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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Philippine Islands, by John Foreman
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Philippine Islands
+
+Author: John Foreman
+
+Release Date: September 30, 2007 [EBook #22815]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Jeroen Hellingman and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net/
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                         The Philippine Islands
+
+         A Political, Geographical, Ethnographical, Social and
+            Commercial History of the Philippine Archipelago
+
+               Embracing the Whole Period of Spanish Rule
+
+     With an Account of the Succeeding American Insular Government
+
+
+
+                       By John Foreman, F.R.G.S.
+
+
+
+    Third Edition, Revised and Enlarged with Maps and Illustrations
+
+                        London: T. Fisher Unwin
+                          1, Adelphi Terrace.
+                                 MCMVI
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Printed and bound by Hazell, Watson and Viney, LD., London and
+Aylesbury.
+
+
+
+
+
+Preface to the First Edition
+
+
+It would be surprising if the concerns of an interesting Colony
+like the _Philippine Islands_ had not commanded the attention of
+literary genius.
+
+I do not pretend, therefore, to improve upon the able productions of
+such eminent writers as Juan de le Concepcion, Martinez Zuniga, Tomas
+de Comyn and others, nor do I aspire, through this brief composition,
+to detract from the merit of Jagor's work, which, in its day, commended
+itself as a valuable book of reference. But since then, and within
+the last twenty years, this Colony has made great strides on the
+path of social and material progress; its political and commercial
+importance is rapidly increasing, and many who know the Philippines
+have persuaded me to believe that my notes would be an appreciated
+addition to what was published years ago on this subject.
+
+The critical opinions herein expressed are based upon personal
+observations made during the several years I have travelled in and
+about all the principal islands of the Archipelago, and are upheld
+by reference to the most reliable historical records.
+
+An author should be benevolent in his judgement of men and manners
+and guarded against mistaking isolated cases for rules. In matters
+of history he should neither hide the truth nor twist it to support
+a private view, remembering how easy it is to criticize an act when
+its sequel is developed: such will be my aim in the fullest measure
+consistent.
+
+By certain classes I may be thought to have taken a hypercritical view
+of things; I may even offend their susceptibilities--if I adulated
+them I should fail to chronicle the truth, and my work would be a
+deliberate imposture.
+
+I would desire it to be understood, with regard to the classes and
+races in their collectedness, that my remarks apply only to the large
+majority; exceptions undoubtedly there are--these form the small
+minority. Moreover, I need hardly point out that the native population
+of the capital of the Philippines by no means represents the true
+native character, to comprehend which, so far as its complicacy can
+be fathomed, one must penetrate into and reside for years in the
+interior of the Colony, as I have done, in places where extraneous
+influences have, as yet, produced no effect.
+
+There may appear to be some incongruity in the plan of a work which
+combines objects so dissimilar as those enumerated in the Contents
+pages, but this is not exclusively a History, or a Geography, or an
+Account of Travels--it is a concise review of all that may interest
+the reader who seeks for a general idea of the condition of affairs
+in this Colony in the past and in the present.
+
+J. F.
+
+
+
+
+Preface to the Third Edition
+
+
+The success which has attended the publication of the Second Edition
+of this work has induced me to revise it carefully throughout, adding
+the latest facts of public interest up to the present period.
+
+Long years of personal acquaintance with many of the prime movers in
+the Revolutionary Party enabled me to estimate their aspirations. My
+associations with Spain and Spaniards since my boyhood helped me,
+as an eye-witness of the outbreak of the Rebellion, to judge of the
+opponents of that movement. My connection with the American Peace
+Commission in Paris afforded me an opportunity of appreciating the
+noble desire of a free people to aid the lawful aspirations of millions
+of their fellow-creatures.
+
+My criticism of the regular clergy applies only to the four religious
+confraternities in their lay capacity of government agents in these
+Islands and not to the Jesuit or the Paul fathers, who have justly
+gained the respect of both Europeans and natives: neither is it
+intended, in any degree, as a reflection on the sacred institution
+of the Church.
+
+I take this opportunity of acknowledging, with gratitude, my
+indebtedness to Governor-General Luke E. Wright, Major-General Leonard
+Wood, Colonel Philip Reade, Major Hugh L. Scott, Captain E. N. Jones,
+Captain C. H. Martin, Captain Henry C. Cabell, Captain George Bennett,
+Captain John P. Finley, Dr. David P. Barrows, Mr. Tobias Eppstein,
+and many others too numerous to mention, who gave me such valuable
+and cordial assistance in my recent investigations throughout the
+Archipelago.
+
+This book is not written to promote the interests of any person or
+party, and so far as is consistent with guiding the reader to a fair
+appreciation of the facts recorded, controversial comment has been
+avoided, for to pronounce a just dictum on the multifarious questions
+involved would demand a catholicity of judgement never concentrated
+in the brain of a single human being.
+
+I am persuaded to believe that the bare truth, unvarnished by flattery,
+will be acceptable to the majority, amongst whom may be counted all
+those educated Americans whose impartiality is superior to their
+personal interest in the subject at issue.
+
+It is therefore confidently hoped that the present Edition may merit
+that approval from readers of English which has been so graciously
+accorded to the previous ones.
+
+J. F. _September_, 1905.
+
+
+
+
+Table of Contents
+
+
+_Introduction_
+
+
+_Chapter_ I
+
+_General Description of the Archipelago_
+
+
+    Geographical features of the Islands. Limits. Mountains. 13
+    Rivers. Lakes. Volcanoes. Eruptions of the Mayon and Taal
+    Volcanoes. 14
+    Monsoons. Seasons. Temperature. Rains. Climate. Earthquakes. 22
+
+
+
+_Chapter_ II
+
+_Discovery of the Archipelago_
+
+
+    Hernando de Maghallanes. Treaty of Tordesillas. 24
+    Discovery of Magellan Straits and the Ladrone Islands. 27
+    Death of Maghallanes. Elcano's voyage round the world. 28
+    The Loaisa expedition. The Villalobos expedition. Andres de
+    Urdaneta. 31
+    Miguel de Legaspi; his expedition; he reaches Cebu; dethrones
+    King Tupas. 33
+    Manila is proclaimed the capital of the Archipelago. 36
+    Martin de Goiti. Juan Salcedo. Native Local Government
+    initiated. 37
+
+
+
+_Chapter_ III
+
+_Philippine Dependencies, Up To 1898_
+
+
+    The Ladrone, Caroline, and Pelew Islands. 39
+    First mission to the Ladrone Islands. Pelew Islanders. Caroline
+    Islanders. 40
+    Spain's possession of the Caroline Islands disputed by
+    Germany. 44
+    Posadillo, Governor of the Caroline Islands, is murdered. 45
+    The Ladrone, Caroline, and Pelew Islands (except Guam) sold
+    to Germany. 46
+
+
+
+_Chapter_ IV
+
+_Attempted Conquest by Chinese_
+
+
+    Li-ma-hong, a Chinese corsair, attacks Manila. 47
+    He settles in Pangasinan; evacuates the Islands. 49
+    Rivalry of lay and Monastic authorities. Philip II.'s decree
+    of Reforms. 51
+    Manila Cathedral founded. Mendicant friars. Archbishopric
+    created. 55
+    Supreme Court suppressed and re-established. Church and State
+    contentions. 57
+    Murder of Gov.-General Bustamente Bustillo. The monks in open
+    riot. 60
+
+
+
+_Chapter_ V
+
+_Early Relations with Japan_
+
+_The Catholic Missions_
+
+
+    The Emperor of Japan demands the surrender of the Islands. 63
+    Fray Pedro Bautista's mission; he and 25 others are
+    crucified. 65
+    Jesuit and Franciscan jealousy. The martyrs' mortal remains
+    lost at sea. 67
+    Emperor Taycosama explains his policy. Further missions and
+    executions. 68
+    Missionary martyrs declared saints. Emperor of Japan sends
+    a shipment of lepers. 70
+    Spaniards expelled from Formosa by the Dutch. Missions to
+    Japan abandoned. 71
+
+
+
+_Chapter_ VI
+
+_Conflicts with the Dutch_
+
+
+    The Spanish expedition to the Moluccas fails. 72
+    Chinese mutiny, murder the Spanish leader, and take the ship
+    to Cochin China. 73
+    Expeditions of Bravo de Acuna and Pedro de Heredia. Battle
+    of Playa Honda. 74
+    Koxinga, a Chinese adventurer, threatens to attack the
+    Colony. 76
+    Vittorio Riccio, an Italian monk, visits Manila as Koxinga's
+    ambassador. 77
+    Chinese goaded to rebellion; great massacre. 77
+    Vicissitudes of Govs.-General. Defalcations. Impeachments. 78
+    Gov.-General Fajardo de Tua kills his wife and her paramour. 80
+    Separation of Portugal and Spain (1640). Spanish failure to
+    capture Macao. 81
+    Nunneries. Mother Cecilia's love adventures. Santa Clara
+    Convent. 81
+    The High Host is stolen. Inquisition. Letter of Anathema. 82
+    The Spanish Prime Minister Valenzuela is banished to Cavite. 83
+    Monseigneur Maillard de Tournon, the Papal Legate. 84
+    His arrogance and eccentricities; he dies in prison at
+    Macao. 85
+    Question of the _Regium exequatur_. Philip V.'s edict of
+    punishments. 86
+
+
+
+_Chapter_ VII
+
+_British Occupation of Manila_
+
+
+    Coalition of France and Spain against England by the "Family
+    Compact." 87
+    Simon de Anda y Salazar usurps the Archbishop-Governor's
+    authority. 88
+    British bombard Manila. Archbishop-Governor Rojo
+    capitulates. 89
+    British in possession of the City. Sack and pillage. Agreed
+    Indemnity. 90
+    Simon de Anda y Salazar defies Governor Rojo and declares
+    war. 91
+    British carry war into the provinces. Bustos opposes them. 92
+    Bustos completely routed. Chinese take the British side. 93
+    Massacre of Chinese. Villa Corta's fate. The _Philipino_
+    treasure. 94
+    Simon de Anda y Salazar offers rewards for British heads. 95
+    Austin friars on battle-fields. Peace of Paris (Feb. 10,
+    1763). 96
+    Archbishop-Governor Rojo dies. La Torre appointed
+    Gov.-General. 97
+    British evacuate Manila. La Torre allows Anda to receive back
+    the City. 98
+    Anda goes to Spain; is rewarded by the King; returns as
+    Gov.-General. 99
+    Anda is in conflict with the out-going Governor, the Jesuits,
+    and the friars. 99
+    Anda dies in hospital (1776). His burial-place and
+    monument. 100
+    Rebellion succeeds the war. Ilocos Rebellion led by Diego de
+    Silan. 100
+    Revolt in Bojol Island led by Dagohoy. 101
+    Revolts in Leyte Island, Surigao (Mindanao Is.), and Samar
+    Island. 102
+    Rebellion of "King" Malong and "Count" Gumapos. 103
+    Rebellion of Andres Novales. Execution of A. Novales and
+    Ruiz. 104
+    Apolinario de la Cruz declares himself "King of the
+    Tagalogs." 105
+    General Marcelo Azcarraga, Spanish War Minister, Philippine
+    born. 105
+    The Cavite Conspiracy of 1872. The Secret Society of
+    Reformers. 106
+    The Philippine Martyrs, Dr. Burgos and Fathers Zamora and
+    Gomez. 107
+    Illustrious exiles--Dr. Antonio M. Regidor and Jose
+    M. Basa. 108
+
+
+
+_Chapter_ VIII
+
+_The Chinese_
+
+
+    The China-Manila trade in the days of Legaspi. 109
+    The _Alcayceria_. The _Parian_. Chinese
+    banished. Restrictions. 110
+    The Chinese as immigrants; their comparative activity. 112
+    Chinese mandarins come to seek the "Mount of Gold" in
+    Cavite. 114
+    The Chinese are goaded to revolt. Saint Francis' victory over
+    them. 115
+    Massacre of Foreigners. The Chinese Traders; their Guilds. 116
+    Chinese patron saint; population. The _Sangley_. The
+    _Macao_. 118
+    Restrictions on Chinese immigration. Their gradual
+    exclusion. 119
+
+
+
+_Chapter_ IX
+
+_Wild Tribes and Pagans_
+
+
+    The _Aetas_ or _Negritos_ or _Balugas_. 120
+    The _Gaddanes_. The _Itavis_. The _Igorrotes_. The
+    _Ibanacs_. 122
+    Attempt to subdue the _Igorrotes_. Its failure. 124
+    The _Calingas_. The _Igorrote-Chinese._ The _Tinguianes_. 125
+    The _Basanes_. The _Manguianes_. The _Hindoos_. _Albinos_. 128
+
+
+
+_Chapter_ X
+
+_Mahometans and Southern Tribes_
+
+
+    Early history of the Mahometans, called Moros. 129
+    The First Expedition against the Mindanao Moros. 130
+    Gov.-General Corcuera effects a landing in Sulu Island. 131
+    The scourge of Moro Piracy. Devastation of the
+    coasts. Captives. 132
+    Zamboanga Fort; cost of its maintenance. Fighting Friars. 133
+    Vicissitudes of Sultan Mahamad Alimudin. 134
+    The Sultan appeals to his suzerain's delegate and is made
+    prisoner. 134
+    His letter to Sultan Muhamad Amirubdin. 135
+    The charges against the Sultan. Extermination of Meros
+    decreed. 136
+    Mindanao and Sulu Moros join forces. Extermination
+    impossible. 137
+    The Treaty with Sultan Mahamad Alimudin. 138
+    The Claveria and Urbiztondo expeditions against Moros. 139
+    Gov.-General Malcampo finally annexes Jolo (1876). 140
+    Spain appoints Harun Narrasid Sultan of Sulu (1885). 141
+    The ceremony of investiture. Opposition to the nominee. 142
+    Datto Utto defies the Spaniards. Terrero's expedition (Jan.,
+    1887). 143
+    Colonel Arolas' victory at Maybun (Sulu Is.) (April, 1887). 144
+    The Marahui Campaign (1895). The Moro tribes. 145
+    The _Juramentado_. Moro dress; character; arts; weapons. 146
+    Moro customs. The _Pandita_. The _Datto_. 148
+    Jolo (Sulu) town. H.H. the Sultan of Sulu. 149
+    A _juramentado_ runs _amok_. Across Sulu Island to Maybun. 152
+    The Sultan's official reception. Subuanos of Zamboanga. 154
+    Climate in the South. Palauan Island. Spanish settlers. 157
+    Across Palauan Island. The _Tugbanuas_ tribe. 158
+    Their dress, customs, and country. 159
+    Efforts to colonize Palauan Island. The Moro problem. 160
+
+
+
+_Chapter_ XI
+
+_Domesticated Natives--Origin--Character_
+
+
+    Theory concerning the first inhabitants of these Islands. 163
+    Their advent before the Spanish Conquest. 165
+    Japanese and Chinese early immigrants. 166
+    Native character; idiosyncracies and characteristics. 167
+    Notion of sleep. "Castila!". 169
+    Tagalog and Visayo hospitality. The native's good
+    qualities. 172
+    Native aversion to discipline; bravery; resignation;
+    geniality. 175
+    Mixed races. Native physiognomy; marriages; minors' rights. 176
+    Family names. The _Catapusan_. 179
+    Dancing; the _Balitao_; the _Comitan_. The _Asuan_. 180
+    Mixed marriages. The Half-caste (_Mestizo_). 181
+    The Shrines and Saints. The Holy Child of Cebu. St. Francis
+    of Tears. 183
+    Our Lady of Cagsaysay. The Virgin of Antipolo. 184
+    Miraculous Saints. _Santones_. Native Conception of
+    Religion. 187
+    Musical talent. Slavery. Education in Spanish times. 190
+    The Intellectuals. The Illiterates. State aid for Schools. 192
+    The Athenaeum. Girls' Colleges. St. Thomas' University. 194
+    The Nautical School. The provincial student. Talented
+    natives. 195
+    Diseases. Leprosy. Insanity. Death-rate. Sanitation. 197
+
+
+
+_Chapter_ XII
+
+_The Religious Orders_
+
+
+    Their early co-operation a necessity. 199
+    Their power and influence. 200
+    Opinions for and against that power. 201
+    The Spanish parish priest. Father Piernavieja. 202
+    Virtueless friars. Monastic persecution. 204
+    The Hierarchy. The Orders. Church revenues and State aid. 206
+    Rivalry of Religious Orders. Papal intervention to ensure
+    peace. 209
+
+
+
+_Chapter_ XIII
+
+_Spanish Insular Government_
+
+
+    The _Encomiendas_. The Trading-Governors. 211
+    The Judge-Governors (_Alcalde Mayor_). The Reforms of 1886. 213
+    Cost of Spanish Insular Government. The Provincial Civil
+    Governor's duties. 214
+    The position of Provincial Civil Governor. Local
+    Funds. Provincial poverty. 216
+    Highways and Public Works. Cause of national decay. 218
+    Fortunes made easily. Peculations. Town Local Government. 220
+    The _Gobernadorcillo_ (petty-governor). The _Cabeza de
+    Barangay_ (Tax-collector). 222
+    The _Cuadrillero_ (guard). The _Fallas_ (tax). The _Cedula
+    personal_. 224
+    The _Tribunal_ (town hall). Reforms affecting travellers. 225
+
+
+
+_Chapter_ XIV
+
+_Spanish-Philippine Finances_
+
+
+    Philippine budgets. Curious items of revenue and
+    expenditure. 227
+    Spanish-Philippine army, police, and constabulary
+    statistics. 230
+    The armed forces in the olden times. 232
+    Spanish-Philippine navy and judicial statistics. 233
+    Prison statistics. Brigandage. The brigands' superstition. 235
+    A chase for brigands. The _anting-anting_. Pirates. 237
+    The notorious Tancad. Dilatory justice. A _cause celebre_. 239
+    Spanish-Philippine Criminal Law procedure. 241
+
+
+
+_Chapter_ XV
+
+_Trade of the Islands from Early Times_
+
+
+    Its early history. Its State galleons. 243
+    The _Consulado_ merchants. The Mexican subsidy. 244
+    In the days of the Mexican galleons. The _Obras Pias_. 245
+    Losses of the treasure-laden galleons. Trade difficulties. 246
+    The period of restrictions on trade. Prohibitory decrees. 248
+    The Manila merchants alarmed; appeal to the King. 249
+    Penalties on free-traders. Trading friars. The budget for
+    1757. 250
+    Decline of trade. Spanish trading-company failures. 252
+    The _Real Compania de Filipinas_; its privileges and
+    failure. 253
+    The dawn of free trade. Foreign traders admitted. 254
+    Manila port, unrestrictedly open to foreigners (1834),
+    becomes known to the world. 256
+    Pioneers of foreign trade. Foreign and Philippine banks. 257
+    The Spanish-Philippine currency. Mexican-dollar smuggling. 259
+    Ports of Zamboanga, Yloilo, Cebu, and Sual opened to foreign
+    trade. 261
+    Mail service. Carrying-trade. Middlemen. Native industries. 263
+    The first Philippine Railway. Telegraph service. Seclusion
+    of the Colony. 265
+
+
+
+_Chapter_ XVI
+
+_Agriculture_
+
+
+    Interest on loans to farmers. Land values and tenure in Luzon
+    Island. 269
+    Sugar-cane lands and cultivation. Land-measures. 271
+    Process of sugar-extraction. Labour conditions on
+    sugar-estates. 273
+    Sugar statistics. World's production of cane and beet
+    sugar. 275
+    Rice. Rice-measure. Rice machinery; husking; pearling;
+    statistics. 276
+    Macan and Paga rice. Rice planting and trading. 278
+
+
+
+_Chapter_ XVII
+
+_Manila Hemp--Coffee--Tobacco_
+
+
+    _Musa textilis_. Extraction and uses of the
+    fibre. Machinery. 281
+    Hemp experiments in British India. Cultivation. Qualities. 283
+    Labour difficulties. Statistics. Albay province (local)
+    land-measure. 286
+    Coffee. Coffee dealing and cultivation. 289
+    Tobacco. The Government Tobacco Monopoly. 292
+    Tobacco-growing by compulsory labour. Condition of the
+    growers. 294
+    Tobacco Monopoly abolished. Free trade in tobacco. 296
+    Tobacco-trading risks; qualities; districts. Cigar values. 299
+
+
+
+_Chapter_ XVIII
+
+_Sundry Forest and Farm Produce_
+
+
+    Maize. Cacao-beans. Chocolate. 300
+    Cacao cultivation. Castor oil. Gogo. 302
+    Camote. Gabi. Potatoes. Mani (pea-nut). Areca-nut. Buyo. 303
+    Cocoanuts. Extraction of Tuba (beverage). 304
+    Cocoanut-oil extraction. Coprah. Coir. 305
+    Nipa palm. Cogon-grass. Cotton-tree. 307
+    Buri palm. Dita. Palma brava. Bamboo. 308
+    Bojo. Bejuco (Rattan-cane). Palasan (Bush-rope). 310
+    Gum mastic. Gutta-percha. Wax. Cinnamon. Edible
+    Bird's-nest. 311
+    Balate (Trepang). Sapan-wood. Tree-saps. 312
+    Hardwoods; varieties and qualities. 313
+    Molave wood tensile and transverse experiments. 315
+    Relative strengths of hardwoods. Timber trade. 317
+    Fruits; the Mango; the Banana; the Papaw, etc. 318
+    Guavas; Pineapples; Tamarinds; the Mabolo. 320
+    Sundry vegetable produce. Flowers. 321
+    Botanical specimens--curious and beautiful. Orchids. 322
+    Firewoods; Locust beans; _Amor seco_. 324
+    Botanical names given to islands, towns etc. 324
+    Medicinal herbs, roots, leaves and barks. Perfumes. 325
+
+
+
+_Chapter_ XIX
+
+_Mineral Products_
+
+
+    Coal import. Coal-mining ventures. 326
+    Comparative analyses of coal. 328
+    Gold-mining ventures. The Paracale and Mambulao mines. 329
+    Iron-mining ventures. Failures, poverty and suicide. 332
+    Copper. Marble. Stone. Gypsum. Sulphur. Mineral oil. 334
+
+
+
+_Chapter_ XX
+
+_Domestic Live-stock--Ponies, Buffaloes, Etc_.
+
+
+    Ponies. Horses. Buffaloes (_carabaos_). 336
+    Donkeys. Mules. Sheep. Fish. Insects. Reptiles. Snakes. 338
+    Butterflies. White ants. Bats. Deer. Wild boars. 340
+    Fowls. Birds. The Locust plague. Edible insects. 341
+
+
+
+_Chapter_ XXI
+
+_Manila Under Spanish Rule_
+
+
+    The fortified city. The moats. The drawbridges. 343
+    Public buildings in the city. The port in construction. 344
+    Manila Bay. Corregidor Island and Mariveles. 345
+    The Pasig River. Public lighting. Tondo suburb. 346
+    Binondo suburb. Chinese and native artificers. 347
+    Easter week. The vehicle traffic. 348
+    The Theatres. The _Carrillo_. The "_Moro Moro_"
+    performance. 349
+    The bull-ring. Annual feasts. Cock-fighting. 350
+    European club. Hotels. The Press. Spanish journalism. 351
+    Botanical gardens. Dwelling-houses. 353
+    Manila society. Water-supply. Climate. 354
+    Population of the Islands in 1845; of Manila in 1896. 355
+    Typhoons and earthquakes affecting Manila. 356
+    Dress of both sexes. A "first-class" funeral. 357
+    Excursions from Manila. Los Banos. 359
+    The story of Los Banos and Jalajala. The legend of Guadalupe
+    Church. 360
+
+
+
+_Chapter_ XXII
+
+_The Tagalog Rebellion of 1896-98_
+
+_First Period_
+
+
+    The _Cortes de Cadiz_. Philippine deputies in the
+    Peninsula. 362
+    The Assembly of Reformists. Effect of the Cavite Rising of
+    1872. 363
+    Official acts conducive to rebellion. The _Katipunan_
+    League. 364
+    Arrest of prominent Filipinos. The first overt act of
+    rebellion. 366
+    War commences. The Battle of San Juan del Monte. 368
+    Execution of Sancho Valenzuela and others. 369
+    Andres Bonifacio heads the movement. He is superseded by
+    Emilio Aguinaldo. 370
+    Imus (Cavite) is captured by the rebels. The history of
+    Imus. 372
+    Atrocities of the rebels. Rebel victory at Binacayan. 373
+    Execution of 13 rebels in Cavite. The rebel chief Llaneras
+    in Bulacan. 374
+    Volunteers are enrolled. Tragedy at Fort Santiago; cartloads
+    of corpses. 375
+    A court-martial cabal. Gov.-General Blanco is recalled. 376
+    The rebels destroy a part of the railway. They threaten an
+    assault on Manila. 377
+    General Camilo Polavieja succeeds Blanco as Gov.-General. 378
+    General Lachambre, the Liberator of Cavite. Polavieja returns
+    to Spain. 379
+    Dr. Jose Rizal, the Philippine ideal patriot; his career and
+    hopes. 381
+    His return to Manila; banishment, liberation, re-arrest,
+    and execution. 383
+    The love-romance of Dr. Jose Rizal's life. 387
+    General Primo de Rivera succeeds Polavieja as Gov.-General. 389
+    The Gov.-General decrees concentration; its bad effect. 391
+    The rebels define their demands in an exhortation to the
+    people. 392
+    Emilio Aguinaldo now claims independence. 394
+    Don Pedro A. Paterno acts as peace negotiator. 395
+    The Protocol of Peace between the Rebels and the
+    Gov.-General. 396
+    The alleged Treaty of Biac-na-bato (Dec. 14, 1897). 397
+    The Primo de Rivera-Paterno agreement as to indemnity
+    payment. 398
+    Emilio Aguinaldo in exile. Peace rejoicings. Spain
+    defaults. 399
+    The rebel chiefs being in exile, the people are goaded to
+    fresh revolt. 400
+    The tragedy of the _Calle de Camba_. Cebu Island rises in
+    revolt. 401
+    The Cebuanos' raid on Cebu City; Lutao in flames; piles of
+    corpses. 402
+    Exciting adventures of American citizens. Heartrending scenes
+    in Cebu City. 404
+    Rajahmudah Datto Mandi visits Cebu. Rebels in Bolinao
+    (Zambales). 406
+    Relief of Bolinao. Father Santos of Malolos is murdered. 408
+    The peacemaker states his views on the reward he expects from
+    Spain. 409
+    Don Maximo Paterno, the Philippine "Grand Old Man". 411
+    Biographical sketch of his son, Don Pedro A. Paterno. 411
+    General Basilio Augusti succeeds Primo de Rivera as
+    Gov.-General. 413
+    The existence of a Peace Treaty with the rebels is denied in
+    the Spanish _Cortes_. 414
+
+
+
+_Chapter_ XXIII
+
+_The Tagalog Rebellion of 1896-98_
+
+_Second Period_
+
+_American Intervention_
+
+
+    Events leading to the Spanish-American War (April-Aug.,
+    1898). 417
+    Events preliminary to the naval Battle of Cavite (May 1,
+    1898). 419
+    Aspirations of the Revolutionary Party. 420
+    Revolutionary exhortation denouncing Spain. 421
+    Allocution of the Archbishop of Madrid to the Spanish army. 423
+    Gov.-General Basilio Augusti issues a call to arms. 424
+    His proclamation declaring a state of war with America. 425
+    War in the Islands approaching. Flight of non-combatants. 426
+    The naval Battle of Cavite. Destruction of the Spanish
+    Fleet. 427
+    The Stars and Stripes hoisted at Cavite. 429
+    The first news of the naval defeat raises panic in Madrid. 431
+    Emilio Aguinaldo returns from exile to Cavite (May 19,
+    1898). 432
+    Revolutionary exhortation to the people to aid America. 433
+    In the beleaguered city of Manila. German attitude. 434
+    The merchants' harvest. Run on the _Banco
+    Espanol-Filipino_. 435
+    General Aguinaldo becomes Dictator. Filipinos congratulate
+    America. 436
+    Conditions in and around Manila. Senor Paterno's pro-Spanish
+    Manifesto. 438
+    The revolutionists' refutation of Senor Paterno's
+    manifesto. 440
+    General Monet's terrible southward march with refugees. 445
+    Terror-stricken refugees' flight for life. The _Macabebes_. 446
+    The Revolutionary Government proclaimed. Statutes of
+    Constitution. 448
+    Message of the Revolutionary President accompanying the
+    proclamation. 454
+    The Revolutionists' appeal to the Powers for recognition. 457
+    Spain makes peace overtures to America. The Protocol of
+    Peace. 458
+    The Americans prepare for the attack on Manila. 460
+    The Americans again demand the surrender of Manila. 461
+    The Americans' attack on Manila (Aug. 13, 1898). 462
+    Spain's blood-sacrifice for "the honour of the country". 464
+    Capitulation of Manila to the Americans (Aug. 14, 1898). 465
+    The Americans' first measures of administration in Manila. 467
+    Trade resumed. Liberty of the Press. Malolos (Bulacan) the
+    rebel capital. 468
+    General Aguinaldo's triumphal entry into Malolos. 470
+    The Paris Peace Commission (Oct.-Dec., 1898). 471
+    Peace concluded in Paris between America and Spain (Dec. 10,
+    1898). 472
+    Innovations in Manila customs. Spanish government in
+    Visayas. 473
+    Strained relations between the rebels and the Americans. 475
+    Rebels attack the Spaniards in Visayas. The Spaniards evacuate
+    the Visayas. 476
+    The end of Spanish rule. The rebels' disagreement. 478
+    Text of the Treaty of Peace between America and Spain. 479
+
+
+
+_Chapter_ XXIV
+
+_An Outline of the War of Independence Period, 1899-1901_
+
+
+    Insurgents prepare for the coming conflict. 484
+    Anti-American manifesto. The Philippine Republic. 486
+    The war begins; the opening shot. Battle of Paco. 487
+    Fighting around Manila; Gagalanging. Manila in flames. 489
+    Battle of Marilao. Capture of Malolos, the insurgent
+    capital. 490
+    Proclamation of American intentions. Santa Cruz (La Laguna)
+    captured. 493
+    Effect of the war on public opinion in America. 495
+    Insurgent defeat. Calumpit captured. Insurgents ask for an
+    armistice. 496
+    Insurgent tactics. General Lawton in Cavite. 499
+    Violent death of General Antonio Luna. 501
+    General Aguinaldo's manifesto; his pathetic allusion to the
+    past. 502
+    Insurgents destroy the s.s. _Saturnus_. Death of General
+    Lawton. 503
+    War on the wane. Many chiefs surrender. 505
+    Partial disbandment of the insurgent army urged by hunger. 506
+    Capture of General Emilio Aguinaldo (March 23, 1901). 507
+    He swears allegiance to America. His home at Canit (Cavite
+    Viejo). 509
+
+
+
+_Chapter_ XXV
+
+_The Philippine Republic in the Central and Southern Islands_
+
+
+    The Spaniards evacuate Yloilo (Dec., 1898). Native Government
+    there. 511
+    General Miller demands the surrender of Yloilo. The Panay
+    army. 512
+    Riotous insurgent soldiery. Flight of civilians. 513
+    The Yloilo native Government discusses the crisis in open
+    assembly. 514
+    Mob riot. Yloilo in flames. Looting, anarchy, and
+    terrorism. 515
+    Bombardment of Yloilo. The American forces enter and the
+    insurgents vanish. 516
+    Surrender of insurgent leaders. Peace
+    overtures. "Water-cure". 517
+    Formal surrender of the Panay army remnant at Jaro (Feb. 2,
+    1901). 518
+    Yloilo town. Native Government in Negros Island. Peaceful
+    settlement. 519
+    An armed rabble overruns Negros Island. 521
+    Native Government in Cebu Island. American occupation of Cebu
+    City. 522
+    Cebuano insurgents on the warpath. Peace signed with
+    Cebuanos. 524
+    Reformed government in Cebu Island. Cebu City. 526
+    American occupation of Bojol Island. Insurgent rising
+    quelled. 528
+    Native Government in Cottabato. Slaughter of the
+    Christians. 529
+    The Spaniards' critical position in Zamboanga (Mindanao
+    Is.). 531
+    Rival factions and anarchy in Zamboanga. Opportune American
+    advent. 532
+    The Rajahmudah Datto Maudi. Zamboanga town. 534
+    Samar and Marinduque Islands under native leaders. 535
+    Slaughter of American officers and troops at Balangiga (Samar
+    Is.). 536
+
+
+
+_Chapter_ XXVI
+
+_The Spanish Prisoners_
+
+
+    The approximate number of Spanish prisoners and their
+    treatment. 537
+    The Spanish Government's dilemma in the matter of the
+    prisoners. 538
+    Why the prisoners were detained. Baron Du Marais' ill-fated
+    mission. 539
+    Further efforts to obtain their release. The captors state
+    their terms. 541
+    Discussions between Generals E. S. Otis and Nicolas
+    Jaramillo. 542
+    The Spanish commissioners' ruse to obtain the prisoners'
+    release fails. 543
+    The end of the Spaniards' captivity. 544
+
+
+
+_Chapter_ XXVII
+
+_End of the War of Independence and After_
+
+
+    The last of the recognized insurgent leaders. Notorious
+    outlaws. 545
+    Apolinario Mabini. Brigands of the old and of the new type. 546
+    Ferocity of the new caste of brigands. 548
+    The Montalon and Felizardo outlaw bands. 549
+    The "Guards of Honour." The _Pulajan_ in gloomy Samar. 550
+    Army and Constabulary Statistics. Insurgent navy. 553
+    Sedition. Seditious plays. 554
+    Landownership is conducive to social tranquillity. 555
+
+
+
+_Chapter_ XXVIII
+
+_Modern Manila_
+
+
+    Innovations under American rule. 556
+    Clubs. Theatres. Hotels. "Saloons." The Walled City. 558
+    The Insular Government. Feast-days. Municipality. 560
+    Emoluments of high officials. The Schurman Commission. 561
+    The Taft Commission. The "Philippines for the Filipinos"
+    doctrine. 563
+    The Philippine Civil Service. Civil government established. 565
+    Constabulary. Secret Police. The Vagrant Act. 567
+    Army strength. Military Division. Scout Corps. 569
+
+
+
+_Chapter_ XXIX
+
+_The Land of the Moros_
+
+
+    The Bates Agreement with the Sultan of Sulu. 571
+    The warlike _Dattos_ and their clansmen. 573
+    Captain Pershing's brilliant exploits around Lake Lanao. 574
+    Storming the _Cottas_. American pluck. 575
+    American policy in Moroland. Maj.-General Leonard Wood. 576
+    Constitution of the Moro Province. 577
+    Municipalities. Tribal Wards. Moro Province finances. 578
+    Moro Province armed forces. Gen. Wood's victory at
+    Kudarangan. 580
+    Datto Pedro Cuevas of Basilan Island. His career. 582
+    General Wood in Sulu Island. Panglima Hassan. Major
+    H. L. Scott. 584
+    Major Hugh L. Scott vanquishes Panglima Hassan. A
+    _bichara_. 585
+    Jolo town. H.H. The Sultan of Sulu. 587
+    American policy towards the Moro chiefs. 588
+    The Manguiguin's eventful visit to Zamboanga. 589
+    Education and progress in the Moro Province. 591
+    What the Moro Province needs. The prospect therein. 592
+
+
+
+_Chapter_ XXX
+
+_The Spanish Friars, After 1898_
+
+
+    Free cult. Causes of the anti-friar feeling. 594
+    Attitude of the Philippine clergy. Monsignor Chapelle. 596
+    The question of the friars' lands. American view. 597
+    The American Government negotiates with the Holy See. 599
+    The Pope's contrary view of the friars' case. 600
+    The friars'-lands purchase. The approximate acreage. Monsignor
+    Guidi. 601
+    The anti-friar feeling diminishes. The Philippine Independent
+    Church. 602
+    The head of the Philippine Independent Church throws off
+    allegiance to the Pope. 604
+    Conflict between Catholics and Schismatics. 606
+    Aglipayan doctrine. Native clergy. Monsignor Agius. 607
+    American education. The Normal School. The Nautical School. 608
+    The School for Chinese. The Spanish Schools. 610
+    The English language for Orientals. Native politics. 611
+    The Philippine Assembly. The cry for "independence". 612
+    The native interpretation of the term "Protection". 613
+    Capacity for self-government. Population. Benguet road. 614
+    Census Statistics. Regulations affecting foreign
+    travellers. 616
+    Administration of justice. Provincial Courts. Justices of
+    the peace. 618
+
+
+
+_Chapter_ XXXI
+
+_Trade and Agriculture Since the American Advent_
+
+
+    Trade in war-time. After-effect of war on trade and
+    agriculture. 620
+    Losses in tilth-cattle. The Congressional Relief Fund. 621
+    Fruitless endeavours to replace the lost buffalo herds. 622
+    Government supplies rice to the needy. Planters'
+    embarrassments. 623
+    Agitation for an Agricultural Bank. Bureau of Agriculture. 624
+    Land-tax. Manila Port Works. The Southern ports. 626
+    Need of roads. Railway projects. 627
+    The carrying-trade. The Shipping Law. Revenue and
+    Expenditure. 628
+    The Internal Revenue Law. Enormous increase in cost of
+    living. 630
+    "The Democratic Labour Union." The Chinese Exclusion Act. 632
+    Social position of the Chinese in the Islands since 1898. 634
+    The new Philippine currency (_Peso Conant_). 635
+    American Banks. The commercial policy of the future. 637
+    Trade Statistics. Total Import and Export values. Hemp
+    shipments. 639
+    Total Chief Exports. Total Sugar Export. 640
+    Tobacco, Cigar, and Coprah shipments. Values of Coprah and
+    Cocoanut-oil. 644
+    Sapan-wood, Gum Mastic, and Coffee shipments. 646
+    Gold and Silver Imports and Exports. Tonnage. Exchange. 647
+    Proportionate table of Total Exports. 648
+    Proportionate table of Total Imports. 649
+    Proportionate table of Staple Exports and Rice Imports. 650
+
+
+
+_Chronological Table of Leading Events_. 651
+
+
+_Index_. 655
+
+
+
+
+List of Illustrations
+
+
+
+_The Author_                     _Frontispiece_
+_Taal Volcano_                   _Facing_ 16
+_Mavon Volcano_                        16
+_Effect of the Hurricane of September 26, 1905_        23
+_A Negrito Family_                    120
+_An Igorrote Type (Luzon)_                128
+_A Pagan Type (Mindanao)_                 128
+_A Tagalog Girl_                      128
+_Moro Weapons_                        132
+_A Scene in the Moro Country_                 148
+_Zamboanga Fortress ("Fuerza del Pilar")_         148
+_A Visayan Girl_                      164
+_A Tagalog Girl_                      164
+_A Visayan Planter_                   172
+_A Chinese Half-caste_                    172
+_A Tagalog Milkwoman_                     182
+_A Tagalog Townsman_                      182
+_Middle-class Tagalog Natives_                196
+_A Spanish-Mexican Galleon_               244
+_A Canoe_                         244
+_A Casco (Sailing-barge)_                 244
+_A Prahu (Sailing-canoe)_                 244
+_A Sugar-estate House, Southern Philippines_          275
+_Shipping Hemp in the Provinces_              288
+_Botanical Specimen_                      321
+_Botanical Specimen_                      322
+_Botanical Specimen_                 _Facing_ 323
+_Botanical Specimen_                    324
+_The Old Walls of Manila City_              344
+_La Escolta_ in the Business Quarter of Manila   347
+_A Riverside Washing-scene_             359
+_Dr. Jose Rizal_                    381
+_Don Felipe Agoncillo_                  381
+_General Emilio Aguinaldo_              396
+_Don Pedro a Paterno_                      396
+_Admiral Patricio Montojo_              430
+_Admiral George Dewey_                  430
+_General Basilio Augusti_               430
+_Maj.-General Wesley Merritt_               430
+_Archbishop Bernardino Nozaleda_            430
+_Tagalog Bowie-knives and Weapons_          485
+_A Pandita (Mahometan Priest)_              534
+_Rajahmudah Datto Mandi and Wife_           534
+_Santa Cruz Church (Manila Suburb)_         559
+_Panglima Hassan (of Sulu)_             584
+_A Mindanao Datto and Suite_                584
+_The Rt. Rev. Bishop Gregorio Aglipay_          604
+_A Roadside Scene in Bulacan Province_          627
+
+
+_Maps_
+
+
+_The Province of Cavite_                371
+_Map of the Archipelago_             _at the end_
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Introduction
+
+        "Nothing extenuate,
+        Nor set down aught in malice."
+                 _Othello_, Act V., Sc. 2.
+
+
+
+During the three centuries and a quarter of more or less effective
+Spanish dominion, this Archipelago never ranked above the most
+primitive of colonial possessions.
+
+That powerful nation which in centuries gone by was built up by
+Iberians, Celts, Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Visigoths, Romans,
+and Arabs was in its zenith of glory when the conquering spirit and
+dauntless energy of its people led them to gallant enterprises of
+discovery which astonished the civilized world. Whatever may have
+been the incentive which impelled the Spanish monarchs to encourage
+the conquest of these Islands, there can, at least, be no doubt as to
+the earnestness of the individuals entrusted to carry out the royal
+will. The nerve and muscle of chivalrous Spain ploughing through a
+wide unknown ocean in quest of glory and adventure, the unswerving
+devotion of the ecclesiastics to the cause of Catholic supremacy,
+each bearing intense privations, cannot fail to excite the wonder of
+succeeding generations. But they were satisfied with conquering and
+leaving unimproved their conquests, for whilst only a small fraction
+of this Archipelago was subdued, millions of dollars and hundreds
+of lives were expended in futile attempts at conquest in Gamboge,
+Siam, Pegu, Moluccas, Borneo, Japan, etc.--and for all these toils
+there came no reward, not even the sterile laurels of victory. The
+Manila seat of government had not been founded five years when the
+Governor-General solicited royal permission to conquer China!
+
+Extension of dominion seized them like a mania. Had they followed up
+their discoveries by progressive social enlightenment, by encouragement
+to commerce, by the concentration of their efforts in the development
+of the territory and the new resources already under their sway, half
+the money and energy squandered on fruitless and inglorious expeditions
+would have sufficed to make high roads crossing and recrossing the
+Islands; tenfold wealth would have accrued; civilization would have
+followed as a natural consequence; and they would, perhaps even
+to this day, have preserved the loyalty of those who struggled for
+and obtained freer institutions. But they had elected to follow the
+principles of that religious age, and all we can credit them with
+is the conversion of millions to Christianity and the consequent
+civility at the expense of cherished liberty, for ever on the track
+of that fearless band of warriors followed the monk, ready to pass
+the breach opened for him by the sword, to conclude the conquest by
+the persuasive influence of the Holy Cross.
+
+The civilization of the world is but the outcome of wars, and probably
+as long as the world lasts the ultimate appeal in all questions will
+be made to force, notwithstanding Peace Conferences. The hope of ever
+extinguishing warfare is as meagre as the advantage such a state of
+things would be. The idea of totally suppressing martial instinct in
+the whole civilized community is as hopeless as the effort to convert
+all the human race to one religious system. Moreover, the common
+good derived from war generally exceeds the losses it inflicts on
+individuals; nor is war an isolated instance of the few suffering
+for the good of the many. "_Salus populi suprema lex_." "Nearly
+every step in the world's progress has been reached by warfare. In
+modern times the peace of Europe is only maintained by the equality
+of power to coerce by force. Liberty in England, gained first by an
+exhibition of force, would have been lost but for bloodshed. The great
+American Republic owes its existence and the preservation of its unity
+to this inevitable means, and neither arbitration, moral persuasion,
+nor sentimental argument would ever have exchanged Philippine monastic
+oppression for freedom of thought and liberal institutions.
+
+The right of conquest is admissible when it is exercised for the
+advancement of civilization, and the conqueror not only takes upon
+himself, but carries out, the moral obligation to improve the condition
+of the subjected peoples and render them happier. How far the Spaniards
+of each generation fulfilled that obligation may be judged from these
+pages, the works of Mr. W. H. Prescott, the writings of Padre de las
+Casas, and other chroniclers of Spanish colonial achievements. The
+happiest colony is that which yearns for nothing at the hands of
+the mother country; the most durable bonds are those engendered by
+gratitude and contentment. Such bonds can never be created by religious
+teaching alone, unaccompanied by the twofold inseparable conditions
+of moral and material improvement. There are colonies wherein equal
+justice, moral example, and constant care for the welfare of the
+people have riveted European dominion without the dispensable adjunct
+of an enforced State religion. The reader will judge the merits of
+that civilization which the Spaniards engrafted on the races they
+subdued; for as mankind has no philosophical criterion of truth, it is
+a matter of opinion where the unpolluted fountain of the truest modern
+civilization is to be found. It is claimed by China and by Europe, and
+the whole universe is schismatic on the subject. When Japan was only
+known to the world as a nation of artists, Europe called her barbarous;
+when she had killed fifty thousand Russians in Manchuria, she was
+proclaimed to be highly civilized. There are even some who regard
+the adoption of European dress and the utterance of a few phrases in
+a foreign tongue as signs of civilization. And there is a Continental
+nation, proud of its culture, whose sense of military honour, dignity,
+and discipline involves inhuman brutality of the lowest degree.
+
+Juan de la Concepcion, [1] who wrote in the eighteenth century,
+bases the Spaniards' right to conquest solely on the religious
+theory. He affirms that the Spanish kings inherited a divine right
+to these Islands, their dominion being directly prophesied in Isaiah
+xviii. He assures us that this title from Heaven was confirmed by
+apostolic authority, [2] and by "the many manifest miracles with
+which God, the Virgin, and the Saints, as auxiliaries of our arms,
+demonstrated its unquestionable justice." Saint Augustine, he states,
+considered it a sin to doubt the justice of war which God determines;
+but, let it be remembered, the same _savant_ insisted that the world
+was flat, and that the sun hid every night behind a mountain!
+
+An apology for conquest cannot be rightly based upon the sole desire
+to spread any particular religion, more especially when we treat of
+Christianity, the benign radiance of which was overshadowed by that
+debasing institution the Inquisition, which sought out the brightest
+intellects only to destroy them. But whether conversion by coercion
+be justifiable or not, one is bound to acknowledge that all the
+urbanity of the Filipinos of to-day is due to Spanish training,
+which has raised millions from obscurity to a relative condition
+of culture. The fatal defect in the Spanish system was the futile
+endeavour to stem the tide of modern methods and influences.
+
+The government of the Archipelago alone was no mean task.
+
+A group of islands inhabited by several heathen races--surrounded
+by a sea exposed to typhoons, pirates, and Christian-hating
+Mussulmans--had to be ruled by a handful of Europeans with inadequate
+funds, bad ships, and scant war material. For nearly two centuries
+the financial administration was a chaos, and military organization
+hardly existed. Local enterprise was disregarded and discouraged so
+long as abundance of silver dollars came from across the Pacific. Such
+a short-sighted, unstable dependence left the Colony resourceless
+when bold foreign traders stamped out monopoly and brought commerce
+to its natural level by competition. In the meantime the astute
+ecclesiastics quietly took possession of rich arable lands in many
+places, the most valuable being within easy reach of the Capital
+and the Arsenal of Cavite. Landed property was undefined. It all
+nominally belonged to the State, which, however, granted no titles;
+"squatters" took up land where they chose without determined limits,
+and the embroilment continues, in a measure, to the present day.
+
+About the year 1885 the question was brought forward of granting
+Government titles to all who could establish claims to land. Indeed,
+for about a year, there was a certain enthusiasm displayed both by the
+applicants and the officials in the matter of "Titulos Reales." But
+the large majority of landholders--among whom the monastic element
+conspicuously figured--could only show their title by actual
+possession. [3] It might have been sufficient, but the fact is that
+the clergy favoured neither the granting of "Titulos Reales" nor the
+establishment of the projected Real Estate Registration Offices.
+
+Agrarian disputes had been the cause of so many armed risings against
+themselves in particular, during the nineteenth century, that they
+opposed an investigation of the land question, which would only have
+revived old animosities, without giving satisfaction to either native
+or friar, seeing that both parties were intransigent. [4]
+
+The fundamental laws, considered as a whole, were the wisest devisable
+to suit the peculiar circumstances of the Colony; but whilst many of
+them were disregarded or treated as a dead letter, so many loopholes
+were invented by the dispensers of those in operation as to render
+the whole system a wearisome, dilatory process. Up to the last every
+possible impediment was placed in the way of trade expansion; and in
+former times, when worldly majesty and sanctity were a joint idea,
+the struggle with the King and his councillors for the right of
+legitimate traffic was fierce.
+
+So long as the Archipelago was a dependency of Mexico (up to 1819)
+not one Spanish colonist in a thousand brought any cash capital to
+this colony with which to develop its resources. During the first
+two centuries and a quarter Spain's exclusive policy forbade the
+establishment of any foreigner in the Islands; but after they did
+settle there they were treated with such courteous consideration
+by the Spanish officials that they could often secure favours with
+greater ease than the Spanish colonists themselves.
+
+Everywhere the white race urged activity like one who sits behind a
+horse and goads it with the whip. But good advice without example
+was lost to an ignorant class more apt to learn through the eye
+than through the ear. The rougher class of colonist either forgot,
+or did not know, that, to civilize a people, every act one performs,
+or intelligible word one utters, carries an influence which pervades
+and gives a colour to the future life and thoughts of the native,
+and makes it felt upon the whole frame of the society in embryo. On
+the other hand, the value of prestige was perfectly well understood by
+the higher officials, and the rigid maintenance of their dignity, both
+in private life and in their public offices, played an important part
+in the moral conquest of the Filipinos. Equality of races was never
+dreamed of, either by the conquerors or the conquered; and the latter,
+up to the last days of Spanish rule, truly believed in the superiority
+of the white man. This belief was a moral force which considerably
+aided the Spaniards in their task of civilization, and has left its
+impression on the character of polite Philippine society to this day.
+
+Christianity was not only the basis of education, but the symbol of
+civilization; and that the Government should have left education
+to the care of the missionaries during the proselytizing period
+was undoubtedly the most natural course to take. It was desirable
+that conversion from paganism should precede any kind of secular
+tuition. But the friars, to the last, held tenaciously to their old
+monopoly; hence the University, the High Schools, and the Colleges
+(except the Jesuit Schools) were in their hands, and they remained as
+stumbling-blocks in the intellectual advancement of the Colony. Instead
+of the State holding the fountains of knowledge within its direct
+control, it yielded them to the exclusive manipulation of those who
+eked out the measure as it suited their own interests.
+
+Successful government by that sublime ethical essence called "moral
+philosophy" has fallen away before a more practical _regime_. Liberty
+to think, to speak, to write, to trade, to travel, was only partially
+and reluctantly yielded under extraneous pressure. The venality of the
+conqueror's administration, the judicial complicacy, want of public
+works, weak imperial government, and arrogant local rule tended to
+dismember the once powerful Spanish Empire. The same causes have
+produced the same effects in all Spain's distant colonies, and to-day
+the mother country is almost childless. Criticism, physical discovery
+of the age, and contact with foreigners shook the ancient belief
+in the fabulous and the supernatural; the rising generation began
+to inquire about more certain scientific theses. The immutability
+of Theology is inharmonious to Science--the School of Progress;
+and long before they had finished their course in these Islands the
+friars quaked at the possible consequences. The dogmatical affirmation
+"_qui non credit anathema sit_," so indiscriminately used, had lost
+its power. Public opinion protested against an order of things which
+checked the social and material onward movement of the Colony. And,
+strange as it may seem, Spain was absolutely impotent, even though
+it cost her the whole territory (as indeed happened) to remedy the
+evil. In these Islands what was known to the world as the Government
+of Spain was virtually the Executive of the Religious Corporations, who
+constituted the real Government, the members of which never understood
+patriotism as men of the world understand it. Every interest was made
+subservient to the welfare of the Orders. If, one day, the Colony
+must be lost to _them_, it was a matter of perfect indifference into
+whose hands it passed. It was their happy hunting-ground and last
+refuge. But the real Government could not exist without its Executive;
+and when that Executive was attacked and expelled by America, the
+real Government fell as a consequence. If the Executive had been
+strong enough to emancipate itself from the dominion of the friars
+only two decades ago, the Philippines might have remained a Spanish
+colony to-day. But the wealth in hard cash and the moral religious
+influence of the Monastic Orders were factors too powerful for any
+number of executive ministers, who would have fallen like ninepins
+if they had attempted to extricate themselves from the thraldom of
+sacerdotalism. Outside political circles there was, and still is in
+Spain, a class who shrink from the abandonment of ideas of centuries'
+duration. Whatever the fallacy may be, not a few are beguiled into
+thinking that its antiquity should command respect.
+
+The conquest of this Colony was decidedly far more a religious
+achievement than a military one, and to the _friars of old_ their
+nation's gratitude is fairly due for having contributed to her glory,
+but that gratitude is not an inheritance.
+
+Prosperity began to dawn upon the Philippines when restrictions
+on trade were gradually relaxed since the second decade of last
+century. As each year came round reforms were introduced, but
+so clumsily that no distinction was made between those who were
+educationally or intellectually prepared to receive them and those who
+were not; hence the small minority of natives, who had acquired the
+habits and necessities of their conquerors, sought to acquire for _all_
+an equal status, for which the masses were unprepared. The abolition of
+tribute in 1884 obliterated caste distinction; the university graduate
+and the herder were on a legal equality if they each carried a _cedula
+personal_, whilst certain Spanish legislators exercised a rare effort
+to persuade themselves and their partisans that the Colony was ripe for
+the impossible combination of liberal administration and monastic rule.
+
+It will be shown in these pages that the government of these Islands
+was practically as theocratic as it was civil. Upon the principle of
+religious pre-eminence all its statutes were founded, and the reader
+will now understand whence the innumerable Church and State contentions
+originated. Historical facts lead one to inquire: How far was Spain
+ever a _moral_ potential factor in the world's progress? Spanish
+colonization seems to have been only a colonizing mission preparatory
+to the attainment, by her colonists, of more congenial conditions
+under other _regimes_; for the repeated struggles for liberty,
+generation after generation, in all her colonies, tend to show that
+Spain's sovereignty was maintained through the inspiration of fear
+rather than love and sympathy, and that she entirely failed to render
+her colonial subjects happier than they were before.
+
+One cannot help feeling pity for the Spanish nation, which has let
+the Pearl of the Orient slip out of its fingers through culpable
+and stubborn mismanagement, after repeated warnings and similar
+experiences in other quarters of the globe. Yet although Spain's
+lethargic, petrified conservatism has had to yield to the progressive
+spirit of the times, the loss to her is more sentimental than real,
+and Spaniards of the next century will probably care as little about
+it as Britons do about the secession of their transatlantic colonies.
+
+Happiness is merely comparative: with a lovely climate--a continual
+summer--and all the absolute requirements of life at hand, there is not
+one-tenth of the misery in the Philippines that there is in Europe, and
+none of that forlorn wretchedness facing the public gaze. Beggary--that
+constant attribute of the highest civilization--hardly exists,
+and suicide is extremely rare. There are no ferocious animals,
+insects, or reptiles that one cannot reasonably guard against; it
+is essentially one of those countries where "man's greatest enemy is
+man." There is ample room for double the population, and yet a million
+acres of virgin soil only awaiting the co-operation of husbandman
+and capitalist to turn it to lucrative account. A humdrum life is
+incompatible here with the constant emotion kept up by typhoons,
+shipwrecks, earthquakes, tidal waves, volcanic eruptions, brigands,
+epidemics, devastating fires, etc.
+
+It is a beautiful country, copiously endowed by Nature, where the
+effulgent morning sun contributes to a happy frame of mind--where the
+colonist's rural life passes pleasantly enough to soothe the longing
+for "home, sweet home."
+
+
+    "And yet perhaps if countries we compare
+    And estimate the blessings which they share,
+    Though patriots flatter, yet shall wisdom find
+    An equal portion dealt to all mankind."
+
+
+Such is America's new possession, wherein she has assumed the moral
+responsibility of establishing a form of government on principles
+quite opposite to those of the defunct Spanish _regime_: whether
+it will be for better or for worse cannot be determined at this
+tentative stage. Without venturing on the prophetic, one may not
+only draw conclusions from accomplished facts, but also reasonably
+assume, in the light of past events, what might have happened under
+other circumstances. There is scarcely a Power which has not, in
+the zenith of its prosperity, consciously or unconsciously felt the
+"divine right" impulse, and claimed that Providence has singled it
+out to engraft upon an unwilling people its particular conception of
+human progress. The venture assumes, in time, the more dignified name
+of "mission"; and when the consequent torrents of blood recede from
+memory with the ebbing tide of forgetfulness, the conqueror soothes
+his conscience with a profession of "moral duty," which the conquered
+seldom appreciate in the first generation. No unforeseen circumstances
+whatever caused the United States to drift unwillingly into Philippine
+affairs. The war in Cuba had not the remotest connexion with these
+Islands. The adversary's army and navy were too busy with the task
+of quelling the Tagalog rebellion for any one to imagine they could
+be sent to the Atlantic. It was hardly possible to believe that
+the defective Spanish-Philippine squadron could have accomplished
+the voyage to the Antilles, in time of war, with every neutral port
+_en route_ closed against it. In any case, so far as the ostensible
+motive of the Spanish-American War was concerned, American operations
+in the Philippines might have ended with the Battle of Cavite. The
+Tagalog rebels were neither seeking nor desiring a change of masters,
+but the state of war with Spain afforded America the opportunity,
+internationally recognized as legitimate, to seize any of the enemy's
+possessions; hence the acquisition of the Philippines by conquest. Up
+to this point there is nothing to criticize, in face of the universal
+tacit recognition, from time immemorial, of the right of might.
+
+American dominion has never been welcomed by the Filipinos. All the
+principal Christianized islands, practically representing the whole
+Archipelago, except Moroland, resisted it by force of arms, until,
+after two years of warfare, they were so far vanquished that those
+still remaining in the field, claiming to be warriors, were, judged
+by their exploits, undistinguishable from the brigand gangs which have
+infested the Islands for a century and a half. The general desire was,
+and is, for sovereign independence; and although a pro-American party
+now exists, it is only in the hope of gaining peacefully that which
+they despaired of securing by armed resistance to superior force. The
+question as to how much nearer they are to the goal of their ambition
+belongs to the future; but there is nothing to show, by a review of
+accomplished facts, that, without foreign intervention, the Filipinos
+would have prospered in their rebellion against Spain. Even if they
+had expelled the Spaniards their independence would have been of
+short duration, for they would have lost it again in the struggle
+with some colony-grabbing nation. A united Archipelago under the
+Malolos Government would have been simply untenable; for, apart
+from the possible secessions of one or more islands, like Negros,
+for instance, no Christian Philippine Government could ever have
+conquered Mindanao and the Sulu Sultanate; indeed, the attempt might
+have brought about their own ruin, by exhaustion of funds, want of
+unity in the hopeless contest with the Moro, and foreign intervention
+to terminate the internecine war. Seeing that Emilio Aguinaldo had to
+suppress two rivals, even in the midst of the bloody struggle when
+union was most essential for the attainment of a common end, how
+many more would have risen up against him in the period of peaceful
+victory? The expulsion of the friars and the confiscation of their
+lands would have surprised no one cognizant of Philippine history. But
+what would have become of religion? Would the predominant religion
+in the Philippines, fifty years hence, have been Christian? Recent
+events lead one to conjecture that liberty of cult, under native rule,
+would have been a misnomer, and Roman Catholicism a persecuted cause,
+with the civilizing labours of generations ceasing to bear fruit.
+
+No generous, high-minded man, enjoying the glorious privilege of
+liberty, would withhold from his fellow-men the fullest measure of
+independence which they were capable of maintaining. If America's
+intentions be as the world understands them, she is endeavouring to
+break down the obstacles which the Filipinos, desiring a lasting
+independence, would have found insuperable. America claims (as
+other colonizing nations have done) to have a "mission" to perform,
+which, in the present case, includes teaching the Filipinos the art of
+self-government. Did one not reflect that America, from her birth as an
+independent state, has never pretended to follow on the beaten tracts
+of the Old World, her brand-new method of colonization would surprise
+her older contemporaries in a similar task. She has been the first to
+teach Asiatics the doctrine of equality of races--a theory which the
+proletariat has interpreted by a self-assertion hitherto unknown, and
+a gradual relinquishment of that courteous deference towards the white
+man formerly observable by every European. This democratic doctrine,
+suddenly launched upon the masses, is changing their character. The
+polite and submissive native of yore is developing into an ill-bred,
+up-to-date, wrangling politician. Hence rule by coercion, instead
+of sentiment, is forced upon America, for up to the present she
+has made no progress in winning the hearts of the people. Outside
+the high-salaried circle of Filipinos one never hears a spontaneous
+utterance of gratitude for the boon of individual liberty or for the
+suppression of monastic tyranny. The Filipinos craving for immediate
+independence, regard the United States only in the light of a useful
+medium for its attainment, and there are indications that their
+future attachment to their stepmother country will be limited to an
+unsentimental acceptance of her protection as a material necessity.
+
+Measures of practical utility and of immediate need have been set
+aside for the pursuit of costly fantastic ideals, which excite more
+the wonder than the enthusiasm of the people, who see left in abeyance
+the reforms they most desire. The system of civilizing the natives
+on a curriculum of higher mathematics, literature, and history,
+without concurrent material improvement to an equal extent, is like
+feeding the mind at the expense of the body. No harbour improvements
+have been made, except at Manila; no canals have been cut; few new
+provincial roads have been constructed, except for military purposes;
+no rivers are deepened for navigation, and not a mile of railway
+opened. The enormous sums of money expended on such unnecessary works
+as the Benguet road and the creation of multifarious bureaux, with a
+superfluity of public servants, might have been better employed in
+the development of agriculture and cognate wealth-producing public
+works. The excessive salaries paid to high officials seem to be out of
+all proportion to those of the subordinate assistants. Extravagance in
+public expenditure necessarily brings increasing taxation to meet it;
+the luxuries introduced for the sake of American trade are gradually,
+and unfortunately, becoming necessities, whereas it would be more
+considerate to reduce them if it were possible. It is no blessing to
+create a desire in the common people for that which they can very
+well dispense with and feel just as happy without the knowledge
+of. The deliberate forcing up of the cost of living has converted
+a cheap country into an expensive one, and an income which was
+once a modest competence is now a miserable pittance. The infinite
+vexatious regulations and complicated restrictions affecting trade
+and traffic are irritating to every class of business men, whilst
+the Colony's indebtedness is increasing, the budget shows a deficit,
+and agriculture--the only local source of wealth--is languishing.
+
+Innovations, costing immense sums to introduce, are forced upon the
+people, not at all in harmony with their real wants, their instincts,
+or their character. What is good for America is not necessarily good
+for the Philippines. One could more readily conceive the feasibility of
+"assimilation" with the Japanese than with the Anglo-Saxon. To rule and
+to assimilate are two very different propositions: the latter requires
+the existence of much in common between the parties. No legislation,
+example, or tuition will remould a people's life in direct opposition
+to their natural environment. Even the descendants of whites in the
+Philippines tend to merge into, rather than alter, the conditions of
+the surrounding race, and _vice versa_. It is quite impossible for
+a race born and living in the Tropics to adopt the characteristics
+and thought of a Temperate Zone people. The Filipinos are not an
+industrious, thrifty people, or lovers of work, and no power on earth
+will make them so. The Colony's resources are, consequently, not a
+quarter developed, and are not likely to be by a strict application
+of the theory of the "Philippines for the Filipinos." But why
+worry about their lethargy, if, with it, they are on the way to
+"perfect contentment"?--that summit of human happiness which no one
+attains. Ideal government may reach a point where its exactions tend
+to make life a burden; practical government stops this side of that
+point. White men will not be found willing to develop a policy which
+offers them no hope of bettering themselves; and as to labour--other
+willing Asiatics are always close at hand. Uncertainty of legislation,
+constantly changing laws, new regulations, the fear of a tax on
+capital, and general prospective insecurity make large investors pause.
+
+Democratic principles have been too suddenly sprung upon the
+masses. The autonomy granted to the provinces needs more control
+than the civil government originally intended, and ends in an
+appeal on almost every conceivable question being made to one
+man--the Gov.-General: this excessive concentration makes efficient
+administration too dependent on the abilities of one person. There
+are many who still think, and not without reason, that ten years of
+military rule would have been better for the people themselves. Even
+now military government might be advantageously re-established in Samar
+Island, where the common people are not anxious for the franchise,
+or care much about political rights. A reasonable amount of personal
+freedom, with justice, would suffice for them; whilst the trading class
+would welcome any effective and continuous protection, rather than have
+to shift for themselves with the risk of being persecuted for having
+given succour to the _pulajanes_ to save their own lives and property.
+
+Civil government, prematurely inaugurated, without sufficient
+preparation, has had a disastrous effect, and the present state of
+many provinces is that of a wilderness overrun by brigand bands too
+strong for the civil authority to deal with. But one cannot fail to
+recognize and appreciate the humane motives which urged the premature
+establishment of civil administration. Scores of nobodies before the
+rebellion became somebodies during the four or five years of social
+turmoil. Some of them influenced the final issue, others were mere
+show-figures, really not more important than the _beau sabreur_ in
+comic opera. Yet one and all claimed compensation for laying aside
+their weapons, and in changing the play from anarchy to civil life
+these actors had to be included in the new cast to keep them from
+further mischief.
+
+The moral conquest of the Philippines has hardly commenced. The
+benevolent intentions of the Washington Government, and the
+irreproachable character and purpose of its eminent members who wield
+the destiny of these islanders, are unknown to the untutored masses,
+who judge their new masters by the individuals with whom they come into
+close contact. The hearts of the people cannot be won without moral
+prestige, which is blighted by the presence of that undesirable class
+of immigrants to whom Maj.-General Leonard Wood refers so forcibly in
+his "First Report of the Moro Province." In this particular region,
+which is ruled semi-independently of the Philippine Commission,
+the peculiar conditions require a special legislation. But, apart
+from this, the common policy of its enlightened Gov.-General would
+serve as a pattern of what it might be, with advantage, throughout
+the Archipelago.
+
+So much United States money and energy have been already expended
+in these Islands, and so far-reaching are the pledges made to their
+inhabitants, that American and Philippine interests are indissolubly
+associated for many a generation to come. It does not necessarily
+follow that the fullest measure of national liberty will create real
+personal liberty. Such an idea does not at all appeal to Asiatics,
+according to whose instinct every man dominates over, or is dominated
+by, another. If America should succeed in establishing a permanently
+peaceful independent Asiatic government on democratic principles,
+it will be one of the unparalleled achievements of the age.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+General Description of the Archipelago
+
+
+The Philippine Islands, with the Sulu Protectorate, extend a little
+over 16 degrees of latitude--from 4 deg. 45' to 21 deg. N., and longitude
+from 116 deg. 40' to 126 deg. 30' E.--and number some 600 islands, many of
+which are mere islets, besides several hundreds of rocks jutting out
+of the sea. The 11 islands of primary geographical importance are
+Luzon, Mindanao, Samar, Panay, Negros, Palauan (Paragua), Mindoro,
+Leyte, Cebu, Masbate, and Bojol. Ancient maps show the islands and
+provinces under a different nomenclature. For example: (old names in
+parentheses) Albay (Ibalon); Batangas (Comintan); Basilan (Taguima);
+Bulacan (Meycauayan); Capis (Panay); Cavite (Cauit); Cebu (Sogbu);
+Leyte (Baybay); Mindoro (Mait); Negros (Buglas); Rizal (Tondo; later
+on Manila); Surigao (Caraga); Samar (Ibabao); Tayabas (Calilayan).
+
+Luzon and Mindanao united would be larger in area than all the rest
+of the islands put together. Luzon is said to have over 40,000 square
+miles of land area. The northern half of Luzon is a mountainous region
+formed by ramifications of the great cordilleras, which run N. to
+S. All the islands are mountainous in the interior, the principal
+peaks being the following, viz.:--
+
+
+                                        Feet above sea level
+
+        Halcon (Mindoro)                        8,868
+        Apo [5] (Mindanao)                      8,804
+        Mayon (Luzon)                           8,283
+        San Cristobal (Luzon)                   7,375
+        Isarog (Luzon)                          6,443
+        Banajao (Luzon)                         6,097
+        Labo (Luzon)                            5,090
+        South Caraballo (Luzon)                 4,720
+        Caraballo del Baler (Luzon)             3,933
+        Maquiling (Luzon)                       3,720
+
+
+Most of these mountains and subordinate ranges are thickly covered
+with forest and light undergrowth, whilst the stately trees are gaily
+festooned with clustering creepers and flowering parasites of the most
+brilliant hues. The Mayon, which is an active volcano, is comparatively
+bare, whilst also the Apo, although no longer in eruption, exhibits
+abundant traces of volcanic action in acres of lava and blackened
+scoriae. Between the numberless forest-clad ranges are luxuriant plains
+glowing in all the splendour of tropical vegetation. The valleys,
+generally of rich fertility, are about one-third under cultivation.
+
+There are numerous rivers, few of which are navigable by sea-going
+ships. Vessels drawing up to 13 feet can enter the Pasig River,
+but this is due to the artificial means employed.
+
+The principal Rivers are:--In _Luzon Island_ the Rio Grande de Cagayan,
+which rises in the South Caraballo Mountain in the centre of the
+island, and runs in a tortuous stream to the northern coast. It has two
+chief affluents, the Rio Chico de Cagayan and the Rio Magat, besides
+a number of streams which find their way to its main course. Steamers
+of 11-feet draught have entered the Rio Grande, but the sand shoals
+at the mouth are very shifty, and frequently the entrance is closed
+to navigation. The river, which yearly overflows its banks, bathes
+the great Cagayan Valley,--the richest tobacco-growing district in
+the Colony. Immense trunks of trees are carried down in the torrent
+with great rapidity, rendering it impossible for even small craft--the
+_barangayanes_--to make their way up or down the river at that period.
+
+The Rio Grande de la Pampanga rises in the same mountain and flows
+in the opposite direction--southwards,--through an extensive plain,
+until it empties itself by some 20 mouths into the Manila Bay. The
+whole of the Pampanga Valley and the course of the river present a
+beautiful panorama from the summit of Arayat Mountain, which has an
+elevation of 2,877 feet above the sea level.
+
+The whole of this flat country is laid out into embanked rice fields
+and sugar-cane plantations. The towns and villages interspersed are
+numerous. All the primeval forest, at one time dense, has disappeared;
+for this being one of the first districts brought under European
+subjection, it supplied timber to the invaders from the earliest days
+of Spanish colonization.
+
+The Rio Agno rises in a mountainous range towards the west coast
+about 50 miles N.N.W. of the South Caraballo--runs southwards as
+far as lat. 16 deg., where it takes a S.W. direction down to lat. 15 deg.
+48'--thence a N.W. course up to lat. 16 deg., whence it empties itself by
+two mouths into the Gulf of Lingayen. At the highest tides there is
+a maximum depth of 11 feet of water on the sand bank at the E. mouth,
+on which is situated the port of Dagupan.
+
+The Bicol River, which flows from the Bato Lake to the Bay of San
+Miguel, has sufficient depth of water to admit vessels of small
+draught a few miles up from its mouth.
+
+In _Mindanao Island_ the Butuan River or Rio Agusan rises at a distance
+of about 25 miles from the southern coast and empties itself on the
+northern coast, so that it nearly divides the island, and is navigable
+for a few miles from the mouth.
+
+The Rio Grande de Mindanao rises in the centre of the island and
+empties itself on the west coast by two mouths, and is navigable
+for some miles by light-draught steamers. It has a great number of
+affluents of little importance.
+
+The only river in _Negros Island_ of any appreciable extent is the
+Danao, which rises in the mountain range running down the centre of
+the island, and finds its outlet on the east coast. At the mouth it
+is about a quarter of a mile wide, but too shallow to permit large
+vessels to enter, although past the mouth it has sufficient depth
+for any ship. I went up this river, six hours' journey in a boat,
+and saw some fine timber near its banks in many places. Here and
+there it opens out very wide, the sides becoming mangrove swamps.
