +</p> +<hr class="tb"><p> + +</p> +<p>A few years ago we were all alarmed on Corpus Christi Day, during the solemn procession of that feast in Cottabato, by the +sudden attack of a few Mahometans on the crowd of Christians assembled. Of course the former were overwhelmed and killed, +as they quite expected to be. They were of that class known as <i>juramentados</i>, or sworn Mahometans, who believe that if they make a solemn vow, in a form binding on their consciences, to die taking the +blood of a Christian, their souls will immediately migrate to the happy hunting-ground, where they will ever live in bliss, +in the presence of the Great Prophet. This is the most dangerous sect of Mahometans, for no exhibition of force can suffice +to stay their ravages, and they can only be treated like mad dogs, or like a Malay who has run <i>ámok</i>. + +</p> +<p>The face of a Mindanao south coast Moro is generally pleasant, but a smile spoils his appearance; the parting lips disclose +a filthy aperture with dyed teeth in a mahogany coloured foam of masticated betel-nut. Holes as large as sixpences are in +the ears of the women, who, when they have no ear-rings, wear a piece of reed with a vermilion tip. The dress is artistically +fantastic, with the <i>sárong</i> and the <i>jábul</i> and no trousers visible. Apparently the large majority (perhaps 70 per cent.) of the Párang-Párang Moros have a loathsome +skin disease. Those who live on shore crop their hair, but the swamp, river, and sea people who live afloat let it grow long. + +</p> +<p>The Sulu Islanders, male and female, dress with far greater taste and ascetic originality than the christian natives. The +women are fond of gay colours, the predominant ones being scarlet and green. Their nether bifurcated garment is very baggy, +the bodice is extremely tight, and, with equally close-fitting sleeves, exhibits every contour of the bust and arms. They +use also a strip of stuff sewn together at the ends called the <i>jábul</i>, which serves to protect the head from the sun-rays. The end of the <i>jábul</i> would reach nearly down to the feet, but is usually held <i>retroussé</i> under the arm. They have a passion for jewellery, and wear many finger-rings of metal and sometimes of sea-shells, whilst +their ear-rings are gaudy and of large dimensions. The hair is gracefully tied in a coil on the top of the head, and <a id="d0e4752"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e4752">147</a>]</span>their features are at least as attractive as those of the generality of Philippine christian women. + +</p> +<p>The men wear breeches of bright colours, as tight as gymnastsʼ pantaloons, with a large number of buttons up the sides; a +kind of waistcoat buttoning up to the throat; a jacket reaching to the hips, with close sleeves, and a turban. A chiefʼs dress +has many adornments of trinkets, and is quite elegant, a necessary part of his outfit being the <i>bárong</i> (sword), which apparently he carries constantly. + +</p> +<p>They are robust, of medium height, often of superb physical development; of a dusky bronze colour, piercing eyes, low forehead, +lank hair, which is dressed as a chignon and hangs down the back of the neck. The body is agile, the whole movement is rapid, +and they have a wonderful power of holding the breath under water. They are of quick perception, audacious, haughty, resolute, +zealous about their genealogies; extremely sober, ready to promise everything and do nothing, vindictive and highly suspicious +of a strangerʼs intentions. Their bearing towards the Christian, whom they call the infidel, is full of contempt. They know +no gratitude, and they would not cringe to the greatest Christian potentate. They are very long-suffering in adversity, hesitating +in attack, and the bravest of the brave in defence. They disdain work as degrading and only a fit occupation for slaves, whilst +warfare is, to their minds, an honourable calling. Every male over 16 years of age has to carry at least one fighting-weapon +at all times, and consider himself enrolled in military service. + +</p> +<p>They have a certain knowledge of the Arts. They manufacture on the anvil very fine kris daggers, knives, lance-heads, etc. +Many of their fighting-weapons are inlaid with silver and set in polished hardwood or ivory handles artistically carved. + +</p> +<p>In warfare they carry shields, and their usual arms on land are the <i>campilán</i>, a kind of short two-handed sword, wide at the tip and narrowing down to the hilt, the <i>bárong</i> for close combat, the straight <i>kris</i> for thrusting and cutting, and the waved, serpent-like <i>kris</i> for thrusting only. They are dexterous in the use of arms, and can most skilfully decapitate a foe at a single stroke. At +sea they use a sort of assegai, called <i>bagsacay</i> or <i>simbilin</i>, about half an inch in diameter, with a sharp point. Some can throw as many as four at a time, and make them spread in the +flight; they use these for boarding vessels. They make many of their own domestic utensils of metal, also coats of mail of +metal wire and buffalo horn, which resist hand-weapons, but not bullets. The wire probably comes from Singapore. + +</p> +<p>The local trade is chiefly in pearls, mother-of-pearl, shells, shark fins, etc.<a id="d0e4785src" href="#d0e4785" class="noteref">11</a> The Sultan, in Spanish times, had a sovereign right to all <a id="d0e4794"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e4794">148</a>]</span>pearls found which exceeded a certain size fixed by Sulu law—hence it was very difficult to secure an extraordinary specimen. +The Mahometans trade at great distances in their small craft, called <i>vintas</i>, for they are wonderfully expert navigators. Their largest vessels do not exceed seven tons, and they go as far as Borneo, +and even down to Singapore on rare occasions. + +</p> +<p></p> +<div id="d0e4800" class="figure"><img border="0" src="images/p148-1.jpg" alt="A Scene in the Moro Country" width="512" height="361"><p class="figureHead">A Scene in the Moro Country</p> +</div><p> + +</p> +<p>I found that almost any coinage was useful for purchasing in the market-places. I need hardly add that the Chinese small traders +have found their way to these regions; and it would be an unfavourable sign if a Chinaman were not to be seen there, for where +the frugal Celestial cannot earn a living one may well assume there is little prosperity. Small Chinese coins (known as <i>cash</i> in the China Treaty Ports) are current money there, and I think, the most convenient of all copper coins, for, having a hole +in the centre, they can be strung together. Chinese began to trade with this island in 1751. + +</p> +<p></p> +<div id="d0e4810" class="figure"><img border="0" src="images/p148-2.jpg" alt="Zamboanga Fortress (“Fuerza del Pilar”)" width="512" height="362"><p class="figureHead">Zamboanga Fortress (“Fuerza del Pilar”)</p> +</div><p> + +</p> +<p>The root of the Sulu language is Sanscrit, mixed with Arabic. Each Friday is dedicated to public worship, and the faithful +are called to the temple by the beating of a box or hollow piece of wood. All recite the Iman with a plaintive voice in honour +of the Great Prophet; a slight gesticulation is then made whilst the <i>Pandita</i> reads a passage from the Mustah. I observed that no young women put in an appearance at the temple on the occasion of my +visit. + +</p> +<p>At the beginning of each year there is a very solemn ceremonial, and, in the event of the birth or death of a child, or the +safe return from some expedition, it is repeated. It is a sort of <i>Te Deum</i> in conformity with Mahometan rites. During a number of days in a certain month of the year they abstain from eating, drinking, +and pleasure of all kinds, and suffer many forms of voluntary penance. Strangers are never allowed, I was told, inside the +Mosque of the Sultan. The higher clergy are represented by the hereditary <i>Cherif</i>, who has temporal power also. The title of <i>Pandita</i> simply means priest, and is the common word used in Mindanao as well as in Palaúan Island. He seems to be almost the chief +in his district—not in a warlike sense, like the <i>Datto</i>; but his word has great influence. He performs all the functions of a priest, receives the vow of the <i>juramentados</i>, and expounds the mysteries and the glories of that better world whither they will go without delay if they die taking the +blood of a Christian. + +</p> +<p>In theory, the Moros accept the Koran and the teachings of Mahomet: in practice, they omit the virtues of their religious +system and follow those precepts which can be construed into favouring vice; hence they interpret guidance of the people by +oppression, polygamy by licentiousness, and maintenance of the faith by bloodshed. Relays of Arabs come, from time to time, +under the guise of Koran expounders, to feed on the people and whet their animosity towards the Christian. + +</p> +<p>The <i>Panditas</i> are doctors also. If a <i>Datto</i> dies, they intone a <a id="d0e4846"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e4846">149</a>]</span>dolorous chant; the family bursts into lamentations, which are finally drowned in the din of the clashing of cymbals and beating +of gongs, whilst sometimes a gun is fired. In rush the neighbours, and join in the shouting, until all settle down quietly +to a feast. The body is then sprinkled with salt and camphor and dressed in white, with the kris attached to the waist. There +is little ceremony about placing the body in the coffin and burying it. The mortuary is marked by a wooden tablet—sometimes +by a stone, on which is an inscription in Arabic. A slip of board, or bamboo, is placed around the spot, and a piece of wood, +carved like the bows of a canoe, is stuck in the earth; in front of this is placed a cocoanut shell full of water. +</p> +<hr class="tb"><p> + +</p> +<p>The old native town, or <i>cotta</i> of Sulu (Joló) was a collection of bamboo houses built upon piles extending a few hundred yards into the sea. This was all +demolished by the Spaniards when they permanently occupied the place in 1876, excepting the Military Hospital, which was re-constructed +of light materials, native fashion. The sea-beach was cleared, and the native village put back inland. + +</p> +<p>The site is an extremely pretty little bay on the north of the island, formed by the points Dangapic and Candea, and exactly +in front, about four or five miles off, there are several low-lying islets, well wooded, with a hill abruptly jutting out +here and there, the whole forming a picturesque miniature archipelago. + +</p> +<p>Looking from the sea, in the centre stands the modern Spanish town of Sulu (Joló), built on the shore, rising about a couple +of yards above sea-level, around which there is a short stone and brick sea-wall, with several bends pleasantly relieving +the monotony of a straight line. + +</p> +<p>Forming a background to the European town, there are three thickly wooded hillocks almost identical in appearance, and at +each extremity of the picture, lying farther back inland, there is a hill sloping down gradually towards the coast. The slope +on the eastern extremity has been cleared of undergrowth to the extent of about 50 acres, giving it the appearance of a vast +lawn. At the eastern and western extremities are the native suburbs, with huts of light material built a few yards into the +sea. On the east side there is a big Moro bungalow, erected on small tree-trunks, quite a hundred yards from the beach seawards. +To the west, one sees a long shanty-built structure running out to sea like a jetty; it is the shore market. The panorama +could not be more charming and curious. Still farther west, towering above every other, stands the <i>Bad Tumantangas</i> peak (Mount of Tears), the last point discernible by the westward-journeying Joloano, who is said to sigh with patriotic +anguish at its loss to view, with all the feeling of a Moorish Boabdil bidding adieu to his beloved Granada. +<a id="d0e4864"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e4864">150</a>]</span></p> +<p>The town is uniformly planned, with well-drained streets, running parallel, crossed at rectangles by lovely avenues of shading +trees. Here and there are squares, pretty gardens, and a clean and orderly market-place. There is a simple edifice for a church, +splendid barracks equal to those in Manila when these were built, many houses of brick and stone, others of wood, and all +roofed with corrugated iron. + +</p> +<p>The neighbourhood is well provided with water from natural streams. The town is supplied with drinking-water conducted in +pipes, laid for the purpose from a spring about a mile and a quarter distant, whilst other piping carries water to the end +of the pier for the requirements of shipping. This improvement, the present salubrity of the town (once a fever focus), and +its latest Spanish embellishments, are mainly due to the intelligent activity of its late Governors, Colonel (now General) +González Parrado, and the late General Juan Arolas. + +</p> +<p>The town is encircled on the land side by a brick loop-holed wall. The outside (Spanish) defences consisted of two forts, +viz:—The “<i lang="es">Princesa de Asturias</i>” and “<i lang="es">Torre de la Reina</i>” and within the town those of the “<i lang="es">Puerta Blockaus</i>”, “<i lang="es">Puerta España</i>” and the redoubt “<i>Alfonso XII.</i>”—this last had a Nordenfeldt gun. + +</p> +<p>The Spanish Government of Sulu was entirely under martial law, and the Europeans (mostly military men) were constantly on +the alert for the ever-recurring attacks of the natives. + +</p> +<p>The general aspect of Sulu (Joló) is cheerful and attractive. The day scene, enlivened by the Moro, passing to and fro with +his lithe gait, in gay attire, with the <i>bárong</i> in a huge sash, and every white man, soldier or civilian, carrying arms in self-defence, may well inflame the imaginative +and romantic mind. One can hardly believe one is still in the Philippines. At night, the shaded avenues, bordered by stately +trees, illuminated by a hundred lamps, present a beautiful, picturesque scene which carries the memory far, far away from +the surrounding savage races. Yet all may change in a trice. There is a hue and cry; a Moro has run <i>ámok</i>—his glistening weapon within a foot of his escaping victim; the Christian native hiding away in fear, and the European off +in pursuit of the common foe; there is a tramping of feet, a cracking of firearms; the Moro is biting the dust, and the memory +is brought abruptly back from imaginationʼs flights to full realization of oneʼs Mahometan <i>entourage</i>. + +</p> +<p>By a decree dated September 24, 1877, all the natives, and other races or nationalities settled there, were exempted from +all kinds of contributions or taxes for 10 years. In 1887 the term was extended for another 10 years; hence, no imposts being +levied, all the Spaniards had to do was to maintain their prestige with peace. + +</p> +<p>In his relations with the Spaniards, the Sultan held the title of Excellency, and he, as well as several chiefs, received +annual pensions from the Government at the following rates:— +<a id="d0e4903"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e4903">151</a>]</span> +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="60%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i> </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Pesos. +</i></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Sultan of Sulu </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 2,400 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Sultan of Mindanao </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 1,000 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Datto Beraduren, heir to the Sulu Sultanate </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 700 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Paduca Datto Alimudin, of Sulu </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 600 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Datto Amiral, of Mindanao </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 800 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Other minor pensions </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 600 + + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">₱6,100</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>and an allowance of 2 pesos for each captive rescued, and 3 pesos for each pirate caught, whether in Sulu or Mindanao waters. + +</p> +<p>The Sultan is the <i>Majasari</i> (the stainless, the spotless)—the Pontiff-king—the chief of the State and the Church; but it is said that he acknowledges +the Sultan of Turkey as the <i>Padishah</i>. He is the irresponsible lord and master of all life and property among his subjects, although in his decrees he is advised +by a Council of Elders. + +</p> +<p>Nevertheless, in spite of his absolute authority, he does not seem to have perfect control over the acts of his nobles or +chiefs, who are a privileged class, and are constantly waging some petty war among themselves, or organizing a marauding expedition +along the coast. The Sultan is compelled, to a certain extent, to tolerate their excesses, as his own dignity, or at least +his own tranquillity, is in a great measure dependent on their common goodwill towards him. The chiefs collect tribute in +the name of the Sultan, but they probably furnish their own wants first and pay differences into the Royal Treasury, seeing +that it all comes from their own feudal dependents. + +</p> +<p>The Sultan claims to be the nominal owner of all the product of Sulu waters. In the valuable Pearl Fisheries he claims to +have a prior right to all pearls above a certain value, although the finder is entitled to a relative bounty from the Sultan. +“Ambal,” a product found floating on the waters and much esteemed by the Chinese as medicine, is subject to royal dues. The +great pearl-fishing centre is Siassi Island (in the Tapul group), lying about 20 miles south of Sulu Island. + +</p> +<p>The Sultanate is hereditary under the Salic Law. The Sultan is supported by three ministers, one of whom acts as Regent in +his absence (for he might choose to go to Singapore, or have to go to Mecca, if he had not previously done so); the other +is Minister of War, and the third is Minister of Justice and Master of the Ceremonies. + +</p> +<p>Slavery exists in a most ample sense. There are slaves by birth and others by conquest, such as prisoners of war, insolvent +debtors, and those seized by piratical expeditions to other islands. A creole friend of mine was one of these last. He had +commenced clearing an estate for cane-growing on the Negros coast, when he was seized and carried off to Sulu Island. In a +few years he was ransomed and returned to Negros, where be formed one of the finest sugar haciendas and factories in the Colony. +<a id="d0e4965"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e4965">152</a>]</span></p> +<p>In 1884 a Mahometan was found on a desolate isle lying off the Antique coast (Panay Is.), and of course had no document of +identity, so he was arrested and confined in the jail of San José de Buenavista. From prison he was eventually taken to the +residence of the Spanish Governor, Don Manuel Castellon, a very humane gentleman and a personal friend of mine. In Don Manuelʼs +study there was a collection of native arms which took the strangerʼs fancy; one morning he seized a kris and lance, and, +bounding into the breakfast-room, capered about, gesticulated, and brandished the lance in the air, much to the amusement +of the Governor and his guests. But in an instant the fellow (hitherto a mystery, but undoubtedly a <i>juramentado</i>) hurled the lance with great force towards the Public Prosecutor, and the missile, after severing his watch-chain, lodged +in the side of the table. The Governor and the Public Prosecutor at once closed with the would-be assassin, whilst the Governorʼs +wife, with great presence of mind, thrust a table-knife into the culpritʼs body between the shoulder-blade and the collar-bone. +The man fell, and, when all supposed he was dead, he suddenly jumped up. No one had thought of taking the kris out of his +grasp, and he rushed around the apartment and severely cut two of the servants, but was ultimately despatched by the bayonets +of the guards who arrived on hearing the scuffle. The Governor showed me his wounds, which were slight, but his life was saved +by the valour of his wife—Doña Justa. + +</p> +<p>It has often been remarked by old residents, that if free licence were granted to the domesticated natives, their barbarous +instincts would recur to them in all vigour. Here was an instance. The body of the Moro was carried off by an excited populace, +who tied a rope to it, beat it, and dragged it through the town to a few miles up the coast, where it was thrown on the sea-shore. +The priests did not interfere; like the Egyptian mummies cast on the Stygian shores, the culprit was unworthy of sepulture—besides, +who would pay the fees? + +</p> +<p>During my first visit to Sulu in 1881, I was dining with the Governor, when the conversation ran on the details of an expedition +about to be sent to Maybun, to carry despatches received from the Gov.-General for the Sultan, anent the Protectorate. The +Governor seemed rather surprised when I expressed my wish to join the party, for the journey is not unattended with risk to +oneʼs life. [I may here mention that only a few days before I arrived, a young officer was sent on some mission a short distance +outside the town of Joló, accompanied by a patrol of two guards. He was met by armed Mahometans, and sent back with one of +his hands cut off. I remember, also, the news reaching us that several military officers were sitting outside a café in Joló +Town, when a number of <i>juramentados</i> came behind them and cut their throats.] However, the Governor did not oppose my wish—on the contrary, he jocosely replied +that he could not extend my passport so far, because the Sulus would not respect it, yet the more Europeans the better. +<a id="d0e4978"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e4978">153</a>]</span></p> +<p>Officials usually went by sea to Maybun, and a gunboat was now and again sent round the coast with messages to the Sultan, +but there was no Government vessel in Joló at this time. + +</p> +<p>Our party, all told, including the native attendants, numbered about 30 Christians, and we started early in the morning on +horseback. I carried my usual weapon—a revolver—hoping there would be no need to use it on the journey. And so it resulted; +we arrived, without being molested in any way, in about three hours, across a beautiful country. + +</p> +<p>We passed two low ranges of hills, which appeared to run from S.W. to N.E., and several small streams, whilst here and there +was a ranche of the Sultanʼs subjects. Each ranche was formed of a group of 10 to 20 huts, controlled by the cacique. Agriculture +seemed to be pursued in a very pristine fashion, but, doubtless owing to the exuberant fertility of the soil, we saw some +very nice crops of Rice, Indian Corn, Sugar Cane, and Indigo and Coffee plantations on a small scale. In the forest which +we traversed there were some of the largest bamboos I have ever seen, and fine building timber, such as Teak, Narra, Molave, +Mangachapuy, and Camagon (<i>vide</i> Woods). I was assured that Cedars also flourished on the island. We saw a great number of monkeys, wild pigeons, cranes, +and parrots, whilst deer, buffaloes, and wild goats are said to abound in these parts. + +</p> +<p>On our arrival at Maybun, we went first to the bungalow of a Chinaman—the Sultanʼs brother-in-law—where we refreshed ourselves +with our own provisions, and learnt the gossip of the place. On inquiry, we were told that the Sultan was sleeping, so we +waited at the Chinamanʼs. I understood this man was a trader, but there were no visible signs of his doing any business. Most +of our party slept the <i>siesta</i>, and at about four oʼclock we called at the Palace. It was a very large building, well constructed, and appeared to be built +almost entirely of materials of the country. A deal of bamboo and wood were used in it, and even the roof was made of split +bamboo, although I am told that this was replaced by sheet-iron when the young Sultan came to the throne. The vestibule was +very spacious, and all around was pleasantly decorated with lovely shrubs and plants peculiar to most mid-tropical regions. +The entrance to the Palace was always open, but well guarded, and we were received by three <i>Dattos</i>, who saluted us in a formal way, and, without waiting to ask us any question, invited us, with a wave of the hand, to follow +them into the throne-room.<a id="d0e4996src" href="#d0e4996" class="noteref">12</a> The Sultan was seated on our entering, but when the bearer of the despatches approached with the official interpreter by +his side, and we following, he rose in his place to greet us. + +</p> +<p>His Highness was dressed in very tight silk trousers, fastened partly up the sides with showy chased gold or gilt buttons, +a short Eton-cut olive-green jacket with an infinity of buttons, white socks, ornamented <a id="d0e5007"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e5007">154</a>]</span>slippers, a red sash around his waist, a kind of turban, and a kris at his side. His general appearance was that of a Spanish +bull-fighter with an Oriental finish off. We all bowed low, and the Sultan, surrounded by his Sultanas, put his hands to his +temples, and, on lowering them, he bowed at the same time. We remained standing whilst some papers were handed to him. He +looked at them—a few words were said in Spanish, to the effect that the bearer saluted His Highness in the name of the Governor +of Sulu. The Sultan passed the documents to the official interpreter, who read or explained them in the Sulu language; then +a brief conversation ensued, through the interpreter, and the business was really over. After a short pause, the Sultan motioned +to us to be seated on floor-cushions, and we complied. The cushions, covered with rich silk, were very comfortable. Servants, +in fantastic costumes, were constantly in attendance, serving betel-nut to those who cared to chew it. + +</p> +<p>One Sultana was fairly pretty, or had been so, but the others were heavy, languid, and lazy in their movements; and their +teeth, dyed black, did not embellish their personal appearance. The Sultan made various inquiries, and passed many compliments +on us, the Governor, Gov.-General, etc., which were conveyed to us through the interpreter. Meanwhile, the Sultanas chatted +among themselves, and were apparently as much interested in looking at us as we were in their style, features, and attire. +They all wore light-coloured “dual garments” of great width, and tight bodices. Their <i>coiffure</i> was carefully finished, but a part of the forehead was hidden by an ungraceful fringe of hair. + +</p> +<p>We had so little in common to converse on, and that little had to be said through the interpreter, that we were rather glad +when we were asked to take refreshments. It at least served to relieve the awkward feeling of glancing at each other in silence. +Chocolate and ornamental sweetmeats were brought to us, all very unpalatable. When we were about to take our departure, the +Sultan invited us to remain all night in the Palace. The leader of our party caused to be explained to him that we were thankful +for his gracious offer, but that, being so numerous, we feared to disturb His Highness by intruding so far on his hospitality. +Still the Sultan politely insisted, and whilst the interpretation was being transmitted I found an opportunity to acquaint +our chief of my burning curiosity to stay at the Palace. In any case, we were a large number to go anywhere, so our leader, +in reply to the Sultan, said that he and four Europeans of his suite would take advantage of His Highnessʼs kindness. + +</p> +<p>We withdrew from the Sultanʼs presence, and some of us Europeans walked through the town accompanied by functionaries of the +royal household and the interpreter. There was nothing striking in the place; it was like most others. There were some good +bungalows of bamboo and thatching. I noticed that men, women, and children were smoking tobacco or chewing, and had no visible +occupation. Many of the smaller dwellings were built on piles out to the sea. We saw a number of divers <a id="d0e5018"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e5018">155</a>]</span>preparing to go off to get pearls, mother-of-pearl, etc. They are very expert in this occupation, and dive as deep as 100 +feet. Prior to the plunge they go through a grotesque performance of waving their arms in the air and twisting their bodies, +in order—as they say—to frighten away the sharks; then with a whoop they leap over the edge of the prahu, and continue to +throw their arms and legs about for the purpose mentioned. They often dive for the shark and rip it up with a kris. + +</p> +<p>Five of us retired to the Palace that night, and were at once conducted to our rooms. There was no door to my room; it was, +strictly speaking, an alcove. During the night, at intervals of about every hour, as it seemed to me, a Palace servant or +guard came to inquire how the Señor was sleeping, and if I were comfortable. “Duerme el Señor?” (“Does the gentleman sleep?”) +was apparently the limit of his knowledge of Spanish. I did not clearly understand more than the fact that the man was a nuisance, +and I regretted there was no door with which to shut him out. The next morning we paid our respects to His Highness, who furnished +us with an escort—more as a compliment than a necessity—and we reached Joló Town again, after a very enjoyable ride through +a superb country. +</p> +<hr class="tb"><p> + +</p> +<p>The Sultanʼs subjects are spread so far from the centre of government—Maybun—that in some places their allegiance is but nominal. +Many of them residing near the Spanish settlements are quick at learning Castilian sufficiently well to be understood, but +the Spaniards tried in vain to subject them to a European order of things. + +</p> +<p>About 20 miles up the coast, going north from Zamboanga, the Jesuits sent a missionary in 1885 to convert the <i>Subuanos</i>. He endeavoured to persuade the people to form a village. They cleared a way through the forest from the beach, and at the +end of this opening, about three-quarters of a mile long, I found a church half built of wood, bamboo, and palm-leaves. I +had ridden to the place on horseback along the beach, and my food and baggage followed in a canoe. The opening was so roughly +cleared that I thought it better to dismount when I got half way. As the church was only in course of construction, and not +consecrated, I took up my quarters there. I was followed by a <i>Subuano</i>, who was curious to know the object of my visit. I told him I wished to see the headman, so this personage arrived with one +of his wives and a young girl. They sat on the floor with me, and as the cacique could make himself understood in Spanish, +we chatted about the affairs of the town <i>in posse</i>. The visiting priest had gone to the useless trouble of baptizing a few of these people. They appeared to be as much Christian +as I was Mahometan. The cacique had more than one wife—the word of the <i>Pandita</i> of the settlement was the local law, and the <i>Pandita</i> himself of course had his seraglio. I got the first man, who had followed me, to direct me to the <i>Panditaʼs</i> house. My guide was gaily attired in <a id="d0e5046"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e5046">156</a>]</span>bright red tight acrobat breeches, with buttons up the side, and a jacket like a waistcoat, with sleeves so close-fitting +that I suppose he seldom took the trouble to undress himself. I left the cacique, promising to visit his bungalow that day, +and then my guide led me through winding paths, in a wood, to the hut of the <i>Pandita</i>. On the way I met a man of the tribe carrying spring-water in a bamboo, which he tilted to give me a drink. To my inquiries +if he were a Christian, and if he knew the <i>Castilian Pandita</i> (Spanish priest), he replied in the affirmative; continuing the interrogation, I asked him how many gods there were, and +when he answered “four,” I closed my investigation of his Christianity. My guide was too cunning to take me by the direct +path to the <i>Panditaʼs</i> bungalow. He led me into a half-cleared plot of land facing it, whence the inmates could see us for at least ten minutes +making our approach. When we arrived, and after scrambling up the staircase, which was simply a notched trunk of a tree about +nine inches diameter, I discovered that the <i>Pandita</i>, forewarned, had fled to the mountain close by, leaving his wives to entertain the visitor. I found them all lounging and +chewing betel-nut, and when I squatted on the floor amongst them they became remarkably chatty. Then I went to the caciqueʼs +bungalow. In the rear of this dwelling there was a small forge, and the most effective bellows of primitive make which I have +ever seen in any country. It was a double-action apparatus, made entirely of bamboo, except the pistons, which were of feathers. +These pistons, working up and down alternately by a bamboo rod in each hand, sustained perfectly a constant draught of air. +One man was squatting on a bamboo bench the height of the bellowsʼ rods, whilst the smith crouched on the ground to forge +his kris on the anvil. + +</p> +<p>The headmanʼs bungalow was built the same as the others, but with greater care. It was rather high up, and had the usual notched +log-of-wood staircase, which is perhaps easy to ascend with naked feet. The cacique and one of his wives were seated on mats +on the floor. After mutual salutations the wife threw me three cushions, on which I reclined—doing the <i>dolce far niente</i> whilst we talked about the affairs of the settlement. The conversation was growing rather wearisome anent the Spanish priest +having ordered huts to be built without giving materials, about the scarcity of palm-leaves in the neighbourhood, and so forth, +so I bade them farewell and went on to another hut. Here the inmates were numerous—four women, three or four men, and two +rather pretty male children, with their heads shaven so as to leave only a tuft of hair towards the forehead about the size +of a crown piece. To entertain me, six copper tom-toms were brought out, and placed in a row on pillows, whilst another large +one, for the bass accompaniment, was suspended from a wooden frame. A man beat the bass with a stick, whilst the women took +it in turns to kneel on the floor, with a stick in <a id="d0e5065"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e5065">157</a>]</span>each hand, to play a tune on the series of six. A few words were passed between the three men, when suddenly one of them arose +and performed a war-dance, quaintly twisting his arms and legs in attitudes of advance, recoil, and exultation. The dance +finished, I mounted my horse and left the settlement in embryo, called by the missionaries Reus, which is the name of a town +in Catalonia. + +</p> +<p>The climate of Mindanao and Sulu Islands is healthy and delightful. The heat of Zamboanga is moderated by daily breezes, and +in Sulu, in the month of June, it is not oppressive. A yearʼs temperature readings on the Illana Bay coast (Mindanao Is.) +are as follows, viz.:— + + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top"><b>Average of +</b></td> +<td valign="top" colspan="3"><b>Inside the House, Fahrenheit. +</b></td> +<td valign="top" colspan="3"><b>Outside in the Shade, Fahrenheit.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top"><b> </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>6 a.m. +</b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>Noon. +</b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>6 p.m. +</b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>6 a.m. +</b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>Noon. +</b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>6 p.m.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Jan.–March + +</td> +<td valign="top">73° + +</td> +<td valign="top">84° + +</td> +<td valign="top">83° + +</td> +<td valign="top">72° + +</td> +<td valign="top">84° + +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">80°</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">April–June + +</td> +<td valign="top">74½° + +</td> +<td valign="top">83° + +</td> +<td valign="top">78½° + +</td> +<td valign="top">74½° + +</td> +<td valign="top">92½° + +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">78°</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">July–Sept. + +</td> +<td valign="top">74° + +</td> +<td valign="top">84° + +</td> +<td valign="top">80° + +</td> +<td valign="top">72½° + +</td> +<td valign="top">88° + +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">79°</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Oct.–Dec. + +</td> +<td valign="top">73° + +</td> +<td valign="top">85° + +</td> +<td valign="top">80° + +</td> +<td valign="top">73° + +</td> +<td valign="top">83° + +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">78°</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>The Island of Palaúan (Parágua) was anciently a dependency of the Sultanate of Brunei (Borneo), hence the dominion over this +island of the Sultan of Sulu as suzerain lord of Brunei. At the beginning of the 18th century Spaniards had already settled +in the north of it. It had a very sparse population, and a movement was set on foot to subjugate the natives. In order to +protect the Spanish settlers from Mahometan attacks a fort was established at Labo. However, the supplies were not kept up, +and many of the garrison died of misery, hunger, and nakedness, until 1720, when it was abandoned. + +</p> +<p>Some years afterwards the island was gratuitously ceded to the Spaniards by the Sultan of Sulu, at their request. Captain +Antonio Fabeau was sent there with troops to take formal possession, being awarded the handsome salary of ₱50 per month for +this service. On the arrival of the ships, an officer was sent ashore; the people fled inland, and the formalities of annexation +were proceeded with unwitnessed. The only signs of possession left there were the corpses of the troops and sailors who died +from eating rotten food, or were murdered by Mahometans who attacked the expedition. Subsequently a fortress was established +at Taytay, where a number of priests and laymen in a few years succeeded in forming a small colony, which at length shared +the fate of Labo. The only Spanish settlement in the island at the date of the evacuation was the colony of Puerta Princesa, +on the east coast.<a id="d0e5157src" href="#d0e5157" class="noteref">13</a> +<a id="d0e5166"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e5166">158</a>]</span></p> +<p>Before starting on my peregrination in Palaúan Island, I sought in vain for information respecting the habits and nature of +the <i>Tagbanúas</i>, a half-caste Malay-Aeta tribe, disseminated over a little more than the southern half of the island.<a id="d0e5172src" href="#d0e5172" class="noteref">14</a> It was only on my arrival at Puerta Princesa that I was able to procure a vague insight into the peculiarities of the people +whom I intended to visit. The Governor, Don Felipe Canga-Argüelles, was highly pleased to find a traveller who could sympathize +with his efforts, and help to make known, if only to the rest of the Archipelago, this island almost unexplored in the interior. +He constantly wrote articles to one of the leading journals of Manila, under the title of “Echoes from Parágua” (Palaúan), +partly with the view of attracting the attention of the Government to the requirements of the Colony, but also to stimulate +a spirit of enterprise in favour of this island, rich in hardwoods, etc. + +</p> +<p>Puerta Princesa is a good harbour, situated on a gulf. The soil was levelled, trees were planted, and a slip for repairing +vessels was constructed. There was a fixed white light visible eleven miles off. It was a naval station for two gunboats, +the Commander of the station being <i>ex-officio</i> Governor of the Colony. It was also a Penal Settlement for convicts, and those suspected by the civil or religious authorities. +To give employment to the convicts and suspects, a model sugar-estate was established by the Government. The locality supplied +nearly all the raw material for working and preserving the establishment, such as lime, stone, bricks, timber, sand, firewood, +straw for bags, rattans, etc. + +</p> +<p>The aspect of the town is agreeable, and the environs are pretty, but there is a great drawback in the want of drinking-water, +which, in the dry season, has to be procured from a great distance. + +</p> +<p>The Governor showed me great attention, and personally took command of a gunboat, which conducted me to the mouth of the Iguajit +River. This is the great river of the district, and is navigable for about three miles. I put off in a boat manned by marines, +and was rowed about two miles up, as far as the mission station. The missionary received me well, and I stayed there that +night, with five men, whom I had engaged to carry my luggage, for we had a journey before us of some days on foot to the opposite +coast. + +</p> +<p>My luggage, besides the ordinary travelling requisites and provisions, included about 90 yards of printed stuffs of bright +colours, six dozen common handkerchiefs, and some 12 poundsʼ weight of beads on strings, with a few odds and ends of trinkets; +whilst my native bearers were provided with rice, dried fish, betel-nut, tobacco, etc., for a week or more. We set out on +foot the next day, and in three days and a half we reached the western shore. + +</p> +<p>The greatest height above the sea-level on our route was about <a id="d0e5191"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e5191">159</a>]</span>900 metres, according to my aneroid reading, and the maximum heat at mid-day in the shade (month of January) was 82° Fahr. +The nights were cold, comparatively speaking, and at midnight the thermometer once descended to 59° Fahr. + +</p> +<p>The natives proved to be a very pacific people. We found some engaged in collecting gum from the trees in the forest, and +others cutting and making up bundles of rattans. They took these products down to the Iguajit River mission station, where +Chinese traders bartered for them stuffs and other commodities. The value of coin was not altogether unknown in the mission +village, although the difference in value between copper and silver coinage was not understood. In the interior they lived +in great misery, their cabins being wretched hovels. They planted their rice without ploughing at all, and all their agricultural +implements were made of wood or bamboo. + +</p> +<p>The native dress is made of the bark of trees, smashed with stones, to extract the ligneous parts. In the cool weather they +make tunics of bark, and the women wear drawers of the same material. They adorn their waists with sea-shell and cocoanut +shell ornaments, whilst the fibre of the palm serves for a waistband. The women pierce very large holes in their ears, in +which they place shells, wood, etc. They never bathe intentionally. Their arms are bows and arrows, and darts blown through +a kind of pea-shooter made of a reed resembling <i>bojo</i> (q.v). They are a very dirty people, and they eat their fish or flesh raw. + +</p> +<p>I had no difficulty whatever in procuring guides from one group of huts to the next on payment in goods, and my instructions +were always to lead me towards the coast, the nearest point of which I knew was due west or a few points to the north. + +</p> +<p>We passed through a most fertile country the whole way. There were no rivers of any importance, but we were well supplied +with drinking-water from the numerous springs and rivulets. The forests are very rich in good timber, chiefly <i>Ipil</i> (<i>Eperma decandria)</i>, a very useful hardwood (<i>vide</i> Woods). I estimated that many of these trees, if felled, would have given clean logs of 70 to 80 feet long. I presume the +felling of timber was not attempted by these natives on account of the difficulties, or rather, total want of transport means. +From a plateau, within half a dayʼs journey of the opposite coast, the scenery was remarkably beautiful, with the sea to the +west and an interminable grandeur of forest to the east. There were a few fishermen on the west coast, but further than that, +there was not a sign of anything beyond the gifts of Nature. About half a mile from the coast, on the fringe of the forest, +there was a group of native huts, two of which were vacated for our accommodation in exchange for goods. + +</p> +<p>With an abundance of fish, we were able to economize our provisions. One of my men fell ill with fever, so that we had to +wait two days on the west coast, whilst I dosed him with Enoʼs fruit salt and quinine. <a id="d0e5215"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e5215">160</a>]</span>In the meantime, I studied the habits of these people. Among the many things which astonished them was the use of matches, +whilst our cooking highly amused them. Such a thing as a horse I suppose had never been seen here, although I would gladly +have bought or hired one, for I was very weary of our delay. We all went on the march again, on foot nearly all the way, by +the same passes to the Iguajit River, where we found a canoe, which carried us back to Puerta Princesa. + +</p> +<p>The island produces many marketable articles, such as beeswax, edible birdʼs nests, fine shells, dried shell-fish, a few pearls, +bush-rope or <i>palásan</i> (q.v.) of enormous length, wild nutmegs, ebony, logwood, etc., which the Chinese obtain in barter for knives and other small +manufactures. + +</p> +<p>The first survey of the Palaúan Island coast is said to have been made by the British. A British map of Puerta Princesa, with +a few miles of adjoining coast, was shown to me in the Government House of this place. It appears that the west coast is not +navigable for ships within at least two miles of the shore, although there are a few channels leading to creeks. Vessels coming +from the west usually pass through the Straits of Balábac, between the island of that name and the islets off the Borneo Island +coast. + +</p> +<p>In the Island of Balábac there was absolutely nothing remarkable to be seen, unless it were a little animal about the size +of a big cat, but in shape a perfect model of a doe.<a id="d0e5226src" href="#d0e5226" class="noteref">15</a> I took one to Manila, but it died the day we arrived. No part of the island (which is very mountainous and fertile) appeared +to be cultivated, and even the officials at the station had to obtain supplies from Manila, whilst cattle were brought from +the Island of Cuyo, one of the Calamianes group. + +</p> +<p>In the latter years, the Home Government made efforts to colonize Palaúan Island by offering certain advantages to emigrants. +By Royal Order, dated February 25, 1885, the Islands of Palaúan and Mindanao were to be occupied in an effectual manner, and +outposts established, wherever necessary, to guarantee the secure possession of these islands. The points mentioned for such +occupation in Palaúan Island were Tagbusao and Malihut on the east coast, and Colasian and Malanut on the west coast. It also +confirmed the Royal Decree of July 30, 1860, granting to all families emigrating to these newly established military posts, +and all peaceful tribes of the Islands who might choose to settle there, exemption from the payment of tribute for six years. +The families would be furnished with a free passage to these places, and each group would be supplied with seed and implements. + +</p> +<p>A subsequent Royal Order, dated January 19, 1886, was issued, to the effect:—That the Provincial Governors of the Provinces +of North <a id="d0e5242"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e5242">161</a>]</span>and South Ilocos were to stimulate voluntary emigration of the natives to Palaúan Island, to the extent of 25 families from +each of the two provinces per annum. That any payments due by them to the Public Treasury were to be condoned. That such families +and any persons of good character who might establish themselves in Palaúan should be exempt from the payment of taxes for +ten years, and receive free passage there for themselves and their cattle, and three hectares of land gratis, to be under +cultivation within a stated period. That two chupas of rice (<i>vide</i> Rice measure) and ten cents of a peso should be given to each adult, and one chupa of rice to each minor each day during +the first six months from the date of their embarking. That the Governor of Palaúan should be instructed respecting the highways +to be constructed, and the convenience of opening free ports in that island. That the land and sea forces should be increased; +and of the latter, a third-rate man-oʼ-war should be stationed on the west coast. That convicts should continue to be sent +to Palaúan, and the Governor should be authorized to employ all those of bad conduct in public works. That schools of primary +instruction should be established in the island wherever such might be considered convenient, etc., etc.<a id="d0e5247src" href="#d0e5247" class="noteref">16</a> + +</p> +<p>The Spaniards (in 1898) left nearly half the Philippine Archipelago to be conquered, but only its Mahometan inhabitants ever +persistently took the aggressive against them in regular continuous warfare. The attempts of the Jesuit missionaries to convert +them to Christianity were entirely futile, for the <i>Panditas</i> and the Romish priests were equally tenacious of their respective religious beliefs. The last treaty made between Spain and +Sulu especially stipulated that the Mahometans should not be persecuted for their religion. + +</p> +<p>To overturn a dynasty, to suppress an organized system of feudal laws, and to eradicate an ancient belief, the principles +of which had firmly established themselves among the populace in the course of centuries, was a harder task than that of bringing +under the Spanish yoke detached groups of Malay immigrants. The pliant, credulous nature <a id="d0e5263"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e5263">162</a>]</span>of the Luzon settlers—the fact that they professed no deeply-rooted religion, and—although advanced from the migratory to +the settled condition—were mere nominal lieges of their puppet kinglings, were facilities for the achievement of conquest. +True it is that the dynasties of the Aztecs of Mexico and the Incas of Peru yielded to Spanish valour, but there was the incentive +of untold wealth; here, only of military glory, and the former outweighed the latter. + +</p> +<p>If the Spaniards failed to subjugate the Mahometans, or to incorporate their territory in the general administrative system +of the Colony, after three centuries of intermittent endeavour, it is difficult to conceive that the Philippine Republic (had +it subsisted) would have been more successful. It would have been useless to have resolved to leave the Moros to themselves, +practically ignoring their existence. Any Philippine Government must needs hold them in check for the public weal, for the +fact is patent that the Moro hates the native Christian not one iota less than he does the white man. + + +<a id="d0e5267"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e5267">163</a>]</span></p> +<div class="footnotes"> +<hr class="fnsep"> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e4268" href="#d0e4268src" class="noteref">1</a></span> According to Father Pedro Murillo, the ancient name of Basílan was Taguima, so called from a river there of that name. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e4286" href="#d0e4286src" class="noteref">2</a></span> Mahometanism appears to have been introduced into the Islands of Borneo and Mindanao by Arabian missionary prophets. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e4345" href="#d0e4345src" class="noteref">3</a></span> It was called the <i lang="es">Fuerza del Pilar</i>, and is now the American Moro Province military headquarters and head quartermasterʼs office and dépòt. The image of Our +Lady in a niche in the north wall is much revered by Catholics. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e4363" href="#d0e4363src" class="noteref">4</a></span> <i lang="es">Paseo de los gigantes</i>, the custom still existing in Spain of introducing giant figures into popular festivities, reminding one of Guy Fawkes. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e4428" href="#d0e4428src" class="noteref">5</a></span> The Sultan complained that he had not been treated in Manila with dignity equal to his rank and quality, and that he had constantly +been under guard of soldiers in his residence (this was explained to be a guard-of-honour). +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e4530" href="#d0e4530src" class="noteref">6</a></span> Cholera has considerably reduced the population. In 1902 this disease carried off about 10 per cent. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e4535" href="#d0e4535src" class="noteref">7</a></span> Brûnei signifies, in pure Malay, the <i>whole</i> of Borneo Island. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e4565" href="#d0e4565src" class="noteref">8</a></span> The Sultan told me years afterwards that his uncleʼs nomination by the Spaniards troubled him very little, as he was always +recognized by his people as their sovereign. In the end intrigues were made against Datto Harun Narrasid, who agreed to accept +his nephewʼs vassal sultanate of Parágua, where he died, and was succeeded by his son, Sultan Tattarassa, whom I met in Joló +in 1904. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e4570" href="#d0e4570src" class="noteref">9</a></span> Cottabato is derived from <i>Cotta</i>, a fort, and <i>Bató</i>, stone. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e4627" href="#d0e4627src" class="noteref">10</a></span> By Royal Order of June, 1890, Brig.-General Arolas was appointed Governor of Mindanao. He died in Valencia (Spain) May, 1899. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e4785" href="#d0e4785src" class="noteref">11</a></span> According to Sonnerat, Sulu Island produced elephants!—<i>vide</i> “<span lang="fr">Voyages aux Indes et à la Chine</span>,” Vol. III., Chap. x. I have not seen the above statement confirmed in any writing. Certainly there is no such animal in +these islands at the present day. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e4996" href="#d0e4996src" class="noteref">12</a></span> This building was destroyed by Colonel Arolas, April 15, 1887 (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e4614">144</a>). +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e5157" href="#d0e5157src" class="noteref">13</a></span> A few outposts had recently been established by Royal Decree. They were all under the command of a captain, <i>vide</i> Chap. <a href="#d0e6541">xiii</a>. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e5172" href="#d0e5172src" class="noteref">14</a></span> There is another tribe in Palaúan Island called <i>Batacs</i>, with Papuan noses, curly hair, and very dark skin. Their origin is a mystery. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e5226" href="#d0e5226src" class="noteref">15</a></span> Alfred Marche calls this the <i>Tragulus ranchil</i>, and says it is also to be found in Malacca, Cochin China, and Pulo Condor (<i>vide</i> “<span lang="fr">Luçon et Palaouan</span>,” par A. Marche. Paris, 1887). +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e5247" href="#d0e5247src" class="noteref">16</a></span> By Royal Order of August 20, 1888, a concession of 12,000 to 14,000 hectares of land in Palaúan was granted to Felipe Canga-Argüelles +y Villalba, ex-Governor of Puerta Princesa, for the term of 20 years. + +</p> +<p class="footnote">He could work mines, cut timber, and till the land so conceded under the law called “Ley de Colonias Agrícolas,” of September +4, 1884, which was little more than an extension to the Philippines of the Peninsula forest and agricultural law of June 3, +1868 (<i lang="es">vide Gaceta de Madrid</i> of September 29, 1888). It appears, however, from the Colonial Ministerʼs despatch No. 515, to the Gov.-General of the Colony, +dated May 24, 1890, that the concessionaire had endeavoured to associate himself with foreigners for the working of the concession. +I myself had received from him several letters on the subject. The wording of the despatch shows that suspicion was entertained +of an eventual intention to declare territorial independence in Palaúan. The Government, wishing to avoid the possibility +of embroilment with a foreign nation, unfortunately felt constrained to impose such restrictions upon the concessionaire as +to render his enterprise valueless. +</p> +</div> +</div> +<div id="d0e5268" class="div1"> +<h2 class="normal">Domesticated Natives—Origin—Character</h2> +<p>The generally-accepted theory regarding the origin of the composite race which may be termed “domesticated natives,” is, that +their ancestors migrated to these Islands from Malesia, or the Malay Peninsula. But so many learned dissertations have emanated +from distinguished men, propounding conflicting opinions on the descent of the Malays themselves, that we are still left on +the field of conjecture. + +</p> +<p>There is good reason to surmise that, at some remote period, these Islands and the Islands of Formosa and Borneo were united, +and possibly also they conjointly formed a part of the Asiatic mainland. Many of the islets are mere coral reefs, and some +of the larger islands are so distinctly of coral formation that, regarded together with the numerous volcanic evidences, one +is induced to believe that the Philippine Archipelago is the result of a stupendous upheaval by volcanic action.<a id="d0e5275src" href="#d0e5275" class="noteref">1</a> At least it seems apparent that no autochthonous population existed on these lands in their island form. The first settlers +were probably the <i>Aetas,</i> called also <i>Negritos</i> and <i>Balugas</i>, who may have drifted northwards from New Guinea and have been carried by the strong currents through the San Bernadino Straits +and round Punta Santiago until they reached the still waters in the neighbourhood of Corregidor Island, whilst others were +carried westwards to the tranquil Sulu Sea, and travelling thence northwards would have settled on the Island of Negros. It +is a fact that for over a century after the Spanish conquest, Negros Island had no other inhabitants but these mountaineers +and escaped criminals from other islands. + +</p> +<p>The sturdy races inhabiting the Central Luzon highlands, decidedly superior in physique and mental capacity to the <i>Aetas,</i> may be of Japanese origin, for shortly after the conquest by Legaspi a Spanish galley cruising off the north coast of Luzon +fell in with Japanese, who probably <a id="d0e5292"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e5292">164</a>]</span>penetrated to the interior of that island up the Rio Grande de Cagayán. Tradition tells us how the Japanese used to sail down +the east coast of Luzon as far as the neighbourhood of Lamon Bay, where they landed and, descending the little rivers which +flowed into the Lake of Bay, settled in that region which was called by the first Spanish conquerors Pagsanján Province, and +which included the Laguna Province of to-day, with a portion of the modern Tayabas Province. + +</p> +<p></p> +<div id="d0e5295" class="figure"><img border="0" src="images/p164-1.jpg" alt="A Visayan Girl" width="379" height="498"><p class="figureHead">A Visayan Girl</p> +</div><p> + +</p> +<p>Either the Japanese extended their sphere from the Lake of Bay shore, or, as some assert (probably erroneously), shipwrecked +Japanese went up the Pansipít River to the Bómbon Lake: the fact remains that Taal, with the Bómbon Lake shore, was a Japanese +settlement, and even up to now the Taaleños have characteristics differing from those of the pure Malay immigrant descendants. +The Philippine patriot, Dr. José Rizal, was a good Japanese-Malay type. + +</p> +<p></p> +<div id="d0e5302" class="figure"><img border="0" src="images/p164-2.jpg" alt="A Tagálog Girl" width="378" height="496"><p class="figureHead">A Tagálog Girl</p> +</div><p> + +</p> +<p>The Tagálogs, who occupy a small portion of Luzon Island, chiefly the provinces of Batangas, Laguna, Rizal, and Bulacan, are +believed to be the cross-breed descendants of these Japanese immigrants. At the period of the Spanish conquest the <i>Tao ílog</i>, that is to say, “the man who came by the river,” afterwards corrupted into the more euphonious name of <i>Tagálog</i>, occupied only the lands from the south shore of Laguna de Bay southwards. Some traded with the Malay settlers at Maynila +(as the city on the Pasig River was then called) and, little by little, radicated themselves in the Manila suburbs of Quiapo, +Sampáloc, and Santa Cruz.<a id="d0e5314src" href="#d0e5314" class="noteref">2</a> + +</p> +<p>From the West, long before the Spanish conquest, there was a great influx of Malays, who settled on the shores and the lowlands +and drove the first settlers (<i>Aetas</i>) to the mountains. Central Luzon and the Lake environs being already occupied, they spread all over the vacant lands and +adjacent islands south of Luzon. These expeditions from Malesia were probably accompanied by Mahometan propagandists, who +had imparted to the Malays some notions, more or less crude, of their religion and culture, for at the time of Legaspiʼs arrival +in Manila we find he had to deal with two chiefs, or petty kings, both assuming the Indian title of <i>Rajah</i>, whilst one of them had the Mahometan Arabic name of Soliman. Hitherto the <i>Tao ílog,</i> or Tagálog, had not descended the Pasig River so far as Manila, and the religious rites of the Tondo-Manila people must have +appeared to Legaspi similar to the Mahometan rites,<a id="d0e5333src" href="#d0e5333" class="noteref">3</a> for in several of his despatches to <a id="d0e5336"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e5336">165</a>]</span>his royal master he speaks of these people as <i>Moros</i>. All the dialects spoken by the Filipinos of Malay and Japanese descent have their root in the pure Malay language. After +the expulsion of all the adult male Japanese Lake settlers in the 17th century, it is feasible to suppose that the language +of the males who took their place in the Lake district and intermarried there, should prevail over the idiom of the primitive +settlers, and possibly this amalgamation of speech accounts for the difference between the Tagálog dialect and others of these +islands peopled by Malays. + +</p> +<p>The Malay immigration must have taken place several generations prior to the coming of the Spaniards, for at that period the +lowland occupants were already divided into peoples speaking different dialects and distinguishing themselves by groups whose +names seem to be associated with the districts they inhabited, such as Pampanga, Iloco, and Cagayán; these denominations are +probably derived from some natural condition, such as <i>Pámpang</i>, meaning a river embankment, <i>Ilog</i>, a river, <i>Cauáyan</i>, a bamboo, etc. + +</p> +<p>In a separate chapter (<a href="#d0e4263">x</a>.) the reputed origin of the Mahometans of the southern islands is alluded to. They are also believed to be immigrants from +the West, and at the time of the conquest recent traditions which came to the knowledge of the Spaniards, and were recorded +by them, prove that commercial relations existed between Borneo and Manila. There is a tradition<a id="d0e5357src" href="#d0e5357" class="noteref">4</a> also of an attempted conquest of Luzon by a Borneo chief named Lacasama, about 250 years before the Spanish advent; but apparently +the expedition came to grief near Luzon, off an island supposed by some to be Masbate. + +</p> +<p>The descendants of the Japanese and Malay immigrants were the people whom the Spanish invaders had to subdue to gain a footing. +To the present day they, and the correlative Chinese and Spanish half-castes, are the only races, among the several in these +Islands, subjected, in fact, to civilized methods. The expression “Filipino” neither denotes any autochthonous race, nor any +nationality, but simply one born in those islands named the Philippines: it is, therefore, open to argument whether the child +of a Filipino, born in a foreign country, could be correctly called a Filipino. + +</p> +<p>The christianized Filipinos, enjoying to-day the benefits of European training, are inclined to repudiate, as compatriots, +the descendants of the non-christian tribes, although their concurrent existence, since the time of their immigrant forefathers, +makes them all equally Filipinos. Hence many of them who were sent to the St. Louis Exhibition in 1904 were indignant because +the United States Government had chosen to exhibit some types of uncivilized natives, representing about one-twelfth of the +Philippine population. Without <a id="d0e5367"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e5367">166</a>]</span>these exhibits, and on seeing only the educated Filipinos who formed the Philippine Commission, the American people at home +might well have asked—Is not American civilization a superfluity in those islands? + +</p> +<p>The inhabitants of these Islands were by no means savages, entirely unreclaimed from barbarism before the Spanish advent in +the 16th century. They had a culture of their own, towards which the Malay settlers themselves appear to have contributed +very little. In the nascent pre-Spanish civilization, Japanese immigrants were almost the only agriculturists, mine-workers, +manufacturers, gold-seekers, goldsmiths, and masters of the industrial arts in general. Pagsanján (Laguna) was their great +industrial centre. Malolos (Bulacan) was also an important Japanese trading base. Whilst working the mines of Ilocos their +exemplary industry must undoubtedly have influenced the character of the Ilocanos. Away down in the Bicol country of Camarines, +the Japanese pushed their trade, and from their great settlement in Taal their traffic must have extended over the whole province, +first called by the Spaniards Taal y Balayán, but since named Batangas. From the Japanese, the Malays learnt the manufacture +of arms, and the Igorrotes the art of metal-working. Along the coasts of the large inhabited islands the Chinese travelled +as traders or middlemen, at great personal risk of attack by individual robbers, bartering the goods of manufacturers for +native produce, which chiefly consisted of sinamay cloth, shark-fin, balate (trepang), edible birdsʼ-nests, gold in grain, +and siguey-shells, for which there was a demand in Siam for use as money. Every north-east monsoon brought down the junks +to barter leisurely until the south-west monsoon should waft them back, and neither Chinese nor Japanese made the least attempt, +nor apparently had the least desire, to govern the Islands or to overrule the natives. Without coercion, the Malay settlers +would appear to have unconsciously submitted to the influence of the superior talent or astuteness of the sedulous races with +whom they became merged and whose customs they adopted, proof of which can be traced to the present day.<a id="d0e5371src" href="#d0e5371" class="noteref">5</a> Presumably the busy, industrious immigrants had neither time nor inclination for sanguinary conflicts, for those recorded +appear to be confined to the raids of the migratory mountaineers and an occasional attack by some ambitious Borneo buccaneer. +The reader who would wish to verify these facts is recommended to make a comparative study of native character in Vigan, Malolos, +Taal, and Pagsanján. + +</p> +<p>In treating of the domesticated nativesʼ character, I wish it to be understood that my observations apply solely to the <i>large majority</i> of the six or seven millions of them who inhabit these Islands. + +</p> +<p>In the capital and the ports open to foreign trade, where cosmopolitan vices and virtues obtain, and in large towns, where +<a id="d0e5384"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e5384">167</a>]</span>there is a constant number of domiciled Europeans and Americans, the native has become a modified being. It is not in such +places that a just estimate of character can be arrived at, even during many yearsʼ sojourn. The native must be studied by +often-repeated casual residence in localities where his, or her, domestication is only “by law established,” imposing little +restraint upon natural inclinations, and where exotic notions have gained no influence. + +</p> +<p>Several writers have essayed to depict the Philippine native character, but with only partial success. Dealing with such an +enigma, the most eminent physiognomists would surely differ in their speculations regarding the Philippine native of the present +day. That Catonian figure, with placid countenance and solemn gravity of feature, would readily deceive any one as to the +true mental organism within. The late parish priest of Alaminos (Batangas)—a Franciscan friar, who spent half his life in +the Colony—left a brief manuscript essay on the native character. I have read it. In his opinion, the native is an incomprehensible +phenomenon, the mainspring of whose line of thought and the guiding motive of whose actions have never yet been, and perhaps +never will be, discovered. + +</p> +<p>The reasoning of a native and a European differs so largely that the mental impulse of the two races is ever clashing. Sometimes +a native will serve a master satisfactorily for years, and then suddenly abscond, or commit some such hideous crime as conniving +with a brigand band to murder the family and pillage the house. + +</p> +<p>When the hitherto faithful servant is remonstrated with for having committed a crime, he not unfrequently accounts for the +fact by saying, “<i lang="es">Señor</i>, my head was hot.” When caught in the act on his first start on highway robbery or murder, his invariable excuse is that +he is not a scoundrel himself, but that he was “invited” by a relation or <i lang="es">compadre</i> to join the company. + +</p> +<p>He is fond of gambling, profligate, lavish in his promises, but <i>lâche</i> in the extreme as to their fulfilment. He will never come frankly and openly forward to make a clean breast of a fault committed, +or even a pardonable accident, but will hide it, until it is found out. In common with many other non-European races, an act +of generosity or a voluntary concession of justice is regarded as a sign of weakness. Hence it is that the experienced European +is often compelled to be more harsh than his real nature dictates. + +</p> +<p>If one pays a native 20 cents for a service performed, and that be exactly the customary remuneration, he will say nothing, +but if a feeling of compassion impels one to pay 30 cents, the recipient will loudly protest that he ought to be paid more.<a id="d0e5405src" href="#d0e5405" class="noteref">6</a> In Luzon the native <a id="d0e5408"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e5408">168</a>]</span>is able to say “Thank you” (<i lang="tl">salámat-pô</i>) in his mother-tongue, but in Panay and Negros there is no way of expressing thanks in native dialect to a donor (the nearest +approach to it is <i lang="xx">Dios macbáyat</i>); and although this may, at first sight, appear to be an insignificant fact, I think, nevertheless, a great deal may be deduced +from it, for the deficiency of the word in the Visaya vernacular denotes a deficiency of the idea which that word should express. + +</p> +<p>If the native be in want of a trivial thing, which by plain asking he could readily obtain, he will come with a long tale, +often begin by telling a lie, and whilst he invariably scratches his head, he will beat about the bush until he comes to the +point, with a supplicating tone and a saintly countenance hiding a mass of falsity. But if he has nothing to gain for himself, +his reticence is astonishingly inconvenient, for he may let oneʼs horse die and tell one afterwards it was for want of rice-paddy, +or, just at the very moment one wants to use something, he will tell one “<i lang="tl">Uala-pô</i>”—there is not any. + +</p> +<p>I have known natives whose mothers, according to their statement, have died several times, and each time they have tried to +beg the loan of the burial expenses. The mother of my first servant died twice, according to his account. + +</p> +<p>Even the best class of natives do not appreciate, or feel grateful for, or even seem to understand a spontaneous gift. Apparently, +they only comprehend the favour when one yields to their asking. The lowest classes never give to each other, unsolicited, +a centʼs worth, outside the customary reciprocal feast-offerings. If a European makes <i>voluntary</i> gratuities to the natives, he is considered a fool—they entertain a contempt for him, which develops into intolerable impertinence. +If the native comes to borrow, lend him a little less than he asks for, after a verbose preamble; if one at once lent, or +gave, the full value requested, he would continue to invent a host of pressing necessities, until oneʼs patience was exhausted. +He seldom restores the loan of anything voluntarily. On being remonstrated with for his remissness, after the date of repayment +or return of the article has expired, he will coolly reply, “You did not ask me for it.” An amusing case of native reasoning +came within my experience just recently. I lent some articles to an educated Filipino, who had frequently been my guest, and, +at the end of three months, I requested their return. Instead of thanking me for their use, he wrote a letter expressing his +indignation at my reminder, saying that I “ought to know they were in very good hands!” A native considers it no degradation +to borrow money: it gives him no recurrent feeling of humiliation or distress of mind. Thus, he will often give a costly feast +to impress his neighbours with his wealth and maintain his local prestige, whilst on all sides he has debts innumerable. At +most, with his looseness of morality, he regards debt as an inconvenience, not as a calamity. +<a id="d0e5428"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e5428">169</a>]</span></p> +<p>Before entering another (middle- or lower-class) nativeʼs house, he is very complimentary, and sometimes three minutesʼ polite +excusatory dialogue is exchanged between the visitor and the native visited before the former passes the threshold. When the +same class of native enters a Europeanʼs house, he generally satisfies his curiosity by looking all around, and often pokes +his head into a private room, asking permission to enter afterwards. + +</p> +<p>The lower-class native never comes at first call; among themselves it is usual to call five or six times, raising the voice +each time. If a native is told to tell another to come, he seldom goes to him to deliver the message, but calls him from a +distance. When a native steals (and I must say they are fairly honest), he steals only what he wants. One of the rudest acts, +according to their social code, is to step over a person asleep on the floor. Sleeping is, with them, a very solemn matter; +they are very averse to waking any one, the idea being, that during sleep the soul is absent from the body, and that if slumber +be suddenly arrested the soul might not have time to return. When a person, knowing the habits of the native, calls upon him +and is told “He is asleep,” he does not inquire further—the rest is understood: that he may have to wait an indefinite time +until the sleeper wakes up—so he may as well depart. To urge a servant to rouse one, one has to give him very imperative orders +to that effect: then he stands by oneʼs side and calls “Señor, señor!” repeatedly, and each time louder, until one is half +awake; then he returns to the low note, and gradually raises his voice again until one is quite conscious. + +</p> +<p>In Spanish times, wherever I went in the whole Archipelago—near the capital, or 500 miles from it—I found mothers teaching +their offspring to regard the European as a demoniacal being, an evil spirit, or, at least, as an enemy to be feared! If a +child cried, it was hushed by the exclamation, “Castila!” (European). If a white man approached a poor hut or a fine native +residence, the cry of caution, the watchword for defence was always heard—“Castila!”—and the children hastened their retreat +from the dreaded object. But this is now a thing of the past since the native crossed swords with the “Castila” (q.v.) and +the American on the battle-field, and, rightly or wrongly, thoroughly believes himself to be a match for either in equal numbers. + +</p> +<p>The Filipino, like most Orientals, is a good imitator, but having no initiative genius, he is not efficient in anything. He +will copy a model any number of times, but one cannot get him to make two copies so much alike that the one is undistinguishable +from the other. Yet he has no attachment for any occupation in particular. To-day he will be at the plough; to-morrow a coachman, +a collector of accounts, a valet, a sailor, and so on; or he will suddenly renounce social trammels in pursuit of lawless +vagabondage. I once travelled <a id="d0e5437"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e5437">170</a>]</span>with a Colonel Marqués, acting-Governor of Cebú, whose valet was an ex-law student. Still, many are willing to learn, and +really become very expert artisans, especially machinists. + +</p> +<p>The native is indolent in the extreme, and never tires of sitting still, gazing at nothing in particular. He will do no regular +work without an advance; his word cannot be depended upon; he is fertile in exculpatory devices; he is momentarily obedient, +but is averse to subjection. He feigns friendship, but has no loyalty; he is calm and silent, but can keep no secret; he is +daring on the spur of the moment, but fails in resolution if he reflects. He is wantonly unfeeling towards animals; cruel +to a fallen foe; tyrannical over his own people when in power; rarely tempers his animosities with compassion or pity, but +is devotedly fond of his children. He is shifty, erratic, void of chivalrous feeling; and if familiarity be permitted with +the common-class native, he is liable to presume upon it. The Tagálog is docile and pliant, but keenly resents an injustice. + +</p> +<p>Native superstition and facile credulity are easily imposed upon. A report emitted in jest, or in earnest, travels with alarming +rapidity, and the consequences have not unfrequently been serious. The native rarely sees a joke, and still more rarely makes +one. He never reveals anger, but he will, with the most profound calmness, avenge himself, awaiting patiently the opportunity +to use his bowie-knife with effect. Mutilation of a vanquished enemy is common among these Islanders. If a native recognizes +a fault by his own conscience, he will receive a flogging without resentment or complaint; if he is not so convinced of the +misdeed, he will await his chance to give vent to his rancour. + +</p> +<p>He has a profound respect only for the elders of his household, and the lash justly administered. He rarely refers to past +generations in his lineage, and the lowest class do not know their own ages. The Filipino, of any class, has no memory for +dates. In 1904 not one in a hundred remembered the month and year in which General Aguinaldo surrendered. During the Independence +war, an esteemed friend of mine, a Philippine priest, died, presumably of old age. I went to his town to inquire all about +it from his son, but neither the son nor another near relation could recollect, after two daysʼ reflection, even the year +the old man passed away. Another friend of mine had his brains blown out during the Revolution. His brother was anxious to +relate the tragedy to me and how he had lost 20,000 pesos in consequence, but he could not tell me in which month it happened. +Families are very united, and claims for help and protection are admitted however distant the relationship may be. Sometimes +the connection of a “hanger-on” with his hostʼs family will be so remote and doubtful, that he can only be recognized as “<i lang="es">un poco pariente nada mas</i>” (a sort of kinsman). But the house is open to all. + +</p> +<p>The native is a good father and a good husband, unreasonably <a id="d0e5450"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e5450">171</a>]</span>jealous of his wife, careless of the honour of his daughter, and will take no heed of the indiscretions of his spouse committed +before marriage. Cases have been known of natives having fled from their burning huts, taking care to save their fighting-cocks, +but leaving their wives and children to look after themselves. + +</p> +<p>If a question be suddenly put to a native, he apparently loses his presence of mind, and gives the reply most convenient to +save himself from trouble, punishment, or reproach. It is a matter of perfect indifference to him whether the reply be true +or not. Then, as the investigation proceeds, he will amend one statement after another, until, finally, he has practically +admitted his first explanation to be quite false. One who knows the native character, so far as its mysteries are penetrable, +would never attempt to get at the truth of a question by a direct inquiry—he would “beat about the bush,” and extract the +truth bit by bit. Nor do the natives, rich or poor, of any class in life, and with very few exceptions in the whole population, +appear to regard lying as a sin, but rather as a legitimate, though cunning, convenience, which should be resorted to whenever +it will serve a purpose. It is my frank opinion that they do not, in their consciences, hold lying to be a fault in any degree. +If the liar be discovered and faced, he rarely appears disconcerted—his countenance rather denotes surprise at the discovery, +or disappointment at his being foiled in the object for which he lied. As this is one of the most remarkable characteristics +of the Filipino of both sexes in all spheres of life, I have repeatedly discussed it with the priests, several of whom have +assured me that the habit prevails even in the confessional.<a id="d0e5454src" href="#d0e5454" class="noteref">7</a> In the administration of justice this circumstance is inconvenient, because a witness is always procurable for a few pesos. +In a law-case, in which one or both parties belong to the lowest class, it is sometimes difficult to say whether the false +or the true witnesses are in majority. + +</p> +<p>Men and women alike find exaggerated enjoyment in litigation, which many keep up for years. Among themselves they are tyrannical. +They have no real sentiment, nor do they practise virtue for virtueʼs sake, and, apart from their hospitality, in which they +(especially the Tagálogs) far excel the European, all their actions appear to be only guided by fear, or interest, or both. + +</p> +<p>The domesticated Tagálogs of Luzon have made greater progress in civilization and good manners than the Visayos of Panay and +Negros. The Tagálog differs vastly from his southern brother in his true nature, which is more pliant, whilst he is by instinct +cheerfully and <a id="d0e5464"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e5464">172</a>]</span>disinterestedly hospitable. Invariably a European wayfarer in a Tagálog village is invited by one or another of the principal +residents to lodge at his house as a free guest, for to offer payment would give offence. A present of some European article +might be made, but it is not at all looked for. The Tagálog host lends his guest horses or vehicles to go about the neighbourhood, +takes him round to the houses of his friends, accompanies him to any feast which may be celebrated at the time of his visit, +and lends him his sporting-gun, if he has one. The whole time he treats him with the deference due to the superiority which +he recognizes. He is remarkably inquisitive, and will ask all sorts of questions about oneʼs private affairs, but that is +of no consequence—he is not intrusive, and if he be invited to return the visit in the capital, or wherever one may reside, +he accepts the invitation reluctantly, but seldom pays the visit. Speaking of the Tagálog as a host, pure and simple, he is +generally the most genial man one could hope to meet. + +</p> +<p></p> +<div id="d0e5467" class="figure"><img border="0" src="images/p172-1.jpg" alt="A Visayan Planter" width="363" height="455"><p class="figureHead">A Visayan Planter</p> +</div><p> + +</p> +<p>The Negros and Panay Visayoʼs cold hospitality is much tempered with the prospect of personal gain—quite a contrast to the +Tagálog. On the first visit he might admit the white traveller into his house out of mere curiosity to know all about him—whence +he comes—why he travels—how much he possesses—and where he is going. The basis of his estimation of a visitor is his worldly +means; or, if the visitor be engaged in trade, his power to facilitate his hostʼs schemes would bring him a certain measure +of civility and complaisance. He is fond of, and seeks the patronage of Europeans of position. In manners, the Negros and +Panay Visayo is uncouth and brusque, and more conceited, arrogant, self-reliant, ostentatious, and unpolished than his northern +neighbour. If remonstrated with for any fault, he is quite disposed to assume a tone of impertinent retort or sullen defiance. +The Cebuáno is more congenial and hospitable. + +</p> +<p>The women, too, are less affable in Panay and Negros, and evince an almost incredible avarice. They are excessively fond of +ornament, and at feasts they appear adorned with an amount of gaudy French jewellery which, compared with their means, cost +them a lot of money to purchase from the swarm of Jew pedlars who, before the Revolution of 1896, periodically invaded the +villages. + +</p> +<p></p> +<div id="d0e5476" class="figure"><img border="0" src="images/p172-2.jpg" alt="A Chinese Half-caste" width="363" height="456"><p class="figureHead">A Chinese Half-caste</p> +</div><p> + +</p> +<p>If a European calls on a well-to-do Negros or Panay Visayo, the women of the family saunter off in one direction or another, +to hide themselves in other rooms, unless the visitor be well known to the family. If met by chance, perhaps they will return +a salutation, perhaps not. They seldom indulge in a smile before a stranger; have no conversation; no tuition beyond music +and the lives of the Saints, and altogether impress the traveller with their insipidity of character, which chimes badly with +their manifest air of disdain. + +</p> +<p>The women of Luzon (and in a slightly less degree the Cebuánas) <a id="d0e5484"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e5484">173</a>]</span>are more frank, better educated, and decidedly more courteous and sociable. Their manners are comparatively lively, void of +arrogance, cheerful, and buoyant in tone. However, all over the Islands the women are more parsimonious than the men; but, +as a rule, they are more clever and discerning than the other sex, over whom they exercise great influence. Many of them are +very dexterous business women and have made the fortunes of their families. A notable example of this was the late Doña Cornelia +Laochanco, of Manila, with whom I was personally acquainted, and who, by her own talent in trading transactions, accumulated +considerable wealth. Doña Cornelia (who died in 1899) was the foundress of the system of blending sugar to sample for export, +known in Manila as the <i>fardería.</i> In her establishment at San Miguel she had a little tower erected, whence a watchman kept his eye on the weather. When threatening +clouds appeared a bell was tolled and the mats were instantly picked up and carried off by her Chinese coolie staff, which +she managed with great skill, due, perhaps, to the fact that her three husbands were Chinese. + +</p> +<p>The Philippine woman makes an excellent general servant in native families; in the same capacity, in European service, she +is, as a rule, almost useless, but she is a good nursemaid. + +</p> +<p>The Filipino has many excellent qualities which go far to make amends for his shortcomings. He is patient and forbearing in +the extreme, remarkably sober, plodding, anxious only about providing for his immediate wants, and seldom feels “the canker +of ambitious thoughts.” In his person and his dwelling he may serve as a pattern of cleanliness to all other races in the +tropical East. He has little thought beyond the morrow, and therefore never racks his brains about events of the far future +in the political world, the world to come, or any other sphere. He indifferently leaves everything to happen as it may, with +surprising resignation. The native, in general, will go without food for many hours at a time without grumbling; and fish, +rice, betel-nut, and tobacco are his chief wants. Inebriety is almost unknown, although strong drink (nipa wine) is plentiful. + +</p> +<p>In common with other races whose lives are almost exclusively passed amid the ever-varying wonders of land and sea, Filipinos +rarely express any spontaneous admiration for the beauties of Nature, and seem little sensible to any aspect thereof not directly +associated with the human interest of their calling. Few Asiatics, indeed, go into raptures over lovely scenery as Europeans +do, nor does “the gorgeous glamour of the Orient” which we speak of so ecstatically strike them as such. + +</p> +<p>When a European is travelling, he never needs to trouble about where or when his servant gets his food or where he sleeps—he +looks after that. When a native travels, he drops in amongst any group <a id="d0e5497"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e5497">174</a>]</span>of his fellow-countrymen whom he finds having their meal on the roadside, and wherever he happens to be at nightfall, there +he lies down to sleep. He is never long in a great dilemma. If his hut is about to fall, he makes it fast with bamboo and +rattan-cane. If a vehicle breaks down, a harness snaps, or his canoe leaks or upsets, he always has his remedy at hand. He +stoically bears misfortune of all kinds with the greatest indifference, and without the least apparent emotion. Under the +eye of his master he is the most tractable of all beings. He never (like the Chinese) insists upon doing things his own way, +but tries to do just as he is told, whether it be right or wrong. A native enters oneʼs service as a coachman, but if he be +told to paddle a boat, cook a meal, fix a lock, or do any other kind of labour possible to him, he is quite agreeable. He +knows the duties of no occupation with efficiency, and he is perfectly willing to be a “jack-of-all-trades.” Another good +feature is that he rarely, if ever, repudiates a debt, although he may never pay it. So long as he gets his food and fair +treatment, and his stipulated wages in advance, he is content to act as a general-utility man; lodging he will find for himself. +If not pressed too hard, he will follow his superior like a faithful dog. If treated with kindness, according to <i>European</i> notions, he is lost. The native never looks ahead; if left to himself, he will do all sorts of imprudent things, from sheer +want of reflection on the consequences, when, as he puts it, “his head is hot” from excitement due to any cause. + +</p> +<p>On March 15, 1886, I was coming round the coast of Zambales in a small steamer, in which I was the only saloon passenger. +The captain, whom I had known for years, found that one of the cabin servants had been systematically pilfering for some time +past. He ordered the steward to cane him, and then told him to go to the upper deck and remain there. He at once walked up +the ladder and threw himself into the sea; but the vessel stopped, a boat was lowered, and he was soon picked up. Had he been +allowed to reach the shore, he would have become what is known as a <i>remontado</i> and perhaps eventually a brigand, for such is the beginning of many of them. + +</p> +<p>The thorough-bred native has no idea of organization on a large scale, hence a successful revolution is not possible if confined +to his own class unaided by others, such as Creoles and foreigners. He is brave, and fears no consequences when with or against +his equals, or if led by his superiors; but a conviction of superiority—moral or physical—in the adversary depresses him. +An excess of audacity calms and overawes him rather than irritates him. + +</p> +<p>His admiration for bravery and perilous boldness is only equalled by his contempt for cowardice and puerility, and this is +really the secret of the nativeʼs disdain for the Chinese race. Under good European officers he makes an excellent soldier, +and would follow a brave leader to death; however, if the leader fell, he would at once become demoralized. <a id="d0e5511"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e5511">175</a>]</span>There is nothing he delights in more than pillage, destruction, and bloodshed, and when once he becomes master of the situation +in an affray, there is no limit to his greed and savage cruelty. + +</p> +<p>Yet, detesting order of any kind, military discipline is repugnant to him, and, as in other countries where conscription is +the law, all kinds of tricks are resorted to to avoid it. On looking over the deeds of an estate which I had purchased, I +saw that two brothers, each named Catalino Raymundo, were the owners at one time of a portion of the land. I thought there +must have been some mistake, but, on close inquiry, I found that they were so named to dodge the Spanish recruiting officers, +who would not readily suppose there were two Catalino Raymundos born of the same parents. As one Catalino Raymundo had served +in the army and the other was dead, no further secret was made in the matter, and I was assured that this practice was common +among the poorest natives. + +</p> +<p>In November, 1887, a deserter from the new recruits was pursued to Langca, a ward of Meycauáyan, Bulacan Province, where nearly +all the inhabitants rose up in his defence, the result being that the Lieutenant of Cuadrilleros was killed and two of his +men were wounded. When the Civil Guard appeared on the spot, the whole ward was abandoned. + +</p> +<p>According to the Spanish army regulations, a soldier cannot be on sentinel duty for more than two hours at a time under any +circumstances. Cases have been known of a native sentinel having been left at his post for a little over that regulation time, +and to have become phrenetic, under the impression that the two hours had long since expired, and that he had been forgotten. +In one case the man had to be disarmed by force, but in another instance the sentinel simply refused to give up his rifle +and bayonet, and defied all who approached him. Finally, an officer went with the colours of the regiment in hand to exhort +him to surrender his arms, adding that justice would attend his complaint. The sentinel, however, threatened to kill any one +who should draw near, and the officer had no other recourse open to him but to order a European soldier to climb up behind +the sentry-box and blow out the insubordinate nativeʼs brains. + +</p> +<p>In the seventies, a contingent of Philippine troops was sent to assist the French in Tonquin, where they rendered very valuable +service. Indeed, some officers are of opinion that they did more to quell the Tuh Duc rising than the French troops themselves. +When in the fray, they throw off their boots, and, barefooted, they rarely falter. Even over mud and swamp, a native is almost +as sure-footed as a goat on the brink of a quarry. I have frequently been carried for miles in a hammock by four natives and +relays, through morassy districts too dangerous to travel on horseback. They are great adepts at climbing wherever it is possible +for a human being to scale a height; like <a id="d0e5521"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e5521">176</a>]</span>monkeys, they hold as much with their feet as with their hands; they ride any horse barebacked without fear; they are utterly +careless about jumping into the sea among the sharks, which sometimes they will intentionally attack with knives, and I never +knew a native who could not swim. There are natives who dare dive for the caiman and rip it up. If they meet with an accident, +they bear it with supreme resignation, simply exclaiming “<i>desgracia pá</i>”—it was a misfortune. + +</p> +<p>I can record with pleasure my happy recollection of many a light-hearted, genial, and patient native who accompanied me on +my journeys in these Islands. Comparatively very few thorough-bred natives travel beyond their own islands, although there +is a constant flow of half-castes to and from the adjacent colonies, Europe, etc. + +</p> +<p>The native is very slowly tempted to abandon the habits and traditional customs of his forefathers, and his ambitionless felicity +may be envied by any true philosopher. + +</p> +<p>No one who has lived in the Colony for years could sketch the real moral portrait of such a remarkable combination of virtues +and vices. The domesticated nativeʼs character is a succession of surprises. The experience of each year modifies oneʼs conclusions, +and the most exact definition of such an inscrutable being is, after all, hypothetical. However, to a certain degree, the +characteristic indolence of these Islanders is less dependent on themselves than on natural law, for the physical conditions +surrounding them undoubtedly tend to arrest their vigour of motion, energy of life, and intellectual power. + +</p> +<p>The organic elements of the European differ widely from those of the Philippine native, and each, for his own durability, +requires his own special environment. The half-breed partakes of both organisms, but has the natural environment of the one. +Sometimes artificial means—the mode of life into which he is forced by his European parent—will counteract in a measure natural +law, but, left to himself, the tendency will ever be towards an assimilation to the native. Original national characteristics +disappear in an exotic climate, and, in the course of time, conform to the new laws of nature to which they are exposed. + +</p> +<p>It is an ascertained fact that the increase of energy introduced into the Philippine native by blood mixture from Europe lasts +only to the second generation, whilst the effect remains for several generations when there is a similarity of natural surroundings +in the two races crossed. Moreover, the peculiar physique of a Chinese or Japanese progenitor is preserved in succeeding generations, +long after the Spanish descendant has merged into the conditions of his environment. + +</p> +<p>The Spanish Government strove in vain against natural law to counteract physical conditions by favouring mixed marriages,<a id="d0e5538src" href="#d0e5538" class="noteref">8</a> but Nature overcomes manʼs law, and climatic influence forces its conditions <a id="d0e5547"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e5547">177</a>]</span>on the half-breed. Indeed, were it not for new supplies of extraneous blood infusion, European characteristics would, in time, +become indiscernible among the masses. Even on Europeans themselves, in defiance of their own volition, the new physical conditions +and the influence of climate on their mental and physical organisms are perceptible after two or three decades of yearsʼ residence +in the mid-tropics. + +</p> +<p>All the natives of the domesticated type have distinct Malay, or Malay-Japanese, or Mongol features—prominent cheek-bones, +large and lively eyes, and flat noses with dilated nostrils. They are, on the average, of rather low stature, very rarely +bearded, and of a copper colour more or less dark. Most of the women have no distinct line of hair on the forehead. Some there +are with a frontal hairy down extending to within an inch of the eyes, possibly a reversion to a progenitor (the <i lang="la-x-bio">Macacus radiata</i>) in whom the forehead had not become quite naked, leaving the limit between the scalp and the forehead undefined. The hair +of both males and females stands out from the skin like bristles, and is very coarse. The coarseness of the femaleʼs hair +is, however, more than compensated by its luxuriance; for, provided she be in a normal state of health, up to the prime of +life the hair commonly reaches down to the waist, and occasionally to the ankles. The women are naturally proud of this mark +of beauty, which they preserved by frequent washings with <i>gogo</i> (q.v.) and the use of cocoanut oil (q.v.). Hare-lip is common. Children, from their birth, have a spot at the base of the +vertebrae, thereby supporting the theory of Professor Huxleyʼs <i lang="la-x-bio">Anthropidae</i> sub-order—or man (<i>vide</i> Professor Huxleyʼs “An Introduction to the Classification of Animals,” p. 99. Published 1869). +</p> +<hr class="tb"><p> + +</p> +<p>Marriages between natives are usually arranged by the parents of the respective families. The nubile age of females is from +about 11 years. The parents of the young man visit those of the maiden, to approach the subject delicately in an oratorical +style of allegory. The response is in like manner shrouded with mystery, and the veil is only thrown off the negotiations +when it becomes evident that both parties agree. Among the poorer classes, if the young man has no goods to offer, it is frequently +stipulated that he shall serve on probation for an indefinite period in the house of his future bride,—as Jacob served Laban +to make Rachel his wife,—and not a few drudge for years with this hope before them. + +</p> +<p>Sometimes, in order to secure service gratis, the elders of the young woman will suddenly dismiss the young man after a prolonged +expectation, and take another <i>Catipad</i>. as he is called, on the same terms. The old colonial legislation—“Leyes de Indias”—in vain prohibited this barbarous ancient +custom, and there was a modern Spanish law (of which few availed themselves) which permitted the intended bride to be <a id="d0e5572"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e5572">178</a>]</span>“deposited” away from parental custody, whilst the parents were called upon to show cause why the union should not take place. +However, it often happens that when Cupid has already shot his arrow into the virginal breast, and the betrothed foresee a +determined opposition to their mutual hopes, they anticipate the privileges of matrimony, and compel the brideʼs parents to +countenance their legitimate aspirations to save the honour of the family. <i lang="es">Honi soit qui mal y pense</i>—they simply force the hand of a dictatorial mother-in-law. The women are notably mercenary, and if, on the part of the girl +and her people, there be a hitch, it is generally on the question of dollars when both parties are native. Of course, if the +suitor be European, no such question is raised—the ambition of the family and the vanity of the girl being both satisfied +by the alliance itself. + +</p> +<p>When the proposed espousals are accepted, the donations <i>propter nuptias</i> are paid by the father of the bridegroom to defray the wedding expenses, and often a dowry settlement, called in Tagálog +dialect “<i>bigaycaya</i>” is made in favour of the bride. Very rarely the brideʼs property is settled on the husband. I never heard of such a case. +The Spanish laws relating to married personsʼ property were quaint. If the husband were poor and the wife well-off, so they +might remain, notwithstanding the marriage. He, as a rule, became a simple administrator of her possessions, and, if honest, +often depended on her liberality to supply his own necessities. If he became bankrupt in a business in which he employed also +her capital or possessions, she ranked as a creditor of the second class under the “Commercial Code.” If she died, the poor +husband, under no circumstances, by legal right (unless under a deed signed before a notary) derived any benefit from the +fact of his having espoused a rich wife: her property passed to their legitimate issue, or—in default thereof—to her nearest +blood relation. The children might be rich, and, but for their generosity, their father might be destitute, whilst the law +compelled him to render a strict account to them of the administration of their property during their minority. This fact +has given rise to many lawsuits. + +</p> +<p>A married woman often signs her maiden name, sometimes adding “<i>de</i> ——” (her husbandʼs surname). If she survives him, she again takes up her <i lang="la">nomen ante nuptias</i> amongst her old circle of friends, and only adds “widow of ——” to show who she is to the public (if she be in trade), or +to those who have only known her as a married woman. The offspring use both the parental surnames, the motherʼs coming after +the fatherʼs; hence it is the more prominent. Frequently, in Spanish documents requiring the mention of a personʼs name in +full, the motherʼs maiden surname is revived. + +</p> +<p>Thus marriage, as I understand the spirit of the Spanish law, seems to be a simple contract to legitimize and license procreation. + +</p> +<p>Up to the year 1844, only a minority of the christian natives had <a id="d0e5597"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e5597">179</a>]</span>distinctive family names. They were, before that date, known by certain harsh ejaculations, and classification of families +was uncared for among the majority of the population. Therefore, in that year, a list of Spanish surnames was sent to each +parish priest, and every native family had to adopt a separate appellation, which has ever since been perpetuated. Hence one +meets natives bearing illustrious names such as Juan Salcedo, Juan de Austria, Rianzares, Ramon de Cabrera, Pio Nono Lopez, +and a great many Legaspis. + +</p> +<p>When a wedding among natives was determined upon, the betrothed went to the priest—not necessarily together—kissed his hand, +and informed him of their intention. There was a tariff of marriage fees, but the priest usually set this aside, and fixed +his charges according to the resources of the parties. This abuse of power could hardly be resisted, as the natives have a +radicate aversion to being married elsewhere than in the village of the bride. The priest, too (not the bride), usually had +the privilege of “naming the day.” The fees demanded were sometimes enormous, the common result being that many couples merely +cohabited under mutual vows because they could not pay the wedding expenses. + +</p> +<p>The banns were verbally published after the benediction following the conclusion of the Mass. In the evening, prior to the +marriage, it was compulsory on the couple to confess and obtain absolution from the priest. The nuptials almost invariably +took place after the first Mass, between five and six in the morning, and those couples who were spiritually prepared first +presented themselves for Communion. Then an acolyte placed over the shoulders of the bridal pair a thick mantle or pall. The +priest recited a short formula of about five minutesʼ duration, put his interrogations, received the muttered responses, and +all was over. To the espoused, as they left the church, was tendered a bowl of coin; the bridegroom passed a handful of the +contents to the bride, who accepted it and returned it to the bowl. This act was symbolical of his giving to her his worldly +goods. Then they left the church with their friends, preserving that solemn, stoical countenance common to all Malay natives. +There was no visible sign of emotion as they all walked off, with the most matter-of-fact indifference, to the paternal abode. +This was the custom under the Spaniards, and it still largely obtains; the Revolution decreed civil marriage, which the Americans +have declared lawful, but not compulsory. + +</p> +<p>After the marriage ceremony the feast called the <i>Catapúsan</i><a id="d0e5607src" href="#d0e5607" class="noteref">9</a> begins. To this the vicar and headmen of the villages, the immediate friends and relatives of the allied families, and any +Europeans who may <a id="d0e5615"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e5615">180</a>]</span>happen to be resident or sojourning, are invited. The table is spread, <i lang="fr">à la Russe</i>, with all the good things procurable served at the same time—sweetmeats predominating. Imported beer, Dutch gin, chocolate, +etc., are also in abundance. After the early repast, both men and women are constantly being offered betel-nut to masticate, +and cigars or cigarettes, according to choice. + +</p> +<p>Meanwhile, the company is entertained by native dancers. Two at a time—a young man and woman—stand <i>vis-à-vis</i> and alternately sing a love ditty, the burthen of the theme usually opening by the regret of the young man that his amorous +overtures have been disregarded. Explanations follow, in the poetic dialogue, as the parties dance around each other, keeping +a slow step to the plaintive strains of music. This is called the <i>Balítao</i>. It is most popular in Visayas. + +</p> +<p>Another dance is performed by a young woman only. If well executed it is extremely graceful. The girl begins singing a few +words in an ordinary tone, when her voice gradually drops to the <i>diminuendo</i>, whilst her slow gesticulations and the declining vigour of the music together express her forlornness. Then a ray of joy +seems momentarily to lighten her mental anguish; the spirited <i>crescendo</i> notes gently return; the tone of the melody swells; her measured step and action energetically quicken—until she lapses again +into resigned sorrow, and so on alternately. Coy in repulse, and languid in surrender, the <i>danseuse</i> in the end forsakes her sentiment of melancholy for elated passion. + +</p> +<p>The native dances are numerous. Another of the most typical, is that of a girl writhing and dancing a <i>pas seul</i> with a glass of water on her head. This is known as the <i>Comítan</i>. + +</p> +<p>When Europeans are present, the bride usually retires into the kitchen or a back room, and only puts in an appearance after +repeated requests. The conversation rarely turns upon the event of the meeting; there is not the slightest outward manifestation +of affection between the newly-united couple, who, during the feast, are only seen together by mere accident. If there are +European guests, the repast is served three times—firstly for the Europeans and headmen, secondly for the males of less social +dignity, and lastly for the women. Neither at the table nor in the reception-room do the men and women mingle, except for +perhaps the first quarter of an hour after the arrival, or whilst dancing continues. + +</p> +<p>About an hour after the mid-day meal, those who are not lodging at the house return to their respective residences to sleep +the <i>siesta</i>. On an occasion like this—at a <i>Catapúsan</i> given for any reason—native outsiders, from anywhere, always invade the kitchen in a mob, lounge around doorways, fill up +corners, and drop in for the feast uninvited, and it is usual to be liberally complaisant to all comers. + +</p> +<p>As a rule, the married couple live with the parents of one or the <a id="d0e5659"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e5659">181</a>]</span>other, at least until the family inconveniently increases. In old age, the elder members of the families come under the protection +of the younger ones quite as a matter of course. In any case, a newly-married pair seldom reside alone. Relations from all +parts flock in. Cousins, uncles and aunts, of more or less distant grade, hang on to the recently-established household, if +it be not extremely poor. Even when a European marries a native woman, she is certain to introduce some vagabond relation—a +drone to hive with the bees—a condition quite inevitable, unless the husband be a man of specially determined character. + +</p> +<p>Death at childbirth is very common, and it is said that 25 per cent. of the new-born children die within a month. + +</p> +<p>Among the lowest classes, whilst a woman is lying-in, the husband closes all the windows to prevent the evil spirit (<i>asuan</i>) entering; sometimes he will wave about a stick or bowie-knife at the door, or on top of the roof, for the same purpose. +Even among the most enlightened, at the present day, the custom of shutting the windows is inherited from their superstitious +forefathers, probably in ignorance of the origin of this usage. + +</p> +<p>In Spanish times it was considered rather an honour than otherwise to have children by a priest, and little secret was made +of it. + +</p> +<p>In October, 1888, I was in a village near Manila, at the bedside of a sick friend, when the curate entered. He excused himself +for not having called earlier, by explaining that “Turing” had sent him a message informing him that as the vicar (a native) +had gone to Manila, he might take charge of the church and parish. “Is ‘Turing’ an assistant curate?” I inquired. My friend +and the pastor were so convulsed with laughter at the idea, that it was quite five minutes before they could explain that +the intimation respecting the parochial business emanated from the absent vicarʼs <i>bonne amie</i>. + +</p> +<p>Consanguine marriages are very common, and perhaps this accounts for the low intellect and mental debility perceptible in +many families. + +</p> +<p>Poor parents offer their girls to Europeans for a loan of money, and they are admitted under the pseudonym of sempstress or +housekeeper. Natives among themselves do not kiss—they smell each other, or rather, they place the nose and lip on the cheek +and draw a long breath. + +</p> +<p>Marriages between Spaniards and pure native women, although less frequent than formerly, still take place. Since 1899 many +Americans, too, have taken pure native wives. It is difficult to apprehend an alliance so incongruous, there being no affinity +of ideas, the only condition in common being, that they are both human beings professing Christianity. The husband is either +drawn towards the level of the native by this heterogeneous relationship, or, in despair of remedying the error of a passing +passion, he practically ignores his wife in his own social connections. Each forms then a distinct circle of friends of his, +or her, own selection, whilst the woman is but slightly raised above her <a id="d0e5681"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e5681">182</a>]</span>own class by the white manʼs influence and contact. There are some exceptions, but I have most frequently observed in the +houses of Europeans married to native women in the provinces, that the wives make the kitchen their chief abode, and are only +seen by the visitor when some domestic duty requires them to move about the house. Familiarity breeds contempt, and these +<i>mésalliances</i> diminish the dignity of the superior race by reducing the birth-origin of both parents to a common level in their children. + +</p> +<p></p> +<div id="d0e5687" class="figure"><img border="0" src="images/p182-1.jpg" alt="A Tagálog Milkwoman" width="343" height="512"><p class="figureHead">A Tagálog Milkwoman</p> +</div><p> + +</p> +<p>The Spanish half-breeds and Creoles constitute a very influential body. A great number of them are established in trade in +Manila and the provinces. Due to their European descent, more or less distant, they are of quicker perception, greater tact, +and gifted with wider intellectual faculties than the pure Oriental class. Also, the Chinese half-breeds,—a caste of Chinese +fathers and Philippine mothers,—who form about one-sixth of the Manila population, are shrewder than the natives of pure extraction, +their striking characteristic being distrust and suspicion of anotherʼs intentions. It is a curious fact that the Chinese +half-caste speaks with as much contempt of the Chinaman as the thorough-bred Filipino does, and would fain hide his paternal +descent. There are numbers of Spanish half-breeds fairly well educated, and just a few of them very talented. Many of them +have succeeded in making pretty considerable fortunes in their negotiations, as middlemen, between the provincial natives +and the European commercial houses. Their true social position is often an equivocal one, and the complex question has constantly +to be confronted whether to regard a Spanish demi-sang from a native or European standpoint. Among themselves they are continually +struggling to attain the respect and consideration accorded to the superior class, whilst their connexions and purely native +relations link them to the other side. In this perplexing mental condition, we find them on the one hand striving in vain +to disown their affinity to the inferior races, and on the other hand, jealous of their true-born European acquaintances. +A morosity of disposition is the natural outcome. Their character generally is evasive and vacillating. They are captious, +fond of litigation, and constantly seeking subterfuges. They appear always dissatisfied with their lot in life, and inclined +to foster grievances against whoever may be in office over them. Pretentious in the extreme, they are fond of pomp and paltry +show, and it is difficult to trace any popular movement, for good or for evil, without discovering a half-breed initiator, +or leader, of one caste or another. They are locally denominated <i>Mestizos</i>. + +</p> +<p></p> +<div id="d0e5697" class="figure"><img border="0" src="images/p182-2.jpg" alt="A Tagálog Townsman" width="342" height="512"><p class="figureHead">A Tagálog Townsman</p> +</div><p> + +</p> +<p>The Jesuit Father, Pedro Murillo Velarde, at p. 272 of his work on this Colony, expressed his opinion of the political-economical +result of mixed marriages to the following effect:—“Now,” he says, “we have a querulous, discontented population of half-castes, +who, sooner or later, will bring about a distracted state of society, and occupy the <a id="d0e5703"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e5703">183</a>]</span>whole force of the Government to stamp out the discord.” How far the prophecy was fulfilled will be seen in another chapter. +</p> +<hr class="tb"><p> + +</p> +<p>Being naturally prone to superstitious beliefs, the Islanders accepted, without doubting, all the fantastic tales which the +early missionaries taught them. Miraculous crosses healed the sick, cured the plague, and scared away the locusts. Images, +such as the <i>Holy Child of Ban͠gi,</i> relieved them of all worldly sufferings. To this day they revere many of these objects, which are still preserved. + +</p> +<p>The most ancient miraculous image in these Islands appears to be the <i lang="es">Santo Nino de Cebú</i>—the Holy Child of Cebú. It is recorded that on July 28, 1565, an image of the Child Jesus was found on Cebú Island shore +by a Basque soldier named Juan de Camus. It was venerated and kept by the Austin friars. Irreverent persons have alleged it +was a pagan idol. Against this, it may be argued that the heathen Cebúanos were not known to have been idolaters. In 1627 +a fire occurred in Cebú city, when the Churches of Saint Nicholas and of the Holy Child were burnt down. The image was saved, +and temporarily placed in charge of the Recoleto friars. A fire also took place on the site of the first cross erected on +the island by Father Martin de Rada, the day Legaspi landed, and it is said that this cross, although made of bamboo, was +not consumed. There now stands an Oratory, wherein on special occasions is exposed the original cross. Close by is the modern +Church of the Holy Child. + +</p> +<p>In June, 1887, the Prior of the convent conducted me to the strong-room where the wonderful image is kept. The Saint is of +wood, about fifteen inches high, and laden with silver trinkets, which have been presented on different occasions. When exposed +to public view, it has the honours of field-marshal accorded to it. It is a mystic deity with ebon features—so different from +the lovely Child presented to us on canvas by the great masters! During the feast held in its honour (January 20), pilgrims +from the remotest districts of the island and from across the seas come to purify their souls at the shrine of “The Holy Child.” +In the same room was a beautiful image of the Madonna, besides two large tin boxes containing sundry arms, legs, and heads +of Saints, with their robes in readiness for adjustment on procession days. The patron of Cebú City is Saint Vidal. + +</p> +<p>The legend of the celestial protector of Manila is not less interesting. It is related that in Dilao (now called Paco), near +Manila, a wooden image of Saint Francis de Assisi, which was in the house of a native named Alonso Cuyapit, was seen to weep +so copiously that many cloths were moistened by its tears. The image, with its hands outspread during three hours, invoked +Godʼs blessing on Manila. And then, on closing its hands, it grasped a cross and skull. Vows were made to the Saint, who was +declared protector of the capital, and the same image <a id="d0e5721"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e5721">184</a>]</span>is now to be seen in the Franciscan Church, under the appellation of <i lang="es">San Francisco de las lágrimas</i>—“Saint Francis of Tears.” + +</p> +<p>Up to the seventies of last century, a disgusting spectacle used to be annually witnessed at the Church of San Miguel (Manila) +on December 8; it was a realistic representation of the Immaculate Conception! + +</p> +<p>“Our Lady of Cagsaysay,” near Taal (Batangas), has been revered for many years both by Europeans and natives. So enthusiastic +was the belief in the miraculous power of this image, that the galleons, when passing the Batangas coast on their way to and +from Mexico, were accustomed to fire a salute from their guns (<i>vide</i> pp. <a href="#d0e2212">18</a>, <a href="#d0e2225">19</a>). This image was picked up by a native in his fishing-net, and he placed it in a cave, where it was discovered by other natives, +who imagined they saw many extraordinary lights around it. According to the local legend, they heard sweet sonorous music +proceeding from the same spot, and the image came forward and spoke to a native woman, who had brought her companions to adore +the Saint. + +</p> +<p>The history of the many shrines all over the Colony would well fill a volume; however, by far the most popular one is that +of the Virgin of Antipolo—<i lang="es">Nuestra Señora de Buen Viaje y de la Paz</i>, “Our Lady of Good Voyage and Peace.” + +</p> +<p>This image is said to have wrought many miracles. It was first brought from Acapulco (Mexico) in 1626 in the State galleon, +by Juan Niño de Tabora, who was appointed Gov.-General of these Islands (1626–32) by King Philip IV. The Saint, it is alleged, +had encountered numberless reverses between that time and the year 1672, since which date it has been safely lodged in the +Parish Church of Antipolo—a village in the old Military District of Mórong (Rizal Province)—in the custody of the Austin friars. +In the month of May, thousands of people repair to this shrine; indeed, this village of 3,800 inhabitants (diminished to 2,800 +in 1903) chiefly depends upon the pilgrims for its existence, for the land within the jurisdiction of Antipolo is all mountainous +and very limited in extent. The priests also do a very good trade in prints of Saints, rosaries, etc., for the sale of which, +in Spanish times, they used to open a shop during the feast inside and just in front of the convent entrance. The total amount +of money spent in the village by visitors during the pilgrimage has been roughly computed to be ₱30,000. They come from all +parts of the Islands. + +</p> +<p>The legends of the Saint are best described in a pamphlet published in Manila,<a id="d0e5748src" href="#d0e5748" class="noteref">10</a> from which I take the following information. + +</p> +<p>The writer says that the people of Acapulco (Mexico) were loth to part with their Holy Image, but the saintly Virgin herself, +desirous of succouring the inhabitants of the Spanish Indies, smoothed all difficulties. During her first voyage, in the month +of March, 1626, a <a id="d0e5756"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e5756">185</a>]</span>tempest arose, which was calmed by the Virgin, and all arrived safely in the galleon at the shores of Manila. She was then +carried in procession to the Cathedral, whilst the church bells tolled and the artillery thundered forth salutes of welcome. +A solemn Mass was celebrated, which all the religious communities, civil authorities, and a multitude of people attended. + +</p> +<p>Six years afterwards the Gov.-General Juan Niño de Tabora died. By his will he intrusted the Virgin to the care of the Jesuits, +whilst a church was being built under the direction of Father Juan Salazár for her special reception. During the erection +of this church, the Virgin often descended from the altar and exhibited herself amongst the flowery branches of a tree, called +by the natives Antipolo (<i lang="la-x-bio">Artocarpus incisa</i>). The tree itself was thenceforth regarded as a precious relic by the natives, who, leaf by leaf and branch by branch, were +gradually carrying it off. Then Father Salazar decreed that the tree-trunk should serve for a pedestal to the Divine Miraculous +Image—hence the title “Virgin of Antipolo.” + +</p> +<p>In 1639 the Chinese rebelled against the Spanish authority (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e3819">115</a>). In their furious march through the ruins and the blood of their victims, and amidst the wailing of the crowd, they attacked +the Sanctuary wherein reposed the Virgin. Seizing the Holy Image, they cast it into the flames, and when all around was reduced +to ashes, there stood the Virgin of Antipolo, resplendent, with her hair, her lace, her ribbons and adornments intact, and +her beautiful body of brass without wound or blemish! Passionate at seeing frustrated their designs to destroy the deified +protectress of the Christians, a wanton infidel stabbed her in the face, and all the resources of art have ever failed to +heal the lasting wound. Again the Virgin was enveloped in flames, which hid the appalling sight of her burning entrails. Now +the Spanish troops arrived, and fell upon the heretical marauders with great slaughter; then, glancing with trembling anxiety +upon the scene of the outrage, behold! with glad astonishment they descried the Holy Image upon a smouldering pile of ashes—unhurt! +With renewed enthusiasm, the Spanish warriors bore away the Virgin on their shoulders in triumph, and Sebastian Hurtado de +Corcuera, the Gov.-General at the time, had her conveyed to Cavite to be the patroness of the faithful upon the high seas. + +</p> +<p>A galleon arrived at Cavite, and being unable to go into port, the commander anchored off at a distance. Then the new Gov.-General, +Diego Fajardo (1644–53), sent the Virgin on board, and, by her help, a passage was found for the vessel to enter. + +</p> +<p>Later on, twelve Dutch warships appeared off Marivéles, the northwestern extremity of Manila Bay. They had come to attack +Cavite, and in their hour of danger the Spaniards appealed to the Virgin, who gave them a complete victory over the Dutchmen, +causing them to flee, <a id="d0e5775"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e5775">186</a>]</span>with their commander mortally wounded. During the affray, the Virgin had been taken away for safety on board the <i>San Diego</i>, commanded by Cépeda. In 1650 this vessel returned, and the pious prelate, José Millan Poblete,<a id="d0e5780src" href="#d0e5780" class="noteref">11</a> thought he perceived clear indications of an eager desire on the part of the Virgin to retire to her Sanctuary. The people, +too, clamoured for the Saint, attributing the many calamities with which they were afflicted at that period to her absence +from their shores. Assailed by enemies, frequently threatened by the Dutch, lamenting the loss of several galleons, and distressed +by a serious earthquake, their only hope reposed in the beneficent aid of the Virgin of Antipolo. + +</p> +<p>But the galleon <i>San Francisco Xavier</i> feared to make the journey to Mexico without the saintly support, and for the sixth time the Virgin crossed the Pacific Ocean. +In Acapulco the galleon lay at anchor until March, 1653, when the newly-appointed Gov.-General, Sabiniano Manrique de Lara, +Archbishop Miguel Poblete, Father Rodrigo Cárdenas, Bishop-elect of Cagayán, and many other passengers embarked and set sail +for Manila. Their sufferings during the voyage were horrible. Almost overcome by a violent storm, the ship became unmanageable. +Rain poured in torrents, whilst her decks were washed by the surging waves, and all was on the point of utter destruction. +In this plight the Virgin was exhorted, and not in vain, for at her command the sea lessened its fury, the wind calmed, black +threatening clouds dispersed, all the terrors of the voyage ceased, and under a beautiful blue sky a fair wind wafted the +galleon safely to the port of Cavite. + +</p> +<p>These circumstances gained for the Saint the title of “Virgin of Good Voyage and Peace”; and the sailors,—who gratefully acknowledged +that their lives were saved by her sublime intercession,—followed by the ecclesiastical dignitaries and military chiefs, carried +the image to her retreat in Antipolo (September 8, 1653), where it was intended she should permanently remain. However, deprived +of the succour of the Saint, misfortunes again overtook the galleons. Three of them were lost, and the writer of the brochure +to which I refer supposes (Chap. <a href="#d0e2763">iv</a>.) that perchance the sea, suffering from the number of furrows cut by the keels of the ships, had determined to take a fierce +revenge by swallowing them up! + +</p> +<p>Once more, therefore, the Virgin condescended to accompany a galleon to Mexico, bringing her back safely to Philippine shores +in 1672. + +</p> +<p>This was the Virginʼs last sea voyage. Again, and for ever, she was conveyed by the joyous multitude to her resting-place +in Antipolo Church, and on her journey thither, there was not a flower, adds the chronicler, which did not greet her by opening +a bud—not a mountain pigeon which remained in silence, whilst the breezes and the rivulets poured forth their silent murmurings +of ecstasy. Saintly guardian of the <a id="d0e5797"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e5797">187</a>]</span>soul, dispersing mundane evils!—no colours, the chronicler tells us, can paint the animation of the faithful; no discourse +can describe the consolation of the pilgrims in their adoration at the Shrine of the Holy Virgin of Antipolo. + +</p> +<p>Yet the village of Antipolo and its neighbourhood was, in Spanish times, the centre of brigandage, the resort of murderous +highwaymen, the focus of crime. What a strange contrast to the sublime virtues of the immortal divinity enclosed within its +Sanctuary! + +</p> +<p>On November 26, 1904, this miraculous Image was temporarily removed from Antipolo to Manila for the celebration of the feast +of the Immaculate Conception. Carried by willing hands to the place of embarkation, it made the voyage to the capital, down +the Pasig River, in a gorgeously decorated barge, towed by a steam launch, escorted by hundreds of floating craft and over +20,000 natives, marching along the river banks in respectful accompaniment. The next day a procession of about 35,000 persons +followed the Virgin to the Cathedral of Manila, where she was enshrined, awaiting the great event of December 8. Subsequently +she was restored to her shrine at Antipolo. +</p> +<hr class="tb"><p> + +</p> +<p>The most lucrative undertaking in the Colony is that of a shrine. It yields all gain, without possible loss. Among the most +popular of these “Miraculous Saint Shows” was that of Gusi, belonging to the late parish priest of Ilug, in Negros Island. +At Gusi, half an hourʼs walk from the Fatherʼs parish church, was enthroned San Joaquin, who, for a small consideration, consoled +the faithful or relieved them of iheir sufferings. His spouse, Santa Ana, having taken up her residence in the town of Molo +(Yloilo Province), was said to have been visited by San Joaquin once a year. He was absent on the journey at least a fortnight, +but the waters in the neighbourhood of the Shrine being sanctified the <i>clientèle</i> was not dispersed. Some sceptics have dared to doubt whether San Joaquin really paid this visit to his saintly wife, and +alleged that his absence was feigned, firstly to make his presence longed for, and secondly to remove the cobwebs from his +hallowed brow, and give him a wash and brush up for the year. The Shrine paid well for years—every devotee leaving his mite. +At the time of my pilgrimage there, the holy Fatherʼs son was the petty-governor of the same town of Ilug. + +</p> +<p>Shrine-owners are apparently no friends of free trade. In 1888 there was a great commotion amongst them when it was discovered +that a would-be competitor and a gownsman had conspired, in Pampanga Province, to establish a Miraculous Saint, by concealing +an image in a field in order that it should “make itself manifest to the faithful,” and thenceforth become a source of income. + +</p> +<p>It is notorious that in a church near Manila, a few years ago, an image was made to move the parts of its body as the reverend +preacher <a id="d0e5814"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e5814">188</a>]</span>exhorted it in the course of his sermon. When he appealed to the Saint, it wagged its head or extended its arms, whilst the +female audience wept and wailed. Such a scandalous disturbance did it provoke that the exhibition was even too monstrous for +the clergy themselves, and the Archbishop prohibited it. But religion has many wealth-producing branches. In January, 1889, +a friend of mine showed me an account rendered by the Superior of the Jesuitsʼ School for the education of his sons, each +of whom was charged with one peso as a gratuity to the Pope, to induce him to canonize a deceased member of their Order. I +have been most positively assured by friends, whose good faith I ought not to doubt, that San Pascual Bailón really has, on +many occasions, had compassion on barren women (their friends) and given them offspring. Jose Rizal, in his “Noli me tangere” +hints that the real Pascual was a friar. + +</p> +<p>Trading upon the credulity of devout enthusiasts by fetishism and shrine quackery is not altogether confined to the ecclesiastics. +A Spanish layman in Yloilo, some few years ago, when he was an official of the prison, known as the “Cotta,” conceived the +idea of declaring that the Blessed Virgin and Child Jesus had appeared in the prison well, where they took a bath and disappeared. +When, at length, the belief became popular, hundreds of natives went there to get water from the well, and the official imposed +a tax on the pilgrims, whereby he became possessed of a modest fortune, and owned two of the best houses in the Square of +Yloilo. + +</p> +<p>The Feast of Tigbáuang (near Yloilo), which takes place in January, is also much frequented on account of the miracles performed +by the patron Saint of the town. The faith in the power of this minor divinity to dispel bodily suffering is so deeply rooted +that members of the most enlightened families of Yloilo and the neighbouring towns go to Tigbáuang simply to attend High Mass, +and return at once. I have seen steamers entering Yloilo from this feast so crowded with passengers that there was only standing +room for them. + +</p> +<p>An opprobrious form of religious imposture—perhaps the most contemptible—which frequently offended the public eye, before +the American advent, was the practice of prowling about with doll-saints in the streets and public highways. A vagrant, too +lazy to earn an honest subsistence, procured a licence from the monks to hawk about a wooden box containing a doll or print +covered by a pane of glass. This he offered to hold before the nose of any ignorant passer-by who was willing to pay for the +boon of kissing the glass! + +</p> +<p>During Holy Week, a few years ago, the captain of the Civil Guard in Tayabas Province went to the town of Atimonan, and saw +natives in the streets almost in a state of nudity doing penance “for the wounds of Our Lord.” They were actually beating +themselves with flails, some of which were made of iron chain, and others of rope with thongs of <a id="d0e5824"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e5824">189</a>]</span>rattan-cane. Having confiscated the flails—one of which he gave to me—he effectually assisted the fanatics in their penitent +castigation. Alas! to what excesses will faith, unrestrained by reason, bring one! + +</p> +<p>The result of tuition in mystic influences is sometimes manifested in the appearance of native Santones—indolent scamps who +roam about in remote villages, feigning the possession of supernatural gifts, the faculty of saving souls, and the healing +art, with the object of living at the expense of the ignorant. I never happened to meet more than one of these creatures—an +escaped convict named Apolonio, a native of Cabuyao (Laguna), who, assuming the character of a prophet and worker of miracles, +had fled to the neighbourhood of San Pablo village. I have often heard of them in other places, notably in Cápis Province, +where the Santones were vigorously pursued by the Civil Guard, and as recently as May, 1904, a notorious humbug of this class, +styling himself <i>Pope Isio, alias Nazarenong Gala</i>, was arrested in West Negros and punished under American authority. + +</p> +<p>The Spanish clergy were justifiably zealous in guarding the Filipinos from a knowledge of other doctrines which would only +lead them to immeasurable bewilderment. Hence all the civilized natives were Roman Catholics exclusively. The strict obedience +to <i>one</i> system of Christianity, even in its grossly perverted form, had the effect desired by the State, of bringing about social +unity to an advanced degree. Yet, so far as I have observed, the native seems to understand extremely little of the “inward +and spiritual grace” of religion. He is so material and realistic, so devoid of all conception of things abstract, that his +ideas rarely, if ever, soar beyond the contemplation of the “outward and visible signs” of christian belief. The symbols of +faith and the observance of religious rites are to him religion itself. He also confounds morality with religion. Natives +go to church because it is the custom. Often if a native cannot put on a clean shirt, he abstains from going to Mass. The +petty-governor of a town was compelled to go to High Mass accompanied by his “ministry.” In some towns the <i>Barangay Chiefs</i> were fined or beaten if they were absent from church on Sundays and certain Feast Days.<a id="d0e5839src" href="#d0e5839" class="noteref">12</a> + +</p> +<p>As to the women, little or no pressure was necessary to oblige them to attend Mass; many of them pass half their existence +between private devotion and the confessional. +<a id="d0e5847"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e5847">190</a>]</span></p> +<p>The parish priest of Lipa (Batangas) related to a friend of mine that having on one occasion distributed all his stock of +pictures of the Saints to those who had come to see him on parochial business, he had to content the last suppliant with an +empty raisin-box, without noticing that on the lid there was a coloured print of Garibaldi. Later on Garibaldiʼs portrait +was seen in a hut in one of the suburbs with candles around it, being adored as a Saint. + +</p> +<p>A curious case of native religious philosophy was reported in a Manila newspaper.<a id="d0e5852src" href="#d0e5852" class="noteref">13</a> A milkman, accused by one of his customers of having adulterated the milk, of course denied it at first, and then, yielding +to more potent argument than words, he confessed that he had diluted the milk with <i>holy water from the church fonts</i>, for at the same time that he committed the sin he was penitent. + +</p> +<p>Undoubtedly Roman Catholicism appears to be the form of Christianity most successful in proselytizing uncivilized races, which +are impressed more through their eyes than their understanding. If the grandeur of the ritual, the magnificence of the processions, +the lustre of the church vessels and the images themselves have never been understood by the masses in the strictly symbolic +sense in which they appeal to us, at least they have had their influence in drawing millions to civilization and to a unique +uniformity of precept, the practice of which it is beyond all human power to control. +</p> +<hr class="tb"><p> + +</p> +<p>For Music the native has an inherent passion. Musicians are to be found in every village, and even among the very poorest +classes. Before the Revolution there was scarcely a parish, however remote, without its orchestra, and this natural taste +was laudably encouraged by the priests. Some of these bands acquired great local fame, and were sought for wherever there +was a feast miles away. The players seemed to enjoy it as much as the listeners, and they would keep at it for hours at a +time, as long as their bodily strength lasted. Girls from six years of age learn to play the harp almost by instinct, and +college girls quickly learn the piano. There are no native composers—they are but imitators. There is an absence of sentimental +feeling in the execution of set music (which is all foreign), and this is the only drawback to their becoming fine instrumentalists. +For the same reason, classical music is very little in vogue among the Philippine people, who prefer dance pieces and ballad +accompaniments. In fact, a native musical performance is so void of soul and true conception of harmony that at a feast it +is not an uncommon thing to hear three bands playing close to each other at the same time; and the mob assembled seem to enjoy +the confusion of the melody! There are no Philippine vocalists worth hearing. + +</p> +<p>Travelling through the Laguna Province in 1882 I was impressed <a id="d0e5868"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e5868">191</a>]</span>by the ingenuity of the natives in their imitation of European musical instruments. Just an hour before I had emerged from +a dense forest, abundantly adorned with exquisite foliage, and where majestic trees, flourishing in gorgeous profusion, afforded +a gratifying shelter from the scorching sun. Not a sound was heard but the gentle ripple of a limpid stream, breaking over +the boulders on its course towards the ravine below. But it was hardly the moment to ponder on the poetic scene, for fatigue +and hunger had almost overcome sentimentality, and I got as quickly as I could to the first resting-place. This I found to +be a native cane-growerʼs plantation bungalow, where quite a number of persons was assembled, the occasion of the meeting +being the baptism and benediction of the sugar-cane mill. Before I was near enough, however, to be seen by the party—for it +was nearly sunset—I heard the sound of distant music floating through the air. Such a strange occurrence excited my curiosity +immensely, and I determined to find out what it all meant. I soon discovered that it was a bamboo band returning from the +feast of the “baptism of the mill.” Each instrument was made of bamboo on a semi-European model, and the players were merely +farm-labourers. + +</p> +<p>Philippine musicians have won fame outside their own country. Some years ago there was a band of them in Shanghai and another +in Cochin China on contract. It was reported, too, that the band of the Constabulary sent to the St. Louis Exhibition in 1904 +was the delight of the people in Honolulu, where they touched <i>en route</i>. +</p> +<hr class="tb"><p> + +</p> +<p>Slavery was prohibited by law as far back as the reign of Philip II.;<a id="d0e5879src" href="#d0e5879" class="noteref">14</a> it nevertheless still exists in an occult form among the natives. Rarely, if ever, do its victims appeal to the law for redress, +firstly, because of their ignorance, and secondly, because the untutored class have an innate horror of resisting anciently-established +custom, and it would never occur to them to do so. Moreover, in the time of the Spaniards, the numberless <i>procuradores</i> and <i>pica-pleitos</i>—touting solicitors had no interest in taking up cases so profitless to themselves. Under the pretext of guaranteeing a loan, +parents readily sell their children (male or female) into bondage. The child is handed over to work until the loan is repaid; +but as the day of restitution of the advance never arrives, neither does the liberty of the youthful victim. Among themselves +it was a law, and is still a practised custom, for the debts of the parents to pass on to the children, and, as I have said +before, debts are never repudiated by them. Slavery, in an overt form, now only exists among some wild tribes and the Moros. +</p> +<hr class="tb"><p> +<a id="d0e5895"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e5895">192</a>]</span></p> +<p>Education was almost exclusively under the control of the friars. Up to the year 1844 anything beyond religious tuition was +reserved for the Spanish youth, the half-castes, and the children of those in office. Among the many reforms introduced in +the time of Gov.-General Narciso Claveria (1844–49), that of extending Education to the provincial parishes was a failure. +In the middle of the reign of Isabella II. (about 1850) it was the exclusive privilege of the classes mentioned and the native +petty aristocracy, locally designated the <i lang="es">gente ilustrada</i> and the <i>pudientes</i> (Intellectuals and people of means and influence). Education, thus limited, divided the people into two separate castes, +as distinct as the ancient Roman citizen and the plebeian. Residing chiefly in the ports open to foreign trade, the Intellectuals +acquired wealth, possessed rich estates and fine houses artistically adorned. Blessed with all the comforts which money could +procure and the refinement resulting from education, they freely associated and intermarried with the Spaniards, whose easy +grace and dignified manners they gradually acquired and retain, to a great extent, to the present day. The other caste—the +Illiterates—were dependents of the Intellectuals. Without mental training, with few wants, and little expenses, they were +as contented, in their sphere, as the upper class were in theirs. Like their masters, they had their hopes, but they never +knew what misery was, as one understands it in Europe, and in this felicitous, ambitionless condition, they never urgently +demanded education, even for their children. The movement came from higher quarters, and during the OʼDonnell ministry a Royal +Decree was sent from Madrid establishing schools throughout the provinces. + +</p> +<p>On the banks of the Pasig River there was a training college for schoolmasters, who were drafted off to the villages with +a miserable stipend, to teach the juvenile rustics. But the governmental system of centralization fell somewhat hard on the +village teacher. For instance, I knew one who received a monthly salary of 16 pesos, and every month he had to spend two of +them to travel to Manila and back to receive the money—an outlay equal to 12½ per cent. of his total income. For such a wretched +pittance great things were not to be expected of the teacher, even though he had had a free hand in his work. Other circumstances +of greater weight contributed to keep the standard of education among the common townfolk very low; in some places to abolish +it totally. The parish priests were <i>ex-officio</i> Inspectors of Schools for primary instruction, wherein it was their duty to see that the Spanish language was taught. The +old “Laws of the Indies” provided that christian doctrine should be taught to the heathen native in Spanish.<a id="d0e5909src" href="#d0e5909" class="noteref">15</a> Several decrees confirming that law were issued from time to time, but their fulfilment did not seem to suit the policy of +the friars. On June 30, 1887, the Gov.-General <a id="d0e5914"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e5914">193</a>]</span>published another decree with the same object, and sent a communication to the Archbishop to remind him of this obligation +of his subordinates, and the urgency of its strict observance. But it had no effect whatever, and the poor-class villagers +were only taught to gabble off the christian doctrine by rote, for it suited the friar to stimulate that peculiar mental condition +in which belief precedes understanding. The school-teacher, being subordinate to the inspector, had no voice in the matter, +and was compelled to follow the views of the priest. Few Spaniards took the trouble to learn native dialects (of which there +are about 30), and only a small percentage of the natives can speak intelligible Spanish. There is no literature in dialect; +the few odd compositions in Tagalog still extant are wanting in the first principles of literary style. There were many villages +with untrained teachers who could not speak Spanish; there were other villages with no schools at all, hence no preparation +whatever for municipal life. + +</p> +<p>If the friars had agreed to the instruction of the townfolk through the medium of Spanish, as a means to the attainment of +higher culture, one could well have understood their reluctance to teach it to the rural labourers, because it is obvious +to any one who knows the character of this class that the knowledge of a foreign language would unfit them for agricultural +labour and the lower occupations, and produce a new social problem. Even this class, however, might have been mentally improved +by elementary books translated into dialect. But, unfortunately, the friars were altogether opposed to the education of the +masses, whether through dialect or Spanish, in order to hold them in ignorant subjection to their own will, and the result +was that the majority grew up as untutored as when they were born. + +</p> +<p>Home discipline and training of manners were ignored, even in well-to-do families. Children were left without control, and +by excessive indulgence allowed to do just as they pleased; hence they became ill-behaved and boorish. + +</p> +<p>Planters of means, and others who could afford it, sent their sons and daughters to private schools, or to the colleges under +the direction of the priests in Manila, Jaro (Yloilo Province), or Cebú. A few—very few—sent their sons to study in Europe, +or in Hong-Kong. + +</p> +<p>According to the Budget of 1888 the State contributed to the expense of Education, in that year, as follows, viz.:— + + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i></i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>P. cts.</i></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Schools and Colleges for high-class education in Manila, including Navigation, Drawing, Painting, Book-keeping, Languages, +History, Arts and Trades, Natural History Museum and Library and general instruction. +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">86,450 00</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">School of Agriculture (including 10 schools and model farms in 10 Provinces)</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">113,686 64</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">General Expenses of Public Instruction, including National Schools in the Provinces</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">38,513 70 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top">₱238,650 34</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + +<a id="d0e5949"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e5949">194</a>]</span></p> +<p>The teaching offered to students in Manila was very advanced, as will be seen from the following Syllabus of Education in +the Municipal Athenæum of the Jesuits:— + + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Agriculture. </td> +<td valign="top">Geometry. </td> +<td valign="top">Philosophy.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Algebra. </td> +<td valign="top">Greek. </td> +<td valign="top">Physics and Chemistry.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Arithmetic. </td> +<td valign="top">History. </td> +<td valign="top">Rhetoric and Poetry.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Commerce. </td> +<td valign="top">Latin. </td> +<td valign="top">Spanish Classics.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Geography. </td> +<td valign="top">Mechanics. </td> +<td valign="top">Spanish Composition.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">English. </td> +<td valign="top">Natural History. </td> +<td valign="top">Topography.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">French. </td> +<td valign="top">Painting. </td> +<td valign="top">Trigonometry.</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>In the highest Girlsʼ School—the Santa Isabel College—the following was the curriculum, viz.:— + + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Arithmetic. </td> +<td valign="top">Geology. </td> +<td valign="top">Philippine History.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Drawing. </td> +<td valign="top">Geometry. </td> +<td valign="top">Physics.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Dress-cutting. </td> +<td valign="top">History of Spain. </td> +<td valign="top">Reading.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">French. </td> +<td valign="top">Music. </td> +<td valign="top">Sacred History.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Geography. </td> +<td valign="top">Needlework. </td> +<td valign="top">Spanish Grammar.</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>There were also (for girls) the Colleges of Santa Catalina, Santa Rosa, La Concordia, the Municipal School, etc. A few were +sent to the Italian Convent in Hong-Kong. + +</p> +<p>A college known as Saint Thomasʼ was founded in Manila by Fray Miguel de Benavides, third Archbishop of Manila, between the +years 1603 and 1610. He contributed to it his library and ₱ 1,000, to which was added a donation by the Bishop of Nueva Segovia +of ₱ 3,000 and his library. In 1620 it already had professors and masters under Government auspices. It received three Papal +Briefs for 10 years each, permitting students to graduate in Philosophy and Theology. It was then raised to the status of +a University in the time of Philip IV. by Papal Bull of November 20, 1645. The first rector of Saint Thomasʼ University was +Fray Martin Real de la Cruz. In the meantime, the Jesuitsʼ University had been established. Until 1645 it was the only place +of learning superior to primary education, and conferred degrees. The Saint Thomasʼ University (under the direction of Dominican +friars) now disputed the Jesuitsʼ privilege to confer degrees, claiming for themselves exclusive right by Papal Bull. A lawsuit +followed, and the Supreme Court of Manila decided in favour of Saint Thomasʼ. The Jesuits appealed to the King against this +decision. The Supreme Council of the Indies was consulted, and revoked the decision of the Manila Supreme Court, so that the +two Universities continued to give degrees until the Jesuits were expelled from the Colony in 1768. From 1785 Saint Thomasʼ +University was styled the “Royal University,” and was declared to rank equally with the Peninsular Universities. + +</p> +<p>There were also the Dominican College of San Juan de Letran, founded in the middle of the 17th century, the Jesuit Normal +School, the Convent of Mercy for Orphan Students, and the College of Saint Joseph. This last was founded in 1601, under the +direction of the <a id="d0e6048"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e6048">195</a>]</span>Jesuits. King Philip V. gave it the title of “Royal College,” and allowed an escutcheon to be erected over the entrance. The +same king endowed three professorial chairs with ₱ 10,000 each. Latterly it was governed by the Rector of the University, +whilst the administration was confided to a licentiate in pharmacy. + +</p> +<p>At the time of the Spanish evacuation, therefore, the only university in the City of Manila was that of Saint Thomas, which +was empowered to issue diplomas of licentiate in law, theology, medicine, and pharmacy to all successful candidates, and to +confer degrees of LL.D. The public investiture was presided over by the Rector of the University, a Dominican friar; and the +speeches preceding and following the ceremony, which was semi-religious, were made in the Spanish language. + +</p> +<p>In connection with this institution there was the modern Saint Thomasʼ College for preparing students for the University. + +</p> +<p>The Nautical School naturally stood outside the sphere of ecclesiastical control. Established in 1839 in Calle Cabildo (walled +city), its purpose was to instruct youths in the science of navigation and prepare them for the merchant service within the +waters of the Archipelago and the adjacent seas. During the earthquake of 1863 the school building was destroyed. It was then +re-established in Calle San Juan de Letran, subsequently located in Calle del Palacio, and was finally (in 1898) removed from +the walled city to the business quarter of Binondo. Special attention was given to the teaching of mathematics, and considerable +sums of money were allocated, from time to time, for the equipment of this technical centre of learning. + +</p> +<p>One of the most interesting and amusing types of the native was the average college student from the provinces. After a course +of two, three, up to eight years, he learnt to imitate European dress and ape Western manners; to fantastically dress his +hair; to wear patent-leather shoes, jewellery, and a latest-fashioned felt hat adjusted carefully towards one side of his +head. He went to the theatre, drove a “tilbury,” and attended native <i>réunions</i>, to deploy his abilities before the <i>beau sexe</i> of his class. During his residence in the capital, he was supposed to learn, amongst other subjects, Latin, Divinity, Philosophy, +and sometimes Theology, preparatory, in many cases, to succeeding his father in a sugar-cane and rice plantation. The average +student had barely an outline idea of either physical or political geography, whilst his notions of Spanish or universal history +were very chaotic. I really think the Manila newspapers—poor as they were—contributed very largely to the education of the +people in this Colony. + +</p> +<p>Still, there are cases of an ardent genius shining as an exception to his race. Amongst the few, there were two brothers named +Luna—the one was a notably skilful performer on the guitar and violin, who, however, died at an early age. The other, Juan +Luna, developed a natural ability for painting. A work of his own conception—the <a id="d0e6066"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e6066">196</a>]</span>“Spoliarium,” executed by him in Rome in 1884—gained the second prize at the Madrid Academy Exhibition of Oil Paintings. The +Municipality of Barcelona purchased this <i lang="fr">chef dʼoeuvre</i> for the City Hall. Other famous productions of his are “The Battle of Lepanto,” “The Death of Cleopatra,” and “The Blood +Compact” (q.v). This last masterpiece was acquired by the Municipality of Manila for the City Hall, but was removed when the +Tagálog Rebellion broke out, for reasons which will be understood after reading Chapter <a href="#d0e14973">xxii</a>. This artist, the son of poor parents, was a second mate on board a sailing ship, when his gifts were recognized, and means +were furnished him with which to study in Rome. His talent was quite exceptional, for these Islanders are not an artistic +people. Having little admiration for the picturesque and the beautiful in Nature, they cannot depict them: in this respect +they form a decided contrast to the Japanese. Paete (La Laguna) is the only place I know of in the provinces where there are +sculptors by profession. The Manila Academy was open to all comers of all nationalities, and, as an ex-student under its Professors +Don Lorenzo Rocha and Don Agustin Saez, I can attest to their enthusiasm for the progress of their pupils. + + +</p> +<p></p> +<div id="d0e6075" class="figure"><img border="0" src="images/p196.jpg" alt="Middle-class Tagálog Natives" width="512" height="332"><p class="figureHead">Middle-class Tagálog Natives</p> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>In the General Post and Telegraph Office in Manila I was shown an excellent specimen of wood-carving—a bust portrait of Mr. +Morse (the celebrated inventor of the Morse system of telegraphy)—the work of a native sculptor. Another promising native, +Vicente Francisco, exhibited some good sculpture work in the Philippine Exhibition, held in Madrid in 1887: the jury recommended +him for a State pension, to study in Madrid and Rome. The beautiful design of the present insular coinage (Philippine peso) +is the work of a Filipino. The biography of the patriot martyr Dr. José Rizal (q.v.), the most brilliant of all Filipinos, +is related in another chapter. + +</p> +<p>The native of cultivated intellect, on returning from Europe, found a very limited circle of friends of his own new training. +If he returned a lawyer or a doctor, he was one too many, for the capital swarmed with them; if he had learnt a trade, his +knowledge was useless outside Manila, and in his native village his technical acquirements were generally profitless. Usually +the nativeʼs sojourn in Europe made him too self-opinionated to become a useful member of society. It remains to be seen how +American training will affect them. + +</p> +<p>The (American) Insular Government has taken up the matter of Philippine education very earnestly, and at considerable outlay: +the subject is referred to in Chapter <a href="#d0e21329">xxx</a>. + +</p> +<p>The intellectual and spiritual life, as we have it in Europe, does not exist in the Philippines. If ever a Filipino studied +any subject, purely for the love of study, without the hope of material or social advantage being derived therefrom, he would +be a <i lang="la">rara avis</i>. +</p> +<hr class="tb"><p> +<a id="d0e6095"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e6095">197</a>]</span></p> +<p>The <span class="smallcaps">Disease</span> most prevalent among the Filipinos is fever—especially in the spring: and although, in general, they may be considered a +robust, enduring race, they are less capable than the European of withstanding acute disease. I should say that quite 50 per +cent. of the native population are affected by cutaneous disease, said to be caused by eating fish daily, and especially shell-fish. +It is locally known as <i>Sarnas</i>: natives say that monkey flesh cures it. + +</p> +<p>In 1882 <i>Cholera morbus</i> in epidemic form ravaged the native population, carrying off thousands of victims, the exact number of which has never been +published. The preventive recommended by the priests on this occasion, viz., prayer to Saint Roque, proved quite ineffectual +to stay the plague. A better remedy, found in the country, is an infusion of <i>Niota tetrapetala</i> (Tagálog, <i>Manungal</i>). From time to time this disease reappears. The returns given in the <i>Official Gazette</i> of March 2, 1904, Vol. II., No. 9, show the average monthly mortality due to <i>Cholera</i>, in the 20–1/3 months between March 20, 1902, and December 1, 1903, to be 5,360. Annually, many natives suffer from what +is called <i>Colerin</i>—a mild form of <i>Cholera</i>, but not epidemic. In the spring, deaths always occur from acute indigestion, due to eating too plentifully of new rice. +Many who have recovered from <i>Cholera</i> become victims to a disease known as <i>Beri-Beri</i>, said to be caused by the rice and fish diet. The first symptom of <i>Wet Beri-Beri</i> is a swelling of the legs, like dropsy; that of <i>Dry Beri-Beri</i> is a wasting away of the limbs. <i>Smallpox</i> makes great ravages, and <i>Measles</i> is a common complaint. <i>Lung</i> and <i>Bronchial</i> affections are very rare. The most fearful disease in the Colony is <i>Leprosy</i>.<a id="d0e6154src" href="#d0e6154" class="noteref">16</a> To my knowledge it is prevalent in the Province of Bulacan (Luzon Is.), and in the islands of Cebú and Negros. There is an +asylum for lepers near Manila and at Mabolo, just outside the City of Cebú (<i>vide</i> Lepers), but no practical measures were ever adopted by the Spaniards to eradicate this disease. The Spanish authorities +were always too indifferent about the propagation of leprosy to establish a home on one island for all male lepers and another +home, on another island, for female lepers—the only effectual way to extirpate this awful malady. In Baliuag (Bulacan), leper +families, personally known to me, were allowed to mix with the general public. In Cebú and Negros Islands they were permitted +to roam about on the highroads and beg. + +</p> +<p>The Insular Government has taken up the question of the Lepers, and in 1904 a tract of land was purchased in the Island of +Culion (Calamianes group) to provide for their hygienic isolation. <a id="d0e6165"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e6165">198</a>]</span>According to the <i>Official Gazette</i> of March 2, 1904, Vol. II., No. 9, the total number of lepers, of whom the Insular Government had obtained cognizance, up +to December 31, 1903, was 3,343. Besides these there would naturally be an unknown number who had escaped recognition. + +</p> +<p>There is apparently little <i>Insanity</i> in the Islands. From the Report of the Commissioner of Public Health for February, 1904, it would appear that there were +only about 1,415 insane persons in a population of over seven-and-a-half millions. + +</p> +<p>Since the American advent (1898) the <i>Death-rate</i> is believed to have notably decreased. The Report of the Commissioner of Public Health for 1904 states the death-rate per +thousand in Manila to have been as follows, viz.:—Natives 53.72; Europeans other than Spaniards 16.11; Spaniards 15.42; and +Americans 9.34. The Commissioner remarks that “over 50 per cent. of the children born in the city of Manila never live to +see the first anniversary of their birthday.” The Board of Health is very active in the sanitation of Manila. Inspectors make +frequent domiciliary visits. The extermination of rats in the month of December, 1903, amounted to 24,638. House-refuse bins +are put into the streets at night, and an inspector goes round with a lamp about midnight to examine them. Dead animals, market-rubbish, +house-refuse, rotten hemp, sweepings, etc., are all cremated at Palomar, Santa Cruz, and Paco, and in July, 1904, this enterprising +department started the extermination of mosquitoes! In the suburbs of Manila there are now twelve cemeteries and one crematorium. + + +<a id="d0e6180"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e6180">199</a>]</span></p> +<div class="footnotes"> +<hr class="fnsep"> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e5275" href="#d0e5275src" class="noteref">1</a></span> We have several modern instances of similar volcanic disturbances creating and demolishing land surface, on an infinitely +lesser scale—e.g., the disappearance of Krakatoa and the entire town and busy port of Anger in 1883; the eruption which swallowed +up the whole inhabited Japanese island Torii Shima; the appearance of an entirely new island, Nii Shima (about lat. 25° N.), +within the past twelve months; and, within the historical period, the apparition of the Kurile Islands. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e5314" href="#d0e5314src" class="noteref">2</a></span> <i>Vide</i> Chap. <a href="#d0e3055">v</a>. By way of retaliation for the expulsion of Spanish missionaries from Japan in the l7th century, all the male Japanese above +ten years of age were ordered to leave their settlements up the Lake. Under this order over 20,000 of them were expelled from +the Colony. There was a Japanese temple existing (though not in use as such) in the suburbs of Manila up to last century, +when Gov.-General Norzagaray (1857–60) had it destroyed. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e5333" href="#d0e5333src" class="noteref">3</a></span> The Spaniards must have been quite cognisant of these rites, seeing that the Moorish invasion of Spain lasted nearly eight +centuries, namely from the year 711 up to 1492—only a couple of decades before Legaspiʼs generation. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e5357" href="#d0e5357src" class="noteref">4</a></span> Based on this tradition, Don José Carvajal has written a very interesting play entitled <i>Ligaya</i>. It was produced at the National Theatre, Manila, in 1904. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e5371" href="#d0e5371src" class="noteref">5</a></span> Possibly the people of Tondo (Manila) learnt from the Chinese the art of preparing that canine delicacy called <i>Cúbang-aso</i>. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e5405" href="#d0e5405src" class="noteref">6</a></span> Consequent on the American advent, wages steadily rose proportionately to the increased cost of everything. But when, later +on, wages far exceeded the nativeʼs needs, he demanded more and actually went on strike to obtain it! +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e5454" href="#d0e5454src" class="noteref">7</a></span> With regard to this characteristic among the Chinese, Sir John Bowring (late Governor of Hong-Kong) affirms that the Chinese +respect their writings and traditions, whilst they do not believe a lie to be a fault, and in some of their classical works +it is especially recommended, in order to cheat and confuse foreign intruders (<i>vide</i> “A Visit to the Philippine Islands,” by Sir John Bowring, LL.D., F.R.S. Manila, 1876 Spanish edition, p. 176). +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e5538" href="#d0e5538src" class="noteref">8</a></span> See the Army Regulations for the advantages granted to military men who married Philippine-born women (<i>vide</i>also p. <a href="#d0e2876">53</a>). +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e5607" href="#d0e5607src" class="noteref">9</a></span> <i>Catapúsan</i> signifies in native dialect the gathering of friends, which terminates the festival connected with any event or ceremony, +whether it be a wedding, a funeral, a baptism, or an election of local authorities, etc. The festivities after a burial last +nine days, and on the last day of wailing, drinking, praying, and eating, the meeting is called the <i>Catapúsan</i>. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e5748" href="#d0e5748src" class="noteref">10</a></span> “<span lang="es">Historia de Nuestra Señora La Virgen de Antipolo</span>,” by M. Romero. Published in Manila, 1886. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e5780" href="#d0e5780src" class="noteref">11</a></span> He became a prelate twenty-one years afterwards, having been ordained Bishop of Nueva Segovia in 1671. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e5839" href="#d0e5839src" class="noteref">12</a></span> A decree issued by Don Juan de Ozaeta, a magistrate of the Supreme Court, in his general visit of inspection to the provinces, +dated May 26, 1696, enacts the following, viz.:—“That Chinese half-castes and headmen shall be compelled to go to church and +attend Divine Service, and act according to the customs established in the villages.” The penalty for an infraction of this +mandate by a male was “20 lashes in the public highway and two monthsʼ labour in the Royal Rope Walk (in Taal), or in the +Galleys of Cavite.” If the delinquent was a female, the chastisement was “one month of public penance in the church.” The +<i>Alcalde</i> or Governor of the Province who did not promptly inflict the punishment was to be mulcted in the sum of “₱200, to be paid +to the Royal Treasury.” +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e5852" href="#d0e5852src" class="noteref">13</a></span> <i>Diario de Manila</i>, Saturday, July 28, 1888. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e5879" href="#d0e5879src" class="noteref">14</a></span> <i>Vide p.</i> 54. According to Concepcion, there were headmen at the time of the Conquest who had as many as 300 slaves, and as a property +they ranked next in value to gold (<i>vide</i> “Hist. Gen. de Philipinas,” by Juan de la Concepcion, published in Manila in 1788, in 14 volumes). +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e5909" href="#d0e5909src" class="noteref">15</a></span> <i>Vide</i> “Recopilacion de las Leyes de Indias,” Ley V. xiii., lib. i. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e6154" href="#d0e6154src" class="noteref">16</a></span> Referring to Leprosy, the <i>Charity Record</i>, London, December 15, 1898, says:—“Reliable estimates place the number of lepers in India, China, and Japan at 1,000,000. +About 500,000 probably would be a correct estimate for India only, although the official number is less, owing to the many +who from being hidden, or homeless, or from other causes, escape enumeration.” +</p> +</div> +</div> +<div id="d0e6181" class="div1"> +<h2 class="normal">The Religious Orders</h2> +<p>History attests that at least during the first two centuries of Spanish rule, the subjugation of the natives and their acquiescence +in the new order of things were obtained more by the subtle influence of the missionaries than by the sword. As the soldiers +of Castile carried war into the interior and forced its inhabitants to recognize their King, so the friars were drafted off +from the mother country to mitigate the memory of bloodshed and to mould Spainʼs new subjects to social equanimity. In many +cases, in fact, the whole task of gaining their submission to the Spanish Crown and obedience to the dictates of Western civilization +was confided solely to the pacific medium of persuasion. The difficult mission of holding in check the natural passions and +instincts of a race which knew no law but individual will, was left to the successors of Urdaneta. Indeed, it was but the +general policy of Philip II. to aggrandize his vast realm under the pretence of rescuing benighted souls. The efficacy of +conversion was never doubted for a moment, however suddenly it might come to pass, and the Spanish cavalier conscientiously +felt that he had a high mission to fulfil under the Banner of the Cross. In every natural event which coincided with their +interests, in the prosecution of their mission, the wary priests descried a providential miracle. + +</p> +<p>In their opinion the non-Catholic had no rights in this world—no prospect of gaining the next. If the Pope claimed the whole +world (such as was known of it) to be in his gift—how much more so heathen lands! The obligation to convert was imposed by +the Pope, and was an inseparable condition of the conceded right of conquest. It was therefore constantly paramount in the +conquerorʼs mind.<a id="d0e6188src" href="#d0e6188" class="noteref">1</a> The Pope could depose and give away the realm of any sovereign prince “<i lang="es">si vel paulum deflexerit</i>.” The Monarch held his sceptre under the sordid condition of vassalage; hence Philip II., for the security of his Crown, +could not have disobeyed the will of the Pontiff, whatever his personal <a id="d0e6197"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e6197">200</a>]</span>inclinations might have been regarding the spread of Christianity.<a id="d0e6199src" href="#d0e6199" class="noteref">2</a> If he desired it, he served his ends with advantage to himself—if he were indifferent to it, he secured by its prosecution +a formidable ally in Rome. America had already drained the Peninsula of her able-bodied men to such an extent that a military +occupation of these Islands would have overtaxed the resources of the mother country. The co-operation of the friars was, +therefore, an almost indispensable expedient in the early days, and their power in secular concerns was recognized to the +last by the Spanish-Philippine authorities, who continued to solicit the aid of the parish priests in order to secure obedience +to decrees affecting their parishioners. + +</p> +<p>Up to the Rebellion of 1896 the placid word of the ecclesiastic, the superstitious veneration which he inspired in the ignorant +native, had a greater law-binding effect than the commands of the civil functionary. The gownsman used those weapons appropriate +to his office which best touched the sensibilities and won the adhesion of a rude audience. The priest appealed to the soul, +to the unknown, to the awful and the mysterious. Go where he would, the convertʼs imagination was so pervaded with the mystic +tuition that he came to regard his tutor as a being above common humanity. The feeling of dread reverence which he instilled +into the hearts of the most callous secured to him even immunity from the violence of brigands, who carefully avoided the +man of God. In the State official the native saw nothing but a man who strove to bend the will of the conquered race to suit +his own. A Royal Decree or the sound of the cornet would not have been half so effective as the elevation of the Holy Cross +before the fanatical majority, who became an easy prey to fantastic promises of eternal bliss, or the threats of everlasting +perdition. Nor is this assertion by any means chimerical, for it has been proved on several occasions, notably in the raising +of troops to attempt the expulsion of the British in 1763, and in the campaign against the Sultan of Sulu in 1876. But through +the Cavite Conspiracy of 1872 (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e3649">106</a>) the friars undoubtedly hastened their own downfall. Many natives, driven to emigrate, cherished a bitter hatred in exile, +whilst others were emerging yearly by hundreds from their mental obscurity. Already the intellectual struggle for freedom +from mystic enthralment had commenced without injury to faith in things really divine. + +</p> +<p>Each decade brought some reform in the relations between the parish priest and the people. Link by link the chain of priestcraft +encompassing the development of the Colony was yielding to natural causes. The most enlightened natives were beginning to +understand that their spiritual wants were not the only care of the friars, and that <a id="d0e6212"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e6212">201</a>]</span>the aim of the Religious Orders was to monopolize all within their reach, and to subordinate to their common will all beyond +their mystic circle. The Romish Church owes its power to the uniformity of precept and practice of the vast majority of its +members, and it is precisely because this was the reverse in political Spain—where statesmen are divided into a dozen or more +groups with distinct policies—that the Church was practically unassailable. In the same way, all the members of a Religious +Order are so closely united that a quarrel with one of them brings the enmity and opposition of his whole community. The Progressists, +therefore, who combated ecclesiastical preponderance in the Philippines, demanded the retirement of the friars to conventual +reclusion or missions, and the appointment of <i>clérigos</i>, or secular clergymen to the vicarages and curacies. By such a change they hoped to remedy the abuses of collective power, +for a misunderstanding with a secular vicar would only have provoked a single-handed encounter. + +</p> +<p>That a priest should have been practically a Government agent in his locality would not have been contested in the abstract, +had he not, as a consequence, assumed the powers of the old Roman Censors, who exercised the most dreaded function of the +<i>Regium Morum</i>. Spanish opinion, however, was very much divided as to the political safety of strictly confining the friars to their religious +duties. It was doubted by some whether any State authority could ever gain the confidence or repress the inherent inclinations +of the native like the friar, who led by superstitious teaching, and held the conscience by an invisible cord through the +abstract medium of the confessional. Others opined that a change in the then existing system of semi-sacerdotal Government +was desirable, if only to give scope to the budding intelligence of the minority, which could not be suppressed. + +</p> +<p>Emerging from the lowest ranks of society, with no training whatever but that of the seminary, it was natural to suppose that +these Spanish priests would have been more capable than ambitious political men of the world of blending their ideas with +those of the native, and of forming closer associations with a rural population engaged in agricultural pursuits familiar +to themselves in their own youth. Before the abolition of monasteries in Spain the priests were allowed to return there after +10 years residence in the Colony; since then they have usually entered upon their new lives for the remainder of their days, +so that they naturally strove to make the best of their social surroundings. + +</p> +<p>The Civil servant, as a rule, could feel no personal interest in his temporary native neighbours, his hopes being centred +only in rising in the Civil Service there or elsewhere—Cuba or Porto Rico, or where the ministerial wheel of fortune placed +him. + +</p> +<p>The younger priests—narrow-minded and biased—those who had just entered into provincial curacies—were frequently the greater +bigots. Enthusiastic in their calling, they pursued with ardour their mission of <a id="d0e6228"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e6228">202</a>]</span>proselytism without experience of the world. They entered the Islands with the zeal of youth, bringing with them the impression +imparted to them in Spain, that they were sent to make a moral conquest of savages. In the course of years, after repeated +rebuffs, and the obligation to participate in the affairs of everyday life in all its details, their rigidity of principle +relaxed, and they became more tolerant towards those with whom they necessarily came in contact. They were usually taken from +the peasantry and families of lowly station. As a rule they had little or no secular education, and, regarding them apart +from their religious training, they might be considered a very ignorant class. Amongst them the Franciscan friars appeared +to be the least—and the Austins the most—polished of all. + +</p> +<p>The Spanish parish priest was consulted by the native in all matters; he was, by force of circumstances, often compelled to +become an architect,—to build the church in his adopted village—an engineer, to make or mend roads, and more frequently a +doctor. His word was paramount in his parish, and in his residence he dispensed with that stern severity of conventual discipline +to which he had been accustomed in the Peninsula. Hence it was really here that his mental capacity was developed, his manners +improved, and that the raw sacerdotal peasant was converted into the man of thought, study, and talent—occasionally into a +gentleman. In his own vicinity, when isolated from European residents, he was practically the representative of the Government +and of the white race as well as of social order. His theological knowledge was brought to bear upon the most mundane subjects. +His thoughts necessarily expanded as the exclusiveness of his religious vocation yielded to the realization of a social position +and political importance of which he had never entertained an idea in his native country. + +</p> +<p>So large was the party opposed to the continuance of priestly influence in the Colony that a six-monthsʼ resident would not +fail to hear of the many misdeeds with which the friars in general were reproached. It would be contrary to fact to pretend +that the bulk of them supported their teaching by personal example. I was acquainted with a great number of the friars, and +their offspring too, in spite of their vow of chastity; whilst many lived in comparative luxury, notwithstanding their vow +of poverty. + +</p> +<p>There was the late parish priest of Malolos, whose son, my friend, was a prominent lawyer. Father S——, of Bugason, had a whole +family living in his parish. An Archbishop who held the See in my time had a daughter frequently seen on the <i>Paseo de Santa Lucia</i>; and in July, 1904, two of his daughters lived in Calle Quiotan, Santa Cruz, Manila, and two others, by a different mother, +in the town of O——. The late parish priest of Lipa, Father B——, whom I knew, had a son whom I saw in 1893. The late incumbent +of Santa Cruz, Father M—— L——, induced his spiritual flock to petition against his being made prior of his <a id="d0e6239"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e6239">203</a>]</span>Order in Manila so that he should not have to leave his women. The late parish priest (friar) of Baliuag (Bulacan) had three +daughters and two sons. I was intimately acquainted with the latter; one was a doctor of medicine and the other a planter, +and they bore the surname of Gonzalez. At Cadiz Nuevo (Negros Is.) I once danced with the daughter of a friar (parish priest +of a neighbouring village), whilst he took another girl as his partner. I was closely acquainted, and resided more than once, +with a very mixed-up family in the south of Negros Island. My host was the son of a secular clergyman, his wife and sister-in-law +were the daughters of a friar, this sister-in-law was the mistress of a friar, my host had a son who was married to another +friarʼs daughter, and a daughter who was the wife of a foreigner. In short, bastards of the friars are to be found everywhere +in the Islands. Regarding this merely as the natural outcome of the celibate rule, I do not criticize it, but simply wish +to show that the pretended sanctity of the regular clergy in the Philippines was an absurdity, and that the monks were in +no degree less frail than mankind in common. + +</p> +<p>The mysterious deaths of General Solano (August 1860) and of Zamora, the Bishop-elect of Cebú (1873), occurred so opportunely +for Philippine monastic ambition that little doubt existed in the public mind as to who were the real criminals. When I first +arrived in Manila, a quarter of a century ago, a fearful crime was still being commented on. Father Piernavieja, formerly +parish priest of San Miguel de Mayumo, had recently committed a second murder. His first victim was a native youth, his second +a native woman <i>enceinte</i>. The public voice could not be raised very loudly then against the priests, but the scandal was so great that the criminal +friar was sent to another province—Cavite—where he still celebrated the holy sacrifice of the Eucharist. Nearly two decades +afterwards—in January 1897—this rascal met with a terrible death at the hands of the rebels. He was in captivity, and having +been appointed “Bishop” in a rebel diocese, to save his life he accepted the mock dignity; but, unfortunately for himself, +he betrayed the confidence of his captors, and collected information concerning their movements, plans, and strongholds for +remittance to his Order. In expiation of his treason he was bound to a post under the tropical sun and left there to die. +See how the public in Spain are gulled! In a Málaga newspaper this individual was referred to as a “venerable figure, worthy +of being placed high up on an altar, before which all Spaniards should prostrate themselves and adore him. As a <i>religieux</i> he was a most worthy minister of the Lord; as a patriot he was a hero.” + +</p> +<p>Within my recollection, too, a friar absconded from a Luzon Island parish with a large sum of parochial funds, and was never +heard of again. The late parish priests of Mandaloyan and Iba did the same. + +</p> +<p>I well remember another interesting character of the monastic Orders. He had been parish priest in a Zambales province town, +but intrigues <a id="d0e6253"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e6253">204</a>]</span>with a <i>soi-disant cousine</i> brought him under ecclesiastical arrest at the convent of his Order in Manila. Thence he escaped, and came over to Hong-Kong, +where I made his acquaintance in 1890. He told me he had started life in an honest way as a shoemakerʼs boy, but was taken +away from his trade to be placed in the seminary. His mind seemed to be a blank on any branch of study beyond shoemaking and +Church ritual. He pretended that he had come over to Hong-Kong to seek work, but in reality he was awaiting his <i>cousine</i>, whom he rejoined on the way to Europe, where, I heard, he became a <i>garçon de café</i> in France. + +</p> +<p>In 1893 there was another great public scandal, when the friars were openly accused of having printed the seditious proclamations +whose authorship they attributed to the natives. The plan of the friars was to start the idea of an intended revolt, in order +that they might be the first in the field to quell it, and thus be able to again proclaim to the Home Government the absolute +necessity of their continuance in the Islands for the security of Spanish sovereignty. But the plot was discovered; the actual +printer, a friar, mysteriously disappeared, and the courageous Gov.-General Despujols, Conde de Caspe, was, through monastic +influence, recalled. He was very popular, and the public manifestation of regret at his departure from the Islands was practically +a protest against the Religious Orders. + +</p> +<p>In June, 1888, some cases of personal effects belonging to a friar were consigned to the care of an intimate friend of mine, +whose guest I was at the time. They had become soaked with sea-water before he received them, and a neighbouring priest requested +him to open the packages and do what he could to save the contents. I assisted my friend in this task, and amongst the friarʼs +personal effects we were surprised to find, intermixed with prayer-books, scapularies, missals, prints of saints, etc., about +a dozen most disgustingly obscene double-picture slides for a stereoscope. What an entertainment for a guide in morals! This +same friar had held a vicarage before in another province, but having become an habitual drunkard, he was removed to Manila, +and there appointed a confessor. From Manila he had just been again sent to take charge of the <i>cure of souls</i>. + +</p> +<p>I knew a money-grabbing parish priest—a friar—who publicly announced raffles from the pulpit of the church from which he preached +morality and devotion. On one occasion a 200-peso watch was put up for ₱500—at another time he raffled dresses for the women. +Under the pretext of being a pious institution, he established a society of women, called the Association of St. Joseph (<i>Confradia de San José</i>), upon whom he imposed the very secular duties of domestic service in the convent and raffle-ticket hawking. He had the audacity +to dictate to a friend of mine—a planter—the value of the gifts he was to make to him, and when the planter was at length +wearied of his importunities, he conspired with a Spaniard to deprive my friend of his estate, alleging <a id="d0e6276"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e6276">205</a>]</span>that he was not the real owner. Failing in this, he stirred up the petty-governor and headmen against him. The petty-governor +was urged to litigation, and when he received an unfavourable sentence, the priest, enraged at the abortive result of his +malicious intrigues, actually left his vicarage to accompany his litigious <i>protégé</i> to the chief judge of the province in quest of a reversion of the sentence. + +</p> +<p>A priest of evil propensities brought only misery to his parish and aroused a feeling of odium against the Spanish friars +in general. As incumbents they held the native in contempt. He who should be the parishioner was treated despotically as the +subject whose life, liberty, property, and civil rights were in his sacerdotal lordʼs power. And that power was not unfrequently +exercised, for if a native refused to yield to his demands, or did not contribute with sufficient liberality to a religious +feast, or failed to come to Mass, or protected the virtue of his daughter, or neglected the genuflexion and kissing of hands, +or was out of the priestʼs party in the municipal affairs of the parish, or in any other trivial way became a <i>persona non grata</i> at the “convent,” he and his family would become the pastorʼs sheep marked for sacrifice. As Government agent it was within +his arbitrary power to attach his signature to or withhold it from any municipal document. From time to time he could give +full vent to his animosity by secretly denouncing to the civil authorities as “inconvenient in the town” all those whom he +wished to get rid of. He had simply to send an official advice to the Governor of the province, who forwarded it to the Gov.-General, +stating that he had reason to believe that the persons mentioned in the margin were disloyal, immoral, or whatever it might +be, and recommend their removal from the neighbourhood. A native so named suddenly found at his door a patrol of the Civil +Guard, who escorted him, with his elbows tied together, from prison to prison, up to the capital town and thence to Manila. +Finally, without trial or sentence, he was banished to some distant island of the Archipelago. He might one day return to +find his family ruined, or he might as often spend his last days in misery alone. Sometimes a native who had privately heard +of his “denunciation” became a <i>remontado</i>, that is to say he fled to the mountains to lead a bandits life where the evils of a debased civilization could not reach +him. Banishment in these circumstances was not a mere transportation to another place, but was attended with all the horrors +of a cruel captivity, of which I have been an eye-witness. From the foregoing it may be readily understood how the conduct +of the regular clergy was the primary cause of the Rebellion of 1896; it was not the monksʼ immorality which disturbed the +mind of the native, but their Cæsarism which raised his ire. The ground of discord was always infinitely more material than +sentimental. Among the friars, however, there were many exceptional men of charming manners and eminent virtue. If little +was done to coerce the bulk of the friars to live up to the standard <a id="d0e6289"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e6289">206</a>]</span>of these exceptions, it was said to be because the general interests of Mother Church were opposed to investigation and admonition, +for fear of the consequent scandal destructive of her prestige. + +</p> +<p>The Hierarchy of the Philippines consists of one Archbishop in Manila, and four Suffragan Bishoprics, respectively of Nueva +Segovia, Cebú, Jaro, and Nueva Cáceres.<a id="d0e6293src" href="#d0e6293" class="noteref">3</a> The provincials, the vicars-general, and other officers of the Religious Orders were elected by the Chapters and held office +for four years. The first Bishop of Manila took possession in 1581, and the first Archbishop in 1598. + +</p> +<p>The Jesuits came to these Islands in 1581, and were expelled therefrom in 1770 by virtue of an Apostolic Brief<a id="d0e6298src" href="#d0e6298" class="noteref">4</a> of Pope Clement XIV., but were permitted to return in 1859, on the understanding that they would confine their labours to +scholastic education and the establishment of missions amongst uncivilized tribes. Consequently, in Manila they refounded +their school—the Municipal Athenæum—a mission house, and a Meteorological Observatory, whilst in many parts of Mindanao Island +they have established missions, with the vain hope of converting Mahometans to Christianity.<a id="d0e6301src" href="#d0e6301" class="noteref">5</a> The Jesuits, compared with the members of the other Orders, are very superior men, and their fraternity includes a few, and +almost the only, learned ecclesiastics who came to the Colony. Since their return to the Islands (1859) in the midst of the +strife with the Religious Orders, the people recognized the Jesuits as disinterested benefactors of the country. + +</p> +<p>Several Chinese have been admitted to holy orders, two of them having become Austin Friars.<a id="d0e6306src" href="#d0e6306" class="noteref">6</a> The first native friars date their admission from the year 1700, since when there have been sixteen of the Order of St. Augustine. +Subsequently they were excluded from the confraternities, and only admitted to holy orders as vicars, curates to assist parish +vicars, chaplains, and in other minor offices. Up to the year 1872 native priests were appointed to benefices, but in consequence +of their alleged implication in the Cavite Conspiracy of that year, their <a id="d0e6314"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e6314">207</a>]</span>church livings, as they became vacant, were given to Spanish friars, whose headquarters were established in Manila. + +</p> +<p>The <i>Austin Friars</i> were the religious pioneers in these Islands; they came to Cebú in 1565 and to Manila in 1571; then followed the <i>Franciscans</i> in 1577; the <i>Dominicans</i> in 1587, a member of this Order having been ordained first Bishop of Manila, where he arrived in 1581. The <i>Recoletos</i> (unshod Augustinians), a branch of the Saint Augustine Order, came to the Islands in 1606; the <i>Capuchins</i>—the lowest type of European monk in the Far East, came to Manila in 1886, and were sent to the Caroline Islands (<i>vide</i> p. 45). The <i>Paulists</i>, of the Order of Saint Vincent de Paul, were employed in scholastic work in Nueva Cáceres, Jaro, and Cebú, the same as the +Jesuits were in Manila. The <i>Benedictines</i> came to the Islands in 1895. Only the members of the first four Orders above named were parish priests, and each (except +the <i>Franciscans</i>) possessed agricultural land; hence the animosity of the natives was directed against these four confraternities only, and +not against the others, who neither monopolized incumbencies, nor held rural property, but were simply teachers, or missionaries, +whose worldly interests in no way clashed with those of the people. Therefore, whenever there was a popular outcry against +“the friars,” it was understood to refer solely to the Austins, the Franciscans, the Dominicans and the Recoletos.<a id="d0e6345src" href="#d0e6345" class="noteref">7</a> There was no Spanish secular clergy in the Islands, except three or four military chaplains. + +</p> +<p>The Church was financially supported by the State to the extent of about three-quarters of a million pesos per annum. + +</p> +<p>The following are some of the most interesting items taken from “The Budget for 1888,” viz.:— + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top"><span class="smallcaps">Sanctorum</span> or Church tax of 18¾ cents (i.e., 1½ reales) on each <i lang="es">Cédula personal</i>, say on 2,760,613 Cédulas in 1888, less 4 per cent, cost of collection + +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">₱496,910.00</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + +</p> +<p>The friars appointed to incumbencies received in former times tithes from the Spaniards, and a Church tax from the natives +computed by the amount of tribute paid. Tithe payment (<i lang="es">diézmos prediales</i>) by the Spaniards became almost obsolete, and the <i>Sanctorum</i> tax on <i lang="es">Cédulas</i> was paid to the Church through the Treasury (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e2931">55</a>). + +</p> +<p>There were priests in missions and newly-formed parishes where the domiciled inhabitants were so few that the <i>Sanctorum</i> tax on the aggregate of the <i>Cédulas</i> was insufficient for their support. These missionaries were allowed salaries, and parish priests were permitted to appropriate +from their revenues, as annual stipend, amounts ranging from 500 to 800 pesos, as a rule, with a few exceptions (such as Binondo +<a id="d0e6389"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e6389">208</a>]</span>parish and others), rated at 1,200 pesos, whilst one, at least (the parish priest, or missionary of Vergara, Davao Province), +received 2,200 pesos a year. In practice, however, a great many parish priests spent far more than their allotted stipends. + +</p> +<p>A project was under consideration to value the incumbencies, and classify them, like the Courts of Justice (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e8607">234</a>), with the view of apportioning to each a fixed income payable by the Treasury in lieu of accounting to the Church for the +exact amount of the <i>Sanctorum</i>. + +</p> +<p>By decree of Gov.-General Terrero, dated November 23,1885, the State furnished free labour (by natives who did not pay poll-tax) +for Church architectural works, provided it was made clear that the cost of such labour could not be covered by the surplus +funds of the <i>Sanctorum</i>. The chief items of Church expenditure were as follows, viz.:— + +</p> +<p><i>State outlay for Church.</i> + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i> </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>P. cts. +</i></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Archbishopʼs salary + +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">12,000 00 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Other salaries (Cathedral) + +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">40,300 00 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Other expenses (Cathedral) + +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3,000 00 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Four Bishops, each with a salary of ₱6,000 + +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">24,000 00 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Court of Arches (amount contributed by the State<a id="d0e6440src" href="#d0e6440" class="noteref">8</a>) + +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">5,000 00 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Chaplain of Los Baños + +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">120 00 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Sulu Mission + +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1,000 00 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Mission House in Manila for Capuchin friars + +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1,700 00 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">12 Capuchins (State paid) for the Caroline and Pelew Islands—6 at ₱300 and 6 at ₱500 each per annum + +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">4,800 00 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Transport of Missionaries estimated at about, per annum + +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">10,000 00 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">The anticipated <i>total</i> State outlay for the support of the Church, Missions, Monasteries, Convents, etc., <i>including the above and all other items</i> for the financial year of 1888 was + +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">₱724,634 50</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>Moreover, the religious Corporations possessed large private revenues. The Dominicansʼ investments in Hong-Kong, derived from +capitalized income, are still considerable. The Austin, Recoleto, and Dominican friars held very valuable real estate in the +provinces, which was rented to the native agriculturists on conditions which the tenants considered onerous. The native planters +were discontented with the treatment they received from these landowners, and their numerous complaints formed part of the +general outcry against the regular clergy. The bailiffs of these corporation lands were unordained brothers of the Order. +They resided in the Estate Houses, and by courtesy were styled “fathers” by the natives. They were under certain religious +vows, but not being entitled to say Mass, they were termed “legos,” or ignorant men, by their own Order. + +</p> +<p>The clergy also derived a very large portion of their incomes from <a id="d0e6486"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e6486">209</a>]</span>commissions on the sale of <i>cédulas</i>, sales of Papal Bulls, masses, pictures, books, chaplets and indulgences, marriage, burial and baptismal fees, benedictions, +donations touted for after the crops were raised, legacies to be paid for in masses, remains of wax candles left in the church +by the faithful, fees for getting souls out of purgatory, alms, etc. The surplus revenues over and above parochial requirements +were supposed to augment the common Church funds in Manila. The Corporations were consequently immensely wealthy, and their +power and influence were in consonance with that wealth. + +</p> +<p>Each Order had its procurator in Madrid, who took up the cudgels in defence of his Corporationʼs interest in the Philippines +whenever this was menaced. On the other hand, the Church, as a body politic, dispensed no charity, but received all. It was +always begging; always above civil laws and taxes; claimed immunity, proclaimed poverty, and inculcated in others charity +to itself. + +</p> +<p>Most of the parish priests—Spanish or native—were very hospitable to travellers, and treated them with great kindness. Amongst +them there were some few misanthropes and churlish characters who did not care to be troubled by anything outside the region +of their vocation, but on the whole I found them remarkably complaisant. + +</p> +<p>In Spain there were training colleges of the three Communities, in Valladolid, Ocaña, and Monte Agudo respectively, for young +novices intended to be sent to the Philippines, the last Spanish Colony where friars held vicarages. +</p> +<hr class="tb"><p> + +</p> +<p>The ecclesiastical archives of the Philippines abound with proofs of the bitter and tenacious strife sustained, not only between +the civil and Church authorities, but even amongst the religious communities themselves. Each Order was so intensely jealous +of the others, that one is almost led to ponder whether the final goal of all could have been identical. All voluntarily faced +death with the same incentive, whilst amicable fellowship in this world seemed an impossibility. The first Bishop (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e2954">56</a>) struggled in vain to create a religious monopoly in the Philippines for the exclusive benefit of the Augustine Order. It +has been shown how ardent was the hatred which the Jesuits and the other Religious Orders mutually entertained for each other. +Each sacred fraternity laboured incessantly to gain the ascendancy in the conquered territories, and their Divine calling +served for nothing in palliating the acrimony of their reciprocal accusations and recriminations, which often involved the +civil power. + +</p> +<p>For want of space I can only refer to a few of these disputes. + +</p> +<p>The Austin friars attributed to the Jesuits the troubles with the Mahometans of Mindanao and Sulu, and, in their turn, the +Jesuits protested against what they conceived to be the bad policy of the Government, adopted under the influence of the other +Orders in Manila. So <a id="d0e6511"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e6511">210</a>]</span>distinct were their interests that the Augustine chroniclers refer to the other Orders as <i>different religions</i>. + +</p> +<p>In 1778 the Province of Pangasinán was spiritually administered by the Dominicans, whilst that of Zambales was allotted to +the Recoletos. The Dominicans, therefore, proposed to the Recoletos to cede Zambales to them, because it was repugnant to +have to pass through Recoleto territory going from Manila to their own province! The Recoletos were offered Mindoro Island +in exchange, which they refused, until the Archbishop compelled them to yield. Disturbances then arose in Zambales, the responsibility +of which was thrown on the Dominicans by their rival Order, and the Recoletos finally succeeded in regaining their old province +by intrigue. + +</p> +<p>During the Governorship of Martin de Urena, Count de Lizárraga (1709–15), the Aragonese and Castilian priests quarrelled about +the ecclesiastical preferments. + +</p> +<p>At the beginning of the 18th century the Bishop-elect of Cebú, Fray Pedro Saez de la Vega Lanzaverde, refused to take possession +because the nomination was <i>in partibus</i>. He objected also that the Bishopric was merely one in perspective and not yet a reality. The See remained vacant whilst +the contumacious priest lived in Mexico. Fray Sebastian de Jorronda was subsequently appointed to administer the Bishopric, +but also refused, until he was coerced into submission by the Supreme Court (1718). + +</p> +<p>In 1767 the Austin friars refused to admit the episcopal visits, and exhibited such a spirit of independence that Pope Benedict +XIV. was constrained to issue a Bull to exhort them to obey, admonishing them for their insubordination. + +</p> +<p>The friars of late years were subject to a visiting priest—the Provincial—in all matters <i lang="la">de vita et moribus</i>, to the Bishop of the diocese in all affairs of spiritual dispensation, and to the Gov.-General as vice-royal patron in all +that concerned the relations of the Church to the Civil Government.<a id="d0e6532src" href="#d0e6532" class="noteref">9</a> + +</p> +<p>An observant traveller, unacquainted with the historical antecedents of the friars in the Philippines, could not fail to be +impressed by the estrangement of religious men, whose sacred mission, if genuine, ought to have formed an inseverable bond +of alliance and goodfellowship. + +<a id="d0e6540"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e6540">211</a>]</span></p> +<div class="footnotes"> +<hr class="fnsep"> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e6188" href="#d0e6188src" class="noteref">1</a></span> Navarreteʼs “<span lang="es">Coleccion de los Viajes y Descubrimientos</span>,” tom. II., Nos. 12, 18. Madrid, 1825. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e6199" href="#d0e6199src" class="noteref">2</a></span> In the turbulent ages, centuries ago, it was not an uncommon thing for a prince or nobleman to secure his domain against seizure +or conquest by transferring it nominally to the Pope, from whom he thenceforth held it as a papal fief. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e6293" href="#d0e6293src" class="noteref">3</a></span> Under the Spanish Government, the See of Manila comprised the provinces of Bulacan, Pampanga, Zambales, Cavite, La Laguna, +Bataán, Island of Mindoro, and part of Tárlac. The other part of Tárlac was in the See of Nueva Segovia, which had (in 1896) +ecclesiastical control over 997,629 Christians and 172,383 pagans. The See of Jaro is the one most recently created (1867). +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e6298" href="#d0e6298src" class="noteref">4</a></span> The Royal Decree setting forth the execution of this Brief was printed in Madrid in 1773. This politic-religious Order was +banished from Portugal and Spain in 1767. In Madrid, on the night of March 31, the Royal Edict was read to the members of +the Company of Jesus, who were allowed time to pack up their most necessary chattels and leave for the coast, where they were +hurriedly embarked for Rome. The same Order was suppressed for ever in France in 1764. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e6301" href="#d0e6301src" class="noteref">5</a></span> At the date of the Tagálog Rebellion (1896) the Jesuits in the Islands were as follows: In Manila, 24 priests, 25 lay brothers, +and 13 teachers; in Mindanao, 62 priests and 43 lay brothers, making a total of 167 individuals. They were not allowed to +possess real estate. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e6306" href="#d0e6306src" class="noteref">6</a></span> <i>Vide</i> “<span lang="es">Catálogo de los Religiosos de N.S.P. San Agustin</span>.” Published in Manila, 1864. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e6345" href="#d0e6345src" class="noteref">7</a></span> The Augustinian Order was founded in the 4th century; the Franciscan in 1210 and confirmed by Papal Bull in 1223; the Dominican +in 1261; the Recoleto in 1602; the Benedictine in 530; the Capuchin in 1209 and the Paulist in 1625. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e6440" href="#d0e6440src" class="noteref">8</a></span> For any further expense this might incur, 3 per cent, was deducted from the parish priestsʼ emoluments. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e6532" href="#d0e6532src" class="noteref">9</a></span> “<span lang="es">Recopilacion de las Leyes de Indias</span>.”—Ley 46, tit. 14, lib. 1°, forbids priests and members of any religious body to take part in matters of Civil Government. +</p> +</div> +</div> +<div id="d0e6541" class="div1"> +<h2 class="normal">Spanish Insular Government</h2> +<p>From the days of Legaspi the supreme rule in these Islands was usually confided for indefinite periods to military men: but +circumstances frequently placed naval officers, magistrates, the Supreme Court, and even ecclesiastics at the head of the +local government. During the last half century of Spanish rule the common practice was to appoint a Lieut.-General as Governor, +with the local rank of Captain-General pending his three-yearsʼ term of office. An exception to this rule in that period was +made (1883–85) when Joaquin Jovellar, a Captain-General and ex-War Minster in Spain, was specially empowered to establish +some notable reforms—the good policy of which was doubtful. Again, in 1897, Fernando Primo de Rivera, Marquis de Estella, +also a Captain-General in Spain, held office in Manila under the exceptional circumstances of the Tagálog Rebellion of 1896, +in succession to Ramon Blanco, Marquis de Peña Plata. Considering that Primo de Rivera, during his previous Gov.-Generalship +(1880–83), had won great popularity with the Filipinos, he was deemed, in Madrid, to be the man most capable of arresting +the revolutionary movement. How far the confidence of the Home Government was misplaced will be seen in Chapter <a href="#d0e14973">xxii</a>. + +</p> +<p>Soon after the conquest the Colony was divided and sub-divided into provinces and military districts as they gradually yielded +to the Spanish sway. Such districts, called <i>Encomiendas</i>,<a id="d0e6554src" href="#d0e6554" class="noteref">1</a> were then farmed out to <i>Encomenderos</i>, who exercised little scruple in their rigorous exactions from the natives. Some of the <i>Encomenderos</i> acquired wealth during the terms of their holdings, whilst others became victims to the revenge of their subjects. They must +indeed have been bold, enterprising men who, in those days, would <a id="d0e6572"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e6572">212</a>]</span>have taken charge of districts distant from the capital. It would appear that their tenure was, in a certain sense, feudal, +for they were frequently called upon to aid the Central Government with vessels, men, and arms against the attacks of common +enemies. Against Mahometan incursions necessity made them warriors,—if they were not so by taste,—civil engineers to open +communications with their districts, administrators, judges, and all that represented social order. <i>Encomiendas</i> were sometimes given to Spaniards as rewards for high services rendered to the commonwealth,<a id="d0e6577src" href="#d0e6577" class="noteref">2</a> although favouritism or (in later years) purchase-money more commonly secured the vacancies, and the holders were quite expected +to make fortunes in the manner they thought fit, with due regard for the Royal Treasury (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e2905">54</a>). + +</p> +<p>The <i>Encomenderos</i> were, in the course of time, superseded by Judicial Governors, called <i>Alcaldes</i>, who received small salaries, from £60 per annum and upwards, but were allowed to trade. The right to trade—called “<i lang="es">indulto de comercio</i>”—was sold to the <i>Alcalde-Governors</i>, except those of Tondo,<a id="d0e6612src" href="#d0e6612" class="noteref">3</a> Zamboanga, Cavite, Nueva Ecija, Islas Batanes and Antique, whose trading right was included in the emoluments of office. +The Governmentʼs object was economy. + +</p> +<p>In 1840 Eusebio Mazorca wrote thus<a id="d0e6617src" href="#d0e6617" class="noteref">4</a>:—“The salary paid to the chiefs of provinces who enjoy the right of trade is more or less ₱300 per annum, and after deducting +the amount paid for the trading right, which in some provinces amounts to five-sixths of the whole—as in Pangasinán; and in +others to the whole of the salary—as in Caraga; and discounting again the taxes, it is not possible to conceive how the appointment +can be so much sought after. There are candidates up to the grade of brigadier who relinquish a ₱3,000 salary to pursue their +hopes and projects in governorship.” + +</p> +<p>This system obtained for many years, and the abuses went on increasing. The <i>Alcaldes</i> practically monopolized the trade of their districts, unduly taking advantage of their governmental position to hinder the +profitable traffic of the natives and bring it all into their own hands. They tolerated no competition; they arbitrarily fixed +their own purchasing prices, and sold at current rates. Due to the scarcity of silver in the interior, the natives often paid +their tribute to the Royal Treasury in produce,—chiefly rice,—which was <a id="d0e6625"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e6625">213</a>]</span>received into the Royal Granaries at a ruinously low valuation, and accounted for to the State at its real value; the difference +being the illicit profit made by the <i>Alcalde</i>. Many of these functionaries exercised their power most despotically in their own circuits, disposing of the nativesʼ labour +and chattels without remuneration, and not unfrequently, for their own ends, invoking the Kingʼs name, which imbued the native +with a feeling of awe, as if His Majesty were some supernatural being. + +</p> +<p>In 1810 Tomás de Comyn wrote as follows:—“In order to be a chief of a province in these Islands, no training or knowledge +or special services are necessary; all persons are fit and admissible.... It is quite a common thing to see a barber or a +Governorʼs lackey, a sailor or a deserter, suddenly transformed into an Alcalde, Administrator, and Captain of the forces +of a populous province without any counsellor but his rude understanding, or any guide but his passions.”<a id="d0e6632src" href="#d0e6632" class="noteref">5</a> + +</p> +<p>By Royal Decree of 1844 Government officials were thenceforth strictly prohibited to trade, under pain of removal from office. + +</p> +<p>In the year 1850 there were 34 Provinces, and two Political Military Commandancies. Until June, 1886, the offices of provincial +Civil Governor and Chief Judge of that province were vested in the same person—the <i>Alcalde Mayor</i>. This created a strange anomaly, for an appeal against an edict of the Governor had to be made to himself as Judge. Then +if it were taken to the central authority in Manila, it was sent back for “information” to the Judge-Governor, without independent +inquiry being made in the first instance; hence protest against his acts was fruitless. + +</p> +<p>During the Regency of Queen Maria Christina, this curious arrangement was abolished by a Decree dated in Madrid, February +26, 1886, to take effect on June 1 following. + +</p> +<p>Eighteen Civil Governorships were created, and <i>Alcaldesʼ</i> functions were confined to their judgeships; moreover, the Civil Governor was assisted by a Secretary, so that two new official +posts were created in each of these provinces. + +</p> +<p>The Archipelago, including Sulu, was divided into 19 Civil Provincial Governments, four Military General Divisions, 43 Military +Provincial Districts, and four Provincial Governments under Naval Officers, forming a total of 70 Divisions and Sub-Divisions. +<a id="d0e6657"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e6657">214</a>]</span> + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Cost of Spanish Administration</span> + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" width="80%" class="alignright"><i></i></td> +<td valign="top" width="20%" class="alignright"><i>P. cts.</i></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">The Gov.-General received a salary of</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">40,000 00</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">The Central Government Office, called “<i lang="es">Gobierno General</i>,” with its Staff of Officials and all expenses +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">43,708 00</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" colspan="2">The General Government Centre was assisted in the General Administration of the Islands by two other Governing Bodies, namely:</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">The General Direction of Civil Administration</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">29,277 34</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">The Administrative Council</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">28,502 00</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">The Chief of the General Direction received a salary of ₱12,000, with an allowance for official visits to the Provinces of +₱500 per annum. +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">The Council was composed of three Members, each at a salary of ₱4,700, besides a Secretary and officials.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Seventy divisions and sub-divisions as follows, viz.:—</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + +</p> +<p><i>Civil Governments</i> + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" width="40%">Manila P<sup>ce</sup></td> +<td valign="top" width="40%">Salary of Civil Governor ₱5,000 Total Cost.</td> +<td valign="top" width="20%" class="alignright">20,248 00</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Alday, Batangas, Bulacan, Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur, La Laguna, Pampanga, Pangasinán.</td> +<td valign="top">Eight First-Class Govts.: +<br>Salary of each Civil Gov. ₱4,500 +<br>Total cost of each Govt. ₱8,900 +<br>Eight First-Class Govts. cost +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">71,200 00</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Bataán, Camarines Norte, Camarines Sur, Mindoro, Nueva Eclia, Tayabas, Zambales.</td> +<td valign="top">Seven Second-Class Govts.: +<br>Salary of each Civil Gov. ₱4,000 +<br>Total cost of each Govt. ₱7,660 +<br>Seven Second-Class Govts. cost +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">53,620 00</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Cagayan, Isabela, Nueva Vizcaya</td> +<td valign="top">Three Third-Class Govts.: +<br>Salary of each Civil Gov. ₱3,500 +<br>Total cost of each Govt. ₱6,700 +<br>Three Third-Class Govts. cost +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">20,100 00</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + +</p> +<p><i>Military General Governments</i> + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Under a Brig.-Gen. and Staff + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" width="80%">Gen. Division of S. Visayas </td> +<td valign="top" width="20%" class="alignright">10,975 00</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Gen. Division of N. Visayas </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">10,975 00</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Gen. Division of Mindanao </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">17,825 00</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Gen. Division of Cavite </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 6,596 66</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p><i>Military Provinces and Districts</i> + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Under a Colonel and Staff + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" width="80%">Sulu </td> +<td valign="top" width="20%" class="alignright">7,240 00</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Yloilo </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">4,410 00</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Cottabato </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">5,426 00 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Under a Lieut.-Colonel and Staff + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">East Carolines and Pelew Islands </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">4,900 00</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">West Carolines and Pelew Islands </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">5,970 00</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Cebú </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3,500 00</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Cápiz </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3,500 00</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Misámis </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">4,816 66</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Ladrone Islands </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">4,975 00 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Under a Major and Staff + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Zamboanga </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3,856 66</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Surigao </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">4,356 66</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Davao </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">4,156 66</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Dapítan </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">2,692 00</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Zucuran </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">2,692 00 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">La Union, Antique, Sámar, Leyte, El Abra, Bojol, Tárlac, Negros, Morong +<br>Each under a Major:— +<br>Nine Districts @ ₱3,040 + +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">27,360 00</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Batanes, Calamianes, Romblun, Benguet, Lepanto, Burias, Infante, Príncipe, Bontoc, Concepcion: +<br>Each under a Captain:— +<br>Ten Districts @ ₱1,980 +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">19,800 00<a id="d0e6889"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e6889">215</a>]</span></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Cagayán (Mindanao)—Biling, Nueva Vizcaya, Sasangani (Palaúan) +<br>Each under a Captain:— +<br>Five Districts @ ₱1,792 +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">8,960 00</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Siassi, Bongao, Tatoan +<br>Each under a Captain:— +<br>Three Districts @ ₱2,032 +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">6,096 00</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Escalante,<a id="d0e6911src" href="#d0e6911" class="noteref">6</a> under a Lieutenant +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1,525 00</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Masbate, under a Cavalry Sub-Lieutenant </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1,450 00 </td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + +</p> +<p><i>Provincial Governments under Naval Officers, Officers in Charge of Naval Stations as ex-officio Governors</i> + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Corregidor </td> +<td valign="top" width="20%" class="alignright">3,821 00</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Balábac </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3,960 00</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Isabela de Basílan </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">5,276 66</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Palaúan (Puerta Princesa) </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">6,910 00 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Total cost of General Government of the Islands </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">500,677 96 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Deduct—</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Officersʼ Pay, etc., included in Army Estimates ₱145,179 96</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Officersʼ Pay, etc., included in Navy Estimates 14,640 00 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">159,819 96 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">₱340,858 00</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>The Spanish Government intended, in due course, to establish Civil Government throughout the Islands. A Civil Governor was +the representative of the Gov.-General, whose orders and decrees he had to publish and execute at his own discretion. He could +not absent himself from his province without permission. He had to maintain order, veto petitions for armsʼ licences, hold +under his orders and dispose of the Civil Guard, Carabineers, and local guards. He could suspend the pay for ten days of any +subordinate official who failed to do his duty, or he could temporarily suspend him in his functions with justifiable cause, +and propose to the Gov.-General his definite removal. He had to preside at all municipal elections; to bring delinquents to +justice; to decree the detention on suspicion of any individual, and place him at the disposal of the chief judge within three +days after his capture; to dictate orders for the government of the towns and villages; to explain to the petty-governors +the true interpretation of the law and regulations affecting their districts. + +</p> +<p>The Governor was chief of police, and could impose fines up to ₱50 without the intervention of judicial authority; and in +the event of the mulcted person being unable to pay, he could order his imprisonment at the rate of one dayʼs detention for +each half-peso of the fine; it was provided, however, that the imprisonment could not exceed 30 days in <a id="d0e6981"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e6981">216</a>]</span>any case. He had to preside at the ballot for military conscription, but he could delegate this duty to his Secretary, or, +failing him, to the Administrator. Where no harbour-master had been appointed, the Civil Governor acted as such. He had the +care of the primary instruction; and it was his duty specially to see that the native scholars were taught the Spanish language. +Land concessions, improvements tending to increase the wealth of the province, permits for felling timber, and the collection +of excise taxes were all under his care. He had also to furnish statistics relating to the labour poll-tax; draw up the provincial +budget; render provincial and municipal accounts, etc., all of which had to be counter-signed under the word <i>Intervine</i> by the Secretary. He was provincial postmaster-general, chief of telegraph service, prisons, charities, board of health, +public works, woods and forests, mines, agriculture and industry. Under no circumstances could he dispose of the public funds, +which were in the care of the Administrator and Interventor, and he was not entitled to any percentages (as <i>Alcalde-Governors</i> formerly were), or any emoluments whatsoever further than his fixed salary. + +</p> +<p>A Governor had to be a Spaniard over 30 years of age. It is curious to note, from its political significance, that among the +many classes of persons eligible for a Civil Governorship were those who had been Members of the Spanish Parliament or Senate +during one complete session. + +</p> +<p>Upon the whole, a Provincial Governor passed life very comfortably if he did not go out of his way to oppress his subjects +and create discord. His tranquillity, nevertheless, was always dependent upon his maintaining a good understanding with the +priesthood of his district, and his conformity with the demands of the friars. If he had the misfortune to cross their path, +it brought him a world of woe, and finally his downfall. There have been Provincial Governors who in reality held their posts +by clerical influence, whilst others who exercised a more independent spirit—who set aside Church interests to serve those +of the State, with which they were intrusted—fell victims to sacerdotal intrigue; for the subordinates of the hierarchy had +power to overthrow as well as to support those who were appointed to their districts. Few improvements appear to have been +made in the provinces by the initiative of the local Governors, nor did they seem to take any special interest in commercial +and agricultural advancement. This lack of interest was somewhat excusable and comprehensible, however, seeing that after +they were appointed, and even though they governed well within the strict limitations of their office, they were constantly +expecting that a ministerial change or the fall of a single minister might remove them from their posts, or that the undermining +influence of favouritism might succeed in accomplishing their withdrawal. It was natural, therefore, that they should have +been indifferent about the fostering of new agricultural enterprises, of opening tracks for bringing down timber, of <a id="d0e6993"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e6993">217</a>]</span>facilitating trade, or of in any way stimulating the development of the resources of a province when the probability existed +that they would never have the personal satisfaction of seeing the result of their efforts. + +</p> +<p>Some Governors with whom I am personally acquainted have, in spite of all discouragement, studied the wants of their provinces, +but to no purpose. Their estimates for road-making and mending, bridge-building, and public works generally were shelved in +Manila, whilst the local funds (<i>Fondos locales</i>), which ought to have been expended in the localities where they were collected, were seized by the authorities in the capital +and applied to other purposes. + +</p> +<p>An annual statement of one province will be sufficient, as an example, to illustrate the nature of this local tax:— + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Local Funds</span><a id="d0e7005src" href="#d0e7005" class="noteref">7</a>—<span class="smallcaps">Albay Province</span> + + +</p> +<p><i>Provincial Revenue</i> + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i> </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i> P. cts. </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>P. cts.