+
+The most important Lakes are:--In _Luzon Island_ the Bay Lake or
+Laguna de Bay, supplied by numberless small streams coming from the
+mountainous district around it. Its greatest length from E. to W. is
+25 miles, and its greatest breadth N. to S. 21 miles. In it there
+is a mountainous island--Talim,--of no agricultural importance, and
+several islets. Its overflow forms the Pasig River, which empties
+itself into the Manila Bay. Each wet season--in the middle of the
+year--the shores of this lake are flooded. These floods recede as the
+dry season approaches, but only partially so from the south coast,
+which is gradually being incorporated into the lake bed.
+
+Bombon Lake, in the centre of which is a volcano in constant activity,
+has a width E. to W. of 11 miles, and its length from N. to S. is
+14 miles. The origin of this lake is apparently volcanic. According
+to tradition it was formed by the terrific upheaval of a mountain
+7,000 or 8,000 feet high, in the year 1700. It is not supplied by any
+streams emptying themselves into it (further than two insignificant
+rivulets), and it is connected with the sea by the Pansipit River,
+which flows into the Gulf of Balayan at lat. 13 deg. 52' N.
+
+Cagayan Lake, in the extreme N.E. of the island, is about 7 miles
+long by 5 miles broad.
+
+Lake Bato, 3 miles across each way, and Lake Buhi, 3 miles N. to S. and
+2 1/2 miles wide, situated in the eastern extremity of Luzon Island,
+are very shallow.
+
+In the centre of Luzon Island, in the large valley watered by
+the above-mentioned Pampanga and Agno Rivers, are three lakes,
+respectively Canarem, Mangabol, and Candava; the last two being
+lowland meres flooded and navigable by canoes in the rainy season only.
+
+In _Mindoro Island_ there is one lake called Naujan, 2 1/2 miles from
+the N.E. coast. Its greatest width is 3 miles, with 4 miles in length.
+
+In _Mindanao Island_ there are the Lakes Maguindanao or Boayan, in
+the centre of the island (20 miles E. to W. by 12 N. to S.); Lanao,
+18 miles distant from the north coast; Liguasan and Buluan towards
+the south, connected with the Rio Grande de Mindanao, and a group of
+four small lakes on the Agusuan River.
+
+The Lanao Lake has great historical associations with the struggles
+between Christians and Moslems during the period of the Spanish
+dominion, and is to this day a centre of strife with the Americans.
+
+In some of the straits dividing the islands there are strong currents,
+rendering navigation of sailing vessels very difficult, notably in
+the San Bernadino Straits separating the Islands of Luzon and Samar,
+the roadstead of Yloilo between Panay and Guimarras Islands, and the
+passage between the south points of Cebu and Negros Islands.
+
+Most of the islets, if not indeed the whole Archipelago, are of
+volcanic origin. There are many volcanoes, two of them in frequent
+intermittent activity, viz. the Mayon, in the extreme east of
+Luzon Island, and the Taal Volcano, in the centre of Bombon Lake,
+34 miles due south of Manila. Also in Negros Island the Canlauan
+Volcano--N. lat. 10 deg. 24'--is occasionally in visible eruption. In
+1886 a portion of its crater subsided, accompanied by a tremendous
+noise and a slight ejection of lava. In the picturesque Island of
+Camiguin a volcano mountain suddenly arose from the plain in 1872.
+
+The _Mayon Volcano_ is in the north of the Province of Albay;
+hence it is popularly known as the Albay Volcano. Around its base
+there are several towns and villages, the chief being Albay, the
+capital of the province; Cagsaua (called Daraga) and Camaling on
+the one side, and Malinao, Tobaco, etc., on the side facing the east
+coast. The earliest eruption recorded is that of 1616, mentioned by
+Spilbergen. In 1769 there was a serious eruption, which destroyed the
+towns of Cagsaua and Malinao, besides several villages, and devastated
+property within a radius of 20 miles. Lava and ashes were thrown out
+incessantly during two months, and cataracts of water were formed. In
+1811 loud subterranean noises were heard proceeding from the volcano,
+which caused the inhabitants around to fear an early renewal of its
+activity, but their misfortune was postponed. On February 1, 1814,
+[6] it burst with terrible violence. Cagsaua, Badiao, and three other
+towns were totally demolished. Stones and ashes were ejected in all
+directions. The inhabitants fled to caves to shelter themselves. So
+sudden was the occurrence, that many natives were overtaken by the
+volcanic projectiles and a few by lava streams. In Cagsaua nearly
+all property was lost. Father Aragoneses estimates that 2,200 persons
+were killed, besides many being wounded.
+
+Another eruption, remarkable for its duration, took place in 1881-82,
+and again in the spring of 1887; but only a small quantity of ashes
+was thrown out, and did very little or no damage to the property in
+the surrounding towns and villages.
+
+The eruption of July 9, 1888, severely damaged the towns of Libog
+and Legaspi; plantations were destroyed in the villages of Bigaa and
+Bonco; several houses were fired, others had the roofs crushed in;
+a great many domestic animals were killed; fifteen natives lost their
+lives, and the loss of live-stock (buffaloes and oxen) was estimated
+at 500. The ejection of lava and ashes and stones from the crater
+continued for one night, which was illuminated by a column of fire.
+
+The last great eruption occurred in May, 1897. Showers of red-hot
+lava fell like rain in a radius of 20 miles from the crater. In
+the immediate environs about 400 persons were killed. In the
+village of Bacacay houses were entirely buried beneath the lava,
+ashes, and sand. The road to the port of Legaspi was covered out of
+sight. In the important town of Tobaco there was total darkness and
+the earth opened. Hemp plantations and a large number of cattle were
+destroyed. In Libog over 100 inhabitants perished in the ruins. The
+hamlets of San Roque, Misericordia, and Santo Nino, with over
+150 inhabitants, were completely covered with burning _debris_. At
+night-time the sight of the fire column, heaving up thousands of tons
+of stones, accompanied by noises like the booming of cannon afar off,
+was indescribably grand, but it was the greatest public calamity
+which had befallen the province for some years past.
+
+The mountain is remarkable for the perfection of its conic form. Owing
+to the perpendicular walls of lava formed on the slopes all around,
+it would seem impossible to reach the crater. The elevation of the
+peak has been computed at between 8,200 and 8,400 feet. I have been
+around the base on the E. and S. sides, but the grandest view is to
+be obtained from Cagsaua (Daraga). On a clear night, when the moon
+is hidden, a stream of fire is distinctly seen to flow from the crest.
+
+_Taal Volcano_ is in the island of the Bombon Lake referred to
+above. The journey by the ordinary route from the capital would be
+about 60 miles. This volcano has been in an active state from time
+immemorial, and many eruptions have taken place with more or less
+effect. The first one of historical importance appears to have occurred
+in 1641; again in 1709 the crater vomited fire with a deafening noise;
+on September 21, 1716, it threw out burning stones and lava over the
+whole island from which it rises, but so far no harm had befallen
+the villagers in its vicinity. In 1731 from the waters of the lake
+three tall columns of earth and sand arose in a few days, eventually
+subsiding into the form of an island about a mile in circumference. In
+1749 there was a famous outburst which dilacerated the coniform peak
+of the volcano, leaving the crater disclosed as it now is. Being
+only 850 feet high, it is remarkable as one of the lowest volcanoes
+in the world.
+
+The last and most desolating of all the eruptions of importance
+occurred in the year 1754, when the stones, lava, ashes, and waves
+of the lake, caused by volcanic action, contributed to the utter
+destruction of the towns of Taal, Tanauan, Sala, and Lipa, and
+seriously damaged property in Balayan, 15 miles away, whilst cinders
+are said to have reached Manila, 34 miles distant in a straight
+line. One writer says in his MS., [7] compiled 36 years after the
+occurrence, that people in Manila dined with lighted candles at midday,
+and walked about the streets confounded and thunderstruck, clamouring
+for confession during the eight days that the calamity was visible. The
+author adds that the smell of the sulphur and fire lasted six months
+after the event, and was followed by malignant fever, to which half the
+inhabitants of the province fell victims. Moreover, adds the writer,
+the lake waters threw up dead alligators and fish, including sharks.
+
+The best detailed account extant is that of the parish priest of Sala
+at the time of the event. [8] He says that about 11 o'clock at night
+on August 11, 1749, he saw a strong light on the top of the Volcano
+Island, but did not take further notice. At 3 o'clock the next morning
+he heard a gradually increasing noise like artillery firing, which
+he supposed would proceed from the guns of the galleon expected in
+Manila from Mexico, saluting the Sanctuary of Our Lady of Cagsaysay
+whilst passing. He only became anxious when the number of shots he
+heard far exceeded the royal salute, for he had already counted a
+hundred times, and still it continued. So he arose, and it occurred
+to him that there might be a naval engagement off the coast. He was
+soon undeceived, for four old natives suddenly called out, "Father,
+let us flee!" and on his inquiry they informed him that the island had
+burst, hence the noise. Daylight came and exposed to view an immense
+column of smoke gushing from the summit of the volcano, and here and
+there from its sides smaller streams rose like plumes. He was joyed
+at the spectacle, which interested him so profoundly that he did not
+heed the exhortations of the natives to escape from the grand but
+awful scene. It was a magnificent sight to watch mountains of sand
+hurled from the lake into the air in the form of erect pyramids,
+and then falling again like the stream from a fountain jet. Whilst
+contemplating this imposing phenomenon with tranquil delight, a
+strong earthquake came and upset everything in the convent. Then he
+reflected that it might be time to go; pillars of sand ascended out
+of the water nearer to the shore of the town, and remained erect,
+until, by a second earthquake, they, with the trees on the islet,
+were violently thrown down and submerged in the lake. The earth
+opened out here and there as far as the shores of the Laguna de Bay,
+and the lands of Sala and Tanauan shifted. Streams found new beds and
+took other courses, whilst in several places trees were engulfed in
+the fissures made in the soil. Houses, which one used to go up into,
+one now had to go down into, but the natives continued to inhabit
+them without the least concern. The volcano, on this occasion, was
+in activity for three weeks; the first three days ashes fell like
+rain. After this incident, the natives extracted sulphur from the
+open crater, and continued to do so until the year 1754.
+
+In that year (1754), the same chronicler continues, between nine and
+ten o'clock at night on May 15, the volcano ejected boiling lava,
+which ran down its sides in such quantities that only the waters
+of the lake saved the people on shore from being burnt. Towards the
+north, stones reached the shore and fell in a place called Bayoyongan,
+in the jurisdiction of Taal. Stones and fire incessantly came from
+the crater until June 2, when a volume of smoke arose which seemed
+to meet the skies. It was clearly seen from Bauan, which is on a low
+level about four leagues (14 miles) from the lake.
+
+Matters continued so until July 10, when there fell a heavy shower
+of mud as black as ink. The wind changed its direction and a suburb
+of Sala, called Balili, was swamped with mud. This phenomenon was
+accompanied by a noise so great that the people of Batangas and Bauan,
+who that day had seen the galleon from Acapulco passing on her home
+voyage, conjectured that she had saluted the Shrine of Our Lady of
+Cagsaysay on her way. The noise ceased, but fire still continued to
+issue from the crater until September 25. Stones fell all that night;
+and the people of Taal had to abandon their homes, for the roofs were
+falling in with the weight upon them. The chronicler was at Taal
+at this date, and in the midst of the column of smoke a tempest of
+thunder and lightning raged and continued without intermission until
+December 4.
+
+The night of All Saints' day (Nov. 1) was a memorable one, for the
+quantity of falling fire-stones, sand, and ashes increased, gradually
+diminishing again towards November 15. Then, on that night, after
+vespers, great noises were heard. A long melancholy sound dinned in
+one's ears; volumes of black smoke rose; an infinite number of stones
+fell, and great waves proceeded from the lake, beating the shores with
+appalling fury. This was followed by another great shower of stones,
+brought up amidst the black smoke, which lasted until 10 o'clock at
+night. For a short while the devastation was suspended prior to the
+last supreme effort. All looked half dead and much exhausted after
+seven months of suffering in the way described. [9] It was resolved
+to remove the image of Our Lady of Cagsaysay and put in its place
+the second image of the Holy Virgin.
+
+On November 29, from seven o'clock in the evening, the volcano threw
+up more fire than all put together in the preceding seven months. The
+burning column seemed to mingle with the clouds; the whole of the
+island was one ignited mass. A wind blew. And as the priests and the
+mayor (_Alcalde_) were just remarking that the fire might reach the
+town, a mass of stones was thrown up with great violence; thunderclaps
+and subterranean noises were heard; everybody looked aghast, and nearly
+all knelt to pray. Then the waters of the lake began to encroach
+upon the houses, and the inhabitants took to flight, the natives
+carrying away whatever chattels they could. Cries and lamentations
+were heard all around; mothers were looking for their children in
+dismay; half-caste women of the Parian were calling for confession,
+some of them beseechingly falling on their knees in the middle of
+the streets. The panic was intense, and was in no way lessened by
+the Chinese, who took to yelling in their own jargonic syllables.
+
+After the terrible night of November 29 they thought all was over,
+when again several columns of smoke appeared, and the priest went off
+to the Sanctuary of Cagsaysay, where the prior was. Taal was entirely
+abandoned, the natives having gone in all directions away from the
+lake. On November 29 and 30 there was complete darkness around the
+lake vicinity, and when light reappeared a layer of cinders about
+five inches thick was seen over the lands and houses, and it was
+still increasing. Total darkness returned, so that one could not
+distinguish another's face, and all were more horror-stricken than
+ever. In Cagsaysay the natives climbed on to the housetops and threw
+down the cinders, which were over-weighting the structures. On November
+30 smoke and strange sounds came with greater fury than anything
+yet experienced, while lightning flashed in the dense obscurity. It
+seemed as if the end of the world was arriving. When light returned,
+the destruction was horribly visible; the church roof was dangerously
+covered with ashes and earth, and the chronicler opines that its not
+having fallen in might be attributed to a miracle! Then there was
+a day of comparative quietude, followed by a hurricane which lasted
+two days. All were in a state of melancholy, which was increased when
+they received the news that the whole of Taal had collapsed; amongst
+the ruins being the Government House and Stores, the Prison, State
+warehouses and the Royal Rope Walk, besides the Church and Convent.
+
+The Gov.-General sent food and clothing in a vessel, which was nearly
+wrecked by storms, whilst the crew pumped and baled out continually
+to keep her afloat, until at length she broke up on the shoals at
+the mouth of the Pansipit River. Another craft had her mast split by
+a flash of lightning, but reached port.
+
+With all this, some daft natives lingered about the site of the town
+of Taal till the last, and two men were sepulchred in the Government
+House ruins. A woman left her house just before the roof fell in
+and was carried away by a flood, from which she escaped, and was
+then struck dead by a flash of lightning. A man who had escaped from
+Mussulman pirates, by whom he had been held in captivity for years,
+was killed during the eruption. He had settled in Taal, and was held
+to be a perfect genius, for he could mend a clock!
+
+The road from Taal to Balayan was impassable for a while on account
+of the quantity of lava. Taal, once so important as a trading centre,
+was now gone, and Batangas, on the coast, became the future capital
+of the province.
+
+The actual duration of this last eruption was 6 months and 17 days.
+
+In 1780 the natives again extracted sulphur, but in 1790 a writer at
+that date [10] says that he was unable to reach the crater owing to
+the depth of soft lava and ashes on the slopes.
+
+There is a tradition current amongst the natives that an Englishman
+some years ago attempted to cut a tunnel from the base to the centre
+of the volcanic mountain, probably to extract some metallic product
+or sulphur. It is said that during the work the excavation partially
+fell in upon the Englishman, who perished there. The cave-like entrance
+is pointed out to travellers as the _Cueva del Ingles_.
+
+Referring to the volcano, Fray Gaspar de San Agustin in his History
+[11] remarks as follows:--"The volcano formerly emitted many large
+fire-stones which destroyed the cotton, sweet potato and other
+plantations belonging to the natives of Taal on the slopes of the
+(volcano) mountain. Also it happened that if three persons arrived
+on the volcanic island, one of them had infallibly to die there
+without being able to ascertain the cause of this circumstance. This
+was related to Father Albuquerque, [12] who after a fervent deesis
+entreating compassion on the natives, went to the island, exorcised
+the evil spirits there and blessed the land. A religious procession was
+made, and Mass was celebrated with great humility. On the elevation of
+the Host, horrible sounds were heard, accompanied by groaning voices
+and sad lamentations; two craters opened out, one with sulphur in it
+and the other with green water (sic), which is constantly boiling. The
+crater on the Lipa side is about a quarter of a league wide; the other
+is smaller, and in time smoke began to ascend from this opening so that
+the natives, fearful of some new calamity, went to Father Bartholomew,
+who repeated the ceremonies already described. Mass was said a second
+time, so that since then the volcano has not thrown out any more fire
+or smoke. [13] However, whilst Fray Thomas Abresi was parish priest
+of Taal (about 1611), thunder and plaintive cries were again heard,
+therefore the priest had a cross, made of Anobing wood, borne to the
+top of the volcano by more than 400 natives, with the result that
+not only the volcano ceased to do harm, but the island has regained
+its original fertile condition."
+
+The Taal Volcano is reached with facility from the N. side of the
+island, the ascent on foot occupying about half an hour. Looking
+into the crater, which would be about 4,500 feet wide from one border
+to the other of the shell, one sees three distinct lakes of boiling
+liquid, the colours of which change from time to time. I have been
+up to the crater four times; the last time the liquids in the lakes
+were respectively of green, yellow, and chocolate colours. At the
+time of my last visit there was also a lava chimney in the middle,
+from which arose a snow-white volume of smoke.
+
+The Philippine Islands have numberless creeks and bays forming
+natural harbours, but navigation on the W. coasts of Cebu, Negros and
+Palauan Islands is dangerous for any but very light-draught vessels,
+the water being very shallow, whilst there are dangerous reefs all
+along the W. coast of Palauan (Paragua) and between the south point
+of this island and Balabac Island.
+
+The S.W. monsoon brings rain to most of the islands, and the wet
+season lasts nominally six months,--from about the end of April. The
+other half of the year is the dry season. However, on those coasts
+directly facing the Pacific Ocean, the seasons are the reverse of this.
+
+The hottest season is from March to May inclusive, except on the coasts
+washed by the Pacific, where the greatest heat is felt in June, July,
+and August. The temperature throughout the year varies but slightly,
+the average heat in Luzon Island being about 81 deg. 50' Fahr. In the
+highlands of north Luzon, on an elevation above 4,000 feet, the maximum
+temperature is 78 deg. Fahr. and the minimum 46 deg. Fahr. Zamboanga, which is
+over 400 miles south of Manila, is cooler than the capital. The average
+number of rainy days in Luzon during the years 1881 to 1883 was 203.
+
+Commencing July 11, 1904, three days of incessant rain in Rizal
+Province produced the greatest inundation of Manila suburbs within
+living memory. Human lives were lost; many cattle were washed away;
+barges in the river were wrenched from their moorings and dashed
+against the bridge piers; pirogues were used instead of vehicles in
+the thoroughfares; considerable damage was done in the shops and many
+persons had to wade through the flooded streets knee-deep in water.
+
+The climate is a continual summer, which maintains a rich verdure
+throughout the year; and during nine months of the twelve an alternate
+heat and moisture stimulates the soil to the spontaneous production
+of every form of vegetable life. The country generally is healthy.
+
+The whole of the Archipelago, as far south as 10 deg. lat., is affected
+by the monsoons, and periodically disturbed by terrible hurricanes,
+which cause great devastation to the crops and other property. The
+last destructive hurricane took place in September, 1905.
+
+Earthquakes are also very frequent, the last of great importance having
+occurred in 1863, 1880, 1892, 1894, and 1897. In 1897 a tremendous
+tidal wave affected the Island of Leyte, causing great destruction of
+life and property. A portion of Tacloban, the capital of the island,
+was swept away, rendering it necessary to extend the town in another
+direction.
+
+In the wet season the rivers swell considerably, and often overflow
+their banks; whilst the mountain torrents carry away bridges, cattle,
+tree trunks, etc., with terrific force, rendering travelling in some
+parts of the interior dangerous and difficult. In the dry season long
+droughts occasionally occur (about once in three years), to the great
+detriment of the crops and live-stock.
+
+The southern boundary of the Archipelago is formed by a chain of some
+140 islands, stretching from the large island of Mindanao as far as
+Borneo, and constitutes the Sulu Archipelago, the Sultanate of which
+was under the protection of Spain (_vide_ Chap. xxix.). It is now
+being absorbed, under American rule, in the rest of the Archipelago,
+under the denomination of Moro Province (q.v.).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+Discovery of the Archipelago
+
+
+The discoveries of Christopher Columbus in 1492, the adventures and
+conquests of Hernan Cortes, Blasco Nunez de Balboa and others in
+the South Atlantic, had awakened an ardent desire amongst those of
+enterprizing spirit to seek beyond those regions which had hitherto
+been traversed. It is true the Pacific Ocean had been seen by Balboa,
+who crossed the Isthmus of Panama, but how to arrive there with his
+ships was as yet a mystery.
+
+On April 10, 1495, the Spanish Government published a general
+concession to all who wished to search for unknown lands. This was a
+direct attack upon the privileges of Columbus at the instigation of
+Fonseca, Bishop of Burgos, who had the control of the Indian affairs
+of the realm. Rich merchants of Cadiz and Seville, whose imagination
+was inflamed by the reports of the abundance of pearls and gold on the
+American coast, fitted out ships to be manned by the roughest class
+of gold-hunters: so great were the abuses of this common licence that
+it was withdrawn by Royal Decree of June 2, 1497.
+
+It was the age of chivalry, and the restless cavalier who had won
+his spurs in Europe lent a listening ear to the accounts of romantic
+glory and wealth attained across the seas. That an immense ocean washed
+the western shores of the great American continent was an established
+fact. That there was a passage connecting the great Southern sea--the
+Atlantic--with that vast ocean was an accepted hypothesis. Many had
+sought the passage in vain; the honour of its discovery was reserved
+for Hernando de Maghallanes (Portuguese, Fernao da Magalhaes).
+
+This celebrated man was a Portuguese noble who had received the most
+complete education in the palace of King John II. Having studied
+mathematics and navigation, at an early age he joined the Portuguese
+fleet which left for India in 1505 under the command of Almeida. He
+was present at the siege of Malacca under the famous Albuquerque, and
+accompanied another expedition to the rich Moluccas, or Spice Islands,
+when the Islands of Banda, Tidor, and Ternate were discovered. It
+was here he obtained the information which led him to contemplate
+the voyage which he subsequently realized.
+
+On his return to Portugal he searched the Crown Archives to see
+if the Moluccas were situated within the demarcation accorded to
+Spain. [14] In the meantime he repaired to the wars in Africa, where
+he was wounded in the knee, with the result that he became permanently
+lame. He consequently retired to Portugal, and his companions in arms,
+jealous of his prowess, took advantage of his affliction to assail him
+with vile imputations. The King Emmanuel encouraged the complaints,
+and accused him of feigning a malady of which he was completely
+cured. Wounded to the quick by such an assertion, and convinced of
+having lost the royal favour, Maghallanes renounced for ever, by a
+formal and public instrument, his duties and rights as a Portuguese
+subject, and henceforth became a naturalized Spaniard. He then
+presented himself at the Spanish Court, at that time in Valladolid,
+where he was well received by the King Charles I., the Bishop of
+Burgos, Juan Rodriguez Fonseca, Minister of Indian Affairs, and by
+the King's chancellor. They listened attentively to his narration,
+and he had the good fortune to secure the personal protection of His
+Majesty, himself a well-tried warrior, experienced in adventure.
+
+The Portuguese Ambassador, Alvaro de Acosta, incensed at the success
+of his late countryman, and fearing that the project under discussion
+would lead to the conquest of the Spice Islands by the rival kingdom,
+made every effort to influence the Court against him. At the same
+time he ineffectually urged Maghallanes to return to Lisbon, alleging
+that his resolution to abandon Portuguese citizenship required the
+sovereign sanction. Others even meditated his assassination to save
+the interests of the King of Portugal. This powerful opposition only
+served to delay the expedition, for finally the King of Portugal
+was satisfied that his Spanish rival had no intention to authorize
+a violation of the Convention of Demarcation.
+
+Between King Charles and Maghallanes a contract was signed in Saragossa
+by virtue of which the latter pledged himself to seek the discovery
+of rich spice islands within the limits of the Spanish Empire. If
+he should not have succeeded in the venture after ten years from
+the date of sailing he would thenceforth be permitted to navigate
+and trade without further royal assent, reserving one-twentieth of
+his net gains for the Crown. The King accorded to him the title
+of Cavalier and invested him with the habit of St. James and the
+hereditary government in male succession of all the islands he might
+annex. The Crown of Castile reserved to itself the supreme authority
+over such government. If Maghallanes discovered so many as six islands,
+he was to embark merchandise in the King's own ships to the value of
+one thousand ducats as royal dues. If the islands numbered only two,
+he would pay to the Crown one-fifteenth of the net profits. The King,
+however, was to receive one-fifth part of the total cargo sent in the
+_first_ return expedition. The King would defray the expense of fitting
+out and arming five ships of from 60 to 130 tons with a total crew
+of 234 men; he would also appoint captains and officials of the Royal
+Treasury to represent the State interests in the division of the spoil.
+
+Orders to fulfil the contract were issued to the Crown officers in the
+port of Seville, and the expedition was slowly prepared, consisting
+of the following vessels, viz.: The commodore ship _La Trinidad_,
+under the immediate command of Maghallanes; the _San Antonio_,
+Captain Juan de Cartagena; the _Victoria_, Captain Luis de Mendoza;
+the _Santiago_, Captain Juan Rodriguez Serrano; and the _Concepcion_,
+Captain Gaspar de Quesada.
+
+The little fleet had not yet sailed when dissensions arose.
+
+Maghallanes wished to carry his own ensign, whilst Doctor Sancho
+Matienza insisted that it should be the Royal Standard.
+
+Another, named Talero, disputed the question of who should be the
+standard-bearer. The King himself had to settle these quarrels by his
+own arbitrary authority. Talero was disembarked and the Royal Standard
+was formally presented to Maghallanes by injunction of the King in
+the Church of Santa Maria de la Victoria de la Triana, in Seville,
+where he and his companions swore to observe the usages and customs
+of Castile, and to remain faithful and loyal to His Catholic Majesty.
+
+On August 10, 1519, the expedition left the port of San Lucar de
+Barrameda in the direction of the Canary Islands.
+
+On December 13 they arrived safely at Rio Janeiro.
+
+Following the coast in search of the longed-for passage to the
+Pacific Ocean, they entered the Solis River--so called because its
+discoverer, Joao de Solis, a Portuguese, was murdered there. Its name
+was afterwards changed to that of Rio de la Plata (the Silver River).
+
+Continuing their course, the intense cold determined Maghallanes to
+winter in the next large river, known then as San Julian.
+
+Tumults arose; some wished to return home; others harboured a desire
+to separate from the fleet, but Maghallanes had sufficient tact
+to persuade the crews to remain with him, reminding them of the
+shame which would befall them if they returned only to relate their
+failure. He added that, so far as he was concerned, nothing but death
+would deter him from executing the royal commission.
+
+As to the rebellious captains, Juan de Cartagena was already put
+in irons and sentenced to be cast ashore with provisions, and a
+disaffected French priest for a companion. The sentence was carried
+out later on. Then Maghallanes sent a boat to each of three of the
+ships to inquire of the captains whom they served. The reply from all
+was that they were for the King and themselves. Thereupon 30 men were
+sent to the _Victoria_ with a letter to Mendoza, and whilst he was
+reading it, they rushed on board and stabbed him to death. Quesada
+then brought his ship alongside of the _Trinidad_, and, with sword and
+shield in hand, called in vain upon his men to attack. Maghallanes,
+with great promptitude, gave orders to board Quesada's vessel. The
+next day Quesada was executed. After these vigorous but justifiable
+measures, obedience was ensured.
+
+Still bearing southwards within sight of the coast, on October 28,
+1520, the expedition reached and entered the seaway thenceforth known
+as the Magellan Straits, dividing the Island of Tierra del Fuego from
+the mainland of Patagonia. [15]
+
+On the way one ship had become a total wreck, and now the _San Antonio_
+deserted the expedition; her captain having been wounded and made
+prisoner by his mutinous officers, she was sailed in the direction of
+New Guinea. The three remaining vessels waited for the _San Antonio_
+several days, and then passed through the Straits. Great was the
+rejoicing of all when, on November 26, 1520, they found themselves
+on the Pacific Ocean! It was a memorable day. All doubt was now at
+an end as they cheerfully navigated across that broad expanse of sea.
+
+On March 16, 1521, the Ladrone Islands were reached. There the ships
+were so crowded with natives that they were obliged to be expelled by
+force. They stole one of the ship's boats, and ninety men were sent on
+shore to recover it. After a bloody combat the boat was regained, and
+the fleet continued its course westward until it hove to off an islet,
+then called Jomonjol, now known as Malhou, situated in the channel
+between Samar and Dinagat Islands (_vide_ map). Then coasting along
+the north of the Island of Mindanao, they arrived at the mouth of the
+Butuan River, where they were supplied with provisions by the chief. It
+was Easter week, and on this shore the first Mass was celebrated in
+the Philippines. The natives showed great friendliness, in return
+for which Maghallanes took formal possession of their territory in
+the name of Charles I. The chieftain himself volunteered to pilot
+the ships to a fertile island, the kingdom of a relation of his, and,
+passing between the Islands of Bojol and Leyte, the expedition arrived
+on April 7 at Cebu, where, on receiving the news, over two thousand
+men appeared on the beach in battle array with lances and shields.
+
+The Butuan chief went on shore and explained that the expedition
+brought people of peace who sought provisions. The King agreed to
+a treaty, and proposed that it should be ratified according to the
+native formula--drawing blood from the breast of each party, the
+one drinking that of the other. This form of bond was called by the
+Spaniards the _Pacto de sangre_, or the Blood compact (q.v.).
+
+Maghallanes accepted the conditions, and a hut was built on shore in
+which to say Mass. Then he disembarked with his followers, and the
+King, Queen, and Prince came to satisfy their natural curiosity. They
+appeared to take great interest in the Christian religious rites and
+received baptism, although it would be venturesome to suppose they
+understood their meaning, as subsequent events proved. The princes
+and headmen of the district followed their example, and swore fealty
+and obedience to the King of Spain.
+
+Maghallanes espoused the cause of his new allies, who were at war with
+the tribes on the opposite coast, and on April 25, 1521, he passed
+over to Magtan Island. In the affray he was mortally wounded by an
+arrow, and thus ended his brief but lustrous career, which fills one
+of the most brilliant pages in Spanish annals.
+
+Maghallanes called the group of islands, so far discovered, the Saint
+Lazarus Archipelago. In Spain they were usually referred to as the
+Islas del Poniente, and in Portugal as the Islas del Oriente.
+
+On the left bank of the Pasig River, facing the City of Manila, stands
+a monument to Maghallanes' memory. Another has been erected on the
+spot in Magtan Island, where he is supposed to have been slain on
+April 27, 1521. Also in the city of Cebu, near the beach, there is
+an obelisk to commemorate these heroic events.
+
+It was perhaps well for Maghallanes to have ended his days out of
+reach of his royal master. Had he returned to Spain he would probably
+have met a fate similar to that which befell Columbus after all his
+glories. The _San Antonio_, which, as already mentioned, deserted the
+fleet at the Magellan Straits, continued her voyage from New Guinea to
+Spain, arriving at San Lucar de Barrameda in March, 1521. The captain,
+Alvaro Mesquita, was landed as a prisoner, accused of having seconded
+Maghallanes in repressing insubordination. To Maghallanes were ascribed
+the worst cruelties and infraction of the royal instructions. Accused
+and accusers were alike cast into prison, and the King, unable to
+lay hands on the deceased Maghallanes, sought this hero's wife and
+children. These innocent victims of royal vengeance were at once
+arrested and conveyed to Burgos, where the Court happened to be,
+whilst the _San Antonio_ was placed under embargo.
+
+On the decease of Maghallanes, the supreme command of the expedition in
+Cebu Island was assumed by Duarte de Barbosa, who, with twenty-six of
+his followers, was slain at a banquet to which they had been invited
+by Hamabar, the King of the island. Juan Serrano had so ingratiated
+himself with the natives during the sojourn on shore that his life
+was spared for a while. Stripped of his raiment and armour, he was
+conducted to the beach, where the natives demanded a ransom for his
+person of two cannons from the ships' artillery. Those on board saw
+what was passing and understood the request, but they were loath
+to endanger the lives of all for the sake of one--"_Melius est ut
+pereat unus quam ut pereat communitas_" (Saint Augustine)--so they
+raised anchors and sailed out of the port, leaving Serrano to meet
+his terrible fate.
+
+Due to sickness, murder during the revolts, and the slaughter in Cebu,
+the exploring party, now reduced to 100 souls all told, was deemed
+insufficient to conveniently manage three vessels. It was resolved
+therefore to burn the most dilapidated one--the _Concepcion_. At a
+general council, Juan Caraballo was chosen Commander-in-Chief of
+the expedition, with Gonzalo Gomez de Espinosa as Captain of the
+_Victoria_. The royal instructions were read, and it was decided
+to go to the Island of Borneo, already known to the Portuguese
+and marked on their charts. On the way they provisioned the ships
+off the coast of Palauan Island (Paragua), and thence navigated to
+within ten miles of the capital of Borneo (probably Brunei). Here
+they fell in with a number of native canoes, in one of which was the
+King's secretary. There was a great noise with the sound of drums
+and trumpets, and the ships saluted the strangers with their guns.
+
+The natives came on board, embraced the Spaniards as if they were old
+friends, and asked them who they were and what they came for. They
+replied that they were vassals of the King of Spain and wished to
+barter goods. Presents were exchanged, and several of the Spaniards
+went ashore. They were met on the way by over two thousand armed
+men, and safely escorted to the King's quarters. After satisfying
+his Majesty's numerous inquiries, Captain Espinosa was permitted to
+return with his companions. He reported to Caraballo all he had seen,
+and in a council it was agreed that the town was too large and the
+armed men too numerous to warrant the safety of a longer stay. However,
+being in need of certain commodities, five men were despatched to the
+town. As days passed by, their prolonged absence caused suspicion
+and anxiety, so the Spaniards took in reprisal the son of the King
+of Luzon Island, who had arrived there to trade, accompanied by 100
+men and five women in a large prahu. The prince made a solemn vow to
+see that the five Spaniards returned, and left two of his women and
+eight chiefs as hostages. Then Caraballo sent a message to the King
+of Borneo, intimating that if his people were not liberated he would
+seize all the junks and merchandise he might fall in with and kill
+their crews. Thereupon two of the retained Spaniards were set free,
+but, in spite of the seizure of craft laden with silk and cotton, the
+three men remaining had to be abandoned, and the expedition set sail.
+
+For reasons not very clear, Caraballo was deprived of the supreme
+command and Espinosa was appointed in his place, whilst Juan Sebastian
+Elcano was elected Captain of the _Victoria_. With a native pilot,
+captured from a junk which they met on the way, the ships shaped
+their course towards the Moluccas Islands, and on November 8, 1521,
+they arrived at the Island of Tidor. Thus the essential object of
+the expedition was gained--the discovery of a western route to the
+Spice Islands.
+
+Years previous the Portuguese had opened up trade and still continued
+to traffic with these islands, which were rich in nutmegs, cloves,
+cinnamon, ginger, sage, pepper, etc. It is said that Saint Francis
+Xavier had propagated his views amongst these islanders, some of whom
+professed the Christian faith.
+
+The King, richly attired, went out with his suite to receive and
+welcome the Spaniards. He was anxious to barter with them, and
+when the _Trinidad_ was consequently laden with valuable spices it
+was discovered that she had sprung a leak. Her cargo was therefore
+transferred to the sister ship, whilst the _Trinidad_ remained in
+Tidor for repairs, and Elcano was deputed to make the voyage home
+with the _Victoria_, taking the western route of the Portuguese in
+violation of the Treaty of Tordesillas. Elcano's crew consisted of
+fifty-three Europeans and a dozen natives of Tidor. The _Victoria_
+started for Spain at the beginning of the year 1522; passed through
+the Sunda Straits at great risk of being seized by the Portuguese;
+experienced violent storms in the Mozambique Channel, and was almost
+wrecked rounding the Cape of Good Hope. A few of the crew died--their
+only food was a scanty ration of rice--and in their extreme distress
+they put in at Santiago Island, 350 miles W. of Cape Verd, to procure
+provisions and beg assistance from the Portuguese Governor. It was
+like jumping into the lion's mouth. The Governor imprisoned those who
+went to him, in defence of his Sovereign's treaty rights; he seized
+the boat which brought them ashore; inquired of them where they had
+obtained the cargo; and projected the capture of the _Victoria_.
+
+Captain Elcano was not slow to comprehend the situation; he raised
+anchor and cleared out of the harbour, and, as it had happened several
+times before, those who had the misfortune to be sent ashore were
+abandoned by their countrymen.
+
+The _Victoria_ made the port of San Lucar de Barrameda on September
+6, 1522, so that in a little over three years Juan Sebastian Elcano
+had performed the most notable voyage hitherto on record--it was the
+first yet accomplished round the world. It must, however, be borne in
+mind that the discovery of the way to the Moluccas, going westward,
+was due to Maghallanes--of Portuguese birth--and that the route thence
+to Europe, continuing westward, had long before been determined by
+the Portuguese traders, whose charts Elcano used.
+
+When Elcano and his 17 companions disembarked, their appearance was
+most pitiable--mere skeletons of men, weather-beaten and famished. The
+City of Seville received them with acclamation; but their first
+act was to walk barefooted, in procession, holding lighted candles
+in their hands, to the church to give thanks to the Almighty for
+their safe deliverance from the hundred dangers which they had
+encountered. Clothes, money, and all necessaries were supplied
+to them by royal bounty, whilst Elcano and the most intelligent
+of his companions were cited to appear at Court to narrate their
+adventures. His Majesty received them with marked deference. Elcano was
+rewarded with a life pension of 500 ducats (worth at that date about
+L112 10s.), and as a lasting remembrance of his unprecedented feat,
+his royal master knighted him and conceded to him the right of using
+on his escutcheon a globe bearing the motto, "_Primus circundedit me_."
+
+Two of Elcano's officers, Miguel de Rodas and Francisco Alva, were
+each awarded a life pension of 50,000 maravedis (worth at that time
+about 14 guineas), whilst the King ordered one-fourth of that fifth
+part of the cargo, which by contract with Maghallanes belonged to the
+State Treasury, to be distributed amongst the crew, including those
+imprisoned in Santiago Island.
+
+The cargo of the _Victoria_ consisted of twenty-six and a half tons
+of cloves, a quantity of cinnamon, sandal wood, nutmegs, etc. Amongst
+the Tidor Islanders who were presented to the King, one of them was
+not allowed to return to his native home, because he had carefully
+inquired the value of the spices in the Spanish bazaars.
+
+Meanwhile the _Trinidad_ was repaired in Tidor and on her way to
+Panama, when continued tempests and the horrible sufferings of the
+crew determined them to retrace their course to the Moluccas. In this
+interval Portuguese ships had arrived there, and a fort was being
+constructed to defend Portuguese interests against the Spaniards,
+whom they regarded as interlopers. The _Trinidad_ was seized, and
+the Captain Espinosa with the survivors of his crew were granted a
+passage to Lisbon, which place they reached five years after they
+had set out with Maghallanes.
+
+The enthusiasm of King Charles was equal to the importance of the
+discoveries which gave renown to his subjects and added glory to his
+Crown. Notwithstanding a protracted controversy with the Portuguese
+Court, which claimed the exclusive right of trading with the Spice
+Islands, he ordered another squadron of six ships to be fitted
+out for a voyage to the Moluccas. The supreme command was confided
+to Garcia Yofre de Loaisa, Knight of Saint John, whilst Sebastian
+Elcano was appointed captain of one of the vessels. After passing
+through the Magellan Straits, the Commander Loaisa succumbed to the
+fatigues and privations of the stormy voyage. Elcano succeeded him,
+but only for four days, when he too expired. The expedition, however,
+arrived safely at the Moluccas Islands, where they found the Portuguese
+in full possession and strongly established, but the long series of
+combats, struggles and altercations which ensued between the rival
+Powers, in which Captain Andres de Urdaneta prominently figured,
+left no decisive advantage to either nation.
+
+But the King was in no way disheartened. A third expedition--the last
+under his auspices--was organized and despatched from the Pacific
+Coast of Mexico by the Viceroy, by royal mandate. It was composed of
+two ships, two transports and one galley, well manned and armed, chosen
+from the fleet of Pedro Alvarado, the late Governor of Guatemala. Under
+the leadership of Ruy Lopez de Villalobos it sailed on November 1,
+1542; discovered many small islands in the Pacific; lost the galley on
+the way, and anchored off an island about 20 miles in circumference
+which was named Antonia. They found its inhabitants very hostile. A
+fight ensued, but the natives finally fled, leaving several Spaniards
+wounded, of whom six died. Villalobos then announced his intention
+of remaining here some time, and ordered his men to plant maize. At
+first they demurred, saying that they had come to fight, not to till
+land, but at length necessity urged them to obedience, and a small
+but insufficient crop was reaped in due season. Hard pressed for
+food, they lived principally on cats, rats, lizards, snakes, dogs,
+roots and wild fruit, and several died of disease. In this plight a
+ship was sent to Mindanao Island, commanded by Bernado de la Torre,
+to seek provisions. The voyage was fruitless. The party was opposed
+by the inhabitants, who fortified themselves, but were dislodged
+and slain. Then a vessel was commissioned to Mexico with news and to
+solicit reinforcements. On the way, Volcano Island (of the Ladrone
+Islands group) was discovered on August 6, 1543. A most important
+event followed. The island, now known as Samar, was called the _Isla
+Philipina_, and a galiot was built and despatched to the group (it
+is doubtful which), named by this expedition the _Philippine Islands_
+in honour of Philip, Prince of Asturias, the son of King Charles I.,
+heir apparent to the throne of Castile, to which he ascended in 1555
+under the title of Philip II. on the abdication of his father.
+
+The craft returned from the Philippine Islands laden with abundance of
+provisions, with which the ships were enabled to continue the voyage.
+
+By the royal instructions, Ruy Lopez de Villalobos was strictly
+enjoined not to touch at the Moluccas Islands, peace having been
+concluded with Portugal. Heavy gales forced him nevertheless to take
+refuge at Gilolo. The Portuguese, suspicious of his intentions in
+view of the treaty, arrayed their forces against his, inciting the
+King of the island also to discard all Spanish overtures and refuse
+assistance to Villalobos. The discord and contentions between the
+Portuguese and Spaniards were increasing; nothing was being gained
+by either party. Villalobos personally was sorely disheartened
+in the struggle, fearing all the while that his opposition to the
+Portuguese in contravention of the royal instructions would only
+excite the King's displeasure and lead to his own downfall. Hence
+he decided to capitulate with his rival and accepted a safe conduct
+for himself and party to Europe in Portuguese ships. They arrived at
+Amboina Island, where Villalobos, already crushed by grief, succumbed
+to disease. The survivors of the expedition, amongst whom were several
+priests, continued the journey home via Cochin China, Malacca and Goa,
+where they embarked for Lisbon, arriving there in 1549.
+
+In 1558 King Charles was no more, but the memory of his ambition
+outlived him. His son Philip, equally emulous and unscrupulous,
+was too narrow-minded and subtly cautious to initiate an expensive
+enterprise encompassed by so many hazards--as materially unproductive
+as it was devoid of immediate political importance. Indeed the basis
+of the first expedition was merely to discover a Western route to
+the rich Spice Islands, already known to exist; the second went there
+to attempt to establish Spanish empire; and the third to search for,
+and annex to, the Spanish Crown, lands as wealthy as those claimed by,
+and now yielded to, the Portuguese.
+
+But the value of the Philippine Islands, of which the possession was
+but recent and nominal, was thus far a matter of doubt.
+
+One of the most brave and intrepid captains of the Loaisa
+expedition--Andres de Urdaneta--returned to Spain in 1536. In former
+years he had fought under King Charles I., in his wars in Italy,
+when the study of navigation served him as a favourite pastime. Since
+his return from the Moluccas his constant attention was given to the
+project of a new expedition to the Far West, for which he unremittingly
+solicited the royal sanction and assistance. But the King had grown
+old and weary of the world, and whilst he did not openly discourage
+Urdaneta's pretensions he gave him no effective aid. At length,
+in 1553, two years before Charles abdicated, Urdaneta, convinced of
+the futility of his importunity at the Spanish Court, and equally
+unsuccessful with his scheme in other quarters, retired to Mexico,
+where he took the habit of an Augustine monk. Ten years afterwards
+King Philip, inspired by the religious sentiment which pervaded his
+whole policy, urged his Viceroy in Mexico to fit out an expedition
+to conquer and christianize the Philippine Islands. Urdaneta, now a
+priest, was not overlooked. Accompanied by five priests of his Order,
+he was entrusted with the spiritual care of the races to be subdued
+by an expedition composed of four ships and one frigate well armed,
+carrying 400 soldiers and sailors, commanded by a Basque navigator,
+Miguel Lopez de Legaspi. This remarkable man was destined to acquire
+the fame of having established Spanish dominion in these Islands. He
+was of noble birth and a native of the Province of Guipuzcoa in
+Spain. Having settled in the City of Mexico, of which place he was
+elected Mayor, he there practised as a notary. Of undoubted piety,
+he enjoyed reputation for his justice and loyalty; hence he was
+appointed General of the forces equipped for the voyage.
+
+The favourite desire to possess the valuable Spice Islands still
+lurked in the minds of many Spaniards. Amongst them was Urdaneta, who
+laboured in vain to persuade the Viceroy of the superior advantages
+to be gained by annexing New Guinea instead of the Philippines, whence
+the conquest of the Moluccas would be but a facile task. However, the
+Viceroy was inexorable and resolved to fulfil the royal instructions
+to the letter, so the expedition set sail from the Mexican port of
+Navidad for the Philippine Islands on November 21, 1564.
+
+The Ladrone Islands were passed on January 9, 1565, and on the 13th
+of the following month the Philippines were sighted. A call for
+provisions was made at several small islands, including Camiguin,
+whence the expedition sailed to Bojol Island. A boat despatched to
+the port of Butuan returned in a fortnight with the news that there
+was much gold, wax, and cinnamon in that district. A small vessel was
+also sent to Cebu, and on its return reported that the natives showed
+hostility, having decapitated one of the crew whilst he was bathing.
+
+Nevertheless, General Legaspi resolved to put in at Cebu, which was
+a safe harbour; and on the way there the ships anchored off Limasana
+Island (to the south of Leyte). Thence, running south-west, the port
+of Dapitan (Mindanao Is.) was reached.
+
+Prince Pagbuaya, who ruled there, was astonished at the sight
+of such formidable ships, and commissioned one of his subjects,
+specially chosen for his boldness, to take note of their movements,
+and report to him. His account was uncommonly interesting. He related
+that enormous men with long, pointed noses, dressed in fine robes,
+ate stones (hard biscuits), drank fire, and blew smoke out of their
+mouths and through their nostrils. Their power was such that they
+commanded thunder and lightning (discharge of artillery), and that
+at meal times they sat down at a clothed table. From their lofty
+port, their bearded faces, and rich attire, they might have been
+the very gods manifesting themselves to the natives; so the Prince
+thought it wise to accept the friendly overtures of such marvellous
+strangers. Besides obtaining ample provisions in barter for European
+wares, Legaspi procured from this chieftain much useful information
+respecting the condition of Cebu. He learnt that it was esteemed a
+powerful kingdom, of which the magnificence was much vaunted amongst
+the neighbouring states; that the roadstead was one of great safety,
+and the most favourably situated amongst the islands of the painted
+faces. [16]
+
+The General resolved, therefore, to filch it from its native king
+and annex it to the Crown of Castile.
+
+He landed in Cebu on April 27, 1565, and negotiations were entered
+into with the natives of that island. Remembering, by tradition,
+the pretensions of the Maghallanes' party, they naturally opposed
+this renewed menace to their independence. The Spaniards occupied
+the town by force and sacked it, but for months were so harassed by
+the surrounding tribes that a council was convened to discuss the
+prudence of continuing the occupation. The General decided to remain;
+little by little the natives yielded to the new condition of things,
+and thus the first step towards the final conquest was achieved. The
+natives were declared Spanish subjects, and hopeful with the success
+thus far attained, Legaspi determined to send despatches to the King
+by the priest Andres de Urdaneta, who safely arrived at Navidad on
+October 3, 1565, and proceeded thence to Spain. In a letter written
+by Legaspi in 1567 he alluded, for the first time, to the whole
+archipelago as the Islas Filipinas.
+
+The pacification of Cebu and the adjacent islands was steadily and
+successfully pursued by Legaspi; the confidence of the natives was
+assured, and their dethroned King Tupas accepted Christian baptism,
+whilst his daughter married a Spaniard.
+
+In the midst of the invaders' felicity the Portuguese arrived to
+dispute the possession, but they were compelled to retire. A fortress
+was constructed and plots of land were marked out for the building
+of the Spanish settlers' residences; and finally, in 1570, Cebu was
+declared a city, after Legaspi had received from his royal master
+the title of Gov.-General of all the lands which he might be able
+to conquer.
+
+In May, 1570, Captain Juan Salcedo, Legaspi's grandson, was despatched
+to the Island of Luzon to reconnoitre the territory and bring it
+under Spanish dominion.
+
+The history of these early times is very confused, and there are
+many contradictions in the authors of the Philippine chronicles,
+none of which seem to have been written contemporaneously with the
+first events. It appears, however, that Martin de Goiti and a few
+soldiers accompanied Salcedo to the north. They were well received
+by the native chiefs or petty kings Lacandola, Rajah of Tondo (known
+as Rajah Matanda, which means in native dialect the aged Rajah),
+and his nephew the young Rajah Soliman of Manila.
+
+The sight of a body of European troops armed as was the custom in
+the 16th century, must have profoundly impressed and overawed these
+chieftains, otherwise it seems almost incredible that they should
+have consented, without protest, or attempt at resistance, to (for
+ever) give up their territory, yield their independence, pay tribute,
+[17] and become the tools of invading foreigners for the conquest of
+their own race without recompense whatsoever.
+
+A treaty of peace was signed and ratified by an exchange of drops of
+blood between the parties thereto. Soliman, however, soon repented of
+his poltroonery, and roused the war-cry among some of his tribes. To
+save his capital (then called Maynila) falling into the hands of the
+invaders he set fire to it. Lacandola remained passively watching the
+issue. Soliman was completely routed by Salcedo, and pardoned on his
+again swearing fealty to the King of Spain. Goiti remained in the
+vicinity of Manila with his troops, whilst Salcedo fought his way
+to the Bombon Lake (Taal) district. The present Batangas Province
+was subdued by him and included in the jurisdiction of Mindoro
+Island. During the campaign Salcedo was severely wounded by an arrow
+and returned to Manila.
+
+Legaspi was in the Island of Fanay when Salcedo (some writers say
+Goiti) arrived to advise him of what had occurred in Luzon. They at
+once proceeded together to Cavite, where Lacandola visited Legaspi
+on board, and, prostrating himself, averred his submission. Then
+Legaspi continued his journey to Manila, and was received there
+with acclamation. He took formal possession of the surrounding
+territory, declared Manila to be the capital of the Archipelago,
+and proclaimed the sovereignty of the King of Spain over the whole
+group of islands. Gaspar de San Agustin, writing of this period, says:
+"He (Legaspi) ordered them (the natives) to finish the building of
+the fort in construction at the mouth of the river (Pasig) so that
+His Majesty's artillery might be mounted therein for the defence of
+the fort and the town. Also he ordered them to build a large house
+inside the battlement walls for Legaspi's own residence--another
+large house and church for the priests, etc. ... Besides these two
+large houses, he told them to erect a hundred and fifty dwellings of
+moderate size for the remainder of the Spaniards to live in. All this
+they promptly promised to do, but they did not obey, for the Spaniards
+were themselves obliged to terminate the work of the fortifications."
+
+The City Council of Manila was constituted on June 24, 1571. On August
+20, 1572, Miguel Lopez de Legaspi succumbed to the fatigues of his
+arduous life, leaving behind him a name which will always hold a
+prominent place in Spanish colonial history. He was buried in Manila
+in the Augustine Chapel of San Fausto, where hung the Royal Standard
+and the hero's armorial bearings until the British troops occupied
+the city in 1763. A street in Manila and others in provincial towns
+bear his name. Near the Luneta Esplanade, Manila, there is a very
+beautiful Legaspi (and Urdaneta) monument, erected shortly after the
+Rebellion of 1896.
+
+
+
+    "Death makes no conquest of this conqueror,
+    For now he lives in fame, though not in life."
+
+
+    _Richard III._, Act 3, Sc. 1.
+
+
+In the meantime Salcedo continued his task of subjecting the tribes in
+the interior. The natives of Taytay and Cainta, in the Spanish military
+district of Morong, (now Rizal Province) submitted to him on August
+15, 1571. He returned to the Laguna de Bay to pacify the villagers,
+and penetrated as far as Camarines Norte to explore the Bicol
+River. Bolinao and the provinces of Pangasinan and Ilocos yielded to
+his prowess, and in this last province he had well established himself
+when the defence of the capital obliged him to return to Manila.
+
+At the same time Martin de Goiti was actively employed in overrunning
+the Pampanga territory with the double object of procuring supplies for
+the Manila camp and coercing the inhabitants on his way to acknowledge
+their new liege lord. It is recorded that in this expedition Goiti
+was joined by the Rajahs of Tondo and Manila. Yet Lacandola appears to
+have been regarded more as a servant of the Spaniards _nolens volens_
+than as a free ally, for, because he absented himself from Goiti's camp
+"without licence from the _Maestre de Campo_," he was suspected by
+some writers of having favoured opposition to the Spaniards' incursions
+in the Marshes of Hagonoy (Pampanga coast, N. boundary of Manila Bay).
+
+The district which constituted the ancient province of Taal
+y Balayan, subsequently denominated Province of Batangas, was
+formerly governed by a number of caciques, the most notable of
+whom were Gatpagil and Gatjinlintan. They were usually at war
+with their neighbours. Gatjinlintan, the cacique of the Batangas
+River (Pansipit?) at the time of the conquest, was famous for his
+valour. Gatsungayan, who ruled on the other side of the river,
+was celebrated as a hunter of deer and wild boar. These men were
+half-castes of Borneo and Aeta extraction, who formed a distinct
+race called by the natives Daghagang. None of them would submit to
+the King of Spain or become Christians, hence their descendants were
+offered no privileges.
+
+The Aetas collected tribute. Gabriel Montoya, a Spanish soldier of
+Legaspi's legion, partially conquered those races, and supported
+the mission of an Austin friar amongst them. This was probably Fray
+Diego Moxica, who undertook the mission of Batangas on its separation
+from the local administration of Mindoro Island in 1581. The first
+Governor of San Pablo or Sampaloc in the name of the King of Spain was
+appointed by the soldier Montoya, and was called Bartolome Maghayin;
+the second was Cristobal Somangalit and the third was Bernabe Pindan,
+all of whom had adopted Christianity. Bay, on the borders of the lake
+of that name, and four leagues from San Pablo, was originally ruled
+by the cacique Agustin Maglansangan. Calilayan, now called Tayabas,
+was founded by the woman Ladia, and subsequently administered by a
+native _Alcalde_, who gave such satisfaction that he was three times
+appointed the King's lieutenant and baptized as Francisco de San Juan.
+
+San Pablo, the centre of a once independent district, is situated at
+the foot of the mountains of San Cristobal and Banajao, from which
+over fourteen streams of fresh water flow through the villages.
+
+The system established by Juan Salcedo was to let the conquered lands
+be governed by the native caciques and their male successors so long as
+they did so in the name of the King of Castile. Territorial possession
+seems to have been the chief aim of the earliest European invaders,
+and records of having improved the condition of the people or of
+having opened up means of communication and traffic as they went on
+conquering, or even of having explored the natural resources of the
+colony for their own benefit, are extremely rare.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+Philippine Dependencies, Up To 1898
+The Ladrones, Carolines and Pelew Islands
+
+
+In 1521 Maghallanes cast anchor off the Ladrone Islands (situated
+between 17 deg. and 20 deg. N. lat. by 146 deg. E. long.) on his way to the
+discovery of those Islands afterwards denominated the Philippines. This
+group was named by him Islas de las Velas. [18] Legaspi called them
+the Ladrones. [19] Subsequently several navigators sighted or touched
+at these Islands, and the indistinct demarcation which comprised them
+acquired the name of Saint Lazarus' Archipelago.
+
+In 1662 the Spanish vessel _San Damian_, on her course from Mexico
+to Luzon, anchored here. On board was a missionary, Fray Diego Luis
+de San Victores, who was so impressed with the dejected condition
+of the natives, that on reaching Manila he made it his common theme
+of conversation. In fact, so importunately did he pursue the subject
+with his superiors that he had to be constrained to silence. In the
+following year the Governor, Diego Salcedo, replied to his urgent
+appeal for a mission there in terms which permitted no further
+solicitation in that quarter. But the friar was persistent in his
+project, and petitioned the Archbishop's aid. The prelate submitted
+the matter to King Philip IV., and the friar himself wrote to his
+father, who presented a memorial to His Majesty and another to the
+Queen beseeching her influence. Consequently in 1666 a Royal Decree
+was received in Manila sanctioning a mission to the Ladrones.
+
+Fray Diego took his passage in the galleon _San Diego_, and having
+arrived safely in the Viceregal Court of Mexico, he pressed his views
+on the Viceroy, who declared that he had no orders. Then the priest
+appealed to the Viceroy's wife, who, it is said, was entreating her
+husband's help on bended knee, when an earthquake occurred which
+considerably damaged the city. It was a manifestation from heaven,
+the wily priest avowed, and the Viceroy, yielding to the superstition
+of the age, complied with the friar's request.
+
+Therefore, in March, 1668, Fray Diego started from Acapulco in charge
+of a Jesuit mission for the Ladrones, where they subsequently received
+a pension of P3,000 per annum from Queen Maria Ana, who, meanwhile,
+had become a widow and Regent. To commemorate this royal munificence,
+these Islands have since been called by the Spaniards "Islas Marianas,"
+although the older name--Ladrones--is better known to the world.
+
+When the mission was fairly established, troops were sent there,
+consisting of twelve Spaniards and nineteen Philippine natives,
+with two pieces of artillery.
+
+The acquiescence of the Ladrone natives was being steadily gained by
+the old policy of conquest, under the veil of Christianity, when they
+suddenly rebelled against the stranger's religion, which brought with
+it restraint of liberty and a social dominion practically amounting
+to slavery. Fortunately, Nature came again to the aid of Fray Diego,
+for, whilst the natives were in open revolt, a severe storm levelled
+their huts to the ground, and the priest having convinced them that
+it was a visitation from heaven, peace was concluded.
+
+Fray Diego left the mission for Visayas, where he was killed. After
+his departure the natives again revolted against servile subjection,
+and many priests were slain from time to time--some in the exercise
+of their sacerdotal functions, others in open warfare.
+
+In 1778 a Governor was sent there from Mexico with thirty soldiers,
+but he resigned his charge after two years' service, and others
+succeeded him.
+
+The Islands are very poor. The products are Rice, Sago, Cocoanuts,
+and Cane-sugar to a small extent; there are also pigs and fowls in
+abundance. The Spaniards taught the natives the use of fire. They
+were a warlike people; every man had to carry arms. Their language
+is Chamorro, much resembling the Visayan dialect. The population,
+for a hundred years after the Spanish occupation, diminished. Women
+purposely sterilised themselves. Some threw their new born offspring
+into the sea, hoping to liberate them from a world of woe, and
+that they would regenerate in happiness. In the beginning of the
+17th century the population was further diminished by an epidemic
+disease. During the first century of Spanish rule, the Government
+were never able to exact the payment of tribute. Up to the Spanish
+evacuation the revenue of these Islands was not nearly sufficient
+to cover the entire cost of administration. About twenty years ago
+Governor Pazos was assassinated there by a rebellious group.
+
+There were nine towns with parish priests. All the churches were
+built of stone, and roofed with reed thatching, except that of the
+capital, which had an iron roof. Six of the towns had Town Halls made
+of bamboo and reed grass; one had a wooden building, and in two of them
+(including the capital) the Town Halls were of stone.
+
+The Seat of Government was at Agana (called in old official documents
+the "City of San Ignacio de Agana"). It is situated in the Island of
+Guam, in the creek called the Port of Apra. Ships have to anchor about
+two miles off Punta Piti, where passengers, stores, and mails are
+conveyed to a wooden landing-stage. Five hundred yards from here was
+the Harbour-master's office, built of stone, with a tile roof. From
+Punta Piti there was a bad road of about five miles. The situation
+of Agana seems to be ill-suited for communication with vessels, and
+proposals were ineffectually made by two Governors, since 1835, to
+establish the capital town elsewhere. The central Government took no
+heed of their recommendations. In Agana there was a Government House,
+a Military Hospital and Pharmacy, an Artillery Depot and Infantry
+Barracks, a well-built Prison, a Town Hall, the Administrator's Office
+(called by the natives "the shop"), and the ruins of former public
+buildings. It is a rather pretty town, but there is nothing notable
+to be seen.
+
+The natives are as domesticated as the Philippine Islanders, and
+have much better features. Spanish and a little English are spoken
+by many of them, as these Islands in former years were the resort
+of English-speaking whalemen. For the Elementary Education of the
+natives, there was the College of San Juan de Letran for boys, and
+a girls' school in Agana; and in 7 of the towns there was, in 1888,
+a total of 4 schools for boys, 5 schools for girls, and 9 schools
+for both sexes, under the direction of 20 masters and 6 mistresses.
+
+When the Ladrone Islands (Marianas) were a dependency of the
+Spanish-Philippine General-Government, a subsidized mail steamer left
+Manila for Agana, and two or three other ports, every three months.
+
+
+
+
+
+An island was discovered by one of the Spanish galleon pilots in
+1686, and called _Carolina_, in honour of Charles II. of Spain,
+but its bearings could not be found again for years.
+
+In 1696 two canoes, with 29 Pelew Islanders, drifted to the coast
+of Samar Island, and landed at the Town of Guivan. They were 60
+days on the drift, and five of them died of privations. They were
+terror-stricken when they saw a man on shore making signs to them. When
+he went out to them in a boat, and boarded one of the canoes, they all
+jumped out and got into the other; then when the man got into that,
+they were in utter despair, considering themselves prisoners.
+
+They were conducted to the Spanish priest of Guivan, whom they supposed
+would be the King of the Island, and on whom would depend their lives
+and liberty. They prostrated themselves, and implored his mercy and
+the favour of sparing their lives, whilst the priest did all he could,
+by signs, to reassure them.
+
+It happened that there had been living here, for some years, two other
+strange men brought to this shore by currents and contrary winds. These
+came forward to see the novelty, and served as interpreters, so that
+the newcomers were all lodged in native houses in twos and threes,
+and received the best hospitality.
+
+They related that their Islands numbered 32, and only produced
+fowls and sea-birds. One man made a map, by placing stones in the
+relative position of the Islands. When asked about the number of the
+inhabitants, one took a handful of sand to demonstrate that they were
+countless. There was a King, they explained, who held his court in
+the Island of Lamurrec, to whom the chiefs were subject. They much
+respected and obeyed him. Among the castaways was a chief, with his
+wife--the daughter of the King.
+
+The men had a leaf-fibre garment around their loins, and to it
+was attached a piece of stuff in front, which was thrown over the
+shoulders and hung loose at the back. The women were dressed the
+same as the men, except that their loin vestment reached to their
+knees. The King's daughter wore, moreover, tortoise-shell ornaments.
+
+They were afraid when they saw a cow and a dog, their Island having
+no quadrupeds. Their sole occupation consisted in providing food for
+their families. Their mark of courtesy was to take the hand of the
+person whom they saluted and pass it softly over the face.
+
+The priest gave them pieces of iron, which they prized as if they
+had been of gold, and slept with them under their heads. Their only
+arms were lances, with human bones for points. They seemed to be a
+pacific people, intelligent and well-proportioned physically. Both
+sexes wore long hair down to their shoulders.
+
+Very content to find so much luxury in Samar, they offered to return
+and bring their people to trade. The Jesuits considered this a capital
+pretext for subjecting their Islands, and the Government approved of
+it. At the instance of the Pope, the King ordered the Gov.-General,
+Domingo Zabalburu, to send out expeditions in quest of these Islands;
+and, between 1708 and 1710, several unsuccessful efforts were made
+to come across them. In 1710, two islands were discovered, and named
+San Andres. Several canoes arrived alongside of the ship, and the
+occupants accepted the Commander's invitation to come on board. They
+were much astonished to see the Spaniards smoke, and admired the
+iron fastenings of the vessel. When they got near shore, they all
+began to dance, clapping their hands to beat time. They measured the
+ship, and wondered where such a large piece of wood could have come
+from. They counted the crew, and presented them with cocoanuts, fish,
+and herbs from their canoes. The vessel anchored near to the shore,
+but there was a strong current and a fresh wind blowing, so that it was
+imprudent to disembark. However, two priests insisted upon erecting
+a cross on the shore, and were accompanied by the quarter-master and
+an officer of the troops. The weather compelled the master to weigh
+anchor, and the vessel set sail, leaving on land the four Europeans,
+who were ultimately murdered. For a quarter of a century these Islands
+were lost again to the Spaniards.
+
+In 1721 two Caroline prahus were wafted to the Ladrone Islands, where
+D. Luiz Sanchez was Governor. The Caroline Islanders had no idea
+where they had landed, and were quite surprised when they beheld the
+priest. He forcibly detained these unfortunate people, and handed
+them over to the Governor, whom they entreated, with tears--but
+all in vain--to be allowed to return to their homes. There they
+remained prisoners, until it suited the Governor's convenience to
+send a vessel with a priest to their Island. The priest went there,
+and thence to Manila, where a fresh expedition was fitted out. It
+was headed by a missionary, and included a number of soldiers whom
+the natives massacred soon after their arrival. All further attempt
+to subdue the Caroline Islands was necessarily postponed.
+
+The natives, at that time, had no religion at all, or were, in a
+vague sense, polytheists. Their wise men communicated with the
+souls of the defunct. They were polygamists, but had a horror
+of adultery. Divorce was at once granted by the chiefs on proof
+of infidelity. They were cannibals. In each island there was a
+chief, regarded as a semi-spiritual being, to whom the natives were
+profoundly obedient. Huts were found used as astrological schools,
+where also the winds and currents were studied. They made cloth of
+plantain-fibre--hatchets with stone heads. Between sunset and sunrise
+they slept. When war was declared between two villages or tribes,
+each formed three lines of warriors, 1st, young men; 2nd, tall men;
+3rd, old men; then the combatants pelted each other with stones and
+lances. A man _hors de combat_ was replaced by one of the back file
+coming forward. When one party acknowledged themselves vanquished,
+it was an understood privilege of the victors to shower invectives on
+their retiring adversaries. They lived on fruits, roots and fish. There
+were no quadrupeds and no agriculture.
+
+Many Spanish descendants were found, purely native in their habits,
+and it was remembered that about the year 1566, several Spaniards
+from an expedition went ashore on some islands, supposed to be these,
+and were compelled to remain there.
+
+The Carolines ("Islas Carolinas") and Pelews ("Islas Palaos")
+comprise some 48 groups of islands and islets, making a total of about
+500. Their relative position to the Ladrone Islands is--of the former,
+S.S.W. stretching to S.E.; of the latter, S.W. Both groups lie due
+E. of Mindanao Island (_vide_ map). The principal Pelew Islands
+are Babel-Druap and Kosor--Yap and Ponape (Ascencion Is.) are the
+most important of the Carolines. The centres of Spanish Government
+were respectively in Yap and Babel-Druap, with a Vice-Governor
+of the Eastern Carolines in Ponape--all formerly dependent on the
+General-Government in Manila. The Carolines and Pelews were included
+in the Bishopric of Cebu, and were subject, judicially, to the Supreme
+Court of Manila.
+
+These Islands were subsequently many times visited by ships of other
+nations, and a barter trade gradually sprang up in dried cocoanut
+kernels (coprah) for the extraction of oil in Europe and America. Later
+on, when the natives were thoroughly accustomed to the foreigners,
+British, American, and German traders established themselves on shore,
+and vessels continued to arrive with European and American manufactures
+in exchange for coprah, trepang, ivory-nuts, tortoise-shell, etc.
+
+Anglo-American missionaries have settled there, and a great number
+of natives profess Christianity in the Protestant form. Religious
+books in native dialect, published in Honolulu (Sandwich Is.) by the
+Hawaiian Evangelical Association, are distributed by the American
+missionaries. I have one before me now, entitled "Kapas Fel, Puk Eu,"
+describing incidents from the Old Testament. A few of the natives
+can make themselves understood in English. Besides coprah (the
+chief export) the Islands produce Rice, Yams, Bread-fruit (_rima_),
+Sugar-cane, etc. Until 1886 there was no Government, except that of
+several petty kings or chiefs, each of whom still rules over his own
+tribe, although the Protestant missionaries exercised a considerable
+social influence.
+
+In 1885 a Spanish naval officer, named Capriles, having been appointed
+Governor of the Islands, arrived at Yap, ostensibly with the object
+of landing to hoist the Spanish flag as a signal of possession,
+for it was known in official quarters that the Germans were about
+to claim sovereignty. However, three days were squandered (perhaps
+intentionally) in trivial formalities, and although two Spanish
+men-o'-war--the _Manila_ and the _San Quintin_--were already anchored
+in the Port of Yap, the German warship _Iltis_ entered, landed marines,
+and hoisted their national flag, whilst the Spaniards looked on. Then
+the German Commander went on board the _San Quintin_ to tell the
+Commander that possession of the Islands had been taken in the name of
+the Emperor of Germany. Neither Capriles, the appointed Governor, nor
+Espana, the Commander of the _San Quintin_, made any resistance; and
+as we can hardly attribute their inactivity to cowardice, presumably
+they followed their Government's instructions. Capriles and Espana
+returned to Manila, and were both rewarded for their inaction; the
+former being appointed to the Government of Mindoro Island. In Manila
+an alarming report was circulated that the Germans contemplated an
+attack upon the Philippines. Earthworks were thrown up outside the
+city wall; cannons were mounted, and the cry of invasion resounded
+all over the Colony. Hundreds of families fled from the capital and
+environs to adjacent provinces, and the personal safety of the German
+residents was menaced by individual patriotic enthusiasts.
+
+In Madrid, popular riots followed the publication of the incident. The
+German Embassy was assaulted, and its escutcheon was burnt in the
+streets by the indignant mob, although, probably, not five per
+cent. of the rioters had any idea where the Caroline Islands were
+situated, or anything about them. Spain acted so feebly, and Germany
+so vigorously, in this affair, that many asked--was it not due to
+a secret understanding between the respective Ministries, disrupted
+only by the weight of Spanish public opinion? Diplomatic notes were
+exchanged between Madrid and Berlin, and Germany, anxious to withdraw
+with apparent dignity from an affair over which it was probably never
+intended to waste powder and shot, referred the question to the Pope,
+who arbitrated in favour of Spain.
+
+But for these events, it is probable that Spain would never have done
+anything to demonstrate possession of the Caroline Islands, and for
+16 months after the question was solved by Pontific mediation, there
+was a Spanish Governor in Yap--Sr. Elisa--a few troops and officials,
+but no Government. No laws were promulgated, and everybody continued
+to do as heretofore.
+
+In Ponape (Ascencion Is.) Sr. Posadillo was appointed Governor. A
+few troops were stationed there under a sub-lieutenant, whilst some
+Capuchin friars--European ecclesiastics of the meanest type--were
+sent there to compete with the American Protestant missionaries in
+the salvation of natives' souls. A collision naturally took place,
+and the Governor--well known to all of us in Manila as crack-brained
+and tactless--sent the chief Protestant missionary, Mr. E. T. Doane,
+a prisoner to Manila on June 16, 1887. [20] He was sent back free to
+Ponape by the Gov.-General, but, during his absence, the eccentric
+Posadillo exercised a most arbitrary authority over the natives. The
+chiefs were compelled to serve him as menials, and their subjects
+were formed into gangs, to work like convicts; native teachers were
+suspended from their duties under threat, and the Capuchins disputed
+the possession of land, and attempted to coerce the natives to accept
+their religion.
+
+On July 1 the natives did not return to their bondage, and all the
+soldiers, led by the sub-lieutenant, were sent to bring them in by
+force. A fight ensued, and the officer and troops, to the last man,
+were killed or mortally wounded by clubs, stones and knives. The
+astonished Governor fortified his place, which was surrounded by the
+enemy. The tribes of the chiefs Nott and Jockets were up in arms. There
+was the hulk _Da. Maria de Molina_ anchored in the roadstead, and the
+Capuchins fled to it on the first alarm. The Governor escaped from
+his house on the night of July 4 with his companions, and rushed to
+the sea, probably intending to swim out to the hulk. But who knows? He
+and all his partisans were chased and killed by the natives.
+
+On September 21 the news of the tragedy reached Manila by the
+man-o'-war _San Quintin._ About six weeks afterwards, three men-o'-war
+were sent to Ponape with infantry, artillery, a mountain battery, and
+a section of Engineers--a total of about 558 men--but on their arrival
+they met an American warship--the _Essex_--which had hastened on to
+protect American interests. The Spaniards limited their operations
+to the seizure of a few accused individuals, whom they brought to
+Manila, and the garrison of Yap was increased to 100 men, under a
+Captain and subordinate officers. The prisoners were tried in Manila
+by court-martial, and I acted as interpreter. It was found that they
+had only been loyal to the bidding of their chiefs, and were not
+morally culpable, whilst the action of the late Governor of Ponape
+met with general reprobation.
+
+Again, in July, 1890, a party of 54 soldiers, under Lieutenant Porras,
+whilst engaged in felling timber in the forest, was attacked by
+the Malatana (Caroline) tribe, who killed the officer and 27 of his
+men. The news was telegraphed to the Home Government, and caused a
+great sensation in Madrid. A conference of Ministers was at once held,
+and the Canovas del Castillo Ministry cabled to the Gov.-General Weyler
+discretionary power to punish these islanders. Within a few months
+troops were sent from Manila for that purpose. Instead, however,
+of chastising the _Kanakas_, the Government forces were repulsed
+by them with great slaughter. The commissariat arrangements were
+most deficient: my friend Colonel Gutierrez Soto, who commanded the
+expedition, was so inadequately supported by the War Department that,
+yielding to despair, and crestfallen by reason of the open and adverse
+criticism of his plan of campaign, he shot himself.
+
+Under the Treaty of Paris (1898) the Island of Guam (Ladrone group)
+was ceded by Spain to the United States, together with the Philippine
+Islands. The remainder of the Ladrone group, the Caroline and the
+Pelew Islands were sold by Spain to Germany in June, 1899.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+Attempted Conquest by Chinese
+
+
+On the death of General Legaspi, the Government of the Colony was
+assumed by the Royal Treasurer, Guido de Lavezares, in conformity
+with the sealed instructions from the Supreme Court of Mexico, which
+were now opened. During this period, the possession of the Islands
+was unsuccessfully disputed by a rival expedition under the command
+of a Chinaman, Li-ma-hong, whom the Spaniards were pleased to term a
+pirate, forgetting, perhaps, that they themselves had only recently
+wrested the country from its former possessors by virtue of might
+against right. On the coasts of his native country he had indeed been
+a pirate. For the many depredations committed by him against private
+traders and property, the Celestial Emperor, failing to catch him by
+cajolery, outlawed him.
+
+Born in the port of Tiuchiu, Li-ma-hong at an early age evinced a
+martial spirit and joined a band of corsairs which for a long time
+had been the terror of the China coasts. On the demise of his chief
+he was unanimously elected leader of the buccaneering cruisers. At
+length, pursued in all directions by the imperial ships of war, he
+determined to attempt the conquest of the Philippines. Presumably
+the same incentives which impelled the Spanish mariners to conquer
+lands and overthrow dynasties--the vision of wealth, glory and
+empire,--awakened a like ambition in the Chinese adventurer. It was
+the spirit of the age. [21] In his sea-wanderings he happened to
+fall in with a Chinese trading junk returning from Manila with the
+proceeds of her cargo sold there. This he seized, and the captive
+crew were constrained to pilot his fleet towards the capital of
+Luzon. From them he learnt how easily the natives had been plundered
+by a handful of foreigners--the probable extent of the opposition he
+might encounter--the defences established--the wealth and resources
+of the district, and the nature of its inhabitants.
+
+His fleet consisted of 62 war ships or armed junks, well found,
+having on board 2,000 sailors, 2,000 soldiers, 1,500 women, a number
+of artisans, and all that could be conveniently carried with which
+to gain and organize his new kingdom. On its way the squadron cast
+anchor off the Province of Ilocos Sur, where a few troops were sent
+ashore to get provisions. Whilst returning to the junks, they sacked
+the village and set fire to the huts. The news of this outrage was
+hastily communicated to Juan Salcedo, who had been pacifying the
+Northern Provinces since July, 1572, and was at the time in Villa
+Fernandina (now called Vigan). Li-ma-hong continued his course until
+calms compelled his ships to anchor in the roads of Caoayan (Ilocos
+coast), where a few Spanish soldiers were stationed under the orders
+of Juan Salcedo, who still was in the immediate town of Vigan. Under
+his direction preparations were made to prevent the enemy entering the
+river, but such was not Li-ma-hong's intention. He again set sail;
+whilst Salcedo, naturally supposing his course would be towards
+Manila, also started at the same time for the capital with all the
+fighting men he could collect, leaving only 30 men to garrison Vigan
+and protect the State interests there.
+
+On November 29, 1574, the squadron arrived in the Bay of Manila,
+and Li-ma-hong sent forward his Lieutenant Sioco--a Japanese--at the
+head of 600 fighting men to demand the surrender of the Spaniards. A
+strong gale, however, destroyed several of his junks, in which about
+200 men perished.
+
+With the remainder he reached the coast at Paranaque, a village seven
+miles south of Manila. Thence, with tow-lines, the 400 soldiers hauled
+their junks up to the beach of the capital.
+
+Already at the village of Malate the alarm was raised, but the
+Spaniards could not give credit to the reports, and no resistance was
+offered until the Chinese were within the gates of the city. Martin de
+Goiti, the _Maestre de Campo_, [22] second in command to the Governor,
+was the first victim of the attack.
+
+The flames and smoke arising from his burning residence were the
+first indications which the Governor received of what was going
+on. The Spaniards took refuge in the Fort of Santiago, which the
+Chinese were on the point of taking by storm, when their attention
+was drawn elsewhere by the arrival of fresh troops led by a Spanish
+sub-lieutenant. Under the mistaken impression that these were the
+vanguard of a formidable corps, Sioco sounded the retreat. A bloody
+hand-to-hand combat followed, and with great difficulty the Chinese
+collected their dead and regained their junks.
+
+In the meantime Li-ma-hong, with the reserved forces, was lying in
+the roadstead of Cavite, and Sioco hastened to report to him the
+result of the attack, which had cost the invader over one hundred
+dead and more than that number wounded. Thereupon Li-ma-hong resolved
+to rest his troops and renew the conflict in two days' time under
+his personal supervision. The next day Juan Salcedo arrived by sea
+with reinforcements from Vigan, and preparations were unceasingly
+made for the expected encounter. Salcedo having been appointed to
+the office of _Maestre de Campo_, vacant since the death of Goiti,
+the organization of the defence was entrusted to his immediate care.
+
+By daybreak on December 3 the enemy's fleet hove-to off the capital,
+where Li-ma-hong harangued his troops, whilst the cornets and drums
+of the Spaniards were sounding the alarm for their fighting men to
+assemble in the fort.
+
+Then 1,500 chosen men, well armed, were disembarked under the
+leadership of Sioco, who swore to take the place or die in the
+attempt. Sioco separated his forces into three divisions. The city
+was set fire to, and Sioco advanced towards the fort, into which
+hand-grenades were thrown, whilst Li-ma-hong supported the attack
+with his ships' cannon.
+
+Sioco, with his division, at length entered the fort, and a
+hand-to-hand fight ensued. For a while the issue was doubtful. Salcedo
+fought like a lion. Even the aged Governor was well to the front
+to encourage the deadly struggle for existence. The Spaniards
+finally gained the victory; the Chinese were repulsed with great
+slaughter, and their leader having been killed, they fled in complete
+disorder. Salcedo, profiting by the confusion, now took the offensive
+and followed up the enemy, pursuing them along the sea-shore,
+where they were joined by the third division, which had remained
+inactive. The panic of the Chinese spread rapidly, and Li-ma-hong,
+in despair, landed another contingent of about 500 men, whilst he
+still continued afloat; but even with this reinforcement the _morale_
+of his army could not be restored.
+
+The Chinese troops therefore, harassed on all sides, made a precipitate
+retreat on board the fleet, and Li-ma-hong set sail again for the
+west coast of the island. Foiled in the attempt to possess himself
+of Manila, Li-ma-hong determined to set up his capital in other
+parts. In a few days he arrived at the mouth of the Agno River, in
+the province of Pangasinan, where he proclaimed to the natives that he
+had gained a signal victory over the Spaniards. The inhabitants there,
+having no particular choice between two masters, received Li-ma-hong
+with welcome, and he thereupon set about the foundation of his new
+capital some four miles from the mouth of the river. Months passed
+before the Spaniards came in force to dislodge the invader. Feeling
+themselves secure in their new abode, the Chinese had built many
+dwellings, a small fortress, a pagoda, etc. At length an expedition
+was despatched under the command of Juan Salcedo. This was composed
+of about 250 Spaniards and 1,600 natives well equipped with small
+arms, ammunition and artillery. The flower of the Spanish Colony,
+accompanied by two priests and the Rajah of Tondo, set out to expel
+the formidable foe. Li-ma-hong made a bold resistance, and refused to
+come to terms with Salcedo. In the meantime, the Viceroy of Fokien,
+having heard of Li-ma-hong's daring exploits, had commissioned a
+ship of war to discover the whereabouts of his imperial master's
+old enemy. The envoy was received with delight by the Spaniards,
+who invited him to accompany them to Manila to interview the Governor.
+
+Li-ma-hong still held out, but perceiving that an irresistible
+onslaught was being projected against him by Salcedo's party, he
+very cunningly and quite unexpectedly slipped away, and sailed out
+of the river with his ships by one of the mouths unknown to his
+enemies. [23] In order to divert the attention of the Spaniards,
+Li-ma-hong ingeniously feigned an assault in an opposite quarter. Of
+course, on his escape, he had to abandon the troops employed in this
+manoeuvre. These, losing all hope, and having indeed nothing but
+their lives to fight for, fled to the mountains. Hence it is popularly
+supposed that from these fugitives descends the race of people in the
+hill district north of that province still distinguishable by their
+oblique eyes and known by the name of Igorrote-Chinese.
+
+"_Aide-toi et Dieu t'aidera_" is an old French maxim, but the Spaniards
+chose to attribute their deliverance from their Chinese rivals to
+the friendly intervention of Saint Andrew. This Saint was declared
+thenceforth to be the Patron Saint of Manila, and in his honour High
+Mass was celebrated in the Cathedral at 8 a.m. on the 30th of each
+November. In Spanish times it was a public holiday and gala-day, when
+all the highest civil, military and religious authorities attended
+the _Funcion votiva de San Andres_. This opportunity to assert the
+supremacy of ecclesiastical power was not lost to the Church, and for
+many years it was the custom, after hearing Mass, to spread the Spanish
+national flag on the floor of the Cathedral for the metropolitan
+Archbishop to walk over it. However, a few years prior to the Spanish
+evacuation the Gov.-General refused to witness this antiquated formula
+and it subsequently became the practice to carry the Royal Standard
+before the altar. Both before and after the Mass, the bearer (_Alferez
+Real_), wearing his hat and accompanied by the Mayor of the City,
+stood on the altar floor, raised his hat three times, and three times
+dipped the flag before the Image of Christ, then, facing the public,
+he repeated this ceremony. On Saint Andrew's Eve the Royal Standard was
+borne in procession from the Cathedral through the principal streets
+of the city, escorted by civil functionaries and followed by a band
+of music. This ceremony was known as the _Paseo del Real Pendon_.
+
+According to Juan de la Concepcion, the Rajahs [24] Soliman and
+Lacandola took advantage of these troubles to raise a rebellion
+against the Spaniards. The natives, too, of Mindoro Island revolted
+and maltreated the priests, but all these disturbances were speedily
+quelled by a detachment of soldiers.
+
+The Governor willingly accepted the offer of the commander of the
+Chinese man-o'-war to convey ambassadors to his country to visit
+the Viceroy and make a commercial treaty. Therefore two priests,
+Martin Rada and Geronimo Martin, were commissioned to carry a letter
+of greeting and presents to this personage, who received them with
+great distinction, but objected to their residing in the country.
+
+After the defeat of Li-ma-hong, Juan Salcedo again set out to the
+Northern Provinces of Luzon Island, to continue his task of reducing
+the natives to submission. On March 11, 1576, he died of fever near
+Vigan (then called Villa Fernandina), capital of the Province of
+Ilocos Sur. A year afterwards, what could be found of his bones were
+placed in the ossuary of his illustrious grandfather, Legaspi, in the
+Augustine Chapel of Saint Fausto, Manila. His skull, however, which had
+been carried off by the natives of Ilocos, could not be recovered in
+spite of all threats and promises. In Vigan there is a small monument
+raised to commemorate the deeds of this famous warrior, and there is
+also a street bearing his name in Vigan and another in Manila.
+
+
+
+For several years following these events, the question of prestige
+in the civil affairs of the Colony was acrimoniously contested by
+the Gov.-General, the Supreme Court, and the ecclesiastics.
+
+The Governor was censured by his opponents for alleged undue exercise
+of arbitrary authority. The Supreme Court, established on the Mexican
+model, was reproached with seeking to overstep the limits of its
+functions. Every legal quibble was adjusted by a dilatory process,
+impracticable in a colony yet in its infancy, where summary justice
+was indispensable for the maintenance of order imperfectly understood
+by the masses. But the fault lay less with the justices than with
+the constitution of the Court itself. Nor was this state of affairs
+improved by the growing discontent and immoderate ambition of the
+clergy, who unremittingly urged their pretensions to immunity from
+State control, affirming the supramundane condition of their office.
+
+An excellent code of laws, called the _Leyes de Indias_, in force
+in Mexico, was adopted here, but modifications in harmony with the
+special conditions of this Colony were urgently necessary, whilst all
+the branches of government called for reorganization or reform. Under
+these circumstances, the Bishop of Manila, Domingo Salazar, [25]
+took the initiative in commissioning an Austin friar, Alonso Sanchez,
+to repair firstly to the Viceroy of Mexico and afterwards to the King
+of Spain, to expose the grievances of his party.
+
+Alonso Sanchez left the Philippines with his appointment as
+procurator-general for the Augustine Order of monks. As the execution
+of the proposed reforms, which he was charged to lay before His
+Majesty, would, if conceded, be entrusted to the control of the
+Government of Mexico, his first care was to seek the partisanship
+of the Viceroy of that Colony; and in this he succeeded. Thence he
+continued his journey to Seville, where the Court happened to be,
+arriving there in September, 1587. He was at once granted an audience
+of the King, to present his credentials and memorials relative
+to Philippine affairs in general, and ecclesiastical, judicial,
+military and native matters in particular. The King promised to peruse
+all the documents, but suffering from gout, and having so many and
+distinct State concerns to attend to, the negotiations were greatly
+delayed. Finally, Alonso Sanchez sought a minister who had easy access
+to the royal apartments, and this personage obtained from the King
+permission to examine the documents and hand to him a succinct _resume_
+of the whole for His Majesty's consideration. A commission was then
+appointed, including Sanchez, and the deliberations lasted five months.
+
+At this period, public opinion in the Spanish Universities was
+very divided with respect to Catholic missions in the Indies. Some
+maintained that the propaganda of the faith ought to be purely
+Apostolic, such as Jesus Christ taught to His disciples, inculcating
+doctrines of humility and poverty without arms or violence; and if,
+nevertheless, the heathens refused to welcome this mission of peace,
+the missionaries should simply abandon them in silence without further
+demonstration than that of shaking the dust off their feet.
+
+Others held, and amongst them was Sanchez, that such a method was
+useless and impracticable, and that it was justifiable to force their
+religion upon primitive races at the point of the sword if necessary,
+using any violence to enforce its acceptance.
+
+Much ill-feeling was aroused in the discussion of these two and
+distinct theories. Juan Volante, a Dominican friar of the Convent
+of Our Lady of Atocha, presented a petition against the views of the
+Sanchez faction, declaring that the idea of ingrafting religion with
+the aid of arms was scandalous. Juan Volante was so importunate that he
+had to be heard in Council, but neither party yielded. At length, the
+intervention of the Bishops of Manila, Macao and Malacca and several
+captains and governors in the Indies influenced the King to put an
+end to the controversy, on the ground that it would lead to no good.
+
+The King retired to the Monastery of the Escorial, and Sanchez was
+cited to meet him there to learn the royal will. About the same time
+the news reached the King of the loss of the so-called Invincible
+Armada, sent under the command of the incompetent Duke of Medina
+Sidonia to annex England. Notwithstanding this severe blow to the
+vain ambition of Philip, the affairs of the Philippines were delayed
+but a short time. On the basis of the recommendation of the junta,
+the Royal Assent was given to an important decree, of which the
+most significant articles are the following, namely:--The tribute
+was fixed by the King at ten reales (5s.) per annum, payable by the
+natives in gold, silver or grain, or part in one commodity and part
+in the other. Of this tribute, eight reales were to be paid to the
+Treasury, one-half real to the bishop and clergy (_sanctorum_ tax),
+and one-and-a-half reales to be applied to the maintenance of the
+soldiery. Full tribute was not to be exacted from the natives still
+unsubjected to the Crown. Until their confidence and loyalty should
+be gained by friendly overtures, they were to pay a small recognition
+of vassalage, and subsequently the tribute in common with the rest.
+
+Instead of one-fifth value of gold and hidden treasure due to His
+Majesty (_real quinto_), he would thenceforth receive only one-tenth
+of such value, excepting that of gold, which the natives would be
+permitted to extract free of rebate.
+
+A customs duty of three per cent. _ad valorem_ was to be paid on
+merchandise sold, and this duty was to be spent on the army.
+
+Export duty was to be paid on goods shipped to New Spain (Mexico), and
+this impost was also to be exclusively spent on the armed forces. These
+goods were chiefly Chinese manufactures.
+
+The number of European troops in the Colony was fixed at 400
+men-at-arms, divided into six companies, each under a captain, a
+sublieutenant, a sergeant, and two corporals. Their pay was to be
+as follows, namely:--Captain P35, sub-lieutenant P20, sergeant P10,
+corporal P7, rank and file P6 per month; besides which, an annual
+gratuity of P10,000 was to be proportionately distributed to all.
+
+Recruits from Mexico, for military service in the Islands, were not
+to enlist under the age of 15 years.
+
+The Captain-General was to have a body-guard of 24 men (Halberdiers)
+with the pay of those of the line, under the immediate command of a
+Captain to be paid P15 per month.
+
+Salaries due to State employees were to be punctually paid when due;
+and when funds were wanted for that purpose, they were to be supplied
+from Mexico.
+
+The King made a donation of P12,000, which, with another like sum to
+be contributed by the Spaniards themselves, would serve to liquidate
+their debts incurred on their first occupation of the Islands.
+
+The Governor and Bishop were recommended to consider the project
+of a refuge for young Spanish women arrived from Spain and Mexico,
+and to study the question of dowries for native women married to
+poor Spaniards.
+
+The offices of Secretaries and Notaries were no longer to be sold,
+but conferred on persons who merited such appointments.
+
+The governors were instructed not to make grants of land to their
+relations, servants or friends, but solely to those who should have
+resided at least three years in the Islands, and have worked the
+lands so conceded. Any grants which might have already been made to
+the relations of the governors or magistrates were to be cancelled.
+
+The rent paid by the Chinese for the land they occupied was to be
+applied to the necessities of the capital.
+
+The Governor and Bishop were to enjoin the judges not to permit
+costly lawsuits, but to execute summary justice verbally, and so far
+as possible, fines were not to be inflicted.
+
+The City of Manila was to be fortified in a manner to ensure it
+against all further attacks or risings.
+
+Four penitentiaries were to be established in the Islands in the most
+convenient places, with the necessary garrisons, and six to eight
+galleys and frigates well armed and ready for defence against the
+English corsairs who might come by way of the Moluccas.
+
+In the most remote and unexplored parts of the Islands, the Governor
+was to have unlimited powers to act as he should please, without
+consulting His Majesty; but projected enterprises of conversion,
+pacification, etc., at the expense of the Royal Treasury, were to be
+submitted to a Council comprising the Bishop, the captains, etc. The
+Governor was authorized to capitulate and agree with the captain and
+others who might care to undertake conversions and pacifications on
+their own account, and to concede the title of _Maestre de Campo_
+to such persons, on condition that such capitulations should be
+forwarded to His Majesty for ratification.
+
+Only those persons domiciled in the Islands would be permitted to
+trade with them.
+
+A sum of P1,000 was to be taken from the tributes paid into the Royal
+Treasury for the foundation of the Hospital for the Spaniards, and
+the annual sum of P600, appropriated by the Governor for its support,
+was confirmed. Moreover, the Royal Treasury of Mexico was to send
+clothing to the value of 400 ducats for the Hospital use.
+
+The Hospital for the natives was to receive an annual donation of P600
+for its support, and an immediate supply of clothing from Mexico to
+the value of P200.
+
+Slaves held by the Spaniards were to be immediately set at liberty. No
+native was thenceforth to make slaves. All new-born natives were
+declared free. The bondage of all existing slaves from ten years
+of age was to cease on their attaining twenty years of age. Those
+above twenty years of age were to serve five years longer, and then
+become free. At any time, notwithstanding the foregoing conditions,
+they would be entitled to purchase their liberty, the price of which
+was to be determined by the Governor and the Bishop. [26]
+
+There being no tithes payable to the Church by Spaniards or natives,
+the clergy were to receive for their maintenance the half-real above
+mentioned in lieu thereof, from the tribute paid by each native
+subjected to the Crown. When the Spaniards should have crops, they
+were to pay tithes to the clergy (_diezmos prediales_).
+
+A grant was made of 12,000 ducats for the building and ornaments of
+the Cathedral of Manila, and an immediate advance of 2,000 ducats
+on account of this grant was made from the funds to be remitted
+from Mexico.
+
+Forty Austin friars were to be sent at once to the Philippines, to be
+followed by missionaries from other corporations. The King allowed
+P500 to be paid against the P1,000 passage money for each priest,
+the balance to be defrayed out of the common funds of the clergy,
+derived from their share of the tribute.
+
+Missionaries in great numbers had already flocked to the Philippines
+and roamed wherever they thought fit, without licence from the Bishop,
+whose authority they utterly repudiated.
+
+Affirming that they had the direct consent of His Holiness the Pope,
+they menaced with excommunication whosoever attempted to impede
+them in their free peregrination. Five years after the foundation of
+Manila, the city and environs were infested with niggardly mendicant
+friars, whose slothful habits placed their supercilious countrymen
+in ridicule before the natives. They were tolerated but a short time
+in the Islands; not altogether because of the ruin they would have
+brought to European moral influence on the untutored tribes, but
+because the Bishop was highly jealous of all competition against the
+Augustine Order which he assisted. Consequent on the representations
+of Alonso Sanchez, His Majesty ordained that all priests who went to
+the Philippines were, in the first place, to resolve never to quit the
+Islands without the Bishop's sanction, which was to be conceded with
+great circumspection and only in extreme cases, whilst the Governor
+was instructed not to afford them means of exit on his sole authority.
+
+Neither did the Bishop regard with satisfaction the presence of the
+Commissary of the Inquisition, whose secret investigations, shrouded
+with mystery, curtailed the liberty of the loftiest functionary, sacred
+or civil. At the instigation of Alonso Sanchez, the junta recommended
+the King to recall the Commissary and extinguish the office, but
+he refused to do so. In short, the chief aims of the Bishop were to
+enhance the power of the friars, raise the dignity of the Colonial
+mitre, and secure a religious monopoly for the Augustine Order.
+
+Gomez Perez Dasmarinas was the next Governor appointed to these
+Islands, on the recommendation of Alonso Sanchez. In the Royal
+Instructions which he brought with him were embodied all the
+above-mentioned civil, ecclesiastical and military reforms. At
+the same time, King Philip abolished the Supreme Court. He wished
+to put an end to the interminable lawsuits so prejudicial to the
+development of the Colony. Therefore the President and Magistrates
+were replaced by Justices of the Peace, and the former returned to
+Mexico in 1591. This measure served only to widen the breach between
+the Bishop and the Civil Government. Dasmarinas compelled him to
+keep within the sphere of his sacerdotal functions, and tolerated no
+rival in State concerns. There was no appeal on the spot against the
+Governor's authority. This restraint irritated and disgusted the Bishop
+to such a degree that, at the age of 78 years, he resolved to present
+himself at the Spanish Court. On his arrival there, he explained to
+the King the impossibility of one Bishop attending to the spiritual
+wants of a people dispersed over so many Islands. For seven years after
+the foundation of Manila as capital of the Archipelago, its principal
+church was simply a parish church. In 1578 it was raised to the dignity
+of a Cathedral, at the instance of the King. Three years after this
+date the Cathedral of Manila was solemnly declared to be a "Suffragan
+Cathedral of Mexico, under the advocation of Our Lady of the Immaculate
+Conception"; Domingo Salazar being the first Bishop consecrated. He
+now proposed to raise the Manila See to an Archbishopric, with three
+Suffragan Bishops. The King gave his consent, subject to approval
+from Rome, and this following in due course, Salazar was appointed
+first Archbishop of Manila, but he died before the Papal Bull arrived,
+dated August 14, 1595, officially authorizing his investiture.
+
+In the meantime, Alonso Sanchez had proceeded to Rome in May,
+1589. Amongst many other Pontifical favours conceded to him, he
+obtained the right for himself, or his assigns, to use a die or stamp
+of any form with one or more images, to be chosen by the holder, and
+to contain also the figure of Christ, the Very Holy Virgin, or the
+Saints Peter or Paul. On the reverse was to be engraven a bust portrait
+of His Holiness, with the following indulgences attached thereto,
+viz.:--"To him who should convey the word of God to the infidels,
+or give them notice of the holy mysteries--each time 300 years'
+indulgence. To him who, by industry, converted any one of these,
+or brought him to the bosom of the Church--full indulgence for all
+sins." A number of minor indulgences were conceded for services to
+be rendered to the Pontificate, and for the praying so many Pater
+Nosters and Ave Marias. This Bull was dated in Rome July 28, 1591.
+
+Popes Gregory XIV. and Innocent IX. granted other Bulls relating to the
+rewards for using beads, medals, crosses, pictures, blessed images,
+etc., with which one could gain nine plenary indulgences every day
+or rescue nine souls from purgatory; and each day, twice over, all
+the full indulgences yet given in and out of Rome could be obtained
+for living and deceased persons.
+
+Sanchez returned to Spain (where he died), bringing with him the
+body of Saint Policarp, relics of Saint Potenciana, and 157 Marytrs;
+amongst them, 27 popes, for remission to the Cathedral of Manila.
+
+The Supreme Court was re-established with the same faculties as
+those of Mexico and Lima in 1598, and since then, on seven occasions,
+when the Governorship has been vacant, it has acted _pro tem_. The
+following interesting account of the pompous ceremonial attending
+the reception of the Royal Seal, restoring this Court, is given by
+Concepcion. [27] He says:--"The Royal Seal of office was received
+from the ship with the accustomed solemnity. It was contained in a
+chest covered with purple velvet and trimmings of silver and gold,
+over which hung a cloth of silver and gold. It was escorted by
+a majestic accompaniment, marching to the sounds of clarions and
+cymbals and other musical instruments. The _cortege_ passed through
+the noble city with rich vestments, with leg trimmings and uncovered
+heads. Behind these followed a horse, gorgeously caparisoned and
+girthed, upon whose back the President placed the coffer containing
+the Royal Seal. The streets were beautifully adorned with exquisite
+drapery. The High Bailiff, magnificently robed, took the reins in
+hand to lead the horse under a purple velvet pall, bordered with
+gold. The magistrates walked on either side; the aldermen of the city,
+richly clad, carried their staves of office in the august procession,
+which concluded with a military escort, standard bearers, etc., and
+proceeded to the Cathedral, where it was met by the Dean, holding
+a Cross. As the company entered the sacred edifice, the Te Deum was
+intoned by a band of music."
+
+In 1886 a Supreme Court, exactly similar to, and independent of,
+that of Manila, was established in the City of Cebu. The question of
+precedence in official acts having been soon after disputed between
+the President of the Court and the Brigadier-Governor of Visayas, it
+was decided in favour of the latter, on appeal to the Gov.-General. In
+the meantime, the advisability of abolishing the Supreme Court of Cebu,
+was warmly debated by the public.
+
+
+
+For many years after the conquest, deep religious sentiment pervaded
+the State policy, and not a few of the Governors-General acquired
+fame for their demonstrations of piety. Nevertheless, the conflictive
+ambition of the State and Church representatives was a powerful
+hindrance to the progress of the Colony.
+
+The quarrel between Sebastian Hurtado de Corcuera (1635-44) and
+the Archbishop arose from a circumstance of little concern to the
+Colony. The Archbishop ordered a military officer, who had a slave,
+either to sell or liberate her. The officer, rather than yield
+to either condition, wished to marry her, but failing to obtain
+her consent, he stabbed her to death. He thereupon took asylum in a
+convent, whence he was forcibly removed, and publicly executed in front
+of Saint Augustine's Church by order of the Governor. The Archbishop
+protested against the act, which, in those days, was qualified as a
+violation of sanctuary.
+
+The churches were closed whilst the dispute lasted. The Jesuits,
+always opposed to the Austin friars, sided with the Governor. The
+Archbishop therefore prohibited them to preach outside their churches
+in any public place, under pain of excommunication and 4,000 ducats
+fine, whilst the other priests agreed to abstain from attending their
+religious or literary _reunions_. Finally, a religious council was
+called, but a coalition having been formed against the Archbishop,
+he was excommunicated--his goods distrained--his salary stopped,
+and he was suspended in his archiepiscopal functions under a penalty
+of 4,000 ducats fine. At this crisis, he implored mercy and the
+intervention of the Supreme Court. The magistrates decided against the
+prelate's appeal, and allowed him twelve hours to comply, under pain
+of continued excommunication and a further fine of 1,000 ducats. The
+Archbishop thereupon retired to the Convent of Saint Francis, where
+the Governor visited him. The Archbishop subsequently made the most
+abject submission in an archiepiscopal decree which fully sets forth
+the admission of his guilt. Such a violent settlement of disputes
+did not long remain undisturbed, and the Archbishop again sought the
+first opportunity of opposing the lay authority. In this he can only be
+excused--if excuse it be--as the upholder of the traditions of cordial
+discord between the two great factions--Church and State. The Supreme
+Court, under the presidency of the Governor, resolved therefore to
+banish the Archbishop from Manila. With this object, 50 soldiers
+were deputed to seize the prelate, who was secretly forewarned of
+their coming by his co-conspirators. On their approach he held the
+Host in his hand, and it is related that the sub-lieutenant sent in
+charge of the troops was so horrified at his mission that he placed
+the hilt of his sword upon the floor and fell upon the point, but as
+the sword bent he did not kill himself. The soldiers waited patiently
+until the Archbishop was tired out and compelled, by fatigue, to
+replace the Host on the altar. Then they immediately arrested him,
+conducted him to a boat under a guard of five men, and landed him on
+the desert Island of Corregidor. The churches were at once reopened;
+the Jesuits preached where they chose; terms were dictated to the
+contumacious Archbishop, who accepted everything unconditionally,
+and was thereupon permitted to resume his office. The acts of Corcuera
+were inquired into by his successor, who caused him to be imprisoned
+for five years; but it is to be presumed that Corcuera was justified
+in what he did, for on his release and return to Spain, the King
+rewarded him with the Governorship of the Canary Islands.
+
+It is chronicled that Sabiniano Manrique de Lara (1653-63), who
+arrived in the galleon _San Francisco Xavier_ with the Archbishop
+Poblete, refused to disembark until this dignitary had blessed the
+earth he was going to tread. It was he too who had the privilege of
+witnessing the expurgation of the Islands of the excommunications
+and admonitions of Rome. The Archbishop brought peace and goodwill
+to all men, being charged by His Holiness to sanctify the Colony.
+
+The ceremony was performed with great solemnity, from an elevation,
+in the presence of an immense concourse of people. Later on, the
+pious Governor Lara was accused of perfidy to his royal master,
+and was fined P60,000, but on being pardoned, he retired to Spain,
+where he took holy orders.
+
+His successor, Diego Salcedo (1663-68), was not so fortunate in his
+relations with Archbishop Poblete, for during five years he warmly
+contested his intervention in civil affairs. Poblete found it hard to
+yield the exercise of veto in all matters which, by courtesy, had been
+conceded to him by the late Governor Lara. The Archbishop refused to
+obey the Royal Decrees relating to Church appointments under the Royal
+patronage, such preferments being in the hands of the Gov.-General as
+vice-royal patron. These decrees were twice notified to the Archbishop,
+but as he still persisted in his disobedience, Salcedo signed an
+order for his expulsion to Mariveles. This brought the prelate to his
+senses, and he remained more submissive in future. It is recorded
+that the relations between the Governor and the Archbishop became
+so strained that the latter was compelled to pay a heavy fine--to
+remain standing whilst awaiting an audience--to submit to contumely
+during the interviews--and when he died, the Governor ordered royal
+feasts to celebrate the joyful event, whilst he prohibited the _de
+profundis_ Mass, on the ground that such would be inconsistent with
+the secular festivities.
+
+The King, on being apprised of this, permitted the Inquisition to
+take its course. Diego Salcedo was surprised in his Palace, and
+imprisoned by the bloodthirsty agents of the _Santo Oficio_. Some
+years afterwards, he was shipped on board a galleon as a prisoner to
+the Inquisitors of Mexico, but the ship had to put back under stress
+of weather, and Salcedo returned to his dungeon. There he suffered
+the worst privations, until he was again embarked for Mexico. On this
+voyage he died of grief and melancholy. The King espoused the cause
+of the ecclesiastics, and ordered Salcedo's goods, as well as those
+of his partisans, to be confiscated.
+
+Manuel de Leon (1669-77) managed to preserve a good understanding with
+the clergy, and, on his decease, he bequeathed all his possessions
+to the Obras Pias (q.v.).
+
+Troubles with the Archbishop and friars were revived on the Government
+being assumed by Juan de Nargas (1678-84). In the last year of
+his rule, the Archbishop was banished from Manila. It is difficult
+to adequately appreciate the causes of this quarrel, and there is
+doubt as to which was right--the Governor or the Archbishop. On his
+restoration to his See, he was one of the few prelates--perhaps the
+only one--who personally sought to avenge himself. During the dispute,
+a number of friars had supported the Government, and these he caused
+to stand on a raised platform in front of a church, and publicly recant
+their former acts, declaring themselves miscreants. Juan de Nargas had
+just retired from the Governorship after seven years' service, and the
+Archbishop called upon him likewise to abjure his past proceedings and
+perform the following penance:--To wear a penitent's garb--to place a
+rope around his neck, and carry a lighted candle to the doors of the
+cathedral and the churches of the Parian, San Gabriel and Binondo,
+on every feast day during four months. Nargas objected to this
+degradation, and claimed privilege, arguing that the Archbishop had
+no jurisdiction over him, as he was a Cavalier of the Military Order
+of St. James. But the Archbishop only desisted in his pretensions to
+humiliate Nargas when the new Governor threatened to expel him again.
+
+Fernando Bustamente Bustillo y Rueda (1717-19) adopted very
+stringent measures to counteract the Archbishop's excessive claims to
+immunity. Several individuals charged with heinous crimes had taken
+church asylum and defied the civil power and justice. The Archbishop
+was appealed to, to hand them over to the civil authorities, or allow
+them to be taken. He refused to do either, supporting the claim of
+immunity of sanctuary. At the same time it came to the knowledge of
+the Governor that a movement had been set on foot against him by those
+citizens who favoured the Archbishop's views, and that even the friars
+had so debased themselves as to seek the aid of the Chinese residents
+against the Governor. Jose Torralba (q.v.), the late acting-Governor,
+was released from confinement by the Governor, and reinstated by him
+as judge in the Supreme Court, although he was under an accusation of
+embezzlement to the extent of P700,000. The Archbishop energetically
+opposed this act. He notified to Torralba his excommunication and
+ecclesiastical pains, and, on his own authority, attempted to seize his
+person in violation of the privileges of the Supreme Court. Torralba,
+with his sword and shield in hand, expelled the Archbishop's messenger
+by force. Then, as judge in the Supreme Court, he hastened to avenge
+himself of his enemies by issuing warrants against them. They fled to
+Church asylum, and, with the moral support of the Archbishop, laughed
+at the magistrates. There the refugees provided themselves with arms,
+and prepared for rebellion. When the Archbishop was officially informed
+of these facts, he still maintained that nothing could violate their
+immunity. The Governor then caused the Archbishop to be arrested and
+confined in a fortress, with all the ecclesiastics who had taken an
+active part in the conspiracy against the Government.
+
+Open riot ensued, and the priests marched to the Palace, amidst
+hideous clamourings, collecting the mob and citizens on the way. It was
+one of the most revolting scenes and remarkable events in Philippine
+history. Priests of the Sacred Orders of Saint Francis, Saint Dominic,
+and Saint Augustine joined the Recoletos in shouting "Viva la Iglesia,"
+"Viva nuestro Rey Don Felipe Quinto." [28] The excited rabble rushed
+to the Palace, and the Guard having fled, they easily forced their
+way in. One priest who impudently dared to advance towards the
+Governor, was promptly ordered by him to stand back. The Governor,
+seeing himself encircled by an armed mob of laymen and servants of
+Christ clamouring for his downfall, pulled the trigger of his gun,
+but the flint failed to strike fire. Then the crowd took courage
+and attacked him, whilst he defended himself bravely with a bayonet,
+until he was overwhelmed by numbers. From the Palace he was dragged
+to the common jail, and stabbed and maltreated on the way. His son,
+hearing of this outrage, arrived on horseback, but was run through
+by one of the rebels, and fell to the ground. He got up and tried to
+cut his way through the infuriated rioters, but was soon surrounded
+and killed, and his body horribly mutilated.
+
+The populace, urged by the clerical party, now fought for the
+liberty of the Archbishop. The prison doors were broken open, and the
+Archbishop was amongst the number of offenders liberated. The prelate
+came in triumph to the Palace, and assumed the Government in October,
+1719. The mob, during their excesses, tore down the Royal Standard,
+and maltreated those whom they met of the unfortunate Governor's
+faithful friends. A mock inquiry into the circumstances of the riot
+was made in Manila in apparent judicial form. Another investigation
+was instituted in Mexico, which led to several of the minor actors in
+this sad drama being made the scapegoat victims of the more exalted
+criminals. The Archbishop held the Government for nine years, and
+was then transferred to the Mexican Bishopric of Mechoacan.
+
+Pedro Manuel de Arandia (1754-59) is said to have expired of
+melancholy, consequent, in a measure, on his futile endeavours to
+govern at peace with the friars, who always secured the favour of
+the King.
+
+On four occasions the Supreme State authority in the Colony has been
+vested in the prelates. Archbishop Manuel Rojo, acting-Governor at
+the time of the British occupation of Manila in 1763, is said to
+have died of grief and shame in prison (1764) through the intrigues
+of the violent Simon de Anda y Salazar (q.v.).
+
+Jose Raon was Gov.-General in 1768, when the expulsion of the Jesuits
+was decreed. After the secret determination was made known to him,
+he was accused of having divulged it, and of having concealed his
+instructions. He was thereupon placed under guard in his own residence,
+where he expired (_vide_ Simon de Anda y Salazar).
+
+Domingo Moriones y Murillo (1877-80), it is alleged, had grave
+altercations with the friars, and found it necessary to remind the
+Archbishop Payo that the supreme power in the Philippines belonged
+to the State--not to the Church representative.
+
+From the earliest times of Spanish dominion, it had been the practice
+of the natives to expose to view the corpses of their relations
+and friends in the public highways and villages whilst conveying
+them to the parish churches, where they were again exhibited to the
+common gaze, pending the pleasure of the parish priest to perform the
+last obsequies. This outrage on public decorum was proscribed by the
+Director-General of Civil Administration in a circular dated October,
+18, 1887, addressed to the Provincial Governors, enjoining them to
+prohibit such indecent scenes in future. Thereupon the parish priests
+simply showed their contempt for the civil authorities by simulating
+their inability to elucidate to the native petty governors the true
+intent and meaning of the order. At the same time, the Archbishop
+of Manila issued instructions on the subject to his subordinates
+in very equivocal language. The native local authorities then
+petitioned the Civil Governor of Manila to make the matter clear to
+them. The Civil Governor forthwith referred the matter back to the
+Director-General of Civil Administration. This functionary, in a new
+circular dated November 4, confirmed his previous mandate of October
+18, and censured the action of the parish priests, who "in improper
+language and from the pulpit," had incited the native headmen to set
+aside his authority. The author of the circular sarcastically added
+the pregnant remark, that he was penetrated with the conviction that
+the Archbishop's sense of patriotism and rectitude _would deter him
+from subverting the law_. This incident seriously aroused the jealousy
+of the friars holding vicarages, and did not improve the relations
+between Church and State.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+Early Relations With Japan
+
+
+Two decades of existence in the 16th century was but a short period
+in which to make known the conditions of this new Colony to its
+neighbouring States, when its only regular intercourse with them was
+through the Chinese who came to trade with Manila. Japanese mariners,
+therefore, appear to have continued to regard the north of Luzon
+as "no-man's-land"; for years after its nominal annexation by the
+Spaniards they assembled there, whether as merchants or buccaneers
+it is difficult to determine. Spanish authority had been asserted by
+Salcedo along the west coast about as far as lat. 18 deg. N., but in 1591
+the north coast was only known to Europeans geographically. So far,
+the natives there had not made the acquaintance of their new masters.
+
+A large Spanish galley cruising in these waters met a Japanese vessel
+off Cape Bojeador (N.W. point), and fired a shot which carried away the
+stranger's mainmast, obliging him to heave-to. Then the galley-men,
+intending to board the stranger, made fast the sterns, whilst the
+Spaniards rushed to the bows; but the Japanese came first, boarded
+the galley, and drove the Spaniards aft, where they would have all
+perished had they not cut away the mizzenmast and let it fall with all
+sail set. Behind this barricade they had time to load their arquebuses
+and drive back the Japanese, over whom they gained a victory. The
+Spaniards then entered the Rio Grande de Cagayan, where they met a
+Japanese fleet, between which they passed peacefully. On shore they
+formed trenches and mounted cannons on earthworks, but the Japanese
+scaled the fortifications and pulled down the cannons by the mouths.
+
+These were recovered, and the Spanish captain had the cannon mouths
+greased, so that the Japanese tactics should not be repeated. A
+battle was fought and the defeated Japanese set sail, whilst the
+Spaniards remained to obtain the submission of the natives by force
+or by persuasion.
+
+The Japanese had also come to Manila to trade, and were located in
+the neighbouring village of Dilao, [29] where the Franciscan friars
+undertook their conversion to Christianity, whilst the Dominican Order
+considered the spiritual care of the Chinese their especial charge.
+
+The Portuguese had been in possession of Macao since the year 1557,
+and traded with various Chinese ports, whilst in the Japanese town
+of Nagasaki there was a small colony of Portuguese merchants. These
+were the indirect sources whence the Emperor of Japan learnt that
+Europeans had founded a colony in Luzon Island; and in 1593 he sent
+a message to the Governor of the Philippines calling upon him to
+surrender and become his vassal, threatening invasion in the event of
+refusal. The Spanish colonies at that date were hardly in a position
+to treat with haughty scorn the menaces of the Japanese potentate,
+for they were simultaneously threatened with troubles with the Dutch
+in the Moluccas, for which they were preparing an armament (_vide_
+Chap. vi.). The want of men, ships, and war material obliged them
+to seek conciliation with dignity. The Japanese Ambassador, Farranda
+Kiemon, was received with great honours and treated with the utmost
+deference during his sojourn in Manila.
+
+The Governor replied to the Emperor, that being but a lieger of the
+King of Spain--a mighty monarch of unlimited resources and power--he
+was unable to acknowledge the Emperor's suzerainty; for the most
+important duty imposed upon him by his Sovereign was the defence of
+his vast domains against foreign aggression; that, on the other hand,
+he was desirous of entering into amicable and mutually advantageous
+relations with the Emperor, and solicited his conformity to a treaty
+of commerce, the terms of which would be elucidated to him by an envoy.
+
+A priest, Juan Cobo, and an infantry captain were thereupon accredited
+to the Japanese Court as Philippine Ambassadors. On their arrival
+they were, without delay, admitted in audience by the Emperor; the
+treaty of commerce was adjusted to the satisfaction of both parties;
+and the Ambassadors, with some Japanese nobles, set sail for Manila
+in Japanese ships, which foundered on the voyage, and all perished.
+
+Neither the political nor the clerical party in Manila was, however,
+dismayed by this first disaster, and the prospect of penetrating
+Japan was followed up by a second expedition.
+
+Between the friars an animated discussion arose when the Jesuits
+protested against members of any other Order being sent to Japan. Saint
+Francis Xavier had, years before, obtained a Papal Bull from Pope
+Gregory XIII., awarding Japan to his Order, which had been the first to
+establish missions in Nagasaki. Jesuits were still there in numbers,
+and the necessity of sending members of rival religious bodies is not
+made clear in the historical records. The jealous feud between those
+holy men was referred to the Governor, who naturally decided against
+the Jesuits, in support of the King's policy of grasping territory
+under the cloak of piety. A certain Fray Pedro Bautista was chosen as
+Ambassador, and in his suite were three other priests. These embarked
+in a Spanish frigate, whilst Farranda Kiemon, who had remained in
+Manila the honoured guest of the Government, took his leave, and went
+on board his own vessel. The authorities bade farewell to the two
+embassies with ostentatious ceremonies, and amidst public rejoicings
+the two ships started on their journey on May 26, 1593. After 30 days'
+navigation one ship arrived safely at Nagasaki, and the other at a
+port 35 miles further along the coast.
+
+Pedro Bautista, introduced by Ferranda Kiemon, was presented to
+the Emperor Taycosama, who welcomed him as an Ambassador authorized
+to _negotiate a treaty of commerce, and conclude an offensive and
+defensive alliance for mutual protection._ The Protocol was agreed
+to and signed by both parties, and the relations between the Emperor
+and Pedro Bautista became more and more cordial. The latter solicited,
+and obtained, permission to reside indefinitely in the country and send
+the treaty on by messenger to the Governor of the Philippines; hence
+the ships in which the envoys had arrived remained about ten months in
+port. A concession was also granted to build a church at Meaco, near
+Osaka, and it was opened in 1594, when Mass was publicly celebrated.
+
+In Nagasaki the Jesuits were allowed to reside unmolested and practise
+their religious rites amongst the Portuguese population of traders
+and others who might have voluntarily embraced Christianity. Bautista
+went there to consult with the chief of the Jesuit Mission, who
+energetically opposed what he held to be an encroachment upon the
+monopoly rights of his Order, conceded by Pope Gregory XIII. and
+confirmed by royal decrees. Bautista, however, showed a permission
+which he had received from the Jesuit General, by virtue of which he
+was suffered to continue his course pending that dignitary's arrival.
+
+The Portuguese merchants in Nagasaki were not slow to comprehend that
+Bautista's coming with priests at his command was but a prelude to
+Spanish territorial conquest, which would naturally retard their
+hoped-for emancipation from the Spanish yoke. [30] Therefore,
+in their own interests, they forewarned the Governor of Nagasaki,
+who prohibited Bautista from continuing his propaganda against the
+established religion of the country in contravention of the Emperor's
+commands; but as Bautista took no heed of this injunction, he was
+expelled from Nagasaki for contumacy.
+
+It was now manifest to the Emperor that he had been basely deceived,
+and that under the pretext of concluding a commercial and political
+treaty, Bautista and his party had, in effect, introduced themselves
+into his realm with the clandestine object of seducing his subjects
+from their allegiance, of undermining their consciences, perverting
+them from the religion of their forefathers, and that all this would
+bring about the dismemberment of his Empire and the overthrow of his
+dynasty. Not only had Taycosama abstained from persecuting foreigners
+for the exercise of their religious rites, but he freely licensed the
+Jesuits to continue their mission in Nagasaki and wherever Catholics
+happened to congregate. He had permitted the construction of their
+temples, but he could not tolerate a deliberate propaganda which
+foreshadowed his own ruin. [31]
+
+Pedro Bautista's designs being prematurely obstructed, he took his
+passage back to Manila from Nagasaki in a Japanese vessel, leaving
+behind him his interpreter, Fray Jerome, with the other Franciscan
+monks. An Imperial Decree was then issued to prohibit foreign priests
+from interfering with the religion of Japanese subjects; but this law
+having been set at naught by Bautista's colleagues, one was arrested
+and imprisoned, and warrants were issued against the others; meanwhile
+the Jesuits in Nagasaki were in no way restrained.
+
+The Governor of Nagasaki caused the Franciscan propagandists to be
+conducted on board a Portuguese ship and handed over to the charge
+of the captain, under severe penalties if he aided or allowed their
+escape, but they were free to go wherever they chose outside the
+Japanese Empire. The captain, however, permitted one to return ashore,
+and for some time he wandered about the country in disguise.
+
+Pedro Bautista had reached Manila, where the ecclesiastical dignitaries
+prevailed upon the Governor to sanction another expedition to Japan,
+and Bautista arrived in that country a second time with a number of
+Franciscan friars. The Emperor now lost all patience, and determined
+not only to repress these venturesome foreigners, but to stamp out
+the last vestige of their revolutionary machinations. Therefore, by
+Imperial Decree, the arrest was ordered of all the Franciscan friars,
+and all natives who persisted in their adhesion to these missionaries'
+teachings. Twenty-six of those taken were tried and condemned to
+ignominious exhibition and death--the Spaniards, because they had come
+into the country and had received royal favours under false pretences,
+representing themselves as political ambassadors and suite--the
+Japanese, because they had forsworn the religion of their ancestors
+and bid fair to become a constant danger and source of discord in the
+realm. Amongst these Spaniards was Pedro Bautista. After their ears
+and noses had been cut off, they were promenaded from town to town
+in a cart, finally entering Nagasaki on horseback, each bearing the
+sentence of death on a breast-board.
+
+On a high ground, near the city and the port, in front of the Jesuits'
+church, these 26 persons were crucified and stabbed to death with
+lances, in expiation of their political offences. It was a sad fate for
+men who conscientiously believed that they were justified in violating
+rights and laws of nations for the propagation of their particular
+views; but can one complain? Would Buddhist missionaries in Spain
+have met with milder treatment at the hands of the Inquisitors? [32]
+
+Each Catholic body was supposed to designate the same road to
+heaven--each professed to teach the same means of obtaining the
+grace of God; yet, strange to say, each bore the other an implacable
+hatred--an inextinguishable jealousy! If conversion to Christianity
+were for the glory of God only, what could it have mattered whether
+souls of Japanese were saved by Jesuits or by others? For King Philip
+it was the same whether his political tools were of one denomination or
+the other, but many of the Jesuits in Japan happened to be Portuguese.
+
+The Jesuits in Manila probably felt that in view of their opposition
+to the Franciscan missions, public opinion might hold them morally
+responsible for indirectly contributing to the unfortunate events
+related; therefore, to justify their acts, they formally declared
+that Pedro Bautista and his followers died excommunicated, because
+they had disobeyed the Bull of Pope Gregory XIII.
+
+The general public were much excited when the news spread through
+the city, and a special Mass was said, followed by a religious
+procession through the streets. The Governor sent a commission to
+Japan, under the control of Luis de Navarrete, to ask for the dead
+bodies and chattels of the executed priests. The Emperor showed no
+rancour whatsoever; on the contrary, his policy was already carried
+out; and to welcome the Spanish lay deputies, he gave a magnificent
+banquet and entertained them sumptuously. Luis de Navarrete having
+claimed the dead bodies of the priests, the Emperor at once ordered
+the guards on the execution ground to retire, and told Navarrete
+that he could dispose as he pleased of the mortal remains. Navarrete
+therefore hastened to Nagasaki, but before he could reach there,
+devout Catholics had cut up the bodies, one carrying away a head,
+another a leg, and so forth. It happened, too, that Navarrete died
+of disease a few days after his arrival in Nagasaki. His successor,
+Diego de Losa, recovered the pieces of the deceased priests, which
+he put into a box and shipped for Manila, but the vessel and box of
+relics were lost on the way.
+
+Diego de Losa returned to Manila, the bearer of a polite letter
+and very acceptable presents from the Emperor to the Governor of
+the Philippines.
+
+The letter fully expatiated on recent events, and set forth a
+well-reasoned justification of the Emperor's decrees against the
+priests, in terms which proved that he was neither a tyrant nor a
+wanton savage, but an astute politician. The letter stated, that under
+the pretext of being ambassadors, the priests in question had come
+into the country and had taught a diabolical law belonging to foreign
+countries, and which aimed at superseding the rites and laws of his
+own religion, confused his people, and destroyed his Government and
+kingdom; for which reason he had rigorously proscribed it. Against
+these prohibitions, the religious men of Luzon preached their law
+publicly to humble people, such as servants and slaves. Not being
+able to permit this persistence in law-breaking, he had ordered their
+death by placing them on crosses; for he was informed that in the
+kingdom where Spaniards dominated, this teaching of their religious
+doctrine was but an artifice and stratagem by means of which the civil
+power was deceitfully gained. He astutely asks the Gov.-General if
+he would consent to Japanese preaching their laws in his territory,
+perturbing public peace with such novelties amongst the lower classes?
+
+Certainly it would be severely repressed, argued the Emperor, adding
+that in the exercise of his absolute power and for the good of his
+subjects, he had avoided the occurrence in his dominions of what had
+taken place in those regions where the Spaniards deposed the legitimate
+kings, and constituted themselves masters by religious fraud.
+
+He explains that the seizure of the cargo of a Spanish ship was only a
+reprisal for the harm which he had suffered by the tumult raised when
+the edict was evaded. But as the Spanish Governor had thought fit to
+send another ambassador from so far, risking the perils of the sea,
+he was anxious for peace and mutual good-feeling, but only on the
+precise condition that no more individuals should be sent to teach
+a law foreign to his realm, and under these unalterable conditions
+the Governor's subjects were at liberty to trade freely with Japan;
+that by reason of his former friendship and royal clemency, he had
+refrained from killing all the Spaniards with the priests and their
+servants, and had allowed them to return to their country.
+
+As to religion itself, Taycosama is said to have remarked that
+among so many professed, one more was of little consequence,--hence
+his toleration in the beginning, and his continued permission
+to the Jesuits to maintain their doctrines amongst their own
+sectarians. Moreover, it is said that a map was shown to Taycosama,
+marking the domains of the King of Spain and Portugal, and that in
+reply to his inquiry: "How could one man have conquered such vast
+territory?"--a certain Father Guzman (probably a Portuguese) answered:
+"By secretly sending religious men to teach their doctrine, and when a
+sufficient number of persons were so converted, the Spanish soldiery,
+with their aid, annexed their country and overthrew their kings." Such
+an avowal naturally impressed Taycosama profoundly. [33]
+
+In Seville there was quite a tumult when the details of the executions
+in Japan were published.
+
+In the meantime, the lamentable end of the Franciscan missionaries
+did not deter others from making further attempts to follow their
+example. During the first 20 years of the 17th century, priests
+succeeded in entering Japan, under the pretence of trading, in spite
+of the extreme measures adopted to discover them and the precautions
+taken to uproot the new doctrine, which it was feared would become
+the forerunner of sedition. Indeed, many Japanese nobles professing
+Christianity had already taken up their residence in Manila, and were
+regarded by the Emperor as a constant danger to his realm, hence he
+was careful to avoid communication with the Philippines. During the
+short reigns of Dayfusama and his son Xogusama, new decrees were
+issued, not against foreign Christians, but against those who made
+apostates amongst the Japanese; and consequently two more Spanish
+priests were beheaded.
+
+In September, 1622, a large number of Spanish missionaries
+and Christian Japanese men and children were executed in
+Nagasaki. Twenty-five of them were burnt and the rest beheaded,
+their remains being thrown into the sea to avoid the Christians
+following their odious custom of preserving parts of corpses as
+relics. Two days afterwards, four Franciscan and two Dominican
+friars with five Japanese were burnt in Omura. Then followed an
+edict stating the pains and penalties, civil deprivations, etc.,
+against all who refused to abandon their apostasy and return to the
+faith of their forefathers. Another edict was issued imposing death
+upon those who should conduct priests to Japan, and forfeiture of the
+ships in which they should arrive and the merchandise with which they
+should come. To all informers against native apostates the culprits'
+estates and goods were transferred as a reward.
+
+A Spanish deputation was sent to the Emperor of Japan in 1622,
+alleging a desire to renew commercial relations, but the Emperor was
+so exasperated at the recent defiance of his decrees that he refused
+to accept the deputies' presents from the Philippine Government,
+and sent them and the deputation away.
+
+Still there were friars in Manila eager to seek martyrdom, but the
+Philippine traders, in view of the danger of confiscation of their
+ships and merchandise if they carried missionaries, resolved not
+to despatch vessels to Japan if ecclesiastics insisted on taking
+passage. The Government supported this resolution in the interests of
+trade, and formally prohibited the transport of priests. The Archbishop
+of Manila, on his part, imposed ecclesiastical penalties on those of
+his subordinates who should clandestinely violate this prohibition.
+
+Supplicatory letters from Japan reached the religious communities in
+Manila, entreating them to send more priests to aid in the spread of
+Christianity; therefore the chiefs of the Orders consulted together,
+bought a ship, and paid high wages to its officers to carry four
+Franciscan, four Dominican and two Recoleto priests to Japan. When
+the Governor, Alonso Fajardo de Tua, heard of the intended expedition,
+he threatened to prohibit it, affirming that he would not consent to
+any more victims being sent to Japan. Thereupon representatives of the
+religious Orders waited upon him, to state that if he persisted in
+his prohibition, upon his conscience would fall the enormous charge
+of having lost the souls which they had hoped to save. The Governor
+therefore retired from the discussion, remitting the question to the
+Archbishop, who at once permitted the ship to leave, conveying the ten
+priests disguised as merchants. Several times the vessel was nearly
+wrecked, but at length arrived safely in a Japanese port. The ten
+priests landed, and were shortly afterwards burnt by Imperial order.
+
+In Rome a very disputed inquiry had been made into the circumstances
+of the Franciscan mission; but, in spite of the severe ordeal of the
+_diaboli advocatus_, cononization was conceded to Pedro Bautista and
+his companions.
+
+In 1629 the Papal Bull of Urban VIII., dated September 14, 1627, was
+published in Manila, amidst public feasts and popular rejoicing. The
+Bull declared the missionaries of Japan to be Saints and Martyrs and
+Patron Saints of the second class. Increased animation in favour of
+missions to Japan became general in consequence. Ten thousand pesos
+were collected to fit out a ship to carry 12 priests from Manila,
+besides 24 priests who came from Pangasinan to embark privately. The
+ship, however, was wrecked off the Ilocos Province coast (Luzon Is.),
+but the crew and priests were saved.
+
+A large junk was then secretly prepared at a distance from Manila
+for the purpose of conveying another party of friars to Japan; but,
+just as they were about to embark, the Governor sent a detachment
+of soldiers with orders to prevent them doing so, and he definitely
+prohibited further missionary expeditions.
+
+In 1633 the final extinction of Christians was vigorously commenced
+by the Emperor To-Kogunsama; and in the following year 79 persons
+were executed. The same Emperor sent a ship to Manila with a present
+of 150 lepers, saying that, as he did not permit Christians in his
+country, and knowing that the priests had specially cared for these
+unfortunate beings, he remitted them to their care. The first impulse
+of the Spaniards was to sink the ship with cannon shots, but finally it
+was agreed to receive the lepers, who were conducted with great pomp
+through the city and lodged in a large shed at Dilao (now the suburb
+of Paco). This gave rise to the foundation of the Saint Lazarus'
+(Lepers') Hospital, existing at the present day. [34] The Governor
+replied to the Emperor that if any more were sent he would kill them
+and their conductors.
+
+The Emperor then convoked a great assembly of his vassal kings and
+nobles, and solemnly imposed upon them the strict obligation to fulfil
+all the edicts against the entry and permanence of Christians, under
+severe penalties, forfeiture of property, deprivation of dignities,
+or death. So intent was this Prince on effectually annihilating
+Christianity within his Empire, that he thenceforth interdicted all
+trade with Macao; and when in 1640 his decree was disregarded by
+four Portuguese traders, who, describing themselves as ambassadors,
+arrived with a suite of 46 Orientals, they were all executed.
+
+In the same year the Governor of the Philippines called a Congress of
+local officials and ecclesiastics, amongst whom it was agreed that to
+send missionaries to Japan was to send them directly to death, and it
+was thenceforth resolved to abandon Catholic missions in that country.
+
+Secret missions and consequent executions still continued until about
+the year 1642, when the Dutch took Tanchiu--in Formosa Island--from
+the Spaniards, and intercepted the passage to Japan of priests and
+merchants alike. The conquest of Japan was a feat which all the
+artifice of King Philip IV.'s favourites and their monastic agents
+could not compass.
+
+In 1862, during the Pontificate of Pius IX., 620 missionaries who had
+met with martyrdom in Japan, in the 17th century, were canonized with
+great pomp and appropriate ceremony in Rome.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+Conflicts with the Dutch
+
+
+_Consequent_ on the union of the Crowns of Portugal and Spain
+(1581-1640), the feuds, as between nations, diplomatically subsided,
+although the individual antagonism was as rife as ever.
+
+Spanish and Portuguese interests in the Moluccas, as elsewhere, were
+thenceforth officially mutual. In the Molucca group, the old contests
+between the once rival kingdoms had estranged the natives from their
+ancient compulsory alliances. Anti-Portuguese and Philo-Portuguese
+parties had sprung up amongst the petty sovereignties, but the
+Portuguese fort and factory established in Ternate Island were held
+for many years, despite all contentions. But another rivalry, as
+formidable and more detrimental than that of the Portuguese in days
+gone by, now menaced Spanish ascendancy.
+
+From the close of the 16th century up to the year of the "Family
+Compact" Wars (1763), Holland and Spain were relentless foes. To
+recount the numerous combats between their respective fleets during
+this period, would itself require a volume. It will suffice here to
+show the bearing of these political conflicts upon the concerns of the
+Philippine Colony. The Treaty of Antwerp, which was wrung from the
+Spaniards in 1609, 28 years after the union of Spain and Portugal,
+broke the scourge of their tyranny, whilst it failed to assuage
+the mutual antipathy. One of the consequences of the "Wars of the
+Flanders," which terminated with this treaty, was that the Dutch were
+obliged to seek in the Far East the merchandise which had hitherto
+been supplied to them from the Peninsula. The short-sighted policy
+of the Spaniards in closing to the Dutch the Portuguese markets,
+which were now theirs, brought upon themselves the destruction of
+the monopolies which they had gained by the Union. The Dutch were
+now free, and their old tyrant's policy induced them to establish
+independently their own trading headquarters in the Molucca Islands,
+whence they could obtain directly the produce forbidden to them in
+the home ports. Hence, from those islands, the ships of a powerful
+Netherlands Trading Company sallied forth from time to time to meet
+the Spanish galleons from Mexico laden with silver and manufactured
+goods. Previous to this, and during the Wars of the Flanders,
+Dutch corsairs hovered about the waters of the Moluccas, to take
+reprisals from the Spaniards. These encounters frequently took place
+at the eastern entrance of the San Bernadino Straits, where the Dutch
+were accustomed to heave-to in anticipation of the arrival of their
+prizes. In this manner, constantly roving about the Philippine waters,
+they enriched themselves at the expense of their detested adversary,
+and, in a small degree, avenged themselves of the bloodshed and
+oppression which for over sixty years had desolated the Low Countries.
+
+The Philippine Colony lost immense sums in the seizure of its
+galleons from Mexico, upon which it almost entirely depended for
+subsistence. Being a dependency of New Spain, its whole intercourse
+with the civilized world, its supplies of troops and European
+manufactured articles, were contingent upon the safe arrival of the
+galleons. Also the dollars with which they annually purchased cargoes
+from the Chinese for the galleons came from Mexico. Consequently,
+the Dutch usually took the aggressive in these sea-battles, although
+they were not always victorious. When there were no ships to meet,
+they bombarded the ports where others were being built. The Spaniards,
+on their part, from time to time fitted out vessels to run down to
+the Molucca Islands to attack the enemy in his own waters.
+
+During the Governorship of Gomez Perez Dasmarinas (1590-93), the
+native King of Siao Island--one of the Molucca group--came to Manila
+to offer homage and vassalage to the representative of the King of
+Spain and Portugal, in return for protection against the incursions
+of the Dutch and the raids of the Ternate natives. Dasmarinas received
+him and the Spanish priests who accompanied him with affability, and,
+being satisfied with his credentials, he prepared a large expedition
+to go to the Moluccas to set matters in order. The fleet was composed
+of several frigates, 1 ship, 6 galleys, and 100 small vessels, all
+well armed. The fighting men numbered 100 Spaniards, 400 Pampanga and
+Tagalog arquebusiers, 1,000 Visaya archers and lancers, besides 100
+Chinese to row the galleys. This expedition, which was calculated to
+be amply sufficient to subdue all the Moluccas, sailed from Cavite
+on October 6, 1593. The sailing ships having got far ahead of the
+galleys, they hove-to off Punta de Azufre (N. of Maricaban Is.) to
+wait for them. The galleys arrived; and the next day they were able
+to start again in company. Meanwhile, a conspiracy was formed by the
+Chinese galleymen to murder all the Spaniards. Assuming these Chinese
+to be volunteers, their action would appear to be extremely vile. If,
+however, as is most probable, they were pressed into this military
+service to foreigners, it seems quite natural, that being forced to
+bloodshed without alternative, they should first fight for their own
+liberty, seeing that they had come to the Islands to trade.
+
+All but the Chinese were asleep, and they fell upon the Spaniards in
+a body. Eighteen of the troops and four slaves escaped by jumping
+into the sea. The Governor was sleeping in his cabin, but awoke on
+hearing the noise. He supposed the ship had grounded, and was coming
+up the companion _en deshabille_, when a Chinaman clove his head with
+a cutlass. The Governor reached his state-room, and taking his Missal
+and the Image of the Virgin in his hand, he died in six hours. The
+Chinese did not venture below, where the priests and armed soldiers
+were hidden. They cleared the decks of all their opponents, made fast
+the hatches and gangways, and waited three days, when, after putting
+ashore those who were still alive, they escaped to Cochin China, where
+the King and Mandarins seized the vessel and all she carried. On board
+were found 12,000 pesos in coin, some silver, and jewels belonging
+to the Governor and his suite. Thus the expedition was brought to an
+untimely end. The King of Siao, and the missionaries accompanying him,
+had started in advance for Otong (Panay Is.) to wait for the Governor,
+and there they received the news of the disaster.
+
+Amongst the most notable of the successful expeditions of the
+Spaniards, was that of Pedro Bravo de Acuna, in 1606, which consisted
+of 19 frigates, 9 galleys, and 8 small craft, carrying a total
+of about 2,000 men, and provisions for a prolonged struggle. The
+result was that they subdued a petty sultan, friendly to the Dutch,
+and established a fortress on his island.
+
+About the year 1607 the Supreme Court (the Governorship being vacant
+from 1606 to 1608), hearing that a Dutch vessel was hovering off
+Ternate, sent a ship against it, commanded by Pedro de Heredia. A
+combat ensued. The Dutch commander was taken prisoner with several of
+his men, and lodged in the fort at Ternate, but was ransomed on payment
+of P50,000 to the Spanish commander. Heredia returned joyfully to
+Manila, where, much to his surprise, he was prosecuted by the Supreme
+Court for exceeding his instructions, and expired of melancholy. The
+ransomed Dutch leader was making his way back to his headquarters
+in a small ship, peacefully, and without threatening the Spaniards
+in any way, when the Supreme Court treacherously sent a galley and
+a frigate after him to make him prisoner a second time. Overwhelmed
+by numbers and arms, and little expecting such perfidious conduct
+of the Spaniards, he was at once arrested and brought to Manila. The
+Dutch returned 22 Spanish prisoners of war to Manila to ransom him,
+but whilst these were retained, the Dutch commander was nevertheless
+imprisoned for life.
+
+Some years afterwards a Dutch squadron anchored off the south point
+of Bataan Province, not far from Punta Mariveles, at the entrance
+to Manila Bay. Juan de Silva, the Governor (1609-16), was in great
+straits. Several ships had been lost by storms, others were away,
+and there was no adequate floating armament with which to meet the
+enemy. However, the Dutch lay-to for five or six months, waiting to
+seize the Chinese and Japanese traders' goods on their way to the
+Manila market. They secured immense booty, and were in no hurry to
+open hostilities. This delay gave de Silva time to prepare vessels to
+attack the foe. In the interval he dreamt that Saint Mark had offered
+to help him defeat the Dutch. On awaking, he called a priest, whom he
+consulted about the dream, and they agreed that the nocturnal vision
+was a sign from Heaven denoting a victory. The priest went (from
+Cavite) to Manila to procure a relic of this glorious intercessor,
+and returned with his portrait to the Governor, who adored it. In
+haste the ships and armament were prepared. On Saint Mark's day,
+therefore, the Spaniards sallied forth from Cavite with six ships,
+carrying 70 guns, and two galleys and two launches, also well armed,
+besides a number of small, light vessels to assist in the formation
+of line of battle.
+
+All the European fighting men in Manila and Cavite embarked--over
+1,000 Spaniards--the flower of the Colony, together with a large
+force of natives, who were taught to believe that the Dutch were
+infidels. On the issue of this day's events perchance depended
+the possession of the Colony. Manila and Cavite were garrisoned by
+volunteers. Orations were offered in the churches. The Miraculous
+Image of Our Lady of the Guide was taken in procession from the
+Hermitage, and exposed to public view in the Cathedral. The Saints
+of the different churches and sanctuaries were adored and exhibited
+daily. The Governor himself took the supreme command, and dispelled
+all wavering doubt in his subordinates by proclaiming Saint Mark's
+promise of intercession. On his ship he hoisted the Royal Standard,
+on which was embroidered the Image of the Blessed Virgin, with the
+motto "_Mostrate esse Matrem_" and over a beautifully calm sea he
+led the way to battle and to victory.
+
+A shot from the Spanish heavy artillery opened the bloody combat. The
+Dutch were completely vanquished, after a fierce struggle, which
+lasted six hours. Their three ships were destroyed, and their flags,
+artillery, and plundered merchandise, to the value of P300,000, were
+seized. This famous engagement was thenceforth known as the Battle
+of Playa Honda.
+
+Again, in 1611, under de Silva, a squadron sailed to the Moluccas
+and defeated the Dutch off Gilolo Island.
+
+In 1617 the Spaniards had a successful engagement off the Zambales
+coast with the Dutch, who lost three of their ships.
+
+In July, 1620, three Mexican galleons were met by three Dutch vessels
+off Cape Espiritu Santo (Samar Is.), at the entrance of the San
+Bernadino Straits, but managed to escape in the dark. Two ran ashore
+and broke up; the third reached Manila. After this, the Gov.-General,
+Alonso Fajardo de Tua, ordered the course of the State ships to be
+varied on each voyage.
+
+In 1625 the Dutch again appeared off the Zambales coast, and Geronimo
+de Silva went out against them. The Spaniards, having lost one man,
+relinquished the pursuit of the enemy, and the Commander was brought
+to trial by the Supreme Court.