</i></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Stamps on Weights and Measures </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 2,490 00</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Billiard Tax and Live Stock credentials </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 496 00</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">90% of fines for shirking forced labour </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 1,500 00</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Tax in lieu of forced labour </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 85,209 00</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Vehicle tax </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 4,000 00 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">93,695 00</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + +</p> +<p><i>Municipal Revenue</i> + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Tax paid by sellers in the public market-place </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 7,050 00</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Tax on slaughter of animals for food </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 12,098 00</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Tax on local sales of hemp </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 40 00</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">90% of the Municipal fines and tax on Chinese </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 554 00</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">10% on tithes paid and house-property tax </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 380 00</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">10% on Industrial licences </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 5,710 00</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">10% on Alcohol licences </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 2,525 00 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">28,357 00 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">₱122,052 00</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>In the same year this province contributed to the common funds of the Treasury a further sum of ₱133,009. + +</p> +<p>There was in each town another local tax called <i>Caja de Comunidad,</i> contributed to by the townspeople to provide against any urgent necessity of the community, but it found its way to Manila +and was misappropriated, like the <i>Fondos locales</i>. + +</p> +<p>There was not a peso at the disposal of the Provincial Governor for local improvements. If a bridge broke down so it remained +for years, whilst thousands of travellers had to wade through the river unless a raft were put there at the expense of the +very poorest people by order of the petty-governor of the nearest village. The “Tribunal,” which served the double purpose +of Town Hall and Dâk Bungalow for wayfarers, was often a hut of bamboo and palm-leaves, whilst others, <a id="d0e7127"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e7127">218</a>]</span>which had been decent buildings generations gone by, lapsed into a wretched state of dilapidation. In some villages there +was no Tribunal at all, and the official business had to be transacted in the municipal Governorʼs house. I first visited +Calamba (La Laguna) in 1880, and for 14 years, to my knowledge, the headmen had to meet in a sugar-store in lieu of a Tribunal. +In San José de Buenavista, the capital town of Antique Province, the Town Hall was commenced in good style and left half finished +during 15 years. Either some one for pityʼs sake, or the headmen for their own convenience, went to the expense of thatching +over half the unfinished structure, which was therefore saved from entire ruin, whilst all but the stone walls of the other +half rotted away. So it continued until 1887, when the Government authorized a partial restoration of this building. + +</p> +<p>As to the roads connecting the villages, quite 20 per cent. of them serve only for travellers on foot, on horse or on buffalo +back at any time, and in the wet season certainly 60 per cent, of all the Philippine highways are in too bad a state for any +kind of passenger conveyance to pass with safety. In the wet season, many times I have made a sea journey in a prahu, simply +because the highroad near the coast had become a mud-track, for want of macadamized stone and drainage, and only serviceable +for transport by buffalo. In the dry season the sun mended the roads, and the traffic over the baked clods reduced them more +or less to dust, so that vehicles could pass. Private property-owners expended much time and money in the preservation of +public roads, although a curious law existed prohibiting repairs to highways by non-official persons. + +</p> +<p>Every male adult inhabitant (with certain specified exceptions) had to give the State fifteen daysʼ labour per annum, or redeem +that labour by payment. Of course thousands of the most needy class preferred to give their fifteen days. This labour and +the redemption-money were only theoretically employed in local improvements. This system was reformed in 1884 (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e7289">224</a>). + +</p> +<p>The Budget for 1888 showed the trivial sum of ₱120,000 to be used in road-making and mending in the whole Archipelago. It +provided for a Chief Inspector of Public Works with a salary of ₱6,500, aided by a staff composed of 48 technical and 82 non-technical +subordinates. As a matter of fact, the Provincial and District Governors often received intimation not to encourage the employment +of labour for local improvements, but to press the labouring-class to pay the redemption-tax to swell the central coffers, +regardless of the corresponding misery, discomfort, and loss to trade in the interior. But labour at the Governorʼs disposal +was not alone sufficient. There was no fund from which to defray the cost of materials; or, if these could be found without +payment, some one must pay for the transport by buffaloes and carts and find the implements for the labourersʼ use. <a id="d0e7141"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e7141">219</a>]</span>How could hands alone repair a bridge which had rotted away? To cut a log of wood for the public service would have necessitated +communications with the Inspection of Woods and Forests and other centres and many monthsʼ delay. +</p> +<hr class="tb"><p> + +</p> +<p>The system of controlling the action of one public servant by appointing another under him to supervise his work has always +found favour in Spain, and was adopted in this Colony. There were a great many Government employments of the kind which were +merely sinecures. In many cases the pay was small, it is true, but the labour was often of proportionately smaller value than +that pay. With very few exceptions, all the Government Offices in Manila were closed to the public during half the ordinary +working-day,—the afternoon,—and many of the Civil Service officials made their appearance at their desks about ten oʼclock +in the morning, retiring shortly after mid-day, when they had smoked their habitual number of cigarettes. + +</p> +<p>The crowd of office-seekers were indifferent to the fact that the true source of national vigour is the spirit of individual +self-dependence. Constant clamour for Government employment tends only to enfeeble individual effort, and destroys the stimulus, +or what is of greater worth, the necessity of acting for oneʼs self. The Spaniard (except the Basque and the Catalonian) looks +to the Government for active and direct aid, as if the Public Treasury were a natural spring at the waters of which all temporal +calamities could be washed away—all material wants supplied. He will tell you with pride rather than with abashment that he +is an <i>empleado</i>—a State dependent. + +</p> +<p>National progress is but the aggregate of personal individual activity rightly directed, and a nation weakens as a whole as +its component parts become dormant, or as the majority rely upon the efforts of the few. The spirit of Cæsarism—“all for the +people and nothing by them”—must tend not only to political slavery, but to a reduction in commercial prosperity, national +power, and international influence. The Spaniards have indeed proved this fact. The best laws were never intended to provide +for the people, but to regulate the conditions on which they could provide for themselves. The consumers of public wealth +in Spain are far too numerous in proportion to the producers; hence not only is the State constantly pressed for funds, but +the busy bees who form the nucleus of the nationʼs vitality are heavily taxed to provide for the dependent office-seeking +drones. It is the fatal delusion that liberty and national welfare depend solely upon good government, instead of good government +depending upon united and co-operative individual exertion, that has brought the Spanish nation to its present state of deplorable +impotence. + +</p> +<p>The Government itself is but the official counterpart of the governed. By the aid of servile speculators, a man in political +circles struggles to <a id="d0e7156"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e7156">220</a>]</span>come to the front—to hold a portfolio in the ministry—if it only be for a session, when his pension for life is assured on +his retirement. Merit and ability have little weight, and the proteges of the outgoing minister must make room for those of +the next lucky ministerial pension-seeker, and so on successively. This Colony therefore became a lucrative hunting-ground +at the disposal of the Madrid Cabinet wherein to satisfy the craving demands of their numerous partisans and friends. They +were sent out with a salary and to make what they could,—at their own risk, of course,—like the country lad who was sent up +to London with the injunction from his father, “Make money, honestly if you can, but make it.” + +</p> +<p>From the Conquest up to 1844, when trading by officials was abolished, it was a matter of little public concern how Government +servants made fortunes. Only when the jealousy of one urged him to denounce another was any inquiry instituted so long as +the official was careful not to embezzle or commit a direct fraud on the <i>Real Haber</i> (the Treasury funds). When the <i>Real Haber</i> was once covered, then all that could be got out of the Colony was for the benefit of the officials, great and small. In +1840, Eusebio Mazorca wrote as follows:<a id="d0e7166src" href="#d0e7166" class="noteref">8</a>—“Each chief of a province is a real sultan, and when he has terminated his administration, all that is talked of in the capital +is the thousands of pesos clear gain which he made in his Government.” + +</p> +<p>Eusebio Mazorca further states:<a id="d0e7177src" href="#d0e7177" class="noteref">9</a>—“The Governor receives payment of the tribute in rice-paddy, which he credits to the native at two reales in silver per caban. +Then he pays this sum into the Royal Treasury in money, and sells the rice-paddy for private account at the current rate of +six, eight or more reales in silver per caban, and this simple operation brings him 200 to 300 per cent. profit.” + +</p> +<p>The same writer adds:—“Now quite recently the Interventor of Zamboanga is accused by the Governor of that place of having +made some ₱15,000 to ₱16,000 solely by using false measures ... The same Interventor to whom I refer, is said to have made +a fortune of ₱50,000 to ₱60,000, whilst his salary as second official in the Audit <a id="d0e7188"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e7188">221</a>]</span>Department<a id="d0e7190src" href="#d0e7190" class="noteref">10</a> is ₱540 per annum.” According to Zúñiga, the salary of a professor of law with the rank of magistrate was ₱800 per annum. + +</p> +<p>Up to June, 1886, the provincial taxes being in the custody of the Administrator, the Judicial Governor had a percentage assigned +to him to induce him to control the Administratorʼs work. The Administrator himself had percentages, and the accounts of these +two functionaries were checked by a third individual styled the “Interventor,” whose duties appeared to be to intervene in +the casting-up of his superiorsʼ figures. He was forbidden to reside with the Administrator. After the above date the payment +of all these percentages ceased. + +</p> +<p>But for the peculations by Government officials from the highest circles downwards, the inhabitants of the Colony would doubtless +have been a million or so richer per annum. One frequently heard of officials leaving for Spain with sums far exceeding the +total emoluments they had received during their term of office. Some provincial employees acquired a pernicious habit of annexing +what was not theirs by all manner of pretexts. To cite some instances: I knew a Governor of Negros Island who seldom saw a +native pass the Government House with a good horse without begging it of him; thus, under fear of his avenging a refusal, +his subjects furnished him little by little with a large stud, which he sold before he left, much to their disgust. + +</p> +<p>In another provincial capital there happened to be a native headman imprudently vain enough to carry a walking-stick with +a chased gold-knob handle studded with brilliants. It took the fancy of the Spanish Governor, who repeatedly expressed his +admiration of it, hoping that the headman would make him a present of it. At length, when the Governor was relieved of his +post, he called together the headmen to take formal leave of them, and at the close of a flattering speech, he said he would +willingly hand over his official-stick as a remembrance of his command. In the hubbub of applause which followed, he added, +“and I will retain a souvenir of my loyal subordinates.” Suiting the action to the word, he snatched the coveted stick out +of the hand of the owner and kept it. A Gov.-General in my time enriched himself by peculation to such an extent that he was +at his witsʼ end to know how to remit his ill-gotten gains clandestinely. Finally, he resolved to send an army Captain over +to Hong-Kong with ₱35,000 to purchase a draft on Europe for him. The Captain went there, but he never returned. +</p> +<hr class="tb"><p> + +</p> +<p>There were about 725 towns and 23 missions in the Colony. Each town was locally governed by a native—in some cases a Spanish +or Chinese half-caste—who was styled the petty-governor or <i>Gobernadorcillo</i>, whilst his popular title was that of <i>Capitan</i>. This service was compulsory. The elections of <i>Gobernadorcillos</i> and their subordinates <a id="d0e7212"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e7212">222</a>]</span>took place every two years, the term of office counting from the July 1 following such elections. In the few towns where the +<i>Gobernadorcillos</i> were able to make considerable sums, the appointment was eagerly sought for, but as a rule it was considered an onerous task, +and I know several who have paid bribes to the officials to rid them of it, under the pretext of ill-health, legal incapacity, +and so on. The <i>Gobernadorcillo</i> was supported by what was pompously termed a “ministry,” composed of two lieutenants of the town, lieutenants of the wards, +the chiefs of police, of plantations, and of live-stock. + +</p> +<p>The <i>Gobernadorcillo</i> was nominally the delegate and practically the servant of his immediate chief, the Provincial Governor. He was the arbiter +of local petty questions, and endeavoured to adjust them, but when they assumed a legal aspect, they were remitted to the +local Justice of the Peace, who was directly subordinate to the Provincial Chief Judge. He was also responsible to the Administrator +for the collection of taxes—to the Chief of the Civil Guard for the capture of criminals, and to the priest of his parish +for the interests of the Church. His responsibility for the taxes to be collected sometimes brought him imprisonment, unless +he succeeded in throwing the burden on the actual collectors—the <i>Cabezas de Barangay</i>. + +</p> +<p>The <i>Gobernadorcillo</i> was often put to considerable expense in the course of his two years, in entertaining and supplying the wants of officials +passing through. To cover this outlay, the loss of his own time, the salaries of writers in the Town Hall, presents to his +Spanish chiefs to secure their goodwill, and other calls upon his private income, he naturally had to exact funds from the +townspeople. Legally, he could receive, if he chose (but few did), the munificent salary of ₱2 per month, and an allowance +for clerks equal to about one-fifth of what he had to pay them. Some of these <i>Gobernadorcillos</i> were well-to-do planters, and were anxious for the office, even if it cost them money, on account of the local prestige which +the title of “Capitan” gave them, but others were often so poor that if they had not pilfered, this compulsory service would +have ruined them. However, a smart <i>Gobernadorcillo</i> was rarely out of pocket by his service. One of the greatest hardships of his office was that he often had to abandon his +plantation or other livelihood to go to the provincial capital at his own expense whenever he was cited there. Many of them +who did not speak or understand Spanish had to pay and be at the mercy of a Secretary (<i>Directorcillo</i>), who was also a native. + +</p> +<p>When any question arose of general interest to the townspeople (such as a serious innovation in the existing law, or the annual +feasts, or the anticipated arrival of a very big official, etc.) the headmen (<i>principalia</i>) were cited to the Town Hall. They were also expected to assemble there every Sunday and Great Feast Days (three-cross Saint +days in the Calendar), to march thence in procession to the church to <a id="d0e7247"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e7247">223</a>]</span>hear Mass, under certain penalties if they failed to attend. Each one carried his stick of authority; and the official dress +was a short Eton jacket of black cloth over the shirt, the tail of which hung outside the trousers. Some <i>Gobernadorcillos</i>, imbued with a sense of the importance and solemnity of office, ordered a band to play lively dance music at the head of +the <i>cortége</i> to and from the church. After Mass they repaired to the convent, and on bended knee kissed the priestʼs hand. Town affairs +were then discussed. Some present were chided, others were commended by their spiritual dictator. + +</p> +<p>In nearly every town the people were, and still are, divided into parties holding divergent views on town affairs, each group +being ready to give the other a “stab in the back” when the opportunity offers, and not unfrequently these differences seriously +affect the social relations of the individual members. + +</p> +<p>For the direct collection of taxes each township was sub-divided into groups of forty or fifty families called <i>Barangays</i>: each group had to pay taxes to its respective head, styled <i>Cabeza de Barangay</i>, who was responsible to the petty-governor, who in turn made the payment to the Provincial Administrator for remission to +the Treasury (<i>Intendencia</i>) in Manila. This <i>Barangay chiefdom</i> system took its origin from that established by the natives themselves prior to the Spanish conquest, and in some parts of +the Colony the original title of <i>datto</i> was still applied to the chief. This position, hereditary among themselves, continued to be so for many years under Spanish +rule, and was then considered an honourable distinction because it gave the heads of certain families a birthright importance +in their class. Later on they were chosen, like all the other native local authorities, every two years, but if they had anything +to lose, they were invariably re-elected. In order to be ranked among the headmen of the town (the <i>principalia</i>), a <i>Barangay chief</i> had to serve for ten years in that capacity unless he were, meanwhile, elected to a higher rank, such as lieutenant or <i>gobernadorcillo</i>. Everybody, therefore, shirked the repugnant obligations of a chiefdom, for the Government rarely recognized any bad debts +in the collection of the taxes, until the chief had been made bankrupt and his goods and chattels sold to make good the sums +which he could not collect from his group, whether it arose from their poverty, death, or from their having absconded. I have +been present at auction sales of live-stock seized to supply taxes to the Government, which admitted no excuses or explanations. +Many <i>Barangay chiefs</i> went to prison through their inability or refusal to pay othersʼ debts. On the other hand, there were among them some profligate +characters who misappropriated the collected taxes, but the Government had really little right to complain, for the labour +of tax-gathering was a <i>forced service</i> without remuneration for expenses or loss of time incurred. +<a id="d0e7289"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e7289">224</a>]</span></p> +<p>In many towns, villages, and hamlets there were posts of the Civil Guard established for the arrest of criminals and the maintenance +of public order; moreover, there was in each town a body of guards called <i>Cuadrilleros</i> for the defence of the town and the apprehension of bandits and criminals within the jurisdiction of the town only. The town +and the wards together furnished these local guards, whose social position was one of the humblest and least enviable. There +were frequent cases of <i>Cuadrilleros</i> passing over to a band of brigands. Some years ago the whole muster belonging to the town of Mauban (Tayabas) suddenly took +to the mountains; on the other hand, many often rendered valuable aid to society, but their doubtful reliability vastly diminished +their public utility. + +</p> +<p>From the time Philippine administration was first organized up to the year 1884, all the subdued natives paid tribute. Latterly +it was fixed at one peso and ten cents per annum, and those who did not choose to work for the Government during forty days +in the year, paid also a poll-tax (<i>fallas</i>) of ₱3 per annum. But, as a matter of fact, thousands were declared as workers who never did work, and whilst roads were +in an abominable condition and public works abandoned, not much secret was made of the fact that a great portion of the poll-tax +never reached the Treasury. These pilferings were known to the Spanish local authorities as <i>caidas</i> or droppings; and in a certain province I met at table a provincial chief judge, the nephew of a general, and other persons +who openly discussed the value of the different Provincial Governments (before 1884) in Luzon Island, on the basis of so much +for salary and so much for fees and <i>caidas</i>. + +</p> +<p>However, although the tribute and <i>fallas</i> system worked as well as any other would under the circumstances, for some reason, best known to the authorities, it was +abolished. In lieu thereof a scheme was proposed, obliging <i>every civilized inhabitant</i> of the Philippines, excepting only public servants, the clergy, and a few others, <i>to work for fifteen days per annum without the right of redeeming this obligation by payment</i>. Indeed, the decree to that effect was actually received in Manila from the Home Government, but it was so palpably ludicrous +that the Gov.-General did not give it effect. He had sufficient common sense to foresee in its application the extinction +of all European prestige and moral influence over the natives if Spanish and foreign gentlemen of good family were seen sweeping +the streets, lighting the lamps, road-mending, guiding buffalo-carts loaded with stones, and so on. This measure, therefore, +regarded by some as a practical joke, by others as the conception of a lunatic theorist—was withdrawn, or at least allowed +to lapse. + +</p> +<p>Nevertheless, those in power were bent on reform, and the Peninsular system of a document of identity (<i>Cédula personal</i>), which works well amongst Europeans, was then adopted for all civilized classes <a id="d0e7325"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e7325">225</a>]</span>and nationalities above the age of 18 years without exception, its possession being compulsory. The amount paid for this document, +which was of nine classes,<a id="d0e7327src" href="#d0e7327" class="noteref">11</a> from ₱25 value downwards, varied according to the income of the holder or the cost of his trading-licences. Any person holding +this document of a value under ₱3½ was subject to fifteen daysʼ forced labour per annum, or to pay 50 cents for each day he +failed to work. The holder of a document of ₱3½ or over paid also ₱1½ “Municipal Tax” in lieu of labour. The “<i lang="es">Cédula</i>” thenceforth served as a passport for travelling within the Archipelago, to be exhibited at any time on demand by the proper +authority. No legal document was valid unless the interested parties had produced their <i lang="es">Cédulas</i>, the details of which were inscribed in the legal instrument. No petitions would be noticed, and very few transactions could +be made in the Government offices without the presentation of this identification document. The decree relating to this reform, +like most ambiguous Spanish edicts, set forth that any person was at liberty to take a higher-valued <i lang="es">Cédula</i> than that corresponding to his position, without the right of any official to ask the reason why. This clause was prejudicial +to the public welfare, because it enabled thousands of able-bodied natives to evade labour for public improvements of imperative +necessity in the provinces. The public labour question was indeed altogether a farce, and simply afforded a pretext for levying +a tax. + +</p> +<p>It would appear that whilst the total amount of taxation in Spanish times was not burdensome, the fiscal system was obviously +defective. + +</p> +<p>The (American) Insular Government has continued the issue of the <i>Cédula</i> on a reasonable plan which bears hard on no one. Forced labour is abolished; government work is paid for out of the taxes; +and the uniform cost of the <i>Cédula</i> is one peso for every male between the ages of 18 and 60 years. + +</p> +<p>In 1890 certain reforms were introduced into the townships, most of which were raised to the dignity of Municipalities. The +titles of <i lang="es">Gobernadorcillo</i> and <i lang="es">Directorcillo</i> (the words themselves in Spanish bear a sound of contempt) were changed to <i lang="es">Capitan Municipal</i> and <i lang="es">Secretario</i> respectively (Municipal Captain and Secretary) with nominally extended powers. For instance, the Municipal Captains were +empowered to disburse for public works, without appeal to Manila, a few hundred pesos in the year (to be drawn, in some cases, +from empty public coffers, or private purses). The functions of the local Justices of the Peace were amplified and abused +to such a degree that these officials became more the originators of strife than the guardians of peace. The <a id="d0e7372"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e7372">226</a>]</span>old-established obligation to supply travellers, on payment therefor, with certain necessaries of life and means of transport +was abolished. + +</p> +<p>Hitherto it had been the custom for a traveller on arriving at a town without knowing any one there, or without letters of +introduction, to alight (by right) at the Tribunal, or Town Hall. Each such establishment had, or ought to have had, a tariff +of necessary provisions and the means of travelling to the next town (such as ponies, gigs, hammocks, sedan-chairs, etc., +according to the particular conditions of the locality). Each <i lang="es">Barangay</i> or <i lang="es">Cabezeria</i> furnished one <i lang="es">Cuadrillero</i> (<i>vide</i> pp. <a href="#d0e7247">223</a>, <a href="#d0e7289">224</a>) for the service of the Tribunal, so that the supply of baggage-carriers, bearers, etc., which one needed could not be refused +on payment. The native official in charge of this service to travellers, and in control of the <i lang="es">Cuadrilleros</i>, was styled the <i lang="es">Alguacil</i>. Hence the Tribunal served the double purpose of Town Hall and casual ward for wayfarers. There were all sorts of Tribunales, +from the well-built stone and wood house to the poverty-stricken bamboo shanty where one had to pass the night on the floor +or on the table. + +</p> +<p>By decree of Gov.-General Weyler (1888–91) dated October 17, 1888, which came into force on January 1, 1889, the obligation +of the Tribunal officials to supply provisions to travelling civilians had been already abolished, although, under both reforms, +civilians could continue to take refuge at the Tribunal as theretofore. Notwithstanding the reform of 1890, until the American +advent the European traveller found it no more difficult than before to procure <i>en route</i> the requisite means for provincial travelling. + +<a id="d0e7405"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e7405">227</a>]</span></p> +<div class="footnotes"> +<hr class="fnsep"> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e6554" href="#d0e6554src" class="noteref">1</a></span> In the early days of Mexican conquest, the conquered land was apportioned to the warriors under the name of <i>Repartimentos</i>, but such divisions included the absolute possession of the natives as slaves (<i>vide</i> “<span lang="es">La vida y escritos del P. Fray Bartolomé de las Casas, Obispo de Chiapa</span>,” by Antonio Maria Fabié, Colonial Minister in the Cánovas Cabinet of 1890 Madrid). +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e6577" href="#d0e6577src" class="noteref">2</a></span> Juan Salcedo, Legaspiʼs grandson (<i>vide</i> Chaps. <a href="#d0e2314">ii</a>. and <a href="#d0e2763">iv</a>.) was rewarded with several <i>Encomiendas</i> in the Ilocos provinces, on the west coast of Luzon, where he levied a tribute on the natives whom he subdued. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e6612" href="#d0e6612src" class="noteref">3</a></span> Changed afterwards to Manila Province; now called Rizal Province (Mórong district incorporated therein) since the American +occupation. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e6617" href="#d0e6617src" class="noteref">4</a></span> “Noticias de Filipinas,” by Don Eusebio Mazorca. Inedited MS. dated 1840, in the Archives of Bauan Convent, Province of Batangas. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e6632" href="#d0e6632src" class="noteref">5</a></span> The text reads thus:—“<span lang="es">Para ser jefe de Provincia en estas Islas no se requiere carrera, conocimientos ni servicios determinados, todos son aptos +y admisibles.... Es cosa bastante comun ver á un peluquero ó lacayo de un gobernador, á un marinero y á un desertor transformado +de repente en Alcalde-Mayor, sub-delegado y Capitan á guerra de una provincia populosa, sin otro consejero que su rudo entendimiento, +ni mas guia que sus pasiones.</span>” Tomás de Comyn was an employee of the “<i lang="es">Real Compañia de Filipinas</i>” (q.v.), and subsequently Spanish Consul-General in Lisbon. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e6911" href="#d0e6911src" class="noteref">6</a></span> Transferred to Bais in January, 1889, in consequence of the rise of brigandage in the S.E. of Negros Island. + +</p> +<p class="footnote">The brigands, under the leadership of a native named Camartin and another, who declared themselves prophets, plundered the +planters along that coast, and committed such notorious crimes that troops had to be despatched there under the command of +the famous Lieut.-Colonel Villa-Abrille. The Gov.-General Valeriano Weyler went to the Visayas Islands and personally directed +the operations. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e7005" href="#d0e7005src" class="noteref">7</a></span> From January 1, 1889, the Government Financial year was made concurrent with the year of the Calendar. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e7166" href="#d0e7166src" class="noteref">8</a></span> The text reads thus:—<span lang="es">“Cada Jefe de Provincia es un verdadero Sultan y cuando acaba su administracion solo se habla en la Capital de los miles de +pesos que sacó <i>limpios</i> de su alcaldia.”—“Noticias de Filipinas,”</span> by Don Eusebio Mazorca. Inedited MS. dated 1840. In the archives of Bauan Convent, Province of Batangas. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e7177" href="#d0e7177src" class="noteref">9</a></span> The text reads thus:—<span lang="es">“Cobrando el Alcalde en palay el tributo, solo abona al indio dos reales plata por caban; introduce en cajas reales su importe +en metalico y vende despues el palay en seis, ocho y a veces mas reales fuertes plata cada caban y le resulta con esta sencilla +operacion un doscientos ó trescientos por ciento de ganancia.... Ahora recientito está acusado el Ministro Interventor de +Zamboanga por el Gobernador de aquella plaza de habérse utilizado aquel de 15,000 á 16,000 pesos solo con el trocatinte de +la medida.... Se cuenta al mismo interventor á que me refiero 50,000 á 60,000 pesos cuando el sueldo de su empleo—oficial +2° de la Contaduria—es de 540 pesos al año.”</span>—<i>Ibid</i>. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e7190" href="#d0e7190src" class="noteref">10</a></span> The Audit Office was suppressed and revived, and again suppressed on January 1, 1889. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e7327" href="#d0e7327src" class="noteref">11</a></span> There was also a tenth class <i>gratis</i> for the clergy, army and navy forces, and convicts, and a “<i>privileged</i>” class <i>gratis</i> for petty-governors and their wives, Barangay chiefs and their wives, and Barangay chiefsʼ assistants, called “primogénito” +(primogénito means first born—perhaps it was anticipated that he Would “assist” his father in his gratuitous government service). +</p> +</div> +</div> +<div id="d0e7406" class="div1"> +<h2 class="normal">Spanish-Philippine Finances</h2> +<p>The secession of Mexico from the Spanish Crown in the second decade of last century brought with it a complete revolution +in Philippine affairs. Direct trade with Europe through one channel or another had necessarily to be permitted. The “Situado,” +or subsidy (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e9146">244</a>), received from Mexico became a thing of the past, and necessity urged the home authorities to relax, to a certain extent, +the old restraint on the development of Philippine resources. + +</p> +<p>In 1839 the first Philippine Budget was presented in the Spanish Córtes, but so little interest did the affairs of the Colony +excite that it provoked no discussion. After the amendment of only one item the Budget was adopted in silence. It was not +the practice in the earliest years to publish the full Philippine Budget in the Islands, although allusion was necessarily +made to items of it in the <i lang="es">Gaceta de Manila</i>. However, it could be seen without difficulty in Madrid. Considering that the Filipinos had no political rights, except for +the very brief period alluded to in Chapter <a href="#d0e14973">xxii</a>. (<i>vide Córtes de Cádiz</i>), it is evident that popular discussion of public finance would have been undesirable, because it could have led to no practical +issue. + +</p> +<p>There is apparently no record of the Philippine Islands having been at any time in a flourishing financial condition. With +few exceptions, in latter years the collected revenue of the Colony was usually much less than the estimated yield of taxes. +The Budget for 1888 is here given in detail as an example. + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Philippine Budgets</span> + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top"><b>Financial Year. </b></td> +<td valign="top"><b>Estimated Income. </b></td> +<td valign="top"><b>Income Realized. </b></td> +<td valign="top"><b>Difference.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i> </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>₱ </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>₱ </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>₱</i></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">1884–85 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">11,298,508.98 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 9,893,745.87 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1,404,763.11</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">1885–86 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">11,528,178.00 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 9,688,029.70 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1,840,148.30</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">1886–87 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">11,554,379.00 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 9,324,974.08 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">2,229,404.92</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">1894–95 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">13,280,139.40 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">13,579,900.00 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 299,760.60</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">1896–97 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">17,086,423.00 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">17,474,000.00 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 387,577.00</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + +<a id="d0e7499"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e7499">228</a>]</span></p> +<p><i>Anticipated Revenue, Year</i> 1888 + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" width="80%" class="alignright"><b></b></td> +<td valign="top" width="20%" class="alignright"><b>₱ cts. +</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Direct Taxes</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">5,206,836 93</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Customs Dues</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">2,023,400 00</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Government Monopolies (stamps, cock-fighting, opium, gambling, etc.)</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1,181,239 00</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Lotteries and Raffles</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 513,200 00</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Sale of State property</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 153,571 00</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">War and Marine Department (sale of useless articles. Gain on repairs to private ships in the Government Arsenal)</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 15,150 00</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Sundries</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 744,500 00 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">9,837,896 93 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Anticipated Expenditure, year 1888</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">9,825,633 29 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Anticipated Surplus</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">₱ 12,263 64</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>The actual deficit in the last previous Budget for which there was no provision was estimated at ₱1,376,179.56, against which +the above balance would be placed. There were some remarkable inconsistencies in the 1888 Budget. The Inspection of Woods +and Forests was an institution under a Chief Inspector with a salary of ₱6,500, assisted by a technical staff of 64 persons +and 52 non-technical subordinates. The total cost for the year was estimated at ₱165,960, against which the expected income +derived from duties on felled timber was ₱80,000; hence a loss of ₱85,960 was duly anticipated to satisfy office-seekers. +Those who wished to cut timber were subjected to very complicated and vexatious regulations. The tariff of duties and mode +of calculating it were capriciously modified from time to time on no commercial basis whatever. Merchants who had contracted +to supply timber at so much per foot for delivery within a fixed period were never sure of their profits; for the dues might, +meanwhile, be raised without any consideration for trading interests. The most urgent material want of the Colony was easy +means of communication with the interior of the Islands. Yet, whilst this was so sadly neglected, the Budget provided the +sum of ₱113,686.64 for a School of Agriculture in Manila and 10 model farms and Schools of Cultivation in the provinces. It +was not the want of farming knowledge, but the scarcity of capital and the scandalous neglect of public highways and bridges +for transport of produce which retarded agriculture. The 113,000 pesos, if disbursed on roads, bridges, town halls, and landing-jetties, +would have benefited the Colony; as it was, this sum went to furnish salaries to needy Spaniards. +<a id="d0e7561"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e7561">229</a>]</span> + + +</p> +<p>The following are some of the most interesting items of the Budget: + +</p> +<p><i>Curious Items of Revenue</i> + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" width="80%" class="alignright"><i> </i></td> +<td valign="top" width="30%" class="alignright"><i>₱ cts. +</i></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">2,760,613 Identification Documents (<i lang="es">Cedulas personales</i>), costing 4 per cent, to collect—gross value + +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">4,401,629 25 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Tax on the above, based on the estimated local consumption of Tobacco + +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 222,500 00 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Chinese Capitation Tax + +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 236,250 00 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Tax on the above for the estimated local consumption of Tobacco + +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 11,250 00 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Recognition of vassalage collected from the unsubdued mountain tribes + +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 12,000 00 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Industrial and Trading Licences (costing ½ per cent, to collect), gross value + +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1,350,000 00 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Yield of the Opium Contract (farmed out) + +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 483,400 00 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Yield of the Cock-fighting Contract (farmed out) + +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 149,039 00 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Lotteries and Raffles, nett profit say + +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 501,862 00 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">State Lands worked by miners + +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 100 00 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Sale of State Lands + +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 50,000 00 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Mint—Profits on the manipulation of the bullion, less expenses of the Mint (₱ 46,150), nett + +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 330,350 00 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Stamps and Stamped Paper + +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 548,400 00 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Convict labour hired out + +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 50,000 00</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p><i>Curious Items of Expenditure</i> + + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" width="80%" class="alignright"><i> </i></td> +<td valign="top" width="20%" class="alignright"><i>₱ cts. +</i></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">34 per cent, of the maintenance of Fernando Po (by Decree of August 5, 1884) + +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 68,618 18 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Share of the pension paid to the heir of Christopher Columbus, the Duke de Veragua (₱ 23,400 a year) + +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 3,000 00 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Share of the pension paid to Ferdinand Columbus, Marquis de Bárboles + +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 1,000 00 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">The Marquis de Bedmar is the heir of the assayer and caster in the Mint of Potosi (Peru). The concern was taken over by the +Spanish Government, in return for an annual perpetual pension, of which this Colony contributed the sum of + +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 1,500 00 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">The Consular and Diplomatic Services, Philippine Share + +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 66,000 00 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Postal and Telegraph Services (staff of 550 persons) + +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 406,547 17 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">The Submarine Cable Co. Subsidy (Bolinao to Hong-Kong) + +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 48,000 00 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Charitable Institutions partly supported by Government, including the “Lepersʼ Hospital” ₱500 + +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 26,887 50</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p><i>The Army and Armed Land Forces</i> + +</p> +<p>Rank and File and Non-commissioned Officers as follows:— + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Infantry, Artillery, Engineer, and Carabineer Corps </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 9,470</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Cavalry Corps </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 407</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Disciplinary Corps (Convicts) </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 630</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Disciplinary Corps (Non-commissioned Officers) </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 92</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Three Civil Guard Corps (Provincial Constabulary) </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 3,342</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Veteran Civil Guard Corps (Manila Military Police) </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 400 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Total number of men </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">14,341</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> +<a id="d0e7747"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e7747">230</a>]</span> +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b></b></td> +<td valign="top" colspan="9"><b><span class="smallcaps">Army Officers in the Philippines</span>.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b></b></td> +<td valign="top" colspan="9"><b><span class="smallcaps">Year</span> 1888.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" width="32em"><b><span class="smallcaps">How Employed</span>.</b></td> +<td valign="top" width="8em"><b>Lieutenant-Generals.</b></td> +<td valign="top" width="8em"><b>Brigadier-Generals.</b></td> +<td valign="top" width="8em"><b>Colonels.</b></td> +<td valign="top" width="8em"><b>Lieutenant-Colonels.</b></td> +<td valign="top" width="8em"><b>Majors.</b></td> +<td valign="top" width="8em"><b>Captains.</b></td> +<td valign="top" width="8em"><b>Lieutenants.</b></td> +<td valign="top" width="8em"><b>Sub-Lieutenants.</b></td> +<td valign="top" width="8em"><b><span class="smallcaps">Totals</span>.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Governor-General, with local rank of Captain-General</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Employed in Government Administration, Political Military Provincial Governments, Staff Officers and Officers at the Orders +of the Governor-General +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">7</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">7</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">14</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">39</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">37</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">23</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">12</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">140</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">With command or attached to Army Corps and Disciplinary Corps</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">5</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">11</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">14</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">88</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">136</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">127</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">381</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Civil Guard</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">9</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">33</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">54</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">54</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">156</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Veteran Civil Guard</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">6</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">6</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">13</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Invalid Corps</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Military Academy</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">2</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">4</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Prisons and Penitentiaries</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">4</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">9</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Commissariat Department</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">14</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">18</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">35</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Judicial Audit Department</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">2</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">2</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">6</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">In expectation of service</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">6</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">12</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">12</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">12</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">46</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">In excess of Active Service requirements</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">7</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">9</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">20</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Total of Officers</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">2</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">9</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">19</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">36</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">73</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">191</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">262</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">220</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">812</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>The Archbishop, as Vicar-General of the Armed Forces, ranked in precedence as a Field-Marshal. (In the Spanish Army a Field-Marshal +ranks between a Brig.-General and Lieut.-General.) + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Officersʼ Pay Per Annum</span> + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top"><b><span class="smallcaps">Rank</span>.</b></td> +<td valign="top"><b>Ordinary Pay.</b></td> +<td valign="top"><b>When Commanding a Corps. <i>Extra</i>.</b></td> +<td valign="top"><b>When in Civil Guard.</b></td> +<td valign="top"><b>When in Veteran Civil Guard.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i></i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>₱</i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>₱</i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>₱</i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>₱</i></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Captain-General was paid as Governor-General of the Colony</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">40,000<a id="d0e8054src" href="#d0e8054" class="noteref">1</a></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Lieutenant-General (local rank), Sub-Inspector of Army Corps</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">12,000</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Brigadier-General</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">4,500</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">800</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Colonel</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3,450</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">600</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">4,200</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Lieutenant-Colonel</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">2,700</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">400</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3,288</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Major</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">2,400</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">2,520</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">2,880</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Captain</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1,500</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1,584</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Lieutenant</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1,125</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1,242</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1,485</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Sub-Lieutenant</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">975</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1,068</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1,275</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + +<a id="d0e8125"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e8125">231</a>]</span></p> +<p>After 6 yearsʼ and up to 9 yearsʼ service, an officer could claim a free passage back to the Peninsula for himself and, if +married, his family. + +</p> +<p>After 9 yearsʼ service, his retirement from the Colony for three years was compulsory. If he nevertheless wished to remain +in the Colony, he must quit military service. If he left before completing six yearsʼ service, he would have to pay his own +passage unless he went “on commission” or with sick-leave allowance. + + +</p> +<p><i>Estimated Annual Disbursements for—</i> + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b></b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>₱ cts</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">The Civil Guard (Constabulary), composed of Three Corps = 3,342 Men and 156 Officers</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">638,896 77</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">The Veteran Civil Guard (Manila Police) One Corps = 400 Men and 13 Officers</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">73,246 88</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">The Disciplinary Corps, Maintenance of 630 Convicts and Material</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">56,230 63</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">(For the Disciplinary Convict Corps) 92 Non-commissioned Officers and 23 Officers</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">47,909 51</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>₱</i>104,140 14 +</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + +</p> +<p><i>Army Estimates</i> + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b></b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>₱ cts</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Estimate according to the Budget for 1888 <i>Plus</i> the following sums charged on other estimates, viz.:— +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3,016,185 91</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Disciplinary Corps, maintenance of 630 Convicts and material</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">56,230 63</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">The Civil Guard</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">638,896 77</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">The Veteran Civil Guard</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">73,246 88</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Pensions</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">117,200 00</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Transport and maintenance of Recruits from Provinces</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">6,000 00</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Expeditions to be made against the Moros—Religious ceremonies to celebrate Victories gained over them—Maintenance of War Prisoners, +etc. +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">11,000 00</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Total cost of Army and Armed Land Forces</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>₱</i>3,918,760 19 +</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>Before the walls were built around Manila, about the year 1590, each soldier and officer lived where he pleased, and, when +required, the troops were assembled by the bugle call. + +</p> +<p>At the close of the 16th century barracks were constructed, but up to the middle of last century the native troops were so +badly and irregularly paid that they went from house to house begging alms of the citizens (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e2876">53</a>, King Philip II.ʼs Decree). + +</p> +<p>In the 17th century troops died of sheer want in the Fort of Ylígan (Mindanao Is.), and when this was represented to the Gov.-General +he generously ordered that the Spanish soldiers were in future to be paid ₱2 per month and native soldiers ₱1 per month to +hold the fort, at the risk of their lives, against attack from the Mahometans. + +</p> +<p>In the forts of Labo and Taytay (Palaúan Is.) the soldiersʼ pay was only nominal, rations were often short, and their lives +altogether most wretched. Sometimes they were totally overlooked by the military <a id="d0e8235"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e8235">232</a>]</span>chiefs, and they had to seek subsistence as best they could when provisions were not sent from the capital (<i>vide</i>p. <a href="#d0e5065">157</a>). + +</p> +<p>Mexican soldiers arrived in nearly every ship, but there were no barracks for them, no regular mode of living, no regulations +for their board and lodging, etc.; hence many had to subsist by serving natives and half-breeds, much to the discredit of +the mother country, and consequent loss of prestige. Each time a new expedition was organized a fresh recruiting had to be +made at great cost and with great delay. There was practically no regular army except those necessarily compelled to mount +guard, etc., in the city. Even the officers received no regular pay until 1754, and there was some excuse for stealing when +they had a chance, and for the total absence of enthusiasm in the Service. When troops were urgently called for, the Gov.-General +had to bargain with the officers to fill the minor posts by promises of rewards, whilst the high commands were eagerly sought +for, not for the pay or the glory, but for the plunder in perspective. + +</p> +<p>In 1739 the Armoury in Manila contained only 25 Arquebuses of native make, 120 Biscayan muskets, 40 Flint guns, 70 Hatchets, +and 40 Cutlasses. + +</p> +<p>The first regular military organization in these Islands was in the time of Governor Pedro Manuel de Arandia (1754), when +one regiment was formed of five companies of native soldiers, together with four companies of troops which arrived with the +Governor from Mexico. This corps, afterwards known as the “Kingʼs Regiment”<a id="d0e8249src" href="#d0e8249" class="noteref">2</a> (<i lang="es">Regimiento del Rey</i>) was divided into two battalions, increased to 10 companies each as the troops returned from the provinces. + +</p> +<p>The 20 companies were each composed as follows:— + +</p> +<p>1 captain, 1 lieutenant, 1 sub-lieutenant, 4 sergeants, 2 drummers, 6 first corporals, 6 seconds corporals, and 88 rank and +file. + +</p> +<p>The Gov.-Generalʼs Body Guard of Halberdiers was reformed, and thenceforth consisted of 18 men, under a captain and a corporal. + +</p> +<p>The Monthly Pay under these reforms was as follows:— + + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top"><b>Staff Officers. </b></td> +<td valign="top"><b>P. </b></td> +<td valign="top"><b>Regimental Officers and Staff </b></td> +<td valign="top"><b>P. c. </b></td> +<td valign="top"><b>Governor-Generalʼs Body Guard </b></td> +<td valign="top"><b>P. +</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Chief of the Staff </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">40 </td> +<td valign="top">Captain </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">25 00 </td> +<td valign="top">Captain </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">35</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Adjutant-Major. </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">25 </td> +<td valign="top">Lieutenant. </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">18 00 </td> +<td valign="top">Corporal </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">10</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Adjutant. </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">18 </td> +<td valign="top">Sub-Lieutenant. </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">14 00 </td> +<td valign="top">Guards </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">5</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Captain </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">12 </td> +<td valign="top">Sergeant </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">4 00</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top">Drummer </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3 00</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top">First Corporal </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3 25</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top">Second Corporal </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3 00</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top">Rank and File </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">2 62½</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + +<a id="d0e8365"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e8365">233</a>]</span></p> +<p>From October 1, 1754, the troops were quartered in barracks, Commissariat Officers were appointed, and every man and every +officer was regularly paid fortnightly. The soldiers were not used to this discipline, and desertion was frequent. They much +preferred the old style of roaming about to beg or steal and live where they chose until they were called out to service, +and very vigorous measures had to be adopted to compel them to comply with the new regulations. + +</p> +<p>In May, 1755, four artillery brigades were formed, the commanding officer of each receiving ₱30 per month pay. + +</p> +<p>In 1757 there were 16 fortified provincial outposts, at a total estimated cost of ₱37,638 per annum (including Zamboanga, +the chief centre of operations against the Mahometans, which alone cost ₱18,831 in 1757), besides the armed forces and Camp +of Manila, Fort Santiago, and Cavite Arsenal and Fort, which together cost a further sum of ₱157,934 for maintenance in that +year. + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Spanish Vessels in Philippine Waters</span> + +</p> +<p><i>Year</i> 1898 + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top"><b>Name. </b></td> +<td valign="top"><b>Class. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>Tons. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>H.P. +</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Reina Cristina </td> +<td valign="top">Cruiser </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3,500 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3,950</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Castilla </td> +<td valign="top">Cruiser </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3,260 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">4,400</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Don Ant<sup>o</sup>. de Ulloa +</td> +<td valign="top">Cruiser </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1,200 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1,523</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Don Juan de Austria </td> +<td valign="top">Cruiser </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1,130 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1,600</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Isla de Cuba </td> +<td valign="top">Cruiser </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1,048 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">2,200</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Isla de Luzon </td> +<td valign="top">Cruiser </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1,048 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">2,200</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Velasco </td> +<td valign="top">Gunboat </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1,152 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1,500</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Elcano </td> +<td valign="top">Gunboat </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">560 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">600</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">General Lezo </td> +<td valign="top">Gunboat </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">520 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">600</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Argos </td> +<td valign="top">Gunboat </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">508 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">600</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Marqués del Duero </td> +<td valign="top">Gunboat </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">500 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">550</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Manila </td> +<td valign="top">Transport </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1,900 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">750</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">General Alava </td> +<td valign="top">Transport </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1,200 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1,000</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Cebú </td> +<td valign="top">Transport </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">532 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">600</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Callao </td> +<td valign="top" colspan="3">Gunboat, and 4 others very small, besides 3 armed steam launches built in Hong-Kong, viz.:—<i>Lanao, Corcuera</i>, and <i>General Blanco</i>. +</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Naval Divisions</span> + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top"><b>Station. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>Commanderʼs Pay.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i> </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>₱ +</i></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">South Division </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">5,760</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Palaúan (Pta. Princesa) </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">4,560</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Isabel de Basílan </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3,360</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Balábac Island </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3,360</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Corregidor Island </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3,360</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">West Caroline Islands </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3,360</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">East Caroline Islands </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">4,560</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + +<a id="d0e8607"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e8607">234</a>]</span></p> +<p><i>Navy Estimates</i>—<i>Judicial Statistics</i> + + +<span class="smallcaps">Harbour-Masters</span> + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top"><b>Station. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>Pay. </b></td> +<td valign="top"><b>Station. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>Pay.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i> </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>₱ </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i> </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>₱</i></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Manila </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3,200 </td> +<td valign="top">Pangasinán </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1,500</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Yloilo </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3,200 </td> +<td valign="top">Ilocos Norte y Sur. </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1,500</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Cebú </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1,500 </td> +<td valign="top">Cagayán </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1,500</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Cápis </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1,500 </td> +<td valign="top">Ladrone Islands </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1,500</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Zamboanga </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1,500 </td> +<td valign="top">Laguimanoc (Civilian) </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">144</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>The Chief of the Philippine Naval Forces was a Rear-Admiral receiving ₱16,392 per annum. + +</p> +<p>There were two Brigades of Marine Infantry, composed of 376 men with 18 officers. + + +</p> +<p><i>Cavite Arsenal</i> + +</p> +<p>The chief Naval Station was at Cavite, six miles from Manila. The forces at this station were 90 Marines as Guards, and 244 +Marines as reserves. One hundred convicts were employed for Arsenal labour. + +</p> +<p>The Officer in command of the Cavite Arsenal and Naval Station took rank after the Rear-Admiral, and received a salary of +₱8,496 per annum. + +</p> +<p>The Navy Estimates (Budget for 1888) amounted to ₱2,573,776·27. + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Spanish Judicial Statistics</span> + +</p> +<p><i>Civil and Criminal Law Courts</i> + +</p> +<p>The Civil and Criminal Law Courts were as follows, viz.:— + + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top"> 2 Supreme Courts in Manila and Cebú, quite independent of each other.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top"> 4 First-Class Courts of Justice in Manila (called “<i lang="es">de término</i>.”) +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top"> 8 First-Class Courts of Justice in the Provinces (called “<i lang="es">de término</i>.”) +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">10 Second-Class Courts of Justice in the Provinces (called “<i lang="es">de ascenso</i>.”) +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">19 Third-Class Courts of Justice in the Provinces (called “<i lang="es">de entrada</i>.”) +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top"> 7 Provincial Governments with judicial powers.</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p><i>Judgesʼ Salaries</i> + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">President of the Supreme Court of Manila </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">₱7,000</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">President of the Supreme Court of Cebu </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">6,000</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Judge of each of the 12 First-Class Courts </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">4,000</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Judge of each of the 10 Second-Class Courts </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3,000</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Judge of each of the 19 Third-Class Courts </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">2,000</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p><i>Law Courts Estimate for</i> 1888 + + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i> </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>₱ cts. +</i></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Supreme Court of Manila </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">90,382 00</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Supreme Court of Cebú </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">49,828 00</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">All the minor Courts and allowances to Provincial Governors with judicial powers </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">192,656 00 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Estimated total cost for the year </td> +<td valign="top">₱332,866 00</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> +<a id="d0e8833"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e8833">235</a>]</span> + + +</p> +<p><i>Penitentiaries and Convict Settlements</i> + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Manila (Bilíbid Jail) containing on an average</td> +<td valign="top">900 Native Convicts</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">And in 1888 there were also</td> +<td valign="top">3 Spanish Convicts</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Cavite Jail contained in 1888</td> +<td valign="top">51 Native Convicts</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Zamboanga Jail contained in 1888</td> +<td valign="top">98 Native Convicts</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Agricultural Colony of San Ramon (Zamboanga), worked by convict labour, contained in 1888</td> +<td valign="top">164 Native Convicts</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Ladrone Island Penal Settlement contained in 1888</td> +<td valign="top">101 Native Convicts</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Ladrone Island Penal Settlement contained in 1888</td> +<td valign="top">3 Spanish Convicts</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">In the Army and Navy Services </td> +<td valign="top">730 Native Convicts + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top">2,045 Convicts + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Total estimated disbursements for Penitentiaries and Convict maintenance in the Settlements for the year</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">₱82,672.71</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Brigandage</span> first came into prominence in Governor Arandiaʼs time (1754–59), and he used the means of “setting a thief to catch a thief,” +which answered well for a short time, until the crime became more and more habitual as provincial property increased in value +and capital was accumulated there. In 1888 the Budget provided an allowance of 2,000 pesos for rewards for the capture or +slaughter of these ruffians. Up to the end of Spanish rule, brigandage, pillage, and murder were treated with such leniency +by the judges that there was little hope for the extinction of such crimes. When a band of thieves and assassins attacked +a village or a residence, murdered its inhabitants, and carried off booty, the Civil Guard at once scoured the country, and +often the malefactors were arrested. The Civil Guard was an excellent institution, and performed its duty admirably well; +but as soon as the villains were handed over to the legal functionaries, society lost hope. Instead of the convicted criminals +being garrotted according to law, as the public had a right to demand, they were “protected”; some were let loose on the world +again, whilst others were sent to prison and allowed to escape, or they were transported to a penal settlement to work without +fetters, where they were just as comfortable as if they were working for a private employer. I record these facts from personal +knowledge, for my wanderings in the Islands brought me into contact with all sorts and conditions of men. I have been personally +acquainted with many brigands, and I gave regular employment to an ex-bandit for years. + +</p> +<p>The Philippine brigand—known in the northern islands as <i>Tulisán</i> and in the southern islands as <i>Pulaján</i>—is not merely an outlaw, such as may yet be found in Southern and Eastern Europe; his infamous work of freebooting is never +done to his satisfaction without the complement of bloodshed, even though his victim yield to him all without demur. Booty +or no booty, blood must flow, if he be the ordinary <i>Tulisán</i> of the type known to the Tagálogs as <i>dugong-aso</i> (blood of a dog). <a id="d0e8925"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e8925">236</a>]</span>as distinguished from the milder <i>Tulisán pulpul</i> (literally, the blunt brigand), who robs, uses no unnecessary violence, but runs away if he can, and only fights when he +must. + +</p> +<p>At Christmas, 1884, I went to Laguimanoc in the Province of Tayabas to spend a few days with an English friend of mine.<a id="d0e8932src" href="#d0e8932" class="noteref">3</a> On the way there, at Sariaya, I stayed at the house of the Captain of the Civil Guard, when a message came to say that an +attack had been made the night before on my friendʼs house, his manager, a Swede, having been killed, and many others in the +village wounded. The Captain showed me the despatch, and invited me to join him as a volunteer to hunt down the murderers. +I agreed, and within half an hour we were mounted and on their track all through that dark night, whilst the rain poured in +torrents. Four native soldiers were following us on foot. We jumped over ditches, through rice-paddy fields and cocoanut plantations, +and then forded a river, on the opposite bank of which was the next guardsʼ post in charge of a lieutenant, who joined us +with eight foot-soldiers. That same night we together captured five of the wretches, who had just beached a canoe containing +part of their spoils. The prisoners were bound elbows together at their backs and sent forward under escort. We rode on all +night until five oʼclock the next morning, arriving at the convent of Pagbilao just as Father Jesus was going down to say +Mass. I had almost lost my voice through being ten hours in the rain; but the priest was very attentive to us, and we went +on in a prahu to the village where the crime had been committed. In another prahu the prisoners were sent in charge of the +soldiers. In the meantime, the Chief Judge and the Government Doctor of the province had gone on before us. On the way we +met a canoe going to Pagbilao, carrying the corpse of the murdered Swede for burial. When we arrived at Laguimanoc, we found +one native dead and many natives and Chinese badly wounded. + +</p> +<p>My friendʼs house had the front door smashed in—an iron strong-box had been forced, and a few hundred pesos, with some rare +coins, were stolen. The furniture in the dining-room was wantonly hacked about with bowie-knives, only to satisfy a savage +love for mischief. His bedroom had been entered, and there the brigands began to make their harvest; the bundles of wearing-apparel, +jewellery, and other valuables were already tied up, when lo! the Virgin herself appeared, casting a penetrating glance of +disapproval upon the wicked revelry! Forsaking their plunder, the brigands fled in terror from the saintly apparition. And +when my friend re-entered his home and crossed the bloodstained floor of the dining-room to go to his bedroom, the cardboard +Virgin, with a trade advertisement on the back, was still peeping round the door-jamb to which she was nailed, with the words +“Please to shut the door” printed on her spotless bust. +<a id="d0e8937"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e8937">237</a>]</span></p> +<p>The next day the Captain remained in the village whilst I went on with the Lieutenant and a few guards in a prahu down the +coast, where we made further captures, and returned in three days. During our journey in the prahu the wind was so strong +that we resolved to beach our craft on the seashore instead of attempting to get over the shoal of the San Juan River. We +ran her ashore under full sail, and just at that moment a native rushed towards us with an iron bar in his hand. In the evening +gloom he must have mistaken us for a party of weather-beaten native or Chinese traders whose skulls he might smash in at a +stroke and rifle their baggage. He halted, however, perfectly amazed when two guards with their bayonets fixed jumped forward +in front of him. Then we got out, took him prisoner, and the next day he was let off with a souvenir of the lash, as there +was nothing to prove that he was a brigand by profession. The second leader of the brigand gang was shot through the lungs +a week afterwards, by the guards who were on his track, as he was jumping from the window-opening of a hut, and there he died. + +</p> +<p>The Captain of the Civil Guard received an anonymous letter stating where the brigand chief was hiding. This fact came to +the knowledge of the native <i>cuadrillero</i> officer who had hitherto supplied his friend, the brigand, with rice daily, so he hastened on before the Captain could arrive, +and imposed silence for ever on the fugitive bandit by stabbing him in the back. Thus the <i>cuadrillero</i> avoided the disclosure of unpleasant facts which would have implicated himself. The prisoners were conducted to the provincial +jail, and three years afterwards, when I made inquiries about them, I learnt that two of them had died of their wounds, whilst +not a single one had been sentenced. + +</p> +<p>The most ignorant classes believe that certain persons are possessed of a mystic power called <i>anting-anting</i>, which preserves them from all harm, and that the body of a man so affected is even refractory to bullet or steel. Brigands +are often captured wearing medallions of the Virgin Mary or the Saints as a device of the <i>anting-anting</i>. In Maragondón (Cavite), the son of a friend of mine was enabled to go into any remote place with impunity, because he was +reputed to be possessed of this charm. Some highwaymen, too, have a curious notion that they can escape punishment for a crime +committed in Easter Week, because the thief on the cross was pardoned his sins. + +</p> +<p>In 1885 I purchased a small estate, where there was some good wild-boar hunting and snipe-shooting, and I had occasion to +see the man who was tenant previous to my purchase, in Manila Jail. He was accused of having been concerned in an attack upon +the town of Mariquina, and was incarcerated for eighteen months without being definitely convicted or acquitted. Three months +after his release from prison he was appointed petty-governor of his own town, much to the disgust of the people, who in vain +petitioned against it in writing. +<a id="d0e8958"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e8958">238</a>]</span></p> +<p>I visited the Penal Settlement, known as the Agricultural Colony of San Ramon, situated about fifteen miles north of Zamboanga, +where I remained twelve days. The director of the settlement was D. Felipe Dujiols, an army captain who had defended Oñate +(in Guipuzcoa, Spain), during the Carlist war; so, as we were each able to relate our personal experiences of that stirring +period, we speedily became friends. As his guest, I was able to acquire more ample information about the system of convict +treatment. With the 25 convicts just arrived, there were in all 150 natives of the most desperate class—assassins, thieves, +conspirators, etc., working on this penal settlement. They were well fed, fairly well lodged, and worked with almost the same +freedom as independent labourers. Within a few yards of the directorʼs bungalow were the barracks, for the accommodation of +a detachment of 40 soldiers—under the command of a lieutenant—who patrolled the settlement during the day and mounted guard +at night. During my stay one prisoner was chained and flogged, but that was for a serious crime committed the day before. +The severest hardship which these convicts had to endure under the rule of my generous host, D. Felipe, was the obligation +to work as honest men in other countries would be willing to do. In this same penal settlement, some years ago, a party of +convicts attacked and killed three of the European overseers, and then escaped to the Island of Basilan, which lies to the +south of Zamboanga. The leader of these criminals was a native named Pedro Cuevas, whose career is referred to at length in +Chap. <a href="#d0e20496">xxix</a>. + +</p> +<p>Within half a dayʼs journey from Manila there are several well-known maraudersʼ haunts, such as San Mateo, Imus, Silan, Indan, +the mouths of the Hagonoy River (Pampanga), etc. In 1881 I was the only European amongst 20 to 25 passengers in a canoe going +to Balanga on the west shore of Manila Bay, when about midday a canoe, painted black and without the usual outriggers, bore +down upon us, and suddenly two gun-shots were fired, whilst we were called upon to surrender. The pirates numbered eight; +they had their faces bedaubed white and their canoe ballasted with stones. There was great commotion in our craft; the men +shouted and the women fell into a heap over me, reciting Ave Marias, and calling upon all the Saints to succour them. Just +as I extricated myself and looked out from under the palm-leaf awning, the pirates flung a stone which severely cut our pilotʼs +face. They came very close, flourishing their knives, but our crew managed to keep them from boarding us by pushing off their +canoe with the paddles. When the enemy came within range of my revolver, one of their party, who was standing up brandishing +a bowie-knife, suddenly collapsed into a heap. This seemed to discourage the rest, who gave up the pursuit, and we went on +to Balanga. + +</p> +<p>The most famous <i>Tulisán</i> within living memory was a Chinese half-caste named Juan Fernandez, commonly known as <i lang="tl">Tancad</i> (“tall,” in <a id="d0e8974"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e8974">239</a>]</span>Tagálog) because of his extraordinary stature. His sphere of operations was around Bulacan, Tárlac, Mórong, and Nueva Ecija. +He took part in 21 crimes which could have been proved against him, and doubtless many more. A man of wonderful perception +and great bravery, he was only 35 years old when he was captured in Bulacan Province by the Spanish Captain Villa Abrille. +Brought before a court-martial on the specific charge of being the chief actor in a wholesale slaughter at Tayud, which caused +a great sensation at the time, he and ten of his companions were executed on August 28, 1877, to the immense relief of the +people, to whom the very name of <i>Tancad</i> gave a thrill of horror. + +</p> +<p>No one experienced in the Colony ever thought of privately prosecuting a captured brigand, for a criminal or civil lawsuit +in the Philippines was one of the worst calamities that could befall a man. Between notaries, procurators, barristers, and +the sluggish process of the courts, a litigant was fleeced of his money, often worried into a bad state of health, and kept +in horrible suspense for years. It was as hard to get the judgement executed as it was to win the case. Even when the question +at issue was supposed to be settled, a defect in the sentence could always be concocted to re-open the whole affair. If the +case had been tried and judgement given under the Civil Code, a way was often found to convert it into a criminal case; and +when apparently settled under the Criminal Code, a flaw could be discovered under the <i>Laws of the Indies</i>, or the <i lang="es">Siete Partidas</i>, or the <i>Roman Law</i>, or the <i lang="es">Novisima Recopilacion</i>, or the <i lang="es">Antiguos fueros</i>, Decrees, Royal Orders, <i lang="es">Ordenanzas de buen Gobierno</i>, and so forth, by which the case could be re-opened. It was the same in the 16th century (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e2954">56</a>). + +</p> +<p>I knew a planter in Negros Island who was charged with homicide. The judge of his province acquitted him, but fearing that +he might again be arrested on the same charge, he came up to Manila with me to procure a ratification of the sentence in the +Supreme Court. The legal expenses were so enormous that he was compelled to fully mortgage his plantation. Weeks passed, and +having spent all his money without getting justice, I lent his notary £40 to assist in bringing the case to an end. The planter +returned to Negros apparently satisfied that he would be troubled no further, but later on, the newly-appointed judge in that +Island, whilst prospecting for fees by turning up old cases, unfortunately came across this one, and my planter acquaintance +was sentenced to eight yearsʼ imprisonment, although the family lawyer, proceeding on the same shifty lines, still hoped to +find defects in the sentence in order to reverse it in favour of his client. + +</p> +<p>Availing oneʼs self of the dilatoriness of the Spanish law, it was possible for a man to occupy a house, pay no rent, and +refuse to quit on legal grounds during a couple of years or more. A person who had not a cent to lose could persecute another +of means by a trumped-up accusation until he was ruined, by an “<i lang="es">informacion de pobreza</i>”—a <a id="d0e9012"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e9012">240</a>]</span>declaration of poverty—which enabled the persecutor to keep the case going as long as he chose without needing money for fees.<a id="d0e9014src" href="#d0e9014" class="noteref">4</a> A case of this kind was often started at the instigation of a native lawyer. When it had gone on for a certain time, the +prosecutorʼs adviser would propose an “extra-judicial arrangement,” to extort costs from the wearied and browbeaten defendant. + +</p> +<p>About the year 1886 there was a <i>cause célèbre</i>, the parties being the firm of Jurado & Co. <i>versus</i> the Hong-Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation. The Bank had agreed to make advances on goods to be imported by the firm +in exchange for the firmʼs acceptances. The agreement was subject to six monthsʼ notice from the Bank. In due course the Bank +had reason to doubt the genuineness of certain documents. Mr. Jurado was imprisoned, but shortly released on bail. He was +dismissed from his official post of second chief of Telegraphs, worth ₱4,000 a year. Goods, as they arrived for his firm, +were stored pending litigation, and deteriorated to only a fraction of their original value. His firm was forced by these +circumstances into liquidation, and Mr. Jurado sued the Bank for damages. The case was open for several years, during which +time the Bank coffers were once sealed by judicial warrant, a sum of cash was actually transported from the Bank premises, +and the manager was nominally arrested, but really a prisoner on parole in his house. Several sentences of the Court were +given in favour of each party. Years after this they were all quashed on appeal to Madrid. Mr. Jurado went to Spain to fight +his case, and in 1891 I accidentally met him and his brother (a lawyer) in the street in Madrid. The brother told me the claim +against the Bank then amounted to ₱935,000, and judgement for that sum would be given within a fortnight. Still, years after +that, when I was again in Manila, the case was yet pending, and another onslaught was made on the Bank. The Court called on +the manager to deliver up the funds of the Bank, and on his refusal to do so a mechanic was sent there to open the safes, +but he laboured in vain for a week. Then a syndicate of Philippine capitalists was formed to fleece the Bank, one of its most +energetic members being a native private banker in Manila. Whilst the case was in its first stages I happened to be discussing +it at a shop in the <i>Escolta</i> when one of the partners, a Spaniard, asked me if I would like to see with my own eyes the contending lawyers putting their +heads together over the matter. “If so,” said he, “you have only to go through my shop and up the winding back staircase, +from the landing of which you can see them any day you like at one oʼclock.” I accepted his invitation, and there, indeed, +were the rival advocates laughing, gesticulating, and <a id="d0e9034"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e9034">241</a>]</span>presumably cogitating how they could plunder the litigant who had most money to spend. At one stage of the proceedings the +Bank specially retained a Spanish lawyer of great local repute, who went to Madrid to push the case. Later on Mr. Francis, +Q.C., was sent over to Manila from Hong-Kong to advise the Bank. The Prime Minister was appealed to and the good offices of +our Ambassador in Madrid were solicited. For a long time the Bank was placed in a most awkward legal dilemma. The other side +contended that the Bank could not be heard, or appear for itself or by proxy, on the ground that under its own charter it +had no right to be established in Manila; that, in view of the terms of that charter, it had never been legally registered +as a Bank in Manila, and that it had no legal existence in the Philippines. This was merely a technical quibble. Several times +when the case was supposed to be finally settled, it was again re-opened. Happily it may now be regarded as closed for ever. + +</p> +<p>A great many well-to-do natives have a mania for seeing their sons launched into the “learned professions”; hence there was +a mob of native doctors who made a scanty living, and a swarm of half-lawyers, popularly called “abogadillos,” who were a +pest to the Colony. Up to the beginning of the 18th century the offices of solicitors and notaries were filled from Mexico, +where the licences to practise in Manila were publicly sold. After that period the colleges and the university issued licences +to natives, thus creating a class of native pettifogging advocates who stirred up strife to make cases, for this purpose availing +themselves of the intricacies of the law. + +</p> +<p>The Spanish-Philippine <i>Criminal Law Procedure</i> was briefly as follows:—(1) The Judge of Instruction took the <i>sumaria</i>, i.e., the inquiry into whether a crime had been committed, and, if so, who was the presumptive culprit. It was his duty +to find the facts and sift the case. In a light case he could order the immediate arrest of the presumptive delinquent; in +a grave case he would remit it. (2) In the Court of First Instance the verbal evidence was heard and sifted, the <i>fiscal</i>, or prosecuting attorney, expressing his opinion to the judge. The judge would then qualify the crime, and decide who was +the presumptive culprit. Then the defence began, and when this was exhausted the judge would give his opinion. This court +could not acquit or condemn the accused. The opinion on the <i>sumaria</i> was merely advisory, and not a sentence. This inquiry was called the “vista”; it was not in reality a trial, as the defendant +was not allowed to cross-examine; but, on the other hand, in theory, he was not called upon to prove his innocence before +two courts, but before the sentencing court (<i>Audiencia</i>) only. The case would then be remitted with the <i>sumaria</i>, and the opinion of the Court of First Instance, to the <i>Audiencia</i>, or Supreme Court, for review of errors of law, but not of facts which remained. The <i>Audiencia</i> did not call for testimony, but, if new facts were produced, it would remit back the <a id="d0e9064"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e9064">242</a>]</span><i>sumaria</i> to the lower court, with the new written testimony added to the <i>autos</i> (documents in the case). These new witnesses were never confronted with the accused, and might never be seen by him, and +were not cross-examined. If no new facts were elicited, the record of the lower court would be accepted by the <i>Audiencia</i>, errors of law being the only point at issue, and this court might at once pass sentence. In practice the <i>Audiencia</i> usually treated the finding of the lower court as sentence (not merely opinion), and confirmed it, if no new testimony were +produced and there were no errors of law. But, although the opinion of the lower court might be practically an acquittal, +the <i>Audiencia</i> might find errors of law, thus placing the accused twice in jeopardy. If the case were remitted back, in view of new testimony, +it finally returned to the <i>Audiencia</i> for decision, nine judges being required to give their opinion in a grave case, so that if the Court of First Instance and +five judges of the <i>Audiencia</i> found the accused guilty, there was a majority against him. The sentencing court was always the <i>Audiencia</i>. If the sentence were against the accused, a final appeal could be made, by “writ of error,” to the Supreme Court of Spain, +whose decision, however, rested not on facts, but on errors of law. + +</p> +<p>The (American) Insular Government tacitly admitted that the Spanish written law was excellent, notwithstanding its fulfilment +being dilatory. The Spanish Penal Code has been adopted in its general application, but a new code, based on it, was in course +of compilation in 1904. The application of the Spanish Code occasionally evolves some curious issues, showing its variance +with fundamental American law. For instance, in September, 1905, a native adulteress having been found by her husband <i>in flagrante delicto</i>, he stabbed her to death. The Spanish law sustains the husbandʼs right to slay his faithless consort and her paramour, in +such circumstances (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e3293">80</a>), but provides that the lawful slayer shall be banished from the country. The principle of this law is based on Roman law, +human instinctive reasoning, and the spirit of the law among the Latin nations of Europe. American law assumes this natural +act of the husband to be a crime, but whilst admitting the validity of the Spanish Code in these Islands, the American bench +was puzzled to decide what punishment could be inflicted if the arraigned husband committed contempt of court by thereafter +returning to his native land. + +<a id="d0e9100"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e9100">243</a>]</span></p> +<div class="footnotes"> +<hr class="fnsep"> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e8054" href="#d0e8054src" class="noteref">1</a></span> This was not included in Army Estimates, but in Civil Government. Officers from Captain (inclusive) upwards “In expectation +of Service” and “In excess of Active Service requirements,” received only four-fifths of ordinary pay. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e8249" href="#d0e8249src" class="noteref">2</a></span> In 1888 the “Kingʼs Regiment” was divided into two regiments, under new denominations, viz.:—“Castillo, No. 1” (April 3), +and “España, No. 1” (June 18). +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e8932" href="#d0e8932src" class="noteref">3</a></span> This gentleman is at present residing in the county of Essex, England. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e9014" href="#d0e9014src" class="noteref">4</a></span> Under British law, a litigant is not allowed to bring and conduct an action <i lang="la">in formá pauperis</i> until it is proved that he is not worth £5 after his debts are paid; and, moreover, he must obtain a certificate from a barrister +that he has <i>good cause of action</i>. +</p> +</div> +</div> +<div id="d0e9101" class="div1"> +<h2 class="normal">Trade of the Islands</h2> +<h2 class="normal">Its Early History</h2> +<p>From within a year after the foundation of the Colony up to the second decade of last century direct communication with Mexico +was maintained by the State galleons, termed the <i>Naos de Acapulco</i>. The first sailings of the galleons were to Navidad, but for over two centuries Acapulco was the port of destination on the +Mexican side, and this inter-communication with New Spain only ceased a few years before that Colony threw off its allegiance +to the mother country. But it was not alone the troubled state of political affairs which brought about the discontinuance +of the galleonsʼ voyages, although the subsequent secession of Mexico would have produced this effect. The expense of this +means of intercourse was found to be bearing too heavily upon the scanty resources of the Exchequer, for the condition of +Spainʼs finances had never, at any period, been so lamentable. + +</p> +<p>The Commander of the State <i>Nao</i> had the title of General, with a salary of ₱40,000 per annum. The chief officer received ₱25,000 a year. The quarter-master +was remunerated with 9 per cent, on the value of the merchandise shipped, and this amounted to a very considerable sum per +voyage. + +</p> +<p>The last State galleon left Manila for Mexico in 1811, and the last sailing from Acapulco for Manila was in 1815. + +</p> +<p>These ships are described as having been short fore and aft, but of great beam, light draught, and, when afloat, had a half-moon +appearance, being considerably elevated at bows and stern. They were of 1,500 tons burden, had four decks, and carried guns. + +</p> +<p></p> +<div id="d0e9121" class="figure"><img border="0" src="images/p244-4.jpg" alt="A Spanish-Mexican Galleon" width="209" height="320"><p class="figureHead">A Spanish-Mexican Galleon</p> +</div><p> + +</p> +<p>The Gov.-General, the clergy, the civil functionaries, troops, prisoners, and occasionally private persons, took passage in +these ships to and from the Philippines. It was practically the Spanish Mail. + +</p> +<p></p> +<div id="d0e9128" class="figure"><img border="0" src="images/p244-2.jpg" alt="A Canoe" width="512" height="166"><p class="figureHead">A Canoe</p> +</div><p> + +</p> +<p>The Colony had no coin of its own.<a id="d0e9134src" href="#d0e9134" class="noteref">1</a> It was simply a dependency <a id="d0e9146"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e9146">244</a>]</span>of Mexico; and all that it brought in tribute and taxes to its Royal Treasury belonged to the Crown, and was at the Kingʼs +disposal. For many years these payments were made wholly—and afterwards partially—in kind, and were kept in the Royal Stores. +As the junks from China arrived each spring, this colonial produce belonging to the Crown was bartered for Chinese wares and +manufactures. These goods, packed in precisely 1,500 bales, each of exactly the same size, constituted the official cargo, +and were remitted to Mexico by the annual galleon. The surplus space in the ship was at the disposal of a few chosen merchants +who formed the “<i lang="es">Consulado</i>,”—a trading ring which required each member to have resided in the Colony a stipulated number of years, and to be possessed +of at least eight thousand pesos. + +</p> +<p></p> +<div id="d0e9152" class="figure"><img border="0" src="images/p244-3.jpg" alt="A Casco (Sailing-barge)" width="512" height="348"><p class="figureHead">A Casco (Sailing-barge)</p> +</div><p> + +</p> +<p>For the support of the Philippine administration Mexico remitted back to Manila, on the return of the galleon, a certain percentage +of the realized value of the above-mentioned official cargo, but seeing that in any case—whether the Philippine Treasury were +flourishing or not—a certain sum was absolutely necessary for the maintenance of the Colony, this remittance, known as the +“<i lang="es">Real Situado</i>,” or royal subsidy, was, from time to time, fixed.<a id="d0e9161src" href="#d0e9161" class="noteref">2</a> + +</p> +<p></p> +<div id="d0e9167" class="figure"><img border="0" src="images/p244-1.jpg" alt="A Prahu (Sailing-canoe)" width="320" height="341"><p class="figureHead">A Prahu (Sailing-canoe)</p> +</div><p> + +</p> +<p>The Philippine Colony was therefore nominally self-supporting, and the <i>Situado</i> was only a guaranteed income, to be covered, as far as it could be, by shipments of foreign bartered manufactures and local +produce to Mexico. But, as a matter of fact, the Mexican subsidy seldom, if ever, was so covered. + +</p> +<p>By Royal Decree of June 6, 1665, the Mexican subsidy to the Philippines was fixed at ₱2,500,000, of which ₱2,000,000 was remitted +in coin and ₱500,000 in merchandise for the Royal Stores. Against this was remitted value in goods (Philippine taxes and tribute) +₱ 176,101.40 so that the net Subsidy, or donation, from Mexico was ₱ 2,323,898.60. + +</p> +<p>Hence, in the course of time, coin—Mexican dollars called <i>pesos</i>—found its way in large quantities to the Philippines, and thence to China. + +</p> +<p>The yearly value of the merchantsʼ shipments was first limited to ₱250,000, whilst the return trade could not exceed ₱500,000 +in coin or stores, and this was on the supposition that 100 per cent. profit would be realized on the sales in Mexico. + +</p> +<p>The allotment of surplus freight-room in the galleon was regulated by the issue of <i>boletas</i>—documents which, during a long period, served as paper money in fact, for the holders were entitled to use them for shipping +goods, or they could transfer them to others who wished to do so. The demand for freight was far greater than the carrying +power provided. Shipping warrants were delivered gratis to the members of <a id="d0e9190"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e9190">245</a>]</span>the <i lang="es">Consulado</i>, to certain ecclesiastics, and others. Indeed, it is asserted by some writers that the Governorʼs favourites were served +with preference, to the prejudice of legitimate trade. + +</p> +<p>The Spaniards were not allowed to go to China to fetch merchandise for transhipment, but they could freely buy what was brought +by the Chinese. Indian and Persian goods uninterruptedly found their way to Manila. Spanish goods came exclusively <i>viâ</i> Mexico. + +</p> +<p>The mail galleon usually sailed in the month of July in each year, and the voyage occupied about five months. Very strict +regulations were laid down regarding the course to be steered, but many calamities befell the ships, which were not unfrequently +lost through the incapacity of the officers who had procured their appointments by favour. For a century and a half there +was practically no competition. All was arranged beforehand as to shape, quantity, size, etc., of each bale. There was, however, +a deal of trickery practised respecting the declared values, and the <i>boletas</i> were often quoted at high prices. Even the selling-price of the goods sent to Mexico was a preconcerted matter. + +</p> +<p>The day of the departure of the galleon or its arrival with a couple of millions of pesos or more,<a id="d0e9207src" href="#d0e9207" class="noteref">3</a> and new faces, was naturally one of rejoicing—it was almost the event of the year. A <i>Te Deum</i> was chanted in the churches, the bells tolled, and musicians perambulated the streets, which were illuminated and draped +with bunting. + +</p> +<p>So far as commercial affairs were concerned, the Philippine merchants passed very easy lives in those palmy days. One, sometimes +two, days in the week were set down in the calendar as Saint-days to be strictly observed; hence an active business life would +have been incompatible with the exactions of religion. The only misadventure they had to fear was the loss of the galleon. +Market fluctuations were unknown. During the absence of the galleon, there was nothing for the merchants to do but to await +the arrival of the Chinese junks in the months of March, April, and May, and prepare their bales. For a century and a half +this sort of trading was lucrative; it required no smartness, no spirit of enterprise or special tact. Shippers were busy +for only three months in the year, and during the remaining nine months they could enjoy life as they thought fit—cut off +from the rest of the world. + +</p> +<p>Some there were who, without means of their own, speculated with the <i>Obras Pias</i>funds, lent at interest.<a id="d0e9220src" href="#d0e9220" class="noteref">4</a> +<a id="d0e9242"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e9242">246</a>]</span></p> +<p>The Philippine merchants often lost the value of their shipments in the State galleons by shipwreck or seizure by enemies. +Mexico frequently lost the Philippine remittances to her, and the specie she sent to the Philippines. The State galleon made +only one voyage a year there and back, if all went well; but if it were lost, the shipment had to be renewed, and it often +happened that several galleons were seized in a year by Spainʼs enemies. + +</p> +<p>The abortive attempt to annex the British Isles to the Spanish Crown in 1588 brought about the collapse of Spainʼs naval supremacy, +enabling English mariners to play havoc with her galleons from America. The Philippine Islands, as a colony, had at that date +only just come into existence, but during the series of Anglo-Spanish wars which preceded the “Family Compact” (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e3388">87</a>), Philippine-Mexican galleons laden with treasure became the prey of British commanders, notably Admiral Anson. The coasts +were beset by Ansonʼs squadron. He was the terror of the Philippines from the year 1743. His exploits gave rise to consternation, +and numerous councils were held to decide what to do to get rid of him. The captured galleon <i>Pilar</i> gave one-and-a-half million pesos to the enemy—the <i>Covadonga</i> was an immense prize. All over the Islands the Spaniards were on the alert for the dreaded foe; every provincial Governor +sent look-outs to high promontories with orders to signal by beacons if the daring Britisherʼs ships were seen hovering about, +whilst, in Manila, the citizens were forewarned that, at any moment, they might be called upon to repel the enemy. + +</p> +<p>Not only in fleets of gold-laden vessels did Spain and her dependencies lose immense wealth through her hostile ambition, +for in view of the restrictions on Philippine trade, and the enormous profits accruing to the Spanish merchants on their shipments, +British, Dutch, French, and Danish traders competed with them. Shippers of these nationalities bought goods in Canton, where +they established their own factories, or collecting-stores. In 1731 over three millions of Mexican dollars (pesos) were taken +there for making purchases, and these foreign ships landed the stuffs, etc., in contraband at the American ports, where <a id="d0e9261"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e9261">247</a>]</span>Spaniards themselves co-operated in the trade which their absolute King declared illicit, whilst the traders considered it +a natural right. + +</p> +<p>As the Southern (Peninsula) Spanish merchants were helpless to stay this competition, which greatly affected their profits, +their rancorous greed made them clamour against the Philippine trade, to which they chose to attribute their misfortunes, +and the King was petitioned to curtail the commerce of this Colony with Mexico for their exclusive benefit. But it was not +Spanish home trade alone which suffered: Acapulco was so beset by smugglers, whose merchandise, surreptitiously introduced, +found its way to Mexico City, that, in latter days, the Philippine galleonsʼ cargoes did not always find a market. Moreover, +all kinds of frauds were practised about this time in the quality of the goods baled for shipment, and the bad results revealed +themselves on the Mexican side. The shippers, unwisely, thought it possible to deceive the Mexicans by sending them inferior +articles at old prices; hence their disasters became partly due to “the vaulting ambition that oʼerleaps itself and falls +on tʼother side.” The Governor commissioned four of the most respectable Manila traders to inspect the sorting and classification +of the goods shipped. These citizens distinguished themselves so highly, to their own advantage, that the Governor had to +suppress the commission and abandon the control, in despair of finding honest colleagues. Besides this fraud, contraband goods +were taken to Acapulco in the galleons themselves, hidden in water-jars. + +</p> +<p>In the time of Governor Pedro de Arandia (1754–59) the 100 per cent. fixed profit was no longer possible. Merchants came down +to Acapulco and forced the market, by waiting until the ships were obliged to catch the monsoon back, or lie up for another +season, so that often the goods had to be sold for cost, or a little over. In 1754 returns were so reduced that the <i lang="es">Consulado</i> was owing to the <i lang="es">Obras Pias</i> over ₱300,000, and to the <i lang="es">Casa Misericordia</i> ₱147,000, without any hope of repayment. The <i>Casa Misericordia</i> lent money at 40 per cent., then at 35 per cent., and in 1755 at 20 per cent. interest, but the state of trade made capital +hardly acceptable even at this last rate. + +</p> +<p>Early in the 18th century the Cadiz merchants, jealous of the Philippine shippers, protested that the home trade was much +injured by the cargoes carried to Mexico in Philippine bottoms. So effectually did they influence the King in their favour +that he issued a decree prohibiting the trade between China and the Philippines in all woven stuffs, skein and woven silk +and clothing, except the finest linen. Manila imports from China were thereby limited to fine linen, porcelain, wax, pepper, +cinnamon, and cloves. At the expiration of six months after the proclamation of the decree, any remaining stocks of the proscribed +articles were to be burnt! Thenceforth trade in such prohibited articles was to be considered illicit, and such goods arriving +in Mexico after that date were to be confiscated. +<a id="d0e9281"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e9281">248</a>]</span></p> +<p>By Royal Decree dated October 27, 1720, and published in Mexico by the Viceroy on February 15, 1724, the following was enacted, +viz.:—That in future there should be two galleons per annum, instead of one as heretofore, carrying merchandise to Acapulco, +each to be of 500 tons. That the merchandise sent in the two was to be of the value of ₱300,000 precisely in gold, cinnamon, +wax, porcelain, cloves, pepper, etc., but not silks, or stuffs of any kind containing silk, under pain of confiscation, to +be allotted in three equal parts, namely, to the Fiscal officer, the Judge intervening, and the informer, and perpetual banishment +from the Indies of all persons concerned in the shipment. That the number of Manila merchants was to be fixed, and any one +not included in that number was to be prohibited from trading. No ecclesiastic, or professor of religion, or foreigner could +be included in the elected few, whose rights to ship were non-transferable. That if the proceeds of the sale happened to exceed +the fixed sum of ₱600,000, on account of market prices being higher than was anticipated, only that amount could be brought +back in money, and the difference, or excess, in goods. [If it turned out to be less than that amount, the difference could +not be remitted in cash by Mexican merchants for further purchases, the spirit of the decree being to curtail the supply of +goods from this Colony to Mexico, for the benefit of the Spanish home traders. The infringer of this regulation was subject +to the penalties of confiscation and two yearsʼ banishment from the Indies.] + +</p> +<p>By Royal Decree of the year 1726, received and published in Manila on August 9, 1727, the following regulations were made +known, viz.:—That the prohibition relating to silk and all-silk goods was revoked. That only one galleon was to be sent each +year (instead of two) as formerly. That the prohibition on clothing containing some silk, and a few other articles, was maintained. +That for five years certain stuffs of fine linen were permitted to be shipped, to the limit of 4,000 pieces per annum, precisely +in boxes containing each 500 pieces. + +</p> +<p>The Southern Spanish traders in 1729 petitioned the King against the Philippine trade in woven goods, and protested against +the five-yearsʼ permission granted in the above decree of 1726, declaring that it would bring about the total ruin of the +Spanish weaving industry, and that the galleons, on their return to the Philippines, instead of loading Spanish manufactures, +took back specie for the continuance of their traffic to the extent of three or four millions of pesos each year. The King, +however, refused to modify the decree of 1726 until the five years had expired, after which time the Governor was ordered +to load the galleons according to the former decree of 1720. + +</p> +<p>The Manila merchants were in great excitement. The Governor, under pretext that the original Royal Decree ought to have been +transmitted direct to the Philippines and not merely communicated by the Mexican Viceroy, agreed to “obey and not fulfil” +its conditions. +<a id="d0e9290"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e9290">249</a>]</span></p> +<p>From the year 1720, during the period of prohibitions, the Royal Treasury lost about ₱50,000 per annum, and many of the taxes +were not recovered in full. Besides this, the donations to Government by the citizens, which sometimes had amounted to ₱40,000 +in one year, ceased. A double loss was also caused to Mexico, for the people there had to pay much higher prices for their +stuffs supplied by Spanish (home) monopolists, whilst Mexican coffers were being drained to make good the deficits in the +Philippine Treasury. The Manila merchants were terribly alarmed, and meeting after meeting was held. A Congress of Government +officials and priests was convened, and each priest was asked to express his opinion on the state of trade. + +</p> +<p>Commercial depression in the Philippines had never been so marked, and the position of affairs was made known to the King +in a petition, which elicited the Royal Decree dated April 8, 1734. It provided that the value of exports should thenceforth +not exceed ₱500,000, and the amount permitted to return was also raised to ₱1,000,000 (always on the supposition that 100 +per cent. over cost laid down would be realized). The dues and taxes paid in Acapulco on arrival, and the dues paid in Manila +on starting, amounted to 17 per cent. of the million expected to return.<a id="d0e9295src" href="#d0e9295" class="noteref">5</a> This covered the whole cost of maintenance of ships, salaries, freight, and charges of all kinds which were paid by Government +in the first instance, and then recovered from the <i lang="es">Consulado</i>. + +</p> +<p>The fixed number of merchants was to be decided by the merchants themselves without Government intervention. Licence was granted +to allow those of Cavite to be of the number, and both Spaniards and natives were eligible. Military and other professional +men, except ecclesiastics, could thenceforth be of the number. Foreigners were strictly excluded. The right to ship (<i lang="es">boleta</i>) was not to be transferable, except to <i>poor widows</i>. A sworn invoice of the shipment was to be sent to the royal officials and magistrate of the Supreme Court of Mexico for +the value to be verified. The official in charge, or supercargo, was ordered to make a book containing a list of the goods +and their respective owners, and to hand this to the commander of the fortress in Acapulco, with a copy of the same for the +Viceroy. The Viceroy was to send his copy to the Audit Office to be again copied, and the last copy was to be forwarded to +the Royal Indian Council. +<a id="d0e9336"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e9336">250</a>]</span></p> +<p>Every soldier, sailor, and officer was at liberty to disembark with a box containing goods of which the Philippine value should +not exceed ₱30, in addition to his private effects. All hidden goods were to be confiscated, one-half to the Royal Treasury, +one-fourth to the Judge intervening, and one-fourth to the informer; but, if such confiscated goods amounted to ₱50,000 in +value, the Viceroy and Mexican Council were to determine the sum to be awarded to the Judge and the informer. + +</p> +<p>If the shipment met a good market and realized more than 1,000,000 pesos, only 1,000,000 could be remitted in money, and the +excess in duty-paid Mexican merchandise. If the shipment failed to fetch 1,000,000, the difference could not be sent in money +for making new purchases. (The same restriction as in the decree of 1720.) + +</p> +<p>The object of these measures was to prevent Mexicans supplying trading capital to the Philippines instead of purchasing Peninsula +manufactures. It was especially enacted that all goods sent to Mexico from the Philippines should have been purchased with +the capital of the Philippine shippers, and be their exclusive property without lien. If it were discovered that on the return +journey of the galleon merchandise was carried to the Philippines belonging to the Mexicans, it was to be confiscated, and +a fine imposed on the interested parties of three times the value, payable to the Royal Treasury, on the first conviction. +The second conviction entailed confiscation of all the culpritsʼ goods and banishment from Mexico for 10 years. + +</p> +<p>The weights and measures of the goods shipped were to be Philippine, and, above all, wax was to be sent in pieces of precisely +the same weight and size as by custom established. + +</p> +<p>The Council for freight allotment in Manila was to comprise the Governor, the senior Magistrate, and, failing this latter, +the Minister of the Supreme Court next below him; also the Archbishop, or in his stead the Dean of the Cathedral; an ordinary +Judge, a Municipal Councillor, and <i>one merchant</i> as Commissioner in representation of the eight who formed the <i lang="es">Consulado</i> of merchants. + +</p> +<p>The expulsion of the non-christian Chinese in 1755 (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e3762">111</a>) caused a deficit in the taxes of ₱30,000 per annum. The only exports of Philippine produce at this date were cacao, sugar, +wax, and sapanwood. Trade, and consequently the Treasury, were in a deplorable state. To remedy matters, and to make up the +above ₱30,000, the Government proposed to levy an export duty which was to be applied to the cost of armaments fitted out +against pirates. Before the tax was approved of by the King some friars loaded a vessel with export merchandise, and absolutely +refused to pay the impost, alleging immunity. The Governor argued that there could be no religious immunity in trade concerns. +The friars appealed to Spain, and the tax was disapproved of; meantime, most of the goods and the vessel itself rotted pending +the solution of the question by the Royal Indian Council. +<a id="d0e9361"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e9361">251</a>]</span></p> +<p>There have been three or four periods during which no galleon arrived at the Philippines for two or three consecutive years, +and coin became very scarce, giving rise to rebellion on the part of the Chinese and misery to the Filipinos. After the capture +of the <i lang="es">Covadonga</i> by the British, six years elapsed before a galleon brought the subsidy; then the <i lang="es">Rosario</i> arrived with 5,000 gold ounces (nominally ₱80,000). + +</p> +<p>However, besides the subsidy, the Colony had certain other sources of public revenue, as will be seen by the following:— + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Philippine Budget for the Year 1757</span> + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top"><span class="smallcaps">Income</span>. +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i> </i></td> +<td valign="top"><i>₱ cts.</i></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Stamped Paper </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">12,199 87½</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Port and Anchorage Dues </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">25,938 00</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Sale of Offices, such as Notaries, Public Scribes, Secretaryships, etc. </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">5,839 12½</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Offices hired out </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">4,718 75</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Taxes farmed out </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">28,500 00</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Excise duties </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">4,195 00</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Sale of <i>Encomiendas</i>, and 22 provincial govts. hired out +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">263,588 00</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Divers taxes, fines, pardons, etc. </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">18,156 00</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Tribute, direct tax </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">4,477 00</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Sudsidy from Mexico </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">250,000 00</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Deficit </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">79,844 00 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">₱ 697,455 75</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top"><span class="smallcaps">Expenditure</span>. +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i> </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>₱ cts.</i></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Supreme Court </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">34,219 75</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Treasury and Audit Office </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">12,092 00</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">University </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">800 00</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Cost of the annual Galleon </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">23,465 00</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Clergy </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">103,751 00</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Land and sea forces all over the Philippines including offensive and defensive operations against Moros—Staff and Material + +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">312,864 00</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Salaries, Hospital and Divers Expenses </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">70,158 00</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Remittance in Merchandise to Mexico on account of the Subsidy </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">140,106 00 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">₱ 697,455 75</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + + + +</p> +<p>When the merchant citizens of Manila were in clover, they made donations to the Government to cover the deficits, and loans +were raised amongst them to defray extraordinary disbursements, such as expeditions against the Mahometans, etc. In the good +years, too, the valuation of the merchandise shipped and the corresponding returns were underrated in the sworn declarations, +so that an immensely profitable trade was done on a larger scale than was legally permitted. Between 1754 and 1759, in view +of the reduced profits, due to the circumstances already mentioned, the Manila merchants prayed the King for a reduction of +the royal dues, which had been originally fixed on the basis of the gross returns being equal to double the cost of the merchandise +laid down in Acapulco. To meet the case, another Royal Decree was issued confirming the fixed rate of royal dues and disbursements, +but in compensation the cargo was thenceforth permitted to include 4,000 pieces of fine linen, without restriction as to measure +or value; the sworn value was abolished, and the maximum return value of the whole shipment was raised to one-and-a-half millions +of pesos. Hence the total dues and disbursements became equal to 11⅓ per cent. instead of 17 per cent., as heretofore, on +the anticipated return value. + +</p> +<p>In 1763 the Subsidy, together with the <i lang="es">Consulado</i> shippersʼ returns, <a id="d0e9515"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e9515">252</a>]</span>amounted in one voyage to two-and-a-half millions of pesos (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e3400">88</a>). After the independence of Mexico (1819), tribute in kind (tobacco) was, until recently, shipped direct to Spain, and Peninsula +coin began to circulate in these Islands (<i>vide</i> Currency). + +</p> +<p>Consequent on the banishment of the non-christian Chinese in 1755, trade became stagnant. The Philippines now experienced +what Spain had felt since the reign of Phillip III., when the expulsion of 900,000 Moorish agriculturists and artisans crippled +her home industries, which needed a century and a half to revive. The Acapulco trade was fast on the wane, and the Manila +Spanish merchants were anxious to get the local trade into their own hands. Every Chinese shop was closed by Government order, +and a joint-stock trading company of Spaniards and half-breeds was formed with a capital of ₱76,500, in shares of ₱500 each. +Stores were opened in the business quarter, each under the control of two Spaniards or half-breeds, the total number of shopmen +being 21. The object of the company was to purchase clothing and staple goods of all kinds required in the Islands, and to +sell the same at 30 per cent. over cost price. Out of the 30 per cent. were to be paid an 8 per cent. tax, a dividend of 10 +per cent. per annum to the shareholders, and the remainder was to cover salaries and form a reserve fund for new investments. +The company found it impossible to make the same bargains with the Chinese sellers as the Chinese buyers had done, and a large +portion of the capital was soon lost. The funds at that date in the <i lang="es">Obras Pias</i> amounted to ₱159,000, and the trustees were applied to by the company for financial support, which they refused. The Governor +was petitioned; theologians and magistrates were consulted on the subject. The theological objections were overruled by the +judicial arguments, and the Governor ordered that ₱130,000 of the <i lang="es">Obras Pias</i> funds should be loaned to the company on debentures; nevertheless, within a year the company failed. + +</p> +<p>A commercial company, known as the “<i lang="es">Compañia Guipuzcoana de Carácas</i>,” was then created under royal sanction, and obtained certain privileges. During the term of its existence, it almost monopolized +the Philippine-American trade, which was yet carried on exclusively in the State galleons. On the expiration of its charter, +about the year 1783, a petition was presented to the Home Government, praying for a renewal of monopolies and privileges in +favour of a new trading corporation, to be founded on a modified basis. Consequently, a charter (<i lang="es">Real cédula</i>) was granted on March 10, 1785, to a company, bearing the style and title of the “<i lang="es">Real Compañia de Filipinas</i>.” Its capital was ₱8,000,000, in 32,000 shares of ₱250 each. King Charles III. took up 4,000 shares; another 3,000 shares +were reserved for the friars and the Manila Spanish or native residents, and the balance was allotted in the Peninsula. + +</p> +<p>The defunct company had engaged solely in the American trade, <a id="d0e9547"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e9547">253</a>]</span>employing the galleons; its successor left that sphere of commerce and proposed to trade with the East and Europe. + +</p> +<p>”<a id="d0e9551src" href="#d0e9551" class="noteref">6</a>To the ʼ<i lang="es">Real Compañia de Filipinas</i>ʼ was conceded the exclusive privilege of trade between Spain and the Archipelago, with the exception of the traffic between +Manila and Acapulco. Its ships could fly the Royal Standard, with a signal to distinguish them from war-vessels. It was allowed +two years, counting from the date of charter, to acquire foreign-built vessels and register them under the Spanish flag, free +of fees. It could import, duty free, any goods for the fitting out of its ships, or shipsʼ use. It could take into its service +royal naval officers, and, whilst these were so employed, their seniority would continue to count, and in all respects they +would enjoy the same rights as if they were serving in the navy. It could engage foreign sailors and officers, always provided +that the captain and chief officer were Spaniards. All existing Royal Decrees and Orders, forbidding the importation into +the Peninsula of stuffs and manufactured articles from India, China, and Japan were abrogated in favour of this company. Philippine +produce, too, shipped to Spain by the company, could enter duty free. The prohibition on direct traffic with China and India +was thenceforth abolished in favour of all Manila merchants, and the companyʼs ships in particular could call at Chinese ports. +The company undertook to support Philippine agriculture, and to spend, with this object, 4 per cent, of its nett profits.” + +</p> +<p>In order to protect the companyʼs interests, foreign ships were not allowed to bring goods from Europe to the Philippines, +although they could land Chinese and Indian wares. + +</p> +<p>By the Treaties of Tordesillas and Antwerp (q.v.), the Spaniards had agreed that to reach their Oriental possessions they +would take only the Western route, which would be <i>viá</i> Mexico or round Cape Horn. These treaties, however, were virtually quashed by King Charles III. on the establishment of the +“<i lang="es">Real Compañia de Filipinas</i>.” Holland only lodged a nominal protest when the companyʼs ships were authorized to sail to the Philippines <i>viá</i> the Cape of Good Hope, for the Spaniardsʼ ability to compete had, meanwhile, vastly diminished. + +</p> +<p>With such important immunities, and the credit which ought to have been procurable by a company with ₱8,000,000 paid-up capital, +its operations might have been relatively vast. However, its balance sheet, closed to October 31, 1790 (five-and-a-half years +after it started), shows the total nominal assets to be only ₱10,700,194, largely in unrecoverable advances to tillers. The +working account is not set out. Although it was never, in itself, a flourishing concern, it brought immense benefit to the +Philippines (at the expense of its shareholders) by opening the way for the Colonyʼs future commercial prosperity. This advantage +operated in two ways. (1) It gave great impulse to agriculture, which <a id="d0e9575"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e9575">254</a>]</span>thenceforth began to make important strides. By large sums of money, distributed in anticipation of the 4 per cent, on nett +profit, and expended in the rural districts, it imparted life, vigour and development to those germs of husbandry—such as +the cultivation of sugar-cane, tobacco, cotton, indigo, pepper, etc.—which, for a long time had been, and to a certain extent +are still, the staple dependence of many provinces. (2) It opened the road to final extinction of all those vexatious prohibitions +of trade with the Eastern ports and the Peninsula which had checked the energy of the Manila merchants. It was the precursor +of free trade—the stepping-stone to commercial liberty in these regions. + +</p> +<p>The causes of its decline are not difficult to trace. Established as it was on a semi-official basis, all kinds of intrigues +were resorted to—all manner of favouritism was besought—to secure appointments, more or less lucrative, in the <i>Great Company</i>. Influential incapacity prevailed over knowledge and ability, and the men intrusted with the direction of the companyʼs operations +proved themselves inexperienced and quite unfit to cope with unshackled competition from the outer world. Their very exclusiveness +was an irresistible temptation to contrabandists. Manila private merchants, viewing with displeasure monopoly in any form, +lost no opportunity of putting obstacles in the way of the company. Again, the willing concurrence of native labourers in +an enterprise of magnitude was as impossible to secure then as it is now. The native had a high time at the expense of the +company, revelling in the enjoyment of cash advances, for which some gave little, others nothing. Success could only have +been achieved by forced labour, and this right was not included in the charter. + +</p> +<p>In 1825 the company was on the point of collapse, when, to support the tottering fabric, its capital was increased by ₱12,500,000 +under <i>Real Cédula</i> of that year, dated June 22. King Charles IV. took 15,772 (₱250) shares of this new issue. But nothing could save the wreck, +and finally it was decreed, by <i lang="es">Real Cédula</i> of May 28, 1830, that the privileges conceded to the “<i lang="es">Real Compañia de Filipinas</i>” had expired—and Manila was then opened to Free Trade with the whole world. It marked an epoch in Philippine affairs. + +</p> +<p>In 1820 the declared independence of Mexico, acknowledged subsequently by the European Powers, forced Spain to a decision, +and direct trade between the Philippines and the mother country became a reluctant necessity. No restrictions were placed +on the export to Spain of colonial produce, but value limitations were fixed with regard to Chinese goods. The export from +the Philippines to Acapulco, Callao, and other South American ports was limited to ₱750,000 at that date. In the same year +(1820) permission was granted for trade between Manila and the Asiatic ports. Twenty-two years afterwards one-third of all +the Manila export trade was done with China. + +</p> +<p>When the galleons fell into disuse, communication was definitely <a id="d0e9597"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e9597">255</a>]</span>established with Spain by merchant sailing ships <i>viâ</i> the Cape of Good Hope, whilst the opening of the Suez Canal (1869) brought the Philippines within 32 daysʼ journey by steamer +from Barcelona. + +</p> +<p>The voyage <i>viâ</i> the Cape of Good Hope occupied from three to six months; the sailings were less frequent than at the present day, and the +journey was invariably attended with innumerable discomforts. It was interesting to hear the few old Spanish residents, in +my time, compare their privations when they came by the Cape with the luxurious facilities of later times. What is to-day +a pleasure was then a hardship, consequently the number of Spaniards in the Islands was small; their movements were always +known. It was hardly possible for a Spaniard to acquire a sum of money and migrate secretly from one island to another, and +still less easy was it for him to leave the Colony clandestinely. + +</p> +<p>The Spaniard of that day who settled in the Colony usually became well known during the period of the service which brought +him to the Far East. If, after his retirement from public duty, on the conclusion of his tenure of office, he decided to remain +in the Colony, it was often due to his being able to count on the pecuniary support and moral protection of the priests. The +idea grew, so that needy Spaniards in the Philippines, in the course of time, came to entertain a kind of socialistic notion +that those who had means ought to aid and set up those who had nothing, without guarantee of any kind: “<i lang="es">Si hubiera quien me proteja!</i>” was the common sigh—the outcome of Cæsarism nurtured by a Government which discountenanced individual effort. Later on, +too, many natives seemed to think that the foreign firms, and others employing large capital, might well become philanthropic +institutions, paternally assisting them with unsecured capital. The natives were bred in this moral bondage: they had seen +trading companies, established under royal sanction, benefit the few and collapse; they had witnessed extensive works, undertaken +<i lang="es">por viâ de administracion</i> miscarry in their ostensible objects but prosper in their real intent, namely, the providing of berths for those who lived +by their wits. + +</p> +<p>The patriarchal system was essayed by a wealthy firm of American merchants (Russell & Sturgis) with very disastrous results +to themselves. They distributed capital all over the Colony, and the natives abused their support in a most abominable manner. +A native, alleging that he had opened up a plantation, would call on the firm and procure advances against future crops after +scant inquiry. Having once advanced, it was necessary to continue doing so to save the first loans. + +</p> +<p>Under the auspices of the late Mr. Nicholas Loney, great impulse was given to the commerce of Yloilo, and, due to his efforts, +the Island of Negros was first opened up. His memory is still revered, and he is often spoken of as the original benefactor +to the trading community of that district. Russell & Sturgis subsequently extended their operations to that locality. The +result was that they were deceived in <a id="d0e9619"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e9619">256</a>]</span>every direction by the natives, who, instead of bringing in produce to pay off advances, sent their sons to college, built +fine houses, bought pianos, jewellery, etc., and in a hundred ways satisfied their pride and love for outward show in a manner +never known before, at the expense of the American capitalists. As bankers, the firm enjoyed the unlimited confidence of those +classes who had something to lose as well as to gain; hence it is said that, the original partners having withdrawn their +money interest, the firm endeavoured to continue the business with a working capital chiefly derived from the funds deposited +by private persons at 8 per cent, per annum. All might have gone well but for the rascality of the native agriculturists, +who brought about the failure of the house in 1875 by taking loans and delivering no produce. The news amazed everybody. Trade +was, for the moment, completely paralyzed. The great firm, which for years had been the mainspring of all Philippine mercantile +enterprise, had failed! But whilst many individuals suffered (principally depositors at interest), fifty times as many families +to-day owe their financial position to the generosity of the big firm; and I could mention the names of half a dozen real-estate +owners in Yloilo Province who, having started with nothing, somehow found themselves possessing comparatively large fortunes +at the time of the liquidation. + +</p> +<p>Consequent on the smash, a reaction set in which soon proved beneficial to the Colony at large. Foreign and Spanish houses +of minor importance, which had laboured in the shade during the existence of the great firm, were now able to extend their +operations in branches of trade which had hitherto been practically monopolized. +</p> +<hr class="tb"><p> + +</p> +<p>Before Manila was opened to foreign trade, even in a restricted form, special concessions appear to have been granted to a +few traders. One writer mentions that a French mercantile house was founded in Manila many years prior to 1787, and that an +English firm obtained permission to establish itself in 1809. In 1789 a foreign ship was allowed to enter the port of Manila +and to discharge a cargo. This would appear to have been the first. In olden times the demand for ordinary foreign commodities +was supplied by the Chinese traders and a few Americans and Persians. During the latter half of the 18th century a Spanish +man-of-war occasionally arrived, bringing European manufactures for sale, and loaded a return cargo of Oriental goods. + +</p> +<p>The Philippine Islands were but little known in the foreign markets and commercial centres of Europe before the middle of +the 19th century. Notwithstanding the special trading concessions granted to one foreigner and another from the beginning +of last century, it was not until the port of Manila was unrestrictedly opened to resident foreign merchants in 1834 that +a regular export trade with the whole mercantile world gradually came into existence. +<a id="d0e9629"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e9629">257</a>]</span></p> +<p>It is said that whilst the charter of the “<i lang="es">Real Compañia de Filipinas</i>” was still in force (1785–1830) a Mr. Butler<a id="d0e9635src" href="#d0e9635" class="noteref">7</a> solicited permission to reside in and open up a trade between Manila and foreign ports; but his petition was held to be monstrous +and grievously dangerous to the political security of the Colony; hence it was rejected. The Spaniards had had very good reason +to doubt foreign intercourse after their experience of 1738, when they preferred a war with England to a gross abuse of the +<i>Asiento</i> contract entered into under the Treaty of Utrecht.<a id="d0e9641src" href="#d0e9641" class="noteref">8</a> Subsequently the American firm already mentioned, Russell & Sturgis, made a request to be allowed to trade, which, having +the support of the Gov.-General of the day, was granted; and Mr. Butler, taking advantage of this recent precedent, also succeeded +in founding a commercial house in Manila. To these foreigners is due the initiation of the traffic in those products which +became the staple trade of the Colony and paved the way for the bulk of the business being, as it is to-day, in the hands +of European and American merchants. + +</p> +<p>The distrustful sentiment of olden times (justifiable in the 18th century) pervaded the Spaniardsʼ commercial and colonial +policy up to their last day. Proposed reforms and solicitations for permission to introduce modern improvements were by no +means welcomed. In the provinces clerical opposition was often cast against liberal innovations, and in the Government bureaux +they were encompassed with obstructive formalities, objections, and delays.<a id="d0e9657src" href="#d0e9657" class="noteref">9</a> +<a id="d0e9672"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e9672">258</a>]</span></p> +<p>By Royal Ordinance of 1844 strangers were excluded from the interior; in 1857 unrepealed decrees were brought forward to urge +the prohibition of foreigners to establish themselves in the Colony; and, as late as 1886, their trading here was declared +to be “prejudicial to the material interests of the country.”<a id="d0e9675src" href="#d0e9675" class="noteref">10</a> + +</p> +<p>The support of the friars referred to in p. <a href="#d0e9597">255</a> became a thing of the past. Colonists had increased tenfold, the means of communication and of exit were too ample for the +security of the lenders, who, as members of religious communities, could not seek redress at law, and, moreover, those “lucky +hits” which were made by penniless Europeans in former times by pecuniary help “just in the nick of time” were no longer possible, +for every known channel of lucrative transaction was in time taken up by capitalists. + +</p> +<p>It was the capital brought originally to the Philippines through foreign channels which developed the modern commerce of the +Colony, and much of the present wealth of the inhabitants engaged in trade and agriculture is indirectly due to foreign enterprise. +Negros Island was entirely opened up by foreign capital. In Manila, the fathers of many of the half-castes and pure natives +who at this day figure as men of position and standing, commenced their careers as messengers, warehouse-keepers, clerks, +etc., of the foreign houses. + +</p> +<p>There were a great many well-to-do Spaniards in trade, but few whose funds on starting were brought by them from the Peninsula. +The first Spanish steamer-owner in the Colony, a baker by trade, owed his prosperity to the support of Russell & Sturgis. +One of the richest Spanish merchants (who died in 1894) once kept a little grocerʼs shop, and after the failure of Russell +& Sturgis he developed into a merchant and shipowner whose firm became, in time, the largest Spanish house operating in hemp +and other produce. + +</p> +<p>About 14 Spanish firms of a certain importance were established in Manila, Yloilo, and Cebú, in addition to the Europeans +trading here and there on the coasts of the Islands. In Manila there were (and are still) two foreign bank branches<a id="d0e9695src" href="#d0e9695" class="noteref">11</a> (one with a sub-branch in Yloilo), three bank agencies, and the Philippine private banking-house of J. M. Tuason & Co.; also +the “Banco Español-Filipino,” which was <a id="d0e9698"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e9698">259</a>]</span>instituted in 1852, with a capital of ₱400,000, in 2,000 shares of ₱200 each. The capital was subsequently increased to ₱600.000.<a id="d0e9700src" href="#d0e9700" class="noteref">12</a> Authorized by charter, it issued notes payable to bearer on demand from ₱10 upwards. The legal maximum limit of note issue +was ₱1,200,000, whilst the actual circulation was about ₱100,000 short of that figure. This bank did a very limited amount +of very secure business, and it has paid dividends of 12 to 15 per cent.; hence the shares were always at a premium. In 1888, +when 12 per cent, dividend was paid, this stock was quoted at ₱420; in 1895 it rose to ₱435. The <i lang="es">Obras Pias</i> funds (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e9190">245</a>) constituted the orginal capital of the bank. The new position of this institution, under the (American) Insular Government +since 1905, is explained in Chapter <a href="#d0e22333">xxxi</a>. + +</p> +<p>The first Philippine bank was opened in Manila by a certain Francisco Rodriguez about the year 1830. + +</p> +<p>From the conquest up to the year 1857 there was no Philippine coinage. Mexican dollars were the only currency, and in default +of subsidiary money these dollars, called <i>pesos</i>, were cut. In 1764 cut money was prohibited, and small Spanish silver and copper coins came to the Islands. In 1799 the Gov.-General +forbade the exportation of money, and fixed the peso at 8 <i>reales fuertes</i> and the <i>real</i> at 17 <i>cuartos.</i> Shortly afterwards gold came to the Islands, and was plentiful until 1882. In 1837 other copper coins came from Spain, and +the <i>real fuerte</i> was fixed at 20 <i>cuartos</i>. In 1857 the Manila mint was established, <i>pesetas</i> were introduced, five being equal to one peso, and 32 cuartos being equal to one peseta. Contemporaneously the coinage in +Spain was 34 cuartos to one peseta and 5 pesetas to one <i>duro</i>—the coin nominally equivalent to the peso—but the duro being subdivided into 20 <i>reales vellon</i>, the colonial real fuerte came to be equivalent to 2½ reales vellon. The evident intention was to have one common nominal +basis (peso and duro), but subdivided in a manner to limit the currency of the colonial coinage to its own locality. With +pesos, reales, cuartos, maravedis, and ounces of gold, bookkeeping was somewhat complicated; however, the Government accounts +were rendered easy by a decree dated January 17, 1857, which fixed pesos and cents for official reckoning. Merchants then +adopted this standard. Up to 1860 gold was so abundant that as much as 10 per cent, was paid to exchange an <i>onza</i> of gold (₱16) for silver. In 1878 gold and silver were worth their nominal relative values. Gold, however, has gradually +disappeared from the Colony, large quantities having been exported to China. In 1881 the current premium for purchasing gold +was 2 per cent., and at the beginning of 1885 as much as 10 per cent. premium was paid for Philippine gold of the Isabella +II or any previous coinage. The gold currency of Alfonso XII. (1875–85) was always of less intrinsic value than the coin of +<a id="d0e9749"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e9749">260</a>]</span>earlier date, the difference averaging about 2 per cent. At the present day gold could only be obtained in very limited quantities +at about the same rate as sight drafts on Europe. Philippine gold pieces are rare. + +</p> +<p>In 1883 Mexican dollars of a later coinage than 1877 were called in, and a term was fixed after which they would cease to +be legal tender. In 1885 decimal bronze coins were introduced. In July, 1886, a decree was published calling in all foreign +and Chinese chop dollars<a id="d0e9753src" href="#d0e9753" class="noteref">13</a> within six months, after which date the introducer of such coin into the Colony would be subject to the penalty of a fine +equal to 20 per cent. of the value imported, the obligation to immediately re-export the coin, and civil action for the misdemeanour. +At the expiration of the six months the Treasury was not in a position to effect the conversion of the foreign medium in private +hands prior to the publication of the decree. The term was extended, but in time the measure became practically void, so far +as the legal tender was concerned. However, the importation of Mexican dollars was still prohibited; but, as they remained +current in Manila at par value, whilst in Hong-Kong and Singapore they could be bought for 8 to 12 per cent, (and in 1894 25 +per cent.) less than Manila dollars, large quantities were smuggled into the Colony. It is estimated that in the year 1887 +the clandestine introduction of Mexican dollars into Manila averaged about ₱150,000 per month. I remember a Chinaman was caught +in September, 1887, with ₱164,000, imported in cases declared to contain matches. In 1890 there was a “boom” in the silver +market. Owing to the action of the American Silverites, the Washington Treasury called for a monthly supply of 4,000,000 of +silver dollars; consequently sight rate on London in Hong-Kong touched 3s. 10¼d., and in Manila rose to 3s. 10½d., but a rapid +reaction set in when the Treasury demand ceased. In 1895 we heard in Manila that the Government were about to coin Philippine +pesos and absolutely demonetize Mexicans as a medium in the Islands. But this measure was never carried out, probably because +the Government had not the necessary cash with which to effect the conversion. Some few Philippine peso pieces were, however, +put into circulation concurrently with the Mexican pesos. + +</p> +<p>In June, 1903, the ss. <i>Don Juan</i>, owned by Francisco L. Rojas, of Manila, took on board in Hong-Kong about $400,000 Mexicans (i.e., pesos) for the purpose +of smuggling them into Manila. On board there were also, as passengers, a Señor Rodoreda and a crowd of Chinese coolies. The +vessel caught fire off the west coast of Luzon. The captain, the crew, and the Spanish passenger abandoned the ship in boats, +leaving the Chinese to their awful fate. A steam launch was sent alongside and saved a few dollars, whilst the despairing +Chinese became victims to the flames and sharks. The shipʼs burnt-out hull was towed to Manila Bay. The remaining dollars +were confiscated, and the captain and chief engineer were prosecuted. +<a id="d0e9761"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e9761">261</a>]</span></p> +<p>The universal monetary crisis due to the depreciation of silver was experienced here, and the Government made matters still +worse by coining half-pesos and 20-cent pieces, which had not the intrinsic value expressed, and exchange consequently fell +still lower. In September, 1887, a Madrid periodical, <i>Correo de España</i>, stated that the bastard Philippine 50-cent pieces were rejected in Madrid even by money-changers. In May, 1888, the peso +was quoted at 3s.2¾d. (over 19 per cent. below nominal value), and shippers to the Colony, who had already suffered considerably +by the loss on exchange, had their interests still further impaired by this action of the Treasury. For Exchange Fluctuations +<i>vide</i> Chap, xxxi., “Trade Statistics.” +</p> +<hr class="tb"><p> + +</p> +<p>A Custom-house was established and port opened in Zamboanga (Mindanao Is.) for direct communication with abroad in 1831; those +of Sual (Pangasinán) and Yloilo (Panay Is.) in 1855, and that of Cebú in 1863. The Custom-house of Sual was subsequently abolished, +and the port having been closed to direct foreign trade, the place has lost its former importance, and lapsed into the state +of a lifeless village. + +</p> +<p>Special permission could be obtained for ships to load in and sail direct from harbours where no Custom-houses were established, +on a sum of money being lodged beforehand at the <i>Caja de Depósitos </i>in Manila, to cover duties, dues, etc., to be assessed. + +</p> +<p>After the opening of the port of Yloilo, three years elapsed before a cargo of produce sailed thence to a foreign port. Since +then it has gradually become the shipping centre for the crops (chiefly sugar and sapanwood) raised in the islands of Panay +and Negros. From about the year 1882 to 1897 it attracted a portion of what was formerly the Cebú trade. Since then the importance +of Yloilo has diminished. Its development as a port was entirely due to foreigners, and considerably aided agriculture in +the Visayas Islands. Heretofore the small output of sugar (which had never reached 1,000 tons in any year) had to be sent +up to Manila. The expense of local freight, brokerages, and double loading and discharging left so little profit to the planters +that the results were then quite discouraging. None but wooden sugar-cane mills were employed at that time, but since then +many small steam-power factories have been erected (<i>vide</i> Sugar). The produce shipped in Yloilo<a id="d0e9784src" href="#d0e9784" class="noteref">14</a> was principally carried to the United States in American sailing-ships. + +</p> +<p>For figures relating to Chief Exports from the various ports, <i>vide</i> Chap. <a href="#d0e22333">xxxi</a>., “Trade Statistics.” + +</p> +<p>Most of the carrying Import trade was in the hands of subsidized Spanish steamer-owners, whilst the larger portion of the +Exports was <a id="d0e9797"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e9797">262</a>]</span>conveyed in foreign vessels, which arrived in ballast from Eastern ports where they had left cargoes. + +</p> +<p>Smuggling was carried on to a considerable extent for years, and in 1891 a fresh stimulus was given to contraband by the introduction +of a Protectionist Tariff, which came into force on April 1 of that year, and under which Spanish goods brought in Spanish +ships were allowed to enter free of duty.<a id="d0e9801src" href="#d0e9801" class="noteref">15</a> + +</p> +<p>In order to evade the payment of the Manila Port Works Tax (q.v.), for which no value was given, large quantities of piece-goods +for Manila were shipped from Europe to Yloilo, passed through the Custom-house there and re-shipped in inter-island steamers +to Manila. In 1890 some two-thirds of the Yloilo foreign imports were for re-shipment. + +</p> +<p>The circumstances which directly led to the opening of Zamboanga (in 1831) as a commercial port are interesting when it is +remembered that Mindanao Island is still quasi-independent in the interior—inhabited by races unconquered by the Spaniards, +and where agriculture by civilized settlers is as yet nascent. It appears that the Port of Joló (Sulu Is.) had been, for a +long time, frequented by foreign ships, whose owners or officers (chiefly British) unscrupulously supplied the Sulus with +sundry manufactured goods, including <i>arms of warfare</i>, much to the detriment of Spanish interests there, in exchange for mother-of-pearl, pearls, gums, etc. The Spaniards claimed +suzerain rights over the island, but were not strong enough to establish and protect a Custom-house, so they imposed the regulation +that ships loading in Joló should put in at Zamboanga for clearance to foreign ports. The foreigners who carried on this illicit +traffic protested against a sailing-ship being required to go out of her homeward course about one hundred and twenty miles +for the mere formality of customs clearance. A British ship (and perhaps many before her) sailed straight away from Joló, +in defiance of the Spaniards, and the matter was then brought to the notice of the British Government, who intimated that +either Joló must be declared a free port or a Custom-house must be established there. The former alternative was chosen by +the Spaniards, but Zamboanga remained an open port for foreign trade which very rarely came. + +</p> +<p>The supreme control of merchant shipping and naval forces was vested in the same high official. No foreigner was permitted +to own a vessel trading between Spain and her colonies, or between one Spanish colony and another, or doing a coasting trade +within the Colony. This difficulty was however readily overcome, and reduced to a mere ineffective formality, by foreigners +employing Spaniards to become nominal owners of their vessels. Thus a very large portion of the inter-island steamer carrying-trade +was virtually conducted by foreigners, chiefly British. + +</p> +<p>Mail-steamers, subsidized by the Government, left the capital every fortnight for the different islands, and there was a quarterly +<a id="d0e9817"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e9817">263</a>]</span>Pacific Mail Service to the Ladrone Islands.<a id="d0e9819src" href="#d0e9819" class="noteref">16</a> Regular mails arrived from, and left for, Europe every fortnight, but as there were intermediate opportunities of remitting +and receiving correspondence, really about three mails were received and three despatched every month. The mail-route for +Europe is <i>viâ</i> Singapore, but there were some seven or eight sailings of steamers per month between Manila and Hong-Kong (the nearest foreign +colony—640 miles), whence mails were forwarded to Europe, Australia, Japan, the United States, etc. + +</p> +<p>Between the capital and several ports in the adjacent provinces there was a daily service of passenger and light cargo-steamers. + +</p> +<p>Between Yloilo and the adjoining Province of Antique, the District of Concepcion and the Islands of Negros and Cebú, there +were some half-dozen small steamers, belonging to Filipinos and Spaniards, running regularly with passengers and merchandise, +whilst in the sugar-producing season—from January to May—they were fully freighted with cargoes of this staple article. + +</p> +<p>The carrying-trade in sailing craft between the Islands was chiefly in the hands of natives and half-castes. There were also +a few Spanish sailing-ship owners, and in the Port of Yloilo a few schooners (called <i>lorchas</i>), loading from 40 to 100 tons of sugar, were the property of foreigners, under the nominal ownership of Spanish subjects, +for the reasons mentioned in the preceding page. + +</p> +<p>The principal exporters employ middlemen for the collecting of produce, and usually require their guarantee for sales at credit +to the provincial purchasers of imports. These middlemen are always persons of means, born in the Colony, and, understanding +both the intricacies of the native character and the European mode of transacting business, they serve as very useful—almost +indispensable—intermediaries. + +</p> +<p>It was only when the crisis in the Sugar trade affected the whole world, and began to be felt in the Philippines in 1884, +that the majority of the natives engaged in that industry slowly began to understand that the current price of produce fluctuated +according to supply and demand. Before transactions were so thoroughly in the hands of middlemen, small producers used to +take their samples to the purchasers, “to see how much they cared to pay” as they expressed it—the term “market price” seldom +being used or understood in the provinces, because of the belief that prices rose or fell according to the caprice or generosity +of the foreign buyer. Accustomed to deal, during the first centuries of the Spanish occupation, with the Chinese, the natives, +even among themselves, rarely have fixed prices in retail dealings, and nearly every quotation in small traffic is taken only +as a fancy price, subject to considerable rebate before closing. The Chinese understand the native pretty well; they study +his likings, and they so fix their prices that an enormous reduction can be <a id="d0e9838"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e9838">264</a>]</span>made for his satisfaction. He goes away quite contented, whilst the Chinaman chuckles over having got the best of the bargain. +Even the import houses, when they advertise their goods for sale, seldom state the prices; it seems as if all regarded the +question of price as a shifty one. + +</p> +<p>The system of giving credit in the retail trade of Manila, and a few provincial towns, was the ruin of many shopkeepers. There +were few retailers who had fixed prices; most of them fluctuated according to the race, or nationality, of the intending customer. +The Chinese dealer made no secret about his price being merely nominal. If on the first offer the hesitating purchaser were +about to move away, he would call after him and politely invite him to haggle over the bargain.<a id="d0e9842src" href="#d0e9842" class="noteref">17</a> +</p> +<hr class="tb"><p> + +</p> +<p>The only real basis of wealth in the Colony is the raw material obtained by Agriculture, and Forest produce. Nothing was done +by the conquerors to foster the Industrial Arts, and the Manufacturing Trades were of insignificant importance. Cigars were +the only <i>manufactured</i> export staple, whilst perfumes, a little cordage, and occasionally a parcel of straw or finely-split bamboo hats were shipped. + +</p> +<p>In the Provinces of Bulacan and Pampanga, split-cane and Nito (<i>lygodium</i>) hats, straw mats, and cigar-cases are made. Some of the finest worked cigar-cases require so much time for making that they +cost up to ₱20 each. Hats can only be obtained in quantities by shippers through native middlemen. + +</p> +<p>In Yloilo Province a rough cloth called <i>Sinamay</i> is woven<a id="d0e9865src" href="#d0e9865" class="noteref">18</a> from selected hemp fibre. Also in this province and that of Antique (Panay Is.), <i>Piña</i> muslin of pure pine-leaf fibre and <i>Husi</i> of mixed pine-leaf and hemp filament are made. Ilocos Province has a reputation in these Islands for its woollen and dyed +cotton fabrics. Taal (Batangas) also produces a special make of cotton stuffs. Pasig, on the river of that name, and Sulípan +(Pampanga), are locally known for their rough pottery, and Cápiz and Romblon for their sugar-bags. + +</p> +<p>Paete, at the extreme east of the Laguna de Bay, is the centre for white-wood furniture and wood-carving. In Mariquina, near +Manila, wooden clogs and native leather shoes are made. Santa Cruz (Manila) is the gold and silver-workersʼ quarter. The native +women in nearly all the civilized provinces produce some very handsome specimens of embroidery on European patterns. Mats +to sleep upon (<i>petates</i>) straw bags (<i>bayones</i>), baskets (<i>tampipes</i>), alcohol, bamboo furniture, buffalo-hide leather, wax candles, soap, etc., have their centres of manufacture on a small +scale. The first Philippine brewery was opened October 4, 1890, in San Miguel (Manila) by Don Enrique Barretto, to whom was +granted a monopoly by the Spanish Government for twenty years. It is now chiefly owned by a Philippine half-caste, Don Pedro +P. Rojas (resident in Paris), who formed <a id="d0e9885"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e9885">265</a>]</span>it into a company which has become a very flourishing concern. Philippine capital alone supports these manufactures. The traffic +and consumption being entirely local, the consequent increase of wealth to the Colony is the economized difference between +them and imported articles. These industries bring no fresh capital to the Colony, by way of profits, but they contribute +to check its egress by the returns of agriculture changing hands to the local manufacturer instead of to the foreign merchant. + +</p> +<p>Want of cheap means of land-transport has, so far, been the chief drawback to Philippine manufactures, which are of small +importance in the total trade of the Colony. + +</p> +<p>Philippine railways were first officially projected in 1875, when a Royal Decree of that year, dated August 6, determined +the legislative basis for works of that nature. The Inspector of Public Works was instructed to form a general plan of a railway +system in Luzon Island. The projected system included (1) a line running north from Manila through the Provinces of Bulacan, +Pampanga, and Pangasinán. (2) A line running south from Manila, along the Laguna de Bay shore and eastwards through Tayabas, +Camarines, and Albay Provinces. (3) A branch from this line on the Laguna de Bay shore to run almost due south to Batangas. +The lines to be constructed were classed under two heads, viz.:—(1) Those of general public utility to be laid down either +by the State or by subsidized companies, the concession in this case being given by the Home Government; and (2) those of +private interest, for the construction of which concessions could be granted by the Gov.-General. + +</p> +<p>In 1885 the Government solicited tenders for the laying of the first line of railway from Manila to Dagúpan—a port on the +Gulf of Lingayen, and the only practicable outlet for produce from the Province of Pangasinán and Tárlac District. The distance +by sea is 216 miles—the railway line 196 kilometres (say 120 miles). The subsidy offered by the Government amounted to about +₱7,650 per mile, but on three occasions no tender was forthcoming either from Madrid or in Manila, where it was simultaneously +solicited. Subsequently a modified offer was made of a guaranteed annual interest of 8 per cent, on a maximum outlay of ₱4,964,473.65, +and the news was received in Manila in October, 1886, that the contract had been taken up by a London firm of contractors. +The prospectus of “The Manila Railway Co., Ltd,” was issued in February, 1888. The line was to be completed within four years +from July 21, 1887, and at the end of ninety-nine years the railway and rolling-stock were to revert to the Spanish Government +without compensation. The rails, locomotives (36 tons and 12 tons each), tenders, coaches, waggons, and ironwork for bridges +all came from England. The first stone of the Central Station in Manila (Bilibid Road, Tondo) was laid by Gov.-General Emilio +Terrero on July 31, 1887. In 1890 the original contractors failed, and only the first section of 28 miles was opened to traffic +on March 24, 1891. +<a id="d0e9893"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e9893">266</a>]</span></p> +<p>Many other circumstances, however, contributed to delay the opening of the whole line. Compensation claims were very slowly +agreed to; the Government engineers slightly altered the plans; the companyʼs engineers could not find a hard strata in the +bed of the Calumpit River<a id="d0e9896src" href="#d0e9896" class="noteref">19</a> (a branch of the Rio Grande de Pampanga) on which to build the piers of the bridge; and lastly the Spanish authorities, who +had direct intervention in the work, found all sorts of excuses for postponing the opening of the line. When the Civil Director +was applied to, he calmly replied that he was going to the baths, and would think about it. Finally, on appeal to the highest +authority, Gov.-General Despujols himself went up to Tárlac, and in an energetic speech, reflecting on the dilatoriness of +his subordinates, he declared the first Philippine railway open to traffic on November 23, 1892. For about a year and a half +passengers and goods were ferried across the Calumpit River in pontoons. Large caissons had to be sunk in the river in which +to build the piers for the iron bridge, which cost an enormous sum of money in excess of the estimate. Later on heavy rains +caused a partial inundation of the line, the embankment of which yielded to the accumulated mass of water, and traffic to +Dagúpan was temporarily suspended. The total outlay on the line far exceeded the companyʼs original calculation, and to avert +a financial collapse fresh capital had to be raised by the issue of 6 per cent. Prior Lien Mortgage Bonds, ranking before +the debenture stock. The following official quotations on the London Stock Exchange will show the public appreciation of the +Manila Railway Companyʼs shares and bonds:— + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Official Quotations</span>. + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top"><b>December.</b></td> +<td valign="top"><b>7% Cum. Pref. £10 Shares.</b></td> +<td valign="top"><b>6% Deb. £100 Stock.</b></td> +<td valign="top"><b>6% Prior Lien Mort. Bonds, Series A., £100.</b></td> +<td valign="top"><b>6% Prior Lien Mort. Bonds, Series B., £100. +</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i> </i></td> +<td valign="top"><i>£ </i></td> +<td valign="top"><i>£ </i></td> +<td valign="top"><i>£ </i></td> +<td valign="top"><i>£</i></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1893 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">2 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">49 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">98 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">87</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1894 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">32 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">104 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">91</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1895 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">½ </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">29 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">107 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">85</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1896 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">¼ </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">22 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">96 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">64</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1897 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">¼ </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">19 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">101 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">75</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1898 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1¾ </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">45 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">110 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">98</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1899 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1¾ </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">33½ </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">101½ </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">87½</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1900 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1½ </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">42 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">103½ </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">97</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1901 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">2 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">55 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">108 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">102</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1902 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1½ </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">52 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">109 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">102</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1903 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1½ </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">58 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">108 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">104</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1904 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3½ </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">83 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">110 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">107</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1905 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">4¾ </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">117 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">110 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">106</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + +<a id="d0e10070"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e10070">267</a>]</span></p> +<p>Up to July 1, 1905, the interest has been regularly paid on the Prior Lien Bonds. No interest has been paid on the debentures +(up to December, 1905) since July 1, 1891, nor on the 7 per cent. Cumulative Preference Shares since July 1, 1890. On January +26, 1895, these shares were officially quoted, for sellers, 0. + +</p> +<p>Including the termini in Manila (Tondo) and Dagúpan, there are 29 stations and 16 bridges along the main line, over which +the journey occupies eight hours. There are two branch lines, viz.:—from Bigaá to Cabanatúan (Nueva Ecija), and from Angeles +(Pampanga) to Camp Stotsenberg. From the Manila terminus there is a short line (about a mile) running down to the quay in +Binondo for goods traffic only. The country through which this line passes is flat, and has large natural resources, the development +of which—without a railway—had not been feasible owing to the ranges of mountains—chiefly the Cordillera of Zambales—which +run parallel to the coast. + +</p> +<p>The railway is ably managed, but when I travelled on it in 1904 much of the rolling-stock needed renewal. + +</p> +<p>In 1890, under Royal Order No. 508, dated June 11 of that year, a 99 yearsʼ concession was granted to a British commercial +firm in Manila to lay a 21-mile line of railway, without subsidy, from Manila to Antipolo, to be called the “Centre of Luzon +Railway.” The work was to be commenced within one year and finished within two years. The basis of the anticipated traffic +was the conveyance of pilgrims to the Shrine of Our Lady of Good Voyage and Peace (<i>vide</i> p. 184); but, moreover, the proposed line connected the parishes of Dilao (then 4,380 pop.), Santa Ana (then 2,115 pop.), +Mariquina (then 10,000 pop.), Cainta (then 2,300 pop.), and Taytay (then 6,500 pop.)—branching to Pasig and Angono—with Antipolo +(then 3,800; now 2,800 pop.). The estimated outlay was about ₱1,000,000, but the concession was abandoned. The project has +since been revived under American auspices. +</p> +<hr class="tb"><p> + +</p> +<p>Under Spanish government there was a land Telegraph Service from Manila to all civilized parts of Luzon Island—also in Panay +Island from Cápiz to Yloilo, and in Cebú Island from the city of Cebú across the Island and up the west coast as far north +as Tuburan. There was a land-line from Manila to Bolinao (Zambales), from which point a submarine cable was laid in April, +1880, by the Eastern Extension Australasia and China Telegraph Company, Ltd., whereby Manila was placed in direct telegraphic +communication with the rest of the world. For this service the Spanish Government paid the company ₱4,000 a month for a period +of 10 years, which expired in June, 1890. In April, 1898, the same company detached the cable from Bolinao and carried it +on to Manila in the s.s. <i>Sherard Osborn</i>, 207 nautical miles having been added to the cable for the purpose. In return for this service the Spanish Government gave +the company certain exclusive <a id="d0e10089"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e10089">268</a>]</span>rights and valuable concessions. In May, 1898, the American Admiral Dewey ordered the Manila-Hong-Kong cable to be cut, but +the connection was made good again after the Preliminaries of Peace with Spain were signed (August 12, 1898). Cable communication +was suspended, therefore, from May 2 until August 21 of that year. + +</p> +<p>In 1897 another submarine cable was laid by the above company, under contract with the Spanish Government, connecting Manila +with the Southern Islands of Panay and Cebú (Tuburan). The Manila-Panay cable was also cut by order of Admiral Dewey (May +23, 1898), but after August 12, under an arrangement made between the American and Spanish Governments, it was re-opened on +a neutral basis, and the companyʼs own staff worked it direct with the Manila public, instead of through the medium of Spanish +officials. + +</p> +<p>Since the American occupation a new cable connecting the Islands with the United States has been laid (opened July 4, 1903), +whilst a network of submarine and land-wires has been established throughout the Archipelago. +</p> +<hr class="tb"><p> + +</p> +<p>Owing to their geographical position, none of the Philippine ports are on the line of the regular mail and passenger steamers +<i>en route</i> elsewhere; hence, unlike Hong-Kong, Singapore, and other Eastern ports, there is little profit to be derived from a cosmopolitan +floating population. Due, probably, to the tedious Customs regulations—the obligation of every person to procure, and carry +on his person, a document of identification—the requirement of a passport to enter the Islands, and complicated formalities +to recover it on leaving—the absence of railroads and hotels in the interior and the difficulties of travelling—this Colony, +during the Spanish <i>régime</i>, was apparently outside the region of tourists and “globe-trotters.” Indeed the Philippine Archipelago formed an isolated +settlement in the Far East which traders or pleasure-seekers rarely visited <i>en passant</i> to explore and reveal to the world its natural wealth and beauty. It was a Colony comparatively so little known that, forty +years ago, fairly educated people in England used to refer to it as “The Manillas,” whilst up to the end of Spanish rule old +residents, on visiting Singapore and Hong-Kong, were often highly amused by the extravagant notions which prevailed, even +there, concerning the Philippines. But the regulations above referred to were an advantage to the respectable resident, for +they had the desirable effect of excluding many of those nondescript wanderers and social outcasts who invade other colonies. + +</p> +<p>Since the Revolution there has been a large influx of American tourists to the Islands, arriving in the army-transports, passage +free, to see “the new possession,” as the Archipelago is popularly called in the United States. + +<a id="d0e10110"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e10110">269</a>]</span></p> +<div class="footnotes"> +<hr class="fnsep"> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e9134" href="#d0e9134src" class="noteref">1</a></span> According to Zúñiga (“Hist. de Philipinas”), the ancient inhabitants of Luzon Island had a kind of shell-money—the <i>Siguey</i> shell. <i>Siguey</i> shells are so plentiful at the present day that they are used by children to play at <i>Sunca</i>. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e9161" href="#d0e9161src" class="noteref">2</a></span> <i>Situado</i> is not literally “Subsidy,” but it was tantamount to that. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e9207" href="#d0e9207src" class="noteref">3</a></span> The values of shipments by law established were little regarded. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e9220" href="#d0e9220src" class="noteref">4</a></span> The <i>Obras Pias</i> (i.e., Pious Works) funds were legacies left exclusively by Spaniards, chiefly pious persons, for separate beneficent objects. +Two-thirds of the capital were to be lent at interest, to stimulate trade abroad, and one-third was to be a reserve against +possible losses. When the accumulated interest on the original capital had reached a certain amount, it was to be applied +to the payment of masses for the repose of the donorsʼ souls. + +</p> +<p class="footnote">The peculations of the Gov.-General Pedro Manuel de Arandia (1754–59) permitted him to amass a fortune of a quarter of a million +pesos in less than five yearsʼ service, which sum he left to pious works. On the secession of Mexico (in <a id="d0e9228"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e9228">246n</a>]</span>1819) the Government took over the <i>Obras Pias</i> funds, to control their administration. There is reason to believe that many of the donations were the fruits of the corrupt +practices of high officials, the legacies being for their benefit hereafter. + +</p> +<p class="footnote">The funds were severally administered by the four boards of San Francisco, Santo Domingo, the Recoletos and Santa Isabel, +controlled by one general board of management. In 1850 the Spanish Government, in the exercise of its right (<i>Real patronato</i>) to intervene in all ecclesiastical administrative affairs, ordered these funds to be transferred to a banking establishment +entitled the “Banco Español de Isabel II.,” more generally known as the “Banco Español-Filipino” (q.v.). The <i lang="es">Obras Pias</i> funds constituted the original capital of this bank. The board, presided over by the Archbishop, still continued to control +the manipulation of these funds by the bank, the income derived from the original capital having to be paid out in accordance +with the wills of the several founders of the fund. Up to the close of Spanish rule, money was lent out of this fund on mortgages +in and near Manila, at six per cent. interest per annum. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e9295" href="#d0e9295src" class="noteref">5</a></span> It happened at this date that the dues, etc., equalled 17 per cent. on the anticipated 1,000,000 pesos, but they were not +computed by percentage. The Royal Dues were a fixed sum since about the year 1625, so that when the legal value of the shipments +was much less, the dues and other expenses represented a much higher percentage. The charges were as follows, viz.:— + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="60%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Royal Dues. </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">₱160,000</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Port Dues at Acapulco. </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">2,000</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Disbursements paid in Manila on the shipʼs departure. </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">7,500</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Port and Anchorage Dues on arrival in Philippines. </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">500 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">₱170,000</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e9551" href="#d0e9551src" class="noteref">6</a></span> “<span lang="es">La Libertad del comercio de Filipinas</span>,” by Manuel Azcárraga. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e9635" href="#d0e9635src" class="noteref">7</a></span> Mr. John B. Butler, who was born in 1800, resided many years in Manila, and married a native wife. He died on October 4, 1855, +in London, whence his mortal remains were brought to Manila in 1860, at the instance of his widow, and interred in Saint Augustineʼs +Church, near an altar on the left side of the nave. The site is marked by a marble inscribed slab. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e9641" href="#d0e9641src" class="noteref">8</a></span> The Peace of Utrecht, signed in 1713, settled the succession of Philip, the French Dauphin, to the Spanish throne, whilst +among the concessions which England gained for herself under this treaty was a convention with Spain, known as the <i>Asiento</i> contract. This gave the British the right to send one shipload of merchandise yearly to the Spanish colonies of America. +Nevertheless, many ships went instead of one. An armed contest ensued (1739–42), and although the Spaniards lost several galleons +in naval combats undertaken by Admiral Vernon and Commodore Anson, the British losses were not inconsiderable. + +</p> +<p class="footnote">So prejudicial to the vital interests of Spain was the abuse of the ceded right held to be that the earliest efforts of the +first new Cabinet under Ferdinand VI. were engaged in a revision of the commercial differences between that country and England. +England was persuaded to relinquish the <i>Asiento</i> contract in exchange for advantages of greater consideration in another direction. + +</p> +<p class="footnote">About a century ago England took over from Spain Nootka Sound, a station on the Pacific coast, where a nourishing fur trade +was carried on by British settlers. The cession was accorded under a solemn promise not to trade thence with the Spanish colonies +of South America. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e9657" href="#d0e9657src" class="noteref">9</a></span> For example: <i>vide</i> “<span lang="es">Memoria leida por el Secretario de la Cámara de Comercio de Manila, Don F. de P. Rodoreda, en 28 de Marzo de 1890</span>,” p. 6 (published in Manila by Diaz Puertas y Compañia). + +</p> +<p class="footnote">It remarks: “<span lang="es">Jurado Mercantil—El expediente siguió la penosa perigrinacion de nuestro pesado y complicado engranaje administrativo y llevaba +ya muy cerca de dos años empleados en solo recorrer dos de los muchos Centros consultivos á que debía ser sometido</span>, etc.” +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e9675" href="#d0e9675src" class="noteref">10</a></span> The following is an extract from the text of the preamble to a Decree, dated March 19, 1886, relative to the organization +of the Philippine Exhibition held in Madrid, signed by the Colonial Minister, Don German Gamazo: + +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span lang="es">“Con él se logrará que la gran masa de numerario que sale de la Metrópoli para adquirir en paises extranjeros algodon, azúcar, +cacao, tabaco y otros productos vaya á nuestras posesiones de Oceania <i>donde comerciantes extranjeros los acaparan con daño evidente de los intereses materiales del pais.”</i></span></p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e9695" href="#d0e9695src" class="noteref">11</a></span> (1) The “Hong-Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation,” incorporated in 1867. Position on June 30, 1905: Capital all paid up, +$10,000,000 (Mex.): sterling reserve, £1,000,000; silver reserve, $8,500,000 (Mex.); reserve liability of proprietors, $10,000,000 +(Mex.). (2) The “Chartered Bank of India, Australia, and China,” incorporated in 1853. Position on December 31, 1904: Capital +all paid up, £800,000; reserve fund, £875,000; reserve liability of proprietors, £800,000. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e9700" href="#d0e9700src" class="noteref">12</a></span> “Banco Español-Filipino.” Position on June 30, 1905: Capital, ₱1,500,000; reserve fund, ₱900,000. It has a branch in Yloilo. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e9753" href="#d0e9753src" class="noteref">13</a></span> Chop dollars are those defaced by private Chinese marks. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e9784" href="#d0e9784src" class="noteref">14</a></span> Yloilo had its “Gremio de Comerciantes” (Board of Trade), constituted by Philippine General-Government Decree of September +5, 1884, and Manila had Chamber of Commerce. Since the Revolution Yloilo has also a Chamber of Commerce, and Manila several +of different nationalities. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e9801" href="#d0e9801src" class="noteref">15</a></span> <i>Vide Board of Trade Journal</i> (British) for February and April, 1891. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e9819" href="#d0e9819src" class="noteref">16</a></span> Manila to Yap, 1,160 miles. Yap to Ponapé, 1,270 miles. Ponapé to Apra, 880 miles. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e9842" href="#d0e9842src" class="noteref">17</a></span> “V<sup>d</sup> cuidado de regatear,” was the invitation to haggle. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e9865" href="#d0e9865src" class="noteref">18</a></span> Weaving was taught to the natives by a Spanish priest about the year 1595. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e9896" href="#d0e9896src" class="noteref">19</a></span> The extra delay was quite a year, and the cause having become common talk among the natives in the neighbourhood, many of +them suggested that an evil spirit prevented the foundations of the bridge being built. They proposed to propitiate him by +throwing live children into the river; consequently many mothers migrated with their infants until they heard that the difficulty +was overcome. +</p> +</div> +</div> +<div id="d0e10111" class="div1"> +<h2 class="normal">Agriculture</h2> +<p>In years gone by, before so many colonies were opened up all over the world, the few who, in the Philippines, had the courage +to face the obstacles to agriculture in a primitive country made fairly large fortunes in the main staple products—sugar and +hemp. Prices were then treble what they have since been, labour was cheaper, because the needs of the labouring-class were +fewer, and, owing to the limited demand and the rarity of epidemic cattle-disease, buffaloes for tilling were worth one-eighth +of what they cost at the present day. Although the amount of trade was vastly less, those natives engaged in it were in sounder +positions than the same class generally is now. + +</p> +<p>Within the last few years there are hundreds who have embarked in agricultural enterprises with only one-tenth of the capital +necessary to make them successful. A man would start planting with only a few hundred pesos and a tract of cleared land, without +title-deeds, and consequently of no negotiable value. In the first year he inevitably fell into the hands of money-lenders, +who reasonably stipulated for a very high rate of interest in view of the absence of guarantees. The rates of interest on +loans under such circumstances varied as a rule from 12 to 24 per cent. I know a Visayo native who, by way of interest, commission, +and charges, demanded as much as 30 per cent. I need not refer to the isolated cases which have come to my knowledge of over +100 per cent. being charged. As at the present day agriculture in the Philippines does not yield 30 per cent. nett profit, +it naturally follows that the money-lender at this rate has to attach the estate upon which he has made loans, and finally +becomes owner of it. In the meantime, the tiller who has directed the labour of converting a tract of land into a plantation, +simply gets a living out of it. Some few were able to disencumber their property by paying, year by year, not only the whole +of the nett returns from the plantation, but also the profits on small traffic in which they may have speculated. It seldom +happened, however, that the native planter was sufficiently loyal to his financial supporter to do this: on the contrary, +although he might owe thousands of pesos, he would spend money in feasts, and undertake fresh obligations <a id="d0e10118"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e10118">270</a>]</span>of a most worthless nature. He would buy on credit, to be paid for after the next crop, a quantity of paltry jewellery from +the first hawker who passed his way, or let the cash slip out of his hands at the cock-pit or the gambling-table. + +</p> +<p>Even the most provident seemed to make no reserve for a bad year, and the consequence was that in 1887 I think I may safely +assert that if all the Philippine planters had had to liquidate within twelve months, certainly 50 per cent. of them would +have been insolvent. One of the most hazardous businesses in the Colony is that of advancing to the native planters, unless +it be done with the express intention of eventually becoming owner of an estate, which is really often the case. + +</p> +<p>The conditions of land-tenure in Luzon Island under Spanish rule stood briefly thus:—The owners either held the lands by virtue +of undisturbed possession or by transferable State grant. The tenants—the actual tillers—were one degree advanced beyond the +state of slave cultivators, inasmuch as they could accumulate property and were free to transfer their services. They corresponded +to that class of farmers known in France as <i>métayers</i> and amongst the Romans of old as <i>Coloni Partiarii</i>, with no right in the land, but entitled to one-half of its produce. Like the ancients, they had to perform a number of services +to the proprietor which were not specified in writing, but enforced by usage. Tenants of this kind recently subsisted—and +perhaps still do—in Scotland (<i>vide</i> “Wealth of Nations,” by Adam Smith, edition of 1886, p. 160). Leases for long periods were exceptional, and I never heard +of compensation being granted for improvements of Philippine estates. The conditions in Visayas are explained on p. <a href="#d0e10332">274</a>. + +</p> +<p>The value of land suitable for <span class="smallcaps">Sugar-cane</span> growing varies considerably, being dependent on proximity to a port, or sugar-market, and on quality, facilities for drainage, +transport, site, boundaries, etc. + +</p> +<p>In the Province of Bulacan, land which in a great measure is exhausted and yields only an average of 21 tons of cane per acre, +was valued (prior to the American occupation), on account of its nearness to the capital, at ₱115 per acre. In Pampanga Province, +a little further north, the average value of land, yielding, say, 30 tons of cane per acre, was ₱75 per acre. Still further +north, in the Province of Nueva Ecija, whence transport to the sugar-market is difficult and can only be economically effected +in the wet season by river, land producing an average of 35 tons of cane per acre would hardly fetch more than ₱30 per acre. +Railroads will no doubt eventually level these values. + +</p> +<p>In reality, Bulacan land is priced higher than its intrinsic value as ascertained by yield and economy of produce-transport. +The natives are, everywhere in the Colony, more or less averse to alienating real estate inherited from their forefathers, +and as Bulacan is one of the first provinces where lands were taken up, centuries ago, an attachment to the soil is particularly +noticeable. In that province, as a rule, only <a id="d0e10145"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e10145">271</a>]</span>genuine necessity, or a fancy price far in excess of producing-worth, would induce an owner to sell his land. + +</p> +<p>Land grants were obtainable from the Spanish Government by proving priority of claim, but the concession was only given after +wearisome delay, and sometimes it took years to obtain the title-deeds. Then large capital was requisite to utilize the property, +the clearance often costing more than the virgin tract, whilst the eviction of squatters was a most difficult undertaking: +“<i lang="fr">Jʼy suis et jʼy reste</i>,” thought the squatter, and the grantee had no speedy redress at law. On the other hand, the soil is so wonderfully rich +and fertile that the study of geoponics and artificial manuring was never thought essential. + +</p> +<p>The finest sugar-cane producing island in the Archipelago is Negros, in the Visaya district, between N. latitudes 9° and 11°. +The area of the Island is about equal to that of Porto Rico, but for want of capital is only about one-half opened up. Nevertheless, +it sent to the Yloilo market in 1892 over 115,000 tons of raw sugar—the largest crop it has yet produced. In 1850 the Negros +sugar yield was 625 tons. + +</p> +<p>The price of uncleared land there, suitable for sugar-cane cultivation, in accessible spots, was, say, ₱35 per acre, and cleared +land might be considered worth about ₱70 per acre. The yield of sugar-cane may be estimated at 40 tons per acre on the estates +opened up within the last ten years, whilst the older estates produce per acre nearly 30 tons of cane, but of a quality which +gives such a high-class sugar that it compensates for the decrease in quantity, taking also into account the economy of manipulating +and transporting less bulk. + +</p> +<p>Otaheiti cane (yellow) is generally planted in Luzon, whilst Java cane (red) is most common in the southern islands. <i lang="tl">Tubo</i> is the Tagálog generic name for sugar-cane. + +</p> +<p>The following equivalents of Philippine land-measures may be useful, viz.:— + + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="80%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">1 Quiñon </td> +<td valign="top">= 40,000 square varas = 10,000 square brazas.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top">= 5 cabans = 6.9444 acres = 2.795 hectares. + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">1 Balita </td> +<td valign="top">= 4,000 square varas = 1,000 square brazas.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top">= .69444 acre = .2795 hectare. + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">1 Loan </td> +<td valign="top">= 400 square varas = 100 square brazas.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top">= .06944 acre = .02795 hectare. + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">1 Square Braza </td> +<td valign="top">= 3.3611 square English yards.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top">= 4,355.98 square English inches. + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">1 Square Vara </td> +<td valign="top">= .8402 square English yards.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top">= 1,088.89 square English inches. + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">1 Acre </td> +<td valign="top">= 5,760 square varas = 1.44 balitas.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top">= .72 caban = .404671 hectare.</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>The average yield of sugar per acre is about as follows, viz.:— + + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="80%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Pampanga Province, say @ 6½% extraction </td> +<td valign="top">= 1.95 Tons of Sugar.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Other Northern provinces, say @ 5½% extraction </td> +<td valign="top">= 1.65 Tons of Sugar.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Negros Island (with almost exclusively European mills), say @ 7½% extraction </td> +<td valign="top">= 2.75 Tons of Sugar.</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + +<a id="d0e10244"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e10244">272</a>]</span></p> +<p>From Yloilo the sugar is chiefly exported to the United States, where there is a demand for raw material only from the Philippines +for the purpose of refining, whilst from Manila a certain quantity of crystal-grain sugar is sent, ready for consumption, +to Spain. Consequently, in the Island of Luzon, a higher class of machinery is employed. In 1890 there were five private estates, +with vacuum-pans erected, and one refinery, near Manila, (at Malabón). Also in 1885 the Government acquired a sugar-machinery +plant with vacuum-pan for their model estate at San Ramon in the Province of Zamboanga; the sugar turned out at the trial +of the plant in my presence was equal to 21 D. S. of that year. Convict labour was employed. During the Rebellion half the +machinery on this estate was destroyed or stolen. + +</p> +<p>It is a rare thing to see other than European mills in the Island of Negros, whilst in every other sugar-producing province +roughly-made vertical cattle-mills of wood, or stone (wood in the south and stone in the north), as introduced by the Chinese, +are still in use. With one exception (at Cabanatúan, Nueva Ecija), which was a failure, the triple-effect refining-plant is +altogether unknown in this Colony. + +</p> +<p>The sugar-estates generally are small. There are not a dozen estates in the whole Colony which produce over 1,000 tons of +raw sugar each per season. An estate turning out 500 tons of sugar is considered a large one. I know of one estate which yielded +1,500 tons, and another 1,900 tons in a good season. In the Island of Negros there is no port suitable for loading ships of +large tonnage, and the crops have to be carried to the Yloilo market, in small schooners loading from 40 to 100 tons (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e9817">263</a>). From the estates to the coast there are neither canals nor railroads, and the transport is by buffalo-cart. + +</p> +<p>The highest tablelands are used for cane-planting, which imperatively requires a good system of drainage. In Luzon Island +the output of sugar would be far greater if more attention were paid to the seasons. The cane should be cut in December, and +the milling should never last over ten weeks. The new cane-point setting should be commenced a fortnight after the milling +begins, and the whole operation of manufacture and planting for the new crop should be finished by the middle of March. A +deal of sugar is lost by delay in each branch of the field labour. In the West Indies the planters set the canes out widely, +leaving plenty of space for the development of the roots, and the ratoons serve up to from five to twenty years. In the Philippines +the setting of cane points is renewed each year, with few exceptions, and the planting is comparatively close. + +</p> +<p>Bulacan sugar-land, being more exhausted than Pampanga land, will not admit of such close planting, hence Bulacan land can +only find nourishment for 14,300 points per acre, whilst Pampanga land takes 17,800 points on average computation. + +</p> +<p>In Negros, current sugar is raised from new lands (among the best) <a id="d0e10263"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e10263">273</a>]</span>and from lands which are hardly considered suitable for cane-planting. Good lands are called “new” for three crops in Negros, +and during that period the planting is close, to choke the cane and prevent it becoming aqueous by too rapid development. + +</p> +<p>In the Northern Philippines “clayed” sugar (Spanish, <i>Azúcar de pilon</i>) is made. The <i>massecuite</i>, when drawn from the pans, is turned into earthenware conic pots containing about 150 lb. weight. When the mass has set, +the pot is placed over a jar (Tagalog, <i>oya</i>) into which the molasses drains. In six months, if allowed to remain over the jar, it will drain about 20 per cent, of its +original weight, but it is usually sold before that time, if prices are favourable. + +</p> +<p>The molasses is sold to the distilleries for making Alcohol,<a id="d0e10278src" href="#d0e10278" class="noteref">1</a> whilst there is a certain demand for it for mixing with the drinking-water given to Philippine ponies, although this custom +is now falling into disuse, in Manila at least, because molasses is never given to the American imported horses. + +</p> +<p>From nine tests which I made with steam machinery, of small capacity, in different places in the northern provinces, without +interfering with the customary system of manipulating the cane or the adjustment of the mill rolls, I found the— + + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="60%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Average juice extraction to be + +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 56.37% + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Average moisture in the megass on leaving the mill + +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 23.27% + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Average amount of dry megass<a id="d0e10303src" href="#d0e10303" class="noteref">2</a> + +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 20.36% + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">100.00%</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>The average density of juice in the cane worked off as above was 10¾° Beaumé. + +</p> +<p>In Negros the process is very different. The juice is evaporated in the pan-battery to a higher point of concentration, so +that the molasses becomes incorporated with the saccharine grain. It is then turned out into a wooden trough, about 8 feet +long by 4 feet wide, and stirred about with shovels, until it has cooled so far as to be unable to form into a solid mass, +or lumps. When quite cold, the few lumps visible are pounded, and the whole is packed in grass bags (<i>bayones</i>). Sugar packed in this way is deliverable to shippers, whereas “clayed” sugar can only be sold to the assorters and packers +(<i>farderos</i>), who sun-dry it on mats and then bag it after making up the colour and quality to exporterʼs sample (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e5484">173</a>). + +</p> +<p>The Labour system in the Northern Philippines is quite distinct <a id="d0e10332"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e10332">274</a>]</span>from that adopted in the South. The plantations in the North are worked on the co-operative principle (<i lang="es">sistema de inquilinos</i>). The landowner divides his estate into tenements (<i lang="es">aparcerias</i>), each tenant (<i lang="es">aparcero</i>) being provided with a buffalo and agricultural implements to work up the plot, plant, and attend to the cane-growth as if +it were his own property. Wherever the native goes to work he carries the indispensable bowie-knife (Tagálog, <i lang="tl">guloc</i>; Spanish, <i>bolo</i>). When the cutting-season arrives, one tenant at a time brings in his cane to the mill, and when the sugar is worked off, +usually one-third, but often as much as one-half of the output, according to arrangement, belongs to the tenant. The tenant +provides the hands required for the operations of cane-crushing and sugar-making; the cost of machinery and factory establishment +is for the account of the landowner, who also has to take the entire risk of typhoons, inundations, drought, locusts,<a id="d0e10349src" href="#d0e10349" class="noteref">3</a> etc. + +</p> +<p>During the year, whilst the cane is maturing, the tenants receive advances against their estimated share, some even beyond +the real value, so that, in nearly every case, the full crop remains in the hands of the estate-owner. In the general working +of the plantation hired day-labour is not required, the tenants, in fact, being regarded, in every sense, as servants of the +owner, who employs them for whatever service he may need. Interest at 10 to 12 per cent. per annum is charged upon the advances +made in money, rice, stuffs, etc., during the year; and on taking over the tenantʼs share of output, as against these advances, +a rebate on current price of the sugar is often agreed to. + +</p> +<p>In the South, plantations are worked on the daily-wages system, (<i lang="es">sistema de jornal</i>), and the labourer will frequently exact his pay for several weeks in advance. Great vigilance is requisite, and on estates +exceeding certain dimensions it is often necessary to subdivide the management, apportioning it off to overseers, or limited +partners, called “Axas.” Both on European and native ownersʼ estates these <i>axas</i> were often Spaniards. The <i>axasʼ</i> interest varies on different properties, but, generally speaking, he is either credited with one-third of the product and +supplied with necessary capital, or he receives two-thirds of the yield of the land under his care and finds his own working +capital for its tilth, whilst the sunk capital in land, machinery, sheds, stores, etc., is for the account of the owner. + +</p> +<p>In 1877 a British company—the “Yengarie”—was started with a large capital for the purpose of acquiring cane-juice all over +the Colony and extracting from it highly-refined sugar. The works, fitted with vacuum-pans and all the latest improvements +connected with this <a id="d0e10370"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e10370">275</a>]</span>class of apparatus, were established at Mandaloyan, about three miles from Manila up the Pasig River. From certain parts of +Luzon Island the juice was to be conveyed to the factory in tubes, and the promoter, who visited Cebú Island, proposed to +send schooners there fitted with tanks, to bring the defecated liquid to Mandaloyan. The project was an entire failure from +the beginning (for the ordinary shareholders at least), and in 1880 the machinery plant was being realized and the company +wound up. + +</p> +<p></p> +<div id="d0e10373" class="figure"><img border="0" src="images/p275.jpg" alt="A Sugar-estate House, Southern Philippines" width="512" height="327"><p class="figureHead">A Sugar-estate House, Southern Philippines</p> +</div><p> + +</p> +<p>The classification of sugar in the South differs from that in the North. In the former market it is ranked as Nos. 0, 1, 2, +3 Superior and Current. For the American market these qualities are blended, to make up what is called “Assorted Sugar,” in +the proportion of one-eighth of No. 1, two-eighths of No. 2, and five-eighths of No. 3. In the North the quality is determined +on the Dutch standard. The New York and London markets fix the prices, which are cabled daily to the foreign merchants in +Manila. + +</p> +<p>From a series of estimates compiled by me I find that to produce 7,000 to 10,000 piculs, the cost laid down in Yloilo would +be, say, ₱2.00 per picul (₱32.00 per ton); the smaller the output the larger is the prime cost, and <i>vice-versa.</i> + +</p> +<p>Fortunes have been made in this Colony in cane-sugar, and until the end of 1883 sugar-planting paid the capitalist and left +something to the borrowing planter; now it pays only interest on capital. From the year 1884 the subsidized beet-root sugar +manufacturers on the continent of Europe turned out such enormous quantities of this article that the total yield of sugar +exceeded the worldʼs requirements. The consequence was that the cane-sugar manufacture declined almost at the same ratio as +that of beet-root advanced, as will be seen from the subjoined figures:— + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="80%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i> </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Tons. +</i></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">The worldʼs production in 1880; cane sugar </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3,285,714</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">The worldʼs production in 1880; beet sugar </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1,443,349 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">4,729,063 + + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i> </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Tons.</i></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">The worldʼs production in 1887, cane sugar </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">2,333,004</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">The worldʼs production in 1887, beet sugar </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">2,492,610 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 4,825,614 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i> </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Tons.</i></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Beet sugar </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">Increase 1,049,261</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Cane sugar </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">Decrease 952,710 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">The worldʼs output was </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">Increased 96,551</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + +</p> +<p>Since the above date, however, the output of Beet Sugar has become <a id="d0e10463"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e10463">276</a>]</span>about double that of Cane Sugar, as will be seen from the following figures, viz.:— + + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="80%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top"><b>Worldʼs Production. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>Season of 1899–1900. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>Season of 1900–1901.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i> </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Tons. </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Tons. +</i></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Cane sugar </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">2,867,041 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3,425,022</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Beet sugar </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">5,607,944 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">6,096,858 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">8,474,985 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">9,521,880</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + + + +</p> +<p>On estates already established at old prices, cane-sugar production pays an interest on capital, but the capitalist is not +necessarily the planter and nominal owner, as has been explained. Since the American occupation the cost of labour, living, +material, live-stock, and all that the planter or his estate need, has increased so enormously that the colonist should ponder +well before opening up a new estate for cane-growing in world-wide competition. For figures of Sugar Shipments <i>vide</i> Chap, xxxi., “Trade Statistics.” +</p> +<hr class="tb"><p> + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Rice</span> (<i>Oryza</i>) being the staple food of the Filipinos, it is cultivated more or less largely in every province of the Colony. Its market +value fluctuates considerably according to the stocks in hand and the season of the year. It appears to be the only branch +of agriculture in which the lower classes of natives take a visible pleasure and which they understand thoroughly. In 1897 +about 80,000 tons were raised. + +</p> +<p>The natives measure and sell rice (Tagálog, <i>bigas</i>) and paddy (Tagálog, <i>palay</i>) by the caban and its fractions; the caban dry measure is as follows, viz:— + +</p> +<p>4 Apatans = 1 Chupa; 8 Chupas = 1 Ganta; 25 Gantas = 1 Caban, + +</p> +<p>the equivalent of which in English measure is thus, viz:— + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">1 Atapan </td> +<td valign="top">= .16875 of a pint. + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">1 Chupa </td> +<td valign="top">= .675 of a pint. + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">1 Ganta </td> +<td valign="top">= 2 quarts, 1⅖ pints. + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">1 Caban </td> +<td valign="top">= 16 gallons, 3 quarts, 1 pint.</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + +</p> +<p>Rice of foreign importation is weighed and quoted by the picul of 133⅓ lbs. avoirdupois, subdivided as follows, viz.:— + +</p> +<p>16 Taels = 1 Catty; 10 Catties = 1 Chinanta; 10 Chinantas = 1 Picul. + +</p> +<p>Thirty years ago rice was exported from the Philippines, but now not even sufficient is produced for home consumption, hence +this commodity is imported in large quantities from Siam, Lower Burmah, and Cochin China to supply the deficiency. In 1897 +nearly 65,000 tons of rice were brought from those countries, and since the American occupation the annual receipts of foreign +rice have increased to fivefold. Sual (Pangasinán), on the Gulf of Lingayen, was, thirty-five years ago, <a id="d0e10559"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e10559">277</a>]</span>a port of importance, whence rice was shipped to China (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e9761">261</a>). This falling off of rice-production did not, however, imply a loss to the population in Spanish times when imported rice +was sold cheaply, because, in many provinces, land formerly used for rice-growing was turned to better account for raising +other crops which paid better in a fairly good market. + +</p> +<p>The natives everywhere continue to employ the primitive method of treating rice-paddy for domestic and local use. The grain +is generally husked by them in a large mortar hewn from a block of <i>molave</i>, or other hardwood, in which it is beaten by a pestle. Sometimes two or three men or women with wooden pestles work at the +same mortar. This mortar is termed, in Tagálog dialect, <i>Luzon</i>, the name given to the largest island of the group. However, I have seen in the towns of Candava (Pampanga), Pagsanján (La +Laguna), near Calamba in the same province, in Naig (Cavite), in Camarines Province, and a few other places, an attempt to +improve upon the current system by employing an ingenious wooden mechanical apparatus worked by buffaloes. It consisted of +a vertical shaft on which was keyed a bevel-wheel revolving horizontally and geared into a bevel pinion fixed upon a horizontal +shaft. In this shaft were adjusted pins, which, at each revolution, caught the corresponding pins in vertical sliding columns. +These columns (five or six)—being thereby raised and allowed to fall of their own weight when the raising-pins had passed +on—acted as pounders, or pestles, in the mortars placed below them. Subsequently, notable progress was made in Camarines Province +by Spaniards, who, in 1888, employed steam power, whilst in Pagsanján (La Laguna) animal motive power was substituted by that +of steam. Also, near Calamba, in the same province, water power was eventually employed to advantage. In Negros, near the +village of Candaguit, there was one small rice-machinery plant worked by steam power, brought by a Spaniard from Valencia +in Spain. Presumably it was not a success, as it remained only a short time in use. + +</p> +<p>Finally the Manila-Dagúpan Railway gave a great stimulus to the rice-husking and pearling industry, which was taken up by +foreigners. There are now important rice steam-power mills established at Calumpit, Gerona, Moncada, Bayambang, and other +places along the line from Calumpit towards Dagúpan, which supply large quantities of cleaned rice to Manila and other provinces, +where it is invariably more highly appreciated than the imported article. Also, at Nueva Cáceres (Camarines), in 1896, a large +steam-power rice mill was being worked by Don Manuel Pardo, who had a steamer specially constructed in Hong-Kong for the transport +of his output to the provincial markets. + +</p> +<p>The average yield of cleaned rice from the paddy is 50 per cent., whilst no special use is found for the remaining 50 per +cent. of coarse paddy-bran. The fine bran, almost dust (called in Tagálog <i lang="tl">Tiki Tiki</i>), <a id="d0e10582"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e10582">278</a>]</span>serves, however, for several purposes on the farm. The rice grain which is broken in the husking is known as <i>Pináua</i> in Tagálog. + +</p> +<p>The customary charge for husking and winnowing a caban of paddy is 12½ cents, so that as two cabans of paddy give one caban +of rice, the cost of this labour would be 25 cents per caban of rice. + +</p> +<p>The average amount of rice consumed by a working man per day is estimated at four chupas, or, say, close upon eight cabans +per annum, which, on the old reckoning—that is to say in Spanish times, taking an average price of 1 peso per caban of paddy += 2 pesos per caban of rice, plus 25 cents for cleaning = 2.25 pesos per caban of clean rice—amounts to 18 pesos per annum. +A nativeʼs further necessities are fish, an occasional piece of buffalo, betel-nut, tobacco, six yards of cotton print-stuff, +and payment of taxes, all of which (including rice) amounted to say ₱50 in the year, so that a man earning 20 cents per day +during 300 days lived well, provided he had no unforeseen misfortunes. Cock-fighting and gambling of course upset the calculation. + +</p> +<p>There are, it is said, over 20 different kinds of rice-paddy. These are comprised in two common groups—the one is called <i>Macan</i> rice (Spanish, <i lang="es">Arroz de Semillero</i>) which is raised on alluvial soil on the lowlands capable of being flooded conveniently with water, and the other has the +general denomination (in Luzon Is.) of <i>Paga</i> or <i>Dumali</i> (Spanish, <i lang="es">Arroz de Secano</i>) and is cultivated on high lands and slopes where inundation is impracticable. + +</p> +<p>The <i>Macan</i>, or low-land rice, is much the finer quality, the grain being usually very white, although <i>Macan</i> rice is to be found containing up to 25 per cent. of red grain, known in Tagálog as <i>Tan͠gi</i>, or <i>Malagcquit</i>. The white grain is that most esteemed. The yield of grain varies according to the quality of the soil. In the north of Bulacan +Province the average crop of <i>Macan</i> rice may be taken at 80 cabans of grain for one caban of seed. In the south of the same province the return reaches only +one-half of that. In the east of Pampanga Province, in the neighbourhood of Aráyat, Magálang, and Candava villages, the yield +is still higher, giving, in a good year, as much as 100 cabans for one of seed. In Negros a return of 50 cabans to one may +be taken as a fair average. + +</p> +<p><i>Paga</i> rice always shows a large proportion of red grain, and the return is, at the most, half that of <i>Macan</i> yield, but whilst rarely more than one crop per annum is obtained from low-lands (<i>Macan</i> rice)—taking the average throughout the Islands—in most places up to three crops of <i>Paga</i> rice can be obtained. + +</p> +<p>Besides the ordinary agricultural risks to which rice cultivation is exposed, a special danger often presents itself. The +<i lang="tl">Paga</i> rice is frequently attacked by flies (Tagálog, <i lang="tl">Alutan͠gia</i>), which suck the flower just before seeding, and the person in charge of the plantation has to stroll in the evenings and +mornings among the setting to whisk off these insects with a bunch of straws on the end of a stick, or <a id="d0e10646"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e10646">279</a>]</span>catch them with a net to save the grain. Both <i>Macan</i> and <i>Paga</i> are sometimes damaged by an insect, known in Ilocos Province as <i>Talibatab</i>, which eats through the stalk of the plant before maturity, causing the head, or flower, to droop over and wither, but this +does not happen every season. + +</p> +<p>To plant <i lang="tl">Macan</i> rice the grain or seed is sown in the month of June on a piece of land called the “seeding-plot,” where, in six weeks, it +attains a height of about one foot, and, provided the rains have not failed, it is then pulled up by the roots and transplanted, +stem by stem, in the flooded fields. Each field is embanked with earth (Tagálog, <i lang="tl">pilápil</i>) so that the water shall not run off, and just before the setting is commenced, the plough is passed for the last time. Then +men, women, and children go into the inundated fields with their bundles of rice-plant and stick the stalks in the soft mud +one by one. It would seem a tedious operation, but the natives are so used to it that they quickly cover a large field. In +four months from the transplanting the rice is ripe, but as at the end of November there is still a risk of rain falling, +the harvest is usually commenced at the end of December, after the grain has hardened and the dry season has fairly set in. +If, at such an abnormal period, the rains were to return (and such a thing has been known), the sheaves, which are heaped +for about a month to dry, would be greatly exposed to mildew owing to the damp atmosphere. After the heaping—at the end of +January—the paddy, still in the straw, is made into stacks (Tagálog, <i lang="tl">Mandalá</i>). In six weeks more the grain is separated from the straw, and this operation has to be concluded before the next wet season +begins—say about the end of April. On the Pacific coast (Camarines and Albay), where the seasons are reversed (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e2275">22</a>), rice is planted out in September and reaped in February. + +</p> +<p>The separation of the grain is effected in several ways. Some beat it out with their feet, others flail it, whilst in Cavite +Province it is a common practice to spread the sheaves in a circular enclosure within which a number of ponies and foals are +trotted. + +</p> +<p>In Negros Island there is what is termed <i>Ami</i> rice—a small crop which spontaneously rises in succession to the regular crop after the first ploughing. + +</p> +<p>It seldom happens that a “seeding-plot” has to be allowed to run to seed for want of rain for transplanting, but in such an +event it is said to yield at the most tenfold. + +</p> +<p>Nothing in Nature is more lovely than a valley of green half-ripened rice-paddy, surrounded by verdant hills. Rice harvest-time +is a lively one among the poor tenants in Luzon, who, as a rule, are practically the landownerʼs partners working for half +the crop, against which they receive advances during the year. Therefore, cost of labour may be taken at 50 per cent. plus +10 per cent. stolen from the ownerʼs share. + +</p> +<p>Paddy-planting is not a lucrative commercial undertaking, and few <a id="d0e10687"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e10687">280</a>]</span>take it up on a large scale. None of the large millers employing steam power are, at the same time, grain cultivators. There +is this advantage about the business, that the grower is less likely to be confronted with the labour difficulty, for the +work of planting out and gathering in the crop is, to the native and his family, a congenial occupation. Rice-cultivation +is, indeed, such a poor business for the capitalist that perhaps a fortune has never been made in that sole occupation, but +it gives a sufficient return to the actual tiller of his own land. The native woman is often quite as clever as her husband +in managing the estate hands, for her tongue is usually as effective as his rattan. I venture to say there are not six white +men living who, without Philippine wives, have made fortunes solely in agriculture in these Islands. + +<a id="d0e10689"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e10689">281</a>]</span></p> +<div class="footnotes"> +<hr class="fnsep"> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e10278" href="#d0e10278src" class="noteref">1</a></span> The sale of Alcohol was a Government monopoly until 1862. Molasses is sold by the <i>Tinaja</i>, an earthenware jar measuring 19 inches in height and 17½ inches at the maximum diameter; it contains 16 <i>gantas</i> (liquid measure) = say 11 gallons. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e10303" href="#d0e10303src" class="noteref">2</a></span> British patents for paper-making from sugar-cane fibre were granted to Berry in 1838, Johnson in 1855, Jullion in 1855, Ruck +and Touche (conjointly) in 1856, and Hook in 1857. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e10349" href="#d0e10349src" class="noteref">3</a></span> Since about the year 1885 a weed has been observed to germinate spontaneously around the roots of the sugar-cane in the Laguna +Province. The natives have given it the name of <i lang="tl">Bulaclac n͠g tubo</i> (Sugar-cane flower). It destroys the saccharine properties of the cane. The bitter juice of this weed has been found to be +a useful palliative for certain diseases. +</p> +</div> +</div> +<div id="d0e10690" class="div1"> +<h2 class="normal">Manila Hemp—Coffee—Tobacco</h2> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Hemp</span> (<i lang="la-x-bio">Musa textilis</i>)—referred to by some scientific writers as <i lang="la-x-bio">M. troglodytarum</i>—is a wild species of the plantain (<i lang="la-x-bio">M. paradisiaca</i>) found growing in many parts of the Philippine Islands. It so closely resembles the <i lang="la-x-bio">M. paradisiaca,</i> which bears the well-known and agreeable fruit—the edible banana, that only connoisseurs can perceive the difference in the +density of colour and size of the green leaves—those of the hemp-plant being of a somewhat darker hue, and shorter. The fibre +of a number of species of <i lang="la-x-bio">Musa</i> is used for weaving, cordage, etc., in tropical countries. + +</p> +<p>This herbaceous plant seems to thrive best on an inclined plane, for nearly all the wild hemp which I have seen has been found +on mountain slopes, even far away down the ravines. Although requiring a considerable amount of moisture, hemp will not thrive +in swampy land, and to attain any great height it must be well shaded by other trees more capable of bearing the sunʼs rays. +A great depth of soil is not indispensable for its development, as it is to be seen flourishing in its natural state on the +slopes of volcanic formation. In Albay Province it grows on the declivities of the Mayon Volcano. + +</p> +<p>The hemp-tree in the Philippines reaches an average height of 10 feet. It is an endogenous plant, the stem of which is enclosed +in layers of half-round petioles. The hemp-fibre is extracted from these petioles, which, when cut down, are separated into +strips, five to six inches wide, and drawn under a knife attached at one end by a hinge to a block of wood, whilst the other +end is suspended to the extremity of a flexible stick. The bow tends to raise the knife, and a cord, attached to the same +end of the knife, and a treadle are so arranged that by a movement of the foot the operator can bring the knife to work on +the hemp petiole with the pressure he chooses. The bast is drawn through between the knife and the block, the operator twisting +the fibre, at each pull, around a stick of wood or his arm, whilst the parenchymatous pulp remains on the other side of the +knife. There is no use for the pulp. The knife should be without teeth or indentations, but nearly everywhere in Capis Province +I have seen it with a <a id="d0e10716"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e10716">282</a>]</span>slightly serrated edge. The fibre is then spread out to dry, and afterwards tightly packed in bales with iron or rattan hoops +for shipment. + +</p> +<p>A finer fibre than the ordinary hemp is sometimes obtained in small quantities from the specially-selected edges of the petiole, +and this material is used by the natives for weaving. The quantity procurable is limited, and the difficulty in obtaining +it consists in the frequent breakage of the fibre whilst being drawn, due to its comparative fragility. Its commercial value +is about double that of ordinary first-class cordage hemp. The stuff made from this fine fibre (in Bicol dialect, <i>Lúpis</i>) suits admirably for ladiesʼ dresses. Ordinary hemp fibre is used for the manufacture of coarse native stuff, known in Manila +as <i>Sinamay</i>, much worn by the poorer classes of natives; large quantities of it come from Yloilo. In Panay Island a kind of texture called +<i>Husi</i> is made of a mixture of fine hemp (<i>lúpis</i>) and pine-apple leaf fibre. Sometimes this fabric is palmed off on foreigners as pure <i lang="es">piña</i> stuff, but a connoisseur can easily detect the hemp filament by the touch of the material, there being in the hemp-fibre, +as in horsehair, a certain amount of stiffness and a tendency to spring back which, when compressed into a ball in the hand, +prevents the stuff from retaining that shape. <i>Piña</i> fibre is soft and yielding. + +</p> +<p>Many attempts have been made to draw the hemp fibre by machinery, but in spite of all strenuous efforts, no one has hitherto +succeeded in introducing into the hemp districts a satisfactory mechanical apparatus. If the entire length of fibre in a strip +of bast could bear the strain of full tension, instead of having to wind it around a cylinder (which would take the place +of the operatorʼs hand and stick under the present system), then a machine could be contrived to accomplish the work. Machines +with cylinders to reduce the tension have been constructed, the result being admirable so far as the extraction of the fibre +is concerned, but the cylinder upon which the fibre coiled, as it came from under the knife, always discoloured the material. +A trial was made with a glass cylinder, but the same inconvenience was experienced. On another occasion the cylinder was dispensed +with, and a reciprocating-motion clutch drew the bast, running to and fro the whole length of the fibre frame, the fibre being +gripped by a pair of steel parallel bars on its passage in one or two places, as might be necessary, to lessen the tension. +These steel bars, however, always left a transversal black line on the filament, and diminished its marketable value. What +is desired is a machine which could be worked by one man and turn out at least as much clean fibre as the old apparatus could +with two men. Also that the whole appliance should be portable by one man. + +</p> +<p>In 1886 the most perfect mechanical contrivance hitherto brought out was tried in Manila by its Spanish inventor, Don Abelardo +Cuesta; it worked to the satisfaction of those who saw it, but the saving of <a id="d0e10742"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e10742">283</a>]</span>manual labour was so inconsiderable that the greater bulk of hemp shipped is still extracted by the primitive process. + +</p> +<p>In September, 1905, Fray Mateo Atienza, of the Franciscan Order, exhibited in Manila a hemp-fibre-drawing machine of his own +invention, the practical worth of which has yet to be ascertained. It is alleged that this machine, manipulated by one man, +can, in a given time, turn out 104 per cent. more clean fibre than the old-fashioned apparatus worked by two men. + +</p> +<p><i lang="la-x-bio">Musa textilis</i> has been planted in British India as an experiment, with unsatisfactory result, evidently owing to a want of knowledge of +the essential conditions of the fibre-extraction. One report<a id="d0e10750src" href="#d0e10750" class="noteref">1</a> says— + + +</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p>“The first trial at extracting the fibre failed on account of our having no proper machine to <i>bruise</i> the stems. We extemporized a two-roller mill; but as it had no cog-gearing to cause both rollers to turn together, the only +one on which the handle or crank was fixed turned, with, the result of grinding the stems to pulp instead of simply <i>bruising</i> them.” +</p> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>In the Philippines one is careful <i>not</i> to bruise the stems, as this would weaken the fibre and discolour it. + +</p> +<p>Another statement from British India shows that Manila hemp requires a very special treatment. It runs thus:— + + +</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p>“The mode of extraction was the same as practised in the locality with <i>Ambadi</i> (brown hemp) and <i>sunn</i> hemp, with the exception that the stems were, in the first place, passed through a sugar-cane mill which got rid of sap averaging +50 per cent. of the whole. The stems were next rotted in water for 10 to 12 days, and afterwards washed by hand and sun-dried. +The out-turn of fibre was 1¾ lbs. per 100 lbs. of fresh stem, a percentage considerably higher than the average shown in the +Saidápet experiments; it was however of bad colour and defective in strength.” +</p> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>If treated in the same manner in the Philippines, a similar bad result would ensue; the pressure of mill rollers would discolour +the fibre, and the soaking with 48 per cent. of pulp, before being sun-dried, would weaken it. + +</p> +<p>Dr. Ure, in his “Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures and Mines,” p. 1, thus describes Manila Hemp:— + + +</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p>“A species of fibre obtained in the Philippine Islands in abundance. Some authorities refer these fibres to the palm-tree +known as the <i>Abacá</i> or <i>Anisa textilis</i>. There seem indeed to be several well-known varieties of fibre included under this name, some so fine that they are used +in the most delicate and costly textures, mixed with fibres of the pine-apple, forming <i>piña</i> muslins and textures equal to the best muslins of Bengal.<a id="d0e10802src" href="#d0e10802" class="noteref">2</a> + +<a id="d0e10817"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e10817">284</a>]</span></p> +<p>“Of the coarser fibres, mats, cordage and sail-cloth are made. M. Duchesne states that the well-known fibrous manufactures +of Manila have led to the manufacture of the fibres themselves, at Paris, into many articles of furniture and dress. Their +brilliancy and strength give remarkable fitness for bonnets, tapestry, carpets, network, hammocks, etc. The only manufactured +articles exported from the Philippine Islands, enumerated by Thomas de Comyn, Madrid, 1820 (translated by Walton), besides +a few tanned buffalo-hides and skins, are 8,000 to 12,000 pieces of light sail-cloth and 200,000 lbs. of assorted <i>Abacá</i> cordage.” +</p> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>Manila-hemp rope is very durable; it is equally applicable to cables and to shipsʼ standing and running rigging, but wanting +in flexibility.<a id="d0e10826src" href="#d0e10826" class="noteref">3</a> + +</p> +<p>Hemp-growing, with ample capital, appears to be the most lucrative and least troublesome of all agricultural enterprises in +staple export produce in the Colony, whilst it is quite independent of the seasons. The plant is neither affected by disease +nor do insects attack it, and the only ordinary risks appear to be hurricanes, drought, insufficient weeding, and the ravages +of the wild boar. + +</p> +<p>Planted in virgin soil, each shoot occupies, at first, a space of 20 English square feet. In the course of time, this regularity +of distribution disappears as the original plant is felled and the suckers come up anywhere, spontaneously, from its root. +The plant requires three years to arrive at cutting maturity, or four years if raised from the seed; most planters, however, +transplant the six-month suckers, instead of the seed, when forming a new plantation. The stem should be cut for fibre-drawing +at the flowering maturity; in no case should it be allowed to bear fruit, as the fibre is thereby weakened, and there is sometimes +even a waste of material in the drawing, as the accumulation of fibre with the sap at the knife is greater. + +</p> +<p>The average weight of dry fibre extracted from one plant equals 10 ounces, or say 2 per cent, of the total weight of the stem +and petioles; but as in practice there is a certain loss of petioles, by cutting out of maturity, whilst others are allowed +to rot through negligence, the average output from a carefully-managed estate does not exceed 3–60 cwt. per acre, or say 4 +piculs per caban of land. + +</p> +<p>The length of the <i>bast</i>, ready for manipulation at the knife, averages in Albay 6 feet 6 inches. + +</p> +<p>The weight of moisture in the wet fibre, immediately it is drawn from the bast, averages 56 per cent. To sun-dry the fibre +thoroughly, an exposure of five hours is necessary. + +</p> +<p>The first petioles forming the outer covering, and the slender central stem itself around which they cluster, are thrown away. +Due to the inefficient method of fibre-drawing, or rather the want of mechanical appliances to effect the same, the waste +of fibre probably amounts to as much as 30 per cent. of the whole contained in the bast. +<a id="d0e10844"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e10844">285</a>]</span></p> +<p>In sugar-cane planting, the poorer the soil is the wider the cane is planted, whilst the hemp-plant is set out at greater +space on virgin land than on old, worked land, the reason being that the hemp-plant in rich soil throws out a great number +of shoots from the same root, which require nourishment and serve for replanting. If space were not left for their development, +the main stem would flower before it had reached its full height and circumference, whereas sugar-cane is purposely choked +in virgin soil to check its running too high and dispersing the saccharine matter whilst becoming ligneous. + +</p> +<p>A great advantage to the colonist, in starting hemp-growing in virgin forest-land, consists in the clearance requiring to +be only partial, whilst newly opened up land is preferable, as on it the young plants will sometimes throw up as many as thirty +suckers. The largest forest-trees are intentionally left to shade the plants and young shoots, so that only light rooting +is imperatively necessary. In cane-planting, quite the reverse is the case, ploughing and sunshine being needful. + +</p> +<p>The great drawback to the beginner with limited capital is the impossibility of recouping himself for his labour and recovering +profit on outlay before three years at least. After that period the risk is small, drought being the chief calamity to be +feared. The plants being set out on high land are extremely seldom inundated, and a conflagration could not spread far amongst +green leaves and sappy petioles. There is no special cropping season as there is in the case of sugar-cane, which, if neglected, +brings a total loss of crop; the plants naturally do not all mature at precisely the same time, and the fibre-extraction can +be performed with little precipitation, and more or less all the year round, although the dry season is preferable for the +sun-bleaching. If, at times, the stage of maturity be overlooked, it only represents a percentage of loss, whilst a whole +plantation of ripe sugar-cane must all be cut with the least possible delay. No ploughing is necessary, although the plant +thrives better when weeding is carefully attended to; no costly machinery has to be purchased and either left to the mercy +of inexperienced hands or placed under the care of highly-paid Europeans, whilst there are few agricultural implements and +no live-stock to be maintained for field labour. + +</p> +<p>The hemp-fibre, when dry, runs a greater risk of fire than sugar, but upon the whole, the comparative advantages of hemp cultivation +over sugar-cane planting appear to be very great. + +</p> +<p>Hemp-fibre is classified by the large provincial dealers and Manila firms as of first, second, and third qualities. The dealers, +or <i lang="es">acopiadores</i>, in treating with the small native collectors, or their own workpeople, take delivery of hemp under two classes only, viz.:—first +quality (<i lang="es">corriente</i>) and second quality (<i lang="es">colorada</i>), the former being the whiter, with a beautiful silky gloss. + +</p> +<p>The difficulties with which the European hemp-cultivator has to <a id="d0e10866"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e10866">286</a>]</span>contend all centre to the same origin—the indolence of the native; hence there is a continual struggle between capitalist +and labourer in the endeavour to counterbalance the nativeʼs inconstancy and antipathy to systematic work. Left to himself, +the native cuts the plant at any period of its maturity. When he is hard pressed for a peso or two he strips a few petioles, +leaving them for days exposed to the rain and atmosphere to soften and render easier the drawing of the fibre, in which putrefaction +has commenced. The result is prejudicial to the dealer and the plantation owner, because the fibre discolours. Then he passes +the bast under a <i>toothed</i> knife, which is easy to work, and goes down to the village with his bundle of discoloured coarse fibre with a certain amount +of dried sap on it to increase the weight. He chooses night-time for the delivery, so that the <i lang="es">acopiador</i> may be deceived in the colour upon which depends the selection of quality, and in order that the fibre, absorbing the dew, +may weigh heavier. These are the tricks of the trade well known to the native. The large dealers and plantation owners use +every effort to enforce the use of knives without teeth, so that the fibre may be fine, perfectly clean and white, to rate +as first-class; the native opposes this on the ground that he loses in weight, whilst he is too dull to appreciate his gain +in higher value. For instance, presuming the first quality to be quoted in Manila at a certain figure per picul and the third +quality at two pesos less, even though the first-class basis price remained firm, the third-class price would fall as the +percentage of third-class quality in the supplies went on increasing. + +</p> +<p>Here and there are to be found hemp-plants which give a whiter fibre than others, whilst some assert that there are three +or four kinds of hemp-plant; but in general all will yield commercial first-class hemp (<i lang="es">Abacá corriente</i>), and if the native could be coerced to cut the plant at maturity—draw the fibre under a toothless knife during the same +day of stripping the petioles—lodge the fibre as drawn on a clean place, and sun-dry it on the first opportunity, then (the +proprietors and dealers positively assert) the output of third-quality need not exceed 5 to 6 per cent. of the whole produced. +In short, the question of quality in <i lang="es">Abacá</i> has vastly less relation to the species of the plant than to the care taken in its extraction and manipulation. + +</p> +<p>The Chinese very actively collect parcels of hemp from the smallest class of native owners, but they also enter into contracts +which bring discredit to the reputation of a province as a hemp-producing district. For a small sum in cash a Chinaman acquires +from a native the right to work his plantation during a short period. Having no proprietary interest at stake, and looking +only to his immediate gain, he indiscriminately strips plants, regardless of maturity, and the property reverts to the small +owner in a sorely dilapidated condition. The market result is that, although the fibre drawn may be white, it is weak, <a id="d0e10884"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e10884">287</a>]</span>therefore dealings with the Chinese require special scrutiny. Under the native system each labourer on an “estate” (called +in Albay Province <i>laté</i>) is remunerated by receiving one-half of all the fibre he draws; the other half belongs to the <i>laté</i> owner. The share corresponding to the labourer is almost invariably delivered at the same time to the employer, who purchases +it at the current local value—often at much less. + +</p> +<p>In sugar-planting, as no sugar can be hoped for until the fixed grinding-season of the year, planters have to advance to their +workpeople during the whole twelve months in Luzon, under the <i lang="es">aparcero</i> system. If, after so advancing during six or eight months, he loses half or more of his crop by natural causes, he stands +a poor chance of recovering his advances of that year. There is no such risk in the case of hemp; when a man wants money he +can work for it, and bring in his bundle of fibre and receive his half-share value. The few foreigners engaged in hemp-planting +usually employ wage labour. + +</p> +<p>In Manila the export-houses estimate the prices of second and third qualities by a rebate from first-class quality price. +These rates necessarily fluctuate. When the deliveries of second and third qualities go on increasing in their proportion +to the quantity of first-class sent to the market, the rebate for lower qualities on the basis price (first-class) is consequently +augmented. If the total supplies to Manila began to show an extraordinarily large proportionate increase of lower qualities, +these differences of prices would be made wider, and in this manner indirect pressure is brought to bear upon the provincial +shippers to send as much first-class quality as possible. + +</p> +<p>The labour of young plant-setting in Albay Province in Spanish times was calculated at 3 pesos per 1,000 plants; the cost +of shoots 2 feet high, for planting out, was from 50 cents to one peso per 100. However, as proprietors were frequently cheated +by natives who, having agreed to plant out the land, did not dig holes sufficiently deep, or set plants without roots, it +became customary in Luzon to pay 10 pesos per 100 live plants, to be counted at the time of full growth, or say in three years, +in lieu of paying for shoots and labour at the prices stated above. The contractor, of course, lived on the estate. + +</p> +<p>In virgin soil, 2,500 plants would be set in one <i>pisoson</i> of land (<i>vide</i> Albay land measure), or say 720 to each acre. + +</p> +<p>A hemp-press employing 60 men and boys should turn out 230 bales per day. Freight by mail steamer to Manila in the year 1890 +from Albay ports beyond the San Bernardino Straits, was 50 cents per bale; from ports west of the Straits, 37½ cents per bale. + +</p> +<p>In the extraction of the fibre the natives work in couples; one man strips the bast, whilst his companion draws it under the +knife. A fair weekʼs work for a couple, including selection of the mature plants and felling, would be about 300 lbs. However, +the labourer is not able to give his entire attention to fibre-drawing, for occasionally a <a id="d0e10913"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e10913">288</a>]</span>day has to be spent in weeding and brushwood clearance, but his half-share interest covers this duty. + +</p> +<p></p> +<div id="d0e10916" class="figure"><img border="0" src="images/p288.jpg" alt="Shipping Hemp in the Provinces" width="512" height="333"><p class="figureHead">Shipping Hemp in the Provinces</p> +</div><p> + +</p> +<p>The finest quality of hemp is produced in the Islands of Leyte and Marinduque, and in the Province of Sorsogón, especially +Gúbat, in Luzon Island. + +</p> +<p>Previous to the year 1825, the quantity of hemp produced in these Islands was insignificant; in 1840 it is said to have exceeded +8,500 tons. The <i>average annual</i> shipment of hemp during the 20 years preceding the American occupation, i.e., 1879–98, was 72,815 tons, produced (annual +average over that period) approximately as follows, viz.:—in Albay and Sorsogón, 32,000 tons; in Leyte, 16,000 tons; in Sámar, +9,000 tons; in Camarines, 4,500 tons; in Mindanao, 4,000 tons; in Cebú, 2,500 tons; in all the other districts together, 4,815 +tons. + +</p> +<p>Albay Province is still the leading hemp district in the Islands. A small quantity of low-quality hemp is produced in Cápis +Province (Panay Is.); collections are also made along the south-east coast of Negros Island from Dumaguete northwards and +in the district of Maúban<a id="d0e10929src" href="#d0e10929" class="noteref">4</a> on the Pacific coast of Tayabas Province (Luzon Is). For figures of Hemp Shipments, <i>vide</i> Chap. <a href="#d0e22333">xxxi</a>., “Trade Statistics.” + +</p> +<p>The highest Manila quotation for first-quality hemp (<i>corriente</i>) during the years 1882 to 1896 inclusive was ₱17.21½ per picul, and the lowest in the same period ₱6.00 per picul (16 piculs += 1 ton; 2 piculs = 1 bale), whilst specially selected lots from Sorsogón and Marinduque fetched a certain advance on these +figures. + + +</p> +<p><i>Albay Province (local) Land Measure</i> + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="60%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top"> 1 Topon </td> +<td valign="top">= 16 square Brazas = 53.776 English square yards. + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">312½ Topones </td> +<td valign="top">= 1 Pisoson = 5,000 square Brazas. + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">312½ Topones </td> +<td valign="top">= ½ of Quiñon = 2½ Cabanes = 3.472 acres.</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>During the decade prior to the commercial depression of 1884, enormous sums of money were lent by foreign firms and wealthy +hemp-staplers to the small producers against deliveries to be effected. But experience proved that lending to native producers +was a bad business, for, on delivery of the produce, they expected to be again paid the full value and pass over the sums +long due. Hence, capital which might have been employed to the mutual advantage of all concerned, was partially withheld, +and the natives complained then, as they do now, that there is no money. + +</p> +<p>Fortunately for the Philippines, the fibre known as Manila hemp is a speciality of the Colony, and the prospect of over-production, +almost annihilating profits to producers—as in the sugar colonies—is <a id="d0e10971"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e10971">289</a>]</span>at present remote, although the competition with other fibre is severe. The chief fibre-producing countries, besides this +colony, are New Zealand, Mauritius, East Indies, Italy, Russia, North America (sisal) and Mexico (henequen). + +</p> +<p>In 1881 the <i>Abacá</i> plants presented to the Saigon Botanical Gardens were flourishing during the management of Mons. Coroy, but happily for this +Colony the experiment, which was to precede the introduction of “Manila Hemp” into French Cochin China, was abandoned, the +plants having been removed by that gentlemanʼs successor. In 1890 “Manila Hemp” was cultivated in British North Borneo by +the Labuk Planting Company, Limited, and the fibre raised on their estates was satisfactorily reported on by the Rope Works +in Hong-Kong. + +</p> +<p>In view of the present scarcity of live-stock, hemp, which needs no buffalo tillage, would seem to be the most hopeful crop +of the future. It will probably advance as fast as sugar cultivation is receding, and command a good remunerative price. Moreover, +as already explained, not being distinctly a season crop as sugar is, nor requiring expensive machinery to produce it, its +cultivation is the most recommendable to American colonists. +</p> +<hr class="tb"><p> + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Coffee</span> <i>(Coffea arabica)</i> planting was commenced in the Colony early in the last century. Up to 1889 plantation-owners in the Province of Batangas +assured me that the trees possessed by their grandfathers were still flourishing, whilst it is well known that in many coffee-producing +colonies the tree bears profitably only up to the twenty-fifth year, and at the thirtieth year it is quite exhausted. Unless +something be done to revive this branch of agriculture it seems as if coffee would soon cease to be an article of export from +these Islands. In the year 1891 the crops in Luzon began to fall off very considerably, in a small measure due to the trees +having lost their vigour, but chiefly owing to the ravages of a worm in the stems. In 1892–93 the best and oldest-established +plantations were almost annihilated. Nothing could be done to stop the scourge, and several of the wealthiest coffee-owners +around Lipa, personally known to me, ploughed up their land and started sugar-cane growing in place of coffee. In 1883 7,451 +tons of coffee were shipped, whilst in 1903 the total export did not reach four tons. + +</p> +<p>The best Philippine Coffee comes from the Provinces of Batangas, La Laguna and Cavite (Luzon Is.), and includes a large proportion +of <i>caracolillo</i>, which is the nearest shape to the Mocha bean and the most esteemed. The temperate mountain regions of Benguet, Bontoc, and +Lepanto (N.W. Luzon) also yield good coffee. + +</p> +<p>The most inferior Philippine coffee is produced in Mindanao Island, and is sent up to Manila sometimes containing a quantity +of rotten beans. It consequently always fetches a lower price than Manila (i.e., Luzon) coffee, which is highly prized in +the market. + +<a id="d0e10996"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e10996">290</a>]</span></p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Manila Quotations for the Two Qualities</span> + +</p> +<p><i>Average Prices throughout the Years</i> + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Per Picul of 133⅓ Eng. lbs. + +</td> +<td valign="top">1882 + +</td> +<td valign="top">1883 + +</td> +<td valign="top">1884 + +</td> +<td valign="top">1885 + +</td> +<td valign="top">1886 + +</td> +<td valign="top">1887 + +</td> +<td valign="top">1888 + +</td> +<td valign="top">1890 + +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1891</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top"><i> +</i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>P. cts. +</i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>P. cts. +</i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>P. cts. +</i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>P. cts. +</i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>P. cts. +</i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>P. cts. +</i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>P. cts. +</i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>P. cts. +</i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>P. cts.</i></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Manila (Luzon) Coffee + +</td> +<td valign="top">10.25 + +</td> +<td valign="top">12.00 + +</td> +<td valign="top">12.68 + +</td> +<td valign="top">12.00 + +</td> +<td valign="top">12.17 + +</td> +<td valign="top">26.14 + +</td> +<td valign="top">21.47 + +</td> +<td valign="top">31.00 + +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">30.50</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Mindanao Coffee + +</td> +<td valign="top">9.30 + +</td> +<td valign="top">10.00 + +</td> +<td valign="top">12.00 + +</td> +<td valign="top">9.87 + +</td> +<td valign="top">9.56 + +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">19.50 <i>nom.</i> + +</td> +<td valign="top">20.34 + +</td> +<td valign="top">25.80 + +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">24.40</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>Quotations later than 1891 would serve no practical purpose in the above table of comparison, as, due to the extremely small +quantity produced, almost fancy prices have ruled since that date. In 1896, for instance, the market price ran up to ₱35 per +picul, whilst some small parcels exchanged hands at a figure so capriciously high that it cannot be taken as a quotation. +For figures of Coffee Shipments, <i>vide</i> Chap, xxxi., “Trade Statistics.” + +</p> +<p>I investigated the system of coffee-growing and trading in all the Luzon districts, and found it impossible to draw up a correct +general estimate showing the nett cost laid down in Manila market. The manner of acquiring the produce and the conditions +of purchase varied so greatly, and were subject to so many peculiar local circumstances, that only an approximate computation +could be arrived at. + +</p> +<p>Some of the provincial collectors had plantations of their own; others had not, whilst none of them depended entirely upon +the produce of their own trees for fulfilling the contracts in the capital. + +</p> +<p>Coffee was a much more fluctuating concern than hemp, as the purchase-rate (although perhaps low) was determined out of season +several months before it was seen how the market would stand for the sale of that coffee; in hemp transactions (there being +practically no season for hemp) the purchase-money need only be paid on delivery of the produce by the labourer at rates proportionate +to Manila prices, unless the dealer be simply a speculator, in which case, having contracted in Manila to deliver at a price, +he must advance to secure deliveries to fulfil his contract. Therefore, in coffee, a provincial collector might lose something +on the total yearʼs transactions or he might make an enormous profit, if he worked with his own capital. If he borrowed the +capital from Manila dealers—middlemen—as was often the case, then he might make a fortune for his Manila friends, or he might +lose another yearʼs interest on the borrowed funds. + +</p> +<p>In Cavite Province districts there was another way of negotiating coffee speculations. The dealer with capital advanced at, +say, 6 or 7 pesos per picul “on joint account up to Manila.” The planter then bound himself to deliver so many piculs of coffee +of the next gathering, and the difference between the advance rate and the sale price in Manila was shared between the two, +after the capitalist had <a id="d0e11107"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e11107">291</a>]</span>deducted the charges for transport, packing, commission in Manila, etc. All the risk was, of course, on the part of the capitalist, +for if the crop failed the small planter had no means of refunding the advance. + +</p> +<p>On a carefully-managed plantation, a caban of land (8,000 square Spanish yards) was calculated to yield 10.40 piculs (= 12½ +cwt.) of clean coffee, or, say, 9 cwt. per acre. The selling value of a plantation, in full growth, was about ₱250 per caban, +or, say, ₱180 per acre. After 1896 this land value was merely nominal. + +</p> +<p>The trees begin to give marketable coffee in the fourth year of growth, and flourish best in hilly districts and on highlands, +where the roots can be kept dry, and where the average temperature does not exceed 70° Fahr. <i>Caracolillo</i> is found in greater quantities on the highest declivities facing east, where the morning sun evaporates the superfluous moisture +of the previous nightʼs dew. + +</p> +<p>In the Province of Cavite there appeared to be very little system in the culture of the coffee-tree. Little care was taken +in the selection of shading-trees, and pruning was much neglected. Nevertheless, very fine coffee was brought from the neighbourhood +of Indan, Silan, Alfonso, and Amadeo. The Batangas bean had the best reputation in Manila; hence the Indan product was sometimes +brought to that market and sold as Batangas coffee. + +</p> +<p>In Batangas the coffee-plant is usually shaded by a tree called <i>Madrecacao</i> (<i lang="la-x-bio">Gliricidia maculata</i>)—Tagálog, <i lang="tl">Galedupa pungam</i>. On starting a plantation this tree is placed in rows, each trunk occupying one Spanish yard, and when it has attained two +or three feet in height the coffee-shoot is planted at each angle. Between the third and eighth years of growth every alternate +shading-tree and coffee-plant is removed, as more space for development becomes necessary. The coffee-plants are pruned from +time to time, and on no account should the branches be allowed to hang over and meet. Around the wealthy town of Lipa some +of the many coffee-estates were extremely well kept up, with avenues crossing the plantations in different directions. + +</p> +<p>At the end of eight years, more or less, according to how the quality of soil and the situation have influenced the development, +there would remain, say, about 2,400 plants in each caban of land, or 1,728 plants per acre. Comparing this with the yield +per acre, each tree would therefore give 9.33 ounces of marketable coffee, whilst in Peru, where the coffee-tree is planted +at an elevation of 5,000 to 6,000 feet above sea-level, each tree is said to yield one pound weight of beans. + +</p> +<p>In the Philippines the fresh ripe berries, when thoroughly sun-dried, lose an average weight of 52 per cent. moisture. + +</p> +<p>The sun-dried berries ready for pounding (husking) give an average of 33.70 of their weight in marketable coffee-beans. + +</p> +<p>It takes <i>eight</i> cabanes measure (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e10463">276</a>) of fresh-picked ripe berries to turn out <i>one</i> picul weight of clean beans. +<a id="d0e11149"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e11149">292</a>]</span></p> +<p>Owing to the fact that one year in every five gives a short crop, due either to the nature of the plant or to climatic variations, +it pays better to collect coffee from the very small growers rather than sink capital in large estates on the <i>aparcero</i> system (q.v.). + +</p> +<p>The coffee-plant imperatively requires shade and moisture, and over-pruning is prejudicial. If allowed to run to its natural +height it would grow up to 15 to 25 feet high, but it is usually kept at 7 to 10 feet. The leaves are evergreen, very shining, +oblong, leathery, and much resemble those of the common laurel. The flowers are small, and cluster in the axils of the leaves. +They are somewhat similar to the Spanish jasmine, and being snow-white, the effect of a coffee plantation in bloom is delightful, +whilst the odour is fragrant. The fruit, when ripe, is of a dark scarlet colour, and the ordinary coffee-berry contains two +semi-elliptic seeds of a horny or cartilaginous nature glued together and enveloped in a coriaceous membrane; when this is +removed each seed is found covered with a silver-grey pellicle. + +</p> +<p>The <i>Caracolillo</i> coffee-berry contains only one seed, with a furrow in the direction of the long axis, which gives it the appearance of being +a geminous seed with an inclination to open out on one side. + +</p> +<p>In Arabia Felix, where coffee was first planted in the 15th century, and its cultivation is still extensive, the collection +of the fruit is effected by spreading cloths under the trees, from which, on being violently shaken, the ripe berries fall, +and are then placed upon mats to dry, after which the beans are pressed under a heavy roller. + +</p> +<p>In the Philippines, women and children—sometimes men—go into the plantations with baskets and pick the berries. The fruit +is then heaped, and, in a few days, washed, so that a great portion of the pulp is got rid of. Then the berries are dried +and pounded in a mortar to separate the inner membrane and pellicle; these are winnowed from the clean bean, which constitutes +the coffee of commerce and is sent in bags to Manila for sale. + +</p> +<p>The Philippine plantations give only one crop yearly, whilst in the West Indies beans of unequal ripeness are to be found +during eight months of the twelve, and in Brazil there are three annual gatherings. +</p> +<hr class="tb"><p> + +</p> +<p>The seed of the <span class="smallcaps">Tobacco-plant</span> (<i lang="la-x-bio">Nicotiana tabacum</i>) was among the many novelties introduced into the Philippines from Mexico by Spanish missionaries, soon after the possession +of the Colony by the Spaniards was an accomplished fact. From this Colony it is said to have been taken in the 16th or 17th +century into the south of China, where its use was so much abused that the sale of this so-called noxious article was, for +a long time, prohibited under penalty of death. + +</p> +<p>During the first two centuries of Spanish dominion but little direct attention was paid to the tobacco question by the Government, +who only nominally held, but did not assert, the exclusive right of traffic in <a id="d0e11180"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e11180">293</a>]</span>this article. At length, in the year 1781, during the Gov.-Generalship of José Basco y Vargas (a naval officer), the cultivation +and sale of tobacco was formally decreed a State monopoly, which lasted up to the end of the year 1882. In the meantime, it +became an important item of public revenue. In 1882 the profits of the Tobacco Monopoly amounted to half the Colonyʼs Budget +expenditure. + +</p> +<p>A few years before that date a foreign company offered to guarantee the Budget (then about ₱15,000,000), in exchange for the +Tobacco Monopoly, but the proposal was not entertained, although in the same year the Treasury deficit amounted to ₱2,000,000. + +</p> +<p>By Royal Decree of July 1, 1844, a contract was entered into with the firm of OʼShea & Co., renting to them the Monopoly, +but it was suddenly rescinded. The annual profits from tobacco to the Government at that date were about ₱2,500,000. + + +</p> +<p><i>Government Profit</i> + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="60%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1840 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">₱2,123,505 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1845 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 2,570,679 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1850 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 3,036,611 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1855 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 3,721,168 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1859 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 4,932,463 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1860 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>over</i> 5,000,000 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1869 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 5,230,581</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>A bale of tobacco contains 4,000 leaves in 40 bundles (<i>manos</i>), of 100 leaves each. + + +</p> +<p>The classification of the deliveries depended on the districts where the crop was raised and the length of the leaf. + +</p> +<p>The tobacco trade being also a Government concern in Spain, this Colony was required to supply the Peninsula State Factories +with 90,000 quintals (of 100 Span, lbs.) of tobacco-leaf per annum. + +</p> +<p>Government Monopoly was in force in Luzon Island only. The tobacco districts of that island were Cagayán Valley (which comprises +La Isabela), La Union, El Abra, Ilocos Sur y Norte and Nueva Ecija. In no other part of Luzon was tobacco-planting allowed, +except for a short period on the Caraballo range, inhabited by undomesticated mountain tribes, upon whom prohibition would +have been difficult to enforce. In 1842 the Igorrotes were allowed to plant, and, in the year 1853, the Government collection +from this source amounted to 25,000 bales of excellent quality. The total population of these districts was, in 1882 (the +last year of Monopoly), about 785,000. + +</p> +<p>The Visayas Islands were never under the Monopoly system. The natives there were free to raise tobacco or other crops on their +land. It was not until 1840 that tobacco-planting attracted general attention in Visayas. Government factories or collecting-centres +were established there for classifying and storing such tobacco as the Visayos cared to bring in for sale to the State, but +they were at liberty to sell their produce privately or in the public markets. They also disposed of large quantities by contraband +to the Luzon Island Provinces.<a id="d0e11242src" href="#d0e11242" class="noteref">5</a> +<a id="d0e11250"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e11250">294</a>]</span></p> +<p>Antique Province never yielded more tobacco than could be consumed locally. In 1841 the Antique tobacco crop was valued at +₱80,000. But, in the hope of obtaining higher prices, the enthusiastic Provincial Governor, Manuel Iturriaga, encouraged the +growers, in 1843, to send a trial parcel to the Government collectors; it was, however, unclassed and rejected. + +</p> +<p>Mindoro, Lucban, and Marinduque Islands produced tobacco about sixty years ago, and in 1846 the Government established a collecting-centre +in Mindoro; but the abuses and cruelty of the officials towards the natives, to force them to bring in their crops, almost +extinguished this class of husbandry. + +</p> +<p>During the period of Monopoly in the Luzon districts, the production was very carefully regulated by the Home Government, +by enactments revised from time to time, called “General Instructions for the Direction, Administration and Control of the +Government Monopolies.”<a id="d0e11257src" href="#d0e11257" class="noteref">6</a> Compulsory labour was authorized, and those natives in the northern provinces of Luzon Island who wished to till the land +(the property of the State)—for title-deeds were almost unknown and never applied for by the natives—were compelled to give +preference to tobacco. In fact, no other crops were allowed to be raised. Moreover, they were not permitted peacefully to +indulge their indolent nature—to scrape up the earth and plant when and where they liked for a mere subsistence. Each family +was coerced into contracting with the Government to raise 4,000 plants per annum, subject to a fine in the event of failure. +The planter had to deliver into the State stores all the tobacco of his crop—not a single leaf could he reserve for his private +consumption. + +</p> +<p>Lands left uncultivated could be appropriated by the Government, who put their own nominees to work them, and he who had come +to consider himself owner, by mere undisturbed possession, lost the usufruct and all other rights for three years. His right +to the land, in fact, was not freehold, but tenure by villein socage. + +</p> +<p>Emigrants were sent north from the west coast Provinces of North and South Ilocos. The first time I went up to Cagayán about +200 emigrant families were taken on board our vessel at North Ilocos, <i>en route</i> for the tobacco districts, and appeared to be as happy as other natives in general. They were well supplied with food and +clothing, and comfortably lodged on their arrival at the Port of Aparri. + +</p> +<p>In the Government Regulations referred to, the old law of Charles III., which enacted that a native could not be responsible +at law for a debt exceeding ₱5, was revived, and those emigrants who had debts were only required to liquidate them out of +their earnings in the tobacco district up to that legal maximum value. + +</p> +<p>As soon as the native growers were settled on their lands their <a id="d0e11273"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e11273">295</a>]</span>condition was by no means an enviable one. A Nueva Ecija landowner and tobacco-grower, in a letter to <i lang="es">El Liberal</i> (Madrid) in 1880, depicts the situation in the following terms:—The planter, he says, was only allowed to smoke tobacco of +his own crop inside the aërating-sheds which were usually erected on the fields under tilth. If he happened to be caught by +a carabineer only a few steps outside the shed with a cigar in his mouth he was fined 2 pesos—if a cigarette, 50 cents—and +adding to these sums the costs of the conviction, a cigar of his own crop came to cost him ₱7.37½, and a cigarette ₱1.87½. +The fines in Nueva Ecija amounted to an annual average of ₱7,000 on a population of 170,000. From sunrise to sunset the native +grower was subject to domiciliary search for concealed tobacco—his trunks, furniture, and every nook and corner of his dwelling +were ransacked. He and all his family—wife and daughters—were personally examined: and often an irate husband, father, or +brother, goaded to indignation by the indecent humiliation of his kinswoman, would lay hands on his bowie-knife and bring +matters to a bloody crisis with his wanton persecutors... The leaves were carefully selected, and only such as came under +classification were paid for. The rejected bundles were not returned to the grower, but burnt—a despairing sacrifice to the +toiler! The <i lang="es">Cabezas de Barangay</i> (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e7247">223</a>) had, under penalty of arrest and hard labour, to see that the families fulfilled their onerous contract. Corporal punishment, +imprisonment, and amercement resulted; of frequent occurrence were those fearful scenes which culminated in riots such as +those of Ilocos in 1807 and 1814, when many Spaniards fell victims to the nativesʼ resentment of their oppression. + +</p> +<p>Palpable injustice, too, was imposed by the Government with respect to the payments. The Treasury paid loyally for many years, +but as generation succeeded generation, and the native growersʼ families came to feel themselves attached to the soil they +cultivated, the Treasury, reposing on the security of this constancy, no longer kept to the compact. The officials failed +to pay with punctuality to the growers the contracted value of the deliveries to the State stores. They required exactitude +from the native—the Government set the example of remissness. The consequence was appalling. Instead of money Treasury notes +were given them, and speculators of the lowest type used to scour the tobacco-growing districts to buy up this paper at an +enormous discount. The misery of the natives was so distressing, the distrust of the Government so radicate, and the want +of means of existence so urgent, that they were wont to yield their claims for an insignificant relative specie value. The +speculators held the bonds for realization some day; the total amount due by the Government at one time exceeded ₱1,500,000. +Once the Treasury was so hard-pressed for funds that the tobacco ready in Manila for shipment to Spain had to be sold on the +spot and the 90,000 quintals could not be sent—hence <a id="d0e11289"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e11289">296</a>]</span>purchases of Philippine tobacco had to be made by tender in London for the Spanish Government cigar factories. + +</p> +<p>At length, during the government of General Domingo Moriones (1877–80), it was resolved to listen to the overwhelming complaints +from the North, and pay up to date in coin. But, to do this, Spain, always in a state of chronic insolvency, had to resort +to an abominable measure of disloyalty. The funds of the Deposit Bank (<i lang="es">Caja de Depósitos</i>) were arbitrarily appropriated, and the deposit-notes, bearing 8 per cent. interest per annum, held by private persons, most +of whom were Government clerks, etc., were dishonoured at due date. This gave rise to great clamour on the part of those individuals +whose term of service had ceased (<i lang="es">cesantes</i>), and who, on their return to Spain, naturally wished to take their accumulated savings with them. The Gov.-General had no +other recourse open to him but to reinstate them in their old positions, on his own responsibility, pending the financial +crisis and the receipt of instructions from the Government at Madrid. + +</p> +<p>For a long time the question of abolishing the Monopoly had been debated, and by Royal Order of May 20, 1879, a commission +was appointed to inquire into the convenience of farming out the tobacco traffic. The natives were firmly opposed to it; they +dreaded the prospect of the provinces being overrun by a band of licensed persecutors, and of the two evils they preferred +State to private Monopoly. Warm discussions arose for and against it through the medium of the Manila newspapers. The “Consejo +de Filipinas,” in Madrid, had given a favourable report dated May 12, 1879, and published in the <i lang="es">Gaceta de Madrid</i> of July 13, 1879. The clergy defeated the proposal by the Corporations of Friars jointly presenting a Memorial against it—and +it was thenceforth abandoned. The Tobacco Monopoly was the largest source of public revenue, hence the doubt as to the policy +of free trade and the delay in granting it. There existed a possibility of the Treasury sustaining an immense and irretrievable +loss, for a return to Monopoly, after free trade had been allowed, could not for a moment be thought of. It was then a safe +income to the Government, and it was feared by many that the industry, by free labour, would considerably fall off. + +</p> +<p>As already stated, the Government Monopoly ceased on December 31, 1882, when the tobacco cultivation and trade were handed +over to private enterprise. At that date there were five Government Cigar and Cigarette Factories, viz.:—Malabon, Arroceros, +Meisig, El Fortin, and Cavite, giving employment to about 20,000 operatives. + +</p> +<p>Up to within a year of the abolition of Monopoly, a very good smokeable cigar could be purchased in the <i lang="es">estancos</i><a id="d0e11310src" href="#d0e11310" class="noteref">7</a> from one half-penny and upwards, but as soon as the free trade project was definitely decided upon, the Government factories, +in order to work off their old stocks of inferior leaf, filled the <i lang="es">estancos</i> with cigars of the worst quality. +<a id="d0e11316"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e11316">297</a>]</span></p> +<p>The Colonial Treasurer-General at the time of this reform entertained very sanguine hopes respecting the rush which would +be made for the Government brands, and the general public were led to believe that a scarcity of manufactured tobacco would, +for some months, at least, follow the establishment of free trade in this article. With this idea in view, Government stocks +sold at auction aroused competition and fetched unusually high prices at the close of 1882 and the first month of the following +year, in some cases as much as 23/– per cwt. being realized over the upset prices. However, the Treasurer-General was carried +too far in his expectations. He was unfortunately induced to hold a large amount of Government manufactured tobacco in anticipation +of high offers, the result being an immense loss to the Treasury, as only a part was placed, with difficulty, at low prices, +and the remainder shipped to Spain. In January, 1883, the stock of tobacco in Government hands amounted to about 100 tons +of 1881 crop, besides the whole crop of 1882. Little by little the upset prices had to be lowered to draw buyers. The tobacco +shipped during the first six months of the year 1883 was limited to that sold by auction out of the Government stocks, for +the Government found themselves in a dilemma with their stores of this article, and the free export only commenced half a +year after free production was granted. On December 29, 1883, a Government sale by auction was announced at 50 per cent. reduction +on their already low prices, but the demand was still very meagre. Finally, in the course of 1884, the Government got rid +of the bulk of their stock, the balance being shipped to the mother country. The colonial authorities continued to pay the +ancient tobacco-tribute to Spain, and the first contract, with this object, was made during that year with a private company +for the supply of about 2,750 tons. + +</p> +<p>During the first year of Free Trade, cigar and cigarette factories were rapidly started in Manila and the provinces, but up +to 1897 only some eight or ten factories had improved the quality of the manufactured article, whilst prices rose so considerably +that the general public probably lost by the reform. Cigars, like those sold in the <i>estancos</i> in 1881, could never again be got so good for the same price, but at higher prices much better brands were offered. + +</p> +<p>A small tax on the cigar and tobacco-leaf trade, officially announced in August, 1883, had the beneficial effect of causing +the closure of some of the very small manufactories, and reduced the probability of a large over-supply of an almost worthless +article. + +</p> +<p>Export-houses continued to make large shipments of leaf-tobacco and cigars until the foreign markets were glutted with Philippine +tobacco in 1883, and in the following years the export somewhat decreased. For figures of Tobacco Leaf and Cigar Shipments, +<i>vide</i> Chap, xxxi., “Trade Statistics.” + +</p> +<p>As to the relative quality of Philippine tobacco, there are very <a id="d0e11333"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e11333">298</a>]</span>divided opinions. Decidedly the best Manila cigars cannot compare with those made from the famous leaf of the Vuelta de Abajo +(Cuba), and in the European markets they have very justly failed to meet with the same favourable reception as the Cuban cigars +generally. + +</p> +<p>During my first journey up the Cagayán River, I was told that some years ago the Government made earnest efforts to improve +the quality of the plant by the introduction of seed from Cuba, but unfortunately it became mixed up with that usually planted +in the Philippine provinces, and the object in view failed completely. On my renewed visit to the tobacco districts, immediately +after the abolition of monopoly, the importance of properly manipulating the green leaf did not appear to be thoroughly appreciated. +The exact degree of fermentation was not ascertained with the skill and perseverance necessary to turn out a well-prepared +article. Some piles which I tested were over-heated (taking the Java system as my standard), whilst larger quantities had +been aërated so long in the shed, after cutting, that they had lost their finest aroma. + +</p> +<p>There are many risks in tobacco-leaf trading. The leaf, during its growth, is exposed to perforation by a worm which, if not +brushed off every morning, may spread over the whole field. Through the indolence of the native cultivator this misfortune +happens so frequently that rarely does the Cagayán Valley tobacco contain (in the total crop of the season) more than 10 per +cent. of perfect, undamaged leaves. In the aërating-sheds another kind of worm appears in the leaf; and, again, after the +leaves are baled or the cigars boxed, an insect drills little holes through them—locally, it is said to be “picado.” + +</p> +<p>Often in the dry season (the winter months) the tobacco-leaf, for want of a little moisture, matures narrow, thick and gummy, +and contains an excess of nicotine, in which case it can only be used after several yearsʼ storage. Too much rain entirely +spoils the leaf. Another obstacle to Philippine cigar manufacture is the increasing universal demand for cigars with light-coloured +wrappers, for which hardly two per cent. of the Philippine leaf is suitable in world competition, whilst the operative cannot +handle with economy the delicate light-coloured Sumatra wrapper. The difficulties of transport are so great that it costs +more to bring the finest tobacco-leaf from the field to the Manila factory than it would to send it from Manila to Europe +in large parcels. The labour question is also an important consideration, for it takes several years of daily practice for +a Filipino to turn out a first-class marketable cigar; the most skilful operatives can earn up to ₱50 a month. + +</p> +<p>The best quality of Philippine tobacco is produced in the northern provinces of Luzon Island, the choicest selections coming +from Cagayán and La Isabela. The Provinces of Nueva Vizcaya, Ilocos Sur y Norte, La Union, Nueva Ecija, and even Pampanga, +yield tobacco. +<a id="d0e11343"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e11343">299</a>]</span></p> +<p>In the Visayas, tobacco is cultivated in Panay Island and on the east coast of Negros Island (district of Escalante) and Cebú +Island—also to a limited extent in Mindanao. The Visaya leaf generally is inferior in quality, particularly that of Yloilo +Province, some of which, in fact, is such rubbish that it is difficult to understand how a profit can be expected from its +cultivation. The Escalante (Negros, E. coast) and the Barili (Cebú W. coast) tobacco seemed to me to be the fullest flavoured +and most agreeable leaf in all the Visayas. + +</p> +<p>A tobacco plantation is about as pretty as a cabbage-field. + +</p> +<p>In 1883 a company, styled The General Philippine Tobacco Company (“<span lang="es">Compañia General de Tabacos de Filipinas</span>”), formed in Spain and financially supported by French capitalists, was established in this Colony with a capital of £3,000,000. +It gave great impulse to the trade by soon starting with five factories and purchasing four estates (“San Antonio,” “Santa +Isabel,” “San Luis,” and “La Concepcion”), with buying-agents in every tobacco district. Up to 1898 the baled tobacco-leaf +trade was chiefly in the hands of this company. Little by little the company launched out into other branches of produce-purchasing, +and lost considerable sums of money in the provinces in its unsuccessful attempt to compete with the shrewd foreign merchants, +but it is still a good going concern. + + +</p> +<p><i>Prices and Weights of some of the best Cigars Manufactured in Manila packed in Boxes ready for Use or Shipment.</i> + + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="80%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" colspan="2"><b>Per Thousand. </b></td> +<td valign="top"><b>In Boxes of </b></td> +<td valign="top" colspan="2"><b>Per Thousand. </b></td> +<td valign="top"><b>In Boxes of</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>lbs. </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Pesos </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>lbs. </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Pesos +</i></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">30 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">500 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">10 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">17 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">45 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 50</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">30 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">200 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">25 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">17 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">40 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 50</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">17 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">150 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">25 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">12 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">30 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 50</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">25 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">125 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">25 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">16 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">24 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 50</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">23 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 70 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">25 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">12 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">20 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">100</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">17 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 60 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">50 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">16 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">18 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">100</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">18 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 50 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">50 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">4½ </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">13 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">100</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>Cigars and cigarettes are now offered for sale in every town, village, and hamlet of the Islands, and their manufacture for +the immense home consumption (which, of cigars, is about one-third of the whole output), and to supply the demand for export, +constitutes an important branch of trade, giving employment to thousands of operatives. + +<a id="d0e11470"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e11470">300</a>]</span></p> +<div class="footnotes"> +<hr class="fnsep"> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e10750" href="#d0e10750src" class="noteref">1</a></span> Extract from a letter dated September 29, 1885, from H. Strachan, Esq., Superintendent, Government Experimental Farm, Hyderabad, +Sindh—and Extract from a letter dated February 13, 1886, from A. Stormont, Esq., Superintendent, Government Experimental Farm, +Khandesh (<i>vide</i> “The Tropical Agriculturist,” Colombo, June 1, 1886, p. 876 <i>et seq</i>.). +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e10802" href="#d0e10802src" class="noteref">2</a></span> The extremely fine muslin of delicate texture known in the Philippines as <i>Piña</i> is made <i>exclusively</i> of pine-apple <i>leaf</i> fibre. When these fibres are woven together with the slender filament drawn from the edges of the hemp petiole, the manufactured +article is called <i>Husi</i>. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e10826" href="#d0e10826src" class="noteref">3</a></span> A British patent for Manila hemp-paper was granted to Newton in 1852. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e10929" href="#d0e10929src" class="noteref">4</a></span> A large proportion of the product sent from Maúban to Manila as marketable hemp is really a wild hemp-fibre locally known +by the name of <i>Alinsanay</i>. It is a worthless, brittle filament which has all the external appearance of marketable hemp. A sample of it broke as easily +as silk thread between my fingers. Its maximum strength is calculated to be one-fourth of hemp fibre. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e11242" href="#d0e11242src" class="noteref">5</a></span> <i>Vide</i> Instructions <i>re</i> Contraband from the Treasury Superintendent, Juan Manuel de la Matta, to the “Intendente de Visayas” in 1843. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e11257" href="#d0e11257src" class="noteref">6</a></span> <i lang="es">Instruccion General para la Direccion, Administracion y Intervencion de las Rentas Estancadas</i>, 1849. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e11310" href="#d0e11310src" class="noteref">7</a></span> Licensed depôts for the sale of monopolized goods. +</p> +</div> +</div> +<div id="d0e11471" class="div1"> +<h2 class="normal">Sundry Forest and Farm Produce</h2> +<h2 class="normal">Maize—Cacao—Coprah, Etc.</h2> +<p>Maize (<i lang="la-x-bio">Zea mays</i>), or “Indian Corn,” forms the staple article of food in lieu of rice in a limited number of districts, particularly in the +South, although as a rule this latter cereal is preferred. + +</p> +<p>Many agriculturists alternate their crops with that of maize, which, it is said, does not impoverish the land to any appreciable +extent. There is no great demand for this grain, and it is generally cultivated rather as an article for consumption in the +growerʼs household than for trade. Planted in good land it gives about 200-fold, and two crops in the year = 400-fold per +annum; but the setting out of one caban of maize grain occupies five times the surface required for the planting of the same +measure of rice grain. An ordinary caban of land is 8,000 square Spanish yards (<i>vide</i> Land Measure, p. <a href="#d0e10145">271</a>), and this superficie derives its denomination from the fact that it is the average area occupied by the planting out of +one caban measure of rice grain. The maize caban of land is quite a special measure, and is equal to 5 rice cabans. Estimating, +therefore, the average yield of rice-paddy to be 50 cabanes measure per ordinary caban of land, the same superficie, were +it suitable for maize-raising, would give one-fifth of 400-fold per annum = 80 cabanes measure of maize per rice caban of +land. + +</p> +<p>The current price of maize, taking the average in several provinces, is rarely above that of paddy for the same measure, whilst +it is often lower, according to the demand, which is influenced by the custom of the natives in the vicinity where it is offered +for sale. + +</p> +<p>It is eaten after being pulverized between stone or hardwood slabs with the surfaces set horizontally, the upper one being +caused to revolve on the lower one, which is stationary. In many village market-places one sees heads of maize roasted and +exposed for sale. This is of a special quality, grown in alluvial soil—the intervals of rivers which overflow at certain seasons +of the year. Three crops per annum are obtainable on land of this kind, so that the supply is constant all the year round. +Before the American occupation, the price of the raw maize-heads <a id="d0e11493"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e11493">301</a>]</span>to the market-sellers was about 60 cuartos per 100, which they retailed out roasted at one cuarto each (3½ cuartos equal about +one penny); the profit was therefore proportionately large when local festivities created a demand. +</p> +<hr class="tb"><p> + +</p> +<p>The <span class="smallcaps">Cacao-tree</span>—(<i lang="la-x-bio">Theobroma cacao</i>, or “Food of the gods,” as Linnæus called it)—a native of Central America, flourishes in these Islands in the hot and damp +districts. + +</p> +<p>It is said to have been imported into the Philippines towards the end of the 17th century from Mexico, where it has been in +very ancient use. Gaspar de San Agustin records the following<a id="d0e11507src" href="#d0e11507" class="noteref">1</a>:—“In the year 1670 a navigator, Pedro Brabo de Lagunas, brought from Acapulco a pot containing a cacao-plant which he gave +to his brother, Bartolomé Brabo, a priest in Camarines, from whom it was stolen by a Lipa native, Juan del Aguila, who hid +it and took care of it, and from it was propagated all the original Philippine stock.” + +</p> +<p>Outside the tropics the tree will grow in some places, but gives no fruit. The Philippine quality is very good, and compares +favourably with that of other countries, the best being produced between latitudes 11° and 12° N. + +</p> +<p>The cultivation of cacao is an extremely risky and delicate business, as, often when the planterʼs hopes are about to be realized, +a slight storm will throw down the almost-ripened fruit in a day. A disease sometimes attacks the roots and spreads through +a plantation. It would be imprudent, therefore, to devote oneʼs time exclusively to the cultivation of this product at the +risk of almost instantaneous ruin. Usually, the Philippine agriculturist rightly regards cacao only as a useful adjunct to +his other crops. In the aspect of a cacao plantation there is nothing specially attractive. The tree itself is not pretty. +The natives who grow the fruit usually make their own chocolate at home by roasting the beans over a slow fire, and after +separating them from their husks (like almond-skins), they pound them with wet sugar, etc., into a paste, using a kind of +rolling-pin on a concave block of wood. The roasted beans should be made into chocolate at once, as by exposure to the air +they lose flavour. Small quantities of cacao are sent to Spain, but the consumption in the Colony, when made into chocolate<a id="d0e11514src" href="#d0e11514" class="noteref">2</a> by adding sugar, vanilla, cinnamon, etc., to counteract the <a id="d0e11526"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e11526">302</a>]</span>natural bitterness of the bean, is considerable. In making the paste, a large quantity of sugar is added, varying from one-third +of its weight to equal parts, whilst one pod of vanilla is sufficient for 1½ lbs. of cacao. Chocolate is often adulterated +with roasted rice and <i>Pili</i> nuts. The roasted <i>Pili</i> nut alone has a very agreeable almond taste. As a beverage, chocolate is in great favour with the Spaniards and half-castes +and the better class of natives. In every household of any pretensions the afternoon caller is invited to “merendar con chocolate,” +which corresponds to the English “5 oʼclock tea.” + +</p> +<p>The cacao-beans or kernels lie in a fruit something like a gherkin, about 5 inches long and 3 inches in diameter, and of a +dark reddish colour when ripe. The tree bears its fruit on the main branches, or on the trunk itself, but never on twigs or +thin branches. The fruit contains from 15 to 25 beans, in regular rows, with pulpy divisions between them like a water-melon. +The kernels are about the size, shape, and colour of almonds, obtuse at one end, and contain a fatty or oily matter to the +extent of one-half their weight. In order to make “soluble cocoa” as sold in Europe this fatty substance is extracted. + +</p> +<p>The beans are planted out at short distances in orchards, or in the garden surrounding the ownerʼs dwelling. The tree, in +this Colony, does not attain a great height—usually up to 10 feet—whereas in its natural soil it grows up to 30 feet at least. +Like coffee, it bears fruit in the fourth year, and reaches maturity in the sixth year. The fair annual yield of a tree, if +not damaged by storms or insects, would be about three pints measure of beans, which always find a ready sale. The tree is +most delicate; a slight laceration of the root, or stagnant water near it, may kill it; it needs a moisture-laden sultry air, +which, however, must not exceed 75° Fahr. + +</p> +<p>If all went well with the crop, large profits might accrue to the cacao-planter, but it rarely happens (perhaps never) during +the six months of fruit-ripening that losses are not sustained by hurricanes, disease in the tree, the depredations of parrots, +monkeys, rats, and other vermin, etc. Practically speaking, cacao-planting should only be undertaken in this Colony by agriculturists +who have spare capital and can afford to lose a crop one year to make up for it in the next. The venture pays handsomely in +fortunate seasons, but it is not the line of planting to be taken up by hand-to-mouth colonists who must seek immediate returns, +nor as a sole occupation. +</p> +<hr class="tb"><p> + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Castor Oil</span> is obtained in a few places from the seeds of the <i lang="la-x-bio">Palma Christi</i> or <i lang="la-x-bio">Ricinus communis</i>, but the plant is not cultivated, and the oil has not yet become an article of current trade. + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Gogo</span> (<i lang="la-x-bio">Entada pursætha</i>), sometimes called <i>Bayogo</i> in Tagálog, is a useful forest product in general demand, on sale at every market-place and native general shop. It is a +fibrous bark, taken in strips of <a id="d0e11562"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e11562">303</a>]</span>3 or 4 feet long. It looks exactly like cocoa-nut coir, except that its colour is a little lighter and brighter. It is used +for cleansing the hair, for which purpose a handful is put to soak in a basin of water overnight, and the next morning it +will saponify when rubbed between the hands. The soap which issues therefrom is then rubbed in the hair at the time of bathing. +It is in common use among the natives of both sexes and many Europeans. An infusion of <i>Gogo</i> is a purgative. If placed dry in the <i>tinaja</i> jars (Tagálog, <i lang="tl">Tapayan</i>), containing cacao-beans, the insects will not attack the beans. + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Camote</span> (<i lang="la-x-bio">Convolvulus batatas</i>) is the sweet potato or Yam, the foliage of which quickly spreads out like a carpet over the soil and forms tubers, like +the common potato. It is a favourite article of food among the natives, and in nearly every island it is also found wild. +In kitchen-gardens it is planted like the potato, the tuber being cut in pieces. Sometimes it is dried (Tagálog, <i lang="tl">Pacúmbong camote</i>). It is also preserved whole in molasses (Tagálog, <i lang="tl">Palúbog na camote</i>). + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Gabi</span> (<i lang="la-x-bio">Caladium</i>) is another kind of esculent root, palatable to the natives, similar to the turnip, and throws up stalks from 1 to 3 feet +high, at the end of which is an almost round leaf, dark green, from 3 to 5 inches diameter at maturity. + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Potatoes</span> are grown in Cebú Island, but they are rarely any larger than walnuts. With very special care a larger size has been raised +in Negros Island; also potatoes of excellent flavour and of a pinkish colour are cultivated in the district of Benguet; in +Manila there is a certain demand for this last kind. + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Mani</span> (<i lang="la-x-bio">Arachis hypogæa</i>), commonly called the “Pea-nut,” is a creeping plant, which grows wild in many places. It is much cultivated, however, partly +for the sake of the nut or fruit, but principally for the leaves and stalks, which, when dried, even months old, serve as +an excellent and nutritious fodder for ponies. It contains a large quantity of oil, and in some districts it is preferred +to the fresh-cut <i>zacate</i> grass, with which the ponies and cattle are fed in Manila. + +</p> +<p>The Philippine pea-nut is about as large as that seen in England. In 1904 the American Bureau of Agriculture brought to the +Islands for seed a quantity of New Orleans pea-nuts two to three times larger. + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Areca Palm</span> (<i lang="la-x-bio">Areca calechu</i>) (Tagálog, <i lang="tl">Bon͠ga</i>), the nut of which is used to make up the chewing betel when split into slices about one-eighth of an inch thick. This is +one of the most beautiful palms. The nuts cluster on stalks under the tuft of leaves at the top of the tall slender stem. +It is said that one tree will produce, according to age, situation, and culture, from 200 to 800 nuts yearly. The nut itself +is enveloped in a fibrous shell, like the cocoa-nut. In Europe a favourite dentifrice is prepared from the areca-nut. + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Buyo</span> (<i lang="la-x-bio">Piper betle</i>) (Tagálog, <i lang="tl">Igmô</i>), is cultivated with much care in every province, as its leaf, when coated with lime made from <a id="d0e11629"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e11629">304</a>]</span>oyster-shells and folded up, is used to coil round the areca-nut, the whole forming the <i>buyo</i> (betel), which the natives of these Islands, as in British India, are in the habit of chewing. To the chew a quid of tobacco +is sometimes added. A native can go a great number of hours without food if he has his betel; it is said to be stomachical. +After many years of habit in chewing this nut and leaf it becomes almost a necessity, as is the case with opium, and it is +believed that its use cannot, with safety, be suddenly abandoned. To the newly-arrived European, it is very displeasing to +have to converse with a native betel-eater, whose teeth and lips appear to be smeared with blood. The <i>buyo</i> plant is set out on raised beds and trained (like hops) straight up on sticks, on which it grows to a height of about 6 feet. +The leaf is of a bright green colour, and only slightly pointed. In all market-places, including those of Manila, there is +a great sale of this leaf, which is brought fresh every day. + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Cocoanut</span> (<i lang="la-x-bio">Cocos nucifera</i>) plantations pay very well, and there is a certain demand for the fruit for export to China, besides the constant local sales +in the <i>tianguis</i>.<a id="d0e11647src" href="#d0e11647" class="noteref">3</a> <i>Niog</i> is the Tagálog name for the cocoanut palm. Some tap the tree by making an incision in the flowering (or fruit-bearing) stalk, +under which a bamboo vessel, called a <i>bombon</i>, is hung to receive the sap. This liquid, known as <i>tuba</i>, is a favourite beverage among the natives. As many as four stalks of the same trunk can be so drained simultaneously without +injury to the tree. In the bottom of the <i>bombon</i> is placed about as much as a desert spoonful of pulverized <i>Ton͠go</i> bark (<i lang="la-x-bio">Rhizophora longissima</i>) to give a stronger taste and bright colour to the <i>tuba</i>. The incision—renewed each time the <i>bombon</i> is replaced—is made with a very sharp knife, to which a keen edge is given by rubbing it on wood (<i lang="la-x-bio">Erythrina</i>) covered with a paste of ashes and oil. The sap-drawing of a stalk continues incessantly for about two months, when the stalk +ceases to yield and dries up. The <i>bombons</i> containing the liquid are removed, empty ones being put in their place every twelve hours, about sunrise and sunset, and +the seller hastens round to his clients with the morning and evening draught, concluding his trade at the market-place or +other known centres of sale. If the <i>tuba</i> is allowed to ferment, it is not so palatable, and becomes an intoxicating drink. From the fermented juice the distilleries +manufacture a spirituous liquor, known locally as cocoa-wine. The trees set apart for <i>tuba</i> extraction do not produce nuts, as the fruit-forming elements are taken away. + +</p> +<p>The man who gets down the <i>tuba</i> has to climb the first tree, on the trunk of which notches are cut to place his toes in. From under the tuft of leaves two +bamboos are fastened, leading to the next nearest tree, and so on around the group which is thus connected. The bottom bamboo +serves as a bridge, and the top one as a handrail. Occasionally <a id="d0e11696"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e11696">305</a>]</span>a man falls from the top of a trunk 70 or 80 feet high, and breaks his neck. The occupation of <i>tuba</i> drawing is one of the most dangerous. + +</p> +<p>When the tree is allowed to produce fruit, instead of yielding <i>tuba</i>, the nuts are collected about every four months. They are brought down either by a sickle-shaped knife lashed on to the end +of a long pole, or by climbing the tree with the knife in hand. When they are collected for oil-extraction, they are carted +on a kind of sleigh,<a id="d0e11706src" href="#d0e11706" class="noteref">4</a> unless there be a river or creek providing a water-way, in which latter case they are tied together, stalk to stalk, and +floated in a compact mass, like a raft, upon which the man in charge stands. + +</p> +<p>The water or milk found inside a cocoanut is very refreshing to the traveller, and has this advantage over fresh water, that +it serves to quench the thirst of a person who is perspiring, or whose blood is highly heated, without doing him any harm. + +</p> +<p>Well-to-do owners of cocoanut-palm plantations usually farm out to the poorer people the right to extract the <i>tuba</i>, allotting to each family a certain number of trees. Others allow the trees to bear fruit, and although the returns are, +theoretically, not so good, it pays the owner about the same, as he is less exposed to robbery, being able more closely to +watch his own interests. The trees bear fruit in the fifth year, but, meanwhile, care must be taken to defend them from the +browsing of cattle. If they survive that period they will live for a century. At seven yearsʼ growth the cocoanut palm-tree +seldom fails to yield an unvarying average crop of a score of large nuts, giving a nett profit of about one peso per annum. + +</p> +<p>The cocoanut is largely used for culinary purposes in the Islands. It is an ingredient in the native “curry” (of no resemblance +to Indian curry), and is preserved in several ways, the most common being the <i>Bocayo</i>, a sort of cocoanut toffee, and the <i lang="tl">Matamis na macapuno</i>, which is the soft, immature nut preserved in molasses. + +</p> +<p>In the Provinces of Tayabas, La Laguna, E. Batangas and district of La Infanta, the cocoanut-palm is extensively cultivated, +solely for the purpose of extracting the oil from the nut. The cocoanut-oil factories are very rough, primitive establishments, +usually consisting of eight or ten posts supporting a nipa palm-leaf roof, and closed in at all sides with split bamboos. +The nuts are heaped for a while to dry and concentrate the oil in the fruit. Then they are chopped, more or less, in half. +A man sits on a board with his feet on a treadle, from which a rope is passed over, and works to and fro a cylindrical block, +in the end of which is fixed an iron scraper. He picks up the half-nuts one at a time, and on applying them to the scraper +in motion, the white fruit, or pith, falls out into a vessel underneath. These scrapings are then pressed between huge blocks +of wood to express the oil, and the mass is afterwards put into cast-iron cauldrons, of Chinese make, <a id="d0e11741"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e11741">306</a>]</span>with water, which is allowed to simmer and draw out the remaining fatty particles, which are skimmed off the surface. When +cold, it is sent off to market in small, straight-sided kegs, on ponies which carry two kegs—one slung on each side. The average +estimated yield of the cocoanuts, by the native process, is as follows, viz.:—250 large nuts give one cwt. of dried coprah, +yielding, say, 10 gallons of oil. + +</p> +<p>Small quantities of Cocoanut Oil (Tagálog, <i lang="tl">Lan͠guis n͠g niog</i>) are shipped from the Philippines, but in the Colony itself it is an important article of consumption. Every dwelling, rich +or poor, consumes a certain amount of this oil nightly for lighting. For this purpose it is poured into a glass half full +of water, on which it floats, and a wick, made of pith, called <i>tinsin</i>, introduced by the Chinese, is suspended in the centre of the oil by a strip of tin. As the oil is consumed, the wick is +lowered by slightly bending the tin downwards. There are few dwelling-houses, or huts, without a light of some kind burning +during the whole night in expectation of a possible earthquake, and the vast majority use cocoanut oil because of the economy. + +</p> +<p>It is also in use for cooking in some out-of-the-way places, and is not unpalatable when quite fresh. It is largely employed +as a lubricant for machinery, for which purpose, however, it is very inferior. Occasionally it finds a medicinal application, +and the natives commonly use it as hair-oil. In Europe, cocoa-nut oil is a white solid, and is used in the manufacture of +soap and candles; in the tropics it is seldom seen otherwise than in a liquid state, as it fuses a little above 70° Fahr<span id="d0e11753" class="corr" title="Source: ">.</span> + +</p> +<p>It is only in the last few years that Coprah has acquired importance as an article of export. There are large cocoanut plantations +on all the principal islands, whence supplies are furnished to meet the foreign demand, which is likely to increase considerably. + +</p> +<p>For figures of <span class="smallcaps">Coprah</span> Shipments, <i>vide</i> Chap. <a href="#d0e22333">xxxi</a>., “Trade Statistics.” + +</p> +<p>Uses are also found for the hard Shell of the nut (Tagálog, <i>Baoo</i>). In native dwellings these shells serve the poor for cups (<i>tabo </i>) and a variety of other useful domestic utensils, whilst by all classes they are converted into ladles with wooden handles. +Also, when carbonized, the shell gives a black, used for dyeing straw hats. + +</p> +<p>Very little use is made of the Coir (Tagálog, <i>Bunot</i>), or outer fibrous skin, which in other countries serves for the manufacture of cocoanut matting, coarse brushes, hawsers, +etc. It is said that coir rots in fresh water, whereas salt water strengthens it. It would therefore be unsuitable for running +rigging, but for shipsʼ cables it cannot be surpassed in its qualities of lightness and elasticity. As it floats on water, +it ought to be of great value on ships, whilst of late years its employment in the manufacture of light ocean telegraph cables +has been seriously considered, showing, as it does, an advantage over other materials by taking a convex curve to the water +surface—an important condition in <a id="d0e11782"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e11782">307</a>]</span>cable-laying.<a id="d0e11784src" href="#d0e11784" class="noteref">5</a> The Spaniards call this product <i>Banote</i>. In this Colony it often serves for cleaning floors and shipsʼ decks, when the nut is cut into two equal parts across the +grain of the coir covering, and with it a very high polish can be put on to hardwoods. + +</p> +<p>The stem of the Cocoanut Palm is attacked by a very large beetle with a single horn at the top of its head. It bores through +the bark and slightly injures the tree, but I never heard that any had died in consequence. In some countries this insect +is described as the rhinoceros beetle, and is said to belong to the <i>Dynastidæ</i> species. + +</p> +<p>In the Philippines, the poorest soil seems to give nourishment to the cocoanut-palm; indeed, it thrives best on, or near, +the sea-shore, as close to the sea as where the beach is fringed by the surf at high tide. The common cocoanut-palm attains +a height of about sixty feet, but there is also a dwarf palm with the stem sometimes no taller than four feet at full growth, +which also bears fruit, although less plentifully. A grove of these is a pretty sight. + +</p> +<p>Sir Emerson Tennent, referring to these trees in Ceylon, is reported to have stated<a id="d0e11799src" href="#d0e11799" class="noteref">6</a> that the cocoanut-palm “acts as a conductor in protecting houses from lightning. As many as 500 of these trees were struck +in a single <i>pattoo</i> near Pattalam during a succession of thunderstorms in April 1859.”—<i>Colombo Observer</i>. + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Nipa Palm</span> (<i lang="la-x-bio">Nipa fruticans</i>) is found in mangrove swamps and flooded marshy lands. It has the appearance of a gigantic fern, and thrives best in those +lands which are covered by the sea at high tide. In the same manner as the cocoanut-palm, the sap is extracted by incision +made in the fruit-bearing stalk, and is used for distilling a liquid known as nipa wine, which, however, should properly be +termed a spirit. The leaves, which are very long, and about three to five inches wide, are of immense value in the country +for thatched roofs. Nipa is not to be found everywhere; one may go many miles without seeing it, in districts devoid of marshes +and swampy lowlands. In El Abra district (Luzon Is.) nipa is said to be unknown. In such places, another material supplies +its want for thatching, viz.:— + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Cogon</span> (<i lang="la-x-bio">Saccharum koenigii</i>), a sort of tall jungle grass with a very sharp edge, plentifully abundant precisely where nipa cannot be expected to grow. +I have ridden through cogon five feet high, but a fair average would be about three to four feet. It has simply to be cut +and sun-dried and is ready for roof thatching. + +</p> +<p>The <span class="smallcaps">Cotton-tree</span> (<i lang="la-x-bio">Gossypium herbaceum</i>, Linn. ?), (Tagálog, <i lang="tl">Bulac</i>), is found growing in an uncultivated state in many islands of the Archipelago. Long-staple cotton was formerly extensively +cultivated <a id="d0e11835"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e11835">308</a>]</span>in the Province of Ilocos Norte, whence, many years ago, large quantities of good cotton-stuffs were exported. This industry +still exists. The cultivation of this staple was, however, discouraged by the local governors, in order to urge the planting +of tobacco for the Government supplies. It has since become difficult to revive the cotton production, although an essay, +in pamphlet form (for which a prize was awarded in Madrid), was gratuitously distributed over the Colony in 1888 with that +object. Nevertheless, cotton spinning and weaving are still carried on, on a reduced scale, in the Ilocos provinces (Luzon +west coast). + +</p> +<p>Wild cotton is practically useless for spinning, as the staple is extremely short, but perhaps by hybridization and careful +attention its culture might become valuable to the Colony. The pod is elliptical, and the cotton which bursts from it at maturity +is snow-white. It is used for stuffing pillows and mattresses. It was a common thing, before the American occupation, to see +(wild) cotton-trees planted along the highroad to serve as telegraph-posts; by the time the seed is fully ripe, every leaf +has fallen, and nothing but the bursting pods remain hanging to the branches. + +</p> +<p>The <span class="smallcaps">Buri Palm</span> is a handsome species, of tall growth, with fan-like leaves. Its juice serves as a beverage resembling <i>tuba</i>. The trunk yields a sago flour. The leaves are beaten on boulder stones to extract a fibre for rope-making, of great strength +and in constant demand. + +</p> +<p>The <span class="smallcaps">Ditá Tree</span>, said to be of the family of the <i lang="la-x-bio">Apocynese</i> and known to botanists as <i lang="la-x-bio">Alstonia scholaris</i>, is possibly a species of cinchona. The pulverized bark has a bitter taste like quinine, and is successfully used by the +natives to allay fever. A Manila chemist once extracted from the bark a substance which he called <i>ditaïne</i>, the yield of crystallizable alkaloid being 2 per cent. + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Palma Brava</span> (<i lang="la-x-bio">Coripha minor</i>) (Tagálog, <i>Ban͠ga</i>),<a id="d0e11871src" href="#d0e11871" class="noteref">7</a> is a species of palm, the trunk of which is of great local value. It is immensely strong, and will resist the action of water +for years. These trees are employed as piles for quay and pier making—for bridges, stockades, and in any works where strength, +elasticity, and resistance to water are required in combination. When split, a fibrous pith is found in the centre much resembling +cocoanut coir, but the ligneous shell of the stem still retains its qualities of strength and flexibility, and is used for +vehicle-shafts, cooliesʼ carrying-poles, and a variety of other purposes. + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Bambusa</span> (<i lang="la-x-bio">Bambusa arundinacea</i>) is a graminifolious plant—one of the most charmingly picturesque and useful adornments of Nature bestowed exuberantly on +the Philippine Islands. It grows in thick tufts in the woods and on the banks of rivers. Its uses are innumerable, and it +has not only become one of the articles of primary necessity to the native, but of incalculable value to all in the Colony. + +</p> +<p>There are many kinds of bamboos, distinct in formation and size. <a id="d0e11886"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e11886">309</a>]</span>The Tagálog generic name for knotted bamboo is <i lang="tl">Cauáyan</i>; the Spanish name is <i lang="es">Caña espina</i>. The most common species grows to a height of about 60 feet, with a diameter varying up to eight inches, and is of wonderful +strength, due to its round shape and the regularity of its joints. Each joint is strengthened by a web inside. It is singularly +flexible, light, elastic, and of matchless floating power. The fibre is tough, but being perfectly straight, it is easy to +split. It has a smooth glazed surface, a perfectly straight grain, and when split on any surface, it takes a high polish by +simple friction. Three cuts with the bowie-knife are sufficient to hew down the largest bamboo of this kind, and the green +leaves, in case of extreme necessity, serve for horsesʼ fodder. + +</p> +<p>There is another variety also hollow, but not so large as that just described. It is covered with a natural varnish as hard +as steel. It is also used for native cabin-building and many other purposes. + +</p> +<p>A third species, seldom found more than five inches in diameter, is much more solid, having no cavity in the centre divided +by webs. It cannot be applied to so many purposes as the first, but where great strength is required it is incomparable. + +</p> +<p>When the bamboo-plant is cultivated with the view of rendering it annually productive, the shoots are pruned in the dry season +at a height of about seven feet from the ground. In the following wet season, out of the clump germinate a number of young +shoots, which, in the course of six or eight months, will have reached their normal height, and will be fit for cutting when +required. Bamboo should be felled in the dry season before the sap begins to ascend by capillary attraction. If cut out of +season it is prematurely consumed by grub (<i>gojo</i>), but this is not much heeded when wanted in haste. + +</p> +<p>The northern native builds his hut entirely of bamboo with nipa palm-leaf or cogon thatching; in the Province of Yloilo I +have seen hundreds of huts made entirely of bamboo, including the roofing. To make bamboo roofing, the hollow canes are split +longitudinally, and, after the webbed joints inside have been cut away, they are laid on the bamboo frame-work, and fit into +each other, the one convexly, the next one concavely, and so on alternately. In frame-work, no joinerʼs skill is needed; two-thirds +of the bamboo are notched out on one side, and the other third is bent to rectangle. A rural bungalow can be erected in a +week. When Don Manuel Montuno, the late Governor of Mórong, came with his suite to stay at my up-country bungalow for a shooting +expedition, I had a wing added in three days, perfectly roofed and finished. + +</p> +<p>No nails are ever used, the whole being bound with <i>bejuco</i>. The walls of the cabin are made by splitting the bamboo, and, after removing the webbed joints, each half is beaten out +flat. Even in houses of certain pretensions I have often seen split-bamboo flooring, which is highly effective, as it is always +clean and takes a beautiful polish when rubbed over a few times with plantain-leaves. In the <a id="d0e11910"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e11910">310</a>]</span>parish church of Las Piñas, near Manila, there was an organ made of bamboo, of excellent tone, extant up to the year of the +Revolution. + +</p> +<p>When the poor village native wants to put up his house he calls a <i>bayanin</i>, and his neighbours assemble to give him a hand. The bowie-knife is the only indispensable tool. One cuts the bamboo to lengths, +another splits it, a third fits it for making the frame-work, another threads the dried nipa-leaves for the roofing, and thus +a modest <i>bahay</i> is erected in a week. The most practicable dwelling is the bamboo and nipa house, the only serious drawback being the risk +of fire. + +</p> +<p>Rafts, furniture of all kinds, scaffolding, spoons, carts, baskets, sledges, fishing-traps, fleams, water-pipes, hats, dry +and liquid measures, cups, fencing, canoe-fittings, bridges, carrying-poles for any purpose, pitchforks, and a thousand other +articles are made of this unexcelled material. Here it serves all the purposes to which the osier is applied in Europe. It +floats in water, serves for fuel, and ropes made of it are immensely strong. Bamboo salad is prepared from the very young +shoots, cut as soon as they sprout from the root. The value of bamboo in Manila varies according to the season of the year +and length of the bamboo, the diameter of course being proportionate. + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Bojo</span> (Tagálog, <i>Buho</i>) is a kind of cane, somewhat resembling the bamboo in appearance only. It has very few knots; is brittle, perfectly smooth +on the outer and inner surfaces—hollow, and grows to about 25 feet high by 2 inches diameter, and is not nearly so useful +as the bamboo. It is used for making light fences, musical instruments, fishing-rods, inner walls of huts, fishing-traps, +torches, etc. + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Bejuco</span>, or Rattan-cane, belonging to the <i lang="la-x-bio">Calamus</i> family (Tagálog, <i>Hiantoc</i>, also <i>Dit-án</i>), is a forest product commonly found in lengths of, say, 100 feet, with a maximum diameter of half-an-inch. It is of enormous +strength and pliancy. Its uses are innumerable. When split longitudinally it takes the place of rope for lashing anything +together; indeed, it is just as useful in the regions of its native habitat as cordage is in Europe. It serves for furniture +and bedstead-making, and it is a substitute for nails and bolts. Hemp-bales, sugar-bags, parcels of all kinds are tied up +with it, and hats are made of it. The ring through a buffaloʼs nose is made of whole rattan, to which is often attached a +split strip for a guiding-rein. Every joint in a nativeʼs hut, his canoe, his fence, his cart, woodwork of any kind—indeed, +everything to be made fast, from a bundle of sticks to a broken-down carriage, is lashed together with this split material, +which must, when so employed, be bent with the shiny skin outside, otherwise it will infallibly snap. The demand for this +article is very large. + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Bush-rope</span> (<i lang="la-x-bio">Calamus maximus</i>) (Tagálog, <i>Palásan</i>) is also a forest product, growing to lengths of about 100 feet, with a maximum diameter of one inch and a quarter. It is +immensely strong. It is used for raft cables for crossing rivers, stays for bamboo suspension-bridges, <a id="d0e11952"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e11952">311</a>]</span>and a few other purposes. It is sometimes found with knots as far apart as 30 feet. It is a species quite distinct from the +<span class="smallcaps">Walking-stick Palasan</span> (<i lang="la-x-bio">Calamus gracilis</i>) (Tagálog, <i>Tabola</i>) the appreciated feature of which is the proximity of the knots. I have before me a specimen 34 inches long with 26 knots. + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Gum Mastic</span> (<i>Almáciga</i>) is an article of minor importance in the Philippine exports, the supply being very limited. It is said that large quantities +exist; but as it is only procurable in almost inaccessible mountainous and uncivilized districts, first-hand collectors in +the provinces, principally Chinese, have to depend upon the services and goodwill of unsubdued tribes. It is chiefly obtained +by barter, and is not a trade which can be worked up systematically. The exports of this product fluctuate considerably in +consequence. For figures of <span class="smallcaps">Gum Mastic</span> shipments, <i>vide</i> Chap, <a href="#d0e22333">xxxi</a>., “Trade Statistics.” + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Gutta-percha</span> was formerly a more important article of trade in these Islands until the Chinese drove it out of the market by adulteration. +A little is shipped from Zamboanga. + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Wax</span> (Tagálog, <i>patquit</i>) and cinnamon are to be found in much the same way as gum mastic. There is a large consumption of wax in the Islands for +candles used at the numerous religious feasts. The cinnamon is very inferior in quality. It is abundant in Mindanao Island, +but, like gum mastic, it can only be procured in small quantities, depending on the caprice or necessities of the mountain-tribes. +Going along the seashore in Zamboanga Province, on one occasion, I met a mountaineer carrying a bundle of cinnamon to Zamboanga +Port—many miles distant—to sell the bark to the Chinese at [Peso}8 per picul. I bought his load, the half of which I sent +to Spain, requesting a friend there to satisfy my curiosity by procuring a quotation for the sample in the Barcelona market. +He reported that the quality was so low that only a nominal price could be quoted, and that it stood nowhere compared with +the carefully cultivated Ceylon product. + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Edible Birdʼs Nest</span> (<i lang="la-x-bio">Collocalia troglodytes—Coll. nodifica esculenta</i> Bonap.) is an article of trade with the Chinese, who readily purchase it at high prices. It is made by a kind of sea-swallow, +and in appearance resembles vermicelli, variegated with blood-coloured spots. The nests are found in high cliffs by the sea, +and the natives engaged in their collection reach them by climbing up bush-rope or bamboos with the branch-knots left on to +support themselves with their toes. It is a very dangerous occupation, as the nests are always built high in almost inaccessible +places. The Filipino risks his life in collecting them, whilst the Chinaman does the safe and profitable business of trading +in the article. In the Philippines the collection begins in December, and the birds deprived of their nests have then to build +a second nest for laying their eggs. These second nests are gathered about the end of January, and so on up to about the fourth +collection. Each successive nest decreases <a id="d0e11997"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e11997">312</a>]</span>in commercial value, and the last one is hardly worth the risk of taking. Even though there might be venturesome collectors +who would dislodge the last nests, the wet season fortunately sets in and prevents their being reached, hence the bird is +at length able to continue propagation. Birdʼs-nest soup is a delicacy in great demand in China. + +</p> +<p>These nests are chiefly found in the Calamities group of islands, particularly in Busuanga Island. The Sulu Archipelago and +Palaúan Island also furnish a small quantity of edible birdsʼ-nests. + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Balate</span>, or Trepang, is a species of sea-slug, for which the natives find a ready sale to the Chinese at good prices. The fish is +preserved by being gutted, cooked, and sun-dried, and has a shrimp taste. It is found in greatest quantities off the Calamianes +and Palaúan Islands. + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Sapan-wood</span> (<i lang="la-x-bio">Caesalpina sappan</i>) (Tagálog, <i>Sibucao</i>, or <i>Sápang</i>), of an inferior quality compared with the Pernambuco wood, is a Philippine product found in most of the large islands. It +is a short, unattractive tree, with epigeous branches spreading out in a straggling manner. The leaves are small and sparse. +The wood is hard, heavy, crooked, and full of knots. It sinks in water, and is susceptible of a fine polish. It is whitish +when fresh cut, but assumes a deep red colour on exposure to the air. The only valuable portion is the heart of the branch, +from which is taken a dye known in the trade as “false crimson,” to distinguish it from the more permanent cochineal dye. +The whole of the colouring-matter can be extracted with boiling water. It is usually shipped from Manila and Yloilo as dunnage, +a small quantity coming also from Cebú. For figures of <span class="smallcaps">Sapan-wood</span> shipments, <i>vide</i> Chap, xxxi., “Trade Statistics.” + +</p> +<p>The <span class="smallcaps">Saps</span> of certain Philippine trees serve to give a polished coating to the smoothed surface of other woods. The kind which I have +experimented with most successfully is that of the <i>Ipil</i> tree (<i lang="la-x-bio">Eperna decandria</i>). This gives a glazed covering very similar to Japan-ware varnish. It takes better to the wood in a cold climate than in +the tropics. I have tried it both in the Philippines and in Europe. + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Dye Saps</span> are also numerous—for instance, that of the species <i lang="la-x-bio">Marsedenia</i>, called in Bicol dialect <i>Payanguit</i> and <i>Aringuit</i>, with which hemp can be dyed blue; the juice of the skin of a root, known in Bicol as <i>Morinda</i>, is used for dyeing hemp red; the sap of the <i>Talisay</i> tree (<i lang="la-x-bio">Terminalia mauritiana</i>) gives a black dye, and that of the <i>Calumpit</i> tree (<i lang="la-x-bio">Terminalia edulis</i>) is a good straw-coloured dye. + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Hardwoods</span>.—These Islands are remarkably rich in valuable timber-trees. For some of the details which I will give of the properties +and applicability of the varieties in general demand, I am indebted to Mr. H. G. Brown (of H. G. Brown & Co. Limited,<a id="d0e12067src" href="#d0e12067" class="noteref">8</a> steam saw-mill <a id="d0e12072"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e12072">313</a>]</span>proprietors in Tayabas Province), admitted to be the most experienced person in this branch of Philippine trade. + +</p> +<p><i>Aranga</i> (<i>Homalium</i>) gives logs up to 75 feet long by 24 inches square. It is specially used for sea piling and all kinds of marine work which +is subject to the attacks of sea-worm (<i>Teredo navalis</i>). + +</p> +<p><i>Acle</i> (<i lang="la-x-bio">Mimosa acle)</i> gives logs up to 32 feet by 28 inches square. It is strong, tenacious, and durable, whilst it has the speciality of being +difficult to burn, and is much used in house-building; it polishes well, and is much prized by the natives. It is supposed +to be identical with the <i>Payengadu</i> of Burmah. + +</p> +<p><i>Anagap</i> (<i lang="la-x-bio">Pithecolobium montanum</i>, Benth.) gives logs up to 18 feet long by 16 inches square. It is sometimes used for house furniture and fittings and for +other purposes where a light durable wood is wanted and is not exposed to sun and rain. + +</p> +<p><i>Apiton</i> (<i lang="la-x-bio">Dipterocarpus griffithi</i>, Miq.) gives logs up to 70 feet long by 24 inches square. It contains a gum of which incense is made, is light when seasoned, +works well, and will serve for furniture and general joinerʼs purposes. + +</p> +<p><i>Antipolo</i> (<i lang="la-x-bio">Artocarpus incisa</i>) is much esteemed for vesselsʼ outside planking, keels, etc. It is light, very strong, resists sea-worm (<i>Teredo navalis</i>) entirely, and effects of climate. It does not warp when once seasoned, and is a most valuable wood. + +</p> +<p><i>Anobing</i> (<i lang="la-x-bio">Artocarpus ovata)</i> is said to resist damp as well as <i>Molave</i> does, but it is not appreciated as a good hardwood. It is plentiful, especially in the district of Laguna de Bay. + +</p> +<p><i>Betis</i> (<i lang="la-x-bio">Azaola—Payena betis?</i>) gives logs up to 65 feet long by 20 inches square. It is proof against sea-worm, is used for salt or fresh water piling, +piers, wharves, etc.; also for keels and many other parts of ship-building, and where a first-class wood is indispensably +necessary. It is somewhat scarce. + +</p> +<p><i>Batitinan</i> (<i lang="la-x-bio">Lagerstroemia batitinan</i>) gives logs up to 40 feet long by 18 inches square. Is very strong, tough, and elastic; generally used for shipsʼ outside +planking above water. It stands the climate well when properly seasoned; is a wood of the first quality, and can be used for +any purpose except those involving interment in the ground or exposure to ravages of sea-worm. This wood is very much stronger +than Teak, and could be used to advantage in its place for almost all purposes. It makes a good substitute for Black Walnut +in furniture. + +</p> +<p><i>Banaba</i> (<i lang="la-x-bio">Munchaustia speciosa—Lagerstremis speciosa?</i>)—a strong and useful wood much used in house- and ship-building; it is thoroughly reliable when seasoned, otherwise it shrinks +and warps considerably. +<a id="d0e12149"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e12149">314</a>]</span> +<i>Bansalague</i> (<i lang="la-x-bio">Mimusops elengi</i>, Linn.) gives logs up to 45 feet long by 18 inches square. It seems to be known in Europe as bullet-tree wood. It can be +driven like a bolt, and from this fact and its durability it is frequently used for treenails in ship-building in Manila, +etc. It is also used for axe and other tool-handles, belaying-pins, etc., and on account of its compact, close grain it is +admirably adapted for turning purposes; it lasts well in the ground. + +</p> +<p><i>Bancal</i> (<i lang="la-x-bio">Nauclea gluberrima)</i> gives logs up to 24 feet long by 16 inches square. This wood is of a yellow colour and very easy to work. It is used for +general joinerʼs work in house-building, etc. + +</p> +<p><i>Cedar</i> (<i lang="la-x-bio">Cedrela odorata</i>), of the same natural order as Mahogany (Linn.), gives logs up to 40 feet long by 35 inches square, and is used principally +for cigar-boxes. In the Colony it is known as <i>Calantás</i>. It makes very handsome inside house-fittings. + +</p> +<p><i>Camagon</i> or <i>Mabolo</i> (a variety of <i lang="la-x-bio">Diospyros philoshantera</i>) is procured in roughly rounded logs of 9 feet and upwards in length, by up to 12 inches in diameter. It is a close-grained, +brittle wood, and takes a good polish; its colour is black with yellow streaks, and it is used for furniture-making. It might +be termed the Philippine Coromandel wood, and is sometimes referred to as “false ebony.” + +</p> +<p><i>Dúngon</i> (a variety of <i lang="la-x-bio">Herculia ambiformis—Sterculia cymbiformis</i>, Blanco) grows up to 50 feet long, giving logs up to 20 inches square. It is sometimes called <i>Ironwood</i>, is very hard and durable, and specially strong in resisting great transverse pressure, or carrying such weight as a heavy +roof. It is used for keels on account of its great strength—it does not resist the sea-worm; it is applied to all purposes +in Manila where more than ordinary strength is required when <i>Molave</i> cannot be procured in sufficiently great lengths and <i>Ipil</i> is unattainable. + +</p> +<p><i>Dinglas</i> (<i lang="la-x-bio">Decandria—Bucida comintana</i>) gives logs up to 30 feet by 16 inches square—occasionally even larger sizes. This will also serve as a substitute for Black +Walnut in furniture; it is very strong, hard, and durable. + +</p> +<p><i>Ebony</i> (<i lang="la-x-bio">Diospyros nigra</i>) is also found in very limited quantities. + +</p> +<p><i>Guijo</i> (<i lang="la-x-bio">Dipterocarpus guijo</i>) gives logs up to 75 feet long by 24 inches square—is very strong, tough and elastic. In Manila this wood is invariably used +for carriage wheels and shafts. In Hong-Kong it is used, amongst other purposes, for wharf-decks or flooring. + +</p> +<p><i>Ipil</i> (<i lang="la-x-bio">Eperna decandria</i>) gives logs up to 50 feet long by 26 inches square. It has all the good qualities of <i>Molave</i>, except resistance to sea-worm (in which respect it is the same as Teak), and may be as much relied on for duration under +ground; for sleepers it equals <i>Molave</i>. + +</p> +<p><i>Lanete</i> (<i lang="la-x-bio">Anaser laneti</i>) gives logs up to 25 feet long by 18 inches square. It is useful for sculpture, musical instruments, decoration, turning, +and cabinet purposes. + +</p> +<p><i>Laúan</i> (<i lang="la-x-bio">Dipterocarpus thurifera</i>) is obtained in sizes the same as <a id="d0e12248"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e12248">315</a>]</span><i>Guijo</i>. It is a light, useful wood, and easily worked. It is said that the outside planks of the old Philippine-Mexican galleons +were of this wood because it did not split with shot. + +</p> +<p><i>Molave</i> (<i lang="la-x-bio">Vitex geniculata</i>) (Tagalog, <i>Molauin</i>), gives logs up to 35 feet long by 24 inches square. It resists sea-worm (<i lang="la-x-bio">Teredo navalis</i>), white ants (<i>Termes</i>), and action of climate, and consequently is specially valuable for work on the surface of or under ground, and generally +for all purposes where an extra strong and durable wood is required. Often growing crooked, it is commonly used (where produced +and in adjacent countries) for frames of vessels. Owing to its imperviousness to ligniperdous insects and climate, it cannot +possibly be surpassed for such purposes as railway-sleepers. This wood is practically everlasting, and is deservedly called +by the natives, “Queen of the Woods.” It pays better to sell <i>Molave</i> in baulks or logs, rather than sawn to specification, because this tree has the great defect of being subject to heart-cup. + +</p> +<p>Mr. Thomas Laslett, in his work on timber,<a id="d0e12273src" href="#d0e12273" class="noteref">9</a> says, in reference to <i>Molave</i>, “It can be recommended to notice as being fit to supplement any of the hardwoods in present use for constructive purposes.” +From the same work I have extracted the following record of experiments made by Mr. Laslett with this wood:— + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Tensile Experiments.—Average of Five Specimens</span> + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top"><b>Dimensions of each piece.</b></td> +<td valign="top"><b>Specific gravity.</b></td> +<td valign="top"><b>Weight the piece broke with.</b></td> +<td valign="top"><b>Direct cohesion one square inch.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i></i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i></i></td> +<td valign="top"><i>lbs.</i></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">2″ × 2″ × 30″</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1021.6</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">31,248</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">7,812</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Transverse Experiments.—Average of Three Specimens</span> + + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" colspan="3"><b><span class="smallcaps">Deflections</span>.</b></td> +<td valign="top" rowspan="2"><b>Total weight required to break each piece.</b></td> +<td valign="top" rowspan="2"><b>Specific gravity.</b></td> +<td valign="top" rowspan="2"><b>Weight reduced to specific gravity 1,000.</b></td> +<td valign="top" rowspan="2"><b>Weight required to break one square inch.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top"><b>With the apparatus weighing 390 lbs.</b></td> +<td valign="top"><b>After the weight was removed</b></td> +<td valign="top"><b>At the crisis of breaking.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i></i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i></i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i></i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i></i></td> +<td valign="top"><i>lbs.</i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i></i></td> +<td valign="top"><i>lbs.</i></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1.25</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">.166</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">5.166</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1,243.3</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1013</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1231</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">310.83</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + +</p> +<p>N.B.—It breaks on test with a scarf-like fracture. + +<a id="d0e12361"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e12361">316</a>]</span></p> +<p><i>Mangachapuy</i> (<i lang="la-x-bio">Dipterocarpus mangachapuy—Vatica apteranthera</i>) gives logs up to 55 feet long by 20 inches square. It is very elastic and withstands the climate, when seasoned, as well +as Teak. It is used in Manila for masts and decks of vessels and for all work exposed to sun and rain. It is much esteemed +and in great demand by those who know its good qualities. + +</p> +<p><i>Macasin</i> can be used for interior house work and floors. It is somewhat inferior to <i>Banaba</i>, but supplies its place when <i>Banaba</i> is scarce. It can be got in greater length and square than <i>Banaba</i>. + +</p> +<p><i>Malatapay</i> (a variety of <i lang="la-x-bio">Diospyros philoshantera</i>), veined black and red. It resembles <i>Camagon</i>. + +</p> +<p><i>Mancono</i> is a very hard wood found in Mindanao Island; it is classed as a species of lignum-vitæ. + +</p> +<p><i>Narra</i> (<i lang="la-x-bio">Pterocarpus palidus santalinus</i>) gives logs up to 35 feet long by 26 inches square. It is the Mahogany of the Philippines, inasmuch as it is always employed +in Manila in the manufacture of furniture, for notwithstanding its somewhat open grain, it polishes well, and is prettily +marked. There is a variety of shades in different logs varying from straw colour to blood-red, the former being more common; +all are, however, equally esteemed. It is a first-rate wood for general purposes. In the London market it is classed with +the <i>Padouk</i> of Burmah. + +</p> +<p><i>Palo Maria de Playa</i> (<i lang="la-x-bio">P. Polyandria—Calophyllum inophyllum</i>) (Tagálog, <i>Dangcalán</i>), is greatly appreciated for crooks and curves, but as a rule cannot be found of suitable dimensions for large vessels. It +is better than <i>Molave</i> for this purpose, for, due to the absence of acrid juices, iron bolts do not corrode in it. It is exceedingly tough and not +so heavy as <i>Molave</i>. + +</p> +<p><i>Supa</i> (<i lang="la-x-bio">Sindora wallichii</i>, Benth.) gives logs up to 40 feet long by 28 inches square. It produces an oil, and is a strong wood for general purposes, +polishes well and can be used advantageously for house decorations and furniture. + +</p> +<p><i>Tíndalo</i> (<i lang="la-x-bio">Eperna rhomboidea</i>) is about the same as <i>Acle</i> in its principal features, but not notable for resisting fire. It is useful for general purposes, and in particular for decorations +and furniture. It is somewhat brittle, and takes a high polish. + +</p> +<p><i>Yacal</i> (<i lang="la-x-bio">Dipterocarpus plagatus</i>) gives logs up to 50 feet long by 22 inches square. It is proof against white ants, has great strength and tenacity, and +is much valued in Manila for house-building, etc. + +</p> +<p>Natives employed in the felling of timber often become very expert in the selection and appreciation of the standing trunks. + +</p> +<p>The approximate order of resistance of the best woods, estimated by their practical employment and not by theoretical comparative +experiments, would be as follows, viz.:— +<a id="d0e12450"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e12450">317</a>]</span></p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Hardwood Strains</span> + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" colspan="4">Tensile Strain.</td> +<td valign="top" colspan="4">Transverse Strain.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1 </td> +<td valign="top">Dúngon. </td> +<td valign="top"> 8 Acle. </td> +<td valign="top">1 Molave. </td> +<td valign="top"> 8 Banaba.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">2 </td> +<td valign="top">Yacal. </td> +<td valign="top"> 9 Narra. </td> +<td valign="top">2 Camagon. </td> +<td valign="top"> 9 Yacal.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3 </td> +<td valign="top">Ipil. </td> +<td valign="top">10 Tíndalo. </td> +<td valign="top">3 Ipil. </td> +<td valign="top">10 Mangachapuy.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">4 </td> +<td valign="top">Mangachapuy. </td> +<td valign="top">11 Molave. </td> +<td valign="top">4 Acle. </td> +<td valign="top">11 Laúan.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">5 </td> +<td valign="top">Guijo. </td> +<td valign="top">12 Laúan. </td> +<td valign="top">5 Dúngon. </td> +<td valign="top">12 Guijo.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">6 </td> +<td valign="top">Banaba. </td> +<td valign="top">13 Cedar. </td> +<td valign="top">6 Tíndalo. </td> +<td valign="top">13 Cedar.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">7 </td> +<td valign="top">Camagon. </td> +<td valign="top">14 Lanete. </td> +<td valign="top">7 Narra. </td> +<td valign="top">14 Lanete.</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>The hardwoods of the Philippines, suitable for building and trade requirements as described above, are those in general use +only. Altogether about fifty kinds exist, but whilst some are scarce, others do not yield squared logs of sufficient sizes +to be of marketable value. Amongst these are the <i lang="la-x-bio">Quercus concentrica</i> (Tagálog, <i lang="tl">Alayan</i>), a sort of oak; the <i lang="la-x-bio">Gimbernatia calamansanay</i> (Tagálog, <i lang="tl">Calamansanay</i>); the <i lang="la-x-bio">Cyrtocarpa quinquestyla</i> (Tagálog, <i lang="tl">Amaguís</i>), and others. + +</p> +<p>To carry on successfully a timber trade in this Colony, with ability to fulfil contracts, it is necessary to employ large +capital. Firstly, to ensure supplies by the cutters, the trader must advance them sums amounting in the total to thousands +of pesos, a large percentage of which he can only nominally recover by placing them against future profits; secondly, he must +own several sailing-ships, built on a model suited to this class of business. Several Europeans have lost the little money +they had by having to freight unsuitable craft for transport to the place of delivery, and by only advancing to the native +fellers just when they wanted logs brought down to the beach, instead of keeping them constantly under advance. With sufficient +capital, however, a handsome profit is to be realized in this line of business, if it is not killed by too much new legislation. + +</p> +<p>So far Philippine woods have not met in London with the appreciation due to their excellent qualities, possibly because they +are not sufficiently well known. In China, however, they are in great demand, in spite of the competition from Borneo (Kúdat +and Sandákan) and Australian shippers. Since the American occupation, large shipments of Oregon Pine have been made to the +Colony: how this wood will stand the climate is not yet ascertainable. +</p> +<hr class="tb"><p> + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Fruits</span>.—There are few really choice, luscious fruits in the Philippines which can compare with the finest European species. Nothing +in this Colony can equal our grape, peach, cherry, or strawberry. + +</p> +<p>The <i>Mango</i> (<i lang="la-x-bio">Manguifera indica—Pentandrie</i>, Linn.) ranks first in these Islands. It is oblong—oval-shaped—flattened slightly on both <a id="d0e12577"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e12577">318</a>]</span>sides, about five inches long, and of a yellow colour when ripe. It is very delicious, succulent, and has a large stone in +the centre from which fibres run at angles. To cut it, the knife must be pressed down from the thick end, otherwise it will +come in contact with the fibres. Philippine mangoes are far superior to any others grown in the East. This fruit has a slight +flavour of turpentine, and, as to smell, Manuel Blanco<a id="d0e12579src" href="#d0e12579" class="noteref">10</a> doubts whether it more resembles bugs, onions, or tar. The trees are very large and majestic—the leaves are dark green, and +the whole appearance strikingly noble. Great care is needed to rear the fruit. The natives cut notches in the trunk, and from +the time the tree begins to flower until the fruit is half matured, they light fires on the ground under its branches, as +the smoke is said to hasten the development. The tree begins to bear fruit at ten years old. + +</p> +<p>The first mangoes of the season are forced, and even picked before they are ripe, so that they may more quickly turn yellow. +They are brought to the Manila market in February, and fetch as much as 20 cents each. The natural ripening time is from the +end of March. In the height of the season they can be bought for two dollars per hundred. Epicures eat as many as ten to a +dozen a day, as this fruit is considered harmless to healthy persons. Mango jelly is also appreciated by Europeans as well +as natives. Luzon and Cebú Islands appear to produce more mangoes than the rest of the Archipelago. From my eight mango-trees +in Mórong district I got annually two pickings, and one year three pickings from two trees. + +</p> +<p>There are other species of mango-tree of the genus <i lang="la-x-bio">Terebinthaceae</i>, viz.:—<i lang="la-x-bio">Manguifera anisodora, M. altissima, M. rostrata</i> and <i lang="la-x-bio">M. sinnata</i>. + +</p> +<p>The <i>Banana</i> or <i>Plantain</i> (<i lang="la-x-bio">Musa paradisiaca</i>) is plentiful all over the Islands at all seasons. It grows wild, and is also largely cultivated. It is the fruit of an herbaceous +endogenous plant of the natural order <i lang="la-x-bio">Musaceae</i>. It is said that the specific name <i lang="la-x-bio">paradisiaca</i> is derived, either from a supposition that the plantain was the forbidden fruit of Eden<a id="d0e12621src" href="#d0e12621" class="noteref">11</a>, or from an Arabic legend that Adam and Eve made their first aprons of the leaves of this tree, which grow to a length of +five to six feet, with a width of 12 to 14 inches. Some 10 to 12 distinct varieties of bananas are commonly to be seen, whilst +it is asserted that there are over 50 sorts differing slightly from each other. The Tagálog generic name for this tree and +fruit is <i lang="tl">Ságuing</i>. The species known in Tagálog dialect as <i>Lacatan</i> and <i>Bon͠gúlan</i>, of a golden or orange tinge when the skin is removed and possessing a slight pineapple flavour, are the choicest. The <i>Tóndoc</i> is also a very fine class. The stem of the banana-plantain <a id="d0e12636"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e12636">319</a>]</span>is cut down after fruiting, and the tree is propagated by suckers.<a id="d0e12638src" href="#d0e12638" class="noteref">12</a> Renewal of the tree from the seed is only necessary every 12 to 18 years. The fruit is borne in long clusters on strong stalks +which bend over towards the earth. As the suckers do not all rise simultaneously, the stages of growth of the young fruit-bearing +trees vary, so that there is a constant supply all the year round. Moreover, it is customary to cut down, and hang up in the +house, the stalk sustaining the fruit before it is ripe, so that each fruit can be eaten as it matures. The glossy leaves +of the banana-plantain are exceedingly beautiful. They are used for polishing hardwood floors; they serve as a substitute +for plates at the <i>tiánguis</i> and for wrapping-paper at the small native and Chinese grocersʼ shops. In rural places if a <i>carromata</i> driver cannot find a leather horse-collar, he improvises one of banana-leaf. + +</p> +<p>The <i>Papaw</i> tree (<i lang="la-x-bio">Carica. papaya</i>) flourishes wild—a prolific growth—attains a height of 20 to 25 feet, and is very picturesque. The leaves emerge in a cluster +from the top of the stem, and are about 20 to 30 inches long. They can be used as a substitute for soap for washing linen. +The foliage has the peculiar property of making meat or poultry tender if hung up in the branches. The fruit is of a rich +olive green, and remains so almost to maturity, when it quickly turns yellow. Both in shape and flavour it is something like +a melon, and, although more insipid, it is refreshing in this climate. Containing a quantity of pepsine, it is often recommended +by doctors as a dessert for persons with weak digestive organs. + +</p> +<p>Besides these fruits, there are <i>Pómelo</i> oranges, about four times the size of the largest European orange; ordinary-sized <i>Oranges</i> of three sorts; <i>Citron; Jack fruit</i> (<i lang="la-x-bio">Anona muricata,</i> Linn., or more probably <i lang="la-x-bio">Artocarpus integrifolia</i>) (Tagálog, <i lang="tl">Nangca); Custard Apples (Anona squamosa,</i> Linn.) (Tagálog, <i lang="tl">Atis</i>); <i>Bread-fruit</i> (<i lang="la-x-bio">Artocarpus camansi)</i> (Tagálog, <i lang="tl">Dalan͠gian</i> or <i lang="tl">Dalamian</i>); <i lang="tl">Lomboy</i> (<i lang="la-x-bio">Calyptrantes jambolana—Icosandrie</i>, Linn.), which looks like a damson; <i lang="tl">Santol</i> (<i lang="la-x-bio">Sandoricum ternatum—Decandrie</i>, Linn.), delicious prepared in syrup; <i lang="tl">Condol</i>, (<i lang="la-x-bio">Monoecia syngenesia—Cucurbita pepo aspera</i>), a kind of white pumpkin for preserving; <i>Limes</i> (Tagálog, <i lang="tl">Limonsuangi</i>); small green <i>Limes</i> (Tagálog, <i lang="tl">Calamánsi</i>) for preserving; another kind called <i>Lucban</i>; a diminutive <i>Mango</i> (<i lang="la-x-bio">Manguifera altissima</i>) (Tagálog, <i lang="tl">Paho</i>), which is brined and then put in vinegar; <i>Pomegranates</i> (<i lang="la-x-bio">Punica granatum</i>); a very inferior species of wild <i>Strawberry</i>; <i>Chico</i> (<i lang="la-x-bio">Achras sapota—Hexandrie</i>, Linn.), the <i lang="la-x-bio">Chico sapoti</i> of Mexico, extremely sweet, the size and colour of a small potato; <i>Lanson</i> (<i lang="la-x-bio">Lansium domesticum</i>), a curious kind of fruit of an agreeable sweet and acid flavour combined. The pericarp is impregnated with a white viscous +fluid, which adheres <a id="d0e12756"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e12756">320</a>]</span>very tenaciously to the fingers. When the inner membrane is removed the edible portion is exhibited in three divisions, each +of which envelops a very bitter stone. It is abundant in La Laguna. + +</p> +<p><i>Guavas</i> (<i lang="la-x-bio">Psidium pyriferum guyava</i>, Linn.) (Tagálog, <i lang="tl">Bayabas</i>) of very fine quality, from which jelly is made, are found wild in great abundance. They are so plentiful on waste lands +that I have never seen them cultivated. The peel is an excellent astringent. <i>Lemons</i><a id="d0e12770src" href="#d0e12770" class="noteref">13</a> of two kinds are grown—sometimes as many as a dozen of the small species, about the size of a walnut, may be seen hanging +at one time on a tree only 18 inches high; a well-known small species is called <i lang="tl">Dayap</i> in Tagálog. <i>Mangosteens</i>, the delicate fruit of the Straits Settlements, are found in the islands of Mindanao and Sulu. In Mindanao Island, on the +neck of land forming the western extremity, the <i>Durien</i> thrives. It is about as large as a pineapple, white inside, and when ripe it opens out in three or four places. It is very +delicious eating, but has a fetid smell. The seeds, as large as beans, are good to eat when roasted. The tree bears fruit +about every 20 years. + +</p> +<p><i>Pineapples</i> (<i lang="la-x-bio">Bromelia ananas</i>, Linn.) are abundant in the Southern Islands, where they are cultivated exclusively for the sake of the leaves, the delicate +fibres of which are used to manufacture the fine, costly texture known as <i>Piña</i> (q.v.). This fruit, which is not so fine as the Singapore and Cuban species, is in little demand in the Philippines, as it +is justly considered dangerous to eat much of it. + +</p> +<p><i>Grape</i> acclimatization has been attempted in the Philippines, but with very mediocre results. Cebú seems to be the island most suitable +for vine culture, but the specimens of fruit produced can bear no comparison with the European. In Naga (Cebú Is.) I have +eaten green <i>Figs</i> grown in the orchard of a friendʼs house. + +</p> +<p><i>Tamarinds</i> (<i lang="la-x-bio">Tamarindus indica</i>, Linn.) (Tagálog, <i lang="tl">Sampáloc</i>) are never planted for the sake of the fruit. The tree grows wild, and the fruit resembles a bean. Picked whilst green, it +is used by the natives to impart a flavour to certain fish sauces. When allowed to ripen fully, the fruit-pod takes a light-brown +colour—is brittle, and cracks all over under a slight pressure of the fingers. The whole of the ripe fruit can then be drawn +out by pulling the bean-stalk. The ripe tamarind appears to be little appreciated by any one, and it is extremely seldom seen, +even in the form of a preserve, in a native dwelling. Containing, as it does, a large quantity of tannin, it is sometimes +used by the Manila apothecaries, and I once heard that a small parcel was being collected for shipment to Italy. + +</p> +<p></p> +<div id="d0e12810" class="figure"><img border="0" src="images/p321.jpg" alt="Botanical Specimen" width="444" height="512"><p class="figureHead">Botanical Specimen</p> +</div><p> + +</p> +<p>The <i>Mabolo</i> (<i lang="la-x-bio">Diospyros discolor</i>) (Tagálog, <i lang="tl">Mabolo</i>, also <i lang="tl">Talang</i>) is a fruit of great external beauty and exquisite aroma. It is about the size of a large peach, the pubescent skin being +of a fine red colour, but <a id="d0e12828"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e12828">321</a>]</span>it is not very good eating. <span class="smallcaps">Chillies</span> (<i lang="la-x-bio">Capsicum minimum</i>, Blanco), <span class="smallcaps">Ginger</span> (<i lang="la-x-bio">Zingiber officinale</i>, Linn.), <span class="smallcaps">Capsicums</span> (<i lang="la-x-bio">Capsicum tetragonum</i>, Mill), <span class="smallcaps">Capers</span> (<i lang="la-x-bio">Capparris mariana</i>) and <span class="smallcaps">Vanilla</span> are found in a wild state. <span class="smallcaps">Sago</span> is produced in small quantities in Mindoro Island, where the sago-plant flourishes. The pith is cut out, washed, sun-dried, +and then pounded. The demand for this nutritious article is very limited. In 1904 I found the <span class="smallcaps">Cassava</span> plant growing near the south coast of Mindanao Island. + +</p> +<p>There are many other kinds of orchard and wild fruits of comparatively inferior quality, chiefly used by the natives to make +preserves. There is also a large variety of tuberose and other vegetable products, never eaten by Europeans, such as the favourite +<i>Síncamas</i> (<i lang="la-x-bio">Decandria—Pachyrhizus angulatus</i>), resembling a small turnip. The natives have a taste for many fruits plucked half ripe. + +</p> +<p>The <span class="smallcaps">Flowers</span> of these Islands are too numerous for their description to come within the scope of this work. To the reader who seeks an +exhaustive treatise on the Botany of the Philippines, I would recommend Manuel Blancoʼs “Flora de Filipinas,”<a id="d0e12876src" href="#d0e12876" class="noteref">14</a> from which I have taken the following brief notes. + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Philippine Flowers</span> + +</p> +<p><i>According to Manuel Blanco</i> + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="80%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b> </b></td> +<td valign="top"><b>Orders. </b></td> +<td valign="top"><b>Genera. </b></td> +<td valign="top"><b>Species. </b></td> +<td valign="top"><b>Varieties. </b></td> +<td valign="top"><b>Sub-varieties. +</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Dicotyledones </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">126 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 842 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">2,571 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">349 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 5</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Monocotyledones </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 26 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 325 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1,425 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">270 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">25</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Acotyledones </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 3 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 56 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 483 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 11 </td> +<td valign="top">— + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">155 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1,223 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">4,479 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">630 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">30</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>Some of the most curious and beautiful botanical specimens, not already described in the preceding pages, are the following, +viz.:— + +</p> +<p><i lang="la-x-bio">Arum (?) divaricatum</i>, Linn. (Tagálog, <i lang="tl">Gabigabihán</i>).—A delicate bulb. Common in Pasig and Manila. + +</p> +<p><i lang="la-x-bio">Amaryllis atamasco</i>, Blanco (Tagálog, <i lang="tl">Bácong</i>).—A bulb. Grows to 3 feet. Beautiful large red flower. Blooms in February. + +</p> +<p><i lang="la-x-bio">Agave americana</i> (Tagálog, <i lang="tl">Magui</i>).—It is one of a large variety of Aloes. (Mexican origin?) + +</p> +<p><i lang="la-x-bio">Asplendium nidus.</i>—The beautiful Nest-fern. + +</p> +<p><i lang="la-x-bio">Bignonia quadripinnata</i>, Blanco (Tagálog, <i lang="tl">Pinca-Pincahán</i>).—A curious flower. +<a id="d0e12988"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e12988">322</a>]</span></p> +<p><i lang="la-x-bio">Clerodendron longiflorum</i>, D.C.—An extremely beautiful and delicate white flower. + +</p> +<p></p> +<div id="d0e12994" class="figure"><img border="0" src="images/p322.jpg" alt="Botanical Specimen" width="448" height="512"><p class="figureHead">Botanical Specimen</p> +</div><p> + +</p> +<p><i lang="la-x-bio">Cactus pitajaya</i>, Blanco (Tagálog, <i lang="tl">Flor de Caliz</i>).—Gives a grand, showy flower. + +</p> +<p><i lang="la-x-bio">Caryota urens</i>, Linn (Tagálog, <i lang="tl">Taquipan</i>).—A beautiful palm. Grows to 22 feet. The fruit, when tender, is masticated like the <i>Areca catechu</i>. + +</p> +<p><i lang="la-x-bio">Caryota onusta</i>, Blanco (Tagálog, <i lang="tl">Cáuong</i>).—A fine palm. Gives a sweet juice which turns into good vinegar. The trunk gives a Sago, called by the natives <i>Yoro</i>. The ripe seeds are a deadly poison. An infusion of the seeds in water is so caustic that it has been used to throw on to +Moro pirates and thieves; wherever it touches the body it burns so terribly that none can suffer it or cure it. Sometimes +it is thrown into the rivers to stupefy the fish, which then float and can be caught with the hand. When <i>unripe</i> the seeds are made into a preserve. The seeds have also medicinal properties. + +</p> +<p><i lang="la-x-bio">Cryptogamia</i>.—Nine families of very luxuriant ferns. + +</p> +<p><i lang="la-x-bio">Cryptogamia</i>.—<i lang="la-x-bio">Boletus sanguineus</i> (Tagálog, <i lang="tl">Culapô</i>).—A curious blood-red Fungus. + +</p> +<p><i lang="la-x-bio">Dillenia Reifferscheidia</i> (Tagálog, <i lang="tl">Catmon</i>).—A very singular, showy flower. + +</p> +<p><i lang="la-x-bio">Exocarpus ceramica</i>, D.C.—A curious Cactus. + +</p> +<p><i lang="la-x-bio">Euphorbia tirucalli</i>, Linn.—A curious Cactus. + +</p> +<p><i lang="la-x-bio">Erythrina carnea</i>, Blanco (Tagálog, <i lang="tl">Dapdap</i>).—Grows to 20 feet. Gives a lovely red flower. + +</p> +<p><i lang="la-x-bio">Hibiscus syriacus</i>, Linn. (Several varieties of Hibiscus.) + +</p> +<p><i lang="la-x-bio">Hibiscus abelmoschus</i>, Linn. + +</p> +<p><i lang="la-x-bio">Mimosa pudica</i>, Linn.—<i lang="la-x-bio">Mimosa asperata</i>, Blanco (Tagálog, <i lang="tl">Mahíhin</i>).—The “Sensitive Plant,” so called because at the least contact with anything it closes up all the little petals forming +the leaf. It is one of the most curious plants in the Islands. It has a small red flower. Grows only a few inches from the +ground, among the grass. + +</p> +<p><i lang="la-x-bio">Mimosa tenuifolia</i>, Blanco.—The “Sensitive Tree,” which has the same property of closing the leaf on contact. + +</p> +<p><i lang="la-x-bio">Mimosa scutifera</i>, Blanco.—A tree with seed-pods hanging down like curls. + +</p> +<p><i lang="la-x-bio">Momordica sphoeroidea</i>, Blanco (Tagálog, <i lang="tl">Buyoc-buyoc</i>).—Climbs high trees. The fruit is eaten when cooked. Soap is obtained from the roots. + +</p> +<p><i lang="la-x-bio">Nelumbium speciosum</i>, Wild (Tagálog, <i lang="tl">Baino</i>; Igorrote, <i>Sucao</i>).—An aquatic plant found in the Lake of Bay and other places. Beautiful pink or red flower. The natives eat the roots and +seeds. + +</p> +<p><i lang="la-x-bio">Passiflora laurifolia</i>, Linn.—A curious Passion-flower, quite different to the European species. + +</p> +<p><i lang="la-x-bio">Pancratium zeylanicum</i> (Tagálog, <i lang="tl">Caton͠gal</i>).—A bulb giving a very peculiar flower. +<a id="d0e13118"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e13118">323</a>]</span></p> +<p><i lang="la-x-bio">Pinus toeda</i>.—The only kind of Pine known here. To be found in the mountains of Mancayan (Lepanto) and Benguet. + +</p> +<p></p> +<div id="d0e13124" class="figure"><img border="0" src="images/p323.jpg" alt="Botanical Specimen" width="442" height="512"><p class="figureHead">Botanical Specimen</p> +</div><p> + +</p> +<p><i lang="la-x-bio">Spathodea luzonica</i>, Blanco (Tagálog, <i lang="tl">Tue</i>).—Grows to 15 feet. Gives a gorgeous white flower. Common on the sea-shores. The wood is used for making guitars and clogs. +</p> +<hr class="tb"><p> + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Philippine Orchids</span> + +</p> +<p><i>The principal Orders</i> + +</p> +<p id="d0e13145">** Natural crosses or hybrids—rare and valuable. + +</p> +<div class="table" lang="la-x-bio"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top"><b>Genera. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top"><b>Species.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Aerides </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top">Augustiarium</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top">Lawrenciæ</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top">Marginatum</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top">Quinquevulnerum</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top">Roebelinii</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top">Sanderianum</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Bulbophyllum </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top">Dearei</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Cymbidium </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top">Pendulum</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top">Pendulum atro purpureum</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Cypripedium </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top">Lævigatum</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top">Boxallii</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top">Stonei</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top">Argus</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Dendrobium </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top">Anosmum</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top">Aurem philippinense</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top">Crumenatum</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top">Erythroxanthum</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top">Dearei</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top">Macrophyllum</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top">Superbum</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top">Superbum giganteum</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top">Platycanlon</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top">Taurinum</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Gramatophyllum </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top">Measuresianum</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top">Multiflorum</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top">Multiflorum tigrinum</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top">Speciosum</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Phalænopsis </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top">Amabalis</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top"><a href="#d0e13145">**</a></td> +<td valign="top">Casta</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top"><a href="#d0e13145">**</a></td> +<td valign="top">Intermedia</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top"><a href="#d0e13145">**</a></td> +<td valign="top">Intermedia brymeriana</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top"><a href="#d0e13145">**</a></td> +<td valign="top">Intermedia portei</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top"><a href="#d0e13145">**</a></td> +<td valign="top">Intermedia lencorrhoda</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top">Luddemaniana ochracia</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top">Schilleriana</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top">Rosea</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top">Sanderiana</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top">Sanderiana punctata</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top">Stuartiana</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top">Stuartiana bella</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top">Stuartiana nobilis</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top">Stuartiana punctatissima</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top">Schilleriana vestalis</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top">Veitchiana</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top">Veitchiana brachyodon</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Platyclinis or Dendrochilum </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top">Cobbiana</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top">Filiformis</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top">Glumacea</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top">Uncata</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Renanthera </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top">Storiei</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Saccolabeum </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top">Violaccum</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top">Blumei</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top">Blumei majus</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Sarcochilus </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top">Unguiculatus</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Vanda </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top">Sanderiana</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top">Sanderiana albata</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top">Sanderiana labello viridi</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top">Batemanii</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +<td valign="top">Lamellata boxallii</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + +</p> +<p>The generic name for Orchid in Tagálog is <i lang="tl">Dapo</i>. + + +</p> +<p><i>Some interesting facts relating to Philippine Botany</i> + +</p> +<p>Sweet-smelling <i>Flowers</i> are very rare. Of the few, the most popular in Manila is the <i>Sampaguita</i> (probably a corruption of the Spanish name <i lang="es">Santa Paquita</i>), which is sold made up in necklet form on cotton. + +</p> +<p>Looking on to the Pasig River at Manila in the early morning, one <a id="d0e13569"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e13569">324</a>]</span>often sees large masses of floating verdure of a small-cabbage appearance. This aquatic plant is the <i lang="la-x-bio">Pistia stratiotes</i>, Linn., (Tagálog, <i lang="tl">Quiapo</i>). + +</p> +<p></p> +<div id="d0e13578" class="figure"><img border="0" src="images/p324.jpg" alt="Botanical Specimen" width="444" height="512"><p class="figureHead">Botanical Specimen</p> +</div><p> + +</p> +<p>The firewood in common use as fuel, in great demand, and known as <i>Raja de Tan͠gal</i>, is the <i lang="la-x-bio">Rhizophora longissima</i>. It is also useful for fencing, roof-framing, etc. Another well-known firewood is the <i lang="la-x-bio">Rhizophora gynnorhiza</i> (Tagálog, <i lang="tl">Bacaúan</i>). <i lang="tl">Lan͠gary</i> is also used as firewood of an inferior quality. They are swamp-trees. + +</p> +<p>The species <i lang="la-x-bio">Pteclobyum</i> gives the “Locust-bean,” as sold at every little sweetmeat shop in London. This tree (when raised on or transplanted to highlands) +may be called the friend of the coffee-plant, for it opens its leaves in the sunshine to shade it and closes them when rain +is about to fall, so that the coffee-plant may be refreshed by the water. Also, at night, it closes its leaves to give the +coffee-plant the benefit of the dew. Another peculiar feature is that the branches lopped off for household fuel can, when +barked, be used at once, without needing to be dried or seasoned. Its natural habitat is the mangrove swamp, and the trunk +and root give market fuel. + +</p> +<p><i lang="tl">Colot-colotán</i>, or <i lang="tl">Manquit</i>, is the Tagálog name given to the <i lang="la-x-bio">Chrysopogon aciculatus</i>, Trin. (Spanish, <i lang="es">Amor seco</i>)—the little particles like pointed grass-seeds which stick to oneʼs trousers or skirt when crossing an uncultivated field +and can only be removed by picking them out one by one. + +</p> +<p>The Tagálog affix <i lang="tl">aso</i>, to the name of a botanical specimen, means <i>pseudo</i>, i.e. not the genuine species; v.g., <i>Síncamas</i> is the <i lang="la-x-bio">Decandria—Pachyrhizus angulatus</i> (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e12828">321</a>), whereas <i lang="tl">Sincamas-aso</i> is the <i lang="la-x-bio">D.—Pachyrhizus montanus</i>. + +</p> +<p>Many places take their names from trees and plants, v.g.:— + + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Antipolo </td> +<td valign="top">(Rizal) </td> +<td valign="top">a tree.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Bauang </td> +<td valign="top">(Batangas) </td> +<td valign="top">garlic.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Bulacan </td> +<td valign="top">(Bulacan) </td> +<td valign="top">a tree.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Cápas </td> +<td valign="top">(Pangasinán) </td> +<td valign="top">the cotton-tree (Igorrote dialect).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Camagon Is. </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top">a tree.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Cabuyao </td> +<td valign="top">(Laguna) </td> +<td valign="top">a tree.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Calumpit </td> +<td valign="top">(Bulacan) </td> +<td valign="top">a tree.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Culasi </td> +<td valign="top">(Antique) </td> +<td valign="top">a tree.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Iba </td> +<td valign="top">(Zambales) </td> +<td valign="top">a plant.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Lucbang </td> +<td valign="top">(Tayabas) </td> +<td valign="top">a small lime.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Lipa </td> +<td valign="top">(Batangas) </td> +<td valign="top">nettle.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Quiapo </td> +<td valign="top">(Manila suburb) </td> +<td valign="top">an aquatic plant.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Sampáloc </td> +<td valign="top">(Manila suburb) </td> +<td valign="top">the tamarind-tree.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Salomague </td> +<td valign="top">(Ilocos) </td> +<td valign="top">the tamarind-tree. (Igorrote dialect).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Tabaco </td> +<td valign="top">(Albay) </td> +<td valign="top">the tobacco-plant.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Taal </td> +<td valign="top">(Batangas) </td> +<td valign="top">a tree (same as <i>Ipil</i>). +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Talisay </td> +<td valign="top">(Batangas) </td> +<td valign="top">a tree.</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p><i>Medicinal Herbs, Roots, Leaves, and Barks</i> abound everywhere. Nature provides ample remedies for dysenteric, strumatic, scorbutic, and many other diseases. An extensive +work on the subject was compiled by Ignacio de Mercado, the son of a Spanish Creole father and Tagálog <a id="d0e13785"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e13785">325</a>]</span>mother, born in 1648 at Parañaque, seven miles from Manila. He was parish priest in Lipa in 1674, and subsequently held several +other incumbencies up to his death, which took place in Bauang (Batangas) on March 29, 1698. His MS. passed from the pharmacy +of one religious corporation to another to be copied, and for over a century after the British occupation of Manila (1762–63) +it was supposed to be lost. Finally, in 1876, it was discovered by Don Domingo Vidal y Soler, who gave it to the Augustine +friars for publication, but I am not aware that it was ever printed. According to Manuel Blanco, Ignacio de Mercadoʼs MS. +describes 483 medicinal specimens, and attached to the description are 171 coloured sketches of medicinal plants, leaves, +woods, and barks, and also 35 coloured sketches of plants, etc., without any description of their medicinal properties. The +only one of these remedies which I have had occasion to test on myself is <i>Tagulaúay Oil</i>, extracted from the leaves of the plant called in Tagálog <i>Tan͠gantan͠gan</i>. It is an excellent styptic. + +</p> +<p><i>Ylang-Ylang</i> (<i lang="la-x-bio">Anona odoratissima</i>, Blanco; <i lang="la-x-bio">Cananga odorata</i>, Hook) and <i>Champaca</i> (<i lang="la-x-bio">Michelia champaca</i>, Linn.) yield odoriferous essential oils, and these fine perfumes are, especially the former, exported to foreign countries. +The export of <i>Ylang-Ylang</i> in the years 1902 and 1903 amounted to 3,949 and 5,942 gallons respectively. + +<a id="d0e13812"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e13812">326</a>]</span></p> +<div class="footnotes"> +<hr class="fnsep"> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e11507" href="#d0e11507src" class="noteref">1</a></span> “Hist. de Filipinas,” by Gaspar de San Agustin. MS. in the Convento de San Agustin, Manila. The date of the introduction of +cacao into these Islands is confirmed by Juan de la Concepcion in his “Hist. General de Philipinas,” Vol. IX. p. 150. Published +in 14 vols., Manila, 1788. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e11514" href="#d0e11514src" class="noteref">2</a></span> The word chocolate is derived from the Mexican word <i>chocolatl</i>. The Mexicans, at the time of the conquest, used cacao-beans as money. The grandees of the Aztec Court ate chocolate made +of the ground bean mixed with Indian corn and rocou (<i>vide</i> W. H. Prescottʼs “Hist. of the Conquest of Mexico”). + +</p> +<p class="footnote">Chocolate was first used in Spain in 1520; in Italy in 1606; in England in 1657, and in Germany in 1700.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e11647" href="#d0e11647src" class="noteref">3</a></span> <i>Tiangui</i>, from the Mexican word <i>Tianguez</i>, signifies “small market.” +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e11706" href="#d0e11706src" class="noteref">4</a></span> Spanish, <i>Carroza</i>; Tagálog, <i>Hila</i> or <i>Parágus</i>; Visaya, <i>Cángas</i> or <i>Dagandan</i>. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e11784" href="#d0e11784src" class="noteref">5</a></span> British patents for papermaking from cocoanut fibre were granted to Newton in 1852, and to Holt and Forster in 1854. A process +for making paper from the cocoanut kernel was patented by Draper in 1854. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e11799" href="#d0e11799src" class="noteref">6</a></span> <i>Vide The Tropical Agriculturist</i>, Colombo, August 2, 1886. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e11871" href="#d0e11871src" class="noteref">7</a></span> Not to be confounded with <i lang="tl">Ban͠gá</i>,—Tagálog for a terra-cotta water-pot. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e12067" href="#d0e12067src" class="noteref">8</a></span> This company was formed in Hong-Kong and incorporated May 16, 1889, with a capital of ₱300,000 divided into 6,000 ₱50 shares, +to take over and work the prosperous business of Mr. H. G. Brown. Its success continued under the three <a id="d0e12069"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e12069">313n</a>]</span>yearsʼ able management of Mr. Brown. During that period it paid an average yearly dividend of 8–1/3%, and in 1890 its shares +were freely dealt in on the Hong-Kong market at 50% premium. On the retirement of Mr. Brown in March, 1891, the company gradually +dwindled down to a complete wreck in 1894. It is still (year 1905) in liquidation. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e12273" href="#d0e12273src" class="noteref">9</a></span> “Timber and Timber Trees,” by Thomas Laslett (Timber Inspector to the Admiralty). London, 1875. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e12579" href="#d0e12579src" class="noteref">10</a></span> The same writer also makes the following interesting remark:—“<span lang="es">Y tal vez de aquí viene el olor (brea) como empireumatico muy notable de los excrementos en este tiempo!</span>” <i>Vide</i> “<span lang="es">Flora de Filipinos</span>,” by Father Manuel Blanco, Vol. I., p. 228. Published in Manila in 4 vols., 1879. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e12621" href="#d0e12621src" class="noteref">11</a></span> Clavigeroʼs “Storia Antica del Messico.” +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e12638" href="#d0e12638src" class="noteref">12</a></span> British patents for paper-making from banana fibre were granted to Berry in 1838; Lilly in 1854; Jullion in 1855; Burke in +1855; and Hook in 1857. In these Islands a cloth is woven from this fibre. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e12770" href="#d0e12770src" class="noteref">13</a></span> To express juice from the small species of lemon, the fruit should be cut from the stalk end downwards. If cut otherwise the +juice will not flow freely. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e12876" href="#d0e12876src" class="noteref">14</a></span> “Flora de Filipinas,” by Father Manuel Blanco. Published in Manila by the Augustine Order in 4 vols., 1879. +</p> +</div> +</div> +<div id="d0e13813" class="div1"> +<h2 class="normal">Mineral Products</h2> +<h2 class="normal">Coal—Gold—Iron—Copper—Sulphur, Etc.</h2> +<p>Owing to the scarcity of manufacturing industries in this Colony, the consumption of <span class="smallcaps">Coal</span> is very limited, and up to 1889 it hardly exceeded 25,000 tons per annum. In 1892 nearly double that quantity found a market. +In 1896 the coal imported from Newcastle (New South Wales) alone amounted to 65,782 tons; in 1897 to 89,798 tons. A small +proportion of this is employed in the forges, foundries, and a few steam-power factories, most of them situated around Manila, +but by far the greater demand is for coaling steam-ships. Since the American occupation the increase of steam-shipping and +the establishment of ice-plants all over the Colony have raised the consumption of coal. Wood fuel is still so abundant in +rural districts that coal will probably not be in general request for the steam sugar-mills for many years to come. + +</p> +<p>Australia, Great Britain, and Japan supply coal to this Colony; in 1892 Borneo traders sent several cargoes of inferior product +to Manila; nevertheless, local capital has been expended from time to time in endeavours to work up the home deposits. + +</p> +<p>Philippine coal is more correctly speaking highly carbonized lignite of the Tertiary age, and analogous to Japanese coal. +Batan Island, off the south-east coast of Luzon Island, is said to have the finest lignite beds in the Archipelago. + +</p> +<p>The island of Cebú contains large deposits of lignite. The mines of Compostela are estimated to be very rich in quantity and +of medium quality. The late owner, Isaac Conui, for want of capital, was unable to develop them fully. Transport by buffalo-carts +from the mines to the coast was very deficient and costly, and Conui, who was frequently my guest in Manila in 1883, unsuccessfully +sought to raise capital for constructing a line of railway from the collieries to Compostela village (east coast). They were +then taken up by a Spaniard, with whom the Spanish Government made contracts for coaling the gunboats. A tram line was laid +down to the pits, but there was a great lack of promptitude <a id="d0e13829"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e13829">327</a>]</span>in deliveries, and I heard of ships lying off the coaling-wharf for several hours waiting to <i>start</i> coaling. The enterprise has by no means given an adequate return for the over ₱100,000 invested in it up to the year 1897. +The coal-mine of Danao, on the same coast, has not been more prosperous. When I visited it in 1896 it had not yielded a cent +of nett profit. In 1904 I made the acquaintance, in Cebú Island, of a holder of ₱47,000 interest in this enterprise. He told +me that he had got no return for his money in it. He had spent ₱1,000 himself to have the mine inspected and reported on. +He sent the report to his co-partners in Manila, and heard no more about it until he went to the capital, where he learnt +that the Managing Director had resigned, and no one knew who was his successor, what had become of his report, or anything +definite relating to the concern. + +</p> +<p>Anthracite has been found in Cebú,<a id="d0e13836src" href="#d0e13836" class="noteref">1</a> and satisfactory trials have been made with it, mixed with British bituminous coal. Perhaps volcanic action may account for +the volatile bituminous oils and gases having been driven off the original deposits. The first coal-pits were sunk in Cebú +in the Valle de Masanga, but the poor commercial results led to their abandonment about the year 1860. There are also extensive +unworked coal deposits a few miles from the west coast village of Asturias, which I visited in 1896 with a planter friend, +Eugenio Alonso, who was endeavouring to form a coal-mining syndicate. The <i lang="es">Revista Minera</i> (a Madrid mining journal) referred in 1886 to the coal of the Alpacó Mountain, in the district of Naga (Cebú Is.) as being +pure, dry, of easy combustion, carrying a strong flame, and almost free from sulphur pyrites. Cebú coal is said to be of better +quality and cleaner than the Labuan and Australian products, but its heating powers being less, it is less serviceable for +long sea voyages. + +</p> +<p>The coal-mines in the hills around the Cumansi Valley, about eight miles from the Cebú coast (Danao) have been worked for +years without financial success. The quality is reported excellent. Indeed, in several of the larger islands of the Colony +there are outcrop indications of workable coal, unobtainable for want of transport facilities. + +</p> +<p>In the Province of Albay, the Súgod Collieries were started by a company formed in the year 1874. There were some fifteen +partners, each of whom subscribed a capital of ₱14,300. One of these partners, Ceferino de Arámburu, told me that for a while +the result was so good that a Manila banking firm offered to take over the concern from the shareholders at a premium of 20 +per cent. upon the original capital. About 4,000 tons of coal were extracted, most of which was given away as samples, in +the hope of large contracts resulting from the trials, although it is said that the consumption was too rapid, and that it +had to be mixed with Cardiff coal. Seven pits were sunk, and the concern <a id="d0e13852"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e13852">328</a>]</span>lingered on until the year 1881, when its working was relinquished. The failure was attributed to the shallowness of the pits, +which were only 30 metres deep, whilst it was supposed that if the excavation had been continued before these pits were flooded, +shale and limestone strata could have been removed, exposing a still more valuable seam, in which case it might have been +worth while providing pumping-machinery. The cost of extraction and delivery on the coast was estimated at 75 cents of a peso +per ton, whilst Cardiff coal in Manila was worth, at the time, about eight pesos per ton, and the Australian product ranged +usually at one to one and a half pesos below that figure, port tax unpaid. + +</p> +<p>In January, 1898, “The Philippine Mining and Development Company, Limited,” was formed in Hong-Kong with a capital of $1,600,000 +(Mex.) in 160,000 $10 shares for the development of Philippine coal deposits and other industries, under the management of +a Scotch merchant of long standing and good repute in Manila (since deceased). The Spanish-American conflict which arose four +months later impeded active operations by the company. + +</p> +<p>In May, 1902, a company styled “<span lang="es">Minas de Carbon de Batan</span>” was constituted to purchase from and exploit the coal-mines of Messrs. Gil Hermanos, situated in the Island of Batan, Sorsogón +Province. The purchase price was fixed at ₱500,000, and the companyʼs capital at ₱1,000,000 divided into 5,000 equal shares. +Hopeful reports were made on the property by an American, a Spanish, and a Japanese mining engineer respectively. When I interviewed +the Managing Director of the company, in Manila, two years after its formation, no dividend had yet been paid to the shareholders. + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Comparative Analyses of Coal</span> + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="60%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top"><b>Source. </b></td> +<td valign="top"><b>Fixed Carbon. </b></td> +<td valign="top"><b>Volatile matter. </b></td> +<td valign="top"><b>Water. </b></td> +<td valign="top"><b>Ash. +</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i> </i></td> +<td valign="top"><i>per cent. </i></td> +<td valign="top"><i>per cent. </i></td> +<td valign="top"><i>per cent. </i></td> +<td valign="top"><i>per cent.</i></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Cardiff </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">83.00 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 8.60 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 4.50 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 3.90</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Australia </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">71.45 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">16.25 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 2.90 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 9.40</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Cebú </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">57.94 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">31.75 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 9.23 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 1.08</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Rock Spring, Wyo. </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">56.50 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">34.50 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 6.25 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 2.75</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Cebú </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">51.96 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">37.56 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 7.80 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 2.68</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Cebú </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">49.50 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">35.03 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">11.18 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 3.62</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>I do not know that any capitalist has ever received an adequate return for his investment in Philippine coal-mining. +</p> +<hr class="tb"><p> + +</p> +<p>From the earliest period of the Spanish occupation of these Islands, attention has been given to <span class="smallcaps">Gold-seeking</span>. +<a id="d0e13966"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e13966">329</a>]</span></p> +<p>It is recorded that in the year 1572 Captain Juan Salcedo (Legaspiʼs grandson) went to inspect the mines of Paracale, (Camarines); +and in the same district the village of Mambulao has long enjoyed fame for the gold-washing in its vicinity. + +</p> +<p>In the time of Governor Pedro de Arandia (1754–59), a certain Francisco Estorgo obtained licence to work these Paracale mines, +and five veins are said to have been struck. The first was in the Lipa Mountain, where the mine was called “San Nicolás de +Tolentino”; the second, in the Dobójan Mountain, was called “Nuestra Señora de la Soledad de Puerta Vaga”; the third, in Lipara, +was named “Mina de las Animas”; the fourth, in the territory of San Antonio, took the name of “San Francisco,” and the fifth, +in the Minapa Mountains, was named “<span lang="es">Nuestra Señora de los Dolores</span>,” all in the district of Paracale, near the village of Mambulao. The conditions of Estorgoʼs licence were, that one-fifth +(<i lang="es">real quinto</i>) of the output should belong to the King; that Estorgo was authorized to construct, arm, and garrison a fort for his own +defence against anticipated attacks from Mahometans, and that he should have the title of Castellano, or guardian of the fort. +It was found necessary to establish the smelting-works in Mambulao, so he obtained a licence to erect another fort there on +the same conditions, and this fort was named “San Cárlos.” In a short time the whole enterprise came to grief. Estorgoʼs neighbours, +instigated by native legal pettifoggers in Manila, raised endless lawsuits against him; his means were exhausted, and apparatus +being wanted to work the mines, he had to abandon them. + +</p> +<p>About the same time, the gold-mines of Pangotcotan and Acupan (Benguet district) were worked to advantage by Mexicans, but +how much metal was won cannot be ascertained. The extensive old workings show how eagerly the precious metal was sought in +the past. The Spanish Government granted only concessions for gold-mining, the title remaining in the Crown. Morga relates +(1609) that the Crown royalty of one-tenth (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e2876">53</a>) of the gold extracted amounted to ₱10,000 annually. According to Centeno, the total production of gold in all the Islands +in 1876 did not not exceed ₱3,600. + +</p> +<p>During the Government of Alonso Fajardo de Tua (1618–24) it came to the knowledge of the Spaniards that half-caste Igorrote-Chinese +in the north of Luzon peacefully worked gold-deposits and traded in the product. Therefore Francisco Carreño de Valdés, a +military officer commanding the Provinces of Pangasinán and Ilocos, obtained permission from the Governor to make a raid upon +these Igorrote-Chinese and appropriate their treasure-yielding territory. After a seven daysʼ march the Spanish gold-seekers +and troops arrived at the deposits, where they took up their quarters without resistance. The natives held aloof whilst mutual +offers of peace were made. When the Spaniards thought they were in secure possession of the neighbourhood, the <a id="d0e13987"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e13987">330</a>]</span>natives attacked and slaughtered a number of them. The commander of the district and the leader of the native troops were +among the slain. Then they removed the camp to a safer place; but provisions ran short and the wet season set in, so the survivors +marched back to the coast with the resolution to renew their attempt to possess the spoil in the following year. In the ensuing +dry season they returned and erected a fort, whence detachments of soldiers scoured the neighbourhood to disperse the Igorrote-Chinese, +but the prospectors do not appear to have procured much gold. + +</p> +<p>Many years ago a Spanish company was formed to work a gold-mine near the mountain of Malaguit, in the Province of Camarines +Norte, but it proved unsuccessful. + +</p> +<p>At the beginning of last century a company was founded, under the auspices of the late Queen Christina of Spain (great-grandmother +of the present King Alfonso XIII.), which was also an utter failure. I was told that the company had spacious offices established +in Manila, whence occasionally the employees went up to the mines, situated near the Caraballo Mountain, as if they were going +to a picnic. When they arrived there, all denoted activity—for the feast; but the mining work they did was quite insignificant +compared with the squandered funds, hence the disaster of the concern. + +</p> +<p>The coast of Surigao (north-east extremity of Mindanao Is.) has been known for centuries to have gold-deposits. A few years +ago it was found in sufficiently large quantities near the surface to attract the attention of capitalists. A sample of the +washings was given to me, but gold extraction was never taken up in an organized way in that district. A friend of mine, a +French merchant in Manila, told me in 1886 that for a long time he received monthly remittances of 4½ to 5½ lbs. of alluvial +gold from the Surigao coast, extracted by the natives on their own account. In the same district a Spaniard attempted to organize +labour for systematic gold-washing, but the friars so influenced the natives against him that he could only have continued +his project at the risk of his life, therefore he gave it up. + +</p> +<p>In an independent way, the natives obtain gold from earth-washings in many districts, particularly in the unsubdued regions +of Luzon Island, where it is quite a common occupation. The product is bartered on the spot to the Chinese ambulant traders +for other commodities. Several times, whilst deer-stalking near the river, a few miles past Montalbán (Rizal), I have fallen +in with natives washing the sand from the river bed in search of gold, and they have shown me some of their findings, which +they preserve in quills. + +</p> +<p>In other places in Luzon Island gold is procured in very small quantities by washing the earth from the bottoms of pits dug +from 20 to 25 feet deep and 3 feet wide. The extraction of gold from auriferous rock is also known to the natives. The rock +is broken by a stone on <a id="d0e13999"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e13999">331</a>]</span>an anvil of the same material. Then the broken pieces are crushed between roughly-hewn stone rollers put in motion by buffaloes, +the pulverized ore being washed to separate the particles of the precious metal. I should hardly think the yield was of much +account, as the people engaged in its extraction seemed to be miserably poor. + +</p> +<p>Gold probably exists in all the largest islands of the Archipelago, but in a dispersed form; for the fact is, that after centuries +of search, large pockets or veins of it have never been traced to defined localities, and, so far as discoveries up to the +present demonstrate, this Colony cannot be considered rich in auriferous deposits. Until the contrary has been proved, I venture +to submit the theory that every gold-bearing reef in these Islands, accessible to man, has been disintegrated by volcanic +action ages ago. + +</p> +<p>In 1887 a Belgian correspondent wrote to me inquiring about a company which, he stated, had been formed for working a Philippine +mine of Argentiferous Lead. On investigation I learnt that the mines referred to were situated at Acsúbing, near the village +of Consolacion, and at Panoypoy, close to the village of Talamban in Cebú Island. They became the property of a Frenchman<a id="d0e14005src" href="#d0e14005" class="noteref">2</a> about the beginning of 1885, and so far no shipment had been made, although the samples sent to Europe were said to have +yielded an almost incredibly enormous amount of gold (!), besides being rich in galena (sulphide of lead) and silver. I went +to Cebú Island in June, 1887, and called on the owner in Mandaue with the object of visiting these extraordinary mines; but +they were not being worked for want of funds, and he left for Europe the same year, the enterprise being finally abandoned. + +</p> +<p>In 1893 “The Philippines Mineral Syndicate” was formed in London to work scientifically the historical Mambulao Gold Mines +already referred to. One pound shares were offered in these Islands and subscribed to by all classes, from the British Consul +at that time down to native commercial clerks. Mr. James Hilton, a mining engineer, had reported favourably on the prospects. +After the usual gold-mining period of disappointment had passed away, an eccentric old gentleman was sent out as an expert +to revive the whole concern and set it upon a prosperous basis. I had many conversations with him in Manila before he went +to Mambulao, where he soon died. Heavy machinery came out from Europe, and a well-known Manila resident, not a mining engineer, +but an all-round smart man, was sent to Mambulao, and, due to his ability, active operations commenced. This most recent earnest +venture in Philippine gold-mining has not, however, so far proved to be a Golconda to the shareholders. + +</p> +<p>That there is gold in Mindoro Island is evident from the fact that the Minguianes, a wild tribe, wear gold jewellery made +by themselves, <a id="d0e14012"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e14012">332</a>]</span>and come down to the coast villages to barter with this metal, for they do not understand trading with the coin medium. + +</p> +<p>As a general rule, failure in most Philippine mining speculations was chiefly due to the unwillingness of the native to co-operate +with European capitalists in search of quick fortunes for themselves. The native rustic did not seek and would not submit +to constant organized and methodical labour at a daily wage, to be paid periodically when he had finished his work. The only +class whom one could employ in the neighbourhood of the mines was migratory and half-subjected, whilst there was no legislation +whatever in force regulating the relations between workers and capitalists. Some suggested the employment of Chinese, but +the obstacles to this proposal have been pointed out in Chap. <a href="#d0e3704">viii</a>. It is very doubtful whether much profitable mining will ever be done in this Colony without Chinese labour. Again, the wretched +state of the public highways obliged the few enterprising capitalists to spend their money on the construction of roads which +had already been paid for in taxes. + +</p> +<p>It is calculated that in the working of mines in the Philippines, as much as ₱1,300,000 was spent from the beginning of the +last century up to 1876, without the least satisfactory result. + +</p> +<p>A Spanish writer<a id="d0e14023src" href="#d0e14023" class="noteref">3</a> asserts that on the coasts of Taal and Bauan, in the Province of Batangas, there were many traces of old gold-mines, and +remarks: “We are already scared in this enlightened century at the number who have spent their silver and their health in +excavating mines in the Philippines, only to undeceive themselves, and find their miserable greed punished.” + +</p> +<p>Still Gold-seeking continues, and the hope of many an American to-day is centred in the possibility of finding the smile of +fortune in the Benguet and other districts now being scoured by prospectors. +</p> +<hr class="tb"><p> + +</p> +<p>Iron-mines, situated a few miles from Manila, were worked about the middle of the 18th century by Government, but the result +being disastrous, a concession of working rights was put up to public auction, and adjudicated to a certain Francisco Salgado, +who engaged to pay annually to the State ₱20,500 in gold and 125 tons of iron. The concern was an entire failure, chiefly +owing to the usual transport difficulty. Salgado afterwards discovered an iron mine in a place called Santa Inés, near Bosoboso, +in the district of Mórong, and obtained a concession to work it. The ore is said to have yielded 75 per cent. of pure metal. +The greatest obstacle which Salgado had to contend with was the indolence of the natives, but eventually this was overcome +by employing Chinese in their stead. All went well for a time, until the success which attended the undertaking awoke envy +in the capital. <a id="d0e14034"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e14034">333</a>]</span>Salgado found it desirable to erect his smelting-furnaces on the banks of the Bosoboso River to obtain a good water supply. +For this a special permission had to be solicited of the Gov.-General, so the opportunity was taken to induce this authority +to put a stop to the whole concern on the ground that the Chinese workmen were not Christians! Salgado was ordered to send +these Chinese to the Alcayceria in Binondo (Manila), and ship them thence to China at his own expense. Moreover, on the pretext +that the iron supplied to the Royal Stores had been worked by infidels, the Government refused to pay for the deliveries, +and Salgado became a ruined victim of religious fanaticism. + +</p> +<p>The old parish priest of Angat, in Bulacan Province, once gave me the whole history of the rich iron-mines existing a few +miles from that town. It appears that at about the beginning of last century, two Englishmen made vain efforts to work these +mines. They erected expensive machinery (which has since disappeared piece by piece), and engaged all the headmen around, +at fixed salaries, to perform the simple duty of guaranteeing a certain number of men each to work there daily. The headmen +were very smart at receiving their pay, some of them having the audacity to ask for it in advance; yet the number of miners +diminished, little by little, and no reasonable terms could induce them to resume work. The priest related that, after the +Englishmen had spent a fortune of about £40,000, and seeing no result, in despair they hired a canoe, telling the native in +charge to paddle out to sea, where they blew their brains out with pistols. + +</p> +<p>Afterwards a Spaniard, who had made money during years of office as Chief Judge and Governor of the Bulacan Province, thought +he could, by virtue of the influence of his late position, command the services of all the labourers he might require to work +the mine. It was a vain hope; he lost all his savings, and became so reduced in circumstances that for a long time he was +a pauper, accepting charity in the parish convents of the province. + +</p> +<p>The Angat iron-mines undoubtedly yield a very rich ore—it is stated up to 85 per cent. of metal. Up to the Revolution they +were still worked on a small scale. In 1885, at the foot of these ferruginous hills, I saw a rough kind of smelting-furnace +and foundry in a dilapidated shed, where the points of ploughshares were being made. These were delivered at a fixed minimum +price to a Chinaman who went to Binondo (Manila) to sell them to the Chinese ironmongers. In Malolos (Bulacan) I met one of +the partners in this little business—a Spanish half-caste—who told me that it paid well in proportion to the trifling outlay +of capital. If the natives chose to bring in mineral they were paid for it; when they did not come, the works and expenses +were temporarily stopped. + +</p> +<p>In Baliuag, a few miles from Angat, where I have stayed a score of times, I observed, at the threshold of several houses, +slabs of iron about 8 feet long by 2 feet wide and 5 inches thick. I inquired <a id="d0e14044"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e14044">334</a>]</span>about the origin of this novelty, and several respectable natives, whom I had known for years, could only inform me that their +elders had told them about the foreigners who worked the Angat mines, and that the iron in question came from there. Appearing +to belong to no one in particular, the slabs had been appropriated. + +</p> +<p>Copper is extracted in small quantities by both the wild tribes of the North and the Mahometans of the South, who manufacture +utensils of this metal for their own use. In the North, half-worked copper is obtained from the Igorrotes, but the attempt +of a company—the <i>Compañia Cantabro-Filipina</i>, established in the middle of last century—to exploit the copper deposits in Mancayan, in the district of Lepanto, has hardly +been more successful than all other mining speculations undertaken on a large scale in this Colony. + +</p> +<p>Marble exists in large beds in the Province of Bataan, which is the west-coast boundary of Manila Bay, and also in the Island +of Romblon, but, under the circumstances explained, no one cared to risk capital in opening quarries. In 1888 surface (boulder) +marble was being cut near Montalbán (Rizal) under contract with the Dominican friars to supply them with it for their church +in Manila. It was of a motley whitish colour, polished well, and a sample of it sent by me to a marble-importer in London +was reported on favourably. + +</p> +<p>Granite is not found in these Islands, and there is a general want of hard stone for building purposes. Some is procurable +at Angono, up the Lake of Bay, and it is from here that the stone was brought by the Spaniards for the Manila Port Works. +Granite is brought over from Hong-Kong when needed for works of any importance, such as the new Government House in Manila +City, in course of construction when the Spaniards evacuated the Islands. For ordinary building operations there is a material—a +kind of marl-stone called <i>Adobe</i>—so soft when quarried that it can be cut out in small blocks with a hand-saw, but it hardens considerably on exposure to +the air. + +</p> +<p>Gypsum deposits occur in a small island opposite to the town of Culasi (Antique) on the west coast of Panay, called Marilisan. +The superincumbent marl has been removed in several places where regular workings were carried on for years by natives, and +shiploads of it were sent to Manila until the Spanish Government prohibited its free extraction and export. + +</p> +<p>Sulphur exists in many islands, sometimes pure, in unlimited quantities, and often mixed with copper, iron, and arsenic. The +crater peak of the Taal Volcano in the Bómbon Lake burst in 1749 (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e2212">18</a>), and from that date, until the eruption of 1754, sulphur was extracted by the natives. These deposits were again worked +in 1780, and during a few years following. Bowring states<a id="d0e14068src" href="#d0e14068" class="noteref">4</a> that a well-known <a id="d0e14071"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e14071">335</a>]</span>naturalist once offered a good sum of money for the monopoly of working the sulphur mines in the Taal district. + +</p> +<p>Mineral oil was discovered some 12 years ago in the mountains of Cebú Island, a few miles from the west-coast town of Toledo. +A drill-boring was made, and I was shown a sample of the crude <i>Oil</i>. An Irishman was then conducting the experimental works. Subsequently a British engineer visited the place, and reported +favourably on the prospects. In 1896 I was again at the borings. Some small machinery had been erected for working the drills. +A Dutch mining engineer was in charge of the work, which was being financed by a small British syndicate; but so far a continuous +flow had not been obtained, and it was still doubtful whether a well had been struck or not. The Dutchman was succeeded by +an American, who, when the Spanish-American War was on the point of breaking out, had to quit the place, and the enterprise +has since remained in suspense. + +</p> +<p>There is a tendency, in most new and unexplored countries, to see visionary wealth in unpenetrated regions—to cast the eye +of imagination into the forest depths and the bowels of the earth, and become fascinated with the belief that Nature has laid +vast treasures therein; and the veil of mystery constitutes a tradition until it is rent by scientific investigation. + +<a id="d0e14080"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e14080">336</a>]</span></p> +<div class="footnotes"> +<hr class="fnsep"> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e13836" href="#d0e13836src" class="noteref">1</a></span> For more ample details <i>vide</i> “<span lang="es">Rápida descripcion de la Isla de Cebú</span>,” by Enrique Abella y Casariega. Published by Royal Order in Madrid, 1886. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e14005" href="#d0e14005src" class="noteref">2</a></span> Monsieur Jean Labedan, who had been the original proprietor of the “Restaurant de Paris” in La Escolta, Manila. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e14023" href="#d0e14023src" class="noteref">3</a></span> <span lang="es">“Hist. de la Provincia de Batangas,” por D. Pedro Andrés de Castro y Amadés, 1790</span>. Inedited MS. in the archives of Bauan Convent (Batangas). +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e14068" href="#d0e14068src" class="noteref">4</a></span> “A Visit to the Philippine Islands,” by Sir John Bowring, Spanish translation, p. 67. Manila, 1876. +</p> +</div> +</div> +<div id="d0e14081" class="div1"> +<h2 class="normal">Domestic Live-stock—Ponies, Buffaloes, Etc.</h2> +<p>The Phillipine pony is not an indigenous animal. It is said to have originated from the small Andalusian horse and the Chinese +mare. I have ridden more than 500 Philippine ponies, and, in general, I have found them swift, strong, and elegant animals +when well cared for. Geldings are rarely met with. Before the American occupation ponies ranged in value from ₱25 to ₱150 +for a sound animal. Unfortunately, prices of everything have risen since 1898, and, moreover, a fatal horse-disease, called +“surra,” unknown in the Islands before that period, has considerably reduced the stock of ponies. Due to these causes, ponies +cost to-day about three times the former prices. + +</p> +<p>The importation of Spanish and Australian horses resulted in failure, because green grass (<i>zacate</i>)—the fodder of Philippine ponies—was not the diet they had been accustomed to. Amateur enthusiasts constantly urged the Spanish +authorities to take measures for the improvement of the breed, and in 1888 the acting Gov.-General Moltó sent a commission +to British India to purchase breeding-horses and mares. A number of fine animals was brought to Manila, but the succeeding +Gov.-General, Weyler, disapproved of the transaction, and the stock was sold to the public. Two stallions and two mares fetched +together ₱2,600, the prices of the others ranging about ₱700 each. + +</p> +<p>Pony-races took place at Santa Mesa (Manila) every spring. They were organized by “the Manila Jockey Club,” usually patronized +by the Gov.-General of the day, and the great meet lasted three days, when prizes were awarded to the winners. Ponies which +had won races in Manila fetched from ₱300 to ₱1,000. The new racecourse is at Pasay. + +</p> +<p>In Cebú also there were pony races every autumn on the racecourse facing the <i>Cotta</i> and the Government House. + +</p> +<p>Since 1898 the American authorities have imported thousands of horses from the United States for the public service, and American +dealers have brought quantities of them from Australia and the United States for private sale. All their fodder, however, +has to be procured from America in pressed bales, as they cannot thrive on the food of the country. It is thought, however, +that a plant, called <i>Teosinte</i>, <a id="d0e14103"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e14103">337</a>]</span>which is now being cultivated, will be suitable for horse-fodder when the animals become thoroughly acclimatized. + +</p> +<p>The ordinary native has no notion of the proper treatment of ponies, his idea being, generally, that this highly nervous animal +can be managed by brute force and the infliction of heavy punishment. Sights, as painful as they are ridiculous, are often +the result of this error. Unfortunately, the lower-class native feels little attachment to any animal but the Buffalo, or +<i>Carabao</i>, as it is called here, and the family pig. + +</p> +<p>Buffaloes six years old are considered in the prime of life for beginning work, and will continue at hard labour, when well +pastured and bathed, for another six years. At 12 years of age a carefully worked buffalo will still serve for light labour +for about five years. It is an amphibious animal, and if left to itself it would pass quite one-third of its life in water +or mud, whilst it is indispensable to allow it to bathe every day. When grazing near flooded land it will roam into the water +up to its neck and immerse its head for two minutes at a time, searching for vegetable food below the surface. Whilst undisturbed +in the field it is usually accompanied by five or six white herons, which follow in its trail in perfect security and feed +on the worms and insects brought to the surface by its foot-prints. It seems also to enjoy the attentions of a small black +bird, which hops about on its back and head to cleanse its skin and ears of vermin. It is curious to watch this bird flying +towards the buffalo, which raises its head to receive it. + +</p> +<p>The rustic and the buffalo are familiar companions, and seem to understand each other perfectly well. There is a certain affinity +between them in many ways. When a peasant is owner of the animal he works, he treats it almost like one of the family. It +is very powerful, docile, slow in its movements, and easy to train. Many times I have seen a buffalo ridden and guided by +a piece of split rattan attached to a rattan-ring in its nostril by a child three years of age. It knows the voices of the +family to which it belongs, and will approach or stand still when called by any one of them. It is not of great endurance, +and cannot support hard work in the sun for more than a couple of hours without rest and bathing if water be near. Europeans +cannot manage this animal, and very few attempt it; it requires the patience, the voice, and the peculiar movement of the +native. + +</p> +<p>Altogether the buffalo may be considered the most useful animal in the Philippines. It serves for carting, ploughing, carrying +loads on its back, and almost all labour of the kind where great strength is required for a short time. A peasant possessed +of a bowie-knife, a buffalo, and good health, need not seek far to make an independent living. I owe a certain gratitude to +buffaloes, for more than once they have pulled my carriage out of the mud in the provinces, where horses could get along no +farther. Finally, buffalo-meat is an acceptable article of food when nothing better can be got; by natives it is much relished. +Its flesh, like <a id="d0e14116"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e14116">338</a>]</span>that of deer and oxen, is sometimes cut into thin slices and sun-dried, to make what is called in the Philippines <i>Tapa</i>, in Cuba <i>Tasajo</i>, and in Spain <i>Cecina</i>. + +</p> +<p>In the Visayas Islands oxen are used as draught-animals as frequently as buffaloes,—sometimes even for carriages. + +</p> +<p>Wild buffaloes are met with, and, when young, they are easily tamed. Buffalo-hunting, as a sport, is a very dangerous diversion, +and rarely indulged in, as death or victory must come to the infuriated beast or the chaser. A good hunting-ground is Nueva +Ecija, near the Caraballo de Baler Mountain. + +</p> +<p>The domesticated buffalo is subject to a bronchial disease called <i>garrotillo</i>; it rarely recovers from a serious sprain, and more rarely still from a broken leg. In 1887–88, an epidemic disease, previously +unknown, appeared among the cattle, and several thousands of them died. From the autopsy of some diseased buffaloes, it was +seen that the inside had become converted into blood. Agriculturists suffered great losses. In the poor neighbourhood of Antipolo +alone, 1,410 head of cattle died within four months, according to a report which the Governor of Mórong showed to me. An old +acquaintance of mine in Bulacan Province lost 85 per cent. of his live-stock in the season, whilst the remainder were more +or less affected. + +</p> +<p>As a consequence of the Revolution (1896–98) and the War of Independence (1899–1901) the stock of buffaloes was considerably +reduced, many thousands of these useful animals having been stolen from their owners by the belligerents, only to slay them +or work them to death. When peace dawned again on the Colony, rinderpest commenced to make ravages in the buffalo herds, which +are now reduced to a mere fraction of what they were in 1896. The consequences of these losses in live-stock are referred +to in Chap. <a href="#d0e22333">xxxi</a>. Before the wars, a buffalo could be got for ₱10 in places, such as hemp districts, where ploughing is seldom necessary, +whilst in the sugar-yielding Island of Negros ₱30 was about the lowest price for an average trained animal. The present value +is from ₱125 to ₱250. + +</p> +<p>In all my travels in this Colony I have seen only five <span class="smallcaps">Donkeys</span>, which were imported simply as curiosities. + +</p> +<p>Mules have been imported into the Islands by the American authorities for the public service. If sold they would fetch about +₱300 each. They are the most satisfactory draught-animals ever introduced and, but for the fear of the new disease “surra,” +might take the place of buffaloes in agriculture. + +</p> +<p>Sheep do not thrive in this climate. They are brought from Shanghai, and, as a rule, they languish and die in a few months. +Oxen, goats, dogs, cats, pigs, monkeys, fowls, ducks, turkeys, and geese are among the ordinary domestic live-stock. Both +the dogs and the cats are of very poor species, and the European breeds are eagerly sought <a id="d0e14150"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e14150">339</a>]</span>for. The better class of natives have learned to appreciate the higher instincts of the European dog. Many Chinese dogs with +long, straight hair, pointed nose, small eyes, and black tongues are brought over from Hong-Kong. All thoroughbred Philippine +cats have a twist in their tails, and are not nearly so fine as the European race. + +</p> +<p>Natives do not particularly relish mutton or goatʼs flesh, which they say is heating to the blood. I have found stewed monkey +very good food, but the natives only eat it on very rare occasions, solely as a cure for cutaneous diseases. No flesh, fish +or poultry has the same flavour here as in Europe; sometimes, indeed, the meat of native oxen sold in Manila has a repulsive +taste when the animal has been quickly fattened for the market on a particular herb, which it eats readily. Neither can it +be procured so tender as in a cold climate. If kept in an ice-chest it loses flavour; if hung up in cool air it becomes flabby +and decomposes. However, the cold-storage established by the American authorities and private firms, since 1898, has greatly +contributed to improve the supply of tender meat, and meat shipments are regularly received from Australia and America. + +</p> +<p>The seas are teeming with fish, and there are swarms of sharks, whose victims are numerous, whilst crocodiles are found in +most of the deep rivers and large swamps in uncultivated tracts. The <i>Taclobo</i> sea-shell is sometimes found weighing up to about 180 lbs. Fresh-water fish is almost flavourless and little appreciated. + +</p> +<p>In all the rice-paddy fields, small fish called <i>Dalág</i> (<i lang="la-x-bio">Ophiocephalus vagus</i>), are caught by the natives, for food, with cane nets, or rod and line, when the fields are flooded. Where this piscatorial +phenomenon exists in the dry season no one has been able satisfactorily to explain. + +</p> +<p>The only beast of prey known in the Philippines is the wild cat, and the only wild animal to be feared is the buffalo. + +</p> +<p>Both the jungles and the villages abound with insects and reptilia, such as lizards, snakes, iguanas, frogs, and other batrachian +species, land-crabs, centipedes<a id="d0e14171src" href="#d0e14171" class="noteref">1</a>, tarantulas, scorpions, huge spiders, hornets, common beetles, queen-beetles (<i lang="la-x-bio">elator noctilucus</i>) and others of the vaginopennous order, red ants (<i lang="la-x-bio">formica smaragdina</i>), etc. Ants are the most common nuisance, and food cannot be left on the table a couple of hours without a hundred or so +of them coming to feed. For this reason sideboards and food-cupboards are made with legs to stand in basins of water. There +are many species of ants, from the size of a pinʼs head to half an inch long. On the forest-trees a bag of a thin whitish +membrane, full of young ants, is sometimes seen hanging, and the traveller, for his own comfort, should be careful not to +disturb it. + +</p> +<p>Boa-Constrictors are also found, but they are rare, and I have never seen one in freedom. They are the most harmless of all +snakes <a id="d0e14182"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e14182">340</a>]</span>in the Philippines. Sometimes the Visayos keep them in their houses, in cages, as pets. Small <span class="smallcaps">Pythons</span> are common. The snakes most to be dreaded are called by the natives <i lang="tl">Alupong</i> and <i lang="tl">Daghong-palay</i> (Tagálog dialect). Their bite is fatal if not cauterized at once. The latter is met with in the deep mud of rice-fields and +amongst the tall rice-blades, hence its name. Stagnant waters are nearly everywhere infested with <span class="smallcaps">Leeches</span>. In the trees in dense forests there is also a diminutive species of leech which jumps into oneʼs eyes. + +</p> +<p>In the houses and huts in Manila, and in most low-lying places, mosquitoes are troublesome, but thanks to an inoffensive kind +of lizard with a disproportionately big ugly head called the <i>chacon</i>, and the small house-newt, one is tolerably free from crawling insects. <span class="smallcaps">Newts</span> are quite harmless to persons, and are rather encouraged than otherwise. If one attempts to catch a newt by its tail it shakes +it off and runs away, leaving it behind. Rats and mice are numerous. There are myriads of cockroaches; but happily fleas, +house-flies, and bugs are scarce. In the wet-season evenings the croaking of frogs in the pools and swamps causes an incessant +din. + +</p> +<p>In the dry-season evenings certain trees are illuminated by swarms of fire-flies, which assemble and flicker around the foliage +as do moths around the flame of a candle. The effect of their darting in and out like so many bright sparks between the branches +is very pretty. + +</p> +<p>There are many very beautiful <span class="smallcaps">Moths</span> and <span class="smallcaps">Butterflies</span>. In 1897 I brought home about 300 specimens of Philippine butterflies for the Hon. Walter Rothschild. + +</p> +<p>The <span class="smallcaps">White Ant</span> (<i>termes</i>), known here as <i lang="tl">Anay</i>, is by far the most formidable insect in its destructive powers. It is also common in China. Here it eats through most woods, +but there are some rare exceptions, such as Molave, Ipil, Yacal, etc. If white ants earnestly take possession of the woodwork +of a building not constructed of the finest timber, it is a hopeless case. I have seen deal-wood packing-cases, which have +come from Europe, so eaten away that they could not be lifted without falling to pieces. Merchantsʼ warehouses have had to +be pulled down and rebuilt owing to the depredations of this insect, as, even if the building itself were not in danger, no +one would care to risk the storage of goods inside. The destruction caused by <i lang="tl">anay</i> is possibly exaggerated, but there is no doubt that many traders have lost considerable sums through having had to realize, +at any price, wares into which this insect had penetrated. + +</p> +<p>Bats are to be seen in this Colony, measuring up to 5 feet from tip to tip of their wings. They are caught for the value of +their beautiful soft skins, which generally find a sale to Europeans returning home. Bat-shooting is a good pastime, and a +novelty to Europeans. Small Bats frequently fly into the houses in the evening. + +</p> +<p>Deer and <span class="smallcaps">Wild Boars</span> are plentiful, and afford good sport to the <a id="d0e14235"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e14235">341</a>]</span>huntsman. In Mórong district—in Negros Island—and in Rizal Province, on and in the vicinity of the estate which I purchased—I +have had some good runs. Monkeys, too, abound in many of the forests. In all the islands there is enjoyment awaiting the sportsman. +Pheasants, snipe, a dozen varieties of wild pigeons, woodcock, jungle-fowl (<i lang="la-x-bio">gallus bankiva</i>), wild ducks, water-fowl, etc. are common, whilst there are also turtle-doves, <i>calaos</i> (<i lang="la-x-bio">buceros hydrocorax</i>), hawks, cranes, herons, crows, parrots, cockatoos, kingfishers, parroquets, and many others peculiar to the Archipelago +which I will leave to ornithologists to describe.<a id="d0e14246src" href="#d0e14246" class="noteref">2</a> One curious species of pigeon (<i lang="la-x-bio">calanas nicobarina</i>) is called in Spanish <i lang="es">Paloma de puñalada</i> because of the crimson feathers on its breast, which look exactly as if they were blood-stained from a dagger-stab.<a id="d0e14273src" href="#d0e14273" class="noteref">3</a> In 1898 I saw some specimens of this pigeon in the Hamburg Zoological Gardens. There are several birds of gorgeous plumage, +such as the <i>oropendolo</i> (Spanish name). + +</p> +<p>It is a curious fact that these Islands have no singing birds. + +</p> +<p>The <span class="smallcaps">Locust Plague</span> is one of the great risks the planter has to run. In 1851 the Government imported some <span class="smallcaps">Martins</span> from China with the hope of exterminating the locusts. When the birds arrived in the port of Manila they were right royally +received by a body of troops. A band of music accompanied them with great ceremony to Santa Mesa, where they were set at liberty, +and the public were forbidden to destroy them under severe penalties. At that date there were countless millions of locusts +among the crops. These winged insects (Tagálog, <i lang="tl">balan͠g</i>) come in swarms of millions at a time, and how to exterminate them is a problem. I have seen a mass of locusts so dense that +a row of large trees the other side of them could not be distinguished. Sailing along the Antique coast one evening, I observed, +on the fertile shore, a large brown-coloured plateau. For the moment I thought it was a tract of land which had been cleared +by fire, but on nearing it I noticed that myriads of locusts had settled on several fields. We put in quite close to them +and I fired off a revolver, the noise of which caused them to move off slowly in a cloud. When locusts settle on cultivated +lands, miles of crops are often ruined in a night by the foliage being consumed, and at daybreak only fields of stalks are +to be seen. In the daytime, when the locusts are about to attack a planted field, the natives rush out with their tin cans, +which serve as drums, bamboo clappers, red flags, etc., to scare them off, whilst others light fires in open spaces with damp +fuel to raise smoke. Another effective method adopted to drive them away is to fire off small mortars, <a id="d0e14295"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e14295">342</a>]</span>such as the natives use at provincial feasts, as these insects are sensitive to the least noise. + +</p> +<p>The body of a locust is similar in appearance to a large grasshopper. The females are of a dark brown colour, and the males +of a light reddish-brown. The female extends the extremity of her body in the form of an augur, with which she pierces the +earth to the depth of an inch, there to deposit her eggs. In two or three weeks the eggs hatch. Every few days the females +lay eggs, if allowed to settle. The newly-born insects, having no wings until they are about ten days old, cannot be driven +off, and in the meantime they make great havoc among the crops, where it is difficult to extinguish them. The method employed +to get rid of them is to place a barrier, such as sheets of corrugated iron roofing, at one side of a field, dig a pit in +front of the barrier, and send a number of men to beat round the three sides of the field until the young locusts jump in +heaps into the pit. I have heard planters say that they have succeeded, in this way, in destroying as much as 20 tons of locusts +in one season. I do not know the maximum distance that locusts can fly in one continuous journey, but they have been known +to travel as much as 60 miles across the sea. Millions of unwinged locusts (called <i lang="tl">lucton</i>) have been seen floating down river streams, whilst, however, the winged insect cannot resist the heavy rains which accompany +a hurricane. + +</p> +<p>It is said that the food passes through the body of a locust as fast as it eats, and that its natural death is due either +to want of nourishment, or to a small worm which forms in the body and consumes it. It is also supposed that the female dies +after laying a certain number of eggs. Excepting the damage to vegetation, locusts are perfectly harmless insects, and native +children catch them to play with; also, when fried, they serve as food for the poorest classes—in fact, I was assured, on +good authority, that in a certain village in Tayabas Province, where the peasants considered locusts a dainty dish, payment +was offered to the parish priest for him to say Mass and pray for the continuance of the luxury. In former times, before there +were so many agriculturists interested in their destruction, these insects have been known to devastate the Colony during +six consecutive years. + +</p> +<p>In the mud of stagnant waters, a kind of beetle, called in Visaya dialect <i>Tan͠ga</i>, is found, and much relished as an article of food. In the dry season, as much as fifty cents a dozen is paid for them in +Molo (Yloilo) by well-to-do natives. Many other insects, highly repugnant to the European, are a <i lang="fr">bonne bouche</i> for the natives. + +<a id="d0e14312"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e14312">343</a>]</span></p> +<div class="footnotes"> +<hr class="fnsep"> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e14171" href="#d0e14171src" class="noteref">1</a></span> An effective cure for a centipede bite is a plaster of garlic mashed until the juice flows. The plaster must be renewed every +hour. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e14246" href="#d0e14246src" class="noteref">2</a></span> A good dish can be made of the rice-birds, known locally as <i lang="tl">Maya</i> (<i lang="la-x-bio">Munia oryzivora</i>, Bonap.; <i lang="la-x-bio">Estrelda amandava</i>, Gray) and the <i lang="tl">Bato-Bató</i> and <i lang="tl">Punay</i> pigeons (<i lang="la-x-bio">Ptilinopus roseicollis</i>, Gray). +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e14273" href="#d0e14273src" class="noteref">3</a></span> According to Edouard Verreux, cited by Paul de la Gironnière in his “<span lang="fr">Aventures dʼun gentilhomme Breton aux Iles Philippines</span>,” p. 394 (Paris 1857), there were at that date 172 classified birds in this Archipelago. +</p> +</div> +</div> +<div id="d0e14313" class="div1"> +<h2 class="normal">Manila Under Spanish Rule</h2> +<p>Manila, the capital of the Philippines, is situated on the Island of Luzon at the mouth and on the left (south) bank of the +Pasig River, at N. lat. 14° 36′ by E. long. 120° 52′. It is a fortified city, being encircled by bastioned and battlemented +walls, which were built in the time of Governor Gomez Perez Dasmariñas, about the year 1590. It is said that the labour employed +was Chinese. These walls measure about two miles and a quarter long, and bore mounted old-fashioned cannon. The fortifications +are of stone, and their solid construction may rank as a <i lang="fr">chef dʼoeuvre</i> of the 16th century. The earthquake of 1880 caused an arch of one of the entrances to fall in, and elsewhere cracks are perceptible. +These defects were never made good. The city is surrounded by water—to the north the Pasig River, to the west the sea, and +the moats all around. These moats are paved at the bottom, and sluices—perhaps not in good working order at the present day—are +provided for filling them with water from the river. + +</p> +<p>The demolition of the walls and moats was frequently debated by commissions specially appointed from Spain—the last in October, +1887. It is said that a commission once recommended the cleansing of the moats, which were half full of mud, stagnant water, +and vegetable putrid matter, but the authorities hesitated to disturb the deposit, for fear of fetid odours producing fever +or other endemic disease. + +</p> +<p>These city defences, although quite useless in modern warfare with a foreign Power, as was proved in 1898, might any day have +been serviceable as a refuge for Europeans in the event of a serious revolt of the natives or Chinese. The garrison consisted +of one European and several native regiments. + +</p> +<p>There are eight drawbridge entrances to the Citadel<a id="d0e14327src" href="#d0e14327" class="noteref">1</a> wherein were <a id="d0e14338"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e14338">344</a>]</span>some Government Offices, branch Post and Telegraph Offices, the Custom-house (temporarily removed to Binondo since May 4, +1887, during the construction of the new harbour), Colleges, Convents, Monasteries, a Prison, numerous Barracks, a Mint, a +Military Hospital, an Academy of Arts, a University, a statue of Charles IV. situated in a pretty square, a fine Town Hall, +a Meteorological Observatory, of which the director was a Jesuit priest, an Artillery Dépôt, a Cathedral and 11 churches.<a id="d0e14340src" href="#d0e14340" class="noteref">2</a> The little trade done in the city was exclusively retail. In the month of April or May, 1603, a great fire destroyed one-third +of the city, the property consumed being valued at ₱1,000,000. + +</p> +<p></p> +<div id="d0e14344" class="figure"><img border="0" src="images/p344.jpg" alt="The Old Walls of Manila City" width="512" height="362"><p class="figureHead">The Old Walls of Manila City</p> +</div><p> + +</p> +<p>Manila City was a lifeless capital, with narrow streets all running at right angles with each other, of sombre, monastic aspect. +It had no popular cafés, no opera-house or theatre; indeed absolutely no place of recreation. Only the numerous religious +processions relieved the uniformity of city life. The whole (walled) city and its environments seem to have been built solely +with a view to self-defence. Since 1887 it had been somewhat embellished by gardens in the public squares. + +</p> +<p>Besides the churches of the walled city, those of the suburbs are of great historical interest. In the Plaza de Santa Cruz +is established the <i>Monte de Piedad</i>, or Public Pawnshop—a fine building—erected under the auspices of Archbishop Pedro Payo. + +</p> +<p>The great trading-centre is the Island of Binondo, on the right (north) bank of the Pasig River, where the foreign houses +are established. On the city side of the river, where there was little commerce and no export or import trade whatever, a +harbour was in course of construction, without the least hope of its ever being completed by the Spaniards. All the sea-wall +visible of these works was carried away by a typhoon on September 29, 1890. To defray the cost of making this harbour, a special +duty (not included in the Budget) of one per cent. on exports, two per cent. on imports, 10 cents per ton on vessels (besides +the usual tonnage dues of eight cents per register ton), and a fishing-craft tax were collected since June, 1880. For eighteen +yearsʼ dues-collection of several millions of pesos only a scrap of sea-wall was to be seen beyond the river in 1898, of no +use to trade or to any one. In 1882 fourteen huge iron barges for the transport of stone from Angono for the harbour were +constructed by an English engineer, Mr. W. S. Richardson, under contract with the Port Works, for ₱82,000. + +</p> +<p>The Port of Manila was officially held to extend for 27 miles <a id="d0e14359"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e14359">345</a>]</span>westward from the mouth of the Pasig River. This tortuous river, about 14 miles long, flows from the Laguna de Bay. + +</p> +<p>The anchorage of the port was in the bay, two to two and a half miles south-west from the red light at the river-entrance, +in about six fathoms. There was no special locality reserved for warships. + +</p> +<p>Ships at the anchorage communicated with the shore by their own boats or steam-launch, and the loading and discharging of +vessels was chiefly effected in the bay, one to three miles off the river mouth, by means of lighters called <i>cascoes</i>. + +</p> +<p>Manila Bay has a circumference of 120 nautical miles, and is far too large to afford adequate protection to ships. The country +around it is flat in character and has really nothing attractive. + +</p> +<p>On October 20, 1882, a typhoon drove 11 ships and one steamer ashore from their anchorage, besides dismasting another and +causing three more to collide. When a typhoon is approaching vessels have to run to Cavite for shelter. + +</p> +<p>The entrance to the bay is divided into two passages by the small Island of Corregidor, on which was a lighthouse showing +a revolving bright light, visible 20 miles off. Here was also a signal-station, communicating by a semaphore with a telegraph +station on the opposite Luzon coast, and thence by wire with Manila. North of Corregidor Island is situated the once important +harbour of Marivéles.<a id="d0e14374src" href="#d0e14374" class="noteref">3</a> +<a id="d0e14415"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e14415">346</a>]</span></p> +<p>The entrance to the Pasig River is between two moles, which run out westward respectively from the citadel on the south bank +and from the business suburb of Binondo on the north bank. At the outer extremity of the northern mole was a lighthouse, showing +a fixed red light, visible eight miles. + +</p> +<p>Vessels drawing up to 13 feet could enter the river. In the middle of 1887 a few electric lights were established along the +quays from the river mouth to the first bridge, and one light also on that bridge, so that steamers could enter the river +after sunset if desired. The wharfage is wholly occupied by steamers and sailing-craft trading within the Archipelago. The +tides are very irregular. The rise and fall at springs may be taken to be five feet. + +</p> +<p>Up to 1887 ships needing repairs had to go to Hong-Kong, but in that year a patent slip was established at Cañacao Bay, near +Cavite, seven miles southward from the Manila Bay anchorage. The working capacity of the hydraulic hauling power of the slip +was 2,000 tons. + +</p> +<p>At Cavite, close by Cañacao, there was a Government Arsenal and a small slip, having a hauling power of about 500 tons. + +</p> +<p>Up to the year 1893 the streets of Manila City and suburbs were badly lighted—petroleum lamps, and sometimes cocoanut oil, +being used. (The paving was perhaps more defective than the lighting.) In 1892 an Electric Light Company was formed, with +a share capital of ₱500,000 (₱350,000 paid up) for illuminating the city and suburbs and private lighting. Under the contract +with the Municipality the company received a grant of ₱60,000, and the concern was in full working order the following year. +The poorest working class of Manila—fishermen, canoemen, day labourers, etc.—live principally in the ward of Tondo, where +dwellings with thatched roofs were allowed to be constructed. In the wet season the part of this ward nearest to the city +was simply a mass of pollution. The only drainage was a ditch cut around the mud-plots on which the huts were erected. Many +of these huts had pools of stagnant water under them for months, hence <a id="d0e14426"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e14426">347</a>]</span>it was there that the mortality from fever was at its maximum ratio in the dry season when evaporation commenced. Half the +shore side of Tondo has been many times devastated by conflagrations and by hurricanes, locally termed <i>báguios</i>. + + +</p> +<p></p> +<div id="d0e14432" class="figure"><img border="0" src="images/p347.jpg" alt="La Escolta—The principal street in Binondo, the commercial quarter of Manila." width="512" height="341"><p class="figureHead">La Escolta—The principal street in Binondo, the commercial quarter of Manila.</p> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>Binondo presents an aspect of great activity during the day. The import and export trade is still largely in the hands of +British merchants, and the retail traffic is, to a great extent, monopolized by the Chinese. Their tiny shops, grouped together +in rows, form bazaars. At each counter sits a Chinaman, casting up accounts, with the ancient <i>abacus</i><a id="d0e14440src" href="#d0e14440" class="noteref">4</a> still serving him for practical reckoning. Another is ready at the counter to strike the bargain, whilst a third crafty Celestial +lounges about the entrance to tout for custom, with a margin on his prices for haggling which is high or low according to +whether the intending purchaser be American, European, half-caste, or native. + +</p> +<p>There is hardly a street without Chinese dealers, but their principal centre is the <i>Rosario</i>, whilst the finest American and European shops are to be found in the <i>Escolta</i>.<a id="d0e14454src" href="#d0e14454" class="noteref">5</a> + +</p> +<p>In 1881 a great fire occurred in the <i>Escolta</i>, and since then the class of property in that important thoroughfare has been much improved. In October, 1885, a second serious +fire took place in this street, and on the site of the ruins there now stands a fine block of buildings formerly occupied +by the Central Post Office and Telegraph Station, and a row of good shops in European style. + +</p> +<p>During the working hours were to be seen hundreds of smart Chinese coolies, half-naked, running in all directions with loads, +or driving carts, whilst the natives dreamily sauntered along the streets, following their numerous occupations with enviable +tranquillity. In the doorways here and there were native women squatting on the flag-stones, picking lice from each otherʼs +heads, and serving a purchaser between-times with cigars, betel-nut, and food, when occasion offered. + +</p> +<p>Certain small handicrafts are almost entirely taken up by the Chinese, such as boot-making, furniture-making, small smithʼs-work +and casting, tin-working, tanning, dyeing, etc., whilst the natives are occupied as silversmiths, engravers, saddlers, water-colour +painters, furniture-polishers, bookbinders, etc. A few years ago the apothecaries were almost exclusively Germans; now the +profession is shared with natives, half-castes, and one British firm. + +</p> +<p>The thoroughfares were crowded with carriages during the whole day drawn by pretty native ponies. The public conveyance regulations +in Spanish times were excellent. The rates for hiring were very moderate, and were calculated by the time engaged. Incivility +of <a id="d0e14470"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e14470">348</a>]</span>drivers was a thing almost unknown. Their patience was astonishing. They would, if required, wait for the fare for hours together +in a drenching rain without a murmur. Having engaged a vehicle (in Manila or elsewhere) it is usual to guide the driver by +calling out to him each turn he has to take. Thus, if he be required to go to the right—<i>mano</i> (hand) is the word used; if to the left—<i>silla</i> (saddle) is shouted. This custom originated in the days before natives were intrusted to drive, when a postilion rode the +left (saddle) pony, and guided his right (hand) animal with a short rein. + +</p> +<p>Through the city and suburbs ran lines of tramway with cars drawn by ponies, and (from October 20, 1888 until 1905) a steam +tramway operated as far as Malabon. + +</p> +<p>Fortunately, Easter week brought two days of rest every year for the ponies, namely, Holy Thursday and Good Friday. As in +Spain also, with certain exceptions, such as doctors, urgent Government service, etc., vehicles were not permitted in the +streets and highways on those days. Soldiers passing through the streets on service carried their guns with the muzzles pointing +to the ground. The church bells were tolled with muffled hammers; hence, the vibration of the metal being checked, the peal +sounded like the beating of so many tin cans. The shops were closed, and, so far as was practicable, every outward appearance +of care for worldly concerns was extinguished, whilst it was customary for the large majority of the population—natives as +well as Europeans—who went through the streets to be attired in black. On Good Friday afternoon there was an imposing religious +procession through the city and suburbs. On the following Saturday morning (<i>Sábado de Gloria</i>), there was a lively scene after the celebration of Mass. In a hundred portals and alleys, public and private vehicles were +awaiting the peal of the unmuffled church bells. The instant this was heard there was a rush in all directions—the clanking +of a thousand poniesʼ feet; the rumbling sound of hundreds of carriages. The mingled shouts of the natives and the Chinese +coolies showed with what bated anxiety and forced subjection material interest and the affairs of this life had been held +in check and made subservient to higher thoughts. + +</p> +<p>An official computation in the year 1885 stated the average number of vehicles which passed through the main street of the +city (<i lang="es">Calle Real</i>) <i>per day</i> to be 950; through the <i lang="es">Escolta</i>, the principal street of Binondo, 5,000; and across the bridge, connecting Binondo with Manila City (where the river is 350 +feet wide), 6,000. + +</p> +<p>Sir John Bowring, in the account of his short visit to Manila in 1858, says he was informed on good authority that the average +number of vehicles passing daily at that date through the <i lang="es">Escolta</i> amounted to 915; across the bridge, between Binondo and Manila, 1,256; so that apparently in 27 years the number of vehicles +in use had increased by about five to one. +<a id="d0e14501"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e14501">349</a>]</span></p> +<p>The Pasig River is navigable by steam-launches and specially-constructed steamers of light draught, which go up the whole +distance into the Laguna de Bay. The river is crossed at Manila and suburbs by three bridges, the chief of which is the <i lang="es">Puente de España.</i><a id="d0e14506src" href="#d0e14506" class="noteref">6</a> + +</p> +<p>In the suburbs there were four Theatres, in none of which a dramatic company of any note would consent to perform. In one +(the <i lang="es">Teatro Filipino</i>) the performance could be partly seen from the street; another (the <i lang="es">Teatro de Tondo</i>) was situated in a dirty thoroughfare in a low quarter; the third (the <i lang="es">Teatro del Principe</i>) usually gave an entertainment in dialect for the amusement of the natives; and the fourth (the <i lang="es">Teatro Zorrilla</i>), located in Tondo, was built to serve as theatre or circus without any regard to its acoustic properties; hence only one-third +of the audience could hear the dialogue. There was a permanent Spanish Comedy Company (on tour at times in Yloilo and Cebú), +and occasionally a troupe of foreign strolling players, a circus, a concert, or an Italian Opera Company came to Manila to +entertain the public for a few weeks. + +</p> +<p>In 1880 there used to be a kind of tent-theatre, called the <i>Carrillo</i> where performances were given without any pretence to histrionic art or stage regulations. The scenes were highly ridiculous, +and the gravest spectator could not suppress laughter at the exaggerated attitudes and comic display of the native performers. +The public had full licence to call to the actors and criticize them in loud voices <i lang="fr">séance tenante</i>—often to join in the choruses and make themselves quite at home during the whole spectacle. About a year afterwards the <i>Carrillo</i> was suppressed. The first Spaniards who systematically taught the Filipinos European histrionics were Ramon Cubero and his +wife, Elisea Raguer (both very popular in their day), whose daughter married the Philippine actor and dramatic author José +Carvajal. The old-fashioned native play was the “<i>Moro Moro</i>,” which continued in full vogue, in the provinces, up to the end of Spanish dominion.<a id="d0e14543src" href="#d0e14543" class="noteref">7</a> +<a id="d0e14567"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e14567">350</a>]</span></p> +<p>In the suburb of Paco there was a bull-ring, which did not generally attract the <i>élite</i>, as a bull-fight there was simply a burlesque upon this national sport as seen in Spain. I have witnessed a Manila <i>espada</i> hang on to the tail of his victim, and a <i>banderillero</i> meet the rush of the bull with a vault over his head, amidst hoots from the shady class of audience who formed the <i>habitués</i> of the Manila ring. + +</p> +<p>The Civil Governor of the Province had full arbitrary power to enforce the regulations relating to public performances, but +it was seldom he imposed a fine. The programme had to be sanctioned by authority before it was published, and it could neither +be added to nor any part of it omitted, without special licence. The performance was given under the censorship of the Corregidor +or his delegate, whose duty it was to guard the interests of the public, and to see that the spectacle did not outrage morality. + +</p> +<p>The ostensible purpose of every annual feast all over the Colony was to render homage to the local patron Saint and give thanks +for mercies received in the past year. Every town, village, and suburb was supposed to be specially cared for by its patron +Saint, and when circumstances permitted it there was a religious procession, which was intended to impress on the minds of +the faithful the virtue of the intercessors by ocular demonstration. Vast sums of money were expended from time to time in +adornment of the images, the adoration of which seemed to be tinctured with pantheistic feeling, as if these symbols were +part of the Divine essence. + +</p> +<p>Among the suburban feasts of Manila, that of Binondo was particularly striking. It took place in the month of October. An +imposing illuminated procession, headed by the clergy, guarded by troops, and followed up by hundreds of native men, women +and children carrying candles, promenaded the principal streets of the vicinity. But the religious feeling of the truly devoted +was shocked by one ridiculous feature—the mob of native men, dressed in gowns and head-wreaths, in representation of the Jews +who persecuted our Saviour, rushing about the streets in tawdry attire before and after the ceremony in such apparent ignorance +of the real intention that it annulled the sublimity of the whole function. +<a id="d0e14588"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e14588">351</a>]</span></p> +<p>All Saintsʼ Day—November 1—brought a large income to the priests in the most frequented parish churches. This is one of the +days on which souls can be got out of Purgatory. The faithful flocked in mobs to the popular shrines, where an effort was +made to place a lighted wax candle at the foot of the altar, and on bended knee to invoke the Saintsʼ aid on behalf of their +departed relatives and friends. But the crowd was so great that the pious were not permitted this consolation for more than +two or three minutes. Sacristans made them move on, to leave room for new-comers, and their candles were then extinguished +and collected in heaps, Chinese infidel coolies being sometimes employed to carry away the spoil to the parish priestʼs store. +The wax was afterwards sold to dealers. One church is said to have collected on November 1, 1887, as much as 40 cwts., valued +at ₱37 per cwt. This day was a public holiday, and in the afternoon and evening it was the custom to visit the last resting-places, +to leave a token of remembrance on the tombs of the lamented. + +</p> +<p>The Asylum for Lepers, at Dalumbayan, in the ward of Santa Cruz, was also visited the same day, and whilst many naturally +went there to see their afflicted relations and friends, others, of morbid tastes, satisfied their curiosity. This Asylum, +subsidized by Government to the extent of ₱500 per annum, was, in the time of the Spaniards, under the care of Franciscan +friars. + +</p> +<p>In January or February the Chinese celebrate their New Year, and suspend work during a week or ten days. The authorities did +not permit them to revel in fun to the extent they would have done in their own country; nevertheless, Chinese music, gongs, +and crackers were indulged in, in the quarters most thickly populated by this race. + +</p> +<p>The natives generally have an unbounded passion for cock-fighting, and in the year 1779 it occurred to the Government that +a profitable revenue might be derived from a tax on this sport. Thenceforth it was only permitted under a long code of regulations +on Sundays and feast days, and in places officially designated for the “meet” of the combatants. In Manila alone the permission +to meet was extended to Thursdays. The cock-pit is called the <i>Gallera</i>, and the tax was farmed out to the highest bidding contractor, who undertook to pay a fixed annual sum to the Government, +making the best he could for himself out of the gross proceeds from entrance-fees and sub-letting rents in excess of that +amount. In like manner the Government farmed out the taxes on horses, vehicles, sale of opium, slaughter of animals for consumption, +bridge-tolls, etc., and, until 1888, the market dues. Gambling licences also brought a good revenue, but it would have been +as impossible to suppress cock-fighting in the Islands as gambling in England.<a id="d0e14600src" href="#d0e14600" class="noteref">8</a> + +</p> +<p>The Spanish laws relating to the cock-pit were very strict, and were <a id="d0e14611"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e14611">352</a>]</span>specially decreed on March 21,1861. It was enacted that the maximum amount to be staked by one person on one contest should +be 50 pesos. That each cock should wear only one metal spur. That the fight should be held to be terminated on the death of +one or both cocks, or when one of them retreated. However, the decree contained in all a hundred clauses too tedious to enumerate. +Cock-fighting is discussed among the natives with the same enthusiasm as horse-racing is in England. The majority of sportsmen +rear cocks for several years, bestowing upon them as much tender care as a mother would on her infant. When the hope of the +connoisseur has arrived at the age of discretion and valour, it is put forward in open combat, perhaps to perish in the first +encounter. And the patient native goes on training others. + +</p> +<p>Within twenty minutesʼ drive from Manila, at Nagtájan, on the right bank of the Pasig River, there was a good European club +(since removed to Ermita), of which the members were chiefly English-speaking merchants and employees. The entrance-fee was +[Pesos]30; the monthly subscription was [Pesos]5, and [Pesos]1 per month extra for the use of a fairly good library. + +</p> +<p>The principal hotel—the “Hotel de Oriente”—was opened in Binondo in January, 1889, in a large two-storeyed building, with +83 rooms for the public service, and stabling for 25 horses. It was the first building specially erected in the Colony for +an hotel. The accommodation and board were good. It ranked with the best hotels in the East. [In 1903 the building was purchased +by the (American) Insular Government for public offices.] In Manila City and Binondo there were several other Spanish hotels +where the board was tolerable, but the lodging and service abominable. There was a telephone system established throughout +the city and its environs. + +</p> +<p>The press was represented by five dailies—<i lang="es">El Diario de Manila, La Oceania Española</i>, three evening papers, <i lang="es">El Comercio, La Voz de España</i>, and (from March 3, 1889) <i lang="es">La Correspondencia de Manila</i>—also a bi-weekly, <i lang="es">La Opinion</i>. Some good articles appeared at times in the three dailies first mentioned, but as newspapers strictly so-called, the information +in all was remarkably scant, due to the strict censorship exercised jointly by a priest and a layman. There was also a purely +official organ—the <i lang="es">Gaceta de Manila</i>. + +</p> +<p>The first news-sheet published in Manila appears to have been the <i lang="es">Filántropo</i>, in the year 1822, which existed only a few years. Others followed and failed in a short time. The first Manila daily paper +was the <i lang="es">Estrella</i>, which started in 1846 and lasted three years. Since then several dailies have seen the light for a brief period. The <i lang="es">Diario de Manila</i>, started in 1848, was the oldest newspaper of those existing at the end of the Spanish regime. + +</p> +<p>In Spain journalism began in the 17th century by the publication, at irregular intervals, of sheets called “<i lang="es">Relaciones</i>.” The first Spanish <a id="d0e14650"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e14650">353</a>]</span>newspaper, correctly so called, was established in the 18th century. Seventy-eight years ago there was only one regular periodical +journal in Madrid. After the Peninsula War, a step was made towards political journalism. This led to such an abuse of the +pen that in 1824 all, except the <i lang="es">Gaceta de Madrid</i>, the <i lang="es">Gaceta de Bayona</i>, the <i lang="es">Diario</i>, and a few non-political papers were suppressed. Madrid has now scores of newspapers, of which half a dozen are very readable. +The <i lang="es">Correspondencia de España</i>, founded by the late Marquis de Santa Ana as a Montpensier organ, used to afford me great amusement in Madrid. It contained +columns of most extraordinary events in short paragraphs (<i lang="es">gacetillas</i>), and became highly popular, hundreds of persons eagerly waiting to secure a copy. In a subsequent issue, a few days later, +many of the paragraphs in the same columns were merely corrections of the statements previously published, but so ingeniously +interposed that the hoax took the public for a long time. Newspapers from Spain were not publicly exposed for sale in Manila; +those which were seen came from friends or by private subscription, whilst many were proscribed as inculcating ideas dangerously +liberal. + +</p> +<p>There was a botanical garden, rather neglected, although it cost the Colony about ₱8,600 per annum. The stock of specimens +was scanty, and the grounds were deserted by the general public. It was at least useful in one sense—that bouquets were supplied +at once to purchasers at cheap rates, from 25 cents and upwards. + +</p> +<p>In the environs of Manila there are several pleasant drives and promenades, the most popular one being the <i>Luneta</i>, where a military band frequently played after sunset. The Gov.