+
+In 1626, at the close of the Governorship of Fernando de Silva, a
+Spanish Colony was founded on Formosa Island, but no supplies were sent
+to it, and consequently in 1642 it surrendered to the Dutch, who held
+it for 20 years, until they were driven out by the Chinese adventurer
+Koxinga. And thus for over a century and a half the strife continued,
+until the Dutch concentrated their attention on the development of
+their Eastern Colonies, which the power of Spain, growing more and
+more effete, was incompetent to impede.
+
+
+
+In the middle of the 17th century the Tartars invaded China and
+overthrew the Min Dynasty--at that time represented by the Chinese
+Emperor Yunglic. He was succeeded on the throne by the Tartar
+Emperor Kungchi, to whose arbitrary power nearly all the Chinese
+Empire had submitted. Amongst the few Mongol chiefs who held out
+against Ta-Tsing dominion was a certain Mandarin known by the name of
+Koxinga, who retired to the Island of Kinmuen, where he asserted his
+independence and defied his nation's conqueror. Securely established
+in his stronghold, he invited the Chinese to take refuge in his
+island and oppose the Tartar's rule. Therefore the Emperor ordered
+that no man should inhabit China within four leagues of the coast,
+except in those provinces which were undoubtedly loyal to the new
+Government. The coast was consequently laid bare; vessels, houses,
+plantations, and everything useful to man, were destroyed in order to
+cut off effectually all communications with lands beyond the Tartar
+Empire. The Chinese from the coast, who for generations had earned a
+living by fishing, etc., crowded into the interior, and their misery
+was indescribable.
+
+Koxinga, unable to communicate with the mainland of the Empire,
+turned his attention to the conquest of Formosa Island, at the time
+in the possession of the Dutch. According to Dutch accounts the
+European settlers numbered about 600, with a garrison of 2,200. The
+Dutch artillery, stores, and merchandise were valued at P8,000,000,
+and the Chinese, who attacked them under Koxinga, were about 100,000
+strong. The settlement surrendered to the invaders' superior numbers,
+and Koxinga established himself as King of the Island. Koxinga had
+become acquainted with an Italian Dominican missionary named Vittorio
+Riccio, whom he created a Mandarin, and sent him as Ambassador to
+the Governor of the Philippines. Riccio therefore arrived in Manila
+in 1662, the bearer of Koxinga's despatches calling upon the Governor
+to pay tribute, under threat of the Colony being attacked by Koxinga
+if his demand were refused.
+
+The position of Riccio as a European friar and Ambassador of a
+Mongol adventurer was as awkward as it was novel. He was received
+with great honour in Manila, where he disembarked, and rode to the
+Government House in the full uniform of a Chinese envoy, through
+lines of troops drawn up to salute him as he passed. At the same time,
+letters from Formosa had also been received by the Chinese in Manila,
+and the Government at once accused them of conniving at rebellion. All
+available forces were concentrated in the capital; and to increase
+the garrison the Governor published a decree, dated May 6, 1662,
+ordering the demolition of the forts of Zamboanga, Yligan (Mindanao
+Is.), Calamianes and Ternale [35] (Moluccas).
+
+The only provincial fort preserved was that of Surigao (then called
+Caraga), consequently in the south the Mahometans became complete
+masters on land and at sea for half a year.
+
+The troops in Manila numbered 100 cavalry and 8,000
+infantry. Fortifications were raised, and redoubts were constructed
+in which to secrete the Treasury funds. When all the armament was in
+readiness, the Spaniards incited the Chinese to rebel, in order to
+afford a pretext for their massacre.
+
+Two junk masters were seized, and the Chinese population was menaced;
+therefore they prepared for their own defence, and then opened the
+affray, for which the Government was secretly longing, by killing
+a Spaniard in the market-place. Suddenly artillery fire was opened
+on the Parian, and many of the peaceful Chinese traders, in their
+terror, hanged themselves; many were drowned in the attempt to reach
+the canoes in which to get away to sea; some few did safely arrive
+in Formosa Island and joined Koxinga's camp, whilst others took
+to the mountains. Some 8,000 to 9,000 Chinese remained quiet, but
+ready for any event, when they were suddenly attacked by Spaniards
+and natives. The confusion was general, and the Chinese seemed to
+be gaining ground; therefore the Governor sent the Ambassador Riccio
+and a certain Fray Joseph de Madrid to parley with them. The Chinese
+accepted the terms offered by Riccio, who returned to the Governor,
+leaving Fray Joseph with the rebels; but when Riccio went back with
+a general pardon and a promise to restore the two junk masters,
+he found that they had beheaded the priest. A general carnage of
+the Mongols followed, and Juan de la Concepcion says [36] that the
+original intention of the Spaniards was to kill every Chinaman,
+but that they desisted in view of the inconvenience which would have
+ensued from the want of tradesmen and mechanics. Therefore they made
+a virtue of a necessity, and graciously pardoned in the name of His
+Catholic Majesty all who laid down their arms.
+
+Riccio returned to Formosa Island, and found Koxinga preparing for
+warfare against the Philippines, but before he could carry out his
+intentions he died of fever. The chiefs successor, of a less bellicose
+spirit, sent Riccio a second time to Manila, and a treaty was agreed
+to, re-establishing commercial relations with the Chinese. Shortly
+after Koxinga's decease a rebellion was raised in Formosa; and
+the Island, falling at length into the hands of a Tartar party,
+became annexed to China under the new dynasty. Then Riccio was
+called upon to relate the part he had taken in Koxinga's affairs,
+and he was heard in council. Some present were in favour of invading
+the Philippines in great force because of the cruel and unwarranted
+general massacre of the Chinese in cold blood; but Riccio took pains
+to show how powerful Spain was, and how justified was the action of
+the Spaniards, as a measure of precaution, in view of the threatened
+invasion of Koxinga. The Chinese party was appeased, but had the
+Tartars cared to take up the cause of their conquered subjects,
+the fate of the Philippines would have been doubtful.
+
+
+
+The rule of the Governors-General of the Islands was, upon
+the whole, benignant with respect to the natives who manifested
+submission. Apart from the unconcealed animosity of the monastic party,
+the Gov.-General's liberty of action was always very much locally
+restrained by the Supreme Court and by individual officials. The
+standing rule was, that in the event of the death or deprivation of
+office of the Gov.-General, the Civil Government was to be assumed
+by the Supreme Court, and the military administration by the senior
+magistrate. Latterly, in the absence of a Gov.-General, from any cause
+whatsoever, the sub-inspector of the forces became Acting-Gov.-General.
+
+Up to the beginning of the last century the authority of the King's
+absolute will was always jealously imposed, and the Governors-General
+were frequently rebuked for having exercised independent action,
+taking the initiative in what they deemed the best policy. But Royal
+Decrees could not enforce honesty; the peculations and frauds on the
+part of the secular authorities, and increasing quarrels and jealousies
+amongst the several religious bodies, seemed to annihilate all prospect
+of social and material progress of the Colony. As early as the reign
+of Philip III. (1598-1621) the procurators of Manila had, during three
+years, been unsuccessfully soliciting from the mother country financial
+help for the Philippines to meet official discrepancies. The affairs
+of the Colony were eventually submitted to a special Royal Commission
+in Spain, the result being that the King was advised to abandon this
+possession, which was not only unproductive, but had become a costly
+centre of disputes and bad feeling. However, Fray Hernando de Moraga,
+a missionary from the Philippines, happened to be in the Peninsula
+at the time, and successfully implored the King to withhold his
+ratification of the recommendation of the Commission. His Majesty
+avowed that even though the maintenance of this Colony should exhaust
+his Mexican Treasury, his conscience would not allow him to consent
+to the perdition of souls which had been saved, nor to relinquish
+the hope of rescuing yet far more in these distant regions.
+
+During the first two centuries following the foundation of the Colony,
+it was the custom for a Royal Commission to be appointed to inquire
+into the official acts of the outgoing Governor before he could leave
+the Islands--_Hacerle la residencia_, as it was called.
+
+Whilst on the one hand this measure effectually served as a check
+upon a Governor who might be inclined to adopt unjustifiable means
+of coercion, or commit defalcations, it was also attended with many
+abuses; for against an energetic ruler an antagonistic party was
+always raised, ready to join in the ultimate ruin of the Governor
+who had aroused their susceptibilities by refusing to favour their
+nefarious schemes. Hence when a _prima facie_ case was made out
+against a Governor, his inexperienced successor was often persuaded
+to consent to his incarceration whilst the articles of impeachment
+were being investigated.
+
+Sebastian Hurtado de Corcuera (1635-44) had been Governor of Panama
+before he was appointed to the Philippines. During his term of office
+here he had usually sided with the Jesuits on important questions
+taken up by the friars, and on being succeeded by Diego Fajardo,
+he was brought to trial, fined P 25,000, and put into prison. After
+five years' confinement he was released by Royal Order and returned
+to Spain, where the King partially compensated him with the Government
+of the Canary Islands.
+
+Juan Vargas (1678-84) had been in office for nearly seven years,
+and the Royal Commissioner who inquired into his acts took four years
+to draw up his report. He filled 20 large volumes of a statement of
+the charges made against the late Governor, some of which were grave,
+but the majority of them were of a very frivolous character. This is
+the longest inquiry of the kind on record.
+
+Acting-Governor Jose Torralba (1715-17) was arrested on the
+termination of his Governorship and confined in the Fortress of
+Santiago, charged with embezzlement to the amount of P 700,000. He
+had also to deposit the sum of P 20,000 for the expenses of the
+inquiry commission. Several other officials were imprisoned with him
+as accomplices in his crimes. He is said to have sent his son with
+public funds on trading expeditions around the coasts, and his wife
+and young children to Mexico with an enormous sum of money defrauded
+from the Government. Figures at that date show, that when he took the
+Government, there was a balance in the Treasury of P 238,849, and
+when he left it in two years and a half, the balance was P 33,226,
+leaving a deficit of P 205,623, whilst the expenses of the Colony
+were not extraordinary during that period. Amongst other charges,
+he was accused of having sold ten Provincial Government licences
+(_encomiendas_), many offices of notaries, scriveners, etc., and
+conceded 27 months' gambling licences to the Chinese in the Parian
+without accounting to the Treasury. He was finally sentenced to pay
+a fine of P 100,000, the costs of the trial, the forfeiture of the
+P 20,000 already deposited, perpetual deprivation of public office,
+and banishment from the Philippine Islands and Madrid. When the
+Royal Order reached Manila he was so ill that his banishment was
+postponed. He lived for a short time nominally under arrest, and was
+permitted to beg alms for his subsistence within the city until he
+died in the Hospital of San Juan de Dios in 1736.
+
+The defalcations of some of the Governors caused no inconsiderable
+anxiety to the Sovereign. Pedro de Arandia, in his dual capacity of
+Gov.-General and Chief Justice (1754-59), was a corrupt administrator
+of his country's wealth. He is said to have amassed a fortune of P
+25,000 during his five years' term of office, and on his death he
+left it all to pious works (_vide_ "Obras pias").
+
+Governor Berenguer y Marquina (1788-93) was accused of bribery,
+but the King absolved him.
+
+In the last century a Governor of Yloilo is said to have absconded in
+a sailing-ship with a large sum of the public funds. A local Governor
+was then also _ex-officio_ administrator; and, although the system
+was afterwards reformed, official extortion was rife throughout the
+whole Spanish administration of the Colony, up to the last.
+
+A strange drama of the year 1622 well portrays the spirit of the
+times--the immunity of a Gov.-General in those days, as well as
+the religious sentiment which accompanied his most questionable
+acts. Alonso Fajardo de Tua having suspected his wife of infidelity,
+went to the house where she was accustomed to meet her paramour. Her
+attire was such as to confirm her husband's surmises. He called
+a priest and instructed him to confess her, telling him that he
+intended to take her life. The priest, failing to dissuade Fajardo from
+inflicting such an extreme penalty, took her confession and proffered
+her spiritual consolation. Then Fajardo, incensed with jealousy,
+mortally stabbed her. No inquiry into the occurrence seems to have
+been made, and he continued to govern for two years after the event,
+when he died of melancholy. It is recorded that the paramour, who was
+the son of a Cadiz merchant, had formerly been the accepted _fiance_
+of Fajardo's wife, and that he arrived in Manila in their company. The
+Governor gave him time to confess before he killed him, after which
+(according to one account) he caused his house to be razed to the
+ground, and the land on which it stood to be strewn with salt. Juan
+de la Concepcion, however, says that the house stood for one hundred
+years after the event as a memorial of the punishment.
+
+In 1640 Olivarez, King Philip IV.'s chief counsellor, had succeeded by
+his arrogance and unprecedented policy of repression in arousing the
+latent discontent of the Portuguese. A few years previously they had
+made an unsuccessful effort to regain their independent nationality
+under the sovereignty of the Duke of Braganza. At length, when a call
+was made upon their boldest warriors to support the King of Spain in
+his protracted struggle with the Catalonians, an insurrection broke
+out, which only terminated when Portugal had thrown off, for ever,
+the scourge of Spanish supremacy.
+
+The Duke of Braganza was crowned King of Portugal under the title
+of John IV., and every Portuguese colony declared in his favour,
+except Ceuta, on the African coast. The news of the separation
+of Portugal from Spain reached Manila in the following year. The
+Gov.-General at that time--Sebastian Hurtado de Corcuera--at once
+sent out an expedition of picked men under Juan Claudio with orders
+to take Macao,--a Portuguese settlement at the mouth of the Canton
+River, about 40 miles west of Hongkong. The attempt miserably failed,
+and the blue-and-white ensign continued to wave unscathed over the
+little territory. The Governor of Macao, who was willing to yield,
+was denounced a traitor to Portugal, and killed by the populace. Juan
+Claudio, who was taken prisoner, was generously liberated by favour
+of the Portuguese Viceroy of Goa, and returned to Manila to relate
+his defeat. [37]
+
+The Convent of Santa Clara was founded in Manila in 1621 by Geronima
+de la Asuncion, who, three years afterwards, was expelled from the
+management by the friars because she refused to admit reforms in the
+conventual regulations. The General Council subsequently restored
+her to the matronship for 20 years. Public opinion was at this
+time vividly aroused against the superiors of the convents, who,
+it was alleged, made serious inroads on society by inveigling the
+marriageable young women into taking the veil and to live unnatural
+lives. The public demanded that there should be a fixed limit to
+the number of nuns admitted. An ecclesiastic of high degree made
+strenuous efforts to rescue three nuns who had just been admitted,
+but the abbess persistently refused to surrender them until her
+excommunication was published on the walls of the nunnery.
+
+In 1750 a certain Mother Cecilia, who had been in the nunnery of Santa
+Catalina since she was 16 years of age, fell in love with a Spaniard
+who lived opposite, named Francisco Antonio de Figueroa, and begged
+to be relieved of her vows and have her liberty restored to her. The
+Archbishop was willing to grant her request, which was, however,
+stoutly opposed by the Dominican friars. On appeal being made to the
+Governor, as viceregal patron, he ordered her to be set at liberty. The
+friars nevertheless defied the Governor, who, to sustain his authority,
+was compelled to order the troops to be placed under arms, and the
+commanding officer of the artillery to hold the cannons in readiness
+to fire when and where necessary. In view of these preparations, the
+friars allowed the nun to leave her confinement, and she was lodged in
+the College of Santa Potenciana pending the dispute. Public excitement
+was intense. The Archbishop ordered the girl to be liberated, but as
+his subordinates were still contumacious to his bidding, the Bishop
+of Cebu was invited to arbitrate on the question, but he declined
+to interfere, therefore an appeal was remitted to the Archbishop of
+Mexico. In the meantime the girl was married to her lover, and long
+afterwards a citation arrived from Mexico for the woman to appear
+at that ecclesiastical court. She went there with her husband, from
+whom she was separated whilst the case was being tried, but in the
+end her liberty and marriage were confirmed.
+
+During the Government of Nino de Tabora (1626-32), the High Host
+and sacred vessels were stolen from the Cathedral of Manila. The
+Archbishop was in consequence sorely distressed, and walked barefooted
+to the Jesuits' convent to weep with the priests, and therein find
+a solace for his mental affliction. It was surmised that the wrath
+of God at such a crime would assuredly be avenged by calamities on
+the inhabitants, and confessions were made daily. The friars agreed
+to appease the anger of the Almighty by making public penance and
+by public prayer. The Archbishop subjected himself to a most rigid
+abstinence. He perpetually fasted, ate herbs, drank only water,
+slept on the floor with a stone for a pillow, and flagellated his own
+body. On Corpus Christi day a religious procession passed through the
+public thoroughfares solemnly exhorting the delinquents to restore
+the body of Our Saviour, but all in vain. The melancholy prelate,
+weak beyond recovery from his self-imposed privations, came to the
+window of his retreat as the _cortege_ passed in front of it, and
+there he breathed his last.
+
+As in all other Spanish colonies, the Inquisition had its secret
+agents or commissaries in the Philippines. Sometimes a priest would
+hold powers for several years to inquire into the private lives and
+acts of individuals, whilst no one knew who the informer was. The
+Holy Office ordered that its _Letter of Anathema_, with the names in
+full of all persons who had incurred pains and penalties for heresy,
+should be read in public places every three years, but this order
+was not fulfilled. The _Letter of Anathema_ was so read in 1669,
+and the only time since then up to the present day was in 1718.
+
+
+
+During the minority of the young Spanish King Charles II. the regency
+was held by his mother, the Queen-Dowager, who was unfortunately
+influenced by favourites, to the great disgust of the Court and
+the people. Amongst these sycophants was a man named Valenzuela, of
+noble birth, who, as a boy, had followed the custom of those days,
+and entered as page to a nobleman--the Duke del Infantado--to learn
+manners and Court etiquette.
+
+The Duke went to Italy as Spanish ambassador, and took Valenzuela
+under his protection. He was a handsome and talented young fellow,
+learned for those times,--intelligent, well versed in all the generous
+exercises of chivalry, and a poet by nature. On his return from Italy
+with the Duke, his patron caused him to be created a Cavalier of the
+Order of Saint James. The Duke shortly afterwards died, but through
+the influence of the Dowager-Queen's confessor--the notorious Nitard,
+also a favourite--young Valenzuela was presented at Court, where he
+made love to one of the Queen's maids-of-honour--a German--and married
+her. The Prince, Don Juan de Austria, who headed the party against
+the Queen, expelled her favourite (Nitard) from Court, and Valenzuela
+became Her Majesty's sole confidential adviser. Nearly every night,
+at late hours, the Queen went to Valenzuela's apartment to confer
+with him, whilst he daily brought her secret news gleaned from the
+courtiers. The Queen created him Marquis of San Bartolome and of
+Villa Sierra, a first-class Grandee of Spain, and Prime Minister. He
+was a most perfect courtier; and it is related of him that when a
+bull-fight took place, he used to go to the royal box richly adorned
+in fighting attire, and, with profound reverence, beg Her Majesty's
+leave to challenge the bull. The Queen, it is said, never refused him
+the solicited permission, but tenderly begged of him not to expose
+himself to such dangers. Sometimes he would appear in the ring as a
+cavalier, in a black costume embroidered with silver and with a large
+white-and-black plume, in imitation of the Queen's half mourning. It
+was much remarked that on one occasion he wore a device of the sun with
+an eagle looking down upon it, and the words, "_I alone have licence_."
+
+He composed several comedies, and allowed them to be performed at his
+expense for the free amusement of the people. He also much improved
+the city of Madrid with fine buildings, bridges, and many public
+works to sustain his popularity amongst the citizens.
+
+The young King, now a youth, ordered a deer hunt to be prepared in
+the Escorial grounds; and during the diversion His Majesty happened
+to shoot Valenzuela in the muscle of his arm, whether intentionally or
+accidentally is not known. However, the terrified Queen-mother fainted
+and fell into the arms of her ladies-in-waiting. This circumstance was
+much commented upon, and contributed in no small degree to the public
+odium and final downfall of Valenzuela in 1684. At length Don Juan de
+Austria returned to the Court, when the young King was of an age to
+appreciate public concerns, and he became more the Court favourite
+than ever Valenzuela or Nitard had been during the Dowager-Queen's
+administration. Valenzuela fell at once from the exclusive position
+he had held in royal circles and retired to the Escorial, where, by
+order of Don Juan de Austria, a party of young noblemen, including Don
+Juan's son, the Duke of Medina Sidonia, the Marquis of Valparaiso,
+and others of rank, accompanied by 200 horsemen, went to seize the
+disfavoured courtier. He was out walking at the time of their arrival,
+but he was speedily apprised of the danger by his bosom friend, the
+Prior of Saint Jerome Monastery. The priest hid him in the roof of the
+monastery, where, being nearly suffocated for want of ventilation,
+a surgeon was sent up to bleed him and make him sleep. The search
+party failed to find the refugee, and were about to return, when the
+surgeon treacherously betrayed the secret to them, and Valenzuela
+was discovered sleeping with arms by his side. He was made prisoner,
+confined in a castle, degraded of all his honours and rank, and finally
+banished by Don Juan de Austria to the furthermost Spanish possession
+in the world--the Philippines,--whilst his family was incarcerated
+in a convent at Talavera in Spain.
+
+When the Pope heard of this violation of Church asylum in the Escorial
+committed by the nobles, he excommunicated all concerned in it;
+and in order to purge themselves of their sin and obtain absolution,
+they were compelled to go to church in their shirts, each with a rope
+around his neck. They actually performed this penance, and then the
+Nuncio accredited to the Spanish Court, Cardinal Mellini, relieved
+them of their ecclesiastical pains and penalties.
+
+Valenzuela was permitted to establish a house within the prison of
+Cavite, where he lived for several years as a State prisoner and
+exile. When Don Juan de Austria died, the Dowager-Queen regained
+in a measure her influence at Court, and one of the first favours
+she begged of her son, the King, was the return of Valenzuela to
+Madrid. The King granted her request, and she at once despatched a
+ship to bring him to Spain, but the Secretary of State interfered
+and stopped it. Nevertheless, Valenzuela, pardoned and liberated,
+set out for the Peninsula, and reached Mexico, where he died from
+the kick of a horse.
+
+
+
+In 1703 a vessel arrived in Manila Bay from India, under an Armenian
+captain, bringing a young man 35 years of age, a native of Turin,
+who styled himself Monseigneur Charles Thomas Maillard de Tournon,
+Visitor-General, Bishop of Savoy, Patriarch of Antioch, Apostolic
+Nuncio and Legate _ad latere_ of the Pope. He was on his way to China
+to visit the missions, and called at Manila with eight priests and
+four Italian families.
+
+Following the custom established with foreign ships, the custodian
+of the Fort of Cavite placed guards on board this vessel. This act
+seems to have aroused the indignation of the exalted stranger, who
+assumed a very haughty tone, and arrogantly insisted upon a verbal
+message being taken to the Governor (Domingo Sabalburco) to announce
+his arrival. In Manila these circumstances were much debated, and
+at length the Governor instructed the custodian of Cavite Fort to
+accompany the stranger to the City of Manila. On his approach a salute
+was fired from the city battlements, and he took up his residence in
+the house of the Maestre de Campo. There the Governor went to visit him
+as the Pope's legate, and was received with great arrogance. However,
+the Governor showed no resentment; he seemed to be quite dumfounded by
+the Patriarch's dignified airs, and consulted with the Supreme Court
+about the irregularity of a legate arriving without exhibiting the
+_regium exequatur_. The Court decided that the stranger must be called
+upon to present his Papal credentials and the royal confirmation of
+his powers with respect to Spanish dominions, and with this object a
+magistrate was commissioned to wait upon him. The Patriarch treated
+the commissioner with undisguised contempt, expressing his indignation
+and surprise at his position being doubted; he absolutely refused to
+show any credentials, and turned out the commissioner, raving at him
+and causing an uproarious scandal. At each stage of the negotiations
+with him the Patriarch put forward the great authority of the Pope,
+and his unquestionable right to dispose of realms and peoples at his
+will, and somehow this ruse seemed to subdue everybody; the Governor,
+the Archbishop, and all the authorities, civil and ecclesiastical, were
+overawed. The Archbishop, in fact, made an unconditional surrender to
+the Patriarch, who now declared that all State and religious authority
+must be subordinate to his will. The Archbishop was ordered by him
+to set aside his Archiepiscopal Cross, whilst the Patriarch used his
+own particular cross in the religious ceremonies, and left it in the
+Cathedral of Manila on his departure. He went so far as to cause
+his master of the ceremonies to publicly divest the Archbishop of
+a part of his official robes and insignia, to all which the prelate
+meekly consented. All the chief authorities visited the Patriarch,
+who, however, was too dignified to return their calls. Here was,
+in fact, an extraordinary case of a man unknown to everybody, and
+refusing to prove his identity, having absolutely brought all the
+authority of a colony under his sway! He was, as a matter of fact,
+the legate of Clement XI.
+
+The only person to whom he appears to have extended his friendship was
+the Maestre de Campo, at the time under ecclesiastical arrest. The
+Maestre de Campo was visited by the Patriarch, who so ingeniously
+blinded him with his patronage, that this official squandered
+about P20,000 in entertaining his strange visitor and making him
+presents. The Patriarch in return insisted upon the Governor and
+Archbishop pardoning the Maestre de Campo of all his alleged misdeeds,
+and when this was conceded he caused the pardon to be proclaimed in
+a public Act. All the Manila officials were treated by the Patriarch
+with open disdain, but he created the Armenian captain of the vessel
+which brought him to Manila a knight of the "Golden Spur," in a public
+ceremony in the Maestre de Campo's house in which the Gov.-General
+was ignored.
+
+From Manila the Patriarch went to China, where his meddling with
+the Catholic missions met with fierce opposition. He so dogmatically
+asserted his unproved authority, that he caused European missionaries
+to be cited in the Chinese Courts and sentenced for their disobedience;
+but he was playing with fire, for at last the Emperor of China, wearied
+of his importunities, banished him from the country. Thence he went
+to Macao, where, much to the bewilderment of the Chinese population,
+he maintained constant disputes with the Catholic missionaries until he
+died there in 1710 in the Inquisition prison, where he was incarcerated
+at the instance of the Jesuits.
+
+When King Philip V. became aware of what had occurred in Manila,
+he was highly incensed, and immediately ordered the Gov.-General
+to Mexico, declaring him disqualified for life to serve under the
+Crown. The senior magistrates of the Supreme Court were removed from
+office. Each priest who had yielded to the legate's authority without
+previously taking cognisance of the _regium exequatur_ was ordered
+to pay P1,000 fine. The Archbishop was degraded and transferred
+from the Archbishopric of Manila to the Bishopric of Guadalajara in
+Mexico. In spite of this punishment, it came to the knowledge of the
+King that the ex-Archbishop of Manila, as Bishop of Guadalajara, was
+still conspiring with the Patriarch to subvert civil and religious
+authority in his dominions, with which object he had sent him P1,000
+from Mexico, and had promised a fixed sum of P1,000 per annum, with
+whatever further support he could afford to give him. Therefore the
+King issued an edict to the effect that any legate who should arrive
+in his domains without royal confirmation of his Papal credentials
+should thenceforth be treated simply with the charity and courtesy
+due to any traveller; and in order that this edict should not be
+forgotten, or evaded, under pretext of its having become obsolete,
+it was further enacted that it should be read in full on certain days
+in every year before all the civil and ecclesiastical functionaries.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+British Occupation of Manila
+
+
+In 1761 King George III. had just succeeded to the throne of England,
+and the protracted contentions with France had been suspended for
+a while. It was soon evident, however, that efforts were being made
+to extinguish the power and prestige of Great Britain, and with this
+object a convention had been entered into between France and Spain
+known as the "Family Compact." It was so called because it was an
+alliance made by the three branches of the House of Bourbon, namely,
+Louis XV. of France, Charles III. of Spain, and his son Ferdinand, who,
+in accordance with the Treaty of Vienna, had ascended the throne of
+Naples. Spain engaged to unite her forces with those of France against
+England on May 1, 1762, if the war still lasted, in which case France
+would restore Minorca to Spain. Pitt was convinced of the necessity of
+meeting the coalition by force of arms, but he was unable to secure
+the support of his Ministry to declare war, and he therefore retired
+from the premiership. The succeeding Cabinet were, nevertheless,
+compelled to adopt his policy, and after having lost many advantages
+by delaying their decision, war was declared against France and Spain.
+
+The British were successful everywhere. In the West Indies the
+Caribbean Islands and Havana were captured with great booty by Rodney
+and Monckton, whilst a British Fleet was despatched to the Philippine
+Islands with orders to take Manila.
+
+On September 14, 1762, a British vessel arrived in the Bay of Manila,
+refused to admit Spanish officers on board, and after taking soundings
+she sailed again out of the harbour.
+
+In the evening of September 22 the British squadron, composed of 13
+ships, under the command of Admiral Cornish, entered the bay, and the
+next day two British officers were deputed to demand the surrender
+of the Citadel, which was refused. Brigadier-General Draper thereupon
+disembarked his troops, and again called upon the city to yield. This
+citation being defied, the bombardment commenced the next day. The
+fleet anchored in front of a powder-magazine, took possession of the
+churches of Malate, Ermita, San Juan de Bagumbayan, and Santiago. Two
+picket-guards made an unsuccessful sortie against them. The whole force
+in Manila, at the time, was the King's regiment, which mustered about
+600 men and 80 pieces of artillery. The British forces consisted of
+1,500 European troops (one regiment of infantry and two companies
+of artillery), 3,000 seamen, 800 Sepoy fusileers, and 1,400 Sepoy
+prisoners, making a total of 6,830 men, including officers. [38]
+
+There was no Gov.-General in the Philippines at the time, and the
+only person with whom the British Commander could treat was the
+acting-Governor, the Archbishop Manuel Antonio Rojo, who was willing to
+yield. His authority was, however, set aside by a rebellious war party,
+who placed themselves under the leadership of a magistrate of the
+Supreme Court, named Simon de Anda y Salazar. This individual, instead
+of leading them to battle, fled to the Province of Bulacan the day
+before the capture of Manila in a prahu with a few natives, carrying
+with him some money and half a ream of official stamped paper. [39]
+He knew perfectly well that he was defying the legal authority of
+the acting-Governor, and was, in fact, in open rebellion against his
+mandate. It was necessary, therefore, to give an official colour to
+his acts by issuing his orders and proclamations on Government-stamped
+paper, so that their validity might be recognized if he subsequently
+succeeded in justifying his action at Court.
+
+On September 24 the Spanish batteries of San Diego and San Andres
+opened fire, but with little effect. A richly laden galleon--the
+_Philipino_--was known to be on her way from Mexico to Manila, but the
+British ships which were sent in quest of her fell in with another
+galleon--the _Trinidad_--and brought their prize to Manila. Her
+treasure amounted to about P2,500,000. [40]
+
+A Frenchman resident in Manila, Monsieur Faller, made an attack on
+the British, who forced him to retire, and he was then accused by the
+Spaniards of treason. Artillery fire was kept up on both sides. The
+Archbishop's nephew was taken prisoner, and an officer was sent with
+him to hand him over to his uncle. However, a party of natives fell
+upon them and murdered them. The officer's head having been cut off,
+it was demanded by General Draper. Excuses were made for not giving
+it up, and the General determined thenceforth to continue the warfare
+with vigour and punish this atrocity. The artillery was increased by
+another battery of three mortars, placed behind the church of Santiago,
+and the bombardment continued.
+
+Five thousand native recruits arrived from the provinces, and out of
+this number 2,000 Pampangos were selected. They were divided into
+three columns, in order to advance by different routes and attack
+respectively the churches of Santiago, Malate, and Ermita, and the
+troops on the beach. At each place they were driven back. The leader of
+the attack on Malate and Ermita--Don Santiago Orendain--was declared
+a traitor. The two first columns were dispersed with great confusion
+and loss. The third column retreated before they had sustained or
+inflicted any loss. The natives fled to their villages in dismay,
+and on October 5 the British entered the walled city. After a couple
+of hours' bombardment, the forts of San Andres and San Eugenio were
+demolished, the artillery overturned, and the defenders' fusileers
+and sappers were killed.
+
+A council of war was now held by the Spaniards. General Draper
+sustained the authority of the Archbishop against the war party,
+composed chiefly of civilians determined to continue the defence
+in spite of the opinion of the military men, who argued that a
+capitulation was inevitable. But matters were brought to a crisis
+by the natives, who refused to repair the fortifications, and the
+Europeans were unable to perform such hard labour. Great confusion
+reigned in the city--the clergy fled through the Puerta del Parian,
+where there was still a native guard. According to Zuniga, the British
+spent 20,000 cannon balls and 5,000 shells in the bombardment of
+the city.
+
+Major Fell entered Manila (Oct. 6) at the head of his troops, and
+General Draper followed, leading his column unopposed, with two
+field-pieces in the van, whilst a constant musketry fire cleared the
+Calle Real (the central thoroughfare) as they advanced. The people
+fled before the enemy. The gates being closed, they scrambled up the
+walls and got into boats or swam off.
+
+Colonel Monson was sent by Draper to the Archbishop-Governor to
+say that he expected immediate surrender. This requisition was
+disputed by the Archbishop, who presented a paper purporting to be
+terms of capitulation. The Colonel refused to take it, and demanded
+an unconditional surrender. Then the Archbishop, a Colonel of the
+Spanish troops, and Colonel Monson went to interview the General,
+whose quarters were in the Palace. The Archbishop, offering himself
+as a prisoner, presented the terms of capitulation, which provided
+for the free exercise of their religion; security of private
+property; free trade to all the inhabitants of the Islands, and the
+continuation of the powers of the Supreme Court to keep order amongst
+the ill-disposed. These terms were granted, but General Draper, on his
+part, stipulated for an indemnity of four millions of pesos, and it
+was agreed to pay one half of this sum in specie and valuables and the
+other half in Treasury bills on Madrid. The capitulation, with these
+modifications, was signed by Draper and the Archbishop-Governor. The
+Spanish Colonel took the document to the Fort to have it countersigned
+by the magistrates, which was at once done; the Fort was delivered
+up to the British, and the magistrates repaired to the Palace to pay
+their respects to the conquerors.
+
+When the British flag was seen floating over the Fort of Santiago
+there was great cheering from the British Fleet. The Archbishop
+stated that when Draper reviewed the troops, more than 1,000 men
+were missing, including sixteen officers. Among these officers were
+a Major fatally wounded by an arrow on the first day of the assault,
+and the Vice-Admiral, who was drowned whilst coming ashore in a boat.
+
+The natives who had been brought from the provinces to Manila were
+plundering and committing excesses in the city, so Draper had them
+all driven out. Guards were placed at the doors of the nunneries and
+convents to prevent outrages on the women, and then the city was given
+up to the victorious troops for pillage during three hours. Zuniga,
+however, remarks that the European troops were moderate, but that the
+Indian contingents were insatiable. They are said to have committed
+many atrocities, and, revelling in bloodshed, even murdered the
+inhabitants. They ransacked the suburbs of Santa Cruz and Binondo, and,
+acting like savage victorious tribes, they ravished women, and even
+went into the highways to murder and rob those who fled. The three
+hours having expired, the troops were called in, but the following
+day a similar scene was permitted. The Archbishop thereupon besought
+the General to put a stop to it, and have compassion on the city. The
+General complied with this request, and immediately restored order
+under pain of death for disobedience. Some Chinese were in consequence
+hanged. General Draper himself killed one whom he found in the act of
+stealing, and he ordered that all Church property should be restored,
+but only some priests' vestments were recovered.
+
+Draper demanded the surrender of Cavite, which was agreed to by the
+Archbishop and magistrates, but the Commanding Officer refused to
+comply. The Major of that garrison was sent with a message to the
+Commander, but on the way he talked with such freedom about the
+surrender to the British, that the natives quitted their posts and
+plundered the Arsenal. The Commander, rather than face humiliation,
+retired to a ship, and left all further responsibility to the Major.
+
+Measures were now taken to pay the agreed indemnity. However,
+the consequent heavy contributions levied upon the inhabitants,
+together with the silver from the pious establishments, church
+ornaments, plate, the Archbishop's rings and breast-cross, only
+amounted to P546,000. The British then proposed to accept one
+million at once and draw the rest from the cargo of the galleon
+_Philipino_, should it result that she had not been seized by the
+British previous to the day the capitulation was signed--but the one
+million was not forthcoming. The day before the capture of Manila a
+royal messenger had been sent off with P111,000, with orders to hide
+them in some place in the Laguna de Bay. The Archbishop now ordered
+their return to Manila, and issued a requisition to that effect,
+but the Franciscan friars were insubordinate, and armed the natives,
+whom they virtually ruled, and the treasure was secreted in Majayjay
+Convent (Tayabas Province). Thence, on receipt of the Archbishop's
+message, it was carried across country to a place in North Pampanga,
+bordering on Cagayan and Pangasinan. The British, convinced that
+they were being duped, insisted on their claim. Thomas Backhouse,
+commanding the troops stationed at Pasig, went up to the Laguna de
+Bay with 80 mixed troops, to intercept the bringing of the _Philipino_
+treasure. He attacked Tunasan, Vinan and Santa Rosa, and embarked for
+Pagsanjan, which was then the capital of the Laguna Province. The
+inhabitants, after firing the convent and church, fled. Backhouse
+returned to Calamba, entered the Province of Batangas, overran it,
+and made several Austin friars prisoners. In Lipa he seized P3,000,
+and established his quarters there, expecting that the _Philipino_
+treasure would be carried that way; but on learning that it had been
+transported by sea to a Pampanga coast town, Backhouse returned to
+his post at Pasig.
+
+In the capitulation, the whole of the Archipelago was surrendered to
+the British, but the magistrate Simon de Anda determined to appeal to
+arms. Draper used stratagem, and issued a proclamation commiserating
+the fate of the natives who paid tribute to Spaniards, and assuring
+them that the King of England would not exact it. The Archbishop, as
+Governor, became Draper's tool, sent messages to the Spanish families,
+persuading them to return, and appointed an Englishman, married in the
+country, to be Alderman of Tondo. Despite the strenuous opposition
+of the Supreme Court, the Archbishop, at the instance of Draper,
+convened a council of native headmen and representative families,
+and proposed to them the cession of all the Islands to the King of
+England. Draper clearly saw that the ruling powers in the Colony,
+judging from their energy and effective measures, were the friars,
+so he treated them with great respect. The Frenchman Faller, who
+unsuccessfully opposed the British assault, was offered troops to
+go and take possession of Zamboanga and assume the government there,
+but he refused, as did also a Spaniard named Sandoval.
+
+Draper returned to Europe; Major Fell was left in command of the
+troops, whilst Drake assumed the military government of the city, with
+Smith and Brock as council, and Brereton in charge of Cavite. Draper,
+on leaving, gave orders for two frigates to go in search of the
+_Philipino_ treasure. The ships got as far as Capul Island and put into
+harbour. They were detained there by a ruse on the part of a half-caste
+pilot, and in the meantime the treasure was stealthily carried away.
+
+Simon de Anda, from his provincial retreat, proclaimed himself
+Gov.-General. He declared that the Archbishop and the magistrates,
+as prisoners of war, were dead in the eye of the law; and that
+his assumption of authority was based upon old laws. None of his
+countrymen disputed his authority, and he established himself in
+Bacolor. The British Council then convened a meeting of the chief
+inhabitants, at which Anda was declared a seditious person and
+deserving of capital punishment, together with the Marquis of Monte
+Castro, who had violated his _parole d'honneur_, and the Provincial
+of the Austin Friars, who had joined the rebel party. All the Austin
+friars were declared traitors for having broken their allegiance to
+the Archbishop's authority. The British still pressed for the payment
+of the one million, whilst the Spaniards declared they possessed no
+more. The Austin friars were ordered to keep the natives peaceable
+if they did not wish to provoke hostilities against themselves. At
+length, the British, convinced of the futility of decrees, determined
+to sally out with their forces, and 500 men under Thomas Backhouse
+went up the Pasig River to secure a free passage for supplies to the
+camp. Whilst opposite to Maybonga, a Spaniard, named Bustos, and his
+Cagayan troops fired on them. The British returned the fire, and Bustos
+fled to Mariquina. The British passed the river, and sent an officer
+with a white flag of truce to demand surrender. Bustos was insolent,
+and threatened to hang the officer if he returned. Backhouse's troops
+then opened fire and placed two field-pieces, which completely scared
+the natives, who fled in such great confusion that many were drowned
+in the river. Thence the British drove their enemy before them like a
+flock of goats, and reached the Bamban River, where the Sultan of Sulu
+[41] resided with his family. The Sultan, after a feigned resistance,
+surrendered to the British, who fortified his dwelling, and occupied it
+during the whole of the operations. There were subsequent skirmishes
+on the Pasig River banks with the armed insurgents, who were driven
+as far as the Antipolo Mountains.
+
+Meanwhile, Anda collected troops; and Bustos, as his
+Lieutenant-General, vaunted the power of his chief through the Bulacan
+and Pampanga Provinces. A Franciscan and an Austin friar, having led
+troops to Masilo, about seven miles from Manila, the British went out
+to dislodge them, but on their approach most of the natives feigned
+they were dead, and the British returned without any loss in arms
+or men.
+
+The British, believing that the Austin friars were conspiring against
+them in connivance with those inside the city, placed these friars
+in confinement, and subsequently shipped away eleven of them to
+Europe. For the same reason they at last determined to enter the
+Saint Augustine Convent, and on ransacking it, they found that the
+priests had been lying to them all the time. Six thousand pesos
+in coin were found hidden in the garden, and large quantities of
+wrought silver elsewhere. The whole premises were then searched,
+and all the valuables were seized. A British expedition went
+out to Bulacan, sailing across the Bay and up the Hagonoy River,
+where they disembarked at Malolos on January 19, 1763. The troops,
+under Captain Eslay, of the Grenadiers, numbered 600 men, many of
+whom were Chinese volunteers. As they advanced from Malolos, the
+natives and Spaniards fled. On the way to Bulacan, Bustos came out
+to meet them, but retreated into ambush on seeing they were superior
+in numbers. Bulacan Convent was defended by three small cannons. As
+soon as the troops came in sight of the convent, a desultory fire
+of case-shot made great havoc in the ranks of the resident Chinese
+volunteers forming the British vanguard. At length the British brought
+their field-pieces into action, and pointing at the enemy's cannon, the
+first discharge carried off the head of their artilleryman Ybarra. The
+panic-stricken natives decamped; the convent was taken by assault;
+there was an indiscriminate fight and general slaughter. The _Alcalde_
+and a Franciscan friar fell in action; one Austin friar escaped,
+and another was seized and killed to avenge the death of the British
+soldiers. The invading forces occupied the convent, and some of the
+troops were shortly sent back to Manila. Bustos reappeared near the
+Bulacan Convent with 8,000 native troops, of whom 600 were cavalry,
+but they dared not attack the British. Bustos then manoeuvred in the
+neighbourhood and made occasional alarms. Small parties were sent
+out against him, with so little effect that the British Commander
+headed a body in person, and put the whole of Bustos' troops to
+flight like mosquitoes before a gust of wind, for Bustos feared they
+would be pursued into Pampanga. After clearing away the underwood,
+which served as a covert for the natives, the British reoccupied the
+convent; but Bustos returned to his position, and was a second time
+as disgracefully routed by the British, who then withdrew to Manila.
+
+At this time it was alleged that a conspiracy was being organized
+amongst the Chinese resident in the Province of Pampanga with the
+object of assassinating Anda and his Spanish followers. The Chinese
+cut trenches and raised fortifications, avowing that their bellicose
+preparations were only to defend themselves against the possible attack
+of the British; whilst the Spaniards saw in all this a connivance
+with the invaders. The latter no doubt conjectured rightly. Anda,
+acting upon the views of his party, precipitated matters by appearing
+with 14 Spanish soldiers and a crowd of native bowmen to commence the
+slaughter in the town of Guagua. The Chinese assembled there in great
+numbers, and Anda endeavoured in vain to induce them to surrender to
+him. He then sent a Spaniard, named Miguel Garces, with a message,
+offering them pardon in the name of the King of Spain if they would
+lay down their arms; but they killed the emissary, and Anda therefore
+commenced the attack. The result was favourable for Anda's party,
+and great numbers of the Chinese were slain. Many fled to the fields,
+where they were pursued by the troops, whilst those who were captured
+were hanged. Such was the inveterate hatred which Anda entertained
+for the Chinese, that he issued a general decree declaring all the
+Chinese traitors to the Spanish flag, and ordered them to be hanged
+wherever they might be found in the provinces. Thus thousands of
+Chinese were executed who had taken no part whatever in the events
+of this little war.
+
+Admiral Cornish having decided to return to Europe, again urged for the
+payment of the two millions of pesos instalment of the indemnity. The
+Archbishop was in great straits; he was willing to do anything,
+but his colleagues opposed him, and Cornish was at length obliged to
+content himself with a bill on the Madrid Treasury. Anda appointed
+Bustos _Alcalde_ of Bulacan, and ordered him to recruit and train
+troops, as he still nurtured the hope of confining the British to
+Manila--perhaps even of driving them out of the Colony.
+
+The British in the city were compelled to adopt the most rigorous
+precautions against the rising of the population within the walls,
+and several Spanish residents were arrested for intriguing against
+them in concert with those outside.
+
+Several French prisoners from Pondicherry deserted from the British;
+and some Spanish regular troops, who had been taken prisoners, effected
+their escape. The Fiscal of the Supreme Court and a Senor Villa Corta
+were found conspiring. The latter was caught in the act of sending
+a letter to Anda, and was sentenced to be hanged and quartered--the
+quarters to be exhibited in public places. The Archbishop, however,
+obtained pardon for Villa Corta on the condition that Anda should
+evacuate the Pampanga Province: Villa Corta wrote to Anda, begging him
+to accede to this, but Anda absolutely refused to make any sacrifice
+to save his friend's life, and at the same time he wrote a disgraceful
+letter to the Archbishop, couched in such insulting terms that the
+British Commander burnt it without letting the Archbishop see it. Villa
+Corta's life was saved by the payment of P3,000.
+
+The treasure brought by the _Philipino_ served Anda to organize
+a respectable force of recruits. Spaniards who were living in the
+provinces in misery, and a crowd of natives always ready for pay,
+enlisted. These forces, under Lieut.-General Bustos, encamped at
+Malinta, about five miles from Manila. The officers lodged in a house
+belonging to the Austin friars, around which the troops pitched their
+tents--the whole being defended by redoubts and palisades raised
+under the direction of a French deserter, who led a company. From
+this place Bustos constantly caused alarm to the British troops, who
+once had to retreat before a picket-guard sent to carry off the church
+bells of Quiapo. The British, in fact, were much molested by Bustos'
+Malinta troops, who forced the invaders to withdraw to Manila and
+reduce the extension of their outposts. This measure was followed
+up by a proclamation, dated January 23, 1763, in which the British
+Commander alluded to Bustos' troops as "canaille and robbers," and
+offered a reward of P5,000 for Anda's head, declaring him and his
+party rebels and traitors to their Majesties the Kings of Spain and
+England. Anda, chafing at his impotence to combat the invading party
+by force of arms, gave vent to his feelings of rage and disappointment
+by issuing a decree, dated from Bacolor (Pampanga), May 19, 1763,
+of which the translated text reads as follows, viz.:--
+
+
+    "Royal Government Tribunal of these Islands for His Catholic
+    Majesty:--Whereas the Royal Government Tribunal, Supreme Government
+    and Captain-Generalship of His Catholic Majesty in these Islands
+    are gravely offended at the audacity and blindness of those men,
+    who, forgetting all humanity, have condemned as rebellious and
+    disobedient to both their Majesties, him, who as a faithful
+    vassal of His Catholic Majesty, and in conformity with the law,
+    holds the Royal Tribunal, Government and Captain-Generalship; and
+    having suffered by a reward being offered by order of the British
+    Governor in council to whomsoever shall deliver me alive or dead;
+    and by their having placed the arms captured in Bulacan at the
+    foot of the gallows--seeing that instead of their punishing and
+    censuring such execrable proceedings, the spirit of haughtiness
+    and pride is increasing, as shown in the proclamation published
+    in Manila on the 17th instant, in which the troops of His Majesty
+    are infamously calumniated--treating them as blackguards and
+    disaffected to their service--charging them with plotting to
+    assassinate the English officers and soldiers, and with having
+    fled when attacked--the whole of these accusations being false:
+    Now therefore by these presents, be it known to all Spaniards and
+    true Englishmen, that Messrs. Drake, Smith and Brock who signed the
+    proclamation referred to, must not be considered as vassals of His
+    Britannic Majesty, but as tyrants and common enemies unworthy of
+    human society, and therefore, I order that they be apprehended as
+    such, and I offer ten thousand pesos for each one of them alive or
+    dead. At the same time, I withdraw the order to treat the vassals
+    of His Britannic Majesty with all the humanity which the rights
+    of war will permit, as has been practised hitherto with respect
+    to the prisoners and deserters."
+
+
+Anda had by this time received the consent of his King to occupy the
+position which he had usurped, and the British Commander was thus
+enabled to communicate officially with him, if occasion required it:
+Drake therefore replied to this proclamation, recommending Anda to
+carry on the war with greater moderation and humanity.
+
+On June 27, 1763, the British made a sortie from the city to dislodge
+Bustos, who still occupied Malinta. The attacking party consisted of
+350 fusileers, 50 horsemen, a mob of Chinese, and a number of guns and
+ammunition. The British took up quarters on one side of the river,
+whilst Bustos remained on the other. The opposing parties exchanged
+fire, but neither cared nor dared to cross the water-way. The British
+forces retired in good order to Masilo, and remained there until they
+heard that Bustos had burnt Malinta House, belonging to the Austin
+friars, and removed his camp to Meycauayan. Then the British withdrew
+to Manila in the evening. On the Spanish side there were two killed,
+five mortally wounded, and two slightly wounded. The British losses
+were six mortally wounded and seven disabled. This was the last
+encounter in open warfare. Chinamen occasionally lost their lives
+through their love of plunder in the vicinity occupied by the British.
+
+During these operations the priesthood taught the ignorant natives
+to believe that the invaders were infidels--and a holy war was
+preached. The friars, especially those of the Augustine Order,
+[42] abandoned their mission of peace for that of the sword, and
+the British met with a slight reverse at Masilo, where a religious
+fanatic of the Austin friars had put himself at the head of a small
+band lying in ambush.
+
+On July 23, 1763, a British frigate brought news from Europe of an
+armistice, and the preliminaries of peace, by virtue of which Manila
+was to be evacuated (Peace of Paris, February 10, 1763), were received
+by the British Commander on August 27 following, and communicated
+by him to the Archbishop-Governor for the "Commander-in-Chief" of
+the Spanish arms. Anda stood on his dignity, and protested that he
+should be addressed directly, and be styled Captain-General. On this
+plea he declined to receive the communication. Drake replied by a
+manifesto, dated September 19, to the effect that the responsibility
+of the blood which might be spilt in consequence of Anda's refusal
+to accept his notification would rest with him. Anda published
+a counter-manifesto, dated September 28, in Bacolor (Pampanga),
+protesting that he had not been treated with proper courtesy, and
+claiming the governor-generalship.
+
+Greater latitude was allowed to the prisoners, and Villa Corta effected
+his escape disguised as a woman. He fled to Anda,--the co-conspirator
+who had refused to save his life,--and their superficial friendship
+was renewed. Villa Corta was left in charge of business in Bacolor
+during Anda's temporary absence. Meanwhile the Archbishop became ill;
+and it was discussed who should be his successor in the government
+in the event of his death. Villa Corta argued that it fell to him
+as senior magistrate. The discussion came to the knowledge of Anda,
+and seriously aroused his jealousy. Fearing conspiracy against
+his ambitious projects, he left his camp at Polo, and hastened to
+interrogate Villa Corta, who explained that he had only made casual
+remarks in the course of conversation. Anda, however, was restless on
+the subject of the succession, and sought the opinion of all the chief
+priests and the bishops. Various opinions existed. Some urged that the
+decision be left to the Supreme Court; others were in favour of Anda,
+whilst many prudently abstained from expressing their views. Anda was
+so nervously anxious about the matter that he even begged the opinion
+of the British Commander, and wrote him on the subject from Bacolor
+(Pampanga) on November 2, 1763.
+
+Major Fell seriously quarrelled with Drake about the Frenchman
+Faller, whom Admiral Cornish had left under sentence of death for
+having written a letter to Java accusing him of being a pirate and a
+robber. Drake protected Faller, whilst Fell demanded his execution,
+and the dispute became so heated that Fell was about to slay Drake
+with a bayonet, but was prevented by some soldiers. Fell then went
+to London to complain of Drake, hence Anda's letter was addressed
+to Backhouse, who took Fell's place. Anda, who months since had
+refused to negotiate or treat with Drake, still claimed to be
+styled Captain-General. Backhouse replied that he was ignorant of
+the Spaniards' statutes or laws, but that he knew the Governor was
+the Archbishop. Anda thereupon spread the report that the British
+Commander had forged the Preliminaries of Peace because he could no
+longer hold out in warfare. The British necessarily had to send to the
+provinces to purchase provisions, and Anda caused their forage parties
+to be attacked, so that the war really continued, in spite of the news
+of peace, until January 30, 1764. On this day the Archbishop died,
+sorely grieved at the situation, and weighed down with cares. He had
+engaged to pay four millions of pesos and surrender the Islands, but
+could he indeed have refused any terms? The British were in possession;
+and these conditions were dictated at the point of the bayonet.
+
+Immediately after the funeral of the Archbishop, Anda received
+despatches from the King of Spain, by way of China, confirming the news
+of peace to his Governor at Manila. Then the British acknowledged
+Anda as Governor, and proceeded to evacuate the city. But rival
+factions were not so easily set aside, and fierce quarrels ensued
+between the respective parties of Anda, Villa Corta, and Ustariz
+as to who should be Governor and receive the city officially from
+the British. Anda, being actually in command of the troops, held
+the strongest position. The conflict was happily terminated by the
+arrival at Marinduque Island of the newly-appointed Gov.-General,
+from Spain, Don Francisco de La Torre. A galley was sent there by
+Anda to bring His Excellency to Luzon, and he proceeded to Bacolor,
+where Anda resigned the Government to him on March 17, 1764.
+
+La Torre sent a message to Backhouse and Brereton--the commanding
+officers at Manila and Cavite,--stating that he was ready to take
+over the city in due form, and he thereupon took up his residence
+in Santa Cruz, placed a Spanish guard with sentinels from that
+ward as far as the Pontoon Bridge (Puente de Barcas, which then
+occupied the site of the present Puente de Espana), where the British
+advance-guard was, and friendly communication took place. Governor
+Drake was indignant at being ignored in all these proceedings, and
+ordered the Spanish Governor to withdraw his guards, under threat of
+appealing to force. Backhouse and Brereton resented this rudeness and
+ordered the troops under arms to arrest Drake, whose hostile action,
+due to jealousy, they declared unwarrantable. Drake, being apprised
+of their intentions, escaped from the city with his suite, embarked
+on board a frigate, and sailed off.
+
+La Torre was said to be indisposed on the day appointed for receiving
+the city. Some assert that he feigned indisposition as he did not wish
+to arouse Anda's animosity, and desired to afford him an opportunity
+of displaying himself as a delegate, at least, of the highest local
+authority by receiving the city from the British, whilst he pampered
+his pride by allowing him to enter triumphantly into it. As the city
+exchanged masters, the Spanish flag was hoisted once more on the Fort
+of Santiago amidst the hurrahs of the populace, artillery salutes,
+and the ringing of the church bells.
+
+Before embarking, Brereton offered to do justice to any claims
+which might legitimately be established against the British
+authorities. Hence a sloop lent to Drake, valued at P4,000,
+was paid for to the Jesuits, and the P3,000 paid to ransom Villa
+Corta's life was returned, Brereton remarking, that if the sentence
+against him were valid, it should have been executed at the time,
+but it could not be commuted by money payment. At the instance of the
+British authorities, a free pardon was granted and published to the
+Chinese, few of whom, however, confided in it, and many left with
+the retiring army. Brereton, with his forces, embarked for India,
+after despatching a packet-boat to restore the Sultan of Sulu to
+his throne. In connection with this expedition, 150 British troops
+temporarily remained on the Island of Balambangan, near Balabac Island,
+and Anda sent a messenger to inquire about this. The reply came that
+the Moros, in return for British friendliness, invited the hundred
+and fifty to a feast and treacherously slew 144 of them.
+
+During this convulsed period, great atrocities were
+committed. Unfortunately the common felons were released by the British
+from their prisons, and used their liberty to perpetrate murders and
+robbery in alliance with those always naturally bent that way. So
+great did this evil become, so bold were the marauders, that in time
+they formed large parties, infested highways, attacked plantations,
+and the poor peasantry had to flee, leaving their cattle and all
+their belongings in their power. Several avenged themselves of the
+friars for old scores--others settled accounts with those Europeans
+who had tyrannized over them of old. The Chinese, whether so-called
+Christians or pagans, declared for and aided the British.
+
+The proceedings of the choleric Simon de Anda y Salazar were approved
+by his Sovereign, but his impetuous disposition drove from him
+his best counsellors, whilst those who were bold enough to uphold
+their opinions against his, were accused of connivance with the
+British. Communications with Europe were scant indeed in those days,
+but Anda could not have been altogether ignorant of the causes of
+the war, which terminated with the Treaty of Paris.
+
+A few months afterwards Anda returned to Spain and was received
+with favour by the King, who created him a Cavalier of the Order of
+Charles III. with a pension of 4,000 reales (about L40), and awarded
+him a pension of 3,000 pesos, and on November 6, 1767, appointed
+him a Councillor of Castile. In the course of the next three years
+Gov.-General Jose Raon, who superseded La Torre, had fallen into
+disgrace, and in 1770 Anda was appointed to the governor-generalship
+of the Islands, specially charged to carry out the royal will with
+respect to the expulsion of the Jesuits and the defence of Crown
+rights in ecclesiastical matters.
+
+Anda at once found himself in conflict with the Jesuits, the friars,
+and the out-going Gov.-General Raon. As soon as Raon vacated his
+post, Anda, as Gov.-General, had his predecessor confined in the Fort
+of Santiago, where he died. At the same time he sent back to Spain
+two magistrates who had sided with Raon, imprisoned other judges,
+and banished military officers from the capital. Anda's position
+was a very peculiar one. A partisan of the friars at heart, he had
+undertaken the defence of Crown interests against them, but, in a
+measure, he was able to palliate the bitterness he thus created by
+expelling the Jesuits, who were an eyesore to the friars. The Jesuits
+might easily have promoted a native revolt against their departure,
+but they meekly submitted to the decree of banishment and left the
+Islands, taking away nothing but their clothing. Having rid himself of
+his rivals and the Jesuits, Anda was constantly haunted by the fear
+of fresh conflict with the British. He had the city walls repaired
+and created a fleet of ships built in the provinces of Pangasinan,
+Cavite, and Zambales, consisting of one frigate of war with 18 cannon,
+another with 32 cannon, besides 14 vessels of different types,
+carrying a total of 98 cannon and 12 swivel guns, all in readiness
+for the British who never reappeared.
+
+Born on October 28, 1709, in the Province of Alava, Spain, Simon
+de Anda's irascible temper, his vanity, and his extravagant love
+of power created enmities and brought trouble upon himself at every
+step. Exhausted by six years of continual strife in his private and
+official capacities, he retired to the Austin Friars' Hospital of
+San Juan de Dios, in Cavite, where, on October 30, 1776, he expired,
+much to the relief of his numerous adversaries. The last resting-place
+of his mortal remains is behind the altar of the Cathedral, marked by
+a tablet; and a monument erected to his memory--107 years after his
+death--stands on the quayside at the end of the Paseo de Santa Lucia,
+near the Fort of Santiago, Manila.
+
+Consequent on the troubled state of the Colony, a serious rebellion
+arose in Ylogan (Cagayan Province) amongst the Timava natives, who
+flogged the Commandant, and declared they would no longer pay tribute
+to the Spaniards. The revolt spread to Ilocos and Pangasinan; in the
+latter province Don Fernando Araya raised a troop of 30 Spaniards
+with firearms, and 400 friendly natives with bows and arrows, and
+after great slaughter of the rebels the ringleaders were caught,
+and tranquillity was restored by the gallows.
+
+A rising far more important occurred in Ilocos Sur. The _Alcalde_
+was deposed, and escaped after he had been forced to give up his
+staff of office. The leader of this revolt was a cunning and wily
+Manila native, named Diego de Silan, who persuaded the people to cease
+paying tribute and declare against the Spaniards, who, he pointed out,
+were unable to resist the English. The City of Vigan was in great
+commotion. The Vicar-General parleyed in vain with the natives; then,
+at the head of his troops, he dispersed the rebels, some of whom were
+taken prisoners. But the bulk of the rioters rallied and attacked,
+and burnt down part of the city. The loyal natives fled before the
+flames. The Vicar-General's house was taken, and the arms in it were
+seized. All the Austin friars within a large surrounding neighbourhood
+had to ransom themselves by money payments. Silan was then acknowledged
+as chief over a large territory north and south of Vigan. He appointed
+his lieutenants, and issued a manifesto declaring Jesus of Nazareth
+to be Captain-General of the place, and that he was His _Alcalde_
+for the promotion of the Catholic religion and dominion of the King
+of Spain. His manifesto was wholly that of a religious fanatic. He
+obliged the natives to attend Mass, to confess, and to see that their
+children went to school. In the midst of all this pretended piety,
+he stole cattle and exacted ransoms for the lives of all those who
+could pay them; he levied a tax of P100 on each friar. Under the
+pretence of keeping out the British, he placed sentinels in all
+directions to prevent news reaching the terrible Simon de Anda. But
+Anda, though fully informed by an Austin friar of what was happening,
+had not sufficient troops to march north. He sent a requisition to
+Silan to present himself within nine days, under penalty of arrest
+as a traitor. Whilst this order was published, vague reports were
+intentionally spread that the Spaniards were coming to Ilocos in
+great force. Many deserted Silan, but he contrived to deceive even
+the clergy and others by his feigned piety. Silan sent presents to
+Manila for the British, acknowledging the King of England to be his
+legitimate Sovereign. The British Governor sent, in return, a vessel
+bearing despatches to Silan, appointing him _Alcalde_. Elated with
+pride, Silan at once made this public. The natives were undeceived,
+for they had counted on him to deliver them from the British; now, to
+their dismay, they saw him the authorized magistrate of the invader. He
+gave orders to make all the Austin friars prisoners, saying that the
+British would send other clergy in their stead. The friars surrendered
+themselves without resistance and joined their Bishop near Vigan,
+awaiting the pleasure of Silan. The Bishop excommunicated Silan, and
+then he released some of the priests. The christian natives having
+refused to slay the friars, a secret compact was being made, with
+this object, with the mountain tribes, when a Spanish half-caste
+named Vicos obtained the Bishop's benediction and killed Silan;
+and the Ilocos rebellion, which had lasted from December 14, 1762,
+to May 28, 1763, ended.
+
+Not until a score of little battles had been fought were the numerous
+riots in the provinces quelled. The loyal troops were divided into
+sections, and marched north in several directions, until peace was
+restored by March, 1765. Zuniga says that the Spaniards lost in these
+riots about 70 Europeans and 140 natives, whilst they cost the rebels
+quite 10,000 men.
+
+
+
+The submission made to the Spaniards, in the time of Legaspi, of the
+Manila and Tondo chiefs, was but of local importance, and by no means
+implied a total pacific surrender of the whole Archipelago; for each
+district had yet to be separately conquered. In many places a bold
+stand was made for independence, but the superior organization and
+science of the European forces invariably brought them final victory.
+
+The numerous revolutionary protests registered in history against
+the Spanish dominion show that the natives, from the days of
+Legaspi onwards, only yielded to a force which they repeatedly, in
+each generation, essayed to overthrow. But it does not necessarily
+follow that either the motives which inspired the leaders of these
+social disturbances, or the acts themselves, were, in every case,
+laudable ones.
+
+The Pampanga natives were among the first to submit, but a few years
+afterwards they were in open mutiny against their masters, who, they
+alleged, took their young men from their homes to form army corps,
+and busily employed the able-bodied men remaining in the district to
+cut timber for Government requirements and furnish provisions to the
+camp and to the Arsenal at Cavite.
+
+In 1622 the natives of Bojol Island erected an oratory in the mountain
+in honour of an imaginary deity, and revolted against the tyranny of
+the Jesuit missionaries. They proclaimed their intention to regain
+their liberty, and freedom from the payment of tribute to foreigners,
+and taxes to a Church they did not believe in. Several towns and
+churches were burnt, and Catholic images were desecrated, but the
+rebels were dispersed by the Governor of Cebu, who, with a considerable
+number of troops, pursued them into the interior. In the same island
+a more serious rising was caused in 1744 by the despotism of a Jesuit
+priest named Morales, who arrogated to himself governmental rights,
+ordering the apprehension of natives who did not attend Mass, and
+exercising his sacerdotal functions according to his own caprice. The
+natives resisted these abuses, and a certain Dagohoy, whose brother's
+body had been left uninterred to decompose by the priest's orders,
+organized a revenge party, and swore to pay the priest in his own
+coin. The Jesuit was captured and executed, and his corpse was left
+four days in the sun to corrupt. Great numbers of disaffected natives
+flocked to Dagohoy's standard. Their complaint was, that whilst
+they risked their lives in foreign service for the sole benefit of
+their European masters, their homes were wrecked and their wives and
+families maltreated to recover the tribute. Dagohoy, with his people,
+maintained his independence for the space of 35 years, during which
+period it was necessary to employ constantly detachments of troops
+to check the rebels' raids on private property. On the expulsion of
+the Jesuits from the Colony, Recoleto friars went to Bojol, and then
+Dagohoy and his partisans submitted to the Government on the condition
+of all receiving a full pardon.
+
+In 1622 an insurrection was set on foot in Leyte Island against Spanish
+rule, and the Governor of Cebu went there with 40 vessels, carrying
+troops and war material, to co-operate with the local Governor against
+the rebels. The native leader was made prisoner, and his head placed
+on a high pole to strike terror into the populace. Another prisoner
+was garrotted, four more were publicly executed by being shot with
+arrows, and another was burnt.
+
+In 1629 an attempt was made in the Province of Surigao (then called
+Caraga), in the east of Mindanao Island, to throw off the Spanish
+yoke. Several churches were burnt and four priests were killed
+by the rebels, and the rising was only quelled after three years'
+guerilla warfare.
+
+In 1649 the Gov.-General decided to supply the want of men in the
+Arsenal at Cavite and the increasing necessity for troops, by pressing
+the natives of Samar Island into the King's service. Thereupon a native
+headman named Sumoroy killed the priest of Ybabao, on the east coast
+of Samar, and led the mob who sacked and burnt the churches along
+the coast. The Governor at Catbalogan got together a few men, and
+sent them into the mountains with orders to send him back the head
+of Sumoroy, but instead of obeying they joined the rebels and sent
+him a pig's head. The revolt increased, and General Andres Lopez
+Azaldegui was despatched to the island with full powers from the
+Gov.-General, whilst he was supported on the coast by armed vessels
+from Zamboanga. Sumoroy fled to the hills, but his mother was found
+in a hut; and the invading party wreaked their vengeance on her by
+literally pulling her to pieces. Sumoroy was at length betrayed by
+his own people, who carried his head to the Spanish Captain, and
+this officer had it exhibited on a pole in the village. Some years
+afterwards another rebel chief surrendered, under a pardon obtained
+for him by the priests, but the military authorities imprisoned and
+then hanged him.
+
+The riots of 1649 extended to other provinces for the same cause. In
+Albay, the parish priest of Sorsogon had to flee for his life; in
+Masbate Island, a sub-lieutenant was killed; in Zamboanga, a priest
+was murdered; in Cebu, a Spaniard was assassinated; and in Surigao
+(then called Caraga) and Butuan, many Europeans fell victims to the
+fury of the populace. To quell these disturbances, Captain Gregorio de
+Castillo, stationed at Butuan, was ordered to march against the rebels
+with a body of infantry, but bloodshed was avoided by the Captain
+publishing a general pardon in the name of the King, and crowds of
+insurgents came to the camp in consequence. The King's name, however,
+was sullied, for very few of those who surrendered ever regained their
+liberty. They were sent prisoners to Manila, where a few were pardoned,
+others were executed, and the majority became galley-slaves.
+
+In 1660 there was again a serious rising in Pampanga, the natives
+objecting to cut timber for the Cavite Arsenal without payment. The
+revolt spread to Pangasinan Province, where a certain Andres Malong
+was declared king, and he in turn gave to another--Pedro Gumapos--the
+title of "Count." Messages were sent to Zambales and other adjacent
+provinces ordering the natives to kill the Spaniards, under pain of
+incurring "King" Malong's displeasure.
+
+Three army-corps were formed by the rebels: one of 6,000 men, under
+Melchor de Veras, for the conquest of Pampanga; another of 3,000
+men, led by the titular count Gumapos, to annex Ilocos and Cagayan,
+whilst the so-called King Malong took the field against the Pangasinan
+people at the head of 2,000 followers. Ilocos Province declared in his
+favour, and furnished a body of insurgents under a chief named Juan
+Manzano, whilst everywhere on the march the titular king's troops
+increased until they numbered about 40,000 men. On the way many
+Spaniards--priests and laymen--were killed. The Gov.-General sent by
+land to Pampanga 200 Spanish troops, 400 Pampangos and half-breeds,
+well armed and provisioned, and Mount Arayat was fortified and
+garrisoned by 500 men. By sea: two galleys, six small vessels, and
+four cargo launches--carrying 700 Spaniards and half-breeds, and 30
+Pampangos--went to Bolinao, in Zambales Province. The rebels were
+everywhere routed, and their chiefs were hanged--some in Pampanga
+and others in Manila.
+
+Almost each generation has called forth the strong arm of the conqueror
+to extinguish the flame of rebellion in one island or another, the
+revolt being sometimes due to sacerdotal despotism, and at other
+times to official rapacity.
+
+In the last century, prior to 1896, several vain attempts to subvert
+Spanish authority were made, notably in 1811 in Ilocos, where the
+fanatics sought to establish a new religion and set up a new god. An
+attempt was then made to enlist the wild tribes in a plot to murder
+all the Spaniards, but it was opportunely discovered by the friars
+and suppressed before it could be carried out.
+
+In June, 1823, an order was received from Spain to the effect that
+officers commissioned in the Peninsula should have precedence of all
+those appointed in the Colony, so that, for instance, a lieutenant
+from Spain would hold local rank above a Philippine major. The
+Philippine officers protested against this anomaly, alleging that the
+commissions granted to them in the name of the Sovereign were as good
+as those granted in Spain. The Gov.-General refused to listen to the
+objections put forward, and sent Captain Andres Novales and others on
+board a ship bound for Mindanao. Novales, however, escaped to shore,
+and, in conspiracy with a certain Ruiz, attempted to overthrow the
+Government. At midnight all Manila was aroused by the cry of "Long
+live the Emperor Novales!" Disaffected troops promenaded the city;
+the people sympathized with the movement; flags were waved as the
+rebels passed through the streets; the barrack used by Novales'
+regiment was seized; the Cathedral and Town Hall were occupied,
+and at 6 o'clock in the morning Andres Novales marched to Fort
+Santiago, which was under the command of his brother Antonio. To his
+great surprise, the brother Antonio stoutly refused to join in the
+rising, and Andres' expostulations and exhortations were finally
+met with a threat to fire on him if he did not retire. Meanwhile,
+the Gov.-General remained in hiding until he heard that the fort was
+holding out against Andres' assault, when he sent troops to assist
+the defenders. Hemmed in between the fort and the troops outside,
+Andres Novales and Ruiz made their escape, but they were soon taken
+prisoners. Andres Novales was found hiding underneath the drawbridge
+of the _Puerta Real_. The Gov.-General at once ordered Andres Novales,
+Ruiz, and Antonio Novales to be executed. The Town Council then went
+in a body to the Gov.-General to protest against the loyal defender
+of Fort Santiago being punished simply because he was Andres Novales'
+brother. The Gov.-General, however, threatened to have shot any one
+who should say a word in favour of the condemned.
+
+In a garden of the episcopal palace, near the ancient _Puerta del
+Postigo_, the execution of the three condemned men was about to take
+place, and crowds of people assembled to witness it. At the critical
+moment an assessor of the Supreme Court shouted to the Gov.-General
+that to take the life of the loyal defender of the fort, solely
+on the ground of his relationship to the rebel leader, would be an
+iniquity. His words found a sympathetic echo among the crowd, and the
+Gov.-General, deadly pale with rage, yielded to this demonstration of
+public opinion. Antonio Novales was pardoned, but the strain on his
+nerves weakened his brain, and he lived for many years a semi-idiot
+in receipt of a monthly pension of 14 pesos.
+
+In 1827 the standard of sedition was raised in Cebu and a few towns
+of that island, but these disturbances were speedily quelled through
+the influence of the Spanish friars.
+
+In 1828 a conspiracy of a separatist tendency was discovered, and
+averted without bloodshed.
+
+In 1835 Feliciano Paran took the field against the Spaniards in Cavite
+Province, and held out so effectually that the Gov.-General came to
+terms with him and afterwards deported him to the Ladrone Islands.
+
+In 1836 there was much commotion of a revolutionary character, the
+peculiar feature of it being the existence of pro-friar and anti-friar
+native parties, the former seeking to subject absolutely the civil
+government to ecclesiastical control. [43]
+
+In 1841 a student for the priesthood, named Apolinario de la Cruz,
+affected with religious mania, placed himself at the head of a
+fanatical party in Tayabas, ostensibly for the purpose of establishing
+a religious sect. Some thousands of natives joined the movement,
+and troops had to be sent to suppress the rising. Having assumed the
+title of King of the Tagalogs, he pretended to have direct heavenly
+support, telling the ignorant masses that he was invulnerable and that
+the soldiers' bullets would fly from them like chaff before the wind.
+
+In 1844, during a rising at Jimamaylan, in Negros Island, the
+Spanish Governor was killed. The revolt is said to have been due to
+the Governor having compelled the State prisoners to labour for his
+private account.
+
+In 1854 a Spanish half-caste, named Cuesta, came back from Spain with
+the rank of major, and at once broke out into open rebellion. The cry
+was for independence, and four Luzon provinces rose in his support;
+but the movement was crushed by the troops and Cuesta was hanged.
+
+In 1870 a certain Camerino raised rebellion in Cavite province, and
+after many unsuccessful attempts to capture him he came to terms with
+the Gov.-General, who gave him a salaried employment for a couple
+of years and then had him executed on the allegation that he was
+concerned in the rising of Cavite Arsenal.
+
+In 1871 there existed a Secret Society of reformers who used to
+meet in Santa Cruz (Manila) at the house of the Philippine priest,
+Father Mariano. [44] From the house proper a narrow staircase led
+to a cistern about 25 feet square, in the side of which there was a
+door which closed perfectly. The cistern was divided into two unequal
+parts, the top compartment being full of water, whilst the lower part
+served as the reformers' conference room, so that if search were made,
+the cistern was, in fact, a cistern.
+
+Among the members of this confraternity were Father Agustin Mendoza,
+the parish priest of Santa Cruz; Dr. Jose Burgos, also a native priest;
+Maximo Paterno, the father of Pedro A. Paterno; Ambrosio Rianzares
+Bautista; and others still living (some personally known to me), under
+the presidency of Jose Maria Basa (now residing in Hong-Kong). This
+Secret Society demanded reforms, and published in Madrid their organ,
+_Eco de Filipinas_, copies of which reached the Islands. The copy for
+the paper was the result of the society's deliberations. The monks,
+incensed at its publication, were, for a long time, puzzled to find
+out whence the information emanated. Many of the desired reforms
+closely affected the position of the regular clergy, the Philippine
+priests, led by Dr. Burgos, urging the fulfilment of the Council of
+Trent decisions, which forbade the friars to hold benefices unless
+there were no secular priests available.
+
+It appears that the friars, nevertheless, secured these ecclesiastical
+preferments by virtue of Papal Bulls of Pius V. and subsequent Popes,
+who authorized friars to act as parish priests, not in perpetuity,
+but so long as secular clergymen were insufficient in number to attend
+to the cure of souls. The native party consequently declared that
+the friars retained their incumbencies illegally and by intrusion, in
+view of the sufficiency of Philippine secular priests. Had the Council
+of Trent enactments been carried out to the letter, undoubtedly the
+religious communities in the Philippines would have been doomed to
+comparative political impotence. The friars, therefore, sought to
+embroil Dr. Burgos and his party in overt acts of sedition, in order
+to bring about their downfall and so quash the movement. To this end
+they contrived to draw a number of Manila and Cavite natives into a
+conspiracy to subvert the Spanish Government. The native soldiers of
+the Cavite garrison were induced to co-operate in what they believed
+to be a genuine endeavour to throw off the Spanish dominion. They
+were told that rockets fired off in Manila would be the signal for
+revolt. It happened, however, that they mistook the fireworks of a
+suburban feast for the agreed signal and precipitated the outbreak
+in Cavite without any support in the capital. The disaffected
+soldiers seized the Arsenal, whilst others attacked the influential
+Europeans. Colonel Sabas was sent over to Cavite to quell the riot,
+and after a short, but stubborn resistance, the rebels were overcome,
+disarmed, and then formed up in line. On Colonel Sabas asking if there
+were any one who would not cry, "_Viva Espana!_" one man stepped
+forward a few paces out of the ranks. The Colonel shot him dead,
+and the remainder were marched to prison.
+
+The ruse operated effectually on the lay authorities, who yielded to
+the Spanish monks' demand that the extreme penalty of the law should
+be inflicted upon their opponents. Thereupon, Dr. Jose Burgos (aged
+30 years), Father Jacinto Zamora (aged 35 years), and Father Mariano
+Gomez [45] (a dotard, 85 years of age) were executed (February 28,
+1872) on the _Luneta_, the fashionable esplanade outside the walled
+city, facing the sea.
+
+The friars then caused a bill of indictment to be put forward
+by the Public Prosecutor, in which it was alleged that a
+Revolutionary Government had been projected. The native clergy were
+terror-stricken. It was decreed that whilst the Filipinos already
+acting as parish priests would not be deposed, no further appointments
+would be made, and the most the Philippine novice could aspire to
+would be the position of coadjutor--practically servant--to the friar
+incumbent. Moreover, the opportunity was taken to banish to the Ladrone
+(Marianas) Islands many members of wealthy and influential families
+whose passive resistance was an eyesore to the friars. Among these
+was the late Maximo Paterno (q.v.), the father of Pedro A. Paterno;
+also Dr. Antonio M. Regidor y Jurado and Jose Maria Basa, who are
+still living. [46]
+
+In 1889 I visited a penal settlement--La Colonia Agricola de San
+Ramon--in Mindanao Island, and during my stay at the director's house
+I was every day served at table by a native convict who was said to
+have been nominated by the Cavite rebels to the Civil Governorship of
+Manila. There was, however, no open trial from which the public could
+form an opinion of the merits of the case, and the idea of subverting
+the Spanish Government would appear to have been a fantastic concoction
+for the purposes stated. But from that date there never ceased to
+exist a secret revolutionary agitation which culminated in the events
+of 1898.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+The Chinese
+
+
+Long before the foundation of Manila by Legaspi in 1571 the
+Chinese traded with these Islands. Their _locus standi_, however,
+was invariably a critical one, and their commercial transactions
+with the semi-barbarous Philippine Islanders were always conducted
+afloat. Often their junks were boarded and pillaged by the natives,
+but, in spite of the immense risk incurred, the Chinese lacked nothing
+in their active pursuit. Their chief home port was Canton.
+
+Legaspi soon perceived the advantages which would accrue to his
+conquest by fostering the development of commerce with these Islands;
+and, as an inducement to the Chinese to continue their traffic,
+he severely punished all acts of violence committed against them.
+
+In the course of time the Chinese had gained sufficient confidence
+under European protection, to come ashore with their wares. In 1588,
+Chinese were already paying rent for the land they occupied. Some
+writers assert that they propagated their religious doctrines as well
+as their customs, but nothing can be found to confirm this statement,
+and a knowledge of Chinese habits inclines one to think it most
+improbable. In their trading junks they frequently carried their
+idols, as a Romish priest carries his missal when he travels. The
+natives may have imitated the Chinese religious rites years before the
+Spaniards came. There is no evidence adduced to prove that they made
+any endeavour to proselytize the natives as the Spaniards did. On the
+other hand, there is reason to believe that some idols, lost by the
+Chinese in shipwreck and piratical attacks, have been, and still are,
+revered by the natives as authenticated miraculous images of Christian
+Saints (_vide_ "Holy Child of Cebu" and "Our Lady of Cagsaysay").
+
+The Chinese contributed, in a large measure, to bring about a state of
+order and prosperity in the new Colony, by the introduction of their
+small trades and industries; and their traffic in the interior, and
+with China, was really beneficial, in those times, to the object which
+the conquerors had in view. So numerous, however, did they become,
+that it was found necessary to regulate the growing commerce and the
+_modus vivendi_ of the foreign traders.
+
+In the bad weather they were unable to go to and from their junks,
+and, fearing lest under such circumstances the trade would fall off,
+the Government determined to provide them with a large building called
+the _Alcayceria_. The contract for its construction was offered to any
+private person or corporation willing to take it up on the following
+terms, viz.:--The original cost, the annual expense of maintenance,
+and the annual rents received from the Chinese tenants were to be
+equally shared by the Government and the contractor. The contract was
+accepted by a certain Fernando de Mier y Noriega, who was appointed
+bailiff of the _Alcayceria_ for life, and the employment was to be
+hereditary in his family, at a salary of 50 pesos per month. However,
+when the plan was submitted to the Government, it was considered
+too extensive, and was consequently greatly reduced, the Government
+defraying the total cost (P 48,000). The bailiff's salary was likewise
+reduced to P 25 per month, and only the condition of sharing rent
+and expense of preservation was maintained. The _Alcayceria_, was
+a square of shops, with a back store, and one apartment above each
+tenement. It was inaugurated in 1580, in the Calle de San Fernando,
+in Binondo, opposite to where is now the Harbour-Master's Office,
+and within firing range of the forts. In the course of years this
+became a ruin, and on the same site Government Stores were built in
+1856. These, too, were wrecked in their turn by the great earthquake
+of 1863. In the meantime, the Chinese had long ago spread far beyond
+the limits of the _Alcayceria_, and another centre had been provided
+for them within the City of Manila. This was called the _Parian_,
+which is the Mexican word for market-place. It was demolished by
+Government order in 1860, but the entrance to the city at that part
+(constructed in 1782) still retains the name of _Puerta del Parian_.
+
+Hence it will be seen that from the time of the conquest, and for
+generations following, the Spanish authorities offered encouragement
+and protection to the Chinese.
+
+Dr. Antonio Morga, in his work on the Philippines, p. 349, writes
+(at the close of the 16th century): "It is true the town cannot exist
+without the Chinese, as they are workers in all trades and business,
+and very industrious and work for small wages."
+
+Juan de la Concepcion writes [47] (referring to the beginning of
+the 17th century); "Without the trade and commerce of the Chinese,
+these dominions could not have subsisted." The same writer estimates
+the number of Chinese in the Colony in 1638 at 33,000. [48]
+
+In 1686 the policy of fixing the statutory maximum number of Chinese
+at 6,000 was discussed, but commercial conveniences outweighed its
+adoption. Had the measure been carried out, it was proposed to lodge
+them all in one place within easy cannon range, in view of a possible
+rising.
+
+In 1755 it was resolved to expel all non-Christian Chinese, but a term
+was allowed for the liquidation of their affairs and withdrawal. By
+June 30, 1755, the day fixed for their departure from Manila, 515
+Chinamen had been sharp enough to obtain baptism as Christians,
+in order to evade the edict, besides 1,108 who were permitted to
+remain because they were studying the mysteries and intricacies of
+Christianity. 2,070 were banished from Manila, the expulsion being
+rigidly enforced on those newly arriving in junks.
+
+Except a few Europeans and a score of Western Asiatics, the Chinese who
+remained were the only merchants in the Archipelago. The natives had
+neither knowledge, tact, energy, nor desire to compete with them. The
+Chinese were a boon to the Colony, for, without them, living would
+have been far dearer--commodities and labour of all kinds more scarce,
+and the export and import trade much embarrassed. The Chinese and
+the Japanese are really the people who gave to the natives the first
+notions of trade, industry, and fruitful work. The Chinese taught them,
+amongst many other useful things, the extraction of saccharine juice
+from the sugar-cane, the manufacture of sugar, and the working of
+wrought iron. They introduced into the Colony the first sugar-mills
+with vertical stone crushers, and iron boiling-pans.
+
+The history of the last 150 years shows that the Chinese, although
+tolerated, were always regarded by the Spanish colonists as an
+unwelcome race, and the natives have learnt, from example, to despise
+them. From time to time, especially since the year 1763, the feeling
+against them has run very high.
+
+The public clamoured for restrictions on their arrival, impediments
+to the traffic of those already established there, intervention of
+the authorities with respect to their dwellings and mode of living,
+and not a few urged their total expulsion. Indeed, such influence
+was brought to bear on the Indian Council at Madrid during the
+temporary Governorship of Juan Arechedera, Bishop of Nueva Segovia
+(1745-50), that the Archbishop received orders to expel the Chinese
+from the Islands; but, on the ground that to have done so would have
+_prejudiced public interests_, he simply archived the decree. Even up
+to the close of Spanish rule, the authorities and the national trading
+class considered the question from very distinct points of view;
+for the fact is, that only the mildest action was taken--just enough
+to appease the wild demands of the people. Still, the Chinaman was
+always subject to the ebb and flow of the tide of official goodwill,
+and only since 1843 were Chinese shops allowed to be opened on the
+same terms as other foreigners. There are now streets of Chinese shops.
+
+The Chinaman is always ready to sell at any price which will leave him
+a trifling nett gain, whereas the native, having earned sufficient
+for his immediate wants, would stubbornly refuse to sell his wares
+except at an enormous profit.
+
+Again, but for Chinese coolie competition, [49] constant labour
+from the natives would have been almost unprocurable. The native
+day-labourer would work two or three days, and then suddenly
+disappear. The active Chinaman goes day after day to his task
+(excepting only at the time of the Chinese New Year, in January or
+February), and can be depended upon; thus the needy native was pushed,
+by alien competition, to bestir himself. In my time, in the port
+of Yloilo, four foreign commercial houses had to incur the expense
+and risk of bringing Chinese coolies for loading and discharging
+vessels, whilst the natives coolly lounged about and absolutely
+refused to work. Moreover, the exactions of the native create a
+serious impediment to the development of the Colony. Only a very
+small minority of the labouring class will put their hands to work
+without an advance on their wages, and will often demand it without any
+guarantee whatsoever. If a native is commissioned to perform any kind
+of service, he will refuse to stir without a sum of money beforehand,
+whilst the Chinese very rarely expect payment until they have given
+value for it. Only the direst necessity will make an unskilled native
+work steadily for several weeks for a wage which is only to be paid
+when due. There is scarcely a single agriculturist who is not compelled
+to sink a share of his capital in making advances to his labourers,
+who, nevertheless, are in no way legally bound thereby to serve the
+capitalist; or, whether they are or not, the fact is, that a large
+proportion of this capital so employed must be considered lost. There
+are certain lines of business quite impossible without the co-operation
+of Chinese, and their exclusion will be a loss to the Colony.
+
+Taxes were first levied on the Mongol traders in 1828. In
+1852 a general reform of the fiscal laws was introduced, and the
+classification of Chinese dealers was modified. They were then divided
+into four grades or classes, each paying contributions according to
+the new tariff.
+
+In 1886 the universal depression, which was first manifest in this
+Colony in 1884, still continued. Remedies of most original character
+were suggested in the public organs and private circles, and a renewed
+spasmodic tirade was directed against the Chinese. A petition, made
+and signed by numbers of the retail trading class, was addressed to
+the Sovereign; but it appears to have found its last resting-place
+in the Colonial Secretary's waste-paper basket. The Americans in the
+United States and Mexico were in open riot against the Celestials--the
+Governments of Australia had imposed a capitation tax on their entry
+[50]--in British Columbia there was a party disposed to throw off
+its allegiance to Great Britain rather than forego its agitation
+against the Chinese. Why should not the Chinese be expelled from the
+Philippines, it was asked, or at least be permitted only to pursue
+agriculture in the Islands? In 1638, around Calamba and along the
+Laguna shore, they tilled the land; but the selfishness and jealousy
+of the natives made their permanence impossible. In 1850 the Chinese
+were invited to take up agriculture, but the rancorous feeling of the
+natives forced them to abandon the idea, and to seek greater security
+in the towns.
+
+The chief accusation levelled against the Chinaman is, that he comes as
+an adventurer and makes money, which he carries away, without leaving
+any trace of civilization behind him. The Chinese immigrant is of the
+lowest social class. Is not the dream of the European adventurer, of
+the same or better class, to make his pile of dollars and be off to
+the land of his birth? If he spends more money in the Colony than the
+Chinaman does, it is because he lacks the Chinaman's self-abnegation
+and thriftiness. Is the kind of civilization taught in the colonies
+by low-class European settlers superior?
+
+The Chinaman settled in the Philippines under Spanish rule was quite
+a different being to the obstinate, self-willed, riotous coolie in
+Hong-Kong or Singapore. In Manila he was drilled past docility--in six
+months he became even fawning, cringing, and servile, until goaded
+into open rebellion. Whatever position he might attain to, he was
+never addressed (as in the British Colonies) as "Mr." or "Esqre," or
+the equivalent, "Senor D.," but always "Chinaman ----" ("Chino ----").
+
+The total expulsion of the Chinese in Spanish times would have been
+highly prejudicial to trade. Had it suited the State policy to
+check the ingress of the Chinese, nothing would have been easier
+than the imposition of a P50 poll tax. To compel them to take up
+agriculture was out of the question in a Colony where there was so
+little guarantee for their personal safety. The frugality, constant
+activity, and commendable ambition of the Celestial clashes with the
+dissipation, indolence and want of aim in life of the native. There
+is absolutely no harmony of thought, purpose, or habit between the
+Philippine Malay native and the Mongol race, and the consequence of
+Chinese coolies working on plantations without ample protection would
+be frequent assassinations and open affray. Moreover, a native planter
+could never manage, to his own satisfaction or interest, an estate
+worked with Chinese labour, but the European might. The Chinese is
+essentially of a commercial bent, and, in the Philippines at least,
+he prefers taking his chance as to the profits, in the bubble and risk
+of independent speculation, rather than calmly labour at a fixed wage
+which affords no stimulus to his efforts.
+
+Plantations worked by Chinese owners with Chinese labour might nave
+succeeded, but those who arrived in the Colony brought no capital, and
+the Government never offered them gratuitous allotment of property. A
+law relating to the concession of State lands existed ("_Terrenos
+baldios_" and "_Colonias agricolas_"), but it was enveloped in so
+many entanglements and so encompassed by tardy process and intricate
+conditions, that few Orientals or Europeans took advantage of it.
+
+History records that in the year 1603 two Chinese Mandarins came to
+Manila as Ambassadors from their Emperor to the Gov.-General of the
+Philippines. They represented that a countryman of theirs had informed
+His Celestial Majesty of the existence of a mountain of gold in the
+environs of Cavite, and they desired to see it. The Gov.-General
+welcomed them, and they were carried ashore by their own people
+in ivory and gilded sedan-chairs. They wore the insignia of High
+Mandarins, and the Governor accorded them the reception due to their
+exalted station. He assured them that they were entirely misinformed
+respecting the mountain of gold, which could only be imaginary, but,
+to further convince them, he accompanied them to Cavite. The Mandarins
+shortly afterwards returned to their country. The greatest anxiety
+prevailed in Manila. Rumours circulated that a Chinese invasion was
+in preparation. The authorities held frequent councils, in which
+the opinions were very divided. A feverish consternation overcame
+the natives, who were armed, and ordered to carry their weapons
+constantly. The armoury was overhauled. A war plan was discussed and
+adopted, and places were singled out for each division of troops. The
+natives openly avowed to the Chinese that whenever they saw the
+first signs of the hostile fleet arriving they would murder them
+all. The Chinese were accused of having arms secreted; they were
+publicly insulted and maltreated; the cry was falsely raised that
+the Spaniards had fixed the day for their extermination; they daily
+saw weapons being cleaned and put in order, and they knew that there
+could be no immediate enemy but themselves. There was, in short,
+every circumstantial evidence that the fight for their existence
+would ere long be forced upon them.
+
+In this terrible position they were constrained to act on
+the offensive, simply to ensure their own safety. They raised
+fortifications in several places outside the city, and many an
+unhappy Chinaman had to shoulder a weapon reluctantly with tears in
+his eyes. They were traders. War and revolution were quite foreign to
+their wishes. The Christian rulers compelled them to abandon their
+adopted homes and their chattels, regardless of the future. What a
+strange conception the Chinese must have formed of His Most Catholic
+Majesty! In their despair many of them committed suicide. Finally,
+on the eve of Saint Francis' Day, the Chinese openly declared
+hostilities--beat their war-gongs, hoisted their flags, assaulted
+the armed natives, and threatened the city. Houses were burnt, and
+Binondo was besieged. They fortified Tondo; and the next morning
+Luis Perez Dasmarinas, an ex-Gov.-General, led the troops against
+them. He was joined by 100 picked Spanish soldiers under Tomas de
+Acuna. The nephew of the Governor and the nephew of the Archbishop
+rallied to the Spanish standard nearly all the flower of Castilian
+soldiery--and hardly one was left to tell the tale! The bloodshed was
+appalling. The Chinese, encouraged by this first victory, besieged
+the city, but after a prolonged struggle they were obliged to yield,
+as they could not provision themselves.
+
+The retreating Chinese were pursued far from Manila along the Laguna
+de Bay shore, thousands of them being overtaken and slaughtered or
+disabled. Reinforcements met them on the way, and drove them as far
+as Batangas Province and into the Morong district (now included in
+Rizal Province). The natives were in high glee at this licence to shed
+blood unresisted--so in harmony with their natural instincts. It is
+calculated that 24,000 Chinese were slain or captured in this revolt.
+
+The priests affirm positively that during the defence of the city
+Saint Francis appeared in person on the walls to stimulate the
+Christians--thus the victory was ascribed to him.
+
+This ruthless treatment of a harmless and necessary people--for up
+to this event they had proved themselves to be both--threatened to
+bring its own reward. They were the only industrious, thriving,
+skilful, wealth-producing portion of the population. There were
+no other artificers or tradespeople in the Colony. Moreover, the
+Spaniards were fearful lest their supplies from China of food for
+consumption in Manila, [51] and manufactured articles for export to
+Mexico, should in future be discontinued. Consequently they hastened
+to despatch an envoy to China to explain matters, and to reassure
+the Chinese traders. Much to their surprise, they found the Viceroy
+of Canton little concerned about what had happened, and the junks of
+merchandise again arrived as heretofore.
+
+Notwithstanding the memorable event of 1603, another struggle was
+made by the Chinese 36 years afterwards. In 1639, exasperated at the
+official robbery and oppression of a certain doctor, Luis Arias do
+Mora, and the Governor of the Laguna Province, they rose in open
+rebellion and killed these officials in the town of Calamba. So
+serious was the revolt that the Gov.-General went out against them in
+person. The rebels numbered about 30,000, and sustained, for nearly
+a year, a petty warfare all around. The images of the Saints were
+promenaded in the streets of Manila; it was a happy thought, for 6,000
+Chinese coincidentally surrendered. During this conflict an edict
+was published ordering all the Chinese in the provinces to be slain.
+
+In 1660 there was another rising of these people, which terminated
+in a great massacre.
+
+The Spaniards now began to reflect that they had made rather a
+bad bargain with the Mongol traders in the beginning, and that the
+Government would have done better had they encouraged commerce with
+the Peninsula. Up to this time the Spaniards had vainly reposed on
+their laurels as conquerors. They squandered lives and treasure on
+innumerable fruitless expeditions to Gamboge, Cochin China, Siam,
+Pegu, Japan, and the Moluccas, in quest of fresh glories, instead of
+concentrating their efforts in opening up this Colony and fostering
+a Philippine export trade, as yet almost unknown, if we exclude
+merchandise from China, etc., in transit to Mexico. From this period
+restrictions were, little by little, placed on the introduction
+of Chinese; they were treated with arrogance by the Europeans and
+Mexicans, and the jealous hatred which the native to this day feels for
+the Chinaman now began to be more openly manifested. The Chinaman had,
+for a long time past, been regarded by the European as a necessity--and
+henceforth an unfortunate one.
+
+Nevertheless, the lofty Spaniard who by favour of the King had
+arrived in Manila to occupy an official post without an escudo too
+much in his pocket, did not disdain to accept the hospitality of
+the Chinese. It was formerly their custom to secure the goodwill and
+personal protection of the Spanish officials by voluntarily keeping
+lodging-houses ready for their reception. It is chronicled that these
+gratuitous residences were well furnished and provided with all the
+requisites procurable on the spot. For a whole century the Spaniards
+were lulled with this easy-going and felicitous state of things, whilst
+the insidious Mongol, whose clear-sighted sagacity was sufficient to
+pierce the thin veil of friendship proffered by his guest, was ever
+prepared for another opportunity of rising against the dominion of
+Castile, of which he had had so many sorry experiences since 1603. The
+occasion at last arrived during the British occupation of Manila in
+1763. The Chinese voluntarily joined the invaders, but were unable
+to sustain the struggle, and it is estimated that some 6,000 of them
+were murdered in the provinces by order of the notorious Simon de Anda
+(_vide_ p. 93). They menaced the town of Pasig--near Manila--and Fray
+Juan de Torres, the parish priest, put himself at the head of 300
+natives, by order of his Prior, Fray Andres Fuentes, to oppose them,
+and the Chinese were forced to retire.
+
+On October 9, 1820, a general massacre of Chinese, British,
+and other foreigners took place in Manila and Cavite. Epidemic
+cholera had affected the capital and surrounding districts; great
+numbers of natives succumbed to its malignant effects, and they
+accused the foreigners of having poisoned the drinking-water in
+the streams. Foreign property was attacked and pillaged--even ships
+lying in the bay had to sail off and anchor out afar for safety. The
+outbreak attained such grave proportions that the clergy intervened
+to dissuade the populace from their hallucination. The High Host was
+carried through the streets, but the rioters were only pacified when
+they could find no more victims.
+
+Amongst other reforms concerning the Chinese which the Spanish
+colonists and Manila natives called for in 1886, through the public
+organs, was that they should be forced to comply with the law
+promulgated in 1867, which provided that the Chinese, like all other
+merchants, should keep their trade-books in the Spanish language. The
+demand had the appearance of being based on certain justifiable
+grounds, but in reality it was a mere ebullition of spite intended
+to augment the difficulties of the Chinese.
+
+The British merchants and bankers are, by far, those who give most
+credit to the Chinese. The Spanish and native creditors of the Chinese
+are but a small minority, taking the aggregate of their credits, and
+instead of seeking malevolently to impose new hardships on the Chinese,
+they could have abstained from entering into risky transactions with
+them. All merchants are aware of the Chinese trading system, and none
+are obliged to deal with them. A foreign house would give a Chinaman
+credit for, say, L300 to L400 worth of European manufactured goods,
+knowing full well, from personal experience, or from that of others,
+that the whole value would probably never be recovered. It remained
+a standing debt on the books of the firm. The Chinaman retailed
+these goods, and brought a small sum of cash to the firm, on the
+understanding that he would get another parcel of goods, and so he
+went on for years. [52] Thus the foreign merchants practically sunk
+an amount of capital to start their Chinese constituents. Sometimes
+the acknowledged owner and responsible man in one Chinese retail
+establishment would have a share in, or own, several others. If matters
+went wrong, he absconded abroad, and only the one shop which he openly
+represented could be embargoed, whilst his goods were distributed
+over several shops under any name but his. It was always difficult
+to bring legal proof of this; the books were in Chinese, and the
+whole business was in a state of confusion incomprehensible to any
+European. But these risks were well known beforehand. It was only then
+that the original credit had to be written off by the foreigner as a
+nett loss--often small when set against several years of accumulated
+profits made in successive operations.
+
+The Chinese have guilds or secret societies for their mutual
+protection, and it is a well-ascertained fact that they had to
+pay the Spanish authorities very dearly for the liberty of living
+at peace with their fellow-men. If the wind blew against them from
+official quarters the affair brought on the _tapis_ was hushed up by
+a gift. These peace-offerings, at times of considerable value, were
+procured by a tax privately levied on each Chinaman by the headmen of
+their guilds. In 1880-83 the Gov.-General and other high functionaries
+used to accept Chinese hospitality, etc.
+
+In December, 1887, the Medal of Civil Merit was awarded to a Chinaman
+named Sio-Sion-Tay, resident in Binondo, whilst the Government for
+several years had made contracts with the Chinese for the public
+service. Another Chinaman, christened in the name of Carlos Palanca,
+was later on awarded the Grand Cross of Isabella the Catholic, with
+the title of Excellency.
+
+Many Chinese have adopted Christianity, either to improve their
+social standing, or to be enabled thereby to contract marriage with
+natives. Their intercessor and patron is _Saint Nicholas_, since the
+time, it is said, that a Chinaman, having fallen into the Pasig River,
+was in danger of being eaten by an alligator, and saved himself by
+praying to that saint, who caused the monster to turn into stone. The
+legendary stone is still to be seen near the left bank of the river.
+
+There appears to be no perfectly reliable data respecting the number of
+Chinese residents in the Archipelago. In 1886 the statistics differed
+largely. One statistician published that there was a total of 66,740
+men and 194 women, of whom 51,348 men and 191 women lived in Manila
+and suburbs, 1,154 men and 3 women in Yloilo, and 983 men in Cebu,
+the rest being dispersed over the coast villages and the interior. The
+most competent local authorities in two provinces proved to me that
+the figures relating to their districts were inexact, and all other
+information on the subject which I have been able to procure tends to
+show that the number of resident Chinese was underrated. I estimate
+that just before the Rebellion of 1896 there were 100,000 Chinese
+in the whole Colony, including upwards of 40,000 in and around the
+capital.
+
+Crowds of Chinese passed to these Islands _via_ Sulu (Jolo), which,
+as a free port, they could enter without need of papers. Pretending
+to be resident colonists there, they managed to obtain passports to
+travel on business for a limited period in the Philippines, but they
+were never seen again in Sulu.
+
+In Spanish times the Chinaman was often referred to as a _Macao_ or
+a _Sangley_. The former term applied to those who came from Southern
+China (Canton, Macao, Amoy, etc.). They were usually cooks and domestic
+servants. The latter signified the Northern Chinaman of the trading
+class. The popular term for a Chinaman in general was a _Suya_.
+
+In Manila and in several provincial towns where the Chinese residents
+were numerous, they had their own separate "Tribunals" or local
+courts, wherein minor affairs were managed by petty governors of
+their own nationality, elected bi-annually, in the same manner as
+the natives. In 1888 the question of admitting a Chinese Consulate
+in the Philippines was talked of in official circles, which proves
+that the Government was far from seeing the "Chinese question" in the
+same light as the Spanish or native merchant class. In the course
+of time they acquired a certain consideration in the body politic,
+and deputations of Chinese were present in all popular ceremonies
+during the last few years of Spanish rule.
+
+Wherever the Chinese settle they exhibit a disposition to hold their
+footing, if not to strengthen it, at all hazards, by force if need
+be. In Sarawak their Secret Societies threatened to undermine the
+prosperity of that little State, and had to be suppressed by capital
+punishment. Since the British occupation of Hong-Kong in 1841, there
+have been two serious movements against the Europeans. In 1848 the
+Chinese murdered Governor Amiral of Macao, and the colonists had to
+fight for their lives. In Singapore the attempts of the Chinese to defy
+the Government called for coercive measures, but the danger is small,
+because the immigrant Chinaman has only the courage to act in mobs.
+
+In Australia and the United States it was found necessary to
+enact special laws regulating the ingress of Mongols. Under the
+Spanish-Philippine Government the most that could be said against
+them, as a class, was that, through their thrift and perseverance,
+they outran the shopkeeping class in the race of life.
+
+The Insular Government "Chinese Exclusion Act," at present in
+operation, permits those Chinese who are already in the Islands
+to remain conditionally, but rigidly debars fresh immigration. The
+corollary is that, in the course of a few years, there will be no
+Chinese in the Philippines. The working of the above Act is alluded
+to in Chapter xxxi.
+
+Under a native Government their lot is not likely to be a happy
+one. One of the aims of the Tagalog Revolutionists was to exclude
+the Chinese entirely from the Islands.
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+Wild Tribes and Pagans
+
+
+The population of the Philippines does not consist of one homogeneous
+race; there are Mahometans, Pagans, and Christians, the last being in
+the majority. The one tribe is just as much "Filipino" as the other,
+and, from the point of view of nationality, they are all equally
+fellow-countrymen. [53] So far as tradition serves to elucidate the
+problem of their origin, it would appear that the Filipinos are a
+mixed people, descendants of Papuan, Arabian, Hindoo, Malay, Japanese,
+Chinese, and European forefathers. [54]
+
+According to the last census (1903), the uncivilized population
+amounted to 8 1/2 per cent. of the whole.
+
+The chief of these tribes are the _Aetas_, or _Negritos_, the
+_Gaddanes_, _Itavis, Igorrotes, Igorrote-Chinese, Tinguianes,
+Tagbunuas, Batacs, Manobos_, etc. Also among the southern races of
+Mindanao Island, referred to in Chapters x. and xxix., there are
+several pagan tribes interspersed between the Mahometan clans.
+
+I have used only the generic denominations, for whilst these tribes
+are sub-divided (for instance, the _Buquils_ of Zambales, a section
+of the _Negritos_; the _Guinaanes_, a sanguinary people inhabiting
+the mountains of the Igorrote district, etc.), the fractions denote
+no material physical or moral difference, and the local names adopted
+by the different clans of the same race are of no interest to the
+general reader. The expression _Bukidnon_, so commonly heard, does
+not signify any particular caste, but, in a general sense, the people
+of the mountain (_bukid_).
+
+_Aetas_, or _Negritos_, numbering 22,000 to 24,000, inhabit
+the mountain regions of Luzon, Panay, Negros, and some smaller
+islands. They are dark, some of them being as black as African
+negroes. Their general appearance resembles that of the Alfoor Papuan
+of New Guinea. They have curly matted hair, like Astrakhan fur. The
+men cover only their loins, and the women dress from the waist
+to the knees. They are a spiritless and cowardly race. They would
+not deliberately face white men in anything like equal numbers with
+warlike intentions, although they would perhaps spend a quiverful of
+arrows from behind a tree at a retreating foe.
+
+The _Aeta_ carries a bamboo lance, a palm-wood bow, and poisoned
+arrows when out on an expedition. He is wonderfully light-footed,
+and runs with great speed after the deer, or climbs a tree like
+a monkey. Groups of fifty to sixty souls live in community. Their
+religion seems to be a kind of cosmolatry and spirit-worship. Anything
+which for the time being, in their imagination, has a supernatural
+appearance is deified. They have a profound respect for old age and
+for their dead. They are of extremely low intellect, and, although
+some of them have been brought up by civilized families living
+in the vicinity of the _Negrito_ mountainous country, they offer
+little encouragement to those who would desire to train them. Even
+when more or less domesticated, the _Negrito_ cannot be trusted to
+do anything which requires an effort of judgement. At times his mind
+seems to wander from all social order, and an apparently overwhelming
+eagerness to return to his native haunts disconcerts all one's plans
+for his civilization.
+
+For a long time they were the sole masters of Luzon Island, where
+they exercised seignorial rights over the Malay immigrants, until
+these arrived in such numbers, that the _Negritos_ were forced to
+retire to the highlands. The taxes imposed upon primitive Malay
+settlers by the _Negritos_ were levied in kind, and when payment was
+refused, they swooped down in a posse, and carried off the head of
+the defaulter. Since the arrival of the Spaniards, the terror of the
+white man has made them take definitely to the mountains, where they
+appear to be very gradually decreasing.
+
+The Spanish Government, in vain, made strenuous efforts to implant
+civilized habits among this weak-brained race.
+
+In 1881 I visited the Capas Missions in Upper Pampanga. The
+authorities had established there what is called a _real_,--a kind
+of model village of bamboo and palm-leaf huts,--to each of which a
+family was assigned. They were supplied with food, clothing and all
+necessaries of life for one year, which would give them an opportunity
+of tilling the land and providing for themselves in future. But they
+followed their old habits when the year had expired and the subsidy
+ceased. On my second visit they had returned to their mountain homes,
+and I could see no possible inducement for them to do otherwise. The
+only attraction for them during the year was the fostering of their
+inbred indolence; and it ought to have been evident that as soon as
+they had to depend on their own resources they would adopt their
+own way of living--free of taxes, military service, and social
+restraint--as being more congenial to their tastes.
+
+Being in the Bataan Province some years ago, I rode across the
+mountain range to the opposite coast with a military friend. On our
+way we approached a Negrito _real_, and hearing strange noises and
+extraordinary calls, we stopped to consult as to the prudence of riding
+up to the settlement. We decided to go there, and were fortunate enough
+to be present at a wedding. The young bride, who might have been about
+thirteen years of age, was being pursued by her future spouse as she
+pretended to run away, and it need hardly be said that he succeeded in
+bringing her in by feigned force. She struggled, and again got away,
+and a second time she was caught. Then an old man with grey hair came
+forward and dragged the young man up a bamboo ladder. An old woman
+grasped the bride, and both followed the bridegroom. The aged sire
+then gave them a douche with a cocoa-nut shell full of water, and
+they all descended. The happy pair knelt down, and the elder having
+placed their heads together, they were man and wife. We endeavoured
+to find out which hut was allotted to the newly-married couple,
+but we were given to understand that until the sun had reappeared
+five times they would spend their honeymoon in the mountains. After
+the ceremony was concluded, several present began to make their usual
+mountain-call. In the lowlands, the same peculiar cry serves to bring
+home straggling domestic animals to their nocturnal resting-place.
+
+There is something picturesque about a well-formed, healthy Negrita
+damsel, with jet-black piercing eyes, and her hair in one perfect
+ball of close curls. The men are not of a handsome type; some of them
+have a hale, swarthy appearance, but many of them present a sickly,
+emaciated aspect. A Negrita matron past thirty is perhaps one of the
+least attractive objects in humanity.
+
+They live principally on fish, roots, and mountain rice, but they
+occasionally make a raid on the neighbouring valleys and carry off
+the herds. So great was their cattle-stealing propensity in Spanish
+times, that several semi-official expeditions were sent to punish
+the marauders, particularly on the Cordillera de Zambales, on the
+west side of Luzon Island.
+
+The husbandry of the Negritos is the most primitive imaginable. It
+consists of scraping the surface of the earth--without clearance of
+forest--and throwing the seed. They never "take up" a piece of land,
+but sow in the manner described wherever they may happen temporarily
+to settle.
+
+The _Gaddanes_ occupy the extreme N.W. corner of Luzon Island, and
+are entirely out of the pale of civilization. I have never heard that
+any attempt has been made to subdue them. They have a fine physical
+bearing; wear the hair down to the shoulders; are of a very dark
+colour, and feed chiefly on roots, mountain rice, game, fruits, and
+fish. They are considered the only really warlike and aggressively
+savage tribe of the north, and it is the custom of the young men about
+to marry to vie with each other in presenting to the sires of their
+future brides all the scalps they are able to take from their enemies,
+as proof of their manly courage. This practice prevails at the season
+of the year when the tree, commonly called by the Spaniards "the
+fire-tree," is in bloom. The flowers of this tree are of a fire-red
+hue, and their appearance is the signal for this race to collect their
+trophies of war and celebrate certain religious rites. When I was in
+the extreme north, in the country of the _Ibanacs_, [55] preparing
+my expedition to the _Gaddanes_ tribe, I was cautioned not to remain
+in the Gaddanes country until the fire-tree blossomed. The arms used
+by the _Gaddanes_ are frightful weapons--long lances with tridented
+tips, and arrows pointed with two rows of teeth, made out of flint
+or sea-shells. These weapons are used to kill both fish and foe.
+
+The _Itavis_ inhabit the district to the south of that territory
+occupied by the _Gaddanes_, and their mode of living and food are
+very similar. They are, however, not so fierce as the _Gaddanes_,
+and if assaults are occasionally made on other tribes, it may
+be rather attributed to a desire to retaliate than to a love of
+bloodshed. Their skin is not so dark as that of their northern
+neighbours--the _Gaddanes_ or the partially civilized _Ibanacs_--and
+their hair is shorter.
+
+The _Igorrotes_ are spread over a considerable portion of Luzon,
+principally from N. lat. 16 deg. 30' to 18 deg.. They are, in general, a fine
+race of people, physically considered, but semi-barbarous and living
+in squalor. They wear their hair long. At the back it hangs down to
+the shoulders, whilst in front it is cut shorter and allowed to cover
+the forehead half-way like a long fringe. Some of them, settled in the
+districts of Lepanto and El Abra, have a little hair on the chin and
+upper lip. Their skin is of a dark copper tinge. They have flat noses,
+thick lips, high cheek-bones, and their broad shoulders and limbs
+seem to denote great strength, but their form is not at all graceful.
+
+Like all the wild races of the Philippines, the _Igorrotes_ are
+indolent to the greatest degree. Their huts are built bee-hive fashion,
+and they creep into them like quadrupeds. Fields of sweet potatoes
+and sugar-cane are under cultivation by them. They cannot be forced or
+persuaded to embrace the Western system of civilization. Adultery is
+little known, but if it occurs, the dowry is returned and the divorce
+settled. Polygamy seems to be permitted, but little practised. Murders
+are common, and if a member of one hut or family group is killed,
+that family avenges itself on one of the murderer's kinsmen, hence
+those who might have to "pay the piper" are interested in maintaining
+order. In the Province of La Isabela, the Negrito and Igorrote tribes
+keep a regular _Dr._ and _Cr._ account of heads. In 1896 there were
+about 100,000 head-hunting _Igorrotes_ in the Benguet district. This
+tribe paid to the Spaniards a recognition of vassalage of one-quarter
+of a peso _per capita_ in Benguet, Abra, Bontoc, and Lepanto.
+
+Their aggressions on the coast settlers have been frequent for
+centuries past. From time to time they came down from their mountain
+retreat to steal cattle and effects belonging to the domesticated
+population. The first regular attempt to chastise them for these
+inroads, and afterwards gain their submission, was in the time of
+Governor Pedro de Arandia (1754-59), when a plan was concerted to
+attack them simultaneously from all sides with 1,080 men. Their ranches
+and crops were laid waste, and many _Igorrotes_ were taken prisoners,
+but the ultimate idea of securing their allegiance was abandoned as
+an impossibility.
+
+In 1881 General Primo de Rivera, at the head of a large armed force,
+invaded their district with the view of reducing them to obedience,
+but the apparent result of the expedition was more detrimental than
+advantageous to the project of bringing this tribe under Spanish
+dominion and of opening up their country to trade and enlightened
+intercourse. Whilst the expeditionary forces were not sufficiently
+large or in a condition to carry on a war _a outrance_ successfully,
+to be immediately followed up by a military system of government, on
+the other hand, the feeble efforts displayed to conquer them served
+only to demonstrate the impotence of the Europeans. This gave the
+tribes courage to defend their liberty, whilst the licence indulged
+in by the white men at the expense of the mountaineers--and boasted
+of to me personally by many Spanish officers--had merely the effect
+of raising the veil from their protestations of goodwill towards
+the race they sought to subdue. The enterprise ignominiously failed;
+the costly undertaking was an inglorious and fruitless one, except
+to the General, who--being under royal favour since, at Sagunta,
+in 1875, he "pronounced" for King Alfonso--secured for himself the
+title of Count of La Union.
+
+The _Igorrotes_ have, since then, been less approachable by Europeans,
+whom they naturally regard with every feeling of distrust. Rightly
+or wrongly (if it can be a matter of opinion), they fail to see any
+manifestation of ultimate advantage to themselves in the arrival of a
+troop of armed strangers who demand from them food (even though it be
+on payment) and perturbate their most intimate family ties. They do not
+appreciate being "civilized" to exchange their usages, independence,
+and comfort for even the highest post obtainable by a native in the
+provinces, which then was practically that of local head servant
+to the district authority, under the name of Municipal Captain. To
+roam at large in their mountain home is far more enjoyable to them
+than having to wear clothes; to present themselves often, if not to
+habitually reside, in villages; to pay taxes, for which they would
+get little return--not even the boon of good highroads--and to act
+as unsalaried tax-collectors with the chance of fine, punishment, and
+ruin if they did not succeed in bringing funds to the Public Treasury.
+
+As to Christianity, it would be as hard a task to convince them of what
+Roman Catholicism deems indispensable for the salvation of the soul, as
+it would be to convert all England to the teachings of Buddha--although
+Buddhism is as logical a religion as Christianity. Just a few of
+them, inhabiting the lowlands in the neighbourhood of Vigan and other
+christian towns, received baptism and paid an annual tribute of half
+a peso from the year 1893 to 1896.
+
+Being in Tuguegarao, the capital of Cagayan Province, about 60
+miles up the Rio Grande, I went to visit the prisons, where I saw
+many of the worst types of _Igorrotes_. I was told that a priest
+who had endeavoured to teach them the precepts of Christianity,
+and had explained to them the marvellous life of Saint Augustine,
+was dismayed to hear an _Igorrote_ exclaim that no coloured man
+ever became a white man's saint. Nothing could convince him that
+an exception to the rule might be possible. Could experience have
+revealed to him the established fact--the remarkable anomaly--that
+the grossest forms of immorality were only to be found in the trail
+of the highest order of white man's civilization?
+
+The _Igorrotes_ have worked the copper mines of their region for
+generations past, in their own primitive way, with astonishing
+results. They not only annually barter several tons of copper
+ingots, but they possess the art of manufacturing pots, cauldrons,
+tobacco-pipes, and other utensils made of that metal. They also
+understand the extraction of gold, which they obtain in very small
+quantities by crushing the quartz between heavy stones.
+
+Specimens of the different tribes and races of these Islands were on
+view at the Philippine Exhibition held in Madrid in 1887. Some of
+them consented to receive Christian baptism before returning home,
+but it was publicly stated that the _Igorrotes_ were among those who
+positively refused to abandon their own belief.
+
+A selection of this tribe was included in the Filipinos on show at
+the San Louis Exhibition (U.S.A.) in 1904, and attracted particular
+attention. Some of them liked the United States so much that they
+tried hard to break away from their keepers in order to remain there.
+
+The _Calingas_ are a branch of the _Igorrotes_, found along the Cagayan
+River around Ilagan. They are not only head-hunters, but cannibals. A
+friend of mine, an American colonel, was up there some time during
+the war, and explained to me the difficulty he had in convincing a
+Calinga chief that a man's head is his personal property, and that
+to steal it is a crime.
+
+The _Igorrote-Chinese_ are supposed to be the descendants of the
+Chinese who fled to the hills on the departure of the corsair
+Li-ma-hong from Pangasinan Province in 1754 (_vide_ p. 50). Their
+intermarriage with the _Igorrote_ tribe has generated a caste of
+people quite unique in their character. Their habits are much the
+same as those of the pure _Igorrotes_, but with their fierce nature is
+blended the cunning and astuteness of the Mongol; and although their
+intelligence may be often misapplied, yet it is superior to that of
+the pure _Igorrote_. In the Province of Pangasinan there are numbers
+of natives of Chinese descent included in the domesticated population,
+and their origin is evidently due to the circumstances mentioned.
+
+The _Tingulanes_ inhabit principally the district of El Abra
+(N.W. coast, Luzon Is.). They were nominally under the control
+of the Spanish Government, who appointed their headmen petty
+governors of villages or ranches on the system adopted in the subdued
+districts. According to Father Ferrando (63 years ago), the form of
+oath taken in his presence by the newly-elected headman on receiving
+the staff of office was the following, viz.:--"May a pernicious wind
+touch me; may a flash of lightning kill me, and may the alligator
+catch me asleep if I fail to fulfil my duty." The headman presented
+himself almost when he chose to the nearest Spanish Governor, who gave
+him his orders, which were only fulfilled according to the traditional
+custom of the tribe. Thus, the headman, on his return to the ranche,
+delegated his powers to the council of elders, and according to their
+decision he acted as the executive only. Whenever it was possible,
+they applied their own _lex non scripta_ in preference to acting upon
+the Spanish Code.
+
+According to their law, the crime of adultery is punished by a fine
+of 30 pesos value and divorce, but if the adultery has been mutual,
+the divorce is pronounced absolute, without the payment of a fine.
+
+When a man is brought to justice on an accusation which he denies,
+a handful of straw is burnt in his presence. He is made to hold up an
+earthenware pot and say as follows:--"May my belly be converted into
+a pot like this, if I have committed the deed attributed to me." If
+the transformation does not take place at once, he is declared to
+be innocent.
+
+The _Tinguianes_ are pagans, but have no temples. Their gods are
+hidden in the mountain cavities. Like many other religionists, they
+believe in the efficacy of prayer for the supply of their material
+wants. Hence if there be too great an abundance of rain, or too little
+of it, or an epidemic disease raging, or any calamity affecting the
+community in general, the _Anitos_ (images representing the gods or
+saints) are carried round and exhorted, whilst Nature continues her
+uninterrupted course. The minister of _Anito_ is also appealed to
+when a child is to be named. The infant is carried into the woods, and
+the pagan priest pronounces the name, whilst he raises a bowie-knife
+over the newborn creature's head. On lowering the knife, he strikes
+at a tree. If the tree emits sap, the first name uttered stands good;
+if not, the ceremony is repeated, and each time the name is changed
+until the oozing sap denotes the will of the deity.
+
+The _Tinguianes_ are monogamists, and generally are forced by the
+parents to marry before the age of puberty, but the bridegroom, or
+his father or elder, has to purchase the bride at a price mutually
+agreed upon by the relations. These people live in cabins on posts
+or trees 60 to 70 feet from the ground, and defend themselves from
+the attacks of their traditional enemies, the _Guinaanes_, by heaving
+stones upon them. Nevertheless, in the more secure vicinities of the
+christian villages, these people build their huts similar to those of
+the domesticated natives. From the doors and window-openings skulls
+of buffaloes and horses are hung as talismans.
+
+Physically they are of fine form, and the nose is aquiline. They wear
+the hair in a tuft on the crown, like the Japanese, but their features
+are similar to the ordinary lowland native. They are fond of music and
+personal ornaments. They tattoo themselves and black their teeth; and
+for these, and many other reasons, it is conjectured that they descend
+from the Japanese shipwrecked crews who, being without means at hand
+with which to return to their country, took to the mountains inland
+from the west coast of Luzon. I spent several months with this tribe,
+but I have never seen a _Tinguian_ with a bow and arrow; they carry
+the lance as the common weapon, and for hunting and spearing fish.
+
+Their conversion to Christianity has proved to be an impossible
+task. A Royal Decree of Ferdinand VI.. dated in Aranjuez, June 18,
+1758, sets forth that the infidels called _Tinguianes, Igorrotes_,
+and by other names who should accept Christian baptism, should
+be exempt all their lives from the payment of tribute and forced
+labour. Their offspring, however, born to them after receiving baptism,
+would lose these privileges as well as the independence enjoyed by
+their forefathers. This penalty to future generations for becoming
+Christians was afterwards extended to all the undomesticated races.
+
+Many of these tribes did a little barter traffic with the Chinese,
+but--with the hope that necessity would bring them down to
+the christian villages to procure commodities, and thus become
+socialized--the Government prohibited this trade in 1886.
+
+The _Tinguianes_ appear to be as intelligent as the ordinary subdued
+natives. They are by no means savages, and they are not entirely
+strangers to domestic life. A great many Christian families of El Abra
+and Ilocos Sur are of _Tinguian_ origin, and I may mention here that
+the Ilocano dominated natives have the just reputation of being the
+most industrious Philippine people. For this reason, Ilocano servants
+and workmen are sought for in preference to most others.
+
+The _Basanes_ are a very timid people who inhabit the mountains of
+Mindoro Island. They have long, lank hair and whitish faces, and do
+not appear to be of one of the original races. They are occasionally
+met with (when they do not hide themselves) in the cordillera which
+runs north-west to south-east and then ends off in two spurs, between
+which, after passing Mount Halcon, there is a large valley leading
+to the southern shore. The _Manguianes_, another Mindoro wild tribe,
+come to the coast villages sometimes to barter, and bring pieces of
+gold for the purpose. They also wear gold jewellery made of the metal
+extracted by themselves.
+
+There is another race of people whose source is not distinctly
+known, but, according to tradition, they descend from the Sepoys who
+formed part of the troops under British command during the military
+occupation of Manila in 1763 (_vide_ p. 88). The legend is, that these
+_Hindoos_, having deserted from the British army, migrated up the
+Pasig River. However that may be, the sharp-featured, black-skinned
+settlers in the Barrio de Dayap, of Cainta Town (Morong district),
+are decidedly of a different stock to the ordinary native. The notable
+physical differences are the fine aquiline nose, bright expression,
+and regular features. They are Christians--far more laborious than the
+Philippine natives, and are a law-abiding people. I have known many of
+them personally for years. They were the only class who voluntarily
+presented themselves to pay the taxes to the Spaniards, and yet,
+on the ground that generations ago they were intruders on the soil,
+they were more heavily laden with imposts than their fellow-neighbours
+until the abolition of tribute in 1884.
+
+There are also to be seen in these Islands a few types of that class
+of tropical inhabitant, preternaturally possessed of a white skin
+and extremely fair hair--sometimes red--known as _Albinos_. I leave
+it to physiologists to elucidate the peculiarity of vital phenomena
+in these unfortunate abnormities of Nature. Amongst others, I once
+saw in Negros Island a hapless young Albino girl, with marble-white
+skin and very light pink-white hair, who was totally blind in the
+sunny hours of the day.
+
+The _Mahometan_ and other tribes, inhabiting the Sulu Sultanate,
+Mindanao, Palauan (Paragua) and the adjacent islands of the South
+constituting "Moroland," are described in Chapters x. and xxix.
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+Mahometans and Southern Tribes
+
+
+Simultaneously with the Spanish conquest of the Philippines, two
+Borneo chiefs, who were brothers, quarrelled about their respective
+possessions, and one of them had to flee. His partisans joined him,
+and they emigrated to the Island of Basilan, [56] situated to the
+south of Zamboanga (Mindanao Is.). The _Moros_, as they are called in
+the Islands, are therefore supposed to be descended from the Mahometan
+Dyaks of Borneo. They were a valiant, warlike, piratical people, who
+admired bravery in others--had a deep-rooted contempt for poltroons,
+and lavished no mercy on the weak.
+
+In the suite of this emigrant chief, called Paguian Tindig, catoe his
+cousin Adasaolan, who was so captivated by the fertility of Basilan
+Island that he wished to remain there; so Tindig left him in possession
+and withdrew to Sulu Island, where he easily reduced the natives
+to vassalage, for they had never yet had to encounter so powerful
+a foe. So famous did Paguian Tindig become that, for generations
+afterwards, the Sultans of Sulu were proud of their descent from such
+a celebrated hero. After the Spaniards had pacified the great Butuan
+chief on the north coast of Mindanao, Tindig consented to acknowledge
+the suzerainty of their king, in exchange for undisturbed possession
+of the realm which he had just founded.
+
+Adasaolan espoused the Princess Paguian Goan, daughter of Dimasangcay,
+King of Mindanao, by his wife Imbog, a Sulu woman, and with this
+relationship he embraced the Mahometan faith. His ambition increased
+as good fortune came to him, and, stimulated by the promised support
+of his father-in-law, he invaded Sulu, attacked his cousin Tindig,
+and attempted to murder him in order to annex his kingdom. A short
+but fierce contest ensued. Tindig's fortified dwelling was besieged
+in vain. The posts which supported the upper storey were greased
+with oil, and an entrance could not be effected. Wearied of his
+failures, Adasaolan retired from the enterprise, and Tindig, in
+turn, declared war on the Basilan king after he had been to Manila
+to solicit assistance from his Spanish suzerain's representative,
+who sent two armed boats to support him.
+
+When Tindig, on his return from Manila, arrived within sight of Sulu,
+his anxious subjects rallied round him, and prepared for battle. The
+two armed boats furnished by the Spaniards were on the way, but, as
+yet, too far off to render help, so Adasaolan immediately fell upon
+Tindig's party and completely routed them. Tindig himself died bravely,
+fighting to the last moment, and the Spaniards, having no one to
+fight for when they arrived, returned to Manila with their armed boats.
+
+Adasaolan, however, did not annex the territory of his defeated
+cousin. Rajah Bongso succeeded Tindig in the Government of Sulu,
+and when old age enfeebled him, he was wont to show with pride the
+scars inflicted on him during the war of independence.
+
+Adasaolan then made alliances with Mindanao and Borneo people,
+and introduced the Mahometan religion into Sulu. Since then, Sulu
+(called "Jolo," by the Spaniards) has become the Mecca of the Southern
+Archipelago. [57]
+
+
+
+The earliest records relating to Mindanao Island, since the Spanish
+annexation of the Philippines, show that about the year 1594 a
+rich Portuguese cavalier of noble birth, named Estevan Rodriguez,
+who had acquired a large fortune in the Philippines, and who had a
+wealthy brother in Mexico, proposed to the Governor Perez Dasmarinas
+the conquest of this island. For this purpose he offered his person
+and all his means, but having long waited in vain to obtain the
+royal sanction to his project, he prepared to leave for Mexico,
+disgusted and disappointed. He was on the point of starting for
+New Spain; he had his ship laden and his family on board, when the
+royal confirmation arrived with the new Governor, Dr. Antonio Morga
+(1595-96). Therefore he changed his plans, but despatched the laden
+ship to Mexico with the cargo, intending to employ the profits of
+the venture in the prosecution of his Mindanao enterprise. With the
+title of General, he and his family, together with three chaplain
+priests, started in another vessel for the south. They put in at
+Otong (Panay Is.) on the way, and left there in April, 1596. Having
+reached the great Mindanao River (Rio Grande), the ship went up it
+as far as Buhayen, in the territory of the chief Silongan. A party
+under Juan de la Jara, the _Maestre de Campo_, was sent ashore to
+reconnoitre the environs. Their delay in returning caused alarm, so the
+General buckled on his shield, and, with sword in hand, disembarked,
+accompanied by a Cebuano servant and two Spaniards, carrying lances. On
+the way they met a native, who raised his _campilan_ to deal a blow,
+which the General received on his shield, and cut down the foe to
+the waist. Then they encountered another, who clove the General's
+head almost in two, causing his death in six hours. The Cebuano at
+once ran the native through with a lance. This brave was discovered
+to be the youngest brother of the chief Silongan, who had sworn to
+Mahomet to sacrifice his life to take that of the Castilian invader.
+
+The General's corpse was sent to Manila for interment. The expedition
+led by the _Maestre de Campo_ fared badly, one of the party being
+killed, another seriously wounded, and the rest fleeing on board. The
+next day it was decided to construct trenches at the mouth of the
+river, where the camp was established. The command was taken by the
+_Maestre de Campo_, whose chief exploit seems to have been that he
+made love to the deceased General's widow and proposed marriage to her,
+which she indignantly rejected. Nothing was gained by the expedition,
+and after the last priest died, the project was abandoned and the
+vessel returned to Cebu.
+
+In 1638 another expedition against the Moros was headed by the
+Gov.-General Sebastian Hurtado de Corcuera, who made the first landing
+of troops in Sulu Island on April 17 of that year. He also established
+some military posts on the coast of Mindanao Island, one of which
+was Sampanilla (now called Malabang) on the Illana Bay shore. Four
+years afterwards it was abandoned until 1891, when General Weyler
+went there and had a fort built, which still exists.
+
+It would appear that all over these Islands the strong preyed on
+the weak, and the boldest warrior or oppressor assumed the title
+of Sultan, _Datto_, etc., over all the territory he could dominate,
+making the dignity hereditary. So far as can be ascertained, one of
+the oldest titles was that of Prince of Sibuguey, whose territory
+was situated on the bay of that name which washes the N.E. coast of
+Zamboanga Province. The title fell into disuse, and the grandson of
+the last prince, the present _Manguiguin_, or Sultan of Mindanao,
+resides at Dinas. The sultanate dates from the year 1640, but, in
+reality, there never was a sultan with effective jurisdiction over
+the whole island, as the title would seem to imply. The Sultan's heir
+is styled the _Rajahmudah_.
+
+The alliances effected between the Sulu and Mindanao potentates gave
+a great stimulus to piracy, which hitherto had been confined to the
+waters in the locality of those islands. It now spread over the whole
+of the Philippine Archipelago, and was prosecuted with great vigour
+by regular organized fleets, carrying weapons almost equal to those
+of the Spaniards. In meddling with the Mahometan territories the
+Spaniards may be said to have unconsciously lighted on a hornets'
+nest. Their eagerness for conquest stirred up the implacable hatred
+of the Mahometan for the Christian, and they unwittingly brought
+woe upon their own heads for many generations. Indeed, if half the
+consequences could have been foreseen, they surely never would have
+attempted to gain what, up to their last day, they failed to secure,
+namely, the complete conquest of Mindanao and the Sulu Sultanate.
+
+For over two and a half centuries Mahometan war-junks ravaged every
+coast of the Colony. Not a single peopled island was spared. Thousands
+of the inhabitants were murdered, whilst others were carried into
+slavery for years. Villages were sacked; the churches were looted;
+local trade was intercepted; the natives subject to Spain were driven
+into the highlands, and many even dared not risk their lives and goods
+near the coasts. The utmost desolation and havoc were perpetrated,
+and militated vastly against the welfare and development of the
+Colony. For four years the Government had to remit the payment of
+tribute in Negros Island, and the others lying between it and Luzon, on
+account of the abject poverty of the natives, due to these raids. From
+the time the Spaniards first interfered with the Mahometans there was
+continual warfare. Expeditions against the pirates were constantly
+being fitted out by each succeeding Governor. Piracy was indeed an
+incessant scourge and plague on the Colony, and it cost the Spaniards
+rivers of blood and millions of dollars only to keep it in check.
+
+In the last century the Mahometans appeared even in the Bay of
+Manila. I was acquainted with several persons who had been in
+Mahometan captivity. There were then hundreds who still remembered,
+with anguish, the insecurity to which their lives and properties were
+exposed. The Spaniards were quite unable to cope with such a prodigious
+calamity. The coast villagers built forts for their own defence, and
+many an old stone watch-tower is still to be seen on the islands south
+of Luzon. On several occasions the Christian natives were urged, by
+the inducement of spoil, to equip corsairs, with which to retaliate on
+the indomitable marauders. The Sulu people made captive the Christian
+natives and Spaniards alike, whilst a Spanish priest was a choice
+prize. And whilst Spaniards in Philippine waters were straining every
+nerve to extirpate slavery, their countrymen were diligently pursuing
+a profitable trade in it between the West Coast of Africa and Cuba!
+
+One must admit that, indirectly, the Mahometan attacks had the good
+political effect of forcing hundreds of Christians up from the coast
+to people and cultivate the interior of these Islands.
+
+Due to the enterprise of a few Spanish and foreign merchants,
+steamers at length began to navigate the waters of the Archipelago,
+provided with arms for defence, and piracy by Mahometans beyond
+their own locality was doomed. In the time of Gov.-General Norzagaray
+(1857-60), 18 steam gunboats were ordered out, and arrived in 1860,
+putting a close for ever to this epoch of misery, bloodshed, and
+material loss. The end of piracy brought repose to the Colony, and
+in no small degree facilitated its social advancement.
+
+During the protracted struggle with the Mahometans, Zamboanga
+(Mindanao Is.) was fortified, and became the headquarters of the
+Spaniards in the south. After Cavite it was the chief naval station,
+and a penitentiary was also established there. [58] Its maintenance
+was a great burden to the Treasury--its existence a great eyesore
+to the enemy, whose hostility was much inflamed thereby. About
+the year 1635 its abandonment was proposed by the military party,
+who described it as only a sepulchre for Spaniards. The Jesuits,
+however, urged its continuance, as it suited their interests to have
+material support close at hand, and their influence prevailed in
+Manila bureaucratic centres.
+
+In 1738 the fixed annual expenses of Zamboanga fort and equipment were
+17,500 pesos, and the incidental disbursements were estimated at 7,500
+pesos. These sums did not include the cost of scores of armed fleets
+which, at enormous expense, were sent out against the Mahometans to
+little purpose. Each new (Zamboanga) Governor of a martial spirit,
+and desiring to do something to establish or confirm his fame for
+prowess, seemed to regard it as a kind of duty to premise the quelling
+of imaginary troubles in Sulu and Mindanao. Some, with less patriotism
+than selfishness, found a ready excuse for filling their own pockets
+by the proceeds of warfare, in making feigned efforts to rescue
+captives. It may be observed, in extenuation, that, in those days,
+the Spaniards believed from their birth that none but a Christian
+had rights, whilst some were deluded by a conscientious impression
+that they were executing a high mission; myth as it was, it at least
+served to give them courage in their perilous undertakings. Peace
+was made and broken over and over again. Spanish forts were at times
+established in Sulu, and afterwards demolished. Every decade brought
+new devices to control the desperate foe. Several Governors-General
+headed the troops in person against the Mahometans with temporary
+success, but without any lasting effect, and almost every new Governor
+made a solemn treaty with one powerful chief or another, which was
+respected only as long as it suited both parties. This continued
+campaign, the details of which are too prolix for insertion here,
+may be qualified as a religious war, for Roman Catholic priests took
+an active part in the operations with the same ardent passion as the
+Mahometans themselves. Among these tonsured warriors who acquired
+great fame _out_ of their profession may be mentioned Father Ducos,
+the son of a Colonel, Jose Villanueva, and Pedro de San Agustin, the
+last being known, with dread, by the Mahometans in the beginning of
+the 17th century under the title of the Captain-priest. One of the most
+renowned kings in Mindanao was Cachil Corralat, an astute, far-seeing
+chieftain, who ably defended the independence of his territory,
+and kept the Spaniards at bay during the whole of his manhood.
+
+An interesting event in the Spanish-Sulu history is the visit of the
+Sultan Mahamad Alimudin to the Gov.-General in 1750, and his subsequent
+vicissitudes of fortune. The first royal despatch addressed by the
+King of Spain to the Sultan of Sulu was dated in Buen Retiro, July 12,
+1744, and everything, for the time being, seemed to augur a period
+of peace. In 1749, however, the Sultan was violently deposed by an
+ambitious brother, Prince Bantilan, and the Sultan forthwith went to
+Manila to seek the aid of his suzerain's delegate, the Gov.-General of
+the Philippines, who chanced to be the Bishop of Nueva Segovia. In
+Manila the Priest-Governor cajoled his guest with presents, and
+accompanied him on horseback and on foot, with the design of persuading
+him to renounce his religion in favour of Christianity. The Sultan
+finally yielded, and avowed his intention to receive baptism. Among the
+friars an animated discussion ensued as to the propriety of this act,
+special opposition being raised by the Jesuits; but in the end the
+Sultan, with a number of his suite, outwardly embraced the Christian
+faith. The Sultan at his baptism received the name of Ferdinand I. of
+Sulu; at the same time he was invested with the insignia and grade
+of a Spanish Lieut.-General. Great ceremonies and magnificent feasts
+followed this unprecedented incident. He was visited and congratulated
+by all the _elite_ of the capital. By proclamation, the festivities
+included four days' illumination, three days' procession of the
+giants, [59] three days of bull-fighting, four nights of fireworks,
+and three nights of comedy, to terminate with High Mass, a _Te Deum_,
+and special sermon for the occasion.
+
+In the meantime, the Sultan had requested the Governor to have the
+Crown Prince, Princesses, and retainers escorted to Manila to learn
+Spanish manners and customs, and on their arrival the Sultan and
+his male and female suite numbered 60 persons. The Bishop-Governor
+defrayed the cost of their maintenance out of his private purse
+until after the baptism, and thenceforth the Government supported
+them in Manila for two years. At length it was resolved, according to
+appearances, to restore the Sultan Ferdinand I. to his throne. With
+that idea, he and his retinue quitted Manila in the Spanish frigate
+_San Fernando_, which was convoyed by another frigate and a galley,
+until the _San Fernando_ fell in with bad weather off Mindoro Island,
+and had to make the Port of Calapan. Thence he proceeded to Yloilo,
+where he changed vessel and set sail for Zamboanga, but contrary winds
+carried him to Dapitan (N.W. coast of Mindanao Is.), where he landed
+and put off again in a small Visayan craft for Zamboanga, arriving
+there on July 12, 1751. Thirteen days afterwards the _San Fernando_,
+which had been repaired, reached Zamboanga also.
+
+Before Ferdinand I. left Manila he had (at the instance of the Spanish
+Gov.-General, Jose de Obando, 1750-54) addressed a letter to Sultan
+Muhamad Amirubdin, of Mindanao. The original was written by Ferdinand
+I. in Arabic; a version in Spanish was dictated by him, and both were
+signed by him. These documents reached the Governor of Zamboanga by
+the _San Fernando_, but he had the original in Arabic retranslated,
+and found that it did not at all agree with the Sultan's Spanish
+rendering. The translation of the Arabic runs thus:--
+
+"I shall be glad to know that the Sultan Muhamad Amirubdin and all his
+chiefs, male and female, are well. I do not write a lengthy letter,
+as I intended, because I simply wish to give you to understand, in
+case the Sultan or his chiefs and others should feel aggrieved at my
+writing this letter in this manner, that I do so under pressure, being
+under foreign dominion, and I am compelled to obey whatever they tell
+me to do, and I have to say what they tell me to say. Thus the Governor
+has ordered me to write to you in our style and language; therefore,
+do not understand that I am writing you on my own behalf, but because
+I am ordered to do so, and I have nothing more to add. Written in
+the year 1164 on the ninth day of the Rabilajer Moon, Ferdinand I.,
+King of Sulu, who seals with his own seal."
+
+This letter was pronounced treasonable. Impressed with, or feigning,
+this idea, the Spaniards saw real or imaginary indications of a design
+on the part of the Sultan to throw off the foreign yoke at the first
+opportunity. All his acts were thus interpreted, although no positive
+proof was manifest, and the Governor communicated his suspicions to
+Manila. There is no explanation why the Spaniards detained the Sultan
+at Zamboanga, unless with the intention of trumping up accusations
+against him. The Sultan arrived there on July 12, and nothing was known
+of the discrepancy between the letters until after July 25. To suppose
+that the Sultan could ever return to reign peacefully as a Christian
+over Mahometan subjects was utterly absurd to any rational mind.
+
+On August 3 the Sultan, his sons, vassals, and chiefs were all cast
+into prison, without opposition, and a letter was despatched, dated
+August 6, 1751, to the Governor in Manila, stating the cause. The
+Sultan was the first individual arrested, and he made no difficulty
+about going to the fort. Even the Prince Asin, the Sultan's brother,
+who had voluntarily come from Sulu in apparent good faith with friendly
+overtures to the Spaniards, was included among the prisoners. The
+reason assigned was, that he had failed to surrender christian captives
+as provided.
+
+The prisoners, besides the Sultan, were the following, viz.:--
+
+
+
+    Four sons of the Sultan.
+    Prince Asin (brother).
+    Prince Mustafa (son-in-law).
+    Princess Panguian Banquiling (sister).
+    Four Princesses (daughters).
+    Datto Yamudin (a noble).
+    160 ordinary male and female retainers.
+    Five brothers-in-law.
+    One Mahometan Cherif.
+    Seven Mahometan priests.
+    Concubines with 32 female servants.
+
+
+
+The political or other crime (if any) attributed to these last is
+not stated, nor why they were imprisoned. The few weapons brought,
+according to custom, by the followers of the Sultan who had come from
+Sulu to receive their liege-lord and escort him back to his country,
+were also seized.
+
+A decree of Gov.-General Jose de Obando set forth the following
+accusations against the prisoners, viz.:--
+
+(1) That Prince Asin had not surrendered captives. (2) That whilst
+the Sultan was in Manila, new captives were made by the party who
+expelled him from the throne. (3) That the number of arms brought to
+Zamboanga by Sulu chiefs was excessive. (4) That the letter to Sultan
+Muhamad Amirubdin insinuated help wanted against the Spaniards. (5)
+That several Mahometan, but no christian books were found in the
+Sultan's baggage. (6) That during the journey to Zamboanga he had
+refused to pray in christian form. (7) That he had only attended Mass
+twice. (8) That he had celebrated Mahometan rites, sacrificing a goat;
+and had given evidence in a hundred ways of being a Mahometan. (9)
+That his conversation generally denoted a want of attachment to the
+Spaniards, and a contempt for their treatment of him in Manila, [60]
+and, (10) that he still cohabited with his concubines, contrary to
+christian usage.