-Generalʼs palace<a id="d0e14674src" href="#d0e14674" class="noteref">9</a> and the residences of the foreign European population and well-to-do natives and Spaniards were in the suburbs of the city +outside the commercial quarter. Some of these private villas were extremely attractive, and commodiously designed for the +climate, but little attention was paid until quite the latter days to architectural beauty. + +</p> +<p>Very few of the best private residences have more than one storey above the ground-floor. The ground-floor is either uninhabited +or used for lodging the native servants, or as a coach-house, on account of the damp. From the vestibule main entrance (<i>zaguan</i>) one passes to the upper floor, which constitutes the house proper, where the family resides. It is usually divided into +a spacious hall (<i>caida</i>), leading from the staircase to the dining and reception-rooms; on one or two sides of these apartments are the dormitories +and other private rooms. The kitchen is often a separate building, connected with the house by a roofed passage; and by the +side of the kitchen, on the same level, is <a id="d0e14685"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e14685">354</a>]</span>a yard called the <i>azotea</i>—here the bath-room is erected. The most modern houses have corrugated-iron roofs. The ground-floor exterior walls are of +stone or brick, and the whole of the upper storey is of wood, with sliding windows all around. Instead of glass, opaque oyster-shells +(Tagálog, <i lang="tl">cápis</i>) are employed to admit the light whilst obstructing the sunʼs rays. Formerly the walls up to the roof were of stone, but +since the last great earthquake of 1880 the use of wood from the first storey upwards has been rigorously enforced in the +capital and suburbs for public safety. Iron roofs are very hot, and there are still some few comfortable, spacious, and cool +suburban residences with tile roof or with the primitive cogon-grass or nipa palm-leaf thatching, very conducive to comfort +although more liable to catch fire. + +</p> +<p>In Spanish times there were no white burglars, and the main entrance of a dwelling-house was invariably left open until the +family retired for the night. Mosquitoes abound in Manila, coming from the numerous malarious creeks which traverse the wards, +and few persons can sleep without a curtain. To be at oneʼs ease, a daily bath is indispensable. The heat from 12 to 4 p.m. +is oppressive from March to May, and most persons who have no afternoon occupation, sleep the <i>siesta</i> from 1 to 3 oʼclock. The conventional lunch-hour all over the Colony is noon precisely, and dinner at about 8 oʼclock. The +visiting hours are from 5 to 7 in the evening, and <i>réunions</i> and musical <i>soirées</i> from 9. Society was far less divided here than in the British-Asiatic Colonies. There was not the same rigid line drawn as +in British India between the official, non-official, and native. Spaniards of the best families in the capital endeavoured, +with varying success, to europeanize the people of the country, and many of them exchanged visits with half-breeds, and at +times with wealthy pure natives. Spanish hospitality in the Philippines was far more marked than in Europe, and educated foreigners +were generally received with great courtesy. + +</p> +<p>Since the year 1884 the city and suburbs are well supplied with good drinking-water, which is one of the most praiseworthy +modern improvements undertaken by the Spanish Government. To provide for this beneficial work, a Spanish philanthropist, named +Carriedo—a late commander of an Acapulco galleon—left a sum of money in the 18th century, in order that the capital and accumulated +interest might one day defray the expense. The water supply (brought from Santólan, near Mariquina), being more than sufficient +for general requirements, the city and suburbs were, little by little, adorned with several public fountains. Although Manila +lies low the climate is healthy, and during several years of personal observation I found the average maximum and minimum +temperature at noon in the shade to be 98° and 75° Fahr. respectively. The climate of Manila may be generally summed up as +follows, viz.:—December, January, and February, a delightful spring; March, April, and May, an oppressive heat; June, July, +August, and <a id="d0e14706"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e14706">355</a>]</span>September, heavy rains and more tolerable heat; October and November, doubtful—sometimes very wet, sometimes fairly dry. Briefly, +as to climate, it is a pleasant place to reside in. + +</p> +<p>In 1593 Manila already had a coat-of-arms, with the title of “<i lang="es">Muy Insigne y siempre leal Ciudad</i>” and in the beginning of the 17th century King Philip III. conferred upon it the title of “<i lang="es">La muy noble Ciudad </i>”; hence it was lately styled “<i lang="es">La muy noble y siempre leal Ciudad</i>” (the very noble and always loyal city). + +</p> +<p>According to Gironnière,<a id="d0e14721src" href="#d0e14721" class="noteref">10</a> the civilized population of this Colony in 1845 was as follows, namely:— + + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="60%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Europeans (including 500 Friars) </td> +<td valign="top"> 4,050 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Spanish-native half-breeds </td> +<td valign="top"> 8,584 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Spanish-native-Chinese half-breeds. </td> +<td valign="top"> 180,000 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Chinese </td> +<td valign="top"> 9,901 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Pure natives </td> +<td valign="top">3,304,742 + + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Total civilized population </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3,507,277</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>In the last Spanish census, taken in 1876, the total number of inhabitants, including Europeans and Chinese, was shown to +be a little under 6,200,000, but a fixed figure cannot be relied upon because it was impossible to estimate exactly the number +of unsubdued savages and mountaineers, who paid no taxes. The increase of native population was rated at about two per cent, +per annum, except in the Negrito or Aeta tribes, which are known to be decreasing. + +</p> +<p>In Manila City and wards it is calculated there were in 1896 about 340,000 inhabitants, of which the ratio of classes was +approximately the following, namely:— + + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="60%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i> </i></td> +<td valign="top"><i>Per cent. +</i></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Pure natives </td> +<td valign="top"> 68.00 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Chinese half-breeds </td> +<td valign="top"> 16.65 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Chinese </td> +<td valign="top"> 12.25 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Spaniards and Creoles </td> +<td valign="top"> 1.65 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Spanish half-breeds </td> +<td valign="top"> 1.30 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Foreigners (other than Chinese) </td> +<td valign="top"> 0.15 + + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">100.00</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>The walled city alone contained a population of about 16,000 souls. + +</p> +<p>Typhoons affect Manila more or less severely about once a year, nearly always between April and middle of December, and sometimes +cause immense destruction to property. Roofs of houses are carried away; the wooden upper-storey frontages are blown out; +ships are torn from their moorings; small craft laden with merchandise are wrecked, and the inhabitants flee from the streets +to make fast their premises, and await in intense anxiety the conclusion of the tempest. A hurricane of <a id="d0e14809"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e14809">356</a>]</span>this description desolated Manila in October, 1882, and, at the same time, the wind was accompanied by torrents of rain, which +did great damage to the interiors of the residences, warehouses, and offices. A small house, entirely made of wood, was blown +completely over, and the natives who had taken refuge on the ground-floor were left, without a momentʼs notice, with the sky +for a roof. Two Chinamen, who thought to take advantage of the occasion and economically possess themselves of galvanized-iron +roofing, had their heads nearly severed by sheets of this material flying through the air, and their dead bodies were picked +up in the <i>Rosario</i> the next morning. I was busy with the servants all that day in my house, in the unsuccessful attempt to fasten the windows +and doors. Part of the kitchen was carried away; water came in everywhere; and I had to wait patiently, with an umbrella over +me, until the storm ceased. The last similarly destructive hurricane, affecting Manila, occurred on September 26, 1905. + +</p> +<p>Manila is also in constant danger of destruction from earthquakes. The most serious one within the last century occurred in +June, 1863. The shock lasted half a minute, and the falling <i>débris</i> of the upheaved buildings caused 400 deaths, whilst 2,000 persons were wounded. The total loss of property on that occasion +was estimated at ₱ 8,000,000. Official returns show that 46 public edifices were thrown down; 28 were nearly destroyed; 570 +private buildings were wrecked, and 528 were almost demolished. Simultaneously, an earthquake occurred in Cavite—the port +and arsenal south-west of Manila—destroying several public buildings. In 1898 many of the ruins caused by this earthquake +were still left undisturbed within the City of Manila. In 1863 the best buildings had heavy tiled roofs, and many continued +so, in spite of the severe lesson, until after the shock of 1880, when galvanized corrugated iron came into general use for +roofing, and, in fact, no one in Manila or Binondo now builds a house without it. + +</p> +<p>In 1880 no lives were lost, but the damage to house property was considerable. The only person who suffered physically from +this calamity was an Englishman, Mr. Parker, whose arm was so severely injured that it was found necessary to amputate it. + +</p> +<p>Prior to 1863 the most serious earthquakes recorded happened in November, 1610; November, 1645; August, 1658; in 1675; in +1699; in 1796, and in 1852. Consequent on the shock of 1645, all the public buildings were destroyed excepting one monastery +and two churches, some 600 persons were killed, and the Gov.-General was extricated from the ruins of his palace. + +<a id="d0e14823src" href="#d0e14823" class="noteref">11</a>According to the Jesuit Father Faura, Director of the Manila Observatory, the following slight quakes occurred in 1881, viz.:—3 +in July, 7 in August, 10 in September, and 3 in October. Earth-tremors <a id="d0e14828"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e14828">357</a>]</span>almost imperceptible are so frequent in these Islands that one hardly heeds them after a few monthsʼ residence. + +</p> +<p>In a cosmopolitan city like Manila—the temporary home of so many different races—it was interesting to observe the varied +wearing-apparel in vogue. The majority of the Spaniards wore the European costume; the British generally dressed in white +drill, with the coat buttoned up to the neck, and finished off with a narrow collar of the same material. The Chinese always +preserved their own peculiar national dress—the most rational of all—with the pig-tail coiled into a chignon. The pure natives +and many half-breeds wore the shirt outside the trousers. It was usually white, with a long stiff front, and cut European +fashion; but often it was made of an extremely fine yellow-tinted expensive material, called <i lang="es">piña</i> (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e10742">283</a>). Some few of the native <i lang="fr">jeunesse dorée</i> of Manila donned the European dress, much to their apparent discomfort. The official attire of the headman of a Manila ward +and his subordinates was a shirt with the tail outside the trousers, like other natives or half-breeds, but over which was +worn the official distinction of a short Eton jacket, reaching to the hips. All this is now changing, with a tendency to imitate +the Americans. + +</p> +<p>A native woman wore, as she does now, a flowing skirt of gay colours—bright red, green, and white being the common choice. +The length of train, and whether the garment be of cotton, silk, or satin, depends on her means. Corsets are not yet the fashion, +but a chemisette, which just covers her breast, and a starched neckcloth (<i>pañuelo</i>) of <i>piña</i> or <i>husi</i> stuff are in common use. The <i>pañuelo</i> is square, and, being folded triangularly, it hangs in a point down the back and stands very high up at the neck, in the +17th century style, whilst the other two points are brooched where they meet at the top of the chemisette <i>décolletée</i>. To this chemisette are added immensely wide short sleeves. Her hair is brushed back from the forehead, without a parting, +and coiled into a tight, flat chignon. In her hand she carries a fan, without which she would feel lost. Native women have +an extravagant desire to possess jewellery—even if they never wear it. The head is covered with a white mantle of very thin +material, sometimes figured, but more often this and the neckcloth are embroidered—a work in which they excel. Finally, her +naked feet are partly enveloped in <i>chinelas</i>—a kind of slipper, flat, like a shoe-sole with no heel, but just enough upper in front to put four toes inside. Altogether, +the appearance of a Philippine woman of well-to-do family dressed on a gala day is curious, sometimes pretty, but, in any +case, admirably suited to the climate. + +</p> +<p>Since 1898 American example, the great demand for <i>piña</i> muslin, at any price, by American ladies, and the scarcity of this texture, due to the plants having been abandoned during +the wars, have necessarily brought about certain modifications in female attire. + +</p> +<p>There is something very picturesque in the simple costume of a <a id="d0e14871"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e14871">358</a>]</span>peasant woman going to market. She has no flowing gown, but a short skirt, enveloped in a <i lang="tl">tápis</i>, generally of cotton. It is simply a rectangular piece of stuff; as a rule, all blue, red, or black. It is tucked in at the +waist, drawn very tightly around the loins, and hangs over the skirt a little below the knees, the open edges being at the +back. + +</p> +<p>At times the better class wear the more becoming short skirt and <i lang="tl">tápis</i> of silk or satin, with gold-lace embroidered <i>chinelas</i>. This dress is elegant, and adds a charm to the wearer. + +</p> +<p>The <i lang="tl">tápi</i> is smaller. It is not used in the street; it is a sort of <i>négligé</i> apparel worn in the house only, or for going to the bath. The poorest classes go to the river-side to bathe in it. It is +drawn all around from the waist downwards. + +</p> +<p>The <i lang="tl">patadiong</i> is more commonly worn by the Visaya than the northern woman. It is somewhat like the <i lang="tl">tápis</i>, but is drawn round the waist from the back, the open edges meeting, more or less, at the front. In Luzon Island the old +women generally prefer this to the <i lang="tl">tápis</i>. + +</p> +<p>On feast days and special occasions, or for dances, the young women who can afford it sport the gaudy flowing gown of bright +particoloured striped silk or satin, known as the <i lang="tl">saya suelta</i>, with the train cut in a peculiar fashion unknown in Europe. + +</p> +<p>The figure of a peasant woman is erect and stately, due to her habit from infancy of carrying jars of water, baskets of orchard +produce, etc., on her head with a pad of coiled cloth. The characteristic bearing of both sexes, when walking, consists in +swinging the arms (but more often the right arm only) to and fro far more rapidly than the stride, so that it gives them the +appearance of paddling. + +</p> +<p>A “first class” Manila funeral, before the American advent, was a whimsical display of pompous ignorance worth seeing once. +There was a hideous bier with rude relics of barbarism in the shape of paltry adornments. A native driver, with a tall “chimney +pot” hat, full of salaried mournfulness, drove the white team. The bier was headed by a band of music playing a lively march, +and followed by a line of carriages containing the relations and friends of the deceased. The burial was almost invariably +within twenty-four hours of the decease—sometimes within six hours. + +</p> +<p>There is nothing in Manila which instantly impresses one as strikingly national, whether it be in artistic handicraft, music, +painting, sculpture, or even diversions. The peculiar traditional customs of an Eastern people—their native dress, their characteristic +habits, constitute—by their originality and variation, the only charm to the ordinary European traveller. The Manila middle-class +native, in particular, possesses none of this. He is but a vivid contrast to his vivacious Spanish model, a striking departure +from his own picturesque aboriginal state, and an unsuccessful imitator of the grace and easy manners of his Western tutor. +In short, <a id="d0e14914"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e14914">359</a>]</span>he is neither one thing nor the other in its true representation compared with the genial, genuine, and natural type to be +found in the provinces. +</p> +<hr class="tb"><p> + +</p> +<p>Many yearsʼ residence in Manila, or in any one particular locality of the Archipelago, will not enable either the alien or +the native to form a just opinion of the physical, social, or economic conditions of the Colony; they can only be understood +after extensive travelling through and around the Islands. Nor will three or four tours suffice for the intelligent inquirer, +because first impressions often lead to false conclusions; information obtained through one source must needs be verified +by another; the danger of mistaking isolated cases for general rules has to be avoided, and, lastly, the native does not reveal +to the first-time traveller the intricacies of Philippine life. Furthermore, the traveller in any official capacity is necessarily +the least informed person concerning the real thought and aspirations of the Filipino or true Philippine life; his position +debars him from the opportunity of investigating these things. + +</p> +<p></p> +<div id="d0e14921" class="figure"><img border="0" src="images/p359.jpg" alt="A Riverside Washing-scene" width="512" height="320"><p class="figureHead">A Riverside Washing-scene</p> +</div><p> + +</p> +<p>It would be beyond the scope of this work to take the reader mentally through the thousand or more miles of lovely scenery, +and into the homes of the unsophisticated classes who still preserve, unalloyed, many of their natural characteristics and +customs. But within half a dayʼs journey from the capital there are many places of historical interest, among which, on account +of its revived popularity since the American advent, may be mentioned Los Baños, on the south shore of the Laguna de Bay. + +</p> +<p>Los Baños (the baths) owes its origin to the hot springs flowing from the volcanic Maquíling Mountain, which have been known +to the natives from time immemorial when the place was called Maynit, which signifies “hot.” + +</p> +<p>At the close of the 16th century these mineral waters attracted the attention of Martyr Saint Pedro Bautista (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e3069">64</a>), who sent a brother of his Order to establish a hospital for the natives. The brother went there, but shortly returned to +Manila and died. So the matter remained in abeyance for years. Subsequently a certain Fray Diego de Santa Maria, an expert +in medicine and the healing art, was sent there to test the waters. He found they contained properties highly beneficial in +curing rheumatism and certain other maladies, so thenceforth many natives and Spaniards went there to seek bodily relief. +But there was no convenient abode for the visitors; no arrangements for taking the baths, and the Government did nothing. +A Franciscan friar was appointed chaplain to the sick visitors, but his very incommodious residence was inadequate for the +lodging of patients, and, for want of funds, the priest abandoned the project of establishing a hospital, and returned to +Manila. In 1604 the Gov.-General, Pedro <a id="d0e14937"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e14937">360</a>]</span>Bravo de Acuña, gave his attention to this place, and consented to the establishment of a hospital, church, and convent. The +hospital was constructed of bamboo and other light material, and dedicated to Our Lady of Holy Waters. + +</p> +<p>Fray Diego de Santa Maria was appointed to the vicarage and the charge of the hospital. The whole was supported by gifts from +the many sick persons who went there, but the greatest difficulty was to procure food. Several natives made donations of lands, +with the produce of which the hospital was to be maintained. These gifts, however, proved insufficient. The priests then solicited +permission from the villagers of Pila (on the lake shore near Santa Cruz) to pasture cattle on the tongue of land on the opposite +coast called Jalajala, which belonged to them. With their consent a cattle-ranche was established there; subsequently, a building +was erected, and the place was in time known as the <i>Estancia de Jalajala</i>. Then the permission was asked for and obtained from the Pila natives to plant cocoanut palms, fruit-trees, and vegetables. +Later on the Austin and Franciscan friars quarrelled about the right of dominion over the place and district called Maynit, +but eventually the former gave way and ceded their alleged rights in perpetuity to the Franciscans. + +</p> +<p>In 1640 Los Baños (formerly a dependency of Bay, under the Austin friars) was constituted a “town.” The Franciscans continued +to beg one concession after another, until at length, in 1671, stone buildings were commenced—a church, convent, hospital, +bathing-pond, vapour-house, etc., being constructed. Natives and Europeans flocked in numbers to these baths, and it is said +that people even came from India to be cured. The property lent and belonging to the establishment, the accumulated funds, +and the live-stock had all increased so much in value that the Government appointed an administrator. Thenceforth the place +declined; its popularity vanished; the administrator managed matters so particularly for his own benefit that food again became +scarce, and the priest was paid only 10 pesos per month as salary. In Jalajala a large house was built; the land was put under +regular cultivation; tenants were admitted; but when the property was declared a royal demesne the Pila inhabitants protested, +and nominally regained possession of the lent property. But the administrator re-opened and contested the question in the +law-courts, and, pending these proceedings, Jalajala was rented from the Government. During this long process of legal entanglements +the property had several times been transferred to one and another until the last holder regarded it as his private estate. + +</p> +<p>At the beginning of last century Jalajala came into the possession of M. Paul de la Gironnière, from whom it passed to another +Frenchman, at whose death a third Frenchman, M. Jules Daillard, became owner. On his decease it became the property of an +English Bank, <a id="d0e14948"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e14948">361</a>]</span>from whom it was purchased by the Franciscan friars, in 1897, for the sum of ₱.50,000, and re-sold by them to a Belgian firm +in 1900. + +</p> +<p>The bathing establishment was gradually falling into decay, until its complete ruin was brought about by a fire, which left +only the remnant of walls. The priest continued there as nominal chaplain with his salary of 10 pesos per month and an allowance +of rice. The establishment was not restored until the Government of Domingo Moriones (1877–80). A vapour bath-house and residence +were built, but the hospital was left unfinished, and it was rotting away from neglect when the Spaniards evacuated the Islands. + +</p> +<p>The portion of the Hospital of Los Baños which remained intact, and the house attached thereto, which the natives called “the +palace,” served to accommodate invalids who went to take the cure. These baths should only be taken in the dry season—December +to May. + +</p> +<p>Besides the convent and church the town simply consisted of a row of dingy bungalows on either side of the highroad, with +a group of the same on the mountain side. Since the American advent the place has been much improved and extended. + +</p> +<p>On his way from Manila to Los Baños the traveller will pass (on the left bank of the Pasig River) the ruins of <i>Guadalupe Church</i>, which mark the site of a great massacre of Chinese during their revolt in 1603 (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e3807">114</a>). The following legend of this once beautiful and popular church was given to me by the Recoleto friars at the convent of +the Church of La Soledad, in Cavite:—During the construction of the world-famed <i>Escorial</i>, by order of Philip II., the architectʼs nephew, who was employed by his uncle on the work, killed a man. The King pardoned +him on condition that he be banished to the Philippines. He therefore came to Manila, took holy orders, and designed and superintended +the building of Guadalupe Church, from the scaffolding of which he fell, and having been caught by the neck in a rope suspended +from the timbers he was hanged. + +</p> +<p>During the wars of the Rebellion and Independence this ancient building was destroyed, only the shot-riddled and battered +outer walls remaining in 1905. + +<a id="d0e14972"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e14972">362</a>]</span></p> +<div class="footnotes"> +<hr class="fnsep"> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e14327" href="#d0e14327src" class="noteref">1</a></span> The city walls were undoubtedly a great safeguard for the Spaniards against the frequent threats of the Mindanao and Sulu +pirates who ventured into the Bay of Manila up to within 58 years ago. Also, for more than a century, they were any day subject +to hostilities from the Portuguese, whilst the aggressive foreign policy of the mother country during the 17th century exposed +them to reprisals by the Dutch fleets, which in 1643 threatened the city of Manila. Formerly the drawbridges were raised, +and the city was closed and under sentinels from 11 oʼclock p.m. <a id="d0e14329"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e14329">344n</a>]</span>until 4 oʼclock a.m. It continued so until 1852, when, in consequence of the earthquake of that year, it was decreed that +the city should thenceforth remain open night and day. The walled city was officially styled the <i lang="es">Plaza de Manila</i>, its last Spanish military governor being General Rizzo, who left for Europe in December, 1898. The most modern drawbridge +entrance was the <i lang="es">Puerta de Isabel II</i>, (1861), facing the Pasig River. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e14340" href="#d0e14340src" class="noteref">2</a></span> The Cathedral has been destroyed four times by fire and earthquake, and rebuilt by successive archbishops. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e14374" href="#d0e14374src" class="noteref">3</a></span> <span class="smallcaps">Marivéles</span>.—Much historical interest is attached to this place. It was the chief port of the <i>Jurisdiction of Marivéles</i> under the old territorial division which comprised the island now called Corregidor. Marivéles is now included in the Province +of Bataán. + +</p> +<p class="footnote">The first Spanish missionary who attempted to domesticate the natives of the Marivéles coast was stoned by them, and died +in Manila in consequence. An insubordinate Archbishop was once banished to Marivéles. Through the narrow channel between this +port and Corregidor Island, known as <i>Boca chica</i>, came swarms of Asiatic trading-junks every spring for over two centuries. Forming the extreme point of Manila Bay, here +was naturally the watchguard for the safety of the capital. It was the point whence could be descried the movements of foreign +enemies—Dutch, British, Mahometan, Chinese, etc.; it was the last refuge for ships about to venture from the Islands to foreign +parts. Yet, with all these antecedents, it is, to-day, one of the poorest and most primitive villages of the Colony. From +its aspect one could almost imagine it to be at the furthermost extremity of the Archipelago. Its ancient name was <i>Camaya</i>, and how it came to be called Marivéles is accounted for in the following interesting legend:—About the beginning of the +17th century one of the Mexican galleons brought to Manila a family named Vélez, whose daughter was called Maria. When she +was 17 years of age this girl took the veil in Santa Clara Convent (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e3315">81</a>), and there responded to the attentions of a Franciscan monk, who fell so desperately in love with her that they determined +to elope to Camaya and wait there for the galleon which was to leave for Mexico in the following July. The girl, disguised +in a monkʼs habit, fled from her convent, and the lovers arrived safely in Camaya in a hired canoe, tired out after the sea-passage +under a scorching sun. The next day they went out to meet the galleon, which, however, had delayed her sailing. In the meantime +the elopement had caused great scandal in Manila. A proclamation was published by the town-crier calling upon the inhabitants +to give up the culprits, under severe penalties for disobedience. Nothing resulted, until the matter oozed out through a native +who was aware of their departure. Then an <a id="d0e14396"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e14396">346n</a>]</span>alderman of the city set out in a prahu in pursuit of the amorous fugitives, accompanied by a notary and a dozen arquebusiers. +After searching in vain all over the island now called Corregidor, they went to Camaya, and there found the young lady, Maria, +on the beach in a most pitiable condition, with her dress torn to shreds, and by her side the holy friar, wearied and bleeding +from the wounds he had received whilst fighting with the savage natives who disputed his possession of the fair maiden. The +search-party found there a canoe, in which the friar was conveyed to Manila in custody, whilst the girl was taken charge of +by the alderman in the prahu. From Manila the sinful priest was sent to teach religion and morality to the Visaya tribes; +the romantic nun was sent back to the City of Mexico to suffer perpetual reclusion in a convent. + +</p> +<p class="footnote">From these events, it is said, arose the names of <i>Corregidor</i> (Alderman) Island, which lies between the rocks known as <i>Fraile</i> (Friar) and <i>Monja</i> (Nun), whilst the loversʼ refuge thenceforth took the name of <i>Marivéles</i> (Maria Vélez). + +</p> +<p class="footnote">Ships arriving from foreign or Philippine infected ports were quarantined off Marivéles, under Spanish regulations. During +the great cholera epidemic of 1882 a Lazaretto was established here. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e14440" href="#d0e14440src" class="noteref">4</a></span> The <i>abacus</i> consists of a frame with a number of parallel wires on which counting-beads are strung. It is in common use in China. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e14454" href="#d0e14454src" class="noteref">5</a></span> <i>Escolta</i> (meaning Escort), the principal thoroughfare in the business quarter (Binondo), is said to have been so named during the +British occupation (1762–63), when the British Commander-in-Chief passed through it daily with his escort. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e14506" href="#d0e14506src" class="noteref">6</a></span> On the site of this last bridge the <i lang="es">Puente de Barcas</i> (Pontoon Bridge) existed from 1632 to 1863, when it was destroyed by the great earthquake of that year. The new stone bridge +was opened in 1875, and called the <i lang="es">Puente de España</i>. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e14543" href="#d0e14543src" class="noteref">7</a></span> The burthen of a native play in the provinces was almost invariably founded on the contests between the Mahometans of the South and the +Christian natives under Spanish dominion. + +</p> +<p class="footnote">The Spaniards, in attaching the denomination of <i>Moros</i> to the Mahometans of Sulu, associated them in name with the Mahometan Moors who held sway over a large part of Hispania for +over seven centuries (711–1492). A “<i>Moro Moro”</i> performance is usually a drama—occasionally a melodrama—in which the native actors, clad in all the glittering finery of +Mahometan nobility and Christian chivalry, assemble in battle array before the Mahometan princesses, to settle their disputes +under the combined inspirations of love and religious persuasion. The princesses, one after the other, pining under the dictates +of the heart in defiance of their creed, leave their fate to be sealed by the outcome of deadly combat between the contending +factions. Armed to the teeth, the cavaliers of the respective parties march to and fro, haranguing each other in monotonous +tones. After a long-winded, wearisome challenge, they brandish their weapons and meet in a series <a id="d0e14557"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e14557">350n</a>]</span>of single combats which merge in a general <i>mêlée</i> as the princes are vanquished and the hand of the disputed enchantress is won. + +</p> +<p class="footnote">The dialogue is in the idiom of the district where the performance is given, and the whole play (lasting from four to six +nights) is brief compared with Chinese melodrama, which often extends to a month of nights. + +</p> +<p class="footnote">Judged from the standard of European histrionism, the plot is weak from the sameness and repetition of the theme. The declamation +is unnatural, and void of vigour and emphasis. The same tone is maintained from beginning to end, whether it be in expression +of expostulatory defiance, love, joy, or despair. But the masses were intensely amused; thus the full object was achieved. +They seemed never to tire of gazing at the situations created and applauding vociferously the feigned defeat of their traditional +arch-foes. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e14600" href="#d0e14600src" class="noteref">8</a></span> The favourite game of the Tagálogs is <i>Panguingui</i>—of the Chinese <i>Chapdiki</i>. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e14674" href="#d0e14674src" class="noteref">9</a></span> The Government House, located in the city, which was thrown down in the earthquake of 1863, has not been rebuilt. Its reconstruction +was only commenced by the Spaniards in 1895. The Gov.-General therefore resided after 1863 at his suburban palace at Malacañan, +on the river-side. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e14721" href="#d0e14721src" class="noteref">10</a></span> “<span lang="fr">Aventures dʼun gentilhomme Breton aux Iles Philippines</span>,” par Paul de la Gironnière. Paris, 1875. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e14823" href="#d0e14823src" class="noteref">11</a></span> <i>Vide</i> “Terremotos de Nueva Vizcaya en 1881,” by Enrique Abella y Casariega Published in Madrid. +</p> +</div> +</div> +<div id="d0e14973" class="div1"> +<h2 class="normal">The Tagálog Rebellion of 1896–98</h2> +<h2 class="normal">First Period</h2> +<p>After the Napoleonic wars in Spain, the “<span lang="es">Junta Suprema Central del Reino</span>” convened the famous “<span lang="es">Córtes de Cádiz</span>” by decree dated September 12, 1809. This <i lang="es">junta</i> was succeeded by another—“<span lang="es">El Supremo Consejo de la Regencia</span>”—when the <i lang="es">Córtes</i> passed the first Suffrage Bill known in Spain on January 29, 1810. These <i lang="es">Córtes</i> assembled deputies from all the Colonies—Cuba, Venezuela, Chile, Guatemala, Santa Fé, Puerto Rico, the Philippines, etc.; +in fact, all those dependencies which constituted the four Viceroyalties and the eight Captain-Generalships of the day. The +Philippine deputy, Ventura de los Reyes, signed the Act of Constitution of 1812. In 1820 the <i lang="es">Córtes</i> again admitted this Colonyʼs representatives, amongst whom were Vicente Posadas, Eulalio Ramirez, Anselmo Jorge Fajárdos, +Roberto Pimental, Esteban Marqués, José Florentino, Manuel Saez de Vismanos, José Azcárraga, and nine others. They also took +part in the parliamentary debates of 1822 and 1823. The Constitution was shortly afterwards suspended, but on the demise of +Ferdinand VII. the Philippine deputies, Brigadier Garcia Gamba and the half-breed Juan Francisco Lecáros, sat in Parliament. +Again, and for the last time, Philippine members figured in the <i lang="es">Córtes</i> of the Isabella II. Regency; then, on the opening of Parliament in 1837, their exclusion, as well as the government of the +Ultramarine Provinces by special laws, was voted. + +</p> +<p>The friars, hitherto regarded by the majority of Filipinos as their protectors and friendly intermediaries between the people +and the civil rulers, had set their faces against the above radical innovations, foreseeing in them a death-blow to their +own preponderance. Indeed, the “friar question” only came into existence after the year 1812. + +</p> +<p>In 1868 Queen Isabella II. was deposed, and the succeeding Provisional Government (1868–70), founded on Republican principles, +caused an Assembly of Reformists to be established in Manila. The members of this <i lang="es">Junta General de Reformas</i> were five Filipinos, namely, Ramon Calderon, Bonifacio Saez de Vismanos, Lorenzo Calvo, Gabriel <a id="d0e15011"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e15011">363</a>]</span>Gonzalez Esquibel, and Joaquin Pardo de Tavera; eleven civilian Spaniards, namely, Joaquin J. Inchausti, Tomàs Balbas y Castro, +Felino Gil, Antonio Ayala, with seven others and five Spanish friars, namely, Father Fonseca, Father Domingo Trecera, Rector +of the University, (Dominicans), one Austin, one Recoleto and one Franciscan friar. This <i lang="es">junta</i> had the power to vote reforms for the Colony, subject to the ratification of the Home Government. But monastic influence +prevailed; the reforms voted were never carried into effect, and long before the Bourbon restoration took place (1874) the +Philippine Assembly had ceased to exist. But it was impossible for the mother country, which had spontaneously given the Filipinos +a taste of political equality, again to yoke them to the old tutelage without demur. Alternate political progress and retrogression +in the Peninsula cast their reflex on this Colony, but the first sparks of liberty had been gratuitously struck which neither +reaction in the Peninsula nor persecution in the Colony itself could totally extinguish. No Filipino, at that period, dreamed +of absolute independence, but the few who had been taught by their masters to hope for equal laws, agitated for their promulgation +and became a thorn in the side of the Monastic Orders. Only as their eyes were spontaneously opened to liberty by the Spaniards +themselves did they feel the want of it. + +</p> +<p>The Cavite Rising of 1872 (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e3649">106</a>), which the Philippine Government unwisely treated as an important political movement and mercilessly avenged itself by executions +and banishment of many of the best Manila families, was neither forgotten nor forgiven. To me, as a foreigner, scores of representative +provincial natives did not hesitate to open their hearts in private on the subject. The Government lost considerably by its +uncalled-for severity on this occasion. The natives regarded it as a sign of apprehension, and a proof of the intention to +rule with an iron rod. The Government played into the hands of the Spanish clergy, and all the friars gained by strengthening +their monopoly of the incumbencies they lost in moral prestige. Thinking men really pitied the Government, which became more +and more the instrument of the ecclesiastics. Since then, serious ideas of a revolution to be accomplished one day took root +in the minds of influential Filipinos throughout the provinces adjacent to Manila. <i lang="es">La Solidaridad</i>, a Philippine organ, founded in Madrid by Marcelo Hilario del Pilar, Mariano Ponce, Eduardo Leyte and Antonio Luna for the +furtherance of Philippine interests was proscribed, but copies entered the Islands clandestinely. In the villages, secret +societies were formed which the priests chose to call “Freemasonry”; and on the ground that all vows which could not be explained +at the confessional were anti-christian, the Archbishop gave strict injunctions to the friars to ferret out the so-called +Freemasons. Denunciations by hundreds quickly followed, for the priests willingly availed themselves of this licence to get +rid of anti-clericals and others who had displeased <a id="d0e15027"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e15027">364</a>]</span>them. In the town of Malolos (which in 1898 became the seat of the Revolutionary Congress) Father Moïses Santos caused all +the members of the Town Council to be banished, and when I last dined with him in his convent, he told me he had cleared out +a few more and had his eye on others. From other villages, notably in the provinces around the capital, the priests had their +victims escorted up to Manila and consigned to the Gov.-General, who issued the deportation orders without trial or sentence, +the recommendation of the all-powerful <i>padre</i> being sufficient warrant. Thus hundreds of families were deprived of fathers and brothers without warning or apparent justification;—but +it takes a great deal to rouse the patient native to action. Then in 1895 came the Marahui campaign in Mindanao (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e4614">144</a>). In order to people the territory around Lake Lanao, conquered from the <i>Moros</i>, it was proposed to invite families to migrate there from the other islands, and notifications to this effect were issued +to all the provincial governors. At first it was put to the people in the smooth form of a proposal. None volunteered to go, +because they could not see why they should give up what they had to go and waste their lives on a tract of virgin soil with +the very likely chance of a daily attack from the <i>Moros</i>. Peremptory orders followed, requiring the governors to send up “emigrants” for the Ylígan district. This caused a great +commotion in the provinces, and large numbers of natives abandoned their homes to evade anticipated violence. I have no proof +as to who originated this scheme, but there is the significant fact that the <i>orders</i> were issued only to the authorities of those provinces supposed to be affected by the secret societies. Under the then existing +system, the governors could not act in a case like this without the co-operation of the parish priests; hence during the years +1895 and 1896 a systematic course of official sacerdotal tyranny was initiated which, being too much even for the patient +Filipino, was the immediate cause of the members of the <i>Katipunan</i> secret society hastening their plans for open rebellion, the plot of which was prematurely discovered on Thursday, August +20, 1896. The rebellion in Cuba was calling for all the resources in men and material that Spain could send there. The total +number of European troops dispersed over these Islands did not exceed 1,500 well armed and well officered, of which about +700 were in Manila. The native auxiliaries amounted to about 6,000. The impression was gaining ground that the Spaniards would +be beaten out of Cuba; but whilst this idea gave the Tagálogs moral courage to attempt the same in these Islands, so far as +one could then foresee, Spainʼs reverse in the Antilles and the consequent evacuation would have permitted her to pour troops +into Manila, causing the nativesʼ last chance to vanish indefinitely. + +</p> +<p>Several months before the outbreak, the <i>Katipunan</i> sent a deputation to Japan to present a petition to the Mikado, praying him to annex the Philippines. This petition, said +to have been signed by 5,000 Filipinos, <a id="d0e15055"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e15055">365</a>]</span>was received by the Japanese Government, who forwarded it to the Spanish Government; hence the names of 5,000 disaffected +persons were known to the Philippine authorities, who did not find it politic to raise the storm by immediate arrests. + +</p> +<p>The so-called “Freemasonry” which had so long puzzled and irritated the friars, turned out, therefore, to be the <i>Katipunan</i>, which simply means the “League.”<a id="d0e15062src" href="#d0e15062" class="noteref">1</a> The leaguers, on being sworn in, accepted the “blood compact” (vide p. <a href="#d0e2406">28</a>), taking from an incision on the leg or arm the blood with which to inscribe the roll of fraternity. The cicatrice served +also as a mark of mutual recognition, so that the object and plans of the leaguers should never be discussed with others. +The drama was to have opened with a general slaughter of Spaniards on the night of August 20, but, just in the nick of time, +a woman sought confession of Father Mariano Gil (formerly parish priest of Bigaá, Bulacan), then the parish priest of Tondo, +a suburb of Manila, and opened the way for a leaguer, whose heart had failed him, to disclose the plot on condition of receiving +full pardon. With this promise he made a clean breast of everything, and without an hourʼs delay the civil guard was on the +track of the alleged prime movers. Three hundred supposed disaffected persons were seized in Manila and the Provinces of Pampanga +and Bulacan within a few hours, and, large numbers being brought in daily, the prisons were soon crowded to excess. The implacable +Archbishop Bernardino Nozaleda advocated extermination by fire and sword and wholesale executions. Gov.-General Ramon Blanco +hesitated to take the offensive, pending the arrival of reinforcements which were called for. He informed the Home Government +that the rising was of no great importance, but that he required 1,000 more troops to be sent at once. The reply from Madrid +was that they were sending 2,000 men, 2,000,000 cartridges, 6,000 Remington rifles, and the gunboats <i lang="es">Isla de Cuba</i> and <i lang="es">Isla de Luzon</i>. Each steamer brought a contingent of troops, so that General Blanco had a total of about 10,000 Spanish regulars by the +end of November. Spainʼs best <a id="d0e15092"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e15092">366</a>]</span>men had been drafted off to Cuba, and these were chiefly raw levies who had all to learn in the art of warfare. + +</p> +<p>Meanwhile, the rebellion had assumed alarming proportions. Among the first to be seized were many of the richest and most +prominent men in the Colony—the cream of Manila society. There was intense excitement in the capital as their names gradually +leaked out, for many of them were well known to us personally or by repute. No one who possessed wealth was safe. An opulent +Chinese half-caste, Don Pedro P. Rojas, who was popularly spoken of as the prime supporter of the rebellion, was a guest at +Government House two days before the hour fixed for the general slaughter. It cost him a fortune to be allowed to leave the +Islands. He took his passage for Europe in the <i lang="es">Isla de Panay</i>, together with Dr. Rizal, but very prudently left that steamer at Singapore and went on in the French mail to Marseilles +and thence to Paris, where he was still residing in 1905. No <i>documentary</i> evidence could be produced against him, and on June 1, 1897, the well-known politician, Romero Robledo, undertook his defence +in the <i lang="es">Córtes</i>, in Madrid, in a brilliant speech which had no effect on his parliamentary colleagues. For the Spaniards, indeed, the personal +character of Pedro P. Rojas was a matter of no moment. The Manila court-martial, out of whose jurisdiction Rojas had escaped, +held his estates, covering over 70,000 acres, under embargo, caused his numerous steam cane-mills to be smashed, and his beautiful +estate-house to be burnt, whilst his 14,000 head of cattle disappeared. Subsequently the military court exonerated Pedro P. +Rojas in a decree which stated “that all those persons who made accusations against him have unreservedly retracted them, +and that they were only extracted from such persons by the tortures employed by the Spanish officials; that the supposed introduction +of arms into the Colony through an estate owned by Pedro P. Rojas is purely fantastical, and that the only arms possessed +by the rebels were those taken by them in combat from the Spanish soldiers.”<a id="d0e15105src" href="#d0e15105" class="noteref">2</a> But his second cousin, Francisco L. Rojas, a shipowner, contrabandist, and merchant, was not so fortunate. He was also one +of the first seized, and his trial was pending until General Blanco left the Islands. During this period Rojasʼ wife besought +the General to release him, but he could not do so without incurring public censure, in view of the real or fictitious condemnatory +evidence brought against him by the court-martial. <a id="d0e15113"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e15113">367</a>]</span>The chief accusation was that of importing arms for the rebellion. It even became a current topic, for a few weeks, that some +German merchants had made a contract with Rojas to sell him the arms, but the Spanish authorities had sufficient good sense, +on this occasion, not to be guided by public outcry. When General Polavieja arrived, Francisco L. Rojasʼ fate became a certainty, +and he was executed as a traitor. The departure of Pedro P. Rojas and the serenity of General Blanco aroused great indignation +among the civilian Spaniards who clamoured for active measures. A week passed before it was apparent to the public that he +had taken any military action. Meanwhile, he was urged in vain by his advisers to proclaim martial law. The press censor would +not allow the newspapers to allude to the conspirators as “rebels,” but as “brigands” (<i>tulisanes</i>). The authorities were anxious to stifle the notion of rebellion, and to treat the whole movement as a marauding affair. +On August 23 the leading newspaper published a patriotic appeal to the Spaniards to go <i lang="fr">en masse</i> the next day to the Gov.-General to concert measures for public safety. They closed their shops and offices, and assembled +before Government House; but the General refused to receive them, and ordered the newspaper to pay a fine of ₱500, which sum +was at once raised in the streets and cafés. + +</p> +<p>On August 26, 1,000 rebels made a raid on Coloocan, four miles outside the capital. They killed a few Chinese, and seized +others to place them in the van of their fighting men. The armed crowd was kept at bay by a posse of civil guards, until they +learnt that a cavalry reinforcement was on the way from Manila. Then the rebels, under cover of darkness, fled towards the +river, and were lost sight of. The next morning I watched the troopers cross over the <i lang="es">Puente de España</i>. There was mud up to the poniesʼ bellies, for they had scoured the district all around. The hubbub was tremendous among the +habitual saunterers on the <i>Escolta</i>—the Rialto of Manila. For the next few days every Spaniard one met had some startling news to tell, until, by the end of +the week, a reaction set in, and amidst jokes and <i>copitas</i> of spirits, the idea that the Coloocan affair was the prelude to a rebellion was utterly ridiculed. The Gov.-General still +refused to proclaim martial law, considering such a grave measure unnecessary, when suddenly the whole city was filled with +amazement by the news of a far more serious attack near Manila. +<a id="d0e15132"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e15132">368</a>]</span></p> +<p>About 4 a.m. on Sunday, August 30, the rebels concentrated at the village of San Juan del Monte, distant half an hour on horseback +from the city gates. They endeavoured to seize the powder magazine. One Spanish artilleryman was killed and several of the +defenders were badly wounded whilst engaged in dropping ammunition from window openings into a stream which runs close by. +Cavalry and infantry reinforcements were at once sent out, and the first battle was fought at the entrance to the village +of San Juan del Monte. The rebels made a hard stand this time under the leadership of Sancho Valenzuela (a hemp-rope maker +in a fairly good way of business), but he showed no military skill and chiefly directed his men by frantic shouts from the +window of a wooden house. Naturally, as soon as they had to retreat, Valenzuela and his three companions were taken prisoners. +The rebels left about 80 dead on the field and fled towards the Pasig River, which they tried to cross. Their passage was +at first cut off by gunboats, which fired volleys into the retreating mob and drove them higher up the bank, where there was +some hand-to-hand fighting. Over a hundred managed to get into canoes with the hope of reaching the Lake of Bay; but, as they +passed up the river, the civil guard, lying in ambush on the opposite shore, fired upon them, and in the consequent confusion +every canoe was upset. The loss to the rebels in the river and on the bank was reckoned at about 50. The whole of that day +the road to San Juan del Monte was occupied by troops, and no civilian was allowed to pass. At 3 p.m. the same day martial +law was proclaimed in Manila and seven other Luzon provinces. + +</p> +<p>The next morning at sunrise I rode out to the battlefield with the correspondent of the <i lang="es">Ejército Español</i> (Madrid). The rebel slain had not yet been removed. We came across them everywhere—in the fields and in the gutters of the +highroad. Old men and youths had joined in the scrimmage and, with one exception, every corpse we saw was attired in the usual +working dress. This one exception we found literally upside down with his head stuck in the mud of a paddy-field. Our attention +was drawn to him (and possibly the Spaniardsʼ bullets, too) by his bright red baggy zouave trousers. We rode into the village, +which was absolutely deserted by its native inhabitants, and stopped at the estate-house of the friars where the Spanish officers +lodged. The <i>padre</i> looked extremely anxious, and the officers advised us not to go the road we intended, as rebel parties were known to be lurking +there. The military advice being practically a command, we took the highroad to Sampáloc on our way back to the city. + +</p> +<p>In the meantime the city drawbridges, which had probably not been raised since 1852 (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e14312">343</a>, footnote), were put into working order—the bushes which had been left to flourish around the approaches were cut down, and +the Spanish civilians were called upon to form volunteer cavalry and infantry corps. So far the rebel leaders had issued no +<a id="d0e15151"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e15151">369</a>]</span>proclamation. It was not generally known what their aims were—whether they sought independence, reforms, extermination of +Spaniards or Europeans generally. The attitude of the thoroughbred native non-combatants was glum silence born of fear. The +half-castes, who had long vaunted their superior birth to the native, found themselves between two stools. If the natives +were going to succeed in the battle, they (the half-castes) would want to be the peaceful wire-pullers after the storm. On +the other hand, they had so long striven to be regarded as on a social equality with the Spaniards that they could not now +abstain from espousing their cause against the rebels without exciting suspicion. Therefore, in the course of a few days, +the half-castes resident in the capital came forward to enlist as volunteers. But no one imagined, at that time, how widespread +was the <i>Katipunan</i> league. To the profound surprise of the Spaniards it was discovered, later on, that many of the half-caste volunteers were +rebels in disguise, bearing the “blood compact” mark, and presumably only waiting to see which way the chances of war would +turn to join the winning side. + +</p> +<p>Under sentence of the court-martial established on August 30, the four rebel leaders in the battle of San Juan del Monte were +executed on September 4, on the Campo de Bagumbayan, facing the fashionable Luneta Esplanade, by the seashore. Three sides +of a square were formed by 1,500 Spanish and half-caste volunteers and 500 regular troops. Escorted by two Austin and two +Franciscan friars, the condemned men walked to the execution-ground from the chapel within the walled city, where they had +been confined since the sentence was passed. They were perfectly self-composed. They arrived on the ground pinioned; their +sentence was read to them and Valenzuela was unpinioned for a minute to sign some document at a table. When he was again tied +up, all four were made to kneel on the ground in a row facing the open sea-beach side of the square. Then amidst profound +silence, an officer, at the head of 16 Spanish soldiers, walked round the three sides of the square, halting at each corner +to pronounce publicly the formula—“In the name of the King! Whosoever shall raise his voice to crave clemency for the condemned +shall suffer death.” The 16 soldiers filed off in fours and stood about five yards behind each culprit. As the officer lowered +his sword the volley was fired, and all but Valenzuela sank down and rolled over dead. It was the most impressive sight I +had witnessed for years. The bullets, which had passed clean through Valenzuelaʼs body, threw up the gravel in front of him. +He remained kneeling erect half a minute, and then gradually sank on his side. He was still alive, and four more shots, fired +close to his head, scattered his brains over the grass. Conveyances were in readiness to carry off the corpses, and the spectators +quitted the mournful scene in silence. This was the first execution, which was followed by four others in Manila and one in +Cavite in General Blancoʼs time, and scores more subsequently. +<a id="d0e15158"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e15158">370</a>]</span></p> +<p>Up the river the rebels were increasing daily, and at Pasig a thousand of them threatened the civil guard, compelling that +small force and the parish priest to take refuge in the belfry tower. On the river-island of Pandácan, just opposite to the +European Club at Nagtájan, a crowd of armed natives, about 400 strong, attacked the village, sacked the church, and drove +the parish priest up the belfry tower. In this plight the <i>padre</i> was seen to wave a handkerchief, and so drew the attention of the guards stationed higher up the river. Aid was sent to him +at once; the insurgents were repulsed with great loss, but one European sergeant was killed, and several native soldiers wounded. +The rebellion had spread to the northern province of Nueva Ecija, where the Governor and all the Europeans who fled to the +Government House in San Isidro were besieged for a day (September 8) and only saved from capture by the timely arrival from +Manila of 500 troops, who outflanked the insurgents and dispersed them with great slaughter. In Bulacan the flying column +under Major Lopez Arteaga had a score of combats with the rebels, who were everywhere routed. Spaniards and creoles were maltreated +wherever they were found. A young creole named Chofré, well known in Manila, went out to Mariquina to take photographic views +with a foreign half-caste friend of his named Augustus Morris. When they saw the rebels they ran into a hut, which was set +fire to. Morris (who was not distinguishable as a foreigner) tried to escape and was shot, whilst Chofré was burnt to death. +From Maragondón a Spanish lady was brought to Manila raving mad. At 23, <i lang="es">Calle Cabildo</i> (Manila), the house of a friend of mine, I several times saw a Spanish lady who had lost her reason in Mariquina, an hourʼs +drive from Manila. + +</p> +<p>Crowds of peaceful natives swarmed into the walled city from the suburbs. The Gov.-General himself abandoned his riverside +residence at Malacañan, and came with his staff to <i lang="es">Calle Potenciana</i>. During the first four months quite 5,000 Chinese, besides a large number of Spanish and half-caste families, fled to Hong-Kong. +The passport system was revived; that is to say, no one could leave Manila for the other islands or abroad without presenting +himself personally at the Civil Governorʼs office to have his <i lang="es">cédula personal</i> viséd. + +</p> +<p>The seditious tendency of a certain Andrés Bonifacio, a warehouse-man in the employ of a commercial firm in Manila, having +come to the knowledge of the Spaniards, he was prematurely constrained to seek safety in Cavite Province which, thenceforth, +became the most important centre of the rebellion. Simultaneously Emilio Aguinaldo<a id="d0e15177src" href="#d0e15177" class="noteref">3</a> rallied his fighting-men, and for a short while these two organizers operated conjointly, Bonifacio being nominally the supreme +chief. From the beginning, however, there was discord between the two leaders as to the plan of campaign to be adopted. Bonifacio +advocated barbarous <a id="d0e15182"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e15182">371</a>]</span>persecution and extermination of the Europeans, whilst Aguinaldo insisted that he was fighting for a cause for which he sought +the sympathy and moral support of friends of liberty all the world over and that this could never be obtained if they conducted +themselves like savages. Consequent on this disagreement as to the <i>modus operandi</i>, Bonifacio and Aguinaldo became rivals, each seeking the suppression of the other. Aguinaldo himself explains<a id="d0e15187src" href="#d0e15187" class="noteref">4</a> that Bonifacio having condemned him to death, he retaliated in like manner, and the contending factions met at Naig. Leaving +his armed followers outside, Aguinaldo alone entered the house where Bonifacio was surrounded by his counsellors, for he simply +wished to have an understanding with his rival. Bonifacio, however, so abusively confirmed his intention to cut short Aguinaldoʼs +career that the latter withdrew, and ordered his men to seize Bonifacio, who was forthwith executed, by Aguinaldoʼs order, +for the prosperity of the cause and the good of his country. + +</p> +<p></p> +<div id="d0e15191" class="figure"><img border="0" src="images/p371.gif" alt="The Province of Cavite" width="512" height="639"><p class="figureHead">The Province of Cavite</p> +</div><p> + +</p> +<p>Bonifacioʼs followers were few, and, from this moment, Emilio Aguinaldo gradually rose from obscurity to prominence. Born +at Cauit<a id="d0e15197src" href="#d0e15197" class="noteref">5</a> (Cavite) on March 22, 1869, of poor parents, he started life in the service of the incumbent of San Francisco de Malabon. +Later on he went to Manila, where, through the influence of a relative, employed in a humble capacity in the capital, he was +admitted into the College of San Juan de Letran under the auspices of the Dominican friars. Subsequently he became a schoolmaster +at Silan (Cavite), and at the age of twenty-six years he was again in his native town as petty-governor (Municipal Captain). +He is a man of small frame with slightly webbed eyes, betraying the Chinese blood in his veins, and a protruding lower lip +and prominent chin indicative of resolve. Towards me his manner was remarkably placid and unassuming, and his whole bearing +denoted the very antithesis of the dashing warrior. Throughout his career he has shown himself to be possessed of natural +politeness, and ever ready with the soft answer that turneth away wrath. He understands Spanish perfectly well, but does not +speak it very fluently. Aguinaldoʼs explanation to me of the initial acts of rebellion was as follows:—He had reason to know +that, in consequence of something having leaked out in Manila regarding the immature plans of the conspirators, he was a marked +man, so he resolved to face the situation boldly. He had then been petty-governor of his town (Cauit) sixteen months, and +in that official capacity he summoned the local detachment of the civil guard to the Town Hall, having previously arranged +his plan of action with the town guards (<i lang="es">cuadrilleros</i>). Aguinaldo then spoke aside to the sergeant, to whom he proposed the surrender of their arms. As he quite anticipated, his +demand was <a id="d0e15205"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e15205">372</a>]</span>refused, so he gave the agreed signal to his <i lang="es">cuadrilleros</i>, who immediately surrounded the guards and disarmed them. Thereupon Aguinaldo and his companions, being armed, fled at once +to the next post of the civil guard and seized their weapons also. With this small equipment he and his party escaped into +the interior of the province, towards Silan, situated at the base of the Sun͠gay<a id="d0e15210src" href="#d0e15210" class="noteref">6</a> Mountain, where the numerous ravines in the slopes running towards the Lake Bómbon (popularly known as the Lake of Taal) +afforded a safe retreat to the rebels. Hundreds of natives soon joined him, for the secret of Aguinaldoʼs influence was the +widespread popular belief in his possession of the <i lang="tl">anting-anting</i> (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e8937">237</a>); his continuous successes, in the first operations, strengthened this belief; indeed, he seemed to have the lucky star of +a De Wet without the military genius. + +</p> +<p>On August 31, 1896, eleven days after the plot was discovered in Manila, he issued his <i lang="es">pronunciamiento</i> simultaneously at his birthplace, at Novaleta, and at San Francisco de Malabon. This document, however, is of little historic +value, for, instead of setting forth the aims of the revolutionists, it is simply a wild exhortation to the people, in general +vague terms, to take arms and free themselves from oppression. In San Francisco de Malabon Aguinaldo rallied his forces prior +to their march to Imus,<a id="d0e15229src" href="#d0e15229" class="noteref">7</a> their great strategic point. The village itself, situated in the centre of a large, well-watered plain, surrounded by planted +land, was nothing—a mere collection of wooden or bamboo-and-thatch dwellings. The distance from Manila would be about 16 miles +by land, with good roads leading to the bay shore towns. The people were very poor, being tenants or dependents of the friars; +hence the only building of importance was the friarsʼ estate-house, which was really a fortress in the estimation of the natives. +This residence was situated in the middle of a compound surrounded by massive high walls, and to it some 17 friars fled on +the first alarm. For the rebels, therefore, Imus had a double value—the so-called fortress and the capture of the priests. +After a siege which lasted long enough for General Blanco to have sent troops against them, the rebels captured <a id="d0e15244"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e15244">373</a>]</span>Imus estate-house on September 1, and erected barricades there. Thirteen of the priests fell into their hands. They cut trenches +and threw up earthworks in several of the main roads of the province, and strengthened their position at Novaleta. Marauding +parties were sent out everywhere to steal the crops and live-stock, which were conveyed in large quantities to Imus. Some +of the captured priests were treated most barbarously. One was cut up piecemeal; another was saturated with petroleum and +set on fire, and a third was bathed in oil and fried on a bamboo spit run through the length of his body. There was a <i>Requiem</i> Mass for this event. During the first few months of the rising many such atrocities were committed by the insurgents. The +Naig outrage caused a great sensation in the capital. The lieutenant had been killed, and the ferocious band of rebels seized +his widow and daughter eleven years old. The child was ravished to death, and they were just digging a pit to bury the mother +alive when she was rescued and brought to Manila in the steam-launch <i>Mariposa</i> raving mad, disguised as a native woman. Aguinaldo, personally, was humanely inclined, for at his headquarters he held captive +one Spanish trooper, an army lieutenant, a Spanish planter, a friar, and two Spanish ladies, all of whom were fairly well +treated. The priest was allowed to read his missal, the lieutenant and trooper were made blacksmiths, and the planter had +to try his hand at tailoring. + +</p> +<p>The insurgents occupied Parañaque and Las Piñas on the outskirts of Manila, and when General Blanco had 5,000 fresh troops +at his disposal he still refrained from attacking the rebels in their positions. Military men, in conversation with me, excused +this inaction on the ground that, to rout the rebels completely without having sufficient troops to garrison the places taken +and to form flying columns to prevent the insurgents fleeing to the mountain fastnesses, would only require them to do the +work over again when they reappeared. So General Blanco went on waiting in the hope that more troops would arrive with which +to inflict such a crushing defeat on the rebels as would ensure a lasting peace. The rebels were in possession of Imus for +several months. Three weeks after they took it, artillery was slowly carried over to Cavite, which is connected with the mainland +by a narrow isthmus, so the rebels hastened to construct a long line of trenches immediately to the south of this (<i>vide</i> map), whereby communication with the heart of the province was effectually cut off. Not only did their mile and a half of +trenches and stockade check any advance into the interior from the isthmus, but it served as a rallying-point whence Cavite +itself was menaced. The Spaniards, therefore, forced to take the offensive to save Cavite falling into rebel hands, made an +attack on the Novaleta defences with Spanish troops and loyal native auxiliaries on November 10. The next day the Spaniards +were repulsed at Binacayan with the loss of one-third of the 73rd Native Regiment and 60 Spanish troops, with 50 <a id="d0e15257"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e15257">374</a>]</span>of both corps wounded. The intention to carry artillery towards Imus was abandoned and the Spaniards fell back on Dalahican, +about a mile north of the rebel trenches of Novaleta, where they established a camp at which I spent a whole day. They had +four large guns and two bronze mortars; in the trench adjoining the camp they had one gun. The troops numbered 3,500 Spaniards +under the command of General Rios. The 73rd Native Regiment survivors had quarters there, but they were constantly engaged +in making sorties on the road leading to Manila. No further attempt was made in General Blancoʼs time to dislodge the rebels +from their splendidly-constructed trenches, which, however, could easily have been shelled from the sea side. + +</p> +<p>A number of supposed promoters of the rebellion filled the Cavite prison, and I went over to witness the execution of 13 of +them on September 12. I knew two or three of them by sight. One was a Chinese half-caste, the son of a rich Chinaman then +living. The father was held to be a respectable man of coolie origin, but the son, long before the rebellion, had a worthless +reputation. + +</p> +<p>In the Provinces of Pampanga and Bulacan, north of Manila, the rebel mob, under the command of a native of Cabiao (Nueva Ecija) +named Llaneras, was about 3,000 strong. To oppose this Major Lopez Arteaga had a flying column of 500 men, and between the +contending parties there were repeated encounters with no definite result. Whenever the rebels were beaten off and pursued +they fled to their strongholds of San Mateo (Manila, now Rizal) and Angat (Bulacan). The Spaniards made an unsuccessful attempt +to dislodge the enemy at Angat, whilst at San Mateo, where they were supposed to be 5,000 strong, they were left undisturbed. +The rebels attacked Calumpit (Bulacan), pillaged several houses, decapitated an Englishmanʼs cook, and drove the civil guard +and the parish priest up the belfry tower. On the other side of the river, Llaneras visited the rice-mills of an Anglo-American +firm, took some refreshment, and assured the manager, Mr. Scott, that the rebels had not the least intention to interfere +with any foreigners (as distinguished from Spaniards), against whom they had no complaint whatever. + +</p> +<p>At length a plan of campaign was prepared, and expeditionary forces were to march in two directions through the disaffected +provinces south of Manila, and combine, according to circumstances, when the bulk of the rebels could be driven together. +One division operated from the lake town of Viñan, whilst General Jaramillo took his troops round to Batangas Province and +worked northwards. Before the lake forces had gone very far they met with a reverse at the hands of the rebels in the neighbourhood +of Carmona, but rallied and pushed on towards the rebel quarters near Silan, where the enemy was apparently concentrating +for a great struggle. The combined columns under General Jaramillo at length opened the attack. A pitched battle <a id="d0e15265"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e15265">375</a>]</span>was fought, and no quarter was given on either side. This fierce contest lasted a whole day, and the Spaniards were forced +to retire with considerable loss. The combined operations accomplished nothing decisive, and served only to check an advance +on the capital by the rebels, who were already in practical possession of the whole of Cavite province excepting the port, +arsenal, and isthmus of Cavite. + +</p> +<p>In Manila the volunteers mounted guard whilst the regulars went to the front. For a while the volunteers were allowed to make +domiciliary search, and they did very much as they liked. Domiciliary search was so much abused that it had to be forbidden, +for the volunteers took to entering any house they chose, and roughly examined the persons of natives to see if they had the +<i>Katipunan</i> brand. Crowds of suspects were brought into Manila, and shiploads of them were sent away in local steamers to the Caroline +Islands and Mindanao, whilst every mail-steamer carried batches of them <i>en route</i> for Fernando Po. On October 1 the s.s. <i>Manila</i> sailed with 300 Filipinos for Chafarinas Islands, Ceuta, and other African penal settlements. In the local steamers many +of them died on the way. The ordinary prisons were more than full, and about 600 suspects were confined in the dungeons of +Fort Santiago at the mouth of the Pasig River, where a frightful tragedy occurred. The dungeons were over-crowded; the river-water +filtered in through the crevices in the ancient masonry; the Spanish sergeant on duty threw his rug over the only light- and +ventilating-shaft, and in a couple of days carts were seen by many citizens carrying away the dead, calculated to number 70. +Provincial governors and parish priests seemed to regard it as a duty to supply the capital with batches of “suspects” from +their localities. In Vigan, where nothing had occurred, many of the heads of the best families and moneyed men were arrested +and brought to Manila in a steamer. They were bound hand and foot, and carried like packages of merchandise in the hold. I +happened to be on the quay when the steamer discharged her living freight with chains and hooks to haul up and swing out the +bodies like bales of hemp. From Nueva Cáceres (Camarines), the Abellas and several other rich families and native priests +were seized and shipped off. Poor old Manuel Abella, like scores of others, was tortured in Bilibid prison and finally shot. +He was a notary, unfortunately possessed of a fine estate coveted by an impecunious Spaniard, who denounced Abella, and was +rewarded by being appointed “Administrator” of his property, out of which he so enriched himself that he was able, in a few +months, to return to Spain in a good financial position. A friend of mine, a native planter of Balayán, was imprisoned for +months, and then sent back to his town declared innocent. He had been a marked man since 1895, just after his son Quintin, +a law student, had had a little altercation with his clerical professors in Manila. Thousands of <a id="d0e15278"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e15278">376</a>]</span>peaceful natives were treated with unjustifiable ferocity. The old torture-chamber on the ground-floor of the convent of Baliuag +(Bulacan) is still shown to visitors. The court-martial, established under the presidency of a colonel, little by little practised +systematic extortion, for, within three months of the outbreak, hundreds of the richest natives and half-castes in Manila +were imprisoned for a few days and released <i>conditionally</i>. From the lips of my late friend, Telesforo Chuidian, a wealthy Chinese half-caste, known to all Manila society, I heard +of the squalid misery and privations to which he and others of his class were subjected, but the complete list would fill +a page. Some were even re-arrested for the same nefarious purpose, and the daily papers published their names on each occasion. +Archbishop Nozaleda and Gov.-General Blanco were at variance from the beginning of the revolt, and in accordance with historical +precedent it could only end in one way, namely, that the clerical party advised the Cánovas Ministry to recall the General +and appoint in his stead another who would be obedient to the friars. + +</p> +<p>General Blanco was not sufficiently sanguinary for the monks. As a strategist he had refused, at the outset, to undertake +with 1,500 European troops a task which was only accomplished by his successor with 28,000 men. But the priests thought they +knew better, and Blanco left for Spain in December, 1896. The relative positions of the parties at this crisis stood as follows:—The +rebels were in possession of the whole of the Province of Cavite excepting the city and arsenal of Cavite and the isthmus +connecting that city with the mainland. They were well fortified at Imus with trenches and stockades extending from the estate-house +fort in several directions, defended by an army of 6,000 to 7,000 men. Their artillery was most primitive, however, consisting +only of a few small guns called <i>lantacas</i>, some new guns of small calibre roughly cast out of the church bells, and iron waterpipes of large diameter converted into +<i>mitrailleuse</i> mortars. They were strongly entrenched behind a mile and a half of strategically constructed earthworks defending the town +of Novaleta, which they held. They were supposed to have at least 20,000 men in occupation there. Including San Francisco +de Malabon, Silan, Perez Dasmariñas, and the several other places they held, their total force in the whole province was estimated +at 35,000 men. About one-fifth of that number was armed with rifles (chiefly Maüsers), the remainder carrying bowie-knives +and bamboo lances. The bowie-knife was irresistible by the Spaniards when the native came to close-quarter fighting. The rebels +had ample supplies of rice, buffaloes, etc., stolen from the non-combatant natives. To my personal knowledge they had daily +communication with Manila, and knew everything that was going on there and the public feeling in the capital. They had failed +in the attempt to seize the town of Santa Cruz (La Laguna), where they killed <a id="d0e15291"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e15291">377</a>]</span>one Spaniard and then retreated. Loyal natives in Viñan organized volunteer forces to keep them out of that town. Those Manila +volunteers known as the <i lang="es">Guerrilla á muerte</i> battalion, with a few regulars, frequently patrolled the lake coast in steam-launches from Manila, and kept the rebels from +occupying that district. North of Manila the rebellion reached no farther than Bulacan and Pampanga Provinces, where Llanerasʼs +flying column, together with the rebels in the mountain fastnesses of Angat and San Mateo, amounted to about 10,000 men. Llaneras +notified the Manila-Dagúpan (English) Railway officials that they were to cease carrying loyal troops on their line; but as +those orders were not heeded, a train was wrecked on November 19 about 20 miles up from the capital. The locomotive and five +carriages were smashed, the permanent-way was somewhat damaged, five individuals were wounded, and the total loss sustained +was estimated at ₱40,000. In the last week of November the friarsʼ estate-house at Malinta, some five miles north of Manila, +was in flames; we could see the blaze from the bay. The slightest reverse to Spanish arms always drew a further crowd of rebels +into the field. + +</p> +<p>The total European force when General Blanco left was about 10,000 men. In Cavite Province the Spaniards held only the camp +of Dalahican, and the city and arsenal of Cavite with the isthmus. The total number of suspects shipped away was about 1,000. +I was informed by my friend the Secretary of the Military Court that 4,377 individuals were awaiting trial by court-martial. +The possibility of the insurgents ever being able to enter the capital was never believed in by the large majority of Europeans, +although from a month after the outbreak the rebels continued to hold posts within a couple of hoursʼ march from the old walls. +The natives, however, were led to expect that the rebels would make an attempt to occupy the city on Saint Andrewʼs Day (the +patron-saint day of Manila, <i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e2813">50</a>). The British Consul and a few British merchants were of opinion that a raid on the capital was imminent, and I, among others, +was invited by letter, dated Manila, November 16, 1896, and written under the authority of H.B.M.ʼs Consul, to attend a meeting +on the 18th of that month at the offices of a British establishment to concert measures for escape in such a contingency. +In spite of these fears, business was carried on without the least apparent interruption. + +</p> +<p>When General Blanco reached Spain he quietly lodged at the Hotel de Roma in Madrid, and then took a private residence. Out +of courtesy he was offered a position in the <i lang="es">Cuarto Militar</i>, which he declined to accept. For several months he remained under a political cloud, charged with incompetency to quell +the Philippine Rebellion. But there is something to be said in justification of Blancoʼs inaction. He was importuned from +the beginning by the relentless Archbishop and many leading civilians to take the offensive and start a war <i>à outrance</i> <a id="d0e15312"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e15312">378</a>]</span>with an inadequate number of European soldiers. His 6,000 native auxiliaries (as it proved later on) could not be relied upon +in a <i>civil</i> war. Against the foreign invader, with Spanish prestige still high, they would have made good loyal fighting-material. Blanco +was no novice in civil wars. I remember his career during the previous twenty-five years. With his 700 European troops he +parried off the attacks of the first armed mobs in the Province of Manila (now Rizal), and defended the city and the approaches +to the capital. Five hundred European troops had to be left, here and there, in Visayas for the ordinary defence. Before the +balance of 300 could be embarked in half a dozen places in the south and landed in Manila, the whole Province of Cavite was +in arms. He could not leave the defence of the city entirely in the hands of untrained and undrilled volunteers and march +the whole of his European regular troops into another province. A severe reverse, on the first encounter, might have proved +fatal to Spanish sovereignty. Blanco had the enormous disadvantage (one must live there to appreciate it) of the wet season, +and the rebels understood this. He had, therefore, to damp the movement by feigning to attach to it as little importance as +possible. Lastly, Blanco was a man of moderate and humane tendencies; a colonial governor of the late Martinez Campos school, +whose policy is—when all honourable peaceful means are exhausted, use force. + +</p> +<p>The Cánovas party was broken up by the assassination of the Prime Minister on August 8, 1897. This ministry was followed by +the provisional Azcárraga Cabinet, which, at the end of six weeks, was superseded by the Liberal party under the leadership +of Práxedes Sagasta, who, to temporize with America, recalled the inflexible General Weyler from Cuba, and on October 9 appointed +General Ramon Blanco, Marquis de Peña Plata, to take the command there. + +</p> +<p>General Camilo Polavieja (Marquis de Polavieja) arrived in Manila in December, 1896, as the successor of Blanco and the chosen +<i>Messiah</i> of the friars. He had made a great name in Cuba as an <i>energetic</i> military leader, which, in Spanish colonies, always implied a tinge of wanton cruelty. In Spain he was regarded as the right +arm of the ultra-clericals and a possible supporter of Carlism. He was accompanied by General Lachambre, whose acquaintance +I made in Havana. In the same steamer with General Polavieja came 500 troops, whilst another steamer simultaneously brought +1,500. Polavieja, therefore, on landing, had about 12,000 European troops and 6,000 native auxiliaries; but each steamer brought +fresh supplies until the total European land forces amounted to 28,000. By this time, however, the 6,000 native troops were +very considerably reduced by desertion, and the remainder could hardly be relied upon. But Polavieja started his campaign +with the immense advantage of having the <i>whole</i> of the dry season before him. General Lachambre, as Deputy Commander of the forces, at once took <a id="d0e15330"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e15330">379</a>]</span>the field against the rebels in Cavite Province. It would be tedious to relate in detail the numerous encounters with the +enemy over this area. Battles were fought at Naig, Maragondón, Perez Dasmariñas, Nasugbú, Taal, Bacoor, Novaleta, and other +places. Imus, which in Manila was popularly supposed to be a fortress of relative magnitude, whence the rebels would dispute +every inch of ground, was attacked by a large force of loyal troops. On their approach the rebels set fire to the village +and fled. Very few remained to meet the Spaniards, and as these few tried to escape across the paddy-fields and down the river +they were picked off by sharp-shooters. It was a victory for the Spaniards, inasmuch as their demonstration of force scared +the rebels into evacuation. But it was necessary to take Silan, which the rebels hastened to strengthen, closely followed +up by the Spaniards. The place was well defended by earthworks and natural parapets, and for several hours the issue of the +contest was doubtful. The rebels fought bravely, leaping from boulder to boulder to meet the foe. In every close-quarter combat +the bowie-knife had a terrible effect, and the loyal troops had suffered heavily when a column of Spaniards was marched round +to the rear of the rebelsʼ principal parapet. They were lowered down with ropes on to a rising ground facing this parapet, +and poured in a continuous rifle fire until the rebels had to evacuate it, and the general rout commenced with great slaughter +to the insurgents, who dispersed in all directions. Their last stronghold south of Manila having been taken, they broke up +into small detachments, which were chased and beaten wherever they made a stand. The Spaniards suffered great losses, but +they gained their point, for the rebels, unable to hold any one place against this onslaught, were driven up to the Laguna +Province and endeavoured unsuccessfully to hold the town of Santa Cruz. It is interesting to remark, in order to show what +the rebel aim at that time really was, that they entered here with the cry of “Long live Spain; Death to the Friars!” After +three monthsʼ hard fighting, General Lachambre was proclaimed the Liberator of Cavite and the adjoining districts, for, by +the middle of March, 1897, every rebel contingent of any importance in that locality had been dispersed. + +</p> +<p>Like every other Spanish general in supreme command abroad, Polavieja had his enemies in Spain. The organs of the Liberal +party attacked him unsparingly. Polavieja, as everybody knew, was the chosen executive of the friars, whose only care was +to secure their own position. He was dubbed the “General Cristiano.” He was their ideal, and worked hand-in-hand with them. +He cabled for more troops to be sent with which to garrison the reconquered districts and have his army corps free to stamp +out the rebellion, which was confined to the Northern Provinces. Cuba, which had already drained the Peninsula of over 200,000 +men, still required fresh levies to replace the sick and wounded, and Polaviejaʼs demand was refused. Immediately after this +<a id="d0e15334"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e15334">380</a>]</span>he cabled that his physical ailments compelled him to resign the commandership-in-chief, and begged the Government to appoint +a successor. The Madrid journals hostile to him thereupon indirectly attributed to him a lie, and questioned whether his resignation +was due to ill-health or his resentment of the refusal to send out more troops. Still urging his resignation, General Fernando +Primo de Rivera was gazetted to succeed him, and Polavieja embarked at Manila for Spain on April 15, 1897. General Lachambre, +as the hero of Cavite, followed to receive the applause which was everywhere showered upon him in Spain. As to Polaviejaʼs +merits, public opinion was very much divided, and as soon as it was known that he was on the way, a controversy was started +in the Madrid press as to how he ought to be received. <i lang="es">El Imparcial</i> maintained that he was worthy of being honoured as a 19th century conquering hero. This gave rise to a volley of abuse on +the other side, who raked up all his antecedents and supposed tendencies, and openly denounced him as a dangerous politician +and the supporter of theocratic absolutism. According to <i lang="es">El Liberal</i> of May 11, Señor Ordax Avecilla, of the Red Cross Society, stated in his speech at the Madrid Mercantile Club, “If he (the +General) thought of becoming dictator, he would fall from the heights of his glory to the Hades of nonentity.” His enemies +persistently insinuated that he was really returning to Spain to support the clericals actively. But perhaps the bitterest +satire was levelled against him in <i lang="es">El Pais</i> of May 10, which, in an article headed “The Great Farce,” said: “Do you know who is coming? Cyrus, King of Persia; Alexander, +King of Macedonia; Cæsar Augustus; Scipio the African; Gonzalo de Córdova; Napoleon, the Great Napoleon, conqueror of worlds. +What? Oh, unfortunate people, do you not know? Polavieja is coming, the incomparable Polavieja, crowned with laurels, commanding +a fleet laden to the brim with rich trophies; it is Polavieja, gentlemen, who returns, discoverer of new worlds, to lay at +the feet of Isabella the Catholic his conquering sword; it is Polavieja who returns after having cast into obscurity the glories +of Hernan Cortés; Polavieja, who has widened the national map, and brings new territories to the realm—new thrones to his +queen. What can the people be thinking of that they remain thus in silence? Applaud, imbeciles! It is Narvaez who is resuscitated. +Now we have another master!” No Spanish general who had arrived at Polaviejaʼs position would find it possible to be absolutely +neutral in politics, but to compare him with Narvaez, the military dictator, proved in a few daysʼ time to be the grossest +absurdity. On May 13 Polavieja arrived in Barcelona physically broken, half blind, and with evident traces of a disordered +liver. His detractors were silent; an enthusiastic crowd welcomed him for his achievements. He had broken the neck of the +rebellion, but by what means? Altogether, apart from the circumstances of legitimate warfare, <a id="d0e15345"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e15345">381</a>]</span>in which probably neither party was more merciful than the other, he initiated a system of striking terror into the non-combatant +population by barbarous tortures and wholesale executions. On February 6, 1897, in one prison alone (Bilibid) there were 1,266 +suspects, most of whom were brought in by the volunteers, for the forces in the field gave little quarter and rarely made +prisoners. The functions of the volunteers, organized originally for the defence of the city and suburbs, became so elastic +that, night after night, they made men and women come out of their houses for inspection conducted most indecorously. The +men were escorted to the prisons from pure caprice, and subjected to excessive maltreatment. Many of them were liberated in +the course of a few days, declared innocent, but maimed for life and for ever unable to get a living. Some of these victims +were well known to everybody in Manila; for instance, Dr. Zamora, Bonifacio Arévalo the dentist, Antonio Rivero (who died +under torture), and others. The only apparent object in all this was to disseminate broadcast living examples of Spanish vengeance, +in order to overawe the populace. Under General Blancoʼs administration such acts had been distinctly prohibited on the representation +of General Cárlos Roca. + + +</p> +<p></p> +<div id="d0e15348" class="figure floatLeft" style="width: 355px"><img border="0" src="images/p381-1.jpg" alt="Dr. José Rizal" width="355" height="441"><p class="figureHead">Dr. José Rizal</p> +<p>The Philippine Patriot, executed Dec. 30, 1896.</p> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>Polaviejaʼs rule brought the brilliant career of the notable Filipino, Dr. José Rizal y Mercado, to a fatal end. Born in Calamba +(La Laguna), three hoursʼ journey from Manila, on June 19, 1861, he was destined to become the idol of his countrymen, and +consequently the victim of the friars and General Polavieja. Often have I, together with the old native parish priest, Father +Leoncio Lopez, spent an hour with Joséʼs father, Francisco Mercado, and heard the old man descant, with pride, on the intellectual +progress of his son at the Jesuitsʼ school in Manila. Before he was fourteen years of age he wrote a melodrama in verse entitled +<i lang="es">Junto al Pasig</i> (“Beside the Pasig River”), which was performed in public and well received. But young José yearned to set out on a wider +field of learning. His ambition was to go to Europe, and at the age of twenty-one he went to Spain, studied medicine, and +entered the Madrid University, where he graduated as Doctor of Medicine and Philosophy. He subsequently continued his studies +in Paris, Brussels, London, and at several seats of learning in Germany, where he obtained another degree, notwithstanding +the fact that he had the difficulty of a foreign language to contend with. As happened to many of his <i>confrères</i> in the German Universities, a career of study had simultaneously opened his eyes to a clearer conception of the rights of +humanity. Thrown among companions of socialistic tendencies, his belief in and loyalty to the monarchical rule of his country +were yet unshaken by the influence of such environment; he was destined only to become a disturbing element, and a would-be +reformer of that time-worn institution which rendered secular government in his native land a farce. To give him a party name, +he became an anti-clerical, <a id="d0e15362"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e15362">382</a>]</span>strictly in a political and lawful sense. He was a Roman Catholic, but his sole aim, outside his own profession, was to save +his country from the baneful influence of the Spanish friars who there held the Civil and Military Government under their +tutelage. He sought to place his country on a level of material and moral prosperity with others, and he knew that the first +step in that direction was to secure the expulsion of the Monastic Orders. He sympathized with that movement which, during +his childhood, culminated in the Cavite Conspiracy (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e3649">106</a>). He looked profoundly into the causes of his countryʼs unhappiness, and to promote their knowledge, in a popular form, he +wrote and published in Germany, in the Spanish language, a book entitled “Noli me tángere.” It is a censorious satirical novel, +of no great literary merit, but it served the authorʼs purpose to expose the inner life, the arrogance, and the despotism +of the friars in their relations with the natives. On his return to the Islands, a year after the publication of this work, +we met at the house of a mutual friend and conversed on the subject of “Noli me tángere,” a copy of which he lent to me. + + +</p> +<p></p> +<div id="d0e15371" class="figure floatRight" style="width: 357px"><img border="0" src="images/p381-2.jpg" alt="Don Felipe Agoncillo" width="357" height="442"><p class="figureHead">Don Felipe Agoncillo</p> +<p>Ex-High Commissioner in Europe for the Philippine Republic.</p> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>As an oculist Rizal performed some very clever operations, but he had another mission—one which brought upon him all the odium +of the clerical party, but which as quickly raised him in popular esteem in native circles. He led a party in his own town +who dared to dispute the legality of the Dominican Orderʼs possession of a large tract of agricultural land. He called upon +the Order to show their title-deeds, but was met with a contemptuous refusal. At length prudence dictated a return to Europe. +I often recall the farewell lunch we had together at the Restaurant de Paris, in the <i>Escolta</i>. During his absence his own relations and the chief families in his town became the objects of persecution. They were driven +from the lands they cultivated and rented from the Religious Order, without compensation for improvements, and Spaniards took +their holdings. In 1890 Rizal saw with his own eyes, and perhaps with envy, the growing prosperity of Japan; but the idea +of annexation to that country was distasteful to him, as he feared the Japanese might prove to be rather harsh masters. On +his return to Europe he contributed many brilliant articles to <i lang="es">La Solidaridad</i>, the Madrid-Philippine organ mentioned on p. <a href="#d0e15011">363</a>; but, disgusted with his failure to awaken in Spain a sympathetic interest in his own countryʼs misfortunes, he left that +field of work and re-visited London, where he found encouragement and very material assistance from an old friend of mine, +a distinguished Filipino. Rizalʼs financial resources were none too plentiful, and he himself was anxious for a position of +productive activity. It was proposed that he should establish himself in London as a doctor, but with his mind always bent +on the concerns of his country he again took to literary work. He edited a new edition of Dr. Antonio de <a id="d0e15388"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e15388">383</a>]</span>Morgaʼs work on the Philippines<a id="d0e15390src" href="#d0e15390" class="noteref">8</a> (the original was published in Mexico in 1609), with notes, and wrote a new book in the form of romance, entitled “El Filibusterismo,”<a id="d0e15396src" href="#d0e15396" class="noteref">9</a> the purpose of which was to show how the Filipinos were goaded into outlawry. + +</p> +<p>About this time two priests, C—— and C——, who had seceded from the Roman Catholic Church, called upon my Philippine friend +to urge him to take an interest in their projected evangelical work in the Islands. They even proposed to establish a new +Church there and appoint a hierarchy—an extremely risky venture indeed. My friend was asked to nominate some Filipino for +the archbishopric. It was put before Rizal, but he declined the honour on the ground that the acceptance of such an office +would sorely offend his mother. Finally, in 1893, a Pampanga Filipino, named C——, came on the scene and proposed to furnish +Rizal with ample funds for the establishment of a Philippine college in Hong-Kong. Rizal accepted the offer and set out for +that colony, where he waited in vain for the money. For a while he hesitated between following the medical profession in Hong-Kong +and returning to Manila. Mutual friends of ours urged him not to risk a re-entry into the Islands; nevertheless, communications +passed between him and the Gov.-General through the Spanish Consul, and nothing could induce him to keep out of the lionʼs +mouth. Rizal avowed that he had been given to understand that he could return to the Islands without fear for his personal +safety and liberty. He arrived in Manila and was arrested. His luggage was searched in the Custom-house, and a number of those +seditious proclamations referred to at p. <a href="#d0e6253">204</a> were found, it was alleged, in his trunks. It is contrary to all common sense to conceive that a sane man, who had entertained +the least doubt as to his personal liberty, would bring with him, into a public department of scrutiny, documentary evidence +of his own culpability. He was arraigned before the supreme authority, in whose presence he defended himself right nobly. +The clerical party wanted his blood, but Gov.-General Despujols would not yield. Rizal was either guilty or innocent, and +should have been fully acquitted or condemned; but to meet the matter half way he was banished to Dapítan, a town on the north +shore of Mindanao Island. I saw the bungalow, situated at the extremity of a pretty little horse-shoe bay, where he lived +nearly four years in bondage. His bright intelligence, his sociability, and his scientific attainments had won him the respect +and admiration of both the civil and religious local authorities. He had such a well-justified good repute as an oculist that +many travelled across the seas to seek his aid. The Cuban insurrection being in <a id="d0e15407"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e15407">384</a>]</span>full operation, it opened the way for a new and interesting period in Rizalʼs life. Reading between the lines of the letters +he was allowed to send to his friends, there was evidence of his being weighed down with <i>ennui</i> from inactivity, and his friends in Europe took the opportunity of bringing pressure on the Madrid Government to liberate +him. In a house which I visit in London there were frequent consultations as to how this could be effected. In the end it +was agreed to organize a bogus “Society for the Liberation of Prisoners in the Far East.” A few ladies met at the house mentioned, +and one of them, Miss A——, having been appointed secretary, she was sent to Madrid to present a petition from the “Society” +to the Prime Minister, Cánovas del Castillo, praying for the liberation of Rizal in exchange for his professional services +in the Spanish army operating in Cuba, where army doctors were much needed. Hints were deftly thrown out about the “Societyʼs” +relations with other European capitals, and the foreign lady-secretary played her part so adroitly that the Prime Minister +pictured to himself ambassadorial intervention and foreign complications if he did not grant the prayer of what he imagined +to be an influential society with potential ramifications. The Colonial Minister opposed the petition; the War Minister, being +Philippine born, declined to act on his own responsibility for obvious reasons. Repeated discussions took place between the +Crown advisers, to whom, at length, the Prime Minister disclosed his fears, and finally the Gov.-General of the Philippines, +Don Ramon Blanco, was authorized to liberate Rizal, on the terms mentioned, if he saw no objection. As my Philippine friend, +who went from London to Madrid about the matter, remarked to the War Minister, “Rizal is loyal; he will do his duty; but if +he did not, one more or less in the rebel camp—what matters?” The Gov.-General willingly acted on the powers received from +the Home Government, and Rizalʼs conditional freedom dated from July 28, 1896. The governor of Dapítan was instructed to ask +Rizal if he wished to go to Cuba as an army doctor, and the reply being in the affirmative, he was conducted on board the +steamer for Manila, calling on the way at Cebú, where crowds of natives and half-castes went on board to congratulate him. +He had become the idol of the people in his exile; his ideas were <i>then</i> the reflection of all Philippine aims and ambitions; the very name of Rizal raised their hopes to the highest pitch. Most +fantastic reports were circulated concerning him. Deeds in Europe, almost amounting to miracles, were attributed to his genius, +and became current talk among the natives when they spoke <i lang="it">sotto voce</i> of Rizalʼs power and influence. He was looked up to as the future regenerator of his race, capable of moving armies and navies +for the cause of liberty. Their very reverence was his condemnation in the eyes of the priests. + +</p> +<p>There were no inter-island cables in those days, and the arrival of Rizal in the port of Manila was a surprise to the friars. +They <a id="d0e15420"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e15420">385</a>]</span>expostulated with General Blanco. They openly upbraided him for having set free the soul of disaffection; but the general +would not relinquish his intention, explaining, very logically, that if Rizal were the soul of rebellion he was now about +to depart. The friars were eager for Rivalʼs blood, and the parish priest of Tondo arranged a revolt of the <i>caudrilleros</i> (guards) of that suburb, hoping thereby to convince General Blanco that the rebellion was in full cry, consequent on his +folly. No doubt, by this trick of the friars, many civilian Spaniards were deceived into an honest belief in the ineptitude +of the Gov.-General. In a state of frenzy a body of them, headed by Father Mariano Gil, marched to the palace of Malacañan +to demand an explanation of General Blanco. The gates were closed by order of the captain of the guard. When the general learnt +what the howling outside signified he mounted his horse, and, at the head of his guards, met the excited crowd and ordered +them to quit the precincts of the palace, or he would put them out by force. The abashed priest<a id="d0e15425src" href="#d0e15425" class="noteref">10</a> thereupon withdrew with his companions, but from that day the occult power of the friars was put in motion to bring about +the recall of General Blanco. In the meantime Rizal had been detained in the Spanish cruiser <i>Castilla</i> lying in the bay. Thence he was transferred to the mail-steamer <i>Isla de Panay</i> bound to Barcelona. He carried with him letters of recommendation to the Ministers of War and the Colonies, courteously sent +to him by General Blanco with the following letter to himself:— + + +</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p>(<i>Translation</i>.) + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Manila</span>, <i>30th August</i>, 1896. + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Dr. Jose Rizal</span>. + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">My Dear Sir</span>,— + +</p> +<p>Enclosed I send you two letters, for the Ministers of War and the Colonies respectively, which I believe will ensure to you +a good reception. I cannot doubt that you will show me respect in your relations with the Government, and by your future conduct, +not only on account of your word pledged, but because passing events must make it clear to you how certain proceedings, due +to extravagant notions can only produce hatred, ruin, tears and bloodshed. That you may be happy is the desire of Yours, etc., + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Ramon Blanco</span>. +</p> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>He had as travelling companion Don Pedro P. Rojas, already referred to, and had he chosen he could have left the steamer at +Singapore as Rojas did. Not a few of us who saw the vessel leave wished him “God speed.” But the clerical party were eager +for his extermination. He was a thorn in the side of monastic sway; he had committed no crime, but he was the friarsʼ arch-enemy +and <i lang="fr">bête noire</i>. Again the lay <a id="d0e15467"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e15467">386</a>]</span>authorities had to yield to the monks. Dr. Rizal was cabled for to answer certain accusations; hence on his landing in the +Peninsula he was incarcerated in the celebrated fortress of Montjuich (the scene of so many horrors), pending his re-shipment +by the returning steamer. He reached Manila as a State prisoner in the <i>Colon</i>, isolated from all but his jailors. It was materially impossible for him to have taken any part in the rebellion, whatever +his sympathies may have been. Yet, once more, the wheel of fortune turned against him. Coincidentally the parish priest of +Mórong was murdered at the altar whilst celebrating Mass on Christmas Day, 1896. The importunity of the friars could be no +longer resisted; this new calamity seemed to strengthen their cause. The next day Rizal was brought to trial for <i>sedition</i> and <i>rebellion</i>, before a court-martial composed of eight captains, under the presidency of a lieutenant-colonel. No reliable testimony could +be brought against him. How could it be when, for years, he had been a State prisoner in forced seclusion? He defended himself +with logical argument. But what mattered? He was condemned beforehand to ignominious death as a traitor, and the decree of +execution was one of Polaviejaʼs foulest acts. During the few days which elapsed between sentence and death he refused to +see any priest but a Jesuit, Padre Faura, his old preceptor, who hastened his own death by coming from a sick bed to console +the pupil he was so proud of. In his last moments his demeanour was in accordance with his oft-quoted saying, “What is death +to me? I have sown the seed; others are left to reap.” In his condemned cell he composed a beautiful poem of 14 verses (“My +last Thought”), which was found by his wife and published. The following are the first and last verses. + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps" lang="es">Mi Ultimo Pensamiento</span>. + +</p> +<div class="poem" lang="es"> +<div class="stanza"> +<p class="line" style=""><span>Adios, Pátria adorada, region del sol querida, +</span></p> +<p class="line" style=""><span>Perla del Mar de Oriente, nuestro perdido Eden. +</span></p> +<p class="line" style=""><span>A dárte voy alegre la triste mústia vida, +</span></p> +<p class="line" style=""><span>Y fuera mas brillante, mas fresca, mas florida, +</span></p> +<p class="line" style=""><span>Tambien por ti la diera, la diera por tu bien.</span></p> +</div> +</div> +<div class="poem" lang="es"> +<div class="stanza"> +<p class="line" style=""><span>Adios, padres y hermanos, trozos del alma mia. +</span></p> +<p class="line" style=""><span>Amigos de la infancia en el perdido hogar. +</span></p> +<p class="line" style=""><span>Dad gracias que descanso del fatigoso dia; +</span></p> +<p class="line" style=""><span>Adios, dulce extrangera, mi amiga, mi alegria, +</span></p> +<p class="line" style=""><span>Adios, queridos seres, morir es descansar.</span></p> +</div> +</div> +<p>The woman who had long responded to his love was only too proud to bear his illustrious name, and in the sombre rays which +fell from his prison grating, the vows of matrimony were given and sanctified with the sad certainty of widowhood on the morrow. +Fortified by purity of conscience and the rectitude of his principles, he felt no felonʼs remorse, but walked with equanimity +to the place of execution. About 2,000 regular and volunteer troops formed the square where he knelt <a id="d0e15506"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e15506">387</a>]</span>facing the seashore, on the blood-stained field of Bagumbayan. After an officer had shouted the formula, “In the name of the +King! Whosoever shall raise his voice to crave clemency for the condemned, shall suffer death,” four bullets, fired from behind +by Philippine soldiers, did their fatal work. This execution took place at 6 a.m. on December 30, 1896. An immense crowd witnessed, +in silent awe, this sacrifice to priestcraft. The friars, too, were present <i lang="fr">en masse</i>, many of them smoking big cigars, jubilant over the extinction of that bright intellectual light which, alas! can never be +rekindled. + +</p> +<p>The circumstances under which Rizal, in his exile, made the acquaintance of Josephine Taufer, who became his wife, are curious. +The account was given to me by Mrs. Rizalʼs foster-father as we crossed the China Sea together. The foster-father, who was +an American resident in Hong-Kong, found his eyesight gradually failing him. After exhausting all remedies in that colony, +he heard of a famous oculist in Manila named Rizal, a Filipino of reputed Japanese origin. Therefore, in August, 1894, he +went to Manila to seek the great doctor, taking with him a Macao servant, his daughter, and a girl whom he had adopted from +infancy. The Philippine Archipelago was such a <i>terra incognita</i> to the outside world that little was generally known of it save the capital, Manila. When he reached there he learnt, to +his dismay, that the renowned practitioner was a political exile who lived in an out-of-the-way place in Mindanao Island. +Intent on his purpose, he took ship and found the abode of Dr. Rizal. The American had been forsaken by his daughter in Manila, +where she eventually married a young native who had neither craft nor fortune. The adopted daughter, therefore, was his companion +to Dapítan. When they arrived at the bungalow the bright eyes of the lovely Josephine interested the doctor far more than +the sombre diseased organs of her foster-father. The exile and the maiden, in short, fell in love with each other, and they +mutually vowed never to be parted but by force. The old manʼs eyes were past all cure, and in vain he urged the girl to depart +with him; love dissented from the proposition, and the patient found his way back to Manila, and thence to Hong-Kong, with +his Macao servant—a sadder, but a wiser man. The foster-child remained behind to share the hut of the political exile. When, +an hour after her marriage, she became Widow Rizal, her husbandʼs corpse, which had received sepulture in the cemetery, was +guarded by soldiers for four days lest the superstitious natives should snatch the body and divide it into a thousand relics +of their lamented idol. Then Josephine started off for the rebel camp at Imus. On her way she was often asked, “Who art thou?” +but her answer, “Lo! I am thy sister, the widow of Rizal!” not only opened a passage for her, but brought low every head in +silent reverence. Amidst mourning and triumph she was conducted to the presence of the rebel commander-in-chief, Emilio Aguinaldo, +who received her with the <a id="d0e15516"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e15516">388</a>]</span>respect due to the sorrowing relict of their departed hero. But the formal tributes of condolence were followed by great rejoicing +in the camp. She was the only free white woman within the rebel lines. They lauded her as though an angelic being had fallen +from the skies; they sang her praises as if she were a modern Joan of Arc sent by heaven to lead the way to victory over the +banner of Castile. But she chose, for the time being, to follow a more womanly vocation, and, having been escorted to San +Francisco de Malabon, she took up her residence in the convent to tend the wounded for about three weeks. Then, when the battle +of Perez Dasmariñas was raging, our heroine sallied forth on horseback with a Mäuser rifle over her shoulder, and—as she stated +with pride to a friend of mine who interviewed her—she had the satisfaction of shooting dead one Spanish officer, and then +retreated to her convent refuge. Again, she was present at the battle of Silan, where her heroic example of courage infused +new life into her brother rebels. The carnage on both sides was fearful, but in the end the rebels fell back, and there, from +a spot amidst mangled corpses, rivulets of blood, and groans of death, Josephine witnessed many a scene of Spanish barbarity—the +butchery of old inoffensive men and women, children caught up by the feet and dashed against the walls, and the bayonet-charge +on the host of fugitive innocents. The rebels having been beaten everywhere when Lachambre took the field, Josephine had to +follow in their retreat, and after Imus and Silan were taken, she, with the rest, had to flee to another province, tramping +through 23 villages on the way. She was about to play another <i>rôle</i>, being on the point of going to Manila to organize a convoy of arms and munitions, when she heard that certain Spaniards +were plotting against her life. So she sought an interview with the Gov.-General, who asked her if she had been in the rebel +camp at Imus. She replied fearlessly in the affirmative, and, relying on the security from violence afforded by her sex and +foreign nationality, there passed between her and the Gov.-General quite an amusing and piquant colloquy. “What did you go +to Imus for?” inquired the General. “What did you go there for?” rejoined Josephine. “To fight,” said the General. “So did +I,” answered Josephine. “Will you leave Manila?” asked the General. “Why should I?” queried Josephine. “Well,” said the General, +“the priests will not leave you alone if you stay here, and they will bring false evidence against you. I have no power to +overrule theirs.” “Then what is the use of the Gov.-General?” pursued our heroine; but the General dismissed the discussion, +which was becoming embarrassing, and resumed it a few days later by calling upon her emphatically to quit the Colony. At this +second interview the General fumed and raged, and our heroine too stamped her little foot, and, woman-like, avowed “she did +not care for him; she was not afraid of him.” It was temerity born of inexperience, for one word of command from the <a id="d0e15521"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e15521">389</a>]</span>General could have sent her the way many others had gone, to an unrevealed fate. Thus matters waxed hot between her defiance +and his forbearance, until visions of torture—thumb-screws and bastinado—passed so vividly before her eyes that she yielded, +as individual force must, to the collective power which rules supreme, and reluctantly consented to leave the fair Philippine +shores in May, 1897, in the s.s. <i>Yuensang</i>, for a safer resting-place on the British soil of Hong-Kong. + +</p> +<p>The execution of Dr. Rizal was a most impolitic act. It sent into the field his brother Pasciano with a large following, who +eventually succeeded in driving every Spaniard out of their native province of La Laguna. They also seized the lake gunboats, +took an entire Spanish garrison prisoner, and captured a large quantity of stores. Pasciano rose to the rank of general before +the rebellion ended.<a id="d0e15528src" href="#d0e15528" class="noteref">11</a> + +</p> +<p>General Fernando Primo de Rivera, Marquis de Estella, arrived in Manila, as the successor of General Camilo Polavieja, in +the spring of 1897. He knew the country and the people he was called upon to pacify, having been Gov.-General there from April, +1880, to March, 1883. A few days after his arrival he issued a proclamation offering an amnesty to all who would lay down +their arms within a prescribed period. Many responded to this appeal, for the crushing defeat of the rebels in Cavite Province, +accompanied by the ruthless severity of the soldiery during the last Captain-Generalcy, had damped the ardour of thousands +of would-be insurgents. The rebellion was then confined to the north of Manila, but, since Aguinaldo had evacuated Cavite +and joined forces with Llaneras, the movement was carried far beyond the Provinces of Bulacan and Pampanga. Armed mobs had +risen in Pangasinán, Zambales, Ilocos, Nueva Ecija, and Tárlac. Many villages were entirely reduced to ashes by them; crops +of young rice too unripe to be useful to anybody were wantonly destroyed; pillage and devastation were resorted to everywhere +to coerce the peaceful inhabitants to join in the movement. On the other hand, the nerves of the priests were so highly strung +that they suspected every native, and, by persistently <a id="d0e15562"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e15562">390</a>]</span>launching false accusations against their parishioners, they literally made rebels. Hence at Candon (Ilocos Sur), a town of +importance on the north-west coast of Luzon, five influential residents were simply goaded into rebellion by the frenzied +action of the friars subordinate to the Bishop of Vigan, Father José Hévia de Campomanes. These residents then killed the +parish priest, and without arms fled for safety to the mountain ravines. A few months before, at the commencement of the rebellion, +this same Austin friar, Father Rafael Redondo, had ignominiously treated his own and other native curates by having them stripped +naked and tied down to benches, where he beat them with the prickly tail of the ray-fish to extort confessions relating to +conspiracy. In San Fernando de la Union the native priests Adriano Garcés, Mariano Gaerlan, and Mariano Dacanaya were tortured +with a hot iron applied to their bodies to force a confession that they were freemasons. The rebels attacked Bayambang (Pangasinán), +drove out the Spanish garrison, seized the church and convent in which they had fortified themselves, made prisoner the Spanish +priest, burnt the Government stores, Court-house, and Spanish residences, but carefully avoided all interference with the +British-owned steam rice-mill and paddy warehouses. Troops were sent against them by special train from Tárlac, and they were +beaten out of the place with a loss of about 100 individuals; but they carried off their clerical prisoner. General Monet +operated in the north against the rebels with Spanish and native auxiliary forces. He attacked the armed mobs in Zambales +Province, where encounters of minor importance took place almost daily, with no decisive victory for either party. He showed +no mercy and took no prisoners; his troops shot down or bayoneted rebels, non-combatants, women and children indiscriminately. +Tillage was carried on at the risk of oneʼs life, for men found going out to their lands were seized as spies and treated +with the utmost severity as possible sympathizers with the rebels. He carried this war of extermination up to Ilocos, where, +little by little, his forces deserted him. His auxiliaries went over to the rebels in groups. Even a few Spaniards passed +to the other side, and after a protracted struggle which brought no advantage to the Government, he left garrisons in several +places and returned to Manila. In Aliaga (Nueva Ecija) the Spaniards had no greater success. The rebels assembled there in +crowds, augmented by the fugitive mobs from Pangasinán, and took possession of the town. The Spaniards, under General Nuñez, +attacked them on two sides, and there was fought one of the most desperate battles of the north. It lasted about six hours: +the slaughter on both sides was appalling. The site was strewn with corpses, and as the rebels were about to retreat General +Nuñez advanced to cut them off, but was so severely wounded that he had to relinquish the command on the field. But the flight +of the insurgents was too far advanced to rally them, and they retired south towards Pampanga. +<a id="d0e15564"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e15564">391</a>]</span></p> +<p>In Tayabas the officiousness of the Governor almost brought him to an untimely end. Two well-known inhabitants of Pagsanján +(La Laguna) were accused of conspiracy, and, without proof, court-martialled and executed. The Governor went to witness the +scene, and returning the next day with his official suite, he was waylaid near Lucbang by a rebel party, who killed one of +the officers and wounded the Governor. Filipinos returning to Manila were imprisoned without trial, tortured, and shipped +back to Hong-Kong as deck passengers. The wet season had fully set in, making warfare in the provinces exceedingly difficult +for the raw Spanish recruits who arrived to take the place of the dead, wounded, and diseased. Spain was so hard pressed by +Cuban affairs that the majority of these last levies were mere boys, ignorant of the use of arms, ill clad, badly fed, and +with months of pay in arrear. Under these conditions they were barely a match for the sturdy Islanders, over mountains, through +streams, mud-pools, and paddy-fields. The military hospitals were full; the Spaniards were as far off extinguishing the <i>Katipunan</i> as the rebels were from being able to subvert Spanish sovereignty. The rebels held only two impregnable places, namely Angat +and San Mateo, but whilst they carried on an interminable guerilla warfare they as carefully avoided a pitched battle. The +Gov.-General, then, had resort to another edict, dated July 2, 1897, which read thus:— + + +</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<div class="body"> +<div class="div1"> +<h2 class="normal"><span class="smallcaps">Edict</span></h2> +<p>Don Fernando Primo de Rivera y Sobremonte, Marquis de Estella, Governor and Captain-General of the Philippines, and Commander-in-Chief +of the Army. + + +</p> +<p>Whereas the unlimited amplitude given to my former edicts by some authorities who are still according the benefits of the +amnesty to those who present themselves after the expiration of the conceded time, imperatively calls for a most absolute +and positive declaration that there is a limit to clemency and pardon, otherwise the indefinite postponement of the application +of the law may be interpreted as a sign of debility; and + + +</p> +<p>Whereas our generosity has been fully appreciated by many who have shown signs of repentance by resuming their legal status, +whilst there are others who abuse our excessive benevolence by maintaining their rebellious attitude, and encroach on our +patience to prolong the resistance; and + + +</p> +<p>Whereas it is expedient to abolish the spectacle of a few groups, always vanquished whilst committing all sorts of felonies +under the protection of a fictitious political flag, maintaining a state of uneasiness and corruption; + + +</p> +<p>Now, therefore, the authorities must adopt every possible means of repression, and I, as General-in-Chief of the Army, + +<a id="d0e15587"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e15587">392</a>]</span> + +</p> +</div> +<div class="div1"> +<h2 class="normal">Order and Command</h2> +<p><i>Article</i> 1.—All persons having contracted responsibilities up to date on account of the present rebellion who fail to report themselves +to the authorities or military commanders before the 10th of July will be pursued and treated as guilty. + + +</p> +<p><i>Article</i> 2.—Commanding generals in the field, military and civil governors in districts where the rebels exist, will prohibit all +inhabitants from leaving the villages and towns, unless under absolute necessity for agricultural purposes, or taking care +of rural properties or other works. Those comprised in the latter class will be provided by the municipal captains with a +special pass, in which will be noted the period of absence, the place to be visited, and the road to be taken, always provided +that all persons absenting themselves from the villages without carrying such passes, and all who, having them, deviate from +the time, road, or place indicated, will be treated as rebels. + + +</p> +<p><i>Article 3.</i>—After the 10th instant all persons will be required to prove their identity by the personal document (<i>cédula personal</i>), together with the pass above-mentioned, and neither the amnesty passes already granted nor any other document will have +any legal validity. + + +</p> +<p>All who contravene these orders will be tried by court-martial. + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Fernando Primo de Rivera</span>. + +</p> +</div> +</div> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>The indiscreetness of this measure was soon evident. It irritated the well-disposed inhabitants, from whom fees were exacted +by the Gov.-Generalʼs venal subordinates; the rigorous application of the edict drove many to the enemyʼs camp, and the rebels +responded to this document by issuing the following Exhortation in Tagálog dialect, bearing the pseudonym of “Malabar.” It +was extensively circulated in July, 1897, but bears no date. The Spanish authorities made strenuous but unsuccessful efforts +to confiscate it. It is an interesting document because (1) It admits how little territory the <i>Katipunan</i> itself considered under its dominion. (2) It sets forth the sum total of the rebelsʼ demands at that period. (3) It admits +their impotence to vanquish the loyal forces in open battle. + + +</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<div class="body"> +<div class="div1"> +<h2 class="normal">To the Brave Sons of the Philippines</h2> +<p>The Spaniards have occupied the towns of Cavite Province because we found it convenient to evacuate them. We must change our +tactics as circumstances dictate. + + +</p> +<p>We have proved it to be a bad policy to be fortified in one place awaiting the enemyʼs attack. We must take the offensive +when we get the chance, adopting the Cuban plan of ambush and <a id="d0e15629"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e15629">393</a>]</span>guerilla warfare. In this way we can, for an indefinite period, defy Spain, exhaust her resources, and oblige her to surrender +from poverty, for it must be remembered that the very Spanish newspapers admit that each soldier costs a dollar a day, and +adding to this his passage money, clothing and equipment, the total amounts to a considerable sum. Considering that Spanish +credit abroad is exhausted, that her young men, to avoid conscription, are emigrating to France and elsewhere in large numbers, +Spain must of necessity yield in the end. You already know that Polavieja resigned because the Government were unable to send +him the further 20,000 men demanded. The Cubans, with their guerilla system, avoiding encounters unfavourable to themselves, +have succeeded in wearying the Spaniards, who are dying of fever in large numbers. Following this system, it would be quite +feasible to extend the action of the <i>Katipunan</i> to Ilocos, Pangasinán, Cagayán, and other provinces, because our brothers in these places, sorely tyrannized by the Spaniards, +are prepared to unite with us. + + +</p> +<p>The Provinces of Zambales, Tárlac, Tayabas, etc., are already under the <i>Katipunan</i> Government, and to complete our success, the revolutionary movement should become general, for the ends which we all so ardently +desire, namely: + + +</p> +<p>(1) Expulsion of the friars and restitution to the townships of the lands which the friars have appropriated, dividing the +incumbencies held by them, as well as the episcopal sees equally between Peninsular and Insular secular priests. + + +</p> +<p>(2) Spain must concede to us, as she has to Cuba, Parliamentary representation, freedom of the Press, toleration of all religious +sects, laws common with hers, and administrative and economic autonomy. + + +</p> +<p>(3) Equality in treatment and pay between Peninsular and Insular civil servants. + + +</p> +<p>(4) Restitution of all lands appropriated by the friars to the townships, or to the original owners, or in default of finding +such owners, the State is to put them up to public auction in small lots of a value within the reach of all and payable within +four years, the same as the present State lands. + + +</p> +<p>(5) Abolition of the Government authoritiesʼ power to banish citizens, as well as all unjust measures against Filipinos; legal +equality for all persons, whether Peninsular or Insular, under the Civil as well as the Penal Code. + + +</p> +<p>The war must be prolonged to give the greatest signs of vitality possible, so that Spain may be compelled to grant our demands, +otherwise she will consider us an effete race and curtail, rather than extend, our rights. + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Malabar</span>. + +</p> +</div> +</div> +</div><p> + +<a id="d0e15656"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e15656">394</a>]</span></p> +<p>Shortly after this Emilio Aguinaldo, the recognized leader of the rebels, issued a <i>Manifiesto</i> in somewhat ambiguous terms which might imply a demand for independence. In this document he says:— + + +</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p>We aspire to the glory of obtaining the liberty, <i>independence</i>, and honour of the country.... We aspire to a Government representing all the live forces of the country, in which the most +able, the most worthy in virtue and talent, may take part without distinction of birth, fortune, or race. We desire that no +monk, or friar, shall sully the soil of any part of the Archipelago, nor that there shall exist any convent, etc., etc. +</p> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>Every month brought to light fresh public exhortations, edicts, and proclamations from one side or the other, of which I have +numerous printed copies before me now. About this time the famous Philippine painter, Juan Luna (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e6048">195</a>), was released after six monthsʼ imprisonment as a suspect. He left Manila <i>en route</i> for Madrid in the Spanish mail-steamer <i>Covadonga</i> in the first week of July and returned to Manila the next year (November 1898). + +</p> +<p>In the field there were no great victories to record, for the rebels confined themselves exclusively to harassing the Spanish +forces and then retreating to the mountains. To all appearances trade in Manila and throughout the Islands was little affected +by the war, and as a matter of fact, the total exports showed a fair average when compared with previous years. The sugar +production was, however, slightly less than in 1896, owing to a scarcity of hands, because, in the ploughing season, the young +labourers in Negros were drafted off to military service. Total imports somewhat increased, notwithstanding the imposition +of a special 6 per cent. <i>ad valorem</i> tax. + +</p> +<p>But the probability of an early pacification of the Islands was remote. By the unscrupulous abuse of their functions the volunteers +were obliging the well-intentioned natives to forsake their allegiance, and General Primo de Rivera was constrained to issue +a decree, dated August 6, forbidding all persons in military service to plunder, or intimidate, or commit acts of violence +on persons, or in their houses, or ravish women, under penalty of death. In the same month the General commissioned a Filipino, +Don Pedro Alejandro Paterno, to negotiate terms of capitulation with the rebels. By dint of bribes and liberal expenditure +of money (<i>vide</i> Paternoʼs own letter at p. <a href="#d0e16044">410</a>) Paterno induced the minor chiefs in arms to accept, in principle, the proposal of peace on the basis of reforms and money. +Paterno was appointed by the Gov.-General sole mediator in the discussion of the terms to be made with Emilio Aguinaldo, and +the Generalʼs private secretary, Don Niceto Mayoral, was granted special powers to arrange with Paterno the details of the +proposed treaty. From Paternoʼs lips I have the following account of the negotiations:— +<a id="d0e15696"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e15696">395</a>]</span></p> +<p>On August 4, 1897, he started on a series of difficult journeys into the rebel camps to negotiate severally with the chiefs, +who, one after the other, stoutly refused to capitulate. On August 9 he interviewed Aguinaldo at Biac-na-bató, situated in +the mountains, about a mile north of San Miguel de Mayumo (Bulacan). Aguinaldo withheld his decision until Paterno could report +to him the definite opinions of his generals. Thereupon Paterno returned to the rebel chiefs, some of whom still tenaciously +held out, whilst others were willing to capitulate, subject to Aguinaldoʼs approval. Paternoʼs mission was daily becoming +more perilous, for the irreconcilable leaders regarded him as an evil genius sent to sow discord in the camp. After many delays +the principal warriors assembled at Biac-na-bató on October 31 and held a great meeting, which Paterno, who is a fluent speaker, +attended and harangued his audience in eloquent phrases, but to no purpose. His position was now a somewhat critical one. +Several of the chiefs assumed such a defiant attitude that but for the clement nature of Aguinaldo, Paterno might never have +returned to tell the tale. They clamorously insisted on their resolution to fight. Then Paterno adroitly brought matters to +a crisis in a bold peroration which changed the whole scene. “Capitulate,” he exclaimed, “or get hence and vanquish the enemy! +Is victory to be gained in this hiding-place?” Piqued by this fearless challenge, General Natividad immediately sallied forth +with his troops and encountered the Spaniards for the last time. His dead body was brought into the camp, and, in the shades +of night, with sombre lights flickering around them, in the presence of Natividadʼs bleeding corpse, again Paterno exhorted +them to reflect on the prospects in the field and the offer of capitulation. Impressed by the lugubrious scene, Aguinaldo +yielded, and the next day peace negotiations were opened. But other difficulties intervened. Aguinaldo having heard that a +subordinate chief was conspiring to force his hand to capitulate, abruptly cast aside the papers, declaring that he would +never brook coercion. The deadlock lasted a whole day, but at length Aguinaldo signed conditions, which Paterno conveyed to +General Primo de Rivera at San Fernando (Pampanga). The willingness to capitulate was by no means unanimous. Paterno was forewarned +that on his route a party of 500 Irreconcilables were waiting to intercept and murder him, so to evade them he had to hide +in a wood. Fifteen minutesʼ delay would have cost him his life. Even a Spanish colonel for some occult reason sought to frustrate +the peace negotiations by falsely reporting to General Primo de Rivera that Paterno was inciting the rebels to warfare. But +the General believed in Paternoʼs good faith, although he declared the terms proposed unacceptable, and in like manner three +other amended proposals were rejected, until finally the fifth document was accepted as tantamount to a Protocol of Peace +to serve as a basis for the treaty. Here ends Paternoʼs verbal declaration. +<a id="d0e15699"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e15699">396</a>]</span></p> +<p>The Protocol was signed in duplicate by Emilio Aguinaldo of the one part, and Pedro A. Paterno, as Peacemaker, of the other +part. One copy was archived in the office of the <i>Gobierno General</i> in Manila,<a id="d0e15705src" href="#d0e15705" class="noteref">12</a> and the other was remitted to the Home Government with a despatch from the Gov.-General. + + +</p> +<p></p> +<div id="d0e15709" class="figure"><img border="0" src="images/p396-1.jpg" alt="General Emilio Aguinaldo" width="394" height="523"><p class="figureHead">General Emilio Aguinaldo</p> +<p>(<i>From a portrait presented by him to the Author.</i>) +</p> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>After many consultations and much deliberation it was decided at a Cabinet meeting to approve unreservedly of the negotiations, +and to that effect a cablegram was sent to General Primo de Rivera fully empowering him to conclude a treaty of peace on the +basis of the Protocol. Meanwhile, it soon became evident that there were three distinct interests at stake, namely, those +of Spain and the Spanish people, those of the friars, and the claims of the rebels. Consequently the traditional feud between +the Archbishop of Manila and the Captain-General was revived. + +</p> +<p>General Primo de Rivera in his despatch urged the Madrid Government to grant certain reforms, in any case, which could not +fail to affect the hitherto independent position of the friars in governmental affairs. He also drew the attention of the +Government to the defenceless condition of the capital in the event of a foreign attack (<i>vide</i> Senate speeches reported in the <i>Diario de las Sesiones</i>, Madrid, 1899 and 1900). The friars were exceedingly wroth, and combined to defeat the Generalʼs efforts to come to an understanding +with the rebels. They secretly paid natives to simulate the <i>Katipunan</i> in the provinces, and the plot only came to light when these unfortunate dupes fell into the hands of the military authorities +and confessed what had happened. Nevertheless, the General pursued the negotiations with Paterno as intermediary. Aguinaldoʼs +original demand was for a total indemnity of ₱3,000,000, but, in the course of the negotiations alluded to, it was finally +reduced to ₱1,700,000, inclusive of ₱800,000 to be paid to Aguinaldo on his retirement from the Colony. + + +</p> +<p></p> +<div id="d0e15732" class="figure"><img border="0" src="images/p396-2.jpg" alt="H.E. Don Pedro a Paterno" width="380" height="512"><p class="figureHead">H.E. Don Pedro a Paterno</p> +<p>(<i>From a portrait presented by him to the Author.</i>) +</p> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>The terms of the Protocol of Peace having been mutually agreed upon, a treaty, known as the <i>Pacto de Biac-na-bató</i>,<a id="d0e15746src" href="#d0e15746" class="noteref">13</a> is alleged to have been signed at Biac-na-bató on December 14, 1897, between Emilio Aguinaldo and others of the one part, +and Pedro A. Paterno, as attorney for the Captain-General, acting in the name of the Spanish Government, of the other part. +Under this treaty the rebels undertook to deliver up their arms and ammunition of all kinds to the Spaniards; <a id="d0e15779"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e15779">397</a>]</span>to evacuate the places held by them; to conclude an armistice for three years for the application and development of the <i>reforms to be introduced</i> by the other part, and not to conspire against Spanish sovereignty in the Islands, nor aid or abet any movement calculated +to counteract those reforms. Emilio Aguinaldo and 34 other leaders undertook to quit the Philippine Islands and not return +thereto until so authorized by the Spanish Government, in consideration whereof the above-mentioned ₱800,000 was to be paid +as follows:--₱400,000 in a draft on Hong-Kong to be delivered to Aguinaldo on his leaving Biac-na-bató [This draft was, in +fact, delivered to him]; ₱200,000 payable to Aguinaldo as soon as he should send a telegram to the revolutionary general in +command at Biac-na-bató, ordering him to hand over the rebelsʼ arms to the Captain-Generalʼs appointed commissioner [This +telegram was sent], and the final ₱200,000 immediately after the singing of the <i>Te Deum</i> which would signify an official recognition of peace. + +</p> +<p><i>It was further alleged</i> that on behalf of the Spanish Government many radical reforms and conditions were agreed to (outside the Treaty of Biac-na-bató), +almost amounting to a total compliance with the demands of the rebels. But no evidence whatever has been adduced to confirm +this allegation. Indeed it is a remarkable fact that neither in the Madrid parliamentary papers (to copies of which I have +referred), nor in the numerous rebel proclamations and edicts, nor in the published correspondence of Pedro A. Paterno, is +even the full text of the treaty given. It is singular that the rebels should have abstained from publishing to the world +those precise terms which they say were accepted and not fulfilled by the Spanish Government, which denies their existence. + +</p> +<p>Whatever reforms might have been promised would have been purely governmental matters which required no mediator for their +execution; but as to the money payments to be made, Paterno was to receive them from the Government and distribute them. An +Agreement to this effect was, therefore, signed by General Primo de Rivera and Pedro A. Paterno in the following terms, viz.:— + +</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p>In the peace proposals presented by the sole mediator, Don Pedro Alejandro Paterno, in the name and on behalf of the rebels +in arms, and in the Peace Protocol which was agreed to and <a id="d0e15796"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e15796">398</a>]</span>submitted to His Majestyʼs Government, <i>which approved of the same</i>, there exists a principal clause relating to the sums of money which were to be handed over to the rebels and their families +as indemnity for the loss of their goods consequent on the war, which sums amounted to a total of ₱1,700,000, which the mediator, +Señor Paterno, was to distribute absolutely at his discretion, but the payment of the said sum will have to be subject to +the conditions proposed by the representative of the Government, H.E. the General-in-Chief of this Army. These conditions +were agreed to be as follows, viz.:— + + +</p> +<p>(1) For the rebels in arms a draft for the sum of ₱400,000 will be handed to Señor Paterno, payable in Hong-Kong, as well +as two cheques for ₱200,000 each, payable only on the condition of the Agreement being fulfilled on the other part. (2) For +the families of those who were not rebels in arms, or engaged in rebellion, but who have likewise suffered the evils of war, +the balance of the sum offered shall be paid in three equal instalments, the last to be paid six months after the date on +which the <i>Te Deum</i> shall be sung, assuming the peace to become an accomplished fact. Peace shall be held to be effectively concluded if, during +the interval of these instalment periods, no party of armed rebels, with recognized leader, shall exist, and if no secret +society shall have been discovered as existing here or abroad with the proved object of conspiracy by those who benefit by +these payments. The representative of the rebels, Don Pedro Alejandro Paterno, and the representative of the Government, the +Captain-General Don Fernando Primo de Rivera, agree to the above conditions, in witness whereof each representative now signs +four copies of the same tenour and effect, one being for the Government, another for the archives of the Captain-Generalcy, +and one copy each for the said representatives. + +<a id="d0e15806src" href="#d0e15806" class="noteref">14</a>Done in Manila on the 15th of December, 1897. + + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Fernando Primo de Rivera</span>, +<br> <i>The General-in-Chief.</i> +<br><span class="smallcaps">Pedro A. Paterno</span>, +<br> <i>The Mediator.</i> + +</p> +</div><p> + +</p> +<p>In the course of a few days a military deputation was sent by the Gov.-General, under the leadership of Lieut.-Colonel Primo +de Rivera, to meet Aguinaldo and his 34 companions-in-arms at a place agreed upon in the Province of Pangasinán. They had +a repast together, and Aguinaldo called for cheers for Spain, in which all heartily joined. Thence they proceeded in vehicles +to Sual to await the arrival of the <a id="d0e15830"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e15830">399</a>]</span>s.s. <i>Uranus</i>, in which they embarked for Hong-Kong on Monday, December 27, 1897. Armed rebel troops were stationed at several places all +along the route to Sual, ready to avenge any act of treachery, whilst two Spanish generals were held as hostages at the rebel +camp at Biac-na-bató until Aguinaldo cabled his safe arrival in Hong-Kong. + +</p> +<p>Aguinaldo had very rightly stipulated that a Spanish officer of high rank should accompany him and his followers to Hong-Kong +as a guarantee against foul play. The Gov.-General, therefore, sent with them his two nephews, Lieut.-Colonel Primo de Rivera +and Captain Celestino Espinosa, and Major Antonio Pezzi. Aguinaldo and eight other chiefs, namely, Gregorio H. del Pilar, +Wenceslao Vinegra, Vito Belarmino, Mariano Llaneras, Antonio Montenegro, Luis Viola, Manuel Fino, and Escolástico Viola, stayed +at the Hong-Kong Hotel, whilst the remainder took up their abode elsewhere in the city. Aguinaldo cashed his draft for ₱400,000, +but as to the other two instalments of the ₱800,000, the Spanish Government defaulted. + +</p> +<p>There was great rejoicing in Manila, in Madrid, and in several Spanish cities, and fêtes were organized to celebrate the conclusion +of peace. In Manila particularly, amidst the pealing of bells and strains of music, unfeigned enthusiasm and joy were everywhere +evident. It was a tremendous relief after sixteen months of persecution, butchery, torture, and pecuniary losses. General +Primo de Rivera received the thanks of the Government, whilst the Queen-Regent bestowed on him the Grand Cross of San Fernando, +with the pension of 10,000 pesetas (nominal value £400). But no one in Spain and few in Manila as yet could foresee how the +fulfilment of the Agreement would be bungled. According to a letter of Pedro A. Paterno, dated March 7, 1898, published in +<i lang="es">El Liberal</i> of Madrid on June 17, 1898, it would appear that (up to the former date) the Spanish Government had failed to make any payment +to Paterno on account of the ₱900,000, balance of indemnity, for distribution according to Clause (2) of the Agreement set +forth on the preceding page. The letter says:— + + +</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p>As a matter of justice, I ought to have received the two instalments, amounting to ₱600,000. Why is this obligation not carried +out, and why has General Primo de Rivera not followed my advice by arresting Yocson and his followers from the 5th of last +February? I have my conscience clear respecting the risings in Zambales and Pangasinán Provinces and those about to take place +in La Laguna and Tayabas. +</p> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>Whatever were the means employed, the rebellion was disorganized for a while, but the Spanish authorities had not the tact +to follow up this <i>coup</i> by temperate and conciliatory measures towards their wavering quondam foes. Persons who had been implicated in the rebellion +were re-arrested on trivial trumped-up charges and imprisoned, whilst others <a id="d0e15851"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e15851">400</a>]</span>were openly treated as seditious suspects. The priests started a furious campaign of persecution, and sought, by all manner +of intrigue, to destroy the compact, which they feared would operate against themselves. More executions took place. Instead +of the expected general amnesty, only a few special pardons were granted. + +</p> +<p>There had been over two months of nominal peace; the rebels had delivered up their arms, and there was nothing to indicate +an intention to violate their undertakings. Primo de Rivera, who believed the rebellion to be fast on the wane, shipped back +to Spain 7,000 troops. The Madrid Government at once appointed to vacant bishoprics two friars of the Orders obnoxious to +the people, and it is inconceivable that such a step would have been so speedily taken if there were any truth in the rebelsʼ +pretension that the expulsion of the friars had been promised to them. Rafael Comenge, the President of the Military Club, +was rewarded with the Grand Cross of Military Merit for the famous speech which he had delivered at the Club. It was generally +lauded by Spaniards, whilst it filled all classes of natives with indignation. Here are some extracts from this oration:— + + +</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p>You arrive in time; the cannibals of the forest are still there; the wild beast hides in his lair (<i>bravo</i>); the hour has come to finish with the savages; wild beasts should be exterminated; weeds should be extirpated. (<i>Great applause</i>.) Destruction is the purport of war; its civilizing virtue acts like the hot iron on a cancer, destroying the corrupt tendons +in order to arrive at perfect health. No pardon! (<i>Very good, very good</i>.) Destroy! Kill! Do not pardon, for this prerogative belongs to the monarch, not to the army. . . . From that historical, +honoured, and old land Spain, which we all love with delirious joy, no words of peace come before this treason, but words +of vigour and of justice, which, according to public opinion, is better in quality than in quantity. (<i>Frantic applause, several times repeated, which drowned the voice of the orator</i>.) Soldiers! you are the right arm of Spain. Execute; exterminate if it be necessary. Amputate the diseased member to save +the body; cut off the dry branches which impede the circulation of the sap, in order that the tree may again bring forth leaves +and flowers. (<i>Señor Peñaranda interposed, shouting, “That is the way to speak!” Frantic applause</i>.) +</p> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>Thirty thousand pesos were subscribed at the Military Club for the benefit of General Primo de Rivera. Admiral Patricio Montojo, +who had co-operated against the rebels by firing a few shots at them when they occupied the coast towns of Cavite Province +and transporting troops to and from Manila, was the recipient of a sword of honour on March 17, 1898. It was presented to +him, on behalf of the <a id="d0e15876"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e15876">401</a>]</span>Military Club, by Señor Comenge (who escaped from Manila as soon as the Americans entered the port) as a “perpetual remembrance +of the triumph of our ships off the coast of Cavite,” although no deed of glory on the part of the fleet, during the period +of the rebellion, had come to the knowledge of the general public. + +</p> +<p>The reforms alluded to in the treaty made with the rebel chiefs were a subject of daily conversation; but when the <i>Diario de Manila </i> published an article on March 17, demanding autonomy for the Islands and urging the immediate application of those reforms, +General Primo de Rivera suspended the publication of the newspaper. Some were inquisitive enough to ask, Has a treaty been +signed or a trick been played upon the rebels? The treatment of the people was far from being in harmony with the spirit of +a treaty of peace. + +</p> +<p>The expatriated ex-rebels became alarmed by the non-receipt of the indemnity instalment and the news from their homes. A committee +of Filipinos, styled <i>La Junta Patriótica,</i> was formed in Hong-Kong. They were in frequent communication with their friends in the Islands. The seed of discontent was +again germinating under the duplicity of the Spanish lay and clerical authorities. Thousands were ready to take the field +again, but their chiefs were absent, their arms surrendered, and the rebellion disorganized. Here and there roving parties +appeared, but having no recognized leaders, their existence did not invalidate the treaty. The Spaniards, indeed, feigned +to regard them only as a remnant of the rebels who had joined the pre-existing brigand bands. The volunteers were committing +outrages which might have driven the people again into open revolt, and General Primo de Rivera had, at least, the sagacity +to recognize the evil which was apparent to everybody. The volunteers and guerilla battalions were consequently disbanded, +not a day too soon for the tranquillity of the city. On March 25, the tragedy of the <i>Calle de Camba </i>took place. This street lies just off the <i>Calle de San Fernando </i>in Binondo, a few hundred yards from the river. In a house frequented by seafaring men a large number of Visayan sailors had +assembled and were, naturally, discussing the topics of the day with the warmth of expression and phraseology peculiar to +their race, when a passer-by, who overheard the talk, informed the police. The civil guard at once raided the premises, accused +these sailors of conspiracy, and, without waiting for proof or refutation, shot down all who could not escape. The victims +of this outrage numbered over 70. The news dismayed the native population. The fact could no longer be doubted that a reign +of terrorism and revenge had been initiated with impunity, under the assumption that the rebellion was broken for many a year +to come. How the particulars of this crime were related by the survivors to their fellow-islanders we cannot know, but it +is a coincidental fact that only now the flame of rebellion spread to the southern Island of Cebú. For over a generation the +Cebuános <a id="d0e15894"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e15894">402</a>]</span>around Talisay, Minglanilla, and Talambau had sustained a dispute with the friars respecting land-tenure. From time to time +procurators of the Law Court secretly took up the Cebuánosʼ cause, and one of them, Florencio Gonzalez, was cast into prison +and slowly done to death. This event, which happened almost coincidentally with the <i>Calle de Camba</i> tragedy, excited the Cebuános to the utmost degree. Nine days after that unfortunate episode, on April 3, 1898, a party of +about 5,000 disaffected natives made a raid on the city of Cebú. The leaders were armed with rifles, but the rank-and-file +carried only bowie-knives. About 4 p.m. all the forces which could be mustered in the city went out against the rebels, who +overwhelmed the loyalists, cutting some to pieces, whilst the remainder hastened back to the city in great disorder. But, +instead of following up their victory, the half-resolute rioters camped near Guadalupe for the night. At 5 a.m. on April 4 +they marched upon the city. Peaceful inhabitants fled before the motley, yelling crowd of men, women and children who swarmed +into the streets, armed with bowie-knives and sticks, demanding food and other trifles. The terrified Spanish volunteers, +after their defeat, took refuge in the <i>Cotta de San Pedro </i>(the Fort), where the Governor, General Montero, joined them, and ordered all foreigners to do the same. Later on the foreigners +were permitted to return to their residences. Amidst the confusion which prevailed, the flight of peaceful citizens, the street-fighting, +and the moans of the dying, the rebels helped themselves freely to all they wanted. The mob of both sexes told the townspeople +that they (the rioters) had nothing to fear, as <i>anting-anting </i>wafers (q.v.) had been served out to them. The rebels had cut the Cebú-Tuburan telegraph-wires (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e10070">267</a>), but in the meantime three small coasting steamers had been despatched to Yloilo, Ylígan, and another port to demand reinforcements. +The next day, at sunrise, the rebels attempted to reach the Fort, but were fired upon from the Governorʼs house, which is +situated in front of it, compelling them to withdraw along the shore road, where the gunboat <i>Maria Cristina </i>opened fire on them. The rebels then retreated to the Chinese quarter of Lutao, around the Cathedral and the Santo Nino Church. +The Spaniards remained under cover whilst the mob held possession of the whole city except the Fort, Government House, the +College, the churches, and the foreigners houses. During the whole day there was an incessant fusillade, the rebelsʼ chief +stronghold being the Recoleto Convent. Groups of them were all over the place, plundering the shops and Spanish houses and +offices. On April 5 a small force of Spanish regulars, volunteers, and sailors made a sortie and fired on the insurgents in +Lutao from long range. They soon retired, however, as the Fort was in danger of being attacked from another side. The same +afternoon the steamer sent to Ylígan for troops returned with 240 on board. During the night the Spanish troops ventured into +the open and shots were exchanged. On April 6 <a id="d0e15914"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e15914">403</a>]</span>the <i>Venus</i> arrived with 50 soldiers from Yloilo and was at once sent on to Bojol Island in search of rice and cattle, which were difficult +to procure as that island was also in revolt. Native women were not interfered with by either party, nor were the foreigners, +many of whom took refuge at the British Consulate. The rebels wished to advance from Lutao, but were kept back by the fire +from the gunboat <i>Maria Cristina</i>. The Spanish troops did not care to venture past a block of buildings in which were the offices and stores of a British firm. +On April 7 the merchant steamer <i>Churruca</i> arrived with troops, and in a couple of hours was followed by the cruiser <i>Don Juan de Austria</i>, also bringing reinforcements under the command of General Tejeiro (a former Governor of Cebú Is.). The total fresh troops +amounted to about 500 men of the 73rd Native Regiment and Spanish <i>cazadores</i>. Whilst these troops were landing, many of the rebels hastened out of the city towards San Nicolás. General Montero and the +Spanish refugees then emerged from the <i>cotta</i>. After General Tejeiro had strategically deployed his troops, a squad of them, crossing the General Loño Square (now called +<i>Plaza de Rizal</i>) drove the rebels before them and dislodged them from the vicinity of the Recoleto Convent. At the same time the rebels were +attacked at the <i>mestizo</i> quarter called the Parian and at Tiniago, whence they had to retreat, with severe loss, towards San Nicolás, which practically +adjoins Cebú and is only separated therefrom by a narrow river. Simultaneously, the <i>Don Juan de Austria</i> threw a shell into the corner house of the (chiefly Chinese) shopping-quarter, Lutao, which killed several Chinese and set +fire to the house. The flames, however, did not catch the adjoining property, so the troops burst open the doors, poured petroleum +on the goods found therein, and caused the fire to extend until the whole quarter was, as I saw it, a mass of charred ruins +with only the stone walls remaining. To complete the destruction of Lutao, once a busy bazaar, situated in that part of the +city immediately facing the sea, another bomb was thrown into the centre. The troops then marched to San Nicolás, and a third +shell fired at the retreating enemy entered and completely destroyed a large private residence. An attempt was made to procure +supplies from the little Island of Magtan, which lies only half a mile off the coast of Cebú, but the expedition had to return +without having been able to effect a landing at the capital town of Opon, which had risen in rebellion. On April 8 the loyal +troops continued their pursuit of the rebels, who suffered severe losses at San Nicolás and Pili, on the road south of Cebú +city. The corpses collected in the suburbs were carted into the city, where, together with those lying about the streets, +they were piled into heaps, partly covered with petroleum-bathed logs, and ignited. The stench was very offensive for some +hours, especially from a huge burning pile topped with a dead white horse in the General Loño Square. Practically the whole +of the <a id="d0e15943"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e15943">404</a>]</span>east coast of the island had risen against the Spaniards, but the rebels were careful not to interfere with foreigners when +they could distinguish them as such. A large force of insurgents made another stand at Labangan, where they were almost annihilated; +it is estimated they left quite a thousand dead on the field. The loyal troops followed up the insurgents towards the mountain +region, whilst the <i>Don Juan de Austria</i> cruised down the coast with the intention of bombarding any town which might be in rebel hands. The material losses in Cebú +amounted to about ₱1,725,000 in Lutao, represented by house property of Chinese and half-castes and their cash and stock-in-trade. +The “Compañia General de Tabacos” lost about ₱30,000 in cash in addition to the damage done to their offices and property. +Rich natives and Chinese lost large sums of money, the total of which cannot be ascertained. From the Recoleto Convent ₱19,000 +in cash were stolen, and there, as well as in many of the Spanish residences, everything valuable and easily removable was +carried off; but whether all this pillage was committed by the rebels alone must ever remain a mystery. The only foreigner +who lost his life was my late Italian friend Signor Stancampiano, who is supposed to have died of shock, for when I last saw +him he was hopelessly ill. As usual, a considerable number of well-known residents of the city were arrested and charged with +being the prime movers in these doleful events. + +</p> +<p>Upon the hills on the west coast of Cebú, near Toledo town, some American friends of mine experienced a series of thrilling +adventures. Mr. and Mrs. Wilson, mother and son, to whom I am indebted for their generous hospitality, resided on a large +sugar-estate at Calumampao, of which Mr. Wilson was part owner. They were, naturally, in ignorance of what had taken place +in Cebú City. The rebellion spread to their district, and many of the natives on and about the estate were eager to join in +the movement. Mr. Wilson did his utmost to point out to them the futility of the attempt, but they indulged in all sorts of +superstitions about the invulnerability of their chief, Claudio, and the charm attached to a red flag he carried, and they +were determined to take their chance with him. On April 19 an insurgent force came on to the plantation, compelled the labourers +to join their standard, and coolly quartered themselves in the out-buildings and warehouses. They did no harm to the Wilsons, +but they kidnapped a Spanish gentleman who lived close by, and shot him, in spite of Mr. Wilsonʼs entreaties to spare his +life. The insurgents moved off, taking with them the estate hands, and in a couple of days a company of Spanish soldiers, +under the command of Captain Suarez, arrived at the estate-house. The officer was very affable, and Mr. and Mrs. Wilson treated +him as hospitably as they did all their friends and European passers-by. Naturally the conversation fell on the all-absorbing +topic of the day and the object of his mission. After he and his men had been well refreshed they <a id="d0e15950"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e15950">405</a>]</span>started down the hill to meet some cavalry reinforcements, and, as the Wilsons watched their departure, to their astonishment +they saw Claudio, at the head of 200 rebels, rushing down the hill with the red flag floating in the air. Simultaneously a +body of Spanish horse approached through the valley; Claudio and his followers, caught between the Spanish cavalry and infantry, +retreated to a storehouse in the valley. The result was that some 40 rebels were killed, others taken prisoners, and the remainder +escaped into the planted fields. Every leader was killed, and every peaceful native whom the Spaniards met on their way was +unmercifully treated. Mr. Wilson was then asked to go on board a Spanish vessel, and when he complied he was charged with +being in league with the rebels. He was allowed to return to shore to fetch his mother—a highly-educated, genial old lady—and +when they both went on board they found there two Englishmen as prisoners. Their guest of a few days previous treated them +most shamefully. When they were well on the voyage to Cebú the prisoners were allowed to be on the upper deck, and Mrs. Wilson +was permitted to use an armchair. The soldiers insulted them, and, leaning their backs against Mrs. Wilsonʼs chair, some sang +ribald songs, whilst others debated whether their captives would be shot on the beach or at the <i>Cotta</i> in Cebú. Sometimes they would draw their swords and look viciously towards them. At last, after a series of intimidations, +they reached Cebú, where, after being detained on board several hours, they were all taken before the Governor and the Chief +Justice, and were only saved from further miseries through the intercession of the American Vice-Consul, who, by the way, +was an Englishman. War had just been declared between America and Spain (April 23, 1898), and the estate had to be left to +the mercy of the rebels, whilst my friends took passage to Singapore on the <i>Gulf of Martaban</i>. + +</p> +<p>All immediate danger having now been dispelled, the Spaniards solaced themselves with the sweets of revenge. A Spanish functionary +(who with his wife and brotherʼs family were well known to me for several years) caused the soldiers to raid private houses, +and bring out native families by force into the public square, or conduct them to the cemetery on the Guadalupe road, where +they were shot in batches without inquiry and cremated. The heartrending scenes and wailing of the people failed to turn their +persecutor from his purpose, save in one case—that of a colleague, who, wearing his chain of office, stepped forward and successfully +begged for his life. A low estimate of this officialʼs victims is 200. The motive for his awful crime was greed, for he formally +confiscated his victimsʼ goods and shipped them off daily in schooners to Yloilo. His ill-gotten gains would have been greater +but for the action of the Governor, who, fearing that retribution might fall on his own head as the highest authority, ordered +his guilty subordinate to appear before him, and in the presence of Filipinos he <a id="d0e15960"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e15960">406</a>]</span>reprimanded him, boxed his ears, and commanded him to quit the island within a given period under pain of death. The Governorʼs +indignation was evidently feigned, for he very shortly availed himself of an altogether novel means of terrorism. Sedition +was smouldering throughout the island, but after the events of April the Spaniards seemed too daunted to take the field against +the Cebuános. The Christian Governor, therefore, took into his service a Mindanao Mahometan, Rajahmudah Datto Mandi, and his +band of about 100 Sámal Moros to overrun the island and punish the natives. This chief, with his warriors, had been called +from Zamboanga (Mindanao Is.) to Yloilo by General Rios, who immediately commissioned him to Cebú in the month of July, 1898. +On his arrival there he at once started his campaign under the auspices of the Governor, who granted him full liberty to dispose +of the lives and property of the Cebuános to his heartʼs content, and as proof of the accomplishment of his gory mission he +brought in and presented to his patron the ears which he had cut off the Cebuános. North of Cebú City he and his retainers +made a fresh start, slaying the people, burning villages, and devastating the standing crops. Having accomplished his task +within three months Datto Mandi withdrew with all his men, except two who wished to settle at Pardo. He could not persuade +them to leave, and after his departure they were cut to pieces by the Cebuános. Pending positive corroboration I was very +sceptical about this strange narrative; but, being in Mindanao Island six years afterwards, I went to visit Datto Mandi, who +most readily confirmed all the above particulars, and presented me with his portrait. Prior to the American advent, Datto +Mandi, <i>protégé</i> as well as protector of the Spaniards, exercised a sort of feudal dominion over the services and the sundry cherished belongings +of his people. Speaking of him as I myself found him, he was extremely affable and hospitable. The invitation to Datto Mandi +was perhaps the most singular event of this period, and goes to show with what desperate fear the Spaniards retained their +hold on the island up to the evacuation, which took place on December 26, 1898. + +</p> +<p>In the provinces north of Manila the rebellion was again in full vigour, and, all trust in Spanish good faith was irrevocably +lost. The Spanish quarters at Subig (Zambales) and Apalit (Pampanga) were attacked and looted in the first week of March. +The new movement bore a more serious aspect than that under Aguinaldo and his colleagues, who, at least, were men of certain +intelligence, inspired by a wish to secure reforms, whereas their successors in revolt were of far less mental capacity, seeking, +apparently, only retaliation for the cruelties inflicted on the people. It is possible, too, that the premium of ₱800,000 +per 35 rebel chiefs inflamed the imaginations of the new leaders, who were too ignorant to appreciate the promised reforms +linked with the same bargain. During the month of February the permanent-way of the <a id="d0e15967"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e15967">407</a>]</span>Manila-Dagúpan Railway had been three times torn up to prevent the transport of loyal troops. At the same time the villages +around were looted and burnt. Early in March the rebels, under the chief leadership of Yocson, of Malolos, attacked and killed +the garrisons and the priests in the north of Pangasinán and Zambales, excepting six soldiers who managed to escape.<a id="d0e15969src" href="#d0e15969" class="noteref">15</a> Some of the garrison troops were murdered after surrender. The telegraph-line between Lingayen (Pangasinán) and a place a +few miles from Bolinao (Zambales) was cut down and removed. A lineman was sent out to repair it under escort of civil guards, +who were forced by the rebels to retire. On March 7, about 2 a.m., the Eastern Extension Telegraph Companyʼs cable-station +at Bolinao was besieged by rebels. The village was held by about 400 armed natives, who had killed one native and two European +soldiers on the way. The lighthouse-keeper and the Inspector of Forests safely reached Santa Cruz, 40 miles south, in a boat. +The other civilian Spaniards and priests escaped in another boat, but were pursued and captured by the insurgents, who killed +two of the civilians and brought the European women and friars into the village as prisoners at 4.30 the same afternoon. Eight +soldiers had taken refuge in the cable-station, and at 6 a.m. a message was sent to the British staff requiring them to turn +out the soldiers or quit the premises themselves. They refused to take either course, and declared their neutrality. A similar +message was sent several times, with the same result. By 4 p.m. the soldiers had fortified the station as well as they could, +and the rebels attacked, but were repulsed with a few shots. Nothing happened during the night, but the next day (March 8) +another message was sent to the British staff urging them to withdraw as the rebels would renew the assault at 10 a.m. The +staff again refused to comply. Then it appears that the rebels delayed their attack until the arrival of their chief, hourly +expected. An ultimatum was at length received at the station, to the effect that if all arms were given up they would spare +the soldiersʼ lives. They also demanded the surrender of the two rebels held prisoners by these soldiers. At this stage one +of the companyʼs staff, who were allowed to go and come as they pleased, volunteered to interview the rebels; but matters +could not be arranged, as the Spanish corporal (a plucky youth of twenty years of age) in the station refused to surrender +anything at any price. Still parleying was continued, and on March 11 one of the companyʼs staff again visited the rebel camp +to state that if the regular bi-monthly steamer failed to arrive on the morrow the corporal would surrender arms. Then the +rebel chief proposed that the corporal should meet him half-way between the companyʼs office and the rebel camp, the rebel +pledging his word of honour that no harm should befall the corporal. The corporal, however, could not do this, as it would +have been contrary to the Spanish military code to capitulate on his own <a id="d0e15977"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e15977">408</a>]</span>authority, but he confirmed his willingness to surrender arms if no steamer arrived the next day, and the companyʼs employee +returned to the camp to notify this resolution. But in a few minutes he observed a commotion among the insurgents; some one +had descried a warship approaching, and the native canoes were very busy making ready for escape or attack. The British delegate, +therefore, hastened back to the station, and at 3 p.m. a Spanish gunboat arrived, to their immense relief, and landed 107 +marines. Heavy firing continued all that afternoon, inflicting great loss on the rebels, whilst the Spaniards lost one soldier. +On March 12 a Spanish cruiser anchored off the Bay of Bolinao; also a merchant steamer put into port bringing the Companyʼs +Manila Superintendent with apparatus for communicating with Hong-Kong in case the station were demolished. The next day H.M.S. +<i>Edgar</i> entered, and Bolinao was again perfectly safe. + +</p> +<p>In consequence of this threatened attack on the cable-station the cable was detached from Bolinao and carried on to Manila +in the following month (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e10070">267</a>). + +</p> +<p>As soon as the news reached Manila that Bolinao was menaced, General Monet proceeded north with 1,000 men, whilst 3,000 more +followed by railway as far as they could reach. On the way the General had five engagements with the enemy, between Lingayen +(Pangasinán) and Bolinao, where he arrived on the night of March 14, having routed the insurgents everywhere with great loss +to them. On the Spanish side one lieutenant and one soldier were killed. After leaving a garrison of 300 men in Bolinao, General +Monet returned to Manila in the Spanish cruiser the next day. + +</p> +<p>On March 31 Father Moïses Santos, who had caused all the members of the Town Council of Malolos to be banished in 1895, was +assassinated. He had been appointed Vicar of the Augustine Order and was returning to Malolos station, en route for Manila, +in a buggy which stuck fast in a mud-pool (the same in which I have found myself several times), where he was stabbed to death. +His body was recovered and taken by special train to Manila, where it was interred with great pomp in the Church of St. Augustine. +He was 44 years of age, and had been 19 years in the Colony (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e15027">364</a>). + +</p> +<p>In April, 1898, the Home Government recalled General Primo de Rivera, appointing in his stead General Basilio Augusti, who +had never before held chief command in the Islands. Primo de Rivera was no doubt anxious to be relieved of a position which +he could not well continue to hold, with dignity to himself, after the Madrid Government had shelved his recommendations for +reforms. His subsequent speeches in the Senate incline one to draw this conclusion. The Colonial Minister, Segismundo Moret +(who became Prime Minister in 1905), warmly supported the proposed reforms, but monastic influences were brought to bear which +Práxedes Sagasta had not the moral courage to resist. +<a id="d0e16002"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e16002">409</a>]</span></p> +<p>Don Pedro A. Paterno, the peacemaker, was sorely disappointed, too, that the Government had failed to remunerate him for his +services. His position will be best understood from the subjoined translation of the letter which he addressed to a high authority +on the subject. The original document was read in public session of Congress in Madrid on June 16, 1898, by the Deputy Señor +Muro. + +</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<div class="body"> +<div class="div1"> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Manila</span>, <i>23rd of February</i>, 1898. + + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">My Esteemed Friend</span>,— + + +</p> +<p>As it appears that, at last, one is thinking of giving me something for the services rendered by me, and as, according to +you, the recompense is going to be a title of Castile, I wish to speak frankly, in secret, on the subject. I do not wish to +fall into ridicule, because in such a material and mercantile place as Manila a title without rent-roll, or grandeur, or anything +of the nature of an employment, or Cross of Maria Christina, or rewards such as have been showered broadcast by three Captain-Generals +would, in Philippine circles, make me appear as the gullible boy and the laughing-stock of my fellows. To express my private +opinion, I aspire, above all, to the preservation of my name and prestige, and if I were asked to renounce them for a childish +prize, even though it be called a title of Castile, despised by serious statesmen in Europe, I think I should be obliged to +refuse it. But I am willing to meet half-way the state of Spanish society in the Philippines, and as I belong to the family +of the <i>Maguinoó</i> Paterno, I must express myself in another way. That title of Castile might become the cherished ideal in the Philippines +if it were valued as I desire. + + +</p> +<p>In the first place, it <i>must not be less than that of Duke</i>, because the natives have obeyed me as the <i>Great Maguinoó</i>, or Prince of Luzon, and the ex-revolutionists call me the arbiter of their destinies. + + +</p> +<p>The reward from Spain must not be less than the Philippine public already award to me. + + +</p> +<p>In the second place, the reward, to be accepted by me with dignity and preservation of prestige, must be presented to me in +the sense that it is for the general welfare of the Philippines as implied in the title of <i>Grandee of Spain of the First Class</i> with the consequent right to a seat in the Senate to defend the interests of the Colony, seeing that we have no Members of +Parliament, and parliamentary representation is anxiously desired. + + +</p> +<p>I can show that I possess an income of ₱25,000 and more, if necessary. + + +</p> +<p>In the third place, it must be in the nature of a gift and not a purchase, that is to say, the patent of nobility must be +a free gift. + +<a id="d0e16044"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e16044">410</a>]</span></p> +<p>In the fourth place, it must be valued in dollars, so that the reward may not be held in contempt by the public, who know +my liberality when I pay, with splendid generosity, sea voyages, river and land journeys for myself and for my emissaries, +or when I distribute with abundant profusion pecuniary and material recompenses <i>to buy over the wills of and unite all the insurgent chiefs to bring them to surrender to Spain</i>. Up to the present, I have not received a cent from the revolutionists or from the Spanish Government to cover these expenses. + + +</p> +<p>It is notorious that I have worked so grandly that no one can now ask me to sink into insignificance. + + +</p> +<p>The recent concessions made by the Spanish Government have been seen by the Philippine public. The grade of Captain-General +was given for subjecting a few Moslem chiefs of Mindanao; promotions and grand crosses with pensions have been awarded, and +I, who have put an end to the war at a stroke, saving Spain many millions of dollars—I, who, amidst inundations and hurricanes +have assaulted and conquered the barracks and military posts of the enemy, causing them to lay down their arms to Spain without +bloodshed, and at my command surrender all their chiefs and revolutionary Government with their brigades and companies, I +think I have good right to ask Spain, if she wishes to show herself a mother to me, to give me as much as she has given to +other sons for lesser services. + + +</p> +<p>To conclude, for family reasons, <i> I want a title of Castile, that of Prince or Duke, if possible, and to be a Grandee of the first class</i>, free of nobility patent fees and the sum of ₱—— once for all. + + +</p> +<p>I think that the title of Castile, or Spainʼs reward, if it reaches me without the mentioned formalities, will be an object +of ridicule, and Spain ought not to expose me to this, because I wish to serve her always, in the present and in the future. + + +</p> +<p>I also recommend you very strongly to procure for my brother Maximino Molo Agustin Paterno y Debera Ignacio the title of Count +or a Grand Cross free of duties, for he has not only rendered great services to the nation, but he has continually sustained +the prestige of Spain with the natives. + + +</p> +<p>I am, etc., etc., +<br><span class="smallcaps">Pedro A. Paterno</span>. + + + +</p> +<p>N.B.—1. I told you verbally that if my merits did not reach two millimetres, it is the friendʼs duty to amplify them and extend +them and make others see them as if they were so many metres, especially as they have <i>no equal</i>. + + +</p> +<p>Prince of Limasaba is the first title of Castile conceded to a native of the Philippines. He was the first king of the Island +<a id="d0e16076"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e16076">411</a>]</span>of Limasaba in the time of Maghallanes, according to Father José Fernandez Cuevas, of the Company of Jesus, in his “Spain +and Catholicism in the Far East,” folio 2 (years 1519 to 1595). In Spain, in modern times, Prince of Peace, Prince of Vergara, +etc. + + +</p> +<p>2. and 3. Verbally I mentioned <i>one million</i> of dollars, and that Parliament should meet sometimes for the Philippines and for extraordinary reasons. Take note that out +of the 25,000 men sent here by Spain on account of the insurrection, statistics show 6,000 struck off the effective list in +the first six months and many millions of dollars expenses. The little present, or the Christmas-box (<i>mi Aguinaldo</i>) is of no mean worth. + +</p> +</div> +</div> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>Some biographical notes of Don Pedro A. Paterno, with most of which he furnished me himself, may be interesting at this stage. + +</p> +<p>His Excellency Don Pedro Alejandro Paterno belongs to the class of Filipinos—the Chinese half-caste—remarkable in this Colony +for that comparative intellectual activity of which Don Pedro himself is one of the brightest living examples. In the early +decades of last century a Chinaman, called Molo, carried on a prosperous trade in the <i>Calle del Rosario</i>, in the Manila district of Binondo. His Philippine wife, whose family name was Yamson, carried in her veins the “blue blood,” +as we should say in Europe, of Luzonia. She was the direct descendant of the Great <i>Maguinoó</i>, or Prince of Luzon, a title hereditary, according to tradition. Three sons were the issue of this marriage, one of whom, +Maximino Molo, was the father of Pedro. Averse to indolent pleasure during his fatherʼs lifetime, Maximino, with his own scant +but independent resources, started active life with a canoe and a barge, conveying goods out as far as Corregidor Island to +secure the first dealings with the ships entering the port. In this traffic he made money so fast that he opened an office, +and subsequently a store of his own, in the <i>Escolta</i>. His transactions attained large proportions, and by the time this kind of trade in the bay became obsolete, he was already +one of the most respected middlemen operating between the foreign houses and provincial producers. His Christian name was +abbreviated to Máximo; and so proverbial were his placidity and solicitude for others that his friends affectionately nicknamed +him Paterno (paternal), which henceforth became the adopted cognomen of the family. His unbounded generosity won for him the +admiration of all his race, who graciously recognized him as their <i>Maguinoó</i>. Sympathetic in the ambitions and in the distress of his own people, he was, nevertheless, always loyal to Spanish authority; +but whether his fortune awakened Spanish cupidity, or his influence with the masses excited the friarsʼ jealousy, the fact +is that in 1872 he was banished to the Ladrone Islands, accused of having taken part in the rising of Cavite. Ten years afterwards +he was again in Manila, where I had the <a id="d0e16103"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e16103">412</a>]</span>pleasure of his acquaintance, and on his decease, which took place July 26, 1900, he left considerable wealth. + +</p> +<p>Born in 1857, Pedro A. Paterno, at the early age of 14 years, was sent for his education to Spain, where he resided 11 years. +The preparatory period over, he entered the University of Salamanca, and later on that of Madrid, where, under the protection +and tutelage of the Marquis de Heredia, he was introduced into aristocratic circles, in which he became a great favourite. +Amongst his college companions was the Marquis de Mina. At one time it was proposed that he should wed the daughter of the +Marchioness de Montolibar, a suggestion which he disregarded because his heart already inclined towards the Filipina who is +now his wife. + +</p> +<p>His assistance to the Home Government was of no mean importance. In 1882 he supported the abolition of the Government Tobacco +Monopoly. In 1893 he again rendered valuable service to the State, in consideration of which he was awarded the Grand Cross +of Isabella the Catholic, with the distinction of “Excellency.” In 1895 the oft-discussed question of the title of nobility +he was to receive was revived. After the Peace of Biac-na-bató he fully expected that the usual Spanish custom would have +been followed of conceding a title to the Peacemaker. The precedents for such an act, in modern times, are the titles given +to Manuel Godoy (1795) and to General Espartero<a id="d0e16109src" href="#d0e16109" class="noteref">16</a> (1840), who became respectively Prince of Peace and Prince of Vergara for similar services rendered to the Crown. A dukedom, +Paterno believes, would have been his reward if the revolution had definitely terminated with the retirement of Emilio Aguinaldo +from the Islands in 1897. + +</p> +<p>A man of versatile gifts, Pedro A. Paterno has made his mark in literature with works too numerous to mention; he is a fluent +orator, a talented musician, and the composer of the argument of an opera, <i lang="tl">Sangdugong Panaguinip</i> (“The Dreamed Alliance”). As a brilliant conversationalist and well-versed political economist he has few rivals in his country. +A lover of the picturesque and of a nature inclined to revel in scenes of aesthetic splendour, his dream of one day wearing +a coronet was nurtured by no vulgar veneration for aristocracy, but by a desire for a recognized social position enabling +him, by his prestige, to draw his fellow-men from the sordid pleasure of mere wealth-accumulation towards the sentimental, +imaginative ideals of true nobility. In 1904 Pedro A. Paterno was the editor and proprietor of the newspaper <i lang="es">La Patria</i>, the mission of which was (1) to support the American <a id="d0e16120"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e16120">413</a>]</span>dominion as a <i lang="fr">fait accompli</i>, (2) to urge the fulfilment of the promise of eventual Philippine home rule, (3) to sustain a feeling of gratitude towards +Spain, whence the Filipinos derived their civilization, and (4) to support Roman Catholic unity, on the ground that unity +is strength. + +</p> +<p>In the second week of April, 1898, General Primo de Rivera left Manila for Spain, on the arrival of his successor in the Captain-Generalcy, +General Basilio Augusti, in the s.s. <i>Isla de Mindanao</i>.<a id="d0e16130src" href="#d0e16130" class="noteref">17</a> Some days before General Primo de Riveraʼs departure the American Consul at Manila had received despatches from his Government +to prepare to quit the Islands, as war was imminent between Spain and the United States. He was further instructed to hand +over his consulate archives to the British Consul, who would take charge of American interests. But without the concurrence +of the Spanish authorities no official transfer could be made from one consulate to the other, and the General professed ignorance +of the existing relations between his country and America. He cabled to Madrid for information, but managed to delay matters +until his successor assumed office, when the transfer was duly made. Consul Oscar F. Williams was in no way molested. He passed +to and fro in the city without the least insult being offered him by any Spaniard. The Gov.-General courteously proposed to +send a large bodyguard to his consulate, but it was not necessary. Yet, as soon as Consul Williams closed his office and went +on board the s.s. <i>Esmeralda</i>, the American Consulate escutcheon was painted out, and the notice boards outside the doors were kicked about the streets. + +</p> +<p>General Primo de Rivera was so well aware of the strained relations between Spain and America, that the s.s. <i>Leon XIII.</i>, in which he travelled from Manila to Barcelona, was armed as a cruiser, with two 4-inch Hontoria guns mounted aft of the +funnel and two Nordenfeldts in the bows. This steamer, crowded with refugee Spanish families, some of whom slept on the saloon +floors, made its first stoppage at Singapore on April 17. At the next port of call General Primo de Rivera learnt that the +United States of America had presented an ultimatum to his Government. Before he reached Barcelona, in the third week of May, +war between the two countries had already broken out (April 23, 1898). There were riots in Madrid; martial law was proclaimed; +the Parliamentary Session was suspended; a strict censorship of the press was established; the great disaster to Spanish arms +in Philippine waters had taken place; the Prime Minister Sagasta had intimated his willingness to resign, and Primo de Rivera +entered Madrid when it was too late to save the Philippine Islands for Spain, even had the rebel version of the implied reforms +under the alleged Treaty of Biac-na-bató been fulfilled to the letter. +<a id="d0e16141"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e16141">414</a>]</span></p> +<p>The leaders of the principal political parties were hastily summoned to the palace to consult separately with the Queen-Regent +on the situation, and they were unanimously of opinion that the Prime Minister who had accepted war should carry them through +the crisis. Spain was apparently more concerned about the salvation of the Antilles than of her Far Eastern Colony. + +</p> +<p>The friars, fully alive to their moral responsibility towards the nation for the loss of the Philippines, were, nevertheless, +desirous of finding a champion of their cause in the political arena, and Deputy Uria was willing to accept this onerous task. +The Bishop-elect of Porto Rico (an Austin friar) was a fellow-passenger with General Primo de Rivera. According to <i>El Liberal</i> of June 3, 1898, when he arrived in Madrid he went with the Procurator of his Order to interview the Colonial Minister, Señor +Romero Girón, on the prospects of Deputy Uriaʼs proposed debate when Congress should meet again. The Minister pointed out +to them the attendant difficulties, and referred them to the Prime Minister. They immediately went to Señor Sagastaʼs residence, +where they were promptly given to understand that <i>if any one could be found to defend them, there might well be others who would oppose them</i>, so their champion withdrew. + +</p> +<p>When, months later, Parliament was re-opened, the Minister of War denied in Congress that the Treaty of Biac-na-bató had ever +existed,<a id="d0e16154src" href="#d0e16154" class="noteref">18</a> and in support of his contention he cited a cablegram which the Gov.-General Primo de Rivera is alleged to have sent to the +Prime Minister Sagasta. It was published in the <i>Gaceta de Madrid</i> of December 16, 1897, and reads as follows:— + + +</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<div class="body"> +<div class="div1"> +<p><i>(Translation)</i> + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Manila</span>, 12th of December, 1897 + + +</p> +<p>To the President of the Council of Ministers, from the Governor-General + + +</p> +<p>At the expiration of the time allowed and announced in the <i>Gazette</i> of November 28, after which rigorous and active war measures would be taken against the rebels, a deputation from the enemy +came to me on behalf of the brothers Aguinaldo, Llaneras, <a id="d0e16188"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e16188">415</a>]</span>and the so-called Republican Government, offering to surrender themselves, their followers, and their arms, <i>on the sole conditions of their lives being spared and that they should receive means with which to emigrate</i>. It appears to me, and to the general officers of this army, that this surrender is the result of the successive combats +by which we have held the positions taken in Mórong, Paray, Minuyan, and Arayat, and the enthusiasm displayed by the resolute +volunteers in the provinces outside Tagálog sphere. I feel sure of being able to take Biac-na-bató, as well as all the other +points occupied by the rebels, but I am not so certain of being able to secure the persons of the chiefs of the rebellion +with their followers. The war would then be carried on by roving parties who, from their hiding-places in the forests and +mountains, might appear from time to time, and although of little importance, they would sustain the rebellion. + + +</p> +<p>The generals agree with me that the peace will save the honour of Spain and the army, but in view of the importance of the +event I consider it necessary to solicit the approval of the Government. + + +</p> +<p>If the Government should accept the proposals, I will bring them to an issue at once, but I so far distrust them that I cannot +be sure of anything until I have the men and the arms in my possession. In any case, it is now the unanimous opinion that +the situation is saved. + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Primo de Rivera</span>. + + +<i>(Translation of reply)</i> + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Madrid</span>, 13th of December, 1897 + + +</p> +<p>President of the Council of Ministers to the Governor-General, + + +</p> +<p>Manila + + +</p> +<p>Colonial Ministry Code. H.M. the Queen has perused with great satisfaction your Excellencyʼs telegram, and commands me to +congratulate you in the name of the nation. In view of the opinion of your Excellency and the generals under your orders that +<i>the honour of the army is saved</i>, the Government fully authorizes your Excellency to accept the surrender of the rebel chiefs and their Government on the +terms specified in your telegram. Please advise the surrender as soon as possible in order to give due and solemn publicity +to the event. Receive my sincere congratulations and those of the Government. + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Sagasta</span>. + +</p> +</div> +</div> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>At the period of the above despatches the Peninsular and the Insular authorities were living in a foolʼs paradise with respect +to <a id="d0e16224"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e16224">416</a>]</span>Philippine affairs. Had it been officially admitted that those reforms which the clerical party so persistently opposed, but +which the home legislators were willing to concede, had been granted to the rebels as a condition of peace, “the honour of +the army” would have suffered in Spanish public opinion. Hence, the Spaniardsʼ conception of national dignity imposed on the +Government the necessity of representing the rebel chiefs as repentant, begging for their lives, and craving the means of +existence in exile as the result of Spanish military valour. + +</p> +<p>But abroad, where the ministerial denial, mentioned on p. <a href="#d0e16141">414</a>, was published by the foreign press, Aguinaldo was universally spoken of as having been “bought off.” + +</p> +<p>A wiser government would have learnt a lesson from a sixteen-monthsʼ rebellion and have afterwards removed its causes, if +only to ensure the mother countryʼs sovereignty. The probability of the Filipinos being able to subvert Spanish rule by their +own unaided efforts was indeed remote, but a review of Spanish colonial history ought to have suggested to the legislators +that that extraneous assistance to sedition which promoted emancipation in the former Spanish-American territories might one +day be extended to the Filipinos. + +</p> +<p>The publication of the above documents, however, did little to calm the anger of the Madrid politicians who maintained that +Spanish dominion in the Philippines could only be peacefully assured by a certain measure of reform in consonance with the +nativesʼ aspirations. + +</p> +<p>Months afterwards, when Spanish sovereignty in the Archipelago was drawing to a close, the Conde de las Almenas opened a furious +debate in the Senate, charging all the Colonial Govs.-General with incompetency, but its only immediate effect was to widen +the breach between political parties. + +<a id="d0e16237"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e16237">417</a>]</span></p> +<div class="footnotes"> +<hr class="fnsep"> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e15062" href="#d0e15062src" class="noteref">1</a></span> The <i>Katipunan League</i> and <i>Freemasonry</i> were not identical institutions. There were many Freemasons who were leaguers, but not <i>because</i> they were Freemasons, as also there were thousands of leaguers who knew nothing of Freemasonry. There is little doubt that +Freemasonry suggested the bare idea of that other secret society called <i>Katipunan</i>, whose signs and symbols were of masonic design, but whose aims were totally different. It is probable, too, that the liberty +which Freemasons enjoyed to meet in secret session was taken advantage of by the leaguers. There were risings in the Islands +long before the introduction of Freemasonry. This secret society was introduced into the Colony a little before the year 1850. +In 1893 the first lodges of the Spanish Grand Orient were opened, and there were never more than 16 lodges of this Order up +to the evacuation by the Spaniards. Each lodge had about 30 members, or, say, a total of 500. The Spanish deputy, Dr. Miguel +Morayta, in his speech in the Spanish Congress in April, 1904, stated that General Ramon Blancoʼs reply to Father Mariano +Gil (the discoverer of the <i>Katipunan</i>) was that the identity of Freemasonry with <i>Katipunan</i> “existed only in the brains of the friars and fanatical Spaniards.” +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e15105" href="#d0e15105src" class="noteref">2</a></span> By intermarriage and blood relationship Don Pedro P. Rojas is allied with several of the best Manila families. His grandfather, +Don Domingo Rojas, a prominent citizen in his time, having become a victim of intrigue, was confined in the Fortress of Santiago, +under sentence of death. The day prior to that fixed for his execution, he was visited by a friend, and the next morning when +the executioner entered his cell, Don Domingo was found in a dying condition, apparently from the effect of poison. Don Domingo +had a son José and a daughter Marguerita. On their fatherʼs death, they and Joséʼs son, the present Don Pedro P. Rojas, went +to Spain, where Doña Marguerita espoused a Spaniard, Don Antonio de Ayala, and Don José obtained from the Spanish Government +a declaration stating that whereas <a id="d0e15107"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e15107">367n</a>]</span>Don Domingo had been unjustly condemned to capital punishment, the Gov.-General was ordered to refund, out of his own pocket, +to the Rojas family the costs of the trial. The Rojas and Ayala families then returned to the Philippines, where Don Antonio +de Ayala made a considerable fortune in business and had two daughters, one of whom, Doña Cármen, married Don Pedro P. Rojas, +and the other wedded Don Jacobo Zobel, an apothecary of large means and of German descent. Don Pedro P. Rojas, who was born +in 1848, has two sons and two daughters. The three families belonged to the <i>élite</i> of Manila society, whilst the Rojas and the Ayalas acquired a just reputation both for their enterprising spirit, which largely +benefited the Colony, and for their charitable philanthropy towards all classes. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e15177" href="#d0e15177src" class="noteref">3</a></span> <i>Aguinaldo</i> is the Spanish for Christmas-box. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e15187" href="#d0e15187src" class="noteref">4</a></span> Part of a conversation which I had with Emilio Aguinaldo at his house at Cauit (Cavite Viejo) on July 26, 1904. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e15197" href="#d0e15197src" class="noteref">5</a></span> <i>Cauit</i> signifies, in Tagálog, Fish-hook. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e15210" href="#d0e15210src" class="noteref">6</a></span> <i lang="tl">Sun͠gay</i> signifies, in Tagálog, Deer. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e15229" href="#d0e15229src" class="noteref">7</a></span> <i><span class="smallcaps">Imus</span></i>. The history of this place is interesting. In the 18th century a banished Spaniard of distinguished family settled there +and supplied water to the natives for irrigation purposes. Some years afterwards, on the death of his wife, this gentleman +returned to Spain and left the place in charge of a friar, Francisco de Santiago. As the owner never claimed the property, +it fell definitely into the possession of the friars. A church was erected there at the peopleʼs expense. Later on the friar +in charge extorted from the natives material and labour, without payment, for the building of a manor-house, but he was poisoned +soon after it was finished. His successor was still bolder, and allowed escaped criminals to take sanctuary in his church +to show his superiority to the civil law. After innumerable disputes and troubles with the natives, it developed into a fine +property, comprising 27,500 acres of arable land, which the Recoletos claimed as theirs and rented it out to the natives. +Its possession was the cause of the important risings of Páran and Camerino (<i>vide</i> pp. <a href="#d0e3625">105</a>, <a href="#d0e3649">106</a>) and many other minor disturbances. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e15390" href="#d0e15390src" class="noteref">8</a></span> “<span lang="es">Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas,” por el Dr. Antonio de Morga, anotada por José Rizal</span>. Published in Paris by Garnier frères, 1890. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e15396" href="#d0e15396src" class="noteref">9</a></span> “<span lang="es">El Filibusterismo (continuacion del ‘Noli me tángere’)</span>.” Published in Ghent by F. Meyer-Van Loo, 1891. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e15425" href="#d0e15425src" class="noteref">10</a></span> Father Mariano Gil died in Spain in the spring of 1904. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e15528" href="#d0e15528src" class="noteref">11</a></span> Rizalʼs brother and sister were keeping (in 1904) the “<i lang="tl">Dimas Alang</i>” restaurant, 62, <i>Calle Sacristia</i>, Binondo (Manila). It is so named after the pseudonym under which their distinguished brother often wrote patriotic articles. + +</p> +<p class="footnote">One of the ten annual official holidays, or feast days, appointed by the Civil Commission is “Rizal Day,” December 30. + +</p> +<p class="footnote">The ₱2 banknote of the new Philippine currency bears a vignette of Dr. Rizal. + +</p> +<p class="footnote">The Manila Province of Spanish times is now called Rizal Province and with it is incorporated what was formerly the Mórong +District. Probably one-third of the towns of the colony have either a <i lang="es">Plaza de Rizal</i>, or a <i lang="es">Calle de Rizal</i>; it is about as general as the <i lang="it">Piazza di Vittorio Emanuele</i> throughout Italy. + +</p> +<p class="footnote">A public subscription was open for about three years to defray the cost of a Rizal monument to be erected on the Luneta Esplanade +(Ins. Gov. Act No. 243). By March 7, 1905, a total of ₱103,753.89 had been collected, including the sum of ₱30,000 voted by +the Insular Government. + +</p> +<p class="footnote">One is led to wonder what <i>róle</i> in Philippine affairs Rizal would have assumed had he outlived the rebellion. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e15705" href="#d0e15705src" class="noteref">12</a></span> It is alleged that this copy was removed from the archives about April, 1898, for the defence of a certain general in Madrid. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e15746" href="#d0e15746src" class="noteref">13</a></span> <i>Biac-na-bató </i>signifies, in Tagalog, Split Stone. + +</p> +<p class="footnote">This was the third time, during the 19th century, that the Spanish Gov.-General had been constrained to conclude a treaty +with native rebels. In 1835 a certain Feliciano Paran raised the standard of revolt against the friarsʼ claim to the Imus +estate (Cavite), and after many fruitless attempts to suppress him, and much bloodshed, the <i>Treaty of Malacañan</i> was signed by the rebel chief and the Gov.-General. Paran was then appointed Colonel of Militia with the monthly pay of ₱50. +He lived peacefully in <i>Calle San Marcelino</i>, Manila, until a fresh outbreak (led by <a id="d0e15759"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e15759">397n</a>]</span>another) occurred, when the Spaniards made this a pretext to seize Paran and deport him to the Ladrone Islands (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e3625">105</a>). + +</p> +<p class="footnote">In 1870, during the command of General La Torre, a certain Camerino held the Province of Cavite for a long time against the +Spaniards. Camerinoʼs plan was to remain in ambush whilst the rank-and-file of the Spaniards advanced, and then pick off the +officers. So many of them were killed that influence was brought to bear on the General, who consented to sign the <i>Treaty of Navotas</i>. Camerino was appointed Colonel of Militia and lived in Trozo (Manila) until the Cavite rising in 1872, when he and six others +were executed for their past deeds (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e3649">106</a>). +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e15806" href="#d0e15806src" class="noteref">14</a></span> The original of the above document was read in public session of Congress in Madrid, on June 16, 1898, by the Deputy Señor +Muro. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e15969" href="#d0e15969src" class="noteref">15</a></span> <i>Vide</i> Pedro A. Paternoʼs allusion to this at p. <a href="#d0e15830">399</a>. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e16109" href="#d0e16109src" class="noteref">16</a></span> Manuel Godoy, of obscure family, was originally a common soldier in the Guards. He became field-marshal, Duke of Alcudía, +Grandee of Spain, Councillor of State, and Cavalier of the Golden Fleece. For his intervention in the Peace of Basilea he +received the title of Principe de la Paz. Baldomero Espartero was a successful general, who brought the first Carlist war +to a close and concluded the Treaty of Vergara (1839), for which (in 1840) he was granted the titles of Duque de la Victoria +and Principe de Vergara. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e16130" href="#d0e16130src" class="noteref">17</a></span> This steamer came into Manila flying the French ensign, and painted to resemble one of the Russian Volunteer Fleet, to avoid +capture on the way. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e16154" href="#d0e16154src" class="noteref">18</a></span> The precise terms of the treaty or agreement made between the representative of the Philippine Government and the rebel chiefs +are hitherto enveloped in mystery; but even though all the personal testimony referred to in this chapter were impugned, there +is convincing circumstantial evidence that Emilio Aguinaldo and his followers received a very considerable amount of money +from the Philippine Treasury <i>conditionally</i>. In the Suit No. 6 of 1899 in the Supreme Court of Hong-Kong, T. Sandico and others <i>versus</i> R. Wildman (all the original filed documents of which I have examined), sworn evidence was given to show that $200,000 Mexican +of the sum received by Aguinaldo was deposited in his name in the Chartered Bank of India, Australia and China. It is not +feasible to suppose that this sum was paid to or accepted by Aguinaldo <i>unconditionally</i>. +</p> +</div> +</div> +<div id="d0e16238" class="div1"> +<h2 class="normal">The Tagálog Rebellion of 1896–98</h2> +<h2 class="normal">Second Period</h2> +<h2 class="normal">American Intervention</h2> +<p>The prelude to the American occupation of Manila was the demand made on Spain by the Government of the United States of America +to evacuate the Island of Cuba. + +</p> +<p>Generations of Spanish misrule in that Island had produced a recurrence of the many attempts to throw off the sovereignty +of Spain. In February, 1895, the flag of insurrection was again unfurled, and at Baira a proclamation, claiming independence, +was issued at the instance of one of Cubaʼs most intelligent patriots—Marti. This civil leader, however, died a natural death +a few months afterwards, but the chief command of the insurgents in the field was continued by the mulatto Antonio Maceo. +The rebellion was assuming a serious aspect when General Martinez Campos, who had been instrumental in duping the Cubans in +1878 by the Treaty of Zanjón, was again sent out as Captain-General of the Island. But the Cubans refused to be caught a second +time in the same trap. Martinez Camposʼ theme of “political action combined with military force” held no weight. During his +mild <i>régime</i> the insurrection increased rapidly, and in one encounter he himself was very near falling a prisoner. In eight months he +was relieved of his post, and General Weyler, Marquis de Teneriffe, who had a reputation for severity, succeeded him in command. +He was a man of the Duke of Alba type—the ideal of the traditional Spanish Colonial party who recognized no colonistsʼ rights, +and regarded concessions of liberty to the colonies as maternal dispensations to be hoped for only, but never demanded. Antonio +Cánovas, the ultra-Conservative Prime Minister, had declared that so long as an armed rebel remained in the field he would +not grant reforms, so the prospect of a settlement of the disputes between the Government and the governed was hopeless during +that administration. The duration of the civil war had seriously prejudiced American trade interests; the pursuance of a conflict +<a id="d0e16252"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e16252">418</a>]</span>under the conditions imposed by General Weyler, who caused all non-combatant Islanders to be “concentrated” in places where +they were left to starve, aroused the just indignation of America and Europe alike. The hand of the assassin brought the Cánovas +Ministry to an end on August 8, 1897; General Weyler was recalled six weeks later, and the United States Government, which +had so repeatedly protested against the indefinite and wanton waste of lives and fortune in Cuba, dictated to Spain a limit +to its continuance. After a Conservative interregnum of six weeks under the leadership of General Marcelo Azárraga, Práxedes +Sagasta came into power at the head of a Liberal ministry and with a Cuban autonomy bill in his portfolio. The newly-appointed +Gov.-General, Ramon Blanco, Marquis de Peña Plata, ex-Gov.-General of the Philippines (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e15291">377</a>)—a more noble and compassionate man than his predecessor—unsuccessfully essayed the policy of coercing the rebels in arms +whilst cajoling peaceful autonomists and separatists with the long-talked-of self-government. Nevertheless, the separatist +movement had in no way abated when the Autonomy Bill was promulgated, and an insular Cuban Government was formed on January +1, 1898. In the meantime the incident of the blowing-up of the American warship <i>Maine</i>, the cause of which has not yet been made clear to the satisfaction of the world, had further incensed the war party in the +United States.<a id="d0e16263src" href="#d0e16263" class="noteref">1</a> Autonomy had come too late; examined in detail it was but another form of Spanish dominion, open to almost similar abuses; +it was not the will of the people, and it failed to bring peace. The thousands “concentrated” under Weylerʼs rule still formed +a moribund mass of squalid misery which Spain was still unable or unwilling to relieve. Americaʼs offer to alleviate their +wretchedness materially was received with suspicion, hemmed in with conditions, and not openly rejected for the want of physical +power to do so. Three months of insular government and over 200,000 Spanish troops had effected practically nothing; the prospect +of peace was hopeless, and the United States of America formally called upon Spain to evacuate the Island. Spain argued the +point; America insisted on the course dictated, and sent an ultimatum to Madrid on April 20, 1898, to be accepted or otherwise +within three days. The ministers Polo de Bernabé and General Woodford withdrew from Washington and Madrid respectively, and +war broke out between the United States and Spain on Saturday, April 23, 1898. +<a id="d0e16272"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e16272">419</a>]</span></p> +<p>In anticipation of hostilities an American fleet had concentrated at Hong-Kong. On April 23 Major-General Black, the officer +administering the Colony, issued a proclamation of neutrality, and Commodore Dewey withdrew his fleet from British waters +to Mirs Bay,<a id="d0e16275src" href="#d0e16275" class="noteref">2</a> at that time within Chinese jurisdiction. + +</p> +<p>It was known in Manila that the hostile squadron was on the way to the Philippine capital. Submarine mines were laid, or said +to have been laid, for some old cable was purchased for the purpose from the telegraph-ship <i>Sherard Osborn </i>when the submarine cable was removed from Bolinao and carried on to Manila. Admiral Patricio Montojo went with four ships +to await the arrival of the enemy off Subig (Zambales) on the west coast of Luzon. Subig is a fine natural harbour, but with +precipitous shores just as Nature has made it. For years the “project” had existed to carry a State railway there from Manila, +and make Subig the principal Government Naval Station and Arsenal instead of Cavite. But personal interests and the sloth +of the Government combined to frustrate the plan. Under the pressing circumstances the military authorities pretended to be +doing something there, and sent up a commission. Admiral Montojo expected to find batteries of artillery mounted and 14 torpedoes +in readiness, but absolutely nothing had been done, so he at once returned to Manila Bay, and prepared to meet the adversary +off Cavite. In Cavite there were two batteries, with three guns between them, but at the last moment two defective guns were +put ashore there from the <i>Don Juan de Austria</i> and two similar pieces from the <i>Castilla</i>. + +</p> +<p>In Hong-Kong there was great agitation among the members of the Philippine Patriotic League (<i lang="es">Junta Patriotica</i>) and the rebel chiefs exiled under the alleged Treaty of Biac-na-bató. The League had presented to several European Governments, +through its own agents, a sort of <i>Memorandum</i>, to which no official recognition could be given. The leaguers were now anxious to co-operate with the Americans in compelling +the Spaniards to evacuate the Archipelago. An influential American in Hong-Kong accepted the honorary post of treasurer of +the Patriotic League Fund, but quarrels over the spoil resulted in General Aguinaldo being obliged by one of his ex-ministers +to pay him his share, amounting to several thousands of Mexican dollars. Under these circumstances General Aguinaldo and his +suite proceeded to Singapore, travelling <i>incognito</i>, so as to avoid any undue interference, and Aguinaldo took the opportunity to explain in certain official quarters the existing +conditions in the Philippines. The rebel general opportunely arrived in Singapore at or about the time of the outbreak of +American-Spanish hostilities. Certain American authorities in the Far East were desirous of utilizing <a id="d0e16303"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e16303">420</a>]</span>Aguinaldoʼs services and prestige with the armed natives to control them and prevent reprisals when the American forces should +appear before Manila. It was hoped that, in this way, the lives of many Spaniards in the Islands would be spared. Indeed, +it eventually resulted so, for Aguinaldo, with admirable tact, restrained any impolitic movement on the part of his followers +during the American operations against the Spaniards. Only one who had lived in the Islands could adequately appreciate the +unbounded confidence some 20,000 armed natives must have had in Aguinaldo to have refrained, at his bidding, from retaliating +on their old masters. According to <i>El Liberal </i>newspaper of Madrid, dated June 28, 1898 (which quotes from <i>El Dia</i>), the aspirations of the Revolutionary Party would appear to have been, at that date, as follows, viz.:— + + +</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p>1. Philippine Independence to be proclaimed. + + +</p> +<p>2. A Federal Republic to be established by vote of the rebels; pending the taking of this vote Aguinaldo was to appoint the +members of that Government. + + +</p> +<p>3. The Federal Republic to recognize a temporary intervention of American and European Administrative Commissions. + + +</p> +<p>4. An American Protectorate to be recognized on the same terms as those fixed for Cuba. + + +</p> +<p>5. Philippine ports to be opened to all the world. + + +</p> +<p>6. Precautionary measures to be adopted against the influx of Chinese. + + +</p> +<p>7. The existing judicial system to be reformed. + + +</p> +<p>8. Liberty of the press and right of assembly to be proclaimed. + + +</p> +<p>9. Ample tolerance of all religions and sects, but abolition and expulsion of all monastic Orders. + + +</p> +<p>10. Measures to be adopted for working up the natural resources of the Archipelago. + + +</p> +<p>11. The wealth of the country to be developed by the construction of highroads and railways. + + +</p> +<p>12. The obstacles operating against the development of enterprises and employment of foreign capital to be removed. + + +</p> +<p>13. The new Government to preserve public order and check all reprisals against the Spaniards. + + +</p> +<p>14. Spanish officials to be transported to another safe and healthy island until there should be an opportunity for their +return to Spain. + +</p> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>From Singapore, General Emilio Aguinaldo returned with his suite to Hong-Kong, where instructions had been given apparently +favouring his plans for co-operation in the Islands. Consequent on this, General Aguinaldo and his staff made preparations +for proceeding to Manila in an American warship when it should be deemed opportune to do so. About the same time the Philippine +Patriotic League issued a <a id="d0e16343"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e16343">421</a>]</span>proclamation which is too long to reproduce here, as it covers eight folios of print. This document sets forth that whereas +the Treaty of Biac-na-bató had not been fulfilled by the Spanish Government, the Revolutionists considered themselves absolved +therefrom, and morally free again to take the offensive in open warfare for the security of their rights and liberty. But +this document does not quote any of the text of the above alleged treaty. Proclamations and exhortations to the rebels were +issued with such frequency that it would be tedious to cite them all, but the following is a fair example:— + + +</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<div class="body"> +<div class="div1"> +<p><i>(Translation of Full Text)</i> + + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Philippine Patriots</span>:— + + +</p> +<p>A nation which has nothing good can give nothing. It is evident we cannot depend on Spain to obtain the welfare we all desire. +A country like Spain, where social evolution is at the mercy of monks and tyrants, can only communicate to us its own instincts +of calumny, infamy, inquisitorial proceedings, avarice, secret police, false pretences, humiliation, deprivation of liberties, +slavery, and moral and material decay which characterize its history. Spain will need much time to shake off the parasites +which have grown upon and cling to her; she has no self-dependence so long as her nationality is composed of inquisitorial +monks, ambitious soldiers, demoralized civil servants, and a populace bred to support this state of things in silence. It +is therefore useless to expect anything from Spain. + + +</p> +<p>During three and a half centuries Spainʼs policy has been a delusion. Is there a conflict between Spain and England or Holland? +Then the friars come and relate to us preposterous absurdities of the miracles of Saint Francis and of the Image of the Virgin +of the Rosary, whilst Simon de Anda calls the Pampango natives his brothers so long as they fight to save the Spanish flag +falling into the hands of English or Dutch <i>savages!</i> Is the foreign invasion ended? Then the friars, through their salaried agents in the press, reward us with epithets such +as monkey, buffalo, etc. Is there another conflict imminent between Germany and Spain? Then the friars call the natives Spaniards +and the military officers own us as their sons and they dub us brave soldiers. Is the conflict finished? Then we are again +overgrown boys, beings of inferior race and incapable of being civilized. Is there now to be a struggle with Americans? Then +General Augusti, who is the living symbol of Spanish authority, who ought to be the most prudent of the prudent, the most +cultivated of the cultivated, points at America as a nation composed of all social excrescences; the friars and their enslaved +Spaniards want again to cajole and cheat us with offers of participation in public affairs, recognition of <a id="d0e16364"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e16364">422</a>]</span>the military grades of ex-rebel chiefs, and other twaddle degrading to those who would listen to it. In fact, they have called +into their councils the sons of the country, whilst they exclusively carry out their own ideas, and reserve to themselves +the right to set aside all the resolutions at a stroke. They offer to enrol in their ranks the insurgents of yesterday, so +that they can have them all shot on the morrow of the present difficulty. What irrision! Do you want another trick exposed? +Now that Spain is in danger of losing the Philippines, the executioners of the other day—the everlasting tyrants—tell us that +America will sell the Islands to England. No, America has its past and its present. America will preserve a clear intelligence; +she is not dominated by friars and tyrants like Spain; she is liberal; she has liberated her slaves against the will of the +Spaniards who were, for the most part, their owners. A country is known by its national character; review its past history +and it is easy to understand the calumny launched against the Americans. But even though we became English, should we not +gain by it? The English have conceded self-government to many of their colonies, and not of the frail delusive sort that Spain +granted to Cuba. In the English colonies there are liberties which Spain never yielded to hers in America or the Philippines. + + +</p> +<p>Our country is very rich, and as a last resource we can buy it from the Americans. Do not be deceived by the Spaniards! Help +the Americans, who promise us our liberty. Do not fall into the error of taking Spain to be a civilized country. Europe and +America consider her the most barbarous of the century. There the weakest is the most persecuted. In no country to-day but +Spain is the Inquisition tolerated. It is proved by the tortures imposed on the prisoners of Montjuich, of the Philippines, +and of Cuba. Spain did not fulfil the agreement entered into with Maximo Gomez at Zanjón, nor that made with Aguinaldo at +Biac-na-bató. Spain is a nation always more ready to promise than to perform. But ask for friars, soldiers, and State dependents +to come and devour our wealth, and instantly you will get them. Spain has nothing else to give, and God grant she will keep +what she has. Spain will flatter you under the present circumstances, but do not be deceived. Submit every fawning offer to +your conscience. Remember the executions of the innocents, the tortures and atrocities which have been the means of covering +with decorations the breasts of those who took the blood of your fathers, brothers, relations and friends. Providence will +aid the Americans in their triumph, for the war is a just one for the nation elected to lead us to the goal of our liberty. +Do not rail against the designs of Providence; it would be suicidal. Aid the Americans! + + +</p> +<p><i>(Anonymous.)</i> + +</p> +</div> +</div> +</div><p> +<a id="d0e16373"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e16373">423</a>]</span></p> +<p>On the other side, far richer in poetic imagination and religious fervour, is the Allocution of the Archbishop of Madrid-Alcalá +published in Madrid on the day hostilities commenced. The following extract will suffice to show how the religious sentiment +of the people was indirectly appealed to to convince them that Spain was defending a noble cause. + + +</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Very Beloved Sons</span>:— + + +</p> +<p>The cursed hunger for gold and the unquenchable thirst for power have combined to tarnish that flag which the Great Queen +Isabella raised, by the hand of Columbus, in the West Indies. With justice trodden under foot, the voice of the Pope unheeded, +and the intervention of the nations despised with arrogance, every road to the counsels of peace has been barred and the horrors +of war have become a necessity. Let Heaven be witness that we are not the authors of this disaster, and let the responsibility +before God be on that vain people whose dogma seems to be that money is the God of the world.... There, ploughing the seas, +go our soldiers and our sailors. Have no fear, let no one weep, unless, indeed, it be for fear of arriving too late for the +fray. Go, braves, to fight with the blessing of the Fatherland. With you goes all Spain, from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic, +from Irun to Tarifa. With what envy do We contemplate you weighing anchor to leave our shores! Oh! why does juvenility, or +decrepitude, or duty deprive us of the joy of taking part in your enterprise? But no! with you goes our Spanish heart.... +May the Immaculate Virgin, whose scapulary hangs around your necks and whose blessed image floats on your flags, protect you +under her mantle in the moment of danger, deliver you from all evil, and shower blessings upon you! May Saint James, patron +of Spain, and the martyr Nicodemus and Saint Telmo and Saint Raymond and the King Saint Ferdinand go before you and ever march +in the vanguard wherever you may go and make you invulnerable to the bullets of the enemy, so that you may return victorious +to tread once more this noble soil and kiss the cheek of the weeping mother who bore you!... We, who cannot go to take part +in the battles, will hold and brandish the arms of prayer, like Moses who prayed on the mountain, whilst Joshua slew his ferocious +enemies in the valley.... God has triumph in His hand and will give it to whom He pleases. He gave it to Spain in Covadonga, +in Las Navas, in El Salado, in the river of Seville, on the plain of Granada, and in a thousand battles which overflow the +pages of history. O Lord, give it us now! Let the nations see that against the right of might there is the might of right! + + +</p> +<p>To all beloved sons, from our heart We have pleasure in <a id="d0e16385"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e16385">424</a>]</span>sending you our pastoral benediction, in the name of the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Ghost. Amen. + + +</p> +<p>Given in our palace in Madrid on the 23rd of April, 1898. + + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">José M<sup>a</sup></span> +<br><i>Archbishop-bishop of Madrid-Alcalá</i>. + +</p> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>This Allocution calls to mind Spainʼs last struggle with Mexico. Was it a battle of the saints? The Spaniards relied on Santa +Isabel; the Mexicans appealed to Santa Guadalupe, and the latter came out victorious. + +</p> +<p>In Manila, as the critical day approached, Gov.-General Augusti issued his general order as to special military service and +his proclamation to the Philippine people. The latter is couched in vituperative and erroneously prophetic language, but both +can be better appreciated from the following translated texts:— + + +</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Special Military Service</span> + + +</p> +<p>Whereas it is necessary to adopt every possible means for the defence of this territory and to render assistance to the army +and the fleet in the approaching operations against the United States of North America, I order: + + +</p> +<p>1. It is hereby declared that a state of war exists. + + +</p> +<p>2. All public functionaries of the State and the municipalities, not exceeding 50 years of age and not physically unfit, are +obliged to take up arms in defence of the country and serve whenever they are required. They will proceed, at once, to their +offices and lodge their names and serve under their present chiefs. + + +</p> +<p>3. All Spaniards and sons of Spaniards (although not born in the Peninsula) above the age of 20 and not more than 50, living +in the Provinces, are also hereby required to take up arms. + + +</p> +<p>4. All those not comprised in the foregoing are at liberty to serve as Volunteers. + + +</p> +<p>(<i>a</i>) All native Spaniards who are not employed in the public offices. + + +</p> +<p>(<i>b</i>) All those who are under 20 and more than 50 years of age, and who are strong enough to endure the fatigue of a campaign. + + +</p> +<p>(<i>c</i>) All foreigners (except North Americans) who are domiciled in Manila or in the capitals of the Provinces. + + +</p> +<p>5. The General Sub-Inspector will organize these Volunteers, and distribute them as required for defensive purposes. + + +</p> +<p>6. Public functionaries will receive their orders for military service from their respective administrative chiefs. + + +</p> +<p>7. From this date no one capable of bearing arms is allowed to leave these Islands. This prohibition does not apply to those +who are seriously ill. + +</p> +</div><p> + +<a id="d0e16441"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e16441">425</a>]</span> +</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Proclamation</span> + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Spaniards</span>:— + + +</p> +<p>Between Spain and the United States of North America hostilities have broken out. + + +</p> +<p>The moment has arrived to prove to the world that we possess the spirit to conquer those who, pretending to be loyal friends, +take advantage of our misfortunes and abuse our hospitality, using means which civilized nations consider unworthy and disreputable. + + +</p> +<p>The North American people, composed of all the social excrescences, have exhausted our patience and provoked war with their +perfidious machinations, with their acts of treachery, with their outrages against the law of nations and international treaties. + + +</p> +<p>The struggle will be short and decisive. The God of Victories will give us one as brilliant and complete as the righteousness +and justice of our cause demand. Spain, which counts upon the sympathies of all the nations, will emerge triumphantly from +this new test, humiliating and blasting the adventurers from those States that, without cohesion and without a history, offer +to humanity only infamous traditions and the sorry spectacle of Chambers in which appear united insolence and defamation, +cowardice and cynicism. + + +</p> +<p>A squadron manned by foreigners, possessing neither instruction nor discipline, is preparing to come to this Archipelago with +the blackguardly intention of robbing us of all that means life, honour, and liberty. Pretending to be inspired by a courage +of which they are incapable, the North American seamen undertake as an enterprise capable of realization the substitution +of Protestanism for the Catholic religion you profess, to treat you as tribes refractory to civilization, to take possession +of your riches as if they were unacquainted with the rights of property, and to kidnap those persons whom they consider useful +to man their ships or to be serviceable in agricultural or industrial labour. + + +</p> +<p>Vain designs! Ridiculous boastings! + + +</p> +<p>Your indomitable bravery will suffice to frustrate the attempt to carry out their plans. You will not allow the faith you +profess to be made a mockery of, with impious hands placed on the temple of the true God, the images you adore to be thrown +down by unbelief. The aggressors shall not profane the tombs of your fathers, they shall not gratify their lustful passions +at the cost of your wivesʼ and daughtersʼ honour, or appropriate the property that your industry has accumulated as a provision +for your old age. No, they shall not perpetrate any of the crimes inspired by their wickedness and covetousness, because your +valour and your patriotism will suffice to punish and abase the people who, claiming to be civilized and polished, have exterminated +the <a id="d0e16466"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e16466">426</a>]</span>natives of North America instead of bringing to them the life of civilization and of progress. + + +</p> +<p>Filipinos, prepare for the struggle, and united under the glorious Spanish banner, which is ever bedecked with laurels, let +us fight with the conviction that victory will reward our efforts; against the shouts of our enemies let us resist with Christian +decision and the patriotic cry of “Viva España! + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Manila</span>, <i>23rd of April</i>, 1898. + + +</p> +<p>Your General, +<br><span class="smallcaps">Basilio Augusti y Davila</span>. + +</p> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>The volunteers and guerilla battalions which had been so recently disbanded by General Primo de Rivera, because they terrorized +the peaceful inhabitants, were now publicly thanked and praised for their past services and called upon again to serve their +country. The Mayor of Manila issued his own proclamation, exhorting the inhabitants to help the Spaniards against the Americans. +Archbishop Nozaleda also made his appeal to the people, assuring them that four Spanish battleships were on their way out +(although, as a matter of fact, only one existed, namely, the <i>Pelayo</i> 8,500 tons, built in 1887), and that from direct communication with the Almighty he had learnt that the most Christian Spain +would be victorious in the next engagement. + +</p> +<p>There was a general stampede of those who could get away; numbers of families fled up the Pasig River towards the Lake of +Bay. The approaches to Manila from the north were held by the rebels; Cavite Province threw off the cloak of pacification +and sent fresh levies to invest the highroads leading from the south to the capital. General Augustiʼs wife and children, +who had been conducted for safety to Macabebe (Lower Pampanga), were kidnapped by the rebels. All Americans (about 25), except +one family, took refuge on board foreign ships in the bay. The one exception was a Mr. Johnson, who had been travelling through +the Islands with a cinematograph show, and he refused to remove his wife, who had just given birth. The well-known s.s. <i>Esmeralda</i> took on board a crowd of passengers for Hong-Kong at fancy rates of passage. Refugees offered as much as four times the usual +passage-money for a saloon berth, and deck-passengers were willing to pay three times the normal rate. The Chinese were leaving +the Islands by hundreds by any available opportunity, for they had just as much to fear from the loyal as the rebel faction. +The rich Chinese were robbed and the labouring class were pressed into service fit for beasts of burden. Despised by the Spaniards +and hated by the natives, their lives were not safe anywhere. Foreign families of neutral nationality sought more tranquil +asylum far beyond the suburbs or on ships lying in the harbour. Two days before the Americans arrived a native regiment was +suspected of <a id="d0e16494"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e16494">427</a>]</span>disaffection. The Spanish officers therefore picked out six corporals and shot them forthwith, threatening to do the same +on the morrow if the ringleaders were not handed over. During the night the whole regiment went over to the rebels with their +rifles and accoutrements. No intelligent European foreigner entertained any doubt as to the result of the coming contest, +but the general fear (which happily proved to be unfounded) was that it would be followed by an indiscriminate massacre of +the Spaniards. + +</p> +<p>There were warships of several nations in the bay, and the Spanish fleet was moored off Cavite awaiting the arrival of the +adversaryʼs squadron. The Spanish men-of-war, which were always painted white, had their colour changed to dark grey like +the American ships. All coast lights were extinguished. The Island of Corregidor and Funta Restinga were hastily supplied +with a few 6-inch guns from the <i>Castilla</i>. Punta Gorda, Punta Larisi, the rock El Fraile, and Caballo Island had toy batteries compared with the American armament. + +</p> +<p>The American men-of-war left Mirs Bay (opposite to Hong-Kong Island) on April 27, under the command of Commodore Dewey, and +on the way made a reconnaissance at Subig, but finding no opponent there, they steamed on to Manila. With all lights put out +the American ships entered the bay, passing Corregidor Island at 3 a.m. on Sunday, May 1, 1898. The <i>Olympia</i>, with Commodore Dewey aboard, led the way. The defenders of Corregidor Island<a id="d0e16506src" href="#d0e16506" class="noteref">3</a> were apparently slumbering, for the <i>Olympia</i> had already passed when a solitary cannon-shot was heard and responded to. Then a shot or two were fired from the rock El +Fraile and from the battery of Punta Sangley. The American squadron kept its course in line of battle; the Spanish ships, +under the command of Admiral Montojo, who was on board the <i>Reina Cristina</i>, cleared for action, and the opposing fleets took up positions off the north of Cavite (<i>vide</i> plan of Cavite). + +</p> +<p>After an intimation of “no surrender” from the Spaniards, by a cannon-shot fired from the Fort of Santiago towards the approaching +United States fleet, the American ships opened fire, to which the Spanish fleet responded with a furious broadside; but being +badly directed it did very little damage. The <i>Don Antonio de Ulloa</i> discharged a broadside at the enemyʼs ships with almost no effect, and simultaneously the drums were beaten, whilst the officers +and crews shouted “Long live the King, Queen, and Spain!” Firing on both sides then became general. The well-aimed shots of +the Americans were beginning to tell forcibly against the Spaniards. The <i>Don Juan de Austria</i> advanced towards the <i>Olympia</i> and was met with a shower of shot and shell, obliging her to turn back. The <i>Reina Cristina</i>, seeing the failure of the <i>Don Juan de Austria</i>, steamed full-speed towards the <i>Olympia</i>, intending to engage her at short range, but a perfect hurricane of projectiles from the <i>Olympia</i> <a id="d0e16541"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e16541">428</a>]</span>made her retreat with her decks strewn with the dead and dying. The <i>Baltimore</i> had one gun put out of action by the Hontoria guns of Punta Sangley, whilst half a dozen men were slightly injured. The <i>Boston</i> also was slightly damaged, but further than that the American ships suffered little or nothing. By 7.30 a.m. the Spanish +flagship <i>Reina Cristina</i> was in flames, so a boat was lowered to transfer the Admiral and his staff to the <i>Isla de Cuba</i>. The captain of the <i>Reina Cristina</i>, Don Luis Cadarso, although mortally wounded, heroically commanded his men up to the moment of death. By 8 a.m. the Spanish +ships were decidedly crippled, and the American squadron withdrew to another part of the bay, where, behind a number of foreign +war and merchant ships, they had left two supply transports, from which they took fresh ammunition. Meantime the little Spanish +gunboats <i>General Lezo, Marqués del Duero, Manila, Velasco</i>, and <i>Argos</i>, which were quite unfit for action, ran ashore at Cavite Viejo. The three shore-batteries of Fort Santiago, the Luneta battlement, +and Fort San Antonio Abad (Malate) respectively continued ineffectual firing towards the American fleet until the Commodore +sent a message telling them to cease fire or he would shell the city. At 11 a.m. the Americans returned in line of battle, +and opened fire on the Spanish ships which still had their flags flying, and cannonaded and silenced the forts at Punta Sangley +and Cañacao. These operations lasted about one hour. Of the Spanish ships the <i>Castillo</i>, and <i>Reina Cristina</i> were burnt; the <i>Don Juan de Austria</i> was blown up, and the <i>Don Antonio de Ulloa</i>, pierced all over with shot, sank after the action, and about half of her crew which had survived the battle were drowned. +Only the two cruisers <i>Isla de Cuba</i> and <i>Isla de Luzon</i> remained in fighting condition, but the position was so hopeless that Admiral Montojo ordered them to run aground in the +Bay of Bacoor. + +</p> +<p>The Americans then opened fire on the Arsenal and Fort of Cavite, which had not a single gun left in place. Soon a Spanish +officer, named Lostoa, signalled for a truce to save the women, children, and wounded. An American officer met him and replied +that having destroyed the fleet the American mission was ended for the present, and agreed to suspend firing provided the +shore-batteries at the river-mouth were silent. General Augusti was consulted as to this condition, and agreed to it. The +mail-steamer <i>Isla de Mindanao</i> was aground off Las Piñas, and being armed as a cruiser the Americans fired on her and she was soon ablaze. There was still +another parley with reference to Cavite. The Americans demanded the surrender of the Arsenal, the Admiral, and the surviving +crews of the destroyed fleet. As General Peña declined to surrender Cavite, the Americans gave the Spaniards two hours to +evacuate, under the threat of bombarding Manila if the demand were not complied with. Again the answer was negative, and five +hours were allowed so that General Peña could consult with the <a id="d0e16587"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e16587">429</a>]</span>Captain-General. General Augusti having authorized the evacuation, in less than two hours Cavite and the whole isthmus, including +San Roque, Caridad, Estanzuela, and Dalahican, were under American control. All the Spanish families returned to Manila by +land. The next day (May 2) the <i>débris</i>was cleared away from Cavite and the environs, and the dwellings were cleansed and put in order for indefinite military occupation. + +</p> +<p>The evacuation of Corregidor Island was demanded by the Americans, and the 100 men composing the garrison were allowed to +depart in boats for Naig on the west coast of Cavite. Their commander, however, surrendered himself prisoner, and went on +board the <i>Baltimore</i> with his family. He was at once offered (but wisely refused) his liberty, and later on he was put ashore at Balanga (Bataan). + + +</p> +<p></p> +<div id="d0e16598" class="figure floatRight" style="width: 303px"><img border="0" src="images/p430-4.jpg" alt="Maj.-General Wesley Merritt" width="303" height="397"><p class="figureHead">Maj.-General Wesley Merritt</p> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>On the Spanish side the losses in men and officers amounted to about 400 killed. It was a decisive victory for the Americans; +the entire Spanish fleet in Philippine waters was destroyed, excepting a few small gunboats stationed about the southern islands.<a id="d0e16604src" href="#d0e16604" class="noteref">4</a> After a 15 monthsʼ cruise one of these—the <i>Callao</i>—steamed into Manila Bay on May 12 in complete ignorance of what had happened. The Americans fired a warning shot, and ordered +her to lower her flag. With little hesitation she did so, in view of the immensely superior force displayed. The vessel became +a prize, and the commander a prisoner of war. But he was shortly offered his liberty on parole, which he unfortunately accepted, +for the Spaniards in Manila had so lost their heads that they accused him of cowardice in not having fought the whole American +squadron! He was actually court-martialled and condemned to death, but afterwards reprieved. + + +</p> +<p></p> +<div id="d0e16611" class="figure floatLeft" style="width: 303px"><img border="0" src="images/p430-1.jpg" alt="Admiral George Dewey" width="303" height="396"><p class="figureHead">Admiral George Dewey</p> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>The Spaniards exhibited great bravery in the battle of Cavite, and man for man they proved themselves to be in no way inferior +to their opponents. Considering the wretched condition of their old-fashioned ships and armament compared with the splendid +modern equipment which the Americans brought, no other result could have been expected. The American losses were seven men +wounded, none killed, and only slight damage to one vessel. + + +</p> +<p></p> +<div id="d0e16618" class="figure floatRight" style="width: 299px"><img border="0" src="images/p430-2.jpg" alt="Admiral Patricio Montojo" width="299" height="397"><p class="figureHead">Admiral Patricio Montojo</p> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>Long before sunset Admiral Montojo and his surviving officers found their way to Manila.<a id="d0e16624src" href="#d0e16624" class="noteref">5</a> In the evening the Admiral serenely passed the hours in his suburban villa, whilst the Americans were in possession of the +Port of Manila, and the stars and stripes floated over the town and arsenal of Cavite, and the forts of Cañacao and Punta +Sangley. So little did the people and the ignorant Spanish <a id="d0e16627"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e16627">430</a>]</span>priests understand how a modern military occupation was conducted that when Commodore Dewey landed his marines a deputation +of friars and nuns met him to humbly crave clemency for the vanquished. The entry of the American squadron, without opposition, +into the Bay of Manila, was a great surprise to the inhabitants of the capital. Whilst the women and children were driven +off to the suburbs of the city and near-lying villages, male Spaniards, from the highest to the lowest—merchants, State dependents, +Spanish troops, and even those native auxiliaries who still remained loyal hastened to assure the Gov.-General that “the enemy +should not land in Manila without passing over their dead bodies.” Subsequent facts, however, proved these pompous vows to +be merely a figure of speech. From the city walls, the terraces of houses, the church towers, and every available height, +thousands of curious sightseers witnessed the brave defence and the complete defeat of the Spaniards. As the American fleet +advanced in line of battle a Spanish transport was scuttled at the mouth of the Pasig River to bar the entrance. All the small +steamers and sailing-craft in the river moved up as near as possible to the <i lang="es">Puente de España</i>. The obsolete guns on the Luneta battlement fired a few solitary shots without the least effect; the Fort of Santiago, defending +the Pasig River entrance, was almost silent, although guns, said to be over a century old, had been hastily mounted there, +notwithstanding the fact that the colonel, who was instructed to have the rust chipped off these ancient pieces of artillery, +committed suicide in despair. Not a single torpedo had been brought into action by the Spaniards. There were several in stock +at Cavite Arsenal, but, when wanted, each had an important piece missing, so they were unserviceable. About 4.30 p.m. the +American ships changed their position, and moved towards Manila City. A formal demand was made on the Gov.-General Augusti +to surrender the capital. The British Consul, who had received instructions to look after American interests pending hostilities, +served as the medium of communication between the representatives of the conflicting parties. The Consuls had an interview +with the Captain-General, who, after a brief consultation with his colleagues, gave the customary Spanish reply to the effect +that he would resist to the last drop of blood in his veins. Frequent intercourse took place between the Spanish Gov.-General +and the American Commodore through the intermediary of the British Consul. The same afternoon another British, another French, +and another German man-of-war entered the Bay. Rear-Admiral Dewey (for he had just been promoted in rank) declared the port +blockaded. + + +</p> +<p></p> +<div id="d0e16633" class="figure floatRight" style="width: 298px"><img border="0" src="images/p430-3.jpg" alt="General Basilio Augusti" width="298" height="395"><p class="figureHead">General Basilio Augusti</p> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>On May 2 he demanded to be put in possession of the telegraph-station, and on this being refused he ordered the cable connecting +Luzon with Hong-Kong to be cut. The Spanish authorities had just time before this measure was taken to report the bare facts +to Madrid <a id="d0e16639"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e16639">431</a>]</span>by cable. The news produced immense consternation in the Spanish capital. The whole city was instantly in uproar. Mobs of +people filled the streets, wildly denouncing the incapability of a Government which could lead them to such disaster. The +newspaper offices were thronged. Special supplements were issued as quickly as possible. The cafés, clubs, and other public +meeting-places were besieged. General Borbon drove out in a carriage from which he harangued the populace, and was, in consequence, +sent to a fortress for three months. There was an attempt at holding a mass meeting in the <i lang="es">Puerta del Sol</i>, but the surging crowd started down the <i lang="es">Calle de Sevilla</i> and the <i lang="es">Carrera de San Gerónimo</i> shouting, “Long live Weyler!” “To the house of Weyler!” They reached his residence, and after a series of frantic <i>vivas</i> for the army, navy, etc., they called on General Weyler to appear at the balcony. But being himself in somewhat strained +relations with the existing Government, he did not think it prudent to show himself. Then some one having set up the cry of +“Down with the whole Government!” which was responded to with frenzied applause, the rioters set out for Sagastaʼs house, +returning by the <i>Carrera de San Gerónimo</i>. At that moment the mounted civil guard met and charged the crowd. Many were trodden under foot, and arrests were made. The +Civil Governor, Señor Aguilera, followed up in his carriage, and when the military police had dispersed the general mass, +leaving only here and there a group, the Civil Governor stepped out of his carriage and addressed them. His words were hissed +from the balcony of a club, and it was already past midnight when the first outburst of public indignation and despair had +exhausted itself. On May 2 the <i>Heraldo</i> of Madrid, calmly reviewing the naval disaster, commented as follows:— + + +</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p>It was no caprice of the fortune of war. From the very first cannon-shot our fragile ships were at the mercy of the formidable +hostile squadron; were condemned to fall one after the other under the fire of the American batteries; they were powerless +to strike, and were defended only by the valour and breasts of their sailors. What has been gained by the illusion that Manila +was fortified? What has been gained by the intimation that the broad and beautiful bay on whose bosom the Spanish Fleet perished +yesterday had been rendered inaccessible? What use was made of the famous Island of Corregidor? What was done with its guns? +Where were the torpedoes? Where were those defensive preparations concerning which we were requested to keep silence? +</p> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p></p> +<div id="d0e16664" class="figure floatLeft" style="width: 273px"><img border="0" src="images/p430-5.jpg" alt="Archbishop Bernardino Nozaleda" width="273" height="380"><p class="figureHead">Archbishop Bernardino Nozaleda</p> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>Several merchant vessels were seized in and about Manila Bay, and supplies from seawards were cut off from the city, which +was quite at the mercy of Admiral Dewey, who could have bombarded it and forced surrender the same day. But it was not easy +to foresee what might <a id="d0e16670"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e16670">432</a>]</span>follow. Admiral Dewey had full discretion to act as circumstances might seem to guide him, but it was evident that whatever +the surrender of the Captain-General of the Archipelago might theoretically imply, a military occupation of Manila was far +from being tantamount to possession of the Islands. Hemmed in everywhere on land by the insurgent forces which now occupied +and collected taxes in several Luzon provinces, the Spaniards could have been shelled out of the capital and forced to capitulate, +or driven to extermination by the thousands of armed natives thirsting for their blood. The Americans had, consequently, a +third party to consider. The nativesʼ anxiety to oust the Spaniards was far stronger than their wish to be under American, +or indeed any foreign, control. But whilst a certain section of the common people was perfectly indifferent about such matters, +others, wavering at the critical moment between their opposition to the Spaniards and repulsion of the foreign invader, whoever +he might be, proclaimed their intention to cast in their lot with the former. Lastly, there was Aguinaldoʼs old rebel party, +which rallied to the one cry “Independence.” “Nothing succeeds like success,” and if the rebel version of the alleged Treaty +of Biac-na-bató had been fulfilled in the spirit, no doubt Aguinaldo would have been unanimously revered as a great reformer. +But the relinquishment of the strife by the leaders, the money transaction, and the immediate renewal of Spanish severities, +together created an impression in the minds of the rebel rank-and-file that, in some way, their general welfare had been sacrificed +to personal interest. It was doubtful, therefore, how Aguinaldo would be received on his return to the Islands. With the object +of investigating the feelings of the old rebel party, the leader José Alejandrino and two other rebels accompanied the American +expedition to Cavite, where they disembarked. Several days passed in convincing the rebels of Aguinaldoʼs good faith in all +that had occurred, and in the meantime Aguinaldo himself arrived on May 19 with 12 other rebel leaders in the American despatch-boat +<i>Hugh McCulloch</i>. It yet remained doubtful whether he still held the confidence of the rank-and-file; but when he at length landed at Cavite, +his old companions-in-arms, and many more, rallied to his standard with the greatest enthusiasm. The rebels at that date were +computed to number 30,000, and Aguinaldo, on taking the command, declared himself Dictator. Aguinaldo was, naturally, at that +period, on the most amicable terms with Admiral Dewey, who allowed him to have two modern field-pieces, 500 rifles, and 200,000 +rounds of ammunition, enjoining on him the strict observance of his engagement to repress reprisals against the Spaniards. + +</p> +<p>To prepare the natives for the arrival of the Americans, Emilio Aguinaldo sent over in advance of the American Fleet the following +exhortation:— + +<a id="d0e16677"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e16677">433</a>]</span> +</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Compatriots</span>:— + + +</p> +<p>Divine Providence is about to place independence within our reach, in a manner most acceptable to a free and independent people. + + +</p> +<p>The Americans, not for mercenary motives but for the sake of humanity, in response to the woes of the persecuted, have thought +fit to extend their protecting arm to our beloved country, now that they have been obliged to sever their relations with Spain +on account of the tyranny practised in Cuba, to the great prejudice of the large commercial interests which the Americans +have there. An American squadron is at this moment preparing to sail for the Philippines. We, your brothers, fear you may +be induced to fire on the Americans. No, brothers, never make this mistake. Rather blow out your own brains than treat with +enmity those who are your liberators. + + +</p> +<p>Your natural enemies, your executioners, the authors of your misery and your woe, are the Spaniards who rule you. Raise against +these your weapons and your hatred. Understand well, against the Spaniards; never against the Americans. Do not heed the Governor-Generalʼs +decree, calling you to arms, even though it cost you your lives. Die rather than be ungrateful to our American liberators. +The Governor-General calls you to arms. Why? To defend your Spanish tyrants? To defend those who have despised you and in +public speeches called for your extermination—those who have treated you little better than savages? No! no! a thousand times, +no! + + +</p> +<p>Glance at history and you will see that in all Spainʼs wars undertaken in the Far East, Philippine blood has been sacrificed; +we were sent to fight for the French in Cochin China over a matter which in no way concerned us; we were forced by Simon de +Anda to spill our blood against the English, who, in any case, would have been better rulers than the Spaniards; every year +our sons are taken away to be sacrificed in Mindanao and Sulu against those who, we are led to believe, are our enemies when, +in reality, they are our brothers, fighting, like us, for their liberty. After such a sacrifice of blood against the English, +the Annamites, the Mindanaos, etc., what reward or thanks have we received from the Spanish Government? Obscurity, poverty, +the slaughter of our dear ones. Enough, brothers, of this Spanish tutelage! + + +</p> +<p>Note that the Americans will attack by sea and prevent any reinforcements coming from Spain, therefore the insurgents must +attack by land. + + +</p> +<p>You will, probably, have more than sufficient arms, because the Americans, having arms, will find means to help us. Wherever +you see the American flag, there flock in numbers. They are our redeemers. + +<a id="d0e16696"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e16696">434</a>]</span></p> +<p>Our unworthy names are nothing, but we all invoke the name of the greatest patriot our country has seen, certain in the hope +that his spirit will be with us and guide us to victory, our immortal <span class="smallcaps">José Rizal</span>. + +</p> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>Cavite being occupied by the American forces, foreign Manila residents were permitted to take refuge there, for no one could +tell when the Spaniards would be forced to capitulate, or what might happen if they did. Meantime the rebels had cut off, +to a considerable extent, but not entirely, supplies of food to the capital, which was, however, well stored; and at no time +during the three and a half monthsʼ siege was there a danger of famine among the civilian population, although prices of commodities +gradually advanced to about double the normal rates. Even the hotels in the city only charged double prices. The Spanish troops +fared far worse; their condition became more and more deplorable. All were badly and insufficiently fed, as much from disorganized +commissariat arrangements as from actual want of supplies. The latest arrivals of youthful raw recruits particularly felt +the pangs of hunger, and as the swarming rebels took one outpost after another from its emaciated defenders and raided the +adjacent provinces, the Spanish prisoners in their hands (soldiers, friars, and civil servants) reached the figure of thousands. +Among them was Brig.-General Garcia Peña (lately in command of Cavite), a colonel, several other officers, a civil governor, +etc., and some hundreds of volunteers. + +</p> +<p>Of the neutral warships in the bay, Germany had sent the largest number, and the actions of their commanders caused much anxiety +to the blockading forces. In the city the German Consul made little secret of his sympathies for Spain, and was in frequent +consultation with the Captain-General. German and Spanish officers fraternized freely in the streets and cafés. On May 18 +a German steamer, with cargo and provisions, was reported outside Manila Bay, but her entry into the port was forbidden by +the Americans. Later on the commander of a German man-of-war and his staff were received and fêted by the Captain-General. +These German officers were invited to a picnic at San Juan del Monte accompanied by several general and other high Spanish +military officers. The German commanderʼs post-prandial oration at the feast was much commented upon, for he is said to have +declared (presumably on his own responsibility) that so long as William II was Emperor of Germany the Philippines should never +come under American sway. The party then rode back to Manila, watched by the rebels, who were too wise to intercept them and +so jeopardize their own cause by creating international complications. There is little doubt that the attitude taken up by +the Germans nurtured the hope entertained by Spaniards all over the world, that at the last hour some political <a id="d0e16707"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e16707">435</a>]</span>entanglement between the other Powers might operate beneficially for Spainʼs interests. + +</p> +<p>The city and commercial suburb of Binondo wore their usual aspect, although trade was almost at a standstill. The undisguised +sympathies of Great Britain for America revived the long dormant feeling of distrust and ill-will towards the British residents, +which now became so marked that the Captain-General issued a proclamation commanding due respect to be paid to neutral foreigners. +Even this did not prevent a Spanish officer spitting in the face of an Englishman. Indeed, at any time, there was far more +danger to all civilian classes from the Spanish soldiery than from the rebels, who were strictly enjoined by Admiral Dewey +not to attempt to enter the city. Had they done so, certainly their choicest prize would have been the Archbishop Nozaleda, +who, well aware of this, escaped, long before the capitulation of the city, to Shanghai on board the German warship <i>Darmstadt</i>. + +</p> +<p>The volunteers, too, were constantly giving trouble to the Spanish authorities, from whom they demanded their pay, and once +when this was refused they threatened to seize the stores. + +</p> +<p>Although trade in and with Manila had been more or less suspended, and at intervals absolutely so, since the great naval engagement, +just a few profited by the circumstances of war. One British firm there, figuratively speaking, “coined” money. They were +able frequently to run a steamer, well known in Chinese waters (in which I have travelled myself), between Manila and Hong-Kong +carrying refugees, who were willing to pay abnormally high rates of passage. In ordinary times fares ranged from ₱50 saloon +accommodation to ₱8 a deck passage. On one trip, for instance, this steamer, with the cabins filled at ₱125 each, carried +1,200 deck passengers (no food) at ₱20, and 30 deck passengers (with food) at ₱30. Their unsold cargoes on the way in steamers +when Manila was blockaded came in for enormously advanced prices. Shiploads of produce which planters and native middlemen +were glad to convert into pesos at panic rates were picked up “dirt cheap,” leaving rich profits to the buyers. When steamers +could not leave Manila, a Britisher, Mr. B——, walked for several days under the tropical sun to embark for Yloilo with trade +news, and steamers were run at high war rates in and out of Borneo, Hong-Kong, and the Philippine southern ports. One British +firm obtained a special licence to run a steamer between Hong-Kong and the port of Dagúpan, hitherto closed to foreign traffic. +These were, naturally, the exceptions, for, upon the whole, the dislocation and stoppage of trade entailed very serious losses +to the general body of merchants. A few days after the bombardment of Cavite the natives refused to accept the notes of the +<i>Banco Español Filipino</i> (the Spanish bank), and a run was made on the bank to convert them into silver. However, the managers of the Hong-Kong and +Shanghai Banking Corporation, and the Chartered Bank of India, <a id="d0e16721"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e16721">436</a>]</span>Australia, and China, came to the rescue of the <i>Banco Español-Filipino</i> and agreed to honour the paper issue in order to check the scare. The three banks thereupon opened their doors and satisfied +the note-holders, ordinary business being, meanwhile, suspended. + +</p> +<p>Aguinaldo had not only been busy organizing his forces, but had, in several engagements with the Spaniards, driven them back +with loss, made prisoners, and replenished his own armouries. He then assumed the <i>Dictatorship</i> and issued the following proclamation:— + + +</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Filipinos</span>:— + + +</p> +<p>The Great North American nation, example of true liberty, and, as such, the friend of freedom for our country oppressed and +subjugated by the tyranny and despotism of its rulers, has come to offer its inhabitants protection as decisive as it is disinterested, +regarding our unfortunate country as <i>gifted with sufficient civilization and aptitude for self-government</i>. In order to justify this high conception formed of us by the great American nation, we ought to abstain from all acts which +would destroy that opinion, such as pillage, robbery and every kind of outrage against persons or property. So as to avoid +international conflicts during the period of our campaign I order as follows:— + + +</p> +<p><i>Article</i> 1.—The lives and properties of all foreigners shall be respected, including in this denomination the Chinese and all Spaniards +who have not directly or indirectly contributed to the bearing of arms against us. + + +</p> +<p><i>Article</i> 2.—Those of the enemy who shall surrender their arms shall be, in like manner, respected. + + +</p> +<p><i>Article</i> 3.—Medical establishments and ambulances shall also be respected as well as the persons and effects connected therewith, +provided they show no hostility. + + +</p> +<p><i>Article</i> 4.—Persons disobeying the above three articles shall be summarily tried and executed if their disobedience should lead to +assassination, incendiarism, robbery or rape. + + +</p> +<p>Given at Cavite, May 24, 1898. + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Emilio Aguinaldo</span>. + +</p> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>On June 8, at 5 p.m., a Philippine deputation, headed by Dr. Santos, waited on the American Consul-General in Singapore and +delivered to him a congratulatory address on the American successes in the war with Spain. In reply to this address, the Consul-General +made some pleasing remarks which were received with vociferous cheers by the Filipinos for the President of the United States +and all sympathizers with their welfare. At the close of the reception a band of Philippine musicians played a selection of +graceful airs of their native isles. + +</p> +<p>With his despatch No. 229, dated Singapore, June 9, the Consul-General <a id="d0e16768"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e16768">437</a>]</span>sent press reports of these proceedings to the Secretary of State in Washington, who replied as follows<a id="d0e16770src" href="#d0e16770" class="noteref">6</a>:— + + +</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p>No. 87. + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Department of State</span>, + + +</p> +<p><i>Washington, July</i> 20, 1898. + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Sir</span>,— + + +</p> +<p>Your No. 229 of the 9th ultimo, inclosing printed copies of a report from the <i>Straits Times</i> of the same day ... with a view to its communication to the Press, has been received and considered. By Departmentʼs telegram +of the 17th of June you were instructed to avoid unauthorized negotiations with the Philippine insurgents. The reasons for +this instruction were conveyed to you in my No. 78 of the 16th of June, by which the Presidentʼs views on the subject of your +relations with General Aguinaldo were fully expressed. The extract now communicated by you from the <i>Straits Times</i> of the 9th of June, has occasioned a feeling of disquietude and a doubt as to whether some of your acts may not have borne +a significance and produced an impression which this Government would be compelled to regret. The address presented to you +by the 25 or 30 Filipinos who gathered about the consulate discloses an understanding on their part that the object of Admiral +Dewey was to support the cause of General Aguinaldo, and that the ultimate object of our action is to secure the independence +of the Philippines “under the protection of the United States.” Your address does not repel this implication, and it moreover +represents that General Aguinaldo was “sought out by you,” whereas it had been the understanding of the Department that you +received him only upon the request of a British subject ... who formerly lived in the Philippines. Your further reference +to General Aguinaldo as “the man for the occasion” and to your “bringing about” the “arrangement” between “General Aguinaldo +and Admiral Dewey which has resulted so happily” also represents the matter in a light which causes apprehension lest your +action may have laid the ground of future misunderstandings and complications. For these reasons the Department has not caused +the article to be given to the Press, lest it might seem thereby to lend a sanction to views, the expression of which it had +not authorized. + + +</p> +<p>Respectfully yours, + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">William R. Day</span>. + +</p> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>During the first few weeks following the Cavite naval battle nothing remarkable occurred between the belligerents. The British +Consul and Vice-Consul were indefatigable in the services they rendered as <a id="d0e16807"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e16807">438</a>]</span>intermediaries between Admiral Dewey and General Augusti. The American fleet was well supplied with coal from British vessels. +The Manila-Dagúpan Railway was in working order, and bringing supplies into the city. The Spanish authorities issued a decree +regulating the price of meat and other commodities. American vessels made occasional trips outside the Bay, and brought in +captive sailing-vessels. Neutral passenger-steamers were allowed to take away refugees other than Spanish subjects. The rebels +outside Manila were very active in the work of burning and pillaging churches and other property. Streams of smoke were daily +seen rising from the valleys. In the outskirts of the city, skirmishes between Spanish troops and rebels were of frequent +occurrence. The Spaniards still managed to preserve routes of communication with the country districts, although, little by +little, the rebels were closing in upon them. Aguinaldo and his subordinate leaders were making strenuous efforts effectually +to cut off all supplies to the city, with the view of co-operating with the Americans to starve the Spaniards into capitulation. +The hospitals in the capital were crowded with wounded soldiers, brought in at great risk from the rural districts. Spanish +soldiers sauntered about the city and Binondo—sad spectacles of emaciation in which body and soul were only kept together +by small doles of rice and dried fish. The volunteers who had enlisted on the conditions of pay, food, and clothing, raised +an unheeded cry of protest, and threatened revolt, whilst the officers whiled away the time in the cafés with resigned indifference. +The Archbishop issued his Pastoral Letter, in which he told the natives that if the foreigners obtained possession of the +Islands there would be an end to all they most dearly cherished. Their altars would be desecrated; the churches would become +temples of heresy; Christian morality would be banished, and vice would become rampant. He reminded them (with the proviso +“circumstances permitting”) that he had appointed June 17 as the day on which the consecration of these Islands to the “Heart +of Jesus” would be solemnly confirmed. + +</p> +<p>To draw the remnant of loyalty to his side, the Gov.-General instituted a reformed “Consulting Assembly” composed of 15 half-castes +and natives, under the nominal presidency of Pedro A. Paterno, the mediator in the Biac-na-bató negotiations. Señor Paterno, +whose sympathy for Spain was still unalienated, issued a <i>Manifiesto</i> of which the following is a translation (published in <i>El Comercio</i> of Manila on June 2, 1898):— + + +</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Filipinos: Beloved Brethren</span>. + + +</p> +<p>I love our country as none other does. I want it to be great, free, and happy, and to shape its own destinies according to +its desires and aspirations. Therefore, I respect all the vital forces in it at the cost of my life and my fortune. A long +time <a id="d0e16824"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e16824">439</a>]</span>ago I risked my existence for the rights and liberties of the Philippine people, who were sorely agitated, by bringing the +majority together, and directing the salvation of their interests based on liberty and justice. My ideas are neither strange +nor new; they are the <i>result of study and political experience,</i> and not recently conceived under the existing circumstances. I desire, with all the vehemence of my soul, to see my country +strong and great—its honour and dignity respected and in the enjoyment of the greatest happiness. But however great our efforts +may be we need an ally. Let us imitate the example of the Great Powers; they cannot exist alone, however strong and great +they may be. They need help, and the union of strength increases their power. Russia seeks France; Germany seeks Italy and +Austria. Unhappy is the Power that isolates itself! And what better ally can we have than Spain, a nation with which we are +united for nearly four centuries in religion, laws, morals, and customs, understanding full well her virtues and her defects? +The evil days of Spanish colonization are over, and by dint of experience and the sacrifice of blood Spain has understood +that we are already of age, and require reforms in our territory such as the formation of Philippine Militia, which gives +us the force of arms, and the Consulting Assembly, which gives us the power of speech, participation in the higher public +employments, and the ability to control the peaceful development and progress of society. Spain is at war with the United +States; we neither know that nation nor its language. The Americans will endeavour by all imaginable means to induce us to +help them against Spain. And then, alas! they, the all-powerful, will absorb us and reward our treachery to Spain by betraying +us, making us slaves and imposing upon us all the evils of a new colonization. On the other hand, by helping Spain, if we +die, we do so in the fulfilment of our duty; if we live, we shall obtain the triumph of our aspirations without the dangers +and risks of a civil war. We shall not die! No! Under the flag which shields us and our garrisons, fighting with faith, decision, +and ardour, as a country does which yearns to be free and great, the enemy will disappear like the wave which washes the seashore. +Let us hope to obtain from Spain all the good that the American stranger can offer to us. Let us help our old ally, our old +friend Spain, and realize, with her, more quickly our aspirations. These are they:—With the greatest decentralization possible +consistent with national unity, the organization and attributions of public powers must be based on three principles:—(1) +Spanish sovereignty. (2) Local representation. (3) Colonial Government responsibility. Three institutions correspond to these +three principles, viz.: (1) The institution of <a id="d0e16829"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e16829">440</a>]</span>the General Government of the Philippines. (2) The Insular Deputation or Philippine Assembly. (3) The Governative Council. +In this way the rights of the Government and those of the Colony are harmonized. Let us shun the policy of suspicion and doubt. +With these firm and solid guarantees let us establish civil and political liberty. The Assembly, representing the will of +the people, deliberates and resolves as one would treat oneʼs own affairs in private life, and thus constitutes the legislative +power of the Archipelago. Its resolution will be put into practice with all fidelity by the executive power in its character +of responsible government. There are only Spaniards in the Archipelago; we are all Filipinos and all European Spaniards. Such +is <i>the programme of the party who want home rule for the Philippines—ever Spanish!</i> Thus shall we see the destinies of this country guided under the orange and red flag. Thus will my beloved country be governed, +without detriment to the integrity of Spain. Finally, under Spain our future is clear, and with all certainty we shall be +free and rule. Under the Americans our future is cloudy; we shall certainly be sold and lose our unity; some provinces will +become English, others German, others French, others Russian or Chinese. Let us struggle, therefore, side by side with Spain, +we who love the Philippines united and free. Long live Spain! + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Pedro Alejandro Paterno</span>. +<br><span class="smallcaps">Manila</span>, <i>31st of May</i>, 1898. + +</p> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>This <i>Manifiesto</i> was replied to a week later by the rebel party, who published a Refutation, of which the following is a translation:— + + +</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Refutation</span> of the <i>Manifiesto</i> of Señor Paterno. + + +</p> +<p>“Actions speak louder than words.” + + +</p> +<p>A better phrase, or idea, could not be found with which to reply to the <i>Manifiesto</i> of Don Pedro A. Paterno, published in <i>El Comercio</i> of the 2nd instant, than the epigraph which heads these lines. + + +</p> +<p>Señor Paterno begins by saying that he loves his country as none other does; he wants it to be great, free, and happy, and +to shape its own destinies according to its own desires and aspirations. <i>Would to God such beautiful language represented the truth</i>, for it is just what we wish and what we have, long ago, been aiming at, at the risk of our lives and property, as proved +by our actions and our arguments, especially since the middle of the glorious year of 1896, the period in which we commenced +the conquest, by force of arms, of our most cherished liberties. <a id="d0e16874"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e16874">441</a>]</span>May Señor Paterno forgive us if we cite a little of the history of this movement, so that he may see that neither are we ungrateful, +nor are we acting with precipitation, but as a logical and undeniable consequence of the vile conduct and bad faith of the +Spanish Government. + + +</p> +<p>For over 300 years the country slumbered in ignorance of all that referred to its rights and political liberties. It was resigned +to the Spanish governmental system of spoliation, and no one thought of reforms. But when the Revolution of September, 1868, +broke out in Spain and overthrew the throne of Isabella II., the first revolutionary leaders, inspired by ideas of humanity +and justice, caused an Assembly of Reformists to be established here, one of the members of which, if we remember rightly, +was Don Máximo Molo Paterno, father of Don Pedro. The Assembly agreed to and proposed good and appropriate reforms, amongst +which was that relating to the incumbencies which were monopolized by the friars. What did the Spanish Government do with +these reforms? What did the friars do? Ah! though it may appear cruel to Señor Paterno, historical facts oblige us to remind +him that the Government, in agreement with the friars, engineered the military rising of the City of Cavite in January, 1872, +and at the instigation of its authors and accomplices, sentenced the secular priests Father José Burgos, Father Jacinto Zamora, +Father Mariano Gomez, parish priests of Manila, Santa Cruz (suburb), and Bacoor (Cavite) respectively, to be garotted. Moreover, +another secular priest, Father Agustin, the Philippine lawyers and landed proprietors, Don Joaquin Pardo de Tavera, Don Antonio +Regidor, Don Pedro Carrillo, Don José Basa, and others, amongst whom was Don Maximo Molo Paterno, the father of Don Pedro, +were banished to the Ladrone Islands. This virtuous grand old man (Don Máximo Paterno) did indeed (and we proclaim it with +pride) make sacrifices of health and fortune for the advancement of the liberties of his native country. From the year 1872 +the Spanish Government carried on a persistent persecution of all the Philippine reformers by unjust imprisonment and banishment. +In 1888 the authorities went so far as to prosecute 700 representative men of the suburbs of Manila, simply for having presented +a petition of rights and aspirations to the Gov.-General Don Emilio Terrero. There is not a single insalubrious island or +gloomy corner in the country which has not been the forced home of some banished Filipino. No one was sure of his personal +liberty; none were safe in their homes, and if three or four Filipinos met together for an innocent purpose, they were spied, +arrested, and banished. Calumny has brought about enough banishments to Fernando Po, Chafarinas Islands, Ceuta, <a id="d0e16878"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e16878">442</a>]</span>and other African and Spanish places to demonstrate the bad faith, cruelty, and injustice of the Spanish Government with respect +to the Philippine people. This virile, intelligent people received the supreme decree of reforms with joy and enthusiasm, +sharing the feelings of those who felt in their souls the flame of liberty. This people worked, through legitimate channels, +to advance its ideal, inspired by the purest loyalty to Spain. How did the Spanish Government fulfil, on its part, the decree +spontaneously issued in 1868? By prosecuting and banishing the reformists, and employing a system of terror to damp the courage +of the Filipinos. Vain, ridiculous fallacy!—for it ought to have known better after three centuries of rule of that country +of intelligence, birthplace of Rizal, Luna, Rosario and other living examples of Philippine energy. The Filipinos, lovers +of their liberty and independence, had no other recourse open to them than an appeal to arms, to bring force against force, +terror against terror, death for death, resolute and sworn to practise the system of fire and blood, until they should attain +for the whole Philippine Archipelago absolute freedom from the ignominious sovereignty of Spain. Now let us continue our comments +on the <i>Manifiesto</i>. + + +</p> +<p>Señor Paterno says that a long time ago he risked his existence for the rights and liberties of the Philippine people, even +at the cost of his health and his fortune. We, however, do not see how he put into practice such magnificent ideas, for what +we do know is that Señor Paterno passed his younger days in Madrid, where, by dint of lavish expenditure, he was very well +treated by the foremost men in Spanish politics, without gaining from Spain anything whereby the Philippine people were made +free and happy during that long period of his brilliant existence. On the contrary, the very epoch of the persecutions narrated +above coincided with the period of Don Pedro A. Paternoʼs brilliant position and easy life in Madrid, where, because he published +a collection of poems under the title of “Sampaguitas,” he became distinguished by the nickname of <i>Sampaguitero</i>. We know, also, that Señor Paterno came back to this, his native soil, appointed director of a Philippine Library and Museum +not yet established, without salary, but with the decoration of the Grand Cross of Isabella the Catholic. This was no gain +to us, no distinction to him, seeing that the same decoration was given to the Chinaman Palanca and two others, without their +leaving their homes to obtain them. + + +</p> +<p>How are we then to understand those generous sacrifices of health and fortune for the cause of Philippine liberty? Perhaps +he refers to the recently created Philippine Militia and Consulting Assembly. Well, admitting for argument sake, that with +such <a id="d0e16890"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e16890">443</a>]</span>Militia and Consulting Assembly the liberty and happiness of the Philippines were assured (a doubtful hypothesis, Señor Paterno), +this happiness is not due to Señor Paternoʼs efforts, but simply to the circumstances. Spain is at war with North America, +and now offers us this sugar-plum to draw us to her side to defend her against invasion. + + +</p> +<p>We ask you again, Señor Paterno, where are those sacrifices? + + +</p> +<p>We do not see them, although we seek them with the light of impartiality, for, as the splendour of justice shines on our flag, +we should not fail to do this even for our greatest enemies, amongst whom we do not count you. + + +</p> +<p>Do you allude to the Peace of Biac-na-bató? If so, we ask, what have you done with that peace to which we subscribed in good +faith, and which you and General Primo de Rivera together have stupidly and scandalously torn into shreds? You have, indeed, +bungled the amnesty when many of the banished are, up to now, suffering the miseries of their sad and unjust fate. + + +</p> +<p>You have put off the promised reforms which, even yet, have not come. + + +</p> +<p>You have delayed the payment of the ₱400,000 for the second and third instalments of the agreed sum. + + +</p> +<p>You have not delivered into the hands of our chief, Don Emilio Aguinaldo, the money as agreed upon. + + +</p> +<p>Ah! You thought that when we had surrendered to you our arms and our garrisoned strongholds—when our forces were dispersed +and we were absent—you could turn back to the Government of iniquity without reflecting that Divine Providence could permit, +in the hour of great injustice, her emissary Don Emilio Aguinaldo to return resolved to chastise energetically the immoral +and impotent Spanish Government. + + +</p> +<p>Then comes Señor Paterno, telling us that however great our efforts may be in the cause of liberty, we cannot live without +an ally, and that we can find no better alliance than the sovereignty of Spain. Frankly, we must say that this is inconceivably +incompatible with Señor Paternoʼs clear intelligence. How do you understand an alliance with sovereignty? How can you imagine +a people great, free and happy under the sovereignty of Spain? Señor Paterno cites, as examples, the alliances between Russia +and France, Germany and Italy and Austria, but, so far, we do not know that Russia is the sovereign power of the French, nor +the Germans that of the Italians and Austrians. Señor Paterno further says that by helping Spain in the war with the United +States, if we die, we do so in the fulfilment of our duty; if we live, we shall obtain the triumph of our aspirations without +the dangers and risks of a civil war. Know, Señor Paterno, and let all know, that in less <a id="d0e16908"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e16908">444</a>]</span>than six daysʼ operations in several provinces we have already taken 1,500 prisoners, amongst whom is the Brigadier-General +Garcia Peña, one Colonel, several Lieutenant-Colonels, Majors and officers, besides the Governor of the Province of Bulacan, +his wife and all the civil service staff of that province. We also have about 500 Philippine volunteers as prisoners, of whom +10 have died and 40 are wounded, whilst among the European prisoners there is only one wounded. This goes to prove that the +Europeans were too cowardly to defend the sovereignty of Spain in these Islands, therefore we do not understand the appeal +you make to the Filipinos to defend Spain as a duty, when the Spaniards themselves are heedless of that which ought to be +a more rigorous and strict obligation with them, seeing that they defend their own possession which brings them so much lucre +and profit. This does not say much for the duty when the favoured ones themselves forget it and trample upon it. To die to-day +for cowardly Spain! This implies not only want of dignity and delicate feeling, but also gross stupidity in weaving a sovereignty +of frightened Spaniards over the heads of brave Filipinos. It is astonishing that in the face of such an eloquent example +of impotence there should still be a Filipino who defends the sovereignty of Spain. + + +</p> +<p>Remember, Señor Paterno, that we make war without the help of any one, not even the North Americans; but no! we have the help +of God, who is the eternal ally of the great and just causes such as that which we defend against Spain—our own beloved <i>independence</i>!!! + + +</p> +<p>Señor Paterno concludes by explaining his political and administrative principles on the basis of Spanish sovereignty, but, +as we have charged that sovereignty with cowardice and immorality, we dismiss this detail. + + +</p> +<p>To conclude, we will draw the attention of Señor Paterno to two things, viz.: + + +</p> +<p>1. That he <i>commits an injustice in imputing to the North Americans the intention of taking possession of these Islands</i> as soon as we have conquered the Spaniards, for, besides having no grounds on which to make such an allegation against a +nation distinguished for its humanity like the Federal Republic, there is the fact that <i>its own constitution prohibits the absorption of territory outside America, </i>in accordance with that principle laid down by the immortal Monroe, of America for the Americans. There is, moreover, the +historical antecedent that the independence of South America, once under Spanish dominion, is largely due to the protection +of the United States; and + + +</p> +<p>2. That Señor Paterno should reflect on the fact that the Spaniards would never have allowed him to publish his <i>Manifiesto</i> <a id="d0e16932"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e16932">445</a>]</span>had it not been for the existence and attitude of our Dictator, Don Emilio Aguinaldo. This ought to serve Señor Paterno as +further proof of the cowardice of the Spaniards, who, notwithstanding all that has been shown, insist on creating discord +by provoking civil war: on their heads will fall the responsibilities of the moment and of the historical past. + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Cavite</span>, <i>9th of June</i>, 1898. + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">The Revolutionists</span>. + +</p> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>The feeling against Don Pedro A. Paterno in the rebel camp was very strong for the time being, because of his supposed complicity +in the alleged Biac-na-bató fraud. + +</p> +<p>The rebels stopped all the traffic on the Tondo-Malabon steam tramway line, and shortly afterwards the Manila-Dagúpan railway +trains had temporarily to cease running. + +</p> +<p>On June 10, 1898, General Monet received, through a Chinaman, a message from the Gov.-General to hasten to Manila with all +the force he could bring. Monet had been so long in the northern provinces unsuccessfully trying to hold them against the +rebels that his fate was, for a time, despaired of in the capital. Hemmed in on all sides by the enemy, concentration of all +his detachments for general retreat was impossible. The forces spread over Tárlac, North Pangasinán and Nueva Ecija had to +be left to their fate; their junction was quite impracticable, for, surrounded everywhere by the enemy, each group was then +only just able to defend itself, and subsequently most of them fell prisoners. With only 600 fighting men, escorting 80 wounded, +General Monet set out on his terrible southward march amidst recurring scenes of woe and despair. At every few miles between +San Fernando and Macabebe his progress was hampered by an ever-increasing terror-stricken, weeping crowd of European women +and children who besought him not to let them fall into the hands of a revengeful enemy. In the course of his march at most +another hundred fighting men, a few of whom were natives, were able to join the retreating column. Their ammunition was scarce; +they had no artillery waggons; every <i>carromata</i> (gig) of the districts traversed had been seized by the enemy. Near San Fernando his passage was disputed, but he entered +the town, nevertheless, and evacuated it immediately after, having secured only 12 carts for the transport of the sick and +the wounded and what little remained of the war-material. The greatest difficulty was how to feed the swelling mob of refugees. +At 6 a.m. on June 14 a start was made for Santo Tomás, but they were so fiercely attacked on the road that, for the moment, +annihilation seemed inevitable. Concentrated between Apálit, Santo Tomás, Bacolor, and Mexico the rebel forces were estimated +at 9,000 well-armed men, between whom Monetʼs column had to pass or die. The sobs of the <a id="d0e16955"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e16955">446</a>]</span>children, the lamentations of the women, the invocation of the saints by the helpless were drowned in the united yelling of +half-starved troopers in their almost superhuman struggle for existence. Fortunately the best order possible, under such distressing +circumstances, was maintained by the splendid officers supporting Monet. They were men personally known to many of us years +before. Lieut.-Colonel Dujiols commanded the vanguard; the rearguard was under Major Roberto White; the refugee families were +in charge of Lieut.-Colonel Oyarzábal, all under the superior orders of Colonel Perez Escotado. At length they cut their way +through to Apálit, where the railway station served them as a stronghold, which they were able to defend whilst food was served +out and some attention could be bestowed on the sick and wounded. On leaving Apálit a group of rebels approached the column +with a white flag saying they were friendly Macabebes, but when they were close enough they opened fire. Nearly the whole +town turned out against the fugitives, and Monet had to hasten the march by deploying his troops to keep the road clear. Understanding +well that Monet was acting only on the defensive to cover his retreat, the rebels sent him an audacious message offering to +spare the lives of his people if he would surrender their arms. The generalʼs reply was in the negative, adding that if he +once reached Santo Tomás not a stick or stone of it would he leave to mark its site. This defiant answer nonplussed the rebels, +who had private interests to consider. To save their property they sent another message to General Monet, assuring him that +he would not be further molested; and to guarantee their promise they sent him the son of a headman as hostage, whose life +they said he could take if they broke their word. That night was, therefore, passed, without attack, at Mandaling, around +which outposts were established and trenches occupied. The following day the retreating column and the refugees reached Macabebe +safely,<a id="d0e16957src" href="#d0e16957" class="noteref">7</a> but what became of their leader at this crisis we must leave to future historians to explain. Some nine months afterwards +the acts of two generals were inquired into by a court of honour in Spain; one of <a id="d0e16963"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e16963">447</a>]</span>them was disgraced,<a id="d0e16965src" href="#d0e16965" class="noteref">8</a> and the other, who was accused of having abandoned his whole party to escape alone in disguise, was acquitted. + +</p> +<p>General Augustiʼs wife and family were chivalrously escorted from Macabebe, where they were quite safe, by a loyal Philippine +volunteer named Blanco (the son of a planter in Pampanga), who was afterwards promoted to effective rank of colonel in Spain. +They were conducted from the Hagonoy marshes to the Bay of Manila and found generous protection from the Americans, who allowed +them to quit the Islands. The Spanish garrisons in the whole of La Laguna and Pampanga had surrendered to the rebels, who +were in practical possession of two-thirds of Luzon Island. General Augusti was personally inclined to capitulate, but was +dissuaded from doing so by his officers. + +</p> +<p>Several American generals arrived with reinforcements, more were <i>en route</i>, and about the middle of July the Commander-in-Chief, Maj.-General Wesley Merritt, reached the Islands and remained there +until the end of the following month, that is to say, for about 10 or 12 days after the Spanish surrender and the American +military occupation of Manila were accomplished facts. On the way out from San Francisco to Manila some American ships called +at the Ladrone Islands and brought the Spanish garrison of about 40 men prisoners. The surrender of the capital had been again +demanded and refused, for the Spaniards were far from being starved out, and the American commander had strictly forbidden +Aguinaldo to make an attack on the city. Aguinaldo, however, had been wonderfully active elsewhere. In several engagements +the Spaniards were completely routed, and in one encounter the rebel party took over 350 prisoners, including 28 officers; +in another, 250 prisoners and four guns; and 150 Spaniards who fled to Cavite Viejo church were quietly starved into surrender. +Amongst the prisoners were several provincial governors, one of whom attempted to commit suicide. At Bacoor a hotly-contested +battle was fought which lasted about nine hours. The Spaniards were surprised very early one morning, and by the afternoon +they were forced to retreat along the Cavite-Manila road to Las Piñas. The Spanish loss amounted approximately to 250 troops +wounded, 300 dead, and 35 officers wounded or dead. The rebels are said to have lost more than double this number, but whatever +may have been the sacrifice, the victory was theirs. The Spaniards would probably have come better out of this combat but +for the fact that a native regiment, hitherto loyal, suddenly murdered their officers and went over to the rebels. The Spaniards +undoubtedly suffered much from unexpected mutinies of native auxiliaries and volunteers at critical moments, whilst in no +case did <a id="d0e16981"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e16981">448</a>]</span>rebels pass over to the Spanish side.<a id="d0e16983src" href="#d0e16983" class="noteref">9</a> They were not long left in possession of Las Piñas, where a subsequent attack in overwhelming numbers drove the survivors +still nearer to the capital. + +</p> +<p>Long before the capitulation of Manila the rebels were as well armed as they could wish from three sources,—that is to say, +the Americans, the Spanish arms seized in warfare, and consignments from China. They also made good use of their field-pieces, +and ever and anon the booming of cannon was heard in the streets of Manila. The Spaniards, hard pressed on all sides, seemed +determined to make their last stand in the old citadel. The British banks shipped away their specie to China, and the British +community, whose members were never united as to the course they should adopt for general safety, was much relieved when several +steamers were allowed, by the mutual consent of Admiral Dewey and General Augusti, to lie in the bay to take foreigners on +board in case of bombardment. Emilio Aguinaldo, on his return to the Islands, had declared himself Dictator. The Dictatorial +Government administered the provinces as they were conquered from the Spaniards, collected taxes, and enacted laws. In a monthʼs +time the management of these rural districts had so far assumed shape that Aguinaldo convened deputies therefrom and summoned +a Congress on June 18. He changed the name of Dictatorial to Revolutionary Government, and on June 23 proclaimed the Constitution +of that provisional government, of which the statutes are as follows:— + + +</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<div class="body"> +<div class="div1"> +<p><i>(Translation)</i> + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Don Emilio Aguinaldo y Famy</span>, + + +</p> +<p>President of the Philippine Revolutionary Government and Commander-in-Chief of its army + + +</p> +<p>This Government, desirous of demonstrating to the Philippine people that one of its objects is to abolish with a firm hand +the inveterate vices of Spanish administration, substituting a more simple and expeditious system of public administration +for that superfluity of civil service and ponderous, tardy and ostentatious official routine, I hereby declare as follows, +viz:— + + + +</p> +</div> +<div class="div1"> +<h2 class="label">Chapter I</h2> +<h2 class="normal">Of the Revolutionary Government</h2> +<p><i>Article</i> 1.—The Dictatorial Government shall be henceforth called the Revolutionary Government, whose object is to struggle for the +independence of the Philippines, until all nations, including Spain, shall expressly recognize it, and to prepare the country +for the establishment of a real Republic. The Dictator shall be henceforth styled the President of the Revolutionary Government. + +<a id="d0e17013"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e17013">449</a>]</span></p> +<p><i>Article</i> 2.—Four Government Secretaryships are created: (1) of Foreign Affairs, Navy and Trade; (2) of War and Public Works; (3) of +Police, Public Order, Justice, Public Education and Health; (4) of Finance, Agriculture, and Manufactures. The Government +has power to increase the number of secretaryships when experience has shown that the above distribution of public offices +is insufficient to meet public requirements. + + +</p> +<p><i>Article</i> 3.—Each Secretary shall assist the President in the administration of affairs concerning his particular branch. The Secretary +at the head of each respective department shall not be responsible for the Presidential Decrees, but shall sign the same to +give them authenticity. But if it should appear that the decree has been issued on the proposal of the Secretary of the corresponding +branch, then the Secretary shall be jointly responsible with the President. + + +</p> +<p><i>Article</i> 4.—The Secretaryship of Foreign Affairs shall be divided into three centres, one of Diplomacy, one of Navy, and another of +Trade. The first centre shall study and execute all affairs which concern the direction of diplomatic negotiations with other +Powers and the correspondence of this Government connected therewith. The second shall study all that relates to the formation +and organization of our Navy, and the fitting out of whatever expeditions the circumstances of the Revolution may require; +and the third shall attend to all matters concerning home and foreign trade and the preliminary work in connection with the +Treaties of Commerce to be made with other nations. + + +</p> +<p><i>Article</i> 5.—The Secretaryship of War shall be divided into two centres, the one exclusively of War and the other exclusively of Public +Works. The first centre shall be divided into four sections, one of Campaign, one of Military Justice, one of Military Administration, +and the other of Military Health. + + +</p> +<p>The Campaign section shall draw up and attend to all matters concerning the service and enlistment of the Revolutionary Militia, +the direction of campaigns, the making of plans, fortifications, and the editing of the announcements of battles, the study +of military tactics for the Army, and organization of the respective staffs, artillery, and cavalry corps, and all other matters +concerning campaigns and military operations. + + +</p> +<p>The section of Military Justice shall attend to all matters concerning courts-martial and military sentences, the appointment +of judges and assistant judges in all military-judicial affairs. The military administrator shall take charge of the commissariat +department and all Army equipment, and the Military Health department shall take charge of matters concerning the health and +salubrity of the Militia. + +<a id="d0e17034"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e17034">450</a>]</span></p> +<p><i>Article</i> 6.—The other secretaryships shall be divided into so many centres corresponding to their functions, and each centre shall +be sub-divided into sections as the nature and importance of the work requires. + + +</p> +<p><i>Article</i> 7.—The Secretary of each department shall inspect and watch over the work therein and be responsible to the President of +the Government. At the head of each section there shall be a director, and in each section there shall be an official in charge +assisted by the necessary staff. + + +</p> +<p><i>Article</i> 8.—The President shall have the sole right to appoint the secretaries, and in agreement with them he shall appoint all the +staff subordinate to the respective departments. Nevertheless, in the election of individuals favouritism must be avoided +on the understanding that the good name of the Fatherland and the triumph of the Revolution need the services of the most +really capable persons. + + +</p> +<p><i>Article</i> 9.—The secretaries can take part in the sessions of the Revolutionary Congress, whenever they have a motion to present in +the name of the President, or on the interpellation of any deputy, but when the question under debate, or the motion on which +they have been summoned is put to the vote, they shall retire and not take part in that voting. + + +</p> +<p><i>Article</i> 10.—The President of the Government is the personification of the Philippine people, and as such he cannot be held responsible +for any act whilst he holds that position. His position is irrevocable until the Revolution shall triumph, unless extraordinary +circumstances should compel him to tender his resignation to Congress, in which case only Congress shall elect whomsoever +is esteemed most fit. + + + +</p> +</div> +<div class="div1"> +<h2 class="label">Chapter II</h2> +<h2 class="normal">Of the Revolutionary Congress</h2> +<p><i>Article</i> 11.—The Revolutionary Congress is the assembly of those deputies from the Philippine provinces, elected in due form, as prescribed +in the Decree of the 18th inst. Nevertheless, if any province could not elect deputies because the majority of its towns had +not yet been able to free themselves from Spanish dominion, the Government can nominate provisional deputies chosen from the +persons of highest consideration by reason of their education and social position up to the number fixed by the said Decree, +always provided that such persons shall have been born or have resided for a long time in the provinces to be represented. + + +</p> +<p><i>Article</i> 12.—When the deputies shall have met in the town and in the building to be provided by the Revolutionary Government the preliminary +act shall be the election by majority of votes of a <a id="d0e17068"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e17068">451</a>]</span>commission of five persons who shall examine the documents accrediting the personality of each person, and another commission +of three persons who shall examine the documents exhibited by the first commission of five. + + +</p> +<p><i>Article</i> 13.—The next day the said deputies shall again meet and the two commissions shall read their respective reports on the validity +of the said documents, all doubts on the same to be resolved by an absolute majority of votes. They shall then at once proceed +to the election, by absolute majority, of a president, a vice-president, and two secretaries, to be chosen from among the +same deputies, after which the Congress shall be held to be constituted, and notice of the same shall be given to the Government. + + +</p> +<p><i>Article</i> 14.—The meeting-place of Congress is sacred and inviolable, and no armed force can enter therein except on the summons of +the President of the Congress for the purpose of restoring order, should the same have been disturbed by those who know not +how to honour themselves and their solemn functions. + + +</p> +<p><i>Article</i> 15.—The powers of Congress are:—To look after the general interests of the Philippine people and the fulfilment of the revolutionary +laws; to discuss and vote laws; to discuss and approve, before ratification, all treaties and loans to examine and approve +the accounts of the general expenses which shall be presented annually by the Finance Secretary and to fix the extraordinary +taxes, and others which, in future, may be imposed. + + +</p> +<p><i>Article</i> 16.—The voice of Congress shall also be heard in all matters of grave importance the resolution of which will admit of delay, +but the President of the Government can resolve questions of an urgent character, rendering an account of his acts to Congress +by means of a message. + + +</p> +<p><i>Article</i> 17.—Any Deputy can present a bill in Congress, and any Secretary can do so by order of the President of the Government. + + +</p> +<p><i>Article</i> 18.—The sessions of Congress shall be public, and only in cases where reserve is necessary shall secret sessions be held. + + +</p> +<p><i>Article</i> 19.—The order of debate and parliamentary usages shall be determined by instructions to be formulated by Congress. The President +shall lead the debate, but shall not vote, unless there fail to be a majority, in which case he shall give his casting vote. + + +</p> +<p><i>Article</i> 20.—The President of the Government cannot, in any manner, impede the meeting of Congress, nor interfere with the sessions +of the same. + + +</p> +<p><i>Article</i> 21.—Congress shall appoint a permanent judicial commission, to be presided over by the Vice-President, assisted by one of +the Secretaries and composed of these persons and seven assessors, elected by majority of votes, from among the deputies. +This commission shall revise the sentences given in criminal cases <a id="d0e17106"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e17106">452</a>]</span>by the provincial councils, and shall judge and sentence, without right of further appeal, cases brought against the Government +Secretaries, Provincial Chiefs and Provincial Councillors. + + +</p> +<p><i>Article</i> 22.—In the office of the Secretary to Congress there shall be a Book of Honour, in which shall be noted the great services +rendered to the Fatherland and esteemed as such by Congress. Any Filipino, military or civil, can solicit of Congress inscription +in the said book on producing the documents which prove the praiseworthy acts performed by him for the good of the Fatherland +since the present Revolution began. For extraordinary services which may, in future, be rendered, the Government will propose +the inscription, the proposal being accompanied by the necessary justification. + + +</p> +<p><i>Article</i> 23.—Congress shall determine, on the proposal of the Government, the money rewards to be paid, once for all, to the families +of those who were victims to duty and patriotism in the execution of heroic acts. + + +</p> +<p><i>Article</i> 24.—The resolutions of Congress shall not be binding until they have received the sanction of the President of the Government. +When the said President shall consider any resolution undesirable, or impracticable, or pernicious, he shall state his reasons +to Congress for opposing its execution, and if Congress still insist on the resolution the said President can outvote it on +his own responsibility. + + + +</p> +</div> +<div class="div1"> +<h2 class="label">Chapter III</h2> +<h2 class="normal">Of Military Justice</h2> +<p><i>Article</i> 25.—When any commandant of a detachment shall receive notice of an individual in the service having committed a fault or +having performed any act reputed to be a military misdemeanour, he shall inform the Commandant of the District of the same, +and this officer shall appoint a judge and secretary to constitute a Court of Inquiry in the form prescribed in the instructions +dated 20th instant. If the accused held the rank of lieutenant, or a higher one, the same Commandant shall be the judge, and +if the Commandant himself were the accused the Superior Commandant of the Province shall appoint as judge an officer of a +higher rank, and if there were none such the same Commandant of the Province shall open the inquiry. The judge shall always +hold the rank of chief. + + +</p> +<p><i>Article</i> 26.—When the Court of Inquiry has finished its labours, the Superior Commandant shall appoint three assistant judges of equal +or superior rank to the judge, and a Court-Martial shall be composed of the three assistant judges, the judge, the assessor, +and the president. The Commandant of the District shall be the <a id="d0e17133"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e17133">453</a>]</span>judge if the accused held the rank of sergeant, or a lower one, and the Superior Commandant shall be judge if the accused +held the rank of lieutenant, or a higher one. This court shall pass sentence in the same form as the Provincial Courts, but +the sentence can be appealed against before the Superior Council of War. + + +</p> +<p><i>Article 27</i>.—The Superior Council of War shall be composed of six assistant judges, who shall hold the minimum rank of Brigadier-General, +and the War Office adviser. If the number of generals residing in the capital of the Revolutionary Government be insufficient, +the number shall be made up by deputies to be appointed on commission by Congress. The President of this Council shall be +the general of the highest rank amongst them, and if there were more than one of the same rank, one shall be elected by themselves +by majority of votes. + + +</p> +<p><i>Article 28</i>.—The Superior Council shall judge and sentence, without right of further appeal, Superior Commandants, Commandants of Districts, +and all officers who hold rank of Commandant, or a higher one. + + +</p> +<p><i>Article 29</i>.—Military misdemeanours are the following:— + + +</p> +<p>(1) Violation of the immunity due to foreigners, both as to their persons and their goods, and violation of the privileges +appertaining to sanitary establishments and ambulances, as well as the persons and effects in, or belonging to, one or the +other, and persons employed in the service of the same so long as they commit no hostile act. (2) Want of respect for the +lives, money, and jewellery of the enemy who surrenders his arms, and for prisoners of war. (3) The entry of Filipinos into +the service of the enemy as spies, or to discover war secrets, make plans of the revolutionistsʼ positions and fortifications, +or present themselves to parley without proving their mission or their individuality. (4) Violation of the immunity due to +those who come with this mission, duly accredited, in the form prescribed by international law. + + +</p> +<p>The following persons also commit military misdemeanours:— + + +</p> +<p>(1) Those who endeavour to break up the union of the revolutionists, fomenting rivalry between the chiefs, and forming divisions +and armed bands. (2) Those who collect taxes without being duly authorized by Government, or misappropriate public funds. +(3) Those who, being armed, surrender to the enemy or commit any act of cowardice before the same; and (4) Those who sequester +any person who has done no harm to the Revolution, or violate women, or assassinate, or seriously wound any undefended persons, +or commit robbery or arson. + + +</p> +<p><i>Article</i> 30.—Those who commit any of the above-named misdemeanours shall be considered declared enemies of the Revolution and shall +be punished on the highest scale of punishment provided <a id="d0e17157"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e17157">454</a>]</span>for in the Spanish Penal Code. If the misdemeanour be not provided for in the said code, the culprit shall be confined until +the Revolution has triumphed, unless his crime shall have caused an irreparable injury which, in the opinion of the court, +would justify the imposition of capital punishment. + + + +</p> +</div> +<div class="div1"> +<h2 class="normal">Additional Clauses</h2> +<p><i>Article</i> 31.—The Government shall establish abroad a Revolutionary Committee, composed of an indefinite number of the most competent +persons in the Philippine Archipelago. This Committee shall be divided into three sections, viz.:—Of diplomacy; of the navy; +and of the army. The diplomatic section shall negotiate with the foreign cabinets the recognition of belligerency and Philippine +independence. The naval section shall be intrusted with the study and organization of a Philippine navy and prepare the expeditions +which the circumstances of the Revolution may require. The army section shall study military tactics and the best form of +organizing staff, artillery and engineer corps, and all that is necessary to put the Philippine army on a footing of modern +advancement. + + +</p> +<p><i>Article</i> 32.—The Government shall dictate the necessary instructions for the execution of the present decree. + + +</p> +<p><i>Article</i> 33.—All decrees of the Dictatorial Government which may be in opposition to the present one are hereby rescinded. + + + +</p> +<p>Given at Cavite, June 23, 1898. + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Emilio Aguinaldo</span>. + +</p> +</div> +</div> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>The Promulgation of the Constitution of the Revolutionary Government was accompanied by a Message from Emilio Aguinaldo, of +which the following is a translation:— + + +</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Message of the President of the Philippine Revolution</span> + + +</p> +<p>It is an established fact that a political Revolution, judiciously carried out, is the violent means employed by nations to +recover the sovereignty which naturally belongs to them, when the same has been usurped and trodden under foot by tyrannical +and arbitrary government. Therefore, the Philippine Revolution cannot be more justifiable than it is, because the country +has only resorted to it after having exhausted all peaceful means which reason and experience dictated. + + +</p> +<p>The old Kings of Castile were obliged to regard the Philippines as a sister nation united to Spain by a perfect similarity +of aims and interests, so much so that in the Constitution of 1812, promulgated at Cádiz, as a consequence of the Spanish +War of Independence, these Islands were represented in the Spanish <a id="d0e17192"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e17192">455</a>]</span>Parliament. But the monastic communities, always unconditionally propped up by the Spanish Government, stepped in to oppose +the sacred obligation, and the Philippine Islands were excluded from the Spanish Constitution, and the country placed at the +mercy of the discretional or arbitrary powers of the Gov.-General. + + +</p> +<p>Under these circumstances the country clamoured for justice, and demanded of the Peninsular Government the recognition and +restitution of its secular rights, through reforms which should gradually assimilate it to Spain. But its voice was soon stifled, +and its children were rewarded for their abnegation by punishment, martyrdom and death. The religious corporations, whose +interests were always at variance with those of the Filipinos and identified with the Spanish Government, ridiculed these +pretensions, calmly and persistently replying that liberty in Spain had only been gained by the sacrifice of blood. + + +</p> +<p>What other channel, then, was open to the country through which to insist upon the recovery of its lawful rights? No other +remedy remained but the application of force, and convinced of this, it had recourse to revolution. + + +</p> +<p>Now its demands are no longer limited to assimilation with the Spanish Constitution. It asks for a definite separation therefrom; +it struggles for its independence, with the certainty that the time has arrived when it is able and ought to rule itself. + + +</p> +<p>Hence, it has constituted a Revolutionary Government, based on wise and just laws, suited to the abnormal circumstances it +is passing through, preparatory to the founding of a real Republic. Accepting Right as the only standard of its acts, Justice +as its sole aim, and honourable Labour as its sole means, it calls upon all Filipinos, without distinction of birth, and invites +them to unite firmly with the object of forming a noble society, not by bloodshed, nor by pompous titles, but by labour and +the personal merit of each one; a free society where no egoism shall exist—where no personal politics shall overflow and crush, +nor envy nor partiality debase, nor vain boasting nor charlatanry throw it into ridicule. + + +</p> +<p>Nothing else could be expected from a country which has proved by its long suffering and courage in tribulation and danger, +and industry and studiousness in peace, that it is not made for slavery. That country is destined to become great; to become +one of the most solid instruments of Providence for ruling the destinies of humanity. That country has resources and energy +sufficient to free itself from the ruin and abasement into which the Spanish Government has drawn it, and to claim a modest, +though worthy, place in the concert of free nations. + + + +</p> +<p>Given at Cavite, June 23, 1898. + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Emilio Aguinaldo</span>. + +</p> +</div><p> + +<a id="d0e17211"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e17211">456</a>]</span></p> +<p>These public documents were supplemented by the issue, on June 27, of “Instructions,” signed by Emilio Aguinaldo, which, as +they relate solely to working details of the Revolutionary Government offices, are of minor interest to the general reader. + +</p> +<p>Since June 30 the rebels were in possession of Coloocan (the first, station—beyond Manila—on the Manila-Dagúpan Railway) and +the Manila suburbs of Santa Cruz and Tondo. The rebels purchased four vessels in Singapore and armed them, but, later on, +Admiral Dewey forbade them to fly their flag pending the ultimate settlement of the whole Philippine problem. They also took +possession of the waterworks of Santólan (near San Juan del Monte), but did not cut off the water-supply to the capital. Dissensions +arose in the rebel camp between Emilio Aguinaldo and the leaders Yocson and Sandico. Yocson was the chief who carried on the +war in the northern provinces during the absence of Aguinaldo and his companions (<i>vide</i> pp. <a href="#d0e15830">399</a>, <a href="#d0e15967">407</a>). The Americans had no less difficulty in dealing with the natives than with the Spaniards. There were frequent altercations +between individual rebels and American soldiers which, in one case at least, near Cavite, resulted very seriously. The rebels +were irritated because they considered themselves slighted, and that their importance as a factor in the hostilities was not +duly recognized; in reality, there was nothing for them to do in co-operation with the Americans, who at any time could have +brought matters to a crisis without them (by shelling the city) but for considerations of humanity. Aguinaldoʼs enemies were +naturally the Spaniards, and he kept his forces actively employed in harassing them in the outlying districts; his troops +had just gained a great victory in Dagúpan (Pangasinán), where, on July 22, the whole Spanish garrison and a number of civilian +Spaniards had to capitulate in due written form. But experience had taught him that any day an attempt might be made to create +a rival faction. Such a contingency had been actually provided for in Article 29 of the Statutes of the Revolutionary Government +already cited. Presumably with a view to maintaining his prestige and keeping his individuality well before the people, he +was constantly issuing edicts and proclamations. He was wise enough to understand the proverbs, “<i lang="fr">Lʼunion fait la force</i>,” and “A house divided against itself shall surely fall.” Not the least of his talents was that of being able to keep united +a force of 30,000 to 40,000 Filipinos for any object. His proclamation of the Constitution of the Revolutionary Government +on June 23 implied a declaration of independence. He really sought to draw the American authorities into a recognition of +it; but he did not seem to see, what others saw, the inopportunity of their doing so at that stage of Americaʼs relations +with Spain. The generals were not the arbiters of the <i>political</i> situation. Then Aguinaldo adopted a course quite independently of the Great Power which had undertaken the solution of the +Philippine question, and addressed a <a id="d0e17231"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e17231">457</a>]</span>Memorandum to the foreign Governments, with a copy of an Act of Independence. The result was altogether negative; not a single +Power chose to embarrass America, at that critical period, by a recognition of Aguinaldoʼs party. The Memorandum read as follows:— + + +</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p>(<i>Translation</i>) + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">To the Powers</span>:— + + +</p> +<p>The Revolutionary Government of the Philippines, on being constituted, explained, by means of a message of the 23rd June last, +the real causes of the Philippine Revolution, and went on to show that this popular movement is the result of those laws which +regulate the life of a nation ardently desiring progress, and the attainment of perfection by the only possible road of liberty. + + +</p> +<p>The Revolution, at the present moment, is predominant in the provinces of Cavite, Batangas, Mindoro, Tayabas, La Laguna, Mórong, +Bulacan, Bataán, Pampanga, Nueva Ecija, Tárlac, Pangasinán, La Union, La Infanta, and Zambales, and is besieging the capital, +Manila. In these provinces the most perfect order and tranquillity reign; they are administered by the authorities elected +by themselves in conformity with the decrees of the 18th and 23rd of June last. + + +</p> +<p>Moreover, the Revolution has about 9,000 prisoners of war, who are treated with the same consideration observed by cultured +nations, agreeably with the sentiments of humanity, and a regular organized army of more than 30,000 men fully equipped on +a war footing. + + +</p> +<p>Under these circumstances the representatives of the townships comprised within the provinces above mentioned, interpreting +the popular will of those who have elected them, have proclaimed the Independence of the Philippines, and requested the Revolutionary +Government to petition and solicit of the foreign Powers an acknowledgment of their belligerency and independence, under the +conviction that the Philippine nation has arrived at that state in which it can and ought to govern itself. As a consequence, +the annexed document has been signed by the said representatives. Wherefore the undersigned, using the faculties reserved +to him as President of the Revolutionary Government of the Philippines, and in the name and representation of the Philippine +nation, implores the protection of all the Powers of the civilized world, and beseeches them formally to recognize the belligerency, +the Revolutionary Government, and the Independence of the Philippines, because these Powers are the bulwarks designated by +Providence to maintain the equilibrium amongst nations by sustaining the weak and <i>restraining the ambitions of the more <a id="d0e17253"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e17253">458</a>]</span>powerful</i>, in order that the most faultless justice may illuminate and render effective indefinitely the progress of humanity. + + +</p> +<p>Given under my hand and seal in Bacoor, in the Province of Cavite, this 6th day of August 1898. + + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Emilio Aguinaldo</span>, + + +</p> +<p><i>The President of the Revolutionary Government.</i> + +</p> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>The accompanying Act of Independence, dated August 1, 1898, and couched in the flowery language of the preceding edicts and +proclamations, was signed by those Filipinos who had been appointed local presidents of the townships in the provinces referred +to. The allusion to “the ambitions of the more powerful” could well be understood to signify an invitation to intervene in +and counteract Americaʼs projects, which might, hereafter, clash with the Aguinaldo partyʼs aspirations. At the same time +a group of agitators, financed by the priests in and out of the Islands, was straining every nerve to disseminate false reports +and create discord between the rebels and the Americans, in the hope of frustrating their coalition. But, even then, with +a hostile host before Manila, and the city inevitably doomed to fall, the fate of Spanish sovereignty depended more on politicians +than on warriors. + +</p> +<p>In the absence of a Spanish Ambassador at Washington the French and Austro-Hungarian Governments had accepted, conjointly, +the protection of Spanish subjects and interests in the United States on terms set forth in the French Ambassadorʼs letter +to the Secretary of State in Washington, dated April 22, 1898. In August the city of Santiago de Cuba was beleaguered by the +Americans under General Shafter; the forts had been destroyed by Admirals Schley and Sampson; General Linares, in command +there, had been wounded and placed <i>hors de combat</i>; the large force of Spanish troops within the walls was well armed and munitioned, but being half-starved, the <i>morale</i> of the rank-and-file was at a low ebb, and General Toral, who succeeded General Linares, capitulated. The final blow to Spanish +power and hopes in Cuba was the destruction of Admiral Cerveraʼs fleet outside the port of Santiago de Cuba. Cuba was lost +to Spain. No material advantage could then possibly accrue to any of the parties by a prolongation of hostilities, and on +July 22 the Spanish Government addressed a Message to the President of the United States (Mr. William McKinley) to inquire +on what terms peace might be re-established between the two countries. In reply to this inquiry the U.S. Secretary of State +sent a despatch, dated July 30, conveying an outline of the terms to be stipulated. The French Ambassador at Washington, M. +Jules Cambon, having been specially appointed “plenipotentiary to negotiate and sign,” by decree of the Queen-Regent of Spain, +dated August 11, 1898, <a id="d0e17277"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e17277">459</a>]</span>peace negotiations were entered into, and a Protocol was signed by him and the U.S. Secretary of State, Mr. William R. Day, +for their respective Governments at 4.25 p.m. on August 12, 1898. It is interesting to note the exact hour and date, in view +of subsequent events. + + +</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<div class="body"> +<div class="div1"> +<h2 class="normal">Protocol of Peace</h2> +<p><i>The English Text</i><a id="d0e17288src" href="#d0e17288" class="noteref">10</a> + + +</p> +<p><i>Article</i> 1.—Spain will relinquish all claim of sovereignty over and title to Cuba. + + +</p> +<p><i>Article</i> 2.—Spain will cede to the United States the Island of Porto Rico and other islands now under Spanish sovereignty in the West +Indies, and also an island in the Ladrones to be selected by the United States. + + +</p> +<p><i>Article</i> 3.—<i>The United States will occupy and hold the city, bay, and harbour of Manila, pending the conclusion of a treaty of peace which +shall determine the control, disposition, and government of the Philippines</i>. + + +</p> +<p><i>Article</i> 4.—Spain will immediately evacuate Cuba, Porto Rico, and other islands now under Spanish sovereignty in the West Indies; +and to this end each Government will, within ten days after the signing of this protocol, appoint Commissioners, and the Commissioners +so appointed shall, within 30 days after the signing of this protocol, meet at Havana for the purpose of arranging and carrying +out the details of the aforesaid evacuation of Cuba and the adjacent Spanish islands; and each Government will, within ten +days after the signing of this protocol, also appoint other Commissioners, who shall, within 30 days after the signing of +this protocol, meet at San Juan, in Porto Rico, for the purpose of arranging and carrying out the details of the aforesaid +evacuation of Porto Rico and other islands now under Spanish sovereignty in the West Indies. + + +</p> +<p><i>Article</i> 5.—The United States and Spain will each appoint not more than five Commissioners to treat of peace, and the Commissioners +so appointed shall meet at Paris not later than October 1, 1898, and proceed to the negotiation and conclusion of a treaty +of peace, which treaty shall be subject to ratification according to the respective constitutional forms of the two countries. + + +</p> +<p><i>Article</i> 6.—Upon the conclusion and signing of this protocol, hostilities between the two countries shall be suspended, and notice +to that effect shall be given as soon as possible by each Government to the commanders of its military and naval forces. + +<a id="d0e17320"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e17320">460</a>]</span></p> +<p>Done at Washington in duplicate, in English and in French, by the undersigned, who have hereunto set their hands and seals, +the 12th day of August, 1898. + + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">William R. Day</span>. +<br><span class="smallcaps">Jules Cambon</span>. + +</p> +</div> +</div> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>For a month before the Protocol was signed the relations between Spaniards and Americans were verging towards a crisis. The +respective land forces were ever on the point of precipitating the end. General F. V. Greene had his brigade encamped along +the Cavite-Manila road, about 2½ miles from the Spanish fort at Malate, with outposts thrown forward to protect the camp. +The rebel lines were situated nearer to Manila, between the Americans and Spaniards. On July 28 General Greene took possession +of a line, from the road already occupied by his forces, in front of the rebelsʼ advanced position, to be ready to start operations +for the reduction of Manila. The American soldiers worked for three days at making trenches, almost unmolested by the Spaniards, +who had a strong line of breastworks not more than 1,000 yards in front. No Americans were killed or wounded whilst so working. + +</p> +<p>On July 31, at 11 p.m., the Spaniards opened a furious infantry and artillery fire upon the American lines and kept it up +for two hours. Fort San Antonio Abad (Malate) with five guns, Blockhouse No. 14 with two guns, and connecting infantry trenches, +concentrated fire upon the American breastworks, which caused considerable annoyance to the Americans. The night was pitch-dark, +it rained in torrents, there was mud and water everywhere, and the ground was too flat to drain. The 10th Pennsylvania Regiment +and four guns of the Utah Batteries occupied the American line, with two batteries of the 3rd Foot Artillery in reserve. The +last was brought up under a heavy fire, and taking up a position on the right, silenced the Spaniards, who were pouring in +a flanking fire. The whole camp was under arms, and ammunition and reinforcements were sent. The regiments were standing expectantly +in the rain. The 1st California was ordered forward, the bugle sounded the advance, the whole camp cheered, and the men were +delighted at the idea of meeting the enemy. Over a flat ground the American troops advanced under a heavy Spanish fire of +shell and Maüser rifles, but they were steady and checked the Spaniardsʼ attack. + +</p> +<p>General Greene went forward to the trenches, firing was exchanged, and the wounded were being brought back from the front +in <i>carromatas</i>. The contending parties were separated by bamboo thickets and swamp. The Americans lost that night 10 killed and 30 wounded. +The Spanish loss was much heavier. Most of the Americans killed were shot in the head. The Maüser bullet has great penetrating +power, but does not kill well; in fact it often makes a small wound which hardly bleeds. As pointed out at p. <a href="#d0e15151">369</a>, four Maüser bullets passed <a id="d0e17344"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e17344">461</a>]</span>right through Sancho Valenzuela at his execution and left him still alive. Captain Hobbs, of the 3rd Artillery, was shot through +the thigh at night, and only the next morning saw the nature of the wound. + +</p> +<p>During the following week the Spaniards made three more night-attacks, the total killed and wounded Americans amounting to +10 men. The American soldiers were not allowed to return the fire, unless the Spaniards were evidently about to rush the breastworks. +There was some grumbling in the camp. The Spaniards, however, got tired of firing to so little purpose, and after the third +night there was silence. Meanwhile, in the daytime the Americans went on strengthening their line without being molested. + +</p> +<p>On August 7 Admiral Dewey and General Merritt sent a joint note to the Captain-General in Manila, giving him 48 hours to remove +women and children, as, at any time after that, the city might be bombarded. The Captain-General replied thanking the Admiral +and General for their kind consideration, but pointed out that he had no ships, and to send the women and children inland +would be to place them at the mercy of the rebels. On the expiration of the 48 hoursʼ notice, i.e., at noon on August 9, another +joint note was addressed to General Augusti, pointing out the hopelessness of his holding out and formally demanding the surrender +of the city, so that life and property of defenceless persons might be spared. The Captain-General replied requesting the +American commanders to apply to Madrid; but this proposal being rejected, the correspondence ceased. + +</p> +<p>On August 11 a Council of War was held between Generals Merritt, Anderson, McArthur, and Greene, and the plan of combined +attack arranged between General Merritt and Admiral Dewey was explained. For some hours a storm prevented the landing of more +American troops with supplies, but these were later on landed at Parañaque when the weather cleared up, and were hurriedly +sent on to the camp, where preparations were being made for the assault on the city. + +</p> +<p>Whilst the Protocol was being signed in Washington the American troops were entrenched about 350 yards from the Spaniards, +who were prepared to make their last stand at the Fort San Antonio Abad (Malate). From the morning of that day there were +apparent signs of an intended sortie by the Spaniards, and, in view of this, the rebels marched towards the American lines, +but were requested to withdraw. Indeed, the native forces were only too anxious to co-operate with the American troops, or +at least, to have the semblance of doing so, in order to justify their claim to enter the beleaguered city as allies of the +invaders. General Merritt, however, discouraged any such alliance, and issued precise orders to his subordinate officers to +avoid, as much as possible, all negotiation with the Aguinaldo party. + +</p> +<p>Why the Spaniards were still holding the city of Manila at this date is perhaps best understood by the Americans. To the casual +observer <a id="d0e17356"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e17356">462</a>]</span>it would have appeared expedient to have made the possession of Manila a <i lang="fr">fait accompli</i> before the Protocol of Peace was signed. The Americans had a large and powerful fleet in Manila Bay; they were in possession +of Cavite, the arsenal and forts, and they had a large army under Maj.-General Merritt and his staff. General Augusti was, +for weeks previous, personally disposed to surrender, and only refused to do so as a matter of form, hence the same means +as were finally employed could apparently have brought about the same result at an earlier date.<a id="d0e17361src" href="#d0e17361" class="noteref">11</a> The only hope the Spaniards could entertain was a possible benefit to be derived from international complication. From the +tone of several of the Captain-Generalʼs despatches, published in Madrid, one may deduce that capitulation to a recognized +Power would have relieved him of the tremendous anxiety as to what would befall the city if the rebels did enter. It is known +that, before the bombardment, Admiral Dewey and his colleagues had given the humane and considerate assurance that the city +should not be left to the mercy of the revolutionary forces. + +</p> +<p>The next day, Saturday, August 13, the Americans again demanded the surrender of the city within an hour, which was refused, +according to Spanish custom. Without the slenderest hope of holding the city against the invaders, the Spaniards preconcerted +a human sacrifice,<a id="d0e17372src" href="#d0e17372" class="noteref">12</a> under the fallacious impression that the salvation of their honour demanded it, and operations commenced at 9.45 a.m. The +ships present at the attack were the <i>Olympia</i> (flagship), <i>Monterey, Raleigh, McCulloch, Petrel, Charleston, Baltimore, Boston</i>, and <i>Concord</i>, with the little gunboat <i>Rápido</i>, and the captured (Spanish) gunboat <i>Callao</i>, and the armed steam-launch <i>Barceló</i>. The <i>Concord</i> watched the Fort Santiago at the Pasig River entrance. The American commanders confined the bombardment to the forts and +trenches situated to the south of the city. The whole of the walled city and the trading quarter of Binondo were undamaged. +The fighting-line was led by the <i>Olympia</i>, which sent 4-inch shells in the direction of the fort at Malate (San Antonio de Abad). A heavy shower of rain made it difficult +to get the range, and every shell fell short. The <i>Petrel</i> then took up position and shelled the fort with varying result, followed by the <i>Raleigh</i>. The <i>Rápido</i> and the <i>Callao</i>, being of light draught, were able to lie close in shore and pour in a raking fire from their small-calibre guns with considerable +effect. The distance between the ships and the fort was about 3,500 yards, and, as soon as this was correctly ascertained, +the <a id="d0e17413"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e17413">463</a>]</span>projectiles had a telling effect on the enemyʼs battery and earthworks. The <i>Olympia</i> hurled about 70 5-inch shells and 16 8-inch shells, and the <i>Petrel</i> and the <i>Raleigh</i> about the same number each. There was rather a heavy wash in the bay for the little <i>Callao</i> and the <i>Barceló</i>, but they were all the time capering about, pouring a hail of small shell whenever they had a chance. The Spaniards at Malate +returned the fire and struck the <i>Callao</i> without doing any damage. The transport <i>Zafiro</i> lay between the fighting-line and the shore, having on board General Merritt, his staff, and a volunteer regiment. The transport +<i>Kwonghoi</i> was also in readiness with a landing-party of troops on board. In another steamer were the correspondents of the London <i>Times</i> and <i>New York Herald</i>, and the special artists of the <i>Century Magazine</i> and the <i>Herald</i>. The field artillery took no part in the operations. The shelling of the Fort San Antonio Abad from the ships lasted until +about 11 a.m., when the general signal was given to cease firing. One shell, from Malate, reached the American camp. The firing +from the ships had caused the Spaniards to fall back. General Greene then ordered the 1st Colorado to advance. Two companies +deployed over a swamp and went along the beach under cover of the Utah Battery. Two other companies advanced in column towards +the Spanish entrenchments with colours flying and bands of music playing lively tunes. The first and second companies fired +volleys to cover the advance of the other columns. They crossed the little creek, near Malate, in front of the fort; then, +by rushes, they reached the fort, which they entered, followed by the other troops, only to find it deserted. The Spaniards +had retreated to a breastwork at the rear of the fort, where they kept up a desultory fire at the Colorado troops, killing +one man and wounding several. Fort San Antonio Abad was now in possession of the 1st Colorado under Lieut.-Colonel McCoy, +who climbed up the flagstaff, hauled down the Spanish flag, and hoisted the Stars and Stripes amidst cheers from the army +and fleet. + +</p> +<p>Four companies of the 1st Colorado advanced across the fields, entered the Spanish trenches, crossed the bridge, and moved +up the road, the Spaniards still keeping up an ineffective fire from long range. + +</p> +<p>The 3rd Colorado came up with a band of music, and then the whole regiment deployed in skirmishing order and maintained a +continual rifle fire until they halted on the Luneta Esplanade. The band took up a position in an old Spanish trench and played +as the troops filed past along the beach. The Spaniards were gradually falling back on the city, and the rebels who were located +near the Spanish lines continued the attack; but the Americans gave them the order to cease firing, which they would not heed. +The Americans thereupon turned their guns upon the rebels, who showed an inclination to fight. Neither, however, cared to +fire the first shot; so the rebels, taking another road, drove the Spaniards, in confusion, as far as Ermita, when Emilio +Aguinaldo ordered his men <a id="d0e17455"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e17455">464</a>]</span>to cease firing as they were just outside the city walls. The rebel commander had received strict orders not to let his forces +enter Manila. The American troops then developed the attack, the Spaniards making, at first, a stubborn resistance, apparently +for appearanceʼ sake, for the fight soon ended when the Spaniards in the city hoisted the white flag on a bastion of the old +walls. Orders were then given to cease firing, and by one oʼclock the terms of capitulation were being negotiated. General +F. V. Greene then sent an order to the troops for the rear regiments to muster on the Luneta Esplanade, and there half the +American army waited in silent expectation. The Spanish entrenchments extended out from the city walls in different directions +as far as three miles. The defenders were about 2,500 in number, composed of Spanish regular troops, volunteers, and native +auxiliaries; about the same number of troops being in the hospitals inside the city. The opponent force amounted to about +15,000 rebels and 10,000 Americans ashore and afloat. The attacking guns threw heavier shot and had a longer range than the +Spanish artillery. The Americans were also better marksmen than the Spaniards. They were, moreover, better fed and in a superior +condition generally. The Americans were buoyed up with the moral certainty of gaining an easy victory, whereas the wearied +Spaniards had long ago despaired of reinforcements coming to their aid; hence their defence in this hopeless struggle was +merely nominal for “the honour of the country.” + +</p> +<p>For some time after the white flag was hoisted there was street-fighting between the rebels and the loyals. The rattle of +musketry was heard all round the outskirts. The rebels had taken 300 to 400 Spanish prisoners and seized a large quantity +of stores. General Basilio Augusti, who was personally averse to useless bloodshed, relinquished his command of the Colony +about a week prior to the capitulation. Just before the attack on the city he went on board a German steam-launch which was +waiting for him and was conveyed to the German cruiser <i lang="de">Kaiserin Augusta</i>, which at once steamed out of the bay northwards. General Fermin Jaúdenes remained as acting-Captain-General.<a id="d0e17462src" href="#d0e17462" class="noteref">13</a> Brig.-General of Volunteers and Insp.-General Charles A. Whittier and Lieutenant Brumby then went ashore in the Belgian Consulʼs +launch, and on landing they were met by an interpreter, Cárlos Casademunt, and two officers, who accompanied them to the house +of the acting-Captain-General, with whom the draft terms of capitulation were agreed upon. In his evidence before the Peace +Commission at Paris, General Whittier said: “I think the Captain-General was much frightened. He reported in great trepidation +that the insurgents were coming into the city, and I said that I knew that that was impossible because such precautions had +been taken as rendered it so. <a id="d0e17465"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e17465">465</a>]</span>“His fear and solicitude about the natives entering the city when I received the surrender of Manila were almost painful to +witness.” Lieutenant Brumby returned to Admiral Dewey to report, and again went ashore with General Merritt. In the meantime +General Jaúdenes had taken refuge in the sacristy of a church which was filled with women and children, presumably with the +wise object of keeping clear of the unrestrained mobs fighting in the suburbs. For some time the Spanish officers refused +to reveal his whereabouts, but eventually he and General Merritt met, and on August 14 the terms of the Capitulation were +signed between General Nicolás de la Peña y Cuellas and Colonels Jose Maria Olaguer Tellin and Cárlos Rey y Rich, as Commissioners +for Spain, and Generals F. V. Greene and Charles A. Whittier, Colonel Crowder, and Captain Lamberton, U.S.N., as Commissioners +for the United States. The most important conditions embodied in the Capitulation are as follows, viz.: + + +</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p>1. The surrender of the Philippine Archipelago. + + +</p> +<p>2. Officers to be allowed to retain their swords and personal effects, but not their horses. + + +</p> +<p>3. Officers to be prisoners of war on parole. + + +</p> +<p>4. The troops to be prisoners of war and to deposit their arms at a place to be appointed by General Merritt. + + +</p> +<p>5. All necessary supplies for their maintenance to be provided from the public Treasury funds, and after they are exhausted, +by the United States. + + +</p> +<p>6. All public property to be surrendered. + + +</p> +<p>7. The disposal of the troops to be negotiated, later on, by the United States and Spanish Governments. + + +</p> +<p>8. Arms to be returned to the troops at General Merrittʼs discretion. + +</p> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>The Capitulation having been signed, Lieutenant Brumby immediately went to Fort Santiago with two signalmen from the <i>Olympia</i> and lowered the Spanish flag, which had been flying there all day. Many Spanish officers and a general crowd from the streets +stood around, and as he drew near to the flagstaff he was hissed by the onlookers. When the orange-and-red banner was actually +replaced by the Stars and Stripes, many in the crowd shed tears. The symbol of Spanish sovereignty had disappeared for ever. +The attitude of the mob was not reassuring, so Lieutenant Brumby asked an infantry officer who was present to bring his detachment +as a guard. A company of infantry happened to be coming along, and presented arms, whilst the band, playing “The Star-spangled +Banner,” enlivened this dramatic ceremony. Whilst this was going on the Spaniards hoisted the Spanish flag on the transport +<i>Cebú</i> and brought it down to the mouth of the Pasig River, where they set fire to it. A party of American marines boarded her, +hauled down <a id="d0e17493"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e17493">466</a>]</span>the Spanish flag, and tried to save the hull, but it was too far consumed. The Spaniards also destroyed barges and other Government +property lying in the river. + +</p> +<p>In the official reports furnished by Generals T. M. Anderson and A. McArthur and published in America, the total casualties +on the American side are stated to be as follows, viz.:—On August 13, five killed and 43 wounded. Previous to this in the +trenches there were 14 killed and 60 wounded, making a total of 122. + +</p> +<p>The approximate number of European Spanish troops in the Archipelago during the year 1898 would stand thus:— + + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="80%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Total of troops under Gen. Primo de Rivera in January, 1898, say + +</td> +<td valign="top">25,000 + + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Shipped back to Spain by Gen. Primo de Rivera after Aguinaldoʼs withdrawal to Hong-Kong (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e15851">400</a>) + +</td> +<td valign="top">7,000 + + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top"><i>At the date of the Capitulation of Manila</i> + + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Prisoners (regular troops) in hands of the rebels + +</td> +<td valign="top">8,000 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Detachments in the Luzon Provinces (subsequently surrendered to, or killed by, the rebels) + +</td> +<td valign="top">1,000 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Killed or mortally wounded in general combat + +</td> +<td valign="top">1,000 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Wounded and diseased in Manila hospitals + +</td> +<td valign="top">2,600 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Approximate total in Visayas and Mindanao Island (General Riosʼ jurisdiction) + +</td> +<td valign="top">3,000 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Approximate total of able-bodied troops in Manila, prisoners of war (to America), up to December 10, 1898 + +</td> +<td valign="top">2,400 + + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">25,000</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>General F. V. Greene marched his troops down the <i>Calzada</i> and entered the walled city, where he massed his forces. Sentinels were placed at all the city gates; some rebels got inside +the city, but were disarmed and sent out again. At 7 p.m. the American troops took up their quarters in public buildings, +porches, and even on the streets, for they were tired out. One might have imagined it to be a great British festival, for +the streets were bedecked everywhere with the British colours displayed by the Chinese who were under British protection. +That night General Merritt, General Greene and the staff officers were served at dinner by the late Captain-Generalʼs servants +in the Town Hall (<i lang="es">Plaza de la Catedral</i>), the splendid marble entrance of which became temporarily a dépôt for captured arms, ammunition, and accoutrements of war. + +</p> +<p>No hostile feeling was shown by Spaniards of any class. The inhabitants of the city looked remarkably well after the 105 daysʼ +siege. Trade was absolutely at a standstill, and American troops were drafted out of the walled city to occupy the commercial +quarter of Binondo on the opposite side of the river. The government of the city was at once taken over by Maj.-General Wesley +Merritt, appointments being made by him to the principal departments as follows, viz.:— +<a id="d0e17567"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e17567">467</a>]</span></p> +<p>By General Order dated August 15, Brig.-General T. M. Anderson became Commandant of the Cavite district, the garrison of which +would be increased on the arrival of the transports on the way. Brig.-General Arthur McArthur became Military Commandant of +the walled city of Manila and Provost-Marshal of the city of Manila, including all the suburbs, his barracks and staff-quarters +to be within the walled city. The Commandant was to take over the offices, staff, and functions of the late Civil Governor. +Colonel Ovenshine became Deputy Provost-Marshal of the walled city south of the river; Colonel James S. Smith was appointed +Deputy Provost-Marshal of Binondo and all districts situated north of the river. + +</p> +<p>By General Order dated August 16, Brig.-General F. V. Greene became Treasurer-General; Brig.-General of Volunteers C. A. Whittier +was nominated Commissioner of Customs. + +</p> +<p>By General Order dated August 15, it was provided that within 10 days a complete list should be sent to Washington of all +public establishments and properties of every description, including horses; that all private property, including horses, +would be respected, and that lodging for the prisoners of war would be provided by the Military Commandant of the city in +the public buildings and barracks not required for the American troops. Colonel C. M. C. Reeve was appointed Chief of Police, +with the 13th Regiment of Volunteer Minnesota Infantry for this service. + +</p> +<p>On August 16 a notice was placarded outside the General Post Office to the effect that, as all the Spanish staff had refused +to work for the Americans, the local and provincial correspondence could not be attended to. This was, however, soon remedied. + +</p> +<p>In an order issued on August 22 it was enacted that all natives and all Spanish soldiers were to be disarmed before they were +admitted into the walled city. The insurgent troops were included in the above category, but their arms were restored to them +on their leaving the city. An exception was made in favour of the insurgent officers, from the grade of lieutenant upwards, +who were permitted to enter and leave Manila with their swords and revolvers. + +</p> +<p>On August 25 a provisional agreement was entered into between the American authorities and Emilio Aguinaldo, to remain in +force pending the result of the Paris Peace Commission, whereby their respective spheres were defined. The Americans retained +jurisdiction over Manila City, Binondo, the right bank of the Pasig River up to the Calzada de Iris and thence to Malacañan, +which was included. The remaining districts were necessarily in the hands of the rebels, there being no recognized independent +government in Luzon other than the American military occupation of the capital and environs. + +</p> +<p>Towards the end of August, the American Commander-in-Chief, Maj.-General Wesley Merritt, quitted the Islands in order to give +<a id="d0e17582"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e17582">468</a>]</span>evidence before the Peace Commission at Paris, after having appointed General E. S. Otis to be the first Military Governor +of Manila. + +</p> +<p>The British Consul, Mr. E. A. Rawson Walker, who had rendered such excellent service to both the contending parties, died +of dysentery in the month of August, and was buried at Paco cemetery. + +</p> +<p>Philippine refugees returned to the Islands in large numbers, but the American authorities notified the Consul in Hong-Kong +that only those Chinese who could prove to his satisfaction previous residence in Manila would be allowed to return there. + +</p> +<p>Trading operations were resumed immediately after the capitulation, and the first shipment of cigars made after that date +was a parcel of 140,000 exported to Singapore in the first week of September and consigned to the <i lang="es">Tabaqueria Universal</i>. Business in Manila, little by little, resumed its usual aspect. The old Spanish newspapers continued to be published, and +some of them, especially <i lang="es">El Comercio</i>, were enterprising enough to print alternate columns of English and Spanish, and, occasionally, a few advertisements in very +amusing broken English. Two rebel organs, <i lang="es">La Independencia</i> and <i lang="es">La República Filipina</i>, soon appeared. They were shortly followed by a number of periodicals of minor importance, such as <i lang="es">El Soldado Español, La Restauracion</i> (a Carlist organ), <i lang="es">Thé Kon Leche, El Cometa</i> and <i lang="es">El Motin</i> (satirical papers) and two American papers, viz., <i>The Manila American</i> and <i>The Manila Times</i>. Liberty of the press was such a novelty in Manila that <i lang="es">La Voz Española</i> over-stepped the bounds of prudence and started a press campaign against the Americans. Delgado, the editor, after repeated +warnings from the Provost-Marshal, was at length arrested. The paper was suppressed for abusing the Americans from the President +downwards, and publishing matter calculated to incite the Spanish inhabitants to riot. The capital was seething with opposition +to the new conditions; many were arrested, but few lamented the incarceration, for the prison was the porch which led to fame, +and through it all who were ambitious to rise from obscurity had to pass. Moreover, imprisonment (for mere trifles) was such +a commonplace event in Spanish times that no native lost caste by the experience of it, unless it were for a heinous crime +which shocked his fellows. Meanwhile, in the public ways and the cafés and saloons, altercations between the three parties, +Spanish, native, and American, were of frequent occurrence. + +</p> +<p>For some weeks before the capitulation there had been a certain amount of friction between the American soldiery and the rebels, +who resented being held in check by the American authorities. Emilio Aguinaldo had his headquarters at Bacoor, on the Cavite +coast, situated between two divisions of the American army, one at Cavite and the other at Manila, and within easy shelling +distance from the American fleet. For obvious reasons he decided to remove his centre of operations, for it was becoming doubtful +how long peace between the two parties <a id="d0e17622"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e17622">469</a>]</span>would continue. The rebels had been sorely disappointed that they were not allowed to enter Manila with the Americans, or +even before, for since the first few months of the rebellion they had pictured to themselves the delights of a free raid on +the city. Aguinaldo therefore removed his headquarters to a place three miles north of Manila, but General Otis requested +him to go farther away from the capital. As he hesitated to do so the General sent him an ultimatum on September 13 ordering +him to evacuate that place by the afternoon of the 15th, so during the night of the 14th Aguinaldo moved on with his troops +to Malolos. From this town, situate about 20 miles from Manila, he could better unite and control the rebel factions here +and there over the northern provinces; he could, moreover, either make use of the line of railway or cut off the connection +with Manila, or he could divert supplies from the rich rice districts and Pangasinán ports, whilst the almost impregnable +mountains were of easy access in case of need. + +</p> +<p>Aguinaldo declared Malolos to be the provisional capital of his Revolutionary Government, and convened a Congress to meet +there on September 15 in the church of Barasoain.<a id="d0e17626src" href="#d0e17626" class="noteref">14</a> Fifty-four deputies responded to the summons, and in conformity with Aguinaldoʼs proclamation of June 23 they proceeded to +elect a President of Congress, Vice-President, Secretaries, etc. The result of the voting was a remarkable event of the revolution. +Don Pedro A. Paterno was elected President of Congress! The man whom the revolutionists had, less than four months before, +so satirically admonished for his leaning towards Spanish sovereignty, was chosen to guide the political destinies of this +budding democracy and preside over their republican legislative body! Deputies Benito Legarda and Ocampo were chosen to be +Vice-President and Secretary respectively. Congress voted for Aguinaldo a salary of ₱50,000 and ₱25,000 for representation +expenses. These figures were afterwards reversed, i.e., ₱25,000 salary, and ₱50,000 for expenses; but Aguinaldo, who never +showed any desire for personal gain, was quite willing to set aside the vote. A decree in Congress, dated September 21, imposed +compulsory military service on every able-bodied Philippine male over 18 years of age, except those holding office under the +Revolutionary Government. At an early session of Congress Deputy Tomas del Rosario made a long speech advocating Church Disestablishment.<a id="d0e17629src" href="#d0e17629" class="noteref">15</a> + +</p> +<p>The night before Congress met to announce the election of President, etc., an attempt was made to poison Emilio Aguinaldo. +Dinner was about to be served to him; the soup was in the tureen, when one of the three Spanish prisoners who were allowed +to be about the kitchen tasted <a id="d0e17634"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e17634">470</a>]</span>the soup in a manner to arouse suspicion. The steward at once took a spoonful of it and fell dead on the spot. The three prisoners +in question, as well as 11 Franciscan friars, were consequently placed in close confinement. At the next sitting of Congress +the incident was mentioned and it was resolved to go <i>en masse</i> to congratulate Aguinaldo on his lucky escape. At 5 p.m. the same day a <i>Te Deum</i> was sung in Malolos Church anent this occurrence. + +</p> +<p>On October 1 the <i>Ratification of Philippine Independence</i> was proclaimed at Malolos with imposing ceremony. From 6 a.m. the Manila (Tondo) railway-station was besieged by the crowd +of sightseers on their way to the insurgent capital (Malolos), which was <i>en fête</i> and gaily decorated with flags for the triumphal entry of General Emilio Aguinaldo, who walked to the Congress House attired +in a dress suit, with Don Pedro A. Paterno on his right and Don Benito Legarda on his left, followed by other representative +men of the Revolutionary Party, amidst the vociferous acclamations of the people and the strains of music. After the formal +proclamation was issued the function terminated with a banquet given to 200 insurgent notabilities. This day was declared +by the Malolos Congress to be a public holiday in perpetuity. + +</p> +<p>By virtue of Article 3 of the Protocol of Peace the Americans were in possession of the city, bay, and harbour of Manila pending +the conclusion of a treaty of peace. The terms of peace were referred to a Spanish-American Commission, which met in Paris +on October 1, five commissioners and a secretary being appointed by each of the High Contracting Parties. The representatives +of the United States were the Hon. William R. Day, of Ohio, ex-Secretary of State, President of the American Commission; Senator +Cushman K. Davis, of Minnesota; Senator William P. Frye, of Maine; Senator George Gray, of Delaware; and the Hon. Whitelaw +Reid, of New York, ex-Minister Plenipotentiary of the United States in France, assisted by the Secretary and Counsel to their +Commission, Mr. John Bassett Moore, an eminent professor of international law. The Spanish Commissioners were Don Eugenio +Montero Rios, Knight of the Golden Fleece, President of the Senate, ex-Cabinet Minister, etc., President of the Spanish Commission; +Senator Don Buenaventura Abarzuza, ex-Ambassador, ex-Minister, etc.; Don José de Garnica y Diaz, a lawyer; Don Wenceslao Ramirez +de Villa-Urrutia, Knight of the Orders of Isabella the Catholic and of Charles III., etc., Minister Plenipotentiary to the +Belgian Court; and General Don Rafael Cerero y Saenz, assisted by the Secretary to their Commission, Don Emilio de Ojeda, +Minister Plenipotentiary to the Court of Morocco. The conferences were held in a suite of apartments at the Ministry of Foreign +Affairs, placed at their disposal by M. Delcassé. Among other questions to be agreed upon and embodied in the treaty was the +future of the Philippines. For Washington officials these Islands really constituted a <i>terra incognita</i>. Maj.-General Merritt and a number of <a id="d0e17655"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e17655">471</a>]</span>other officials went to Paris to give evidence before the Commission. At their request, conveyed to me through the American +Embassy, I also proceeded to Paris in October and expressed my views before the Commissioners, who examined me on the whole +question. The Cuban debts and the future of the Philippines were really the knotty points in the entire debate. The Spanish +Commissioners argued (1) that the single article in the Protocol relating to the Philippines did not imply a relinquishment +of Spanish sovereignty over those Islands, but only a temporary occupation of the city, bay, and harbour of Manila by the +Americans pending the conclusion of a treaty of peace. (2) That the attack on Manila, its capitulation, and all acts of force +consequent thereon, committed <i>after</i> the Protocol was signed, were unlawful because the Protocol stipulated an immediate cessation of hostilities; therefore the +Commissioners claimed indemnity for those acts, a restoration to the <i>status quo ante</i>, and “the immediate delivery of the place (Manila) to the Spanish Government” (<i>vide</i> Annex to Protocol No. 12 of the Paris Peace Commission conference of November 3). + +</p> +<p>The American Commissioners replied: (1) “It is the contention on the part of the United States that this article leaves to +the determination of the treaty of peace the entire subject of the future government and sovereignty of the Philippines necessarily +embodied in the terms used in the Protocol.” (2) It is erroneous to suggest “that the ultimate demands of the United States +in respect of the Philippines were embodied in the Protocol.” (3) That there was no cable communication with Manila, hence +the American commanders could not possibly have been informed of the terms of the Protocol on the day of its signature. The +Spanish Commissioners, nevertheless, tenaciously persisting in their contention, brought matters to the verge of a resumption +of hostilities when the American Commissioners presented what was practically an ultimatum, in which they claimed an absolute +cession of the Islands, offering, however, to pay to Spain $20,000,000 gold, to agree, for a term of years, to admit Spanish +ships and merchandise into the Islands on the same terms as American ships and merchandise, and to mutually waive all claims +for indemnity—(<i>vide</i> Annex to Protocol No. 15 of the Paris Peace Commission conference of November 21). + +</p> +<p>For a few days the Spaniards still held out, and to appease public feeling in the Peninsula a fleet under Admiral Cámara was +despatched, ostensibly to the Philippines. It was probably never intended that the fleet should go beyond Port Said, for on +its arrival there it was ordered to return, the official explanation to the indignant Spanish public being that America was +preparing to seize the Archipelago by force, if necessary, and send a fleet to Spanish waters under the command of Admiral +Watson. Sagastaʼs Government had not the least intention of letting matters go so far as that, but it suited the Spanish Cabinet, +already extremely unpopular, to make an appearance of resistance. <a id="d0e17673"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e17673">472</a>]</span>Moreover, Señor Sagasta had personal motives for wishing to protract the negotiations, the examination of which would lead +one too far away from the present subject into Spanish politics. + +</p> +<p>At the next conference of the Commission the demands of the Americans were reluctantly conceded, and the form in which the +treaty was to be drafted was finally settled. The sitting of the Commission was terminated by the reading of a strongly-worded +protest by Señor Montero Rios in which the Spanish Commissioner declared that they had been compelled to yield to brute force +and abuse of international law against which they vehemently protested. The secretaries of the respective Commissions were +then instructed to draw up the document of the Treaty of Peace, which was signed at 9 p.m. on Saturday, December 10, 1898, +in the Grand Gallery of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Paris. The expenses of the Spanish Commission amounted to £8,400. +A delay of six months was agreed upon for the ratification by the two Governments of the treaty, the text of which is given +at the end of this chapter. America undertook to establish equal duties on Spanish and American goods for a period of ten +years; but it subsequently transpired that this was no special boon to Spain, seeing that America declared shortly after the +signing of the treaty that there would be no preferential tariff, and that merchandise of all nations could enter the Islands +at the same rate of duty and on equal terms with America. The clauses of the treaty relating to the Philippines met with determined +opposition in the United States, where politicians were divided into three parties advocating respectively annexation, protection, +and abandonment of the Islands to the natives. + +</p> +<p>At the closing conferences of the Commission several additional clauses to the treaty were proposed by the one party and the +other and rejected. Among the most singular are the following:—The Spaniards proposed that America should pay annually to +the descendants of Christopher Columbus $7,400 to be charged to the treasuries of Porto Rico and Manila. The Americans proposed +that Spain should concede to them the right to land telegraph-cables in the Canary Islands, or on any territory owned by Spain +on the coast of Africa, or in the Peninsula, in consideration of a cash payment of one million gold dollars. + +</p> +<p>We must now go back to September to follow the thread of events which intervened from that period and during the 71 daysʼ +sitting of the Peace Commission in Paris. My old acquaintance Felipe Agoncillo was sent to Washington in September by Emilio +Aguinaldo to solicit permission from the American Government to represent the rebelsʼ cause on the Paris Commission, or, failing +this, to be allowed to state their case. The Government, however, refused to recognize him officially, so he proceeded to +Paris. Having unsuccessfully endeavoured to be heard before the Commission, he drew up a protest in duplicate, handing a copy +to the Spanish and another to the <a id="d0e17681"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e17681">473</a>]</span>American Commissioners. The purport of this document was that whereas the Americans had supplied the Filipinos with war-material +and arms to gain their independence and not to fight against Spain in the interests of America, and whereas America now insisted +on claiming possession of the Archipelago, he protested, in the name of Emilio Aguinaldo, against what he considered a defraudment +of his just rights. His mission led to nothing, so he returned to Washington to watch events for Aguinaldo. After the treaty +was signed in Paris he was received at the White House, where an opportunity was afforded him of stating the Filipinosʼ views; +but he did not take full advantage of it, and returned to Paris, where I met him in July, 1900, holding the position of “High +Commissioner for the Philippine Republic.” His policy was, then, “absolute independence, free of all foreign control.” In +1904 we met again in Hong-Kong, where he was established as a lawyer. + +</p> +<p>In this interval, too, matters in Manila remained <i>in statu quo</i> so far as the American occupation was concerned. General E. S. Otis was still in supreme command in succession to General +Merritt, and reinforcements were arriving from America to strengthen the position. General Otisʼs able administration wrought +a wonderful change in the city. The weary, forlorn look of those who had great interests at stake gradually wore off; business +was as brisk as in the old times, and the Custom-house was being worked with a promptitude hitherto unknown in the Islands. +There were no more sleepless nights, fearing an attack from the dreaded rebel or the volunteer. The large majority of foreign +(including Spanish) and half-caste Manila merchants showed a higher appreciation of American protection than of the prospect +of sovereign independence under a Philippine Republic. On the other hand, the drunken brawls of the American soldiers in the +cafes, drinking-shops, and the open streets constituted a novelty in the Colony. Drinking “saloons” and bars monopolized quite +a fifth of the stores in the principal shopping street, <i>La Escolta</i>, where such unruliness obtained, to the detriment of American prestige, that happily the Government decided to exclude those +establishments altogether from that important thoroughfare, which has since entirely regained its respectable reputation. +The innovation was all the more unfortunate because of the extremely bad impression it made on the natives and Spaniards, +who are remarkably abstemious. It must also have been the cause of a large percentage of the sickness of the American troops +(wrongly attributed to climate), for it is well known that inebriety in the Philippines is the road to death. With three distinct +classes of soldiers in Manila—the Americans, the rebels, and the Spanish prisoners—each living in suspense, awaiting events +with divergent interests, there were naturally frequent disputes and collisions, sometimes of a serious nature, which needed +great vigilance to suppress. + +</p> +<p>The German trading community observed that, due to the strange <a id="d0e17693"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e17693">474</a>]</span>conduct of the commanders of the German fleet, who showed such partiality towards the Spaniards up to the capitulation of +Manila, the natives treated them with marked reticence. The Germans therefore addressed a more than ample letter of apology +on the subject to the newspaper <i lang="es">La Independencia</i> (October 17). + +</p> +<p>As revolutionary steamers were again cruising in Philippine waters, all vessels formerly flying the Spanish flag were hastily +placed on the American register to secure the protection of the Stars and Stripes, and ex-Consul Oscar F. Williams was deputed +to attend to these and other matters connected with the shipping trade of the port. + +</p> +<p>It was yet theoretically possible that the Archipelago might revert to Spain; hence pending the deliberations of the Peace +Commission, no movement was made on the part of the Americans to overthrow the <i>de facto</i> Spanish Government still subsisting in the southern islands. General Fermin Jáudenes, the vanquished Commander-in-Chief of +the Spanish forces in Manila (Sub-Inspector until General Augusti left), was liberated on parole in the capital until the +first week of October, when the American Government allowed him to return to Spain. He left in the s.s. <i>Esmeralda</i> for Hong-Kong on October 15. Meanwhile, a month before, the Spanish Government appointed General Diego de los Rios Gov.-General +of the Philippines, with residence at Yloilo. Spaniards of all classes were at least personally safe in Manila under American +protection. All who could reach the capital did so, for Spanish sway in the provinces was practically at an end. Aguinaldo +therefore directed his attention both to matters of government in Luzon and to the control of the southern islands. + +</p> +<p>Neither the Filipinos nor the Spaniards could foresee that the evacuation by the Spaniards of <i>all</i> the Islands would be insisted upon by the American Commissioners in Paris. Moreover, it was no easy task for Aguinaldo to +maintain his own personal prestige (an indispensable condition in all revolutions), carry out his own plans of government, +and keep together, in inactivity, a large half-disciplined fighting force. Three weeks after the capitulation of Manila, Aguinaldo +sent several small vessels to the Island of Panay, carrying Luzon rebels to effect a landing and stir up rebellion in Visayas. +He was anxious to secure all the territory he could before the conditions of peace should be settled in Paris, in the hope +that actual possession would influence the final issue. General Rios was therefore compelled to enter on a new campaign, assisted +by the small gunboats which had remained south since hostilities commenced north in May. Spanish troops were sent to Singapore +<i>en route</i>for Yloilo, and then a question arose between Madrid and Washington as to whether they could be allowed to proceed to their +destination under the peace Protocol. The Tagálog rebels landed in the province of Antique (Panay Is.), and a few natives +of the locality joined them. They were shortly met by the Spanish troops, <a id="d0e17716"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e17716">475</a>]</span>and severe fighting took place in the neighbourhood of Bugáson, where the rebels were ultimately routed with great loss of +men and impedimenta. + +</p> +<p>The survivors fled to their vessels and landed elsewhere on the same coast. In several places on the Island the flag of rebellion +had been unfurled, and General Riosʼ troops showed them no quarter. At the end of six weeks the rebels had been beaten in +numerous encounters, without the least apparent chance of gaining their objective point—the seizure of Yloilo. In the Concepcion +district (East Panay) the rebel chief Perfecto Poblado took the command, but gained no victory with his following of 4,000 +men. So far, what was happening in the Islands, other than Luzon, did not officially concern the Americans. + +</p> +<p>About this time, in Manila, there was by no means that <i>entente cordiale</i> which should have existed between the rebels and the Americans, supposing them to be real allies. In reality, it was only +in the minds of the insurgents that there existed an alliance, which the Americans could not, with good grace, have frankly +repudiated, seeing that General T. M. Anderson was frequently soliciting Aguinaldoʼs assistance and co-operation.<a id="d0e17725src" href="#d0e17725" class="noteref">16</a> Aguinaldo was naturally uneasy about the possible prospect of a protracted struggle with the Spaniards, if the Islands should +revert to them; he was none the less irritated because his repeated edicts and proclamations of independence received no recognition +from the Americans. General Anderson had already stated, in his reply (July 22) to a letter from Aguinaldo, that he had no +authority to recognize Aguinaldoʼs assumption of dictatorship. The native swaggering soldiery, with the air of conquerors, +were ever ready to rush to arms on the most trivial pretext, and became a growing menace to the peaceful inhabitants. Therefore, +on October 25, Aguinaldo was again ordered to withdraw his troops still farther, to distances varying from five to eight miles +off Manila, and he reluctantly complied. When this order was sent to him his forces in the neighbourhood of Manila were estimated +to be as follows:—At Coloocan, 3,000 men, with two guns trained on Binondo; Santa Mesa, 380; Pasig, 400; Paco, Santa Ana, +Pandácan, and Pasay, 400 to 500 each; south of Malate, 1,200, and at Santólan waterworks (on which the supply of potable water +to the capital depended), 380. + +</p> +<p>In Panay Island General Rios published an edict offering considerable reforms, but the flame of rebellion was too widespread +for it to have any effect. The Island of Cebú also was in revolt; the harsh measures of General Montero effected nothing to +Spainʼs advantage, whilst that miserable system of treating suspects as proved culprits created rebels. Neither did the <i>Moro</i> raid on the Cebuános, referred to at p. <a href="#d0e15960">406</a>, serve to break their spirit; more than half the villages defied Spanish authority, refused to pay taxes, and forced the +friars to take <a id="d0e17738"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e17738">476</a>]</span>refuge in Cebú City, which was, so far, safe. Those who were able took passage to ports outside the Archipelago. In Leyte +Island there were risings of minor importance, instigated by Tagálogs, and chiefly directed against the friars, who were everywhere +obnoxious to the people. At Catbalogan (Sámar Is.) an armed mob attacked the Spaniards, who fled to the house of an American. +General Rios had not sufficient troops to dominate several islands covering such a large area. He was so hard pressed in Panay +alone that, even if he had had ample means of transport, he could neither divide his forces nor afford to spend time in carrying +them from one island to another. Towards the end of October he ran short of ammunition, but, opportunely, the Spanish mail-steamer +<i>Buenos Aires</i> brought him a supply with which he could continue the struggle. Fresh Tagálog expeditions were meanwhile sent south, and +coerced or persuaded the Panay people to rise in greater force than ever, until, finally, General Rios had to fall back on +Yloilo. By the middle of November practically the whole island, except the towns of Yloilo, Molo, Jaro and La Paz, was under +rebel dominion. In December General Rios held only the town and port of Yloilo. He had ordered the bridge of Manduriao to +be destroyed, so as to establish a dividing line between him and the rebels who were entrenched on the opposite bank of the +river, neither party being willing to make a bold onslaught on the other, although frequent skirmishing took place. On receipt +of the news of the conclusion of the Treaty of Paris, General Rios proposed to the rebels a mutual cessation of hostilities, +on the ground that no advantage could accrue to either party by a further sacrifice of blood and munitions of war, seeing +that within a few days he was going to evacuate the town and embark his troops, and that, so far as he was concerned, they +could then take his place without opposition. But the rebels, presumably interpreting his humane suggestion as a sign of weakness, +continued to fire on the Spanish troops. + +</p> +<p>The small detachments and garrisons in Negros Island had been unable to resist the tide of revolt; the west coast of that +island was over-run by the rebels under the leadership of Aniceto Lacson and Juan Araneta (a much respected planter of Bago, +personally known to me), and the local Spanish Governor, Don Isidro Castro, was forced to capitulate, in due written form, +at Bacólod, on November 6, with his troops and all the Spanish civil and military employees. By December 1 it was evident +that, although Spanish empire in Visayas had been definitely broken, there was absolute discord among the (southern) rebels +themselves. They split up into rival factions, each one wanting to set up a government of its own. The American Peace Commissioners +had made their formal demand for the cession of all the Islands, and it was clear to the Spanish Government that General Rios +would sooner or later have to evacuate under the treaty. It was useless, therefore, to continue to shed European blood and +waste treasure in those regions. <a id="d0e17745"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e17745">477</a>]</span>In the first week of December the Madrid Government ordered General Rios to suspend hostilities and retire to Mindanao Island +with his troops, pending arrangements for their return to the Peninsula. General Rios replied to this order, saying that he +would make the necessary preparations. Meanwhile, on December 11, the rebels approached the fortifications around Yloilo town, +and the Spaniards kept up an almost continuous fusillade. Before daybreak on December 14 the rebels, armed with bowie-knives, +attacked the Spanish entrenchments in great force and drove the Spaniards back from their first to their second redoubt. The +Spaniards rallied, turned their four field-pieces on the enemy, and opened a raking artillery and rifle fire which mowed down +the rebels, who retired in great disorder, leaving about 500 dead and wounded. The Spaniards, who were well protected behind +their stockades, had 6 dead and 17 wounded. Notwithstanding their severe repulse, the rebels again fired on the Spaniards +until some female relations of their General Araneta and others went out to the rebel lines and harangued and expostulated +with the leaders, and so put them to shame with their tongues that thenceforth the rebels ceased to molest the Spaniards. +General Rios then took measures for evacution. On December 23, 1898, he formally handed over Yloilo to the mayor of the town +in the presence of his staff, the naval commanders, and the foreign consuls, and requested the German Vice-Consul to look +after Spanish interests. On the following day the Spanish troops, numbering between five and six hundred, and several civilians +were embarked in perfect order, without any unfortunate incident occurring, on board the s.s. <i>Isla de Luzon,</i> which sailed for Zamboanga, the rallying-place of the Spaniards, whilst some small steamers went to other places to bring +the officials to the same centre. + +</p> +<p>Before leaving Yloilo, after many tedious delays respecting the conditions, an exchange of prisoners was effected with the +rebels, who at the outset were inclined to be unduly exacting. + +</p> +<p>The rebels at once took possession of Yloilo, but a controlling American force arrived in the roadstead on December 27, under +the command of General Miller, and was afterwards reinforced up to a total strength of about 3,000 troops. + +</p> +<p>The Caroline Islands (which were not ceded under the Treaty of Paris) were provisioned for three months, and the Spanish troops +in Cebú Island and Ylígan (Mindanao Is.) had been already ordered to concentrate and prepare for embarkation on the same day +for Zamboanga (Mindanao Is.), where the bulk of them remained until they could be brought back to Spain on the terms of the +treaty of peace. In a few days General Rios left Zamboanga in the s.s. <i>Leon XIII.</i> for Manila, and remained there until June 3, 1899, to endeavour to negotiate the liberation of the Spanish prisoners detained +by Aguinaldo. They were kept under guard in the mountain <a id="d0e17759"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e17759">478</a>]</span>districts, far away from the capital, in groups miles distant from each other. No one outside the rebel camp could ever ascertain +the exact number of prisoners, which was kept secret. The strenuous efforts made by the Spaniards to secure their release +are fully referred to in Chap. <a href="#d0e18975">xxvi</a>. + +</p> +<p>During this period of evacuation the natives in Balábac Island assassinated all the male Europeans resident there, the Spanish +Governor, a lieutenant, and a doctor being among the victims. The European women were held in captivity for awhile, notwithstanding +the peaceful endeavours to obtain their release, supported by the Datto Harun Narrasid, Sultan of Paragua and ex-Sultan of +Sulu (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e4549">142</a>). The place was then attacked by an armed force, without result, but eventually the natives allowed the women to be taken +away. + +</p> +<p>Some of the Spanish soldiers and the civil servants concentrated in Zamboanga were carried direct to the Peninsula, <i>viá</i> the Straits of Balábac, in the steamers <i>Buenos Aires, Isla de Luzon</i>, and <i>Cachemir</i>, and from Manila many of them returned to their country in the s.s. <i>Leon XIII</i>. In conformity with the Treaty of Paris (Art. 5), little by little all the Spanish troops, temporarily prisoners of the United +States in Manila, were repatriated. + +</p> +<p>The Philippine Republican Congress at Malolos had now (December 26, 1898) adjourned in great confusion. The deputies could +not agree upon the terms of a Republican Constitution. They were already divided into two distinct parties, the Pacificos +and the Irreconcilables. The latter were headed by a certain Apolinario Mabini (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e19189">546</a>), a lawyer hitherto unknown, and a notorious opponent of Aguinaldo until he decided to take the field against the Americans. +The Cabinet having resigned, Aguinaldo prudently left Malolos on a visit to Pedro A. Paterno, at Santa Ana, on the Pasig River. + +</p> +<p>At the end of the year 1898, after 327 years of sovereignty, all that remained to Spain of her once splendid Far Eastern colonial +possessions were the Caroline, the Pelew, and the Ladrone Islands (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e2611">39</a>), minus the Island of Guam. Under the treaty of peace, signed in Paris, the Americans became nominal owners of the evacuated +territories, but they were only in real possession, by force of arms, of Cavite and Manila. The rest of the Archipelago, excepting +Mindanao and the Sulu Sultanate, was virtually and forcibly held by the natives in revolt. At the close of 1898 the Americans +and the rebels had become rival parties, and the differences between them foreboded either frightful bloodshed or the humiliation +of the one or the other. + + +</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<div class="body"> +<div class="div1"> +<h2 class="normal">Treaty of Peace</h2> +<p>concluded between the United States of America and Spain, signed in Paris on December 10, 1898, and ratified in Washington +on February 6, 1899. The original documents (in duplicate) are drawn up in Spanish and in English respectively. + +<a id="d0e17810"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e17810">479</a>]</span></p> +<p><i>The English Text</i>}<a id="d0e17815src" href="#d0e17815" class="noteref">17</a> + + +</p> +<p><i>Article</i> 1.—Spain relinquishes all claim of sovereignty over and title to Cuba. And as the Island is, upon its evacuation by Spain, +to be occupied by the United States, the United States will, so long as such occupation shall last, assume and discharge the +obligations that may under international law result from the fact of its occupation, for the protection of life and property. + + +</p> +<p><i>Article</i> 2.—Spain cedes to the United States the Island of Porto Rico and other islands now under Spanish sovereignty in the West +Indies, and the Island of Guam in the Marianas or Ladrones. + + +</p> +<p><i>Article</i> 3.—Spain cedes to the United States the archipelago known as the Philippine Islands, and comprehending the islands lying +within the following line: A line running from W. to E. along or near the 20th parallel of N. latitude, and through the middle +of the navigable channel of Bachi, from the 118th to the 127th degree meridian of longitude E. of Greenwich, thence along +the 127th degree meridian of longitude E. of Greenwich to the parallel of 4° 45′ N. latitude, thence along the parallel of +4° 45′ N. latitude to its intersection with the meridian of longitude 119° 35′ E. of Greenwich, thence along the meridian +of longitude 119° 35′ E. of Greenwich to the parallel of latitude 7° 40′ N., thence along the parallel of latitude of 7° 40′ +N. to its intersection with the 116th degree meridian of longitude E. of Greenwich, thence by a direct line to the intersection +of the 10th degree parallel of N. latitude with the 118th degree meridian of longitude E. of Greenwich, and thence along the +118th degree meridian of longitude E. of Greenwich to the point of beginning. + + +</p> +<p>The United States will pay to Spain the sum of $.20,000,000 within three months after the exchange of the ratifications of +the present treaty. + + +</p> +<p><i>Article</i> 4.—The United States will, for the term of 10 years from the date of the exchange of the ratifications of the present treaty, +admit Spanish ships and merchandise to the ports of the Philippine Islands on the same terms as ships and merchandise of the +United States. + + +</p> +<p><i>Article</i> 5.—The United States will, upon the signature of the present treaty, send back to Spain, at its own cost, the Spanish soldiers +taken as prisoners of war on the capture of Manila by the American forces. The arms of the soldiers in question shall be restored +to them. + + +</p> +<p>Spain will, upon the exchange of the ratification of the present treaty, proceed to evacuate the Philippines, as well as the +Island <a id="d0e17844"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e17844">480</a>]</span>of Guam, on terms similiar to those agreed upon by the Commissioners appointed to arrange for the evacuation of Porto Rico +and other islands in the West Indies, under the Protocol of August 12, 1898, which is to continue in force till its provisions +are completely executed. + + +</p> +<p>The time within which the evacuation of the Philippine Islands and Guam shall be completed shall be fixed by the two Governments. +Stands of colours, uncaptured war-vessels, small arms, guns of all calibres, with their carriages and accessories, powder, +ammunition, live-stock, and materials and supplies of all kinds, belonging to the land and naval forces of Spain in the Philippines +and Guam, remain the property of Spain. Pieces of heavy ordnance, exclusive of field artillery, in the fortifications and +coast defences, shall remain in their emplacements for the term of six months, to be reckoned from the exchange of ratifications +of the treaty; and the United States may, in the meantime, purchase such material from Spain, if a satisfactory agreement +between the two Governments on the subject shall be reached. + + +</p> +<p><i>Article</i> 6.—Spain will, upon the signature of the present treaty, release all prisoners of war, and all persons detained or imprisoned +for political offences in connection with the insurrections in Cuba and the Philippines and the war with the United States. + + +</p> +<p>Reciprocally, the United States will release all persons made prisoners of war by the American forces, and will undertake +to obtain the release of all Spanish prisoners in the hands of the insurgents in Cuba and the Philippines. + + +</p> +<p>The Government of the United States will at its own cost return to Spain and the Government of Spain will at its own cost +return to the United States, Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Philippines, according to the situation of their respective homes, +prisoners released or caused to be released by them, respectively, under this article. + + +</p> +<p><i>Article</i> 7.—The United States and Spain mutually relinquish all claims for indemnity, national and individual, of every kind, of either +Government, or of its citizens or subjects, against the other Government, that may have arisen since the beginning of the +late insurrection in Cuba and prior to the exchange of ratifications of the present treaty, including all claims for indemnity +for the cost of the war. + + +</p> +<p>The United States will adjudicate and settle the claims of its citizens against Spain relinquished in this article. + + +</p> +<p><i>Article</i> 8.—In conformity with the provisions of Articles 1, 2 and 3 of this treaty, Spain relinquishes in Cuba, and cedes in Porto +Rico and other islands in the West Indies, in the Island of Guam, and in the Philippine Archipelago, all the buildings, wharves, +<a id="d0e17866"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e17866">481</a>]</span>barracks, forts, structures, public highways and other immovable property which, in conformity with law, belong to the public +domain, and as such belong to the Crown of Spain. + + +</p> +<p>And it is hereby declared that the relinquishment or cession, as the case may be, to which the preceding paragraph refers, +cannot in any respect impair the property or rights which by law belong to the peaceful possession of property of all kinds, +of provinces, municipalities, public or private establishments, ecclesiastical or civic bodies, or any other associations +having legal capacity to acquire and possess property in the aforesaid territories renounced or ceded, or of private individuals, +of whatsoever nationality such individuals may be. + + +</p> +<p>The aforesaid relinquishment or cession, as the case may be, includes all documents exclusively referring to the sovereignty +relinquished or ceded that may exist in the archives of the Peninsula. Where any document in such archives only in part relates +to said sovereignty, a copy of such part will be furnished whenever it shall be requested. Like rules shall be reciprocally +observed in favour of Spain in respect of documents in the archives of the islands above referred to. + + +</p> +<p>In the aforesaid relinquishment or cession, as the case may be, are also included such rights as the Crown of Spain and its +authorities possess in respect of the official archives and records, executive as well as judicial, in the islands above referred +to, which relate to the said islands or the rights and property of their inhabitants. Such archives and records shall be carefully +preserved, and private persons shall without distinction have the right to require, in accordance with law, authenticated +copies of the contracts, wills and other instruments forming part of notarial protocols or files, or which may be contained +in the executive or judicial archives, be the latter in Spain or in the islands aforesaid. + + +</p> +<p><i>Article</i> 9.—Spanish subjects, natives of the Peninsula, residing in the territory over which Spain by the present treaty relinquishes +or cedes her sovereignty, may remain in such territory, or may remove therefrom, retaining in either event all their rights +of property, including the right to sell or dispose of such property or of its proceeds; and they shall also have the right +to carry on their industry, commerce and professions, being subject in respect thereof to such laws as are applicable to other +foreigners. In case they remain in the territory they may preserve their allegiance to the Crown of Spain by making before +a court of record, within a year from the date of the exchange of ratifications of this treaty, a declaration of their decision +to preserve such allegiance; in default of which declaration they shall be held to have renounced it and to have adopted the +nationality of the territory in which they may reside. + +<a id="d0e17878"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e17878">482</a>]</span></p> +<p>The civil rights and political status of the native inhabitants of the territories hereby ceded to the United States shall +be determined by the Congress. + + +</p> +<p><i>Article</i> 10.—The inhabitants of the territories over which Spain relinquishes or cedes her sovereignty shall be secured in the free +exercise of their religion. + + +</p> +<p><i>Article</i> 11.—The Spaniards residing in the territories over which Spain by this treaty cedes or relinquishes her sovereignty shall +be subject in matters civil as well as criminal to the jurisdiction of the courts of the country wherein they reside, pursuant +to the ordinary laws governing the same; and they shall have the right to appear before such courts, and to pursue the same +course as citizens of the country to which the courts belong. + + +</p> +<p><i>Article</i> 12.—Judicial proceedings pending at the time of the exchange of ratifications of this treaty in the territories over which +Spain relinquishes or cedes her sovereignty shall be determined according to the following rules: (1) Judgements rendered +either in civil suits between private individuals, or in criminal matters, before the date mentioned, and with respect to +which there is no recourse, or right of review under the Spanish law, shall be deemed to be final, and shall be executed in +due form by competent authority in the territory within which such judgements shall be carried out: (2) Civil suits between +private individuals which may on the date mentioned be undetermined shall be prosecuted to judgement before the court in which +they may then be pending or in the court that may be substituted therefor: (3) Criminal actions pending on the date mentioned +before the Supreme Court of Spain, against citizens of the territory which by this treaty ceases to be Spanish, shall continue +under its jurisdiction until final judgement; but, such judgement having been rendered, the execution thereof shall be committed +to the competent authority of the place in which the case arose. + + +</p> +<p><i>Article</i> 13.—The rights of property secured by copyrights and patents acquired by Spaniards in the Island of Cuba and in Porto Rico, +the Philippines and other ceded territories, at the time of the exchange of the ratifications of this treaty, shall continue +to be respected. Spanish scientific, literary and artistic works, not subversive of public order in the territories in question, +shall continue to be admitted free of duty into such territories, for the period of ten years, to be reckoned from the date +of the exchange of the ratifications of this treaty. + + +</p> +<p><i>Article</i> 14.—Spain will have the power to establish Consular officers in the ports and places of the territories, the sovereignty +over which has been either relinquished or ceded by the present treaty. + +<a id="d0e17901"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e17901">483</a>]</span></p> +<p><i>Article</i> 15.—The Government of each country will, for the term of ten years, accord to the merchant vessels of the other country the +same treatment in respect of all port charges, including entrance and clearance dues, light dues, and tonnage duties, as it +accords to its own merchant vessels, not engaged in the coastwise trade. This article may at any time be terminated on six +monthsʼ notice given by either Government to the other. + + +</p> +<p><i>Article</i> 16.—It is understood that any obligations assumed in this treaty by the United States with respect to Cuba are limited to +the time of its occupancy thereof; but it will, upon the termination of such occupancy, advise any Government established +in the Island to assume the same obligations. + + +</p> +<p><i>Article</i> 17.—The present treaty shall be ratified by the President of the United States, by and with the advice and consent of the +Senate thereof, and by Her Majesty the Queen-Regent of Spain; and the ratifications shall be exchanged at Washington within +six months from the date hereof, or earlier if possible. + + +</p> +<p>In faith whereof, we, the respective Plenipotentiaries, have signed this treaty and have hereunto affixed our seals. + + +</p> +<p>Done in duplicate at Paris, the 10th day of December, in the year of our Lord 1898. + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">William R. Day</span>. +<br><span class="smallcaps">Cushman K. Davis</span>. +<br><span class="smallcaps">William P. Frye</span>. +<br><span class="smallcaps">Geo. Gray</span>. +<br><span class="smallcaps">Whitelaw Reid</span>. +<br><span class="smallcaps">Eugenio Montero Rios</span>. +<br><span class="smallcaps">B. de Abarzuza</span>. +<br><span class="smallcaps">J. de Garnica</span>. +<br><span class="smallcaps">W. R. de Villa-Urrutia</span>. +<br><span class="smallcaps">Rafael Cerero</span>. + +</p> +</div> +</div> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>Two years afterwards a supplementary treaty was made between the United States and Spain, whereby the Islands of Cagayán de +Joló, Sibutu, and other islets not comprised in the demarcation set forth in the Treaty of Paris, were ceded to the United +States for the sum of $100,000 gold. These small islands had, apparently, been overlooked when the Treaty of Paris was concluded. + +<a id="d0e17961"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e17961">484</a>]</span></p> +<div class="footnotes"> +<hr class="fnsep"> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e16263" href="#d0e16263src" class="noteref">1</a></span> On February 15, 1898, the U.S. man-of-war <i>Maine</i>, whilst lying in the harbour of Havana, was, accidentally or intentionally, blown up, causing the death of 266 of her crew. +Public opinion in America attributed the disaster to Spanish malice. The Spaniards indignantly repudiated this charge and +invited an official inquest. Again, at the Conference of December 6, 1898, the Spanish Commissioners of the Peace Commission +at Paris proposed an additional article to the treaty “to appoint an International Commission to be entrusted with investigating +the causes of, and responsibility for, the <i>Maine</i> catastrophe,” but the proposal was rejected by the American Commissioners. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e16275" href="#d0e16275src" class="noteref">2</a></span> Mirs Bay has <i>since</i> become British, being included in the extended Kowloon Concession on the mainland of China opposite Hong-Kong. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e16506" href="#d0e16506src" class="noteref">3</a></span> The distance from Corregidor Island to Manila City is 27 miles. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e16604" href="#d0e16604src" class="noteref">4</a></span> In July, 1904, I saw five rusty hulls—remnant of the Spanish fleet—afloat in Cavite harbour. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e16624" href="#d0e16624src" class="noteref">5</a></span> Admiral Patricio Montojo, born in 1831, entered the navy at the age of 14. After the Battle of Cavite he left for Europe in +October, 1898, and was committed to prison, March 3, 1899, pending the trial by court-martial which condemned him to compulsory +retirement from the service. He died in 1902, aged 71 years. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e16770" href="#d0e16770src" class="noteref">6</a></span> <i>Vide</i> Senate Document No. 62, Part II., 55th Congress, 3rd Session, pp. 350–6. Published by the Government Printing Office, Washington, +1899. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e16957" href="#d0e16957src" class="noteref">7</a></span> The <i>Macabebes</i> who came so conspicuously into prominence during the Rebellion of 1896 are the inhabitants of the town of Macabebe and its +dependent wards, situated in Lower Pampanga, near the Hagonoy River. They are the only Filipinos who have persistently and +systematically opposed the revolutionary faction of their own free will, without bribe or extraneous influence. No one seems +to be able to explain exactly why they should have adopted this course. They aided the Spaniards against the rebels, and also +the Americans against the insurgents. All I have been able to learn of them in the locality is that they keep exclusively +to themselves, and have little sympathy for, and no cordial intercourse with, the natives of other towns, either in their +own province or elsewhere. A generation ago the Macabebes had a bad reputation for their petty piratical depredations around +the north shore of Manila Bay and the several mouths of the Hagonoy River, and it is possible that their exclusiveness results +from their consciousness of having been shunned by the more reputable inhabitants. The total population of Macabebe is about +14,000. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e16965" href="#d0e16965src" class="noteref">8</a></span> The finding of the court says: “<span lang="es">Pasará á la seccion de reserva del Estado Mayor General del Ejército con incapacidad para obtener destinos y sin figurar en +la escala de los de dicha categoria.</span>” Signed by Canuto Garcia de Polavieja, dated April 28, 1899, and published in the <i lang="es">Gaceta de Madrid</i>. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e16983" href="#d0e16983src" class="noteref">9</a></span> It seems almost incredible that, even at this crisis, the Spaniards still counted on native auxiliaries to fight against their +own kith and kin. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e17288" href="#d0e17288src" class="noteref">10</a></span> <i>Vide</i> Senate Document No. 62, Part II., 55th Congress, 3rd Session, p. 282. Published by the Government Printing Office, Washington, +1899. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e17361" href="#d0e17361src" class="noteref">11</a></span> Captain T. Bentley Mott, A.D.C to General Merritt, writing in <i>Scribnerʼs Magazine</i> (December, 1898) says: “Neither the fleet nor the army was, at this time, ready for a general engagement. The army did not +have, all told, enough ammunition for more than <i>one day</i> of hard fighting, and only a part of this was in the camp.” Admiral Dewey had then been in possession of Manila bay and port +three months and 12 days. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e17372" href="#d0e17372src" class="noteref">12</a></span> <i>Vide</i> Senate Document No. 62, Part II., 55th Congress, 3rd Session, p. 491. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e17462" href="#d0e17462src" class="noteref">13</a></span> “The Spanish Commander-in-Chief fled from the city shortly before it was attacked.” Senate Document 62, Part II., 55th Congress, +3rd Session, p. 146. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e17626" href="#d0e17626src" class="noteref">14</a></span> Barasoain is another parish, but it is only separated from Malolos by a bridged river. It is only five minutesʼ walk from +Malolos Church to Barasoain Church. Since the American advent the two parishes have been united. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e17629" href="#d0e17629src" class="noteref">15</a></span> For want of space I am obliged to omit the summary of all the debates in the Revolutionary Congress of 1898, printed reports +of which I have before me. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e17725" href="#d0e17725src" class="noteref">16</a></span> <i>Vide</i> Senate Document No. 62, Part II., 55th Congress, 3rd Session, p. 371. Published by the Government Printing Office, Washington, +1899. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e17815" href="#d0e17815src" class="noteref">17</a></span> <i>Vide</i> Senate Document No. 62, Part I. of the 55th Congress, 3rd Session. Published by the Government Printing Office, Washington, +1899. +</p> +</div> +</div> +<div id="d0e17962" class="div1"> +<h2 class="normal">An Outline of the War of Independence, Period 1899–1901</h2> +<p>“I speak not of forcible annexation because that is not to be thought of, and under our code of morality that would be criminal +aggression.”—<i>President McKinleyʼs Message to Congress</i>; <i>December</i>, 1897. + +</p> +<p>“The Philippines are ours as much as Louisiana by purchase, or Texas or Alaska.”—<i>President McKinleyʼs Speech to the 10th Pennsylvania Regiment; August</i> 28, 1899. + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Ignorance</span> of the worldʼs ways, beyond the Philippine shores, was the cause of the Aguinaldo partyʼs first disappointment. A score of +pamphlets has been published to show how thoroughly the Filipinos believed Americaʼs mission to these Islands to be solely +prompted by a compassionate desire to aid them in their struggle for immediate sovereign independence. Laudatory and congratulatory +speeches, uttered in British colonies, in the presence of American officials, and hope-inspiring expressions which fell from +their lips before Aguinaldoʼs return to Cavite from exile, strengthened that conviction. Sympathetic avowals and grandiloquent +phrases, such as “for the sake of humanity,” and “the cause of civilization,” which were so freely bandied about at the time +by unauthorized Americans, drew Aguinaldo into the error of believing that some sort of bond really existed between the United +States and the Philippine Revolutionary Party. In truth, there was no agreement between America and the Filipinos. There was +no American plenipotentiary empowered to make any political compact with the Islanders. At that date there was neither a Philippine +policy nor any fixed programme regarding the future disposal of the Islands, and whatever naval, military, or other officers +might have said to Aguinaldo was said on their own private responsibility, and could in no way affect the action of the American +Government. Without any training in or natural bent for diplomacy, Aguinaldo had not the faintest idea of what foreign “protection” +signified. He thought that after the capture of Manila the Americans would sail away and leave the Filipinos to themselves, +and only reappear if any other Power interfered with their native government. + +</p> +<p></p> +<div id="d0e17983" class="figure"><img border="0" src="images/p485.jpg" alt="Bowie-knives and Weapons of the Christian Natives." width="497" height="720"><p class="figureHead">Bowie-knives and Weapons of the Christian Natives.</p> +<p>Central figure—“Talibon.” The others—Bowie-knives (Sp. <i>Bolo</i>, Tag. <i>Guloc</i>). +</p> +</div><p> +<a id="d0e17995"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e17995">485</a>]</span></p> +<p>Admiral Dewey had a double task to perform. He had to destroy the Spanish fleet, and to co-operate in the taking of Manila. +In the destruction of the fleet the attitude of the natives was of little concern to him. In the taking of the capital it +was important to know what part the natives would play. It was certain they would not be placid spectators of the struggle, +wherever Aguinaldo might be. If they <i>must</i> enter into it, it was desirable to have them led by one who could control them and repress excesses. It would have been better +for the Americans if, pending the issue with the Spaniards, no third party had existed; but, as it did exist, both contending +nations were anxious for its goodwill or its control. Therefore Admiral Deweyʼs recognition of Aguinaldo as a factor in the +hostilities was nothing more nor less than a legitimate stratagem to facilitate his operations against the Spaniards. Dewey +simply neutralized a possible adverse force by admissible military artifice, and Aguinaldo was too ingenuous to see that he +was being outwitted. The fighting section of the Filipinos was intensely irritated at not having been allowed to enter and +sack the capital. They had looked forward to it as the crowning act of victory. The general mass of the christianized Islanders +hoped that Philippine independence would immediately follow the capitulation of Manila, although, in the capital itself, natives +of position and property evinced little enthusiasm for the insurgentsʼ triumph, whilst some inwardly doubted it. In September +a native lawyer, Felipe Agoncillo, was sent to Washington to lay the Filipinosʼ case before the President in the hope of gaining +his personal support of their claims (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e17673">472</a>). The first fear was that the Colony might revert to Spain, but that idea was soon dispelled by the news of the stipulations +of the Treaty of Paris. Simultaneously Aguinaldoʼs revolutionary army was being pushed farther and farther away from the capital, +and it was evident, from the mood of his fighting-men, that if the Americans remained in possession of the Colony, hostilities, +sooner or later, must break out. The Americans officially ignored the Aguinaldo party as a factor in public affairs, but they +were not unaware of the warlike preparations being made. Secret anti-American meetings were held at places called clubs, where +it was agreed to attack simultaneously the Americans inside and outside the capital. General Pio del Pilar slept in the city +every night, ready to give the rocket-signal for revolt. Natives between 18 and 40 years of age were being recruited for military +service, according to a Malolos Government decree dated September 21, 1898. In every smithy and factory bowie-knives were +being forged with all speed, and 10,000 men were already armed with them. General E. S. Otis was willing to confer with Aguinaldo, +and six sessions were held, the last taking place on January 29, six days before the outbreak. Nothing resulted from these +conferences, the Americans alleging that Aguinaldo would make no definite statement of his peopleʼs aims, whilst <a id="d0e18007"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e18007">486</a>]</span>the Filipinos declare that their intentions were so well understood by the American general that he would listen to nothing +short of unconditional submission. + +</p> +<p>The following manifesto, dated January 5, signed by Emilio Aguinaldo, clearly shows the attitude of the Revolutionary Party +at this period:— + + +</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p><span class="smallcaps">To My Brethren the Filipinos, and to All the Respected Consuls and Other Foreigners</span>:— + + +</p> +<p>General Otis styles himself Military Governor of these Islands, and I protest one and a thousand times and with all the energy +of my soul against such authority. I proclaim solemnly that I have not recognized either in Singapore or in Hong-Kong or in +the Philippines, by word or in writing, the sovereignty of America over this beloved soil. On the contrary, I say that I returned +to these Islands on an American warship on the 19th of May last for the express purpose of making war on the Spaniards to +regain our liberty and independence. I stated this in my proclamation of the 24th of May last, and I published it in my Manifesto +addressed to the Philippine people on the 12th of June. Lastly, all this was confirmed by the American General Merritt himself, +predecessor of General Otis, in his Manifesto to the Philippine people some days before he demanded the surrender of Manila +from the Spanish General Jaúdenes. In that Manifesto it is distinctly stated that the naval and field forces of the United +States had come to give us our liberty, by subverting the bad Spanish Government. And I hereby protest against this unexpected +act of the United States claiming sovereignty over these Islands. My relations with the American authorities prove undeniably +that the United States did not bring me over here from Hong-Kong to make war on the Spaniards for their benefit, but for the +purpose of our own liberty and independence. . . . + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Emilio Aguinaldo</span>. + +</p> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>Aguinaldo having been successively Dictator and President of the Revolutionary Government (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e16981">448</a>), now assumed the new title of President of the <i>Philippine Republic</i>, the Articles of Constitution of which (drawn up by his Prime Minister Apolinario Mabini) were dated January 21, 1899, and +promulgated by him on the following day. In due course the news came that the date of voting in the Senate for or against +the retention of the Islands was fixed. The Americans already in the Colony were practically unanimous in their desire for +its retention, and every effort was made by them to that end. The question of the treaty ratification was warmly discussed +in Washington. A week before the vote was taken it was doubtful whether the necessary two-thirds majority could be obtained. +It was a remarkable coincidence <a id="d0e18034"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e18034">487</a>]</span>that just when the Republican Party was straining every nerve to secure the two or three wavering votes, the first shots were +exchanged between a native and an American outpost in the suburbs of the capital. Each side accuses the other of having precipitated +hostilities. However that may be, this event took place precisely at a date when the news of it in Washington served to secure +the votes of the hesitating senators in favour of retention.<a id="d0e18036src" href="#d0e18036" class="noteref">1</a> The provocative demeanour of the insurgents at the outposts was such that a rupture was inevitable sooner or later, and if +a Senate vote of abandonment had come simultaneously with insurrection, the situation would have been extremely complicated; +it would have been difficult for the Oriental not to have believed that the invader was nervously beating a retreat. The Nebraska +Regiment was at Santa Mesa, guarding its front. Americans were frequently insulted, called cowards, and openly menaced by +the insurgents. In the evening of Saturday, February 4, 1899, an insurgent officer came with a detail of men and attempted +to force his way past the sentinel on the San Juan bridge. About nine oʼclock a large body of rebels advanced on the South +Dakota Regimentʼs outposts, and to avoid the necessity of firing, for obvious reasons, the picquets fell back. For several +nights a certain insurgent lieutenant had tried to pass the Nebraska lines. At length he approached a sentinel, who called +“halt” three times without response, and then shot the lieutenant dead. Several insurgents then fired and retreated; rockets +were at once sent up by the Filipinos, and firing started all along the line, from Caloocan to Santa Mesa. By ten oʼclock +the Filipinos concentrated at Caloocan, Santa Mesa, and Gagalan͠ging, whence they opened a simultaneous, but ineffectual, +fusillade, supplemented by two siege guns at Balichalic and a skirmishing attack from Pandacan and Paco. Desperate fighting +continued throughout the night; the Filipinos, driven back from every post with heavy loss, rallied the next morning at Paco, +where they occupied the parish church, to which many non-combatant refugees had fled. The American warships, co-operating +with their batteries, poured a terrific fire on the church, and kept up a continuous attack on the insurgent position at Caloocan, +where General Aguinaldo was in command. At daylight the Americans made a general advance towards Paco and Santa Ana. At the +former place the Filipinos resisted desperately; the church, sheltering refugees and insurgents, was completely demolished;<a id="d0e18039src" href="#d0e18039" class="noteref">2</a> the Filipinosʼ loss amounted to about 4,000 killed and wounded, whilst the Americans lost about 175 killed and wounded. It +is estimated that the approximate number of troops engaged in this encounter was 13,000 Americans and 20,000 Filipinos. The +insurgents at Santa Ana, the survivors of the Paco defeat, and the force which had to abandon the Santólan water-works, <a id="d0e18042"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e18042">488</a>]</span>where they left behind them a howitzer, all concentrated at Caloocan. The insurgent and American lines formed a semicircle +some 15 miles in extent, making it impossible to give a comprehensive description of the numerous small engagements. + +</p> +<p>Immediately the news of the rupture reached Washington the Philippine Envoy, Felipe Agoncillo, fled to Montreal, Canada, in +a great hurry, leaving his luggage behind. No one was troubling him, and there was not the least need for such a precipitate +flight from a country where civilized international usages obtain. On February 5 an engagement took place at Gagalan͠ging, +where the natives collected in the hundreds of bungalows around that village awaiting the advance of the Oregon Regiment. +Amongst the spectators was the German Prince Ludwig von Löwenstein. The Americans continued advancing and firing, when suddenly +the prince ran across an open space and took shelter in a hut which he must have known would be attacked by the Oregons. The +order was given to fire into the native dwellings giving cover to the insurgents, and the princeʼs dead body was subsequently +found perforated by a bullet. In his pocket he carried a pass issued by Aguinaldo conceding to the bearer permission to go +anywhere within the insurgent lines, and stating that he was a sympathizer with their cause. It was noticed that the prince +several times deliberately threw himself into danger. No one could ascertain exactly in what capacity he found himself near +the fighting-line. Less than two years previously he had married the daughter of an English earl, and the popular belief was +that, for private reasons, he intentionally courted death. + +</p> +<p>The rebels were repulsed at every point with great loss. Lines of smoke from the burning villages marked the direction taken +by the Americans advancing under the leadership of Generals Otis, Wheaton, Hale, and Hall. An immense amount of impedimenta +in the shape of pontoons, telegraph posts and wires, ammunition, and provisions followed the infantry in perfect order. On +the line taken by the troops many native householders hoisted white flags to indicate their peaceful intentions. Ambulances +were frequently seen coming in with the wounded Americans and Filipinos, and among them was brought the chief of an Igorrote +tribe with a broken thigh. His tribe, who had been persuaded by Aguinaldo to bring their bows and arrows to co-operate with +him, were placed in the front and suffered great slaughter. In hospital the Igorrote chief spoke with much bitterness of how +he had been deceived, and vowed vengeance against the Tagálogs. The next day at Caloocan the rebels made a determined stand, +but were driven out of the place by 10-inch shells fired from the <i>Monadnock</i> over the American lines. General Hall occupied Santólan and the pumping-station there and repelled the repeated attacks made +on his column. General McArthur with a flying column cleared the surrounding district of the enemy, but owing to the roughness +of the country he was unable to <a id="d0e18051"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e18051">489</a>]</span>pursue them. Aguinaldo was therefore able to escape north with his army, reinforced by native troops who had been trained +in Spanish service. There was also a concentration of about 2,500 natives from the southern Luzon provinces. The insurgents +had cut trenches at almost every mile along the route north. In the several skirmishes which took place on March 25 the Americans +lost one captain and 25 men killed and eight officers and 142 men wounded. The next day there was some hard fighting around +Polo and Novaliches, where the insurgents held out for six hours against General McArthurʼs three brigades of cavalry and +artillery. After the defeat at Paco, Aguinaldo moved on to the town of Malabon, which was shelled; the enemy therefore immediately +evacuated that place in great confusion, after setting fire to the buildings. Over 1,000 men, women, and children hastened +across the low, swampy lands carrying their household goods and their fighting-cocks; it was indeed a curious spectacle. General +Wheatonʼs brigade captured Malinta, and the insurgents fled panic-stricken after having suffered severely. The American loss +was small in numbers, but Colonel Egbert, of the 22nd Infantry, was mortally wounded whilst leading a charge. As he lay on +the litter in the midst of the fight General Wheaton cheered him with the words, “Nobly done, Egbert!” to which the dying +colonel replied, “Good-bye, General; Iʼm done; Iʼm too old,” and at once expired. + +</p> +<p>In March the natives tried to burn down one of the busiest Manila suburbs. At 8 oʼclock one evening they set fire to the Chinese +quarters in Santa Cruz, and the breeze rapidly wafted the flames. The conflagration lasted four hours. The English Fire-Brigade +turned out to quench it. Hundreds of Chinese laden with chattels hurried to and fro about the streets; natives rushed hither +and thither frantically trying to keep the fire going whilst the whites were endeavouring to extinguish it; and with the confusion +of European and Oriental tongues the place was a perfect pandemonium. General Hughes was at the head of the police, but the +surging mob pressed forward and cut the hose five times. With fixed bayonets the troops partially succeeded in holding back +the swelling crowd. The electric wires got out of working order, and the city was lighted only by the glare of the flaming +buildings. Bullets were flying in all directions about Tondo and Binondo. The intense excitement was intentionally sustained +by batches of natives who rushed hither and thither with hideous yells to inspire a feeling of terror. Many families, fearing +that the insurgents had broken through the American lines and entered the city <i>en masse</i>, frantically fled from the hotels and houses. Incessant bugle-calls from the natives added to the commotion, and thousands +of Chinese crowded into the Chinese Consulate. Finally the rioters were driven back, and a cordon of troops assured the safety +of the capital. Sharp engagements simultaneously took place at the Chinese cemetery and at San Pedro Macatí. Bands of insurgents +were <a id="d0e18058"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e18058">490</a>]</span>arrested in Tondo. A group of 60 was captured escorting two cartloads of arms and ammunition to a house. Business was almost +entirely suspended, and a general order was issued by the Military Governor commanding all civilians to remain in their houses +after 7 p.m. This hour was gradually extended to 8 oʼclock, then 9 oʼclock, and finally to midnight, as circumstances permitted. +An edict was posted up fixing the penalties for incendiarism. During two days smoke hovered around the neighbourhood, and +the appearance of Manila from the bay was that of a smouldering city. + +</p> +<p>In the fighting up country, one of the greatest difficulties for the Americans was that the insurgents would not concentrate +and have a decisive contest. They would fire a few volleys from cover and retreat to other cover, repeating these harassing, +but inconclusive, tactics over many miles of ground. On their march the Americans had to fight a hidden foe who slipped from +trench to trench, or found safety in the woods. Sometimes a trenchful of the enemy would fire a volley and half of them disappear +through gullies leading to other cover. The next point of importance to be reached was Malalos, and on the way some thirty +villages had to be passed. Besides the volleys delivered by hidden insurgents all along the line, a hard-fought battle took +place on March 28 under the personal direction of General Aguinaldo, who concentrated about 5,000 men near Marilao. Aguinaldo +directed the movements without appearing on the field; indeed it is doubtful whether, during this war, he ever led his troops +into action. General McArthurʼs division had halted at Meycauayan the previous night, and in the morning advanced north in +conjunction with General Haleʼs brigade, which took the right, whilst General Otis led his troops to the left of the railroad, +General Wheatonʼs brigade being held in reserve. After a three-mile march these forces fell in with the enemy, who opened +fire from trenches and thickets; but General Otisʼs troops charged them gallantly and drove them back across the river. There +the insurgents rallied, relying upon the splendid trenches which they had dug. The battle raged for three hours, the combatants +being finally within fifty yards of each other. Eventually the American artillery came into play, when the advanced works +of the insurgent defences were literally pulverized and the general rout of the enemy began. They retreated to their second +stronghold of bamboo thickets, pursued by the 1st South Dakota Infantry, which made a brilliant charge in the open, under +a galling fire, with a loss of three lieutenants and seven men killed on the field and about a score wounded. The insurgents, +however, were completely defeated and scattered, leaving 85 dead counted in the trenches and thickets, and a hundred prisoners +in the hands of the Americans. Before abandoning Marílao the insurgents burnt the town to the ground and continued their hurried +flight to Malolos. They had plenty of time to rally, for the Americans found great difficulty in <a id="d0e18062"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e18062">491</a>]</span>bringing their artillery across the river at Guiguinto. It had to be drawn over the railway bridge by hand whilst the mules +swam across to the northern bank, all being, at the same time, under a desultory fire from the enemy. The resistance of the +Filipinos to the passage of the river at Guiguinto was so stubborn that the Americans lost about 70 killed and wounded. At +6 a.m. the Americans started the advance towards Malolos in the same order taken for the march to Marilao, General Haleʼs +brigade taking the right and General Otisʼs the left of the railroad. Several skirmishes took place on the way and General +Wheaton brought his reserves forward into the general advance. At Bocaue the river presented the same difficulties for artillery +transport as were experienced at Guiguinto, except that the enemy was nowhere to be seen. Bigaá was reached and not an armed +native was in sight, all having apparently concentrated in the insurgent capital, Malolos. The American casualties that day, +due solely to the morning skirmishes, amounted to four killed and thirty wounded. + +</p> +<p>It is apparent, from the official despatches, that at this time the American generals seriously believed the Aguinaldo party +would acknowledge its defeat and make peace if Malolos, the revolutionary seat of government, fell. All that was going on +in Manila was well known to the insurgents in the field, as the news was brought to them daily by runners who were able to +enter the city during daylight without interference. On March 30 General McArthurʼs division resumed the advance and brought +up the baggage trains, after having repaired the several bridges damaged by the enemy. The environs of Malolos were reconnoitred +up to within a mile of the town, and the dead bodies of insurgent soldiers were seen scattered here and there. Groups of hundreds +of non-combatants were hurrying off from the beleaguered insurgent capital. General Otisʼs brigade pushed forward without +any encounter with the enemy, but General Haleʼs column, which continued to take the right side of the railway, was fired +upon from the woods, the total casualties that day being five killed and 43 wounded. At 7 a.m. (March 31) the Americans opened +the combined attack on Malolos. General McArthur directed the operations from the railway embankment, and half an hourʼs artillery +fire dislodged the enemy from their cover. The columns advanced cautiously towards the town in anticipation of a fierce resistance +and, it was hoped, a fight to the finish. General Otis marched on direct: General Hale executed a flanking movement to the +east; General Wheatonʼs brigades were held in reserve, and a halt of half an hour was made preparatory to the final assault. +The scouts then returned and reported that the insurgents had abandoned their capital! It was a disappointment to the Americans +who had looked forward to inflicting a decisive and crushing defeat on the enemy. The first troops to enter the town were +the 20th Kansas Regiment, under Colonel Funston. The natives, in the <a id="d0e18066"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e18066">492</a>]</span>wildest confusion, scampered off, after firing a few parting shots at the approaching forces, and the Americans, with a total +loss of 15 killed and wounded, were in undisputed possession of the insurgent capital. Aguinaldo had prudently evacuated it +two days before with his main army, going in the direction of Calumpit. Only one battalion had been left behind to burn the +town on the approach of the Americans. Aguinaldoʼs headquarters, the parish church, and a few hundred yards of railway were +already destroyed when the Americans occupied the place, still partly in flames. Some few hundreds of Chinese were the only +inhabitants remaining in Malolos. The value of the food-stuffs captured in this place was estimated at ₱1,500,000. Simultaneously, +General Hallʼs brigade operated five to seven miles north of Manila and drove the insurgents out of Mariquina, San Mateo, +and the environs of the Montalbán River with a loss of 20 men wounded and Lieutenant Gregg killed. It was now evident that +Aguinaldo had no intention to come to close quarters and bring matters to a crisis by pitched battles. His policy was apparently +to harry the Americans by keeping them constantly on the move against guerilla parties, in the hope that a long and wearisome +campaign would end in the Americans abandoning the Islands in disgust, leaving the Filipinos to their own desired independence. +Aguinaldo had moved on to Calumpit with his main army with the intention of establishing his Government there. On the American +side, active preparations were made to dislodge him. Small gunboats were fitted out for operating on the Rio Grande de Pampanga, +and an armoured train was prepared for use farther north. From Parañaque, on the bay shore south of Manila, the insurgents +fired on the monitor <i>Monadnock</i>, but a few shots from this vessel silenced the shore battery. In several places, within 10 to 15 miles of the capital, armed +groups of insurgents concentrated, but Aguinaldo moved on towards Baliuag, in the province of Bulacan, so as to be within +easy reach of the hill district of Angat in case of defeat. + +</p> +<p>A few days after the capture of Malolos, General Otis issued a proclamation to the Filipinos, in the hope that by drawing +off public sympathy from the insurgent cause it would dwindle away. The terms of this document were as follows, viz.:— + + +</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p>(1) The supremacy of the United States must and will be enforced throughout every part of the Archipelago. Those who resist +can accomplish nothing except their own ruin. + + +</p> +<p>(2) The most ample liberty of self-government will be granted which is reconcilable with the maintenance of a wise, just, +stable, effective, and economical administration, and compatible with the sovereign and international rights and obligations +of the United States. + + +</p> +<p>(3) The civil rights of the Filipinos will be guaranteed and <a id="d0e18080"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e18080">493</a>]</span>protected, religious freedom will be assured, and all will have equal standing before the law. + + +</p> +<p>(4) Honour, justice, and friendship forbid the exploitation of the people of the Islands. The purpose of the American Government +is the welfare and advancement of the Filipino people. + + +</p> +<p>(5) The American Government guarantees an honest and effective civil service, in which, to the fullest extent practicable, +natives shall be employed. + + +</p> +<p>(6) The collection and application of taxes and revenues will be put on a sound and honest economical basis. Public funds +will be raised justly and collected honestly, and will be applied only in defraying the proper expenses of the establishment +and maintenance of the Philippine Government, and such general improvements as public interests demand. Local funds collected +for local purposes shall not be diverted to other ends. With such a prudent and honest fiscal administration it is believed +that the needs of the Government will, in a short time, become compatible with a considerable reduction of taxation. + + +</p> +<p>(7) The pure, speedy, and effective administration of justice, whereby the evils of delay, corruption, and exploitation will +be effectually eradicated. + + +</p> +<p>(8) The construction of roads, railways, and other means of communication and transportation, and other public works of manifest +advantage to the people will be promoted. + + +</p> +<p>(9) Domestic and foreign trade, commerce, agriculture, and other industrial pursuits, and the general development of the country +and interest of the inhabitants will be the constant objects of the solicitude and fostering care of the Government. + + +</p> +<p>(10) Effective provision will be made for the establishment of elementary schools, in which the children of the people shall +be educated, and appropriate facilities will also be provided for their higher education. + + +</p> +<p>(11) Reforms in all departments of the Government, all branches of the public service, and all corporations closely touching +the common life of the people must be undertaken without delay, and effected conformably with right and justice in such a +way as to satisfy the well-founded demands and the highest sentiments and aspirations of the Philippine people. + +</p> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>The above proclamation, no doubt, embodies the programme of what the American Government desired to carry out at the time +of its publication. + +</p> +<p>The Americans resumed the aggressive against the insurgents, and an expedition of 1,509 men and two mountain-guns was fitted +out under the command of General Lawton to proceed up the Pasig River <a id="d0e18103"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e18103">494</a>]</span>into the Lake of Bay in order to capture Santa Cruz at the eastern extremity. The expedition presented a curious sight; it +comprised 15 native barges or “cascoes” towed by seven tugs. Some of the craft ran aground at Napíndan, the entrance to the +lake, and delayed the little flotilla until daylight. The barges ahead had to wait for the vessels lagging behind. Then a +mist came over the shore, and there was another halt. A couple of miles off an insurgent steamer was sighted, but it passed +on. Finally Santa Cruz was reached; 200 sharpshooters were landed under cover of the launch guns, and fighting continued all +the afternoon until nightfall. Early in the morning the town was attacked, the church situated in the centre was captured, +and the American loss was only six men wounded; the insurgents were driven far away, leaving 68 dead on the field, and a large +number of wounded, whilst hundreds were taken prisoners. + +</p> +<p>On April 12, at the request of the Spanish General Rios,<a id="d0e18107src" href="#d0e18107" class="noteref">3</a> the gunboat <i>Yorktown</i> was despatched to Baler, on the east coast of Luzon, to endeavour to rescue a party of 80 Spanish soldiers, three officers, +and two priests who were holding out against 400 insurgents. These natives, who were all armed with Maüser rifles, laid in +ambush, and surprised the landing-party under Lieutenant Gilmore. The whole party was captured by the insurgents, who were +afterwards ordered to release them all. General Aguinaldo was always as humanely disposed as the circumstances of war would +permit, and, at the request of the commissioners for the liberation of the Spanish prisoners, he gave this little band of +83 heroes and two priests their liberty under a decree so characteristic of Philippine imitative genius in its pompous allusion +to the Spanish glorious past that it is well worth recording.<a id="d0e18119src" href="#d0e18119" class="noteref">4</a> + +</p> +<p>General Lawton asserted that 100,000 men would be required to conquer the Philippines, but they were never sent, because there +was always an influential group of optimists who expected an early collapse of the insurgent movement. General Otis sent frequent +cablegrams to Washington expressing his belief that the war would soon come to an end. However, in April, 1899, 14,000 regular +troops were despatched to the Islands to reinforce the Volunteer regiments. It was a wise measure taken not too soon, for +it was clear that a certain amount of <a id="d0e18127"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e18127">495</a>]</span>discontent had manifested itself among the Volunteers. Moreover, the whole management of the Philippine problem was much hampered +by an anti-annexation movement in America which did not fail to have its influence on the Volunteers, many of whom were anxious +to return home if they could. Senator Hoar and his partisans persistently opposed the retention of the Islands, claiming that +it was contrary to the spirit of the American Constitution to impose a government upon a people against its will. American +sentiment was indeed becoming more and more opposed to expansion of territorial possession beyond the continent, in view of +the unsatisfactory operations in the Philippines—a feeling which was, however, greatly counterbalanced by a recognition of +the political necessity of finishing an unpleasant task already begun, for the sake of national dignity. + +</p> +<p>About this time the Philippine envoy, Felipe Agoncillo, was in Paris as president of a <i>junta</i> of his compatriots. Some of the members were of opinion that they ought to negotiate for peace directly with the American +Secretary of State, but Agoncillo so tenaciously opposed anything short of sovereign Philippine independence that some of +the members withdrew and returned to the Islands. A year later I found Agoncillo of exactly the same intransigent persuasion. + +</p> +<p>At the end of April the Americans suffered a severe reverse at Guingua (Bulacan), where Major Bell, with 40 cavalrymen, came +across a strong outpost from which the enemy fired, killing one and wounding five men. With great difficulty the dead and +wounded were carried back under fire, and it was found that the enemy occupied a big trench encircling three sides of a paddy-field +bordering on a wood. As the Americans retreated, the insurgents crept up, aided by a mist, to within short range and fired +another volley. Major Bell sent for reinforcements, and a battalion of infantry was soon on the scene, but their advance was +checked by the continuous firing from the trenches. Artillery was on the way, but the insurgents were not disposed to charge +the Americans, who lay for two hours under cover of a rice-field embankment in a broiling hot sun. One man died of sunstroke. +Finally a second battalion of infantry arrived under the command of Colonel Stotsenberg, who was very popular with his men. +He was received with cheers, and immediately ordered a charge against the enemy in the trenches; but whilst leading the attack +he was shot in the breast, and died immediately. Within short range of the trenches Lieutenant Sisson fell, shot through the +heart. By this time the artillery had arrived, and shelled the trenches. The insurgents, however, held their position well +for a time, until the infantry was close up to them, when, following their usual tactics, they ran off to another trench a +mile or so away. The total American losses that day were two officers and four privates killed, and three officers and 40 +men wounded. + +</p> +<p>Spanish prisoners released by the Filipinos declared that the <a id="d0e18138"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e18138">496</a>]</span>insurgents had 50,000 rifles and 200 pieces of artillery captured from the Spaniards, ample ammunition manufactured at two +large factories up country, and occasional fresh supplies of war-material shipped from China by Chinese, European, and American +merchants. The preparations made to dislodge Aguinaldo and his main army, entrenched and sheltered by fortifications at Calumpit, +were now completed, and General McArthurʼs division steadily advanced. The flower of the insurgent army was there, well armed +and supplied with artillery and shrapnel shell. Commanded by General Antonio Luna, they were evidently prepared to make at +Calumpit the bold stand which was expected of them at Malolos. The transport difficulties were very great, and as General +McArthur approached, every foot of ground was disputed by the enemy. Bridges had been broken down, and the guns had to be +hauled through jungle and woods under a scorching sun. Many buffaloes succumbed to the fatigue, and hundreds of Chinamen were +employed to do their work. The Bagbag River was reached, but it had to be crossed, and the passage cost the Americans six +men killed and 28 wounded. The Bagbag River was well fortified, and the Americans had to attack its defenders from an open +space. There were trenches at every approach; enormous pieces of rock had been dislodged and hauled down towards the breastworks +of the trenches to form cover. The armoured train, pushed along the railway by Chinamen, then came into action, and its quick-firing +guns opened the assault on the enemyʼs position. Six-pounders were also brought into play; the insurgents were gradually receding; +artillery was wheeled up to the river bank and a regular bombardment of the bridge ensued. The trenches were shelled, and +the insurgents were firing their guns in the direction of the armoured train, but they failed to get the range. Meantime, +a company of the Kansas Regiment made a bold charge across a paddy-field and found shelter in a ditch, whence they kept up +a constant fire to divert the enemyʼs attention whilst Colonel Eunston, the commander of the regiment, with a lieutenant and +four men, crept along the girders of the bridge. The enemy, however, got the range and bullets were flying all around them, +so they slid down the bridge-supports, dropped into the river, and swam to the opposite shore. Scrambling up the bank, revolvers +in hand, they reached the trenches just as the insurgents were hurriedly evacuating them. Indeed, the Filipinosʼ defence of +their trenches was extremely feeble during the whole battle. On the other hand, for the first time, the insurgents ventured +out into the open against the Americans. General Antonio Luna, the Commander-in-Chief, could be seen galloping furiously along +the lines exhorting his men to hold their ground, and he succeeded in deploying them into an extended line of battle to receive +the enemyʼs onslaught. The insurgents kept up a desultory fire whilst the troops forded the river, and then they were pursued +and driven off to the outskirts of the town. The flames <a id="d0e18140"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e18140">497</a>]</span>rising from several buildings appeared to indicate an intention on the part of the insurgents to abandon their stronghold. +Simultaneously, Generals Hale and Wheaton were coming forward with their columns, each having had some hard fighting on the +way. The junction of forces was effected; a fierce fire was poured into the trenches; General Hale and his men made a dash +across a stream, up to their waists in water; the Utah men followed with their batteries, cheering and dragging their field-pieces +with desperate energy to the opposite bank; the enemy gave way, and the armoured train crossed the bridge. The total American +loss that day did not exceed nine in killed and wounded, whilst the insurgent losses were at least 70. During the night the +engineers repaired the Bagbag bridge for the rest of the troops to pass, and fighting was resumed at six oʼclock in the morning. +The deserted trenches were occupied by the Americans to pick off any insurgents who might venture out into the open. A general +assault by the combined columns was then made on the town, which was captured, whilst the bulk of the insurgents fled in great +confusion towards the hills. The few who lingered in the trenches in the northern suburbs of the town were shelled out of +them by the American artillery placed near the church, and the survivors decamped, hotly pursued for some distance by cavalry. +So great was the slaughter that the insurgentsʼ total losses are unknown. The trenches were choked with dead bodies, and piles +of them were found in many places. When nightfall came and the Americans were resting in Calumpit after their two daysʼ hard +fighting, the whole district was illuminated for miles around by the flames from the burning villages and groups of huts, +whilst the snapping of the burning bamboos echoed through the stillness like volleys of rifle-shots. + +</p> +<p>Aguinaldo and his Government had hastened north towards Tárlac, and on April 28 he instructed General Antonio Luna to discuss +terms of peace. Ostensibly with this object the general sent Colonel Manuel Argüelles with his aide-de-camp and an orderly +to the American camp at Apálit (Pampanga). These men were seen coming down the railway-track carrying a white flag. An officer +was sent out to meet them, and after handing their credentials to him they were forthwith conducted to General Wheatonʼs headquarters. +General Wheaton sent them on to General McArthur, the chief commander of the Northern Division, and General McArthur commissioned +Major Mallory to escort them to General Otis in Manila. They explained that they were empowered to ask for an armistice for +a few days as it was proposed to summon their Congress for May 1 to discuss the question of peace or war. General Otis replied +that he did not recognize the Philippine Republic, and that there would be no cessation of hostilities until his only terms +were complied with, namely, unconditional surrender. The negotiations were resumed the next day, and Argüelles seemed personally +inclined to meet the American view of the situation; but as his powers were limited to <a id="d0e18144"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e18144">498</a>]</span>asking for an armistice, he and his companions returned to the insurgent camp with General Otisʼs negative answer. On his +return to the camp Colonel Argüelles was accused of being an “Americanista” in favour of surrender, for which offence a court-martial +passed sentence upon him of expulsion from the insurgent army and 12 yearsʼ imprisonment. Whatever Argüellesʼ personal conviction +may have been matters little, but in the light of subsequent events and considering the impetuous, intransigent character +of General Antonio Luna, it is probable that Argüelles was really only sent as a spy. + +</p> +<p>On May 5 General McArthurʼs division advanced to Pampanga Province, and Santo Tomás and San Fernando were taken without loss. +A portion of the latter place had been burnt by the retreating insurgents, and the townspeople fled leaving their household +goods behind them. Generals Hale and Lawton were following up, and on the way Baliuag (Bulacan) was occupied and immense stores +of foodstuffs were seized from the insurgents and private owners. The booty consisted of about 150,000 bushels of rice and +over 250 tons of sugar. In other places on the way large deposits of food fell into American hands. The men of the Nebraska +Regiment considered they had had sufficient hard work for the present in long marching, continual fighting, and outpost duty. +They therefore petitioned General McArthur to relieve them temporarily from duty to recuperate their strength. There was no +doubting their bravery, of which they had given ample proof; they had simply reached the limit of physical endurance. The +hospitals were already full of soldiers suffering as much from sunstroke as from wounds received in battle. Consequently some +of the regular regiments who had been doing guard duty in the capital were despatched to the front. In the following July +the Nebraska Volunteer Regiment was one of those sent back to the United States. + +</p> +<p>On May 19 another party of insurgent officers presented themselves to the military authorities alleging that they had fuller +powers than Argüelles possessed and were prepared to make peace proposals. Everything was discussed over again; but as General +Otisʼs unalterable demand for unconditional surrender was already well known, one can only conclude that the insurgent commissioners +were also spies sent to gauge the power and feeling of the Americans, for they promised to return within three weeks and then +disappeared indefinitely. + +</p> +<p>On May 22 more peace commissioners were sent by Aguinaldo. They were received by the Schurman Commission of Inquest, who communicated +to them a scheme of government which they had had under consideration in agreement with President McKinley. The proposed plan +embodied the appointment of a Gov.-General, who would nominate a Cabinet to act with him. The President of the United States +was to appoint the judges. The Cabinet members and the judges might be all Americans, or all Filipinos, or both. Moreover, +there was to be an <a id="d0e18152"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e18152">499</a>]</span>Advisory Council elected by popular vote. This liberal scheme was, however, abandoned, as its proposal seemed to have no effect +in bringing the war to an end, and the negotiations terminated with the Commissioners and the insurgent delegates lunching +together on board the U.S. battleship <i>Oregon</i>, whilst the blood of both parties continued to flow on the battlefield. + +</p> +<p>General Lawtonʼs brigade was still operating in the Provinces of Bulacan and north of Manila (now called Rizal). The fighting +was so severe and the exposure to sun so disastrous that about the beginning of June he had to send back to Manila 500 wounded +and heat-stricken men. It was found impossible to follow up the ever-retreating insurgents, who again escaped still farther +north. Along the Manila Bay shore detachments of insurgents passed from time to time, driving women and children before them, +so that the Americans would not care to fire on them. Some, however, were picked off from the warships when the insurgents +omitted their precautionary measure. It was impossible to “round up” the enemy and bring him into a combat to the finish. +His movements were so alert that he would fight, vanish in a trice, conceal his arms and uniform, and mingle with the Americans +with an air of perfect innocence. With wonderful dexterity he would change from soldier to civilian, lounging one day in the +market-place and the next day fall into the insurgent ranks. These tactics, which led to nothing whatever in a purely military +sense, were evidently adopted in the vain hope of wearying the Americans into an abandonment of their enterprise. + +</p> +<p>In the middle of June General Lawtonʼs brigade operated to the south of Manila and in the Cavite province, where the natives +gave battle at the Zapote River, famous for a great Spanish defeat during the rebellion. The insurgents were under cover the +whole time, and their assembled thousands could hardly be seen by the attacking columns. They were also in great force and +strongly entrenched near Las Piñas and at Bacoor.