+
+The greatest stress was laid on the recovery of the captive Christians,
+and the Gov.-General admitted that although the mission of the fleet
+was to restore the Sultan to the throne (which, by the way, does
+not appear to have been attempted), the principal object was the
+rescue of christian slaves. He therefore proposed that the liberty
+of the imprisoned nobles and chiefs should be bartered at the rate
+of 500 christian slaves for each one of the chiefs and nobles,
+and the balance of the captives for Prince Asin and the clergy. One
+may surmise, from this condition, that the number of Christians in
+captivity was very considerable.
+
+A subsequent decree, dated in Manila December 21, 1751, ordered the
+extermination of the Mahometans with fire and sword; the fitting out of
+Visayan corsairs, with authority to extinguish the foe, burn all that
+was combustible, destroy the crops, desolate their cultivated land,
+make captives, and recover christian slaves. One-fifth of the spoil
+(the _Real quinto_) was to belong to the King, and the natives were
+to be exempt from the payment of tribute whilst so engaged.
+
+Before giving effect to such a terrible, but impracticable resolution,
+it was thought expedient to publish a pamphlet styled a "Historical
+Manifest," in which the Gov.-General professed to justify his acts
+for public satisfaction. However, public opinion in Manila was averse
+to the intended warfare, so to make it more popular, the Governor
+abolished the payment of one-fifth of the booty to the King. An
+appeal was made to the citizens of Manila for arms and provisions
+to carry on the campaign; they therefore lent or gave the following,
+viz.:--Twenty-six guns, 13 bayonets, 3 sporting guns, 15 carbines, 5
+blunderbusses, 7 braces of pistols, 23 swords, 15 lances, 900 cannon
+balls, and 150 pesos from Spaniards, and a few lances and 188 pesos
+from natives.
+
+Meanwhile, Prince Asin died of grief at his position.
+
+Under the leadership of the _Maestre de Campo_ of Zamboanga,
+hostilities commenced. With several ships he proceeded to Sulu,
+carrying a large armament and 1,900 men. When the squadron anchored off
+Sulu, a white and a red flag were hoisted from the principal fort, for
+the Spaniards to elect either peace or war. Several Sulus approached
+the fleet with white flags, to inquire for the Sultan. Evasive answers
+were given, followed by a sudden cannonade.
+
+No good resulted to the Spaniards from the attack, for the Sulus
+defended themselves admirably. Tawi Tawi Island was next assaulted. A
+captain landed there with troops, but their retreat was cut off and
+they were all slain. The Commander of the expedition was so discouraged
+that he returned to Zamboanga and resigned. Pedro Gastambide then
+took command, but after having attacked Basilan Island fruitlessly,
+he retired to Zamboanga. The whole campaign was an entire fiasco. It
+was a great mistake to have declared a war of extermination without
+having the means to carry it out. The result was that the irate
+Sulus organized a guerilla warfare, by sea and by land, against all
+Christians, to which the Spaniards but feebly responded. The "tables
+were turned." In fact, they were in great straits, and, wearied at
+the little success of their arms, endless councils and discussions
+were held in the capital.
+
+Meanwhile, almost every coast of the Archipelago was energetically
+ravaged. Hitherto the Spaniards had only had the Sulus to contend
+with, but the licence given by the Gov.-General to reprisal excited
+the cupidity of unscrupulous officials, and, without apparent right
+or reason, the _Maestre de Campo_ of Zamboanga caused a Chinese
+junk from Amoy, carrying goods to a friendly Sultan of Mindanao, to
+be seized. After tedious delay, vexation, and privation, the master
+and his crew were released and a part of the cargo restored, but the
+_Maestre de Campo_ insisted upon retaining what he chose for his own
+use. This treachery to an amicable chief exasperated and undeceived the
+Mindanao Sultan to such a degree that he forthwith took his revenge
+by co-operating with the Sulus in making war on the Spaniards. Fresh
+fleets of armed canoes replenished the Sulu armadillas, ravaged the
+coasts, hunted down the Spanish priests, and made captives.
+
+On the north coast of Mindanao several battles took place. There is a
+legend that over 600 Mahometans advanced to the village of Lubungan,
+but were repulsed by the villagers, who declared their patron, Saint
+James, appeared on horseback to help them. Fray Roque de Santa Monica
+was chased from place to place, hiding in caves and rocks. Being again
+met by four Mahometans, he threatened them with a blunderbuss, and
+was left unmolested. Eventually he was found by friendly natives, and
+taken by them to a wood, where he lived on roots. Thence he journeyed
+to Linao, became raving mad, and was sent to Manila, where he died
+quite frantic, in the convent of his Order.
+
+The Sultan and his fellow-prisoners had been conveyed to Manila
+and lodged in the Fortress of Santiago. In 1753 he petitioned the
+Gov.-General to allow his daughter, the Princess Faatima, and two
+slaves to go to Sulu about his private affairs. A permit was granted on
+condition of her returning, or, in exchange for her liberty and that
+of her two slaves, to remit 50 captives, and, failing to do either,
+the Sultan and his suite were to be deprived of their dignities
+and treated as common slaves, to work in the galleys, and to be
+undistinguished among the ordinary prisoners. On these conditions,
+the Princess left, and forwarded 50 slaves, and one more--a Spaniard,
+Jose de Montesinos--as a present.
+
+The Princess Faatima, nevertheless, did return to Manila, bringing
+with her an Ambassador from Prince Bantilan, her uncle and Governor
+of Sulu, who, in the meantime, had assumed the title of Sultan
+Mahamad Miududin. The Ambassador was Prince Mahamad Ismael Datto
+Marayalayla. After an audience with the Governor, he went to the fort
+to consult with the captive Sultan, and they proposed a treaty with
+the Governor, of which the chief terms were as follows, viz.:--
+
+An offensive and defensive alliance.
+
+All captives within the Sultanate of Sulu to be surrendered within
+one year.
+
+All articles looted from the churches to be restored within one year.
+
+On the fulfilment of these conditions, the Sultan and his people were
+to be set at liberty.
+
+The treaty was dated in Manila March 3, 1754. The terms were quite
+impossible of accomplishment, for the Sultan, being still in prison,
+had no power to enforce commands on his subjects.
+
+The war was continued at great sacrifice to the State and with little
+benefit to the Spaniards, whilst their operations were greatly retarded
+by discord between the officials of the expedition, the authorities
+on shore, and the priests. At the same time, dilatory proceedings
+were being taken against the _Maestre de Campo_ of Zamboanga, who was
+charged with having appropriated to himself others' share of the war
+booty. Siargao Island (off the N.E. point of Mindanao Is.) had been
+completely overrun by the Mahometans; the villages and cultivated
+land were laid waste, and the Spanish priest was killed.
+
+When the Governor Pedro de Arandia arrived in 1754, the Sultan
+took advantage of the occasion to put his case before him. He had,
+indeed, experienced some of the strangest mutations of fortune, and
+Arandia had compassion on him. By Arandia's persuasion, the Archbishop
+visited and spiritually examined him, and then the Sultan confessed
+and took the Communion. In the College of Santa Potenciana there was
+a Mahometan woman who had been a concubine of the Sultan, but who now
+professed Christianity, and had taken the name of Rita Calderon. The
+Sultan's wife having died, he asked for this ex-concubine in marriage,
+and the favour was conceded to him. The nuptials were celebrated
+in the Governor's Palace on April 27, 1755, and the espoused couple
+returned to their prison with an allowance of 50 pesos per month for
+their maintenance.
+
+In 1755 all the Sultan's relations and suite who had been incarcerated
+in Manila, except his son Ismael and a few chiefs, were sent back
+to Sulu. The Sultan and his chiefs were then allowed to live freely
+within the city of Manila, after having sworn before the Governor, on
+bended knees, to pay homage to him, and to remain peaceful during the
+King's pleasure. Indeed, Governor Arandia was so favourably disposed
+towards the Sultan Mahamad Alimudin (Ferdinand I.) that personally he
+was willing to restore him to his throne, but his wish only brought
+him in collision with the clergy, and he desisted.
+
+The British, after the military occupation of Manila in 1763, took up
+the cause of the Sultan, and reinstated him in Sulu. Then he avenged
+himself on the Spaniards by fomenting incursions against them in
+Mindanao, which the Gov.-General, Jose Raon, was unable to oppose
+for want of resources. The Mahometans, however, soon proved their
+untrustworthiness to friend and foe alike. Their friendship lasted
+on the one side so long as danger could thereby be averted from the
+other, and a certain Datto Teng-teng attacked the British garrison
+one night at Balambangan and slaughtered all but six of the troops
+(_vide_ pp. 92, 98).
+
+In 1836 the sovereignty of the Sultan was distinctly recognized in a
+treaty made between him and Spain, whereby the Sultan had the right
+to collect dues on Spanish craft entering Jolo, whilst Sulu vessels
+paid dues to the Spaniards in their ports as foreign vessels.
+
+In 1844 Gov.-General Narciso Claveria led an expedition against the
+Moros and had a desperate, but victorious, struggle with them at
+the fort of Balanguigui (an islet 14 miles due east of Sulu Is.),
+for which he was rewarded with the title of Conde de Manila.
+
+The town of Sulu (Jolo) was formerly the residence of the Sultan's
+Court. This Sovereign had arrogantly refused to check the piratical
+cruisings made by his people against Spanish subjects in the locality
+and about the Islands of Calamianes; therefore, on February 11, 1851,
+General Antonio de Urbiztondo, Marquis de la Solana (an ex-Carlist
+chief), who had been appointed Gov.-General of the Philippines in
+the previous year, undertook to redress his nation's grievances by
+force. The Spanish flag was hoisted in several places. Sulu town, which
+was shelled by the gunboats, was captured and held by the invaders,
+and the Sultan Muhamed Pulalon fled to Maybun on the south coast,
+to which place the Court was permanently removed. At the close of
+this expedition another treaty was signed (1851), which provided for
+the annual payment of P1,500 to the Sultan and P600 each to three
+_dattos_, on condition that they would suppress piracy and promote
+mutual trade. Still the Mahometans paid the Spaniards an occasional
+visit and massacred the garrison, which was as often replaced by
+fresh levies.
+
+In 1876 the incursions of the Mahometans and the temerity of the
+chiefs had again attained such proportions that European dominion over
+the Sulu Sultanate and Mindanao, even in the nominal form in which it
+existed, was sorely menaced. Consequent on this, an expedition, headed
+by Vice-Admiral Malcampo, arrived in the waters of the Sultanate,
+carrying troops, with the design of enforcing submission. The chief of
+the land forces appears to have had no topographical plan formed. The
+expedition turned out to be one of discovery. The troops were marched
+into the interior, without their officers knowing where they were
+going, and they even had to depend on Sulu guides. Naturally, they
+were often deceived, and led to precisely where the Mahometans were
+awaiting them in ambush, the result being that great havoc was made in
+the advance column by frequent surprises. Now and again would appear
+a few _juramentados_, or sworn Mahometans, who sought their way to
+Allah by the sacrifice of their own blood, but causing considerable
+destruction to the invading party. With a kris at the waist, a javelin
+in one hand, and a shield supported by the other, they would advance
+before the enemy, dart forward and backwards, make zigzag movements,
+and then, with a war-whoop, rush in three or four at a time upon a body
+of Christians twenty times their number, giving no quarter, expecting
+none--to die, or to conquer! The expedition was not a failure, but
+it gained little. The Spanish flag was hoisted in several places,
+including Sulu (Jolo), where it remained from February 29, 1876,
+until the Spanish evacuation of the Islands in 1898.
+
+
+
+The Mahometans (called by the Spaniards _Moros_) now extend over
+nine-tenths of Mindanao Island, and the whole of the Sultanate of
+Sulu, which comprises Sulu Island (34 miles long from E. to W., and
+12 miles in the broadest part from N. to S.) and about 140 others,
+80 to 90 of which are uninhabited.
+
+The native population of the Sulu Sultanate alone would be about
+100,000, including free people, slaves, and some 20,000 men-at-arms
+under orders of the _Dattos_. [61] The domains of His Highness reach
+westward as far as Borneo, where, up to 25 years ago, the Sultanate of
+Brunei [62] was actually tributary (and now nominally so) to that of
+Sulu. The Sultan of Sulu is also feudal lord of two vassal Sultanates
+in Mindanao Island. There is, moreover, a half-caste branch of these
+people in the southern half of Palauan Island (Paragua) of a very
+subdued and peaceful nature, compared with the Sulu, nominally under
+the Sulu Sultan's rule.
+
+In Mindanao Island only a small coast district here and there was
+really under Spanish empire, although Spain (by virtue of an old
+treaty, which never was respected to the letter) claimed suzerainty
+over all the territory subject to the Sultan of Sulu. After the Sulu
+war of 1876 the Sultan admitted the claim more formally, and on March
+11, 1877, a protocol was signed by England and Germany recognizing
+Spain's rights to the Tawi Tawi group and the chain of islands
+stretching from Sulu to Borneo. At the same time it was understood
+that Spain would give visible proof of annexation by establishing
+military posts, or occupying these islands in some way, but nothing
+was done until 1880, when Spain was stirred into action by a report
+that the Germans projected a settlement there. A convict corps at
+once took possession, military posts were established, and in 1882
+the 6th Regiment of regular troops was quartered in the group at
+Bongao and Siassi.
+
+Meanwhile, in 1880, a foreign colonizing company was formed in
+the Sultanate of Brunei, under the title of "British North Borneo
+Co." (Royal Charter of November 7, 1881). The company recognized the
+suzerain rights of the Sultan of Sulu, and agreed to pay to him an
+annual sum as feudal lord. Spain protested that the territory was hers,
+but could show nothing to confirm the possession. There was no flag,
+or a detachment of troops, or anything whatsoever to indicate that the
+coast was under European protection or dominion. Notes were exchanged
+between the Cabinets of Madrid and London, and Spain relinquished
+for ever her claim to the Borneo fief of Brunei.
+
+The experience of the unfortunate Sultan Alimudin (Ferdinand I.) taught
+the Sulu people such a sad lesson that subsequent sultans have not
+cared to risk their persons in the hands of the Spaniards. There was,
+moreover, a Nationalist Party which repudiated dependence on Spain, and
+hoped to be able eventually to drive out the Spaniards. Therefore, in
+1885, when the heir to the throne, Mohammad Jamalul Kiram (who was then
+about 15 years old) was cited to Manila to receive his investiture at
+the hands of the Gov.-General, he refused to comply, and the Government
+at once offered the Sultanate to his uncle, Datto Harun Narrasid, who
+accepted it, and presented himself to the Gov.-General in the capital.
+
+The ceremony of investiture took place in the Government House at
+Malacanan near Manila on September 24, 1886, when Datto Harun took
+the oath of allegiance to the King of Spain as his sovereign lord,
+and received from the Gov.-General, Emilio Terrero, the title of His
+Excellency _Paduca Majasari Maulana Amiril Mauminin Sultan Muhamad
+Harun Narrasid_, with the rank of a Spanish lieut.-general. The
+Gov.-General was attended by his Secretary, the Official Interpreter,
+and several high officers. In the suite of the Sultan-elect were his
+Secretary, _Tuan Hadji Omar_, a priest, _Pandita Tuan Sik Mustafa_,
+and several _dattos_. For the occasion, the Sultan-elect was dressed
+in European costume, and wore a Turkish fez with a heavy tassel of
+black silk. His Secretary and Chaplain appeared in long black tunics,
+white trousers, light shoes, and turbans. Two of the remainder of his
+suite adopted the European fashion, but the others wore rich typical
+Moorish vestments.
+
+The Sultan returned to his country, and in the course of three months
+the Nationalist Party chiefs openly took up arms against the King of
+Spain's nominee, the movement spreading to the adjacent islands of
+Siassi and Bongao, which form part of the Sultanate. [63]
+
+The Mahometans on the Great Mindanao River, from Cottabato [64]
+upwards, openly defied Spanish authority; and in the spring of 1886
+the Government were under the necessity of organizing an expedition
+against them. The Spaniards had ordered that native craft should
+carry the Spanish flag, otherwise they would be treated as pirates or
+rebels. In March, 1887, the cacique of the Simonor ranche (Bongao Is.),
+named Pandan, refused any longer to hoist the christian ensign, and he
+was pursued and taken prisoner. He was conveyed on the gunboat _Panay_
+to Sulu, and on being asked by the Governor why he had ceased to use
+the Spanish flag, he haughtily replied that "he would only answer such
+a question to the Captain-General," and refused to give any further
+explanation. Within a month after his arrest the garrison of Sulu
+(Jolo) was strengthened by 377 men, in expectation of an immediate
+general rising, which indeed took place. The Spanish forces were led by
+Majors Mattos and Villa Abrille, under the command of Brig.-General
+Serina. They were stoutly opposed by a cruel and despotic chief,
+named Utto, who advanced at the head of his subjects and slaves. With
+the co-operation of the gunboats up the river, the Mahometans were
+repulsed with great loss.
+
+Scores of expeditions had been led against the Mindanao natives,
+and their temporary submission had usually been obtained by the
+Spaniards--on whose retirement, however, the natives always reverted to
+their old customs, and took their revenge on the settlers. Moreover,
+the petty jealousies existing between the highest officers in the
+south rendered every peaceful effort fruitless.
+
+Datto Utto having defiantly proclaimed that no Spaniard should ever
+enter his territory, an armed expedition was fitted out; and from the
+example of his predecessor in 1881 (_vide_ p. 124) the Gov.-General,
+Emilio Terrero, perchance foresaw in a little war the vision of titles
+and more material reward, besides counterbalancing his increasing
+unpopularity in Manila, due to the influence of my late friend,
+the Government Secretary Felipe Canga-Argueelles. Following in the
+wake of those who had successfully checked the Mahometans in the
+previous spring, he took the chief command in person in the beginning
+of January, 1887, to force a recantation of Datto Utto's utterances.
+
+The petty Sultans of Bacat, Buhayen and Kudarangan in vain united
+their fortunes with those of Utto. The stockades of cocoanut trunks,
+_palma-bravas_ (q.v.) and earth (_cottas_) were easily destroyed by
+the Spanish artillery, and their defenders fled under a desultory
+fire. There were very few casualties on either side. Some of the
+Christian native infantry soldiers suffered from the bamboo spikes
+(Spanish, _puas_) set in the ground around the stockades, but the
+enemy had not had time to cover with brushwood the pits dug for the
+attacking party to fall into. In about two months the operations ended
+by the submission of some chiefs of minor importance and influence;
+and after spending so much powder and shot and Christian blood, the
+General had not even the satisfaction of seeing either the man he was
+fighting against or his enemy's ally, the Sultan of Kudarangan. This
+latter sent a priest, Pandita Kalibaudang, and Datto Andig to sue for
+peace and cajole the General with the fairest promises. Afterwards
+the son and heir of this chief, Rajahmudah Tambilanang, presented
+himself, and he and his suite of 30 followers were conducted to
+the camp in the steam launch _Carriedo_. Utto, whose residence had
+been demolished, had not deigned to submit in person, but sent, as
+emissaries, Dattos Sirungang, Buat and Dalandung, who excused only
+the absence of Utto's prime minister. Capitulations of peace were
+handed to Utto's subordinates, who were told to bring them back signed
+without delay, for despatches from the Home Government, received four
+or five weeks previously, were urging the General to conclude this
+affair as speedily as possible. They were returned signed by Utto--or
+by somebody else--and the same signature and another, supposed to be
+that of his wife, the Ranee Pudtli (a woman of great sway amongst her
+people) were also attached to a letter, offering complete submission.
+
+The Spaniards destroyed a large quantity of rice-paddy, and stipulated
+for the subsequent payment of a war indemnity in the form of cannons
+(_lantacas_), buffaloes, and horses.
+
+The General gave the emissaries some trifling presents, and they went
+their way and he his,--to Manila, which he entered in state on March
+21, with flags flying, music playing, and the streets decorated with
+bunting of the national colours, to give welcome to the conqueror
+of the Mahometan chief--whom he had never seen--the bearer of peace
+capitulations signed--by whom? As usual, a _Te Deum_ was celebrated
+in the Cathedral for the victories gained over the infidels; the
+officers and troops who had returned were invited by the Municipality
+to a theatrical performance, and the Gov.-General held a reception in
+the Palace of Malacanan. Some of the troops were left in Mindanao,
+it having been resolved to establish armed outposts still farther
+up the river for the better protection of the port and settlement
+of Cottabato.
+
+Whilst the Gov.-General headed this military parade in the Cottabato
+district, the ill-feeling of the Sulu natives towards the Spaniards
+was gradually maturing. An impending struggle was evident, and
+Colonel Juan Arolas, the Governor of Sulu, concentrated his forces in
+expectation. The Sulus, always armed, prepared for events in their
+_cottas_; Arolas demanded their surrender, which was refused, and
+they were attacked. Two _cottas_, well defended, were ultimately
+taken, not without serious loss to the Spaniards. In the report
+of the slain a captain was mentioned. Arolas then twice asked for
+authority to attack the Mahometans at Maybun, and was each time
+refused. At length, acting on his own responsibility, on April 15,
+1887, he ordered a gunboat to steam round to Maybun and open fire at
+daybreak on the Sultan's capital, which was in possession of the party
+opposed to the Spanish nominee (Harun Narrasid). At 11 o'clock the
+same night he started across country with his troops towards Maybun,
+and the next morning, whilst the enemy was engaged with the gunboat,
+he led the attack on the land side. The Mahometans, quite surprised,
+fought like lions, but were completely routed, and the seat of the
+Sultanate was razed to the ground. It was the most crushing defeat
+ever inflicted on the Sulu Nationalist Party. The news reached Manila
+on April 29, and great praise was justly accorded to Colonel Arolas,
+whose energetic operations contrasted so favourably with the Cottabato
+expedition. All manner of festivities in his honour were projected
+in Manila, but Arolas elected to continue the work of subduing the
+Moro country. Notwithstanding his well-known republican tendencies,
+on September 20, 1887, the Queen-Regent cabled through her Ministry her
+acknowledgment of Colonel Arolas' valuable services, and the pleasure
+it gave her to reward him with a Brig.-General's commission. [65]
+
+In 1895 an expedition against the Mahometans was organized under the
+supreme command of Gov.-General Ramon Blanco. It was known as the
+Marahui (or Marauit) Campaign. The tribes around Lake Lanao (ancient
+name Malanao) and the Marahui district had, for some time past, made
+serious raids on the Spanish settlement at Yligan, which is connected
+with Lake Lanao by a river navigable only by canoes. Indeed, the lives
+and property of Christians in all the territory adjoining Yligan were
+in great jeopardy, and the Spanish authorities were set at defiance. It
+was therefore resolved, for the first time, to attack the tribes and
+destroy their _cottas_ around the lake for the permanent tranquillity
+of Yligan. The Spanish and native troops alike suffered great hardships
+and privations. Steam launches in sections (constructed in Hong-Kong),
+small guns, and war material were carried up from Yligan to the lake by
+natives over very rugged ground. On the lake shore the launches were
+fitted up and operated on the lake, to the immense surprise of the
+tribes. From the land side their _cottas_ were attacked and destroyed,
+under the command of my old friend Brig.-General Gonzalez Parrado. The
+operations, which lasted about three months, were a complete success,
+and General Gonzalez Parrado was rewarded with promotion to General
+of Division. Lake Lanao, with the surrounding district and the route
+down to Yligan, was in possession of the Spaniards, and in order to
+retain that possession without the expense of maintaining a large
+military establishment, it was determined to people the conquered
+territory with Christian families from Luzon and the other islands
+situated north of Mindanao. It was the attempt to carry out this
+colonizing scheme which gave significance to the Marahui Expedition
+and contributed to that movement which, in 1896, led to the downfall
+of Spanish rule in the Archipelago.
+
+The last Spanish punitive expedition against the Mindanao Mahometans
+was sent in February, 1898, under the command of General Buille. The
+operations lasted only a few days. The enemy was driven into the
+interior with great loss, and one chief was slain. The small gunboats
+built in Hong-Kong for the Marahui Campaign--the _General Blanco,
+Corcuera_, and _Lanao_--again did good service.
+
+There are three branches or tribes of the _Malanao_ Moros around the
+Lake Lanao:
+
+(1) _Bayabos_, at the north of the Lake, their centre being Marahui.
+
+(2) _Onayans_, at the south of the Lake, their centre being Bayan.
+
+(3) _Macui_ tribe includes the remaining Lake Lanao people, except a
+few independent ranches to the east of the Macui, belonging to the
+Bayabos. The Macui claim to be the most ancient, although no tribe
+can trace descent farther back than the 13th century. Intermarriage
+has destroyed traces, but there are over a hundred sultans who claim
+to be of royal blood.
+
+The other principal Mindanao tribes are as follows, viz.:--_Aetas_,
+in the regions near Mount Apo (_vide_ p. 121).
+
+_Bagobos_, on the foothills of Mount Apo. A peaceful people, disposed
+to work, and reputed to be human sacrificers.
+
+_Manobos_, in the valley of the Agusan River. There are also some on
+the Gulf of Davao and in the Cottabato district.
+
+_Samales_ inhabit the small islands in the Gulf of Davao, but there
+is quite a large colony of them at Magay, a suburb of Zamboanga,
+(from the neighbouring islets) under Rajahmudah Datto Mandi.
+
+_Subuanos_ occupy the peninsula of the Zamboanga Province. They
+are docile and lazy, and much prone to stealing. They are far
+less courageous than the _Samales_, by whom they are overawed. Some
+physiognomists consider them to be of the same caste as the _Manobos_,
+the _Guimbanos_ of Sulu, and the _Samecas_ of Basilan.
+
+_Tagubans_ live on the north shore of the Gulf of Davao.
+
+_Tirurayas_ inhabit the mountains to the west of the Rio Grande.
+
+There is a large number of smaller tribes.
+
+
+
+A few years ago we were all alarmed on Corpus Christi Day, during the
+solemn procession of that feast in Cottabato, by the sudden attack of
+a few Mahometans on the crowd of Christians assembled. Of course the
+former were overwhelmed and killed, as they quite expected to be. They
+were of that class known as _juramentados_, or sworn Mahometans, who
+believe that if they make a solemn vow, in a form binding on their
+consciences, to die taking the blood of a Christian, their souls will
+immediately migrate to the happy hunting-ground, where they will ever
+live in bliss, in the presence of the Great Prophet. This is the most
+dangerous sect of Mahometans, for no exhibition of force can suffice
+to stay their ravages, and they can only be treated like mad dogs,
+or like a Malay who has run _amok_.
+
+The face of a Mindanao south coast Moro is generally pleasant, but
+a smile spoils his appearance; the parting lips disclose a filthy
+aperture with dyed teeth in a mahogany coloured foam of masticated
+betel-nut. Holes as large as sixpences are in the ears of the women,
+who, when they have no ear-rings, wear a piece of reed with a vermilion
+tip. The dress is artistically fantastic, with the _sarong_ and
+the _jabul_ and no trousers visible. Apparently the large majority
+(perhaps 70 per cent.) of the Parang-Parang Moros have a loathsome
+skin disease. Those who live on shore crop their hair, but the swamp,
+river, and sea people who live afloat let it grow long.
+
+The Sulu Islanders, male and female, dress with far greater taste and
+ascetic originality than the christian natives. The women are fond
+of gay colours, the predominant ones being scarlet and green. Their
+nether bifurcated garment is very baggy, the bodice is extremely tight,
+and, with equally close-fitting sleeves, exhibits every contour of
+the bust and arms. They use also a strip of stuff sewn together at
+the ends called the _jabul_, which serves to protect the head from
+the sun-rays. The end of the _jabul_ would reach nearly down to
+the feet, but is usually held _retrousse_ under the arm. They have
+a passion for jewellery, and wear many finger-rings of metal and
+sometimes of sea-shells, whilst their ear-rings are gaudy and of
+large dimensions. The hair is gracefully tied in a coil on the top
+of the head, and their features are at least as attractive as those
+of the generality of Philippine christian women.
+
+The men wear breeches of bright colours, as tight as gymnasts'
+pantaloons, with a large number of buttons up the sides; a kind of
+waistcoat buttoning up to the throat; a jacket reaching to the hips,
+with close sleeves, and a turban. A chief's dress has many adornments
+of trinkets, and is quite elegant, a necessary part of his outfit
+being the _barong_ (sword), which apparently he carries constantly.
+
+They are robust, of medium height, often of superb physical
+development; of a dusky bronze colour, piercing eyes, low forehead,
+lank hair, which is dressed as a chignon and hangs down the back of
+the neck. The body is agile, the whole movement is rapid, and they
+have a wonderful power of holding the breath under water. They are
+of quick perception, audacious, haughty, resolute, zealous about
+their genealogies; extremely sober, ready to promise everything
+and do nothing, vindictive and highly suspicious of a stranger's
+intentions. Their bearing towards the Christian, whom they call
+the infidel, is full of contempt. They know no gratitude, and they
+would not cringe to the greatest Christian potentate. They are very
+long-suffering in adversity, hesitating in attack, and the bravest
+of the brave in defence. They disdain work as degrading and only
+a fit occupation for slaves, whilst warfare is, to their minds, an
+honourable calling. Every male over 16 years of age has to carry at
+least one fighting-weapon at all times, and consider himself enrolled
+in military service.
+
+They have a certain knowledge of the Arts. They manufacture on the
+anvil very fine kris daggers, knives, lance-heads, etc. Many of their
+fighting-weapons are inlaid with silver and set in polished hardwood
+or ivory handles artistically carved.
+
+In warfare they carry shields, and their usual arms on land are
+the _campilan_, a kind of short two-handed sword, wide at the tip
+and narrowing down to the hilt, the _barong_ for close combat, the
+straight _kris_ for thrusting and cutting, and the waved, serpent-like
+_kris_ for thrusting only. They are dexterous in the use of arms,
+and can most skilfully decapitate a foe at a single stroke. At sea
+they use a sort of assegai, called _bagsacay_ or _simbilin_, about
+half an inch in diameter, with a sharp point. Some can throw as many
+as four at a time, and make them spread in the flight; they use these
+for boarding vessels. They make many of their own domestic utensils of
+metal, also coats of mail of metal wire and buffalo horn, which resist
+hand-weapons, but not bullets. The wire probably comes from Singapore.
+
+The local trade is chiefly in pearls, mother-of-pearl, shells,
+shark fins, etc. [66] The Sultan, in Spanish times, had a sovereign
+right to all pearls found which exceeded a certain size fixed by
+Sulu law--hence it was very difficult to secure an extraordinary
+specimen. The Mahometans trade at great distances in their small craft,
+called _vintas_, for they are wonderfully expert navigators. Their
+largest vessels do not exceed seven tons, and they go as far as Borneo,
+and even down to Singapore on rare occasions.
+
+I found that almost any coinage was useful for purchasing in the
+market-places. I need hardly add that the Chinese small traders have
+found their way to these regions; and it would be an unfavourable
+sign if a Chinaman were not to be seen there, for where the frugal
+Celestial cannot earn a living one may well assume there is little
+prosperity. Small Chinese coins (known as _cash_ in the China Treaty
+Ports) are current money there, and I think, the most convenient
+of all copper coins, for, having a hole in the centre, they can be
+strung together. Chinese began to trade with this island in 1751.
+
+The root of the Sulu language is Sanscrit, mixed with Arabic. Each
+Friday is dedicated to public worship, and the faithful are called
+to the temple by the beating of a box or hollow piece of wood. All
+recite the Iman with a plaintive voice in honour of the Great Prophet;
+a slight gesticulation is then made whilst the _Pandita_ reads a
+passage from the Mustah. I observed that no young women put in an
+appearance at the temple on the occasion of my visit.
+
+At the beginning of each year there is a very solemn ceremonial, and,
+in the event of the birth or death of a child, or the safe return
+from some expedition, it is repeated. It is a sort of _Te Deum_ in
+conformity with Mahometan rites. During a number of days in a certain
+month of the year they abstain from eating, drinking, and pleasure
+of all kinds, and suffer many forms of voluntary penance. Strangers
+are never allowed, I was told, inside the Mosque of the Sultan. The
+higher clergy are represented by the hereditary _Cherif_, who has
+temporal power also. The title of _Pandita_ simply means priest, and
+is the common word used in Mindanao as well as in Palauan Island. He
+seems to be almost the chief in his district--not in a warlike sense,
+like the _Datto_; but his word has great influence. He performs all
+the functions of a priest, receives the vow of the _juramentados_,
+and expounds the mysteries and the glories of that better world whither
+they will go without delay if they die taking the blood of a Christian.
+
+In theory, the Moros accept the Koran and the teachings of Mahomet:
+in practice, they omit the virtues of their religious system and
+follow those precepts which can be construed into favouring vice;
+hence they interpret guidance of the people by oppression, polygamy
+by licentiousness, and maintenance of the faith by bloodshed. Relays
+of Arabs come, from time to time, under the guise of Koran expounders,
+to feed on the people and whet their animosity towards the Christian.
+
+The _Panditas_ are doctors also. If a _Datto_ dies, they intone a
+dolorous chant; the family bursts into lamentations, which are finally
+drowned in the din of the clashing of cymbals and beating of gongs,
+whilst sometimes a gun is fired. In rush the neighbours, and join in
+the shouting, until all settle down quietly to a feast. The body is
+then sprinkled with salt and camphor and dressed in white, with the
+kris attached to the waist. There is little ceremony about placing
+the body in the coffin and burying it. The mortuary is marked by a
+wooden tablet--sometimes by a stone, on which is an inscription in
+Arabic. A slip of board, or bamboo, is placed around the spot, and a
+piece of wood, carved like the bows of a canoe, is stuck in the earth;
+in front of this is placed a cocoanut shell full of water.
+
+
+
+The old native town, or _cotta_ of Sulu (Jolo) was a collection of
+bamboo houses built upon piles extending a few hundred yards into the
+sea. This was all demolished by the Spaniards when they permanently
+occupied the place in 1876, excepting the Military Hospital, which
+was re-constructed of light materials, native fashion. The sea-beach
+was cleared, and the native village put back inland.
+
+The site is an extremely pretty little bay on the north of the island,
+formed by the points Dangapic and Candea, and exactly in front,
+about four or five miles off, there are several low-lying islets,
+well wooded, with a hill abruptly jutting out here and there, the
+whole forming a picturesque miniature archipelago.
+
+Looking from the sea, in the centre stands the modern Spanish town of
+Sulu (Jolo), built on the shore, rising about a couple of yards above
+sea-level, around which there is a short stone and brick sea-wall, with
+several bends pleasantly relieving the monotony of a straight line.
+
+Forming a background to the European town, there are three thickly
+wooded hillocks almost identical in appearance, and at each extremity
+of the picture, lying farther back inland, there is a hill sloping
+down gradually towards the coast. The slope on the eastern extremity
+has been cleared of undergrowth to the extent of about 50 acres,
+giving it the appearance of a vast lawn. At the eastern and western
+extremities are the native suburbs, with huts of light material built a
+few yards into the sea. On the east side there is a big Moro bungalow,
+erected on small tree-trunks, quite a hundred yards from the beach
+seawards. To the west, one sees a long shanty-built structure running
+out to sea like a jetty; it is the shore market. The panorama could
+not be more charming and curious. Still farther west, towering above
+every other, stands the _Bad Tumantangas_ peak (Mount of Tears),
+the last point discernible by the westward-journeying Joloano, who
+is said to sigh with patriotic anguish at its loss to view, with all
+the feeling of a Moorish Boabdil bidding adieu to his beloved Granada.
+
+The town is uniformly planned, with well-drained streets, running
+parallel, crossed at rectangles by lovely avenues of shading
+trees. Here and there are squares, pretty gardens, and a clean and
+orderly market-place. There is a simple edifice for a church, splendid
+barracks equal to those in Manila when these were built, many houses of
+brick and stone, others of wood, and all roofed with corrugated iron.
+
+The neighbourhood is well provided with water from natural streams. The
+town is supplied with drinking-water conducted in pipes, laid for the
+purpose from a spring about a mile and a quarter distant, whilst other
+piping carries water to the end of the pier for the requirements of
+shipping. This improvement, the present salubrity of the town (once a
+fever focus), and its latest Spanish embellishments, are mainly due to
+the intelligent activity of its late Governors, Colonel (now General)
+Gonzalez Parrado, and the late General Juan Arolas.
+
+The town is encircled on the land side by a brick loop-holed wall. The
+outside (Spanish) defences consisted of two forts, viz:--The "_Princesa
+de Asturias_" and "_Torre de la Reina_" and within the town those of
+the "_Puerta Blockaus_", "_Puerta Espana_" and the redoubt "_Alfonso
+XII._"--this last had a Nordenfeldt gun.
+
+The Spanish Government of Sulu was entirely under martial law, and
+the Europeans (mostly military men) were constantly on the alert for
+the ever-recurring attacks of the natives.
+
+The general aspect of Sulu (Jolo) is cheerful and attractive. The day
+scene, enlivened by the Moro, passing to and fro with his lithe gait,
+in gay attire, with the _barong_ in a huge sash, and every white man,
+soldier or civilian, carrying arms in self-defence, may well inflame
+the imaginative and romantic mind. One can hardly believe one is
+still in the Philippines. At night, the shaded avenues, bordered by
+stately trees, illuminated by a hundred lamps, present a beautiful,
+picturesque scene which carries the memory far, far away from the
+surrounding savage races. Yet all may change in a trice. There is
+a hue and cry; a Moro has run _amok_--his glistening weapon within
+a foot of his escaping victim; the Christian native hiding away in
+fear, and the European off in pursuit of the common foe; there is a
+tramping of feet, a cracking of firearms; the Moro is biting the dust,
+and the memory is brought abruptly back from imagination's flights
+to full realization of one's Mahometan _entourage_.
+
+By a decree dated September 24, 1877, all the natives, and other
+races or nationalities settled there, were exempted from all kinds of
+contributions or taxes for 10 years. In 1887 the term was extended for
+another 10 years; hence, no imposts being levied, all the Spaniards
+had to do was to maintain their prestige with peace.
+
+In his relations with the Spaniards, the Sultan held the title
+of Excellency, and he, as well as several chiefs, received annual
+pensions from the Government at the following rates:--
+
+
+                                                        Pesos.
+        Sultan of Sulu                                  2,400
+        Sultan of Mindanao                              1,000
+        Datto Beraduren, heir to the Sulu Sultanate       700
+        Paduca Datto Alimudin, of Sulu                    600
+        Datto Amiral, of Mindanao                         800
+        Other minor pensions                              600
+                                                        =====
+                                                       P6,100
+
+
+and an allowance of 2 pesos for each captive rescued, and 3 pesos
+for each pirate caught, whether in Sulu or Mindanao waters.
+
+The Sultan is the _Majasari_ (the stainless, the spotless)--the
+Pontiff-king--the chief of the State and the Church; but it is said
+that he acknowledges the Sultan of Turkey as the _Padishah_. He is
+the irresponsible lord and master of all life and property among his
+subjects, although in his decrees he is advised by a Council of Elders.
+
+Nevertheless, in spite of his absolute authority, he does not seem to
+have perfect control over the acts of his nobles or chiefs, who are
+a privileged class, and are constantly waging some petty war among
+themselves, or organizing a marauding expedition along the coast. The
+Sultan is compelled, to a certain extent, to tolerate their excesses,
+as his own dignity, or at least his own tranquillity, is in a great
+measure dependent on their common goodwill towards him. The chiefs
+collect tribute in the name of the Sultan, but they probably furnish
+their own wants first and pay differences into the Royal Treasury,
+seeing that it all comes from their own feudal dependents.
+
+The Sultan claims to be the nominal owner of all the product of Sulu
+waters. In the valuable Pearl Fisheries he claims to have a prior
+right to all pearls above a certain value, although the finder is
+entitled to a relative bounty from the Sultan. "Ambal," a product found
+floating on the waters and much esteemed by the Chinese as medicine,
+is subject to royal dues. The great pearl-fishing centre is Siassi
+Island (in the Tapul group), lying about 20 miles south of Sulu Island.
+
+The Sultanate is hereditary under the Salic Law. The Sultan is
+supported by three ministers, one of whom acts as Regent in his absence
+(for he might choose to go to Singapore, or have to go to Mecca,
+if he had not previously done so); the other is Minister of War,
+and the third is Minister of Justice and Master of the Ceremonies.
+
+Slavery exists in a most ample sense. There are slaves by birth and
+others by conquest, such as prisoners of war, insolvent debtors, and
+those seized by piratical expeditions to other islands. A creole friend
+of mine was one of these last. He had commenced clearing an estate for
+cane-growing on the Negros coast, when he was seized and carried off
+to Sulu Island. In a few years he was ransomed and returned to Negros,
+where be formed one of the finest sugar haciendas and factories in
+the Colony.
+
+In 1884 a Mahometan was found on a desolate isle lying off the Antique
+coast (Panay Is.), and of course had no document of identity, so he
+was arrested and confined in the jail of San Jose de Buenavista. From
+prison he was eventually taken to the residence of the Spanish
+Governor, Don Manuel Castellon, a very humane gentleman and a personal
+friend of mine. In Don Manuel's study there was a collection of
+native arms which took the stranger's fancy; one morning he seized
+a kris and lance, and, bounding into the breakfast-room, capered
+about, gesticulated, and brandished the lance in the air, much to the
+amusement of the Governor and his guests. But in an instant the fellow
+(hitherto a mystery, but undoubtedly a _juramentado_) hurled the lance
+with great force towards the Public Prosecutor, and the missile, after
+severing his watch-chain, lodged in the side of the table. The Governor
+and the Public Prosecutor at once closed with the would-be assassin,
+whilst the Governor's wife, with great presence of mind, thrust a
+table-knife into the culprit's body between the shoulder-blade and
+the collar-bone. The man fell, and, when all supposed he was dead,
+he suddenly jumped up. No one had thought of taking the kris out of
+his grasp, and he rushed around the apartment and severely cut two of
+the servants, but was ultimately despatched by the bayonets of the
+guards who arrived on hearing the scuffle. The Governor showed me
+his wounds, which were slight, but his life was saved by the valour
+of his wife--Dona Justa.
+
+It has often been remarked by old residents, that if free licence were
+granted to the domesticated natives, their barbarous instincts would
+recur to them in all vigour. Here was an instance. The body of the
+Moro was carried off by an excited populace, who tied a rope to it,
+beat it, and dragged it through the town to a few miles up the coast,
+where it was thrown on the sea-shore. The priests did not interfere;
+like the Egyptian mummies cast on the Stygian shores, the culprit
+was unworthy of sepulture--besides, who would pay the fees?
+
+During my first visit to Sulu in 1881, I was dining with the Governor,
+when the conversation ran on the details of an expedition about to be
+sent to Maybun, to carry despatches received from the Gov.-General
+for the Sultan, anent the Protectorate. The Governor seemed rather
+surprised when I expressed my wish to join the party, for the journey
+is not unattended with risk to one's life. [I may here mention that
+only a few days before I arrived, a young officer was sent on some
+mission a short distance outside the town of Jolo, accompanied by a
+patrol of two guards. He was met by armed Mahometans, and sent back
+with one of his hands cut off. I remember, also, the news reaching
+us that several military officers were sitting outside a cafe in
+Jolo Town, when a number of _juramentados_ came behind them and cut
+their throats.] However, the Governor did not oppose my wish--on the
+contrary, he jocosely replied that he could not extend my passport so
+far, because the Sulus would not respect it, yet the more Europeans
+the better.
+
+Officials usually went by sea to Maybun, and a gunboat was now and
+again sent round the coast with messages to the Sultan, but there
+was no Government vessel in Jolo at this time.
+
+Our party, all told, including the native attendants, numbered about
+30 Christians, and we started early in the morning on horseback. I
+carried my usual weapon--a revolver--hoping there would be no need to
+use it on the journey. And so it resulted; we arrived, without being
+molested in any way, in about three hours, across a beautiful country.
+
+We passed two low ranges of hills, which appeared to run from S.W. to
+N.E., and several small streams, whilst here and there was a ranche
+of the Sultan's subjects. Each ranche was formed of a group of
+10 to 20 huts, controlled by the cacique. Agriculture seemed to
+be pursued in a very pristine fashion, but, doubtless owing to the
+exuberant fertility of the soil, we saw some very nice crops of Rice,
+Indian Corn, Sugar Cane, and Indigo and Coffee plantations on a small
+scale. In the forest which we traversed there were some of the largest
+bamboos I have ever seen, and fine building timber, such as Teak,
+Narra, Molave, Mangachapuy, and Camagon (_vide_ Woods). I was assured
+that Cedars also flourished on the island. We saw a great number of
+monkeys, wild pigeons, cranes, and parrots, whilst deer, buffaloes,
+and wild goats are said to abound in these parts.
+
+On our arrival at Maybun, we went first to the bungalow of a
+Chinaman--the Sultan's brother-in-law--where we refreshed ourselves
+with our own provisions, and learnt the gossip of the place. On
+inquiry, we were told that the Sultan was sleeping, so we waited at
+the Chinaman's. I understood this man was a trader, but there were no
+visible signs of his doing any business. Most of our party slept the
+_siesta_, and at about four o'clock we called at the Palace. It was
+a very large building, well constructed, and appeared to be built
+almost entirely of materials of the country. A deal of bamboo and
+wood were used in it, and even the roof was made of split bamboo,
+although I am told that this was replaced by sheet-iron when the
+young Sultan came to the throne. The vestibule was very spacious,
+and all around was pleasantly decorated with lovely shrubs and plants
+peculiar to most mid-tropical regions. The entrance to the Palace was
+always open, but well guarded, and we were received by three _Dattos_,
+who saluted us in a formal way, and, without waiting to ask us any
+question, invited us, with a wave of the hand, to follow them into
+the throne-room. [67] The Sultan was seated on our entering, but when
+the bearer of the despatches approached with the official interpreter
+by his side, and we following, he rose in his place to greet us.
+
+His Highness was dressed in very tight silk trousers, fastened partly
+up the sides with showy chased gold or gilt buttons, a short Eton-cut
+olive-green jacket with an infinity of buttons, white socks, ornamented
+slippers, a red sash around his waist, a kind of turban, and a kris at
+his side. His general appearance was that of a Spanish bull-fighter
+with an Oriental finish off. We all bowed low, and the Sultan,
+surrounded by his Sultanas, put his hands to his temples, and, on
+lowering them, he bowed at the same time. We remained standing whilst
+some papers were handed to him. He looked at them--a few words were
+said in Spanish, to the effect that the bearer saluted His Highness
+in the name of the Governor of Sulu. The Sultan passed the documents
+to the official interpreter, who read or explained them in the Sulu
+language; then a brief conversation ensued, through the interpreter,
+and the business was really over. After a short pause, the Sultan
+motioned to us to be seated on floor-cushions, and we complied. The
+cushions, covered with rich silk, were very comfortable. Servants, in
+fantastic costumes, were constantly in attendance, serving betel-nut
+to those who cared to chew it.
+
+One Sultana was fairly pretty, or had been so, but the others were
+heavy, languid, and lazy in their movements; and their teeth,
+dyed black, did not embellish their personal appearance. The
+Sultan made various inquiries, and passed many compliments on us,
+the Governor, Gov.-General, etc., which were conveyed to us through
+the interpreter. Meanwhile, the Sultanas chatted among themselves,
+and were apparently as much interested in looking at us as we were
+in their style, features, and attire. They all wore light-coloured
+"dual garments" of great width, and tight bodices. Their _coiffure_
+was carefully finished, but a part of the forehead was hidden by an
+ungraceful fringe of hair.
+
+We had so little in common to converse on, and that little had to
+be said through the interpreter, that we were rather glad when we
+were asked to take refreshments. It at least served to relieve the
+awkward feeling of glancing at each other in silence. Chocolate and
+ornamental sweetmeats were brought to us, all very unpalatable. When we
+were about to take our departure, the Sultan invited us to remain all
+night in the Palace. The leader of our party caused to be explained
+to him that we were thankful for his gracious offer, but that, being
+so numerous, we feared to disturb His Highness by intruding so far
+on his hospitality. Still the Sultan politely insisted, and whilst
+the interpretation was being transmitted I found an opportunity to
+acquaint our chief of my burning curiosity to stay at the Palace. In
+any case, we were a large number to go anywhere, so our leader, in
+reply to the Sultan, said that he and four Europeans of his suite
+would take advantage of His Highness's kindness.
+
+We withdrew from the Sultan's presence, and some of us Europeans
+walked through the town accompanied by functionaries of the royal
+household and the interpreter. There was nothing striking in the
+place; it was like most others. There were some good bungalows of
+bamboo and thatching. I noticed that men, women, and children were
+smoking tobacco or chewing, and had no visible occupation. Many of
+the smaller dwellings were built on piles out to the sea. We saw a
+number of divers preparing to go off to get pearls, mother-of-pearl,
+etc. They are very expert in this occupation, and dive as deep as 100
+feet. Prior to the plunge they go through a grotesque performance of
+waving their arms in the air and twisting their bodies, in order--as
+they say--to frighten away the sharks; then with a whoop they leap
+over the edge of the prahu, and continue to throw their arms and legs
+about for the purpose mentioned. They often dive for the shark and
+rip it up with a kris.
+
+Five of us retired to the Palace that night, and were at once conducted
+to our rooms. There was no door to my room; it was, strictly speaking,
+an alcove. During the night, at intervals of about every hour, as it
+seemed to me, a Palace servant or guard came to inquire how the Senor
+was sleeping, and if I were comfortable. "Duerme el Senor?" ("Does
+the gentleman sleep?") was apparently the limit of his knowledge of
+Spanish. I did not clearly understand more than the fact that the man
+was a nuisance, and I regretted there was no door with which to shut
+him out. The next morning we paid our respects to His Highness, who
+furnished us with an escort--more as a compliment than a necessity--and
+we reached Jolo Town again, after a very enjoyable ride through a
+superb country.
+
+
+
+The Sultan's subjects are spread so far from the centre of
+government--Maybun--that in some places their allegiance is but
+nominal. Many of them residing near the Spanish settlements are quick
+at learning Castilian sufficiently well to be understood, but the
+Spaniards tried in vain to subject them to a European order of things.
+
+About 20 miles up the coast, going north from Zamboanga, the Jesuits
+sent a missionary in 1885 to convert the _Subuanos_. He endeavoured
+to persuade the people to form a village. They cleared a way through
+the forest from the beach, and at the end of this opening, about
+three-quarters of a mile long, I found a church half built of wood,
+bamboo, and palm-leaves. I had ridden to the place on horseback along
+the beach, and my food and baggage followed in a canoe. The opening
+was so roughly cleared that I thought it better to dismount when
+I got half way. As the church was only in course of construction,
+and not consecrated, I took up my quarters there. I was followed
+by a _Subuano_, who was curious to know the object of my visit. I
+told him I wished to see the headman, so this personage arrived
+with one of his wives and a young girl. They sat on the floor with
+me, and as the cacique could make himself understood in Spanish,
+we chatted about the affairs of the town _in posse_. The visiting
+priest had gone to the useless trouble of baptizing a few of these
+people. They appeared to be as much Christian as I was Mahometan. The
+cacique had more than one wife--the word of the _Pandita_ of the
+settlement was the local law, and the _Pandita_ himself of course had
+his seraglio. I got the first man, who had followed me, to direct me
+to the _Pandita's_ house. My guide was gaily attired in bright red
+tight acrobat breeches, with buttons up the side, and a jacket like
+a waistcoat, with sleeves so close-fitting that I suppose he seldom
+took the trouble to undress himself. I left the cacique, promising to
+visit his bungalow that day, and then my guide led me through winding
+paths, in a wood, to the hut of the _Pandita_. On the way I met a
+man of the tribe carrying spring-water in a bamboo, which he tilted
+to give me a drink. To my inquiries if he were a Christian, and if
+he knew the _Castilian Pandita_ (Spanish priest), he replied in the
+affirmative; continuing the interrogation, I asked him how many gods
+there were, and when he answered "four," I closed my investigation of
+his Christianity. My guide was too cunning to take me by the direct
+path to the _Pandita's_ bungalow. He led me into a half-cleared plot
+of land facing it, whence the inmates could see us for at least ten
+minutes making our approach. When we arrived, and after scrambling up
+the staircase, which was simply a notched trunk of a tree about nine
+inches diameter, I discovered that the _Pandita_, forewarned, had fled
+to the mountain close by, leaving his wives to entertain the visitor. I
+found them all lounging and chewing betel-nut, and when I squatted
+on the floor amongst them they became remarkably chatty. Then I went
+to the cacique's bungalow. In the rear of this dwelling there was a
+small forge, and the most effective bellows of primitive make which I
+have ever seen in any country. It was a double-action apparatus, made
+entirely of bamboo, except the pistons, which were of feathers. These
+pistons, working up and down alternately by a bamboo rod in each hand,
+sustained perfectly a constant draught of air. One man was squatting
+on a bamboo bench the height of the bellows' rods, whilst the smith
+crouched on the ground to forge his kris on the anvil.
+
+The headman's bungalow was built the same as the others, but with
+greater care. It was rather high up, and had the usual notched
+log-of-wood staircase, which is perhaps easy to ascend with naked
+feet. The cacique and one of his wives were seated on mats on the
+floor. After mutual salutations the wife threw me three cushions, on
+which I reclined--doing the _dolce far niente_ whilst we talked about
+the affairs of the settlement. The conversation was growing rather
+wearisome anent the Spanish priest having ordered huts to be built
+without giving materials, about the scarcity of palm-leaves in the
+neighbourhood, and so forth, so I bade them farewell and went on to
+another hut. Here the inmates were numerous--four women, three or four
+men, and two rather pretty male children, with their heads shaven so
+as to leave only a tuft of hair towards the forehead about the size of
+a crown piece. To entertain me, six copper tom-toms were brought out,
+and placed in a row on pillows, whilst another large one, for the bass
+accompaniment, was suspended from a wooden frame. A man beat the bass
+with a stick, whilst the women took it in turns to kneel on the floor,
+with a stick in each hand, to play a tune on the series of six. A few
+words were passed between the three men, when suddenly one of them
+arose and performed a war-dance, quaintly twisting his arms and legs
+in attitudes of advance, recoil, and exultation. The dance finished,
+I mounted my horse and left the settlement in embryo, called by the
+missionaries Reus, which is the name of a town in Catalonia.
+
+The climate of Mindanao and Sulu Islands is healthy and delightful. The
+heat of Zamboanga is moderated by daily breezes, and in Sulu, in the
+month of June, it is not oppressive. A year's temperature readings
+on the Illana Bay coast (Mindanao Is.) are as follows, viz.:--
+
+
+Average of    Inside the House,             Outside in the Shade,
+                Fahrenheit.                     Fahrenheit.
+
+              6 a.m.   Noon.   6 p.m.       6 a.m.  Noon.   6 p.m.
+Jan.-March    73 deg.       84 deg.    83 deg.          72 deg.     84 deg.     80 deg.
+April-June    74 1/2 deg.   83 deg.    78 1/2 deg.      74 1/2 deg. 92 1/2 deg. 78 deg.
+July-Sept.    74 deg.       84 deg.    80 deg.          72 1/2 deg. 88 deg.     79 deg.
+Oct.-Dec.     73 deg.       85 deg.    80 deg.          73 deg.     83 deg.     78 deg.
+
+
+The Island of Palauan (Paragua) was anciently a dependency of the
+Sultanate of Brunei (Borneo), hence the dominion over this island
+of the Sultan of Sulu as suzerain lord of Brunei. At the beginning
+of the 18th century Spaniards had already settled in the north of
+it. It had a very sparse population, and a movement was set on foot
+to subjugate the natives. In order to protect the Spanish settlers
+from Mahometan attacks a fort was established at Labo. However, the
+supplies were not kept up, and many of the garrison died of misery,
+hunger, and nakedness, until 1720, when it was abandoned.
+
+Some years afterwards the island was gratuitously ceded to the
+Spaniards by the Sultan of Sulu, at their request. Captain Antonio
+Fabeau was sent there with troops to take formal possession, being
+awarded the handsome salary of P50 per month for this service. On
+the arrival of the ships, an officer was sent ashore; the people
+fled inland, and the formalities of annexation were proceeded with
+unwitnessed. The only signs of possession left there were the corpses
+of the troops and sailors who died from eating rotten food, or were
+murdered by Mahometans who attacked the expedition. Subsequently a
+fortress was established at Taytay, where a number of priests and
+laymen in a few years succeeded in forming a small colony, which at
+length shared the fate of Labo. The only Spanish settlement in the
+island at the date of the evacuation was the colony of Puerta Princesa,
+on the east coast. [68]
+
+Before starting on my peregrination in Palauan Island, I sought in vain
+for information respecting the habits and nature of the _Tagbanuas_,
+a half-caste Malay-Aeta tribe, disseminated over a little more than
+the southern half of the island. [69] It was only on my arrival at
+Puerta Princesa that I was able to procure a vague insight into the
+peculiarities of the people whom I intended to visit. The Governor,
+Don Felipe Canga-Argueelles, was highly pleased to find a traveller
+who could sympathize with his efforts, and help to make known, if
+only to the rest of the Archipelago, this island almost unexplored
+in the interior. He constantly wrote articles to one of the leading
+journals of Manila, under the title of "Echoes from Paragua" (Palauan),
+partly with the view of attracting the attention of the Government
+to the requirements of the Colony, but also to stimulate a spirit of
+enterprise in favour of this island, rich in hardwoods, etc.
+
+Puerta Princesa is a good harbour, situated on a gulf. The soil
+was levelled, trees were planted, and a slip for repairing vessels
+was constructed. There was a fixed white light visible eleven miles
+off. It was a naval station for two gunboats, the Commander of the
+station being _ex-officio_ Governor of the Colony. It was also a
+Penal Settlement for convicts, and those suspected by the civil or
+religious authorities. To give employment to the convicts and suspects,
+a model sugar-estate was established by the Government. The locality
+supplied nearly all the raw material for working and preserving the
+establishment, such as lime, stone, bricks, timber, sand, firewood,
+straw for bags, rattans, etc.
+
+The aspect of the town is agreeable, and the environs are pretty,
+but there is a great drawback in the want of drinking-water, which,
+in the dry season, has to be procured from a great distance.
+
+The Governor showed me great attention, and personally took command of
+a gunboat, which conducted me to the mouth of the Iguajit River. This
+is the great river of the district, and is navigable for about three
+miles. I put off in a boat manned by marines, and was rowed about
+two miles up, as far as the mission station. The missionary received
+me well, and I stayed there that night, with five men, whom I had
+engaged to carry my luggage, for we had a journey before us of some
+days on foot to the opposite coast.
+
+My luggage, besides the ordinary travelling requisites and provisions,
+included about 90 yards of printed stuffs of bright colours, six dozen
+common handkerchiefs, and some 12 pounds' weight of beads on strings,
+with a few odds and ends of trinkets; whilst my native bearers were
+provided with rice, dried fish, betel-nut, tobacco, etc., for a week
+or more. We set out on foot the next day, and in three days and a
+half we reached the western shore.
+
+The greatest height above the sea-level on our route was about 900
+metres, according to my aneroid reading, and the maximum heat at
+mid-day in the shade (month of January) was 82 deg. Fahr. The nights were
+cold, comparatively speaking, and at midnight the thermometer once
+descended to 59 deg. Fahr.
+
+The natives proved to be a very pacific people. We found some engaged
+in collecting gum from the trees in the forest, and others cutting
+and making up bundles of rattans. They took these products down to
+the Iguajit River mission station, where Chinese traders bartered
+for them stuffs and other commodities. The value of coin was not
+altogether unknown in the mission village, although the difference
+in value between copper and silver coinage was not understood. In
+the interior they lived in great misery, their cabins being wretched
+hovels. They planted their rice without ploughing at all, and all
+their agricultural implements were made of wood or bamboo.
+
+The native dress is made of the bark of trees, smashed with stones,
+to extract the ligneous parts. In the cool weather they make tunics of
+bark, and the women wear drawers of the same material. They adorn their
+waists with sea-shell and cocoanut shell ornaments, whilst the fibre
+of the palm serves for a waistband. The women pierce very large holes
+in their ears, in which they place shells, wood, etc. They never bathe
+intentionally. Their arms are bows and arrows, and darts blown through
+a kind of pea-shooter made of a reed resembling _bojo_ (q.v). They
+are a very dirty people, and they eat their fish or flesh raw.
+
+I had no difficulty whatever in procuring guides from one group of
+huts to the next on payment in goods, and my instructions were always
+to lead me towards the coast, the nearest point of which I knew was
+due west or a few points to the north.
+
+We passed through a most fertile country the whole way. There
+were no rivers of any importance, but we were well supplied with
+drinking-water from the numerous springs and rivulets. The forests
+are very rich in good timber, chiefly _Ipil_ (_Eperma decandria)_,
+a very useful hardwood (_vide_ Woods). I estimated that many of these
+trees, if felled, would have given clean logs of 70 to 80 feet long. I
+presume the felling of timber was not attempted by these natives
+on account of the difficulties, or rather, total want of transport
+means. From a plateau, within half a day's journey of the opposite
+coast, the scenery was remarkably beautiful, with the sea to the west
+and an interminable grandeur of forest to the east. There were a few
+fishermen on the west coast, but further than that, there was not a
+sign of anything beyond the gifts of Nature. About half a mile from the
+coast, on the fringe of the forest, there was a group of native huts,
+two of which were vacated for our accommodation in exchange for goods.
+
+With an abundance of fish, we were able to economize our
+provisions. One of my men fell ill with fever, so that we had to
+wait two days on the west coast, whilst I dosed him with Eno's fruit
+salt and quinine. In the meantime, I studied the habits of these
+people. Among the many things which astonished them was the use of
+matches, whilst our cooking highly amused them. Such a thing as a
+horse I suppose had never been seen here, although I would gladly have
+bought or hired one, for I was very weary of our delay. We all went
+on the march again, on foot nearly all the way, by the same passes
+to the Iguajit River, where we found a canoe, which carried us back
+to Puerta Princesa.
+
+The island produces many marketable articles, such as beeswax, edible
+bird's nests, fine shells, dried shell-fish, a few pearls, bush-rope
+or _palasan_ (q.v.) of enormous length, wild nutmegs, ebony, logwood,
+etc., which the Chinese obtain in barter for knives and other small
+manufactures.
+
+The first survey of the Palauan Island coast is said to have been
+made by the British. A British map of Puerta Princesa, with a few
+miles of adjoining coast, was shown to me in the Government House
+of this place. It appears that the west coast is not navigable for
+ships within at least two miles of the shore, although there are a
+few channels leading to creeks. Vessels coming from the west usually
+pass through the Straits of Balabac, between the island of that name
+and the islets off the Borneo Island coast.
+
+In the Island of Balabac there was absolutely nothing remarkable to
+be seen, unless it were a little animal about the size of a big cat,
+but in shape a perfect model of a doe. [70] I took one to Manila,
+but it died the day we arrived. No part of the island (which is
+very mountainous and fertile) appeared to be cultivated, and even
+the officials at the station had to obtain supplies from Manila,
+whilst cattle were brought from the Island of Cuyo, one of the
+Calamianes group.
+
+In the latter years, the Home Government made efforts to colonize
+Palauan Island by offering certain advantages to emigrants. By Royal
+Order, dated February 25, 1885, the Islands of Palauan and Mindanao
+were to be occupied in an effectual manner, and outposts established,
+wherever necessary, to guarantee the secure possession of these
+islands. The points mentioned for such occupation in Palauan Island
+were Tagbusao and Malihut on the east coast, and Colasian and Malanut
+on the west coast. It also confirmed the Royal Decree of July 30,
+1860, granting to all families emigrating to these newly established
+military posts, and all peaceful tribes of the Islands who might
+choose to settle there, exemption from the payment of tribute for six
+years. The families would be furnished with a free passage to these
+places, and each group would be supplied with seed and implements.
+
+A subsequent Royal Order, dated January 19, 1886, was issued, to the
+effect:--That the Provincial Governors of the Provinces of North and
+South Ilocos were to stimulate voluntary emigration of the natives
+to Palauan Island, to the extent of 25 families from each of the two
+provinces per annum. That any payments due by them to the Public
+Treasury were to be condoned. That such families and any persons
+of good character who might establish themselves in Palauan should
+be exempt from the payment of taxes for ten years, and receive free
+passage there for themselves and their cattle, and three hectares of
+land gratis, to be under cultivation within a stated period. That two
+chupas of rice (_vide_ Rice measure) and ten cents of a peso should
+be given to each adult, and one chupa of rice to each minor each day
+during the first six months from the date of their embarking. That
+the Governor of Palauan should be instructed respecting the highways
+to be constructed, and the convenience of opening free ports in that
+island. That the land and sea forces should be increased; and of
+the latter, a third-rate man-o'-war should be stationed on the west
+coast. That convicts should continue to be sent to Palauan, and the
+Governor should be authorized to employ all those of bad conduct in
+public works. That schools of primary instruction should be established
+in the island wherever such might be considered convenient, etc.,
+etc. [71]
+
+The Spaniards (in 1898) left nearly half the Philippine Archipelago
+to be conquered, but only its Mahometan inhabitants ever persistently
+took the aggressive against them in regular continuous warfare. The
+attempts of the Jesuit missionaries to convert them to Christianity
+were entirely futile, for the _Panditas_ and the Romish priests were
+equally tenacious of their respective religious beliefs. The last
+treaty made between Spain and Sulu especially stipulated that the
+Mahometans should not be persecuted for their religion.
+
+To overturn a dynasty, to suppress an organized system of feudal
+laws, and to eradicate an ancient belief, the principles of which
+had firmly established themselves among the populace in the course of
+centuries, was a harder task than that of bringing under the Spanish
+yoke detached groups of Malay immigrants. The pliant, credulous nature
+of the Luzon settlers--the fact that they professed no deeply-rooted
+religion, and--although advanced from the migratory to the settled
+condition--were mere nominal lieges of their puppet kinglings, were
+facilities for the achievement of conquest. True it is that the
+dynasties of the Aztecs of Mexico and the Incas of Peru yielded to
+Spanish valour, but there was the incentive of untold wealth; here,
+only of military glory, and the former outweighed the latter.
+
+If the Spaniards failed to subjugate the Mahometans, or to incorporate
+their territory in the general administrative system of the Colony,
+after three centuries of intermittent endeavour, it is difficult to
+conceive that the Philippine Republic (had it subsisted) would have
+been more successful. It would have been useless to have resolved
+to leave the Moros to themselves, practically ignoring their
+existence. Any Philippine Government must needs hold them in check
+for the public weal, for the fact is patent that the Moro hates the
+native Christian not one iota less than he does the white man.
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+Domesticated Natives--Origin--Character
+
+
+The generally-accepted theory regarding the origin of the composite
+race which may be termed "domesticated natives," is, that their
+ancestors migrated to these Islands from Malesia, or the Malay
+Peninsula. But so many learned dissertations have emanated from
+distinguished men, propounding conflicting opinions on the descent
+of the Malays themselves, that we are still left on the field of
+conjecture.
+
+There is good reason to surmise that, at some remote period,
+these Islands and the Islands of Formosa and Borneo were united,
+and possibly also they conjointly formed a part of the Asiatic
+mainland. Many of the islets are mere coral reefs, and some of the
+larger islands are so distinctly of coral formation that, regarded
+together with the numerous volcanic evidences, one is induced to
+believe that the Philippine Archipelago is the result of a stupendous
+upheaval by volcanic action. [72] At least it seems apparent that
+no autochthonous population existed on these lands in their island
+form. The first settlers were probably the _Aetas,_ called also
+_Negritos_ and _Balugas_, who may have drifted northwards from New
+Guinea and have been carried by the strong currents through the
+San Bernadino Straits and round Punta Santiago until they reached
+the still waters in the neighbourhood of Corregidor Island, whilst
+others were carried westwards to the tranquil Sulu Sea, and travelling
+thence northwards would have settled on the Island of Negros. It is
+a fact that for over a century after the Spanish conquest, Negros
+Island had no other inhabitants but these mountaineers and escaped
+criminals from other islands.
+
+The sturdy races inhabiting the Central Luzon highlands, decidedly
+superior in physique and mental capacity to the _Aetas,_ may be of
+Japanese origin, for shortly after the conquest by Legaspi a Spanish
+galley cruising off the north coast of Luzon fell in with Japanese,
+who probably penetrated to the interior of that island up the Rio
+Grande de Cagayan. Tradition tells us how the Japanese used to sail
+down the east coast of Luzon as far as the neighbourhood of Lamon Bay,
+where they landed and, descending the little rivers which flowed into
+the Lake of Bay, settled in that region which was called by the first
+Spanish conquerors Pagsanjan Province, and which included the Laguna
+Province of to-day, with a portion of the modern Tayabas Province.
+
+Either the Japanese extended their sphere from the Lake of Bay shore,
+or, as some assert (probably erroneously), shipwrecked Japanese went
+up the Pansipit River to the Bombon Lake: the fact remains that Taal,
+with the Bombon Lake shore, was a Japanese settlement, and even up to
+now the Taalenos have characteristics differing from those of the pure
+Malay immigrant descendants. The Philippine patriot, Dr. Jose Rizal,
+was a good Japanese-Malay type.
+
+The Tagalogs, who occupy a small portion of Luzon Island, chiefly
+the provinces of Batangas, Laguna, Rizal, and Bulacan, are believed
+to be the cross-breed descendants of these Japanese immigrants. At
+the period of the Spanish conquest the _Tao ilog_, that is to say,
+"the man who came by the river," afterwards corrupted into the
+more euphonious name of _Tagalog_, occupied only the lands from the
+south shore of Laguna de Bay southwards. Some traded with the Malay
+settlers at Maynila (as the city on the Pasig River was then called)
+and, little by little, radicated themselves in the Manila suburbs of
+Quiapo, Sampaloc, and Santa Cruz. [73]
+
+From the West, long before the Spanish conquest, there was a great
+influx of Malays, who settled on the shores and the lowlands and drove
+the first settlers (_Aetas_) to the mountains. Central Luzon and
+the Lake environs being already occupied, they spread all over the
+vacant lands and adjacent islands south of Luzon. These expeditions
+from Malesia were probably accompanied by Mahometan propagandists,
+who had imparted to the Malays some notions, more or less crude,
+of their religion and culture, for at the time of Legaspi's arrival
+in Manila we find he had to deal with two chiefs, or petty kings,
+both assuming the Indian title of _Rajah_, whilst one of them had the
+Mahometan Arabic name of Soliman. Hitherto the _Tao ilog,_ or Tagalog,
+had not descended the Pasig River so far as Manila, and the religious
+rites of the Tondo-Manila people must have appeared to Legaspi similar
+to the Mahometan rites, [74] for in several of his despatches to his
+royal master he speaks of these people as _Moros_. All the dialects
+spoken by the Filipinos of Malay and Japanese descent have their root
+in the pure Malay language. After the expulsion of all the adult
+male Japanese Lake settlers in the 17th century, it is feasible to
+suppose that the language of the males who took their place in the
+Lake district and intermarried there, should prevail over the idiom
+of the primitive settlers, and possibly this amalgamation of speech
+accounts for the difference between the Tagalog dialect and others
+of these islands peopled by Malays.
+
+The Malay immigration must have taken place several generations
+prior to the coming of the Spaniards, for at that period the lowland
+occupants were already divided into peoples speaking different
+dialects and distinguishing themselves by groups whose names seem to
+be associated with the districts they inhabited, such as Pampanga,
+Iloco, and Cagayan; these denominations are probably derived from
+some natural condition, such as _Pampang_, meaning a river embankment,
+_Ilog_, a river, _Cauayan_, a bamboo, etc.
+
+In a separate chapter (x.) the reputed origin of the Mahometans of
+the southern islands is alluded to. They are also believed to be
+immigrants from the West, and at the time of the conquest recent
+traditions which came to the knowledge of the Spaniards, and were
+recorded by them, prove that commercial relations existed between
+Borneo and Manila. There is a tradition [75] also of an attempted
+conquest of Luzon by a Borneo chief named Lacasama, about 250 years
+before the Spanish advent; but apparently the expedition came to
+grief near Luzon, off an island supposed by some to be Masbate.