<a id="d0e18161src" href="#d0e18161" class="noteref">5</a> From the former place they worked one large and two small guns with much effect, firing canister loaded with nails. One canister +shattered the legs of a private. American infantry, skirmishing along the beach, came across a posse of insurgents who at +once retreated, pursued by the Americans until the latter found themselves surrounded on three sides by hidden sharpshooters, +who poured in a raking fire upon them. The skirmishers withdrew, but were rallied by General Lawton and other officers, who +themselves <a id="d0e18164"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e18164">500</a>]</span>picked off some of the enemy with rifle-shots. Encouraged by this example, the skirmishers, with one cry, suddenly rushed +towards the insurgents, scattering them in all directions, and safely reached the main body of the brigade with their wounded +comrades. + +</p> +<p>The only bridge across the Zapote River was strongly defended by the insurgents, who had trenches forming two sides of an +angle. By noon their battery was silenced, and the Americans then attempted to ford the river, whilst others went knee-deep +in mire across the paddy-mud flats. Then a deep stream was the only boundary between the contending parties. The Filipinos +were hardly visible, being under shelter of thickets, whilst the Americans were wading through mud under a broiling sun for +over two hours to reach them, keeping up a constant fusillade. The whole time there was an incessant din from a thousand rifles +and the roar of cannon from the gunboats which bombarded the enemyʼs position near Las Piñas and Bacoor. The strain on the +Americans was tremendous when the insurgents made a flanking movement and fired upon them as they were floundering in the +mud. The 14th Infantry eventually swam across the Zapote River, and under cover of artillery charged the insurgents, who retreated +into the woods. The Filipinos displayed a rare intelligence in the construction of their defences near the Zapote River and +its neighbourhood, and but for the employment of artillery their dislodgement therefrom would have been extremely difficult. +After the battle was over General Lawton declared that it was the toughest contest they had yet undertaken in this war. + +</p> +<p>At Perez Dasmariñas, in the east of Cavite Province, a battalion of infantry narrowly escaped annihilation. News had been +brought to the American camp that the insurgents had evacuated that town, and that the native mayor was disposed to make a +formal surrender of it to the Americans. The battalion forthwith went there to take possession, but before reaching the place +the enemy closed in on all sides, and a heavy fire was mutually sustained for four hours. The Americans had only just saved +themselves from destruction by a desperate bayonet-charge when they were rescued by General Wheaton, who arrived with reinforcements. + +</p> +<p>Three months of warfare had wrought dissension in the insurgent camp. Organization was Aguinaldoʼs peculiar talent, without +the exercise of which the movement would have failed at the outset. But the value of this gift was not fully appreciated by +his people. A certain section of the fighting masses had far greater admiration for Antonio Lunaʼs visible prowess than for +the unseen astuteness of Aguinaldoʼs manoeuvres. It was characteristic of the Filipinos to split into factions, but the encouragement +given to General Antonio Lunaʼs aspiration to supersede his supreme chief was unfortunate, for Aguinaldo was not the man to +tolerate a rival. He had rid himself of Andrés Bonifacio (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e15182">371</a>) in 1896, and now another disturber of that unity <a id="d0e18178"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e18178">501</a>]</span>which is strength had to be disposed of. The point of dispute between these two men was of public knowledge. It has already +been shown how fully cognizant Antonio Luna was of the proposals made to the Americans for an armistice, for the express purpose +of taking the vote of the Revolutionary Congress, for peace or war, on May 1. Aguinaldo was no longer a military dictator, +but President of the so-called Philippine Republic (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e18007">486</a>), by whose will he was disposed loyally to abide. Antonio Lunaʼs elastic conscience urged him to duplicity; he pretended +to submit to the will of the majority, expressed through the Congress, with the reserved intention of carrying on the war +at all hazards, as military dictator, if the vote were for peace. Congress met, and during the debate on the momentous question—peace +or war—the hitherto compact group of intransigents weakened. No agreement could be arrived at in the first session. There +was, however, a strong tendency to accept American sovereignty. Luna feared that Aguinaldoʼs acceptance of the vote of the +majority (if a division were taken) might deprive him of the opportunity of rising to supreme eminence. Lunaʼs violence at +this time was intolerable, up to the point of smacking deputy F.B. in the face. His attempted coercion of the will of others +brought about his own downfall. His impetuosity called forth the expression, “He is a fanatic who will lead us to a precipice.” +In his imagination, all who did not conform to his dominant will were conspirators against him. Hence, at Cavite (Aguinaldoʼs +native province), he disarmed all the troops of that locality, and substituted Ilocanos of his own province, whilst he vented +his ferocity in numerous executions of Tagálogs. Had he lived he would probably have created a tribal feud between Ilocanos +and Tagálogs. + +</p> +<p>On June 3, 1899, accompanied by his aide-de-camp, Captain Roman, and an escort, Luna entered the official residence of President +Aguinaldo at Cabanatúan (Nueva Ecija). The guard, composed of a company of Cavite men from Canit (Aguinaldoʼs native town), +under the command of Captain Pedro Janolino, saluted him on his entry. As Luna and Roman ascended the staircase to seek Aguinaldo +a revolver-shot was heard. Luna rushed down the stairs in a furious rage and insulted Captain Janolino in the presence of +his troops. This was too much for Janolino, who drew a dagger and thrust it violently into Lunaʼs head. In the scuffle Luna +was knocked down and shot several times. He was able to reach the roadway, and, after shouting “Cowards!” fell down dead. +In the meantime, whilst Captain Roman was running towards a house he was shot dead by a bullet in his breast. The Insurgent +Government passed a vote of regret at the occurrence, and the two officers were buried with military honours. As subsequent +events proved, Aguinaldo had no personal wish to give up the struggle, or to influence a peace vote, but to execute the will +of the people, as expressed through the revolutionary congressmen. +<a id="d0e18188"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e18188">502</a>]</span></p> +<p>The situation was becoming so serious for the Americans that a call for 25,000 more volunteers was earnestly discussed at +Washington. It was thought that the levy should be made at once, believing that General Otis really required them, but that +he was reluctant to admit an under-estimate of the enemyʼs strength. The insurgents, finding they were not followed up (the +rainy season was commencing), were beginning to take the offensive with greater boldness, attacking the Americans in the rear. +The War Department, however, hesitated to make the levy owing to the friction which existed between the volunteers and the +regulars, but the case was so urgent that at the end of June it was decided to raise the total forces in the Philippines to +40,000 men. + +</p> +<p>On June 12, the anniversary of the proclamation at Cavite of Philippine Independence, Aguinaldo, from his northern retreat, +issued a <i>Manifiesto</i> to his countrymen reminding them of the importance of that event. This document, abundant in grandiloquent phrases, is too +lengthy for full citation here, but the following paragraph in it is interesting as a recognition that, after all, there was +a bright side to Spanish dominion:— + + +</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p>Filipinas! Beloved daughter of the ardent sun of the tropics, commended by Providence to the care of noble Spain, be thou +not ungrateful; acknowledge her, salute her who warmed thee with the breath of her own culture and civility. Thou hast longed +for independence, and thine emancipation from Spain has come; but preserve in thine heart the remembrance of the more than +three centuries which thou hast lived with her usages, her language, and her customs. It is true she sought to crush thine +aspiration for independence, just as a loving mother resists the lifelong separation from the daughter of her bosom; it only +proved the excess of affection, the love Spain feels for thee. But thou, Filipinas, flower of the ocean, delicate flower of +the East, still weak, scarce eight months weaned from thy motherʼs breast, hast dared to brave a great and powerful nation +such as is the United States, with thy little army barely disciplined and shaped. Ah, beloved brethren, all this is true; +and still we say we will be slaves to none, nor let ourselves be duped by gentle words. +</p> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>Certainly Aguinaldo could not have been the author of the above composition published in his name. + +</p> +<p>By the middle of July the censorship of Press cablegrams from Manila had become so rigid that the public in America and Europe +could get very little reliable telegraphic news of what was going on in the Islands. The American newspaper correspondents +therefore signed a “round robin” setting forth their complaints to General Otis, who took little heed of it. It was well known +that the hospitals were crowded with American soldiers, a great many of whom were suffering <a id="d0e18204"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e18204">503</a>]</span>solely from their persistence in habits contracted at home which were incompatible with good health in a tropical climate. +Many volunteers, wearied of the war, were urging to be sent back to the States, and there was a marked lack of cordiality +between the volunteer and the regular regiments. In the field the former might well compare with the smartest and the bravest +men who ever carried arms; off active service there was a difference between them and the disciplined regulars perceptible +to any civilian. The natives particularly resented the volunteersʼ habit of entering their dwellings and tampering, in a free +and easy manner, with their goods and the modesty of their women. They were specially disgusted with the coloured regiments, +whose conduct was such that the authorities saw the desirability of shipping them all back to the United States as soon as +other troops were available to replace them, for their lawlessness was bringing discredit on the nation. + +</p> +<p>In July an expedition was sent up the Laguna de Bay, and the towns on the south shore were successively captured as far as +Calamba, which was occupied on the 26th of the month. Early in the same month the inter-island merchant steamer <i>Saturnus</i>, on its regular voyage to the north-west coast of Luzon ports, put in at San Fernando de la Union to discharge cargo for +that place, which was held by the insurgents. The vessel was flying the American flag. Part of the cargo had been discharged +and preparations were being made to receive freight on board, when the insurgents seized the vessel, carried off the thousands +of pesos and other property on board, poured petroleum on the woodwork, and hauled down the American flag. The American gunboat +<i>Pampanga</i>, patrolling this coast, seeing there was something irregular, hove to and endeavoured to get a tow-line over the <i>Saturnus</i>, but was beaten off by the insurgentsʼ fire from shore. The insurgents then brought field-pieces into action and shelled +the <i>Saturnus</i>, setting her on fire. The vessel became a wreck and sank near the beach. Subsequently a gunboat was sent to San Fernando +de la Union to shell the town. + +</p> +<p>When the wet season had fully set in, operations of importance were necessarily suspended. Skirmishes and small encounters +occurred in many places where the contending parties chanced to meet, but no further remarkable military event happened in +this year of 1899 until the north-east monsoon brought a cessation of the deluging rains. + +</p> +<p>Notwithstanding General Otisʼs oft-repeated intimation of “unconditional surrender” as the sole terms of peace, in October +General Aguinaldo sent General Alejandrino from his new seat of government in Tárlac to General Otis with fresh proposals, +but the letter was returned unopened. At that time Aguinaldoʼs army was estimated at 12,000 men. The insurgents had taken +many American prisoners, some of whom were released a few days afterwards, and, in October, Aguinaldo issued a decree voluntarily +granting liberty to all Americans held captive by his people. This resolution, proclaimed as an act of <a id="d0e18224"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e18224">504</a>]</span>grace, was really owing to the scarcity of food, and for the same reason Aguinaldo simultaneously disbanded a portion of his +army. + +</p> +<p>In the month of December General Lawton led his brigade to the district of Montalbán and San Mateo, a few miles north of Manila, +to attack the insurgents. The agreed plan was to make a flanking movement against the enemy on the San Mateo River and a frontal +attack immediately the enemy was engaged. The frontal attack was being personally directed by the general, who stood on the +high bank of the river. Captain Breckinridge, the generalʼs aide-de-camp, had just been hit in the groin, and General Lawton +went to speak to him before he was carried away on a litter. Whilst so engaged, the general threw up his hands and fell without +uttering a word. He had been shot through the heart, and died instantly. His body was carried to Manila for public burial, +and the insurgents were as jubilant as the Americans were grieved over this sad occurrence. The date was fixed for the interment +with military pomp, and immense crowds came out to witness the imposing procession. Some Filipinos, expecting the cortege +would pass through a certain street, deposited a bomb in the house of an old woman, unknown to her, but fortunately for her +and all concerned, it was not on the route taken. In memory of the late lamented general the present five-peso bank notes +bear his vignette. + +</p> +<p>In 1900 the war of independence began to wane. In January, General Joseph Wheeler left Manila to assume command of the late +General Lawtonʼs brigade, and overran the Laguna de Bay south shore towns. Viñan was taken on January 1, but as no garrison +was left there, the insurgents re-entered the town when the Americans passed on. The armed natives were, in reality, playing +a game of hide-and-seek, with no tangible result to themselves further than feeding at the expense of the townspeople. Aguinaldo +was still roaming about central Luzon, but, one by one, his generals either surrendered or were captured. Among these was +General Rizal, captured in January. In this month a plot to blow up the foreign consuls was opportunely frustrated. The Chinese +General Paua, Aguinaldoʼs brother-in-law, surrendered in March and found shopkeeping in Binondo a less risky business than +generalship. In the same month the Manila-Dagúpan Railway was handed over to the companyʼs management, after having been used +for war purposes. General Montenegro surrendered in April, and a fortnight afterwards Don Pedro A. Paterno, late President +of the Insurgent Congress, was captured at Antomoc (Beuguet district); Generals Garcia and Dumangtay were captured; five officers +and two companies of insurgents surrendered in May; and in the same month one Gabriel Cayaban, of Pangasinán Province, was +sentenced to five yearsʼ hard labour and a fine of 2,000 pesos for conspiring with guerillas to raise riot. It cannot be said +that the insurgents in the field had advanced one step towards the attainment of their object. Manila was simultaneously <a id="d0e18230"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e18230">505</a>]</span>full of conspirators cogitating over murderous plots against the Americans, and a band of them was arrested in the month of +May. The insurgent movement was so far disorganized that it was deemed opportune to entrust natives with police duties, and +in June a Philippine cavalry corps was created. Captain Lara, of the native police, took Generals Pio del Pilar and Salvador +Estrella prisoners, but was himself assassinated on August 4. General Maximino Hizon<a id="d0e18232src" href="#d0e18232" class="noteref">6</a> was captured at Mexico (Pampanga), and on June 21 the Military Governor published an amnesty proclamation, granting pardon +and liberty to all who should declare their allegiance to the United States within ninety days. All who had surrendered and +some who were captured took the required oath, and others were coming in. Pio del Pilar was among those who accepted the amnesty +a week after its promulgation, but he was again arrested, September 6, for conspiracy. The Amnesty Proclamation was met by +a counter-proclamation issued by Aguinaldo, dated August 3, 1900, in which he urged a continuance of the war, and offered +rewards for arms. He promised to liberate all prisoners of war who might fall into insurgent hands, on surrender of their +arms and ammunition. He would give them money to return to their lines and for petty expenses <i>en route</i>. He would pay 80 pesos for every American rifle brought in by a prisoner, and 20 pesos for any rifle voluntarily brought +to a Philippine officer, but the deserter would not be allowed to enter the insurgent ranks. + +</p> +<p>On June 28 there was an attempted rising in Manila, and Don Pedro A. Paterno was placed under closer guard. In July the insurgents +were active in the neighbourhood of Vigan (Ilocos). About 40 volunteer infantry and 60 cavalry went out from Narvican to attack +them, and came across a strongly-entrenched position held by about 300 riflemen and 1,000 men armed with bowie-knives. A sharp +fight ensued, but the Americans, overwhelmed by the mass, had to retreat to Narvican. The insurgents lost about a hundred +men, whilst the American loss was one lieutenant and four men killed, nine wounded and four missing. About the same time, +the insurgents driven back from the Laguna de Bay shore occupied Taal (Batangas), where, under the leadership of Miguel Malvar, +a small battle was fought in the streets on July 12 and the town was burnt; a troop of cavalry was added to the police force +this month, and there was no lack of Filipinos willing to co-operate with Americans for a salary. The backbone of insurgency +having been broken, the dollar proved to be a mightier factor than the sword in the process of pacification. Compared with +former times, the ex-insurgents found in the lucrative employments offered to them by the Americans a veritable El Dorado, +for never before had they seen such a flow of cash. The country had been ravaged; the immense stores collected by <a id="d0e18240"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e18240">506</a>]</span>the revolutionists had been seized; non-combatant partisans of the insurgent cause were wearied of paying heavy taxes for +so little result; treasure was hidden; fields lay fallow, and for want of food Aguinaldo had had partially to disband his +army. He told me himself that on one occasion they were so hard pressed for food that they had to live for three days on whatever +they could find in the mountains. There were but two courses open to the majority of the ex-soldiers—brigandage or service +under their new masters. Some chose the former, with results which will be hereafter referred to; others, more disposed towards +civil life, were allured by the abundance of silver pesos, which made a final conquest where shot and shell had failed. Still, +there were thousands incognizant of the olive-branch extended to them, and military operations had to be continued even within +a dayʼs journey from the capital. A request had to be made for more cavalry to be sent to the Islands, and the proportion +of this branch of the service to infantry was gradually increased, for “rounding up” insurgents who refused to give battle +was exhausting work for white foot-soldiers in the tropics. In the course of four months nearly all the infantry in the small +towns was replaced by cavalry. In this same month (July) American cavalry successfully secured the Laguna de Bay south shore +towns which the insurgents had re-taken on the departure of the infantry sent there in January. Many well-to-do proprietors +in these towns (some known to me for 20 years), especially in Viñan, complained to me of what they considered an injustice +inflicted on them. The American troops came and drove out the insurgents, or caused them to decamp on their approach; but, +as they left no garrisons, the insurgents re-entered and the townspeople had to feed them under duress. Then, when the American +forces returned six months afterwards, to the great relief of the inhabitants, and left garrisons, many of these townspeople, +on a charge of having given succour to the insurgents, were imprisoned with the only consolation that, after all, a couple +of monthsʼ incarceration by the Americans was preferable to the death which awaited them at the hands of the insurgents if +they had refused them food. The same thing occurred in other islands, notably in Sámar and in Cebú, where the people were +persecuted for giving aid to the armed natives on whose mercy their lives depended. This measure was an unfortunate mistake, +because it alienated the good feeling of those who simply desired peace with the ruling power, whether it were American or +native. There were thousands of persons—as there would be anywhere in the world—quite incapable of taking up arms in defence +of an absent party which gave them no protection, yet naturally anxious to save their lives by payment if need be.<a id="d0e18242src" href="#d0e18242" class="noteref">7</a> +<a id="d0e18245"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e18245">507</a>]</span></p> +<p>On July 19 a proclamation was issued forbidding the possession of firearms without licence. On August 7 the curfew ordinance +was extended to 11 p.m., and again, in the following month, to midnight. In September there was another serious outbreak up +the Laguna de Bay, where two or three hundred insurgents, led by a French half-caste, General Cailles,<a id="d0e18248src" href="#d0e18248" class="noteref">8</a> attacked Los Baños, and about the same time the insurgents north of Manila cut the railroad between Malolos and Guiguinto. +Cailles was driven out of Los Baños, but hundreds more insurgents joined him, and a furious battle was fought at Siniloan, +on September 17, between 800 insurgents and a company of the 15th Infantry, who drove the enemy into the mountains. + +</p> +<p>In November Aguinaldo, who was camping in the province of Nueva Ecija, issued another of his numerous exhortations, in consequence +of which there was renewed activity amongst the roaming bands of adventurers all over the provinces north of the capital. +The insurgent chief advocated an aggressive war, and in the same month it was decided to send more American troops to Manila. + +</p> +<p>Many of the riff-raff had been inadvertently enrolled in the native police force, and received heavy sentences for theft, +blackmail, and violent abuse of their functions. Indeed it took nearly a couple of years to weed out the disreputable members +of this body. The total army forces in the Islands amounted to about 70,000 men, and at the end of 1900 it was decided to +send back the volunteer corps to America early in the following year, for, at this period, General Aguinaldo had become a +wanderer with a following which could no longer be called an army, and an early collapse of the revolutionary party in the +field was an anticipated event. + +</p> +<p>From September 1, 1900, the legislative power of the military government was transferred to a civil government, Governor W. H. +Taft being the President of the Philippine Commission, whilst Maj.-General McArthur continued in his capacity of Commander-in-Chief +to carry on the war against the insurgents, which culminated in the capture of General Emilio Aguinaldo on March 23, 1901. +This important event accelerated the close of the War of Independence. On January 14 General Emilio Aguinaldo had his headquarters +at Palánan (Isabela), on the bank of a river which empties itself into Palánan Bay, situated about six miles distant from +the town, on the east coast of Luzon. Being in want of reinforcements, he sent a member of his staff with messages to that +effect to several of his subordinate generals. The fellow turned traitor, and carried the despatches to an American lieutenant, +who sent him on to Colonel Frederick Funston at San Isidro (Nueva Ecija). The despatches disclosed the fact that General Emilio +Aguinaldo requested his cousin, General Baldomero Aguinaldo, to send him, as <a id="d0e18257"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e18257">508</a>]</span>soon as possible, 400 armed men. With General McArthurʼs approval, Colonel Funston proceeded to carry out a plan which he +had conceived for the capture of General Emilio Aguinaldo. An expedition was made up of four Tagálog deserters from Aguinaldoʼs +army, 78 Macabebe scouts (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e16955">446</a>, footnote), and four American officers, besides Colonel Funston himself. Twenty of the scouts were dressed in insurgent uniforms, +and the remaining natives in common working-clothes. Ten of them carried Spanish rifles, ten others had Krag-Jörgensen rifles, +which they were to feign to have captured from American troops, and the five Americans were disguised as private soldiers. +The party was then carried round the north and east coasts of Luzon, and put ashore in the neighbourhood of Baler by the gunboat +<i>Vicksburg</i>, which approached the coast without lights, and then waited off Palánan Bay. The expedition was nominally commanded by an +insurgent deserter, Hilario Placido,<a id="d0e18268src" href="#d0e18268" class="noteref">9</a> whilst three other deserters posed as officers, the Americans playing the <i>role</i> of prisoners captured by the party. Before setting out for Casigúran, some 20 miles away, a messenger was sent on to the +native headman of that town to tell him that reinforcements for Aguinaldo were on their way, and would require food and lodging, +which were forthwith furnished by the headman to these 87 individuals. Some months previously some papers had been captured +bearing the signature and seal of the insurgent general Lacuna, and this enabled the party to send on a letter in advance +to Emilio Aguinaldo, ostensibly in the name of Lacuna, announcing the arrival of the reinforcements furnished in response +to his request of January 14. This letter was accompanied by another one from the pseudo-chief of the expedition, stating +that on the way they had captured five American soldiers and ten Krag rifles. A request was also made for food, which he explained +had run short. Emilio Aguinaldo, therefore, sent Negritos to meet them on the way with a supply of rice. In the morning of +March 23 they were near Palánan. The Macabebe scouts were sent in advance of the <i>soi-disant</i> five American prisoners, and when they entered the town Aguinaldoʼs bodyguard of 50 men was drawn up in parade to receive +them. The native pseudo-officers marched into the camp, and were welcomed by Aguinaldo; but they shortly afterwards took temporary +leave of him, and coming outside ordered their Macabebe troops to form up. Just at the moment the five supposed prisoners +were conducted towards the camp the Macabebes poured three murderous volleys into Aguinaldoʼs troops, two of whom were killed +and 18 wounded. On the other side only one Macabebe was slightly wounded. The Americans witnessed the effect of the first +volley, and, together with the natives posing as officers, rushed into Aguinaldoʼs headquarters. Aguinaldo, Colonel <a id="d0e18277"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e18277">509</a>]</span>Villa, and one civilian were taken prisoners, whilst other insurgent officers jumped from the window into the river and escaped. +The expedition, after resting a day and a half at the camp, escorted their prisoners to Palánan Bay, where they were all taken +on board the gunboat <i>Vicksburg</i>, which reached Manila on March 27. + +</p> +<p>The closing scene in Emilio Aguinaldoʼs military career was a remarkable performance of consummate skill, but unworthy of +record in the annals of military glory. + +</p> +<p>The War of Independence, which lasted until the next year, was a triumph of science over personal valour about equally balanced. +It was a necessary sacrifice of the few for the good of the many. No permanent peace could have been ever hoped for so long +as the Islanders entertained the belief that they could any day eject the invaders by force. + +</p> +<p>The American citizens naturally rejoiced over the bare fact, briefly cabled without ghastly details, that the Philippine generalissimo +had fallen prisoner, because it portended the peace which all desired. In deference to public opinion, the President promoted +Colonel Funston of the volunteers to the rank of Brig.-General in the regular army. + +</p> +<p>Emilio Aguinaldo was first taken before General McArthur and then escorted to prison in <i>Calle de Anda</i>, in the walled city. On April 1, 1901, he took the oath of allegiance in the following form, viz.:— + + +</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p>I, Emilio Aguinaldo, hereby renounce all allegiance to any and all so-called revolutionary governments in the Philippine Islands +and recognize and accept the supreme authority of the United States of America therein; I do solemnly swear that I will bear +true faith and allegiance to that Government; that I will at all times conduct myself as a faithful and law-abiding citizen +of the said Islands, and will not, either directly or indirectly, hold correspondence with or give intelligence to an enemy +of the United States, nor will I abet, harbour or protect such enemy; that I impose upon myself these voluntary obligations +without any mental reservations or purpose of evasion, so help me God. +</p> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>After signing this declaration he was a free man. For a while he resided at Malacañan, on the north bank of the Pasig River, +where one night a pirogue full of assassins came to seek the life of the man who had failed. But his lucky star followed him, +and he removed to Paco and again to Ermita (suburbs of Manila) and finally to his native town of Cauit (Cavite), where I was +his guest. He was living there in modest retirement with his mother and his two good-looking young nieces, who served us at +table. The house is large and comparatively imposing as a provincial residence, being formed of two good substantial houses +connected by a bridge-passage. The whole is enclosed by a low brick wall, topped by iron railings painted flaming red. In +front there is a garden and a spacious compound at the back. In the large drawing-room <a id="d0e18299"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e18299">510</a>]</span>there is a ceiling fresco representing a Filipina descending a flight of steps from a column to which the chains, now severed, +held her captive. On the steps lies the Spanish flag with a broken staff, and in her hand she holds on high the Philippine +flag of freedom. + +</p> +<p>In conversation with him he stated that he and his companions returned to the Islands in May, 1898, with many assurances that +America was simply going to aid them to gain their independence. He added that when he landed at Cavite he had no arms, and +the Americans allowed him to take them from the Spanish arsenal. Then they turned him out, and he moved his headquarters to +Bacoor, where his troops numbered between 30,000 and 35,000 men. He said he could easily have taken Manila then, but that +he was begged not to do so as the Americans were waiting for more troops and they wished to make the victory a joint one. +He confessed he had bought experience very dearly. But he profited by that experience when, at Cavite, the Belgian Consul +and Prince Löwenstein came four times to make proposals to him in favour of Germany. The first time, he said, he received +them and demanded their credentials as authorized agents for Germany, but, as they could not produce any, he declined to have +any further intercourse with them. Referring to the first period of the rebellion, Aguinaldo admitted that the prospect of +ejecting the Spaniards from the Islands was very doubtful. + +</p> +<p>Immediately Aguinaldo had fallen captive, all kinds of extravagant and erroneous versions were current as to how it had happened. +Thousands insisted that he must have voluntarily surrendered, for how could he have been caught when he had the <i>anting-anting</i>? (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e8937">237</a>). As the ball of conjecture went on rolling, some added to this that his voluntary surrender must have been for a money consideration, +and there were still others who furnished a further inducement—his fear of revenge from the late Antonio Lunaʼs party! + +</p> +<p>Although Aguinaldo gave no proof of being a brilliant warrior, as an organizer he had no rival capable of keeping 30,000 or +more Filipinos united by sentiment for any one purpose. He trusted no comrade implicitly, and for a long time his officers +had to leave their side-arms in an antechamber before entering his apartment. He had, moreover, the adroitness to extirpate +that rivalry which alone destroys all united effort. But the world makes no allowance for the general who fails. To-day he +is left entirely alone, pitied by some, shunned by a few, and almost forgotten by the large majority. He is indeed worthy +of respect for his humanity in the conduct of the war, and of some pity in his present peculiar position. Many of his late +subordinates now occupy good and high-salaried posts. Members of the Government of which he was President have espoused American +doctrine and enjoy high social positions and fat emoluments. Aguinaldoʼs scholarship is too meagre for an elevated position, +and his dignity and self-respect too great for an inferior one. + +<a id="d0e18316"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e18316">511</a>]</span></p> +<div class="footnotes"> +<hr class="fnsep"> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e18036" href="#d0e18036src" class="noteref">1</a></span> The Treaty was ratified by the Senate by 57 votes to 27 on February 6, 1899. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e18039" href="#d0e18039src" class="noteref">2</a></span> The Paco church was an ancient, imposing building; to-day there is not a stone left to show that it ever existed, and the +plot is perfectly bare. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e18107" href="#d0e18107src" class="noteref">3</a></span> General Diego de los Rios was remaining in Manila to negotiate with the insurgents the liberation of the Spanish prisoners +(<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e17745">477</a>). +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e18119" href="#d0e18119src" class="noteref">4</a></span> The decree says:—“Seeing that the Spanish garrison in Baler, consisting of a handful of men, isolated, without hope of succour, +is, by its valour and constant heroism worthy of universal admiration, and in view of its defence, comparable only with the +legendary valour of the sons of the Cid and of Pelayo, I render homage to military virtues, and, interpreting the sentiments +of the Philippine Republic, on the proposal of my Secretary of War, and in agreement with my Council of State, I hereby decree +as follows, viz.:—That the said forces shall no longer be considered our prisoners, but our friends, and consequently the +necessary passes shall be furnished them enabling them to return to their country. Given in Tárlac on the 30th of June, 1899. +The President of the Republic,—<span class="smallcaps">Emilio Aguinaldo</span>.” +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e18161" href="#d0e18161src" class="noteref">5</a></span> After the war I visited this former insurgent stronghold. Of the ancient church three walls and a quarter of the roof were +left standing. There was nothing inside but shrubs, which had grown up to 3 feet high. In front of the church ruins stood +an ironical emblem of the insurgentsʼ power in the shape of an antiquated Spanish cannon on carriage, with the nozzle broken +off. Judging from the numerous newly-erected dwellings in this little town, I surmise that three-fourths of it must have been +destroyed during the war. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e18232" href="#d0e18232src" class="noteref">6</a></span> A Chinese half-caste Pampango. I knew him intimately as a planter. He was deported to and died a prisoner in the Island of +Guam in 1901. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e18242" href="#d0e18242src" class="noteref">7</a></span> In 1905 one of the wealthiest men in the Colony was arrested and brought to trial on the charge of having paid, or caused +to be paid, the sum of ₱ 20 to an outlaw in Batangas Province. After putting the accused to a deal of expense and annoyance, +the Government suddenly withdrew from the case, leaving the public in doubt as to the justice or injustice of the arraignment. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e18248" href="#d0e18248src" class="noteref">8</a></span> A very intelligent man who was appointed Civil Governor of La Laguna Province when the war terminated. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e18268" href="#d0e18268src" class="noteref">9</a></span> Early in 1905 the Court of Nueva Ecija passed sentence of imprisonment for life on this man for murder. +</p> +</div> +</div> +<div id="d0e18317" class="div1"> +<h2 class="normal">The Philippine Republic in the Central and Southern Islands</h2> +<p>So interwoven were the circumstances of General Aguinaldoʼs Government in Luzon Island with the events of the period between +the naval battle of Cavite and the ratification of the Treaty of Paris, that they form an integral and inseparable whole in +historical continuity. In the other Islands, however, which followed the revolutionary movement, with more or less adherence +to the supreme leadership of Aguinaldo, the local incidents severally constitute little histories in themselves, each such +island having practically set up its own government with only the barest thread of administrative intercommunication. + +</p> +<p>The smaller islands, adjacent to Luzon, cannot be justly included in this category, because their local rule, which naturally +succeeded the withdrawal of Spanish administration, was nothing more than a divided domination of self-constituted chiefs +whose freebooting exploits, in one instance, had to be suppressed at the sacrifice of bloodshed, and, in another, to succumb +to the apathy of the people. + +</p> +<p>In <span class="smallcaps">Yloilo</span>, on December 23, 1898, General Diego de los Rios, in the presence of his staff, the naval commanders and the foreign consuls, +formally surrendered the town to the native mayor, prior to his evacuation of Panay Island on the following day. On December +27 an American military force (finally about 3,000 strong) arrived in the roadstead in transports under the command of General +Miller in co-operation with two American warships, afterwards supplemented by two others. The Spanish troops having departed, +the Filipinos who had assumed control of public affairs made their formal entry into Yloilo to the strains of music and the +waving of banners and constituted a government whose effective jurisdiction does not appear to have extended beyond the town +and a dayʼs march therefrom. On January 17 an election was held, Raymundo Melliza,<a id="d0e18329src" href="#d0e18329" class="noteref">1</a> an excellent man, being chosen president for the term of two years. Business was resumed; sugar was being brought from Negros +Island, and ships were laden with produce. During the civil <a id="d0e18332"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e18332">512</a>]</span>administration, which lasted for seven weeks, the absorbing topic was the demand made by General Miller for the surrender +of the town. General Millerʼs force had been despatched to Yloilo waters, after the signing of the Treaty of Paris, simply +to make a demonstration in view of possible anarchy resulting from the Spanish evacuation. The ratification of that Treaty +by a two-thirds Senate majority was not an accomplished fact until February 6 following. There was no certainty that the Senate +would confirm the acquisition of the Islands, and in the interval it was not politic to pass from a formal demand for the +surrender of Yloilo to open hostilities for its possession. These matters of political exigency were undoubtedly beyond the +comprehension of the Ylongos. They attributed to fear the fact that a large fighting-force remained inactive within sight +of the town, whereas General Miller was merely awaiting instructions from the capital which the Manila authorities, in turn, +were delaying, pending the decision in Washington. Intervening circumstances, however, precipitated military action. On the +night of February 4 hostilities had broken out between Aguinaldoʼs troops and the American forces. Insurgent emissaries had +brought Aguinaldoʼs messages to the Ylongos to hold the town against the invaders, and on February 7 General Miller received +orders from Maj.-General Otis to take Yloilo by force if necessary. General Miller thereupon renewed his demand for the surrender +of the place, coupled this time with a declaration that he would bombard it if his demand were refused. Later on he notified +the consular body that the bombardment would commence on the 12th of the month. During the seven weeks of native government, +petty thefts were frequent; an armed insurgent would enter a store and carry off the article selected by him without paying +for it; but there was no riotous open violence committed against the townspeople or foreign traders. The squabbles between +the armed natives and their leaders, however, were several times on the point of producing bloodshed. + +</p> +<p>According to ex-insurgent General Pablo Araneta, the insurgent army, at the time, in Panay Island was as follows, viz.<a id="d0e18336src" href="#d0e18336" class="noteref">2</a>:— + + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="60%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top"><b>Under the leadership of </b></td> +<td valign="top"><b>Stationed at </b></td> +<td valign="top"><b>Tagálogs </b></td> +<td valign="top"><b>Visayos +</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Fulion </td> +<td valign="top">Yloilo </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 250 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 150</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Ananias Diócno </td> +<td valign="top">Yloilo </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 400 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> —</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Pablo Araneta </td> +<td valign="top">Yloilo </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 250 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> —</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Martin Delgado </td> +<td valign="top">Yloilo </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> — </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 150</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Pablo Araneta </td> +<td valign="top">Molo </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> — </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 100</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Silvestre Silvio </td> +<td valign="top">Antique </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 150 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> —</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Detachment of Diócnoʼs forces </td> +<td valign="top">Cápiz </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 200 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> —</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Total all armed with guns </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1,250 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 400</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + +<a id="d0e18428"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e18428">513</a>]</span></p> +<p>The commander-in-chief of the whole army of 1,650 men was Martin Delgado. The Tagálog contingent was under the leadership +of Ananias Diócno, a native of Taal, whose severity in his Cápiz and Yloilo campaigns has left a lasting remembrance. The +headquarters of the Visayos was in the parish-house (<i>convento</i>), whilst the Tagálogs were located in the Fine Arts Institute. Their stipulated remuneration was 4 pesos a month and food, +but as they had received only 1 peso per month on account, and moreover claimed a rise in pay to 5 pesos, the Visayos, on +February 3, assembled on the central <i>plaza</i> of the town and menaced their general officers, who were quartered together in a corner house over a barberʼs shop. They +yelled out to their leaders that if they did not give them their pay they would kill them all, sack the town, and then burn +it. Thereupon the generals hastened round the town to procure funds, and appeased the Visayos with a distribution of 1,800 +pesos. The Tagálogs then broke out in much the same way, and were likewise restrained by a payment on account of arrears due. +But thenceforth the insurgent troops became quite uncontrollable and insolent to their officers. The fact that white officers +should have solicited their permission to come ashore unarmed could only be interpreted by the Oriental, soldier or civilian, +in a way highly detrimental to the white manʼs prestige. The Americansʼ good and honest intentions were only equalled by their +nescience of the Malay character. The officers came ashore; the townsfolk marvelled, and the fighting-men, convinced of their +own invincibility, disdainfully left them unmolested. After the insurgent generals had doled out their pay, the men went round +to the shops and braggingly avowed that it was lucky for the shopkeepers that they had got money, otherwise they would have +looted their goods. The Chinese shut up their shops from the beginning of the troubles, leaving only a hole in the closed +door to do a little business, as they were in constant fear for the safety of their lives and their stocks. A great many families +packed up their belongings and went over to Negros Island in small schooners. The little passenger-steamers plying between +Yloilo and Negros were running as usual, crowded to the brim, and flying the Philippine flag without interruption from the +Americans. Amongst the better classes opinions on the situation were much divided. The best Philippine and Spanish families +expressed their astonishment that the Americans made no attempt to take the town immediately after the Spanish evacuation. +There were foreign merchants anxious to delay the American investment because, meanwhile, they were doing a brisk trade, and +there were others longing to see the town in the hands of any civilized and responsible Power. Delegates from one party or +the other, including the native civil government, went off in boats almost daily to parley with General Miller in the roadstead, +each with a different line of real or sophistic <a id="d0e18437"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e18437">514</a>]</span>argument. The best native families, the foreigners of all classes—those who desired a speedy entry of the Americans and those +who sought to delay it—were agreed as to the needlessness and the mistaken policy of announcing a bombardment. Yloilo is a +straggling, open town. The well-to-do people asked, “Why bombard?” There were no fortifications or anything to destroy but +their house property. Plans were voluntarily offered showing how and at which points a midnight landing of 400 or 500 troops +could be secretly effected for a sunrise surprise which would have cleared the town in an hour of every armed insurgent. The +officers ashore declared they were ready; and as to the men, they were simply longing for the fray, but the word of command +rested with General Miller. + +</p> +<p>In the evening of February 10 the native civil government held an extraordinary session in the Town Hall to discuss the course +to be adopted in view of the announced bombardment. The public, Filipinos and foreigners, were invited to this meeting to +take part in the debate if they wished, Raymundo Melliza, Victorino Mapa, Martin Delgado, and Pablo Araneta, being amongst +those who were present. It was proposed to burn the town. Melliza vehemently protested against such a barbarous act, and asked +why they should destroy their own property? What could they gain by pillage and flames?<a id="d0e18441src" href="#d0e18441" class="noteref">3</a> But a certain V—— and his party clamoured for the destruction of the place, and being supported by an influential lawyer +(native of another province) and by one of the insurgent generals, Melliza exclaimed, “If you insist on plunder and devastation, +I shall retire altogether,” whereupon a tremendous hubbub ensued, in the midst of which Melliza withdrew and went over to +Guimarás Island. But there were touches of humour in the speeches, especially when a fire-eating demagogue gravely proposed +to surround an American warship with canoes and seize her; and again when Quintin Salas declared that the Americans would +have to pass over his corpse before the town surrendered! Incendiaries and thieves were in overwhelming majority at the meeting; +naturally (to the common people in these Islands) an invitation to despoil, lay waste and slay, bolstered up by apparent authority, +found a ready response, especially among the Tagálog mercenaries who had no local attachment here. The instigators of this +barbarity sought no share of the spoils; they had no property interests in Yloilo, but they were jealous of those who had. +The animosity of Jaro and Molo against Yloilo had existed for years, the formersʼ townspeople being envious of the prosperous +development of Yloilo (once a mere fishing-village), which obscured the significance of the episcopal city of Jaro and detracted +from the social importance of the rich Chinese half-caste <a id="d0e18444"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e18444">515</a>]</span>residential town of Molo.<a id="d0e18446src" href="#d0e18446" class="noteref">4</a> Chiefly from these towns came the advocates of anarchy, whose hearts swelled with fiendish delight at the prospect of witnessing +the utter ruin and humiliation of their rivals in municipal prestige. Yloilo, from that moment, was abandoned to the armed +rabble, who raided the small shops for petroleum to throw on to the woodwork of the houses prior to the coming onslaught. +The bombardment having been announced for the 12th, they reckoned on a full day for burning and sacking the town. But early +in the morning of the 11th the steam-launch <i>Pitt</i>, whilst reconnoitring the harbour, was fired upon; the launch replied and withdrew. Natives were observed to be busy digging +a trench and hastening to and from the <i>cotta</i> at the harbour entrance; there was every indication of their warlike intentions. Therefore suddenly, at 9 oʼclock that morning, +without further notification, the Americans opened fire. The natives in the <i>cotta</i> fled along the quayway towards the centre of the town under a shower of bullets hurled from the quick-firing guns. The attack +on Yloilo was hardly a bombardment proper; shells were intentionally thrown over the houses as a warning and burst in suburban +open spaces, but comparatively few buildings were damaged by the missiles. In the meantime, from early morn, the native soldiery, +followed by a riff-raff mob, rushed hither and thither, throwing firebrands on to the petroleum-washed houses, looting stores, +and cutting down whomsoever checked them in their wild career. The Chinese barricaded themselves, but the flames devoured +their well-stocked bazaars; panic-stricken townsfolk ran helter-skelter, escaping from the yelling bands of bloodthirsty looters. +Europeans, revolver in hand, guarded their properties against the murderous rabble; an acquaintance of mine was hastening +to the bank to deposit ₱3,000 when he was met by the leader S——, who demanded his money or his life; one foreign business +house was defended by 15 armed Europeans, whilst others threw out handfuls of pesos to stay the work of the <i>pétroleur</i>. The German Vice-Consul, an old friend of mine, went mad at the sight of his total loss; a Swiss merchant, my friend for +over 20 years, had his fine corner premises burnt down to the stone walls, and is now in comparative poverty. Even Spanish +half-castes were menaced and contemptuously called <i>Cachilas</i><a id="d0e18475src" href="#d0e18475" class="noteref">5</a>; and the women escaped for their lives on board the schooners in the harbour. Half the town was blazing, and the despairing +cries of some, the yells of exultant joy of others, mingled with the booming of the invadersʼ cannon. + +</p> +<p>Two British warships lying in the roadstead sent boats ashore to receive British subjects, and landed a party of marines, +who made gallant efforts to save foreign property. A few British subjects were, however, <a id="d0e18493"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e18493">516</a>]</span>unable to get away from the town on account of the premature attack of the Americans, which took place on the 11th instead +of February 12, as previously announced. + +</p> +<p>The American assault on the town, which lasted until 1 oʼclock in the afternoon, was immediately followed up by the landing +of about 1,000 volunteers, and General Miller found that the prognostications of the townspeople were perfectly just, for +the insurgents fled in all directions. There was not a fighting-man left in the town. Some of them continued their hurried +flight as far as Santa Barbara and Janiuay. It was evident that a sudden night-landing, without a word about bombardment, +would have been just as effective, and would have prevented much misery and loss of life and property. Indeed, the arrival +of the American volunteers under these distressing circumstances produced a fresh commotion in Yloilo. Without any warrant +private premises were entered, and property saved from the nativesʼ grasp vanished before the eyes of the owners. Finally +order was restored through the energetic intervention of American officials, who stationed sentinels here and there to protect +what still remained of the townspeopleʼs goods. In due course indemnity claims were forwarded to the military authorities, +who rejected them all. + +</p> +<p>The insurgents still lingered outside the town on the road to Jaro, and General Miller marched his troops, in battle array, +against them. A couple of miles out of the town, in the neighbourhood of La Paz, the entrenched enemy was routed after a slight +skirmish. The booming of cannon was heard in Yloilo for some hours as the American troops continued their march to Jaro, only +molested by a few occasional shots from the enemy in ambush. The rebel chief Fulion and another, Quintin Salas, held out for +a short while, gradually beating a retreat before the advancing column. The Tagálogs, once under the command of the semi-civilized +Diócno, disappeared in all directions, and finally escaped from the province in small parties in canoes or as best they could. +The handful of braves who still thought fit to resist decided to make a stand at Santa Bárbara, but on the arrival of the +American troops they dispersed like chaff before the wind. General Miller then relinquished the pursuit and returned to Yloilo +to await reinforcements for a campaign through the Island. In the meantime military government was established in Yloilo, +the town was policed, trade resumed its normal aspect, the insurgents in the Island gradually increased, but the Philippine +Republic in Panay was no more. It was clear to all the most sober-minded and best-educated Ylongos that Aguinaldoʼs government +was a failure in Panay at least. The hope of agreement on any policy was remote from its very initiation. Visayos of position, +with property and interests at stake, were convinced that absolute independence without any control or protection from some +established Power was premature and doomed to disaster. Visayan jealousy of <a id="d0e18499"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e18499">517</a>]</span>Tagálog predominance had also its influence, but the ruling factor was the Tagálog troopsʼ dictatorial air and brutal conduct, +which destroyed the theory of fraternal unity. Self-government at this stage would have certainly led to civil war. + +</p> +<p>Reinforcements arrived from Manila and the Americans entered upon the pacification of the Island, which needed two years for +its accomplishment. The full record of the Panay campaign would be a monotonous recital of scores of petty encounters of analogous +character. Pablo Araneta, in co-operation with a Spanish deserter named Mariano Perez, met the Americans several times, and +gave better proof of his generalship in retreat than in advance. He operated only in the province of Yloilo, and at Sambang, +near Pavía, his party was severely defeated and the “general” fled. Quintin Salas, over whose dead body, he himself declared, +the Americans would have to pass before Yloilo surrendered, appeared and disappeared, from time to time, around Dumangas. +There was an encounter at Potian with Jolandoni which ended badly for his party. The native priests not only sympathized with +the insurgents, but took an active part in their operations. Father Santiago Pamplona, afterwards ecclesiastical-governor +of the Visayas (Aglipayan), held a command under Martin Delgado. Father Agustin Piña, the parish priest of Molo and the active +adviser in the operations around Pavía—Jaro district, was caught by the Americans and died of “water-cure.”<a id="d0e18503src" href="#d0e18503" class="noteref">6</a> The firebrand Pascual Macbanua was killed at Pototan; and finally came the most decisive engagement at Monte Sin͠git, between +Janiuay and Lambunao. The insurgent generalissimo, Martin Delgado, took the field in person; but after a bold stand, with +a slight loss on the American side, the insurgents were completely routed and their leader fled. Pablo Araneta, tired of generalship +without glory, surrendered to the Americans on December 31, 1899. The war still continued for another year, Martin Delgado +being one of the last to declare his defeat. Early in December, 1900, overtures for peace were made to General Miller, the +delegates on the insurgent side being Pablo Araneta, Jovito Yusay, and Father Silvestre Apura, whilst Captain Noble represented +the Americans. Martin Delgado and his co-leaders soon surrendered. There was no question of conditions but that of convincing +the natives of the futility of further resistance and the benefits to them of peace under American rule. With this end in +view, delegates went in commission to the several districts. Pablo Araneta, Father Silvestre Apura, Father Práxedes <a id="d0e18506"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e18506">518</a>]</span>Magálon and Nicolás Roses visited the district of Concepcion (East Panay) in January 1901 and obtained the submission of the +people there. Peace was at length agreed upon; but the Filipinos were not disposed silently to draw the veil over the past +without glamour and pomp, even in the hour of defeat. Therefore, on February 2, 1901, in agreement between the parties, the +remnant of the little Panay army made a formal surrender, marching under triumphal arches into the episcopal city of Jaro +to stack their arms, between lines of American troops drawn up on either side of their passage, to the strains of peaceful +melody, whilst the banners of the Stars and Stripes floated victoriously in the sultry air. Jaro was crowded with visitors +to witness this interesting ceremonial. The booths did a bustling trade; the whole city was <i>en féte,</i> and the vanquished heroes, far from evincing humiliation, mingled with the mob and seemed as merry as though the occasion +were the marriage-feast of the headmanʼs daughter. + +</p> +<p>But to complete the picture of peace some finishing-strokes were yet needful. Antique Province was still in arms, and a native +commission composed of Pablo Araneta, Father Silvestre Apura, Father Práxedes Magálon, Victorino Mapa, Cornelio Melliza, and +Martin Delgado proceeded there, and succeeded in concluding peace for the Americans at the end of February, 1901. + +</p> +<p>The Visayan chief who defied the American invader was no stout patriot who leaves his plough to fight for cherished liberty, +and cheerfully returns to it when the struggle ends. The leaders of the little Panay army and their civilian colleagues had +to be compensated for their acceptance of American rule. Aguinaldo was captured during the month following the Peace of Panay; +the war was coming to an end, and Governor W. H. Taft made his provincial tour to inaugurate civil government in the pacified +Islands. Martin T. Delgado, the very man who had inflicted such calamities upon the Yloilo people, was appointed, on April +11, to be their first provincial Civil Governor at a salary of $3,000 gold per annum, and held that office until March, 1904. +Jovito Yusay was given the provincial government secretaryship with a yearly stipend of $1,800 gold; Pablo Araneta was rewarded +with the post of President of the Board of Health at an annual salary of $1,500 gold, and Victorino Mapa was appointed a judge +of the Supreme Court with an annual emolument of $7,000 gold. In March, 1904, Raymundo Melliza, ex-president of the native +civil government, already referred to as the advocate of social order, succeeded Delgado in the civil government of the Yloilo +province by popular vote. + +</p> +<p>Yloilo, formerly the second port of the Philippines, is situated on the right bank of the creek. From the creek point to the +square are sheds used for sugar-storing, with, here and there, a commercial or government office between. The most modern +thoroughfares are traced with regularity, and there are many good houses. In the square is the <a id="d0e18517"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e18517">519</a>]</span>church, which at a distance might be mistaken for a sugar-store, the ruins of the Town Hall, the convent, and a few small, +fairly well-built houses of stone and wood, whilst all one side was once covered by a fine new block of buildings of brick, +stone and wood, with iron roofs. + +</p> +<p>The <i>Calle Real</i> or High Street is a winding road, which leads through the town into the country. The houses are indescribable—they are of +all styles. Without any pretence at architectural adornment, some are high, others low; some stand back with several feet +of pavement before them, others come forward and oblige one to walk in the road. Here and there is a gap, then a row of dingy +hovels. This is the retail trading-quarter and the centre for the Chinese. Going from the square the creek runs along at the +back of the right-hand-side houses; turning off by the left-hand-side thoroughfares, which cannot be called streets, there +is a number of roughly-built houses and a few good ones dispersed in all directions, with vacant, neglected plots between. +At the extreme end of the <i>Calle Real</i> is the Government House, built of wood and stone, of good style and in a fair condition, with quite the appearance of an +official residence. Before it is a semicircular garden, and in front of this there is a round fenced-in plot, in the middle +of which stands a flag-staff. Just past the Government House there is a bridge crossing the Jaro River, which empties itself +into the creek of Yloilo, and this creek is connected with that of Otong.<a id="d0e18527src" href="#d0e18527" class="noteref">7</a> + +</p> +<p>Yloilo lies low, and is always hot. Quite one-third of the shipping and wholesale business quarter stands on land reclaimed +from the swamp by filling up with earth and rubble. The opposite side of the creek, facing the shipping-quarter, is a low +marshy waste, occasionally converted into a swamp at certain tides. The creek forms the harbour of Yloilo, which is just as +Nature made it, except that there is a roughly-constructed quayway on the left-hand shore on entering. Only vessels of light +draft can enter; large vessels anchor in the roadstead, which is the channel between Yloilo harbour and Guimarás Island. + +</p> +<p>The general aspect of Yloilo and its environs is most depressing. In Spanish times no public conveyances were to be seen plying +for hire in the streets, and there is still no public place of amusement. The Municipality was first established by Royal +Order dated June 7, 1889. + +</p> +<p>Evidences of the havoc of 1899 are still visible at every turn in Yloilo in the shape of old stone walls, charred remains, +battered houses, vacant spaces, etc. On the other hand, there are many innovations <a id="d0e18539"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e18539">520</a>]</span>since American administration superseded the native civil government. The <i>plaza</i>, till then a dreary open space, is now a pleasant shady promenade; electric lighting, an ice-factory, four hotels, one American, +one English, and three Philippine clubs, large public schools, an improved quayway, a commodious Custom-house, a great increase +of harbour traffic, a superabundance of lawyersʼ and pawnbrokersʼ sign-boards, and public vehicles plying for hire are among +the novelties which strike one who knew Yloilo in days gone by. The Press is poorly represented by three daily and one weekly +newspapers. Taken as a whole Yloilo still remains one of the most charmless spots in the Archipelago. +</p> +<hr class="tb"><p> + +</p> +<p>The people of <span class="smallcaps">Negros Island</span> were in the free enjoyment of local independence since November 6, 1898, the day on which the Spanish Governor, D. Isidro +Castro y Cinceros, together with all his official colleagues, capitulated to the revolutionists under the leadership of Aniceto +Lacson, Leandro Lacson, Juan Araneta, Nicolás Gales, Simon Lizares, Julio Diaz, and José Montilla. Simultaneously with the +prosecution of the Panay Island campaign General Miller opened negotiations for the submission of Negros Island to American +sovereignty. At that time the government of the Island was being peacefully administered to the satisfaction of the Negros +revolutionists, at least, under the constitution proclaimed by them, and presided over by their ex-commander-in-chief, Aniceto +Lacson.<a id="d0e18551src" href="#d0e18551" class="noteref">8</a> General Miller therefore commissioned two Filipinos, Esteban de la Rama and Pedro Regalado,<a id="d0e18554src" href="#d0e18554" class="noteref">9</a> to proceed to Negros and negotiate terms of surrender to the Americans. For the moment nothing further was demanded than +a recognition of American supremacy, and it was not proposed to subvert their local organization or depose their president. +Aniceto Lacson accepted these terms, and General Miller formally appointed him Governor of the Island in March, 1899. It is +evident, therefore, that no union existed between the local government of Negros and Aguinaldoʼs Republic in Luzon. In fact, +when the Tagálog fighting-men, who were everywhere defeated in Panay, made their escape to Negros and raised the cry of insurrection +against the Americans, Lacson was constrained to appeal to General Miller to send over troops to quell the movement. Thereupon +Colonel Smith was deputed to take troops over to Negros to pursue the common enemy, whilst, in perfect <a id="d0e18557"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e18557">521</a>]</span>accord with the native governor Lacson, he acted as military governor of the Island. The great cordillera which runs through +the centre of the Island from north to south forms a sort of natural barrier between the people of Occidental and Oriental +Negros. There are trails, but there are no transversal highroads from one coast to the other, and the inhabitants on each +side live as separated in their interests, and, to a certain degree, in their habits, as though they were living in different +islands. The people on the eastern side have always strongly opposed anything approaching governmental cohesion with the other +side. Moreover, for many years past, the south-eastern district of Negros Island has been affected by sporadic apparitions +of riotous religious monomaniacs called <i>Santones</i> (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e5824">189</a>). These conditions, therefore, favoured the nefarious work of the cunning Tagálog and Panay refugees, who found plenty of +plastic material in the Negros inhabitants for the fruitful dissemination of the wildest and most fantastic notions anent +the horrors awaiting them in the new Anglo-Saxon domination. They found no sympathy with the native government of Occidental +Negros, which was as much their enemy as the American troops sent to pursue them, but they entertained the hope that by raising +riot in Negros they would draw off troops from Panay, and so favour the movement in that Island. Armed groups rose everywhere +against the Americans and the established government. In the south-east the notorious Papa Isio appeared as a <i>Santon</i>, preached idolatry, and drew to his standard a large band of ruffians as skilled as himself in villainous devices. Insurgency, +in the true sense of the word, did not exist in Negros; opposition to the American domination was merely a pretext to harass, +plunder, and extort funds from the planters and property-owners. The disaffected people increased so largely in numbers that +Colonel Smith was obliged to call for reinforcements, and the disturbances only came to an end when it was known that the +Panay people had formally laid down their arms in February, 1901. Shortly afterwards Governor W. H. Taft visited Negros Island; +the quasi-autonomous government of that region was modified in conformity with the general plan of provincial civil governments, +and on August 9, 1901, Leandro Locsin (Ylongo by birth) succeeded to the civil governorship, with a salary of $2,500 gold, +by popular vote. +</p> +<hr class="tb"><p> + +</p> +<p>Notwithstanding the severities imposed on the Cebuános during the last eight months of Spanish rule, the Spaniards were able +to evacuate <span class="smallcaps">Cebú Island</span> without menace or untoward event. For several months the Governor, General Montero, had held in prison, between life and +death, a number of Filipinos of the best families, amongst whom was Julio Llorente, who afterwards became President of Cebú +and subsequently a magistrate of the Supreme Court of Manila. General Montero made a compact with a young Philippine lawyer, +Sergio Osmeña (afterwards <a id="d0e18578"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e18578">522</a>]</span>acting-Governor of Cebú) that in exchange for two Spaniards held as hostages in the interior he would release Llorente. Osmeña +procured the liberty of the Spaniards, but it was only on the eve of his departure that Montero permitted the prison doors +to be opened. + +</p> +<p>On December 26, 1898, a chartered merchant steamer called at Cebú to transport the retiring Spaniards to Zamboanga, the place +of concentration designated by General Rios. The farewell was sadly brief, and almost in silence the Governor handed over +the government property to a most worthy and loyal Cebúano, Pablo Mejía, who was my esteemed friend for many years. The Governor +even offered Mejía about 40 rifles; but Mejía, a lover of order, wrongly believing that a long period of tranquillity was +about to set in, declined to accept them. And without any manifestation of regret on the part of the governed, the last vestige +of Spanish authority vanished from the city which, 333 years before, was the capital of the Philippine Islands. + +</p> +<p>On the day following the departure of the Spaniards the Cebuános established a provincial government in agreement with the +<i>Katipunan</i> party of Luzon, General Aguinaldoʼs direct representative being Luis Flores, the chief leader of the armed Cebuános, to whom +Pablo Mejía handed over all that he had received from the ex-governor Montero. From its establishment up to the last day of +its existence, this government used the seal and stamps of the Philippine Republic, and was constituted as follows, viz.:— + +</p> +<p><i>Provincial Council</i> + + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="60%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">President and Commander-in-Chief </td> +<td valign="top">Luis Flores. + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Vice-President </td> +<td valign="top">Julio Llorente. + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Commissioner of Police </td> +<td valign="top">Gen. Arcadio Maxílom. + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Treasurer-General </td> +<td valign="top">Pablo Mejía. + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Minister of Justice </td> +<td valign="top">Miguel Logarta. + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Secretary to the Council </td> +<td valign="top">Leoncio Alburo.</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p><i>Military Department</i> + + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="60%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Chief-of-Staff </td> +<td valign="top">Gen. Juan Clímaco. + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Military Administrator </td> +<td valign="top">Arsenio Clímaco. (Half-caste Chinese and cousins.)</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p><i>Municipal Council (Junta Popular)</i> + + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="60%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Mayor </td> +<td valign="top">Julio Llorente. + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Councillors </td> +<td valign="top">Several citizens elected by popular vote.</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>The above constitution was in conformity with a decree of General Aguinaldo dated June 18, 1898, and countersigned by Apolinario +Mabini. Local representatives of the provincial government were appointed throughout the Island for the collection of taxes +and the maintenance of order, and the system worked fairly smoothly until <a id="d0e18657"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e18657">523</a>]</span>the arrival of the Americans in Cebú City, February 21, 1899. On that date the American gunboat <i>Petrel</i> and a large steam-launch suddenly appeared in Cebú harbour. The United States Vice-Consul seems to have been the only person +who had received prior advice of their intended arrival. The commander of the <i>Petrel</i> sent a message ashore saying that he desired an interview with the government representatives and that he demanded the surrender +of the city, and gave 14 hours to the people to consider his demands; but, as a matter of fact, the negotiations lasted about +24 hours, during which time a council of Filipinos was hurriedly called to decide upon the course the provincial government +should adopt. Very divergent and extreme views were expressed; Pablo Mejía, supported by Julio Llorente and Father Julià, +advocated an acceptance of the inevitable under protest, whilst General Gabino Sepúlveda declared that he would spill his +last drop of blood before the Americans should take possession of the city. But, in the end, Sepúlveda reserved his blood +for a better occasion, and eventually accepted employment under the Americans as prosecuting attorney in Bojol Island. Pablo +Mejíaʼs advice was acted upon, and in the name of the Cebuános, Luis Flores, the President of the Council, signed a protest<a id="d0e18665src" href="#d0e18665" class="noteref">10</a> which was handed to the commander of the <i>Petrel</i> by Pablo Mejía and Julio Llorente in the presence of the United States Vice-Consul. The commander of the <i>Petrel</i> forthwith landed 40 marines, who marched to the <i>Cotta de San Pedro</i> (the fortress) and hoisted the American flag there in the presence of armed Filipinos who looked on in silence. The marines +then returned to their vessel, which remained inactive anchored off the <i>cotta</i>, pending the arrival of reinforcements which were sent to Cebú under the command of Colonel Hamer. The provincial government +was permitted to continue its functions and use its official seal, and during five months there was no manifest anti-American +movement. During this period the American commander of the troops adopted tactics similar to those employed by General E. S. +Otis in Manila against Aguinaldo prior to the outbreak in February, 1899. Little by little the Americans required the armed +Filipinos to retire farther and farther away from the capital. This practical isolation disgusted the several chiefs, who +therefore agreed to open the campaign against the invaders. Every act of the provincial councillors was closely watched and +discussed by the Cebuános, amongst whom an intransigent faction secretly charged Mejía and Llorente with being lukewarm in +their protection of Philippine interests and unduly favourable to American dominion. Their death was decreed, and Mejía was +assassinated as he was passing to his house from that of a neighbour a <a id="d0e18683"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e18683">524</a>]</span>few yards off. Luis Flores had already resigned public office, and Llorente was, at this time, his successor in the presidency +of the Council. Fortunately for him, whilst the murderers were plotting against his life he was called to Manila by General +E. S. Otis, two weeks after Mejíaʼs death, to become a magistrate in the Supreme Court. Segundo Singson (afterwards chief +judge of the Court of First Instance) then assumed the presidency of the provincial council. + +</p> +<p>On July 24, 1899, Juan Clímaco and Arcadio Maxílom, chafing at the diminution of their influence in public affairs, suddenly +disappeared into the interior and met at Pardo, where the military revolutionary centre was established. Aguinaldoʼs emissary, +Pantaleon E. del Rosario, Melquiades Lasala, a Cebuáno of Bogó (known as Dading), Andrés Jayme, Lorega, and an Ilocano named +Mateo Luga who had served in the Spanish army, led contingents under the supreme command of the insurgent General Arcadio +Maxilom. In the interior they established a fairly well-organized military government. The Island was divided into districts; +there was little interference with personal liberty; taxes for the maintenance of the struggle were collected in the form +of contribution according to the means of the donor; agriculture was not altogether abandoned, and for over two years the +insurgents held out against American rule. The brain of the movement was centred in Juan Clímaco, whilst Mateo Luga exhibited +the best fighting qualities. In the meantime American troops were drafted to the coast towns of Tubúran, Bogó, Cármen, etc. +There were several severe engagements with slaughter on both sides, notably at Monte Súdlon and Compostela. Five white men +joined the insurgent leader Luga, one being an English mercenary trooper, two sailors, and two soldiers; the last two were +given up at the close of hostilities; one of them was pardoned, and the other was executed in the <i>cotta</i> for rape committed at Mandaue. + +</p> +<p>The co-existence of an American military administration in Cebú City conducting a war throughout the Island, and a Philippine +provincial government with nominal administrative powers over the same region, but in strong sympathy with the insurgent cause, +was no longer compatible. Moreover, outside the city the provincial government was unable to enforce its decrees amongst the +people, who recognized solely the martial-law of the insurgents to whom they had to pay taxes. The Americans therefore abolished +the provincial council, which was not grieved at its dissolution, because it was already accused by the people of being pro-American. +Philippine views of the situation were expressed in a newspaper, <i>El Nuevo Dia</i>, founded by a lawyer, Rafael Palma, and edited conjointly by Jayme Veyra (afterwards a candidate for the Leyte Island governorship) +and an intelligent young lawyer, Sergio Osmeña, already mentioned at p. <a href="#d0e18557">521</a>. This organ, the type and style of which favourably compared with any journal ever produced in these Islands, passed through +many vicissitudes; it was alternately suppressed and <a id="d0e18698"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e18698">525</a>]</span>revived, whilst its editors were threatened with imprisonment in the <i>cotta</i> and deportation to Guam. Meanwhile the Americans made strenuous efforts to secure the co-operation of the Filipinos in municipal +administration, but the people refused to vote. Leading citizens, cited to appear before the American authorities, persistently +declined to take any part in a dual <i>régime</i>. The electors were then ordered, under penalties, to attend the polling, but out of the hundreds who responded to the call +only about 60 could be coerced into voting. Finally a packed municipal council was formed, but one of its members, a man hitherto +highly respected by all, was assassinated, and his colleagues went in fear of their lives. + +</p> +<p>The war in Panay Island having terminated on February 2, 1901, by the general surrender at Jaro (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e18506">518</a>), General Hughes went to Sámar Island, where he failed to restore peace, and thence he proceeded to Cebú in the month of +August at the head of 2,000 troops. A vigorous policy of devastation was adopted. Towns, villages and crops were laid waste; +Pardo, the insurgent military centre, was totally destroyed; peaceful natives who had compulsorily paid tribute to the insurgents +at whose mercy they were obliged to live, were treated as enemies; their homes and means of livelihood were demolished, and +little distinction was made between the warrior and the victim of the war. Desolation stared the people in the face, and within +a few weeks the native provincial governor proposed that terms of peace should be discussed. The insurgent chief Lorega surrendered +on October 22; Mateo Luga and Arcadio Maxílom submitted five days afterwards and at the end of the month a general cessation +of hostilities followed. A neutral zone was agreed upon, extending from Mandaue to Sógod, and there the three peace commissioners +on behalf of the Americans, namely Miguel Logarta, Pedro Rodriguez, and Arsenio Clímaco met the insurgent chiefs Juan Clímaco +and Arcadio Maxilom. As a result, peace was signed, and the document includes the following significant words, viz.: “putting +the Philippine people in a condition to prove their aptitude for self-government as the basis of a future independent life.” +The signatories of this document on the part of the Filipinos were Pantaleon E. del Rosario, Melquiades Lasala and Andrés +Jayme. After the peace, Mateo Luga and P. E. del Rosario accepted employment under the Americans, the former as Inspector +of Constabulary and the latter as Sheriff of Cebú. A few months later, the Americans, acting on information received, proceeded +to Tubúran on the government launch <i>Philadelphia</i>, arrested Arcadio Maxílom and his two brothers, and seized the arms which they had secreted on their property. On the launch, +one of the Maxíloms unsuccessfully attempted to murder the Americans and was immediately executed, whilst Arcadio and his +other brother jumped overboard; but Arcadio being unable to swim, was picked up, brought to trial at Cebú, and acquitted. +Thus <a id="d0e18717"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e18717">526</a>]</span>ended the career of General Arcadio Maxílom, whom in 1904 I found living in retirement, almost a hermitʼs life, broken in +spirit and body and worried by numerous lawsuits pending against him. + +</p> +<p>On April 17,1901, Governor W. H. Taft went to Cebú accompanied by a Filipino, H. Pardo de Tavera, whose views were diametrically +opposed to those of the Cebuáno majority. Governor Taft established civil government there, although the law of <i>habeas corpus</i> had to be suspended because the war was still raging throughout the Island outside the capital. The provincial government +as established by Governor Taft comprises a provincial board composed of three members, namely the Philippine Provincial Governor, +the American Supervisor, and the American Treasurer: hence the Americans are in permanent majority and practically rule the +Island. The executive of this body is the provincial governor and his staff. The first provincial governor appointed by Governor +Taft was Julio Llorente, who resigned the magistracy in Manila and returned to Cebú to take up his new office until the elections +took place in January, 1902, when, by popular vote, Juan Clímaco, the ex-insurgent chief, became provincial governor, and +on the expiration of his term in January, 1904, he was re-elected for another two years. + +</p> +<p>There is no noteworthy change in the aspect of Cebú since the American occupation. It is a regularly-built city, with hundreds +of good houses, many relatively imposing public buildings, monuments, churches, and interesting edifices. It is a cathedral +city and bishopʼs see, full of historical remininscences, and has still a very pleasant appearance, notwithstanding its partial +destruction and the many remaining ruins caused by the bombardment by the Spanish warship <i lang="es">Don Juan de Austria</i> in April 1838, (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e15914">403</a>). Of special interest are the Cathedral, the Church of <i>Santo Nino</i>, or the “Holy Child of Cebú” (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e5703">183</a>), the Chapels of the Paul Fathers and of the Jesuits, and the <i lang="es">Cotta de San Pedro</i> (fortress). Also, just outside the city proper is the Church of <i>San Nicolás</i>. Up to about the year 1876 the Jesuits had a fine church of their own, but the friars, jealous of its having become the most +popular place of worship, caused it to be destroyed. Until a few years ago the quarter known as the, <i>Parian</i> was the flourishing centre of the half-caste traders. There was also a busy street of Chinese general shops and native ready-made +clothiers in the <i>Lutao</i> district, a thoroughfare which ran along the seashore from the south of the city proper towards San Nicolás; it was completely +destroyed by the bombardment of 1898, and many of the shopkeepers have erected new premises in the principal shopping street, +called <i>Calle de la Infanta</i>. Again, in 1905, a disastrous fire in the business quarter of the city caused damage to the estimated extent of $500,000 +gold. + +</p> +<p>There is a little colony of foreign merchants in Cebú, which formerly ranked as the third port of the Archipelago, but now +stands second in importance to Manila (<i>vide</i> Trade Statistics, Chap. <a href="#d0e22333">xxxi</a>.). Several <a id="d0e18767"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e18767">527</a>]</span>vice-consulates are established here, and in Spanish times it was the residence of the military governor of Visayas as well +as of the governor of the Island and his staff of officials. In 1886 a Supreme Court was inaugurated in Cebú. This city, which +was the capital of the Colony from 1565 to 1571, had a municipality up to the time of Gov.-General Pedro de Arándia (1754–59). +It was then abolished because there was only one Spaniard capable of being a city councillor. One alderman who had served—Juan +Sebastian de Espina—could neither read nor write, and the mayor himself had been deprived of office for having tried to extort +money from a Chinaman by putting his head in the stocks. By Royal Order dated June 7, 1889, and put into force by the Gov.-Generalʼs +Decree of January 31, 1890, the municipality was re-established. The president was the governor of the Island, supported by +an <i>Alcalde</i> and 13 officials. For the government of the Island under the Spanish <i>regime, vide</i> Chap. <a href="#d0e6541">xiii</a>. + +</p> +<p>The municipality at present existing is that established by the Taft Commission. The Press, in the days of the Spaniards, +was poorly represented by a little news-sheet, styled the <i lang="es">Boletin de Cebú</i>. There are now two periodicals of little or no interest. + +</p> +<p>There are two large cemeteries at Guadalupe and Mabolo. In 1887 a shooting-butts was established at the end of the Guadalupe +road, and the annual pony-races take place in January. On the Mabolo road there is a Leper Hospital, and the ruins of a partly +well-built jail which was never completed. + +</p> +<p>Cebú is a port of entry open to foreign trade, with a Custom-house established since the year 1863. The channel for vessels +is marked by buoys, and there are two lighthouses at the north and two at the south entrance to the port. The environs are +pretty, with Magtan Island (on which Maghallanes was killed) in front and a range of hills in the background. There are excellent +roads for riding and driving a few miles out of the city. The climate is very healthy for Europeans; the low ranges of mountains +running north to south of the Island are sparsely wooded, some being quite bare of trees, and the atmosphere is comparatively +dry. The cactus is very common all over the Island, and miles of it are seen growing in the hedges. About an hour and a halfʼs +drive from Cebú City there is the little town of Naga, the environs of which are extremely pretty. From the top of Makdoc +Mountain, at the back of the town, there is a splendid view of the Pandan Valley. + +</p> +<p>The Cebuános are the most sociable of the Visaya population, whilst the women are the best-looking of all the Filipinas of +pure Oriental descent. + +</p> +<p>Of all places in the Philippines Cebú will please the conchologist. An old native named Legaspi once had a splendid shell +collection, which he freely exhibited to foreigners. At one time he had a <i>Gloria Maris</i>, <a id="d0e18794"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e18794">528</a>]</span>which he sold for $150, and some Russian naval officers are said to have offered him $5,000 for a part of his collection. +At certain seasons of the year the <i>Euplectella speciosa</i>, Gray, or Venus baskets, locally known as <i>Regaderas</i>, can be obtained in quantities; they are found in the Cebú waters. The <i>Eup. spec</i>, is the skeleton secretion of an insect of the Porifera division. The basket is a series of graceful fretted spirals. Also +fine <i>Piña</i> stuffs can be purchased here. + +</p> +<p>The population of Cebú City was 9,629 in 1888; 10,972 in 1896; and 18,330 in 1903. The inhabitants of the whole Island numbered +417,543 in 1876; 518,032 in 1888; 595,726 in 1896; and 653,727 in 1903. +</p> +<hr class="tb"><p> + +</p> +<p>In March, 1899, an American armed force was detailed from Cebú City to <span class="smallcaps">Bojol Island</span> to demand the surrender of the native provincial government established there since the Spanish evacuation. Interpreters +from Cebú were sent ashore, and after hearing their explanation of the Americans demands the native president in council resolved +to yield peacefully. A volunteer regiment was then sent ashore, positions were occupied, and all went smoothly on the surface +until the Islandersʼ powers of endurance were exhausted after 22 months of alleged harsh treatment imposed upon them by the +troops. In January, 1901, the cry of rebellion was raised by one Pedro Sanson, whose band of Bojolanos, augmented by levies +from Leyte, Sámar, and Panay Islands numbered about 2,000. Expeditions were sent out against them, and the lukewarm sympathy +of the Islanders was turned to general indignation against the Americans by the alleged wanton destruction of a whole town +by fire, by order of a captain of volunteers. Practically the whole Island became covertly anti-American. Having finished +his campaign in Cebú Island in October, 1901, General Hughes carried his troops over to Bojol Island, where measures of repression +were adopted similar to those which had been so effective in reducing the Cebuános to submission. A large number of small +towns and villages within the range of military operations were entirely destroyed. The once pretty little town of Lauang +was left a complete ruin, and many landmarks of a former progressive civilization have disappeared for ever. Nevertheless, +the insurgents refused to yield until a decree was issued to the effect that if the leaders did not surrender by December +27 the invaders would burn down the town of Tagbiláran. In this town, formerly the seat of the native provincial government, +Pedro Sanson and most of his officers had all their property and worldly possessions; and in view of the beggary which awaited +them if they held out any longer, they accepted terms of peace from Pantaleon E. del Rosario, who went up to the mountains +and acted as negotiator between General Hughes and the insurgent chiefs who finally surrendered. The Filipino, Aniceto Clarin, +appointed provincial governor on April 20, <a id="d0e18817"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e18817">529</a>]</span>1901, continued in office; Pedro Sanson quietly resumed his occupation of dealer in hemp, etc., and thenceforth peace and +poverty reigned in the Island. +</p> +<hr class="tb"><p> + +</p> +<p>In <span class="smallcaps">Cottabato</span> (Mindanao Is.), the attempt to establish a local native government ended in tragic failure. In January, 1899, a Spanish gunboat +silently entered the port without the customary whistling and firing of salute. It brought a despatch to the Governor from +the nominal acting-Gov.-General Rios, who, coming from Yloilo, called at Zamboanga before proceeding to Manila, to receive +on board a number of Spanish refugees. One of the crew of the gunboat also brought a private communication from the Jesuit +Superior in Zamboanga to the Jesuit missionary Father Suarez. The official despatch notified the Governor that the Treaty +of Paris had been signed, and consequently he was to evacuate Cottabato immediately. The private communication told the same +tale to the missionary, with an inquiry from the Jesuit Superior as to whether he could continue his mission after the withdrawal +of the Spanish Governor, and whether it would be of any advantage to do so. The Governor informed the missionary of his intended +departure, and the missionary replied negatively to his superior in Zamboanga. The Governor then called Roman Vilo, his confidential +christian native assistant, and told him that he and all who had been loyal to the Spanish Government and faithful in their +service could take passage to Zamboanga. Vilo, however, for himself and his family, declined the offer on the ground that +all his interests were in and about Cottabato, where he possessed real estate. The Governor then had the Moro-Chinese half-caste +Datto Piang called, and in the presence of Vilo the former was appointed chief of the Moro people and the latter governor +of the christian population. After making a short speech, exhorting the two chiefs, in benevolent phrases, to live in peace +and act mutually for the common good, the Governor, accompanied by the Jesuit missionaries and others who were desirous of +leaving the place, went to Zamboanga on the gunboat. + +</p> +<p>When, after the lapse of some weeks, Datto Piang felt sure that the Spaniards would never be again in authority at Cottabato, +he begged Vilo to let him have twenty rifles to defend himself against a rival. The christian governor agreed to this, and +week by week Datto Piangʼs demands grew until, at length, all the rifles in the possession of the Christians passed to the +Moros. But there still remained some cannons, and Datto Piang, having represented the necessity of making war on another chief +up the Cottabato River, Vilo was persuaded to lend them to him. Piang had them placed in <i>vintas</i> (war-junks) and Vilo, with several friends, went down to the river-side to witness the departure of the supposed armed expedition. +Suddenly Piang, his son-in-law Datto Ali and this manʼs brother, Datto <a id="d0e18831"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e18831">530</a>]</span>Djimbangan, at the head of a large party of armed Moros, fell upon and slaughtered the Christians. Viloʼs head was cut off +and the savage Mahometans made a raid on the town, looting all but the shops of the Chinese who were in league, or accord, +with their half-countryman Piang. The Christians who were unable to escape were either massacred or carried off as slaves +into the interior, with the loot. Datto Djimbangan caused the Christian women to be stripped naked and marched through the +streets, whilst he and his companions made their selections for themselves, leaving the remainder for their followers. Amongst +the captives were a father and two sons. In October, 1899, the Americans sent a gunboat to Cottabato, and the wife of this +captive, mother of his two boys, represented her plight to the commander, who forthwith sent for Piang and ordered him immediately +to send a message to the individual holding the captives to release them and hand them over to the messenger, who would conduct +them back to Cottabato. Piang, without a momentʼs hesitation, offered to comply, and sent a <i>vinta</i> up the river with the required order, but at the same time he secretly sent another emissary overland with contrary instructions. +The land messenger, as was expected, arrived first, and when the <i>vinta</i> party reached the place of captivity, Piangʼs people expressed their regret that they could not oblige the party because +they had just cut off the captivesʼ heads. In 1904 a member of the victimsʼ family was a teacher in the Jesuitsʼ Catholic +School in Zamboanga. Datto Piang, who owes his position and influence over the Moros to the protection of the late great Datto +Utto (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e4584">143</a>) is the father-in-law of the terrible Datto Ali whose continual depredations and defiance made Cottabato the centre of that +unabated conflict for the Americans described in Chapter <a href="#d0e20496">xxix</a>. +</p> +<hr class="tb"><p> + +</p> +<p>In the belief that the Zamboangueños were loyally disposed towards Spain, the Spaniards, after the signing of the Treaty of +Paris, chose <span class="smallcaps">Zamboanga</span> (Mindanao Is.) as their point of concentration of all the Spanish troops and civil servants in the southern islands. At that +time General Jaramillo was Gov.-General of Mindanao Island and commander of the forces in Zamboanga; but on the arrival there, +December 27, 1898, of the ex-governor of Cebu, General Montero, with his co-refugees, General Jaramillo transferred his command +to him and left for Manila with General Rios, who had come from Yloilo to Zamboanga to receive refugee passengers for the +capital. Before his departure Jaramillo had led the Zamboangueño Christians to believe that the war with America was, at every +turn, a triumphant success for Spanish arms; fictitious printed telegrams were circulated announcing Spanish victories everywhere, +and one of the most extravagant reported that General Weyler had landed on American soil at Key West with an army of 80,000 +Spanish troops. The motive of this harmless ruse was to bolster up <a id="d0e18855"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e18855">531</a>]</span>Spanish prestige and thereby avoid bloodshed. During several months no trading or mail-steamer came, and the Zamboangueños +were practically cut off from the rest of the world. Military preparations were made for the feigned purpose of resisting +a possible attack on the place by the Americans, who were described to the people as cannibals and ferocious monsters more +terrible than the dreaded Moros. Naturally the real object of the military preparations was the Spaniardsʼ justifiable endeavour +to be ready to defend themselves against open rebellion when the true situation should ooze out. Nor was their misrepresentation +of the Americans mere spiteful calumny; the Spaniards were in great jeopardy, and they instinctively wished to destroy any +feeling of welcome which the natives might have for the new-comers for fear it might operate against themselves at the supreme +moment of danger. Indeed, each party—native and Spanish—was seeking to outwit the other; hence, when the Zamboangueños were +promised a supply of arms for the ostensible purpose of resisting invasion, they pretended to co-operate heartily with the +Spaniardsʼ defensive measures, with the secret design of dispossessing the Spaniards of their arms in order to use them against +them. The Zamboangueños therefore became so persistent in their demand upon Montero to fulfil his predecessorʼs promise that +at last he had frankly to confess that peace had been signed between Spain and America, whereby the Islands were surrendered +to the United States, and that very shortly the Spaniards would evacuate the Archipelago. But the conflicting versions of +the situation, published severally by Jaramillo and Montero, sorely puzzled the natives. The Spaniards were still in undisturbed +possession of Zamboanga for over four months after Monteroʼs arrival, notwithstanding the fact that the American warship <i>Boston</i> called at the port and left the same day and that an officer came ashore without the least objection or consternation on +the part of the Spaniards. The orange-and-red flag still floated over the Fortress del Pilar, and, so far as the Zamboangueños +could ascertain, it looked as if the Spaniards were going to remain. They therefore clamoured more loudly than ever for the +distribution of arms, which this time Montero positively refused, for the Spaniards had never for a moment been deceived as +to the real intentions of the Zamboangueños. On the other hand, by this time, their inoffensive delusion of the people had +lost its virtue, and natives and Spaniards thenceforth became open enemies. After the visit of the <i>Boston</i> the fighting population, no longer able to conceal their disappointment, threw off the mask, quitted the town, cut off the +water-supply which came from the mountains, in collusion with the mutinied crews seized the firearms on board the Spanish +gunboats lying in the harbour, and prepared for war against their old masters. The Spaniards immediately compelled the non-combatant +townspeople and the Chinese to throw up earthworks for mounting artillery and dig trenches for defence against the rebels. +The gunboat <i>Alava</i> co-operated <a id="d0e18866"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e18866">532</a>]</span>by firing shells into the rebel camp situated just outside the town. The rebels made two unsuccessful assaults, and in the +second attack General Montero was mortally wounded by a rifle-shot. On May 23 the S.S. <i>Leon XIII.</i> arrived; the Spaniards silently embarked for Manila with their dying general, who succumbed during the voyage, and Zamboanga, +one-fourth of which the defenders had destroyed by fire, was occupied by the rebels. During the siege the Filipinos, true +to their instincts, had split up into two rival factions headed by Vicente Alvarez and Isidoro Midel respectively, and in +the interval between the first and second assault on the town these party chiefs had fought out their own quarrel, Midel claiming +to have been the victor. Nevertheless, the popular favourite was Vicente Alvarez, known as the <i>Tamagun Datto</i> (high chief), who became the chosen president of the Zamboanga revolutionary government established immediately after the +Spanish evacuation. Party spirit ran high; life was held in little esteem; a lifeless body found on the highway startled no +one; assassination was an occurrence of small moment; cattle-shooting was practised for amusement, and the five-and-a-half +monthsʼ essay of christian Philippine autonomy was so signalized by jealous self-interest, bitter rivalry, rapacity, and bloodshed +as to make one doubt whether the christian Zamboangueño is one whit superior to his Mahometan neighbour in moral character. + +</p> +<p>The arrival of an American expedition in the waters of Zamboanga on November 15, 1899, produced a sanguinary crisis in these +faction feuds. Vicente Alvarez at once took measures to oppose the invadersʼ landing, whilst his rival, Isidoro Midel, resolved +to side with the Americans. <i lang="la">Divide et impera.</i> The want of unity amongst the natives themselves was a great help to the Americansʼ plans. By this time there appeared a +third aspirant to local fame in the person of Melanio Sanson, a native marine engineer, until recently in the Spanish service, +who pretended to co-operate with Alvarez, styling himself colonel of artillery in charge of the guns abandoned by his former +masters. Each of these three individuals sought to rid himself of his two rivals. On the night of November 15 Isidoro Midel +ended Melanio Sansonʼs rivalry for ever, and the Americans took peaceful possession of the town the next day. Subsequently +Midel arranged a transfer to the Americans of the artillery which had, during the conflict, been under Sansonʼs control. Vicente +Alvarez immediately fled to Mercedes, and thence to Basilan Island, where, aided by Datto Pedro Cuevas, he organized a brigand +band, crossed over to Mindanao Island again, and made a raid on Oriquieta. Chased from place to place by American troops, +he was finally captured and sent to Bilibid prison in Manila, but was subsequently pardoned on his taking the oath of allegiance, +and sent back to Zamboanga, where he earns his living peacefully. Meanwhile, Isidoro Midel had been further rewarded for his +services to the Americans with <a id="d0e18879"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e18879">533</a>]</span>the office of municipal president, which he held for about 16 months in defiance of public opinion. The feeling which prompted +public opposition to Midelʼs appointment was at least as much anti-American as it was dislike for the nominee. In March, 1901, +municipal elections were held, and Mariano Arquiza succeeded, by popular vote, to the presidency, which he held for two years. +Some weeks before Arquiza vacated office two American miners were murdered by the natives a few miles up the province. The +murderers, when caught, sought to justify their deed by alleging that a municipal councillor named Eduardo Alvarez (no relation +to the Vicente Alvarez already mentioned) had persuaded them that the miners were secretly engaged in poisoning the local +wells. The whole municipal council was therefore cited to appear before the American Governor, who severely reprimanded Alvarez, +whereupon this man withdrew from the audience-chamber, and his fellow-councillors volunteered such information against him +that the Governor instantly issued a warrant for his apprehension. But the native police who went to his house to execute +the warrant let him escape on horseback to the mountains, where he organized a band of outlaws and lived for about four months +by robbery and violence. Under these circumstances the American Governor summarily dismissed Mariano Arquiza from the municipal +presidency in the spring of 1903, and, much to the public chagrin, re-appointed Midel to the vacancy. The offer of $1,000 +for the capture of Eduardo Alvarez spurred Midel into further activity, and under his direction the bandit was discovered +hiding in a canoe in a swamp. On the approach of his pursuers the outlaw threw up his hands in sign of surrender, which was +responded to by a volley of gunshots, for it was Alvarezʼs corpse which was wanted in Zamboanga. Isidoro Midel is an interesting +character, apparently about forty-eight years of age. Brought up as a Roman Catholic, he assured me that he was a Protestant, +with the strongest sympathy, however, for the Aglipayan movement (<i>vide</i> Chap. <a href="#d0e21329">xxx</a>.). + +</p> +<p>Another interesting man, closely associated with recent events in Zamboanga, is the Mahometan Spanish-Moro half-caste Datto +Mandi, the <i>Rajahmudah</i> or heir-apparent to the <i>Manguiguin</i> or Sultan of Mindanao (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e4299">131</a>). Born about the year 1860, he and his tribe of Sámals lived on friendly terms with the Spaniards, who in 1887 sent him and +a number of his people to the Philippine Exhibition held in Madrid in that year. His exploits in aid of the Spaniards in Cebú +are recorded at page 406. He speaks Spanish fluently, and can just write his name. He is very affable and hospitable to visitors. +The whole family professes the Mahometan religion. He has a beautiful daughter Gafas (which in Moro language signifies “cotton,” +and in Spanish “spectacles”), who attended the American School. His young son Facundo also goes to the American School, and +his other son Pelayo went to the Catholic School in Zamboanga before he was sent to <a id="d0e18901"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e18901">534</a>]</span>Manila. I was much struck with the intelligence of this handsome boy Pelayo. In the stirring events which immediately followed +the Spanish evacuation, Datto Mandi remained neutral, his old antagonism to Alvarez being counterpoised by the conviction +that a Zamboanga republic must end in a fiasco. He at once accepted the new situation under American dominion, and is headman +of the Sámal tribal ward of Magay, a suburb of Zamboanga. He told me in 1904 that he held under his control 9,600 persons, +from 1,700 of whom he collected capitation tax for the American authorities. At the instance of the Americans, Datto Mandi +issued a proclamation to his tribe, dated April 19, 1900, abolishing their traditional custom of slavery. His position is +not at all an easy one, and it needs much tact to maintain an even balance of goodwill between his Sámal subordinates and +his American superiors. But Datto Mandi had a grievance which rankled in his breast. In the year 1868 the Spanish Government +conceded to a christian native family named Fuentebella some 600 acres of land at Buluan, about 40 miles up the Zamboanga +coast, which in time they converted into a prosperous plantation well stocked with cattle. During the anarchy which succeeded +the Spanish evacuation, a band of about 600 Moros raided the property, murdered seven of the christian residents, and stole +all they could possibly carry away from the plantation and well-furnished estate-house. When Datto Mandi heard of it he went +there in person and rescued the women held in captivity and brought them to Zamboanga, where they lived in perfect security +under his protection until the American advent. Then, in return for his kindness, these women accused the <i>Datto</i> of having been the instigator of the crime, or, at least, a participator in the proceeds thereof, in the hope that, through +the Americans, they would be able to exact an indemnity. The <i>Datto</i> was mulcted in the sum of 5,000 pesos, although he declared to me that neither before nor after the crime was he in any way +concerned in it; and this was the honest belief of many American officials in Zamboanga. + +</p> +<p></p> +<div id="d0e18910" class="figure"><img border="0" src="images/p534-1.jpg" alt="An Arabian Hadji" width="355" height="512"><p class="figureHead">An Arabian Hadji</p> +<p>Missionary and Expounder of the Koran.</p> +</div><p> + +</p> +<p>In January, 1905, Datto Mandiʼs daughter was married at a little town a few miles from Yligan (north Mindanao). Several American +officers were present on the occasion, accompanied by a Spanish half-caste who acted as their interpreter. The assembled guests +were having a merry time when suddenly the festivities were interrupted by the intrusion of a <i>juramentado</i> Moro fanatic, who sprang forward with his <i>campilán</i> and at one blow almost severed the interpreterʼs head from his body. Then he turned his attention to the other natives, mortally +wounded two, and cut gashes in several others before he fell dead from the revolver-shots fired by the American officers. +After the dead and wounded were carried away and the pools of blood were mopped up, the wedding ceremony was proceeded with +and the hymeneal festival was resumed without further untoward incident. + +</p> +<p></p> +<div id="d0e18925" class="figure"><img border="0" src="images/p534-2.jpg" alt="Rajahmudah Datto Mandi and Wife" width="362" height="512"><p class="figureHead">Rajahmudah Datto Mandi and Wife</p> +<p>(<i>From a portrait presented by him to the Author.</i>) +</p> +</div><p> +<a id="d0e18934"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e18934">535</a>]</span></p> +<p>Zamboanga is a clean, pleasant town, and what was left of it after the Spanish evacution is well built, with many substantial +houses and public offices, a church administered by the Jesuits, one large and one small jetty, a pretty esplanade facing +the sea, and other open spaces. A canal running through the town adds to its picturesqueness. At the eastern extremity is +the old fortress, called the <i lang="es">Fuerza del Pilar</i>, a fine historical monument reminding one of the Spaniardsʼ many vicissitudes in this region, alluded to in the preceding +pages. Many of the natives concerned, or alleged to have been concerned, in the Cavite Rising of 1872 (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e3649">106</a>) were confined in this fortress. They overcame their jailors and obtained possession of the guns and ammunition. The Spaniards +were consequently in great straits, for possibly their existence depended on which side the townspeople took. The Zamboangueños, +however, helped the Spaniards against the revolted convicts, who were finally subdued; and as a reward for this proof of loyalty +Zamboanga received the title of <i lang="es">Muy leal y valiente Villa</i> (very loyal and heroic town). Many years ago a Moro attack was made on Zamboanga, and the Christian natives joined with the +Spaniards in repelling it. It would have gone rather badly with them if they had not done so, for a Philippine Christian was +just as good fish for the Moro net as a Spaniard. However, their co-operation was gratefully acknowledged by declaring the +Zamboangueños to be Spaniards of the first class. + +</p> +<p>I have never been able to discern clearly what material advantage this brought them, although I have discussed the question +on the spot. The disadvantage of this pompous distinction to the town arose from the ridiculous popular notion that whereas +Spaniards in Spain are all cavaliers, they too, as Spaniards of the first water, ought to regard work as a degradation. Hence +they are a remarkably indolent and effete community, and on landing from a ship there is seldom a porter to be seen to carry +oneʼs luggage. Their speech is a dialect called <i>Chabucano</i>—a mixture of very corrupt Spanish and native tongues. + +</p> +<p>The environment of Zamboanga is very beautiful, with islands to the south and mountain scenery on the land sides. The climate +is healthy, and with the frequent delightful breezes wafted across the Celebes Sea is not at all oppressive for a tropical +region, and is cooler than Manila, which is 425 miles north. +</p> +<hr class="tb"><p> + +</p> +<p>The people of <span class="smallcaps">Sámar Island</span> for a long time tenaciously opposed the American occupation, under several leaders, notably Vicente Lucban and his right-hand +man, Guevara; but neither here, nor in <span class="smallcaps">Marinduque Island</span> can it be said that native civil government was established. In the latter Island the insurgent chief was the titular Colonel +Abad, who overran the villages with about 150 followers armed with rifles. In 1901 Abad surrendered, and hostilities, with +real political aim, definitely ended in these Islands thirteen months after the capture of Aguinaldo <a id="d0e18966"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e18966">536</a>]</span>in Luzon. Although in Sámar Island the war was, as elsewhere, a succession of petty encounters, there were incidents in its +prosecution which attracted much public attention from time to time. At the town of Balangiga, on September 28, 1901, the +local headman and the native parish priest conspired with about 450 armed natives to attack the American camp. The garrison +stationed there was Company “C,” 9th Infantry. The headman had represented to the Americans that he was busy with an important +capture of about 90 brigands, and on this pretext some 45 cut-throats were brought into the town and lodged in the church. +Three officers of the garrison were quartered in the parish-house, and whilst the rank-and-file were at breakfast in a bamboo +building, some distance away from their quarters where they had left their weapons, another 45 supposed brigands were led +through the town to the church, but naturally the soldiers took little notice of this expected event. The town is surrounded +on one side by the open valley and on three sides by almost perpendicular mountains, with defiles between them leading to +the interior of the Island. As soon as the last batch of supposed brigands was brought in, the church bells were rung as a +signal for a mob of natives, armed with bowie-knives, to creep silently through the defiles on two sides. The troopers were +just then suddenly alarmed by the noise of a conflict in the parish-house. The 90 so-called brigands having been passed through +from the church into this house, fired at the three officers and then killed them with their bowie-knives. Simultaneously +the soldiersʼ quarters were attacked. Whilst the troops made a rush forward to secure their weapons they were intercepted +by an armed crowd, through which a small party of Americans finally cut their way and beat off the howling mob, which had +already slaughtered many soldiers, set fire to the quarters, and possessed themselves of over 50 rifles and several thousand +rounds of ammunition. A large number of hostile natives, including the headman, were killed; 28 Americans effected their escape, +but the loss amounted to three officers and about 70 men killed and several more men wounded. General Hughes, in command of +the Visayas District, was operating in Cebú Island at the time of this disaster. Public excitement was intense when the news +of this serious reverse was published. The general who was sent to Sámar to pursue the insurgents, or bandits, is alleged +to have issued, in a moment of uncontrollable wrath, an order to “slay all over ten years and make Sámar a howling wilderness.” +Consequently a great cry of public protest was raised, and the general and his executive officer in the affair were cited +before a court-martial in April, 1902; but the court having found that the general was justified in the measures he took, +both officers were acquitted. Since the capture of Lucban (April 27, 1902), lawless agitation has been persistently rife all +over the Island of Sámar; but this is the work of brigands (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e19267">551</a>) and has no political signification. + +<a id="d0e18974"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e18974">537</a>]</span></p> +<div class="footnotes"> +<hr class="fnsep"> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e18329" href="#d0e18329src" class="noteref">1</a></span> Raymundo Melliza, a Visayan lawyer, who afterwards became Provincial Governor of Yloilo, is the son of Cornelio Melliza, of +Molo, a man much respected both by natives and foreigners. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e18336" href="#d0e18336src" class="noteref">2</a></span> A verbal statement made to me by ex-insurgent General Pablo Araneta, which I took down in writing at the time of the interview. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e18441" href="#d0e18441src" class="noteref">3</a></span> When I asked ex-General Pablo Araneta the same question he naïvely explained to me that it was thought if the Americans came +ashore and found the town in ruins they would relinquish their undertaking! +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e18446" href="#d0e18446src" class="noteref">4</a></span> The See of Jaro was created in 1867. The town was already rich with its trade in <i>piña</i> and <i>jusi</i> (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e10742">283</a>, footnote). Up to 1876 Yloilo town was merely a group of houses built for commercial convenience. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e18475" href="#d0e18475src" class="noteref">5</a></span> <i>Vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e5428">169</a>. <i>Castila</i> in the North; <i>Cachila</i> in the South; signifying European, and said to be derived from the Spaniardsʼ war-cry of <i lang="es">Viva Castilla!</i></p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e18503" href="#d0e18503src" class="noteref">6</a></span> “Water-cure” was a method adopted by the Americans. Water was poured down the throat of the victim until the stomach was distended +to the full; then it was pressed out again and the operation repeated. The pretext for this mode of torture was to extort +confession; but it was quite inefficacious; because the victim was usually disposed to say anything, true or false, for his +own salvation. The “water-cure” operation, in vogue for awhile all over the Islands, proved fatal in many cases. It is now +a penal offence (Phil. Com. Act 619, Sec. 2). +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e18527" href="#d0e18527src" class="noteref">7</a></span> Otong in olden times was a place of importance when the galleons put in there on their way to and from Mexico, taking the +longer route in order to avoid the strong currents of the San Bernardino Straits. + +</p> +<p class="footnote">Under the old territorial division, the Jurisdiction of Otong comprised all Panay Island (except a strip of land all along +the north coast—formerly Panay Province, now called Cápis) and a point here and there on the almost unexplored Negros coast. +Galleons were sometimes built at Otong, which was on several occasions attacked by the Dutch. Yloilo at that time was an insignificant +fishing-village. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e18551" href="#d0e18551src" class="noteref">8</a></span> A half-caste Chinese family of large means and local influence. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e18554" href="#d0e18554src" class="noteref">9</a></span> Esteban de la Rama is of the family of the late Isidro de la Rama, a well-known prosperous and enterprising Yloilo merchant. +Pedro Regalado, personally known to me, is the son of my late friend José Regalado, at one time a wealthy middleman, who, +however, lost his fortune in adverse speculations. Pedro Regalado and I were, at one time, together in Hong-Kong, where he +learnt English. On the entry of the American troops into Yloilo he was imprisoned on a charge of disaffection, but shortly +released and appointed a government interpreter. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e18665" href="#d0e18665src" class="noteref">10</a></span> The protest contained the following significant clauses, viz: (1) “<span lang="es">Ceder á tal exigencia en vista de la superioridad de las armas Americanas. (2) No tener poder, ni la provincia ni todos los +habitantes juntos, de ejecutar actas como esta, prohibidas por el Presidente de la República, Señor Emilio Aguinaldo.</span>”—Extracts taken by myself from the official copy of the protest. +</p> +</div> +</div> +<div id="d0e18975" class="div1"> +<h2 class="normal">The Spanish Prisoners</h2> +<p>Extreme interest was naturally taken by all Europeans in the miserable fate of the thousands of Spanish soldiers and civilians +who had fallen into the rebels hands up to the capitulation of Manila.<a id="d0e18980src" href="#d0e18980" class="noteref">1</a> Held captive in groups at different places in the Island of Luzon, many of them passed a wretched existence, with bad food, +scant clothing, and deprived of every pleasure in life beyond the hope of one day seeing their native land. Many of them died, +either from natural causes or the effect of their privations (some of starvation in Tayabas), or as a result of brutal treatment. +A minority of them received as good treatment as possible under the circumstances. The fate of the majority depended chiefly +upon the temperament of the native commander of the district. There were semi-savage native chiefs, and there were others, +like Aguinaldo himself, with humane instincts. Amongst the former, for instance, there was Major Francisco Braganza, who, +on February 28, 1900, in Camarines Sur, ordered one hundred and three Spanish soldiers to be tied up to trees and cut and +stabbed to death with bowie-knifes and their bodies stripped and left without burial. He was tried by court-martial and sentenced +to be hanged, September 26, 1901, and the sentence was carried out at Nueva Cáceres (Camarines Sur) on November 15 following. +Many prisoners managed to escape, no doubt with the aid or connivance of natives, until Aguinaldo issued a decree, dated Malolos, +November 5, 1898, imposing a penalty of twenty <a id="d0e19022"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e19022">538</a>]</span>yearsʼ imprisonment on whomsoever should give such aid. Aguinaldo told me he was personally inclined to liberate these prisoners, +or, at least, those civilians accustomed to an easy office life who, if they went free, would have had no inclination whatever +to fight, but would have done their best to embark for Spain. The few who might have broken their <i>parole</i> would have been easily caught again “for the last time in their lives,” and the women and children were an obstacle to military +operations. Indeed, from time to time, Aguinaldo did liberate small groups of civilians, amongst whom were some of my old +friends whom I afterwards met in Spain. Aguinaldoʼs Prime Minister, Apolinario Mabini (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e19189">546</a>), was, however, strongly in favour of retaining the Spaniards as hostages until the Spanish Government should officially +recognize the Philippine Republic. It will be clearly seen from the negotiations entered into between the respective parties +that this recognition was the condition which the rebels most pertinaciously insisted upon, whilst the Spaniardsʼ offers of +millions of dollars were always met by much larger demands, which practically implied a refusal to treat on a money basis. +The facts in the negotiations certainly support Aguinaldoʼs statement to me that the rebels never sought money, but political +advantage, by the retention of the prisoners. + +</p> +<p>The intense excitement in Spain over the prisonersʼ doom called into existence meetings, liberation societies, frequent discussions +in and out of Parliament, and continual protests against the apparent Ministerial lethargy. In reality, the Spanish Government, +fearful of a rupture with America, could take no official action in the matter, further than appeal, indirectly, to the generosity +of the captors, and remind America of her undertaking under Article 6 of the treaty. In January, 1899, the Colonial Minister +cabled to several people in Manila, begging them to use their influence—but they themselves were already in the rebel camp. +No form of compensation in money or armament for the captivesʼ liberty could be officially made without involving Spain in +a <i>casus belli</i> with America. Recognition of a Philippine Republic would have been in direct opposition to the spirit of the treaty of peace. +In September, 1898, the Superiors of the regular clergy in Manila appealed to Rome; the Vatican communicated with President +McKinley, and the President sent an inquiry to Maj.-General E. S. Otis concerning the captive friars. General Otis, after +investigation, reported that these prisoners were fairly well treated. In the following month, whilst the Treaty of Paris +was under discussion, the Spanish Government appealed to the United States Government to aid them in the rescue of the prisoners, +and orders to do so were transmitted to General Otis. The Filipinos and the Americans were ostensibly on good terms at that +period, and General Otis suggested to Aguinaldo that the friars and civilian Spaniards should be set free. On the subject +of this request, <a id="d0e19038"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e19038">539</a>]</span>Aguinaldo replied to General Otis by letter dated Malolos, November 3, 1898, as follows, viz:—“The Philippine people wish +to retain the Spanish civil functionaries in order to obtain the liberty of the Filipinos who are banished and under arrest, +and the friars in order to obtain from the Vatican a recognition of the rights of the Philippine secular clergy.... It is +not hatred or vengeance which inspires the Filipinos to retain the Spanish civil and religious functionaries, but political +expediency, and the tranquillity of the Philippine people demands this measure.” + +</p> +<p>At this date there were hundreds of Philippine prisoners held by the Spanish Government in different places, some of them +under worse conditions than the Spanish prisoners. For instance, 218 were deported to the fever-stricken colony of Fernando +Po, and only 94 of them came out alive. The treaty of peace was still being discussed, and on its conclusion, Article 6 stipulated +a release of “all persons detained or imprisoned for political offences in connection with the insurrections in Cuba and the +Philippines,” and that the United States would “undertake to obtain the release of all Spanish prisoners in the hands of the +insurgents”; but there was no proviso that the release of the Philippine prisoners should depend on that of the Spanish prisoners, +and after the treaty was signed, Spain showed no particular haste immediately to carry out her undertaking to return the Philippine +prisoners to their islands. + +</p> +<p>When General Diego de los Rios evacuated the Visayas Islands and brought his Spanish troops to Manila, <i lang="fr">en route</i> for Spain, January, 1899, he himself remained in Manila as a Spanish Government Agent to obtain the release of the prisoners. +For the special purpose, by courtesy of the American authorities, he held a kind of semi-official position; but he did +not care to risk his person within the rebel lines. A Spanish merchant, Don Antonio Fuset, president of the Spanish +Club, undertook the negotiations, and succeeded in inducing Apolinario Mabini to issue a decree signed by Aguinaldo and himself, +dated January 22, 1899, giving liberty to all invalid civilians and soldiers. Simultaneously the Spanish Press in Manila +was abusing Aguinaldo and his officers, calling them monkeys and using epithets which brought down their vengeance on the +captives themselves. + +</p> +<p>The outbreak of the War of Independence (February 4, 1899) precluded direct American intervention in favour of the Spanish +prisoners. General Rios, whose importance was being overshadowed by Señor Fusetʼs productive activity, cabled to Madrid that +he would attend to the matter himself. But the didactic tone of his letters to Aguinaldo was not conducive to a happy result, +and having frankly confessed his failure, the general made an appeal to the consuls and foreign merchants to exercise conjointly +their influence. A letter of appeal from them was therefore drawn up and confided for delivery <a id="d0e19049"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e19049">540</a>]</span>in the insurgent camp to my late friend Baron Du Marais.<a id="d0e19051src" href="#d0e19051" class="noteref">2</a> This chivalrous gentleman, well known as the personification of integrity and honour, had resided many years in the Islands +and spoke Tagálog fluently. On reaching the insurgent camp he was imprisoned on the charge of being a spy, but was shortly +afterwards released, and on his way back to the capital he was waylaid by the natives, who foully murdered him. Señor Fuset +then resumed his labours, and, as a result of his appeal to the generosity of his countrymen, he was able to set out for Boac +and Batangas in the little steamer <i>Castellano</i> to carry supplies to the prisoners detained in those localities. On his journey he distributed to them 500 cotton suits, +290 pairs of shoes, 100 pairs of <i>alpargatas</i> (a sort of hempen shoe or sandal made in Spain), 14,375 packets of cigarettes, and ₱1,287. Several subsequent expeditions +carried supplies to the prisoners, the total amount of material aid furnished to them, in goods and money, being estimated +at ₱60,000. + +</p> +<p>After five months of fruitless effort General Diego de los Rios left Manila for Spain on June 3, 1899, and was succeeded by +General Nicolás Jaramillo as the negotiator representing Spain. Moreover, it was desirable to recall General Rios, whose cablegrams +commenting on the Americansʼ military operations were making him a <i lang="la">persona non grata</i> in official circles. + +</p> +<p>With the requisite passes procured from Aguinaldo, two Spanish envoys, Señores Toral and Rio, and the Filipino Enrique Marcaida +set out for the insurgent seat of government, which was then at Tárlac. On their arrival there (June 23) Aguinaldo appointed +three commissioners to meet them. At the first meeting the Filipinos agreed to liberate all except the friars, because these +might raise trouble. At the next <a id="d0e19082"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e19082">541</a>]</span>meeting they offered liberty to all on the following terms, impossible of acceptance by the Spanish commissioners, viz.:— + +</p> +<p>(1) Spain is to recognize the Independence of the Philippines and repudiate the cession of the Islands to America. + +</p> +<p>(2) After the recognition and repudiation stipulated in Clause 1, the Philippine Republic will liberate all the prisoners, +without exception, and will pay their expenses back to Spain. If Spain cannot possibly accede to the conditions of Clause +1, the Philippine Republic will accept, in lieu thereof, arms, munitions and provisions, or their money equivalent. + +</p> +<p>(3) The Spanish Government is to exchange the receipts given for money subscribed to the Philippine loan for the certificates +of that loan.<a id="d0e19090src" href="#d0e19090" class="noteref">3</a> + +</p> +<p>The Filipinos declined to say what sum they would consider an equivalent, as per Clause 2, and invited the Spaniards to make +an offer. The Spaniards then proposed ₱1,000,000. + +</p> +<p>On June 29, at the third conference, the Filipinos refused to accept less than ₱6,000,000. This demand stupefied the Spaniards, +who said they would return to consult General Jaramillo; but they were reluctant to leave the matter unsettled, and a last +conference was held the next day, when the Spaniards raised their offer to ₱2,000,000. The Filipinos then reduced their demand +to ₱3,000,000, which the Spaniards objected to; but they were successful in obtaining the liberty of the Baler garrison and +22 invalids, with all of whom they returned to Manila (<i>vide</i> Baler garrison, p. <a href="#d0e18103">494</a>). + +</p> +<p>On July 5 a decree was issued from Tárlac, signed by Emilio Aguinaldo and countersigned by his minister, Pedro A. Paterno, +to the effect that all invalid prisoners would be at liberty to embark at certain ports designated, if vessels were sent for +them flying only the Spanish flag and a white one bearing the Red Cross. Difficulties, however, arose with the American authorities +which impeded the execution of this plan. General Jaramillo was preparing to send his commissioners again to Tárlac when he +received a cablegram from Madrid telling him to suspend further overtures to the insurgents because international complications +were threatened. It appears that America objected to the proposal to pay to the insurgents a large sum of money. + +</p> +<p>On August 9 General Jaramillo wished to send the Spanish warship <i>General Alava</i>, or a Spanish merchant vessel with the Red Cross flag, to San Fernando de la Union with provisions for the prisoners, but +General <a id="d0e19140"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e19140">542</a>]</span>E. S. Otis objected to the proposed proceeding on the ground that it would compromise the dignity of America. But General +Jaramillo still persisted in his project, and after a lapse of three days he again addressed a note on the subject to General +E. S. Otis, from whom he received another negative reply. On September 5 General Jaramillo informed General Otis that the +prisoners were concentrated in the ports named in the insurgentsʼ decree, and solicited permission to send a vessel flying +the Red Cross flag to receive them. Three days afterwards General Otis replied that a recognition of Aguinaldoʼs pretension +to designate certain ports for the Spaniardsʼ embarkation would be not only humiliating but ridiculous. Furthermore, he was +expecting reinforcements shortly, with which peace would be assured and all the ports re-opened, and then America would co-operate +for the liberty of the prisoners. General Jaramillo replied to this communication by addressing to General Otis a lengthy +philosophical epistle on the principles involved in the question, but as General Otis did not care to continue the correspondence, +General Jaramillo sought to bring pressure on him by notifying him that the s.s. <i>P. de Satrústegui</i> would be detained 48 hours in order to learn his decision as to whether that vessel could call for the prisoners. As General +Otis did not reply within the prescribed period General Jaramillo went to see him personally and ineffectually opened his +heart to him in very energetic terms, which General Otis complacently tolerated but persisted in his negative resolution, +and the interview ended with the suggestion that General Jaramillo should obtain Aguinaldoʼs consent for a vessel carrying +the American flag to enter the ports and bring away the prisoners. + +</p> +<p>About this time an incident occurred which, but for the graciousness of General Otis, might have operated very adversely to +the interests of those concerned. In September, 1899, a Spanish lady arrived in Manila saying that she was the representative +of a Society of Barcelona Ladies formed to negotiate the liberation of the prisoners. She brought with her a petition addressed +to Aguinaldo, said to bear about 3,000 signatures. But unfortunately the document contained so many offensive allusions to +the Americans that General Jaramillo declined to be associated with it in any way. No obstacle was placed in the way of the +lady if she wished to present her petition privately to Aguinaldo; but, apparently out of spite, she had a large number of +copies printed and published broadcast in Manila. General Jaramillo felt it his duty to apologize to General Otis and repudiate +all connexion with this offensive proceeding, which General Otis very affably excused as an eccentricity not worthy of serious +notice. + +</p> +<p>On September 29 the Spanish commissioners, Toral and Rio, again started for the insurgent capital, Tárlac. The proposal for +vessels to enter the ports under the American flag was rejected by Aguinaldoʼs advisers, Pedro A. Paterno and Felipe Buencamino, +and negotiations <a id="d0e19149"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e19149">543</a>]</span>were resumed on the money indemnity basis. The Aguinaldo party had already had sore experience of the worth of an agreement +made with Spanish officials, and during the discussion they raised the question of the validity of their powers and the guarantee +for their proposed undertakings. The real difficulty was that America might object to Spain officially making any compact +whatsoever which must necessarily involve a recognition of the Philippine Republic; and even as it was, the renewed suggestion +of a payment of millions of dollars was a secret negotiation. The Spanish commissioners started by proposing that Aguinaldo +should give up 80 per cent. of the prisoners on certain conditions <i>to be agreed upon thereafter</i>, and retain the 20 per cent. as guarantee for the fulfilment of these hypothetical terms; moreover, even the 20 per cent. +were to be concentrated at a place to be <i>mutually agreed upon,</i> etc. The artfulness of the commissionersʼ scheme was too apparent for Paterno and Buencamino to accept it. The commissioners +then presented the Insurgent Government with a voluminous philosophical dissertation on the subject, whilst the Filipinos +sought brief facts and tangible conditions. The Filipinos then offered to address a note to the Spanish Consul in Manila to +the effect that the prisoners who were infirm would be delivered at certain ports as already stated, and that he could send +ships for them on certain terms. Still the commissioners lingered in Tárlac, and on October 23 the Filipinos made the following +proposals, which were practically an intimation to close the debate. + +</p> +<p>1. Recognition of the Philippine Republic as soon as the difficulties with America should be overcome. + +</p> +<p>2. The payment of seven millions of pesos. + +</p> +<p>These conditions having been rejected by the commissioners, Aguinaldoʼs advisers drew up a document stating the reasons why +the negotiations had fallen through, with special reference to the insufficiency of the commissionersʼ powers and the inadmissibility +of their attitude in desiring to treat with Aguinaldo individually instead of with his Government, for which reasons the Philippine +Republic formally declared its resolution definitely to cease all negotiations with the Spanish commissioners, preferring +to deal directly with the Spanish Government. Not satisfied with this formal intimation the commissioners asked that the conditions +of the liberation already granted since January to the invalid prisoners should be modified, and that they should be handed +over to them—the very persons already declared to be insufficiently authorized. In response to this importunity the requisite +passports were immediately sent to the commissioners to enable them to quit the Philippine Republicʼs seat of government and +territory forthwith. + +</p> +<p>Apart from the moral aspect of the case, and regarded only in the light of a business transaction, it does not appear that +the Filipinos <a id="d0e19165"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e19165">544</a>]</span>were ever offered a solid guarantee for the fulfilment of any of the proposed conditions. But the insuperable difficulty was +Spainʼs inability to comply with the Filipinosʼ essential condition of recognition of the Philippine Republic. + +</p> +<p>Finally, in the prosecution of the War of Independence, the American troops drove the insurgents so hard, capturing town after +town, that they were constrained to abandon the custody of the Spanish survivors, who flocked in groups to the American posts, +and eventually embarked for their native land. On May 20, 1900, the Spanish Commission received a letter from the insurgent +General Trias stating that orders had been issued to liberate all the prisoners. + +</p> +<p>In due course the Spanish warships sunk at the Battle of Cavite were raised by the Americans, and the dead bodies of Spainʼs +defenders on that memorable day were handed over to a Spanish Commission. The same organization also took charge of the bodies +recovered from Baler (east coast of Luzon), and after a <i>Requiem</i> mass was said at the Cathedral these mortal remains were conducted with appropriate solemnity on board the s.s. <i>Isla de Panay</i>, which left Manila for Barcelona on February 14, 1904. + +<a id="d0e19177"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e19177">545</a>]</span></p> +<div class="footnotes"> +<hr class="fnsep"> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e18980" href="#d0e18980src" class="noteref">1</a></span> The approximate number of prisoners was as follows, viz:— + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="60%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Military Officers (including Gen. Leopoldo Garcia Peña) </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 200</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Military Regular troops </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 8,000</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Civil Servants and private Civilians and families </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 560</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Ecclesiastics and Nuns (including Bishop Hévia Campomanes, of the diocese of Nueva Segovia </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 400</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top"> Total in long captivity, about </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 9,160</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Taken prisoners and released voluntarily, or through personal influences, or escaped from the camps--about </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 1,840</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top"> Approximate Grand Total </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">11,000</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e19051" href="#d0e19051src" class="noteref">2</a></span> Baron Honoré Fréderic Adhemar Bourgeois du Marais, a Frenchman of noble birth and noble sentiments, was the son of Viscount +Bourgeois du Marais. Born at Bourg Port, in the Algerian province of Constantina, in 1882 he left Europe with a party of gentlemen +colonists in the s.s. <i>Nouvelle Bretagne</i>, intending to settle in Port Breton, in Australasia. The vessel having put into Manila, she was detained for debt, but escaped +from port in the teeth of a hurricane. A Spanish gunboat went in pursuit and brought her back, and Baron Du Marais decided +to remain in the Philippines. For several years he was associated with his countryman M. Daillard in the development of the +Jalajala Estate (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e14937">360</a>). On M. Daillardʼs decease he became the representative of the “<span lang="es">Compañia Tabacalera</span>” at their vast estate of Santa Lucia (Tárlac), which prospered under his able management. His wonderful tact in the handling +of natives secured their attachment to him. After fifteen yearsʼ absence from home he went to Europe to recruit his health, +returning to the Islands in November, 1898. After the ill-fated mission of humanity referred to above, his body lay hidden +in the jungle for nearly two years, until November, 1900, when it was discovered and brought to Manila for interment at the +Paco cemetery. The funeral, which took place on November 25, was one of the most imposing ceremonies of the kind ever witnessed +in Manila. Monsignor Chapelle officiated at the <i>Requiem</i> mass celebrated at the Cathedral in the presence of the chief American authorities, the French and Spanish Consuls-General +and representatives of the foreign residents, Chambers of Commerce, the Army and Navy, the Clubs, the Press, and every important +collectivity. The cortége was, moreover, escorted by a large body of troops to the last resting-place of this gallant hero. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e19090" href="#d0e19090src" class="noteref">3</a></span> By Royal Decree of June, 1897, a <i>Philippine Loan</i> was authorized, secured on Custom-house revenue and general guarantee of Spain. The Loan was for 200 millions of pesetas +in hypothecary bonds of the Philippine Treasury, bearing 6 per cent, interest, redeemable at par in 40 years. + + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="60%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Series A. </td> +<td valign="top">250,000 Bonds of 500 pts. </td> +<td valign="top">= 125 millions + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Series B. </td> +<td valign="top">750,000 Bonds of 100 pts. </td> +<td valign="top">= 75 millions</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p class="footnote">First issue of 100 millions A at 92 per cent. was made on July 15, 1897.</p> +</div> +</div> +<div id="d0e19178" class="div1"> +<h2 class="normal">End of the War of Independence and After</h2> +<p>In the month of May, 1901, the prisons were overflowing with captured insurgents, and the military authorities found an ostensible +reason for liberating a number of them. A General Order was issued that to “signalize the recent surrender of General Manuel +Tinio<a id="d0e19183src" href="#d0e19183" class="noteref">1</a> and other prominent leaders,” one thousand prisoners of war would be released on taking the oath of allegiance. The flame +of organized insurrection was almost extinguished, but there still remained some dangerous embers. Bands of armed natives +wandered through the provinces under the name of insurgents, and on July 31, 1901, one of Aguinaldoʼs subordinate generals, +named Miguel Malvar, a native of Santo Tomás (Batangas) issued a manifesto from the “Slopes of the Maquiling” (Laguna Province), +announcing that he had assumed the position of Supreme Chief. Before the war he had little to lose, but fishing in troubled +waters and gulling the people with <i lang="tl">anting-anting</i> and the “signs in the clouds” proved to be a profitable occupation to many. An expedition was sent against him, and he was +utterly routed in an engagement which took place near his native town. After Miguel Malvar surrendered (April 16, 1902) and +Vicente Lucban was captured in Sámar (April 27, 1902), the war (officially termed “insurrection”) actually terminated, and +was formally declared ended on the publication of President Rooseveltʼs Peace Proclamation and Amnesty grant, dated July 4, +1902. A sedition law was passed under which every disturber of the public peace would be thenceforth arraigned, and all acts +of violence, pillage, etc., would come under the common laws affecting those crimes. In short, insurgency ceased to be a valid +plea; if it existed in fact, officially it had become a dead letter. Those who still lingered in the penumbra between belligerence +and brigandage were thenceforth treated as common outlaws whose acts bore <a id="d0e19189"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e19189">546</a>]</span>no political significance whatever. The notorious “General” San Miguel, for a long time the terror of Rizal Province, was +given no quarter, but shot on the field at Corral-na-bató in March, 1903. One of the famous bandits, claiming to be an insurgent, +was Faustino Guillermo, who made laws, levied tribute, issued army commissions, divided the country up into military departments, +and defied the Government until his stratagem to induce the constabulary to desert brought about his own capture in the Bosoboso +Mountain (Mórong) in June, 1903. A mass of papers seized revealed his pretension to be a patriotic saviour of his people, +but it is difficult indeed to follow the reasoning of a man who starts on that line by sacking his own countrymenʼs villages. +Another interesting individual was Artemio Ricarte, formerly a primary schoolmaster. In 1899 he led a column under Aguinaldo, +and was subsequently his general specially commissioned to raise revolt inside the capital; but the attempt failed, and many +arrests followed. During the war he was captured by the Americans, to whom he refused to take the oath of allegiance and was +deported to Guam. In Washington it was decided to release the political prisoners on that island, and Ricarte and Mabini were +brought back to Manila. As Ricarte still refused to take the oath, he was banished, and went to Hong-Kong in February, 1903. +In the following December he returned to Manila disguised as a seaman, and stole ashore in the crowd of stevedore labourers. +Assuming the ludicrous title of the “Viper,” he established what he called the “triumvirate” government in the provinces, +and declared war on the Americans. His operations in this direction were mostly limited to sending crackbrained letters to +the Civil Governor in Manila from his “camp in the sky,” but his perturbation of the rural districts had to be suppressed. +At length, after a long search, he was taken prisoner at the cockpit in Marivéles in May, 1904. He and his confederates were +brought to trial on the two counts of carrying arms without licence and sedition, the revelations of the “triumvirate,” which +were comical in the extreme, affording much amusement to the reading public. The judgement of the court on Ricarte was six +yearsʼ imprisonment and a fine of $6,000. + +</p> +<p>Apolinario Mabini, Ricarteʼs companion in exile, was one of the most conspicuous figures in the War of Independence. Of poor +parentage, he was born at Tanaúan (Batangas) in May, 1864, and having finished his studies in Manila he took up the law as +a profession, living in obscurity until the Rebellion, during which he became the recognized leader of the Irreconcilables +and Prime Minister in the Malolos Government. In the political sphere he was the soul of the insurgent movement, the ruling +power behind the presidency of Aguinaldo. It was he who drafted the Constitution of the Philippine Republic, dated January +21, 1899 (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e18007">486</a>). Taken prisoner by the Americans in December, 1899, he was imprisoned on his refusal to subscribe to the oath of allegiance. +On <a id="d0e19199"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e19199">547</a>]</span>August 1, 1900, he was granted leave to appear before the Philippine Commission, presided over by Mr. W. H. Taft. He desired +to show that, according to his lights, he was not stubbornly holding out against reason. As Mabini was not permitted to discuss +abstract matters, and Mr. Taft reiterated the intention to establish American sovereignty in the Islands, their views were +at variance, and Mabini was deported to Guam, but allowed the privilege of taking his son there as his companion in exile. +On his return to Manila in February, 1903, he reluctantly took the required oath and was permitted to remain in the capital. +Suffering from paralysis for years previous, his mental energy, as a chronic invalid, was amazing. Three months after his +return to the metropolis he was seized with cholera, to which he succumbed on May 13, 1903, at the early age of thirty-nine, +to the great regret of his countrymen and of his many European admirers. + +</p> +<p>The Irreconcilables, even at the present day, persist in qualifying as legitimate warfare that condition of provincial perturbation +which the Americans and the Federal Party hold to be outlawry and brigandage. Hence the most desperate leaders and their bands +of cut-throats are, in the Irreconcilablesʼ phraseology, merely insurgents still protesting against American dominion. As +late as February, 1902, an attempt was made to revive the war in Leyte Island. At that date a certain Florentino Peñaranda, +styling himself the Insurrectionary Political-Military Chief, issued a proclamation in his island addressed “in particular +to those who are serving under the Americans.” This document, the preamble of which is indited in lofty language, carrying +the reader mentally all round North and South America, Abyssinia and Europe, terminates with a concession of pardon to all +who repent their delinquency in serving the Americans, and an invitation to Filipinos and foreigners to join his standard. +It had little immediate effect, but it may have given an impulse to the brigandage which was subsequently carried on so ferociously +under a notorious, wary ruffian named Tumayo. Thousands, too long accustomed to a lawless, emotional existence to settle down +to prosaic civil life, went to swell the ranks of brigands, but it would exceed the limits of this work to refer to the over +15,000 expeditions made to suppress them. Brigandage (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e8833">235</a>) has been rife in the Islands for a century and a half, and will probably continue to exist until a network of railways in +each large island makes it almost impossible. But brigandage in Spanish times was very mild compared with what it is now. +Such a thing as a common highwayman was almost unknown. The brigands of that period—the <i>Tulisánes</i> of the north and the <i>Pulajánes</i> of the south—went in parties who took days to concoct a plan for attacking a country residence, or a homestead, for robbery +and murder. The assault was almost invariably made at night, and the marauders lived in the mountains, avoiding the highroads +and the well-known tracks. The traveller might then go about the Islands <a id="d0e19215"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e19215">548</a>]</span>for years without ever seeing a brigand; now that they have increased so enormously since the war, there is not business enough +for them in the old way, and they infest the highways and villages. One effect of the revolution has been to diminish greatly +the awe with which the native regarded the European before they had crossed swords in regular warfare. Again, since 1898, +the fact that here and there a white man made common cause with outlaws has had a detrimental effect on the white manʼs prestige, +and the new caste of bandits which has come into existence is far more audacious than its predecessor. Formerly the outlaws +had only bowie-knives and a few fowling-pieces; now they have an ample supply of rifles. Hence, since the American advent, +the single traveller and his servant journey at great risk in the so-called civilized provinces, especially if the traveller +has Anglo-Saxon features. Parties of three or four, well armed, are fairly safe. Fierce fights with outlaws are of common +occurrence; a full record of brigand depredations would fill a volume, and one can only here refer to a few remarkable cases. + +</p> +<p>Early in 1904 a Spanish planter of many yearsʼ standing, named Amechazurra, and his brother-in-law, Joaquin Guaso, were kidnapped +and held for ransom. When the sum was carried to the brigandsʼ haunt, Guaso was found with his wrists broken and severely +tortured with bowie-knife cuts and lance-thrusts. Having no power to use his hands, his black beard was full of white maggots. +In this state he was delivered to his rescuers and died the next day. Since the close of the war up to the present day the +provinces of Batangas and Cavite, less than a dayʼs journey from the capital, have not ceased to be in a deplorable condition +of lawlessness. The principal leaders, Montalón and Felizardo,<a id="d0e19219src" href="#d0e19219" class="noteref">2</a> were formerly officers under the command of the insurgent General Manuel Trias, who surrendered to the Americans and afterwards +accepted office as Civil Governor of the Province of Cavite. In this capacity he made many unsuccessful attempts to capture +his former colleagues, but owing to his failure to restore tranquillity to the province he resigned his governorship in 1903. +The Montalón and Felizardo bands, well armed, constantly overran the two adjoining <a id="d0e19244"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e19244">549</a>]</span>provinces to murder the people, pillage their homes, and set fire to the villages. They bore an inveterate hatred towards +all who accepted American dominion, and specially detested their former chief Trias, who, since his return from the St. Louis +Exhibition, has shown a very pro-American tendency. The history of their crimes covers a period of five years. Felizardo was +remarkable for his audacity, his fine horsemanship, and his expert marksmanship. During an attack on Parañaque, mounted on +a beautiful pony stolen from the race-track of Pasay, he rode swiftly past a constabulary sentinel, who shot at him and missed +him, whilst Felizardo, from his seat in the saddle, shot the sentinel dead. The evening before the day Governor Taft intended +to sail for the United States, on his retirement from the governorship, Montalón hanged two constabulary men at a place within +sight of Manila. In December, 1904, all this district was so infested with cut-throats that Manuel Trias, although no longer +an official, offered to organize and lead a party of 300 volunteers against them. On January 24, 1905, the same bandits, Felizardo +and Montalón, at the head of about 300 of their class, including two American negroes, raided Triasʼs native town of San Francisco +de Malabón, murdered an American surgeon and one constabulary private, and seriously wounded three more. They looted the municipal +treasury of 2,000 pesos and 25 carbines, and carried off Triasʼs wife and two children, presumably to hold them for ransom. +The chief object of the attack was to murder Trias, their arch-enemy, but he was away from home at the time. On his return +he set out in pursuit of the band at the head of the native constabulary. The outlaws had about 160 small firearms, and during +the chase several fierce fights took place. Being hunted from place to place incessantly, they eventually released Triasʼs +wife and children so as to facilitate their own escape. Constabulary was insufficient to cope with the marauders, and regular +troops had to be sent to these provinces. In February, 1905, a posse of 25 Moro fighting-men was brought up from Siassi (Tápul +group) to hunt down the brigands. Launches patrolled the Bay of Manila with constabulary on board to intercept the passage +of brigands from one province to another, for lawlessness was, more or less, constantly rife in several of the Luzon provinces +and half a dozen other islands for years after the end of the war. From 1902 onwards, half the provinces of Albay, Bulacan, +Bataán, Cavite, Ilocos Sur, and the islands of Camaguín, Sámar, Leyte, Negros, Cebú, etc., have been infested, at different +times, with brigands, or latter-day insurgents, as the different parties choose to call them. The regular troops, the constabulary, +and other armed forces combined were unable to exterminate brigandage. The system of “concentration” circuits, which had given +such adverse results during the Rebellion (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e15587">392</a>), was revived in the provinces of Batangas and Cavite, obliging the waverers between submission and recalcitration to accept +a defined legal or illegal status. Consequently <a id="d0e19252"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e19252">550</a>]</span>many of the common people went to swell the roving bands of outlaws, whilst those who had a greater love for home, or property +at stake, remained within the prescribed limits, in discontented, sullen compliance with the inevitable. The system interrupted +the peopleʼs usual occupations, retarded agriculture, and produced general dissatisfaction. The Insular Government then had +recourse to an extreme measure which practically implied the imposition of compulsory military service on every male American, +foreign, or native inhabitant between the ages of eighteen to fifty years, with the exception of certain professions specified +in the Philippine Commission Act No. 1309, dated March 22, 1905. Under this law the native mayor of a town can compel any +able-bodied American (not exempted under the Act) to give five days a month service in hunting down brigands, under a maximum +penalty of ₱100 fine and three monthsʼ imprisonment. And, subject to the same penalty for refusal, any proprietor or tenant +(white, coloured, or native) residing in any municipality, or ward, must report, within 24 hours, to the municipal authority, +the name, residence, and description of <i>any</i> person (not being a resident) to whom he gave assistance or lodging. In no colony where the value of the white manʼs prestige +is appreciated would such a law have been promulgated. + +</p> +<p>The proceedings of the constabulary in the disturbed provinces having been publicly impugned in a long series of articles +and reports published in the Manila newspaper <i lang="es">El Renacimiento,</i> the editors of that public organ were brought to trial on a charge of libel in July, 1905. The substance of the published +allegations was that peaceable citizens were molested in their homes and were coerced into performing constabulary and military +duties by becoming unwilling brigand-hunters. Among other witnesses who appeared at the trial was Emilio Aguinaldo, who testified +that he had been forced to leave his home and present himself to a constabulary officer, who, he affirmed, bullied and insulted +him because he refused to leave his daily occupations and risk his life in brigand-hunting. In view of the peculiar position +of Aguinaldo as a fallen foe, perhaps it would have been better not to have disturbed him in his peaceful life as a law-abiding +citizen, lest the world should misconstrue the intention. + +</p> +<p>Confined to Pangasinán and La Union provinces, there is an organization known as the “Guards of Honour.” Its recruits are +very numerous, their chief vocation being cattle-stealing and filching other peopleʼs goods without unnecessary violence. +It is feared they may extend their operations to other branches of perversity. The society is said to be a continuation of +the <i lang="es">Guardia de Honor</i> created by the Spaniards and stimulated by the friars in Pangasinán as a check on the rebels during the events of 1896–98. +At the American advent they continued to operate independently against the insurgents, whom they harassed very considerably +during the flight northwards <a id="d0e19267"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e19267">551</a>]</span>from Tárlac. It was to escape the vengeance of this party that Aguinaldoʼs Secretary of State (according to his verbal statement +to me) allowed himself to fall prisoner to the Americans. + +</p> +<p>The <i>Pulajanes</i> of Sámar seem to be as much in possession of that Island as the Americans themselves, and its history, from the revolution +up to date, is a lugubrious repetition of bloodshed, pillage, and incendiarism. The deeds of the notorious Vicente Lucban +were condoned under the Amnesty of 1902, but the marauding organization is maintained and revived by brigands of the first +water. Every move of the government troops is known to the <i>pulajanes</i>. The spy, stationed at a pass, after shouting the news of the enemyʼs approach to the next spy, darts into the jungle, and +so on all along the line, in most orderly fashion, until the main column is advised. In July, 1904, they slaughtered half +the inhabitants of the little coast village of Taviran, mutilated their corpses, and then set out for the town of Santa Elena, +which was burnt to the ground. In December of that year over a thousand <i>pulajanes</i> besieged the town of Taft (formerly Tubig), held by a detachment of native scouts, whilst another party, hidden in the mountains, +fell like an avalanche upon a squad of 43 scouts, led by an American lieutenant, on their way to the town of Dolores, and +in ten minutes killed the officer and 37 of his men. After this mournful victory the brigands went to reinforce their comrades +at Taft, swelling their forces <i>en route</i>, so that the besiegers of Taft amounted to a total of about 2,000 men. About the same time some 400 <i>pulajanes</i> were met by a few hundred so-called native volunteers, who, instead of fighting, joined forces and attacked a scout detachment +whilst crossing a river. Twenty of the scouts were cut to pieces and mutilated, whilst thirteen more died of their wounds. + +</p> +<p>Communication in the Island is extremely difficult; the maintenance of telegraph-lines is impossible through a hostile country, +and messages sent by natives are often intercepted, or, as sometimes happens, the messengers, to save their lives, naturally +make common cause with the bandits whom they meet on the way. The hemp-growers and coast-trading population, who have no sympathy +with the brigands, are indeed obliged, for their own security, to give them passive support. Hundreds in the coast villages +who are too poor to give, have to flee into hiding and live like animals in dread of constabulary and <i>pulajanes</i> alike. Between “insurgency” and “brigandage,” in this Island, there was never a very wide difference, and when General Allen, +the Chief of the Constabulary, took the field in person in December, 1904, he had reason to believe that the notorious ex-insurgent +Colonel Guevara was the moving spirit in the lawlessness. Guevara, who had been disappointed at not securing the civil governorship +of the Island, was suddenly seized and confined at Catbalogan jail to await his trial. <a id="d0e19291"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e19291">552</a>]</span>The Sámar <i>pulajanes</i> are organized like regular troops, with their generals and officers, but they are deluded by a sort of mystic religious teaching +under the guidance of a native pope. In January, 1905, the town of Balangiga (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e18966">536</a>), so sadly famous in the history of Sámar on account of the massacre of American troops during the war, became a <i>pulaján</i> recruiting station. A raid upon the place resulted in the capture of twenty chiefs, gorgeously uniformed, with gaudy <i>anting-anting </i>amulets on their breasts to protect them from American bullets. At this time the regimental Camp Connell, at Calbáyoc, was +so depleted of troops that less than a hundred men were left to defend it. Situated on a pretty site, the camp consists of +two lines of wooden buildings running along the shore for about a mile. At one extremity is the hospital and at the other +the quartermasterʼs dépôt. It has no defences whatever, and as I rode along the central avenue of beautiful palms, after meeting +the ladies at a ball, I pictured to myself the chapter of horror which a determined attack might one day add to the doleful +annals of dark Sámar. + +</p> +<p>Matters became so serious that in March, 1905, the divisional commander, General Corbin, joined General Allen in the operations +in this Island. Full of tragedy is the record of this region, and amongst its numerous heroes was a Captain Hendryx. In 1902, +whilst out with a detachment of constabulary, he was attacked, defeated, and reported killed. He was seen to drop and roll +into a gully. But four days later there wandered back to the camp a man half dead with hunger and covered with festering wounds, +some so infected that, but for the application of tobacco, gangrene would have set in. It was Captain Hendryx. Delirious for +a while, he finally recovered and resumed his duties. A couple of years afterwards he was shipwrecked going round the coast +on the <i>Masbate</i>. For days he and the ship-master alone battled with the stormy waves, a howling wind ahead, and a murderous rabble on the +coast waiting for their blood. On the verge of death they reached a desolate spot whence the poor captain saved his body from +destruction, but with prostrate nerves, rendering him quite unfit for further service. And the carnage in the Sámar jungles, +which has caused many a sorrow in the homeland, continues to the present day with unabated ferocity. By nature a lovely island, +picturesque in the extreme, there is a gloom in its loveliness. The friendly native has fled for his life; the patches of +lowland once planted with sweet potatoes or rows of hemp-trees, are merging into jungle for want of the tillerʼs hand. The +voice of an unseen man gives one a shudder, lest it be that of a fanatic lurking in the <i>cogon</i> grass to seek his fellowʼs blood. Near the coast, half-burnt bamboos show where villages once stood; bleached human bones +mark the sites of human conflict, whilst decay and mournful silence impress one with the desolation of this fertile land. +The narrow navigable channel <a id="d0e19316"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e19316">553</a>]</span>separating Sámar from Leyte Island is one of the most delightful bits of tropical scenery. + +</p> +<p>The Constabulary Service Reports for 1903 and 1904 show that in the former period there were 357 engagements between brigand +bands and the constabulary (exclusive of the army operations), and in the latter period 235 similar engagements. More than +5,000 expeditions were undertaken against the outlaws in each year; 1,185 outlaws were killed in 1903, and 431 in 1904, 2,722 +were wounded or captured in 1903, and 1,503 in 1904; 3,446 arms of all sorts were seized in 1903, and 994 in 1904. The constabulary +losses in killed, wounded, died of wounds and disease, and deserted were 223 in 1904. In Cavite Province alone, with a population +of 134,779, there were, in 1903, over 400 expeditions, resulting in 20 brigands killed, 23 wounded, and 253 captured. At this +date brigandage is one of the greatest deterrents to the prosperous development of the Islands. + +</p> +<p>The Adjutant-Generalʼs Report issued in Washington in December, 1901, gives some interesting figures relating to the Army, +for the War of Independence period, i.e., from February 4, 1899, to June 30, 1901. The total number of troops sent to the +Islands was as follows, viz.:— + + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="60%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b> </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>Officers. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>Men. + +</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Regular Army </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1,342 </td> +<td valign="top"> 60,933 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Volunteers </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">2,135 </td> +<td valign="top"> 47,867 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3,477 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">108,800</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>Some were returning from, whilst others were going to the Islands; the largest number in the Islands at any one time (year +1900) was about 70,000 men. + +</p> +<p>The total casualties in the above period were as follows, viz.:— + + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="60%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b> </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>Officers. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>Men. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>Total. + +</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Dead (all causes) </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">115 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3,384 </td> +<td valign="top">3,499 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Wounded </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">170 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">2,609 </td> +<td valign="top">2,779 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">285 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">5,993 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">6,278</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>In the same period the following arms were taken from the insurgents (captured and surrendered):— + + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="60%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Revolvers </td> +<td valign="top"> 868 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Rifles </td> +<td valign="top">15,693 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Cannon </td> +<td valign="top"> 122 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Bowie-knives </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 3,516</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>The <i>Insurgent Navy,</i> consisting of four small steamers purchased in Singapore and a few steam-launches, dwindled away to nothing. The “Admiral,” +who lived on shore at Gagalan͠gin (near Manila), escaped to Hong-Kong, but returned to Manila, surrendered, and took the oath +of allegiance on March 3, 1905. +</p> +<hr class="tb"><p> + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Sedition</span>, in its more virulent and active forms, having been frustrated by the authorities since the conclusion of the war, the Irreconcilables +<a id="d0e19429"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e19429">554</a>]</span>conceived the idea of inflaming the passions of the people through the medium of the native drama. How the seditious dramatists +could have ever hoped to succeed in the capital itself, in public theatres, before the eyes of the Americans, is one of those +mysteries which the closest student of native philosophy must fail to solve. + +</p> +<p>The most notable of these plays were <i lang="tl">Hindi aco patay</i> (“I am not dead”), <i lang="tl">Ualang sugat</i> (“There is no wound”), <i lang="tl">Dabas n͠g pilac</i> (“Power of Silver”), and <i lang="tl">Cahapon, Ngayon at Bucas</i> (“Yesterday, to-day, and to-morrow”). In each case there was an extra last scene not on the programme. Secret police and +American spectators besieged the stage, and after a free fight, a cracking of heads, and a riotous scuffle the curtain dropped +(if there were anything left of it) on a general panic of the innocent and the arrest of the guilty. The latter were brought +to trial, and their careers cut short by process of law. + +</p> +<p>The simple plot of <i lang="tl">Hindi aco patay</i> is as follows, viz.:—<i>Maímbot</i> (personifying America) is establishing dominion over the Islands, assisted by his son <i>Macamcám</i> (American Government), and <i>Katuíran</i> (Reason, Right, and Justice) is called upon to condemn the conduct of a renegade Filipino who has accepted Americaʼs dominion, +and thereby become an outcast among his own people and even his own family. There is to be a wedding, but, before it takes +place, a funeral cortége passes the house of <i>Karangalan</i> (the bride) with the body of <i>Tangulan</i> (the fighting patriot). <i>Maímbot</i> (America) exclaims, “Go, bury that man, that Karangalan and her mother may see him no more.” <i>Tangulan</i>, however, rising from his coffin, tells them, “They must not be married, for I am not dead.” And as he cries <i>Hindi aco patay,</i> “I am not dead,” a radiant sun appears, rising above the mountain peaks, simultaneously with the red flag of Philippine liberty. +Then <i>Katuíran</i> (Reason, Right, and Justice) declares that “Independence has returned,” and goes on to explain that the new insurrection +having discouraged America in her attempt to enslave the people, she will await a better opportunity. The flag of Philippine +Independence is then waved to salute the sun which has shone upon the Filipinos to regenerate them and cast away their bondage. + +</p> +<p>The theme of <i lang="tl">Cahapon, n͠gayon at Bucas</i> is somewhat similar—a protest against American rule, a threat to rise and expel it, a call to arms, and a final triumph of +the Revolution. About the same time (May, 1903) a seditious play entitled <i lang="es">Cadena de Oro</i> (“The golden chain”) was produced in Batangas, and its author was prosecuted. It must, however, be pointed out that there +are also many excellent plays written in Tagalog, with liberty to produce them, one of the best native dramatists being Don +Pedro A. Paterno. + +</p> +<p>There will probably be for a long time to come a certain amount of disaffection and a class of wire-pullers, men of property, +chiefly half-castes, constantly in the background, urging the masses forward to their <a id="d0e19487"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e19487">555</a>]</span>own destruction. Lucrative employments have satisfied the ambition of so many educated Filipinos who must find a living, that +the same principle—a creation of material interest—might perhaps be advantageously extended to the uneducated classes. All +the malcontents cannot become State dependents, but they might easily be helped to acquire an interest in the soil. The native +who has his patch of settled land with <i>unassailable title</i> would be loth to risk his all for the chimerical advantages of insurrection. The native boor who has worked land for years +on sufferance, without title, exposed to eviction by a more cunning individual clever enough to follow the tortuous path which +leads to land settlement with absolute title, falls an easy prey to the instigator of rebellion. These illiterate people need +more than a liberal land law—they need to be taken in hand like children and placed upon the parcelled-out State lands with +indisputable titles thereto. And if American enterprise were fostered and encouraged in the neighbourhood of their holdings, +good example might root them to the soil and convert the <i>boloman</i> into the industrious husbandman. + +</p> +<p>The poorest native who cannot sow for himself must necessarily feed on what his neighbour reaps, and hunger compels him to +become a wandering criminal. It is not difficult partially to account for the greater number in this condition to-day as compared +with Spanish times. In those days there was what the natives termed <i>cayinin</i>. It was a temporary clearance of a patch of State land on which the native would raise a crop one, two, or more seasons. +Having no legal right to the soil he tilled, and consequently no attachment to it, he would move on to other virgin land and +repeat the operation. In making the clearance the squatter had no respect for State property, and the damage which he did +in indiscriminate destruction of valuable timber by fire was not inconsiderable. The law did not countenance the <i>cayinin</i>, but serious measures were seldom taken to prevent it. The local or municipal headmen refrained from interference because, +having no interest whatever in public lands, they did not care, as landowners, to go out of their way to create a bad feeling +against themselves which might one day have fatal consequences. Although no one would for a moment suggest a revival of the +system, there is the undeniable fact that in Spanish times thousands of natives lived for years in this way, and if they had +been summarily evicted, or prosecuted by a forest bureau, necessity would have driven them into brigandage. High wages, government +service, and public works are no remedy; on the contrary, if the people are thereby attracted to the towns, what will become +of the true source of Philippine wealth, which is agriculture? Even in industrial England the cry of “Back to the soil” has +been lately raised by an eminent Englishman known by name to every educated American. + +<a id="d0e19503"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e19503">556</a>]</span></p> +<div class="footnotes"> +<hr class="fnsep"> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e19183" href="#d0e19183src" class="noteref">1</a></span> Born at Aliaga (Nueva Ecija) June 17, 1877, he raised a troop of rebels in his native town and joined General Llaneras. Appointed +colonel in June, 1897, he was one of the chiefs who retired to Hong-Kong after the alleged Treaty of Biac-na-bató. He returned +to the Islands with Aguinaldo, and became a general officer at the age of twenty-three years. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e19219" href="#d0e19219src" class="noteref">2</a></span> At one time Cornelio Felizardo had an American in his gang. This degenerate, Luis A. Unselt, was fortunately captured and +sentenced, on April 6, 1904, to twenty-five yearsʼ imprisonment as a deserter from the constabulary and bandit. + +</p> +<p class="footnote">Previous to this event, the piracy of Johnston and Hermann in the southern islands caused much sensation at the time. + +</p> +<p class="footnote">In September, 1905, it was rumoured that, in order to escape capture, Cornelio Felizardo had committed suicide. + +</p> +<p class="footnote">One can judge of the ferocity of these men by Clause 3 of what Julian Montalón calls his Law No. 9. Dated April 10, 1904, +it says:— + + +</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p class="footnote">“The Filipino who serves the American Government as scout, constabulary or secret-service man, who does not sympathize with +his native country, shall, if caught, immediately suffer the penalty of having the tendons of his feet cut, and the fingers +of both hands crushed.” +</p> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p class="footnote">There were many cases of cutting off the lips; two victims of this atrocity were brought to Manila in 1905, during <i lang="es">El Renacimiento</i> trial (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e19252">550</a>). +</p> +</div> +</div> +<div id="d0e19504" class="div1"> +<h2 class="normal">Modern Manila</h2> +<p>Commanding the entrance to Manila Bay there is the Island of Corregidor, situated 27 miles south-west of the city, towards +which the traveller glances in vain, expecting to descry something of a modern fortress, bristling with artillery of the latest +type which, if there, might hold the only channels leading to the capital against a hostile fleet. The anchorage for steamers +is still half a mile to a mile and a half away from the Pasig River, but the new artificial port, commenced by the Spaniards, +is being actively brought to completion by the Americans, so that the day may come when the ocean traveller will be able to +walk from the steamer down a gangway to a quay and land on the south, or Walled City, side of the capital. + +</p> +<p>In the city and beautiful suburbs of Manila many changes and some improvements have been effected since 1898. After cleansing +the city to a certain extent, embellishment was commenced, and lastly, works of general public utility were undertaken. Public +spaces were laid out as lawns with walks around them; the old botanical-gardens enclosure was removed and the site converted +into a delightful promenade; the Luneta Esplanade,—the joy of the Manila élite who seek the sea-breezes on foot or driving—was +reformed, the field of Bagumbayan, which recalls so many sad historical reminiscences since 1872, was drained; breaches were +made in the city walls to facilitate the entry of American vehicles; new thoroughfares were opened; an iron bridge, commenced +by the Spaniards, was completed; a new Town Hall, a splendidly-equipped Government Laboratory, a Government Civil Hospital, +and a Government Printing Office were built; an immense ice-factory was erected on the south side of the river to meet the +American demand for that luxury<a id="d0e19511src" href="#d0e19511" class="noteref">1</a>; also a large refrigerated-meat <a id="d0e19534"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e19534">557</a>]</span>store, chiefly for army supply, was constructed, meat, poultry, vegetables, and other foodstuffs having to be imported on +account of the dearth of beef and tilth cattle due to rinderpest. Fresh meat for private consumption (i.e., exclusive of army +and navy) is imported into Manila to the value of about $700,000 gold per annum. Reforms of more urgent public necessity were +then introduced. Existing market-places were improved, new ones were opened in Tondo and the Walled City; an excellent slaughter-house +was established; the Bridge of Spain was widened; a splendidly-equipped fire-engine and brigade service, with 150 fire-alarm +boxes about the city and suburbs, was organized and is doing admirable work; roads in the distant suburbs were put in good +condition, and the reform which all Manila was looking forward to, namely, the repair of the roads and pavements in the <i>Escolta</i>, the <i>Rosario</i>, and other principal thoroughfares in the heart of the business quarter of Binondo, was postponed for six years. Up to the +middle of 1904 they were in a deplorable condition. The sensation, whilst in a gig, of rattling over the uneven stone blocks +was as if the whole vehicle might at any moment be shattered into a hundred fragments. The improvement has come at last, and +these streets are now almost of a billiard-table smoothness. The General Post Office has been removed from the congested thoroughfare +of the <i>Escolta</i> to a more commodious site. Electric tramcars, in supersession of horse-traction, run through the city and suburbs since April +10, 1905. Electric lighting, initiated in Spanish times, is now in general use, and electric fans—a poor substitute for the +punkah—work horizontally from the ceilings of many shops, offices, hotels, and private houses. In the residential environs +of the city many acres of ground have been covered with new houses; the once respectable quarter of Sampaloc<a id="d0e19545src" href="#d0e19545" class="noteref">2</a> has lost its good name since it became the favourite haunt of Asiatic and white prostitutes who were not tolerated in Spanish +times. On the other hand, the suburbs of Ermita and Malate, which are practically a continuation of Manila along the seashore +from the Luneta Esplanade, are becoming more and more the fashionable residential centre. About Sampaloc there is a little +colony of Japanese shopkeepers, and another group of Japanese fishermen inhabits Tondo. The Japanese have their Consulate +in Manila since the American advent, their suburban Buddhist temple was inaugurated in San Roque on April 22, 1905, and in +the same year there was a small Japanese banking-house in the suburb of Santa Cruz. + +</p> +<p>The Bilíbid Jail has been reformed almost beyond recognition as the old Spanish prison. A great wall runs through the centre, +dividing the long-term from the short-term prisoners. In the centre is the sentry-box, and from this and all along the top +of the wall every movement of the prisoners can be watched by the soldier on guard. <a id="d0e19555"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e19555">558</a>]</span>Nevertheless, a batch of convicts occasionally breaks jail, and those who are not shot down escape. Gangs of them are drafted +off for road-making in the provinces, where, on rare occasions, a few have been able to escape and rejoin the brigands. In +March, 1905, a squad of 42 convicts working in Albay Province made a dash for freedom, and 40 of them got away. + +</p> +<p>With the liberty accorded them under the new dominion the Filipinos have their freemason lodges and numerous <i>casinos</i>.<a id="d0e19562src" href="#d0e19562" class="noteref">3</a> There are American clubs for all classes of society—the “Army and Navy,” the “University,” the “United States,” a dozen other +smaller social meeting-houses, and societies with quaint denominations such as “Knights of Pythias,” “Haymakers,” “Red Cloud +Tribe,” “Knights of the Golden Eagle,” etc. Other nationalities have their clubs too; the <i lang="fr">Cercle Français</i> is now located in <i>Calle Alcalá</i>; the English Club, which was formerly at Nagtájan on the river-bank, has been removed to Ermita on the seashore, and under +the new <i>régime</i> the Chinese have their club-house, opened in 1904, in <i lang="es">Calle Dasmariñas</i>, where a reception was given to the Gov.-General and the élite of Manila society. The entertainment was very sumptuous, the +chief attractions being the fantastic decorations, the gorgeous “joss house” to a dead hero, and the chapel in honour of the +Virgin del Pilar. + +</p> +<p>Several new theatres have been opened, the leading one being the <i>National</i>, now called the “Grand Opera House”; comedy is played at the <i>Paz</i>; the <i>Zorrilla</i> (of former times) is fairly well-built, but its acoustic properties are extremely defective, and the other playhouses are, +more properly speaking, large booths, such as the <i>Libertad</i>, the <i>Taft</i>, the <i>Variedades</i>, and the <i>Rizal</i>. In the last two very amusing Tagálog plays are performed in dialect. There is one large music-hall, and a number of cinematograph +shows combined with variety entertainments. + +</p> +<p>There are numerous second- and third-rate hotels in the city and suburbs. The old “Fonda Lala,” which existed for many years +in the <i>Plaza del Conde</i>, Binondo, as the leading hotel in Spanish days, is now converted into a large bazaar, called the “Siglo XX.,” and its successor, +the “Hotel de Oriente,” was purchased by the Insular Government for use as public offices. The old days of comfortable hackney-carriages +in hundreds about the Manila streets, at 50 cents Mex. an hour, are gone for ever. One may now search hours for one, and, +if found, have to pay four or five times the old tariff. Besides the fact that everything costs more, the scarcity is due +to <i>Surra</i> (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e14080">336</a>), which has enormously reduced the pony stock. There are occasionally sales of American horses, and it is now one of the +novelties to see them driven in carriages, and American ladies riding straddle-legged on tall hacks. In Spanish days no European +gentleman or lady could be seen <a id="d0e19614"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e19614">559</a>]</span>in a <i>carromata</i><a id="d0e19618src" href="#d0e19618" class="noteref">4</a> (gig) about Manila; now this vehicle is in general use for both sexes of all classes. Bicycles were known in the Islands +ten years ago, but soon fell into disuse on account of the bad roads; however, this means of locomotion is fast reviving. + +</p> +<p></p> +<div id="d0e19625" class="figure"><img border="0" src="images/p559.jpg" alt="A Manila Suburban Parish Church—Santa Cruz." width="512" height="333"><p class="figureHead">A Manila Suburban Parish Church—Santa Cruz.</p> +</div><p> + +</p> +<p>The Press is represented by a large number of American, Spanish and dialect newspapers. These last were not permitted in Spanish +times. + +</p> +<p>Innumerable laundries, barbersʼ shops, Indian and Japanese bazaars, shoe-black stalls, tailorsʼ shops, book-shops, restaurants, +small hotels, sweetmeat stalls, newspaper kiosks, American drinking-bars, etc., have much altered the appearance of the city. +The Filipino, who formerly drank nothing but water, now quaffs his iced keg-beer or cocktail with great gusto, but civilization +has not yet made him a drunkard. American drinking-shops, or “saloons,” as they call them, are all over the place, except +in certain streets in Binondo, where they have been prohibited, as a public nuisance, since April 1, 1901. It was ascertained +at the time of the American occupation that there were 2,206 native shops in Manila where drinks were sold, yet no native +was ever seen drunk. This number was compulsorily reduced to 400 for a native population of about 190,000, whilst the number +of “saloons” on February 1, 1900, was 224 for about 5,000 Americans (exclusive of soldiers, who presumably would not be about +the drinking-bars whilst the war was on). But “saloon” licences are a large source of revenue to the municipality, the cost +being from $1,200 gold downwards per annum. A “saloon,” however, cannot now be established in defiance of the general wishes +of the neighbours. There is a law (similar in spirit to the proposed Option Law in England) compelling the intending “saloon” +keeper to advertise in several papers for several days his intention to open such a place, so that the public may have an +opportunity of opposing that intention if they desire to do so. + +</p> +<p>The American advent has abolished the peaceful solitude of the Walled City where, in Spanish days, dwelt the friar in secluded +sanctity—where dignitaries and officials were separated by a river from the bubbling world of money-makers. An avalanche of +drinking-bars, toilet-saloons, restaurants, livery stables, and other catering concerns has invaded the ancient abodes of +men who made Philippine history. The very names of the city streets remind one of so many episodes in the Islandsʼ progress +towards civilization that to-day one is led to pause in pensive silence before the escutcheon above the door of what was once +a noble residence, to read below a wall-placard, “Horses and buggies for hire. The best turn-out in the city. Telephone No. +——.” This levelling spirit is gradually converting the historic Walled City into a busy retail trading-centre. For a long +time the question of demolishing <a id="d0e19635"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e19635">560</a>]</span>the city walls has been debated. Surely those who advocate the destruction of this fine historical monument cannot be of that +class of Americans whose delight is to travel thousands of miles, at great expense, only to glance at antiquities not more +interesting, in the possession of others, and who would fain transport Shakespeareʼs house bodily to American soil. The moat +surrounding the Walled City is already being filled up, but posterity will be grateful for the preservation of those ancient +bulwarks—landmarks of a decadent but once glorious civilization. Most of the Spanish feast-days have been abolished, including +the St. Andrewʼs day (<i>vide</i> Li-ma-hong, p. <a href="#d0e2813">50</a>), and the following have been officially substituted, viz.:— + + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="60%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">New Yearʼs Day </td> +<td valign="top">January 1 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Washingtonʼs birthday </td> +<td valign="top">February 22 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Holy Thursday </td> +<td valign="top">— — + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Good Friday </td> +<td valign="top">— — + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Decoration Day </td> +<td valign="top">May 31 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Independence Day </td> +<td valign="top">July 4 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Occupation Day </td> +<td valign="top">August 13 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Thanksgiving Day </td> +<td valign="top">November 24 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Christmas Day </td> +<td valign="top">December 25 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Rizal Day </td> +<td valign="top">December 30</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>Manila was formerly the capital of the province of that name, as well as the Philippine metropolis. Since the American occupation +the city and suburbs form a kind of federal zone; what was once Manila Province is now known as Rizal Province, and with it +is incorporated that territory formerly designated Mórong District, the capital town of this newly-created province being +Pasig. + +</p> +<p>The Municipal Board of Manila is composed of five persons, namely a Philippine mayor and one Philippine and three American +members, who are practically all nominees of the Insular Government. The emolument of the mayor and of each member is $4,500. +The Board, assisted by a staff of 20 persons, native and American, has the control of the ten following departments, viz.:—Police, +Fire, Law, Police Courts, Justice of the Peace Courts, Public Works, Assessments and Collections, Deeds Register, City Schools, +and Sheriffʼs Office connected with the government of the federal zone of Manila. + +</p> +<p>Manila is the seat of the Insular Government, which comprises (1) the Philippine Commission (Legislative), composed of eight +members, of whom five (including the president) are Americans and three are Filipinos; (2) the Civil Commission (Executive), +the president of which holds the dual office of President of the Philippine Commission and Gov.-General, whilst the four secretaries +of Interior, Finance and Justice, Public Instruction, and Commerce and Police are those same Americans who hold office as +members of the Philippine Commission. The Philippine Commission is empowered to pass statutes, subject to ratification by +Congress, the enacting clause being, <i>By authority of the United States, be it enacted by the Philippine Commission</i>. The Insular Government communicates with the Washington Government through the Department of the Secretary of State for +War. + +</p> +<p>Up to the end of 1904 the chief authority in these Islands was <a id="d0e19706"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e19706">561</a>]</span>styled the “Civil Governor.” Thenceforth, by special Act of Congress, the title was changed to that of “Governor-General.” + +</p> +<p>The Emoluments of the Members of the Insular Government, the Chiefs of Departments, and the principal officers are as follows, +viz.<a id="d0e19710src" href="#d0e19710" class="noteref">5</a>:— + + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i> </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>$ gold</i></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">President of the Philippine and Civil Commissions </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">20,000</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Four American Members of the Philippine Commission, <i>ex-officio</i> Members of the Civil Commission +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">each 15,500</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Three Philippine Members of the Philippine Commission </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">each 5,000</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + +</p> +<p><i>Departments</i> + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Architecture Bureau </td> +<td valign="top">Chief </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">4,000</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Archives, Patents, Copyright and Trade Marks </td> +<td valign="top">Chief </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3,000</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Agriculture Bureau </td> +<td valign="top">Chief </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">4,000</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Audit Office </td> +<td valign="top">Auditor </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">7,000</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Bilibid Prison </td> +<td valign="top">Warden </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3,000</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top"><a id="d0e19782src" href="#d0e19782" class="noteref">6</a>Civil Service Board +</td> +<td valign="top">Chief Examiner </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">4,000</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Court of First Instance, Manila </td> +<td valign="top">each Judge </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">5,500</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Court of First Instance, provincial </td> +<td valign="top">Judge </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">$4,500 to 5,000</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Court of Land Registration </td> +<td valign="top">Judge </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">5,000</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Court of Customs Appeal </td> +<td valign="top">Judge </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">4,500</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Civil Hospital </td> +<td valign="top">Chief Physician </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3,000</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Civil Sanatorium (Benguet) </td> +<td valign="top">Chief Physician </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">2,400</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Constabulary </td> +<td valign="top">Executive Officer </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">5,500</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Coast Guard and Transport Office </td> +<td valign="top">Chief (Navy pay) </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> —</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Cold Storage and Ice-Plant </td> +<td valign="top">Superintendent </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3,600</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Customs and Immigration </td> +<td valign="top">Collector of Customs </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">7,000</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Engineering Department </td> +<td valign="top">Consulting Engineer </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">5,000</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Ethnological Survey </td> +<td valign="top">Chief </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3,500</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Education Department </td> +<td valign="top">Gen. Superintendent </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">6,000</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Forestry Bureau </td> +<td valign="top">Chief </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3,000</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Laboratories (Gov.) </td> +<td valign="top">Superintendent </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">6,000</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top"><a href="#d0e19782" class="noteref">6</a>Manila Port Works +</td> +<td valign="top">Chief (Army pay) </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Mining Bureau </td> +<td valign="top">Chief </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3,000</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Non-Christian Tribes Bureau </td> +<td valign="top">— </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> —</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top"><i>Official Gazette, The</i> +</td> +<td valign="top">Editor </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1,800</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top"><a href="#d0e19782" class="noteref">6</a>Purchasing Agent +</td> +<td valign="top">— </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">4,500</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Public Lands Office </td> +<td valign="top">Chief </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3,200</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Public Health </td> +<td valign="top">Commissioner </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3,500</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Public Printing Office </td> +<td valign="top">Public Printer </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">4,000</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Post Office </td> +<td valign="top">Director </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">6,000</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Public Lands </td> +<td valign="top">Chief </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3,200</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Supreme Court </td> +<td valign="top">Chief Justice<a id="d0e19981src" href="#d0e19981" class="noteref">7</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">7,500</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Supreme Court </td> +<td valign="top">each associate Judge<a href="#d0e19981" class="noteref">7</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">7,000</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Treasury Office </td> +<td valign="top">Treasurer </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">7,000</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Weather Bureau </td> +<td valign="top">Director </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">2,500</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + +<a id="d0e20012"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e20012">562</a>]</span></p> +<p>The total cost of the Civil Service for the year 1903 amounted to 8,014,098.77 pesos (<i>vide</i> “Official Gazette,” Vol. II., No. 8, dated February 4, 1904), equal to $4,007,049.38 gold. + +</p> +<p>At the time of the American occupation (1898) the Government was necessarily military, the first governor being Maj.-General +Elwell S. Otis up to May 5, 1900, when he returned to America and was immediately succeeded by Maj.-General Arthur McArthur. +On January 20, 1899, during General Otisʼs governorship, a Commission of Inquest was appointed under the presidency of Dr. +Jacob Gould Schurman known as the Schurman Commission, which arrived in Manila on May 2 to investigate the state of affairs +in the Islands. The Commission was instructed to “endeavour, without interference with the military authorities of the United +States now in control in the Philippines, to ascertain what amelioration in the condition of the inhabitants and what improvements +in public order may be practicable.” The other members of the Commission were Rear-Admiral George Dewey, Charles Denby, Maj.-General +Elwell S. Otis, and Dean C. Worcester. Admiral Dewey, however, was soon relieved of his obligation to remain on the Commission, +and sailed from Manila on May 19 on the <i>Olympia</i> for New York, <i>via</i> Europe. The commissionersʼ inquiries into everything concerning the Islands, during their few monthsʼ sojourn, are embodied +in a published report, dated December 20, 1900.<a id="d0e20026src" href="#d0e20026" class="noteref">8</a> The War of Independence was being waged during the whole time, and military government, with full administrative powers, +continued, as heretofore, until September 1, 1900. In the meantime the Washington Government resolved that military rule in +the Islands should be superseded by civil government. The pacified provinces, and those in conditions considered fit for civil +administration, were to be so established, and pending the conclusion of the war and the subsidence of brigandage, the remainder +of the Archipelago was to be administered as military districts. With this end in view, on March 16, 1900, Judge William H. +Taft<a id="d0e20029src" href="#d0e20029" class="noteref">9</a> was commissioned to the Islands and sailed from San Francisco (Cal.) with his four colleagues, on April 15, for Manila, where +he arrived on June 3. In the three monthsʼ interval, pending the assumption of legislative power, the Taft Commission was +solely occupied in investigating conditions. To each commissioner certain subjects were assigned; for example, Mr. Taft took +up the Civil Service, Public Lands, and the <a id="d0e20032"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e20032">563</a>]</span>Friar questions. Each commissioner held a kind of Court of Inquiry, before which voluntary evidence was taken. This testimony, +later on, appeared in print, and its perusal shows how difficult indeed it must have been for the Commission to have distinguished +the true from the false, the valuable from the trivial. It was the beginning of the end of military rule in the Islands. “The +days of the Empire,” as the military still designate that period, were numbered, and yet not without regret by several native +communities, as evidenced by the fact that they sent petitions to the authorities in Manila against the change to civil government. +Many law-abiding natives explained to me that the feature in military rule which particularly pleased them was its prompt +action—such a contrast to the only civil government of which they had had any experience. About two years later, in 1903, +Lieut.-Gen. Miles, Commander-in-Chief of the U.S. Army, made a tour in the Islands and drew up a report on the conduct of +military operations, charging military officers with the grossest cruelty to the natives. A Senate Commission of Inquest was +appointed, but it was quite impossible to prove anything conclusively on unimpeachable evidence; the general retired from +his command without the blessing of his comrades, and the matter was abated. + +</p> +<p>The Philippine Commission commenced its functions as the legislative body, with limitary executive powers in addition, on +September 1, 1900, the military governor continuing as the Chief Executive until July 4, 1901. Up to that date the civil executive +authority in the organized provinces was vested in the military governor. From that date Maj.-General Adna R. Chaffee relieved +Maj.-General McArthur in the sole capacity of commander-in-chief of the military division, the full executive civil power +having been transferred to the Civil Commission, and thenceforth the Insular Government became constituted as it is at present. +Governor Taft pursued his investigations until February, 1901, when he started on a provincial tour, heard opinions, and tendered +the hand of peace. Municipalities united at certain centres to meet him; the rich vied with each other to regale him royally; +the crowd flocked in from all parts to greet him; the women smiled in their gala dresses; the men were obsequiousness itself; +delicate viands were placed before him, and, like every other intelligent traveller in these Islands, he was charmed by that +distinguishing trait of the Luzon Islanders—that hospitality which has no parity elsewhere, and for which words cannot be +found adequately to describe it to the reader. As Governor Taft himself said truly, “When a Filipino who has a house says +it is yours, he turns out his family and puts you in.”<a id="d0e20036src" href="#d0e20036" class="noteref">10</a> Governor Taftʼs reception was only that which had been accorded to many a personage before his day, travelling in a style +befitting his rank. He returned to Manila, captivated by the fascinating <a id="d0e20041"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e20041">564</a>]</span>side of Philippine character: the reverse side he could never know by personal experience, and the natives secured in him +a champion of their cause—“Philippines for the Filipinos.” The main object of his official progress was to collect information +for new legislation anent the municipalities. Civil government was rapidly established in all the provinces which were peaceful +and otherwise suitable for it. The War of Independence was drawing to a close (April, 1902), and meanwhile Governor Taft made +tours to Negros, Cebú, and other islands to explain and inaugurate the new <i>régime</i> based on President McKinleyʼs Instructions to the Taft Commission, dated April 7, 1900. Governor Taftʼs administration was +signalized by his complacency towards the natives, his frequent utterances favourable to their aspirations, and his discouragement +of those Americans who sought to make quick fortunes and be gone. But there were other Americans than these, and his favourite +theme, “Philippines for the Filipinos,” aroused unconcealed dissatisfaction among the many immigrants, especially the ex-volunteers, +who not unnaturally considered they had won a right to exploit, within reasonable bounds, the “new possession” gained by conquest. +Adverse critics contended that he unduly protected the Filipino to the prejudice of the white manʼs interest. Frank and unfettered +encouragement of American enterprise would surely have helped the professed policy of the State, which was to lead the Filipinos +to habits of industry; and how could this have been more easily accomplished than by individual example? On the other hand, +the Filipinos, in conformity, regarded him as their patron: many were unconsciously drawn to submission by the suavity of +his rule, whilst his courtesy towards the vanquished served as the keynote to his countrymen to moderate their antipathy for +the native and remove the social barriers to a better understanding. And, in effect, his example did serve to promote a <i>rapprochement</i> between the conquerors and the conquered. + +</p> +<p>Appointed to the Secretaryship of War, ex-Governor Taft left the Philippines in January, 1904, to take up his new office, +and was succeeded in the presidency of the Philippine and Civil Commissions by Mr. Luke E. Wright.<a id="d0e20051src" href="#d0e20051" class="noteref">11</a> On his way back to the United States ex-Governor Taft was entertained by the Emperor of Japan, and on his arrival in his +native city of Cincinnati (Ohio) he made a remarkable speech on the subject of the Philippines, the published reports of which +contain the following significant passage:—“The Filipinos elected the provincial governor and we appointed the treasurer. +We went there <a id="d0e20054"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e20054">565</a>]</span>to teach the Filipinos honesty, and we appointed American treasurers on the theory that the Americans could not steal. Never, +never have I suffered the humiliation that came to me when seventeen of our disbursing officers, treasurers, were found defaulters! +They are now in Bilíbid prison serving out their twenty-five years.” + +</p> +<p>Since then the Manila Press has recorded many cases of breach of public trust by those who were sent to teach the Islanders +how to rule themselves (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e18080">493</a>). The financial loss arising from malfeasance on the part of any civil servant is made good to the Treasury by a Guarantee +Society, which gives a bond in each case, whilst it takes years to recover the consequent loss of prestige to the State. The +obvious remedy for this state of things would be the establishment in America of a Colonial Civil Service into which only +youths would be admitted for training in the several departments. Progressive emolument, with the prospect of a long, permanent +career and a pension at the end of it would be inducements to efficiency and moral stability. + +</p> +<p>The Philippine Civil Service is open to all United States citizens and Filipinos between the ages of 18 and 40 years in accordance +with Philippine Commission Act No. 5, known as the “Civil Service Act,” passed September 19, 1900. The service is divided +into “classified” and “unclassified.” The former division is strictly subject to the provisions of the above Act; the latter +indicates the positions which may be filled by appointment without subjection to the provisions of the said Act. The Act declares +its purpose to be “the establishment and maintenance of an efficient and honest civil service in the Philippine Islands.” +American soldiers who have less than six months to serve can apply for permission to be examined for the civil service. The +Act does not include examination for civil positions in the Military Division of the Islands, but the Civil Service Board +is empowered to hold such examinations to fill vacancies as they may occur in the nine military departments which employ civilians. +General examinations, some in English only, others in Spanish only, or both, are held every Monday, and special examinations +which include those for scientific, professional, and technical positions are taken on specified dates. The commencing salaries +of the positions offered range from $1,200 downwards. Medical attendance is furnished gratis, and the minimum working time +is six and a half hours per day, except from April 1 until June 15—the hottest weather—when the minimum working day is five +hours. American women are employed in the Post Office. + +</p> +<p>The Civil Commission is located in the Walled City in the building which was formerly the Town Hall, a new Town Hall having +been built outside the walls. Occasionally, when public interest is much aroused on the subject of a proposed measure, the +Commission announces that a public conference will be held for the expression of opinion thereon. A few persons state their +views before the Commissioners, who rebut them <a id="d0e20068"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e20068">566</a>]</span><i>séance tenante</i>, and the measure, as proposed, usually becomes law, unless outside agitation and popular clamour induce the Commissioners +to modify it. At times the proceedings have been enlivened by sparkling humour. A worthy and patriotic Filipino once gravely +prefaced his speech thus:—“I rise to speak, inspired by Divine Right”—but he had to wait until the roars of laughter had subsided. +When the “Sedition Act” was being discussed, a less worthy auditor declared assassination of the Chief of a State to be merely +a political offence. He expected to go to prison and pose as a martyr-patriot, but the Commission very rightly damped his +ambition by declaring him to be a fool irresponsible for his acts. + +</p> +<p>Philippine Commission Acts are passed with great rapidity, amended and re-amended, sometimes several times, to the bewilderment +of the public. Out of 862 Acts passed up to the end of 1903, 686 of them were amended (some five times) and on 782 no public +discussion was allowed. The “Internal Revenue Law of 1904” had not been in force nine months when it was amended (March, 1905) +by another law. By Philippine Commission Acts Nos. 127 and 128 the limits of the Surigao and Misámis provinces were defined +and afterwards upset by Act No. 787. The policy of the Americans anent the Philippines was continually shifting during the +first five years of their occupation, and only since ex-Governor Taft became Secretary of War does it seem to have assumed +a somewhat more stable character. + +</p> +<p>The Archipelago is divided into 41 provinces (exclusive of the Moro Province, <i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e20692">577</a>), all under civil rule, in accordance with Congress Act of July 1, 1902, and War Office Order of July 4, 1902, whereby the +remainder of military government ceased. In June, 1904, nearly all the above 41 provinces had native governors with salaries +ranging from $3,000 gold downwards. In most of these provinces the native governor and two American officials of about equal +rank, such as the Treasurer and the Supervisor, form a Provincial Council, but the member who disagrees with the vote of the +other two can appeal to the Gov.-General. After the War of Independence several insurgent chiefs were appointed to provincial +governments; for instance, Cailles in La Laguna, Trias in Cavite, Clímaco in Cebú, etc. For obvious reasons the system is +advantageous. Juan Cailles, Governor of La Laguna, is the son of a Frenchman who married a native in one of the French colonies +and then settled in these Islands. For some time Juan Cailles was registered at the French Consulate as a French citizen. +As commander of the insurgents of La Laguna and Tayabas during the War of Independence, he maintained strict discipline in +his troops, and energetically drew the line between legitimate warfare and common freebooting. + +</p> +<p>The provincial governor may be either elected or appointed by the Civil Commission. If he be a Filipino, he is usually elected +by <a id="d0e20084"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e20084">567</a>]</span>vote of the vice-presidents (ex-mayors) and municipal councillors of the province. The mayor of a municipality is styled “Presidente.” +Every male over twenty-three years of age who pays taxes amounting to 30 pesos, or who possesses 500 pesosʼ value of goods +is eligible for election by vote of the townspeople. He holds office for two years, but can be re-elected for a consecutive +term. The municipalities are of four classes according to their importance, the mayorʼs salary being as follows, viz.: First +class, 1,200 pesos; second class, 1,000 pesos; third class, 800 pesos; and fourth class, 600 pesos. Provincial justices of +the peace are paid by litigantsʼ fees only. For municipal improvements, or other urgent necessity, the Insular Government, +from time to time, grants loans to municipalities, repayable with interest. In some cases two or more towns have been wisely +merged into one municipality: for instance, Cauit, Salinas, and Novaleta (Cavite) go together; Baliuag, Bustos, and San Rafael +(Bulacan) form one; Barasoain and Malolos (Bulacan) are united; as are also Taal and Lemery (Batangas). By Philippine Commission +Act No. 719 the 51 municipalities of Yloilo Province were reduced to 17. + +</p> +<p>Malolos is the new capital of Bulacan Province, and the two former provinces of Camarines Norte and Camarines Sur are now +one, under the name of Ambos Camarines. In the dependent wards of towns (<i lang="es">barrios</i>) the municipal police are practically the only official representatives; the post of lieutenant (<i lang="es">teniente de barrio</i>) is gratis and onerous, and few care to take it. + +</p> +<p>The <i>Guardia Civil</i> or Rural Guard of Spanish times has been superseded by the <i>Philippine Constabulary</i> under the supreme and independent command of a cavalry captain (U.S.A.) holding local rank of Brig.-General. In the private +opinion of many regular army officers, this force ought to be under the control of the Division Commander. The officers are +American, European, and Philippine. The privates are Filipinos, and the whole force is about 7,000 strong. The function of +this body is to maintain order in rural districts. For some time there were cases of batches of the rank-and-file passing +over to the brigands whom they were sent to disperse or capture. However, this disturbing element has been gradually eliminated, +and the Philippine Constabulary has since performed very useful service. Nevertheless, many educated natives desire its improvement +or suppression, on account of the alleged abuse of functions to the prejudice of peaceful inhabitants (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e19252">550</a>). + +</p> +<p>Co-operating with municipal police and the Philippine Constabulary there is an organized Secret Police Service. It is a heterogeneous +band of many nationalities, including Asiatics, which, as an <i>executive</i> force to investigate crimes known to have been committed, renders good service; as an <i>initiative</i> force, with power, with or without authority, to molest peaceful citizens in quest of imaginary misdemeanours, in order <a id="d0e20116"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e20116">568</a>]</span>to justify the necessity of its employment, it is an unwelcome institution to all, especially the lower-middle and common +classes, amongst whom it can operate with greater impunity. + +</p> +<p>Not unfrequently when a European nation acquires a new tropical possession, the imaginative mind discovers therein unbounded +wealth which the eye cannot see, hidden stores of gold procurable only by manual labour, and fortune-making possibilities +awaiting whosoever has the courage to reveal them. The propagation of these fallacious notions always allures to the new territory +a crowd of <span id="d0e20120" class="corr" title="Source: neʼer-do-weels">neʼer-do-wells</span>, amongst the <i>bonâ fide</i> workers, who ultimately become loafers preying upon the generosity of the toilers. This class was not wanting in the Philippines; +some had followed the army; others who had finished their term of voluntary military service elected to remain in the visionary +El Dorado. Some surreptitiously opened drinking-shanties; others exploited feminine frailty or eked out an existence by beggarly +imposition, and it was stated by a provincial governor that, to his knowledge, at one time, there were 80 of this class in +his province.<a id="d0e20126src" href="#d0e20126" class="noteref">12</a> The number of undesirables was so great that it became necessary for the Insular Government to pass a Vagrant Act, under +which the loafer could be arrested and disposed of. The Act declares vagrancy to be a misdemeanour, and provides penalties +therefor; but it has always been interpreted in a generous spirit of pity for the delinquent, to whom the option of a free +passage home or imprisonment was given, generally resulting in his quitting the Islands. This measure, which brought honour +to its devisers and relief to society, was, in a few instances, abused by those who feigned to be vagrants in order to secure +the passage home, but these were judiciously dealt with by a regulation imposing upon them a short period of previous training +in stone-breaking to fit them for active life in the homeland. + +</p> +<p>The following General Order was issued by the Division Commander in January, 1905, viz.:— + +</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p>It is reported by the Civil Governor that in several places in Luzon there have gathered numbers of dishonourably discharged +men from the army who are a hindrance to progress and good order. The Division Commander desires that in future no dishonourably +discharged soldiers be allowed to remain in the Islands, where their presence is very undesirable. It is therefore directed +that, in acting on cases where the sentence is dishonourable <a id="d0e20140"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e20140">569</a>]</span>discharge without confinement, the dishonourable discharge be made to take effect after arrival in San Francisco, where the +men so discharged should be sent by first transport. +</p> +</div><p> + +</p> +<p>The Philippine Archipelago is a military division under the supreme command of a Maj.-General. The commanders, since the taking +of Manila (1898), have been successively Maj.-Generals Merritt, Otis, McArthur, Chaffee, Davis, Wade, Corbin, and Wood. + +</p> +<p>The Division is administratively subdivided into three departments, namely Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao, the two former being +commanded by Brig.-Generals and the last by a Maj.-General. + +</p> +<p>The <i>Department of Luzon</i>, headquarters at Manila, includes the following principal islands, viz. Luzon, Catanduanes, Romblon, Masbate, Marinduque, +Mindoro, Sibuyán, Polillo, Ticao, Tablas, Lúcbang, and Búrias. + +</p> +<p>The <i>Department of Visayas</i>, headquarters at Yloilo, embraces the islands of Cebú, Negros, Panay, Leyte, Sámar, and Bojol. + +</p> +<p>The <i>Department of Mindanao</i>, headquarters at Zamboanga, includes all the remaining islands of the Philippine Archipelago. + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Statement of Army Strength in the Philippines on June 30, 1904</span><a id="d0e20165src" href="#d0e20165" class="noteref">13</a> + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b> </b></td> +<td valign="top" colspan="2"><b> Present </b></td> +<td valign="top" colspan="2"><b>Absent </b></td> +<td valign="top" colspan="2"><b>Present and Absent</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b> </b></td> +<td valign="top"><b>Officers. </b></td> +<td valign="top"><b>Troops. </b></td> +<td valign="top"><b>Officers. </b></td> +<td valign="top"><b>Troops. </b></td> +<td valign="top"><b>Officers. </b></td> +<td valign="top"><b>Troops. +</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">General Officers </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 5 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 0 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">0 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">0 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 5 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 0</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Gen. Staff Officers </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">45 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 0 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">4 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">0 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 49 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 0</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Non-Com Officers at posts </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">0 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">109 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">0 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">0 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 0 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">109</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Medical Department </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">93 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">919 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">10 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">0 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">103 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">919</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top"><a id="d0e20255src" href="#d0e20255" class="noteref">14</a>Contract Surgeons +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">63 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">0 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">22 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">0 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">85 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">0</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top"><a href="#d0e20255" class="noteref">14</a>Contract Dental Surgeons +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">17 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">0 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">0 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">0 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">17 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">0</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Engineers </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">25 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">395 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 1 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 7 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">26 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">402</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Signal Corps </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 7 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">353 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 2 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 1 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 9 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">354</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Ordnance Corps </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 2 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 49 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 0 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 2 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 2 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 51</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Officers temporarily in the Division </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">33 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">0 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">0 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">0 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">33 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">0</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Total Cavalry </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">172 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">2,903 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">27 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">32 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">199 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">2,935</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Total Artillery </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 9 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 293 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 3 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 0 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 12 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 293</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Total Infantry </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">356 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">7,020 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">78 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">70 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">434 </td> +<td valign="top">7,090 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Total American Forces </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">827 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">12,041 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">147 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">112 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">974 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">12,153</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Philippine Scouts </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">77 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">4,565 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">23 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">413 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">100 </td> +<td valign="top">4,978 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Total Strength </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">904 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">16,606 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">170 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">525 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1,074 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">17,131</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + +<a id="d0e20490"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e20490">570</a>]</span></p> +<p>Besides the American troops, there is a voluntary enlistment of Filipinos, forming the Philippine Scout Corps, a body of rural +police supplementary to the constabulary, commanded by a major and 100 American first and second lieutenants. Until recently +the troops were stationed over the Islands in 98 camps and garrison towns, as follows, viz.:—In the Department of Luzon 76, +Visayas 8, and Mindanao 14; but this number is now considered unnecessarily large and is being reduced to effect economy. + +</p> +<p>The Army, Navy, and Philippine Scouts expenses are entirely defrayed by the United States Treasury. A military prison is established +in the little Island of Malahi, in the Laguna de Bay, whence the escape of a prisoner is signalled by three shots from a cannon, +and whoever captures him receives a $30-reward. As the original notice to this effect required the recovery of the prisoner +“alive or dead,” two armed natives went in pursuit of an American soldier. To be quite sure of their prey they adopted the +safe course of killing him first. Such an unexpected interpretation of the notice as the grim spectacle of an Americanʼs head +was naturally repugnant to the authorities, and the “alive or dead” condition was thenceforth expunged. + +<a id="d0e20495"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e20495">571</a>]</span></p> +<div class="footnotes"> +<hr class="fnsep"> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e19511" href="#d0e19511src" class="noteref">1</a></span> This establishment was put up for sale by tender in 1904. The prospectus stated as follows:— + + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Revenue for one year </td> +<td valign="top"> gold $332,194.17 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Disbursements for one year </td> +<td valign="top"> 198,338.93 + + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top">Profit $133,855.24</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p class="footnote">Reserve price one million dollars gold. Conditions of payment one-third cash, and two-thirds in three annual payments with +six per cent. interest per annum guaranteed by mortgage on the building and plant or other acceptable security. It was not +stated whether the sale included a monopoly of army supply. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e19545" href="#d0e19545src" class="noteref">2</a></span> <i>Sampaloc</i> signifies <i>Tamarind</i> in Tagálog. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e19562" href="#d0e19562src" class="noteref">3</a></span> The first Philippine club was opened on November 6, 1898. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e19618" href="#d0e19618src" class="noteref">4</a></span> The <i>carromata</i> is a two-wheeled spring vehicle with a light roof to keep off the sun and rain. In Spanish times it was commonly used by +the natives in Manila and by all classes in the provinces, being a light, strong, and useful conveyance. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e19710" href="#d0e19710src" class="noteref">5</a></span> <i>Vide</i> “Official Roster of the Officers and Employees in the Civil Service in the Philippine Islands.” Manila, Bureau of Public +Printing, 1904. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e19782" href="#d0e19782src" class="noteref">6</a></span> Independent Offices, i.e., not under control of a Civil Commission Secretary. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e19981" href="#d0e19981src" class="noteref">7</a></span> Under the “Cooper Bill,” which came into operation on March 20, 1905, the Insular Government was authorized to increase the +salaries of the Chief Justice and the associated judges to $10,500 and $10,000 gold respectively. Under the same Act, judges +of First Instance can be called upon to serve in the Supreme Court when needed to form a quorum, for which service they are +allowed ten pesos per day besides their travelling expenses from and to the place of their permanent appointments. By Philippine +Commission Act No. 1,314, the salaries of the Chief Justice and associate judges were fixed at $10,000 each. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e20026" href="#d0e20026src" class="noteref">8</a></span> “Report of the Philippine Commission, 1900.” Published by the Government Printing Office, Washington, 1901. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e20029" href="#d0e20029src" class="noteref">9</a></span> Mr. William H. Taft, the first Civil Governor of the Philippines, was born at Cincinnati (Ohio) on September 15, 1857. His +father was a jurist of repute, diplomat, and member of the Cabinet. After his preparatory schooling in his native town, W. +H. Taft graduated at Yale University in 1878, studied law at Cincinnati and was called to the bar in 1880. Since then he held +several legal appointments up to the year 1900, when he became a district judge, which post he resigned on being commissioned +to the Philippine Islands. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e20036" href="#d0e20036src" class="noteref">10</a></span> <i>Vide</i> Senate Document No. 331, Part I., 57th Congress, 1st Session. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e20051" href="#d0e20051src" class="noteref">11</a></span> Mr. Luke E. Wright, the second Civil Governor and first Gov.-General of the Philippines, was born in Tennessee in 1847, the +son of Judge Archibald Wright. At the age of sixteen he took arms in the Confederate interest in the War of Secession. Called +to the bar in 1868, he became a partner in his fatherʼs firm and held several important legal appointments. At the age of +twenty-four he became Attorney-General, and held this post for eight years. A Democrat in politics, he is a strong character, +as generous and courteous as he is personally courageous. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e20126" href="#d0e20126src" class="noteref">12</a></span> “Should we wish the Filipino people to judge of Americans by the drunken, truculent American loafers who infest the small +towns of the Islands, living on the fruits of the labour of Filipino women, and who give us more trouble than any other element +in the Islands? Should we wish the Filipino people to judge of American standards of honesty by reading the humiliating list +of American official and unofficial defaulters in these Islands?”—<i>Extract from Governor W. H. Taftʼs speech at the Union Reading College, Manila, in 1903, quoted in</i> “Population of the Philippines,” <i>Bulletin I, p. 9. Published by the Bureau of the Census, 1904</i>. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e20165" href="#d0e20165src" class="noteref">13</a></span> From a statement kindly furnished to me by the Adjutant-General, Colonel W. A. Simpson (Manila). +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e20255" href="#d0e20255src" class="noteref">14</a></span> A “contract” Surgeon or Dental Surgeon is a civilian who comes to the Islands on a three-yearsʼ contract. He is only temporarily +an Army officer. + +</p> +<p class="footnote">General Officersʼ pay is as follows; viz.:— + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Lieut.-General, Active Service </td> +<td valign="top">$11,000; retired </td> +<td valign="top">$8,250 gold.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Maj.-General, Active Service </td> +<td valign="top">$7,500; retired </td> +<td valign="top">$5,625 gold.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Brig.-General, Active Service </td> +<td valign="top">$5,500; retired </td> +<td valign="top">$4,125 gold.</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + +</p> +<p class="footnote">The monthly pay of a private serving in the Islands is $15.60 gold.</p> +</div> +</div> +<div id="d0e20496" class="div1"> +<h2 class="normal">The Land of the Moros</h2> +<h2 class="normal">“Allah Akbar!”</h2> +<p>The Military Department of Mindanao comprises the large island of that name and the adjacent insular territories inhabited +chiefly by Mahometans, called by the Christians <i>Moros</i> (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e4262">129</a>, et seq.). + +</p> +<p>The natural features of these southern islands are, in general, similar to those of the other large islands of the Archipelago, +but being peopled by races (exclusive of the settlers) of different habits, customs, religions, and languages, some aggressively +savage and warlike, others more or less tractable, but all semi-civilized, the social aspect is so distinct from that of the +islands inhabited by the Christian Filipinos as almost to appear like another quarter of the tropical globe. + +</p> +<p>Early in the year 1899 General John C. Bates was appointed to the command of the Mahometan islands. In Mindanao Island there +was no supreme chieftain with whom to treat for the gradual introduction of civilization and American methods, the whole territory +being parcelled out and ruled by petty Sultans, <i>Dattos</i> or chiefs, in separate independence. In the Lake Lanao district, for instance, there is at least one <i>Datto</i> for every 50 men. The only individual who had any pretence to general control of the Mahometan population was Hadji<a id="d0e20522src" href="#d0e20522" class="noteref">1</a> Mohammad Jamalul Kiram, the Sultan of Sulu<a id="d0e20527src" href="#d0e20527" class="noteref">2</a> (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e4533">141</a>). Therefore, in August, 1899, General Bates and this petty prince made an agreement which was ratified by Congress on February +1 following, on the recommendation of the Schurman Commission (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e20012">562</a>), and thenceforth came into force. The principal conditions of this convention were: (1) The Sultanʼs dignity and certain +monopoly rights were recognized under American suzerainty. (2) An annual pension of 3,000 pesos was secured to him, and annual +salaries ranging from 180 to 900 pesos were to be paid to eight of his <i>Dattos</i> and one priest. (3) A Moro accused of crime was to be tried by a Moro judge, the maximum penalty for murder being fixed at +105 pesos (equal <a id="d0e20545"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e20545">572</a>]</span>to about ten guineas), which was a fair price in this region, from the Moro point of view, for life here is held very cheap. +(4) Absconding Americans or Sulus were to be mutually surrendered. (5) The Americans were (<i>a</i>) to protect the Sultan against encroachments by foreigners or European nations; (<i>b</i>) not to take arms against the Sulus without consulting the Sultan; (<i>c</i>) not to transfer their dominion over Joló to others except in agreement with the Sultan; (<i>d</i>) to be at liberty to occupy any place in the Sultanʼs domains without trespassing on lands about the royal residence, except +as a military necessity of war with a foreign Power; (<i>e</i>) not to interfere with the Mahometan religion, or its rites, or its customs; (<i>f</i>) not to travel about Sulu Island without the permission of the Sultan, who would provide an escort. (6) The American flag +was to be used on land and at sea. (7) The Sulus were to be free to carry their native arms. (8) The Sultan was at liberty +to collect tribute everywhere in his domains, and to have the right of direct intercourse with the American Gov.-General. + +</p> +<p>In consideration of the above, the Sultan undertook to maintain order between his <i>Dattos</i>, to repress internecine warfare, and gradually to abolish slavery throughout his jurisdiction. + +</p> +<p>Apparently the Sultan entered into the agreement much in the spirit of Mr. Micawber, who signed the I.O.U.ʼs and thanked God +his debts were paid. The ruler of Sulu was not over-willing and far less able to give effect to its conditions, his power +being more nominal than real in his own possessions, and in Mindanao almost <i>nil</i>. Nevertheless, it was a politic measure on the Americansʼ part, because its non-fulfilment opened the way for the adoption, +with every appearance of justification, of more direct and coercive intervention in the affairs of this region. General Bates +was succeeded by other generals in the command of this district, without any very visible progress towards definite pacification +and subjection to civilization. The military posts on the coasts, evacuated by the Spaniards, were occupied by American troops +and new ones were created, but every attempt to establish law and order beyond their limits, on the white manʼs system, was +wasted effort. When the Spanish-American War broke out, the Spanish military authorities were on the point of maturing a plan +for the final conquest of Mindanao. Due to the persistent activity of my old friend General González Parrado, they had already +achieved much in the Lake Lanao district, through the Marahui campaign. On the evacuation of the Spaniards the unrestrained +petty chiefs were like lions released from captivity. Blood-shed, oppression, extortion, and all the instinctive habits of +the shrewd savage were again rife. A preconcerted plan of campaign brings little definite result; it never culminates in the +attainment of any final issue, for, on the native side, there is neither union of tribes nor any combined organized attempt +at even guerilla warfare, hence the destruction of <a id="d0e20575"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e20575">573</a>]</span>a <i>cotta</i> or the decimation of a clan has no immediate and lasting moral effect on the neighbouring warlike tribe. Life is cheap among +them; a Moro thinks no more about lopping off anotherʼs head than he does about pulling a cocoanut from the palm-tree. The +chief abhors the white man because he interferes with the chiefʼs living by the labour of his tribe, and the tribesman himself +is too ignorant even to contemplate emancipation. Subservience to the bidding of the wily <i>Datto</i>, poverty, squalidity, and tribal warfare for bravado or interest seem as natural to the Moro as the sight of the rising sun. +Hence, when the Americans resolved to change all this and marched into the tribal territories for the purpose, the war-gongs +rallied the fighting-men to resist the dreaded foe, unconscious of his mission of liberty under the star-spangled banner. +The sorrows or the joys of one tribe are no concern of the other; thus there was seldom, if ever, any large combination of +forces, and the Americans might be fighting hard in the Taraca country, or around the Lanao Lake, whilst the neighbouring +clan silently and doggedly awaited its turn for hostilities. The signal for the fray would be the defiant reply of a chief +to the Americansʼ message demanding submission, or a voluntary throwing down of the gauntlet to the invader, for the Moro +is valiant, and knows no cringing cowardice before the enemy. Troops would be despatched to the <i>cotta</i>, or fortress, of the recalcitrant ruler, whence the <i>lantaca</i> cannon would come into action, whilst the surging mob of warriors would open fire in squads, or rush forward in a body, <i>bárong</i> or kris in hand, only to be mown down, or put to flight and the <i>cotta</i> razed to the ground. A detailed account of the military operations in these islands would be but a tedious recital of continuous +struggles with the irresistible white man. In Mindanao, the Malanao tribes, occupying the northern regions around the Lake +Lanao districts, seem to have offered the most tenacious resistance. On April 5, 1902, a fierce encounter with the Bacólod +tribes ended with their fort being destroyed, 120 Moros killed, and 11 Americans wounded. In the following month the bloody +battle of Bayan brought such disastrous results to the natives that they willingly accepted peace for the time being. In the +Taraca River engagement, 10 <i>cottas</i> were destroyed, 250 Moros were killed, 52 were taken prisoners, and the booty amounted to 36 cannon and 60 rifles. The Moros +possessed a large number of Remington rifles, looted from the Spaniards, on whom they had often made surprise raids. The Bacólod +and the Taraca tribes, although frequently defeated, gave much trouble long after the other districts had been forced into +submission. + +</p> +<p>One of the most exciting expeditions was that of Lieutenant Forsyth, who went out reconnoitring with 15 men, marching from +Párang-Párang Camp northwards. Moros came to meet him on the way to warn him not to advance, but Forsyth bravely pushed on +until his party, surrounded by hundreds of hostile natives, was almost all destroyed. Forsyth and <a id="d0e20600"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e20600">574</a>]</span>his fellow-survivors fled into an unknown region, where they lost themselves, and all would have perished had they not been +befriended by a <i>Datto</i> who enabled them to get back. Then Colonel (now Brig.-General) F. D. Baldwin set out from Malábang Camp in May, attacked +and captured the <i>cottas</i> of the Datto of Binadáyan and the Sultan of Bayan on Lake Lanao, and gained a signal victory over them with a loss of seven +killed and 44 wounded. Lieutenant Forsythʼs horses and rifles were recovered, and the Moros suffered so severely in this engagement +that it was hardly thought they would rise again. In consequence of this humiliation of the great Sultan of Bayan, many minor +Lake <i>Dattos</i> voluntarily cultivated friendly relations with the Americans. Even among the recalcitrant chiefs there was a lull in their +previous activity until they suddenly swept down on the American troops twelve times in succession, killing four and wounding +12 of them. The whole Lanao Lake district was in a ferment when, on September 28, 1902, Captain John J. Pershing was detached +from Baldwinʼs force to lead another expedition against them “composed of a battalion of the 7th Infantry, a troop of the +15th Cavalry, and two platoons of the 25th Field Artillery.”<a id="d0e20611src" href="#d0e20611" class="noteref">3</a> Pershing inflicted such a crushing defeat on the Macui Moros, destroying many of their strongholds, one Sultan and a large +number of his warriors, that he was hailed with delight as the pacifier of Mindanao. The expedition returned with a total +loss of only two Americans wounded, and after Pershingʼs heroic exploit, not only was it in the mouth of every one, “there +is peace in Mindanao,” but in the Report of the Secretary of War for 1902, p. 19, there is a paragraph beginning thus:—“<i>Now that the insurrection has been disposed of</i> we shall be able to turn our attention, not merely to the slave trade, but to the already existing slavery among the Moros.” +But peace was by no means assured, and again Captain J. J. Pershing distinguished himself as the successful leader of an expedition +in the Marahui district. Starting from Camp Vicars<a id="d0e20619src" href="#d0e20619" class="noteref">4</a> on April 5, 1903, with 150 men, Maxim guns, mortars, and artillery, his instructions were to “explore” the north and west +coast of Lake Lanao, but to overcome any opposition offered. It was quite expected that his progress would be challenged, +hence the warlike preparations. Arrived at Súgud, the Moros kept up a constant fire from the hills on the American front. +On the high ridge running down to the lake the Bacólod fort was clearly seen flying the battle flags of defiance. On the battlements +there was a yelling crowd of Moros beating their gongs, rushing to and fro, flourishing their weapons, and firing their <i>lantaca</i> cannon towards the Americans; but the range was too great to have any effect. The artillery was brought into action, <a id="d0e20625"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e20625">575</a>]</span>forcing many of the Moros to try their fortunes in the open; but again and again they were repulsed, and by nightfall the +Bacólod ridge was occupied by the troops. The next morning the mortars were brought into play, and shells were dropped into +the fort during all that day and night. On the third day Captain Pershing decided to storm the fort; bridges were constructed +across the ravines, Maxim guns poured shot through the loopholes, and finally an assault party of 10 men rushed across the +bridge and climbed the parapet, where they were met by the Moros, with whom they had a desperate hand-to-hand fight. It was +a fine display of American pluck. The attacking party was quickly supported by more troops, who either killed or captured +the defenders. Finally all the combustible portion of the fort was burnt to the ground, 12 cannon were captured, and about +60 Moros were slain. The demolition of Bacólod fort was a great surprise to the Moros, who had considered it impregnable, +whilst the defeat of the savage Sultan (the <i>Panandungan</i>) destroyed for ever his former unlimited prestige among the tribe. The force was then divided, and before the troops reached +camp again there were several smaller fights, including the bombardment of Calahui <i>cotta</i>. The distance traversed by this expedition was about 80 miles, the American losses being one man killed and two officers +and 14 men wounded. For this signal victory the War Department cabled its thanks to Captain J. J. Pershing on May 11. + +</p> +<p>As to the management of the Moros, Captain J. J. Pershing expresses the following just opinion, viz.:—“As far as is consistent +with advancement, a government by a Sultan, or a <i>Datto</i>, as the case may be, should be disturbed as little as possible; that is, the people should be managed through the <i>Dattos</i> themselves,” etc.<a id="d0e20641src" href="#d0e20641" class="noteref">5</a> + +</p> +<p>The last general in command of the District of Mindanao, prior to the present constitution of the Moro Province, was Brig.-General +Samuel Sumner, who, just before his departure therefrom, wrote as follows, viz.:—“Murder and robbery will take place as long +as we are in the country, at least for years to come. The Moro is a savage, and has no idea of law and order <i>as we understand it</i>. <i>Anarchy</i> practically prevails throughout the region. To take power and control away from the Sultans and <i>Dattos</i> until we can inaugurate and put in force a better government would add to the confusion already existing.”<a id="d0e20657src" href="#d0e20657" class="noteref">6</a> + +</p> +<p>The instructions of the President of the United States to the Philippine Commission, dated April 7, 1900, direct as follows, +viz.:—“In dealing with the uncivilized tribes of the Islands the Commission shall adopt the same course followed by Congress +in permitting the <a id="d0e20664"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e20664">576</a>]</span>tribes of our North American Indians to maintain their tribal organizations and government, and under which many of those +tribes are now living in peace and contentment, surrounded by a civilization to which they are unable or unwilling to conform.” + +</p> +<p>From the American point of view, but not from the Moro way of looking at things, an apparent state of anarchy prevailed everywhere; +but the Sultans and the <i>Dattos</i> took very good care not to tolerate what, in Europe, one would term anarchy, tending to subvert the local rule. There is +no written code of Moro justice. If a Moro stole a buffalo from another, and the case were brought before the judge, this +functionary and the local chief would, by custom, expect to make some profit for themselves out of the dispute. The thief +would have to pay a fine to the headman or go into slavery, but having no money he would have to steal it to purchase his +freedom. The buffalo being the object of dispute would be confiscated, and to be even with the defendant for the loss of the +buffalo, the plantiff would lop off the defendantʼs head if he were a man of means and could afford to pay 105 pesos fine +for his revenge. + +</p> +<p>The real difficulty was, and still is, that there is no Sultan, or <i>Datto</i>, of very extended authority to lay hold of and subdue, and whose defeat or surrender would entail the submission of a whole +district or tribe. The work of subjection has to be performed piecemeal among the hundreds of <i>Dattos</i>, each of whom, by established custom, can only act for himself and his own retainers, for every <i>Datto</i> would resent, at the risk of his life, any dictation from another. All this is extremely irritating to the white commander, +who would prefer to bring matters to a definite crisis by one or more decisive contests, impossible of realization, however, +in Mindanao or Sulu Islands. + +</p> +<p>Such was the condition of affairs in the southern extremity of the Archipelago when it was decided to appoint a Maj.-General +to command it and create a semi-independent government for its local administration. Maj.-General Leonard Wood<a id="d0e20684src" href="#d0e20684" class="noteref">7</a> was happily chosen for this arduous and delicate task, and on July 25, 1903, he took up his appointment, holding it for about +two years, when he was transferred to Manila to command the Division in succession to Maj.-General Henry C. Corbin. + +</p> +<p>This region, now called the <i>Moro Province</i>, was established under <a id="d0e20692"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e20692">577</a>]</span>Philippine Commission Act No. 787 of June 1, 1903 (which came into effect on July 15 following), and includes all Mindanao<a id="d0e20694src" href="#d0e20694" class="noteref">8</a> except the larger portion of Misámis Province and all Surigao Province (N. and E.), which are under civil government,<a id="d0e20699src" href="#d0e20699" class="noteref">9</a> the Joló (Sulu) Archipelago, the Tawi Tawi group, and all the islands south of Lat. 8° N., excepting therefrom Palaúan (Parágua) +and Balábac Islands and the islands immediately adjacent thereto, but including the Island of Cagayán de Joló. The seat of +government is at Zamboanga, the headquarters of the military district, whose commander (Maj.-General Wood) acted in the dual +capacity (but not <i>ex-officio</i>) of military commander and President of the Legislative Council of the Moro Province, which was organized September 2, 1903, +and is composed as follows, viz.:— + + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top"><b>Legislative Council +</b></td> +<td valign="top"><b>Emolument +</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">President, the Provincial Governor + +</td> +<td valign="top">$6,000 gold (if he be a civilian).<a id="d0e20716src" href="#d0e20716" class="noteref">10</a> + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Provincial Secretary + +</td> +<td valign="top" rowspan="5">Not exceeding $4,000 gold + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Provincial Treasurer + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Provincial Attorney + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Provincial Superintendent of Schools + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Provincial Engineer</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>The Council has power to enact laws “by authority of and subject to annulment or amendment by the Philippine Commission,” +and four members of the six constitute a quorum for legislative action. The Provincial Governor is responsible, and must report +from time to time to the Gov.-General of the Philippines. The province is sub-divided into five governmental districts, and +one sub-district under governors and lieut.-governor respectively.<a id="d0e20739src" href="#d0e20739" class="noteref">11</a> + + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top"><b>Districts +</b></td> +<td valign="top"><b>Emolument of Governor +</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Zamboanga (including Basilan Is.) + +</td> +<td valign="top" rowspan="5">Not exceeding $3,500 gold if he be a civilian. + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Joló (sulu) (including Tawi Tawi group) + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Lanao (including Ylígan and Lake Lanao) + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Cottabato (including Polloc) + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Davao (including Cátil) + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Dapítan (a sub-district of Zamboanga) + +</td> +<td valign="top">Not exceeding $2,000 gold, if he be a civilian.</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + +<a id="d0e20771"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e20771">578</a>]</span></p> +<p>Each district is controlled by a District Council composed of the governor, the secretary, and the treasurer. At present all +the district governors are army officers. + +</p> +<p>Section 15 of the above Act No. 787 provides that governors and secretaries of districts must learn and pass an examination +in the dialects of their localities within 18 months after taking office, or be subject to dismissal. + +</p> +<p>Under Philippine Commission Act No. 82, entitled “The Municipal Code,” amended in its application to the Moro Province by +the Legislative Council of the Moro Province Act No. 35, of January 27, 1904, the Moro districts and sub-districts are furthermore +sub-divided in the following manner, viz.:— + +</p> +<p><i>Municipalities</i> are established in the district or sub-district capital towns, and wherever there is a population sufficiently large and +enlightened to be entitled to municipal rights.<a id="d0e20782src" href="#d0e20782" class="noteref">12</a> A president (mayor), vice-president, or councillor must be between twenty-six and sixty-five years of age, and must intelligently +speak, read, and write Spanish, English, or the principal local dialect. Ecclesiastics, soldiers in active service, and persons +receiving emolument from public funds are debarred from these offices. Every municipal officer must give a bond with two or +more sureties equal to at least half of the amount of annual funds which will probably pass through his hands. The maximum +salary of a president (mayor) is ₱1,200, and that of municipal secretary ₱600. Certain other officers are also paid, but the +vice-presidency and councillorships are honorary posts. A person elected to office by the people is not permitted to decline +it, except for certain reasons defined in the code, subject to a maximum penalty of six monthsʼ imprisonment. The mayorʼs +symbol of office is a cane with a silver knob, plated ferrule, and black cord and tassels. + +</p> +<p>Natives whose habits and social condition will not yet permit their inclusion in a municipality are segregated into <i>Tribal Wards</i><a id="d0e20789src" href="#d0e20789" class="noteref">13</a> (Legislative Council Act No. 39, of February 19, 1904). The headman is generally the chief recognized by his race or people +as such, and is immediately responsible to the district governor by whom he is appointed. His annual salary ranges from ₱240 +to ₱1,800, and his badge of office is a baldric of red leather with a metal disc, bearing an impression of the Moro Province +seal. He and his advisory council perform the usual municipal functions on a minor scale, and are permitted to “conform to +the local customs of the inhabitants, unless <a id="d0e20792"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e20792">579</a>]</span>such customs are contrary to law or repugnant to the usages or moral sense of civilized peoples.” + +</p> +<p>A Tribal Ward is furthermore divided into <i>Tribal Ward Districts</i>. The district headman is the deputy of the tribal ward headman to whom he is immediately responsible. His annual salary ranges +from ₱96 to ₱600, and his badge of office is a baldric of yellow canvas with a metal disc as mentioned above. The tribal ward +headmanʼs district deputies together constitute the police force of the whole ward. Tribal ward headmen and their district +deputies are not required to give bond. At any time, on certain conditions, a member of a tribal ward can apply for full citizenship +in a municipality. In short, the governmental system adopted is intended to raise the native progressively from savagery to +municipal life. + +</p> +<p>The sources of <i>Revenue</i> are briefly as follows, viz:— + +</p> +<p><i>Provincial.</i>—Property tax (⅞ per cent. of assessed value), industrial, cédula (poll tax of 1 peso for each male over 18 years), stamps, +court fees, fines, sales of supplies to municipalities, and forestry collection. + +</p> +<p><i>Municipal.</i>—Ownership and transfer of cattle, rents and profits, licences, fines and carts. + +</p> +<p><i>Customs Revenues</i> in the five ports of entry, viz.:—Joló, Zamboanga, Cottabato, Siassi, and Bongao. + +</p> +<p>The Summary of the fiscal year ending June 30, 1904, stands thus:— + + +</p> +<p><i>Revenue</i> + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="60%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Provincial Taxes and Forestry payments </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">₱114,713.66</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Customs Revenue </td> +<td valign="top"> 222,664.39 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">₱337,378.05</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p><i>Expenditure</i> + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="60%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Provincial </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">₱174,361.70</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Appropriated for Public Works </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 26,181.76</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Customs Expenses </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 53,170.62</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Balance available </td> +<td valign="top"> 83,663.97 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">₱337,378.05</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>The maintenance of the Constabulary Force, Post Office Department, and Courts of First Instance in this Province is an Insular +Government charge. + +</p> +<p>The revenue collected within the province (including the customs receipts) is spent therein. No remittance of funds is made +to the Insular Treasury, but provincial accounts are subject to Insular Government audit, and have to be rendered to Manila. +<a id="d0e20874"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e20874">580</a>]</span></p> +<p>The troops assigned to this command are as follows, viz.<a id="d0e20877src" href="#d0e20877" class="noteref">14</a>:— + + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" rowspan="2"><b>Armed Forces in the Moro Province. </b></td> +<td valign="top" colspan="2"><b>Present and Absent.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top"><b>Officers. </b></td> +<td valign="top"><b>Troops. +</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Regular troops<a id="d0e20894src" href="#d0e20894" class="noteref">15</a> +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">236 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3,766</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Contract and Dental Surgeons and attached Staff </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 25 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> —</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Total American forces </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 261 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3,766</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Native troops </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 11 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 543 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Total Strength, Military District </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 272 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">4,309</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Philippine Constabulary (Moro and Christian mixed) under Civil Government orders </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 22 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 530 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 294 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">4,839</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>On General Woodʼs recommendation, the Bates Agreement (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e20495">571</a>) was rescinded on the ground that it was an obstacle to good government. In truth, the Sultan of Sulu was probably quite +as unable as he was unwilling to carry out its provisions. However, under Philippine Commission Act No. 1259 (amended by Act +No. 1320 of April 12, 1905), certain small annual money allowances are made to the present Sultan of Sulu and his principal +advisers. + +</p> +<p>In Mindanao, trouble again arose on the east shore of Lake Lanao, and an expedition was organized to march against the Taracas, +who were, however, only temporarily subdued. Defiant messages were sent by the <i>Dattos</i>, and General Wood decided to conduct operations in person. According to private information given to me by officers in Mindanao +some months after the battle, immense slaughter was inflicted on this tribe, whose <i>cottas</i> were annihilated, and they were utterly crushed for the time being. About the beginning of 1904 the depredations of the Moros +in the upper valley of the Cottabato River were revolting beyond all toleration. Cottabato town was pillaged under the leadership +of Datto Ali and of his brother, Datto Djimbangan. In March an expedition invested the Serenaya territory in the Cottabato +district and operated from the 4th to the 14th of that month without any American casualties. Datto Aliʼs fort at Kudaran͠gan +was taken and destroyed.<a id="d0e20960src" href="#d0e20960" class="noteref">16</a> This formidable stronghold is described by General Wood <a id="d0e20968"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e20968">581</a>]</span>thus:—“It was larger than twenty of the largest <i>cottas</i> of the Lake region or Sulu, and would have easily held a garrison of four or five thousand men. It was well located, well +built, well armed, and amply supplied with ammunition. There were embrasures for 120 pieces of artillery. Eighty-five pieces +were captured, among them many large cannon of from 3 inches to 5 ½ inches calibre. The other pieces in the work, small <i>lantacas</i>, were carried off or thrown into the river” (<i>vide</i> First Annual Report of the Moro Province). + +</p> +<p>Datto Ali thenceforth became a fugitive with some 60 armed followers and about a hundred others whom he pressed into his service +as carriers. After the battle, Datto Djimbangan, Aliʼs brother, was taken unawares at his ranche by a detachment of American +troops. He was conducted as a prisoner to Cottabato, and in February, 1905, he was transferred to the Zamboanga jail to await +his trial for sedition and rebellion. Again the Taracas ventured on a series of attacks on the American military posts in +the locality. A body of troops was despatched there in March, and after ten daysʼ operations this tribe was routed and dispersed, +the American casualties being two men killed, one drowned, 10 wounded, and one officer slightly wounded. On May 8 a party +of 39 men and two officers, reconnoitring about Simbalan, up the Cottabato Valley, was attacked, 13 men being killed, two +taken prisoners, six wounded, and the two officers killed. It would appear that the guides were conducting the party safely, +when a lieutenant insisted on taking another route and landed his troops in a plateau covered with <i>cogon</i> (pampas-grass) about eight feet high. On emerging from this they all got into a stream, where the Moros suddenly fell upon +them. The punitive Simpetan Expedition immediately set out for that district and successfully operated from the 13th to the +28th of May without any American casualties. Datto Ali, who was again on the warpath, is the son-in-law of old Datto Piang, +the terror of the neighbourhood in his younger days and also just after the evacuation by the Spaniards. Ali declared that +he would not yield to the Americans one iota of his independence, or liberate his slaves, and swore vengeance on all who went +in his pursuit. Being the hereditary <i>Datto</i>, the inhabitants of the valley generally sympathized with him, at least passively. In the latter half of 1904, constant endeavour +was made to effect the capture of this chieftain, whilst old Datto Piang, the son of a Chinaman with a keen eye to business, +supplied the Americans with baggage-carriers at a peso a day per man for the troops sent to hunt down his refractory son-in-law. +Active operations were sustained against him, and from the military posts of Malábang (formerly a Moro slave-market) and Párang-Párang +on the Illana Bay coast there were continually small punitive parties scouring the district here and there. At the former +camp I was the guest of the genial Colonel Philip Reade, in command of the 23rd Infantry, when Lieutenant C. R. Lewis was +<a id="d0e20987"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e20987">582</a>]</span>brought in wounded from a Cottabato River sortie. Colonel Reade, whose regiment had had about the roughest work of any in +the Island, had certainly inspired his men with the never-know-when-you-are-beaten spirit, for the report of a reverse set +them all longing to be the chosen ones for the next party. But up to July, 1905, Datto Ali had been able to elude capture, +although General Wood personally conducted operations against him a year before, establishing his headquarters at Cabacsalan, +near the Lake Ligusan. + +</p> +<p>The most ferocious and arrogant Mindanao tribes occupy regions within easy access of the coast. Perhaps their character is +due to their having led more adventurous lives by land and sea for generations, plundering the tribes of the interior and +making slave raids in their <i>vintas</i> on the northern islands and christian native coast settlements. In the centre of the Island and around the mountainous region +of the Apo the tribes are more peaceful and submissive, without desire or means for warfare. Many of the Bagobo tribe (which +I have twice visited), in the neighbourhood of Davao, have come down to settle in villages under American protection, paying +only an occasional visit to their tribal territory to make a human sacrifice. + +</p> +<p>In Basílan Island, a dependency of Zamboanga, about 13 miles distant, Datto Pedro Cuevas accepted the new situation, and under +his influence peace was assured among the large Moro population of that island. The history of this manʼs career bristles +with stirring episodes. Born in 1845, of Tagálog parentage, he started life as a Cavite highwayman, but was captured and deported +to the agricultural colony of San Ramón, near Zamboanga, where he, with other convicts, attacked and killed three of the European +overseers, and Cuevas escaped to Basílan Island. After innumerable difficulties, involving the conquest of a score of villages, +he gained the control of a large number of Yacan Moros and became a sort of chief. Some years afterwards the Moros organized +an attack on the Christians at Zamboanga and Isabela de Basílan, and Cuevas offered to save the Spaniards on condition of +receiving a full pardon. Two Spaniards were accordingly sent as hostages to Cuevasʼ camp, and after Isabela was freed of the +enemy he came to see the Spanish governor. There were several Spaniards present at the interview, and it is related that one +of them let slip a phrase implying doubt as to Cuevasʼ worthiness for pardon, whereupon the undaunted chief remarked, “Sir, +I thought I had won my liberty, seeing that, but for me, you would not be alive to accord it.” Thenceforth he was always a +reliable ally of the Spaniards against Moro incursions. In 1882 Cuevas was opposed by an arrogant Sulu chief, Datto Calun, +who challenged him to single combat, and Cuevas having slain his adversary, the tribe of the vanquished warrior, admiring +the conquerorʼs valour, proclaimed him their <i>Datto</i>, which title was acknowledged by Datto Aliudi, the claimant to the Sulu Sultanate. On <a id="d0e20999"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e20999">583</a>]</span>July 6, 1904, his graceful daughter Urang was married, with Mahometan rites, to a twenty-one-year-old Spanish half-caste, +Ramón Laracoechea, who was introduced to me by his father, a very pleasant Vizcayan, resident in the Island since 1876. Educated +in Manila, the son speaks English, Spanish, Yacano and Joloáno. The festivities lasted for several days, some Americans being +among the invited guests. Shortly after this event the <i>Datto</i>, at the age of fifty-nine years, ended his adventurous career in this world, regretted by all. In expectation of the demise +of Datto Cuevas, which was anticipated months before, there were three aspirants to the coming vacant dattoship in the persons +of the son-in-law, Ramón, Cuevasʼ nephew, and an American of humble origin and scant education who had married a Zamboangueña +woman. + +</p> +<p>In Sulu Island social conditions were most deplorable. Under the Bates Agreement the Moros became turbulent, and even attempted +to take Joló town by assault. In August, 1903, General Wood went there, and the <i>Dattos</i> having been invited to meet him, quite a crowd of them came, accompanied by about 600 fighting-men in a splendid fleet of +armed <i>vintas</i> (war-canoes). Precautions had to be taken against possible treachery, and a company of troops was brought into the town in +readiness for any event. The object of the meeting was to discuss the respective limits of the <i>Dattosʼ</i> spheres, but owing to the haughty, insolent tone of the chiefs, nothing definite was arrived at. When they were invited to +state their claims, they arrogantly replied, “We have no information to give. You say you are going to define our limits—well, +what have you to tell us? We come to listen, not to talk.” Some chiefs, however, feigned to offer their submission, and all +was apparently quiet for a time. + +</p> +<p>Major Hugh L. Scott (14th Cavalry) was then appointed (in September) to the government of that district. The Sultan being +too weak to control his subordinates, many of them rallied their men and independently defied all interference with their +old mode of living and rule. The Sultan, not unnaturally, was averse to ceding his sovereign rights to any one, and he and +his <i>Dattos</i> obstructed, as far as they could, the Americansʼ endeavours to better the conditions of the people. Every few days a <i lang="es">juramentado</i> (<i>vide</i> pp. <a href="#d0e4694">146</a>, <a href="#d0e4864">150</a>) would enter the town and attack a white man with his <i>bárong</i> in broad daylight. There was nothing furtive in his movements, no hiding under cover to take his victim unawares, but a straight, +bold frontal attack. <i>Bárong</i> in hand, a Moro once chased a soldier though the street, upstairs into a billiard-room, and down the other steps, where he +was shot dead by a sentinel. At another time a <i>juramentado</i> obtained access into the town by crawling through a drain-pipe, and chased two soldiers until he was killed. Many Americans +were wounded in the streets of Joló, but the aggressors were always pursued to death. Petty hostilities, attacks and counter-attacks, +the sallies of punitive parties to avenge <a id="d0e21041"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e21041">584</a>]</span>some violence committed, and the necessity for every individual in the town, civil or military, being armed and always alert, +made life there one of continual excitement and emotion. + + +</p> +<p></p> +<div id="d0e21044" class="figure"><img border="0" src="images/p584-1.jpg" alt="Panglima Hassan of Sulu (Central figure)." width="406" height="528"><p class="figureHead">Panglima Hassan of Sulu (Central figure).</p> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>In November, 1903, the attitude of the <i>Dattos</i> became very menacing. Datto Andong actually cut a trench just outside the walled town of Joló as a base of operations against +the Americans. It was evident that an important rising of chiefs was contemplated. Major Scott having called upon the biggest +chief, Panglima<a id="d0e21053src" href="#d0e21053" class="noteref">17</a> Hassan, to present himself and account for the murder of an American survey party, he came with a large force, estimated +at about 4,000, well armed, as far as the town walls. He said he wanted to enter the town with a suite of only 700 armed men, +including his subordinate <i>Dattos</i>. Finally Major Scott agreed to his entry with 70 warriors, but still the position was threatening with Hassanʼs army in the +vicinity. During the interview Panglima Hassan appeared quite friendly; indeed, whilst he and the major were riding together, +the chief, perceiving that his host was unarmed, gallantly remarked, “As you are without arms I will relinquish mine also,” +and at once took off his <i>bárong</i> and handed it to his attendant. In the meantime Major Scott had sent a request to General Wood for more troops, but the general, +who had only just finished his Taraca operations, replied that he would come to Joló himself. Almost simultaneously with his +arrival in Zamboanga the general had the satisfaction to receive a message from the Taraca <i>Datto</i> offering his submission, and asking to be judged according to the Koran. On General Woodʼs arrival with troops in Joló a +demand was made on Panglima Hassan to surrender. After protracted negotiations and many insolent messages from Hassan, the +general led his troops down to Lake Seite, where an engagement took place, leaving 60 dead Moros on the field. Panglima Hassan, +pursued from place to place, lost many warriors at every halt, the total being estimated at 400 to 500. <i>Cottas</i> were razed to the ground, and the notorious Panglima Hassan himself was captured on November 14, with a loss, so far, of +one soldier killed and five wounded on the American side. Panglima Hassan was being escorted into Joló town by Major Scott +and other officers when suddenly the chief, pointing towards a native-built house, begged the major to save his family. Moved +by compassion and influenced by Hassanʼs previous friendly attitude, the major generously consented, and as they all approached +the entrance, in an instant out rushed the “family”—a mob of armed Moros, who attacked the officers whilst the Panglima made +his escape. Poor Major Scott was so badly cut about on his hands that he had to go into hospital for four months, and I noticed +that he had had one left-hand finger and two right-hand half-fingers amputated. Unable to handle any kind of weapon, in March, +1904, he led his troops against the cunning <i>Datto</i>, who sent out a large body of fighting-men to meet <a id="d0e21073"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e21073">585</a>]</span>him. After several attacks were repelled, Panglima Hassan took to flight, his followers all the time decreasing in numbers +until, with only 80 men, the chief sought refuge in his <i>cotta</i> at Pang-Pang, the strongest fortress in the Island. Breaches were made in it, and Hassan fled for his life on a swift pony, +with only two retainers, to the crater of an extinct volcano, which was quickly surrounded by the Americans. Each time a head +appeared above the crater edge a volley was fired, but the wounded chief still bravely held out and hit some soldiers before +he died, riddled by bullets, on March 4. + + +</p> +<p></p> +<div id="d0e21079" class="figure"><img border="0" src="images/p584-2.jpg" alt="A Mindanao Datto and Suite" width="401" height="527"><p class="figureHead">A Mindanao Datto and Suite</p> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>Again, in May, 1905, Datto Pala, of Sulu Island, with a large following, threatened Joló town, and General Wood personally +led the expedition against this chief. Eight miles from Maybun the Moros had dug pits and placed wires to impede the Americansʼ +advance, but, notwithstanding these obstacles, the enemy was vigorously attacked and surrounded near the Maybun Lake, three +miles from the town. After several daysʼ desperate fighting the <i>cotta</i> of Lumbo was captured, and the <i>Datto</i> and his men were vanquished, the losses being about seven Americans killed, about 20 wounded, and over 250 Moros killed. + +</p> +<p>In June, 1904, Datto Ambutong had a dispute with another about the possession of some property, and on Major Scott being appealed +to in the matter, he ordered Ambutong to appear before him in Joló for a <i>bichâra</i> (judicial inquiry). The <i>Datto</i>, in a sulky mood, at first refused to come, but on further pressure he changed his mind. Early in the morning of the appointed +day a friendly chief, Datto Timbang, came into town with four retainers, all armed, to see the Governor. Major Scott, whose +guest I was, kindly invited me to the interview, during which it transpired that Datto Timbang had heard Ambutong declare +he would come to the <i>bichâra</i>, but he would not leave it without taking heads. Datto Timbang added that he too desired to attend the <i>bichâra</i> with his bodyguard, resolved to slay Ambutong if he observed any threatening move on his part. The major made no objection, +and at the appointed hour four of us—my gallant host, Major Barbour, Captain Charles and myself—went to the <i>bichâra</i> at the Governorʼs office in town. The Governor (i.e., the major) sat at his desk, and we other three took seats just behind +him. Before us were the Datto Ambutong, his opponent in the question at issue, and, a yard off him, the friendly Datto Timbang +and his followers, each with his hand on his <i>bárong</i>, ready to cut down Ambutong at a stroke if need be. Whilst the case was being heard, Hadji Butu, the Sultanʼs Prime Minister, +and Sultan Tattarassa, of Parágua Island, the latter afflicted with <i>locomotor ataxy</i>, came in, saluted us all, and took seats. The business ended, Datto Ambutong rose from his stool, gave his hand to the major, +and then walked to the back of him to salute us. I thought I should like to handle the beautiful <i>bárong</i> which was to have served him in taking heads. The <i>Datto</i> complaisantly allowed me to draw it from the sheath <a id="d0e21120"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e21120">586</a>]</span>and pass it round to my friends. Sharp as a razor, it was the finest weapon of the class I had ever touched. The handle was +of carved ivory and Camagon wood (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e12149">314</a>), the whole instrument being valued at quite $100. Datto Timbang was watching, and the occasion was not a propitious one +for taking christian blood. + +</p> +<p>The following translation of a letter which Major Hugh L. Scott courteously gave me will serve to illustrate how lightly human +life is appreciated by the Moro. + + +</p> +<div class="blockquote"> +<p>This letter from your son, His Highness Datto Mohammed Dahiatul Kalbi, to my father, the Governor of Sulu, Major Scott, and +to my younger brother, Sali. + + +</p> +<p>I want to inform you that at 7 oʼclock in the morning of Saturday, we had a fight with Tallu. I have taken his head, but if +you will allow it, I will bury it, if my father will let me do that, because he is an Islam and I would commit an offence. +It scared my wife very much when she looked at the head in my house. Those that are dead were Sadalani, Namla, Muhamad, and +Salui. Beyond that I have not investigated. + + +</p> +<p>With greetings to my father and to my younger brother, I beg you, my younger brother, to let me bury the head, if my father +does not feel bad about it. If our father should not believe that the head is there, come to our house and see yourself, so +to be sure. I would not soil the faith my father has in me. To close I herewith send the kris of Orang Kaya Tallu. The end +of the pen. Sunday, February 23, 1904. + +</p> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>Whilst I was in Zamboanga in June, 1904, Datto Pedro Cuevas, of Basílan Island, sent a message over to say that there would +be no more trouble with certain pirates who had been caught, as he had cut off their heads. + +</p> +<p>It would fill a volume to recount the legends of the sharks near Cagayán de Joló which wreck ships; the Moro who heard the +voice of Allah rising from a floating cocoanut to urge him to denounce the Sultanʼs evil ways; the new prophet who could point +at any object and make it disappear, and a hundred other superstitious extravagances. +</p> +<hr class="tb"><p> + +</p> +<p>Joló (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e4846">149</a>), one of the prettiest places on earth, has been improved since the American occupation. Apart from the many new buildings +erected for military convenience, there is now a fine jetty with a tramway, a landing-stage for small vessels, a boysʼ and +a girlsʼ school, some new residences, etc. The municipality is under the presidency of a military officer, and the clean, +orderly aspect of the town is evidence of Anglo-Saxon energy in its administration. In 1904 there was only one drinking-saloon, +kept by a Bohemian-born American, who paid $6,000 a year for his monopoly licence. Much to the disgust <a id="d0e21152"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e21152">587</a>]</span>of the military, a society of well-intentioned temperance ladies in America procured the prohibition of alcohol-selling in +military canteens and Post Exchanges. The eastern extremity of Joló is appropriated for military purposes, and on the rising +ground is situated the stabling for the cavalry horses. There is a large military hospital, well appointed, and a club-house +for whites, overlooking the picturesque harbour. Outside the town walls towards the west the dwellings of natives, chiefly +from other islands in their origin, extend about a mile as far as Tulay, where the Sultan has a residence. On the way one +passes through the little square, in the centre of which stands a monument erected to commemorate the landing here of Gov.-General +Corcuera, April 17, 1638. During my last visit to Joló I called upon His Highness the Sultan at Tulay, accompanied by the +civil interpreter, Mr. J. Schück, whose late father I had known many years before.<a id="d0e21154src" href="#d0e21154" class="noteref">18</a> Tulay signifies <i>bridge</i> in Tagálog, and probably this place derives its name from the bridge spanning the rivulet, which forms a natural division +between this village and the Joló ex-mural western suburb. Just across the bridge, in most unattractive surroundings, stands +a roofed rough pile of wooden planks—the residence of the Sultan. At a few paces to the left of it one sees another gloomy +structure, smaller and more cheerless than the royal abode—it is the domicile of Hadji Butu, the Sultanʼs Prime Minister. + +</p> +<p>Passing through the ground-floor, which serves as a vestibule and storehouse for nondescript rubbish, I was met by several +armed Moros who conducted me up a dark staircase, the lid of which, at the top, was raised to admit me to the royal presence. +His Highness, the Majasari Hadji Mohammad Jamalul Kiram, reclining on a cane-bottomed sofa, graciously smiled, and extending +his hand towards me, motioned to me to take the chair in front of him, whilst Mr. Schück sat on the sofa beside the Sultan. +His Highness is about thirty-six years of age, short, thick set, wearing a slight moustache and his hair cropped very close. +With a cotton <i>sárong</i> around his loins, the nakedness of his body down to the waist was only covered by <i>jábul</i> (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e4694">146</a>) thrown loosely over him. Having explained that I was desirous of paying my respects to the son of the great Sultan whose +hospitality I had enjoyed years ago at Maybun, I was offered a cigar and the conversation commenced. Just at that moment came +the Prime Minister, who spoke a little English, and at the back of me, facing the Sultan, stood his trusted warriors in <a id="d0e21174"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e21174">588</a>]</span>semi-circle, attired in fantastic garments and armed to the teeth. From time to time a dependent would come, bend the knee +on the royal footstool and present the <i>buyo</i> box, or a message, or whatever His Highness called for. The footstool attracted my curiosity, and my eye was fixed on it +for a while until I could decipher the lettering, which was upside down. At last I made it out—“Van Houtenʼs Cocoa.” The audience-chamber +needs no minute description; it can be all summed up in bare boards, boxes, bundles, weapons, dirt, a dilapidated writing-desk, +a couple of old chairs, and the Sultanʼs sofa-seat. Of course the Sultan had a grievance. The Americans, he said, had appropriated +his pearl-fisheries, his tribute-money, and other sources of valuable income; they were diverting the taxes payable to him +into their own coffers, with detriment to his estate and his dignity as a ruler.<a id="d0e21179src" href="#d0e21179" class="noteref">19</a> The questions in dispute and his position generally were, he added, to be discussed between him and the Insular Government +in Manila in the following month. Naturally, the study of the man and his surroundings interested me far more than conversation +on a subject which was not my business. Speaking with warmth, at every gesture the <i>jábul</i> would slide down to his waist, exposing his bare breast, so that perhaps I saw more of the <i>Majasari</i> than is the privilege of most European visitors. On leave-taking His Highness graciously presented me with a handsome Moro +dress-sword and a betel-cutter set in a solid silver handle, and, in return, I sent him my portrait from Manila. + +</p> +<p>Exactly a month after my visit, the Sultan, accompanied by Major Scott, the Governor and Commander of Joló, came and made +a short stay in Manila, where he was conducted around town and to the presence of the authorities. Many valuable presents +were officially made to him, together with ₱5,000 pocket-money to console him for the postponement <i>sine die</i> of the “settlement” question. Driving round in wagonettes, his retinue saw the sights of the capital and made their purchases, +but the Sultan himself was strictly guarded from pressmen and others who might give local publicity to his claims. + +</p> +<p>Americaʼs policy with regard to the Sultan of Sulu and all other Sultans and <i>Dattos</i>, as expounded to me by the best American authorities, is as clear as crystal. They wish all these petty potentates were elsewhere; +but as that cannot be, they must be shorn of all power, princely dignity being out of harmony with American institutions. +Nevertheless, they can call themselves what they like among their own people, provided that in their relations with the Government +of the Islands they are to be simple citizens with dominion over their own <a id="d0e21200"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e21200">589</a>]</span>personal property, but not over that of others. There is to be no sovereign power, great or small, other than American, and +tribal wards are to supersede dattoships. The <i>Dattos</i> are more numerous than Continental barons, and of varying grades, from the Panglima Hassan type, possessor of fortresses, +commander of 5,000 men, down to the titular lord of four score acres who lounges in the village, in filthy raiment, closely +followed by two juveniles, the one carrying his bright metal <i>buyo</i> box, in case he needs a quid, and the other the bearer of the <i>bárong</i>, lest he must assert his dignity by force. America has decreed that from these and all their compeers the Philippines are +to be preserved. + +</p> +<p>In November, 1903, the District Governor of Zamboanga summoned the Manguiguin, or Sultan of Mindanao (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e4299">131</a>), and all the <i>Dattos</i> in his district to attend a durbar. The aged Sultan very reluctantly responded to the call, and, accompanied by his Prime +Minister, Datto Ducalat, and a large retinue, the royal party came in about 250 armed <i>vintas</i>. When they were within a few miles of the port they sent a message to ask if they would be allowed to salute with their <i>lantacas</i>, and the reply being in the affirmative, they entered the harbour with great <i>éclat</i>, amidst the booming of a hundred cannon. Interpreters put off to meet them and escorted them to the landing-stage, where +the District Governor waited to receive them. The Sultan wore a gorgeous turban, a royal <i>sárong</i> worked in thread of gold, and shoes with similar adornments. On landing, the old prince, trembling from top to toe, with +despairing glance clutched the arm of the Governor for protection. Never before had he seen the great city of Zamboanga; he +was overcome and terrified by its comparative grandeur, and possibly by the imposing figure of the six-foot Governor himself. +The police had to be called out to restrain the mobs who watched his arrival. On the other hand, as the Sultans, the <i>Dattos</i> and their suites together numbered about 600, and from other places by land about 400 more had come, all armed, many of the +townspeople, with traditional dread, shut themselves up in their houses, believing that such a vast assemblage of Moros might, +at any moment, commence a general massacre. It is well known that the question of public security did engage the attention +of the American authorities, for the gathering was indeed a formidable one, and at the moment General Wood was in Sulu Island, +leading his troops against Panglima Hassan. All the available forces were therefore held in readiness to meet any emergency. +With faltering footsteps and shaking like an aspen leaf, the Manguiguin, followed by his <i>Dattos</i>, approached the double lines of soldiers with fixed bayonets stationed on the quay. There was a pause; the Sultan, who in +his youthful days had known no fear, now realized the folly of walking into the jaws of death. But the Governor assured him, +through the interpreters, that he was doing him the greatest honour that could be rendered to any prince or to <a id="d0e21240"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e21240">590</a>]</span>the great president of the greatest republic. Only half convinced and full of suspicion, the Sultan walked on in a daze, as +though he were going to his last doom. Having emerged safely from this peril, the great durbar was held, and lasted some hours. +This was followed by a reception at the Army and Navy Club, where a throne was erected under a canopy for the Sultan, with +seats of honour around it for the chief <i>Dattos</i>. The reception over, the royal party was conducted to where waggons and teams awaited them to take them to a suburb at the +foothills of the great sierra. The Governor purposely had the biggest American horses and the largest vehicles brought out +to make an impression. The Sultan point blank refused to enter the waggon. He had run the gauntlet through rows of pointed +steel, and now new horrors awaited him. Perfectly bewildered at the sight of such enormous animals, he turned piteously to +his Prime Minister and invited him to lead the way. “I will follow your Highness,” the minister discreetly replied, but the +muscular Governor, Captain John P. Finley, ended the palaver by gently lifting the Sultan into the vehicle, whilst he himself +immediately entered it, and the timorous Prime Minister and suite summoned up courage to follow. During the drive the Governor +gave the word to the teamsters to detach the forecarriages on reaching the foothills and let the teams go. To the great amazement +of the Moro chiefs, the waggons suddenly became stationary, whilst the released horses galloped on ahead! The Sultan and his +suite glanced at each other speechless with fright. Surely now their last day had come! So this was the trick treacherously +prepared for them to segregate them from their fighting-men! But the teams were caught again, and the waggons brought them +safely back to the sight of the port and the <i>vintas</i>. Allah had turned the hearts of the great white men and rescued his chosen people in the hour of imminent danger. The durbar +was continued day by day until every point had been discussed. Meanwhile the Sultan and suite daily returned to their <i>vintas</i> afloat to eat, drink, and sleep, whilst in the town of Zamboanga the christian natives quaked, and crowds of Moros perambulated +the streets in rich and picturesque costumes, varying in design according to the usage of their tribes. Before the departure +of the royal visitor the troops were formed up, military evolutions were performed with clockwork precision, and volley after +volley was fired in the air. The Sultan declared he could never receive the Governor with such splendour, but he wanted him +to promise to return his visit. It was not politic, however, to agree to do so. And the Sultan and his people left, passing +once more through lines of troops with bayonets fixed, this time with a firmer step than when they landed, thanking the Great +Prophet for their happy deliverance from what had appeared to them a dreamland of dreadful novelty. + +</p> +<p>The Manguiguin of Mindanao was indeed “a man of sorrows and <a id="d0e21253"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e21253">591</a>]</span>acquainted with grief,” for in the days of his decrepitude he was jilted by the widow of Utto (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e4584">143</a>), the once celebrated Cottabato <i>Datto</i>, the idol of the Christian-haters. + +</p> +<p>Education is one of the chief concerns of the Moro Province Government. The efforts of the <i>School Department</i>, up to June 30, 1904, will be understood from the following official statistics, viz.<a id="d0e21269src" href="#d0e21269" class="noteref">20</a>:— + +</p> +<p>Teachers employed—15 Americans, 50 Christian Filipinos, and nine Mahometan Filipinos. + +</p> +<p>41 Schools were established. + +</p> +<p>2,114 Children were on the school rolls. + +</p> +<p>1,342 Christian children attended on average. + +</p> +<p>240 Moro children attended on average. + +</p> +<p>₱46,898.17 were expended in the School Department, of which ₱28,355.09 were disbursed in Zamboanga District. + +</p> +<p>Besides the public schools, the Jesuits are permitted to continue their excellent work of civilization and education in their +own schools wherever they have a mission established. + +</p> +<p>According to Moro custom the fruit of a manʼs labour belongs to the <i>Datto</i> who gives the man a subsistence. The Americans are teaching the man that the fruit of his labour is his own, and, for that +purpose, market-places are established at many centres on the coast with the hope of inculcating free-labour notions, so that +the seller can get cash for his goods and keep it. I visited three of these markets on the south coast of Mindanao, and also +the one in course of construction at Zamboanga (ward of Magay), where Governor John P. Finley was putting his heart and soul +into his scheme for creating an important Moro Exchange. By Legislative Council Act No. 55, the sum of ₱1,850 was appropriated +for its construction, and the Governor had succeeded in persuading the Moros themselves to contribute ₱1,300 towards its completion. +The Moros are urged to come in their produce-laden <i>vintas</i> and occupy the stalls erected for them in the large commodious market-shed, which has accommodation for carts and cattle +if need be. Boats of less than 15 tons gross are free of tax, licence, or documents (Phil. Com. Act No. 1354, of June 15, +1905). Whenever any trouble arises up the coast the Governorʼs official <i>vinta</i> is despatched, manned by Moros, under the command of the Governorʼs messenger, Hadji Nuño, a parvenu <i>Datto</i> whose name reveals his Spanish origin. + +</p> +<p>Everything within the powers of the Legislative Council of the Moro Province seems to have been done to introduce law, order, +and administrative uniformity, constrain violence, propagate knowledge and set the inhabitants on the path of morality and +prosperity. The result of a centuryʼs labour, at the present rate of development, might, however, be achieved in a decade +if the Insular Government had authority from Washington to relax the rigidity of the “Philippines for the <a id="d0e21304"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e21304">592</a>]</span>Filipinos” doctrine in the special case of the Moro Province. It is true the Moros are as much Filipinos as the rest of the +Philippine inhabitants, but it will be generations before they can know how to enjoy their birthright without the example +of energetic white men who are, naturally, unwilling to come and philanthropically devote their lives to “pulling the chestnuts +out of the fire” for the Moro. They want to reap some material advantage for themselves. Gen. Leonard Wood, in his First Annual +Report of the Moro Province, remarks:—“What is needed to develop this portion of the world is a suitable class of settlers, +bringing with them knowledge of modern agricultural methods, enterprise and some capital.... If he (the Moro) could see the +results ... it is believed that his ambition would be stimulated and that his development would be comparatively rapid. In +short, a scattering of good agriculturists throughout the province would be of inestimable value to the people. At the present +time such a class of settlers is <i>not</i> coming, and it is not believed they will come until much more liberal inducements are offered them, especially in the way +of obtaining land by settlement. Our standing among the people of these Islands has been much injured by the presence of a +large and tough class of so-called Americans whose energies have been principally extended in the construction, maintenance +and patronage of rum shops, which outnumber other American business establishments.” + +</p> +<p>The American who would go to Mindanao to settle on 40 acres of land could not be of the class desired.<a id="d0e21311src" href="#d0e21311" class="noteref">21</a> A maximum of 1,000 acres to an individual settler and 10,000 acres to a company of not less than five persons, would produce +a rapid and beneficial development of Mindanao and push on its civilization by giant strides. There would be little fear of +the nativesʼ rights being unduly encroached upon by whites if, in addition to the Homestead Law conditions, the period of +application for land were limited to two or three years from the promulgation of the law, with solid guarantees to prevent +a flood of bogus applications from land-grabbers. The Treasurer, in his First Annual Report of the Moro Province, says:—“It +is not reasonable to expect, under present conditions, any systematic effort on their (the Morosʼ) part to cultivate the soil, +as they know, as well as the powers that be, that they have no assurance that the land they will improve to-day will be <a id="d0e21317"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e21317">593</a>]</span>theirs to-morrow. They have title to not one foot of land, and no guarantee from the Government that present improvements +will be theirs when they are finally settled by the former. A liberal <i>land law</i> will also bring an influx of settlers and capital.... It will not only make this province the richest part of the Philippine +Islands and the State the beneficiary, but it will remove the necessity for the soldier in the field. No other legislation +is going to improve financial conditions here to any extent. There is no doubt the Government land unsettled and untouched +in this province amounts to 90 per cent. of all the tillable land, and equals in area and excels in richness that of all the +tillable land of Luzon.” + +</p> +<p>The District of Davao is far more developed agriculturally than the other four. Planters whom I know personally are opening +up land and producing large quantities of hemp, giving employment to Bagobos and others, but without any certainty about the +possession of the land. Inexhaustible forests of fine timber remain undisturbed, and are left to decay in the ordinary course +of nature, whilst shiploads of Oregon pine arrive for public works. My attendance at the public conferences on the timber-felling +question, before the Philippine Commission in Manila, did not help me to appreciate the policy underlying the Insular Governmentʼs +apparent reluctance to stimulate the development of the timber industry; indeed, it is not easy to follow the working of the +“Philippines for the Filipinos” policy in several details. + +</p> +<p>In 1904 General Wood recommended to the Philippine Commission the incorporation of the present provinces of Misámis and Surigao +in the Moro Province, seeing that the people of those provinces and the Moro Province belong to the same races and have identical +interests. As it is, the hill tribes of Misámis find themselves between two jurisdictions, and have to pass nearly a hundred +miles through the Moro Province to reach the sea coast—an anomaly which will no doubt be rectified by including the whole +Island of Mindanao in the Moro Province. + +</p> +<p>The American Governmentʼs abstinence from proselytism in dealing with the Moros is more likely to succeed than Spainʼs well-meant +“policy of attraction” adopted in the last years of her rule, for whatever progress this system made was counterbalanced by +the futile endeavour to induce the Mahometans to change their religion. Under the wise administration set in progress by General +Leonard Wood there is a hopeful future for Moroland. + +<a id="d0e21328"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e21328">594</a>]</span></p> +<div class="footnotes"> +<hr class="fnsep"> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e20522" href="#d0e20522src" class="noteref">1</a></span> <i>Hadji</i> signifies Knight, a title which any Mahometan can assume after having made the pilgrimage to Mecca. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e20527" href="#d0e20527src" class="noteref">2</a></span> The Americans occupied and the Spaniards evacuated Joló on May 20, 1899. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e20611" href="#d0e20611src" class="noteref">3</a></span> <i>Vide</i> Report of the Secretary of War for 1902, p. 18. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e20619" href="#d0e20619src" class="noteref">4</a></span> Camp Vicars is said to have an elevation of 2,000 feet above the sea. Lake Lanao is reputed to be 1,500 feet above sea-level. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e20641" href="#d0e20641src" class="noteref">5</a></span> <i>Vide</i> Captain J. J. Pershingʼs Report to the Adjutant-General in Manila, dated Camp Vicars, Mindanao, May 15, 1903. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e20657" href="#d0e20657src" class="noteref">6</a></span> <i>Vide</i> Brig.-General Sumnerʼs Report to the Adjutant-General in Manila, dated Zamboanga, Mindanao, June 13, 1903. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e20684" href="#d0e20684src" class="noteref">7</a></span> Maj.-General Leonard Wood, born October 9, 1860, was a doctor of medicine by profession. On the outbreak of war with Spain +he was appointed Colonel of the First Volunteer Cavalry in Cuba, with Mr. Roosevelt (now the United States President) as Lieut.-Colonel. +At the close of the war he was promoted to Brig.-General, and on December 13, 1899, received the appointment of Military Governor +of Cuba, which he held until the government of that island was transferred to Señor Palma Estrada, the first President of +the Cuban Republic. To his brilliant reputation for statesmanship gained in the Antilles, General Wood has now added the fame +of a successful organizer of the Southern Philippines. Beloved by his subordinates, his large-hearted geniality wins him the +admiration of all who know him, and even the respect of the savage whom he had to coerce. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e20694" href="#d0e20694src" class="noteref">8</a></span> <i>Mindanao</i>, the name of this southern island, signifies “Man of the Lake.” +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e20699" href="#d0e20699src" class="noteref">9</a></span> The limits and area of that portion of the Island under civil government are defined in Philippine Commission Acts Nos. 127 +and 128, amended by Act No. 787. It is approximately all that land north of 8° N. lat. and east of 123° 34′ E. long. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e20716" href="#d0e20716src" class="noteref">10</a></span> Under the above-cited Act No. 787, any military officer, from the commander of the district downwards, holding concurrent +civil office in the province receives his army pay, plus 20 per cent, of the same as remuneration for his civil service. The +combined emolument of a major-general as military commander and provincial governor would, therefore, be $9,000 gold. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e20739" href="#d0e20739src" class="noteref">11</a></span> Under Spanish rule the Moro country was divided thus:—Seven districts, namely, Zamboanga, Misámis, Surigao, Davao, Cottabato, +Basílan, and Lanao, all under the Gov.-General of Mindanao. Joló was ruled independently of Mindanao under another governor. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e20782" href="#d0e20782src" class="noteref">12</a></span> Up to June 30, 1904, there was a total of 12 municipalities organized. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e20789" href="#d0e20789src" class="noteref">13</a></span> Philippine Commission Act No. 787, Section 13, Clause II, provides that the Moro Government is to “vest in their local or +tribe rulers as nearly as possible the same authority over the people as they now exercise.” Clause L: “To enact laws for +the abolition of slavery, and the suppression of all slave-hunting and slave trade.” +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e20877" href="#d0e20877src" class="noteref">14</a></span> From a statement kindly furnished to me by the Military and Provincial Governor, Maj.-General Leonard Wood, June, 1904. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e20894" href="#d0e20894src" class="noteref">15</a></span> At Malábang about 500, at Párang-Párang 205, and at Joló 744. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e20960" href="#d0e20960src" class="noteref">16</a></span> <i>Kudaran͠gan Cotta </i>was situated on the north bank of the Rio Grande. Datto Piangʼs fort stands at the junction of this river and the Bacat River. +Fort Reina Regente, established in this neighbourhood, was the most inland Spanish stronghold in Mindanao, and was at one +period in Spanish times garrisoned by 800 to 1,000 convict troops (<i>disciplinarios</i>). +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e21053" href="#d0e21053src" class="noteref">17</a></span> <i>Panglima</i> signifies General, or Chief of Warriors. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e21154" href="#d0e21154src" class="noteref">18</a></span> The father of Mr. J. Schück was a German sea captain, who got into trouble with the Spaniards because he traded directly with +the Sultan of Sulu. His ship and all he possessed were seized, and Captain Schück decided to settle in the Island under the +protection of the Sultan. He took a Mora wife, became a very prosperous planter, and the Spaniards were eventually only too +glad to cultivate his friendship. He died in 1887, leaving three sons; one is the gentleman mentioned above, another is the +military interpreter, and the third manages the fine property and trading interests of the family. Mr. J. Schückʼs two sisters-in-law +are Moras. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e21179" href="#d0e21179src" class="noteref">19</a></span> <i>Vide</i> Legislative Council Act No. 51, relative to the Pearl Fisheries, in which the Sultan claims hereditary right. Also “Annual +Report of Maj.-General George W. Davis, 1903,” containing Colonel W. M. Wallaceʼs report to the Adjutant-General to the effect +that at Cagayán de Joló, on May 21, 1903, he gave instructions that the Sultanʼs emissaries were not to be allowed to collect +the customary ₱5 per capita of tribute. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e21269" href="#d0e21269src" class="noteref">20</a></span> <i>Vide</i> Report of the Moro Province for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1904. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e21311" href="#d0e21311src" class="noteref">21</a></span> Under the <i>Homestead Law</i>, 39.54 acres of Government land may be acquired by any citizen of the Philippine Islands or of the United States, and 2,530 +acres by a corporation. The grant or sale of such land is subject to occupancy and cultivation of the acreage for a period +of not less than five years, and during that period the purchaser or grantee cannot alienate or encumber the land or the title +thereto. Six consecutive monthsʼ absence from the land, during the above period of five years, cancels the grant. The land +granted under this Act cannot be seized for debt contracted prior to the grant. Many applications have already been made for +land under this Act. +</p> +</div> +</div> +<div id="d0e21329" class="div1"> +<h2 class="normal">The Spanish Friars, After 1898</h2> +<div class="argument"> +<p>The Aglipayan Schism. Education. Politics. Population.</p> +</div> +<p>With the American dominion came free cult. No public money is disbursed for the support of any religious creed. No restraint +is placed upon the practice of any religion exercised with due regard to morality. Proselytism in public schools is declared +illegal.<a id="d0e21337src" href="#d0e21337" class="noteref">1</a> The prolonged discussion of the friarsʼ position and claims encouraged them to hope that out of the labyrinthine negotiations +might emerge their restoration to the Philippine parishes. For a while, therefore, hundreds of them remained in Manila, others +anxiously watched the course of events from their refuges in the neighbouring British and Portuguese colonies, and the unpopular +Archbishop Bernardino Nozaleda only formally resigned the archbishopric of Manila years after he had left it. Having prudently +retired from the Colony during the Rebellion, he returned to it on the American occupation, and resumed his archiepiscopal +functions until the end of 1899. Preliminary negotiations in Church matters were facilitated by the fact of the Military Governor +of the Islands at the time being a Roman Catholic, an American army chaplain acting as chief intermediary between the lay +and ecclesiastical authorities. The common people were quite unable, at the outset, to comprehend that under American law +a friar could be in their midst without a shred of civil power or jurisdiction. There were Filipinos of all classes, some +in sympathy with the American cause, who were as loud in their denunciation of the proposed return of the friars as the most +intransigent insurgents. They thought of them most in their lay capacity of <a id="d0e21343"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e21343">595</a>]</span><i>de facto</i> Government agents all over the Islands. It cannot be said that the parish priests originally sought to discharge civil functions; +they did so, at first, only by order of their superiors, who were the <i>de facto</i> rulers in the capital, and afterwards by direct initiative of the lay authorities, because the Spanish Government was too +poor to employ civil officials. What their functions were is explained in Chapter <a href="#d0e6181">xii</a>. The complaints of the people against the friars constituted the leading theme of Dr. Rizalʼs writings, notably his “Noli +me tángere,” and the expulsion of the four obnoxious Religious Orders is claimed to have been one of the most important reforms +verbally promised in connexion with the alleged Treaty of Biac-na-bató. The allegation of the prelates and other members of +the regular clergy who gave evidence before the American Civil Commission in 1900, to the effect that the <i>Katipunan Society</i> members invaded the parishes only to murder the friars and rob the churches, should be weighed against the fact that two +hundred thousand Filipinos were ready to leave glowing life for grim death to rid the country of monastic rule. The townspeople, +apparently apathetic, were afraid to express their opinion of the friars until they were backed up by the physical force of +the <i>Katipunan</i> legions. It was the conflict of material interests and the friarsʼ censorship which created the breach between the vicar +and the people. The immorality of the friars was not general and by no means the chief ground, if any, for hostility against +them; the frailties of the few simply weakened the prestige of all and broke the pedestal of their moral superiority. My own +investigations convinced me that the friarsʼ incontinence was generally regarded with indifference by the people; concubinage +being so common among the Filipinos themselves it did not shock them in the pastorʼs case. Moreover, women were proud of the +paternity of their children begotten in their relationship to the friars. + +</p> +<p>When, on the American occupation, the friar question could be freely discussed, hot disputes at once ensued between the friar +party and the Philippine clergy, supported by the people. In the meantime, an Apostolic Delegate, Monsignor P. L. Chapelle,<a id="d0e21361src" href="#d0e21361" class="noteref">2</a> was appointed by the Pope, in agreement with the American Government, to endeavour to adjust the friar problem. The details +to be considered were manifold, but the questions which most interested the public were the return of the friars to the parishes +and the settlement of their property claims. Monsignor Chapelle so vigorously espoused the cause of the friars that he appeared +to be more their advocate than an independent judge in the controversy. Many friars, anxious to <a id="d0e21364"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e21364">596</a>]</span>quit the Islands, were dissuaded from doing so by this prelate.<a id="d0e21366src" href="#d0e21366" class="noteref">3</a> He arrived in Manila on January 2, 1900, and, without having made any personal investigations in the provinces, by the 16th +of April he deemed himself competent to declare that “the accusations adduced against them (the Religious Orders) are the +merest pretexts of shrewd and anti-American Filipino politicians.”<a id="d0e21371src" href="#d0e21371" class="noteref">4</a> As a matter of fact, nothing anti-American, or American, had any connexion with the subject. The struggle to expel the friars +from these Islands was initiated years before the Americans contemplated intervention in Philippine affairs. Open rebellion +was started against the friars twenty months before the Battle of Cavite. Nozaleda and Chapelle wished to appoint friars to +the provincial benefices, whilst protests against this proposal were coming from nearly every Christian quarter of the Colony. +The Filipinos desired to have the whole administration of the Church in their own hands and, if possible, to see every friar +leave the Archipelago. The representative Philippine clergy were Dr. Mariano Sevilla, Father Rojas, Father Changco, and Father +Singson. The great champions of the national cause were the first two, who stoutly opposed Nozaledaʼs schemes. Fierce discussions +arose between the parties; Father Sevilla and party defied Nozaleda to make the appointments he desired, and then sent a cablegram +to the Pope to the following effect:—“Archbishop and Apostolic Delegate want to appoint friars to the Philippine benefices. +The Philippine people strongly oppose. Schism imminent.” Father Sevilla could not be wheedled into agreeing to Nozaledaʼs +and Chapelleʼs plans, so he was sent to prison for two months in the <i>Calle de Anda</i>, Manila, and deportation to the Island of Guam was menacingly hinted at. When the reply came from Rome, disapproving of the +action of the two prelates, Father Sevilla was released from prison. Nevertheless, Nozaledaʼs wrath was unappeased. He then +proposed that the benefices should be shared between Filipinos and friars, whilst Father Sevilla insisted on the absolute +deposition of the friars. At this time there were 472 members of the four confraternities in the Islands, mostly in Manila.<a id="d0e21379src" href="#d0e21379" class="noteref">5</a> At a meeting of the Philippine clergy the expulsion of the friars was proposed and supported by a majority; but Father Sevilla +vetoed the resolution, and his ruling was obeyed. Moreover, he agreed that the friars should hold some benefices in and near +Manila and the ecclesiastical-educational employments in the colleges. “We,” said Father Sevilla, “are for the Church; let +them continue their work of education; it is not our function.” <a id="d0e21382"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e21382">597</a>]</span>Nozaleda then made advances towards Father Sevilla, and endeavoured to cajole him by the offer of an appointment, which he +repeatedly refused. Rome, for the time being, had overruled the question of the benefices contrary to Nozaledaʼs wish. For +the moment there was nothing further for the Philippine clergy to defend, but in their general interests Father Sevilla, their +spokesman, elected to remain in an independent position until after the retirement of Monsignor Chapelle, when Father Sevilla +became parish priest of Hagonoy (Bulacan). + +</p> +<p>The outcome of the controversy respecting the benefices was that the friars could be sent to those parishes where the people +were willing to receive them, without danger of giving rise to public disorder. This was in accordance with President McKinleyʼs +Instructions to the Taft Commission dated April 7, 1900,<a id="d0e21386src" href="#d0e21386" class="noteref">6</a> which says: “No form of religion and no minister of religion shall be forced upon any community or upon any citizen of the +Islands.” + +</p> +<p>Archbishop Nozaleda left for Spain, but did not relinquish his archbishopric until June, 1903.<a id="d0e21393src" href="#d0e21393" class="noteref">7</a> In his absence his office was administered by Father Martin Garcia Alcocér, the Spanish bishop of Cebú, whilst the bishopric +of Cebú was left in charge of a popular Chinese half-caste secular priest, Father Singson,<a id="d0e21396src" href="#d0e21396" class="noteref">8</a> who subsequently became vicar of Cebú on the appointment of an American prelate, Father Hendrichs, to the bishopric. + +</p> +<p>In the matter of the <i>Friarsʼ lands</i>, it was apparently impossible to arrive at any settlement with the friars themselves. The purchase of their estates was recommended +by the Insular Government, and the Congress at Washington favourably entertained that proposal. In many places the tenants +refused to pay rent to the friars, who then put forward the extraordinary suggestion that the Government should send an armed +force to coerce the tenants. The Government at once refused to do this, pointing out that the ordinary courts were open to +them the same as to all citizens. Truly the friars found themselves in a dilemma. By the rules of their Order they could not +sue in a court of law; but under the Spanish Government, which was always subservient to their will, they had been able to +obtain redress by force. Under the American Government these immunities and privileges ceased. + +</p> +<p>In 1902 the Civil Governor of the Philippines, Mr. W. H. Taft, visited the United States, and on May 9 in that year he was +commissioned by his Government to visit Rome on his way back to the Islands in order to negotiate the question of the friarsʼ +lands with the <a id="d0e21406"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e21406">598</a>]</span>Holy See. The instructions issued to him by the Secretary of War contain the following paragraphs, namely<a id="d0e21408src" href="#d0e21408" class="noteref">9</a>:— + +</p> +<p>One of the controlling principles of our Government is the complete separation of Church and State, with the entire freedom +of each from any control or interference by the other. This principle is imperative wherever American jurisdiction extends, +and no modification or shading thereof can be a subject of discussion. . . . By reason of the separation, the Religious Orders +can no longer perform, in behalf of the State, the duties in relation to public instruction and public charities formerly +resting upon them. . . . They find themselves the object of such hostility on the part of their tenantry against them as landlords, +and on the part of the people of the parishes against them as representatives of the former Government, that they are no longer +capable of serving any useful purpose for the Church. No rents can be collected from the populous communities occupying their +lands, unless it be by the intervention of the civil government with armed force. Speaking generally, for several years past +the friars, formerly installed over the parishes, have been unable to remain at their posts, and are collected in Manila with +the vain hope of returning. They will not be voluntarily accepted again by the people, and cannot be restored to their positions +except by forcible intervention on the part of the civil government, which the principles of our Government forbid....It is +for the interest of the Church, as well as for the State, that the landed proprietorship of the Religious Orders in the Philippine +Islands should cease, and that if the Church wishes...to continue its ministration among the people of the Islands...it should +seek other agents therefor. It is the wish of our Government, in case Congress shall grant authority, that the titles of the +Religious Orders to the large tracts of agricultural lands which they now hold shall be extinguished, but that full and fair +compensation shall be made therefor. It is not, however, deemed to be for the interests of the people of the Philippine Islands +that...a fund should thereby be created to be used for the attempted restoration of the friars to the parishes from which +they are now separated, with the consequent disturbance of law and order. Your errand will not be, in any sense or degree, +diplomatic in its nature; but will be purely a business matter of negotiation by you, as Governor of the Philippines, for +the purchase of property from the owners thereof, and the settlement of land titles.” + +</p> +<p>Governor Taft arrived in Rome in June, 1902, in the pontificate of His Holiness Leo XIII., whose Secretary of State was Cardinal +M. Rampolla. In Governor Taftʼs address to His Holiness, the following interesting passage occurs: “On behalf of the Philippine +Government, it is proposed to buy the lands of the Religious Orders with the hope that the funds thus furnished may lead to +their withdrawal from the <a id="d0e21415"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e21415">599</a>]</span>Islands, and, if necessary, a substitution therefor, as parish priests, of other priests whose presence would not be dangerous +to public order.” + +</p> +<p>In the document dated June 22, in reply to Governor Taftʼs address to His Holiness, Cardinal Rampolla says: “As to the Spanish +religious in particular belonging to the Orders mentioned in the instructions, not even they should be denied to return to +those parishes where the people are disposed to receive them without disturbance of public order . . . The Holy See will not +neglect to promote, at the same time, the better ecclesiastical education and training of the native clergy, in order to put +them in the way, according to their fitness, of <i>taking gradually</i> the place of the Religious Orders in the discharge of the pastoral functions. The Holy See likewise recognizes that in order +to reconcile more fully the feelings of the Filipinos to the religious possessing landed estates, <i>the sale of the same is conducive thereto</i>. The Holy See declares it is disposed to furnish the new Apostolic Delegate, who is to be sent to the Philippine Islands, +with necessary and opportune instructions in order to treat amicably this affair in understanding with the American Government +and the parties interested.” + +</p> +<p>In the same document the Holy See asked for indemnity for “the acts of vandalism perpetrated by the insurgents in the destruction +of churches and the appropriation of sacred vestments,” and also for the damage caused by the occupation by the American Government +of “episcopal palaces, seminaries, convents, rectories, and other buildings intended for worship.” The Holy See further claimed +“the right and the liberty of administering the pious trusts of ecclesiastical origin, or of Catholic foundation, which do +not owe their existence to the civil power exclusively”; also “suitable provisions for religious teaching in the public schools, +especially the primary.” + +</p> +<p>Governor Taft, in his reply to the Holy See, dated July 3, expressed regret at the suggested appointment of a new Apostolic +Delegate, and sought to bring the Holy See to a definite contract. For the settlement of the friarsʼ land question he proposed +“a tribunal of arbitration to be composed of five members—two to be appointed by His Holiness, two to be appointed by the +Philippine Government, and one, the fifth, to be selected by an indifferent person, like the Governor-General of India”; the +expenses to be defrayed wholly by the Philippine Government, and the tribunal to meet in the City of Manila not later than +January 1, 1903. He further proposed that the lands should be valued in Mexican dollars, and be paid for in three cash instalments +of three, six, and nine months after the report of the award and the delivery of the deeds. Furthermore, that “the payments +ought to be made to the person designated by the Holy See to receive the same,” on the condition that “no money shall be paid +for the lands to be purchased until proper conveyances for the land shall have been made to the Philippine <a id="d0e21429"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e21429">600</a>]</span>Government.” Another condition was “that all the members of the four Religious Orders of Dominicans, Agustinians, Recoletos, +and Franciscans now in the Islands shall withdraw therefrom after two years from the date of the first payment. An exception +is made in favour of any member of those Orders who has been able to avoid hostility of the people and to carry on his duties +as parish priest, in his parish outside Manila, from August, 1898, to date of this agreement,” because “it is certain that +such a priest is popular with the people.” Governor Taft adds: “Nothing will calm the fears of the people.... except the definite +knowledge ... that the Spanish friars of the four Orders are to leave the Islands at a definite time, and are not to return +to the parishes.” + +</p> +<p>Cardinal Rampolla replied on July 9 to Governor Taftʼs communication of July 3, which covered his proposed contract and enclosed +a counter project of convention, explaining as follows:—“The Holy See cannot accept the proposition of the Philippine Government +to recall from the Archipelago in a fixed time all the religious of Spanish nationality ... and to prevent their return in +the future. In effect, such a measure ... would be contrary to the positive rights guaranteed by the Treaty of Paris, and +would put, consequently, the Holy See in conflict with Spain ... Such a measure would be, in the eyes of the Filipinos and +of the entire Catholic world, the explicit confirmation of all the accusations brought against the said religious by their +enemies, accusations of which ... the evident exaggeration cannot be disputed. If the American Government, respecting, as +it does, individual rights, does not dare to interdict the Philippine soil to the Spanish religious ... how could the Pope +do it? The Holy See, in accord with the diocesan authorities, will not permit the return of the Spanish religious ... in the +parishes where their presence would provoke troubles.” + +</p> +<p>The Holy Seeʼs counter-proposal was cabled to the Secretary of War, who, in his reply dated July 14, which was tantamount +to a rejection of it, remarked: “The lay Catholic population and the parish priests of native and non-Spanish blood are practically +a unit in desiring both to expel the friars and to confiscate their lands ... This proposed confiscation, without compensation +for the Church lands, was one of the fundamental policies of the Insurgent Government under Aguinaldo.” As an alternative, +the Secretary of War accepted the proposal of the Holy See to send a new Apostolic Delegate, with necessary instructions to +negotiate the affair amicably. Therefore, in transmitting this reply to Cardinal Rampolla on July 15, Gov. Taft closed the +negotiations by stating: “I have the honour to request ... that the negotiations concerning the various subjects touched upon +in the proposals and counter-proposals be continued in Manila between the Apostolic Delegate and myself, on the broad lines +indicated <a id="d0e21435"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e21435">601</a>]</span>in this correspondence.... I much regret that we cannot now reach a more precise agreement....” + +</p> +<p>The receipt of this last communication was courteously acknowledged by Cardinal M. Rampolla on July 18, 1902, and Gov. Taft +then continued his journey to the Philippines.<a id="d0e21439src" href="#d0e21439" class="noteref">10</a> + +</p> +<p>Monsignor Chapelleʼs mission had entirely failed to achieve its purpose, and he retired from the Islands on the appointment +of the new Apostolic Delegate, Monsignor Giovanni Battista Guidi. Bora on April 27, 1852, this prelate was a man of great +culture and a distinguished linguist, who had travelled considerably. From Rome he proceeded to Washington, and, with the +United States <i>exequatur</i>, he entered Manila on November 18, 1902, and died there on June 26, 1904. During his mission the conditions of the friarsʼ +land settlement were embodied in a contract dated December 28, 1903, whereby the United States undertook to pay, within six +months from date, the sum of $7,227,000 gold in exchange for the title-deeds and conveyances of all the rural lands belonging +to the three corporations possessing such—namely, the Dominicans, Agustinians, and Recoletos.<a id="d0e21447src" href="#d0e21447" class="noteref">11</a> To cover this purchase, bonds were issued in America for $7,000,000 bearing 4 per cent, interest per annum; but, as the bonds +obtained a premium on the money market, the total amount realized on the issue was $7,530,370. It remained, therefore, with +the corporations themselves to deliver the title-deeds, but on personal inquiry of the Gov.-General in the month of July following +I learnt that up to that date they had only partially fulfilled this condition. This, however, concerns them more than it +does the American Government, which is ready to pay for value received. The approximate extent of the friarsʼ lands is as +follows<a id="d0e21450src" href="#d0e21450" class="noteref">12</a>:— + + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top"><b>Province. </b></td> +<td valign="top"><b>Acres. + +</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Cavite. </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">121,747 </td> +<td valign="top" rowspan="7">Some held for centuries. None less than one generation. + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">La Laguna </td> +<td valign="top"> 62,172 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Rizal </td> +<td valign="top"> 50,145 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Bulacan </td> +<td valign="top"> 39,441 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Rizal (Mórong) </td> +<td valign="top"> 4,940 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Bataán </td> +<td valign="top"> 1,000 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Cebú </td> +<td valign="top"> 16,413 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Cagayán </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 49,400 </td> +<td valign="top">Govʼt. grant to Austin friars, Sept. 25, 1880. + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Mindoro </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 58,455 </td> +<td valign="top">Govʼt. grant to Recoleto friars in 1894. + + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Total </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">403,713</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + +<a id="d0e21520"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e21520">602</a>]</span></p> +<p>The purchase negotiations became all the more complicated because, from 1893 onwards, the Religious Orders had sold some of +their lands to speculators who undertook to form companies to work them; however, the friars were the largest stockholders +in these concerns. + +</p> +<p>As the lands become State property they will be offered to the tenants at the time being at cost price, payable in long terms +with moderate interest. The annual compounded sum will be only a trifle more than the rent hitherto paid.<a id="d0e21525src" href="#d0e21525" class="noteref">13</a> + +</p> +<p>As Governor Taft stated before the United States Senate, it would be impolitic to allow the tenants to possess the lands without +payment, because such a plan would be promotive of socialistic ideas. The friarsʼ land referred to does not include their +urban property in and around Manila, which, with the buildings thereon, they are allowed to retain for the maintenance of +those members of their Orders who still hope to remain in the Islands. In July, 1904, there were about 350 friars in the Islands, +including the Recoletos in Cavite and the few who were amicably received by the people in provincial parishes, exclusively +in their sacerdotal capacity. At this period, at least, the Filipinos were not unanimous in rejecting friars as parish priests. +Bishop Hendrichs, of Cebú, told me that he had received a deputation of natives from Bojol Island, begging him to appoint +friars to their parishes. In May, 1903, the <i lang="es">Centro Católico</i>, a body of lay Filipinos, well enough educated to understand the new position of the clergy, addressed a memorial to the +Papal delegate, Monsignor Guidi, expressing their earnest desire for the retention of the friars. In the localities where +their presence is desired their influence over the people is great. Their return to such parishes is well worth considering. +Their ability to restrain the natives extravagances is superior to that of any lay authority, and it is obvious that, under +the new conditions of government, they could never again produce a conflict like that of the past. + +</p> +<p>The administrator of the archbishopric of Manila, Father Martin Garcia Alcocér, retired to Spain (October 25, 1903) on the +appointment of the present American Archbishop, Monsignor Jeremiah J. Harty, who arrived in the capital in January, 1904. +He is a man of pleasing countenance, commanding presence, and an impressive orator. Since 1898 churches and chapels of many +denominations and creeds have been opened in the Islands. Natives join them from various motives, for it would be venturesome +to assert that they are all moved by religious conviction. In Zamboanga I had the pleasure of meeting an enthusiastic propagandist, +who assured me with pride that he had drawn quite a number of christian natives from their old belief. His sincerity of purpose +enlisted my admiration, but his explanation of the <a id="d0e21540"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e21540">603</a>]</span>advantages accruing to his neophytes was too recondite for my understanding. + +</p> +<p>The limpid purity of purpose in the lofty ideal of uplifting all humanity, so characteristic of the Roman Catholic Church +in Europe, was unfortunately obscured in the latter days of Spanish dominion in these Islands by the multifarious devices +to convert the Church into a money-making channel. If the true religious spirit ever pervaded the provincial Filipinoʼs mind, +it was quickly impaired in his struggle to resist the pastorʼs greed, unless he yielded to it and developed into a fanatic +or a monomaniac.<a id="d0e21544src" href="#d0e21544" class="noteref">14</a> + +</p> +<p>Astute Filipinos, of quicker discernment than their fellows, did not fail to perceive the material advantages to be reaped +from a religious system, quite apart from the religion itself, in the power of union and its pecuniary potentiality. As a +result thereof there came into existence, at the close of Spanish rule, the <i>Philippine Independent Church</i>, more popularly known as the <i>Aglipayan Church</i>. Some eight or nine years before the Philippine Rebellion a young Filipino went to Spain, where he imbibed the socialistic, +almost anarchical, views of such political extremists as Lerroux and Blasco-Ybañez. By nature of a revolutionary spirit, the +doctrines of these politicians fascinated him so far as to convert him into an intransigent opponent of Spanish rule in his +native country. In 1891 he went to London, where the circumstance of the visit of the two priests alluded to at p. <a href="#d0e15388">383</a> was related to him. He saw in their suggestion a powerful factor for undermining the supremacy of the friars. The young Filipino +pondered seriously over it, and when the events of 1898 created the opportunity, he returned to the Islands impressed with +the belief that independence could only be gained by union, and that a pseudo-religious organization was a good medium for +that union. + +</p> +<p>The antecedents and the subsequent career of the initiator of the Philippine Independent Church would not lead one to suppose +that there was more religion in him than there was in the scheme itself. The principle involved was purely that of independence; +the incidence of its development being in this case pseudo-religious, with the view of substituting the Filipino for the alien +in his possession of sway over the Filipinosʼ minds, for a purpose. The initiator of the scheme, not being himself a gownsman, +was naturally constrained to delegate its execution to a priest, whilst he organized another union, under a different title, +which finally brought incarceration to himself and disaster to his successor. + + +</p> +<p></p> +<div id="d0e21561" class="figure"><img border="0" src="images/p604.jpg" alt="The Rt. Rev. Bishop Gregorio Aglípay" width="511" height="720"><p class="figureHead">The Rt. Rev. Bishop Gregorio Aglípay</p> +<p>High Bishop of the Philippine Independent Church.</p> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>Gregorio Aglípay, the head of the Philippine Independent, or Aglipayan, Church, was born at Bátac, in the province of Ilocos +Norte, <a id="d0e21569"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e21569">604</a>]</span>on May 7, 1860, of poor parents, who owned a patch of tobacco land on which young Gregorio worked. Together with his father, +he was led to prison at the age of sixteen for not having planted the obligatory minimum of 4,000 plants (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e11250">294</a>). On his release he left field-work and went to Manila, where he took his first lessons at the house of a Philippine lawyer, +Julian Cárpio. Two years afterwards, whilst working in a menial capacity, he attended the school of San Juan de Letran. Through +a poor relation he was recommended to the notice of the Dominican friars, under whose patronage he entered Saint Thomasʼs +University, where he graduated in philosophy and arts. Then he returned to his province, entered the seminary, and became +a sub-deacon of the diocese of Nueva Segovia. In 1889 he was ordained a priest in Manila, Canon Sanchez Luna being his sponsor, +and he said his first mass in the church of Santa Cruz. Although the friars had frequently admonished him for his liberal +tendencies, he was appointed coadjutor curate of several provincial parishes, and was acting in that capacity at Victoria +(Tárlac) when the rebellion of 1896 broke out. About that time he received a warning from a native priest in another parish +that the Spaniards would certainly arrest him on suspicion of being in sympathy with the rebels. In fear of his life he escaped +to Manila, where he found a staunch friend in Canon Sanchez Luna, who allowed him to stay at his house on the pretext of illness. +Canon Luna, who was a Spaniard, obtained from Gov.-General Blanco papers in favour of Aglípay to ensure his safety back to +Victoria. Aglípay then left the capital, making use of the safe-conduct pass to go straight to the rebel camp, where, with +the title of chaplain to General Tinioʼs forces, he was present at several engagements and enjoyed the friendship of General +Emilio Aguinaldo. The Malolos Government appointed him Vicar-General, and after the War of Independence broke out he assumed +command of a large body of insurgents in the mountain region of his native province. In 1899 he proclaimed himself chief of +the Philippine Independent Church, whereupon the Archbishop publicly excommunicated him. Later on he voluntarily presented +himself to the military authorities, and obtained pardon under the amnesty proclamation. + +</p> +<p>Dr. Mariano Sevilla and several other most enlightened Philippine priests were in friendly relation with Aglípay for some +time, but eventually various circumstances contributed to alienate them from his cause. In his overtures towards those whose +co-operation he sought there was a notable want of frankness and a disposition to treat them with that diplomatic reserve +compatible only with negotiations between two adverse parties. His association with the lay initiator of the scheme, unrevealed +at the outset, incidentally came to their knowledge with surprise and disapproval. Judging, too, from the well-known tenets +of the initiatorʼs associates, there was a suspicion lest the proposed Philippine Independent Church were really only a detail +in a <a id="d0e21579"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e21579">605</a>]</span>more comprehensive plan involving absolute separation from foreign control in any shape. Again, he hesitated openly to declare +his views with respect to the relations with Rome. Conscience here seemed to play a lesser part than expediency. The millions +in the world who conscientiously disclaim the supremacy of the Pope, at least openly avow it. In the present case the question +of submission to, or rebellion against, the Apostolic successor was quite subordinate to the material success of the plans +for independence. It is difficult to see in all this the evidence of religious conviction. + +</p> +<p>Dr. Sevilla had been requested to proceed to Rome to submit to the Holy Father the aspirations of the Philippine people with +respect to Church matters, and he consented to do so, provided the movement did not in any way affect their absolute submission +to the Holy See, and that the Philippine Church should remain a Catholic Apostolic Church, with the sole difference that its +administration should be confided to the Filipinos instead of to foreigners, if that reform met with the approval of his Holiness.<a id="d0e21583src" href="#d0e21583" class="noteref">15</a> + +</p> +<p>Only at this stage did Aglípay admit that he sought independence of Rome; thereupon the Philippine clergy of distinction abandoned +all thought of participation in the new movement, or of any action which implied dictation to the Holy See. Nevertheless, +two native priests were commissioned to go to Rome to seek the Popeʼs sanction for the establishment of an exclusively Philippine +hierarchy under the supreme authority of the Pope. But His Holiness immediately dismissed the delegates with a <i>non possumus</i>. The petition to His Holiness was apparently only the prelude to the ultimate design to repudiate the white manʼs control +in matters ecclesiastical, and possibly more beyond. + +</p> +<p>Gregorio Aglípay then openly threw off allegiance to the Pope, went to Manila, and in the suburb of Tondo proclaimed himself +<i lang="es">Obispo Máximo</i> (<i lang="la">Pontifex Maximus</i>) of his new Church. +<a id="d0e21608"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e21608">606</a>]</span></p> +<p>His sect at once found many followers in the provinces of Rizal, Bulacan and Ilocos, and eventually spread more or less over +the other christian provinces. The movement is strongest in Ilocos, where several parishes, indeed, have no other priest than +an Aglipayan. This district is part of the bishopric of Nueva Segovia, now administered by the American Bishop Dougherty. +As to the number of Aglipayan adherents, no reliable figures are procurable from any source, but it is certain they amount +to thousands. I found Aglipayans as far south as Zamboanga. Just a few priests ordained in the Roman Catholic Church have +joined the schismatic cause. One of these repented and offered his submission to the administrator of the archbishopric (Father +Martin Alcocér), who pardoned his frailty and received him again into the Church. No period of preparation was necessary, +at least in the beginning, for the ordination of an Aglipayan priest. He might have been a domestic servant, an artisan, or +a loafer shortly before; hence many would-be converts refused to join when they saw their own or their friendsʼ retainers +suddenly elevated to the priesthood. At Ylígan (Mindanao Is.) an American official arrested a man, tonsured and robed as a +priest in an Aglipayan procession, on a charge of homicide. In 1904 they had not half a dozen well-built churches of their +own, but mat-sheds for their meetings were to be seen in many towns. In the year 1903 these sectarians made repeated raids +on Roman Catholic property, and attempted to gain possession of the churches by force. Riots ensued, religion seemed to be +forgotten by both parties in the <i>mélée</i>, and several were given time for reflection in prison. In April, 1904, at Talisay and Minglanilla (Cebú Is.), they succeeded +in occupying the churches and property claimed by the friars, and refused to vacate them. In the following month an Aglipayan +priest, Bonifacio Purganan, was fined $25 for having taken forcible possession of the Chapel of Peñafrancia (Paco suburb of +Manila). In the province of Yloilo the Aglipayans were forcibly ejected from the church of La Paz. In 1904 they entered a +claim on the novel plea that, as many churches had been subscribed to or partially erected at their expense before they seceded +from the Catholic Church, they were entitled to a restitution of their donations. The Catholics were anxious to have the contention +decided in a formal and definite manner, and the case was heard at the Court of Guagua (Pampanga). The decision was against +the sectarians, on the ground that what had been once given for a specific purpose could not be restored to the donor, or +its application diverted from the original channel, notwithstanding any subsequent change in the views of the donor. It was +probably in consequence of these disputes that in January, 1905, the Secretary of War approved of a proposed Act of the Insular +Government conferring authority upon the Supreme Court of these Islands to hear cases relating to Church property claims and +pronounce a final decision thereon. +<a id="d0e21614"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e21614">607</a>]</span></p> +<p>Up to the middle of 1904 the particular doctrines of the Philippine Independent Church were not yet defined, and the Aglipayans +professed to follow the Roman ritual. It was intended, however, to introduce reforms of fundamental importance. For two days +and a half I travelled in company with the titular Aglipayan ecclesiastical governor of the Visayas, from whom I learnt much +concerning the opinions of his sect. It appears that many are opposed to celibacy of the clergy and auricular confession. +My companion himself rejected the biblical account of the Creation, the doctrine of original sin, hereditary responsibility, +the deity of Christ, and the need for the Atonement. His conception of the relations between God and mankind was a curious +admixture of Darwinism and Rationalism; everything beyond the scope of human reasoning had but a slender hold on his mind. + +</p> +<p>It is most probable that the majority of Aglipayans have given no thought as to the possible application of the power of union +in this particular form, and that their adhesion to the movement is merely a natural reaction following the suppression of +sacerdotal tyranny—an extravagant sense of untrammelled thought which time may modify by sober reflection when it is generally +seen that the clergy of the Roman Catholic Church henceforth strictly limit themselves to the exercise of their proper functions. +With the hope of re-establishing peace and conformity in the Church, His Holiness Pope Pius X. sent to the Islands his new +Apostolic Delegate, Monsignor Ambrose Agius, who reached Manila on February 6, 1905.<a id="d0e21619src" href="#d0e21619" class="noteref">16</a> + +</p> +<p>It is doubtful whether the native parish priest, bereft of the white manʼs control, would have sufficient firmness of character +to overcome his own frailties and lead his flock in the true path. Under a Philippine hierarchy there would be a danger of +the natives reverting to paganism and fetichism. There have been many indications of that tendency from years back up to the +present. Only a minority of native Christians seem to have grasped the true spirit of Christianity. All that appeals to the +eye in the rites and ceremonies impresses them—the glamour and pomp of the procession attract them; they are very fervent +in outward observances, but ever prone to stray towards the idolatrous. A pretended apparition of the Blessed Virgin is an +old profitable trick of the natives, practised as recently as December, 1904, in the village of <a id="d0e21624"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e21624">608</a>]</span>Namacpacan (Ilocos), where a woman, who declared the Virgin had appeared to her in the <i>form</i> of the Immaculate Conception and cured her bad leg, made a small fortune in conjunction with a native priest. In May, 1904, +a small party of fanatics was seen on the Manila seashore going through some pseudo-religious antics, the chief feature of +which was a sea-bath. Profiting by the liberty of cult now existing, it is alleged that the spirits of the departed have made +known their presence to certain Filipinos. A native medium has been found, and the pranks which the spirits are said to play +on those who believe in them have been practised, with all their orthodox frolic, on certain converts to the system. Tables +dance jigs, mysterious messages are received, and the conjuring celestials manifest their power by displacing household articles. +The <i>Coloram</i> sect of the southern Luzon provinces has, it is estimated, over 50,000 adherents whose worship is a jumble of perverted Christian +mysticism and idolatry. The <i>Baibailanes</i> of Negros are not entirely pagans; there is just a glimmer of Christian precept mingled in their belief, whilst the scores +of religious monomaniacs and saint-hawkers who appear from time to time present only a burlesque imitation of christian doctrine. +</p> +<hr class="tb"><p> + +</p> +<p>Great progress has been made in the direction of <span class="smallcaps">Education</span>.<a id="d0e21642src" href="#d0e21642" class="noteref">17</a> Schools of different grades have been established throughout the Archipelago, and the well-intentioned efforts of the Government +have been responded to by the natives with an astonishing alacrity. Since September 3, 1900, night-schools have also been +opened for students to attend after their dayʼs work. The natives exhibit great readiness to learn, many of them having already +attained a very high standard—a fact which I had the opportunity of verifying through the courtesy of Dr. David P. Barrows, +the able General Superintendent of Education, and his efficient staff. Both the higher schools and the night-schools are well +attended. A special eagerness to learn English is very apparent, and they acquire the language quickly up to a certain point. +In September, 1903,<a id="d0e21645src" href="#d0e21645" class="noteref">18</a> out of the 934 towns in the Islands, 338 were supplied with American teachers, the total number of teachers in the Archipelago +being 691 Americans and 2,496 Filipinos. The night-schools were attended by 8,595 scholars. The percentage of school-children +who frequented the day-schools was as follows: In Manila, 10 per cent.; in Nueva Vizcaya Province, 77 per cent. (the highest); +and in Parágua Island, 5 per cent. (the lowest). The average attendance throughout the provinces was 13 per cent. of the total +population of school-children. + +</p> +<p>Education has received the greatest solicitude of the Insular <a id="d0e21652"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e21652">609</a>]</span>Government; and Dr. Barrows informed me that at the end of June, 1904, there were 865 American teachers in the Islands (including +about 200 female teachers), 4,000 Philippine teachers of both sexes, and a school attendance throughout the Colony of 227,600 +children. For the youngest children there are now seven kindergarten schools in Manila, and more applications for admission +than can be satisfied. + +</p> +<p>The <i>Normal School</i>, situated in the Manila suburb of Ermita, is a splendidly-equipped establishment, organized in the year 1901 with a branch +for training Filipinos to become teachers in the public schools. The buildings are four of those (including the main structure) +which served for the Philippine Exhibition some years ago. They contain an assembly hall, fourteen class-rooms, two laboratories, +store-rooms, and the principalʼs office. In the same suburb, close to the school, there is a dormitory for the accommodation +of forty girl boarders coming from the provinces. The school is open to both sexes on equal terms, subject to the presentation +of a certificate of character and a preliminary examination to ascertain if they can understand written and spoken English +and intelligibly express their thoughts in that language. The training covers four years, with the following syllabus, viz.:— + + +</p> +<table> +<tr valign="top"> +<td> +<ul> +<li>Algebra. + +</li> +<li>Arithmetic. + +</li> +<li>Botany. + +</li> +<li>Drawing. + +</li> +<li>English. + +</li> +<li>General History. + +</li> +<li>Geography. + +</li> +<li>Music. + +</li> +</ul> +</td> +<td> +<ul> +<li>Nature-study. + +</li> +<li>Philippine History. + +</li> +<li>Physics. + +</li> +<li>Physiology and Hygiene. + +</li> +<li>Professional Training. + +</li> +<li>United States History. + +</li> +<li>Zoology.</li> +</ul> +</td> +</tr> +</table><p> + + +</p> +<p>The training-class for children ranging from five to eleven years serves a double purpose by enabling student-teachers to +put into practice the theory of professional training under supervision. For the training of youths who intend to follow a +trade, there is a branch <i>School of Arts and Trades</i> equipped with class-rooms, workshops, mechanical and architectural drawing-rooms, and the allied branches of industry. The +subjects taught are:— + + +</p> +<table> +<tr valign="top"> +<td> +<ul> +<li>Architectural Drawing. + +</li> +<li>Blacksmithing. + +</li> +<li>Cabinet-making. + +</li> +<li>Carpentry. + +</li> +<li>Cooking. + +</li> +<li>Machine-shop Practice. + +</li> +<li>Mathematics. + +</li> +<li>Mechanical Drawing. + +</li> +</ul> +</td> +<td> +<ul> +<li>Plumbing. + +</li> +<li>Steam Engineering. + +</li> +<li>Stenography. + +</li> +<li>Telegraphy. + +</li> +<li>Tinsmithing. + +</li> +<li>Typewriting. + +</li> +<li>Wood-carving.</li> +</ul> +</td> +</tr> +</table><p> + + +</p> +<p>There is also a night-class for those working in the daytime who desire to extend their theoretical knowledge. + +</p> +<p>The <i>Nautical School</i> (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e6048">195</a>), established in Spanish times, is continued with certain reforms, additions having been made to the equipment. American +naval officers have undertaken its superintendence from time to time, and it is now under the direction of a civilian graduate +of the United States Naval Academy. The instruction ranges from history and geography to practical seamanship, with all the +intermediate scientific <a id="d0e21741"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e21741">610</a>]</span>subjects. Graduates of this school obtain third-mateʼs certificates, and many of them are actually navigating in the waters +of the Archipelago. + +</p> +<p>A course of study in <i>Vocal Music</i> is also offered to Normal School students, and this may possibly lead to the first discovery of a fine Philippine musical +voice. + +</p> +<p>There is also a <i>Public School for Chinese</i> situated in the <i lang="es">Calle de la Asuncion</i>, in the business quarter of Binondo (Manila). + +</p> +<p>In the <i>Saint Thomasʼs University</i> (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e5949">194</a>) there are few changes. The diplomas now issued to students in Law and Medicine are only honorific. With or without this +diploma a student must pass an examination at the centres established by the Americans for the faculties of Law and Medicine +before he can practise, and the same obligation applies to Americans who may arrive, otherwise qualified, in the Islands. +Practical instruction in the healing art, or “walking the hospitals,” as it is called in England, is given at the <i>San Juan de Dios Hospital</i> as heretofore. The theoretical tuition in these faculties is furnished at the <i>College of San José</i>. Besides the Government schools, there are many others continuing the Spanish system, such as the <i>Colegio de San Juan de Dios</i>, where, besides the usual subjects taught, the syllabus is as follows:— + + +</p> +<table> +<tr valign="top"> +<td> +<ul> +<li>Commerce. + +</li> +<li>Drawing. + +</li> +<li>Japanese Language. + +</li> +<li>Modelling in Plaster. + +</li> +<li>Piano, Violin. + +</li> +</ul> +</td> +<td> +<ul> +<li>Sketching from Nature. + +</li> +<li>Stenography. + +</li> +<li>Typewriting. + +</li> +<li>Watercolouring. + +</li> +<li>And preparation for the B.A. examination.</li> +</ul> +</td> +</tr> +</table><p> + + +</p> +<p>The <i>Seminario Central de San Javier</i>, under Jesuit superintendence, is really intended for students proposing to enter the Church. Many, however, follow the course +of study and enter civil life. In the large provincial towns there are Spanish schools, and at Dagúpan the <i>Colegio Instituto</i> follows the same curriculum as that established in the Manila <i>College of San Juan de Letran</i>. In Spanish times Jaro was the educational centre of the Visayas Islands. Since the American advent Yloilo has superseded +Jaro in that respect, and a large school is about to be erected on 75 acres of land given by several generous donors for the +purpose. The system of education is uniform throughout the Islands, where schools of all grades are established, and others +are in course of foundation in every municipality. Including about ₱1,000,000 disbursed annually for the schools by the municipalities, +the cost of Education is about 20 per cent, of the total revenue—a sum out of all proportion to the taxpayersʼ ability to +contribute. + +</p> +<p>According to the Philippine Commission Act No. 1123, of April, 1904, the official language will be English from January 1, +1906. It will be used in court proceedings, and no person will be eligible for Government service who does not know that language. + +</p> +<p>In general the popular desire for education is very pronounced. <a id="d0e21813"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e21813">611</a>]</span>American opinion as to the capability of the Filipinos to attain a high degree of learning and <i>maintain</i> it seems much divided, for many return to America and publicly express pessimistic views on this point. In daily conversation +with young middle-class Filipinos one can readily see that the ambition of the majority is limited to the acquisition of sufficient +English to qualify them for Government employment or commercial occupations. The industries of the Islands are relatively +insignificant. The true source of their wealth is agriculture. In most, not to say all, tropical countries, the educated native +shuns manual labour, and with this tendency dominant in the Filipino, it is difficult to foresee what may happen as education +advances. The history of the world shows that national prosperity has first come from industrial development, with the desire +and the need for education following as a natural sequence. To have free intercourse with the outside world it is necessary +to know a European language. This is recognized even in Japan, where, notwithstanding its independent nationality, half the +best-educated classes speak some European tongue. If the majority of the Filipinos had understood Spanish at the period of +the American advent, it might be a matter of regret that this language was not officially preserved on account of the superior +beauty of all Latin languages; but such was not the case. Millions still only speak the many dialects; and to carry out the +present system of education a common speech-medium becomes a necessity. However, generations will pass away before native +idiom will cease to be the vulgar tongue, and the engrafted speech anything more than the official and polite language of +the better classes. The old belief of colonizing nations that European language and European dress alone impart civilization +to the Oriental is an exploded theory. The Asiatic can be more easily moulded and subjected to the ways and the will of the +white man by treating with him in his native language. It is difficult to gain his entire confidence through the medium of +a foreign tongue. The Spanish friars understood this thoroughly. It is a deplorable fact that the common people of Asia generally +acquire only the bad qualities of the European concurrently with his language, lose many of their own natural characteristics, +which are often charmingly simple, and become morally perverted. + +</p> +<p>The best native servants are those who can only speak their mother-tongue. In times past the rustic who came to speak Spanish +was loth to follow the plough. If an English farm labourer should learn Spanish, perhaps he would be equally loth. One may +therefore assume that if the common people should come to acquire the English language, agricultural coolie labour would become +a necessity. In 1903 one hundred Philippine youths were sent, at Government expense, to various schools in America for a four-yearsʼ +course of tuition. It is to be hoped that they will return to their homes impressed with the dignity of labour <a id="d0e21820"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e21820">612</a>]</span>and be more anxious to develop the natural resources of the country than to live at the expense of the taxpayers. + +</p> +<p>Since the Rebellion, and especially since the American advent, a great number of Filipinos have migrated to the adjacent British +colonies, China, Japan, America, and Europe. There is a small colony of rich Filipinos in Paris, and about 50 or 60 (principally +students) in England. They have no nationality, and are officially described as “Filipinos under the protection of the United +States.” When the Treaty of Paris was being negotiated, the Spanish Commissioners wished to have the option of nationality +conceded to all persons hitherto under the dominion of Spain in the ceded colonies; but the American Commissioners rejected +the proposal, which might have placed their country in the peculiar position of administering a colony of foreigners. + +</p> +<p>In 1904 the Government sent selected groups of the different Philippine wild and semi-civilized races to the St. Louis Exhibition, +where they were on view for several months; also a Philippine Commission, composed of educated Filipinos, was sent, at public +expense, to St. Louis and several cities in America, including Washington, where the President received and entertained its +members. Many of the members of this Commission were chosen from what is called the <i>Federal Party</i>. In the old days politics played no part in Philippine life. The people were either anti-friar or conformists to the <i>status quo</i>. The Revolution, however, brought into existence several distinct parties, and developed the natural disintegrating tendency +of the Filipinos to split up into factions on any matter of common concern. The Spanish reform party, led by Pedro A. Paterno, +collapsed when all hope was irretrievably lost, and its leader passed over to Aguinaldoʼs party of sovereign independence. +To-day there is practically only one organized party—the Federal—because there is no legislative assembly or authorized channel +for the legitimate expression of opposite views. The Federal Party, which is almost entirely anti-clerical, comprises all +those who unreservedly endorse and accept American dominion and legislation. They are colloquially alluded to as “Americanistas.” +Through the tempting offers of civil service positions with emoluments large as compared with times gone by, many leading +men have been attracted to this party, the smarter half-caste predominating over the pure Oriental in the higher employments. +There are other groups, however, which may be called parties in embryo, awaiting the opportunity for free discussion in the +coining <i>Philippine Assembly</i>.<a id="d0e21835src" href="#d0e21835" class="noteref">19</a> Present indications <a id="d0e21843"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e21843">613</a>]</span>point to the <i>Nationalists</i> as the largest of these coming opposition parties, its present programme being autonomy under American protection. The majority +of those who clamour for “independence” [I am not referring to the masses, but to those who have thought the matter out in +their own fashion] do not really understand what they are asking for, for it generally results from a close discussion of +the subject that they are, in fact, seeking autonomy <i>dependent</i> on American protection, with little idea of what the Powers understand by Protection. In a conversation which I had with +the leader of the Nationalists, I inquired, “What do you understand by independence?” His reply was, “Just a thread of connexion +with the United States to keep us from being the prey of other nations!” Other parties will, no doubt, be formed; and there +will probably be, for some time yet, a small group of <i>Irreconcilables</i> affiliated with those abroad who cannot return home whilst they refuse to take the oath of allegiance prescribed in the United +States Presidentʼs peace and amnesty proclamation, dated July 4, 1902. The Irreconcilables claim real sovereign independence +for the Filipinos; they would wish the Americans to abandon the Islands as completely as if they had never occupied them at +all. It is doubtful whether entire severance from American or European control would last a year, because some other Power, +Asiatic or European, would seize the Colony. Sovereign independence would be but a fleeting vision without a navy superior +in all respects to that of any second-rate naval Power, for if all the fighting-men of the Islands were armed to the teeth +they could not effectively resist a simultaneous bombardment of their ports; nor could they, as inhabitants of an archipelago, +become united in action or opinion, because their inter-communication would be cut off. When this is explained to them, there +are those who admit the insuperable difficulty, and suggest, as a compromise, that Americaʼs position towards them should +be merely that of the policeman, standing by ready to interfere if danger threatens them! This is the naïve definition of +the relation which they (the Irreconcilables) term “Protection.” + +</p> +<p>However, the cry for “independence” has considerably abated since the Secretary of War, Mr. W. H. Taft, visited Manila in +August, 1905, and publicly announced that America intended to retain the Islands for an indefinitely long period. Before America +relinquishes her hold <a id="d0e21856"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e21856">614</a>]</span>on the Colony (if ever) generations may pass away, and naturally the Irreconcilable, will disappear with the present one. + +</p> +<p>That the Filipinos would, if ever they obtain their independence, even though it were a century hence, manage their country +on the pattern set them by their tutors of to-day, is beyond all imagination. “We want them to learn to think as we do,” an +American minister is reported to have said at a public meeting held in Washington in May, 1905. The laudable aim of America +to convert the Filipino into an American in action and sentiment will probably never be realized. + +</p> +<p>Why the Philippines should continue to be governed by a Commission is not clear to the foreign investigator. Collective government +is inconsonant with the traditions and instincts of these Asiatic people, who would intuitively fear and obey the arbitrary +mandate of a paramount chief, whether he be called Nawab, Sultan, or Governor. Even as it is, the people have, in fact, looked +more to the one man, the Mr. Taft or the Mr. Wright as the case may be, than they have to the Commission for the attainment +of their hopes, and were there an uncontrolled native government, it would undoubtedly end in becoming a one-man rule, whatever +its title might be. The difficulty in making the change does not lie in the choice of the man, because one most eminently +fitted for personal rule in the name of the United States of America (assisted by a Council) is in the Islands just now. + +</p> +<p>The Philippine Assembly, which is, conditionally, to be conceded to the Islanders in 1907, will be a Congress of deputies +elected by popular vote; the Philippine Commission, more or less as at present constituted, will be practically the Senate +or controlling Upper House. The Filipinos will have no power to make laws, but simply to propose them, because any bill emanating +from the popular assembly can be rejected by the Upper House with an American majority. The Philippine Assembly will be, in +reality, a School of Legislature to train politicians for the possible future concession of complete self-government. In connexion +with the public schools a course of instruction in political economy prepares youths for the proper exercise of the right +of suffrage on their attaining twenty-three years of age. The studies include the Congress Law of July 1, 1902; President +McKinleyʼs Instruction to the Civil Commission of April 7, 1900; Government of the United States, Colonial Government in European +States, and Parliamentary Law. + +</p> +<p>The question of the Filipinosʼ capacity for <i>self-government</i> has been frequently debated since the Rebellion of 1896. A quarter of a century ago the necessary 500 or 600 Filipinos, half-caste +in the majority, could have been found with all the requisite qualifications for the formation of an intelligent oligarchy. +The Constitution drawn up by Apolinario Mabini, and proclaimed by the Malolos Insurgent Government (January 22, 1899), was +a fair proof of intellectual achievement. But that is not sufficient; the working of it would probably have been <a id="d0e21869"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e21869">615</a>]</span>as successful as the Government of Hayti, because the Philippine character is deficient in disinterested thought for the common +good. There is no lack of able Filipinos quite competent to enact laws and dictate to the people what they are to do; but +if things are to be reversed and the elected assembly is to be composed of deputies holding the <i>peopleʼs</i> mandates, there will be plenty to do between now and March, 1907, in educating the electors to the point of intelligently +using the franchise, uninfluenced by the <i>caciques</i>, who have hitherto dominated all public acts. According to the census of 1903, there were 1,137,776 illiterate males of the +voting age. In any case, independently of its legislative function, the Philippine Assembly will be a useful channel for free +speech. It will lead to the open discussion of the general policy, the rural police, the trade regulations, the taxes, the +desirability of maintaining superfluous expensive bureaux, the lavish (Manila) municipal non-productive outlay, and ruinous +projects of no public utility, such as the construction of the Benguet road,<a id="d0e21877src" href="#d0e21877" class="noteref">20</a> etc. + +</p> +<p>The Act providing for a Philippine Assembly stipulates that the elected deputies shall not be less than 50 and not more than +100 to represent the civilized portion of the following population, viz.<a id="d0e21891src" href="#d0e21891" class="noteref">21</a>:—Civilized, 6,987,686; wild, 647,740; total, 7,635,426. The most numerous civilized races are the Visayos (about 2,602,000) +and the Tagálogs (about 1,664,000). + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Population of Manila</span> (<span class="smallcaps">Approximate Sub-divisions</span>)<a id="d0e21903src" href="#d0e21903" class="noteref">22</a> + + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top"><b>Race. </b></td> +<td valign="top"><b>Pop. </b></td> +<td valign="top"><b>Race. </b></td> +<td valign="top"><b>Pop. </b></td> +<td valign="top"><b>Race. </b></td> +<td valign="top"><b>Pop. +</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Filipinos </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">189,915 </td> +<td valign="top">Americans </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3,700 </td> +<td valign="top">Other Europeans </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1,000</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Chinese </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 21,500 </td> +<td valign="top">Spaniards </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">2,500 </td> +<td valign="top">Other Nationalities </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1,313</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>Total in the Census of 1903 ... 219,928 + +</p> +<p>(Exclusive of the Army and Navy.) +<a id="d0e21951"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e21951">616</a>]</span></p> +<p>The divisions of the Municipality of Manila stand in the following order of proportion of population, viz.:— + + +</p> +<table> +<tr valign="top"> +<td> +<ul> +<li> 1. Tondo (most). + +</li> +<li> 2. Santa Cruz. + +</li> +<li> 3. San Nicolás. + +</li> +<li> 4. Sampaloc. + +</li> +<li> 5. Binondo. + +</li> +<li> 6. Ermita. + +</li> +<li> 7. Intramuros (i.e., Walled City). + +</li> +</ul> +</td> +<td> +<ul> +<li> 8. Quiapo. + +</li> +<li> 9. Malate. + +</li> +<li>10. San Miguel. + +</li> +<li>11. Paco. + +</li> +<li>12. Santa Ana. + +</li> +<li>13. Pandácan (least).</li> +</ul> +</td> +</tr> +</table><p> + + +</p> +<p>The total number of towns in the Archipelago is 934. + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Populations of 40 Provincial Towns of the 934 Existing in the Islands</span> + +</p> +<p>(<span class="smallcaps">Exclusive of Their Dependent Suburbs, Districts, and Wards</span>)<a id="d0e21993src" href="#d0e21993" class="noteref">23</a> + + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="60%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top"><b>Town. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>Civilized Pop. + +</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Bacólod </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 5,678 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Dagupan </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 3,327 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">San José de Buenavista </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 3,636 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Batangas </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 1,610 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Ilagán </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 1,904 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Balanga </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 4,403 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Ilígan (or Ylígan) </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 2,872 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">San Fernando (La Union) </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 1,142 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Balinag </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 1,278 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Imus </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 1,930 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Báguio </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 270 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Jaro </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 7,169 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">San Fernando (Pampanga) </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 1,950 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Biñan (or Viñan) </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 1,173 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Joló (Walled City) </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 541 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Cabanatúan </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 1,894 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">S. Isidro </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 3,814 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Cápiz </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 7,186 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Lipa </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 4,078 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Tabaco </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 4,456 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Calamba </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 2,597 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Lingayen </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 2,838 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Taal </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 2,658 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Calbayoc </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 4,430 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Olongapó </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 1,121 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Taclóban </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 4,899 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Cebú </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">18,330 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Majayjay </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 1,680 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Tárlac </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 3,491 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Cottabato </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 931 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Molo </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 8,551 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Tuguegarao </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 3,421 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Daet </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 2,569 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Puerta Princesa </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 382 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Vigan </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 5,749 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Davao </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 1,010 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Santa Cruz (Laguna) </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 4,009 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Yloilo </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">19,054 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Dapítan </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 1,768 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Zamboanga </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 3,281</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Civilized Population, Classified by Birth</span> + +</p> +<p><i>According to the Census of 1903</i> + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="60%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Born in the Philippine Islands </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">6,931,548 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Born in China </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 41,035 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Born in United States </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 8,135 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Born in Spain </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 3,888 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Born in Japan </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 921 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Born in Great Britain </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 667 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Born in Germany </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 368 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Born in East Indies </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 241 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Born in France </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 121 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Born in Other countries of Europe </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 487 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Born in All other countries </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 275 + + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">6,987,686</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>The regulations affecting Chinese immigration are explained at p. <a href="#d0e22566">633</a>. Other foreigners are permitted to enter the Philippines (conditionally), but all are required to pay an entrance fee (I +had <a id="d0e22300"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e22300">617</a>]</span>to pay $5.30 Mex.) before embarking (abroad) for a Philippine port, and make a declaration of 19 items,<a id="d0e22302src" href="#d0e22302" class="noteref">24</a> of which the following are the most interesting to the traveller:—(1) Sex; (2) whether married or single; (3) who paid the +passage-money; (4) whether in possession of $30 upward or less; (5) whether ever in prison; (6) whether a polygamist. The +master or an officer of the vessel carrying the passenger is required to make oath before the United States Consul at the +port of embarkation that he has made a “personal examination” of his passenger, and does not believe him (or her) to be either +an idiot, or insane person, or a pauper, or suffering from a loathsome disease, or an ex-convict, or guilty of infamous crime +involving moral turpitude, or a polygamist, etc. The shipʼs doctor has to state on oath that he has also made a “personal +examination” of the passenger. If the vessel safely arrives in port, say Manila, she will be boarded by a numerous staff of +Customsʼ officials. In the meantime the passenger will have been supplied with declaration-forms and a printed notice, stating +that an “Act provides a fine of not exceeding $2,000 or imprisonment at hard labour, for not more than five years, or both, +for offering a gratuity to an officer of the Customs in consideration of any illegal act in connexion with the examination +of baggage.” The baggage-declaration must be ready for the officers, and, at intervals during an hour and a half, he (or she) +has to sign six different declarations as to whether he (or she) brings fire-arms. The baggage is then taken to the Custom-house +in a steam-launch for examination, which is not unduly rigid. Under a Philippine Commission Act, dated October 15, 1901, the +Collector of Customs, or his deputy, may, at his will, also require the passenger to take an oath of allegiance in such terms +that, in the event of war between the passengerʼs country and America, he who takes the oath would necessarily have to forfeit +his claim for protection from his own country, unless he violated that oath. No foreigner is permitted to land if he comes +“under a contract expressed, or implied, to perform labour in the Philippine Islands.” In 1903 this prohibition to foreigners +was disputed by a British bank-clerk who arrived in Manila for a foreign bank. The case was carried to court, with the result +that the prohibition was maintained in principle, although the foreigner in question was permitted to remain in the Islands +as an act of grace. But in February, 1905, a singular case occurred, exactly the reverse of the one just mentioned. A young +Englishman who had been brought out to Manila on a four yearsʼ agreement, after four or five months of irregular conduct towards +the firm employing him, presented himself to the Collector of Customs (as Immigration Agent), informed against himself, and +begged to be deported from the Colony. The incentive for this strange proceeding was <a id="d0e22305"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e22305">618</a>]</span>to secure the informerʼs reward of $1,000. It was probably the first case in Philippine history of a person voluntarily seeking +compulsory expulsion from the Islands. The Government, acting on the information, shipped him off to Hong-Kong, the nearest +British port, in the following month, with a through passage to Europe. + +</p> +<p>Since the American advent the <i>Administration of Justice</i> has been greatly accelerated, and Municipal Court cases, which in Spanish times would have caused more worry to the parties +than they were worth, or, for the same reason, would have been settled out of court violently, are now despatched at the same +speed as in the London Police Courts. On the other hand, quick despatch rather feeds the nativeʼs innate love for litigation, +so that an agglomeration of lawsuits is still one of the Governmentʼs undesirable but inevitable burdens. There is a complaint +that the fines imposed in petty cases are excessive, and attention was drawn to this by the Municipality of Manila.<a id="d0e22312src" href="#d0e22312" class="noteref">25</a> After stating that the fines imposed on 2,185 persons averaged $5 per capita, and that they had to go to prison for non-payment, +the Municipality adds: “It shows an excessive rigour on the part of the judges in the imposition of fines, a rigour which +ought to be modified, inasmuch as the majority of the persons accused before the Court are extremely poor and ignorant of +the ordinances and the laws for the violation of which they are so severely punished.” Sentences of imprisonment and fines +for high crimes are justly severe. During the governorship of Mr. W. H. Taft, 17 American provincial treasurers were each +condemned to 25 yearsʼ imprisonment for embezzlement of public funds. In February, 1905, an army major, found guilty of misappropriation +of public moneys, had his sentence computed at 60 years, which term the court reduced to 40 yearsʼ hard labour. The penalties +imposed on some rioters at Vigan in April, 1904, were death for two, 40 yearsʼ imprisonment and $10,000 fine each for twelve, +30 yearsʼ imprisonment for thirty-one, and 10 yearsʼ imprisonment for twenty-five. + +</p> +<p>The American law commonly spoken of in the Philippines as the “Law of Divorce” is nothing more than judicial separation in +its local application, as it does not annul the marriage and the parties cannot marry again as a consequence of the action. +The same could be obtained under the Spanish law called the <i>Siete Partídas</i>, with the only difference that before the <i>decree nisi</i> was made absolute the parties might have had to wait for years, and even appeal to Home. + +</p> +<p>On May 26,1900, the Military Governor authorized the solemnization of marriages by any judge of a court inferior to the Supreme +Court, a justice of the peace, or a minister of any denomination. For the first time in the history of the Islands, <i>habeas corpus</i> proceedings were heard before the Supreme Court on May 19, 1900. Besides the lower courts <a id="d0e22330"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e22330">619</a>]</span>established in many provincial centres, sessions are held in circuit, each usually comprising two or three provinces. The +provinces are grouped into 16 judicial districts, in each of which there is a Court of First Instance; and there is, moreover, +one additional “Court of First Instance at large.” The Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, some of his assistant judges, several +provincial judges, the Attorney-General, and many other high legal functionaries, are Filipinos. The provincial justices of +the peace are also natives, and necessarily so because their office requires an intimate knowledge of native character and +dialect. Their reward is the local prestige which they enjoy and the litigantsʼ fees, and happily their services are not in +daily request. At times the findings of these local luminaries are somewhat quaint, and have to be overruled by the more enlightened +judicial authorities in the superior courts. Manila and all the judicial centres are amply supplied with American lawyers +who have come to establish themselves in the Islands, where the custom obtains for professional men to advertise in the daily +newspapers. So far there has been only one American lady lawyer, who, in 1904, held the position of Assistant-Attorney in +the Attorney-Generalʼs office. + +<a id="d0e22332"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e22332">620</a>]</span></p> +<div class="footnotes"> +<hr class="fnsep"> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e21337" href="#d0e21337src" class="noteref">1</a></span> “No teacher or other person shall teach or criticize the doctrine of any Church, religious sect, or denomination, or shall +attempt to influence the pupils for or against any Church or religious sect in any public school established under this Act. +If any teacher shall intentionally violate this section, he or she shall, after due hearing, be dismissed from the public +service. <i>Provided, however</i>, that it shall be lawful for the priest, or minister of any church established in the town where a public school is situated +... to teach religion for one half an hour three times a week in the school building to those public school pupils whose parents +or guardians desire it,” etc.—Section 16 of the Public School Act, No. 74. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e21361" href="#d0e21361src" class="noteref">2</a></span> Placido Louis Chapelle, Archbishop of New Orleans, was born in France in 1842, and, at the age of seventeen years, emigrated +to America, where he entered the priesthood. In 1894 he received the mitre of Santa Fé, and in 1897 that of New Orleans. In +1898 he was appointed Apostolic Delegate to Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Philippine Islands. His mission ended, he returned to +New Orleans, where he died of yellow fever in August, 1905. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e21366" href="#d0e21366src" class="noteref">3</a></span> <i>Vide</i> Senate Document No. 190, p. 62, 56th Congress, 2nd Session. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e21371" href="#d0e21371src" class="noteref">4</a></span> <i>Ibid</i>., p. 221. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e21379" href="#d0e21379src" class="noteref">5</a></span> At the outbreak of the Rebellion (1896) the total number of friars of the four Orders of Dominicans, Agustinians, Recoletos, +and Franciscans in these Islands was 1,105, of whom about 40 were killed by the rebels. There were, moreover, 86 Jesuit priests, +81 Jesuit lay brothers and teachers, 10 Benedictines, and 49 Paulists; but all these were outside the “friar question.” +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e21386" href="#d0e21386src" class="noteref">6</a></span> <i>Vide</i> Senate Document No. 190, p. 2, 56th Congress, 2nd Session. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e21393" href="#d0e21393src" class="noteref">7</a></span> Bernardino Nozaleda, a native of Asturias, Spain, of rustic parentage, was originally a professor in Manila, where he became +Archbishop in 1889. In 1903 he was nominated for the archbishopric of Valencia, Spain, but the citizens absolutely refused +to receive him, because of evil report concerning him. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e21396" href="#d0e21396src" class="noteref">8</a></span> In May, 1904, Father Singson was appointed by His Holiness Domestic Prelate of the Pope, with the title of Monsignore. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e21408" href="#d0e21408src" class="noteref">9</a></span> Report of the Secretary of War for 1902, p. 234. Published in Washington. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e21439" href="#d0e21439src" class="noteref">10</a></span> I was in Italy during the whole of the negotiations. The Italian clerical press alluded to the outcome as a diplomatic victory +for the Vatican. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e21447" href="#d0e21447src" class="noteref">11</a></span> The Franciscan Order is not allowed by its rules to possess any property. It therefore had no agricultural lands, and no other +property than dwelling-houses for members, two convents, and two infirmaries. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e21450" href="#d0e21450src" class="noteref">12</a></span> <i>Vide</i> Senate Document No. 112, p. 27, 56th Congress, 2nd Session; and Senate Document No. 331, p. 180 of Part I., 57th Congress, +1st Session. Published by the Government Printing Office, Washington. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e21525" href="#d0e21525src" class="noteref">13</a></span> <i>Vide</i> speech of Gov.-General (then styled Civil Governor) Luke E. Wright on assuming office on February 1, 1904. Reported in the +<i>Manila Official Gazette</i>, Vol. II., No. 5, dated February 3, 1904. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e21544" href="#d0e21544src" class="noteref">14</a></span> This condition was termed “frailuno.” In its application to the European it simply denoted “partisan of the regular clergy.” +Its popular signification when applied to the native was a total relinquishment of, or incapacity for, independent appreciation +of the friarsʼ dicta in mundane matters. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e21583" href="#d0e21583src" class="noteref">15</a></span> Since the Treaty of Paris (1898) the Spanish friars are foreigners in these Islands. The Philippine clergy oppose a foreign +monopoly of their Church. They declare themselves competent to undertake the cure of souls, and claim the fulfilment of the +Council of Trent decrees which prohibit the regular clergy to hold benefices, except on two conditions, viz.:—(1) as missionaries +to non-Christians, (2) as temporary parish priests in christian communities where qualified secular clergy cannot be found +to take their places. The crux of the whole question is the competency or incompetency of the Philippine clergy. The Aglipayans +allege that Pope Leo XIII., in the last years of his pontificate, issued a bull declaring the Filipinos to be incompetent +for the cure of souls. They strongly resent this. Whether the bull exists or not, the unfitness of the Philippine clergy to +take the place of the regular clergy was suggested by the Holy See in 1902 (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e21415">599</a>). + +</p> +<p class="footnote">The Council of Trent was the 18th oecumenical council of the Church, assembled at Trent, a town in the Austrian Tyrol, and +sat, with certain interruptions, from December 13, 1545, until December 4, 1563. Nearly every point of doubt or dispute within +the Catholic Church was discussed at this Council. Its decrees were confirmed and published by Pope Pius IV. in 1564 by papal +decree, being a brief summary of the doctrines known as the Profession of the Tridentine Faith, commonly called also the Creed +of Pius IV. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e21619" href="#d0e21619src" class="noteref">16</a></span> Monsignor Ambrogio Agius, born on September 17, 1856, of a distinguished Maltese family, entered on his novitiate at the Benedictine +Monastery of Ramsgate, England, on September 8, 1871. Having finished his studies of philosophy and theology in Rome, he was +ordained as priest on October 16, 1881, in the Cathedral of Santo Scolastico at Subiaco. He then returned to England, but +in 1895 he was called to Rome, where for nine years he held several ecclesiastical offices. His ability was observed by Pope +Leo XIII., and by his successor Pius X., who raised Ambrogio Agius to the dignity of titular Archbishop of Palmyra and appointed +him Apostolic Delegate to the Philippine Islands in the year 1904, in succession to the late Monsignor Giovanni Guidi. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e21642" href="#d0e21642src" class="noteref">17</a></span> The Census Report of 1903 shows the Civilized male population twenty-one years of age and over to be as follows: of Superior +Education 50,140, Literate 489,609, and Illiterate 1,137,776. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e21645" href="#d0e21645src" class="noteref">18</a></span> <i>Vide Official Gazette</i>, Vol. II., No. 4, dated January 27, 1904. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e21835" href="#d0e21835src" class="noteref">19</a></span> Under the Act of Congress which authorized the taking of the census, dated July 1, 1902. it is provided (Section (6) that +a Philippine Assembly shall be created two years after the publication of the Census Report. This publication, complete in +four volumes, having been issued on March 27, 1905, the following day the Gov.-General at Manila notified by proclamation +that “in case a condition of general and complete peace, with recognition of the authority of the United States, shall have +continued in the territory of these Islands, not inhabited by Moros or non-christian <a id="d0e21837"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e21837">613n</a>]</span>tribes, and such facts shall have been certified to the President by the Philippine Commission, the President, upon being +satisfied thereof, shall direct the Philippine Commission to call, and the Commission shall call, a general election for the +choice of delegates to a popular assembly of the people of the said territory in the Philippine Islands, which shall be known +as the <i>Philippine Assembly</i>, and which provides also that after the said Assembly shall have been convened and organized, all the legislative power heretofore +conferred on the Philippine Commission in that part of these Islands not inhabited by Moros or other non-christian tribes +shall be vested in a Legislature consisting of two Houses—the Philippine Commission and the Philippine Assembly. In witness +whereof (etc., etc.) this 28th day of March, 1905.” +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e21877" href="#d0e21877src" class="noteref">20</a></span> At Báguio, in the mountain region of the Benguet district, at an altitude of about 5,000 feet, the Insular Government has +established a health-resort for the recreation of the members of the Civil Commission. The air is pure, and the temperature +so low (max. 78°, min. 46° Fahr.) that pine-forests exist in the neighbourhood, and potatoes (which are well known all over +the Islands for many years past) are cultivated there. The distance from Manila to Báguio, in a straight line, would be about +130 miles. By this route—that is to say, by railway to Dagúpan, 120 miles, and then by the 55-mile road (opened in the spring +of 1905)—the travelling distance is 175 miles. The new road runs through a country half uninhabited, and leads to (commercially) +nowhere. The amount originally appropriated for the making of this 55-mile road was $75,000 gold (Philippine Commission Act +No. 61). Up to January, 1905, $2,400,000 gold had been expended on its construction. It is curious to note that this sum includes +$366,260 gold taken from the Congressional Relief Fund (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e22346">621</a>). A further appropriation of $17,500 gold has been made for its improvement, with the prospect of large sums being yet needed +for this undertaking, which is of no benefit whatever to the Filipinos. They need no sanatorium, and Europeans have lived +in the Islands, up to 30 years, without one. The word <i>Báguio</i> in Tagálog signifies Hurricane. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e21891" href="#d0e21891src" class="noteref">21</a></span> <i>Vide</i> “Population of the Philippines,” Bulletin 1, published by the Department of Commerce and Labour. Bureau of the Census, 1904, +Washington. Census taken in 1903 under the direction of General J. P. Sanger, U.S. Army. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e21903" href="#d0e21903src" class="noteref">22</a></span> There are four separate official returns, each showing different figures. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e21993" href="#d0e21993src" class="noteref">23</a></span> <i>Vide</i> “Population of the Philippines,” Bulletin 1, published by the Department of Commerce and Labour. Bureau of the Census, 1904, +Washington. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e22302" href="#d0e22302src" class="noteref">24</a></span> Under the provisions of Articles XII., XIII. and XIV., Immigration Regulations for the Philippine Islands of June 7, 1899. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e22312" href="#d0e22312src" class="noteref">25</a></span> <i>Vide</i>, Report of the Municipal Board of Manila for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1904, p. 32. +</p> +</div> +</div> +<div id="d0e22333" class="div1"> +<h2 class="normal">Trade and Agriculture Since the American Advent</h2> +<p>During the year 1898 there were those who enriched themselves enormously as a consequence of the American advent, but the +staple trade of the Colony was generally disrupted by the abnormal circumstances of the period; therefore it would serve no +practical purpose to present the figures for that year for comparison with the results obtained in the years following that +of the Treaty of Paris. + +</p> +<p>The tables at the end of this chapter show the increase or decrease in the various branches of export and import trade. Regarded +as a whole, the volume of business has increased since the American occupation—to what extent will be apparent on reference +to the table of “Total Import and Export Values” at p. <a href="#d0e22686">639</a>. When the American army of occupation entered the Islands, and was subsequently increased to about 70,000 troops, occupying +some 600 posts about the Archipelago, there came in their wake a number of enterprising business men, who established what +were termed trading companies. Their transactions hardly affected the prosperity of the Colony one way or the other. For this +class of trader times were brisk; their dealings almost exclusively related to the supply of commodities to the temporary +floating population of Americans, with such profitable results that, although many of them withdrew little by little when, +at the close of the War of Independence, the troops were gradually reduced to some 16,000 men, occupying about 100 posts, +others had accumulated sufficient capital to continue business in the more normal time which followed. Those were halcyon +days for the old-established retailers as well as the new-comers; but, as Governor W. H. Taft pointed out in his report to +the Civil Commission dated December 23, 1903,<a id="d0e22343src" href="#d0e22343" class="noteref">1</a> “The natural hostility of the American business men, growing out of the war, was not neutralized by a desire and an effort +to win the patronage and goodwill of the Filipinos. The American business men controlled much of the advertising in the American +papers, and the newspapers naturally reflected the opinion of their advertisers <a id="d0e22346"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e22346">621</a>]</span>and subscribers in the advocacy of most unconciliatory measures for the native Filipino, and in decrying all efforts of the +Government to teach Filipinos how to govern by associating the more intelligent of them in the Government.... The American +business man in the Islands has really, up to this time, done very little to make or influence trade. He has kept close to +the American patronage, and has not extended his efforts to an expansion of trade among the Filipinos.... There are a few +Americans who have pursued a different policy with respect to the Filipinos to their profit.” + +</p> +<p>Governor Taftʼs comments were only intended to impress upon the permanent American traders, for their own good, the necessity +of creating a new <i>clientèle</i> which they had neglected. The war finished, the wave of temporarily abnormal prosperity gradually receded with the withdrawal +of the troops in excess of requirements; the palmy days of the retailer had vanished, and all Manila began to complain of +“depression” in trade. The true condition of the Colony became more apparent to them in their own slack time, and for want +of reflection some began to attribute it to a want of foresight in the Insular Government. Industry is in its infancy in the +Philippines, which is essentially an agricultural colony. The product of the soil is the backbone of its wealth. The true +causes of the depression were not within the control of the Insular Government or of any ruling factor. Five years of warfare +and its sequence—the bandit community—had devastated the provinces. The peaceful pursuits of the husbandman had been nearly +everywhere interrupted thereby; his herds of buffaloes had been decimated in some places, in others annihilated; his apparatus +or machinery and farm buildings were destroyed, now by the common exigencies of war, now by the wantonness of the armed factions. +The remnant of the buffaloes was attacked by rinderpest, or <i>epizootia</i>, as the Filipino calls this disease, and in some provinces up to 90 per cent. were lost. Some of my old friends assured me +that, due to these two causes, they had lost every head of cattle they once possessed. Laudable effort was immediately made +by the Insular Government to remedy the evil, for so great was the mortality that many agricultural districts were poverty-stricken, +thousands of acres lying fallow for want of beasts for tillage and transport. Washington responded to the appeal for help, +and a measure was passed establishing the Congressional Relief Fund, under which the sum of $3,000,000 was authorized to be +expended to ameliorate the situation. By Philippine Commission Act No. 738, $100,000 of this fund were appropriated for preliminary +expenses in the purchase of buffaloes. Under the supervision of the Insular Purchasing-Agent a contract was entered into with +a Shanghai firm for the supply of 10,000 head of inoculated buffaloes to be delivered in Manila, at the rate of 500 per month, +at the price of ₱85 per head. An agent was sent to Shanghai with powers to reject unsuitable beasts before inoculation, <a id="d0e22356"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e22356">622</a>]</span>and the Government undertook to remunerate the contractors at the rate of ₱40 for every animal which succumbed to the operation. +The loss on this process was so great that a new contract was entered into with the same firm to deliver in Manila temporarily +immunized buffaloes at the rate of ₱79 per head. On their arrival the animals were inspected, and those apparently fit were +herded on the Island of Masbate for further observation before disposing of them to the planters. The attempt was a failure. +Rinderpest, or some other incomprehensible disease, affected and decimated the imported herds. From beginning to end the inevitable +wastage was so considerable that up to November 20, 1903, only 1,805 buffaloes (costing ₱118,805) were purchased, out of which +1,370 were delivered alive, and of this number 429 died whilst under observation; therefore, whereas the price of the 1,805 +averaged ₱65 per head, the cost exceeded ₱126 per head when distributed over the surviving 941, which were sold at less than +cost price, although in private dealings buffaloes were fetching ₱125 to ₱250 per head (<i>vide</i> Buffaloes p. <a href="#d0e14103">337</a>, et seq.). Veterinary surgeons and inoculators were commissioned to visit the buffaloes privately owned in the planting-districts, +the Government undertaking to indemnify the owners for loss arising from the compulsory inoculation; but this has not sufficed +to stamp out the disease, which is still prevalent. + +</p> +<p>Another calamity, common in British India, but unknown in these Islands before the American advent, is <i>Surra</i>, a glandular disease affecting horses and ponies, which has made fatal ravages in the pony stock—to the extent, it is estimated, +of 60 per cent. The pony which fully recovers from this disease is an exceptional animal. Again, the mortality among the field +hands, as a consequence of the war, was supplemented by an outbreak of <i>Cholera morbus</i> (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e6095">197</a>), a disease which recurs periodically in these Islands, and which was, on the occasion following the war, of unusually long +duration. Together with these misfortunes, a visitation of myriads of locusts (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e14235">341</a>) and drought completed the devastation. + +</p> +<p>Consequent on the total loss of capital invested in live-stock, and the fear of rinderpest felt by the minority who have the +wherewithal to replace their lost herds, there is an inclination among the agriculturists to raise those crops which need +little or no animal labour. Hence sugar-cane and rice-paddy are being partially abandoned, whilst all who possess hemp or +cocoanut plantations are directing their special attention to these branches of land-produce. Due to these circumstances, +the increased cost of labour and living in the Islands since the American advent, the want of a duty-free entry for Philippine +sugar into the United States, the prospective loss of the Japanese market,<a id="d0e22386src" href="#d0e22386" class="noteref">2</a> the ever-accumulating capital indebtedness, and the need of costly machinery, <a id="d0e22389"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e22389">623</a>]</span>it is possible to believe that sugar will, in time, cease to be one of the leading staple products of the Islands. + +</p> +<p>With regard to the duty levied in the United States on Philippine sugar imports, shippers in these Islands point out how little +it would affect either the United Statesʼ revenue or the sugar trade if the duty were remitted in view of the extremely small +proportion of Philippine sugar to the total consumption in America. For instance, taking the average of the five years 1899–1903, +the proportion was .313 per cent., so that if in consequence of the remission of duty this Philippine industry were stimulated +to the extent of being able to ship to America threefold, it would not amount to 1 per cent, of the total consumption in that +country. + +</p> +<p>At the close of the 1903 sugar season the planters were more deeply in debt than at any previous period in their history. +In 1904 the manager of an Yloilo firm (whom I have known from his boyhood) showed me statistics proving the deplorable financial +position of the sugar-growers, and informed me that his firm had stopped further advances and closed down on twelve of the +largest estates working on borrowed capital, because of the hopelessness of eventual liquidation in full. For the same reasons +other financiers have closed their coffers to the sugar-planters. + +</p> +<p>Another object of the grant called the Congressional Relief Fund was to alleviate the distress prevailing in several Luzon +provinces, particularly Batangas, on account of the scarcity of rice, due, in a great measure, to the causes already explained. +Prices of the imported article had already reached double the normal value in former times, and the Government most opportunely +intervened to check the operations of a syndicate which sought to take undue advantage of the prevailing misery. Under Philippine +Commission Acts Nos. 495, 786 and 797, appropriations were made for the purchase of rice for distribution in those provinces +where the speculatorʼs ambition had run up the selling-price to an excessive rate. Hitherto the chief supplying-market had +been the French East Indies, but the syndicate referred to contrived to close that source to the Government, which, however, +succeeded in procuring deliveries from other places. The total amount distributed was 11,164 tons, costing ₱1,081,722. About +22 tons of this amount was given to the indigent class, the rest being delivered at cost price, either in cash or in payment +for the extermination of locusts, or for labour in road-making and other public works. The merchant class contended that this +act of the Government, which deprived them of anticipated large profits, was an interference in private enterprise—a point +on which the impartial reader must form his own conclusions. To obviate a recurrence of the necessity for State aid, the Insular +Government passed an Act urging the people to hasten the paddy-planting. The proclamation embodying this Act permitted the +temporary <a id="d0e22397"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e22397">624</a>]</span>use of municipal lands, the seed supplied to be repaid after the crop. It is said that some of the local native councils, +misunderstanding the spirit of the proclamation, made its non-observance a criminal offence, and incarcerated many of the +supposed offenders; but they were promptly released by the American authorities. + +</p> +<p>Under the circumstances set forth, the cultivation of rice in the Islands has fallen off considerably, to what extent may +be partially gathered from a glance at the enormous imports of this cereal, which in the year 1901~ were 167,951 tons; in +1902, 285,473 tons; in 1903, 329,055 tons (one-third of the value of the total imports in that year); and in 1904, 261,553 +tons. The large increase of wages and taxes and the high cost of living since the American advent (rice in 1904 cost about +double the old price) have reduced the former margins of profit on sugar and rice almost to the vanishing-point. + +</p> +<p>If all the land in use now, or until recently, for paddy-raising were suitable for the cultivation of such crops as hemp, +tobacco, cocoanuts, etc., for which there is a steady demand abroad, the abandonment of rice for another produce which would +yield enough to enable one to purchase rice, and even leave a margin of profit, would be rather an advantage than otherwise. +But this is not the case, and naturally a native holds on to the land he possesses in the neighbourhood, where he was perhaps +born, rather than go on a peregrination in search of new lands, with the risk of semi-starvation during the dilatory process +of procuring title-deeds for them when found. + +</p> +<p>Fortunately for the Filipinos, “Manila hemp” being a speciality of this region as a fibre of unrivalled quality and utility, +there cannot be foreseen any difficulty in obtaining a price for it which will compensate the producer to-day as well as it +did in former times. Seeing that buffaloes can be dispensed with in the cultivation of hemp and coprah, which, moreover, are +products requiring no expensive and complicated machinery and are free of duty into the United States, they are becoming the +favourite crops of the future. + +</p> +<p>In 1905 there was considerable agitation in favour of establishing a Government Agricultural Bank, which would lend money +to the planters, taking a first mortgage on the borrowerʼs lands as guarantee. In connexion with this scheme, the question +was raised whether the Government could, in justice, collect revenue from the people who had no voice at all in the Government, +and then lend it out to support private enterprise. Moreover, without a law against usury (so common in the Islands) there +would be little to prevent a man borrowing from the bank at, say, 6 per cent.—up to the mortgage value of his estate—to lend +it out to others at 60 per cent. A few millions of dollars, subscribed by private capitalists and loaned out to the planters, +would enormously benefit the agricultural development of the Colony; and if native wealthy men would demonstrate their confidence +in the result by subscribing <a id="d0e22407"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e22407">625</a>]</span>one-tenth of the necessary amount, perhaps Americans would be induced to complete the scheme. The foreign banks established +in the Islands are not agricultural, but exchange banks, and any American-Philippine Agricultural Bank which may be established +need have little reason to fear competition with foreign firms who remember the house of Russell & Sturgis (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e9597">255</a>) and also have their own more recent experiences. Philippine rural land is a doubtful security for loans, there being no +free market in it. + +</p> +<p>Between the years 1902 and 1904 the Insular Government confiscated the arable lands of many planters throughout the Islands +for delinquency in taxes. The properties were put up to auction; some of them found purchasers, but the bulk of them remained +in the ownership of the Government, which could neither sell them nor make any use of them. Therefore an Act was passed in +February, 1905, restoring to their original owners those lands not already sold, on condition of the overdue taxes being paid +within the year. In one province of Luzon the confiscated lots amounted to about one-half of all the cultivated land and one-third +of the rural land-assessment in that province. The $2,400,000 gold spent on the Benguet road (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e21869">615</a>) would have been better employed in promoting agriculture. + +</p> +<p>Up to 1898 Spain was the most important market for Philippine tobacco, but since that country lost her colonies she has no +longer any patriotic interest in dealing with any particular tobacco-producing country. The entry of Philippine tobacco into +the United States is checked by a Customs duty, respecting which there is, at present, a very lively contest between the tobacco-shippers +in the Islands and the Tobacco Trust in America, the former clamouring for, and the latter against, the reduction or abolition +of the tariff. It is simply a clash of trade interests; but, with regard to the broad principles involved, it would appear +that, so long as America holds these Islands without the consent of its inhabitants, it is only just that she should do all +in her power to create a free outlet for the Islandsʼ produce. If this Archipelago should eventually acquire sovereign independence, +Americaʼs moral obligations towards it would cease, and the mutual relations would then be only those ordinarily subsisting +between two nations. + +</p> +<p>By Philippine Commission Act dated April 30, 1902, a Bureau of Agriculture was organized. The chief of this department is +assisted by experts in soil, farm-management, plant-culture, breeding, animal industry, seed and fibres, an assistant agrostologist, +and a tropical agriculturist. Shortly after its organization, 18,250 packages of field and garden seeds were sent to 730 individuals +for experiment in different parts of the Colony, with very encouraging results. The work of this department is experimental +and investigative, with a view to the improvement of agriculture in all its branches. + +</p> +<p>In Spanish times agricultural land was free of taxation. Now it <a id="d0e22429"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e22429">626</a>]</span>pays a tax not exceeding .87 per cent. of the assessed value. The rate varies in different districts, according to local circumstances. +For instance, in 1904 it was .87 per cent. in Baliuag (Bulacan) and in Viñan (La Laguna), and .68 per cent. in San Miguel +de Mayumo (Bulacan). This tax is subdivided in its application to provincial and municipal general expenses and educational +disbursements. The people make no demur at paying a tax on land-produce; but they complain of the system of taxation of capital +generally, and particularly of its application to lands lying fallow for the causes already explained. The approximate yield +of the land-tax in the fiscal year of 1905 was ₱2,000,000; it was then proposed to suspend the levy of this tax for three +years in view of the agricultural depression. + +</p> +<p>The Manila Port Works (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e14338">344</a>), commenced in Spanish times, are now being carried on more vigorously under contract with the Atlantic, Gulf, and Pacific +Company. Within the breakwater a thirty-foot deep harbour, measuring about 400 acres, is being dredged, the mud raised therefrom +being thrown on to 168 acres of reclaimed land which is to form the new frontage. Also a new channel entrance to the Pasig +River is to be maintained at a depth of 18 feet. The Americans maintain that there will be no finer harbour in the Far East +when the work is completed. The reclaimed acreage will be covered with warehouses and wharves, enabling vessels to load and +discharge at all seasons instead of lying idle for weeks in the typhoon season and bad weather, as they often do now. With +these enlarged shipping facilities, freights to and from Manila must become lower, to the advantage of all concerned in import +and export trade. The cost of these improvements up to completion is estimated at about one million sterling. + +</p> +<p>The port of Siassi (Tapul group), which was opened in recent years by the Spaniards, was discontinued (June 1, 1902) by the +Americans, who opened the new coastwise ports of Cape Melville, Puerta Princesa, and Bongao (October 15, 1903) in order to +assist the scheme for preventing smuggling between these extreme southern islands and Borneo. Hitherto there had been some +excuse for this surreptitious trade, because inter-island vessels, trading from the other entry-ports, seldom, if ever, visited +these out-of-the-way regions. In February, 1903, appropriations of $350,000 and $150,000 were made for harbour works in Cebú +and Yloilo respectively, although in the latter port no increased facility for the entry of vessels into the harbour was apparent +up to June, 1904. Zamboanga, the trade of which was almost nominal up to the year 1898, is now an active shipping centre of +growing importance, where efforts are being made to foster direct trade with foreign eastern ports. An imposing Custom-house +is to be erected on the new spacious jetty already built under American auspices. Arrangements have also been made for the +Hong-Kong-Australia Steamship Company <a id="d0e22441"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e22441">627</a>]</span>to make Zamboanga a port of call. Here, as in all the chief ports of the Archipelago, greater advantages for trade have been +afforded by the administration, and one is struck with the appearance of activity and briskness as compared with former times. +These changes are largely owing to the national character of the new rulers, for one can enter any official department, in +any branch of public service, from that of the Gov.-General downwards, to procure information or clear up a little question +“while you wait,” and, if necessary, interview the chief of the department. The tedious, dilatory time and money-wasting “come +later on” procedure of times gone by no longer obtains. + +</p> +<p></p> +<div id="d0e22444" class="figure"><img border="0" src="images/p627.jpg" alt="A Roadside Scene in Bulacan Province" width="720" height="484"><p class="figureHead">A Roadside Scene in Bulacan Province</p> +</div><p> + +</p> +<p>What is still most needed to give a stimulus to agriculture and the general material development of the Islands is the conversion +of hundreds of miles of existing highways and mud-tracks into good hard roads, so as to facilitate communication between the +planting-districts and the ports. The corallaceous stone abounding in the Islands is worthless for road-making, because it +pulverizes in the course of one wet season, and, unfortunately, what little hard stone exists lies chiefly in inaccessible +places—hence its extraction and transport would be more costly than the supply of an equal quantity of broken granite brought +over in sailing-ships from the Chinese coast, where it is procurable at little over the quarrymanʼs labour. From the days +of the Romans the most successful colonizing nations have regarded road-making as a work of primary importance and a civilizing +factor. + +</p> +<p>Among the many existing projects, there is one for the construction of railroads (1) from Manila (or some point on the existing +railway) northward through the rich tobacco-growing valleys of Isabela and Cagayán, as far as the port of Aparri, at the mouth +of the Cagayán River—distance, 260 miles; (2) from Dagúpan (Pangasinán) to Laoag (Ilocos Norte), through 168 miles of comparatively +well-populated country; (3) from San Fabian (Pangasinán) to Báguio (Benguet), 55 miles; and three other lines in Luzon Island +and one in each of the islands of Negros, Panay, Cebú, Leyte, and Sámar. A railway line from Manila to Batangas, <i>via</i> Calamba (a distance of about 70 miles), and thence on to Albay Province, was under consideration for many years prior to +the American advent; but the poor financial result of the only (120 miles) line in the Colony has not served to stimulate +further enterprise in this direction, except an endeavour of that same company to recuperate by feeder branches, two of which +are built, and another (narrow gauge) is in course of construction from Manila to Antipolo, <i>via</i> Pasig and Mariquina (<i>vide</i> Railways, p. <a href="#d0e9885">265</a>). + +</p> +<p>Since February, 1905, a Congress Act, known as the “Cooper Bill,” offers certain inducements to railway companies. It authorizes +the Insular Government to guarantee 4 per cent, annual interest on railway undertakings, provided that the total of such contingent +liability shall not exceed $1,200,000—that is to say, 4 per cent, could be guaranteed <a id="d0e22466"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e22466">628</a>]</span>on a maximum capital of $30,000,000. The Insular Government is further empowered under this Act to admit, at its discretion, +the entry of railway material free of duty. As yet, no railway construction has been started by American capitalists. Projects +<i lang="la">ad infinitum</i> might be suggested for the development of trade and traffic—for instance, a ship-canal connecting the Laguna de Bay with +the Pacific Ocean; another from Laguimanoc to Atimonan (Tayabas); an artificial entry-port in Negros Island, connected by +railway with two-thirds of the coast, etc. + +</p> +<p>Up to the present the bulk of the export and import trade is handled by Europeans, who, together with native capitalists, +own the most considerable commercial and industrial productive “going concerns” in the Islands. In 1904 there were one important +and several smaller American trading-firms (exclusive of shopkeepers) in the capital, and a few American planters and successful +prospectors in the provinces. There are hundreds of Americans about the Islands, searching for minerals and other natural +products with more hopeful prospects than tangible results. It is perhaps due to the disturbed condition of the Islands and +the “Philippines for the Filipinos” policy that the anticipated flow of private American capital has not yet been seen, although +there is evidently a desire in this direction. There is, at least, no lack of the American enterprising spirit, and, since +the close of the War of Independence, several joint-stock companies have started with considerable cash capital, principally +for the exploitation of the agricultural, forestal, and mineral wealth of the Islands. Whatever the return on capital may +be, concerns of this kind, which operate at the natural productive sources, are obviously as beneficial to the Colony as trading +can be in Manila—the emporium of wealth produced elsewhere. + +</p> +<p>There are, besides, many minor concerns with American capital, established only for the purpose of selling to the inhabitants +goods which are not an essential need, and therefore not contributing to the development of the Colony. + +</p> +<p>The tonnage entered in Philippine ports shows a rapid annual increase in five years. Many new lines of steamers make Manila +a port of call, exclusive of the army transports, carrying Government supplies, and in 1905 there was a regular goods and +passenger traffic between Hong-Kong and Zamboanga. Still, the greater part of the freight between the Philippines and the +Atlantic ports is carried in foreign bottoms. The shipping-returns for the year 1903 would appear to show that over 85 per +cent, of the exports from the Islands to America, and about the same proportion of the imports from that country (exclusive +of Government stores brought in army transports) were borne in foreign vessels. The carrying-trade figures for 1904 were 78.41 +per cent, in British bottoms; 6.69 per cent, in Spanish, and 6.65 per cent, in American vessels. The desire to dispossess +the foreigners of the carrying monopoly is not surprising, but it is thought that immediately-operative legislation <a id="d0e22477"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e22477">629</a>]</span>to that end would be impracticable. The latest legislation on the subject confines the carrying-trade between the Islands +and the United States to American bottoms from July 1, 1906. It is alleged that the success of the new regulations which may +(or may not, for want of American vessels) come into force on that date will depend on the freights charged; it is believed +that exorbitant outward rates would divert the hemp cargoes into other channels, and a large rise in inward freights would +facilitate European competition in manufactured goods. Any considerable rise in freights to America would tend to counterbalance +the benefits which the Filipinos hope to derive from the free entry of sugar and tobacco into American ports. The text of +the Shipping Law, dated April 15, 1904, reads thus; “On and after July 1, 1906, no merchandise shall be transported by sea, +under penalty of forfeiture thereof, between ports of the United States and ports or places of the Philippine Archipelago, +directly, or <i>via</i> a foreign port, or for any part of the voyage in any other than a vessel of the United States. No foreign vessel shall transport +passengers between ports of the United States and ports or places in the Philippine Archipelago, either directly, or <i>via</i> a foreign port, under a penalty of $200 for each passenger so transported and landed.” + +</p> +<p>The expenses of the Civil Government are met through the insular revenues (the Congressional Relief Fund being an extraordinary +exception). The largest income is derived from the Customsʼ receipts, which in 1904 amounted to about $8,750,000, equal to +about two-thirds of the insular treasury revenue (as distinguished from the municipal). The total <i>Revenue and Expenditure</i> in the fiscal year 1903 (from all sources, including municipal taxes expended in the respective localities, but exclusive +of the Congressional Relief Fund) stood thus:— + + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="60%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Total Revenue </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">$14,640,988</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Total Expenditure </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">$15,105,374</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Excess of Expenditure over Revenue </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 464,386 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 15,105,374 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 15,105,374</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>In 1903, therefore, Government cost the inhabitants the equivalent of about 46 per cent, of the exportsʼ value, against 45 +per cent, in Spanish times, taking the relative averages of 1890–94. The present abnormal pecuniary embarrassment of the people +is chiefly due to the causes already explained, and perhaps partly so to the fact that the ₱30,000,000 to ₱40,000,000 formerly +in circulation had two to three times the local purchasing value that pesos have to-day. + +</p> +<p>The “Cooper Bill,” already referred to, authorizes the Insular Government to issue bonds for General Public Works up to a +total of $5,000,000, for a term of 30 years, at 4½ per cent, interest per annum; and the municipalities to raise loans for +municipal improvements <a id="d0e22520"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e22520">630</a>]</span>up to a sum not exceeding 5 per cent. of the valuation of the real estate of the municipalities, at 5 per cent. interest per +annum. For the purchase of the friarsʼ lands a loan of $7,000,000 exists, bearing interest at 4 per cent. per annum, the possible +interest liability on the total of these items amounting to about $2,000,000 per annum. + +</p> +<p>On November 15, 1901, the high Customs tariff then in force was reduced by about 25 per cent. on the total average, bringing +the average duties to about 17 per cent. <i lang="la">ad valorem</i>, but this was again amended by the new tariff laws of May 3, 1905. Opium is still one of the imports, but under a recent +law its introduction is to be gradually restricted by tariff until March 1, 1908, from which date it will be unlawful to import +this drug, except by the Government for medicinal purposes only. + +</p> +<p>On August 1, 1904, a new scheme of additional taxation came into force under the “Internal Revenue Law of 1904.” This tax +having been only partially imposed during the first six months, the full yield cannot yet be ascertained, but at the present +rate(₱5,280,970.96, partial yield for the fiscal year 1905) it will probably produce at the annual rate of $4,250,000 gold, +which, however, is not entirely extra taxation, taking into account the old taxes repealed under Art. XVII., sec. 244. The +theory of the new scheme was that it might permit of a lower Customs tariff schedule. The new taxes are imposed on distilled +spirits, fermented liquors, manufactured tobacco, matches, banks and bankers, insurance companies, forestry products, valid +mining concessions granted prior to April 11, 1899, business, manufactures, occupations, licences, and stamps on specified +objects (Art. II., sec. 25). Of the taxes accruing to the Insular Treasury under the above law, 10 per cent. is set apart +for the benefit of the several provincial governments, apportioned <i>pro rata</i> to their respective populations as shown by the census of 1903; 15 per cent. for the several municipal governments, provided +that of this sum one-third shall be utilized solely for the maintenance of free public primary schools and expenditure appertaining +thereto. In the aforesaid distribution Manila City ranks as a municipality and a province, and receives apportionment under +this law on the basis of 25 per cent. (Art. XVII., sec. 150). + +</p> +<p>From the first announcement of the projected law up to its promulgation the public clamoured loudly against it. For months +the public organs, issued in Spanish and dialect, persistently denounced it as a harbinger of ruin to the Colony. Chambers +of Commerce, corporations and private firms, foreign and native, at meetings specially convened to discuss the new law, predicted +a collapse of Philippine industry and commerce. At a public conference, held before the Civil Commission on June 24, 1904, +it was stated that one distillery alone would have to pay a yearly tax of ₱744,000, and that a certain cigar-factory would +be required to pay annually ₱557,425. Petitions against the coming law <a id="d0e22534"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e22534">631</a>]</span>were sent by all the representative trading-bodies to the Insular Government praying for its withdrawal. When the Commissioners +retired to their hill-station at Báguio (Benguet) they were followed up by protests against the measure, but it became law +under Philippine Commission Act No. 1189. Since the imposition of this tax there has been a general complaint throughout the +civilized provinces of depression in the internal trade, but to what extent it is justified there is no available precise +data on which to form an estimate. + +</p> +<p>As already stated, the American occupation brought about a rapid rise in the price of everything, not of necessity or in obedience +to the law of supply and demand, but because it was the pleasure of the Americans voluntarily to enhance established values. +To the surprise of the Filipinos, the new-comers preferred to pay wages at hitherto unheard-of rates, whilst the soldiers +lavishly paid in gold for silver-peso value (say, at least, double), of their own volition—an innovation in which the obliging +native complacently acquiesced, until it dawned upon him that he might demand anything he chose. The soldiers so frequently +threw away copper coin given them in change as valueless, that many natives discontinued to offer it. It followed that everybody +was reluctantly compelled to pay the higher price which the American spontaneously elected to give. Labour, food, house-rent, +and all the necessaries of life rose enormously.<a id="d0e22538src" href="#d0e22538" class="noteref">3</a> The Colony soon became converted from a cheap into an expensive place of residence. Living there to-day costs at least three +times what it did in Spanish times. Urban property and lands were assessed at values far beyond those at which the owners +truly estimated them. Up to 1904 it was not at all uncommon to find the rent of a house raised to five times that of 1898. +Retailers had to raise their prices; trading-firms were obliged to increase their clerksʼ emoluments, and in every direction +revenue and expenditure thenceforth ranged on an enhanced scale. It is remarkable that, whilst pains were taken by the new-comers +to force up prices, many of them were simultaneously complaining of expensive living! Governor W. H. Taft, with an annual +emolument of $20,000 gold, declared before the United States Senate that the Gov.-Generalʼs palace at Malacañan was too expensive +a place for him to reside in. The lighting of the establishment cost him $125 gold a month, and his servantsʼ wages amounted +to $250 monthly. He added that he would rather pay his own rent than meet the expenses of the Malacañan residence.<a id="d0e22544src" href="#d0e22544" class="noteref">4</a> + +</p> +<p>Two and a half years later General Leonard Wood reported: +<a id="d0e22551"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e22551">632</a>]</span></p> +<p>“There has been a great increase in the cost of living and in wages in this (Moro) as in other provinces—an increase which +has not been accompanied either by improved methods or increased production. The cause of the increase can be traced, in most +cases, to the <i>foolishly high prices paid</i> by army officials for labour.”<a id="d0e22557src" href="#d0e22557" class="noteref">5</a> + +</p> +<p>Wages steadily advanced as a natural consequence of the higher cost of living, and, under the guidance of a native demagogue, +the working classes, for the first time in Philippine history, collectively began to grumble at the idea of labour-pay having +a limit. It was one of the abuses of that liberty of speech suddenly acquired under the new dominion. On February 2, 1902, +this person organized the malcontents under the title of a “Labour Union,” of which he became the first president. The subscription +was 20 cents of a peso per week. The legality of peacefully relinquishing work when the worker felt so inclined was not impugned; +but when the strikers sought to coerce violently their fellow-men, the law justly interfered and imprisoned their leader. +The presidency of the so-called “Labour Union” was thenceforth (September following) carried on by a half-caste, gifted with +great power of organization and fluent oratory. He prepared the by-laws of the association, and fixed the monthly subscription +at one peso per man and one peseta (one-fifth of a peso) per woman. About 100,000 members were enrolled in the union, the +ostensible aim of which was the defence of the working manʼs interests. It is difficult to discern what those interests were +which needed protection; the position of the labouring class was the very reverse of that existing in Europe; the demand for +labourers, at any reasonable wage, exceeded the supply. The idea of a Filipino philanthropically devoting his life to the +welfare of the masses was beyond the conception of all who understood the Philippine character. At the end of about eight +months, notwithstanding the enormous assets from subscriptions, the “Labour Union” became insolvent, with a deficit of 1,000 +or more pesos. Where the assets had gone needed investigation. In the meantime the leader, posing as mediator between the +Insular Government and certain notorious outlaws, had endeavoured to negotiate with Governor W. H. Taft for their surrender, +on the condition of full pardon. The Government, at length, becoming suspicious of his intentions and the full measure of +his sympathy for these individuals, caused the leader to be arrested on May 29, 1903, on the allegations of “founding, directing, +and presiding over an illegal association known as ‘The Democratic Labour Union,’” irregularities connected with the foundation +and administration of the same, sedition, confederacy with brigands, and other minor counts. + +</p> +<p>It was clear to every thinking man, American or European, that the control of such a formidable body was a menace to peace. +The accused was brought to trial on the chief allegations, and in September, 1903, he <a id="d0e22566"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e22566">633</a>]</span>was sentenced to four years and two monthsʼ imprisonment, but appealed against the sentence to the Supreme Court. Later on +he was tried on the other counts, and, although the public prosecution failed, it served the useful purpose of dissolving +a league the scope of which was shrouded in obscurity, at a period when the political atmosphere was still clouded by aspirations +of impossible and undesirable realization. I followed the course of the trial daily, and I interviewed the accused at his +house a week before it ended. Three hundred documents were read at the trial, and 160 witnesses were brought against him. +To endeavour to establish a case of conspiracy against him, another individual was produced as his colleague. The first accused +was defended by an American advocate with such fervid eloquence, apparently inspired by earnest conviction of his clientʼs +innocence, that those who had to decide his fate acquitted him of the charge of conspiracy on May 11, 1904. The defendantʼs +verbal explanation to me of the “Labour Union” led me to the conclusion that its abolition would benefit the community. + +</p> +<p>The abnormal rise in wages had the bad effect of inducing the natives to leave their pastoral pursuits to flock into the towns. +The labour question is still a difficult problem, for it is the habit of the Filipino to discontinue work when he has a surplus +in his pocket. Private employers complain of scarcity and the unreliability of the unskilled labourer. Undoubtedly the majority +of them would welcome the return of Chinese coolies, whose entry into the Islands is prohibited by the Insular Government, +in agreement with the desire of the Filipinos, who know full well that the industrious Chinaman would lower wages and force +the Filipinos into activity for an existence. + +</p> +<p>Consul-General Wildman, of Hong-Kong, in his report for 1900 to the State Department, Washington, said: “There has been, during +the past year, quite an investment of Hong-Kong capital in Manila; but it is the general opinion that <i>no investment in mines or agriculture</i> in the Islands <i>will be of any great value until the introduction of Chinese labour</i> is not only <i>permitted</i> but <i>encouraged</i>.” + +</p> +<p>Section IV. of the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1902 provides that every Chinese labourer rightfully in any insular territory +of the United States (Hawaii excepted), at the time of the passage of this Act, shall obtain, within one year thereafter, +a certificate of residence, and upon failure to obtain such certificate he shall be deported; and the Philippine Commission +is authorized and required to make all regulations necessary for the enforcement of this section in the Philippine Islands. +No restriction is placed upon their movement from one island to another of the Philippines, but they cannot go from the Philippines +to America. + +</p> +<p>The regulations established by the Insular Government (Act of March 27, 1903) in conformity with the above-cited Act are as +follows: The Chinese can leave the Islands and return thereto within a year. They must obtain a certificate of departure and +be photographed. To <a id="d0e22588"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e22588">634</a>]</span>re-enter the Islands they must procure a certificate of departure at the place of embarkation (usually China) for the Philippines. +Thus, during the year ending June 30, 1902, 10,158 Chinese entered Manila, and 11,432 left it with return certificates. Chinese +resident in the Islands must be registered. The first banishment for contravention of this regulation took place on January +6, 1905. + +</p> +<p>For a long time there was a big contraband business done in Chinese. A coolie would pay as much as 400 pesos premium to find +himself where he could earn up to 100 pesos per month. The contraband agent in China was an ex-Custom-house officer. The Manila +agent was in the Customs service, and the colleagues on the China side were high officials. When the conspiracy was discovered +the agent in China came to Manila to answer the charge, and was at once arrested. A prosecution was entered upon; but after +a protracted trial, the proceedings were quashed, for reasons which need not be discussed. The Exclusion Act is so rigidly +upheld that in the case of a Chinese merchant who died in the Islands leaving a fortune of about 200,000 pesos, his (Chinese) +executor was refused permission to reside temporarily in the Colony for the sole purpose of winding up the deceasedʼs affairs. + +</p> +<p>The social position of the Chinese permitted to remain in the Islands has changed since the American advent. In former times, +when the highest authorities frowned upon the Chinese community, it was necessary to propitiate them with bags of silver pesos. +There was no Chinese consul in those days; but Chino Cárlos Palanca was practically the protector and dictator of his countrymen +during the last decade of Spanish rule, and, if a cloud descended upon them from high quarters, he used to pass the word round +for a dollar levy to dissipate it. In February, 1900, Chino Palanca was made a mandarin of the first class, and when his spirit +passed away to the abode of his ancestors his body was followed to interment by an immense sympathetic crowd of Celestials. +This pompous funeral was one of the great social events of the year. Now there is a Chinese consul in Manila whose relations +to his people are very different from those between Europeans and their consuls. The Chinese consul paternally tells his countrymen +what they are to do, and they do it with filial submission. He has given them to understand that they occupy a higher position +than that formerly accorded to the Chinese in this Colony (<i>vide</i> Chinese, Chapter <a href="#d0e3704">viii</a>). + +</p> +<p>On my first visit to Manila alter the American occupation I was struck to see Chinese in the streets wearing the pigtail down +their backs, and dressed in nicely-cut semi-European patrol-jacket costumes of cloth or washing-stuffs, with straw or felt +“trilby” hats. Now, too, they mix freely among the whites in public places with an air of social equality, and occupy stall +seats in the theatre, which they would not have dared to enter in pre-American times. The Chinese Chamber of Commerce is also +of recent foundation, and its status is so far <a id="d0e22602"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e22602">635</a>]</span>recognized by the Americans that it was invited to express an opinion on the Internal Revenue Bill, already referred to, before +it became law. The number of Chinese in the whole Archipelago is estimated at about 41,000. When an enterprising American +introduced a large number of jinrikishas, intending to establish that well-known system of locomotion here, the Chinese Consulate +very shortly put its veto on the employment of Chinese runners. The few natives who ran them became objects of ridicule. The +first person who used a jinrikisha in Manila, with Chinese in livery, was a European consul. Other whites, unaccustomed to +these vehicles, took to beating the runners—a thing never seen or heard of in Japan or in colonies where they are used in +thousands. The natural result was that the ʼrikisha man bolted and the ʼrikisha tilted backwards, to the discomfort of the +fool riding in it. The attempted innovation failed, and the vehicles were sent out of the Colony. + +</p> +<p>Apart from the labour question, if the Chinese were allowed a free entry they would perpetuate the smartest pure Oriental +mixed class in the Islands. On the other hand, if their exclusion should remain in force beyond the present generation it +will have a marked adverse effect on the activity of the people (<i>vide</i> pp. <a href="#d0e5681">182</a>, <a href="#d0e16076">411</a>). + +</p> +<p>At the period of the American occupation the <i>Currency</i> of the Islands was the Mexican and Spanish-Philippine peso, of a value constantly fluctuating between 49 and 37 cents. gold +(<i>vide</i> table at p. <a href="#d0e25973">647</a>). The shifty character of the silver basis created such an uncertainty in trade and investment transactions that the Government +resolved to place the currency on a gold standard. Between January 1 and October 5, 1902, the Insular Treasury lost $956,750.37½ +from the fall of silver. A difficulty to be confronted was the impossibility of ascertaining even the approximate total amount +of silver current in the Islands. Opinions varied from ₱30,000,000 upwards.<a id="d0e22626src" href="#d0e22626" class="noteref">6</a> Pending the solution of the money problem, ineffectual attempts were made to fix the relative values by the publication of +an official ratio between gold dollar and silver peso once a quarter; but as it never agreed with the commercial quotation +many days running, the announcement of the official ratio was altered to once in ten days. Seeing that ten days or more elapsed +before the current ratio could be communicated to certain remote points, the complications in the official accounts were most +embarrassing. Congress Act of July 1, 1902, authorized the coinage of subsidiary silver, but did not determine the unit of +value or provide for the issue of either coin or paper money to take the place of the Mexican and Spanish-Philippine pesos +in circulation, so that it was quite inoperative. Finally, Congress Act of March 2, 1903, provided that the new standard should +be a peso equal in value to half a United States gold dollar. The maximum amount authorized to be coined was <a id="d0e22629"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e22629">636</a>]</span>75,000,000 silver pesos, each containing 416 grains of silver, nine-tenths fine. The peso was to be legal tender for all debts, +public and private, in the Islands, and was to be issued when the Insular Government should have 500,000 pesos ready for circulation. +The peso is officially alluded to as “Philippine currency,” whilst the popular term, “Conant,” derives its name from a gentleman, +Mr. Charles Conant, in whose report, dated November 25, 1901, this coin was suggested. He visited the Islands, immortalized +his name, and modestly retired. + +</p> +<p>The “Philippine currency,” or “peso Conant,” is guaranteed by the United States Treasury to be equal to 50 cents of a gold +dollar. The six subsidiary coins are 50, 20, and 10 cents silver, 5 cents nickel, and 1 and ½ cent bronze, equivalent to a +sterling value of one shilling to one farthing. This new coinage, designed by a Filipino, was issued to the public at the +end of July, 1903. The inaugurating issue consisted of 17,881,650 silver pesos, in pesos and subsidiary coins, to be supplemented +thereafter by the re-coinage of the Mexican and Philippine pesos as they found their way into the Treasury. For public convenience, +silver certificates, or Treasury Notes, were issued, exchangeable for “Conant” silver pesos, to the extent of 6,000,000 pesosʼ +worth in 10-peso notes; another 6,000,000 pesos in 5-peso notes, and 3,000,000 pesos in 2-peso notes, these last bearing a +vignette of the Philippine patriot, the late Dr. José Rizal. On December 23, 1903, the Governor reported that “not till January +1, 1904, can the Mexican coin be demonetized and denied as legal tender value.” A proclamation, dated January 28, 1904, was +issued by the Insular Treasury in Spanish and Tagalog to the effect (1) that after October 1, 1904, the Government would only +accept Mexican or Philippine pesos at the value of their silver contents, and (2) that after December 31, 1904, a tax would +be levied on all deposits made at the banks of the above-mentioned coinage. Notwithstanding the publication of numerous official +circulars urging the use of the new peso, the Mexican and Spanish-Philippine dollars remained in free circulation during the +first six months of 1904, although rent and certain other payments were reckoned in “Conant” and current accounts at banks +were kept in the new currency, unless otherwise agreed. Naturally, as long as the seller was willing to accept Mexican for +his goods, the buyer was only too pleased to pay in that medium, because if, for instance, he had to pay 10 Mexican dollars, +and only had “Conant” in his pocket, he could call at any of the hundred exchange shops about town, change his 10 “Conant” +into Mexican at a 5 to 20 per cent. premium, settle his bill, and reserve the premium. Almost any Far Eastern fractional coins +served as subsidiary coins to the Mexican or Spanish-Philippine peso, and during nine or ten months there were no less than +three currencies in use—namely, United States, Mexican (with Spanish-Philippine), and “Conant.” It was not practicable to +deny a legal-tender value to so much Mexican, and Spanish-Philippine <a id="d0e22633"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e22633">637</a>]</span>coin in circulation. The retailer was required to exhibit in his shop a card, supplied by the municipality, indicating the +exchange-rate of the day, and declaring in Spanish, English, and Tagálog as follows: “Our prices are in American currency. +We accept Philippine currency at the rate of...”; but the reckoning in small-value transactions was so bewildering that, in +practice, he would accept any coinage the purchaser chose to give him at face value. From August 1, 1904, when the “Internal +Revenue Law” (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e22520">630</a>) came into operation, merchantsʼ and bankersʼ accounts and all large transactions were settled on the new-currency basis. +Many retailers followed the lead, and the acceptance of the new medium thenceforth greatly increased. Still, for several months, +provincial natives were loth to part with their old coin at a discount, or, as they plainly put it, lose 10 to 20 per cent. +of their cash capital at a stroke. The Insular Treasurer therefore issued another circular in December, 1904, stating that +whosoever engaged in business should make use of the old coinage in trade transactions after December 31, 1904, without special +licence, would be condemned to pay not only that licence, but a heavy fine, or be <i>sent to prison</i>; and that all written agreements made after October, 1904, involving a payment in old currency, would pay a tax of 1 per +cent. per month from the said date of December, 1904. Nevertheless, further pressure had to be exercised by the Civil Governor, +who, in a circular dated January 7, 1905, stated that “it is hereby ordered that the Insular Treasurer and all provincial +treasurers in the Philippine Islands shall, on and after this date and until February 1, 1905, purchase Spanish-Filipino currency, +Mexican currency, Chinese subsidiary silver coins, and all foreign copper coins now circulating in the Philippine Islands +at <i>one peso</i>, Philippine currency, for <i>one peso and twenty centavos</i>, local currency.” + +</p> +<p>As late as March, 1905, there was still a considerable amount of old coinage in private hands, but practically the new medium +was definitely established. The total number of “Conant” pesos in circulation in the Islands, in the middle of May, 1905, +was 29,715,720 (all minted in America), and “Conant” paper, ₱10,150,000. + +</p> +<p>From the time of the American occupation up to May, 1902, the two foreign banks—the Hong-Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation +and the Chartered Bank of India, Australia, and China (<i>vide</i> Banks, p. <a href="#d0e9672">258</a>)—were the only depositaries for the Insular Treasury, outside the Treasury itself. In the meantime, two important American +banks established themselves in the Islands—namely, the “Guaranty Trust Company,” and the “International Banking Corporation.” +On May 15, 1902, the “Guaranty Trust Company” was appointed a depositary for Philippine funds both in Manila and in the United +States; and on June 21 following the “International Banking Corporation” was likewise appointed a depositary for the Insular +<a id="d0e22660"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e22660">638</a>]</span>Treasury, each being under a bond of $2,000,000. These two banks also act as fiscal agents to the United States in the Philippines.<a id="d0e22662src" href="#d0e22662" class="noteref">7</a> + +</p> +<p>In 1904 the position of the “<span lang="es">Banco Español-Filipino</span>” (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e9672">258</a>) was officially discussed. This bank, the oldest established in Manila, holds a charter from the Spanish Government, the +validity of which was recognized. The Insular Government sought to reduce the amount of its paper currency, which was alleged +to be three times the amount of its cash capital. Meanwhile, the notes in circulation, representing the old Philippine medium, +ceased to be legal tender, and were exchanged for “Conant” peso-value notes at the current rate of exchange. + +</p> +<p>For a short period there existed an establishment entitled the “American Bank,” which did not prosper and was placed in liquidation +on May 18, 1905, by order of the Gov.-General, pursuant to Philippine Commission Act No. 52 as amended by Act No. 556. + +</p> +<p>In February, 1909, the terms of Article 4 of the Treaty of Paris (<i>vide</i> p. <a href="#d0e17810">479</a>) will lapse, leaving America a freer hand to determine the commercial future of the Philippines. It remains to be seen whether +the “Philippines for the Filipinos” policy, promoted by the first Civil Governor, or the “Equal opportunities for all” doctrine, +propounded by the first Gov.-General, will be the one then adopted by America. Present indications point to the former merging +into the latter, almost of necessity, if it is desired to encourage American capitalists to invest in the Islands. The advocate +of the former policy is the present responsible minister for Philippine affairs, whilst, on this work going to press, the +propounder of the latter doctrine has been justly rewarded, for his honest efforts to govern well, with the appointment of +first American Ambassador to Japan. + + + +</p> +<div class="footnotes"> +<hr class="fnsep"> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e22343" href="#d0e22343src" class="noteref">1</a></span> Report on the Commerce of the Philippine Islands, prepared in the Bureau of Insular Affairs, War Department, Washington, 1903. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e22386" href="#d0e22386src" class="noteref">2</a></span> The Japanese Government is making an effort to produce cane sugar in Formosa sufficient for Japanʼs consumption. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e22538" href="#d0e22538src" class="noteref">3</a></span> “Ever since the occupation of these Islands by the American army, four years ago, the price of labour has steadily increased.... +It is needless to say that every industry will be profoundly affected by this.” <i>Vide</i> Notes in “Monthly Summary of Commerce of the Philippine Islands,” May, 1903. Prepared in the Bureau of Insular Affairs, War +Department, Washington. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e22544" href="#d0e22544src" class="noteref">4</a></span> <i>Vide</i> statement of Governor W. H. Taft before the U.S. Senate, January 31, 1902, in Senate Document No. 331, Part I., 57th Congress, +1st Session, p. 258. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e22557" href="#d0e22557src" class="noteref">5</a></span> <i>Vide</i> Report of the Moro Province for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1904, p. 27. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e22626" href="#d0e22626src" class="noteref">6</a></span> In the years 1888–97 the circulation of Mexican and Spanish-Philippine dollars (pesos) was computed at about 36,000,000. +</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e22662" href="#d0e22662src" class="noteref">7</a></span> The “International Banking Corporation”: Capital paid up, £820,000; reserve fund, £820,000. The “Guaranty Trust Company”: +Capital, reserves, and undivided profits, about $7,500,000 gold. +</p> +</div> +</div> +</div><a id="d0e22686"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e22686">639</a>]</span><div class="back"> +<div id="d0e22688" class="div1"> +<h2 class="normal">Trade Statistics</h2> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Total Import and Export Values</span> (exclusive of Silver and Gold) + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top"><b>Period. +</b></td> +<td valign="top"><b>Imports. +</b></td> +<td valign="top"><b>Exports. +</b></td> +<td valign="top"><b>Total Import and Export Trade. +</b></td> +<td valign="top"><b>Excess of Imports. +</b></td> +<td valign="top"><b>Excess of Exports.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top"><b>Annual Average. +</b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Gold $. +</i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Gold $. +</i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Gold $. +</i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Gold $. +</i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Gold $.</i></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">1880–84 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">19,500,274 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">20,838,325 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">40,338,599 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">— </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1,338,051</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">1885–89 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">15,789,165 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">20,991,265 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">36,780,430 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">— </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">5,202,100</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">1890–94 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">15,827,694 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">19,751,293 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">35,578,987 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">— </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3,923,599</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>Year.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1899 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">13,113,010 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">12,306,912 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">25,479,922 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 746,098 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1900 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">20,601,436 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">19,751,068 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">40,352,504 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 850,368 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1901 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">30,279,406 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">23,214,948 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">53,494,354 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">7,064,458 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1902 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">32,141,842 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">23,927,679 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">56,069,521 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">8,214,163 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1903 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">32,971,882 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">33,121,780 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">66,093,662 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">— </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">149,898</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + +</p> +<p>Great Britain and the United States are the most important foreign markets for Philippine hemp, the distribution of shipments +in 1850 and in five recent years having been as follows:— + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Hemp Shipments to United States, United Kingdom, and Other Countries</span> + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>Year.</b></td> +<td valign="top"><b>To United States.</b></td> +<td valign="top"><b>To Great Britain.</b></td> +<td valign="top"><b>To Other Countries.</b></td> +<td valign="top"><b>Total.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i></i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Tons.</i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Tons.</i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Tons.</i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Tons.</i></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1850 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 7,387 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 1,092 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 323 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 8,802</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1899 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">26,713 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">21,511 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">26,808 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 75,092</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1900 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">20,304 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">46,419 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">22,715 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 89,438</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1901 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">30,336 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">82,190 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">11,731 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">124,257</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1902 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">60,384 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">44,813 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 6,303 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">111,500</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1903 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">69,912 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">59,189 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 8,651 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">137,752</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Hemp Shipments</span> + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="40%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>Year.</b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>Total.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i></i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Tons.</i></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1850 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 8,802</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1855 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 14,936</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1860 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 24,812</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1865 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 24,862</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1870 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 30,535</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1875 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 32,864</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1880 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 49,934</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1885 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 52,141</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1890 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 63,269</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1895 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">104,040</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1896 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 95,736</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1897 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">112,755</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1898 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 99,076</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1899 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 75,092</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1900 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 89,438</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1901 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">124,257</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1902 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">111,500</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1903 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">137,752</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + +<a id="d0e23030"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e23030">640</a>]</span></p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Total Chief Exports from the Philippine Islands</span> + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b> </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b> </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>1885. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>1886. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>1887. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>1888. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>1889. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>1890. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>1891. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>1892. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>1893.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i> </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i> </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Tons. </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Tons. </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Tons. </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Tons. </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Tons. </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Tons. </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Tons. </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Tons. </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Tons. +</i></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top"><span class="smallcaps">Sugar</span> +</td> +<td valign="top">Manila </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 65,678 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 84,204 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 83,469 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 91,628 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 92,856 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 48,071 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 73,296 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 67,996 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">107,003</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top">Cebú </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 28,195 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 18,140 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 17,815 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 16,694 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 11,862 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 3,455 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 8,762 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 18,388 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 16,962</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top">Yloilo </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">109,609 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 83,456 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 77,847 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 76,997 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">114,207 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 96,000 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 85,104 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">165,407 </td> +<td valign="top">137,716 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top">Total </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">203,482 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">185,800 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">179,131 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">185,319 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">218,925 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">147,526 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">167,162 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">251,791 </td> +<td valign="top">261,681 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top"><span class="smallcaps">Hemp</span> +</td> +<td valign="top">Manila </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 43,927 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 39,268 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 56,709 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 71,881 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 59,455 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 56,201 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 68,256 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 87,778 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 70,174</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top">Cebú </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 8,214 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 7,192 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 7,663 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 11,298 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 11,616 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 7,068 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 11,087 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 11,035 </td> +<td valign="top"> 10,010 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top">Total </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 52,141 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 46,460 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 64,372 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 82,679 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 71,071 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 63,269 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 79,343 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 98,813 </td> +<td valign="top"> 80,184 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top"><span class="smallcaps">Sapan-wood</span> +</td> +<td valign="top">Manila </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 2,911 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 1,885 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 962 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 750 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 574 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 1,385 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 880 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 1,574 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 3,332</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top">Yloilo and Cebú </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 1,100 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 2,943 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 4,260 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 5,853 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 4,018 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 1,415 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 3,317 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 2,207 </td> +<td valign="top"> 1,586 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top">Total </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 4,011 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 4,828 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 5,222 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 6,603 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 4,592 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 2,800 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 4,197 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 8,841 </td> +<td valign="top"> 4,918 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top"><span class="smallcaps">Coprah</span> +</td> +<td valign="top"><i>tons</i> +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> — </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> — </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> — </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> — </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> — </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 4,653 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 17,875 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 22,439 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 11,519</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>Shipped from Manila only. + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b> </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b> </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>1885. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>1886. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>1887. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>1888. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>1889. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>1890. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>1891. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>1892. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>1893.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Coffee </td> +<td valign="top"><i>tons </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 5,209 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 7,337 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 4,998 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 6,702 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 5,841 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 4,796 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 2,869 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 1,326 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 307</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Cigars </td> +<td valign="top"><i>thousands </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">114,821 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">102,717 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 99,562 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">109,109 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">121,674 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">109,636 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 97,740 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">137,059 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">137,458</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Tobacco-Leaf </td> +<td valign="top"><i>tons </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 6,799 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 6,039 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 4,841 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 10,229 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 10,161 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 8,952 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 9,803 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 12,714 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 11,534</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Buffalo-Hides </td> +<td valign="top"><i>tons </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 632 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 666 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 566 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 1,888 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 755 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 394 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 272 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 327 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> —</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Indigo </td> +<td valign="top"><i>tons </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 84 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 64 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 111 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 232 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 221 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 19 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 89 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 278 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> —</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Gum Mastic </td> +<td valign="top"><i>tons </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 195 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 205 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 404 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 330 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 490 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 188 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 303 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 136 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> —</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Cordage </td> +<td valign="top"><i>tons </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 265 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 187 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 175 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 124 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 94 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 196 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 149 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 100 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> —</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">M.O.P. Shell </td> +<td valign="top"><i>tons </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 10 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 8 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 13 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 12 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 23 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 31 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 18 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 10 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> —</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + +<a id="d0e23557"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e23557">641</a>]</span></p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Total Chief Exports from the Philippine Islands</span>—<i>continued</i> + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b> </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b> </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b> </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>1894. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>1895. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>1896. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>1897. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>1899. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>1900. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>1901. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>1902. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>1903. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>1858.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" colspan="5"><span class="smallcaps">Under American Occupation</span>. +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top">According to Sir John Bowring.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i> </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i> </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i> </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Tons. </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Tons. </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Tons. </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Tons. </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Tons. </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Tons. </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Tons. </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Tons. </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Tons.</i></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" rowspan="4"><span class="smallcaps">Sugar</span> +</td> +<td valign="top">Manila </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 94,656 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">107,221 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 97,705 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 57,382 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 5,041 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 27,473 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 5,567 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 421 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 368 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top">Cebú </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 10,198 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 13,335 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 7,701 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 15,257 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 12,363 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 3,731 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 8,283 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 4,595 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 6,202 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top">Yloilo </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 88,533 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">110,527 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">124,648 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">130,542 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 71,982 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 36,312 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 45,070 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 97,129 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 81,308 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top">Total </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">193,387 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">231,083 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">230,054 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">203,181 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 89,386 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 67,536 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 58,920 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">102,145 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 88,378 </td> +<td valign="top"> 34,821 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" rowspan="3"><span class="smallcaps">Hemp</span> +</td> +<td valign="top">Manila </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 82,693 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 93,595 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 83,172 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">102,721 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> — </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> — </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> — </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> — </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> — </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top">Cebú </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 16,804 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 10,445 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 12,564 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 10,034 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> — </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> — </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> — </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> — </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> — </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top">Total </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 99,497 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">104,040 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 95,736 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">112,755 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 75,092 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 89,438 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">124,257 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">111,500 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">137,752 </td> +<td valign="top"> 25,781 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" rowspan="3"><span class="smallcaps">Sapanwood</span> +</td> +<td valign="top">Manila </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 1,292 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 1,619 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 898 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 1,022 </td> +<td valign="top" colspan="5" rowspan="2"><i>No quantities stated in the Office Returns since 1898.</i></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top">Yloilo & Cebú </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 1,633 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 694 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 2,743 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 3,165 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top">Total </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 2,925 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 2,313 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 3,551 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 4,187 </td> +<td valign="top" colspan="5"><i>Included in Table of Total Export Values</i>, p. 639. +</td> +<td valign="top"> 4,201 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" colspan="2"><span class="smallcaps">Coprah</span> +</td> +<td valign="top"><i>tons </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 33,265 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 37,104 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 37,970 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 50,714 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 15,906 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 65,355 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 32,655 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 59,287 </td> +<td valign="top"> 83,411 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" rowspan="8">Shipped from Manila only. + +</td> +<td valign="top">Coffee </td> +<td valign="top"><i>tons </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 309 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 194 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 89 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 136 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 34 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 13 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 30 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 7 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 4 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 1,560</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Cigars </td> +<td valign="top"><i>thousands </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">137,877 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">164,430 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">183,667 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">156,916 </td> +<td valign="top" colspan="3"><i>No quantities officially stated.</i> +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 85,142</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Tobacco-Leaf </td> +<td valign="top"><i>tons </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 9,545 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 10,368 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 10,986 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 15,836 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 6,272 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 9,834 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 7,764 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 9,016 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 8,593 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 4,106</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Buffalo-Hides </td> +<td valign="top"><i>tons </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 398 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 467 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 397 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 728 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> — </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> — </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> — </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> — </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> — </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 402</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Indigo </td> +<td valign="top"><i>tons </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 72 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 27 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 23 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 33 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 114 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 5 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 8 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 247 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 40 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 36</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Gum Mastic </td> +<td valign="top"><i>tons </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 189 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 275 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 172 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 223 </td> +<td valign="top" colspan="3" rowspan="3"><i>No quantities officially stated.</i></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Cordage </td> +<td valign="top"><i>tons </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 170 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 198 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 194 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 239 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">M.O.P. Shell </td> +<td valign="top"><i>tons </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 54 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 79 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 13 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 42 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"></td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> +<a id="d0e24077"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e24077">642</a>]</span></p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Total Export of Sugar from the Phillipine Islands During 18 Years</span> + + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b> </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>1885. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>1886. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>1887. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>1888. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>1889. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>1890. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>1891. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>1892. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>1893.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i> </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Tons. </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Tons. </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Tons. </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Tons. </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Tons. </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Tons. </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Tons. </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Tons. </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Tons. +</i></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top"><span class="smallcaps">Manila</span> +</td> +<td valign="top">Dry </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 47,542 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 62,594 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 62,167 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 63,890 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> — </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 33,233 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 50,342 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 51,718 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 72,007</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top">Wet </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 18,136 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 21,610 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 21,302 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 27,738 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> — </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 14,838 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 22,954 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 16,278 </td> +<td valign="top"> 34,996 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top">Total </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 65,678 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 84,204 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 83,469 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 91,628 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 92,856 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 48,071 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 73,296 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 67,996 </td> +<td valign="top">107,003 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top"><span class="smallcaps">Cebú</span> +</td> +<td valign="top">Dry </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 23,676 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 15,190 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 12,765 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 13,094 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> — </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 3,145 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 7,562 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 17,488 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 16,712</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top">Wet </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 4,519 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 2,950 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 5,050 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 3,600 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> — </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 310 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 1,200 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 900 </td> +<td valign="top"> 250 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top">Total </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 23,195 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 18,140 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 17,815 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 16,694 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 11,862 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 3,455 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 8,762 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 18,388 </td> +<td valign="top"> 16,962 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top"><span class="smallcaps">Yliolo</span> +</td> +<td valign="top">Dry </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">102,369 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 81,201 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 71,722 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 72,882 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> — </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 87,966 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 82,515 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">160,050 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">135,191</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top">Wet </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 7,240 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 2,255 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 6,125 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 4,115 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> — </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 8,034 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 2,589 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 5,357 </td> +<td valign="top"> 2,525 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top">Total </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">109,609 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 83,456 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 77,847 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 76,997 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">114,207 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 96,000 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 85,104 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">165,407 </td> +<td valign="top">137,716 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top">Grand Total </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">203,482 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">185,800 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">179,131 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">185,319 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">213,925 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">147,526 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">167,162 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">251,791 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">261,631</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Total Export of Sugar from the Phillipine Islands During 18 Years</span>—<i>continued</i> + + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b> </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b> </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>1894. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>1895. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>1896. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>1897. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>1898. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>1899. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>1900. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>1902. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>1903.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i> </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i> </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Tons. </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Tons. </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Tons. </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Tons. </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Tons. </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Tons. </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Tons. </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Tons. </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Tons.</i></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top">Under American Occupation + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top"><span class="smallcaps">Manila</span> +</td> +<td valign="top">Dry </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 65,189 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 81,502 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 77,676 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 46,345</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top">Wet </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 18,136 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 21,610 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 21,302 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 27,738 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 5,041 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 27,473 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 5,567 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 421 </td> +<td valign="top"> 868 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top">Total </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 94,656 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">107,221 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 97,703 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 57,382 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 5,041 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 27,473 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 5,567 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 421 </td> +<td valign="top"> 868 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top"><span class="smallcaps">Cebú</span> +</td> +<td valign="top">Dry </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 10,198 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 13,085 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 7,484 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 15,137</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top">Wet </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> — </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 250 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 217 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 120 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 12,363 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 3,751 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 8,283 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 4,595 </td> +<td valign="top"> 6,202 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top">Total </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 10,198 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 13,335 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 7,701 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 15,257 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 12,363 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 3,751 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 8,283 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 4,595 </td> +<td valign="top"> 6,202 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top"><span class="smallcaps">Yliolo</span> +</td> +<td valign="top">Dry </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> — </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> — </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">123,720 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">129,174</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top">Wet </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> — </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> — </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 928 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 1,368 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 71,982 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 36,312 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 45,070 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 97,129 </td> +<td valign="top"> 81,308 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top">Total </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 88,533 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">110,527 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">124,648 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">130,542 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 71,982 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 36,312 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 45,070 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 97,129 </td> +<td valign="top"> 81,308 + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top">Grand Total </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">193,387 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">231,083 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">230,054 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">203,181 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 89,386 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 67,536 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 58,920 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">102,145 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 88,378</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + +</p> +<p><i>N.B.</i>—The total export of sugar in the year 1861 was 53,114 tons. + + +<a id="d0e24642"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e24642">643</a>]</span> +<i>Trade Statistics</i> + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Tobacco and Cigar Shipments Before American Occupation</span> + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b> </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>Year. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>Cigars. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>Leaf. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>Year. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>Cigars. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>Leaf.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i> </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i> </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Thousands. </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Tons. </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i> </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Thousands. </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Tons.</i></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" rowspan="3">Under Monopoly + +</td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1880 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 82,783 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 8,657 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1889 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">121,674 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">10,161</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1881 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 89,502 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 7,027 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1890 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">109,636 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 8,952</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1882 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">103,597 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 6,195 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1891 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 97,740 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 9,803</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1883 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">190,079 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 7,267 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1892 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">137,059 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">12,714</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1884 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">125,091 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 7,181 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1893 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">137,458 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">11,534</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1885 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">114,821 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 6,799 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1894 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">137,877 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 9,545</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1886 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">102,717 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 6,039 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1895 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">164,430 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">10,368</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1887 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 99,562 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 4,841 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1896 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">183,667 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">10,986</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1888 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">109,109 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">10,229 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1897 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">156,916 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">15,836</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Tobacco-leaf Shipments Since American Occupation</span> + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>1899. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>1900. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>1901. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>1902. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>1903.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Tons. </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Tons. </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Tons. </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Tons. </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Tons.</i></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">6,272 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">9,834 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">7,764 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">9,016 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">8,593</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Cigar Shipments Since American Occupation</span> + +</p> +<p>The official returns do not state the quantities shipped + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>Year. +</b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>United States. +</b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>British Empire.<a id="d0e24867src" href="#d0e24867" class="noteref">1</a> +</b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>Other Countries. +</b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>Total Value.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b> </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>Value. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>Value. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>Value.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i> </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Gold $. </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Gold $. </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Gold $. </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Gold $.</i></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1899 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 3,405 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 430,013 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">512,281 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 945,699</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1900 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 5,662 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 937,872 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">214,883 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1,158,417</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1901 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 908 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1,604,470 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">227,071 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1,832,449</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1902 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">11,006 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 813,083 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">164,429 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 988,518</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1903 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 1,900 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 757,783 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">201,672 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 961,355</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> +<a id="d0e24950"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e24950">644</a>]</span> + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Coprah Shipments</span> + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>Year. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>Manila. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>Cebú. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>Total.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i> </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i><i>Tons</i>. </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i><i>Tons</i>. </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i><i>Tons</i>. +</i></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1890 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 4,653 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> — </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 4,653</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1891 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> — </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> — </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">17,875</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1892 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> — </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> — </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">22,439</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1893 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">11,519 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> — </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">11,519</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1894 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">32,045 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 1,220 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">33,265</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1895 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">34,332 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 2,772 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">37,104</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1896 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">34,895 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 3,075 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">37,970</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1897 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">47,814 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 2,900 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">50,714</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1899 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">13,356 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 2,378 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">15,906</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1900 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">62,469 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 2,886 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">65,355</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1901 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">30,347 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 2,308 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">32,655</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1902 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">41,816 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">17,471 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">59,287</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1903 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">69,189 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">14,222 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">83,411</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Coprah Shipment Values</span> + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>Year. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>United States. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>British Empire. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>Other Countries. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>Total Value</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i> </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Gold $. </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Gold $. </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Gold $. </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Gold $. +</i></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1899 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> — </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 72,095 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 654,558 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 726,653</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1900 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 4,450 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">246,243 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">2,931,788 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3,182,481</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1901 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> — </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 91,793 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1,520,045 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1,611,838</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1902 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 9,057 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">531,421 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">2,161,247 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">2,701,725</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1903 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 9,354 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">311,606 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3,498,833 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3,819,793</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Cocoanut-oil Shipment Values</span> + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>1893 </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>1894 </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>1899 </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>1900 </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>1901 </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>1902 </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>1903</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>Value </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>Value </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>Value </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>Value </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>Value </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>Value </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>Value</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Gold $. </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Gold $. </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Gold $. </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Gold $. </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Gold $. </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Gold $. </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Gold $. +</i></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">10,336 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">33,333 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">None </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">105 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">20 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">346 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">81</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + +</p> +<p>It will be observed that with the increase of coprah shipment, the export of cocoanut-oil has decreased. + +<a id="d0e25250"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e25250">645</a>]</span> + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Sapan-wood Shipments Before American Occupation</span> + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="40%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>Year. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>Tons. +</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1880 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">5,527</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1881 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">4,253</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1882 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">5,003</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1883 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">2,924</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1884 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">2,868</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1885 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">4,011</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1886 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">4,828</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1887 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">5,222</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1888 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">6,603</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1889 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">4,592</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1890 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">2,800</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1891 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">4,197</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1892 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3,841</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1893 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">4,918</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1894 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">2,925</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1895 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">2,313</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1896 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3,551</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1897 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">4,187</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p>The official returns, since 1898, do not state the <i>quantities</i> of sapan-wood shipments. + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Gum-mastic Shipments</span> + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="40%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>Year. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>Tons. +</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1880 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">431</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1881 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">440</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1882 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">339</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1883 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">235</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1884 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">245</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1885 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">195</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1886 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">205</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1887 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">404</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1888 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">330</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1889 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">490</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1890 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">188</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1891 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">303</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1892 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">136</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1894 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">189</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1895 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">275</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1896 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">172</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1897 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">223</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + +</p> +<p>The official figures of <i>quantity</i> are not procurable since 1897. The <i>values</i> of the shipments are as follows:—In 1901, $154,801; in 1902, $189,193; in 1903, $143,093. + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Coffee Shipments</span> + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="40%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>Year. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>Tons. +</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1856 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 437</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1858 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1,560</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1865 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">2,350</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1871 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3,335</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1880 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">5,059</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1881 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">5,383</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1882 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">5,052</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1883 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">7,451</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1884 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">7,252</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1885 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">5,209</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1886 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">7,337</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1887 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">4,998</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1888 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">6,702</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1889 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">5,841</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1890 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">4,796</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1891 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">2,869</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1892 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1,326</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1893 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 307</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1894 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 309</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1895 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 194</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1896 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 89</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1897 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 136</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1899 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 34</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1900 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 13</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1901 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 30</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1902 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 7</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1903 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 4</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> +<a id="d0e25608"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e25608">646</a>]</span> + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Gold and Silver Imports and Exports Since American Occupation</span> + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" rowspan="2" class="alignright"><b><span class="smallcaps">Year</span> </b></td> +<td valign="top" colspan="2"><b><span class="smallcaps">Imports</span> </b></td> +<td valign="top" colspan="2"><b><span class="smallcaps">Exports</span></b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>Gold. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>Silver. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>Gold. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>Silver.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i> </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Gold $. </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Gold $. </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Gold $. </i></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><i>Gold $. +</i></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1899 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">109,965 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1,141,392 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3,487,050 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 939,756</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1900 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 71,058 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">2,830,263 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 593,143 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3,147,946</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1901 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">751,909 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">6,269,613 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 857,563 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 637,844</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1902 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 3,110 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">4,226,924 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 314,295 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">4,173,776</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1903 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 50,730 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1,403,475 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 63,540 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">7,494,347</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Tonnage Entered in Philippine Ports Since American Occupation</span> + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>Year. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>Steamers. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>Net Tonnage. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>Sailing-ships </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b>Net Tonnage. +</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1899 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1,562 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 767,605 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 313 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> 58,980</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1900 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">2,969 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1,278,740 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3,252 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">147,153</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1901 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3,649 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1,630,176 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">6,333 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">208,092</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1902 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3,744 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1,819,547 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">7,222 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">242,669</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1903 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">4,679 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">2,343,904 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">6,111 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">251,116</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Exchange Fluctuations</span> (<span class="smallcaps">Of the Peso or Mexican Dollar</span>). + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="60%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" colspan="3"><b><span class="smallcaps">Sight on London</span>.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b><span class="smallcaps">Year</span>. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b><span class="smallcaps">Highest</span>. </b></td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"><b><span class="smallcaps">Lowest</span>. +</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1869 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">4/5¼ </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">4/1¾</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1879 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3/11 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3/9</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1880 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3/11¾ </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3/9¾</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1881 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">4/1½ </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3/11</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1882 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">4/1 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3/11½</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1883 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">4/0¼ </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3/9½</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1884 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3/9¼ </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3/7¾</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1885 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3/10¼ </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3/8½</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1886 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3/9¾ </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3/7½</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1887 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3/8½ </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3/3</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1888 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3/6¾ </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3/2¾</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1889 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3/6¼ </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3/3</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1890 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3/10½ </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3/2¼</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1892 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3/3¾ </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">3/–</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1897 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">2/2 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1/2¾</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1898 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">2/0⅝ </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1/9½</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1899 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">2/0 ​5⁄16​ </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1/11⅜</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1900 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">2/0⅞ </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1/11⅞</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1901 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">2/0½ </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1/10 ​5⁄16​</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1902 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1/10 ​13⁄16​ </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1/6¼</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1903 </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1/11 ​5⁄16​ </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1/6 ​11⁄16​ + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1904 </td> +<td valign="top" colspan="2">Local Currency</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1/11 ​9⁄16​ </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1/9 ​11⁄16​</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" colspan="2">“Conant” Peso</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright"> </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">2/0 ​13⁄16​ </td> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">2/0 ​3⁄16​</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> +<a id="d0e25973"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e25973">647</a>]</span> + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Proportionate Table of Exports (Exclusive of Gold and Silver) Years 1899–1903</span> + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" colspan="2"><b><span class="smallcaps">Year</span> 1899</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">United States </td> +<td valign="top">==================</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">British Empire </td> +<td valign="top">===================</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Spain </td> +<td valign="top">======</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Other Countries </td> +<td valign="top">========================== + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" colspan="2"><b><span class="smallcaps">Year</span> 1900</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">United States </td> +<td valign="top">====================</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">British Empire </td> +<td valign="top">=======================================</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Spain </td> +<td valign="top">========</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Other Countries </td> +<td valign="top">======================================= + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" colspan="2"><b><span class="smallcaps">Year</span> 1901</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">United States </td> +<td valign="top">======================</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">British Empire </td> +<td valign="top">====================================================</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Spain </td> +<td valign="top">=======</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Other Countries </td> +<td valign="top">=============================== + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" colspan="2"><b><span class="smallcaps">Year</span> 1902</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">United States </td> +<td valign="top">===================================================</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">British Empire </td> +<td valign="top">=======================================</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Spain </td> +<td valign="top">=====</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Other Countries </td> +<td valign="top">================================== + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" colspan="2"><b><span class="smallcaps">Year</span> 1903</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">United States </td> +<td valign="top">=========================================================</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">British Empire </td> +<td valign="top">=============================================</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Spain </td> +<td valign="top">======</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Other Countries </td> +<td valign="top">=====================================</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Proportionate Table of Imports (Exclusive of Gold, Silver, and U.S. Govt. Supplies) Years 1899–1903</span> + +</p> +<p></p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" colspan="2"><b><span class="smallcaps">Year</span> 1899</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">United States </td> +<td valign="top">=======</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">British Empire </td> +<td valign="top">==================</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Spain </td> +<td valign="top">============</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Other Countries </td> +<td valign="top">================================================== + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" colspan="2"><b><span class="smallcaps">Year</span> 1900</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">United States </td> +<td valign="top">===========</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">British Empire </td> +<td valign="top">==================================</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Spain </td> +<td valign="top">==========</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Other Countries </td> +<td valign="top">============================================================ + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" colspan="2"><b><span class="smallcaps">Year</span> 1901</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">United States </td> +<td valign="top">=================</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">British Empire </td> +<td valign="top">========================================</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Spain </td> +<td valign="top">=========</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Other Countries </td> +<td valign="top">==================================================================== + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" colspan="2"><b><span class="smallcaps">Year</span> 1902</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">United States </td> +<td valign="top">===================</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">British Empire </td> +<td valign="top">================================</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Spain </td> +<td valign="top">==============</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Other Countries </td> +<td valign="top">==================================================================== + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" colspan="2"><b><span class="smallcaps">Year</span> 1903</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">United States </td> +<td valign="top">=================</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">British Empire </td> +<td valign="top">================================</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Spain </td> +<td valign="top">==========</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Other Countries </td> +<td valign="top">====================================================================</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + +<a id="d0e26238"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e26238">648</a>]</span> + +</p> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Proportionate Table of Hemp, Coprah, and Sugar Exports, and Rice Imports in the Years 1899–1903</span> + +</p> +<p></p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" colspan="2"><b><span class="smallcaps">Hemp</span>.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1899 </td> +<td valign="top">===================</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1900 </td> +<td valign="top">======================</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1901 </td> +<td valign="top">===============================</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1902 </td> +<td valign="top">===========================</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1903 </td> +<td valign="top">=================================== + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" colspan="2"><b><span class="smallcaps">Coprah</span>.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1899 </td> +<td valign="top">=========</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1900 </td> +<td valign="top">========================================</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1901 </td> +<td valign="top">====================</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1902 </td> +<td valign="top">==================================</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1903 </td> +<td valign="top">============================================== + + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" colspan="2"><b><span class="smallcaps">Sugar</span>.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1899 </td> +<td valign="top">==========================================</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1900 </td> +<td valign="top">================================</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1901 </td> +<td valign="top">============================</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1902 </td> +<td valign="top">===================================================</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1903 </td> +<td valign="top">=========================================== + + +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" colspan="2"><b><span class="smallcaps">Rice</span> (Import).</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1899 </td> +<td valign="top">===================</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1900 </td> +<td valign="top">======================</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1901 </td> +<td valign="top">==========================</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1902 </td> +<td valign="top">===========================================</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1903 </td> +<td valign="top">====================================================</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + +<a id="d0e26367"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e26367">649</a>]</span></p> +<div class="footnotes"> +<hr class="fnsep"> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a id="d0e24867" href="#d0e24867src" class="noteref">1</a></span> Shipments to Hong-Kong are often goods in transit for United States. +</p> +</div> +</div> +<div id="d0e26368" class="div1"> +<h2 class="normal">Chronological Table of Leading Events</h2> +<p></p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1494 </td> +<td valign="top">Treaty of Tordesillas (June 7).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1519 </td> +<td valign="top">Maghallanesʼ expedition sailed, resulting in discovery of the Philippines.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1521 </td> +<td valign="top">Death of Hernando Maghallanes (April 27).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1522 </td> +<td valign="top">Elcano completed his voyage round the world (Sept. 6).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1542 </td> +<td valign="top">The Villalobos expedition sailed from Mexico (Nov. 1).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">1545–63 </td> +<td valign="top">Council of Trent (Dec, 1545, to Dec, 1563). Decrees published in 1564.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1564 </td> +<td valign="top">The Legaspi expedition sailed from Mexico (Nov. 21).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1565 </td> +<td valign="top">Miguel de Legaspi landed in Cebú.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">Austin friarsʼ first arrival.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">The image of “The Holy Child” was found on Cebú shore.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">Cebú became the capital of the Philippines.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1571 </td> +<td valign="top">Manila became the capital of the Philippines.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1572 </td> +<td valign="top">Death of Miguel de Legaspi (Aug. 20).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1574 </td> +<td valign="top">Li-ma-hong, the Chinese corsair, attacked Manila (Nov.).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1576 </td> +<td valign="top">Death of Juan Salcedo, Legaspiʼs grandson (March 11).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1577 </td> +<td valign="top">Franciscan friarsʼ first arrival.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1578 </td> +<td valign="top">Parish church at Manila was raised to the dignity of a cathedral.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1580 </td> +<td valign="top">The <i>Alcayceria</i> (for Chinese) was established in Binondo (Manila). +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1581 </td> +<td valign="top">Dominican friarsʼ first arrival.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">Domingo Salazár, first Bishop of Manila, took possession.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1587 </td> +<td valign="top">Alonso Sanchezʼs mission to King Philip II. Consequent reforms.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1590 </td> +<td valign="top">The walls of Manila City were built about this year.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1593 </td> +<td valign="top">Japanese Emperor demanded the surrender of the Islands.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">First mission of friars from Manila to Japan.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1596 </td> +<td valign="top">First expedition went to subdue the Mindanao natives.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1598 </td> +<td valign="top">Ignacio de Santibañez, first Archbishop of Manila, took possession.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1603 </td> +<td valign="top">Chinese mandarins came to see the “Mount of Gold” in Cavite.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">Massacre of Chinese; about 24,000 slain or captured.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1604 </td> +<td valign="top">Los Baños hospital, church, and convent were established.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1606 </td> +<td valign="top">Recoleto friarsʼ first arrival.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1613 </td> +<td valign="top">The Spanish victory (over the Dutch) of Playa Honda.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1616 </td> +<td valign="top">Earliest recorded eruption of the Mayon Volcano.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1622 </td> +<td valign="top">Rebellion in Bojol Island led by Dagóhoy.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1626 </td> +<td valign="top">The image of “The Virgin of Antipolo” was first brought to Manila.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">A Spanish colony was founded in Formosa Island.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1638 </td> +<td valign="top">Corcueraʼs expedition against the Moros landed in Sulu Island.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1640 </td> +<td valign="top">Foundation of the sultanate of Mindanao.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">Separation of Spain and Portugal.<a id="d0e26566"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e26566">650</a>]</span></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1640 </td> +<td valign="top">Spain made an unsuccessful attempt to capture Macao.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1641 </td> +<td valign="top">Earliest recorded eruption of the Taal Volcano.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1642 </td> +<td valign="top">Attempts to proselytize Japan ceased.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1645 </td> +<td valign="top">Saint Thomasʼ College was raised to the status of a university.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1649 </td> +<td valign="top">Rebellion of “King” Málong and “Count” Gumapos.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1660 </td> +<td valign="top">Massacre of Chinese.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1662 </td> +<td valign="top">Koxinga, a Chinese adventurer, threatened invasion.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">Great Massacre of Chinese in Manila.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1669 </td> +<td valign="top">The “Letter of Anathema” was publicly read for the first time.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1684 </td> +<td valign="top">Spanish Prime Minister Valenzuela was banished to Cavite.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1700 </td> +<td valign="top">First admission of natives into the Religious Orders.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1718 </td> +<td valign="top">The “Letter of Anathema” was publicly read for the last time.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1719 </td> +<td valign="top">Friars in open riot incited the populace to rebellion.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1751 </td> +<td valign="top">Sultan Muhamad Alimudin was imprisoned in Manila.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1754 </td> +<td valign="top">Taal Volcano eruption destroyed Taal, Tanañan, Sala, Lipa, etc.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">First regular military organization.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">Treaty with Sultan Muhamad Alimudin (March 3).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1755 </td> +<td valign="top">Banishment of 2,070 Chinese from Manila.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">1762–63 </td> +<td valign="top">British occupation of Manila.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1762 </td> +<td valign="top">Rebellion in Ilocos Province led by Diego de Silan.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1763 </td> +<td valign="top">Sultan Muhamad Alimudin was restored to his throne by the British.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1768 </td> +<td valign="top">Expulsion of the Jesuits ordered (R. Decree, 1768; Papal Brief, 1769).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1770 </td> +<td valign="top">Expulsion of the Jesuits was effectuated.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">Simon de Anda y Salazár became Gov.-General by appointment.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1776 </td> +<td valign="top">Death of Simon de Anda y Salazár (Oct. 30).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1781 </td> +<td valign="top">Government Tobacco Monopoly was established.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1785 </td> +<td valign="top">The <i>Real Compañia de Filipinas</i> was founded (March 10). +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1810 </td> +<td valign="top">Philippine deputies were first admitted to the Spanish Parliament.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1811 </td> +<td valign="top">The last State galleon left Manila for Mexico.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1815 </td> +<td valign="top">The last State galleon left Acapulco (Mexico) for Manila.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1819 </td> +<td valign="top">Secession of Mexico from the Spanish Crown.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1820 </td> +<td valign="top">Massacre of foreigners in Manila and Cavite (Oct. 9).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1822 </td> +<td valign="top">First Manila news-sheet (<i lang="es">El Filántropo</i>) was published. +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1823 </td> +<td valign="top">Rebellion of Andrés Novales (June).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1830 </td> +<td valign="top">The first Philippine bank was opened about this year.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1831 </td> +<td valign="top">Zamboanga port was opened to foreign trade.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1834 </td> +<td valign="top">Manila port was unrestrictedly opened to foreign trade.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1835 </td> +<td valign="top">Rebellion in Cavite led by Feliciano Páran.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1837 </td> +<td valign="top">Philippine deputies were excluded from the Spanish Parliament.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1841 </td> +<td valign="top">Apolinario de la Cruz declared himself “King of the Tagálogs.”</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1843 </td> +<td valign="top">Chinese shops were first allowed to trade on equal terms.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1844 </td> +<td valign="top">Claveriaʼs expedition against the Moros.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">Foreigners were excluded from the interior of the Islands.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">The office of Trading-Governor was abolished.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1851 </td> +<td valign="top">Urbiztondoʼs expedition against the Moros.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1852 </td> +<td valign="top">Manila City thenceforth remained open day and night.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">The <i lang="es">Banco Español-Filipino</i> was instituted. +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1854 </td> +<td valign="top">Rebellion of Cuesta.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1855 </td> +<td valign="top">Yloilo port was opened to foreign trade.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1857 </td> +<td valign="top">The Manila mint was established.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1859 </td> +<td valign="top">Return of the Jesuits to the Philippines.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1801 </td> +<td valign="top">Dr. José Rizal, the Philippine patriot, was born (June 19).<a id="d0e26836"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e26836">651</a>]</span></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1863 </td> +<td valign="top">Manila City and Cathedral damaged by earthquake; 2,000 victims.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">Cebú port was opened to foreign trade.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">1868–70 </td> +<td valign="top">The Assembly of Reformists in Manila.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1869 </td> +<td valign="top">General Emilio Aguinaldo was born (March 22).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1870 </td> +<td valign="top">Rebellion in Cavite led by Camerino.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1872 </td> +<td valign="top">The Cavite Conspiracy (Jan.).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1875 </td> +<td valign="top">Failure of Russell & Sturgis.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1876 </td> +<td valign="top">Malcampoʼs expedition against the Moros. Joló annexed.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1877 </td> +<td valign="top">England and Germany recognized Spainʼs rights in Sulu.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1880 </td> +<td valign="top">The last destructive earthquake affecting Manila.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">The Hong-Kong-Manila submarine cable was laid (<i>via</i> Bolinao). +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1883 </td> +<td valign="top">Tobacco free planting was thenceforth permitted (Jan. 1).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">Tobacco free export was thenceforth permitted (July 1).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1884 </td> +<td valign="top">The “Carriedo” endowment water-supply for Manila was established.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">Tribute and Poll Tax were abolished and <i>Cédula personal</i> introduced. +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1886 </td> +<td valign="top">Petition to the Crown asking for the expulsion of the Chinese.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">The office of Judge-Governor was abolished.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">Investiture in Manila of Sultan Harun Narrasid (Sept. 24).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">Capuchin friarsʼ first arrival.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1887 </td> +<td valign="top">Terreroʼs expedition against the Moro Datto Utto.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">Colonel Juan Arolasʼ victory in Sulu Island. Capture of Maybun (April 16).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">Philippine Exhibition was held in Madrid.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1890 </td> +<td valign="top">Municipalities in the christian provinces were created.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1891 </td> +<td valign="top">The first Philippine railway was opened to traffic.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1895 </td> +<td valign="top">The Marahui campaign against the Moros of Mindanao Island.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">Benedictine friarsʼ first arrival.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1896 </td> +<td valign="top">The Tagálog Rebellion opened (August 20).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">First battle of the Rebellion (San Juan del Monte, Aug. 30).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">Gov.-General Ramon Blanco was recalled to Spain (Dec).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">Gov.-General Polavieja arrived in Manila (Dec).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">Dr. José Rizal, the Philippine patriot, was executed (Dec. 30).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1897 </td> +<td valign="top">Gov.-General Polavieja left Manila for Spain (April 15).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">Gov.-General Primo de Rivera returned to Manila (April).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">First issue of the first Philippine Loan (July 15).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">Treaty of Biac-na-bató is alleged to have been signed (Dec. 14).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">General Emilio Aguinaldo went into exile under treaty (Dec. 27).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">Tremendous tidal wave on Leyte Island. Life and property destroyed.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1898 </td> +<td valign="top">Tragedy of the <i lang="es">Calle de Camba</i>, Manila (March 23). +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">Rebel rising in Cebú Island (April 3).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">Gov.-General Primo de Rivera left Manila for Spain (April).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">Gov.-General Basilio Augusti arrived in Manila (April).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">The Spanish-American War began (April 23).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">Battle of Cavite. The Spanish fleet destroyed (May 1).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">General Emilio Aguinaldo returned from exile to Cavite (May 19).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">General Emilio Aguinaldo assumed the Dictature (May 24).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">Constitution of the Revolutionary Government promulgated (June 23).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">Revolutionistsʼ appeal to the Powers for recognition (Aug. 6).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">Spanish-American Protocol of Peace signed in Washington (Aug. 12).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">American occupation of Manila (Aug. 13).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">Capitulation of Manila to the Americans (Aug. 14).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">Malolos (Bulacan) became the Revolutionary capital (Sept. 15).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">American and Spanish peace commissioners met in Paris (Oct. 1).<a id="d0e27106"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e27106">652</a>]</span></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1898 </td> +<td valign="top">Capitulation of the Spaniards in Negros island to the rebels (Nov. 6).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">Treaty of Peace between America and Spain (Paris, Dec. 10).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">Evacuation of Panay Island by the Spaniards (Dec. 24).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">Evacuation of Cebú Island by the Spaniards (Dec. 26).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1899 </td> +<td valign="top">Evacuation of Cottabato by the Spaniards (Jan).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">Constitution of the Philippine Republic was promulgated (Jan. 22).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">The War of Independence began (Feb. 4).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">Bombardment of Yloilo (Feb. 11).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">American occupation of Cebú City (Feb. 22).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">American occupation of Bojol Island (March).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">Malolos, the revolutionary capital, was captured (March 31).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">The Schurman Commission appointed (Jan. 20); in Manila (May 2).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">Evacuation of Zamboanga by the Spaniards (May 23).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">Violent death of General Antonio Luna (June 3).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">The Ladrone, Caroline, and Pelew Is. (minus Guam) sold to Germany (June).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">The Aglipayan schism began.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">The Bates agreement with the Sultan of Sulu (Aug.).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">American occupation of Zamboanga (Nov. 16).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">Death of General Lawton (Dec).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1900 </td> +<td valign="top">Monsignor P. L. Chapelle, papal delegate, arrived in Manila (Jan. 2).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">The Taft Commission appointed (Mar. 16); in Manila (June 3).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">The Philippine Commission became the legislative body (Sept. 1).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1901 </td> +<td valign="top">General surrender of the Panay insurgent army (Feb. 2).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">Capture of General Emilio Aguinaldo (Mar. 23).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">General Emilio Aguinaldo swore allegiance to America (April 1).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">The Philippine Commission assumed full (civil) executive power (July 4).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">General surrender of Cebuáno chiefs (Oct.).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">General surrender of Bojoláno chiefs (Dec).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1902 </td> +<td valign="top">Capture of V. Lucban, the last recognized insurgent chief (April 27).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">Mr. W. H. Taft in Rome to negotiate purchase of friarsʼ lands (June).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">Civil rule throughout the Islands decreed (Congress Act, July 1).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">War of Independence ended (actually, April 27; officially, July 4).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">President Rooseveltʼs peace proclamation and amnesty grant (July 4).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">Military rule (remainder of) declared ended (War Office Order, July 4).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">Monsignor G. B. Guidi, papal delegate, arrived in Manila (Nov. 18).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1903 </td> +<td valign="top">Apolinario Mabini died in Manila (May 13).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">“The Democratic Labour Union” prosecution (May).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">Moro Province constituted (Phil. Com. Act No. 787, June 1).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">Archbishop Nozaleda relinquished the archbishopric of Manila (June).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">The Philippine peso (“Conant”) issued to the public (July).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">Moro Province Legislative Council organized (Sept. 2).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1904 </td> +<td valign="top">Monsignor J. J. Harty, Archbishop of Manila, arrived (Jan.).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">Mr. W. H. Taft, appointed Secretary of War, left Manila (Jan.).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">Mr. Luke E. Wright succeeded Mr. Taft as Civil Governor (Jan.).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">Greatest inundation of Manila suburbs within living memory (July 11).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">The “Internal Revenue Law of 1904” in operation (Aug. 1).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1905 </td> +<td valign="top">Monsignor Ambrogio Agius, papal delegate, arrived in Manila (Feb. 6).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top">The Philippine Assembly to be convened in 1907 proclaimed (March 28).</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">—— </td> +<td valign="top"><i lang="es">El Renacimiento</i> prosecution for alleged libel (July). +</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">1906 </td> +<td valign="top">English became the official language (Jan. 1; Phil. Com. Act No. 1123). </td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + +<a id="d0e27360"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e27360">653</a>]</span></p> +</div> +<div id="d0e27361" class="div1 index"> +<h2 class="normal">Index</h2> +<p>Acle (wood), <a href="#d0e12072">313</a> + +</p> +<p>Acuña, Gov.-General Bravo de, <a href="#d0e3210">74</a> + +</p> +<p>Adasaolan, the Moro chief, <a href="#d0e4262">129</a> + +</p> +<p>Aetas tribe, the, <a href="#d0e2577">37</a>, <a href="#d0e3913">120</a>, <a href="#d0e4632">145</a>, <a href="#d0e5267">163</a> + +</p> +<p>Agaña (Guam Is.), <a href="#d0e2655">41</a> + +</p> +<p>Agius, Monsignor Ambrogio, papal legate, <a href="#d0e21614">607</a> + +</p> +<p>Aglípay, Gregorio, career of, <a href="#d0e21540">603</a>; heads the Independent Church, <a href="#d0e21569">604</a>; throws off allegiance to Rome, <a href="#d0e21579">605</a> + +</p> +<p>Agno River, <a href="#d0e2110">14</a> + +</p> +<p>Agoncillo, Felipe, <a href="#d0e17673">472</a>, <a href="#d0e17995">485</a>, <a href="#d0e18127">495</a> + +</p> +<p>Agriculture, <a href="#d0e10110">269</a>; proposed Bank of, <a href="#d0e22397">624</a>; the Bureau of, <a href="#d0e22407">625</a> + +</p> +<p>Aguinaldo, Emilio, <a href="#d0e15158">370</a>; claims independence, <a href="#d0e15656">394</a>; goes into exile, <a href="#d0e15830">399</a>; goes to Singapore, <a href="#d0e16272">419</a>; returns to Hong-Kong, <a href="#d0e16343">421</a>; becomes Dictator, <a href="#d0e16721">436</a>; becomes President of The Revolutionary Government, <a href="#d0e17622">469</a>; triumphal entry into Malolos of, <a href="#d0e17634">470</a>; capture of, <a href="#d0e18245">507</a>; swears allegiance to America, <a href="#d0e18277">509</a>; home of, <a href="#d0e18299">510</a>; as witness in <i lang="es">El Renacimiento</i> prosecution, <a href="#d0e19252">550</a>. <i>Vide</i> War of Independence + +</p> +<p>Agusan River, <a href="#d0e2110">14</a> + +</p> +<p>Albinos, <a href="#d0e4212">128</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Alcayceria, </i>the, <a href="#d0e3724">110</a> + +</p> +<p>Alcocér, Father Martin Garcia, <a href="#d0e21382">597</a>, <a href="#d0e21520">602</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Alférez Real, </i><a href="#d0e2813">50</a> + +</p> +<p>Alva, Francisco, <a href="#d0e2479">31</a> + +</p> +<p>Alcalde-Governors, <a href="#d0e6572">212</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Alcalde Mayor, </i><a href="#d0e6625">213</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Alguacil</i>, <a href="#d0e7372">226</a> + +</p> +<p>Ali, Datto, <a href="#d0e18817">529</a>, <a href="#d0e20874">580</a>–<a href="#d0e1879">2</a> + +</p> +<p>Allocution of the Archbishop of Madrid, <a href="#d0e16373">423</a> + +</p> +<p>Alvarez, Vicente, the <i>Tamagun Datto</i>, <a href="#d0e18866">532</a> + +</p> +<p>Ambutong, Datto, <a href="#d0e21073">585</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Amor seco</i>, <a href="#d0e13569">324</a> + +</p> +<p>Anagap (wood), <a href="#d0e12072">313</a> + +</p> +<p>Anathema, the Letter of, <a href="#d0e3328">82</a> + +</p> +<p>Anda y Salazár, Simon de, usurps gov.-generalship, <a href="#d0e3454">91</a>; offers rewards for British heads, <a href="#d0e3512">95</a>; rewards to, <a href="#d0e3555">99</a>; character of, <a href="#d0e3555">99</a>; becomes Gov.-General, <a href="#d0e3555">99</a>; death of, <a href="#d0e3565">100</a> + +</p> +<p>Andrew, Saint, patron of Manila, <a href="#d0e2813">50</a>, <a href="#d0e19635">560</a> + +</p> +<p>Animals, <a href="#d0e14080">336</a> <i>et seq.</i> + +</p> +<p>Anobing (wood), <a href="#d0e12072">313</a> + +</p> +<p>Anson, Admiral, <a href="#d0e9242">246</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Anting-anting</i>, the, <a href="#d0e8937">237</a> + +</p> +<p>Antipolo, Virgin of, <a href="#d0e5721">184</a> + +</p> +<p>Antipolo (wood), <a href="#d0e12072">313</a> + +</p> +<p>Antwerp, the Treaty of, <a href="#d0e3190">72</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Aparcero</i> (labour) system, <a href="#d0e10332">274</a> + +</p> +<p>Apiton (wood), <a href="#d0e12072">313</a> + +</p> +<p>Araudia, Gov.-General Pedro de, <a href="#d0e3021">61</a>, <a href="#d0e3293">80</a>, <a href="#d0e4461">138</a> + +</p> +<p>Araneta, General Pablo, <a href="#d0e18437">514</a>, <a href="#d0e18499">517</a> + +</p> +<p>Araneta, Juan, <a href="#d0e18539">520</a> + +</p> +<p>Aranga (wood), <a href="#d0e12072">313</a> + +</p> +<p>Archbishopric created, <a href="#d0e2954">56</a> + +</p> +<p>Areca-nut, <a href="#d0e11562">303</a> + +</p> +<p>Army, the (under Spain) <a href="#d0e2876">53</a>, <a href="#d0e3247">77</a>; pay of, <a href="#d0e2876">53</a>, <a href="#d0e7747">230</a>; statistics of, <a href="#d0e7561">229</a>–<a href="#d0e7747">30</a>; the first barracks, <a href="#d0e8125">231</a>; Halberdier Guard, <a href="#d0e8235">232</a>; strength of, at the outbreak of the Rebellion, <a href="#d0e15027">364</a>; in 1898, <a href="#d0e17493">466</a>; (under America) strength of, during War of Independence, <a href="#d0e19316">553</a>; arms captured by, <a href="#d0e19316">553</a>; strength of, in 1904, <a href="#d0e20140">569</a>; general officersʼ pay, <a href="#d0e20140">569</a>; privatesʼ pay, <a href="#d0e20140">569</a>; the three departments of, <a href="#d0e20140">569</a>; scout corps; military prison, <a href="#d0e20490">570</a> + +</p> +<p>Arolas, Colonel Juan, captures Maybun, <a href="#d0e4614">144</a>; death of, <a href="#d0e4614">144</a> (footnote) + +</p> +<p>Artists, native, <a href="#d0e6066">196</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Asiento</i> Contract, the, <a href="#d0e9629">257</a> + +</p> +<p>Assembly of Reformists, the, <a href="#d0e14972">362</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Asuan</i> (evil spirit), <a href="#d0e5659">181</a> + +</p> +<p>Athenæum, the, <a href="#d0e5949">194</a> + +</p> +<p>Augusti, General Basilio, succeeds Gen. Primo de Rivera, <a href="#d0e16120">413</a>; issues a call to arms, <a href="#d0e16385">424</a>; issues a proclamation against Americans, <a href="#d0e16441">425</a>; quits Manila before the American occupation, <a href="#d0e17455">464</a> + +</p> +<p>Austin friars, <a href="#d0e2931">55</a> + +</p> +<p>Axa, <a href="#d0e10332">274</a> + +</p> +<p>Ayala, Antonio de, <a href="#d0e15113">367</a> (footnote) + +</p> +<p>Azcárraga, General Marcelo, <a href="#d0e3625">105</a> (footnote) +<a id="d0e27828"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e27828">654</a>]</span></p> +<p>Bacoor town, rebel headquarters, <a href="#d0e18152">499</a> + +</p> +<p>Badiao destroyed, <a href="#d0e2166">16</a> + +</p> +<p>Bagobos, the Moro tribe of, <a href="#d0e4632">145</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Bagsacay</i> weapon, <a href="#d0e4752">147</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Baibailanes</i>, sect of the, <a href="#d0e21624">608</a> + +</p> +<p>Balábac Island, <a href="#d0e5215">160</a>; slaughter of Spaniards in, <a href="#d0e17759">478</a> + +</p> +<p>Balambangan, slaughter of British at, <a href="#d0e4484">139</a> + +</p> +<p>Balangiga, slaughter of Americans at, <a href="#d0e18966">536</a> + +</p> +<p>Balanguigui Island, Corcueraʼs victory in, <a href="#d0e4484">139</a> + +</p> +<p>Balate (trepang), <a href="#d0e11997">312</a> + +</p> +<p>Baler garrison captives, <a href="#d0e18103">494</a> + +</p> +<p>Balugas tribe, the, <a href="#d0e5267">163</a> + +</p> +<p>Bamboos, <a href="#d0e11835">308</a> + +</p> +<p>Banaba (wood), <a href="#d0e12072">313</a> + +</p> +<p>Banana fruit, <a href="#d0e12450">317</a> + +</p> +<p>Bancal (wood), <a href="#d0e12149">314</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Banco Español-Filipino</i>, the, <a href="#d0e9672">258</a>; run on the, <a href="#d0e16707">435</a>, <a href="#d0e22660">638</a> + +</p> +<p>Bandits, notorious, <a href="#d0e8958">238</a>–<a href="#d0e2009">9</a>, <a href="#d0e19189">546</a>–<a href="#d0e2009">9</a>, <a href="#d0e20987">582</a>, <i>Vide</i> Brigands + +</p> +<p>Banks, foreign and Philippine, <a href="#d0e9672">258</a>, <a href="#d0e22660">638</a>; American, <a href="#d0e22633">637</a> + +</p> +<p>Bansalague (wood), <a href="#d0e12149">314</a> + +</p> +<p>Barangay chiefs, <a href="#d0e5824">189</a>, <a href="#d0e7212">222</a>–<a href="#d0e1888">3</a>, <a href="#d0e7325">225</a> (footnote) + +</p> +<p>Barasoain town, <a href="#d0e17622">469</a> (footnote), <a href="#d0e20084">567</a> + +</p> +<p>Barbosa, Duarte de, <a href="#d0e2406">28</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Barong</i> weapon, <a href="#d0e4752">147</a> + +</p> +<p>Barracks, the first, <a href="#d0e8125">231</a> + +</p> +<p>Basa, José M., <a href="#d0e3649">106</a>; biographical note of, <a href="#d0e3687">108</a> (footnote) + +</p> +<p>Basan tribe, the, <a href="#d0e4212">128</a> + +</p> +<p>Batac tribe, the, <a href="#d0e5166">158</a> (footnote; + +</p> +<p>Bates Agreement, the, <a href="#d0e20495">571</a> + +</p> +<p>Batitínan (wood), <a href="#d0e12072">313</a> + +</p> +<p>Bató Lake, <a href="#d0e2135">15</a> + +</p> +<p>Bats, <a href="#d0e14182">340</a> + +</p> +<p>Battle— of Playa Honda, <a href="#d0e3221">75</a>; of Saint Juan del Monte, <a href="#d0e15132">368</a>; of Binacayan, <a href="#d0e15244">373</a>; of Cavite, <a href="#d0e16494">427</a>; of Paco, <a href="#d0e18034">487</a>; of Marilao, <a href="#d0e18058">490</a> + +</p> +<p>Bautista, Ambrosio Rianzares, <a href="#d0e3649">106</a> + +</p> +<p>Bautista, Fray Pedro, martyr-saint, <a href="#d0e3069">64</a> + +</p> +<p>Bay Lake, <a href="#d0e2135">15</a> + +</p> +<p>Bayabos, the Moro tribe of, <a href="#d0e4632">145</a> + +</p> +<p>Bejuco (rattan), <a href="#d0e11910">310</a> + +</p> +<p>Benguet Road, the, <a href="#d0e21869">615</a> (footnote) + +</p> +<p>Berenguer y Marquina, Gov-General, <a href="#d0e3293">80</a> + +</p> +<p>Beri-beri disease, <a href="#d0e6095">197</a> + +</p> +<p>Betel, <a href="#d0e11562">303</a> + +</p> +<p>Betis (wood), <a href="#d0e12072">313</a> + +</p> +<p>Biac-na-bató, the alleged Treaty of, <a href="#d0e15699">396</a>, <a href="#d0e16141">414</a> (footnote) + +</p> +<p>Bicol River, <a href="#d0e2110">14</a>, <a href="#d0e2577">37</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Bigaycaya</i>, the, <a href="#d0e5572">178</a> + +</p> +<p>Bilibíd jail, <a href="#d0e19534">557</a> + +</p> +<p>Binacayan, Battle of, <a href="#d0e15244">373</a> + +</p> +<p>Birds, <a href="#d0e14235">341</a> + +</p> +<p>Birdsʼ-nests, edible, <a href="#d0e11952">311</a> + +</p> +<p>Bishop of Manila, the first, <a href="#d0e2837">51</a>, <a href="#d0e2954">56</a> + +</p> +<p>Blanco, Gov.-General Ramon, <a href="#d0e15291">377</a> + +</p> +<p>Blood Compact, the, <a href="#d0e2406">28</a>, <a href="#d0e15151">369</a> + +</p> +<p>Boar, <a href="#d0e14182">340</a> + +</p> +<p>Boayan Lake, <a href="#d0e2135">15</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Bocayo</i>, <a href="#d0e11696">305</a> + +</p> +<p>Bojo, <a href="#d0e11910">310</a> + +</p> +<p>Bojol Island, rebellion in, <a href="#d0e3577">101</a>; American occupation of, <a href="#d0e18794">528</a>; Pedro Sanson, the insurgent leader in, <a href="#d0e18794">528</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Boleta</i> shipping-warrant, the, <a href="#d0e9146">244</a> + +</p> +<p>Bombon Lake, <a href="#d0e2135">15</a> + +</p> +<p>Bongso, Rajah, <a href="#d0e4278">130</a> + +</p> +<p>Bonifacio, Andrés, <a href="#d0e15158">370</a> + +</p> +<p>Borneo Island, Spanish relations with, <a href="#d0e2429">29</a>, <a href="#d0e5336">165</a> + +</p> +<p>Botanical specimens, <a href="#d0e12828">321</a> + +</p> +<p>Braganza, Duke of, <a href="#d0e3315">81</a> + +</p> +<p>Braganza, Major, execution of the rebel, <a href="#d0e18974">537</a> + +</p> +<p>Brewery, the first Philippine, <a href="#d0e9838">264</a> + +</p> +<p>Bridge of Spain, <a href="#d0e14501">349</a> + +</p> +<p>Brigands— the <i>tulisán</i>; the <i>pulaján</i>, <a href="#d0e8833">235</a>, <a href="#d0e19199">547</a> <i>et seq.</i>; haunts of, <a href="#d0e8958">238</a>; the <i>remontado</i>, <a href="#d0e6276">205</a>; “Guards of Honour,” <a href="#d0e19252">550</a>. <i>Vide</i> Bandits + +</p> +<p>British North Borneo Co., <a href="#d0e4533">141</a> + +</p> +<p>British— corsairs, <a href="#d0e2905">54</a>; occupation of Manila by, <a href="#d0e3388">87</a> + +</p> +<p>Bronchial affections, <a href="#d0e6095">197</a> + +</p> +<p>Brunei, Sultanate of, <a href="#d0e2429">29</a>, <a href="#d0e4533">141</a>, <a href="#d0e5065">157</a>, <a href="#d0e5336">165</a> + +</p> +<p>Budgets, <a href="#d0e7405">227</a> <i>et seq.</i>; of 1757, <a href="#d0e9361">251</a>, <a href="#d0e22477">629</a> + +</p> +<p>Buffaloes, <a href="#d0e14103">337</a>; rinderpest epidemic, <a href="#d0e14116">338</a>, <a href="#d0e22346">621</a>; efforts of Government to replace the stocks of, <a href="#d0e22356">622</a> + +</p> +<p>Buffalo hides, shipments of, <a href="#d0e23030">640</a> + +</p> +<p>Buhi Lake, <a href="#d0e2135">15</a> + +</p> +<p>Bull-ring, <a href="#d0e14567">350</a> + +</p> +<p>Buluan Lake, <a href="#d0e2135">15</a> + +</p> +<p>Bureaux of the Insular Government, <a href="#d0e19706">561</a> + +</p> +<p>Burgos, Dr. Jose, <a href="#d0e3649">106</a>; executed, <a href="#d0e3672">107</a> + +</p> +<p>Buri palm, <a href="#d0e11835">308</a> + +</p> +<p>Bush-rope, <a href="#d0e11910">310</a> + +</p> +<p>Bustamente Bustillo, Gov.-General, murder of, <a href="#d0e3013">60</a> + +</p> +<p>Bustos, <a href="#d0e3471">92</a>–<a href="#d0e1915">4</a> + +</p> +<p>Butler, John B., <a href="#d0e9629">257</a> + +</p> +<p>Butterflies, <a href="#d0e14182">340</a> + +</p> +<p>Butuan River, <a href="#d0e2110">14</a> + +</p> +<p>Buyo, <a href="#d0e11562">303</a> + + +</p> +<p><i>Cabeza de barangay, </i><a href="#d0e5824">189</a>, <a href="#d0e7212">222</a>–<a href="#d0e1888">3</a> + +</p> +<p>Cable service, <a href="#d0e10070">267</a>–<a href="#d0e2002">8</a> + +</p> +<p>Cacao, <a href="#d0e11493">301</a>; cultivation of, <a href="#d0e11526">302</a> + +</p> +<p>Cachil Corralat, King, <a href="#d0e4343">133</a> + +</p> +<p>Cachila or Castila, <a href="#d0e5428">169</a>, <a href="#d0e18444">515</a> (footnote) + +</p> +<p>Cagayán, river of, <a href="#d0e2110">14</a>; lake of, <a href="#d0e2135">15</a> + +</p> +<p>Cagaaua destroyed, <a href="#d0e2166">16</a> +<a id="d0e28486"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e28486">655</a>]</span></p> +<p>Cagsaysay, Our Lady of, <a href="#d0e2212">18</a>, <a href="#d0e2225">19</a>, <a href="#d0e5721">184</a> + +</p> +<p>“<i>Cahapon, n͠gayon at Bucas</i>,” the seditious play of, <a href="#d0e19429">554</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Caida</i>, <a href="#d0e14650">353</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Caidas</i>, <a href="#d0e7289">224</a> + +</p> +<p>Cailles, General Juan, <a href="#d0e18245">507</a>; as provincial governor, <a href="#d0e18245">507</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Caja de comunidad</i>, <a href="#d0e6993">217</a> + +</p> +<p>Calderon, Rita, <a href="#d0e4484">139</a> + +</p> +<p>Calinga tribe, the, <a href="#d0e4103">125</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Calle de Camba</i> tragedy, the, <a href="#d0e15876">401</a> + +</p> +<p>Camagón (wood), <a href="#d0e12149">314</a> + +</p> +<p>Camaguin Volcano, <a href="#d0e2166">16</a> + +</p> +<p>Camerino, the rebel, <a href="#d0e3649">106</a>, <a href="#d0e15779">397</a> (footnote) + +</p> +<p>Camote, <a href="#d0e11562">303</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Campilán</i> weapon, <a href="#d0e4752">147</a> + +</p> +<p>Campo de Bagumbayan, <a href="#d0e15151">369</a> + +</p> +<p>Canga-Argüelles, Felipe, <a href="#d0e4584">143</a>, <a href="#d0e5166">158</a>, <a href="#d0e5242">161</a> + +</p> +<p>Canlaúan Volcano, <a href="#d0e2166">16</a> + +</p> +<p>Cánovas Ministry, <a href="#d0e15312">378</a>, <a href="#d0e15407">384</a>, <a href="#d0e16237">417</a> + +</p> +<p>Capers, <a href="#d0e12828">321</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Capitán municipal</i>, <a href="#d0e7325">225</a> + +</p> +<p>Capsicums, <a href="#d0e12828">321</a> + +</p> +<p>Captives, the Spanish, <a href="#d0e18974">537</a>; why detained, <a href="#d0e19038">539</a>; Baron Du Marais murdered, <a href="#d0e19049">540</a>; the captorsʼ terms of release, <a href="#d0e19082">541</a> + +</p> +<p>Capture of Manila— attempted by Li-ma-hong, <a href="#d0e2762">47</a>; threatened by Japanese Emperor, <a href="#d0e3069">64</a>; threatened by the Dutch, <a href="#d0e3221">75</a>; threatened by Koxinga, <a href="#d0e3236">76</a>; by the British, <a href="#d0e3388">87</a>; by the Americans, <a href="#d0e17455">464</a> + +</p> +<p>Caraballo, Juan, <a href="#d0e2429">29</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Carabaos</i> (buffaloes), <a href="#d0e14103">337</a> + +</p> +<p>Caroline Islands, the discovery of, <a href="#d0e2655">41</a>, <a href="#d0e2687">43</a>; seized by Germany, <a href="#d0e2703">44</a>; governor of, murdered, <a href="#d0e2731">45</a>; sold to Germany, <a href="#d0e2750">46</a> + +</p> +<p>Carrillo Theatre, the, <a href="#d0e14501">349</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Carromata</i>, <a href="#d0e19614">559</a> (footnote) + +</p> +<p>Carrying-trade, the inter-island, <a href="#d0e9797">262</a>; regulated by the Shipping Law of 1904, <a href="#d0e22466">628</a>–<a href="#d0e2009">9</a>, <a href="#d0e25973">647</a> + +</p> +<p>Cartagena, Juan de, <a href="#d0e2335">26</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Casa Misericordia</i> loan office, <a href="#d0e9261">247</a> + +</p> +<p>Cassava, <a href="#d0e12828">321</a> + +</p> +<p>Castila or Cachila, <a href="#d0e5428">169</a>, <a href="#d0e18444">515</a> (footnote) + +</p> +<p>Castor-oil, <a href="#d0e11526">302</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Catapúsan</i>, the, <a href="#d0e5597">179</a> (footnote) + +</p> +<p>Cathedral of Manila, the, <a href="#d0e2931">55</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Catipad</i>, <a href="#d0e5547">177</a> + +</p> +<p>Cauit, <a href="#d0e15182">371</a> (footnote) + +</p> +<p>Cavite the conspiracy of 1872, <a href="#d0e3649">106</a>, <a href="#d0e15011">363</a>; fort of, <a href="#d0e8365">233</a>–<a href="#d0e1915">4</a>; executions in 1896, <a href="#d0e15257">374</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Cayinin</i>, the, <a href="#d0e19487">555</a> + +</p> +<p>Cebú, discovery of, <a href="#d0e2375">27</a>; Legaspi in, <a href="#d0e2524">34</a>; the “Holy Child” of, <a href="#d0e5703">183</a>; the patron saint of, <a href="#d0e5703">183</a>; the port of, <a href="#d0e9761">261</a>; rising in, <a href="#d0e15894">402</a> <i>et seq</i>.; executions of rebels in, <a href="#d0e15950">405</a>; native government in the Island of, <a href="#d0e18557">521</a>; American occupation of the City of, <a href="#d0e18657">523</a>; General Hughesʼ expedition to, <a href="#d0e18698">525</a>; the City of, <a href="#d0e18717">526</a> + +</p> +<p>Cedar (wood), <a href="#d0e12149">314</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Cédula personal</i>, the, <a href="#d0e7289">224</a> + +</p> +<p>Census, the, <a href="#d0e14706">355</a>, <a href="#d0e21869">615</a>–<a href="#d0e1954">6</a> + +</p> +<p><i lang="es">Centro Catálico, El</i>, <a href="#d0e21520">602</a> + +</p> +<p>Chabucano dialect, the, <a href="#d0e18934">535</a> + +</p> +<p>Chaffee, Maj.-General A. R., <a href="#d0e20032">563</a> + +</p> +<p>Chambers of Commerce, <a href="#d0e9761">261</a> + +</p> +<p>Chamorro dialect, the, <a href="#d0e2641">40</a> + +</p> +<p>Champaca, <a href="#d0e13785">325</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Chapdiki</i>, <a href="#d0e14588">351</a> (footnote) + +</p> +<p>Chapelle, Monsignor P. L., papal legate, <a href="#d0e21343">595</a> and footnote + +</p> +<p>Chartered Bank of India, Australia and China, the, <a href="#d0e9672">258</a>, <a href="#d0e16707">435</a>, <a href="#d0e22633">637</a> + +</p> +<p>Chillies, <a href="#d0e12828">321</a> + +</p> +<p>Chinese, the, <a href="#d0e2905">54</a>, <a href="#d0e3703">109</a>; slaughter of the Moluccas expedition leader by, <a href="#d0e3202">73</a>; revolt of, <a href="#d0e3247">77</a>; banishment of, <a href="#d0e3762">111</a>; restrictions on, <a href="#d0e3762">111</a>; as immigrants, <a href="#d0e3777">112</a>; taxes first levied on, <a href="#d0e3777">112</a>; social position of, under Spanish rule, <a href="#d0e3794">113</a>; riots of, <a href="#d0e3807">114</a>; mandarins come to seek the “Mount of Gold” in Cavite, <a href="#d0e3807">114</a>; Saint Francisʼ victory over, <a href="#d0e3819">115</a>; massacre by, <a href="#d0e3819">115</a>; massacre of, <a href="#d0e3247">77</a>, <a href="#d0e3489">93</a>, <a href="#d0e3819">115</a>; as traders, <a href="#d0e3854">117</a>, <a href="#d0e9817">263</a>; Guilds of, <a href="#d0e3854">117</a>; patron saint of, <a href="#d0e3871">118</a>; population of, <a href="#d0e3871">118</a>; <i>Macao</i>, <a href="#d0e3871">118</a>; <i>Sangley</i>, <a href="#d0e3871">118</a>; <i>Suya</i>, <a href="#d0e3871">118</a>; secret societies, <a href="#d0e3900">119</a>; Exclusion Act, <a href="#d0e3900">119</a>, <a href="#d0e22566">633</a>; before the Spanish advent, <a href="#d0e5367">166</a>; Club, <a href="#d0e19555">558</a>; social position of, under American rule, <a href="#d0e22588">634</a>; future probable effect of the exclusion of, <a href="#d0e22602">635</a> + +</p> +<p>Chocolate, <a href="#d0e11493">301</a> + +</p> +<p>Cholera epidemic, <a href="#d0e3842">116</a>, <a href="#d0e6095">197</a> + +</p> +<p>Church— relations of, to the State, <a href="#d0e2813">50</a>; Dominican friars, <a href="#d0e2837">51</a> (footnote); first bishop of Manila, <a href="#d0e2837">51</a>, <a href="#d0e2954">56</a>; tithes to, <a href="#d0e2931">55</a>; Austin friars, <a href="#d0e2931">55</a>; Mendicant friars, <a href="#d0e2931">55</a>; friarsʼ term of residence, <a href="#d0e2931">55</a>; Manila Cathedral, <a href="#d0e2931">55</a>; the Inquisition, <a href="#d0e2931">55</a>, <a href="#d0e2994">59</a>, <a href="#d0e3328">82</a>; archbishopric created, <a href="#d0e2954">56</a>; indulgences granted, <a href="#d0e2954">56</a>; relics in cathedral, <a href="#d0e2960">57</a>; excommunications, <a href="#d0e2985">58</a>, <a href="#d0e3116">67</a>, <a href="#d0e21569">604</a>; archbishop banished, <a href="#d0e2985">58</a>; quarrels with the State authorities, <a href="#d0e2960">57</a>–<a href="#d0e2002">8</a>, <a href="#d0e3555">99</a>, <a href="#d0e6486">209</a>–<a href="#d0e2015">10</a>; Chap. <a href="#d0e3389">vii</a>; the martyrs of Japan, <a href="#d0e3103">66</a>–<a href="#d0e2009">9</a>; the High Host is stolen, <a href="#d0e3328">82</a>; Letter of Anathema, <a href="#d0e3328">82</a>; the Hierarchy, <a href="#d0e6289">206</a>; revenue and expenditure of the, <a href="#d0e6314">207</a>, <a href="#d0e6486">209</a>; position of the regular clergy after 1898, <a href="#d0e21328">594</a>; Archbishop Nozaleda, <a href="#d0e21328">594</a>, <a href="#d0e21382">597</a>; Father Martín Garcia Alcocér, <a href="#d0e21382">597</a>, <a href="#d0e21520">602</a>; attitude of the native clergy towards the, after 1898, <a href="#d0e21364">596</a>; Monsignor P. L. Chapelle, <a href="#d0e21343">595</a>; Monsignor G. B. Guidi, <a href="#d0e21435">601</a>; <a id="d0e29158"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e29158">656</a>]</span> Monsignor A. Agius, <a href="#d0e21614">607</a>; the friarsʼ-7lands question, <a href="#d0e21382">597</a>–<a href="#d0e21435">601</a>; the Aglipayan Schism, <a href="#d0e21569">604</a>. <i>Vide</i> Friars; Religious Orders + +</p> +<p>Church, the Philippine Independent. <i>Vide</i> Independent + +</p> +<p>Cigars, <a href="#d0e11343">299</a>; shipments of, <a href="#d0e24950">644</a> + +</p> +<p>Cinnamon, <a href="#d0e11952">311</a> + +</p> +<p>Civil—governor, duties of the Spanish, <a href="#d0e6889">215</a>; his position, <a href="#d0e6981">216</a>; guard (constabulary), the, <a href="#d0e8125">231</a>; the title of Civil Governor, <a href="#d0e19706">561</a>; Service, the, <a href="#d0e20054">565</a>; Commission, the, <a href="#d0e19635">560</a>, <a href="#d0e20054">565</a>; rule established, <a href="#d0e20068">566</a> + +</p> +<p>Claudio, Juan, <a href="#d0e3315">81</a> + +</p> +<p>Claveria, expedition against the Moros by, <a href="#d0e4484">139</a> + +</p> +<p>Clergy, the native, capacity of, <a href="#d0e21614">607</a>. <i>Vide</i> Church; Friars + +</p> +<p>Clímaco, Arsenio, <a href="#d0e18578">522</a>, <a href="#d0e18698">525</a> + +</p> +<p>Clímaco, General Juan, <a href="#d0e18578">522</a> + +</p> +<p>Climate, <a href="#d0e2275">22</a>; of the south, <a href="#d0e5065">157</a> + +</p> +<p>Clubs, <a href="#d0e19555">558</a> + +</p> +<p>Coal, <a href="#d0e13812">326</a>, comparative analyses, <a href="#d0e13852">328</a> + +</p> +<p>Cock-fighting, <a href="#d0e14588">351</a> + +</p> +<p>Cocoanuts, <a href="#d0e11629">304</a> + +</p> +<p>Cocoanut-oil, <a href="#d0e11696">305</a>; export values of, <a href="#d0e25250">645</a> + +</p> +<p>Coffee, <a href="#d0e10971">289</a>; <i>caracolillo</i>, <a href="#d0e10971">289</a>; where grown, <a href="#d0e10971">289</a>; dealing, <a href="#d0e10996">290</a>; cultivation, <a href="#d0e11107">291</a>; statistics, <a href="#d0e11107">291</a>; shipments of, <a href="#d0e25608">646</a> + +</p> +<p>Cogon-grass, <a href="#d0e11782">307</a> + +</p> +<p>Coir, <a href="#d0e11696">305</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Colerin</i> disease, <a href="#d0e6095">197</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Coloram</i>, sect of the, <a href="#d0e21624">608</a> + +</p> +<p>Comenge, Rafael, inflammatory speech of, <a href="#d0e15851">400</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Compañia General de Tabacos</i>, <a href="#d0e11343">299</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Compañia Guipuzcoana de Caracas</i>, <a href="#d0e9515">252</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Conant</i> peso, the, <a href="#d0e22602">635</a>–<a href="#d0e1977">7</a> + +</p> +<p>Concentration circuits, <a href="#d0e15564">391</a>, <a href="#d0e19244">549</a> + +</p> +<p>Congressional Relief Fund, the, <a href="#d0e22346">621</a>, <a href="#d0e22389">623</a> + +</p> +<p><i lang="es">Consulado</i> trading-ring, the, <a href="#d0e9146">244</a> + +</p> +<p>Constabulary statistics (Spanish), <a href="#d0e8125">231</a>; (American), <a href="#d0e19252">550</a>, <a href="#d0e19316">553</a>, <a href="#d0e20084">567</a> + +</p> +<p>Contentions, State and Church, <a href="#d0e2985">58</a> + +</p> +<p>Convent of Santa Clara, <a href="#d0e3315">81</a> + +</p> +<p>Convicts, corps of, <a href="#d0e8125">231</a>; in Bilibid jail, <a href="#d0e19534">557</a> + +</p> +<p>Cooper Bill, the, <a href="#d0e22441">627</a>, <a href="#d0e22477">629</a> + +</p> +<p>Copper, <a href="#d0e14044">334</a> + +</p> +<p>Coprah, <a href="#d0e11696">305</a>; shipments of, <a href="#d0e25250">645</a> + +</p> +<p>Corcuera, Gov.-General Hurtado de, <a href="#d0e2985">58</a>, <a href="#d0e3275">79</a>, <a href="#d0e3315">81</a>; in Sulu, <a href="#d0e4299">131</a> + +</p> +<p>Cordage, shipments of, <a href="#d0e23030">640</a> + +</p> +<p>Cornish, Admiral, <a href="#d0e3388">87</a> + +</p> +<p>Corregidor Island, <a href="#d0e14359">345</a> (footnote), <a href="#d0e19503">556</a> + +</p> +<p>Corsairs, British, <a href="#d0e2905">54</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Cotta de San Pedro</i> (Cebú), <a href="#d0e15894">402</a> + +</p> +<p>Cottabato, meaning of, <a href="#d0e4549">142</a> (footnote); Spanish evacuation of, <a href="#d0e18817">529</a>; native rule in, <a href="#d0e18817">529</a>; slaughter of Christians in, <a href="#d0e18831">530</a>; American intervention at, <a href="#d0e18831">530</a> + +</p> +<p>Cotton-tree, <a href="#d0e11782">307</a> + +</p> +<p>Council of Trent, the, <a href="#d0e21579">605</a> (footnote) + +</p> +<p>Count—of Albay, <a href="#d0e3625">105</a>; of La Union, <a href="#d0e4074">124</a>; of Manila, <a href="#d0e4484">139</a>; of Lizárraga, <a href="#d0e6511">210</a> + +</p> +<p>Courts of Justice, cost of the Spanish, <a href="#d0e8607">234</a>; American, <a href="#d0e22305">618</a> + +</p> +<p>Criminal law procedure, Spanish-Philippine, <a href="#d0e9034">241</a> + +</p> +<p>Cruz, Apolinario de la, “King of the Tagálogs,” <a href="#d0e3625">105</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Cuadrillero</i> guard, the, <a href="#d0e7289">224</a> + +</p> +<p>Cuba, America liberates, <a href="#d0e16237">417</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Cubang-aso</i>, <a href="#d0e5367">166</a> (footnote) + +</p> +<p><i>Cueva del Inglés</i>, the, <a href="#d0e2248">21</a> + +</p> +<p>Cuevas, Datto Pedro, career of, <a href="#d0e20987">582</a>; his death, <a href="#d0e20999">583</a>; his justice, <a href="#d0e21120">586</a> + +</p> +<p>Currency, the, under Spain, <a href="#d0e9146">244</a>, <a href="#d0e9698">259</a>; under America, <a href="#d0e22602">635</a>–<a href="#d0e1977">7</a> + +</p> +<p>Custom-houses, <a href="#d0e9761">261</a>, <a href="#d0e17567">467</a>, <a href="#d0e22429">626</a> + +</p> +<p>Customs duty, the first levied, <a href="#d0e2876">53</a>; under America, <a href="#d0e22477">629</a>–<a href="#d0e2449">30</a> + +</p> +<p>“<i>Dabas n͠g pilac</i>,” the seditious play of, <a href="#d0e19429">554</a> + +</p> +<p>Dagóhoyʼs rebellion, <a href="#d0e3577">101</a> + +</p> +<p>Dalahican camp, <a href="#d0e15257">374</a> + +</p> +<p>Danao River, <a href="#d0e2135">15</a> + +</p> +<p>Dancing, the <i>balítao</i>, the <i>comítan</i>, <a href="#d0e5615">180</a> + +</p> +<p>Dasmariñas, Gov.-General Perez, <a href="#d0e2954">56</a>, <a href="#d0e3265">78</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Datto</i>. <i>Vide</i> Moros + +</p> +<p>Dayfusama, Emperor of Japan, <a href="#d0e3148">69</a> + +</p> +<p>Death-rate, <a href="#d0e6165">198</a> + +</p> +<p>Deer, <a href="#d0e14182">340</a> + +</p> +<p>Delgado, General Martin, <a href="#d0e18428">513</a>–<a href="#d0e2110">14</a>, <a href="#d0e18499">517</a>–<a href="#d0e2212">18</a> + +</p> +<p>Demarcation of Spanish and Portuguese spheres by papal bull, <a href="#d0e2325">25</a> + +</p> +<p>Democratic Labour Union, the, <a href="#d0e22551">632</a> + +</p> +<p>Departments of the Insular Government, <a href="#d0e19706">561</a> + +</p> +<p>Descent of Filipinos, theory of the, <a href="#d0e3913">120</a> + +</p> +<p>Despujols, Gov.-General, <a href="#d0e15388">383</a> + +</p> +<p>Dewey, Admiral George, <a href="#d0e16272">419</a>, <a href="#d0e16494">427</a>, <a href="#d0e16627">430</a>, <a href="#d0e16670">432</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Diario de Manila, El</i>, founded <a href="#d0e14611">352</a>, suspended, <a href="#d0e15876">401</a> + +</p> +<p>Diaz, Julio, <a href="#d0e18539">520</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Diezmos prediales</i>, <a href="#d0e2931">55</a> + +</p> +<p>Dilao village, <a href="#d0e3054">63</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Dimas alang</i>, <a href="#d0e15521">389</a> + +</p> +<p>Dimasangcay, King of Mindanao, <a href="#d0e4262">129</a> + +</p> +<p>Dinagat Island, <a href="#d0e2375">27</a> + +</p> +<p>Dinglas (wood), <a href="#d0e12149">314</a> + +</p> +<p>Diócno, Ananias, <a href="#d0e18428">513</a>, <a href="#d0e18493">516</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Directorcillo</i>, <a href="#d0e7212">222</a> + +</p> +<p>Disciplinary (convict) corps, <a href="#d0e8125">231</a> + +</p> +<p>Discovery of the Philippines, <a href="#d0e2313">24</a> <i>et seq</i>. + +</p> +<p>Diseases, the prevalent, <a href="#d0e6095">197</a> + +</p> +<p>Dità (quinine), <a href="#d0e11835">308</a> +<a id="d0e29824"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e29824">657</a>]</span></p> +<p>Divisions of the Colony under Spain, <a href="#d0e6625">213</a> + +</p> +<p>Djimbangan, Datto, <a href="#d0e18831">530</a>, <a href="#d0e20874">580</a> + +</p> +<p>Dollars, Mexican, first introduced, <a href="#d0e9146">244</a> + +</p> +<p>Doll-saints, <a href="#d0e5814">188</a> + +</p> +<p>Dominican friars, <a href="#d0e2837">51</a> (footnote) + +</p> +<p>Donkeys, <a href="#d0e15516">388</a> + +</p> +<p>Dowries for native women, <a href="#d0e2876">53</a> + +</p> +<p>Draper, Brig.-General, <a href="#d0e3388">87</a>–<a href="#d0e3454">91</a> + +</p> +<p>Duarte de Barbosa, <a href="#d0e2406">28</a> + +</p> +<p>Du Marais, Baron, <a href="#d0e19049">540</a> (footnote) + +</p> +<p>Dúngon (wood), <a href="#d0e12149">314</a> + +</p> +<p>Dutch, naval battles with the, <a href="#d0e3190">72</a> <i>et seq.</i> + +</p> +<p>Dwelling-houses, <a href="#d0e14650">353</a> + +</p> +<p>Dye saps, <a href="#d0e11997">312</a> + + +</p> +<p>Earthquakes, <a href="#d0e2292">23</a>, <a href="#d0e14809">356</a> + +</p> +<p>Ebony (wood), <a href="#d0e12149">314</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Eco de Filipinas,</i> the seditious organ, <a href="#d0e3649">106</a> + +</p> +<p>Education, under Spain, school-teachers, <a href="#d0e5895">192</a>; State aid for, <a href="#d0e5914">193</a>; the Athenæum syllabus, <a href="#d0e5949">194</a>; the Santa Isabel College curriculum, <a href="#d0e5949">194</a>; girlsʼ schools, <a href="#d0e5949">194</a>; St. Thomasʼ University, <a href="#d0e5949">194</a>; the Nautical School, <a href="#d0e6048">195</a>; the provincial student, <a href="#d0e6048">195</a>; in agriculture, <a href="#d0e7499">228</a>; under America, <a href="#d0e21624">608</a>; the Normal School syllabus, <a href="#d0e21652">609</a>; the Nautical School, <a href="#d0e21652">609</a>; the School for Chinese, <a href="#d0e21741">610</a>; University and remaining Spanish schools, <a href="#d0e21741">610</a>; the English language for Orientals, <a href="#d0e21813">611</a>; in agriculture, <a href="#d0e22407">625</a> + +</p> +<p>Egbert, Colonel, death of, <a href="#d0e18051">489</a> + +</p> +<p>Elcano, Juan Sebastian, <a href="#d0e2429">29</a>; voyage round the world of, <a href="#d0e2449">30</a>; reward to, <a href="#d0e2479">31</a>; death of, <a href="#d0e2479">31</a> + +</p> +<p>“<i>El Filibusterismo</i>,” <a href="#d0e15388">383</a> + +</p> +<p><i>El Nuevo Dia</i> newspaper, <a href="#d0e18683">524</a> + +</p> +<p>Emoluments of Spanish officials, <a href="#d0e6657">214</a>; of American officials, <a href="#d0e19706">561</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Encomiendas</i>, <a href="#d0e6540">211</a> + +</p> +<p>Espinosa, Gonzalo Gomez de, <a href="#d0e2429">29</a>, <a href="#d0e2479">31</a> + +</p> +<p>Exchange fluctuations, <a href="#d0e25973">647</a> + +</p> +<p>Exclusion, of foreigners in general, <a href="#d0e9672">258</a>; of Chinese in particular, <a href="#d0e3762">111</a>, <a href="#d0e3900">119</a>, <a href="#d0e22566">633</a>–<a href="#d0e1942">5</a> + +</p> +<p>Excommunications, <a href="#d0e2985">58</a>, <a href="#d0e3116">67</a>, <a href="#d0e21569">604</a> + +</p> +<p>Executions of monks in Japan, <a href="#d0e3103">66</a>, <a href="#d0e3148">69</a> + +</p> +<p>Exhortations and proclamations, rebel and insurgent, definition of demands, <a href="#d0e15587">392</a>; claim of independence, <a href="#d0e15656">394</a>, <a href="#d0e16343">421</a>, <a href="#d0e16677">433</a>, <a href="#d0e16721">436</a>, <a href="#d0e17157">454</a>, <a href="#d0e18007">486</a>, <a href="#d0e18188">502</a> + +</p> +<p>Expenditure and revenue, under Spain, <a href="#d0e7405">227</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#d0e9361">251</a>; curious items of, <a href="#d0e7561">229</a>; under America, <a href="#d0e22477">629</a> + +</p> +<p>Exports, duty first levied on, <a href="#d0e2876">53</a>; table of values of, <a href="#d0e22686">639</a>; of produce, <a href="#d0e22686">639</a>–<a href="#d0e2750">46</a> + + +</p> +<p>Fajardo de Tua, Gov.-General, <a href="#d0e3161">70</a>, <a href="#d0e3221">75</a>; kills his wife, <a href="#d0e3293">80</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Fallas</i> tax, <a href="#d0e7289">224</a> + +</p> +<p>“Family Compact,” the, <a href="#d0e3190">72</a>, <a href="#d0e3388">87</a> + +</p> +<p>Family names, <a href="#d0e5597">179</a> + +</p> +<p>Farranda Kiemon, the Japanese Ambassador, <a href="#d0e3069">64</a>–<a href="#d0e1942">5</a> + +</p> +<p>Federal party, the, <a href="#d0e19199">547</a> + +</p> +<p>Felizardo, Cornelio, the famous bandit, <a href="#d0e19215">548</a> (footnote), <a href="#d0e19244">549</a> + +</p> +<p>Field of Bagumbayan, <a href="#d0e15151">369</a> + +</p> +<p>”<i lang="es">Filibusterismo, El</i>,” <a href="#d0e15388">383</a> + +</p> +<p>Filipino, the, meaning of the term, <a href="#d0e3913">120</a> (footnote), <a href="#d0e5336">165</a>; theory of the descent of, <a href="#d0e5267">163</a> <i>et seq.</i>; meaning of the term “Tagálog,” <a href="#d0e5292">164</a>; at the St. Louis Exhibition, <a href="#d0e5336">165</a>; character of, <a href="#d0e5384">167</a>; characteristics of, <a href="#d0e5408">168</a>–<a href="#d0e3180">71</a>; notion of sleep of, <a href="#d0e5428">169</a>; “Castila!” <a href="#d0e5428">169</a>; hospitality of, <a href="#d0e5464">172</a>, <a href="#d0e20032">563</a>; good qualities of, <a href="#d0e5484">173</a>–<a href="#d0e1915">4</a>, <a href="#d0e5521">176</a>; female activity, <a href="#d0e5484">173</a>; aversion to discipline, <a href="#d0e5511">175</a>; bravery of, <a href="#d0e5511">175</a>; troops in Tonquin, <a href="#d0e5511">175</a>; physiognomy of, <a href="#d0e5547">177</a>; marriages of, <a href="#d0e5547">177</a>–<a href="#d0e2009">9</a>; minorsʼ rights, <a href="#d0e5572">178</a>; widows of, <a href="#d0e5572">178</a>; family names of, <a href="#d0e5597">179</a>; mixed marriages of, <a href="#d0e5659">181</a>; belief in evil spirits, <a href="#d0e5659">181</a>; conception of religion of, <a href="#d0e5824">189</a>, <a href="#d0e21614">607</a>–<a href="#d0e2002">8</a>; penance, <a href="#d0e5814">188</a>; talent of, <a href="#d0e6066">196</a>; as artists, <a href="#d0e6066">196</a>; as politicians, <a href="#d0e19199">547</a>; the “Irreconcilables,” <a href="#d0e19199">547</a>, <a href="#d0e19316">553</a>, <a href="#d0e21843">613</a>; capacity for self-government of, <a href="#d0e21856">614</a> + +</p> +<p>Firewoods, <a href="#d0e13569">324</a> + +</p> +<p>Fish, <a href="#d0e14150">339</a> + +</p> +<p>Flowers, <a href="#d0e12828">321</a> + +</p> +<p>Flores, Luis, <a href="#d0e18578">522</a>–<a href="#d0e1888">3</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Fondos locales</i>, <a href="#d0e6993">217</a>. <i>Vide</i> Government. + +</p> +<p>Forests, inspection of, <a href="#d0e7499">228</a>; produce of, <a href="#d0e11782">307</a> <i>et seq.</i> + +</p> +<p>Formosa Island, Spanish colony in, <a href="#d0e3236">76</a> + +</p> +<p>Fort of Ylígan, <a href="#d0e3247">77</a>, <a href="#d0e8125">231</a>; of Zamboanga, <a href="#d0e3247">77</a>, <a href="#d0e4343">133</a> (footnote), <a href="#d0e8365">233</a>; of Sampanilla (Mindanao Is.), <a href="#d0e4299">131</a>; of Joló, <a href="#d0e4864">150</a>; of Labo and Taytay (Palaúan Is.), <a href="#d0e8125">231</a>; of Cavite, <a href="#d0e8365">233</a>–<a href="#d0e1915">4</a>; of Cebú, <a href="#d0e15894">402</a>; of Santiago (Manila), <a href="#d0e16494">427</a>, <a href="#d0e16627">430</a>; of San Antonio Abad (Malate), <a href="#d0e17413">463</a> + +</p> +<p>Fortification of Manila, <a href="#d0e2905">54</a>, <a href="#d0e8125">231</a>, <a href="#d0e14312">343</a> (footnote) + +</p> +<p>Fowls, <a href="#d0e14235">341</a> + +</p> +<p>“Frailuno,” the term, <a href="#d0e21540">603</a> (footnote) + +</p> +<p>Francis of Tears, Saint, <a href="#d0e5703">183</a> + +</p> +<p>Free trade penalties, Spanish, <a href="#d0e9336">250</a> + +</p> +<p>Freemasonry, <a href="#d0e15011">363</a>, <a href="#d0e15055">365</a> (footnote) + +</p> +<p>Friars, the Spanish, the Mendicant Order of, <a href="#d0e2931">55</a>; term of residence of, <a href="#d0e2931">55</a>; in open riot, <a href="#d0e3021">61</a>; attitude of, during the British occupation (1762–<a href="#d0e1888">3</a>), <a href="#d0e3454">91</a>–<a href="#d0e1888">3</a>, <a href="#d0e3522">96</a>; fighting, <a href="#d0e3842">116</a>, <a href="#d0e4343">133</a>; as parish priests, <a href="#d0e6228">202</a>; the several Orders of, <a href="#d0e6314">207</a>; as traders, <a href="#d0e9336">250</a>; position of, after 1898, <a href="#d0e21328">594</a>; causes of the anti-friar feeling, <a href="#d0e21343">595</a>; <a id="d0e30489"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e30489">658</a>]</span> attitude of the native clergy towards, <a href="#d0e21364">596</a>; number of, at the time of the rebellion (1896), <a href="#d0e21364">596</a>; position of, after 1898, determined, <a href="#d0e21382">597</a>; the question of the real estate of, <a href="#d0e21382">597</a>, <i>et seq.</i>; Americaʼs negotiations with Rome, <a href="#d0e21406">598</a>–<a href="#d0e21429">600</a>; acreage of real estate of, <a href="#d0e21435">601</a>; the term “frailuno,” <a href="#d0e21540">603</a> (footnote). <i>Vide</i> Church; Religious Orders + +</p> +<p>Fruits, <a href="#d0e12450">317</a> et seq. + +</p> +<p><i>Fuerza del Pilar</i>, <a href="#d0e4343">133</a> (footnote) + +</p> +<p><i>Funcion votiva de San Andrés</i>, <a href="#d0e2813">50</a> + +</p> +<p>Funston, Colonel, <a href="#d0e18062">491</a>, <a href="#d0e18138">496</a>; captures Aguinaldo, <a href="#d0e18245">507</a>; reward to, <a href="#d0e18277">509</a> + +</p> +<p>Fuset, Antonio, <a href="#d0e19038">539</a> + + +</p> +<p>Gabi, <a href="#d0e11562">303</a> + +</p> +<p>Gaddanes tribe, the, <a href="#d0e4012">122</a> + +</p> +<p>Gales, Nicolas, <a href="#d0e18539">520</a> + +</p> +<p>Galleons, to and from Mexico, <a href="#d0e9100">243</a>; officersʼ pay, <a href="#d0e9100">243</a>; royal dues, <a href="#d0e9290">249</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Gigantes, Paseo de los</i>, <a href="#d0e4358">134</a> (footnote) + +</p> +<p>Gilolo Island, <a href="#d0e2501">32</a> + +</p> +<p>Ginger, <a href="#d0e12828">321</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Gobernadorcillo</i>, <a href="#d0e7188">221</a> + +</p> +<p>Gogo, <a href="#d0e11526">302</a> + +</p> +<p>Goiti, Martin de, <a href="#d0e2545">35</a>, <a href="#d0e2577">37</a> + +</p> +<p>Gold, mining, <a href="#d0e13852">328</a> et seq.; coin, <a href="#d0e9698">259</a>; imports and exports of, after 1898, <a href="#d0e25973">647</a> + +</p> +<p>Gomez, Father Mariano, executed, <a href="#d0e3672">107</a> + +</p> +<p>González Parrado, General, <a href="#d0e4632">145</a>, <a href="#d0e4864">150</a>, <a href="#d0e20545">572</a> + +</p> +<p>Government, under Spain, <a href="#d0e6540">211</a> <i>et seq.</i>; cost of, <a href="#d0e6657">214</a>, <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#d0e22477">629</a>; of towns, <a href="#d0e7188">221</a> <i>et seq.</i>; under America, <a href="#d0e19635">560</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#d0e20664">576</a>; cost of, <a href="#d0e22477">629</a>; provincial, <a href="#d0e20068">566</a>–<a href="#d0e1977">7</a>, <a href="#d0e20771">578</a>–<a href="#d0e2009">9</a> + +</p> +<p>Governor-General, the, Legaspi, Miguel de, <a href="#d0e2514">33</a>–<a href="#d0e1915">4</a>, <a href="#d0e2570">36</a>; Lavezares, Guido de, <a href="#d0e2545">35</a> (footnote), <a href="#d0e2762">47</a>; Zabálburu, Domingo, <a href="#d0e2675">42</a>; powers of, <a href="#d0e2905">54</a>; Perez Dasmariñas, <a href="#d0e2954">56</a>, <a href="#d0e3202">73</a>; Corcuera, Hurtado de, <a href="#d0e2985">58</a>, <a href="#d0e3275">79</a>, <a href="#d0e4299">131</a>; quarrels of, with the clergy, <a href="#d0e2985">58</a>; Lara, Manrique de, <a href="#d0e2994">59</a>; Salcedo, Diego, <a href="#d0e2994">59</a>; Leon, Manuel de, <a href="#d0e3013">60</a>; Nargas, Juan de, <a href="#d0e3013">60</a>; Bustamente Bustillo murdered, <a href="#d0e3013">60</a>; Torralba, José, <a href="#d0e3013">60</a>, <a href="#d0e3275">79</a>, <a href="#d0e3293">80</a>; Arandia, Pedro de, <a href="#d0e3021">61</a>, <a href="#d0e3293">80</a>; Moriones, Domingo, <a href="#d0e3038">62</a>; Raon, José, <a href="#d0e3038">62</a>, <a href="#d0e3555">99</a>; Fajardo de Tua, <a href="#d0e3161">70</a>, <a href="#d0e3221">75</a>, <a href="#d0e3293">80</a>; Bravo de Acuña, <a href="#d0e3210">74</a>; Silva, Juan de, <a href="#d0e3210">74</a>; Silva, Fernando de, <a href="#d0e3236">76</a>; Vargas, Juan, <a href="#d0e3275">79</a>; peculations of, <a href="#d0e3275">79</a>, <a href="#d0e3293">80</a>, <a href="#d0e6572">212</a>, <a href="#d0e7156">220</a>–<a href="#d0e1855">1</a>; Berenguer y Marquina, <a href="#d0e3293">80</a>; La Torre, Francisco, <a href="#d0e3539">97</a>; Obando, José de, <a href="#d0e4358">134</a>; Jovellar, Joaquin, <a href="#d0e6540">211</a>; Despujols, <a href="#d0e15388">383</a>; Primo de Rivera, Fernando, <a href="#d0e4074">124</a>, <a href="#d0e6540">211</a>, <a href="#d0e15521">389</a>, <a href="#d0e15564">391</a>, <a href="#d0e15830">399</a>, <a href="#d0e15977">408</a>; Blanco, Ramon, <a href="#d0e15291">377</a>; Polavieja, Camilo, <a href="#d0e15312">378</a>–<a href="#d0e2009">9</a>; Augusti, Basilio, <a href="#d0e16120">413</a>, <a href="#d0e16385">424</a>–<a href="#d0e1942">5</a>, <a href="#d0e17455">464</a>; Weyler <a href="#d0e16237">417</a>–<a href="#d0e2002">8</a>, <a href="#d0e16639">431</a> + +</p> +<p>Grants of land, <a href="#d0e2905">54</a>, <a href="#d0e6540">211</a>, <a href="#d0e21304">592</a> + +</p> +<p>Grapes, <a href="#d0e12756">320</a> + +</p> +<p>Guadalupe church, legend of, <a href="#d0e14948">361</a> + +</p> +<p>Guaranty Trust Company, <a href="#d0e22633">637</a> + +</p> +<p>“Guards of Honour,” the, <a href="#d0e19252">550</a> + +</p> +<p>Guava fruit, <a href="#d0e12756">320</a> + +</p> +<p>Guidi, Monsignor G. B., papal legate, <a href="#d0e21435">601</a> + +</p> +<p>Guijo (wood), <a href="#d0e12149">314</a> + +</p> +<p>Guillermo, Faustino, the bandit, <a href="#d0e19189">546</a> + +</p> +<p>Gum mastic, <a href="#d0e11952">311</a>; shipments of, <a href="#d0e25608">646</a> + +</p> +<p>Gumapos, “Count,” <a href="#d0e3602">103</a> + +</p> +<p>Gutta-percha, <a href="#d0e11952">311</a> + +</p> +<p>Gypsum, <a href="#d0e14044">334</a> + + +</p> +<p><i>Hadji</i>, title of, <a href="#d0e20495">571</a> (footnote). + +</p> +<p>Halberdiers (Bodyguard), <a href="#d0e8235">232</a> + +</p> +<p>Hale, General, <a href="#d0e18042">488</a>, <a href="#d0e18058">490</a>–<a href="#d0e1855">1</a>, <a href="#d0e18140">497</a>–<a href="#d0e2002">8</a> + +</p> +<p>Hall, General, <a href="#d0e18042">488</a>, <a href="#d0e18066">492</a> + +</p> +<p>Hamabar, King, <a href="#d0e2406">28</a> + +</p> +<p>Harbour-masters, Spanish, <a href="#d0e8607">234</a> + +</p> +<p>Hardwoods, <a href="#d0e11997">312</a>; relative strengths of, <a href="#d0e12450">317</a> + +</p> +<p>Harun Narrasid, Sultan, <a href="#d0e4533">141</a>, <a href="#d0e4549">142</a> (footnote) + +</p> +<p>Harty, Monsignor, J. J., <a href="#d0e21520">602</a> + +</p> +<p>Headhunters, the, <a href="#d0e4074">124</a>–<a href="#d0e1942">5</a> + +</p> +<p>Hemp, <a href="#d0e10689">281</a>; various uses of, <a href="#d0e10716">282</a>; extraction of, <a href="#d0e10716">282</a>; experiments in British India, <a href="#d0e10742">283</a>; statistics of, <a href="#d0e10817">284</a>; cultivation of, <a href="#d0e10844">285</a>; qualities of, <a href="#d0e10844">285</a>; labour difficulties, <a href="#d0e10866">286</a>; shipments of, <a href="#d0e22686">639</a> + +</p> +<p>Hendryx, Captain, the sad fate of, <a href="#d0e19291">552</a> + +</p> +<p>Heredia, Pedro de, <a href="#d0e3210">74</a> + +</p> +<p>Hierarchy, the, <a href="#d0e6289">206</a> + +</p> +<p>High Host stolen, the, <a href="#d0e3328">82</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Hindi aco patay</i>, the seditious play of, <a href="#d0e19429">554</a> + +</p> +<p>Hindoos, the, <a href="#d0e4212">128</a> + +</p> +<p>“Historical Manifest,” the, <a href="#d0e4421">136</a> + +</p> +<p>Histrionic art, <a href="#d0e14501">349</a> + +</p> +<p>“Holy Child” of Cebú, the, <a href="#d0e5703">183</a> + +</p> +<p>Homestead Law, the, <a href="#d0e21304">592</a> (footnote) + +</p> +<p>Hong-Kong and Shanghai Banking Corp., the <a href="#d0e9012">240</a>, <a href="#d0e9672">258</a>, <a href="#d0e16707">435</a>, <a href="#d0e22633">637</a> + +</p> +<p>Horses, <a href="#d0e14080">336</a> + +</p> +<p>Hospitals, <a href="#d0e2905">54</a> + +</p> +<p>Hughes, General, <a href="#d0e18051">489</a>, <a href="#d0e18698">525</a>, <a href="#d0e18794">528</a> + +</p> +<p>Hurricanes, <a href="#d0e14706">355</a> + +</p> +<p>Husi, <a href="#d0e10716">282</a> + + +</p> +<p>Ibanac tribe, the, <a href="#d0e4030">123</a> + +</p> +<p>Identity document, the, <a href="#d0e7289">224</a> + +</p> +<p>Igorrote tribe, the, <a href="#d0e4030">123</a> + +</p> +<p>Igorrote-Chinese tribe, the, <a href="#d0e4140">126</a> + +</p> +<p>Illiterates, <a href="#d0e5895">192</a>, <a href="#d0e21869">615</a> + +</p> +<p>Ilocos rebellion, <a href="#d0e3565">100</a> +<a id="d0e31184"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e31184">659</a>]</span></p> +<p>Imbog, the Moro, <a href="#d0e4262">129</a> + +</p> +<p>Imports, table of values of, <a href="#d0e22686">639</a>; proportionate table of Rice, <a href="#d0e26566">650</a> + +</p> +<p>Imus, <a href="#d0e15205">372</a> (footnote) + +</p> +<p>Indemnity to British for Manila, <a href="#d0e3433">89</a> + +</p> +<p>Independent Church, the Philippine, initiation of, <a href="#d0e21540">603</a>; severance from Rome of, <a href="#d0e21579">605</a>; conflicts between Catholics and Schismatics of, <a href="#d0e21608">606</a>; doctrine of, <a href="#d0e21614">607</a> + +</p> +<p>Indigo, shipments of, <a href="#d0e23030">640</a>–<a href="#d0e1855">1</a> + +</p> +<p>Indulgences granted, <a href="#d0e2954">56</a> + +</p> +<p>Industries, native, <a href="#d0e9838">264</a>, <a href="#d0e14426">347</a> + +</p> +<p>Inquisition, the, <a href="#d0e2931">55</a>, <a href="#d0e2994">59</a>, <a href="#d0e3328">82</a> + +</p> +<p>Insanity, <a href="#d0e6165">198</a> + +</p> +<p>Insects, <a href="#d0e14150">339</a>; edible, <a href="#d0e14295">342</a> + +</p> +<p>Insular Government. <i>Vide</i> Government + +</p> +<p>Intellectuals, <a href="#d0e5895">192</a> + +</p> +<p>International Banking Corp., <a href="#d0e22633">637</a> + +</p> +<p>Ipil (wood), <a href="#d0e12149">314</a> + +</p> +<p>Iron, <a href="#d0e14012">332</a> + +</p> +<p>Irreconcilables, the, <a href="#d0e19199">547</a>, <a href="#d0e19316">553</a>; demands of, <a href="#d0e21843">613</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Islas, del Poniente</i>, <a href="#d0e2406">28</a>; <i>del Oriente</i>, <a href="#d0e2406">28</a>; <i>Philipina</i>, <a href="#d0e2501">32</a>; <i>de los Pintados</i>, <a href="#d0e2524">34</a> (footnote) + +</p> +<p>Islands, the chief, <a href="#d0e2040">13</a>; ancient names of, <a href="#d0e2040">13</a> + +</p> +<p>Itavis tribe, the, <a href="#d0e4030">123</a> + + +</p> +<p><i>Jábul</i> dress, <a href="#d0e4752">147</a> + +</p> +<p>Jalajala, <a href="#d0e14937">360</a> + +</p> +<p>Japan—the Ambassador Farranda Kiemon, <a href="#d0e3069">64</a>–<a href="#d0e1942">5</a>; Taycosama, Emperor of, <a href="#d0e3087">65</a>; Catholic missions to, <a href="#d0e3069">64</a>–<a href="#d0e3161">70</a>, <a href="#d0e5292">164</a> (footnote); the martyrs of, <a href="#d0e3103">66</a>, <a href="#d0e3148">69</a>, <a href="#d0e3180">71</a>; Dayfusama, Emperor of, <a href="#d0e3148">69</a>; Xogusama, Emperor of, <a href="#d0e3148">69</a>; To-Kogunsama, Emperor of, <a href="#d0e3161">70</a> + +</p> +<p>Japanese, the, <a href="#d0e3054">63</a>, <a href="#d0e5292">164</a>; pre-Spanish immigration of, <a href="#d0e5367">166</a>; industry of, <a href="#d0e5367">166</a>; in Vigan, Malalos, Taal and Pagsanján, <a href="#d0e5367">166</a>; expulsion of the, <a href="#d0e5292">164</a> (footnote); under American rule, <a href="#d0e19534">557</a> + +</p> +<p>Jaramillo, General Nicolás, during the Rebellion, <a href="#d0e15257">374</a>; in Zamboanga, <a href="#d0e18831">530</a>; as agent for the liberation of Spanish prisoners, <a href="#d0e19049">540</a> + +</p> +<p>Jaro, the See of, <a href="#d0e18444">515</a> (footnote) + +</p> +<p>Jesuits, rivalry with friars, <a href="#d0e2985">58</a>; in Nagasaki, <a href="#d0e3087">65</a>–<a href="#d0e1977">7</a>; expulsion of, <a href="#d0e3555">99</a>, <a href="#d0e6289">206</a>; number of, in the Islands in 1896, <a href="#d0e6289">206</a> (footnote) + +</p> +<p><i>Jinrikisha</i>, the, <a href="#d0e22602">635</a> + +</p> +<p>Joló, capture of, <a href="#d0e4484">139</a>; annexation of, <a href="#d0e4505">140</a>; town of, <a href="#d0e4846">149</a>, <a href="#d0e21152">587</a>; port of, <a href="#d0e9797">262</a>; American occupation of, <a href="#d0e20495">571</a> + +</p> +<p>Jomonjol Island, <a href="#d0e2375">27</a> + +</p> +<p>Journalism, <a href="#d0e3649">106</a>, <a href="#d0e14611">352</a>, <a href="#d0e15011">363</a>, <a href="#d0e15362">382</a>, <a href="#d0e16103">412</a>, <a href="#d0e17582">468</a>, <a href="#d0e18683">524</a>, <a href="#d0e19252">550</a> + +</p> +<p>Jovellar, Gov.—General Joaquin, <a href="#d0e6540">211</a> + +</p> +<p>Judicial statistics, Spanish, <a href="#d0e8607">234</a>; American, <a href="#d0e19706">561</a>, <a href="#d0e22305">618</a>–<a href="#d0e2225">19</a> + +</p> +<p>Judicial Governors, <a href="#d0e6572">212</a> + +</p> +<p><i lang="es">Junta pátriotica</i>, the, <a href="#d0e16272">419</a> + +</p> +<p>Jurado <i>v.</i> the Hong-Kong and Shanghai Banking Corp., <a href="#d0e9012">240</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Juramentado</i>, the, <a href="#d0e4694">146</a>, <a href="#d0e4794">148</a>, <a href="#d0e4864">150</a>, <a href="#d0e20999">583</a>; runs ámok, <a href="#d0e4965">152</a> + +</p> +<p>Justice, of the peace, first appointed, <a href="#d0e2954">56</a>; in municipalities, <a href="#d0e7325">225</a>, <a href="#d0e22330">619</a>; administration of, <a href="#d0e22305">618</a>; provincial courts of, <a href="#d0e22330">619</a> + + +</p> +<p>Kalbi, Datto, <a href="#d0e21120">586</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Katipunan</i> League, the, <a href="#d0e15027">364</a>, <a href="#d0e15055">365</a> (footnote), <a href="#d0e21343">595</a>; demands of the, <a href="#d0e15629">393</a> + +</p> +<p>Kiemon Farranda, <a href="#d0e3069">64</a>–<a href="#d0e1942">5</a> + +</p> +<p>“King of the Tagálogs,” <a href="#d0e3625">105</a> + +</p> +<p>Koxinga, threatened invasion by, <a href="#d0e3236">76</a> + +</p> +<p>Kudaran͠gan, Sultan of, <a href="#d0e4584">143</a>; vanquished by General Wood, <a href="#d0e20968">581</a>; cotta of, <a href="#d0e20874">580</a> (footnote), <a href="#d0e20968">581</a> + + +</p> +<p>Labo fort, <a href="#d0e8125">231</a> + +</p> +<p>Labour, problem, <a href="#d0e7325">225</a>, <a href="#d0e10866">286</a>, <a href="#d0e14012">332</a>–<a href="#d0e1888">3</a>, <a href="#d0e21813">611</a>, <a href="#d0e22534">631</a>; on sugar estates, <a href="#d0e10332">274</a>; “The Democratic Labour Union,” <a href="#d0e22551">632</a>; Consul-General Wildman quoted, <a href="#d0e22566">633</a> + +</p> +<p>Lacandola, Rajah, <a href="#d0e2545">35</a>–<a href="#d0e1977">7</a>, <a href="#d0e2837">51</a>; descendants of, <a href="#d0e2545">35</a> (footnote) + +</p> +<p>Lachambre, General, <a href="#d0e15330">379</a> + +</p> +<p>Lacson, Aniceto, <a href="#d0e18539">520</a> + +</p> +<p>Ladrone Islands, discovery of, <a href="#d0e2375">27</a>; sighted, <a href="#d0e2524">34</a>; visited, <a href="#d0e2641">40</a> + +</p> +<p>Laguna de Bay, <a href="#d0e2135">15</a> + +</p> +<p>Lakes, <a href="#d0e2135">15</a> + +</p> +<p>Lamurrec Island, King of, <a href="#d0e2675">42</a> + +</p> +<p>Lanao Lake, <a href="#d0e2135">15</a> + +</p> +<p>Land, grants of, <a href="#d0e2905">54</a>; tenure of, <a href="#d0e10118">270</a>; measure of, <a href="#d0e10145">271</a>; the Homestead Law, <a href="#d0e21304">592</a> (footnote); problem, <a href="#d0e19487">555</a>, <a href="#d0e21304">592</a>–<a href="#d0e1888">3</a>, <a href="#d0e22397">624</a>–<a href="#d0e1942">5</a> + +</p> +<p>Lanete (wood), <a href="#d0e12149">314</a> + +</p> +<p><i>La Patria</i> newspaper, <a href="#d0e16103">412</a> + +</p> +<p>Lara, Gov.-General Manrique de, <a href="#d0e2994">59</a> + +</p> +<p>Latitude of the Islands, <a href="#d0e2040">13</a> + +</p> +<p>La Torre, Gov.-General, <a href="#d0e3539">97</a> + +</p> +<p>Laúan (wood), <a href="#d0e12149">314</a> + +</p> +<p>Lavezares, Guido de, <a href="#d0e2545">35</a> (footnote), <a href="#d0e2762">47</a> + +</p> +<p>Law Spanish lawsuits, <a href="#d0e2954">56</a>, <a href="#d0e8974">239</a>; Spanish criminal law procedure, <a href="#d0e9034">241</a>–<a href="#d0e1879">2</a>; under American rule, <a href="#d0e22305">618</a>–<a href="#d0e2009">9</a> + +</p> +<p>Lawton, General, <a href="#d0e18080">493</a>, <a href="#d0e18144">498</a>–<a href="#d0e18164">500</a>; death of, <a href="#d0e18224">504</a> + +</p> +<p>Leeches, <a href="#d0e14182">340</a> + +</p> +<p>Legaspi, the expedition of, <a href="#d0e2514">33</a>; in Cebú, <a href="#d0e2524">34</a>; death of, <a href="#d0e2570">36</a> + +</p> +<p>Leon, Gov.-General Manuel de, <a href="#d0e3013">60</a> +<a id="d0e31849"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e31849">660</a>]</span></p> +<p>Lepers, <a href="#d0e3161">70</a>, <a href="#d0e6095">197</a>, <a href="#d0e14588">351</a> + +</p> +<p>Letter of Anathema, <a href="#d0e3328">82</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Leyes de Indias</i>, <a href="#d0e2837">51</a> + +</p> +<p>Leyte Is., rebellion in, <a href="#d0e3594">102</a>; insurgency in, <a href="#d0e19199">547</a> + +</p> +<p>Ligusan Lake, <a href="#d0e2135">15</a> + +</p> +<p>Li-ma-hong, the Chinese corsair, <a href="#d0e2762">47</a> + +</p> +<p>Limasaba, Prince of, <a href="#d0e16044">410</a> + +</p> +<p>Lipa destroyed, <a href="#d0e2212">18</a> + +</p> +<p>Lizares, Simon, <a href="#d0e18539">520</a> + +</p> +<p>Llaneras, General, <a href="#d0e15257">374</a> + +</p> +<p>Llorente, Julio, <a href="#d0e18557">521</a>–<a href="#d0e1879">2</a>, <a href="#d0e18683">524</a> + +</p> +<p>Loaisa expedition, the, <a href="#d0e2479">31</a> + +</p> +<p>Loan, the first Philippine, <a href="#d0e19082">541</a> (footnote) + +</p> +<p>Local funds, <a href="#d0e6993">217</a> + +</p> +<p>Locust bean, <a href="#d0e13569">324</a> + +</p> +<p>Locusts, <a href="#d0e14235">341</a> + +</p> +<p>Logarta, Miguel, <a href="#d0e18578">522</a>, <a href="#d0e18698">525</a> + +</p> +<p>Loney, Nicholas, <a href="#d0e9597">255</a> + +</p> +<p>Longitude of the Islands, <a href="#d0e2040">13</a> + +</p> +<p>Los Baños, <a href="#d0e14914">359</a> + +</p> +<p>Losa, Diego de, <a href="#d0e3116">67</a> + +</p> +<p>Löwenstein, Prince Ludwig von, <a href="#d0e18042">488</a>, <a href="#d0e18299">510</a> + +</p> +<p>Lucban, Vicente, <a href="#d0e18934">535</a>; capture of, <a href="#d0e19177">545</a> + +</p> +<p>Luga, Mateo, <a href="#d0e18698">525</a> + +</p> +<p>Luna, General Antonio, <a href="#d0e18138">496</a>–<a href="#d0e2002">8</a>; on the battlefield, <a href="#d0e18138">496</a>; death of, <a href="#d0e18178">501</a> + +</p> +<p>Luneta Esplanade, the, <a href="#d0e14650">353</a> + +</p> +<p>Lung diseases, <a href="#d0e6095">197</a> + +</p> +<p>Lúpis, <a href="#d0e10716">282</a> + +</p> +<p>Lutao (Cebú) destroyed, <a href="#d0e15914">403</a> + + +</p> +<p>Mabini, Apolinario, <a href="#d0e17759">478</a>, <a href="#d0e18007">486</a>, <a href="#d0e19189">546</a> + +</p> +<p>Mabolo fruit, <a href="#d0e12756">320</a> + +</p> +<p>Macabebe, the, <a href="#d0e16955">446</a> (footnote) + +</p> +<p><i>Macao</i> (Chinese), <a href="#d0e3871">118</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Macacus radiata</i>, <a href="#d0e5547">177</a> + +</p> +<p>Macao, the colony of, <a href="#d0e3315">81</a> (footnote); Spanish attempt to capture, <a href="#d0e3315">81</a> + +</p> +<p>Macasin (wood), <a href="#d0e12361">316</a> + +</p> +<p>Maceo, Antonio, <a href="#d0e16237">417</a> + +</p> +<p>Macui, the Moro tribe of, <a href="#d0e4632">145</a> + +</p> +<p>Madrecacao tree, <a href="#d0e11107">291</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Maestre del Campo</i>, <a href="#d0e2776">48</a> (footnote) + +</p> +<p>Magellan Straits discovered, <a href="#d0e2375">27</a> + +</p> +<p>Maghallanes, Hernando de, <a href="#d0e2313">24</a>; discovers the Straits of Magellan and Ladrone Islands, <a href="#d0e2375">27</a>; reaches Cebú Island, <a href="#d0e2375">27</a>; death of, <a href="#d0e2406">28</a>; monuments to, <a href="#d0e2406">28</a> + +</p> +<p>Maghayin, Bartolomé, <a href="#d0e2577">37</a> + +</p> +<p>Magtan Island, <a href="#d0e2406">28</a>, <a href="#d0e15914">403</a> + +</p> +<p>Maguindanao Lake, <a href="#d0e2135">15</a> + +</p> +<p>Maguinoó, the, <a href="#d0e16002">409</a>, <a href="#d0e16076">411</a> + +</p> +<p>Mahamad Alimudin, Sultan, <a href="#d0e3471">92</a>, <a href="#d0e3547">98</a>; vicissitudes of, <a href="#d0e4358">134</a>–<a href="#d0e2009">9</a> + +</p> +<p>Mahometans, chap. <a href="#d0e4263">x</a>. <i>Vide</i> <a href="#d0e32841">Moros</a> + +</p> +<p>Mail service, <a href="#d0e9797">262</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Maine</i>, American warship, <a href="#d0e16252">418</a> (footnote) + +</p> +<p>Maize, <a href="#d0e11470">300</a> + +</p> +<p>Malábang fort, <a href="#d0e4299">131</a> + +</p> +<p>Malahi military prison, <a href="#d0e20490">570</a> + +</p> +<p>Malanao Moros, <a href="#d0e4632">145</a> + +</p> +<p>Malatana tribe, the, <a href="#d0e2750">46</a> + +</p> +<p>Malatapay (wood), <a href="#d0e12361">316</a> + +</p> +<p>Malhou Island, <a href="#d0e2375">27</a> + +</p> +<p>Malinao destroyed, <a href="#d0e2166">16</a> + +</p> +<p>Malolos, Father Moïses Santos murdered at, <a href="#d0e15977">408</a>; becomes the insurgent capital, <a href="#d0e17622">469</a>; Revolutionary congress convened at, <a href="#d0e17622">469</a>; becomes the new capital of Bulacan Province, <a href="#d0e20084">567</a> + +</p> +<p>Malongʼs rebellion, “King,” <a href="#d0e3602">103</a> + +</p> +<p>Malvar, General Miguel, in Taal, <a href="#d0e18230">505</a>; defeat and surrender of, <a href="#d0e19177">545</a> + +</p> +<p>Mancono (wood), <a href="#d0e12361">316</a> + +</p> +<p>Mandi, Rajahmudah Datto, in Cebú, <a href="#d0e15967">407</a>; at home, <a href="#d0e18879">533</a>; his daughterʼs marriage, <a href="#d0e18901">534</a> + +</p> +<p>Mangachapuy (wood), <a href="#d0e12361">316</a> + +</p> +<p>Mango fruit, <a href="#d0e12450">317</a> + +</p> +<p>Manguiancs tribe, the, <a href="#d0e4212">128</a> + +</p> +<p>Manguiguin, the, <a href="#d0e4299">131</a>; visits Zamboanga, <a href="#d0e21200">589</a> + +</p> +<p>Mani, <a href="#d0e11562">303</a> + +</p> +<p>Manila Province, <a href="#d0e6572">212</a> (footnote), <a href="#d0e19635">560</a> + +</p> +<p>Manila, proclaimed capital, <a href="#d0e2570">36</a>; City Council of, <a href="#d0e2570">36</a>; the city walls and fosse of, <a href="#d0e2905">54</a>, <a href="#d0e8125">231</a>, <a href="#d0e14312">343</a> (footnote); opened to foreigners, <a href="#d0e9619">256</a>; public buildings, <a href="#d0e14338">344</a>; port works, <a href="#d0e14338">344</a>; the Bay of, <a href="#d0e14359">345</a>; the public lighting of, <a href="#d0e14415">346</a>; the business quarter of, <a href="#d0e14426">347</a>; <i lang="es">La Escolta</i>, <a href="#d0e14426">347</a>, <a href="#d0e19534">557</a>; Easter week in, <a href="#d0e14470">348</a>; vehicle traffic in, <a href="#d0e14470">348</a>; theatres, <a href="#d0e14501">349</a>, <a href="#d0e19555">558</a>; bull-ring, <a href="#d0e14567">350</a>; hotels, <a href="#d0e14611">352</a>, <a href="#d0e19555">558</a>; the Press, <a href="#d0e14611">352</a>, <a href="#d0e17582">468</a>, <a href="#d0e19614">559</a>; botanical gardens, <a href="#d0e14650">353</a>; Luneta Esplanade, <a href="#d0e14650">353</a>; dwelling-houses, <a href="#d0e14650">353</a>; society in, <a href="#d0e14685">354</a>; population of, <a href="#d0e14706">355</a>, <a href="#d0e21869">615</a>–<a href="#d0e1954">6</a>; climate of, <a href="#d0e14685">354</a>; earthquakes affecting, <a href="#d0e14809">356</a>; dress in, <a href="#d0e14828">357</a>; after 1898, <a href="#d0e19503">556</a>; refrigerated meat-stores, <a href="#d0e19503">556</a>; innovations in, <a href="#d0e19534">557</a>; Bilíbid jail, <a href="#d0e19534">557</a>; clubs, theatres, hotels, <a href="#d0e19555">558</a>; drinking “Saloons,” <a href="#d0e19614">559</a>; new feast-days, <a href="#d0e19635">560</a>; the municipality of, <a href="#d0e19635">560</a>; as seat of Insular Government, <a href="#d0e19635">560</a>; the Federal zone of, <a href="#d0e19635">560</a> + +</p> +<p>Manobos, the Moro tribe of, <a href="#d0e4632">145</a> + +</p> +<p>Marahui campaign, the, <a href="#d0e4614">144</a> + +</p> +<p>Marble, <a href="#d0e14044">334</a> + +</p> +<p>Marivéles, <a href="#d0e14359">345</a> (footnote) + +</p> +<p>Marriages, <a href="#d0e5547">177</a>–<a href="#d0e3315">81</a>, <a href="#d0e22305">618</a> + +</p> +<p>Marti, the Cuban patriot, <a href="#d0e16237">417</a> + +</p> +<p>Martin, Gerónimo, <a href="#d0e2837">51</a> + +</p> +<p>Martyrs, the, of Japan, <a href="#d0e3103">66</a>–<a href="#d0e3180">71</a>; Philippine, <a href="#d0e3672">107</a> + +</p> +<p>Massacre of Chinese, <a href="#d0e3489">93</a>, <a href="#d0e3819">115</a>–<a href="#d0e1954">6</a>; of other foreigners, <a href="#d0e3842">116</a> + +</p> +<p><i lang="tl">Matamis na macapano</i>, <a href="#d0e11696">305</a> + +</p> +<p>Matienza, Dr. Sancho, <a href="#d0e2335">26</a> +<a id="d0e32516"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e32516">661</a>]</span></p> +<p>Maxilom, General Arcadio, <a href="#d0e18683">524</a>–<a href="#d0e1954">6</a> + +</p> +<p>Mayon Volcano, <a href="#d0e2166">16</a>; eruption of in 1897, <a href="#d0e2196">17</a> + +</p> +<p>McArthur, Maj.-General A., in the War of Independence, <a href="#d0e18051">489</a>–<a href="#d0e3454">91</a>, <a href="#d0e18138">496</a>–<a href="#d0e2002">8</a>; <a href="#d0e20032">563</a> + +</p> +<p>Medicinal herbs, <a href="#d0e13569">324</a> + +</p> +<p>Mejia, Pablo, <a href="#d0e18578">522</a>; assassinated, <a href="#d0e18657">523</a> + +</p> +<p>Melliza, Raymundo, <a href="#d0e18316">511</a>, <a href="#d0e18437">514</a> + +</p> +<p>Mendicant friars, <a href="#d0e2931">55</a> + +</p> +<p>Mendoza, Father Agustin, <a href="#d0e3649">106</a> + +</p> +<p>Mendoza, Luis de, <a href="#d0e2335">26</a> + +</p> +<p>Merritt, General Wesley, <a href="#d0e17413">463</a>, <a href="#d0e17493">466</a>, <a href="#d0e17567">467</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Mestizo</i>, the, <a href="#d0e5521">176</a>; character of, <a href="#d0e5681">182</a> + +</p> +<p>Middlemen, <a href="#d0e9817">263</a> + +</p> +<p>Midel, Isidoro, <a href="#d0e18866">532</a> + +</p> +<p>Military departments, the, <a href="#d0e20140">569</a>. <i>Vide</i> Army + +</p> +<p>Military service, Spanish, <a href="#d0e8125">231</a>. <i>Vide</i> Army + +</p> +<p>Miller, General, <a href="#d0e18316">511</a> <i>et seq.</i> + +</p> +<p>Mineral oil, <a href="#d0e14071">335</a> + +</p> +<p>Mineral products, <a href="#d0e13812">326</a> <i>et seq.</i> + +</p> +<p>Miraculous saints, <a href="#d0e5797">187</a> + +</p> +<p>Mirs Bay, <a href="#d0e16272">419</a> (footnote), <a href="#d0e16494">427</a> + +</p> +<p>Mixed races, <a href="#d0e5521">176</a>, marriages of, <a href="#d0e5659">181</a> + +</p> +<p>Mohammad Jamalul Kiram, Sultan, <a href="#d0e4533">141</a>, <a href="#d0e21152">587</a>–<a href="#d0e2002">8</a> + +</p> +<p>Molasses, <a href="#d0e10263">273</a> + +</p> +<p>Molave (wood) <a href="#d0e12248">315</a> + +</p> +<p>Moluccas Islands, tragic end of the Philippine expedition to, <a href="#d0e3202">73</a>; abandonment of the, <a href="#d0e3247">77</a> + +</p> +<p>Money, under Spain, <a href="#d0e9146">244</a>, <a href="#d0e9698">259</a>; lending, <a href="#d0e9597">255</a>–<a href="#d0e1954">6</a>, <a href="#d0e10110">269</a>; <a href="#d0e9242">246</a> (footnote) <a href="#d0e22397">624</a>; under America, <a href="#d0e22602">635</a>–<a href="#d0e1977">7</a>. + +</p> +<p>Monks, the. <i>Vide</i> Religious Orders; Friars + +</p> +<p>Monsoon region, <a href="#d0e2292">23</a> + +</p> +<p>Montalón, Julian, the famous bandit, <a href="#d0e19244">549</a> + +</p> +<p>Montera, General, in Cebú, <a href="#d0e15894">402</a>, <a href="#d0e18557">521</a>; in Zamboanga, <a href="#d0e18831">530</a> <i>et seq.</i> + +</p> +<p>Montilla, José, <a href="#d0e18539">520</a> + +</p> +<p>Montojo, Admiral Patricio, sword of honour presented to, <a href="#d0e15851">400</a>; <a href="#d0e16272">419</a>, <a href="#d0e16541">428</a>, <a href="#d0e16587">429</a> (footnote) + +</p> +<p>Montoya, Gabriel, <a href="#d0e2577">37</a> + +</p> +<p>Moraga, Fray Hernando de, <a href="#d0e3265">78</a> + +</p> +<p>Moriones, Gov.-General Domingo, <a href="#d0e3038">62</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Moro Moro</i>, <a href="#d0e14501">349</a> + +</p> +<p>Moro Province, the, <a href="#d0e20664">576</a> <i>et seq.</i>; constitution of, <a href="#d0e20692">577</a>; sub-division of, under Spanish rule, <a href="#d0e20692">577</a> (footnote); municipalities, tribal wards and districts of, <a href="#d0e20771">578</a>–<a href="#d0e2009">9</a>; finances of, <a href="#d0e20792">579</a>; armed forces in, <a href="#d0e20874">580</a>; Americaʼs policy in, <a href="#d0e21174">588</a>, <a href="#d0e21253">591</a>, <a href="#d0e21317">593</a>; education in, <a href="#d0e21253">591</a> + +</p> +<p id="d0e32841">Moros, the, Brunei Sultanate, <a href="#d0e2429">29</a>, <a href="#d0e4533">141</a>, <a href="#d0e5065">157</a>, <a href="#d0e5336">165</a>; Dimasangeay, King of Mindanao, <a href="#d0e4262">129</a>; Adasaolan, the chief, <a href="#d0e4262">129</a>; Bongso, Rajah, <a href="#d0e4278">130</a>; Rodriguezʼs expedition against, <a href="#d0e4278">130</a>; the Manguiguin of Mindanao, <a href="#d0e4299">131</a>, <a href="#d0e21200">589</a>; Corcueraʼs expedition against, <a href="#d0e4299">131</a>; Cachil Corralat, King, <a href="#d0e4343">133</a>; friars take the field against, <a href="#d0e4343">133</a>; Gastambideʼs expedition against, <a href="#d0e4440">137</a>; Claveriaʼs and Urbiztondoʼs expeditions against, <a href="#d0e4484">139</a>; slaughter of British at Balambangan by, <a href="#d0e4484">139</a>; Corcueraʼs victory over, in Balanguigui Island, <a href="#d0e4484">139</a>; population of, <a href="#d0e4505">140</a>; Malcampoʼs expedition against, <a href="#d0e4505">140</a>; agreement with the British North Borneo Co., <a href="#d0e4533">141</a>; Harun Narrasid, Sultan, <a href="#d0e4533">141</a>–<a href="#d0e1879">2</a>; Mohammad Jamalul Kiram, Sultan, <a href="#d0e4533">141</a>, <a href="#d0e21152">587</a>–<a href="#d0e2002">8</a>; Terreroʼs expedition against, <a href="#d0e4584">143</a>; Arolasʼ expedition against, <a href="#d0e4614">144</a>; Blancoʼs expedition against; Marahui campaign, <a href="#d0e4614">144</a>; Spanish occupation of Lake Lanao, <a href="#d0e4632">145</a>; Builleʼs (the last Spanish punitive) expedition against, <a href="#d0e4632">145</a>; the chief tribes of, <a href="#d0e4632">145</a>; dress of, <a href="#d0e4694">146</a>–<a href="#d0e1977">7</a>, <a href="#d0e5007">154</a>; physique of, <a href="#d0e4694">146</a>; character, arts, weapons, trade of, <a href="#d0e4752">147</a>; the <i>pandita</i>, the <i>datto</i>, customs of, <a href="#d0e4794">148</a>, <a href="#d0e5018">155</a>–<a href="#d0e1954">6</a>; slavery among the, <a href="#d0e4903">151</a>; pensions to the, <a href="#d0e4484">139</a>, <a href="#d0e4505">140</a>, <a href="#d0e4903">151</a>, <a href="#d0e20495">571</a>, <a href="#d0e20874">580</a>; the <i>juramentado</i>, <a href="#d0e4694">146</a>, <a href="#d0e4794">148</a>, <a href="#d0e4864">150</a>, <a href="#d0e4965">152</a>, <a href="#d0e20999">583</a>; as divers, <a href="#d0e5018">155</a>; Ali, Datto, <a href="#d0e18817">529</a>, <a href="#d0e20874">580</a>–<a href="#d0e1879">2</a>; Djimbangan, Datto, <a href="#d0e18831">530</a>, <a href="#d0e20874">580</a>; the <i>Tamagun Datto</i>, <a href="#d0e18866">532</a>; American occupation of Joló, <a href="#d0e20495">571</a>; Batesʼ agreement with the Sultan of Sulu, <a href="#d0e20495">571</a>; engagements with warlike <i>dattos</i>, <a href="#d0e20575">573</a>–<a href="#d0e1915">4</a>, <a href="#d0e20968">581</a>, <a href="#d0e21041">584</a>–<a href="#d0e1942">5</a>; Lieut. Forsythʼs expedition, <a href="#d0e20575">573</a>; Gen. Baldwinʼs and Capt. Pershingʼs expeditions against, <a href="#d0e20600">574</a>; Gen. Woodʼs expeditions against, <a href="#d0e20874">580</a>–<a href="#d0e1855">1</a>, <a href="#d0e21041">584</a>; Gen. Woodʼs victory at Kudarangan, <a href="#d0e20968">581</a>; Major Hugh L. Scottʼs expedition, <a href="#d0e21041">584</a>–<a href="#d0e1942">5</a>; capture of Panglima Hassan, <a href="#d0e21041">584</a>; Hassan escapes and Major Scott vanquishes him, <a href="#d0e21073">585</a>; a <i>bichâra</i> with Datto Ambutong, <a href="#d0e21073">585</a>. <i>Vide</i> Sulu + +</p> +<p>Morong district, <a href="#d0e6572">212</a> (footnote), <a href="#d0e19635">560</a> + +</p> +<p>Mother-of-pearl shell, shipments of, <a href="#d0e23030">640</a> + +</p> +<p>Moths, <a href="#d0e14182">340</a> + +</p> +<p>“Mount of Gold,” the, in Cavite, <a href="#d0e3807">114</a> + +</p> +<p>Mountains, heights of, <a href="#d0e2040">13</a> + +</p> +<p>Mules, <a href="#d0e14116">338</a> + +</p> +<p>Municipal government, under Spain, <a href="#d0e7325">225</a>; under America, <a href="#d0e20084">567</a>. <i>Vide</i> Government + +</p> +<p>Music, nativesʼ passion for, <a href="#d0e5847">190</a> + + + +</p> +<p>Nagasaki, the Jesuits in, <a href="#d0e3087">65</a>–<a href="#d0e1977">7</a> + +</p> +<p>Names, of islands, the ancient, <a href="#d0e2040">13</a>; of places, obsolete, <a href="#d0e2040">13</a>, <a href="#d0e4262">129</a>, <a href="#d0e4299">131</a>, <a href="#d0e19635">560</a>, <a href="#d0e20084">567</a>; of families, <a href="#d0e5597">179</a> +<a id="d0e33169"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e33169">662</a>]</span></p> +<p><i lang="es">Nao de Acapulco</i>, the, <a href="#d0e9100">243</a>, <a href="#d0e9290">249</a> + +</p> +<p>Nargas, Gov.-General Juan de, <a href="#d0e3013">60</a> + +</p> +<p>Narra (wood), <a href="#d0e12361">316</a> + +</p> +<p>Natives, the civilized. <i>Vide</i> Filipino + +</p> +<p>Naujan Lake, <a href="#d0e2135">15</a> + +</p> +<p>Navarrete, Luis de, <a href="#d0e3116">67</a> + +</p> +<p>Navy, statistics of the Spanish, <a href="#d0e8365">233</a>–<a href="#d0e1915">4</a>; the insurgent, <a href="#d0e19316">553</a> + +</p> +<p>Negrito tribe, the, <a href="#d0e3913">120</a>, <a href="#d0e5267">163</a> + +</p> +<p>Negros Island, the development of, <a href="#d0e9597">255</a>; Spaniards capitulate to the rebels in, <a href="#d0e18539">520</a>; native government in, <a href="#d0e18539">520</a> + +</p> +<p>Newspapers, <a href="#d0e3649">106</a>, <a href="#d0e14611">352</a>, <a href="#d0e15011">363</a>, <a href="#d0e15362">382</a>, <a href="#d0e16103">412</a>, <a href="#d0e17582">468</a>, <a href="#d0e18683">524</a>, <a href="#d0e19252">550</a> + +</p> +<p>Nipa palm, <a href="#d0e11782">307</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Noli me tóngere</i>, <a href="#d0e15362">382</a> + +</p> +<p>Notariesʼ offices, <a href="#d0e2905">54</a> + +</p> +<p>Novales, Andrés, rebellion of, <a href="#d0e3610">104</a> + +</p> +<p>Nozaleda, Archbishop, <a href="#d0e21328">594</a>, <a href="#d0e21382">597</a> (footnote) + +</p> +<p><i>Nuevo Dia, El</i>, newspaper, <a href="#d0e18683">524</a> + + +</p> +<p>Obando, Gov.-General José de, <a href="#d0e4358">134</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Obras Pias</i>, the, <a href="#d0e9190">245</a>, <a href="#d0e9515">252</a> + +</p> +<p>Occupation of Manila, by the British, <a href="#d0e3388">87</a>; agreed indemnity to British in, <a href="#d0e3433">89</a>; by the Americans, <a href="#d0e17455">464</a> + +</p> +<p>Officersʼ pay, Spanish, <a href="#d0e10687">280</a>. <i>Vide</i> Army + +</p> +<p>Oil, mineral, <a href="#d0e14071">335</a> + +</p> +<p>Onayans, the Moro tribe of, <a href="#d0e4632">145</a> + +</p> +<p>Opium, restrictions on the use of, <a href="#d0e22520">630</a> + +</p> +<p>Orchids, <a href="#d0e13118">323</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Oriente, Islas del</i>, <a href="#d0e2406">28</a> + +</p> +<p>Origin of Filipinos, <a href="#d0e3913">120</a>. <i>Vide</i> Filipino + +</p> +<p>Osmeña, Sergio, <a href="#d0e18557">521</a>, <a href="#d0e18683">524</a> + +</p> +<p>Otis, General E. S., in the War of Independence, <a href="#d0e18042">488</a>, <a href="#d0e18058">490</a>–<a href="#d0e1915">4</a>, <a href="#d0e18140">497</a>, <a href="#d0e18188">502</a>–<a href="#d0e1888">3</a>; <a href="#d0e20032">563</a> + +</p> +<p>Otong, <a href="#d0e18517">519</a> (footnote) + +</p> +<p>Our Lady of Cagsaysay, <a href="#d0e2212">18</a>, <a href="#d0e2225">19</a> + +</p> +<p>Outlaws, <a href="#d0e8925">236</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#d0e18499">517</a> + + +</p> +<p><i>Pacto de sangre</i>, the, <a href="#d0e2406">28</a>, <a href="#d0e15151">369</a> + +</p> +<p>Pagbuaya, Prince, <a href="#d0e2524">34</a> + +</p> +<p>Paguian Goan, the Princess, <a href="#d0e4262">129</a> + +</p> +<p>Paguian Tindig, the Moro, <a href="#d0e4262">129</a> + +</p> +<p>Palásan, <a href="#d0e11910">310</a> + +</p> +<p>Palaúan Island, Spanish colonization of, <a href="#d0e5065">157</a>; across the, <a href="#d0e5166">158</a>, <a href="#d0e5215">160</a>; produce of, <a href="#d0e5215">160</a>; concession to Canga-Argüelles in, <a href="#d0e5242">161</a> (footnote) + +</p> +<p>Palma brava, <a href="#d0e11835">308</a> + +</p> +<p>Palma, Rafael, <a href="#d0e18683">524</a> + +</p> +<p>Palmero family, the, <a href="#d0e3625">105</a> + +</p> +<p>Palo Maria de playa (wood), <a href="#d0e12361">316</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Paloma de puñalada</i>, <a href="#d0e14235">341</a> + +</p> +<p>Panay Island, the war in, <a href="#d0e18316">511</a>–<a href="#d0e2212">18</a>; Araneta, General Pablo, <a href="#d0e18437">514</a>, <a href="#d0e18499">517</a>; peace concluded, <a href="#d0e18506">518</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Pandita</i>, <a href="#d0e4794">148</a>, <a href="#d0e5018">155</a>–<a href="#d0e1954">6</a> + +</p> +<p>Pansipit River, <a href="#d0e2135">15</a>, <a href="#d0e2577">37</a> + +</p> +<p>Pangasinán, revolt in, <a href="#d0e3602">103</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Panguingui</i>, <a href="#d0e14588">351</a> (footnote) + +</p> +<p>Papal legate, Maillard de Touruon, <a href="#d0e3357">84</a>–<a href="#d0e1942">5</a>; Chapelle, P. L., <a href="#d0e21343">595</a>; Guidi, G. B., <a href="#d0e21435">601</a>; Agius, Ambrogio, <a href="#d0e21614">607</a> + +</p> +<p>Papaw fruit, <a href="#d0e12577">318</a> + +</p> +<p>Páran, Feliciano, revolt of, <a href="#d0e3625">105</a> + +</p> +<p>Parágua Island, <a href="#d0e5065">157</a>. <i>Vide</i> Palaúan + +</p> +<p><i>Parian</i>, the, <a href="#d0e3724">110</a> + +</p> +<p>Paris Peace Commission. <i>Vide</i> Peace of Paris + +</p> +<p>Parrado, General González, <a href="#d0e4632">145</a>, <a href="#d0e4864">150</a>, <a href="#d0e20545">572</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Paseo de los gigantes</i>, <a href="#d0e4358">134</a> (footnote) + +</p> +<p><i>Paseo del Real Pendon</i>, <a href="#d0e2813">50</a> + +</p> +<p>Pasig River, <a href="#d0e2135">15</a> + +</p> +<p>Paterno, Maximo, <a href="#d0e3649">106</a>; biographical note of, <a href="#d0e16076">411</a> + +</p> +<p>Paterno, Pedro A., <a href="#d0e3649">106</a>, <a href="#d0e15656">394</a>; negotiates peace, <a href="#d0e15696">395</a>; claims a title, <a href="#d0e16002">409</a>; biographical note of, <a href="#d0e16076">411</a>; pro-Spanish manifesto of, <a href="#d0e18051">489</a>; becomes President of the Revolutionary Congress, <a href="#d0e17622">469</a>; capture of, <a href="#d0e18224">504</a>; in prison, <a href="#d0e18230">505</a>; intervenes in the Spanish captives negotiations, <a href="#d0e19140">542</a>; as playwright, <a href="#d0e19429">554</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Patria, La</i>, newspaper, <a href="#d0e16103">412</a> + +</p> +<p>Patriarch Maillard de Tournon, <a href="#d0e3357">84</a>–<a href="#d0e1942">5</a> + +</p> +<p>Peace of Paris, of 1763, <a href="#d0e3522">96</a>; of 1898, <a href="#d0e17634">470</a> <i>et seq.</i>; concluded, <a href="#d0e17673">472</a>; text of the treaty, <a href="#d0e17759">478</a>; ratified, <a href="#d0e18034">487</a> (footnote) + +</p> +<p>Peculations, of governors, <a href="#d0e3275">79</a>–<a href="#d0e3293">80</a>, <a href="#d0e6572">212</a>, <a href="#d0e7156">220</a>–<a href="#d0e2248">21</a>; of other officials, <a href="#d0e20041">564</a> + +</p> +<p>Pelew Islands, <a href="#d0e2655">41</a>; the people of, <a href="#d0e2675">42</a> + +</p> +<p>Peñaranda, Florentino, <a href="#d0e19199">547</a> + +</p> +<p>Penitentiaries, <a href="#d0e2905">54</a>; statistics of Spanish, <a href="#d0e10844">285</a>; of San Ramon, <a href="#d0e8958">238</a> + +</p> +<p>Perez Dasmariñas, Gov.-General, <a href="#d0e2954">56</a>, <a href="#d0e3202">73</a> + +</p> +<p>Perfumes, <a href="#d0e13785">325</a> + +</p> +<p>Peso, the first introduced, <a href="#d0e9146">244</a>; the Spanish-Philippine, <a href="#d0e9698">259</a>; the “Conant,” <a href="#d0e22602">635</a>–<a href="#d0e1977">7</a> + +</p> +<p>Petty-governors, <a href="#d0e7188">221</a> + +</p> +<p>Philippine Assembly, the, <a href="#d0e21820">612</a>, <a href="#d0e21856">614</a>–<a href="#d0e1942">5</a> + +</p> +<p>Philippine Commission, the, <a href="#d0e19635">560</a>; as legislative body, <a href="#d0e20032">563</a> + +</p> +<p>Philippine Islands named, <a href="#d0e2501">32</a> + +</p> +<p>“Philippines for the Filipinos,” doctrine of the, <a href="#d0e20041">564</a> + +</p> +<p>Piang, Datto, <a href="#d0e18817">529</a>, <a href="#d0e20968">581</a> + +</p> +<p>Piernavieja, Father, <a href="#d0e6239">203</a> + +</p> +<p>Pilar, General Pio del, <a href="#d0e17995">485</a>; capture of, <a href="#d0e11696">305</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Piña</i> (stuff), <a href="#d0e10716">282</a> + +</p> +<p>Pindan, Bernabé, <a href="#d0e2577">37</a> + +</p> +<p>Pineapple, <a href="#d0e12756">320</a> + +</p> +<p><i lang="es">Pintados, Islas de los</i>, <a href="#d0e2524">34</a> (footnote) + +</p> +<p>Piracy, Moro, <a href="#d0e4324">132</a> +<a id="d0e33856"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e33856">663</a>]</span></p> +<p>Playa Honda, Battle of, <a href="#d0e3221">75</a> + +</p> +<p>Poblete, Archbishop, <a href="#d0e2994">59</a> + +</p> +<p>Polavieja, Gov.-General Camilo, <a href="#d0e15312">378</a>–<a href="#d0e2009">9</a> + +</p> +<p>Poll-tax, <a href="#d0e7289">224</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Poniente, Islas del</i>, <a href="#d0e2406">28</a> + +</p> +<p>Ponies, <a href="#d0e14080">336</a>; the <i>surra</i> epidemic, <a href="#d0e22356">622</a> + +</p> +<p>Pontoon bridge, the, <a href="#d0e14501">349</a> + +</p> +<p>Population, of Chinese, <a href="#d0e3871">118</a>; of Moros, <a href="#d0e4505">140</a>, <a href="#d0e14706">355</a>, <a href="#d0e21869">615</a>–<a href="#d0e1954">6</a>; of Visayos, of Tagalogs, in Manila, <a href="#d0e21869">615</a>; of <a href="#d0e2641">40</a> provincial towns, <a href="#d0e21951">616</a>; classified by birth, <a href="#d0e21951">616</a> + +</p> +<p>Portugal and Spain, united, <a href="#d0e3190">72</a>; separated, <a href="#d0e3315">81</a> + +</p> +<p>Posadillo, Governor of the Carolines, murdered, <a href="#d0e2731">45</a> + +</p> +<p>Potatoes, <a href="#d0e11562">303</a> + +</p> +<p>Press, the, <a href="#d0e3649">106</a>, <a href="#d0e14611">352</a>, <a href="#d0e15011">363</a>, <a href="#d0e15362">382</a>, <a href="#d0e16103">412</a>, <a href="#d0e17582">468</a>, <a href="#d0e18683">524</a>, <a href="#d0e19252">550</a>, <a href="#d0e19614">559</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Principalia</i>, <a href="#d0e7212">222</a>–<a href="#d0e1888">3</a> + +</p> +<p>Prisoners, the Spanish, <a href="#d0e18974">537</a>; why detained, <a href="#d0e19038">539</a>; Baron du Marais murdered, <a href="#d0e19049">540</a>; the captorsʼ terms of release, <a href="#d0e19082">541</a> + +</p> +<p>Prohibition on trade, Spainʼs, <a href="#d0e9281">248</a>–<a href="#d0e2813">50</a> + +</p> +<p>Protocol of Peace, with rebels, <a href="#d0e15699">396</a>; between America and Spain, <a href="#d0e17277">459</a> + +</p> +<p>Provincial Government, under Spain, <a href="#d0e6625">213</a>, <a href="#d0e7325">225</a>; under America, <a href="#d0e20084">567</a>. <i>Vide</i> Government. + +</p> +<p>Public Works, under Spain, <a href="#d0e7127">218</a> + +</p> +<p>Pudtli, Ranee, <a href="#d0e4584">143</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Puente de Barcas</i>, <a href="#d0e3547">98</a> + +</p> +<p>Puerta Princesa, <a href="#d0e5065">157</a>–<a href="#d0e2002">8</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Pulajan</i>, the, <a href="#d0e8833">235</a>, <a href="#d0e19199">547</a>, <a href="#d0e19267">551</a> + + +</p> +<p>Quesada, Gaspar de, <a href="#d0e2335">26</a>–<a href="#d0e1977">7</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Quiapo</i>, <a href="#d0e13569">324</a> + +</p> +<p>Quinine, <a href="#d0e11835">308</a> + + +</p> +<p>Rada, Martin, <a href="#d0e2837">51</a> + +</p> +<p>Railway, the first, <a href="#d0e9885">265</a>; in project, <a href="#d0e22441">627</a> + +</p> +<p>Rain, <a href="#d0e2275">22</a> + +</p> +<p>Rajah Lacandola, <a href="#d0e2545">35</a>–<a href="#d0e1977">7</a>, <a href="#d0e2837">51</a> + +</p> +<p>Rajah Soliman, <a href="#d0e2545">35</a>, <a href="#d0e2837">51</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Rajahmudah</i>, the, <a href="#d0e4299">131</a> + +</p> +<p>Rama, Esteban de la, <a href="#d0e18539">520</a> + +</p> +<p>Raon, Gov.-General José, <a href="#d0e3038">62</a>, <a href="#d0e3555">99</a> + +</p> +<p>Rattan-cane, <a href="#d0e11910">310</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Real Compañia de Filipinas</i>, the <a href="#d0e9515">252</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Real quinto</i>, the, <a href="#d0e2876">53</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Real situado</i>, the, <a href="#d0e9146">244</a> + +</p> +<p>Rebellion of 1896, the Tagalog—<a href="#d0e14972">362</a>; acts conducive to, <a href="#d0e15027">364</a>; the <i>Katipanan</i> League, <a href="#d0e15027">364</a>–<a href="#d0e1942">5</a>; arrests of citizens, <a href="#d0e15092">366</a>; Pedro P. Rojasʼ case, <a href="#d0e15092">366</a>; F. L. Rojas executed, <a href="#d0e15113">367</a>; first overt act of, <a href="#d0e15113">367</a>; Battle of San Juan del Monte, <a href="#d0e15132">368</a>; first executions of rebels in Manila, <a href="#d0e15151">369</a>; in Cavite, <a href="#d0e15257">374</a>; Bonifacio Andrés and Emilio Aguinaldo, <a href="#d0e15158">370</a>; rebels capture Imus, <a href="#d0e15205">372</a>; Spanish defeat at Binacayan, <a href="#d0e15244">373</a>; Spaniards at Dalahican, <a href="#d0e15257">374</a>; rebel General Llaneras, <a href="#d0e15257">374</a>; Gov.-General Ramon Blanco, <a href="#d0e15291">377</a>; definition of demands, <a href="#d0e15587">392</a>; claim of independence, <a href="#d0e15656">394</a>; treaty of Biac-na-bató, <a href="#d0e15699">396</a>, <a href="#d0e16141">414</a> (footnote); Rafael Comengeʼs inflammatory speech, <a href="#d0e15851">400</a>; the <i>Calle de Camba</i> tragedy, <a href="#d0e15876">401</a>; rising in Cebú, <a href="#d0e15894">402</a>, <i>et seq.</i>; execution of rebels in Cebú, <a href="#d0e15950">405</a>; American intervention, <a href="#d0e16237">417</a>; the rebelsʼ aspirations, <a href="#d0e16303">420</a>; rebels attack the Spaniards in Panay Island, <a href="#d0e17716">475</a>; Spanish Governor of Negros Island capitulates, <a href="#d0e17738">476</a> + +</p> +<p>Rebellion, of Diego de Silan, in llocos, <a href="#d0e3565">100</a>; of Dagóhoy, in Bojol Island, <a href="#d0e3577">101</a>; in Leyte Island, Sámar Island, and Surigao, <a href="#d0e3594">102</a>; of “King” Málong and of Sumoroy, <a href="#d0e3602">103</a>; of Andrés Novales, <a href="#d0e3610">104</a>; of Apolinario de la Cruz, <a href="#d0e3625">105</a>; of Feliciano Páran, <a href="#d0e3625">105</a>, <a href="#d0e15699">396</a> (footnote); in Tayabas, <a href="#d0e3625">105</a>; of Camerino, <a href="#d0e3649">106</a>, <a href="#d0e15779">397</a> (footnote); of Cuesta, <a href="#d0e3649">106</a>; in Negros Island, <a href="#d0e3649">106</a> + +</p> +<p>Regalado, Pedro, <a href="#d0e18539">520</a> + +</p> +<p>Regidor, Dr. Antonio M., biographical note of, <a href="#d0e3687">108</a> (footnote) + +</p> +<p><i>Regium exequatur</i>, the, <a href="#d0e3372">85</a> + +</p> +<p>Relics in cathedral, <a href="#d0e2960">57</a> + +</p> +<p>Religion, fanaticism in, <a href="#d0e5797">187</a>–<a href="#d0e2009">9</a>, <a href="#d0e18557">521</a>, <a href="#d0e21520">602</a>; shrines, <a href="#d0e5797">187</a>; coercion in, <a href="#d0e5824">189</a> (footnote); freedom in, <a href="#d0e21328">594</a> and footnote; infidel tendency in, <a href="#d0e21614">607</a>–<a href="#d0e2002">8</a> + +</p> +<p>Religious Orders, the, <a href="#d0e6180">199</a>; power and influence of, <a href="#d0e6197">200</a>; opinions for and against, <a href="#d0e6212">201</a>; function of the <i>regium morum</i>, <a href="#d0e6212">201</a>; social origin of, <a href="#d0e6212">201</a>; as parish priests, <a href="#d0e6228">202</a>; frailties of, <a href="#d0e6239">203</a>; persecution by, <a href="#d0e6276">205</a>; the hierarchy, <a href="#d0e6289">206</a>; outcry against, <a href="#d0e6314">207</a>; dates of foundation and arrival of, <a href="#d0e6314">207</a>; revenues of, <a href="#d0e6314">207</a>, <a href="#d0e6486">209</a>; emoluments of, <a href="#d0e6314">207</a>; training-colleges in Spain for, <a href="#d0e6486">209</a>; jealousy and rivalry between, <a href="#d0e6486">209</a>. <i>Vide</i> Friars; Church + +</p> +<p><i>Remontado</i>, the, <a href="#d0e5497">174</a>, <a href="#d0e6276">205</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Renacimiento, El</i>, prosecution of, <a href="#d0e19252">550</a> + +</p> +<p>Reptiles, <a href="#d0e14150">339</a> + +</p> +<p>Revenue and expenditure, under Spain, <a href="#d0e7405">227</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#d0e9361">251</a>; curious items of, <a href="#d0e7561">229</a>; under America, <a href="#d0e22477">629</a>. + +</p> +<p>Revolts in provinces. <i>Vide</i> Rebellion + +</p> +<p>Revolutionary Government, the, <a href="#d0e16981">448</a>; statutes of, <a href="#d0e16981">448</a>–<a href="#d0e2905">54</a>; Presidentʼs message to, <a href="#d0e17157">454</a>; appeal to the Powers by, <a href="#d0e17231">457</a>; Malolos becomes the capital of, <a href="#d0e17622">469</a>; first Congress of, convened at Malolos, <a href="#d0e17622">469</a>; <a id="d0e34487"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e34487">664</a>]</span> ratification of Philippine independence by, <a href="#d0e17634">470</a> + +</p> +<p>Ricarte, Artemio, <a href="#d0e19189">546</a> + +</p> +<p>Riccio, Vittorio, <a href="#d0e3236">76</a> + +</p> +<p>Rice, measures of, <a href="#d0e10463">276</a>; machinery for husking of, <a href="#d0e10559">277</a>; <i>tiki-tiki</i>, <a href="#d0e10559">277</a>; <i>Macan</i> and <i>Paga</i>, yield of, <a href="#d0e10582">278</a>; planting of, <a href="#d0e10646">279</a>; trade in, <a href="#d0e10689">281</a> + +</p> +<p>Rio de la Plata, <a href="#d0e2335">26</a> + +</p> +<p>Rio Grande, de la Pampanga, <a href="#d0e2110">14</a>; de Mindanao, <a href="#d0e2135">15</a> + +</p> +<p>Rios, General Diego de los, <a href="#d0e15257">374</a>, <a href="#d0e17693">474</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#d0e18103">494</a> (footnote); evacuates Panay, <a href="#d0e17745">477</a>, <a href="#d0e18316">511</a>; as agent for the liberation of Spanish prisoners, <a href="#d0e19038">539</a> + +</p> +<p>Rivalry of Church and State, <a href="#d0e2960">57</a>–<a href="#d0e2002">8</a>. <i>Vide</i> Church. + +</p> +<p>Rivera, General Primo de, attempts to subdue the Igorrotes, <a href="#d0e4074">124</a>; reappointed Gov.-General to suppress the Rebellion of 1896, <a href="#d0e6540">211</a>, <a href="#d0e15521">389</a>; edict of concentration by, <a href="#d0e15564">391</a>; reward to, for closing first period of the Rebellion, <a href="#d0e15830">399</a>; recalled to Spain, <a href="#d0e15977">408</a> + +</p> +<p>Rivers, <a href="#d0e2110">14</a>, <a href="#d0e2292">23</a> + +</p> +<p>Rizal, Dr. Jose, <a href="#d0e15092">366</a>, <a href="#d0e15345">381</a> <i>et .seq.</i>; “My last Thought,” poem by, <a href="#d0e15467">386</a>; the widow of, <a href="#d0e15467">386</a>; public subscription to monument of, <a href="#d0e15521">389</a> (footnote); “<i lang="tl">Dimas alang</i>,” <a href="#d0e15521">389</a> (footnote) + +</p> +<p>Rizal Province, <a href="#d0e6572">212</a> (footnote), <a href="#d0e19635">560</a> + +</p> +<p>Roads, under Spain, <a href="#d0e7127">218</a>; under America, <a href="#d0e22441">627</a> + +</p> +<p>Rodas, Miguel de, <a href="#d0e2479">31</a> + +</p> +<p>Rodriguez, Estevan, <a href="#d0e4299">131</a> + +</p> +<p>Rojas, Pedro P., biographical note of, <a href="#d0e15092">366</a> (footnote) + +</p> +<p>Rojo, Archbishop-Governor, <a href="#d0e3038">62</a>, <a href="#d0e3400">88</a>, <a href="#d0e3539">97</a> + +</p> +<p>Rosario, Pantaleon E. del, <a href="#d0e18683">524</a>–<a href="#d0e1942">5</a>, <a href="#d0e18794">528</a> + +</p> +<p>Russell & Sturgis, <a href="#d0e9597">255</a>, <a href="#d0e9629">257</a> + + +</p> +<p>Sabas, Colonel, <a href="#d0e3672">107</a> + +</p> +<p>Sago, <a href="#d0e12828">321</a> + +</p> +<p>Sala destroyed, <a href="#d0e2212">18</a> + +</p> +<p>Salas, Quintin, <a href="#d0e18493">516</a>–<a href="#d0e1977">7</a> + +</p> +<p>Salaries, of Spanish officials, <a href="#d0e6657">214</a>; of municipal officers, <a href="#d0e19635">560</a>; of American officials, <a href="#d0e19706">561</a>; of mayors, <a href="#d0e20084">567</a> + +</p> +<p>Salazar, Domingo, Bishop of Manila, <a href="#d0e2837">51</a>, <a href="#d0e2954">56</a> + +</p> +<p>Salcedo, Gov.-General Diego, <a href="#d0e2994">59</a> + +</p> +<p>Salcedo, Juan, <a href="#d0e2545">35</a>, <a href="#d0e2837">51</a>, <a href="#d0e6572">212</a> (footnote) + +</p> +<p>Samales, the Moro tribe of, <a href="#d0e4632">145</a> + +</p> +<p>Samar Island, rebellion in, <a href="#d0e3594">102</a>; insurgency in, <a href="#d0e18934">535</a>; slaughter of Americans in, <a href="#d0e18966">536</a>; <i>pulajanes</i> in, <a href="#d0e19267">551</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Sampaguita</i>, <a href="#d0e13118">323</a> + +</p> +<p>San Juan del Monte, Battle of, <a href="#d0e15132">368</a> + +</p> +<p>San Miguel, the bandit, <a href="#d0e19189">546</a> + +</p> +<p>Sanchez, Alonso, <a href="#d0e2861">52</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Sanctorum</i> tax, <a href="#d0e2876">53</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Sangdugong Panaguinip</i>, <a href="#d0e16103">412</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Sangley</i> (Chinese), <a href="#d0e3871">118</a> + +</p> +<p>Sanitation, <a href="#d0e6165">198</a> + +</p> +<p>Sanson, Melanio, <a href="#d0e20987">582</a> + +</p> +<p>Sanson, Pedro, <a href="#d0e18794">528</a> + +</p> +<p>Santa Clara Convent, <a href="#d0e3315">81</a> + +</p> +<p>San Victores, Fray Diego de, <a href="#d0e2611">39</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Santo Officio</i>, <a href="#d0e2994">59</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Santones</i>, <a href="#d0e5824">189</a>, <a href="#d0e18557">521</a> + +</p> +<p>Santos, Father Moïses, murdered, <a href="#d0e15977">408</a> + +</p> +<p>Sapan-wood, <a href="#d0e11997">312</a>; shipments of, <a href="#d0e25608">646</a> + +</p> +<p>Saps of trees, <a href="#d0e11997">312</a> + +</p> +<p>Schools. <i>Vide</i> Education. + +</p> +<p>Schück, Captain, <a href="#d0e21152">587</a> (footnote) + +</p> +<p>Schurman Commission, the, <a href="#d0e18144">498</a>, <a href="#d0e20012">562</a> + +</p> +<p>Scott, Major Hugh L., <a href="#d0e20999">583</a>–<a href="#d0e1954">6</a>, <a href="#d0e21174">588</a> + +</p> +<p>Scout corps, <a href="#d0e20490">570</a> + +</p> +<p>Sculpture, <a href="#d0e6066">196</a> + +</p> +<p>Seasons, <a href="#d0e2275">22</a> + +</p> +<p>Secret Police Service, <a href="#d0e20084">567</a> + +</p> +<p>Sedition, <a href="#d0e19316">553</a>; seditious plays, <a href="#d0e19429">554</a>; law passed, <a href="#d0e19177">545</a> + +</p> +<p>Separation of Spain and Portugal, <a href="#d0e3315">81</a> + +</p> +<p>Serrano, Juan R., <a href="#d0e2335">26</a>, <a href="#d0e2406">28</a> + +</p> +<p>Sevilla, Dr. Mariano, <a href="#d0e21364">596</a>–<a href="#d0e1977">7</a>, <a href="#d0e21569">604</a>–<a href="#d0e1942">5</a> + +</p> +<p>Sheep, <a href="#d0e14116">338</a> + +</p> +<p>Shipping Law of 1904, the, <a href="#d0e22332">620</a> + +</p> +<p>Shrines, <a href="#d0e5797">187</a> + +</p> +<p>Siao (Moluccas), King of, <a href="#d0e3202">73</a>–<a href="#d0e1915">4</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Sibucao</i>, <a href="#d0e11997">312</a> + +</p> +<p>Sibuguey, the Prince of, <a href="#d0e4299">131</a> + +</p> +<p>Siguey shells, <a href="#d0e9100">243</a> + +</p> +<p>Silan, Diego de, rebellion of, <a href="#d0e3565">100</a> + +</p> +<p>Silva, Geromino de, <a href="#d0e3236">76</a> + +</p> +<p>Silva, Gov.-General Fernando de, <a href="#d0e3236">76</a> + +</p> +<p>Silva, Gov.-General Juan de, <a href="#d0e3210">74</a> + +</p> +<p>Silver, imports and exports of, <a href="#d0e25973">647</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Simbilin</i> weapon, <a href="#d0e4752">147</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Sinamnay</i> stuff, <a href="#d0e10716">282</a> + +</p> +<p>Singson, Father, <a href="#d0e21382">597</a> + +</p> +<p>Sioco, <a href="#d0e2776">48</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Situado</i>, the <i>real</i>, <a href="#d0e9146">244</a> + +</p> +<p>Slavery, <a href="#d0e2905">54</a>, <a href="#d0e2931">55</a> (footnote), <a href="#d0e5868">191</a>; among Moros, <a href="#d0e4903">151</a> + +</p> +<p>Small-pox, <a href="#d0e6095">197</a> + +</p> +<p>Smugglers, in Mexico, <a href="#d0e9261">247</a>, <a href="#d0e9749">260</a>, <a href="#d0e9797">262</a>, <a href="#d0e22429">626</a> + +</p> +<p>Snakes, <a href="#d0e14150">339</a> + +</p> +<p>Soldiers in olden times, <a href="#d0e8125">231</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Solidaridud, La</i>, the seditionary organ, <a href="#d0e15011">363</a>, <a href="#d0e15362">382</a> + +</p> +<p>Soliman, Rajah, <a href="#d0e2545">35</a>, <a href="#d0e2837">51</a> + +</p> +<p>Solis River, <a href="#d0e2335">26</a> + +</p> +<p>Soman͠galit, Cristóbal, <a href="#d0e2577">37</a> + +</p> +<p>Spiritualists, <a href="#d0e21624">608</a> + +</p> +<p>Saint Lazarus, Archipelago of, <a href="#d0e2406">28</a> + +</p> +<p>State and Church feuds, <a href="#d0e2985">58</a> + +</p> +<p>Statistics of trade, <a href="#d0e22686">639</a>–<a href="#d0e2813">50</a> + +</p> +<p>Steamships introduced, <a href="#d0e4324">132</a> + +</p> +<p>Stone, <a href="#d0e14044">334</a> +<a id="d0e35169"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e35169">665</a>]</span></p> +<p>Stotsenberg, Colonel, death of, <a href="#d0e18127">495</a> + +</p> +<p>Sual port, <a href="#d0e9761">261</a> + +</p> +<p>Subsidy, the Mexican, <a href="#d0e9146">244</a> + +</p> +<p>Subuános, the Moro tribe of, <a href="#d0e4632">145</a>–<a href="#d0e1954">6</a>, <a href="#d0e5018">155</a> + +</p> +<p>Sugar-cane, yield of, <a href="#d0e10145">271</a>; cultivation of, <a href="#d0e10244">272</a>; sugar-extraction from, <a href="#d0e10582">278</a>; molasses yield, <a href="#d0e10263">273</a>; sugar-blends, <a href="#d0e10370">275</a>; worldʼs production of sugar, <a href="#d0e10370">275</a> + +</p> +<p>Sugar, the duty on, in America, <a href="#d0e22389">623</a>; shipments of, <a href="#d0e24077">642</a>–<a href="#d0e1888">3</a> + +</p> +<p>Sulphur, <a href="#d0e2248">21</a>, <a href="#d0e14044">334</a> + +</p> +<p>Sultan Mahamad Alimudin, <a href="#d0e4358">134</a>; treaty with, <a href="#d0e4461">138</a> + +</p> +<p>Sulu, the Sultan of, <a href="#d0e4505">140</a>; the present Sultan, <a href="#d0e4533">141</a>, <a href="#d0e21152">587</a>–<a href="#d0e2002">8</a>; visits Manila, <a href="#d0e21174">588</a>; pension to him and chiefs, <a href="#d0e4903">151</a>, <a href="#d0e20495">571</a>, <a href="#d0e20874">580</a>; titles of, <a href="#d0e4903">151</a>; dress of, <a href="#d0e4978">153</a>; across Sulu to Maybun, <a href="#d0e4978">153</a>; produce of Sulu, <a href="#d0e4978">153</a>; official reception by, <a href="#d0e5007">154</a>; the Sultanas of, <a href="#d0e5007">154</a>. <i>Vide</i> Moros + +</p> +<p>Sumoroyʼs rebellion, <a href="#d0e3602">103</a> + +</p> +<p>Supa (wood), <a href="#d0e12361">316</a> + +</p> +<p>Supreme Court, abolished, <a href="#d0e2954">56</a>; re-established, <a href="#d0e2960">57</a>; of Cebú, <a href="#d0e2960">57</a> + +</p> +<p>Surigao, revolt in, <a href="#d0e3594">102</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Surra</i>, the disease, <a href="#d0e22356">622</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Suya</i>(Chinese), <a href="#d0e3871">118</a> + + + +</p> +<p>Taal, volcano of, <a href="#d0e2196">17</a>; town of, destroyed, <a href="#d0e2212">18</a>–<a href="#d0e2236">20</a>, <a href="#d0e5367">166</a> + +</p> +<p>Taft Commission, the, <a href="#d0e20012">562</a>–<a href="#d0e1888">3</a> + +</p> +<p>Taft, William II., biographical note of, <a href="#d0e20012">562</a> (footnote); his policy in the Islands, <a href="#d0e20041">564</a>; appointed Secretary of War, <a href="#d0e20041">564</a>; <a href="#d0e21843">613</a> + +</p> +<p>Tagalog, meaning of the term, <a href="#d0e5292">164</a>; character of, <a href="#d0e5450">171</a>; hospitality of, <a href="#d0e5464">172</a> + +</p> +<p>Tagalog rebellion, the, <a href="#d0e14972">362</a> <i>et seq.</i> <i>Vide</i> Rebellion of 1896 + +</p> +<p>Tagbanúas tribe, the, <a href="#d0e5166">158</a>; dress, customs, country of, <a href="#d0e5191">159</a> + +</p> +<p>Taguban tribe, the, <a href="#d0e4694">146</a> + +</p> +<p>Taguima, <a href="#d0e4262">129</a> (footnote) + +</p> +<p>Tamarind, <a href="#d0e12756">320</a> + +</p> +<p>Tanaúan destroyed, <a href="#d0e2212">18</a> + +</p> +<p>Tancad, the bandit, <a href="#d0e8974">239</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Tan͠ga</i> (edible insect), <a href="#d0e14295">342</a> + +</p> +<p>Tattarassa, Sultan, <a href="#d0e4549">142</a> (footnote), <a href="#d0e21073">585</a> + +</p> +<p>Taxation, of land, <a href="#d0e22407">625</a>, <a href="#d0e22477">629</a>; the Internal Revenue Law of 1904, <a href="#d0e22520">630</a> + +</p> +<p>Taxes under Spain, <a href="#d0e6993">217</a>, <a href="#d0e7289">224</a>, <a href="#d0e7499">228</a> + +</p> +<p>Tayabas rebellion, <a href="#d0e3625">105</a> + +</p> +<p>Taycosama, Emperor of Japan, <a href="#d0e3087">65</a> + +</p> +<p>Taytay fort, <a href="#d0e8125">231</a> + +</p> +<p>Telegraph service, <a href="#d0e10070">267</a> + +</p> +<p>Temperature, <a href="#d0e2275">22</a>; of Illana Hay coast (Mindanao Is.), <a href="#d0e5065">157</a>; of Zamboanga, <a href="#d0e18934">535</a> + +</p> +<p>Teng-teng, Datto, <a href="#d0e4484">139</a> + +</p> +<p>Theatres, <a href="#d0e14501">349</a>, <a href="#d0e19555">558</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Tiangui</i>, <a href="#d0e11629">304</a> (footnote) + +</p> +<p>Tidal wave, <a href="#d0e2292">23</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Tiki-tiki</i>, <a href="#d0e10559">277</a> + +</p> +<p>Timbang, Datto, <a href="#d0e21073">585</a> + +</p> +<p>Timber, <a href="#d0e11997">312</a>; relative strengths of, <a href="#d0e12450">317</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Tinaja</i>, <a href="#d0e10263">273</a> (footnote) + +</p> +<p>Tindalo (wood), <a href="#d0e12361">316</a> + +</p> +<p>Tindig, Paguian, the Moro, <a href="#d0e4262">129</a> + +</p> +<p>Tinguian tribe, the, <a href="#d0e4140">126</a> + +</p> +<p>Tinio, General Manuel, <a href="#d0e19177">545</a> (footnote) + +</p> +<p>Tiruraya tribe, the, <a href="#d0e4694">146</a> + +</p> +<p>Tithes to the Church, <a href="#d0e2931">55</a> + +</p> +<p>Tobacco, <a href="#d0e11149">292</a>; under monopoly, <a href="#d0e11180">293</a>; free trade in, <a href="#d0e11289">296</a>; risks of trade in, <a href="#d0e11333">298</a>; qualities and districts, <a href="#d0e11333">298</a>; cigar values, <a href="#d0e11343">299</a>; <i lang="es">Compañia General de Tabacos</i>, <a href="#d0e11343">299</a>; the duty on, in America, <a href="#d0e22407">625</a>; shipments of, <a href="#d0e24950">644</a> + +</p> +<p>To-Kogunsama, Emperor of Japan, <a href="#d0e3161">70</a> + +</p> +<p>Tonnage, <a href="#d0e22466">628</a>, <a href="#d0e25973">647</a> + +</p> +<p>Tordesillas, Treaty of, <a href="#d0e2325">25</a> (footnote) + +</p> +<p>Torralba, acting Gov.-General, <a href="#d0e3013">60</a>; impeachment of, <a href="#d0e3275">79</a>; dies a beggar, <a href="#d0e3293">80</a> + +</p> +<p>Torres, Fray Juan de, <a href="#d0e3842">116</a> + +</p> +<p>Tournon, Mons. Maillard de, <a href="#d0e3357">84</a> + +</p> +<p>Town Hall, <a href="#d0e6993">217</a>, <a href="#d0e7372">226</a> + +</p> +<p>Trade (under Spain), the early history of, <a href="#d0e9100">243</a> <i>et seq.</i>; the Mexican subsidy, <a href="#d0e9146">244</a>; the <i lang="es">Consulado</i> trading-ring, <a href="#d0e9146">244</a>; the <i>boleta</i> shipping-warrant, <a href="#d0e9146">244</a>; the galleons, <a href="#d0e9190">245</a>; the <i>Obras Pias</i>, <a href="#d0e9190">245</a>; losses of treasure, <a href="#d0e9242">246</a>; prohibitions on, <a href="#d0e9281">248</a>; penalties on free-traders, <a href="#d0e9336">250</a>; the budget in 1757, <a href="#d0e9361">251</a>; Spanish company failures, <a href="#d0e9515">252</a>; the <i>Real Compañia de Filipinas</i>, <a href="#d0e9515">252</a>; the <i>Compañia Guipuzcoana de Caracas</i>, <a href="#d0e9515">252</a>; foreign traders admitted, <a href="#d0e9597">255</a>; Russell & Sturgis, <a href="#d0e9597">255</a>; Nicholas Loney, <a href="#d0e9597">255</a>; Manila port opened to foreign trade, <a href="#d0e9619">256</a>; first foreign traders, <a href="#d0e9629">257</a>; Banks, <a href="#d0e9672">258</a>; the <i>Compañia General de Tabacos</i>, <a href="#d0e11343">299</a> (under America), <a href="#d0e22332">620</a>; effect of the war on, <a href="#d0e22346">621</a>; the carrying-trade, <a href="#d0e22466">628</a>; American traders, <a href="#d0e22466">628</a>; proportion of tonnage, <a href="#d0e22466">628</a>; total tonnage, <a href="#d0e25973">647</a>; the new currency, <a href="#d0e22602">635</a>–<a href="#d0e1977">7</a>; Banks, <a href="#d0e22633">637</a>–<a href="#d0e2002">8</a>; statistical tables, <a href="#d0e22686">639</a>–<a href="#d0e2813">50</a>; produce shipments, <a href="#d0e22686">639</a>–<a href="#d0e2750">46</a>; gold and silver exports and imports, <a href="#d0e25973">647</a>; exchange fluctuations, <a href="#d0e25973">647</a>; proportionate table of imports and exports, <a href="#d0e26238">648</a>–<a href="#d0e2813">50</a> + +</p> +<p>Trading Governors, <a href="#d0e6572">212</a> + +</p> +<p>Tragedy of the <i lang="es">Calle de Camba</i>, <a href="#d0e15876">401</a> + +</p> +<p>Travellers, regulations affecting alien, <a href="#d0e22300">617</a> + +</p> +<p>Treaties made with rebels, <a href="#d0e15699">396</a> (footnote) + +</p> +<p>Treaty of Paris (1898), text of the, <a href="#d0e17759">478</a> <i>et seq.</i> + +</p> +<p>Treaty, of Tordesillas, <a href="#d0e2325">25</a> (footnote), <a href="#d0e9547">253</a>; of Antwerp, <a href="#d0e3190">72</a>, <a href="#d0e9547">253</a>; of the “Family Compact,” <a href="#d0e3190">72</a>, <a href="#d0e3388">87</a>; <a id="d0e35838"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e35838">666</a>]</span> of Paris (1703), <a href="#d0e3522">96</a>; with Sultan Mahamad Alimudin, <a href="#d0e4461">138</a>; of Utrecht and the Asiento Contract, <a href="#d0e9629">257</a>; of Malacañan, <a href="#d0e15699">396</a> (footnote); of Biac-na-bató, <a href="#d0e15699">396</a>, <a href="#d0e16141">414</a> (footnote); of Navotas, <a href="#d0e15779">397</a> (footnote); of Paris (1898), <a href="#d0e17673">472</a>, <a href="#d0e17759">478</a> + +</p> +<p>Tree-saps, <a href="#d0e11997">312</a> + +</p> +<p>Trent, Council of, the, <a href="#d0e21579">605</a> (footnote) + +</p> +<p>Trepang (<i>balate</i>), <a href="#d0e11997">312</a> + +</p> +<p>Trias, General Manuel, <a href="#d0e19165">544</a>, <a href="#d0e19215">548</a>–<a href="#d0e2009">9</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Tribunal</i>, <a href="#d0e6993">217</a>, <a href="#d0e7372">226</a> + +</p> +<p>Tribute, <a href="#d0e2876">53</a>, <a href="#d0e7289">224</a> + +</p> +<p>Tuba (beverage), <a href="#d0e11629">304</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Talisan</i>, the, <a href="#d0e8833">235</a>, <a href="#d0e19199">547</a>; outrages by, <a href="#d0e8925">236</a>, <a href="#d0e8974">239</a>, <a href="#d0e19215">548</a>–<a href="#d0e2009">9</a> + +</p> +<p>Tupas, King of Cebú, <a href="#d0e2545">35</a> + +</p> +<p>Typhoons, <a href="#d0e14706">355</a> + + + +</p> +<p>“<i>Ualang sugat</i>,” the seditious play of, <a href="#d0e19429">554</a> + +</p> +<p>Union of Spain and Portugal, <a href="#d0e3190">72</a> + +</p> +<p>Urbiztondo, expedition against Moros by, <a href="#d0e4484">139</a> + +</p> +<p>Urdaneta, Andrés de, <a href="#d0e2479">31</a>, <a href="#d0e2514">33</a>, <a href="#d0e2545">35</a> + +</p> +<p>Utrecht, the Peace of, <a href="#d0e9629">257</a> + +</p> +<p>Utto, Datto, <a href="#d0e4549">142</a> + + + +</p> +<p>Vagrant Act, the, <a href="#d0e20116">568</a> + +</p> +<p>Valenzuela, Prime Minister, banished, <a href="#d0e3345">83</a> + +</p> +<p>Valenzuela, Sancho, <a href="#d0e15132">368</a>; execution of, <a href="#d0e15151">369</a> + +</p> +<p>Vanilla, <a href="#d0e12828">321</a> + +</p> +<p>Vargas, Gov.-General Juan, impeachment of, <a href="#d0e3275">79</a> + +</p> +<p>Vegetable produce, <a href="#d0e12828">321</a> + +</p> +<p>Veteran civil guard, <a href="#d0e8125">231</a> + +</p> +<p>Vicars, Camp, <a href="#d0e20600">574</a> (footnote) + +</p> +<p>Villa Corta, <a href="#d0e3496">94</a>, <a href="#d0e3522">96</a>, <a href="#d0e3547">98</a> + +</p> +<p>Villalobos expedition, the, <a href="#d0e2501">32</a> + +</p> +<p>Villa Fernandina, <a href="#d0e2776">48</a> + +</p> +<p>Vilo, Roman, <a href="#d0e18817">529</a> + +</p> +<p>Virgin of Antipolo, <a href="#d0e10070">267</a> + +</p> +<p>Visayo, characteristics of the, <a href="#d0e5464">172</a> + +</p> +<p>Volcano, Mayou, <a href="#d0e2166">16</a>; Taal, <a href="#d0e2196">17</a> + +</p> +<p>Volcano Island discovered, <a href="#d0e2501">32</a> + + + +</p> +<p>War, the Spanish-American, <a href="#d0e3854">117</a>; allocution of the Archbishop of Madrid, <a href="#d0e16373">423</a>; General Augustiʼs call to arms, <a href="#d0e16385">424</a>; General Augustiʼs proclamation, <a href="#d0e16441">425</a>; volunteers reorganized, <a href="#d0e16466">426</a>; the Battle of Cavite, <a href="#d0e16494">427</a>; Cavite occupied, <a href="#d0e16587">429</a>; Spain makes peace overtures, <a href="#d0e17253">458</a>; text of the Protocol of Peace, <a href="#d0e17277">459</a>; Americans attack Manila, <a href="#d0e17356">462</a>; surrender of the city, <a href="#d0e17455">464</a>; capitulation signed, <a href="#d0e17465">465</a> + +</p> +<p>War of Independence, the, <a href="#d0e17961">484</a>; the Philippine Republic, <a href="#d0e18007">486</a>; opening shot and Battle of Paco, <a href="#d0e18034">487</a>; fight at Coloocan, <a href="#d0e18034">487</a>; fight at Gagalanging, <a href="#d0e18042">488</a>; the Igorrote contingent, <a href="#d0e18042">488</a>; Malabon and Malinta captured, <a href="#d0e18051">489</a>; death of Col. Egbert, <a href="#d0e18051">489</a>; Santa Cruz (Manila) in flames, <a href="#d0e18051">489</a>; Battle of Marilao, <a href="#d0e18058">490</a>; Malolos captured, <a href="#d0e18062">491</a>; insurgent retreat to Calumpit, <a href="#d0e18066">492</a>; American proclamation of intentions, <a href="#d0e18066">492</a>; Santa Cruz (La Laguna) captured, <a href="#d0e18103">494</a>; Lieut. Gilmoreʼs expedition to Baler captured, <a href="#d0e18103">494</a>; American reverse at Gingua, <a href="#d0e18127">495</a>; crossing the Bagbag River, <a href="#d0e18138">496</a>; Calumpit captured, <a href="#d0e18138">496</a>; burning of S.S. <i>Saturnus</i>, <a href="#d0e18204">503</a>; death of Gen. Lawton, <a href="#d0e18224">504</a>; fight at Narvican, <a href="#d0e18230">505</a>; capture of Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo, <a href="#d0e18245">507</a>; American occupation of Yloilo, <a href="#d0e18316">511</a>–<a href="#d0e1954">6</a> —of Cebú, <a href="#d0e18657">523</a>—of Bojol Island, <a href="#d0e18794">528</a>—of Zamboanga, <a href="#d0e18866">532</a>; capture of Vicente Lucban, <a href="#d0e19177">545</a> + +</p> +<p>Water-cure, <a href="#d0e18499">517</a> (footnote) + +</p> +<p>Wax, <a href="#d0e11952">311</a> + +</p> +<p>Weyler, General, <a href="#d0e16237">417</a>–<a href="#d0e2002">8</a>, <a href="#d0e16639">431</a> + +</p> +<p>Wheaton, General, <a href="#d0e18042">488</a>–<a href="#d0e3454">91</a>, <a href="#d0e18140">497</a> + +</p> +<p>White ants, <a href="#d0e14182">340</a> + +</p> +<p>Wild boar, <a href="#d0e14182">340</a> + +</p> +<p>Wild tribes, the, percentage of in the population, <a href="#d0e3913">120</a> + +</p> +<p>Wood, General Leonard, biographical note of, <a href="#d0e20664">576</a> (footnote); victory of, at Kudarangan, <a href="#d0e20968">581</a>; captures Panglima Hassan, <a href="#d0e21041">584</a> + +</p> +<p>Woods, <a href="#d0e11997">312</a>; relative strengths of, <a href="#d0e12450">317</a> + +</p> +<p>Wright, Governor Luke E., biographical note of, <a href="#d0e20041">564</a> + + + +</p> +<p>Xogusama, Emperor of Japan, <a href="#d0e3148">69</a> + + + +</p> +<p>Yacal (wood), <a href="#d0e12361">316</a> + +</p> +<p>Ylang-Ylang, <a href="#d0e13785">325</a> + +</p> +<p>Ylígan fort, <a href="#d0e3247">77</a>, <a href="#d0e8125">231</a> + +</p> +<p>Yloilo, the port of, <a href="#d0e9761">261</a>; native government in, <a href="#d0e18316">511</a>; Gen. Millerʼs expedition to, <a href="#d0e18316">511</a>; the Panay insurgent army, <a href="#d0e18332">512</a>; panic in, <a href="#d0e18428">513</a>; incendiarism and looting in, <a href="#d0e18444">515</a>; bombardment of, <a href="#d0e18493">516</a>; surrenders of insurgent leaders, <a href="#d0e18499">517</a>; general surrender at Jaro, <a href="#d0e18506">518</a>; the town of, <a href="#d0e18506">518</a> + + + +</p> +<p>Zabálburu, Gov.-General Domingo, <a href="#d0e2675">42</a> + +</p> +<p><i>Zaguan</i>, <a href="#d0e14650">353</a> + +</p> +<p>Zamboanga, the fort of, <a href="#d0e3247">77</a>, <a href="#d0e4343">133</a>, <a href="#d0e8365">233</a>; the port of, <a href="#d0e9761">261</a>–<a href="#d0e1879">2</a>; critical position of the Spaniards at, <a href="#d0e18855">531</a>; anarchy in, <a href="#d0e18866">532</a>; American occupation of, <a href="#d0e18866">532</a>; the town of, <a href="#d0e18934">535</a> + +</p> +<p>Zamora, Father Jacinto, executed, <a href="#d0e3672">107</a> + +</p> +<p>Zobel, Jacobo, <a href="#d0e15113">367</a> (footnote) + + + +<a id="d0e36386"></a><span class="pagenum">[<a href="#d0e36386">667</a>]</span></p> +</div> +<div class="div1"> +<p class="aligncenter">Printed and Bound by Hazell, Watson and Viney, LD London and Aylesbury + + +</p> +<div class="transcribernote"> +<h2>Colophon</h2> +<h3>Availability</h3> +<p>This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give +it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. + +</p> +<h3>Encoding</h3> +<p>Special characters used: + +</p> +<div class="table"> +<table style="font-size: 90%;" width="100%"> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top"><b>in text </b></td> +<td valign="top"><b>description</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top" class="alignright">½ </td> +<td valign="top">fraction one half</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div><p> + +</p> +<h3>Revision History</h3> +<ul> +<li>09-SEP-2004 Added TEI tagging and header. + +</li> +</ul> +<h3>Corrections</h3> +<p>The following corrections have been applied to the text:</p> +<table width="75%"> +<tr> +<th>Location</th> +<th>Source</th> +<th>Correction</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td width="20%"><a href="#d0e4515">Page 140</a></td> +<td width="40%">Feruary</td> +<td width="40%">February</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td width="20%"><a href="#d0e11753">Page 306</a></td> +<td width="40%"> +[<i>Not in source</i>] + +</td> +<td width="40%">.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td width="20%"><a href="#d0e20120">Page 568</a></td> +<td width="40%">neʼer-do-weels</td> +<td width="40%">neʼer-do-wells</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> +</div> +</div> + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Philippine Islands, by John Foreman + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS *** + +***** This file should be named 22815-h.htm or 22815-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/2/2/8/1/22815/ + +Produced by Jeroen Hellingman and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net/ + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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