+
+The descendants of the Japanese and Malay immigrants were the people
+whom the Spanish invaders had to subdue to gain a footing. To the
+present day they, and the correlative Chinese and Spanish half-castes,
+are the only races, among the several in these Islands, subjected,
+in fact, to civilized methods. The expression "Filipino" neither
+denotes any autochthonous race, nor any nationality, but simply one
+born in those islands named the Philippines: it is, therefore, open to
+argument whether the child of a Filipino, born in a foreign country,
+could be correctly called a Filipino.
+
+The christianized Filipinos, enjoying to-day the benefits of European
+training, are inclined to repudiate, as compatriots, the descendants
+of the non-christian tribes, although their concurrent existence,
+since the time of their immigrant forefathers, makes them all equally
+Filipinos. Hence many of them who were sent to the St. Louis Exhibition
+in 1904 were indignant because the United States Government had chosen
+to exhibit some types of uncivilized natives, representing about
+one-twelfth of the Philippine population. Without these exhibits,
+and on seeing only the educated Filipinos who formed the Philippine
+Commission, the American people at home might well have asked--Is
+not American civilization a superfluity in those islands?
+
+The inhabitants of these Islands were by no means savages, entirely
+unreclaimed from barbarism before the Spanish advent in the 16th
+century. They had a culture of their own, towards which the Malay
+settlers themselves appear to have contributed very little. In the
+nascent pre-Spanish civilization, Japanese immigrants were almost
+the only agriculturists, mine-workers, manufacturers, gold-seekers,
+goldsmiths, and masters of the industrial arts in general. Pagsanjan
+(Laguna) was their great industrial centre. Malolos (Bulacan) was
+also an important Japanese trading base. Whilst working the mines of
+Ilocos their exemplary industry must undoubtedly have influenced the
+character of the Ilocanos. Away down in the Bicol country of Camarines,
+the Japanese pushed their trade, and from their great settlement in
+Taal their traffic must have extended over the whole province, first
+called by the Spaniards Taal y Balayan, but since named Batangas. From
+the Japanese, the Malays learnt the manufacture of arms, and the
+Igorrotes the art of metal-working. Along the coasts of the large
+inhabited islands the Chinese travelled as traders or middlemen, at
+great personal risk of attack by individual robbers, bartering the
+goods of manufacturers for native produce, which chiefly consisted
+of sinamay cloth, shark-fin, balate (trepang), edible birds'-nests,
+gold in grain, and siguey-shells, for which there was a demand in Siam
+for use as money. Every north-east monsoon brought down the junks
+to barter leisurely until the south-west monsoon should waft them
+back, and neither Chinese nor Japanese made the least attempt, nor
+apparently had the least desire, to govern the Islands or to overrule
+the natives. Without coercion, the Malay settlers would appear to
+have unconsciously submitted to the influence of the superior talent
+or astuteness of the sedulous races with whom they became merged and
+whose customs they adopted, proof of which can be traced to the present
+day. [76] Presumably the busy, industrious immigrants had neither time
+nor inclination for sanguinary conflicts, for those recorded appear
+to be confined to the raids of the migratory mountaineers and an
+occasional attack by some ambitious Borneo buccaneer. The reader who
+would wish to verify these facts is recommended to make a comparative
+study of native character in Vigan, Malolos, Taal, and Pagsanjan.
+
+In treating of the domesticated natives' character, I wish it to be
+understood that my observations apply solely to the _large majority_
+of the six or seven millions of them who inhabit these Islands.
+
+In the capital and the ports open to foreign trade, where cosmopolitan
+vices and virtues obtain, and in large towns, where there is a constant
+number of domiciled Europeans and Americans, the native has become
+a modified being. It is not in such places that a just estimate of
+character can be arrived at, even during many years' sojourn. The
+native must be studied by often-repeated casual residence in localities
+where his, or her, domestication is only "by law established," imposing
+little restraint upon natural inclinations, and where exotic notions
+have gained no influence.
+
+Several writers have essayed to depict the Philippine native character,
+but with only partial success. Dealing with such an enigma, the most
+eminent physiognomists would surely differ in their speculations
+regarding the Philippine native of the present day. That Catonian
+figure, with placid countenance and solemn gravity of feature, would
+readily deceive any one as to the true mental organism within. The
+late parish priest of Alaminos (Batangas)--a Franciscan friar, who
+spent half his life in the Colony--left a brief manuscript essay
+on the native character. I have read it. In his opinion, the native
+is an incomprehensible phenomenon, the mainspring of whose line of
+thought and the guiding motive of whose actions have never yet been,
+and perhaps never will be, discovered.
+
+The reasoning of a native and a European differs so largely that
+the mental impulse of the two races is ever clashing. Sometimes a
+native will serve a master satisfactorily for years, and then suddenly
+abscond, or commit some such hideous crime as conniving with a brigand
+band to murder the family and pillage the house.
+
+When the hitherto faithful servant is remonstrated with for having
+committed a crime, he not unfrequently accounts for the fact by saying,
+"_Senor_, my head was hot." When caught in the act on his first start
+on highway robbery or murder, his invariable excuse is that he is
+not a scoundrel himself, but that he was "invited" by a relation or
+_compadre_ to join the company.
+
+He is fond of gambling, profligate, lavish in his promises, but _lache_
+in the extreme as to their fulfilment. He will never come frankly and
+openly forward to make a clean breast of a fault committed, or even a
+pardonable accident, but will hide it, until it is found out. In common
+with many other non-European races, an act of generosity or a voluntary
+concession of justice is regarded as a sign of weakness. Hence it
+is that the experienced European is often compelled to be more harsh
+than his real nature dictates.
+
+If one pays a native 20 cents for a service performed, and that be
+exactly the customary remuneration, he will say nothing, but if a
+feeling of compassion impels one to pay 30 cents, the recipient will
+loudly protest that he ought to be paid more. [77] In Luzon the native
+is able to say "Thank you" (_salamat-po_) in his mother-tongue, but
+in Panay and Negros there is no way of expressing thanks in native
+dialect to a donor (the nearest approach to it is _Dios macbayat_);
+and although this may, at first sight, appear to be an insignificant
+fact, I think, nevertheless, a great deal may be deduced from it,
+for the deficiency of the word in the Visaya vernacular denotes a
+deficiency of the idea which that word should express.
+
+If the native be in want of a trivial thing, which by plain asking he
+could readily obtain, he will come with a long tale, often begin by
+telling a lie, and whilst he invariably scratches his head, he will
+beat about the bush until he comes to the point, with a supplicating
+tone and a saintly countenance hiding a mass of falsity. But if
+he has nothing to gain for himself, his reticence is astonishingly
+inconvenient, for he may let one's horse die and tell one afterwards
+it was for want of rice-paddy, or, just at the very moment one wants
+to use something, he will tell one "_Uala-po_"--there is not any.
+
+I have known natives whose mothers, according to their statement,
+have died several times, and each time they have tried to beg the loan
+of the burial expenses. The mother of my first servant died twice,
+according to his account.
+
+Even the best class of natives do not appreciate, or feel grateful
+for, or even seem to understand a spontaneous gift. Apparently,
+they only comprehend the favour when one yields to their asking. The
+lowest classes never give to each other, unsolicited, a cent's worth,
+outside the customary reciprocal feast-offerings. If a European makes
+_voluntary_ gratuities to the natives, he is considered a fool--they
+entertain a contempt for him, which develops into intolerable
+impertinence. If the native comes to borrow, lend him a little less
+than he asks for, after a verbose preamble; if one at once lent, or
+gave, the full value requested, he would continue to invent a host of
+pressing necessities, until one's patience was exhausted. He seldom
+restores the loan of anything voluntarily. On being remonstrated with
+for his remissness, after the date of repayment or return of the
+article has expired, he will coolly reply, "You did not ask me for
+it." An amusing case of native reasoning came within my experience
+just recently. I lent some articles to an educated Filipino, who had
+frequently been my guest, and, at the end of three months, I requested
+their return. Instead of thanking me for their use, he wrote a letter
+expressing his indignation at my reminder, saying that I "ought to know
+they were in very good hands!" A native considers it no degradation
+to borrow money: it gives him no recurrent feeling of humiliation or
+distress of mind. Thus, he will often give a costly feast to impress
+his neighbours with his wealth and maintain his local prestige, whilst
+on all sides he has debts innumerable. At most, with his looseness
+of morality, he regards debt as an inconvenience, not as a calamity.
+
+Before entering another (middle- or lower-class) native's house, he
+is very complimentary, and sometimes three minutes' polite excusatory
+dialogue is exchanged between the visitor and the native visited
+before the former passes the threshold. When the same class of native
+enters a European's house, he generally satisfies his curiosity by
+looking all around, and often pokes his head into a private room,
+asking permission to enter afterwards.
+
+The lower-class native never comes at first call; among themselves it
+is usual to call five or six times, raising the voice each time. If
+a native is told to tell another to come, he seldom goes to him to
+deliver the message, but calls him from a distance. When a native
+steals (and I must say they are fairly honest), he steals only what he
+wants. One of the rudest acts, according to their social code, is to
+step over a person asleep on the floor. Sleeping is, with them, a very
+solemn matter; they are very averse to waking any one, the idea being,
+that during sleep the soul is absent from the body, and that if slumber
+be suddenly arrested the soul might not have time to return. When a
+person, knowing the habits of the native, calls upon him and is told
+"He is asleep," he does not inquire further--the rest is understood:
+that he may have to wait an indefinite time until the sleeper wakes
+up--so he may as well depart. To urge a servant to rouse one, one has
+to give him very imperative orders to that effect: then he stands
+by one's side and calls "Senor, senor!" repeatedly, and each time
+louder, until one is half awake; then he returns to the low note,
+and gradually raises his voice again until one is quite conscious.
+
+In Spanish times, wherever I went in the whole Archipelago--near the
+capital, or 500 miles from it--I found mothers teaching their offspring
+to regard the European as a demoniacal being, an evil spirit, or,
+at least, as an enemy to be feared! If a child cried, it was hushed
+by the exclamation, "Castila!" (European). If a white man approached
+a poor hut or a fine native residence, the cry of caution, the
+watchword for defence was always heard--"Castila!"--and the children
+hastened their retreat from the dreaded object. But this is now a
+thing of the past since the native crossed swords with the "Castila"
+(q.v.) and the American on the battle-field, and, rightly or wrongly,
+thoroughly believes himself to be a match for either in equal numbers.
+
+The Filipino, like most Orientals, is a good imitator, but having no
+initiative genius, he is not efficient in anything. He will copy a
+model any number of times, but one cannot get him to make two copies
+so much alike that the one is undistinguishable from the other. Yet
+he has no attachment for any occupation in particular. To-day he will
+be at the plough; to-morrow a coachman, a collector of accounts,
+a valet, a sailor, and so on; or he will suddenly renounce social
+trammels in pursuit of lawless vagabondage. I once travelled with a
+Colonel Marques, acting-Governor of Cebu, whose valet was an ex-law
+student. Still, many are willing to learn, and really become very
+expert artisans, especially machinists.
+
+The native is indolent in the extreme, and never tires of sitting
+still, gazing at nothing in particular. He will do no regular work
+without an advance; his word cannot be depended upon; he is fertile
+in exculpatory devices; he is momentarily obedient, but is averse
+to subjection. He feigns friendship, but has no loyalty; he is calm
+and silent, but can keep no secret; he is daring on the spur of
+the moment, but fails in resolution if he reflects. He is wantonly
+unfeeling towards animals; cruel to a fallen foe; tyrannical over
+his own people when in power; rarely tempers his animosities with
+compassion or pity, but is devotedly fond of his children. He is
+shifty, erratic, void of chivalrous feeling; and if familiarity be
+permitted with the common-class native, he is liable to presume upon
+it. The Tagalog is docile and pliant, but keenly resents an injustice.
+
+Native superstition and facile credulity are easily imposed upon. A
+report emitted in jest, or in earnest, travels with alarming rapidity,
+and the consequences have not unfrequently been serious. The native
+rarely sees a joke, and still more rarely makes one. He never reveals
+anger, but he will, with the most profound calmness, avenge himself,
+awaiting patiently the opportunity to use his bowie-knife with
+effect. Mutilation of a vanquished enemy is common among these
+Islanders. If a native recognizes a fault by his own conscience,
+he will receive a flogging without resentment or complaint; if he
+is not so convinced of the misdeed, he will await his chance to give
+vent to his rancour.
+
+He has a profound respect only for the elders of his household, and
+the lash justly administered. He rarely refers to past generations
+in his lineage, and the lowest class do not know their own ages. The
+Filipino, of any class, has no memory for dates. In 1904 not one in
+a hundred remembered the month and year in which General Aguinaldo
+surrendered. During the Independence war, an esteemed friend of mine,
+a Philippine priest, died, presumably of old age. I went to his town
+to inquire all about it from his son, but neither the son nor another
+near relation could recollect, after two days' reflection, even the
+year the old man passed away. Another friend of mine had his brains
+blown out during the Revolution. His brother was anxious to relate
+the tragedy to me and how he had lost 20,000 pesos in consequence,
+but he could not tell me in which month it happened. Families are
+very united, and claims for help and protection are admitted however
+distant the relationship may be. Sometimes the connection of a
+"hanger-on" with his host's family will be so remote and doubtful,
+that he can only be recognized as "_un poco pariente nada mas_"
+(a sort of kinsman). But the house is open to all.
+
+The native is a good father and a good husband, unreasonably jealous of
+his wife, careless of the honour of his daughter, and will take no heed
+of the indiscretions of his spouse committed before marriage. Cases
+have been known of natives having fled from their burning huts,
+taking care to save their fighting-cocks, but leaving their wives
+and children to look after themselves.
+
+If a question be suddenly put to a native, he apparently loses his
+presence of mind, and gives the reply most convenient to save himself
+from trouble, punishment, or reproach. It is a matter of perfect
+indifference to him whether the reply be true or not. Then, as the
+investigation proceeds, he will amend one statement after another,
+until, finally, he has practically admitted his first explanation
+to be quite false. One who knows the native character, so far as its
+mysteries are penetrable, would never attempt to get at the truth of
+a question by a direct inquiry--he would "beat about the bush," and
+extract the truth bit by bit. Nor do the natives, rich or poor, of any
+class in life, and with very few exceptions in the whole population,
+appear to regard lying as a sin, but rather as a legitimate, though
+cunning, convenience, which should be resorted to whenever it will
+serve a purpose. It is my frank opinion that they do not, in their
+consciences, hold lying to be a fault in any degree. If the liar be
+discovered and faced, he rarely appears disconcerted--his countenance
+rather denotes surprise at the discovery, or disappointment at his
+being foiled in the object for which he lied. As this is one of the
+most remarkable characteristics of the Filipino of both sexes in all
+spheres of life, I have repeatedly discussed it with the priests,
+several of whom have assured me that the habit prevails even in the
+confessional. [78] In the administration of justice this circumstance
+is inconvenient, because a witness is always procurable for a few
+pesos. In a law-case, in which one or both parties belong to the
+lowest class, it is sometimes difficult to say whether the false or
+the true witnesses are in majority.
+
+Men and women alike find exaggerated enjoyment in litigation, which
+many keep up for years. Among themselves they are tyrannical. They have
+no real sentiment, nor do they practise virtue for virtue's sake, and,
+apart from their hospitality, in which they (especially the Tagalogs)
+far excel the European, all their actions appear to be only guided
+by fear, or interest, or both.
+
+The domesticated Tagalogs of Luzon have made greater progress
+in civilization and good manners than the Visayos of Panay and
+Negros. The Tagalog differs vastly from his southern brother in
+his true nature, which is more pliant, whilst he is by instinct
+cheerfully and disinterestedly hospitable. Invariably a European
+wayfarer in a Tagalog village is invited by one or another of the
+principal residents to lodge at his house as a free guest, for to
+offer payment would give offence. A present of some European article
+might be made, but it is not at all looked for. The Tagalog host
+lends his guest horses or vehicles to go about the neighbourhood,
+takes him round to the houses of his friends, accompanies him to any
+feast which may be celebrated at the time of his visit, and lends
+him his sporting-gun, if he has one. The whole time he treats him
+with the deference due to the superiority which he recognizes. He is
+remarkably inquisitive, and will ask all sorts of questions about
+one's private affairs, but that is of no consequence--he is not
+intrusive, and if he be invited to return the visit in the capital,
+or wherever one may reside, he accepts the invitation reluctantly,
+but seldom pays the visit. Speaking of the Tagalog as a host, pure
+and simple, he is generally the most genial man one could hope to meet.
+
+The Negros and Panay Visayo's cold hospitality is much tempered with
+the prospect of personal gain--quite a contrast to the Tagalog. On
+the first visit he might admit the white traveller into his house
+out of mere curiosity to know all about him--whence he comes--why he
+travels--how much he possesses--and where he is going. The basis of
+his estimation of a visitor is his worldly means; or, if the visitor
+be engaged in trade, his power to facilitate his host's schemes would
+bring him a certain measure of civility and complaisance. He is fond
+of, and seeks the patronage of Europeans of position. In manners, the
+Negros and Panay Visayo is uncouth and brusque, and more conceited,
+arrogant, self-reliant, ostentatious, and unpolished than his northern
+neighbour. If remonstrated with for any fault, he is quite disposed
+to assume a tone of impertinent retort or sullen defiance. The Cebuano
+is more congenial and hospitable.
+
+The women, too, are less affable in Panay and Negros, and evince an
+almost incredible avarice. They are excessively fond of ornament,
+and at feasts they appear adorned with an amount of gaudy French
+jewellery which, compared with their means, cost them a lot of money
+to purchase from the swarm of Jew pedlars who, before the Revolution
+of 1896, periodically invaded the villages.
+
+If a European calls on a well-to-do Negros or Panay Visayo, the
+women of the family saunter off in one direction or another, to
+hide themselves in other rooms, unless the visitor be well known to
+the family. If met by chance, perhaps they will return a salutation,
+perhaps not. They seldom indulge in a smile before a stranger; have no
+conversation; no tuition beyond music and the lives of the Saints, and
+altogether impress the traveller with their insipidity of character,
+which chimes badly with their manifest air of disdain.
+
+The women of Luzon (and in a slightly less degree the Cebuanas)
+are more frank, better educated, and decidedly more courteous and
+sociable. Their manners are comparatively lively, void of arrogance,
+cheerful, and buoyant in tone. However, all over the Islands the
+women are more parsimonious than the men; but, as a rule, they
+are more clever and discerning than the other sex, over whom they
+exercise great influence. Many of them are very dexterous business
+women and have made the fortunes of their families. A notable example
+of this was the late Dona Cornelia Laochanco, of Manila, with whom
+I was personally acquainted, and who, by her own talent in trading
+transactions, accumulated considerable wealth. Dona Cornelia (who died
+in 1899) was the foundress of the system of blending sugar to sample
+for export, known in Manila as the _farderia._ In her establishment
+at San Miguel she had a little tower erected, whence a watchman
+kept his eye on the weather. When threatening clouds appeared a bell
+was tolled and the mats were instantly picked up and carried off by
+her Chinese coolie staff, which she managed with great skill, due,
+perhaps, to the fact that her three husbands were Chinese.
+
+The Philippine woman makes an excellent general servant in native
+families; in the same capacity, in European service, she is, as a rule,
+almost useless, but she is a good nursemaid.
+
+The Filipino has many excellent qualities which go far to make
+amends for his shortcomings. He is patient and forbearing in the
+extreme, remarkably sober, plodding, anxious only about providing
+for his immediate wants, and seldom feels "the canker of ambitious
+thoughts." In his person and his dwelling he may serve as a pattern
+of cleanliness to all other races in the tropical East. He has little
+thought beyond the morrow, and therefore never racks his brains about
+events of the far future in the political world, the world to come,
+or any other sphere. He indifferently leaves everything to happen as
+it may, with surprising resignation. The native, in general, will go
+without food for many hours at a time without grumbling; and fish,
+rice, betel-nut, and tobacco are his chief wants. Inebriety is almost
+unknown, although strong drink (nipa wine) is plentiful.
+
+In common with other races whose lives are almost exclusively passed
+amid the ever-varying wonders of land and sea, Filipinos rarely express
+any spontaneous admiration for the beauties of Nature, and seem little
+sensible to any aspect thereof not directly associated with the human
+interest of their calling. Few Asiatics, indeed, go into raptures
+over lovely scenery as Europeans do, nor does "the gorgeous glamour
+of the Orient" which we speak of so ecstatically strike them as such.
+
+When a European is travelling, he never needs to trouble about where
+or when his servant gets his food or where he sleeps--he looks after
+that. When a native travels, he drops in amongst any group of his
+fellow-countrymen whom he finds having their meal on the roadside,
+and wherever he happens to be at nightfall, there he lies down to
+sleep. He is never long in a great dilemma. If his hut is about to
+fall, he makes it fast with bamboo and rattan-cane. If a vehicle breaks
+down, a harness snaps, or his canoe leaks or upsets, he always has his
+remedy at hand. He stoically bears misfortune of all kinds with the
+greatest indifference, and without the least apparent emotion. Under
+the eye of his master he is the most tractable of all beings. He never
+(like the Chinese) insists upon doing things his own way, but tries to
+do just as he is told, whether it be right or wrong. A native enters
+one's service as a coachman, but if he be told to paddle a boat, cook a
+meal, fix a lock, or do any other kind of labour possible to him, he is
+quite agreeable. He knows the duties of no occupation with efficiency,
+and he is perfectly willing to be a "jack-of-all-trades." Another good
+feature is that he rarely, if ever, repudiates a debt, although he may
+never pay it. So long as he gets his food and fair treatment, and his
+stipulated wages in advance, he is content to act as a general-utility
+man; lodging he will find for himself. If not pressed too hard, he will
+follow his superior like a faithful dog. If treated with kindness,
+according to _European_ notions, he is lost. The native never looks
+ahead; if left to himself, he will do all sorts of imprudent things,
+from sheer want of reflection on the consequences, when, as he puts it,
+"his head is hot" from excitement due to any cause.
+
+On March 15, 1886, I was coming round the coast of Zambales in a small
+steamer, in which I was the only saloon passenger. The captain, whom
+I had known for years, found that one of the cabin servants had been
+systematically pilfering for some time past. He ordered the steward
+to cane him, and then told him to go to the upper deck and remain
+there. He at once walked up the ladder and threw himself into the sea;
+but the vessel stopped, a boat was lowered, and he was soon picked
+up. Had he been allowed to reach the shore, he would have become
+what is known as a _remontado_ and perhaps eventually a brigand,
+for such is the beginning of many of them.
+
+The thorough-bred native has no idea of organization on a large
+scale, hence a successful revolution is not possible if confined to
+his own class unaided by others, such as Creoles and foreigners. He
+is brave, and fears no consequences when with or against his equals,
+or if led by his superiors; but a conviction of superiority--moral
+or physical--in the adversary depresses him. An excess of audacity
+calms and overawes him rather than irritates him.
+
+His admiration for bravery and perilous boldness is only equalled
+by his contempt for cowardice and puerility, and this is really
+the secret of the native's disdain for the Chinese race. Under good
+European officers he makes an excellent soldier, and would follow
+a brave leader to death; however, if the leader fell, he would at
+once become demoralized. There is nothing he delights in more than
+pillage, destruction, and bloodshed, and when once he becomes master
+of the situation in an affray, there is no limit to his greed and
+savage cruelty.
+
+Yet, detesting order of any kind, military discipline is repugnant
+to him, and, as in other countries where conscription is the law,
+all kinds of tricks are resorted to to avoid it. On looking over the
+deeds of an estate which I had purchased, I saw that two brothers,
+each named Catalino Raymundo, were the owners at one time of a portion
+of the land. I thought there must have been some mistake, but, on
+close inquiry, I found that they were so named to dodge the Spanish
+recruiting officers, who would not readily suppose there were two
+Catalino Raymundos born of the same parents. As one Catalino Raymundo
+had served in the army and the other was dead, no further secret was
+made in the matter, and I was assured that this practice was common
+among the poorest natives.
+
+In November, 1887, a deserter from the new recruits was pursued
+to Langca, a ward of Meycauayan, Bulacan Province, where nearly
+all the inhabitants rose up in his defence, the result being that
+the Lieutenant of Cuadrilleros was killed and two of his men were
+wounded. When the Civil Guard appeared on the spot, the whole ward
+was abandoned.
+
+According to the Spanish army regulations, a soldier cannot
+be on sentinel duty for more than two hours at a time under any
+circumstances. Cases have been known of a native sentinel having been
+left at his post for a little over that regulation time, and to have
+become phrenetic, under the impression that the two hours had long
+since expired, and that he had been forgotten. In one case the man
+had to be disarmed by force, but in another instance the sentinel
+simply refused to give up his rifle and bayonet, and defied all who
+approached him. Finally, an officer went with the colours of the
+regiment in hand to exhort him to surrender his arms, adding that
+justice would attend his complaint. The sentinel, however, threatened
+to kill any one who should draw near, and the officer had no other
+recourse open to him but to order a European soldier to climb up
+behind the sentry-box and blow out the insubordinate native's brains.
+
+In the seventies, a contingent of Philippine troops was sent to
+assist the French in Tonquin, where they rendered very valuable
+service. Indeed, some officers are of opinion that they did more to
+quell the Tuh Duc rising than the French troops themselves. When in
+the fray, they throw off their boots, and, barefooted, they rarely
+falter. Even over mud and swamp, a native is almost as sure-footed
+as a goat on the brink of a quarry. I have frequently been carried
+for miles in a hammock by four natives and relays, through morassy
+districts too dangerous to travel on horseback. They are great adepts
+at climbing wherever it is possible for a human being to scale a
+height; like monkeys, they hold as much with their feet as with their
+hands; they ride any horse barebacked without fear; they are utterly
+careless about jumping into the sea among the sharks, which sometimes
+they will intentionally attack with knives, and I never knew a native
+who could not swim. There are natives who dare dive for the caiman and
+rip it up. If they meet with an accident, they bear it with supreme
+resignation, simply exclaiming "_desgracia pa_"--it was a misfortune.
+
+I can record with pleasure my happy recollection of many a
+light-hearted, genial, and patient native who accompanied me on
+my journeys in these Islands. Comparatively very few thorough-bred
+natives travel beyond their own islands, although there is a constant
+flow of half-castes to and from the adjacent colonies, Europe, etc.
+
+The native is very slowly tempted to abandon the habits and traditional
+customs of his forefathers, and his ambitionless felicity may be
+envied by any true philosopher.
+
+No one who has lived in the Colony for years could sketch the
+real moral portrait of such a remarkable combination of virtues
+and vices. The domesticated native's character is a succession of
+surprises. The experience of each year modifies one's conclusions,
+and the most exact definition of such an inscrutable being is, after
+all, hypothetical. However, to a certain degree, the characteristic
+indolence of these Islanders is less dependent on themselves
+than on natural law, for the physical conditions surrounding them
+undoubtedly tend to arrest their vigour of motion, energy of life,
+and intellectual power.
+
+The organic elements of the European differ widely from those of the
+Philippine native, and each, for his own durability, requires his own
+special environment. The half-breed partakes of both organisms, but has
+the natural environment of the one. Sometimes artificial means--the
+mode of life into which he is forced by his European parent--will
+counteract in a measure natural law, but, left to himself, the tendency
+will ever be towards an assimilation to the native. Original national
+characteristics disappear in an exotic climate, and, in the course
+of time, conform to the new laws of nature to which they are exposed.
+
+It is an ascertained fact that the increase of energy introduced into
+the Philippine native by blood mixture from Europe lasts only to the
+second generation, whilst the effect remains for several generations
+when there is a similarity of natural surroundings in the two races
+crossed. Moreover, the peculiar physique of a Chinese or Japanese
+progenitor is preserved in succeeding generations, long after the
+Spanish descendant has merged into the conditions of his environment.
+
+The Spanish Government strove in vain against natural law to
+counteract physical conditions by favouring mixed marriages, [79]
+but Nature overcomes man's law, and climatic influence forces its
+conditions on the half-breed. Indeed, were it not for new supplies of
+extraneous blood infusion, European characteristics would, in time,
+become indiscernible among the masses. Even on Europeans themselves,
+in defiance of their own volition, the new physical conditions and
+the influence of climate on their mental and physical organisms
+are perceptible after two or three decades of years' residence in
+the mid-tropics.
+
+All the natives of the domesticated type have distinct Malay, or
+Malay-Japanese, or Mongol features--prominent cheek-bones, large
+and lively eyes, and flat noses with dilated nostrils. They are,
+on the average, of rather low stature, very rarely bearded, and of a
+copper colour more or less dark. Most of the women have no distinct
+line of hair on the forehead. Some there are with a frontal hairy
+down extending to within an inch of the eyes, possibly a reversion
+to a progenitor (the _Macacus radiata_) in whom the forehead had
+not become quite naked, leaving the limit between the scalp and the
+forehead undefined. The hair of both males and females stands out from
+the skin like bristles, and is very coarse. The coarseness of the
+female's hair is, however, more than compensated by its luxuriance;
+for, provided she be in a normal state of health, up to the prime of
+life the hair commonly reaches down to the waist, and occasionally
+to the ankles. The women are naturally proud of this mark of beauty,
+which they preserved by frequent washings with _gogo_ (q.v.) and the
+use of cocoanut oil (q.v.). Hare-lip is common. Children, from their
+birth, have a spot at the base of the vertebrae, thereby supporting the
+theory of Professor Huxley's _Anthropidae_ sub-order--or man (_vide_
+Professor Huxley's "An Introduction to the Classification of Animals,"
+p. 99. Published 1869).
+
+
+
+Marriages between natives are usually arranged by the parents of
+the respective families. The nubile age of females is from about
+11 years. The parents of the young man visit those of the maiden, to
+approach the subject delicately in an oratorical style of allegory. The
+response is in like manner shrouded with mystery, and the veil is only
+thrown off the negotiations when it becomes evident that both parties
+agree. Among the poorer classes, if the young man has no goods to
+offer, it is frequently stipulated that he shall serve on probation
+for an indefinite period in the house of his future bride,--as Jacob
+served Laban to make Rachel his wife,--and not a few drudge for years
+with this hope before them.
+
+Sometimes, in order to secure service gratis, the elders of the
+young woman will suddenly dismiss the young man after a prolonged
+expectation, and take another _Catipad_. as he is called, on the
+same terms. The old colonial legislation--"Leyes de Indias"--in vain
+prohibited this barbarous ancient custom, and there was a modern
+Spanish law (of which few availed themselves) which permitted the
+intended bride to be "deposited" away from parental custody, whilst
+the parents were called upon to show cause why the union should not
+take place. However, it often happens that when Cupid has already
+shot his arrow into the virginal breast, and the betrothed foresee
+a determined opposition to their mutual hopes, they anticipate the
+privileges of matrimony, and compel the bride's parents to countenance
+their legitimate aspirations to save the honour of the family. _Honi
+soit qui mal y pense_--they simply force the hand of a dictatorial
+mother-in-law. The women are notably mercenary, and if, on the part
+of the girl and her people, there be a hitch, it is generally on
+the question of dollars when both parties are native. Of course,
+if the suitor be European, no such question is raised--the ambition
+of the family and the vanity of the girl being both satisfied by the
+alliance itself.
+
+When the proposed espousals are accepted, the donations _propter
+nuptias_ are paid by the father of the bridegroom to defray the
+wedding expenses, and often a dowry settlement, called in Tagalog
+dialect "_bigaycaya_" is made in favour of the bride. Very rarely
+the bride's property is settled on the husband. I never heard of such
+a case. The Spanish laws relating to married persons' property were
+quaint. If the husband were poor and the wife well-off, so they might
+remain, notwithstanding the marriage. He, as a rule, became a simple
+administrator of her possessions, and, if honest, often depended on
+her liberality to supply his own necessities. If he became bankrupt
+in a business in which he employed also her capital or possessions,
+she ranked as a creditor of the second class under the "Commercial
+Code." If she died, the poor husband, under no circumstances, by legal
+right (unless under a deed signed before a notary) derived any benefit
+from the fact of his having espoused a rich wife: her property passed
+to their legitimate issue, or--in default thereof--to her nearest blood
+relation. The children might be rich, and, but for their generosity,
+their father might be destitute, whilst the law compelled him to
+render a strict account to them of the administration of their property
+during their minority. This fact has given rise to many lawsuits.
+
+A married woman often signs her maiden name, sometimes adding "_de_
+----" (her husband's surname). If she survives him, she again takes
+up her _nomen ante nuptias_ amongst her old circle of friends,
+and only adds "widow of ----" to show who she is to the public (if
+she be in trade), or to those who have only known her as a married
+woman. The offspring use both the parental surnames, the mother's
+coming after the father's; hence it is the more prominent. Frequently,
+in Spanish documents requiring the mention of a person's name in full,
+the mother's maiden surname is revived.
+
+Thus marriage, as I understand the spirit of the Spanish law, seems
+to be a simple contract to legitimize and license procreation.
+
+Up to the year 1844, only a minority of the christian natives had
+distinctive family names. They were, before that date, known by certain
+harsh ejaculations, and classification of families was uncared for
+among the majority of the population. Therefore, in that year, a list
+of Spanish surnames was sent to each parish priest, and every native
+family had to adopt a separate appellation, which has ever since
+been perpetuated. Hence one meets natives bearing illustrious names
+such as Juan Salcedo, Juan de Austria, Rianzares, Ramon de Cabrera,
+Pio Nono Lopez, and a great many Legaspis.
+
+When a wedding among natives was determined upon, the betrothed went
+to the priest--not necessarily together--kissed his hand, and informed
+him of their intention. There was a tariff of marriage fees, but the
+priest usually set this aside, and fixed his charges according to the
+resources of the parties. This abuse of power could hardly be resisted,
+as the natives have a radicate aversion to being married elsewhere than
+in the village of the bride. The priest, too (not the bride), usually
+had the privilege of "naming the day." The fees demanded were sometimes
+enormous, the common result being that many couples merely cohabited
+under mutual vows because they could not pay the wedding expenses.
+
+The banns were verbally published after the benediction following
+the conclusion of the Mass. In the evening, prior to the marriage,
+it was compulsory on the couple to confess and obtain absolution from
+the priest. The nuptials almost invariably took place after the first
+Mass, between five and six in the morning, and those couples who were
+spiritually prepared first presented themselves for Communion. Then an
+acolyte placed over the shoulders of the bridal pair a thick mantle
+or pall. The priest recited a short formula of about five minutes'
+duration, put his interrogations, received the muttered responses, and
+all was over. To the espoused, as they left the church, was tendered
+a bowl of coin; the bridegroom passed a handful of the contents to
+the bride, who accepted it and returned it to the bowl. This act was
+symbolical of his giving to her his worldly goods. Then they left the
+church with their friends, preserving that solemn, stoical countenance
+common to all Malay natives. There was no visible sign of emotion
+as they all walked off, with the most matter-of-fact indifference,
+to the paternal abode. This was the custom under the Spaniards,
+and it still largely obtains; the Revolution decreed civil marriage,
+which the Americans have declared lawful, but not compulsory.
+
+After the marriage ceremony the feast called the _Catapusan_ [80]
+begins. To this the vicar and headmen of the villages, the immediate
+friends and relatives of the allied families, and any Europeans who
+may happen to be resident or sojourning, are invited. The table is
+spread, _a la Russe_, with all the good things procurable served at
+the same time--sweetmeats predominating. Imported beer, Dutch gin,
+chocolate, etc., are also in abundance. After the early repast, both
+men and women are constantly being offered betel-nut to masticate,
+and cigars or cigarettes, according to choice.
+
+Meanwhile, the company is entertained by native dancers. Two at
+a time--a young man and woman--stand _vis-a-vis_ and alternately
+sing a love ditty, the burthen of the theme usually opening by
+the regret of the young man that his amorous overtures have been
+disregarded. Explanations follow, in the poetic dialogue, as the
+parties dance around each other, keeping a slow step to the plaintive
+strains of music. This is called the _Balitao_. It is most popular
+in Visayas.
+
+Another dance is performed by a young woman only. If well executed
+it is extremely graceful. The girl begins singing a few words in an
+ordinary tone, when her voice gradually drops to the _diminuendo_,
+whilst her slow gesticulations and the declining vigour of the music
+together express her forlornness. Then a ray of joy seems momentarily
+to lighten her mental anguish; the spirited _crescendo_ notes gently
+return; the tone of the melody swells; her measured step and action
+energetically quicken--until she lapses again into resigned sorrow,
+and so on alternately. Coy in repulse, and languid in surrender,
+the _danseuse_ in the end forsakes her sentiment of melancholy for
+elated passion.
+
+The native dances are numerous. Another of the most typical, is that
+of a girl writhing and dancing a _pas seul_ with a glass of water on
+her head. This is known as the _Comitan_.
+
+When Europeans are present, the bride usually retires into the
+kitchen or a back room, and only puts in an appearance after repeated
+requests. The conversation rarely turns upon the event of the meeting;
+there is not the slightest outward manifestation of affection between
+the newly-united couple, who, during the feast, are only seen together
+by mere accident. If there are European guests, the repast is served
+three times--firstly for the Europeans and headmen, secondly for
+the males of less social dignity, and lastly for the women. Neither
+at the table nor in the reception-room do the men and women mingle,
+except for perhaps the first quarter of an hour after the arrival,
+or whilst dancing continues.
+
+About an hour after the mid-day meal, those who are not lodging at the
+house return to their respective residences to sleep the _siesta_. On
+an occasion like this--at a _Catapusan_ given for any reason--native
+outsiders, from anywhere, always invade the kitchen in a mob, lounge
+around doorways, fill up corners, and drop in for the feast uninvited,
+and it is usual to be liberally complaisant to all comers.
+
+As a rule, the married couple live with the parents of one or the
+other, at least until the family inconveniently increases. In old
+age, the elder members of the families come under the protection
+of the younger ones quite as a matter of course. In any case, a
+newly-married pair seldom reside alone. Relations from all parts
+flock in. Cousins, uncles and aunts, of more or less distant grade,
+hang on to the recently-established household, if it be not extremely
+poor. Even when a European marries a native woman, she is certain to
+introduce some vagabond relation--a drone to hive with the bees--a
+condition quite inevitable, unless the husband be a man of specially
+determined character.
+
+Death at childbirth is very common, and it is said that 25 per cent. of
+the new-born children die within a month.
+
+Among the lowest classes, whilst a woman is lying-in, the husband
+closes all the windows to prevent the evil spirit (_asuan_) entering;
+sometimes he will wave about a stick or bowie-knife at the door, or on
+top of the roof, for the same purpose. Even among the most enlightened,
+at the present day, the custom of shutting the windows is inherited
+from their superstitious forefathers, probably in ignorance of the
+origin of this usage.
+
+In Spanish times it was considered rather an honour than otherwise
+to have children by a priest, and little secret was made of it.
+
+In October, 1888, I was in a village near Manila, at the bedside
+of a sick friend, when the curate entered. He excused himself for
+not having called earlier, by explaining that "Turing" had sent him
+a message informing him that as the vicar (a native) had gone to
+Manila, he might take charge of the church and parish. "Is 'Turing'
+an assistant curate?" I inquired. My friend and the pastor were so
+convulsed with laughter at the idea, that it was quite five minutes
+before they could explain that the intimation respecting the parochial
+business emanated from the absent vicar's _bonne amie_.
+
+Consanguine marriages are very common, and perhaps this accounts for
+the low intellect and mental debility perceptible in many families.
+
+Poor parents offer their girls to Europeans for a loan of money,
+and they are admitted under the pseudonym of sempstress or
+housekeeper. Natives among themselves do not kiss--they smell each
+other, or rather, they place the nose and lip on the cheek and draw
+a long breath.
+
+Marriages between Spaniards and pure native women, although less
+frequent than formerly, still take place. Since 1899 many Americans,
+too, have taken pure native wives. It is difficult to apprehend an
+alliance so incongruous, there being no affinity of ideas, the only
+condition in common being, that they are both human beings professing
+Christianity. The husband is either drawn towards the level of
+the native by this heterogeneous relationship, or, in despair of
+remedying the error of a passing passion, he practically ignores
+his wife in his own social connections. Each forms then a distinct
+circle of friends of his, or her, own selection, whilst the woman is
+but slightly raised above her own class by the white man's influence
+and contact. There are some exceptions, but I have most frequently
+observed in the houses of Europeans married to native women in the
+provinces, that the wives make the kitchen their chief abode, and are
+only seen by the visitor when some domestic duty requires them to move
+about the house. Familiarity breeds contempt, and these _mesalliances_
+diminish the dignity of the superior race by reducing the birth-origin
+of both parents to a common level in their children.
+
+The Spanish half-breeds and Creoles constitute a very influential
+body. A great number of them are established in trade in Manila and
+the provinces. Due to their European descent, more or less distant,
+they are of quicker perception, greater tact, and gifted with wider
+intellectual faculties than the pure Oriental class. Also, the Chinese
+half-breeds,--a caste of Chinese fathers and Philippine mothers,--who
+form about one-sixth of the Manila population, are shrewder than
+the natives of pure extraction, their striking characteristic being
+distrust and suspicion of another's intentions. It is a curious
+fact that the Chinese half-caste speaks with as much contempt of
+the Chinaman as the thorough-bred Filipino does, and would fain
+hide his paternal descent. There are numbers of Spanish half-breeds
+fairly well educated, and just a few of them very talented. Many
+of them have succeeded in making pretty considerable fortunes in
+their negotiations, as middlemen, between the provincial natives
+and the European commercial houses. Their true social position is
+often an equivocal one, and the complex question has constantly to
+be confronted whether to regard a Spanish demi-sang from a native or
+European standpoint. Among themselves they are continually struggling
+to attain the respect and consideration accorded to the superior class,
+whilst their connexions and purely native relations link them to the
+other side. In this perplexing mental condition, we find them on the
+one hand striving in vain to disown their affinity to the inferior
+races, and on the other hand, jealous of their true-born European
+acquaintances. A morosity of disposition is the natural outcome. Their
+character generally is evasive and vacillating. They are captious,
+fond of litigation, and constantly seeking subterfuges. They appear
+always dissatisfied with their lot in life, and inclined to foster
+grievances against whoever may be in office over them. Pretentious
+in the extreme, they are fond of pomp and paltry show, and it is
+difficult to trace any popular movement, for good or for evil,
+without discovering a half-breed initiator, or leader, of one caste
+or another. They are locally denominated _Mestizos_.
+
+The Jesuit Father, Pedro Murillo Velarde, at p. 272 of his work
+on this Colony, expressed his opinion of the political-economical
+result of mixed marriages to the following effect:--"Now," he says,
+"we have a querulous, discontented population of half-castes, who,
+sooner or later, will bring about a distracted state of society, and
+occupy the whole force of the Government to stamp out the discord." How
+far the prophecy was fulfilled will be seen in another chapter.
+
+
+
+Being naturally prone to superstitious beliefs, the Islanders accepted,
+without doubting, all the fantastic tales which the early missionaries
+taught them. Miraculous crosses healed the sick, cured the plague,
+and scared away the locusts. Images, such as the _Holy Child of Bangi,_
+relieved them of all worldly sufferings. To this day they revere many
+of these objects, which are still preserved.
+
+The most ancient miraculous image in these Islands appears to be the
+_Santo Nino de Cebu_--the Holy Child of Cebu. It is recorded that on
+July 28, 1565, an image of the Child Jesus was found on Cebu Island
+shore by a Basque soldier named Juan de Camus. It was venerated and
+kept by the Austin friars. Irreverent persons have alleged it was a
+pagan idol. Against this, it may be argued that the heathen Cebuanos
+were not known to have been idolaters. In 1627 a fire occurred
+in Cebu city, when the Churches of Saint Nicholas and of the Holy
+Child were burnt down. The image was saved, and temporarily placed
+in charge of the Recoleto friars. A fire also took place on the site
+of the first cross erected on the island by Father Martin de Rada,
+the day Legaspi landed, and it is said that this cross, although made
+of bamboo, was not consumed. There now stands an Oratory, wherein
+on special occasions is exposed the original cross. Close by is the
+modern Church of the Holy Child.
+
+In June, 1887, the Prior of the convent conducted me to the strong-room
+where the wonderful image is kept. The Saint is of wood, about fifteen
+inches high, and laden with silver trinkets, which have been presented
+on different occasions. When exposed to public view, it has the
+honours of field-marshal accorded to it. It is a mystic deity with
+ebon features--so different from the lovely Child presented to us
+on canvas by the great masters! During the feast held in its honour
+(January 20), pilgrims from the remotest districts of the island and
+from across the seas come to purify their souls at the shrine of "The
+Holy Child." In the same room was a beautiful image of the Madonna,
+besides two large tin boxes containing sundry arms, legs, and heads
+of Saints, with their robes in readiness for adjustment on procession
+days. The patron of Cebu City is Saint Vidal.
+
+The legend of the celestial protector of Manila is not less
+interesting. It is related that in Dilao (now called Paco), near
+Manila, a wooden image of Saint Francis de Assisi, which was in the
+house of a native named Alonso Cuyapit, was seen to weep so copiously
+that many cloths were moistened by its tears. The image, with its hands
+outspread during three hours, invoked God's blessing on Manila. And
+then, on closing its hands, it grasped a cross and skull. Vows were
+made to the Saint, who was declared protector of the capital, and
+the same image is now to be seen in the Franciscan Church, under
+the appellation of _San Francisco de las lagrimas_--"Saint Francis
+of Tears."
+
+Up to the seventies of last century, a disgusting spectacle used to be
+annually witnessed at the Church of San Miguel (Manila) on December 8;
+it was a realistic representation of the Immaculate Conception!
+
+"Our Lady of Cagsaysay," near Taal (Batangas), has been revered for
+many years both by Europeans and natives. So enthusiastic was the
+belief in the miraculous power of this image, that the galleons,
+when passing the Batangas coast on their way to and from Mexico,
+were accustomed to fire a salute from their guns (_vide_ pp. 18,
+19). This image was picked up by a native in his fishing-net, and
+he placed it in a cave, where it was discovered by other natives,
+who imagined they saw many extraordinary lights around it. According
+to the local legend, they heard sweet sonorous music proceeding from
+the same spot, and the image came forward and spoke to a native woman,
+who had brought her companions to adore the Saint.
+
+The history of the many shrines all over the Colony would well fill
+a volume; however, by far the most popular one is that of the Virgin
+of Antipolo--_Nuestra Senora de Buen Viaje y de la Paz_, "Our Lady
+of Good Voyage and Peace."
+
+This image is said to have wrought many miracles. It was first brought
+from Acapulco (Mexico) in 1626 in the State galleon, by Juan Nino de
+Tabora, who was appointed Gov.-General of these Islands (1626-32) by
+King Philip IV. The Saint, it is alleged, had encountered numberless
+reverses between that time and the year 1672, since which date it has
+been safely lodged in the Parish Church of Antipolo--a village in the
+old Military District of Morong (Rizal Province)--in the custody of
+the Austin friars. In the month of May, thousands of people repair to
+this shrine; indeed, this village of 3,800 inhabitants (diminished to
+2,800 in 1903) chiefly depends upon the pilgrims for its existence,
+for the land within the jurisdiction of Antipolo is all mountainous
+and very limited in extent. The priests also do a very good trade in
+prints of Saints, rosaries, etc., for the sale of which, in Spanish
+times, they used to open a shop during the feast inside and just in
+front of the convent entrance. The total amount of money spent in the
+village by visitors during the pilgrimage has been roughly computed
+to be P30,000. They come from all parts of the Islands.
+
+The legends of the Saint are best described in a pamphlet published
+in Manila, [81] from which I take the following information.
+
+The writer says that the people of Acapulco (Mexico) were loth to
+part with their Holy Image, but the saintly Virgin herself, desirous
+of succouring the inhabitants of the Spanish Indies, smoothed all
+difficulties. During her first voyage, in the month of March, 1626,
+a tempest arose, which was calmed by the Virgin, and all arrived
+safely in the galleon at the shores of Manila. She was then carried
+in procession to the Cathedral, whilst the church bells tolled and
+the artillery thundered forth salutes of welcome. A solemn Mass was
+celebrated, which all the religious communities, civil authorities,
+and a multitude of people attended.
+
+Six years afterwards the Gov.-General Juan Nino de Tabora died. By
+his will he intrusted the Virgin to the care of the Jesuits, whilst
+a church was being built under the direction of Father Juan Salazar
+for her special reception. During the erection of this church, the
+Virgin often descended from the altar and exhibited herself amongst the
+flowery branches of a tree, called by the natives Antipolo (_Artocarpus
+incisa_). The tree itself was thenceforth regarded as a precious relic
+by the natives, who, leaf by leaf and branch by branch, were gradually
+carrying it off. Then Father Salazar decreed that the tree-trunk should
+serve for a pedestal to the Divine Miraculous Image--hence the title
+"Virgin of Antipolo."
+
+In 1639 the Chinese rebelled against the Spanish authority (_vide_
+p. 115). In their furious march through the ruins and the blood of
+their victims, and amidst the wailing of the crowd, they attacked the
+Sanctuary wherein reposed the Virgin. Seizing the Holy Image, they
+cast it into the flames, and when all around was reduced to ashes,
+there stood the Virgin of Antipolo, resplendent, with her hair,
+her lace, her ribbons and adornments intact, and her beautiful body
+of brass without wound or blemish! Passionate at seeing frustrated
+their designs to destroy the deified protectress of the Christians,
+a wanton infidel stabbed her in the face, and all the resources of
+art have ever failed to heal the lasting wound. Again the Virgin
+was enveloped in flames, which hid the appalling sight of her
+burning entrails. Now the Spanish troops arrived, and fell upon
+the heretical marauders with great slaughter; then, glancing with
+trembling anxiety upon the scene of the outrage, behold! with glad
+astonishment they descried the Holy Image upon a smouldering pile
+of ashes--unhurt! With renewed enthusiasm, the Spanish warriors bore
+away the Virgin on their shoulders in triumph, and Sebastian Hurtado
+de Corcuera, the Gov.-General at the time, had her conveyed to Cavite
+to be the patroness of the faithful upon the high seas.
+
+A galleon arrived at Cavite, and being unable to go into port, the
+commander anchored off at a distance. Then the new Gov.-General,
+Diego Fajardo (1644-53), sent the Virgin on board, and, by her help,
+a passage was found for the vessel to enter.
+
+Later on, twelve Dutch warships appeared off Mariveles, the
+northwestern extremity of Manila Bay. They had come to attack Cavite,
+and in their hour of danger the Spaniards appealed to the Virgin,
+who gave them a complete victory over the Dutchmen, causing them
+to flee, with their commander mortally wounded. During the affray,
+the Virgin had been taken away for safety on board the _San Diego_,
+commanded by Cepeda. In 1650 this vessel returned, and the pious
+prelate, Jose Millan Poblete, [82] thought he perceived clear
+indications of an eager desire on the part of the Virgin to retire to
+her Sanctuary. The people, too, clamoured for the Saint, attributing
+the many calamities with which they were afflicted at that period
+to her absence from their shores. Assailed by enemies, frequently
+threatened by the Dutch, lamenting the loss of several galleons,
+and distressed by a serious earthquake, their only hope reposed in
+the beneficent aid of the Virgin of Antipolo.
+
+But the galleon _San Francisco Xavier_ feared to make the journey
+to Mexico without the saintly support, and for the sixth time the
+Virgin crossed the Pacific Ocean. In Acapulco the galleon lay at
+anchor until March, 1653, when the newly-appointed Gov.-General,
+Sabiniano Manrique de Lara, Archbishop Miguel Poblete, Father
+Rodrigo Cardenas, Bishop-elect of Cagayan, and many other passengers
+embarked and set sail for Manila. Their sufferings during the voyage
+were horrible. Almost overcome by a violent storm, the ship became
+unmanageable. Rain poured in torrents, whilst her decks were washed by
+the surging waves, and all was on the point of utter destruction. In
+this plight the Virgin was exhorted, and not in vain, for at her
+command the sea lessened its fury, the wind calmed, black threatening
+clouds dispersed, all the terrors of the voyage ceased, and under a
+beautiful blue sky a fair wind wafted the galleon safely to the port
+of Cavite.
+
+These circumstances gained for the Saint the title of "Virgin of Good
+Voyage and Peace"; and the sailors,--who gratefully acknowledged that
+their lives were saved by her sublime intercession,--followed by the
+ecclesiastical dignitaries and military chiefs, carried the image to
+her retreat in Antipolo (September 8, 1653), where it was intended
+she should permanently remain. However, deprived of the succour of
+the Saint, misfortunes again overtook the galleons. Three of them
+were lost, and the writer of the brochure to which I refer supposes
+(Chap. iv.) that perchance the sea, suffering from the number of
+furrows cut by the keels of the ships, had determined to take a fierce
+revenge by swallowing them up!
+
+Once more, therefore, the Virgin condescended to accompany a galleon
+to Mexico, bringing her back safely to Philippine shores in 1672.
+
+This was the Virgin's last sea voyage. Again, and for ever, she was
+conveyed by the joyous multitude to her resting-place in Antipolo
+Church, and on her journey thither, there was not a flower, adds the
+chronicler, which did not greet her by opening a bud--not a mountain
+pigeon which remained in silence, whilst the breezes and the rivulets
+poured forth their silent murmurings of ecstasy. Saintly guardian
+of the soul, dispersing mundane evils!--no colours, the chronicler
+tells us, can paint the animation of the faithful; no discourse can
+describe the consolation of the pilgrims in their adoration at the
+Shrine of the Holy Virgin of Antipolo.
+
+Yet the village of Antipolo and its neighbourhood was, in Spanish
+times, the centre of brigandage, the resort of murderous highwaymen,
+the focus of crime. What a strange contrast to the sublime virtues
+of the immortal divinity enclosed within its Sanctuary!
+
+On November 26, 1904, this miraculous Image was temporarily removed
+from Antipolo to Manila for the celebration of the feast of the
+Immaculate Conception. Carried by willing hands to the place of
+embarkation, it made the voyage to the capital, down the Pasig
+River, in a gorgeously decorated barge, towed by a steam launch,
+escorted by hundreds of floating craft and over 20,000 natives,
+marching along the river banks in respectful accompaniment. The next
+day a procession of about 35,000 persons followed the Virgin to the
+Cathedral of Manila, where she was enshrined, awaiting the great event
+of December 8. Subsequently she was restored to her shrine at Antipolo.
+
+
+
+The most lucrative undertaking in the Colony is that of a shrine. It
+yields all gain, without possible loss. Among the most popular of
+these "Miraculous Saint Shows" was that of Gusi, belonging to the
+late parish priest of Ilug, in Negros Island. At Gusi, half an hour's
+walk from the Father's parish church, was enthroned San Joaquin,
+who, for a small consideration, consoled the faithful or relieved
+them of iheir sufferings. His spouse, Santa Ana, having taken up
+her residence in the town of Molo (Yloilo Province), was said to
+have been visited by San Joaquin once a year. He was absent on the
+journey at least a fortnight, but the waters in the neighbourhood of
+the Shrine being sanctified the _clientele_ was not dispersed. Some
+sceptics have dared to doubt whether San Joaquin really paid this
+visit to his saintly wife, and alleged that his absence was feigned,
+firstly to make his presence longed for, and secondly to remove the
+cobwebs from his hallowed brow, and give him a wash and brush up for
+the year. The Shrine paid well for years--every devotee leaving his
+mite. At the time of my pilgrimage there, the holy Father's son was
+the petty-governor of the same town of Ilug.
+
+Shrine-owners are apparently no friends of free trade. In 1888 there
+was a great commotion amongst them when it was discovered that a
+would-be competitor and a gownsman had conspired, in Pampanga Province,
+to establish a Miraculous Saint, by concealing an image in a field
+in order that it should "make itself manifest to the faithful,"
+and thenceforth become a source of income.
+
+It is notorious that in a church near Manila, a few years ago,
+an image was made to move the parts of its body as the reverend
+preacher exhorted it in the course of his sermon. When he appealed
+to the Saint, it wagged its head or extended its arms, whilst the
+female audience wept and wailed. Such a scandalous disturbance did
+it provoke that the exhibition was even too monstrous for the clergy
+themselves, and the Archbishop prohibited it. But religion has many
+wealth-producing branches. In January, 1889, a friend of mine showed
+me an account rendered by the Superior of the Jesuits' School for
+the education of his sons, each of whom was charged with one peso as
+a gratuity to the Pope, to induce him to canonize a deceased member
+of their Order. I have been most positively assured by friends, whose
+good faith I ought not to doubt, that San Pascual Bailon really has,
+on many occasions, had compassion on barren women (their friends)
+and given them offspring. Jose Rizal, in his "Noli me tangere" hints
+that the real Pascual was a friar.
+
+Trading upon the credulity of devout enthusiasts by fetishism and
+shrine quackery is not altogether confined to the ecclesiastics. A
+Spanish layman in Yloilo, some few years ago, when he was an official
+of the prison, known as the "Cotta," conceived the idea of declaring
+that the Blessed Virgin and Child Jesus had appeared in the prison
+well, where they took a bath and disappeared. When, at length,
+the belief became popular, hundreds of natives went there to get
+water from the well, and the official imposed a tax on the pilgrims,
+whereby he became possessed of a modest fortune, and owned two of
+the best houses in the Square of Yloilo.
+
+The Feast of Tigbauang (near Yloilo), which takes place in January,
+is also much frequented on account of the miracles performed by
+the patron Saint of the town. The faith in the power of this minor
+divinity to dispel bodily suffering is so deeply rooted that members
+of the most enlightened families of Yloilo and the neighbouring towns
+go to Tigbauang simply to attend High Mass, and return at once. I
+have seen steamers entering Yloilo from this feast so crowded with
+passengers that there was only standing room for them.
+
+An opprobrious form of religious imposture--perhaps the most
+contemptible--which frequently offended the public eye, before the
+American advent, was the practice of prowling about with doll-saints
+in the streets and public highways. A vagrant, too lazy to earn an
+honest subsistence, procured a licence from the monks to hawk about a
+wooden box containing a doll or print covered by a pane of glass. This
+he offered to hold before the nose of any ignorant passer-by who was
+willing to pay for the boon of kissing the glass!
+
+During Holy Week, a few years ago, the captain of the Civil Guard
+in Tayabas Province went to the town of Atimonan, and saw natives
+in the streets almost in a state of nudity doing penance "for the
+wounds of Our Lord." They were actually beating themselves with
+flails, some of which were made of iron chain, and others of rope
+with thongs of rattan-cane. Having confiscated the flails--one of
+which he gave to me--he effectually assisted the fanatics in their
+penitent castigation. Alas! to what excesses will faith, unrestrained
+by reason, bring one!
+
+The result of tuition in mystic influences is sometimes manifested
+in the appearance of native Santones--indolent scamps who roam
+about in remote villages, feigning the possession of supernatural
+gifts, the faculty of saving souls, and the healing art, with the
+object of living at the expense of the ignorant. I never happened
+to meet more than one of these creatures--an escaped convict named
+Apolonio, a native of Cabuyao (Laguna), who, assuming the character
+of a prophet and worker of miracles, had fled to the neighbourhood
+of San Pablo village. I have often heard of them in other places,
+notably in Capis Province, where the Santones were vigorously pursued
+by the Civil Guard, and as recently as May, 1904, a notorious humbug
+of this class, styling himself _Pope Isio, alias Nazarenong Gala_,
+was arrested in West Negros and punished under American authority.
+
+The Spanish clergy were justifiably zealous in guarding the Filipinos
+from a knowledge of other doctrines which would only lead them to
+immeasurable bewilderment. Hence all the civilized natives were
+Roman Catholics exclusively. The strict obedience to _one_ system
+of Christianity, even in its grossly perverted form, had the effect
+desired by the State, of bringing about social unity to an advanced
+degree. Yet, so far as I have observed, the native seems to understand
+extremely little of the "inward and spiritual grace" of religion. He
+is so material and realistic, so devoid of all conception of things
+abstract, that his ideas rarely, if ever, soar beyond the contemplation
+of the "outward and visible signs" of christian belief. The symbols
+of faith and the observance of religious rites are to him religion
+itself. He also confounds morality with religion. Natives go to church
+because it is the custom. Often if a native cannot put on a clean
+shirt, he abstains from going to Mass. The petty-governor of a town
+was compelled to go to High Mass accompanied by his "ministry." In
+some towns the _Barangay Chiefs_ were fined or beaten if they were
+absent from church on Sundays and certain Feast Days. [83]
+
+As to the women, little or no pressure was necessary to oblige them
+to attend Mass; many of them pass half their existence between private
+devotion and the confessional.
+
+The parish priest of Lipa (Batangas) related to a friend of mine that
+having on one occasion distributed all his stock of pictures of the
+Saints to those who had come to see him on parochial business, he
+had to content the last suppliant with an empty raisin-box, without
+noticing that on the lid there was a coloured print of Garibaldi. Later
+on Garibaldi's portrait was seen in a hut in one of the suburbs with
+candles around it, being adored as a Saint.
+
+A curious case of native religious philosophy was reported in a
+Manila newspaper. [84] A milkman, accused by one of his customers of
+having adulterated the milk, of course denied it at first, and then,
+yielding to more potent argument than words, he confessed that he had
+diluted the milk with _holy water from the church fonts_, for at the
+same time that he committed the sin he was penitent.
+
+Undoubtedly Roman Catholicism appears to be the form of Christianity
+most successful in proselytizing uncivilized races, which are impressed
+more through their eyes than their understanding. If the grandeur of
+the ritual, the magnificence of the processions, the lustre of the
+church vessels and the images themselves have never been understood
+by the masses in the strictly symbolic sense in which they appeal
+to us, at least they have had their influence in drawing millions to
+civilization and to a unique uniformity of precept, the practice of
+which it is beyond all human power to control.
+
+
+
+For Music the native has an inherent passion. Musicians are to be found
+in every village, and even among the very poorest classes. Before
+the Revolution there was scarcely a parish, however remote, without
+its orchestra, and this natural taste was laudably encouraged by the
+priests. Some of these bands acquired great local fame, and were sought
+for wherever there was a feast miles away. The players seemed to enjoy
+it as much as the listeners, and they would keep at it for hours at a
+time, as long as their bodily strength lasted. Girls from six years
+of age learn to play the harp almost by instinct, and college girls
+quickly learn the piano. There are no native composers--they are but
+imitators. There is an absence of sentimental feeling in the execution
+of set music (which is all foreign), and this is the only drawback to
+their becoming fine instrumentalists. For the same reason, classical
+music is very little in vogue among the Philippine people, who prefer
+dance pieces and ballad accompaniments. In fact, a native musical
+performance is so void of soul and true conception of harmony that
+at a feast it is not an uncommon thing to hear three bands playing
+close to each other at the same time; and the mob assembled seem to
+enjoy the confusion of the melody! There are no Philippine vocalists
+worth hearing.
+
+Travelling through the Laguna Province in 1882 I was impressed by
+the ingenuity of the natives in their imitation of European musical
+instruments. Just an hour before I had emerged from a dense forest,
+abundantly adorned with exquisite foliage, and where majestic trees,
+flourishing in gorgeous profusion, afforded a gratifying shelter from
+the scorching sun. Not a sound was heard but the gentle ripple of a
+limpid stream, breaking over the boulders on its course towards the
+ravine below. But it was hardly the moment to ponder on the poetic
+scene, for fatigue and hunger had almost overcome sentimentality,
+and I got as quickly as I could to the first resting-place. This I
+found to be a native cane-grower's plantation bungalow, where quite
+a number of persons was assembled, the occasion of the meeting being
+the baptism and benediction of the sugar-cane mill. Before I was
+near enough, however, to be seen by the party--for it was nearly
+sunset--I heard the sound of distant music floating through the
+air. Such a strange occurrence excited my curiosity immensely, and
+I determined to find out what it all meant. I soon discovered that
+it was a bamboo band returning from the feast of the "baptism of the
+mill." Each instrument was made of bamboo on a semi-European model,
+and the players were merely farm-labourers.
+
+Philippine musicians have won fame outside their own country. Some
+years ago there was a band of them in Shanghai and another in
+Cochin China on contract. It was reported, too, that the band of the
+Constabulary sent to the St. Louis Exhibition in 1904 was the delight
+of the people in Honolulu, where they touched _en route_.
+
+
+
+Slavery was prohibited by law as far back as the reign of Philip
+II.; [85] it nevertheless still exists in an occult form among
+the natives. Rarely, if ever, do its victims appeal to the law
+for redress, firstly, because of their ignorance, and secondly,
+because the untutored class have an innate horror of resisting
+anciently-established custom, and it would never occur to them
+to do so. Moreover, in the time of the Spaniards, the numberless
+_procuradores_ and _pica-pleitos_--touting solicitors had no interest
+in taking up cases so profitless to themselves. Under the pretext
+of guaranteeing a loan, parents readily sell their children (male or
+female) into bondage. The child is handed over to work until the loan
+is repaid; but as the day of restitution of the advance never arrives,
+neither does the liberty of the youthful victim. Among themselves
+it was a law, and is still a practised custom, for the debts of
+the parents to pass on to the children, and, as I have said before,
+debts are never repudiated by them. Slavery, in an overt form, now
+only exists among some wild tribes and the Moros.
+
+
+
+Education was almost exclusively under the control of the friars. Up
+to the year 1844 anything beyond religious tuition was reserved
+for the Spanish youth, the half-castes, and the children of
+those in office. Among the many reforms introduced in the time of
+Gov.-General Narciso Claveria (1844-49), that of extending Education
+to the provincial parishes was a failure. In the middle of the reign
+of Isabella II. (about 1850) it was the exclusive privilege of the
+classes mentioned and the native petty aristocracy, locally designated
+the _gente ilustrada_ and the _pudientes_ (Intellectuals and people
+of means and influence). Education, thus limited, divided the people
+into two separate castes, as distinct as the ancient Roman citizen and
+the plebeian. Residing chiefly in the ports open to foreign trade,
+the Intellectuals acquired wealth, possessed rich estates and fine
+houses artistically adorned. Blessed with all the comforts which
+money could procure and the refinement resulting from education, they
+freely associated and intermarried with the Spaniards, whose easy grace
+and dignified manners they gradually acquired and retain, to a great
+extent, to the present day. The other caste--the Illiterates--were
+dependents of the Intellectuals. Without mental training, with few
+wants, and little expenses, they were as contented, in their sphere,
+as the upper class were in theirs. Like their masters, they had their
+hopes, but they never knew what misery was, as one understands it in
+Europe, and in this felicitous, ambitionless condition, they never
+urgently demanded education, even for their children. The movement came
+from higher quarters, and during the O'Donnell ministry a Royal Decree
+was sent from Madrid establishing schools throughout the provinces.
+
+On the banks of the Pasig River there was a training college for
+schoolmasters, who were drafted off to the villages with a miserable
+stipend, to teach the juvenile rustics. But the governmental system
+of centralization fell somewhat hard on the village teacher. For
+instance, I knew one who received a monthly salary of 16 pesos,
+and every month he had to spend two of them to travel to Manila and
+back to receive the money--an outlay equal to 12 1/2 per cent. of his
+total income. For such a wretched pittance great things were not to
+be expected of the teacher, even though he had had a free hand in his
+work. Other circumstances of greater weight contributed to keep the
+standard of education among the common townfolk very low; in some
+places to abolish it totally. The parish priests were _ex-officio_
+Inspectors of Schools for primary instruction, wherein it was their
+duty to see that the Spanish language was taught. The old "Laws
+of the Indies" provided that christian doctrine should be taught
+to the heathen native in Spanish. [86] Several decrees confirming
+that law were issued from time to time, but their fulfilment did
+not seem to suit the policy of the friars. On June 30, 1887, the
+Gov.-General published another decree with the same object, and sent
+a communication to the Archbishop to remind him of this obligation
+of his subordinates, and the urgency of its strict observance. But it
+had no effect whatever, and the poor-class villagers were only taught
+to gabble off the christian doctrine by rote, for it suited the friar
+to stimulate that peculiar mental condition in which belief precedes
+understanding. The school-teacher, being subordinate to the inspector,
+had no voice in the matter, and was compelled to follow the views of
+the priest. Few Spaniards took the trouble to learn native dialects (of
+which there are about 30), and only a small percentage of the natives
+can speak intelligible Spanish. There is no literature in dialect; the
+few odd compositions in Tagalog still extant are wanting in the first
+principles of literary style. There were many villages with untrained
+teachers who could not speak Spanish; there were other villages with
+no schools at all, hence no preparation whatever for municipal life.
+
+If the friars had agreed to the instruction of the townfolk through the
+medium of Spanish, as a means to the attainment of higher culture, one
+could well have understood their reluctance to teach it to the rural
+labourers, because it is obvious to any one who knows the character
+of this class that the knowledge of a foreign language would unfit
+them for agricultural labour and the lower occupations, and produce
+a new social problem. Even this class, however, might have been
+mentally improved by elementary books translated into dialect. But,
+unfortunately, the friars were altogether opposed to the education
+of the masses, whether through dialect or Spanish, in order to hold
+them in ignorant subjection to their own will, and the result was
+that the majority grew up as untutored as when they were born.
+
+Home discipline and training of manners were ignored, even in
+well-to-do families. Children were left without control, and by
+excessive indulgence allowed to do just as they pleased; hence they
+became ill-behaved and boorish.
+
+Planters of means, and others who could afford it, sent their sons and
+daughters to private schools, or to the colleges under the direction
+of the priests in Manila, Jaro (Yloilo Province), or Cebu. A few--very
+few--sent their sons to study in Europe, or in Hong-Kong.
+
+According to the Budget of 1888 the State contributed to the expense
+of Education, in that year, as follows, viz.:--
+
+
+                                                               P. cts.
+Schools and Colleges for high-class education in Manila,
+including Navigation, Drawing, Painting, Book-keeping,
+Languages, History, Arts and Trades, Natural History
+Museum and Library and general instruction.                 86,450 00
+School of Agriculture (including 10 schools and model
+farms in 10 Provinces)                                     113,686 64
+General Expenses of Public Instruction, including National
+Schools in the Provinces                                    38,513 70
+                                                           ==========
+                                                          P238,650 34
+
+
+The teaching offered to students in Manila was very advanced, as will
+be seen from the following Syllabus of Education in the Municipal
+Athenaeum of the Jesuits:--
+
+
+    Agriculture.            Geometry.           Philosophy.
+    Algebra.                Greek.              Physics and Chemistry.
+    Arithmetic.             History.            Rhetoric and Poetry.
+    Commerce.               Latin.              Spanish Classics.
+    Geography.              Mechanics.          Spanish Composition.
+    English.                Natural History.    Topography.
+    French.                 Painting.           Trigonometry.
+
+
+In the highest Girls' School--the Santa Isabel College--the following
+was the curriculum, viz.:--
+
+
+    Arithmetic.             Geology.            Philippine History.
+    Drawing.                Geometry.           Physics.
+    Dress-cutting.          History of Spain.   Reading.
+    French.                 Music.              Sacred History.
+    Geography.              Needlework.         Spanish Grammar.
+
+
+There were also (for girls) the Colleges of Santa Catalina, Santa
+Rosa, La Concordia, the Municipal School, etc. A few were sent to
+the Italian Convent in Hong-Kong.
+
+A college known as Saint Thomas' was founded in Manila by Fray Miguel
+de Benavides, third Archbishop of Manila, between the years 1603
+and 1610. He contributed to it his library and P 1,000, to which
+was added a donation by the Bishop of Nueva Segovia of P 3,000 and
+his library. In 1620 it already had professors and masters under
+Government auspices. It received three Papal Briefs for 10 years
+each, permitting students to graduate in Philosophy and Theology. It
+was then raised to the status of a University in the time of Philip
+IV. by Papal Bull of November 20, 1645. The first rector of Saint
+Thomas' University was Fray Martin Real de la Cruz. In the meantime,
+the Jesuits' University had been established. Until 1645 it was the
+only place of learning superior to primary education, and conferred
+degrees. The Saint Thomas' University (under the direction of Dominican
+friars) now disputed the Jesuits' privilege to confer degrees, claiming
+for themselves exclusive right by Papal Bull. A lawsuit followed, and
+the Supreme Court of Manila decided in favour of Saint Thomas'. The
+Jesuits appealed to the King against this decision. The Supreme Council
+of the Indies was consulted, and revoked the decision of the Manila
+Supreme Court, so that the two Universities continued to give degrees
+until the Jesuits were expelled from the Colony in 1768. From 1785
+Saint Thomas' University was styled the "Royal University," and was
+declared to rank equally with the Peninsular Universities.
+
+There were also the Dominican College of San Juan de Letran, founded
+in the middle of the 17th century, the Jesuit Normal School, the
+Convent of Mercy for Orphan Students, and the College of Saint
+Joseph. This last was founded in 1601, under the direction of the
+Jesuits. King Philip V. gave it the title of "Royal College," and
+allowed an escutcheon to be erected over the entrance. The same king
+endowed three professorial chairs with P 10,000 each. Latterly it was
+governed by the Rector of the University, whilst the administration
+was confided to a licentiate in pharmacy.
+
+At the time of the Spanish evacuation, therefore, the only university
+in the City of Manila was that of Saint Thomas, which was empowered to
+issue diplomas of licentiate in law, theology, medicine, and pharmacy
+to all successful candidates, and to confer degrees of LL.D. The
+public investiture was presided over by the Rector of the University, a
+Dominican friar; and the speeches preceding and following the ceremony,
+which was semi-religious, were made in the Spanish language.
+
+In connection with this institution there was the modern Saint Thomas'
+College for preparing students for the University.
+
+The Nautical School naturally stood outside the sphere of
+ecclesiastical control. Established in 1839 in Calle Cabildo (walled
+city), its purpose was to instruct youths in the science of navigation
+and prepare them for the merchant service within the waters of the
+Archipelago and the adjacent seas. During the earthquake of 1863 the
+school building was destroyed. It was then re-established in Calle
+San Juan de Letran, subsequently located in Calle del Palacio, and
+was finally (in 1898) removed from the walled city to the business
+quarter of Binondo. Special attention was given to the teaching of
+mathematics, and considerable sums of money were allocated, from time
+to time, for the equipment of this technical centre of learning.
+
+One of the most interesting and amusing types of the native was
+the average college student from the provinces. After a course
+of two, three, up to eight years, he learnt to imitate European
+dress and ape Western manners; to fantastically dress his hair;
+to wear patent-leather shoes, jewellery, and a latest-fashioned
+felt hat adjusted carefully towards one side of his head. He went
+to the theatre, drove a "tilbury," and attended native _reunions_,
+to deploy his abilities before the _beau sexe_ of his class. During
+his residence in the capital, he was supposed to learn, amongst
+other subjects, Latin, Divinity, Philosophy, and sometimes Theology,
+preparatory, in many cases, to succeeding his father in a sugar-cane
+and rice plantation. The average student had barely an outline idea
+of either physical or political geography, whilst his notions of
+Spanish or universal history were very chaotic. I really think the
+Manila newspapers--poor as they were--contributed very largely to
+the education of the people in this Colony.
+
+Still, there are cases of an ardent genius shining as an exception to
+his race. Amongst the few, there were two brothers named Luna--the
+one was a notably skilful performer on the guitar and violin, who,
+however, died at an early age. The other, Juan Luna, developed
+a natural ability for painting. A work of his own conception--the
+"Spoliarium," executed by him in Rome in 1884--gained the second prize
+at the Madrid Academy Exhibition of Oil Paintings. The Municipality
+of Barcelona purchased this _chef d'oeuvre_ for the City Hall. Other
+famous productions of his are "The Battle of Lepanto," "The Death of
+Cleopatra," and "The Blood Compact" (q.v). This last masterpiece
+was acquired by the Municipality of Manila for the City Hall,
+but was removed when the Tagalog Rebellion broke out, for reasons
+which will be understood after reading Chapter xxii. This artist,
+the son of poor parents, was a second mate on board a sailing ship,
+when his gifts were recognized, and means were furnished him with
+which to study in Rome. His talent was quite exceptional, for these
+Islanders are not an artistic people. Having little admiration for
+the picturesque and the beautiful in Nature, they cannot depict them:
+in this respect they form a decided contrast to the Japanese. Paete
+(La Laguna) is the only place I know of in the provinces where there
+are sculptors by profession. The Manila Academy was open to all comers
+of all nationalities, and, as an ex-student under its Professors Don
+Lorenzo Rocha and Don Agustin Saez, I can attest to their enthusiasm
+for the progress of their pupils.
+
+In the General Post and Telegraph Office in Manila I was shown an
+excellent specimen of wood-carving--a bust portrait of Mr. Morse
+(the celebrated inventor of the Morse system of telegraphy)--the work
+of a native sculptor. Another promising native, Vicente Francisco,
+exhibited some good sculpture work in the Philippine Exhibition, held
+in Madrid in 1887: the jury recommended him for a State pension, to
+study in Madrid and Rome. The beautiful design of the present insular
+coinage (Philippine peso) is the work of a Filipino. The biography
+of the patriot martyr Dr. Jose Rizal (q.v.), the most brilliant of
+all Filipinos, is related in another chapter.
+
+The native of cultivated intellect, on returning from Europe, found a
+very limited circle of friends of his own new training. If he returned
+a lawyer or a doctor, he was one too many, for the capital swarmed
+with them; if he had learnt a trade, his knowledge was useless outside
+Manila, and in his native village his technical acquirements were
+generally profitless. Usually the native's sojourn in Europe made
+him too self-opinionated to become a useful member of society. It
+remains to be seen how American training will affect them.
+
+The (American) Insular Government has taken up the matter of Philippine
+education very earnestly, and at considerable outlay: the subject is
+referred to in Chapter xxx.
+
+The intellectual and spiritual life, as we have it in Europe, does
+not exist in the Philippines. If ever a Filipino studied any subject,
+purely for the love of study, without the hope of material or social
+advantage being derived therefrom, he would be a _rara avis_.
+
+
+
+The _Disease_ most prevalent among the Filipinos is fever--especially
+in the spring: and although, in general, they may be considered a
+robust, enduring race, they are less capable than the European of
+withstanding acute disease. I should say that quite 50 per cent. of
+the native population are affected by cutaneous disease, said to be
+caused by eating fish daily, and especially shell-fish. It is locally
+known as _Sarnas_: natives say that monkey flesh cures it.
+
+In 1882 _Cholera morbus_ in epidemic form ravaged the native
+population, carrying off thousands of victims, the exact number of
+which has never been published. The preventive recommended by the
+priests on this occasion, viz., prayer to Saint Roque, proved quite
+ineffectual to stay the plague. A better remedy, found in the country,
+is an infusion of _Niota tetrapetala_ (Tagalog, _Manungal_). From time
+to time this disease reappears. The returns given in the _Official
+Gazette_ of March 2, 1904, Vol. II., No. 9, show the average monthly
+mortality due to _Cholera_, in the 20-1/3 months between March 20,
+1902, and December 1, 1903, to be 5,360. Annually, many natives suffer
+from what is called _Colerin_--a mild form of _Cholera_, but not
+epidemic. In the spring, deaths always occur from acute indigestion,
+due to eating too plentifully of new rice. Many who have recovered
+from _Cholera_ become victims to a disease known as _Beri-Beri_,
+said to be caused by the rice and fish diet. The first symptom of
+_Wet Beri-Beri_ is a swelling of the legs, like dropsy; that of _Dry
+Beri-Beri_ is a wasting away of the limbs. _Smallpox_ makes great
+ravages, and _Measles_ is a common complaint. _Lung_ and _Bronchial_
+affections are very rare. The most fearful disease in the Colony is
+_Leprosy_. [87] To my knowledge it is prevalent in the Province of
+Bulacan (Luzon Is.), and in the islands of Cebu and Negros. There is an
+asylum for lepers near Manila and at Mabolo, just outside the City of
+Cebu (_vide_ Lepers), but no practical measures were ever adopted by
+the Spaniards to eradicate this disease. The Spanish authorities were
+always too indifferent about the propagation of leprosy to establish
+a home on one island for all male lepers and another home, on another
+island, for female lepers--the only effectual way to extirpate this
+awful malady. In Baliuag (Bulacan), leper families, personally known
+to me, were allowed to mix with the general public. In Cebu and Negros
+Islands they were permitted to roam about on the highroads and beg.
+
+The Insular Government has taken up the question of the Lepers,
+and in 1904 a tract of land was purchased in the Island of Culion
+(Calamianes group) to provide for their hygienic isolation. According
+to the _Official Gazette_ of March 2, 1904, Vol. II., No. 9, the
+total number of lepers, of whom the Insular Government had obtained
+cognizance, up to December 31, 1903, was 3,343. Besides these there
+would naturally be an unknown number who had escaped recognition.
+
+There is apparently little _Insanity_ in the Islands. From the
+Report of the Commissioner of Public Health for February, 1904,
+it would appear that there were only about 1,415 insane persons in
+a population of over seven-and-a-half millions.
+
+Since the American advent (1898) the _Death-rate_ is believed to have
+notably decreased. The Report of the Commissioner of Public Health
+for 1904 states the death-rate per thousand in Manila to have been as
+follows, viz.:--Natives 53.72; Europeans other than Spaniards 16.11;
+Spaniards 15.42; and Americans 9.34. The Commissioner remarks that
+"over 50 per cent. of the children born in the city of Manila never
+live to see the first anniversary of their birthday." The Board of
+Health is very active in the sanitation of Manila. Inspectors make
+frequent domiciliary visits. The extermination of rats in the month
+of December, 1903, amounted to 24,638. House-refuse bins are put into
+the streets at night, and an inspector goes round with a lamp about
+midnight to examine them. Dead animals, market-rubbish, house-refuse,
+rotten hemp, sweepings, etc., are all cremated at Palomar, Santa Cruz,
+and Paco, and in July, 1904, this enterprising department started
+the extermination of mosquitoes! In the suburbs of Manila there are
+now twelve cemeteries and one crematorium.
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+The Religious Orders
+
+
+History attests that at least during the first two centuries of Spanish
+rule, the subjugation of the natives and their acquiescence in the
+new order of things were obtained more by the subtle influence of the
+missionaries than by the sword. As the soldiers of Castile carried war
+into the interior and forced its inhabitants to recognize their King,
+so the friars were drafted off from the mother country to mitigate
+the memory of bloodshed and to mould Spain's new subjects to social
+equanimity. In many cases, in fact, the whole task of gaining their
+submission to the Spanish Crown and obedience to the dictates of
+Western civilization was confided solely to the pacific medium of
+persuasion. The difficult mission of holding in check the natural
+passions and instincts of a race which knew no law but individual
+will, was left to the successors of Urdaneta. Indeed, it was but the
+general policy of Philip II. to aggrandize his vast realm under the
+pretence of rescuing benighted souls. The efficacy of conversion was
+never doubted for a moment, however suddenly it might come to pass,
+and the Spanish cavalier conscientiously felt that he had a high
+mission to fulfil under the Banner of the Cross. In every natural
+event which coincided with their interests, in the prosecution of
+their mission, the wary priests descried a providential miracle.
+
+In their opinion the non-Catholic had no rights in this world--no
+prospect of gaining the next. If the Pope claimed the whole world
+(such as was known of it) to be in his gift--how much more so heathen
+lands! The obligation to convert was imposed by the Pope, and was
+an inseparable condition of the conceded right of conquest. It was
+therefore constantly paramount in the conqueror's mind. [88] The
+Pope could depose and give away the realm of any sovereign prince
+"_si vel paulum deflexerit_." The Monarch held his sceptre under the
+sordid condition of vassalage; hence Philip II., for the security
+of his Crown, could not have disobeyed the will of the Pontiff,
+whatever his personal inclinations might have been regarding the
+spread of Christianity. [89] If he desired it, he served his ends with
+advantage to himself--if he were indifferent to it, he secured by its
+prosecution a formidable ally in Rome. America had already drained the
+Peninsula of her able-bodied men to such an extent that a military
+occupation of these Islands would have overtaxed the resources of
+the mother country. The co-operation of the friars was, therefore, an
+almost indispensable expedient in the early days, and their power in
+secular concerns was recognized to the last by the Spanish-Philippine
+authorities, who continued to solicit the aid of the parish priests
+in order to secure obedience to decrees affecting their parishioners.
+
+Up to the Rebellion of 1896 the placid word of the ecclesiastic, the
+superstitious veneration which he inspired in the ignorant native,
+had a greater law-binding effect than the commands of the civil
+functionary. The gownsman used those weapons appropriate to his
+office which best touched the sensibilities and won the adhesion of
+a rude audience. The priest appealed to the soul, to the unknown,
+to the awful and the mysterious. Go where he would, the convert's
+imagination was so pervaded with the mystic tuition that he came
+to regard his tutor as a being above common humanity. The feeling
+of dread reverence which he instilled into the hearts of the most
+callous secured to him even immunity from the violence of brigands,
+who carefully avoided the man of God. In the State official the native
+saw nothing but a man who strove to bend the will of the conquered race
+to suit his own. A Royal Decree or the sound of the cornet would not
+have been half so effective as the elevation of the Holy Cross before
+the fanatical majority, who became an easy prey to fantastic promises
+of eternal bliss, or the threats of everlasting perdition. Nor is this
+assertion by any means chimerical, for it has been proved on several
+occasions, notably in the raising of troops to attempt the expulsion
+of the British in 1763, and in the campaign against the Sultan of Sulu
+in 1876. But through the Cavite Conspiracy of 1872 (_vide_ p. 106)
+the friars undoubtedly hastened their own downfall. Many natives,
+driven to emigrate, cherished a bitter hatred in exile, whilst others
+were emerging yearly by hundreds from their mental obscurity. Already
+the intellectual struggle for freedom from mystic enthralment had
+commenced without injury to faith in things really divine.
+
+Each decade brought some reform in the relations between the
+parish priest and the people. Link by link the chain of priestcraft
+encompassing the development of the Colony was yielding to natural
+causes. The most enlightened natives were beginning to understand that
+their spiritual wants were not the only care of the friars, and that
+the aim of the Religious Orders was to monopolize all within their
+reach, and to subordinate to their common will all beyond their mystic
+circle. The Romish Church owes its power to the uniformity of precept
+and practice of the vast majority of its members, and it is precisely
+because this was the reverse in political Spain--where statesmen are
+divided into a dozen or more groups with distinct policies--that the
+Church was practically unassailable. In the same way, all the members
+of a Religious Order are so closely united that a quarrel with one
+of them brings the enmity and opposition of his whole community. The
+Progressists, therefore, who combated ecclesiastical preponderance in
+the Philippines, demanded the retirement of the friars to conventual
+reclusion or missions, and the appointment of _clerigos_, or secular
+clergymen to the vicarages and curacies. By such a change they hoped
+to remedy the abuses of collective power, for a misunderstanding with
+a secular vicar would only have provoked a single-handed encounter.
+
+That a priest should have been practically a Government agent in his
+locality would not have been contested in the abstract, had he not,
+as a consequence, assumed the powers of the old Roman Censors, who
+exercised the most dreaded function of the _Regium Morum_. Spanish
+opinion, however, was very much divided as to the political safety of
+strictly confining the friars to their religious duties. It was doubted
+by some whether any State authority could ever gain the confidence or
+repress the inherent inclinations of the native like the friar, who led
+by superstitious teaching, and held the conscience by an invisible cord
+through the abstract medium of the confessional. Others opined that
+a change in the then existing system of semi-sacerdotal Government
+was desirable, if only to give scope to the budding intelligence of
+the minority, which could not be suppressed.
+
+Emerging from the lowest ranks of society, with no training
+whatever but that of the seminary, it was natural to suppose that
+these Spanish priests would have been more capable than ambitious
+political men of the world of blending their ideas with those of the
+native, and of forming closer associations with a rural population
+engaged in agricultural pursuits familiar to themselves in their
+own youth. Before the abolition of monasteries in Spain the priests
+were allowed to return there after 10 years residence in the Colony;
+since then they have usually entered upon their new lives for the
+remainder of their days, so that they naturally strove to make the
+best of their social surroundings.
+
+The Civil servant, as a rule, could feel no personal interest in
+his temporary native neighbours, his hopes being centred only in
+rising in the Civil Service there or elsewhere--Cuba or Porto Rico,
+or where the ministerial wheel of fortune placed him.
+
+The younger priests--narrow-minded and biased--those who had just
+entered into provincial curacies--were frequently the greater
+bigots. Enthusiastic in their calling, they pursued with ardour
+their mission of proselytism without experience of the world. They
+entered the Islands with the zeal of youth, bringing with them the
+impression imparted to them in Spain, that they were sent to make
+a moral conquest of savages. In the course of years, after repeated
+rebuffs, and the obligation to participate in the affairs of everyday
+life in all its details, their rigidity of principle relaxed, and they
+became more tolerant towards those with whom they necessarily came
+in contact. They were usually taken from the peasantry and families
+of lowly station. As a rule they had little or no secular education,
+and, regarding them apart from their religious training, they might be
+considered a very ignorant class. Amongst them the Franciscan friars
+appeared to be the least--and the Austins the most--polished of all.
+
+The Spanish parish priest was consulted by the native in all matters;
+he was, by force of circumstances, often compelled to become an
+architect,--to build the church in his adopted village--an engineer,
+to make or mend roads, and more frequently a doctor. His word was
+paramount in his parish, and in his residence he dispensed with
+that stern severity of conventual discipline to which he had been
+accustomed in the Peninsula. Hence it was really here that his
+mental capacity was developed, his manners improved, and that the
+raw sacerdotal peasant was converted into the man of thought, study,
+and talent--occasionally into a gentleman. In his own vicinity,
+when isolated from European residents, he was practically the
+representative of the Government and of the white race as well as
+of social order. His theological knowledge was brought to bear upon
+the most mundane subjects. His thoughts necessarily expanded as the
+exclusiveness of his religious vocation yielded to the realization
+of a social position and political importance of which he had never
+entertained an idea in his native country.
+
+So large was the party opposed to the continuance of priestly
+influence in the Colony that a six-months' resident would not fail
+to hear of the many misdeeds with which the friars in general were
+reproached. It would be contrary to fact to pretend that the bulk of
+them supported their teaching by personal example. I was acquainted
+with a great number of the friars, and their offspring too, in spite
+of their vow of chastity; whilst many lived in comparative luxury,
+notwithstanding their vow of poverty.
+
+There was the late parish priest of Malolos, whose son, my friend,
+was a prominent lawyer. Father S----, of Bugason, had a whole family
+living in his parish. An Archbishop who held the See in my time had a
+daughter frequently seen on the _Paseo de Santa Lucia_; and in July,
+1904, two of his daughters lived in Calle Quiotan, Santa Cruz, Manila,
+and two others, by a different mother, in the town of O----. The
+late parish priest of Lipa, Father B----, whom I knew, had a son
+whom I saw in 1893. The late incumbent of Santa Cruz, Father M----
+L----, induced his spiritual flock to petition against his being made
+prior of his Order in Manila so that he should not have to leave his
+women. The late parish priest (friar) of Baliuag (Bulacan) had three
+daughters and two sons. I was intimately acquainted with the latter;
+one was a doctor of medicine and the other a planter, and they bore the
+surname of Gonzalez. At Cadiz Nuevo (Negros Is.) I once danced with
+the daughter of a friar (parish priest of a neighbouring village),
+whilst he took another girl as his partner. I was closely acquainted,
+and resided more than once, with a very mixed-up family in the south
+of Negros Island. My host was the son of a secular clergyman, his wife
+and sister-in-law were the daughters of a friar, this sister-in-law was
+the mistress of a friar, my host had a son who was married to another
+friar's daughter, and a daughter who was the wife of a foreigner. In
+short, bastards of the friars are to be found everywhere in the
+Islands. Regarding this merely as the natural outcome of the celibate
+rule, I do not criticize it, but simply wish to show that the pretended
+sanctity of the regular clergy in the Philippines was an absurdity,
+and that the monks were in no degree less frail than mankind in common.
+
+The mysterious deaths of General Solano (August 1860) and of Zamora,
+the Bishop-elect of Cebu (1873), occurred so opportunely for Philippine
+monastic ambition that little doubt existed in the public mind as
+to who were the real criminals. When I first arrived in Manila, a
+quarter of a century ago, a fearful crime was still being commented
+on. Father Piernavieja, formerly parish priest of San Miguel de
+Mayumo, had recently committed a second murder. His first victim
+was a native youth, his second a native woman _enceinte_. The public
+voice could not be raised very loudly then against the priests, but
+the scandal was so great that the criminal friar was sent to another
+province--Cavite--where he still celebrated the holy sacrifice of
+the Eucharist. Nearly two decades afterwards--in January 1897--this
+rascal met with a terrible death at the hands of the rebels. He was
+in captivity, and having been appointed "Bishop" in a rebel diocese,
+to save his life he accepted the mock dignity; but, unfortunately for
+himself, he betrayed the confidence of his captors, and collected
+information concerning their movements, plans, and strongholds for
+remittance to his Order. In expiation of his treason he was bound
+to a post under the tropical sun and left there to die. See how the
+public in Spain are gulled! In a Malaga newspaper this individual was
+referred to as a "venerable figure, worthy of being placed high up on
+an altar, before which all Spaniards should prostrate themselves and
+adore him. As a _religieux_ he was a most worthy minister of the Lord;
+as a patriot he was a hero."
+
+Within my recollection, too, a friar absconded from a Luzon Island
+parish with a large sum of parochial funds, and was never heard of
+again. The late parish priests of Mandaloyan and Iba did the same.
+
+I well remember another interesting character of the monastic
+Orders. He had been parish priest in a Zambales province town, but
+intrigues with a _soi-disant cousine_ brought him under ecclesiastical
+arrest at the convent of his Order in Manila. Thence he escaped, and
+came over to Hong-Kong, where I made his acquaintance in 1890. He
+told me he had started life in an honest way as a shoemaker's boy,
+but was taken away from his trade to be placed in the seminary. His
+mind seemed to be a blank on any branch of study beyond shoemaking
+and Church ritual. He pretended that he had come over to Hong-Kong
+to seek work, but in reality he was awaiting his _cousine_, whom he
+rejoined on the way to Europe, where, I heard, he became a _garcon
+de cafe_ in France.
+
+In 1893 there was another great public scandal, when the friars were
+openly accused of having printed the seditious proclamations whose
+authorship they attributed to the natives. The plan of the friars was
+to start the idea of an intended revolt, in order that they might be
+the first in the field to quell it, and thus be able to again proclaim
+to the Home Government the absolute necessity of their continuance in
+the Islands for the security of Spanish sovereignty. But the plot was
+discovered; the actual printer, a friar, mysteriously disappeared,
+and the courageous Gov.-General Despujols, Conde de Caspe, was,
+through monastic influence, recalled. He was very popular, and the
+public manifestation of regret at his departure from the Islands was
+practically a protest against the Religious Orders.
+
+In June, 1888, some cases of personal effects belonging to a friar
+were consigned to the care of an intimate friend of mine, whose guest
+I was at the time. They had become soaked with sea-water before he
+received them, and a neighbouring priest requested him to open the
+packages and do what he could to save the contents. I assisted my
+friend in this task, and amongst the friar's personal effects we
+were surprised to find, intermixed with prayer-books, scapularies,
+missals, prints of saints, etc., about a dozen most disgustingly
+obscene double-picture slides for a stereoscope. What an entertainment
+for a guide in morals! This same friar had held a vicarage before
+in another province, but having become an habitual drunkard, he was
+removed to Manila, and there appointed a confessor. From Manila he
+had just been again sent to take charge of the _cure of souls_.
+
+I knew a money-grabbing parish priest--a friar--who publicly announced
+raffles from the pulpit of the church from which he preached morality
+and devotion. On one occasion a 200-peso watch was put up for P500--at
+another time he raffled dresses for the women. Under the pretext of
+being a pious institution, he established a society of women, called
+the Association of St. Joseph (_Confradia de San Jose_), upon whom
+he imposed the very secular duties of domestic service in the convent
+and raffle-ticket hawking. He had the audacity to dictate to a friend
+of mine--a planter--the value of the gifts he was to make to him,
+and when the planter was at length wearied of his importunities,
+he conspired with a Spaniard to deprive my friend of his estate,
+alleging that he was not the real owner. Failing in this, he stirred
+up the petty-governor and headmen against him. The petty-governor was
+urged to litigation, and when he received an unfavourable sentence,
+the priest, enraged at the abortive result of his malicious intrigues,
+actually left his vicarage to accompany his litigious _protege_ to the
+chief judge of the province in quest of a reversion of the sentence.
+
+A priest of evil propensities brought only misery to his parish and
+aroused a feeling of odium against the Spanish friars in general. As
+incumbents they held the native in contempt. He who should be the
+parishioner was treated despotically as the subject whose life,
+liberty, property, and civil rights were in his sacerdotal lord's
+power. And that power was not unfrequently exercised, for if a
+native refused to yield to his demands, or did not contribute with
+sufficient liberality to a religious feast, or failed to come to
+Mass, or protected the virtue of his daughter, or neglected the
+genuflexion and kissing of hands, or was out of the priest's party in
+the municipal affairs of the parish, or in any other trivial way became
+a _persona non grata_ at the "convent," he and his family would become
+the pastor's sheep marked for sacrifice. As Government agent it was
+within his arbitrary power to attach his signature to or withhold it
+from any municipal document. From time to time he could give full vent
+to his animosity by secretly denouncing to the civil authorities as
+"inconvenient in the town" all those whom he wished to get rid of. He
+had simply to send an official advice to the Governor of the province,
+who forwarded it to the Gov.-General, stating that he had reason
+to believe that the persons mentioned in the margin were disloyal,
+immoral, or whatever it might be, and recommend their removal from
+the neighbourhood. A native so named suddenly found at his door a
+patrol of the Civil Guard, who escorted him, with his elbows tied
+together, from prison to prison, up to the capital town and thence to
+Manila. Finally, without trial or sentence, he was banished to some
+distant island of the Archipelago. He might one day return to find
+his family ruined, or he might as often spend his last days in misery
+alone. Sometimes a native who had privately heard of his "denunciation"
+became a _remontado_, that is to say he fled to the mountains to lead a
+bandits life where the evils of a debased civilization could not reach
+him. Banishment in these circumstances was not a mere transportation
+to another place, but was attended with all the horrors of a cruel
+captivity, of which I have been an eye-witness. From the foregoing
+it may be readily understood how the conduct of the regular clergy
+was the primary cause of the Rebellion of 1896; it was not the monks'
+immorality which disturbed the mind of the native, but their Caesarism
+which raised his ire. The ground of discord was always infinitely more
+material than sentimental. Among the friars, however, there were many
+exceptional men of charming manners and eminent virtue. If little was
+done to coerce the bulk of the friars to live up to the standard of
+these exceptions, it was said to be because the general interests of
+Mother Church were opposed to investigation and admonition, for fear
+of the consequent scandal destructive of her prestige.
+
+The Hierarchy of the Philippines consists of one Archbishop in Manila,
+and four Suffragan Bishoprics, respectively of Nueva Segovia, Cebu,
+Jaro, and Nueva Caceres. [90] The provincials, the vicars-general,
+and other officers of the Religious Orders were elected by the
+Chapters and held office for four years. The first Bishop of Manila
+took possession in 1581, and the first Archbishop in 1598.
+
+The Jesuits came to these Islands in 1581, and were expelled therefrom
+in 1770 by virtue of an Apostolic Brief [91] of Pope Clement XIV.,
+but were permitted to return in 1859, on the understanding that
+they would confine their labours to scholastic education and the
+establishment of missions amongst uncivilized tribes. Consequently,
+in Manila they refounded their school--the Municipal Athenaeum--a
+mission house, and a Meteorological Observatory, whilst in many parts
+of Mindanao Island they have established missions, with the vain hope
+of converting Mahometans to Christianity. [92] The Jesuits, compared
+with the members of the other Orders, are very superior men, and their
+fraternity includes a few, and almost the only, learned ecclesiastics
+who came to the Colony. Since their return to the Islands (1859)
+in the midst of the strife with the Religious Orders, the people
+recognized the Jesuits as disinterested benefactors of the country.
+
+Several Chinese have been admitted to holy orders, two of them
+having become Austin Friars. [93] The first native friars date their
+admission from the year 1700, since when there have been sixteen of
+the Order of St. Augustine. Subsequently they were excluded from the
+confraternities, and only admitted to holy orders as vicars, curates
+to assist parish vicars, chaplains, and in other minor offices. Up
+to the year 1872 native priests were appointed to benefices, but in
+consequence of their alleged implication in the Cavite Conspiracy of
+that year, their church livings, as they became vacant, were given
+to Spanish friars, whose headquarters were established in Manila.
+
+The _Austin Friars_ were the religious pioneers in these Islands;
+they came to Cebu in 1565 and to Manila in 1571; then followed the
+_Franciscans_ in 1577; the _Dominicans_ in 1587, a member of this
+Order having been ordained first Bishop of Manila, where he arrived
+in 1581. The _Recoletos_ (unshod Augustinians), a branch of the Saint
+Augustine Order, came to the Islands in 1606; the _Capuchins_--the
+lowest type of European monk in the Far East, came to Manila in 1886,
+and were sent to the Caroline Islands (_vide_ p. 45). The _Paulists_,
+of the Order of Saint Vincent de Paul, were employed in scholastic
+work in Nueva Caceres, Jaro, and Cebu, the same as the Jesuits were
+in Manila. The _Benedictines_ came to the Islands in 1895. Only the
+members of the first four Orders above named were parish priests,
+and each (except the _Franciscans_) possessed agricultural land;
+hence the animosity of the natives was directed against these
+four confraternities only, and not against the others, who neither
+monopolized incumbencies, nor held rural property, but were simply
+teachers, or missionaries, whose worldly interests in no way clashed
+with those of the people. Therefore, whenever there was a popular
+outcry against "the friars," it was understood to refer solely to
+the Austins, the Franciscans, the Dominicans and the Recoletos. [94]
+There was no Spanish secular clergy in the Islands, except three or
+four military chaplains.
+
+The Church was financially supported by the State to the extent of
+about three-quarters of a million pesos per annum.
+
+The following are some of the most interesting items taken from
+"The Budget for 1888," viz.:--
+
+
+    _Sanctorum_ or Church tax of 18 3/4 cents (i.e., 1 1/2 reales)
+    on each _Cedula personal_, say on 2,760,613 Cedulas in 1888,
+    less 4 per cent, cost of collection                 P496,910.00
+
+
+The friars appointed to incumbencies received in former times tithes
+from the Spaniards, and a Church tax from the natives computed by the
+amount of tribute paid. Tithe payment (_diezmos prediales_) by the
+Spaniards became almost obsolete, and the _Sanctorum_ tax on _Cedulas_
+was paid to the Church through the Treasury (_vide_ p. 55).
+
+There were priests in missions and newly-formed parishes where the
+domiciled inhabitants were so few that the _Sanctorum_ tax on the
+aggregate of the _Cedulas_ was insufficient for their support. These
+missionaries were allowed salaries, and parish priests were permitted
+to appropriate from their revenues, as annual stipend, amounts ranging
+from 500 to 800 pesos, as a rule, with a few exceptions (such as
+Binondo parish and others), rated at 1,200 pesos, whilst one, at
+least (the parish priest, or missionary of Vergara, Davao Province),
+received 2,200 pesos a year. In practice, however, a great many parish
+priests spent far more than their allotted stipends.
+
+A project was under consideration to value the incumbencies, and
+classify them, like the Courts of Justice (_vide_ p. 234), with the
+view of apportioning to each a fixed income payable by the Treasury
+in lieu of accounting to the Church for the exact amount of the
+_Sanctorum_.
+
+By decree of Gov.-General Terrero, dated November 23,1885, the
+State furnished free labour (by natives who did not pay poll-tax)
+for Church architectural works, provided it was made clear that the
+cost of such labour could not be covered by the surplus funds of the
+_Sanctorum_. The chief items of Church expenditure were as follows,
+viz.:--
+
+
+                    _State outlay for Church._
+                                                            P. cts.
+
+Archbishop's salary                                       12,000 00
+Other salaries (Cathedral)                                40,300 00
+Other expenses (Cathedral)                                 3,000 00
+Four Bishops, each with a salary of P6,000                24,000 00
+Court of Arches (amount contributed by the State [95])     5,000 00
+Chaplain of Los Banos                                        120 00
+Sulu Mission                                               1,000 00
+Mission House in Manila for Capuchin friars                1,700 00
+12 Capuchins (State paid) for the Caroline and Pelew
+Islands--6 at P300 and 6 at P500 each per annum            4,800 00
+Transport of Missionaries estimated at about, per annum   10,000 00
+The anticipated _total_ State outlay for the support of
+the Church, Missions, Monasteries, Convents, etc.,
+_including the above and all other items_ for the
+financial year of 1888 was                              P724,634 50
+
+
+Moreover, the religious Corporations possessed large private
+revenues. The Dominicans' investments in Hong-Kong, derived from
+capitalized income, are still considerable. The Austin, Recoleto,
+and Dominican friars held very valuable real estate in the provinces,
+which was rented to the native agriculturists on conditions which the
+tenants considered onerous. The native planters were discontented with
+the treatment they received from these landowners, and their numerous
+complaints formed part of the general outcry against the regular
+clergy. The bailiffs of these corporation lands were unordained
+brothers of the Order. They resided in the Estate Houses, and by
+courtesy were styled "fathers" by the natives. They were under certain
+religious vows, but not being entitled to say Mass, they were termed
+"legos," or ignorant men, by their own Order.
+
+The clergy also derived a very large portion of their incomes from
+commissions on the sale of _cedulas_, sales of Papal Bulls, masses,
+pictures, books, chaplets and indulgences, marriage, burial and
+baptismal fees, benedictions, donations touted for after the crops
+were raised, legacies to be paid for in masses, remains of wax candles
+left in the church by the faithful, fees for getting souls out of
+purgatory, alms, etc. The surplus revenues over and above parochial
+requirements were supposed to augment the common Church funds in
+Manila. The Corporations were consequently immensely wealthy, and
+their power and influence were in consonance with that wealth.
+
+Each Order had its procurator in Madrid, who took up the cudgels in
+defence of his Corporation's interest in the Philippines whenever
+this was menaced. On the other hand, the Church, as a body politic,
+dispensed no charity, but received all. It was always begging; always
+above civil laws and taxes; claimed immunity, proclaimed poverty,
+and inculcated in others charity to itself.
+
+Most of the parish priests--Spanish or native--were very hospitable
+to travellers, and treated them with great kindness. Amongst them
+there were some few misanthropes and churlish characters who did not
+care to be troubled by anything outside the region of their vocation,
+but on the whole I found them remarkably complaisant.
+
+In Spain there were training colleges of the three Communities, in
+Valladolid, Ocana, and Monte Agudo respectively, for young novices
+intended to be sent to the Philippines, the last Spanish Colony where
+friars held vicarages.
+
+
+
+The ecclesiastical archives of the Philippines abound with proofs of
+the bitter and tenacious strife sustained, not only between the civil
+and Church authorities, but even amongst the religious communities
+themselves. Each Order was so intensely jealous of the others, that
+one is almost led to ponder whether the final goal of all could have
+been identical. All voluntarily faced death with the same incentive,
+whilst amicable fellowship in this world seemed an impossibility. The
+first Bishop (_vide_ p. 56) struggled in vain to create a religious
+monopoly in the Philippines for the exclusive benefit of the
+Augustine Order. It has been shown how ardent was the hatred which
+the Jesuits and the other Religious Orders mutually entertained for
+each other. Each sacred fraternity laboured incessantly to gain the
+ascendancy in the conquered territories, and their Divine calling
+served for nothing in palliating the acrimony of their reciprocal
+accusations and recriminations, which often involved the civil power.
+
+For want of space I can only refer to a few of these disputes.
+
+The Austin friars attributed to the Jesuits the troubles with the
+Mahometans of Mindanao and Sulu, and, in their turn, the Jesuits
+protested against what they conceived to be the bad policy of
+the Government, adopted under the influence of the other Orders in
+Manila. So distinct were their interests that the Augustine chroniclers
+refer to the other Orders as _different religions_.
+
+In 1778 the Province of Pangasinan was spiritually administered by the
+Dominicans, whilst that of Zambales was allotted to the Recoletos. The
+Dominicans, therefore, proposed to the Recoletos to cede Zambales
+to them, because it was repugnant to have to pass through Recoleto
+territory going from Manila to their own province! The Recoletos
+were offered Mindoro Island in exchange, which they refused, until
+the Archbishop compelled them to yield. Disturbances then arose in
+Zambales, the responsibility of which was thrown on the Dominicans by
+their rival Order, and the Recoletos finally succeeded in regaining
+their old province by intrigue.
+
+During the Governorship of Martin de Urena, Count de Lizarraga
+(1709-15), the Aragonese and Castilian priests quarrelled about the
+ecclesiastical preferments.
+
+At the beginning of the 18th century the Bishop-elect of Cebu, Fray
+Pedro Saez de la Vega Lanzaverde, refused to take possession because
+the nomination was _in partibus_. He objected also that the Bishopric
+was merely one in perspective and not yet a reality. The See remained
+vacant whilst the contumacious priest lived in Mexico. Fray Sebastian
+de Jorronda was subsequently appointed to administer the Bishopric,
+but also refused, until he was coerced into submission by the Supreme
+Court (1718).
+
+In 1767 the Austin friars refused to admit the episcopal visits, and
+exhibited such a spirit of independence that Pope Benedict XIV. was
+constrained to issue a Bull to exhort them to obey, admonishing them
+for their insubordination.
+
+The friars of late years were subject to a visiting priest--the
+Provincial--in all matters _de vita et moribus_, to the Bishop of
+the diocese in all affairs of spiritual dispensation, and to the
+Gov.-General as vice-royal patron in all that concerned the relations
+of the Church to the Civil Government. [96]
+
+An observant traveller, unacquainted with the historical antecedents
+of the friars in the Philippines, could not fail to be impressed by the
+estrangement of religious men, whose sacred mission, if genuine, ought
+to have formed an inseverable bond of alliance and goodfellowship.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+Spanish Insular Government
+
+
+From the days of Legaspi the supreme rule in these Islands was usually
+confided for indefinite periods to military men: but circumstances
+frequently placed naval officers, magistrates, the Supreme Court,
+and even ecclesiastics at the head of the local government. During the
+last half century of Spanish rule the common practice was to appoint
+a Lieut.-General as Governor, with the local rank of Captain-General
+pending his three-years' term of office. An exception to this rule in
+that period was made (1883-85) when Joaquin Jovellar, a Captain-General
+and ex-War Minster in Spain, was specially empowered to establish some
+notable reforms--the good policy of which was doubtful. Again, in 1897,
+Fernando Primo de Rivera, Marquis de Estella, also a Captain-General
+in Spain, held office in Manila under the exceptional circumstances
+of the Tagalog Rebellion of 1896, in succession to Ramon Blanco,
+Marquis de Pena Plata. Considering that Primo de Rivera, during his
+previous Gov.-Generalship (1880-83), had won great popularity with
+the Filipinos, he was deemed, in Madrid, to be the man most capable
+of arresting the revolutionary movement. How far the confidence of
+the Home Government was misplaced will be seen in Chapter xxii.
+
+Soon after the conquest the Colony was divided and sub-divided into
+provinces and military districts as they gradually yielded to the
+Spanish sway. Such districts, called _Encomiendas_, [97] were then
+farmed out to _Encomenderos_, who exercised little scruple in their
+rigorous exactions from the natives. Some of the _Encomenderos_
+acquired wealth during the terms of their holdings, whilst others
+became victims to the revenge of their subjects. They must indeed
+have been bold, enterprising men who, in those days, would have taken
+charge of districts distant from the capital. It would appear that
+their tenure was, in a certain sense, feudal, for they were frequently
+called upon to aid the Central Government with vessels, men, and arms
+against the attacks of common enemies. Against Mahometan incursions
+necessity made them warriors,--if they were not so by taste,--civil
+engineers to open communications with their districts, administrators,
+judges, and all that represented social order. _Encomiendas_ were
+sometimes given to Spaniards as rewards for high services rendered
+to the commonwealth, [98] although favouritism or (in later years)
+purchase-money more commonly secured the vacancies, and the holders
+were quite expected to make fortunes in the manner they thought fit,
+with due regard for the Royal Treasury (_vide_ p. 54).
+
+The _Encomenderos_ were, in the course of time, superseded by
+Judicial Governors, called _Alcaldes_, who received small salaries,
+from L60 per annum and upwards, but were allowed to trade. The
+right to trade--called "_indulto de comercio_"--was sold to the
+_Alcalde-Governors_, except those of Tondo, [99] Zamboanga, Cavite,
+Nueva Ecija, Islas Batanes and Antique, whose trading right was
+included in the emoluments of office. The Government's object was
+economy.
+
+In 1840 Eusebio Mazorca wrote thus [100]:--"The salary paid to the
+chiefs of provinces who enjoy the right of trade is more or less P300
+per annum, and after deducting the amount paid for the trading right,
+which in some provinces amounts to five-sixths of the whole--as in
+Pangasinan; and in others to the whole of the salary--as in Caraga;
+and discounting again the taxes, it is not possible to conceive how
+the appointment can be so much sought after. There are candidates up
+to the grade of brigadier who relinquish a P3,000 salary to pursue
+their hopes and projects in governorship."
+
+This system obtained for many years, and the abuses went on
+increasing. The _Alcaldes_ practically monopolized the trade of their
+districts, unduly taking advantage of their governmental position to
+hinder the profitable traffic of the natives and bring it all into
+their own hands. They tolerated no competition; they arbitrarily
+fixed their own purchasing prices, and sold at current rates. Due to
+the scarcity of silver in the interior, the natives often paid their
+tribute to the Royal Treasury in produce,--chiefly rice,--which was
+received into the Royal Granaries at a ruinously low valuation, and
+accounted for to the State at its real value; the difference being the
+illicit profit made by the _Alcalde_. Many of these functionaries
+exercised their power most despotically in their own circuits,
+disposing of the natives' labour and chattels without remuneration,
+and not unfrequently, for their own ends, invoking the King's name,
+which imbued the native with a feeling of awe, as if His Majesty were
+some supernatural being.
+
+In 1810 Tomas de Comyn wrote as follows:--"In order to be a chief
+of a province in these Islands, no training or knowledge or special
+services are necessary; all persons are fit and admissible.... It is
+quite a common thing to see a barber or a Governor's lackey, a sailor
+or a deserter, suddenly transformed into an Alcalde, Administrator,
+and Captain of the forces of a populous province without any counsellor
+but his rude understanding, or any guide but his passions." [101]
+
+By Royal Decree of 1844 Government officials were thenceforth strictly
+prohibited to trade, under pain of removal from office.
+
+In the year 1850 there were 34 Provinces, and two Political Military
+Commandancies. Until June, 1886, the offices of provincial Civil
+Governor and Chief Judge of that province were vested in the same
+person--the _Alcalde Mayor_. This created a strange anomaly, for an
+appeal against an edict of the Governor had to be made to himself
+as Judge. Then if it were taken to the central authority in Manila,
+it was sent back for "information" to the Judge-Governor, without
+independent inquiry being made in the first instance; hence protest
+against his acts was fruitless.
+
+During the Regency of Queen Maria Christina, this curious arrangement
+was abolished by a Decree dated in Madrid, February 26, 1886, to take
+effect on June 1 following.
+
+Eighteen Civil Governorships were created, and _Alcaldes'_ functions
+were confined to their judgeships; moreover, the Civil Governor was
+assisted by a Secretary, so that two new official posts were created
+in each of these provinces.
+
+The Archipelago, including Sulu, was divided into 19 Civil Provincial
+Governments, four Military General Divisions, 43 Military Provincial
+Districts, and four Provincial Governments under Naval Officers,
+forming a total of 70 Divisions and Sub-Divisions.
+
+
+
+
+COST OF SPANISH ADMINISTRATION
+
+                                                            P. cts.
+
+The Gov.-General received a salary of                   40,000 00
+
+The Central Government Office, called "_Gobierno
+General_," with its Staff of Officials and all
+expenses                                                43,708 00
+
+The General Government Centre was assisted in the
+General Administration of the Islands by two other
+Governing Bodies, namely:
+
+    The General Direction of Civil Administration       29,277 34
+
+    The Administrative Council                          28,502 00
+
+The Chief of the General Direction received a salary of P12,000, with
+an allowance for official visits to the Provinces of P500 per annum.
+
+The Council was composed of three Members, each at a salary of P4,700,
+besides a Secretary and officials.
+
+Seventy divisions and sub-divisions as follows, viz.:--
+
+
+CIVIL GOVERNMENTS
+
+
+Manila Pce
+Salary of Civil Governor P5,000 Total Cost.             20,248 00
+
+Alday, Batangas, Bulacan, Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur,
+La Laguna, Pampanga, Pangasinan.
+Eight First-Class Govts.:
+        Salary of each Civil Gov. P4,500
+        Total cost of each Govt.  P8,900
+        Eight First-Class Govts. cost                   71,200 00
+
+Bataan, Camarines Norte, Camarines Sur, Mindoro,
+Nueva Eclia, Tayabas,  Zambales.
+Seven Second-Class Govts.:
+    Salary of each Civil Gov. P4,000
+    Total cost of each Govt.  P7,660
+    Seven Second-Class Govts. cost                      53,620 00
+
+Cagayan, Isabela, Nueva Vizcaya
+Three Third-Class Govts.:
+    Salary of each Civil Gov. P3,500
+    Total cost of each Govt.  P6,700
+    Three Third-Class Govts. cost                       20,100 00
+
+
+MILITARY GENERAL GOVERNMENTS
+
+
+
+Under a Brig.-Gen. and Staff
+
+Gen. Division of S. Visayas                             10,975 00
+Gen. Division of N. Visayas                             10,975 00
+Gen. Division of Mindanao                               17,825 00
+Gen. Division of Cavite                                  6,596 66
+
+
+
+MILITARY PROVINCES AND DISTRICTS
+
+
+
+Under a Colonel and Staff
+
+Sulu                                                     7,240 00
+Yloilo                                                   4,410 00
+Cottabato                                                5,426 00
+
+Under a Lieut.-Colonel and Staff
+
+East Carolines and Pelew Islands                         4,900 00
+West Carolines and Pelew Islands                         5,970 00
+Cebu                                                     3,500 00
+Capiz                                                    3,500 00
+Misamis                                                  4,816 66
+Ladrone Islands                                          4,975 00
+
+Under a Major and Staff
+
+Zamboanga                                                3,856 66
+Surigao                                                  4,356 66
+Davao                                                    4,156 66
+Dapitan                                                  2,692 00
+Zucuran                                                  2,692 00
+
+La Union, Antique, Samar, Leyte, El Abra, Bojol,
+Tarlac, Negros, Morong
+    Each under a Major:--
+    Nine Districts @ P3,040
+                                                        27,360 00
+Batanes, Calamianes, Romblun, Benguet, Lepanto,
+Burias, Infante, Principe, Bontoc, Concepcion:
+    Each under a Captain:--
+    Ten Districts @ P1,980                              19,800 00
+
+Cagayan (Mindanao)--Biling, Nueva Vizcaya, Sasangani
+(Palauan)
+    Each under a Captain:--
+    Five Districts @ P1,792                              8,960 00
+
+Siassi, Bongao, Tatoan
+    Each under a Captain:--
+    Three Districts @ P2,032                             6,096 00
+Escalante, [102] under a Lieutenant                      1,525 00
+
+Masbate, under a Cavalry Sub-Lieutenant                  1,450 00
+
+
+PROVINCIAL GOVERNMENTS UNDER NAVAL OFFICERS, OFFICERS IN CHARGE OF
+NAVAL STATIONS AS EX-OFFICIO GOVERNORS
+
+
+Corregidor                       3,821 00
+Balabac                          3,960 00
+Isabela de Basilan               5,276 66
+Palauan (Puerta Princesa)        6,910 00
+
+Total cost of General Government of the Islands        500,677 96
+
+Deduct--
+Officers' Pay, etc., included in Army Estimates P145,179 96
+Officers' Pay, etc., included in Navy Estimates 14,640 00
+
+                                                       159,819 96
+
+                                                      P340,858 00
+
+
+The Spanish Government intended, in due course, to establish
+Civil Government throughout the Islands. A Civil Governor was the
+representative of the Gov.-General, whose orders and decrees he had to
+publish and execute at his own discretion. He could not absent himself
+from his province without permission. He had to maintain order, veto
+petitions for arms' licences, hold under his orders and dispose of the
+Civil Guard, Carabineers, and local guards. He could suspend the pay
+for ten days of any subordinate official who failed to do his duty,
+or he could temporarily suspend him in his functions with justifiable
+cause, and propose to the Gov.-General his definite removal. He had to
+preside at all municipal elections; to bring delinquents to justice;
+to decree the detention on suspicion of any individual, and place him
+at the disposal of the chief judge within three days after his capture;
+to dictate orders for the government of the towns and villages; to
+explain to the petty-governors the true interpretation of the law
+and regulations affecting their districts.
+
+The Governor was chief of police, and could impose fines up to P50
+without the intervention of judicial authority; and in the event of the
+mulcted person being unable to pay, he could order his imprisonment
+at the rate of one day's detention for each half-peso of the fine;
+it was provided, however, that the imprisonment could not exceed
+30 days in any case. He had to preside at the ballot for military
+conscription, but he could delegate this duty to his Secretary, or,
+failing him, to the Administrator. Where no harbour-master had been
+appointed, the Civil Governor acted as such. He had the care of the
+primary instruction; and it was his duty specially to see that the
+native scholars were taught the Spanish language. Land concessions,
+improvements tending to increase the wealth of the province, permits
+for felling timber, and the collection of excise taxes were all
+under his care. He had also to furnish statistics relating to the
+labour poll-tax; draw up the provincial budget; render provincial
+and municipal accounts, etc., all of which had to be counter-signed
+under the word _Intervine_ by the Secretary. He was provincial
+postmaster-general, chief of telegraph service, prisons, charities,
+board of health, public works, woods and forests, mines, agriculture
+and industry. Under no circumstances could he dispose of the public
+funds, which were in the care of the Administrator and Interventor, and
+he was not entitled to any percentages (as _Alcalde-Governors_ formerly
+were), or any emoluments whatsoever further than his fixed salary.
+
+A Governor had to be a Spaniard over 30 years of age. It is curious to
+note, from its political significance, that among the many classes of
+persons eligible for a Civil Governorship were those who had been
+Members of the Spanish Parliament or Senate during one complete
+session.
+
+Upon the whole, a Provincial Governor passed life very comfortably
+if he did not go out of his way to oppress his subjects and create
+discord. His tranquillity, nevertheless, was always dependent upon his
+maintaining a good understanding with the priesthood of his district,
+and his conformity with the demands of the friars. If he had the
+misfortune to cross their path, it brought him a world of woe, and
+finally his downfall. There have been Provincial Governors who in
+reality held their posts by clerical influence, whilst others who
+exercised a more independent spirit--who set aside Church interests
+to serve those of the State, with which they were intrusted--fell
+victims to sacerdotal intrigue; for the subordinates of the hierarchy
+had power to overthrow as well as to support those who were appointed
+to their districts. Few improvements appear to have been made in the
+provinces by the initiative of the local Governors, nor did they
+seem to take any special interest in commercial and agricultural
+advancement. This lack of interest was somewhat excusable and
+comprehensible, however, seeing that after they were appointed, and
+even though they governed well within the strict limitations of their
+office, they were constantly expecting that a ministerial change or the
+fall of a single minister might remove them from their posts, or that
+the undermining influence of favouritism might succeed in accomplishing
+their withdrawal. It was natural, therefore, that they should have
+been indifferent about the fostering of new agricultural enterprises,
+of opening tracks for bringing down timber, of facilitating trade,
+or of in any way stimulating the development of the resources of a
+province when the probability existed that they would never have the
+personal satisfaction of seeing the result of their efforts.
+
+Some Governors with whom I am personally acquainted have, in spite of
+all discouragement, studied the wants of their provinces, but to no
+purpose. Their estimates for road-making and mending, bridge-building,
+and public works generally were shelved in Manila, whilst the local
+funds (_Fondos locales_), which ought to have been expended in the
+localities where they were collected, were seized by the authorities
+in the capital and applied to other purposes.
+
+An annual statement of one province will be sufficient, as an example,
+to illustrate the nature of this local tax:--
+
+
+LOCAL FUNDS [103]--ALBAY PROVINCE
+
+
+Provincial Revenue
+
+                                             P. cts.     P. cts.
+Stamps on Weights and Measures            2,490 00
+Billiard Tax and Live Stock credentials     496 00
+90% of fines for shirking forced labour   1,500 00
+Tax in lieu of forced labour             85,209 00
+Vehicle tax                               4,000 00
+
+                                                     93,695 00
+
+Municipal Revenue
+
+Tax paid by sellers in the public
+                        market-place      7,050 00
+Tax on slaughter of animals for food     12,098 00
+Tax on local sales of hemp                   40 00
+90% of the Municipal fines and tax on
+                              Chinese       554 00
+10% on tithes paid and house-property
+                                    tax     380 00
+10% on Industrial licences                5,710 00
+10% on Alcohol licences                   2,525 00
+
+                                                     28,357 00
+                                                   ======== ==
+                                                   P122,052 00
+
+
+In the same year this province contributed to the common funds of
+the Treasury a further sum of P133,009.
+
+There was in each town another local tax called _Caja de Comunidad,_
+contributed to by the townspeople to provide against any urgent
+necessity of the community, but it found its way to Manila and was
+misappropriated, like the _Fondos locales_.
+
+There was not a peso at the disposal of the Provincial Governor for
+local improvements. If a bridge broke down so it remained for years,
+whilst thousands of travellers had to wade through the river unless
+a raft were put there at the expense of the very poorest people by
+order of the petty-governor of the nearest village. The "Tribunal,"
+which served the double purpose of Town Hall and Dak Bungalow for
+wayfarers, was often a hut of bamboo and palm-leaves, whilst others,
+which had been decent buildings generations gone by, lapsed into
+a wretched state of dilapidation. In some villages there was no
+Tribunal at all, and the official business had to be transacted in
+the municipal Governor's house. I first visited Calamba (La Laguna)
+in 1880, and for 14 years, to my knowledge, the headmen had to meet
+in a sugar-store in lieu of a Tribunal. In San Jose de Buenavista,
+the capital town of Antique Province, the Town Hall was commenced in
+good style and left half finished during 15 years. Either some one
+for pity's sake, or the headmen for their own convenience, went to
+the expense of thatching over half the unfinished structure, which
+was therefore saved from entire ruin, whilst all but the stone walls
+of the other half rotted away. So it continued until 1887, when the
+Government authorized a partial restoration of this building.
+
+As to the roads connecting the villages, quite 20 per cent. of them
+serve only for travellers on foot, on horse or on buffalo back at
+any time, and in the wet season certainly 60 per cent, of all the
+Philippine highways are in too bad a state for any kind of passenger
+conveyance to pass with safety. In the wet season, many times I
+have made a sea journey in a prahu, simply because the highroad near
+the coast had become a mud-track, for want of macadamized stone and
+drainage, and only serviceable for transport by buffalo. In the dry
+season the sun mended the roads, and the traffic over the baked clods
+reduced them more or less to dust, so that vehicles could pass. Private
+property-owners expended much time and money in the preservation of
+public roads, although a curious law existed prohibiting repairs to
+highways by non-official persons.
+
+Every male adult inhabitant (with certain specified exceptions) had to
+give the State fifteen days' labour per annum, or redeem that labour
+by payment. Of course thousands of the most needy class preferred to
+give their fifteen days. This labour and the redemption-money were
+only theoretically employed in local improvements. This system was
+reformed in 1884 (_vide_ p. 224).
+
+The Budget for 1888 showed the trivial sum of P120,000 to be used
+in road-making and mending in the whole Archipelago. It provided
+for a Chief Inspector of Public Works with a salary of P6,500,
+aided by a staff composed of 48 technical and 82 non-technical
+subordinates. As a matter of fact, the Provincial and District
+Governors often received intimation not to encourage the employment
+of labour for local improvements, but to press the labouring-class
+to pay the redemption-tax to swell the central coffers, regardless
+of the corresponding misery, discomfort, and loss to trade in the
+interior. But labour at the Governor's disposal was not alone
+sufficient. There was no fund from which to defray the cost of
+materials; or, if these could be found without payment, some one must
+pay for the transport by buffaloes and carts and find the implements
+for the labourers' use. How could hands alone repair a bridge which
+had rotted away? To cut a log of wood for the public service would
+have necessitated communications with the Inspection of Woods and
+Forests and other centres and many months' delay.
+
+
+
+The system of controlling the action of one public servant by
+appointing another under him to supervise his work has always found
+favour in Spain, and was adopted in this Colony. There were a great
+many Government employments of the kind which were merely sinecures. In
+many cases the pay was small, it is true, but the labour was often of
+proportionately smaller value than that pay. With very few exceptions,
+all the Government Offices in Manila were closed to the public
+during half the ordinary working-day,--the afternoon,--and many of
+the Civil Service officials made their appearance at their desks
+about ten o'clock in the morning, retiring shortly after mid-day,
+when they had smoked their habitual number of cigarettes.
+
+The crowd of office-seekers were indifferent to the fact that
+the true source of national vigour is the spirit of individual
+self-dependence. Constant clamour for Government employment tends
+only to enfeeble individual effort, and destroys the stimulus, or
+what is of greater worth, the necessity of acting for one's self. The
+Spaniard (except the Basque and the Catalonian) looks to the Government
+for active and direct aid, as if the Public Treasury were a natural
+spring at the waters of which all temporal calamities could be washed
+away--all material wants supplied. He will tell you with pride rather
+than with abashment that he is an _empleado_--a State dependent.
+
+National progress is but the aggregate of personal individual
+activity rightly directed, and a nation weakens as a whole as its
+component parts become dormant, or as the majority rely upon the
+efforts of the few. The spirit of Caesarism--"all for the people and
+nothing by them"--must tend not only to political slavery, but to a
+reduction in commercial prosperity, national power, and international
+influence. The Spaniards have indeed proved this fact. The best laws
+were never intended to provide for the people, but to regulate the
+conditions on which they could provide for themselves. The consumers
+of public wealth in Spain are far too numerous in proportion to the
+producers; hence not only is the State constantly pressed for funds,
+but the busy bees who form the nucleus of the nation's vitality are
+heavily taxed to provide for the dependent office-seeking drones. It
+is the fatal delusion that liberty and national welfare depend solely
+upon good government, instead of good government depending upon united
+and co-operative individual exertion, that has brought the Spanish
+nation to its present state of deplorable impotence.
+
+The Government itself is but the official counterpart of the
+governed. By the aid of servile speculators, a man in political
+circles struggles to come to the front--to hold a portfolio in the
+ministry--if it only be for a session, when his pension for life is
+assured on his retirement. Merit and ability have little weight, and
+the proteges of the outgoing minister must make room for those of the
+next lucky ministerial pension-seeker, and so on successively. This
+Colony therefore became a lucrative hunting-ground at the disposal
+of the Madrid Cabinet wherein to satisfy the craving demands of their
+numerous partisans and friends. They were sent out with a salary and to
+make what they could,--at their own risk, of course,--like the country
+lad who was sent up to London with the injunction from his father,
+"Make money, honestly if you can, but make it."
+
+From the Conquest up to 1844, when trading by officials was abolished,
+it was a matter of little public concern how Government servants made
+fortunes. Only when the jealousy of one urged him to denounce another
+was any inquiry instituted so long as the official was careful not to
+embezzle or commit a direct fraud on the _Real Haber_ (the Treasury
+funds). When the _Real Haber_ was once covered, then all that could
+be got out of the Colony was for the benefit of the officials, great
+and small. In 1840, Eusebio Mazorca wrote as follows: [104]--"Each
+chief of a province is a real sultan, and when he has terminated his
+administration, all that is talked of in the capital is the thousands
+of pesos clear gain which he made in his Government."
+
+Eusebio Mazorca further states: [105]--"The Governor receives payment
+of the tribute in rice-paddy, which he credits to the native at two
+reales in silver per caban. Then he pays this sum into the Royal
+Treasury in money, and sells the rice-paddy for private account at
+the current rate of six, eight or more reales in silver per caban,
+and this simple operation brings him 200 to 300 per cent. profit."
+
+The same writer adds:--"Now quite recently the Interventor of Zamboanga
+is accused by the Governor of that place of having made some P15,000
+to P16,000 solely by using false measures ... The same Interventor to
+whom I refer, is said to have made a fortune of P50,000 to P60,000,
+whilst his salary as second official in the Audit Department [106]
+is P540 per annum." According to Zuniga, the salary of a professor
+of law with the rank of magistrate was P800 per annum.
+
+Up to June, 1886, the provincial taxes being in the custody of the
+Administrator, the Judicial Governor had a percentage assigned to him
+to induce him to control the Administrator's work. The Administrator
+himself had percentages, and the accounts of these two functionaries
+were checked by a third individual styled the "Interventor," whose
+duties appeared to be to intervene in the casting-up of his superiors'
+figures. He was forbidden to reside with the Administrator. After
+the above date the payment of all these percentages ceased.
+
+But for the peculations by Government officials from the highest
+circles downwards, the inhabitants of the Colony would doubtless
+have been a million or so richer per annum. One frequently heard
+of officials leaving for Spain with sums far exceeding the total
+emoluments they had received during their term of office. Some
+provincial employees acquired a pernicious habit of annexing what
+was not theirs by all manner of pretexts. To cite some instances:
+I knew a Governor of Negros Island who seldom saw a native pass the
+Government House with a good horse without begging it of him; thus,
+under fear of his avenging a refusal, his subjects furnished him
+little by little with a large stud, which he sold before he left,
+much to their disgust.
+
+In another provincial capital there happened to be a native headman
+imprudently vain enough to carry a walking-stick with a chased
+gold-knob handle studded with brilliants. It took the fancy of the
+Spanish Governor, who repeatedly expressed his admiration of it, hoping
+that the headman would make him a present of it. At length, when the
+Governor was relieved of his post, he called together the headmen to
+take formal leave of them, and at the close of a flattering speech, he
+said he would willingly hand over his official-stick as a remembrance
+of his command. In the hubbub of applause which followed, he added,
+"and I will retain a souvenir of my loyal subordinates." Suiting the
+action to the word, he snatched the coveted stick out of the hand
+of the owner and kept it. A Gov.-General in my time enriched himself
+by peculation to such an extent that he was at his wits' end to know
+how to remit his ill-gotten gains clandestinely. Finally, he resolved
+to send an army Captain over to Hong-Kong with P35,000 to purchase a
+draft on Europe for him. The Captain went there, but he never returned.
+
+
+
+There were about 725 towns and 23 missions in the Colony. Each town
+was locally governed by a native--in some cases a Spanish or Chinese
+half-caste--who was styled the petty-governor or _Gobernadorcillo_,
+whilst his popular title was that of _Capitan_. This service was
+compulsory. The elections of _Gobernadorcillos_ and their subordinates
+took place every two years, the term of office counting from the July 1
+following such elections. In the few towns where the _Gobernadorcillos_
+were able to make considerable sums, the appointment was eagerly
+sought for, but as a rule it was considered an onerous task, and I
+know several who have paid bribes to the officials to rid them of it,
+under the pretext of ill-health, legal incapacity, and so on. The
+_Gobernadorcillo_ was supported by what was pompously termed a
+"ministry," composed of two lieutenants of the town, lieutenants of
+the wards, the chiefs of police, of plantations, and of live-stock.
+
+The _Gobernadorcillo_ was nominally the delegate and practically the
+servant of his immediate chief, the Provincial Governor. He was the
+arbiter of local petty questions, and endeavoured to adjust them,
+but when they assumed a legal aspect, they were remitted to the local
+Justice of the Peace, who was directly subordinate to the Provincial
+Chief Judge. He was also responsible to the Administrator for the
+collection of taxes--to the Chief of the Civil Guard for the capture
+of criminals, and to the priest of his parish for the interests of
+the Church. His responsibility for the taxes to be collected sometimes
+brought him imprisonment, unless he succeeded in throwing the burden
+on the actual collectors--the _Cabezas de Barangay_.
+
+The _Gobernadorcillo_ was often put to considerable expense in the
+course of his two years, in entertaining and supplying the wants of
+officials passing through. To cover this outlay, the loss of his own
+time, the salaries of writers in the Town Hall, presents to his Spanish
+chiefs to secure their goodwill, and other calls upon his private
+income, he naturally had to exact funds from the townspeople. Legally,
+he could receive, if he chose (but few did), the munificent salary of
+P2 per month, and an allowance for clerks equal to about one-fifth
+of what he had to pay them. Some of these _Gobernadorcillos_ were
+well-to-do planters, and were anxious for the office, even if it
+cost them money, on account of the local prestige which the title of
+"Capitan" gave them, but others were often so poor that if they had
+not pilfered, this compulsory service would have ruined them. However,
+a smart _Gobernadorcillo_ was rarely out of pocket by his service. One
+of the greatest hardships of his office was that he often had to
+abandon his plantation or other livelihood to go to the provincial
+capital at his own expense whenever he was cited there. Many of them
+who did not speak or understand Spanish had to pay and be at the
+mercy of a Secretary (_Directorcillo_), who was also a native.
+
+When any question arose of general interest to the townspeople (such
+as a serious innovation in the existing law, or the annual feasts,
+or the anticipated arrival of a very big official, etc.) the headmen
+(_principalia_) were cited to the Town Hall. They were also expected
+to assemble there every Sunday and Great Feast Days (three-cross Saint
+days in the Calendar), to march thence in procession to the church
+to hear Mass, under certain penalties if they failed to attend. Each
+one carried his stick of authority; and the official dress was a
+short Eton jacket of black cloth over the shirt, the tail of which
+hung outside the trousers. Some _Gobernadorcillos_, imbued with a
+sense of the importance and solemnity of office, ordered a band to
+play lively dance music at the head of the _cortege_ to and from the
+church. After Mass they repaired to the convent, and on bended knee
+kissed the priest's hand. Town affairs were then discussed. Some
+present were chided, others were commended by their spiritual dictator.
+
+In nearly every town the people were, and still are, divided into
+parties holding divergent views on town affairs, each group being ready
+to give the other a "stab in the back" when the opportunity offers,
+and not unfrequently these differences seriously affect the social
+relations of the individual members.
+
+For the direct collection of taxes each township was sub-divided into
+groups of forty or fifty families called _Barangays_: each group had
+to pay taxes to its respective head, styled _Cabeza de Barangay_,
+who was responsible to the petty-governor, who in turn made the
+payment to the Provincial Administrator for remission to the Treasury
+(_Intendencia_) in Manila. This _Barangay chiefdom_ system took its
+origin from that established by the natives themselves prior to the
+Spanish conquest, and in some parts of the Colony the original title
+of _datto_ was still applied to the chief. This position, hereditary
+among themselves, continued to be so for many years under Spanish
+rule, and was then considered an honourable distinction because it
+gave the heads of certain families a birthright importance in their
+class. Later on they were chosen, like all the other native local
+authorities, every two years, but if they had anything to lose, they
+were invariably re-elected. In order to be ranked among the headmen
+of the town (the _principalia_), a _Barangay chief_ had to serve for
+ten years in that capacity unless he were, meanwhile, elected to a
+higher rank, such as lieutenant or _gobernadorcillo_. Everybody,
+therefore, shirked the repugnant obligations of a chiefdom, for
+the Government rarely recognized any bad debts in the collection of
+the taxes, until the chief had been made bankrupt and his goods and
+chattels sold to make good the sums which he could not collect from
+his group, whether it arose from their poverty, death, or from their
+having absconded. I have been present at auction sales of live-stock
+seized to supply taxes to the Government, which admitted no excuses
+or explanations. Many _Barangay chiefs_ went to prison through
+their inability or refusal to pay others' debts. On the other hand,
+there were among them some profligate characters who misappropriated
+the collected taxes, but the Government had really little right to
+complain, for the labour of tax-gathering was a _forced service_
+without remuneration for expenses or loss of time incurred.
+
+In many towns, villages, and hamlets there were posts of the Civil
+Guard established for the arrest of criminals and the maintenance of
+public order; moreover, there was in each town a body of guards called
+_Cuadrilleros_ for the defence of the town and the apprehension of
+bandits and criminals within the jurisdiction of the town only. The
+town and the wards together furnished these local guards, whose
+social position was one of the humblest and least enviable. There
+were frequent cases of _Cuadrilleros_ passing over to a band of
+brigands. Some years ago the whole muster belonging to the town of
+Mauban (Tayabas) suddenly took to the mountains; on the other hand,
+many often rendered valuable aid to society, but their doubtful
+reliability vastly diminished their public utility.
+
+From the time Philippine administration was first organized up to
+the year 1884, all the subdued natives paid tribute. Latterly it
+was fixed at one peso and ten cents per annum, and those who did not
+choose to work for the Government during forty days in the year, paid
+also a poll-tax (_fallas_) of P3 per annum. But, as a matter of fact,
+thousands were declared as workers who never did work, and whilst
+roads were in an abominable condition and public works abandoned,
+not much secret was made of the fact that a great portion of the
+poll-tax never reached the Treasury. These pilferings were known
+to the Spanish local authorities as _caidas_ or droppings; and in a
+certain province I met at table a provincial chief judge, the nephew
+of a general, and other persons who openly discussed the value of
+the different Provincial Governments (before 1884) in Luzon Island,
+on the basis of so much for salary and so much for fees and _caidas_.
+
+However, although the tribute and _fallas_ system worked as well as any
+other would under the circumstances, for some reason, best known to the
+authorities, it was abolished. In lieu thereof a scheme was proposed,
+obliging _every civilized inhabitant_ of the Philippines, excepting
+only public servants, the clergy, and a few others, _to work for
+fifteen days per annum without the right of redeeming this obligation
+by payment_. Indeed, the decree to that effect was actually received
+in Manila from the Home Government, but it was so palpably ludicrous
+that the Gov.-General did not give it effect. He had sufficient common
+sense to foresee in its application the extinction of all European
+prestige and moral influence over the natives if Spanish and foreign
+gentlemen of good family were seen sweeping the streets, lighting the
+lamps, road-mending, guiding buffalo-carts loaded with stones, and so
+on. This measure, therefore, regarded by some as a practical joke,
+by others as the conception of a lunatic theorist--was withdrawn,
+or at least allowed to lapse.
+
+Nevertheless, those in power were bent on reform, and the Peninsular
+system of a document of identity (_Cedula personal_), which works
+well amongst Europeans, was then adopted for all civilized classes
+and nationalities above the age of 18 years without exception, its
+possession being compulsory. The amount paid for this document, which
+was of nine classes, [107] from P25 value downwards, varied according
+to the income of the holder or the cost of his trading-licences. Any
+person holding this document of a value under P3 1/2 was subject to
+fifteen days' forced labour per annum, or to pay 50 cents for each
+day he failed to work. The holder of a document of P3 1/2 or over
+paid also P1 1/2 "Municipal Tax" in lieu of labour. The "_Cedula_"
+thenceforth served as a passport for travelling within the Archipelago,
+to be exhibited at any time on demand by the proper authority. No
+legal document was valid unless the interested parties had produced
+their _Cedulas_, the details of which were inscribed in the legal
+instrument. No petitions would be noticed, and very few transactions
+could be made in the Government offices without the presentation of
+this identification document. The decree relating to this reform,
+like most ambiguous Spanish edicts, set forth that any person was at
+liberty to take a higher-valued _Cedula_ than that corresponding to
+his position, without the right of any official to ask the reason
+why. This clause was prejudicial to the public welfare, because it
+enabled thousands of able-bodied natives to evade labour for public
+improvements of imperative necessity in the provinces. The public
+labour question was indeed altogether a farce, and simply afforded
+a pretext for levying a tax.
+
+It would appear that whilst the total amount of taxation in Spanish
+times was not burdensome, the fiscal system was obviously defective.
+
+The (American) Insular Government has continued the issue of the
+_Cedula_ on a reasonable plan which bears hard on no one. Forced
+labour is abolished; government work is paid for out of the taxes;
+and the uniform cost of the _Cedula_ is one peso for every male
+between the ages of 18 and 60 years.
+
+In 1890 certain reforms were introduced into the townships, most
+of which were raised to the dignity of Municipalities. The titles
+of _Gobernadorcillo_ and _Directorcillo_ (the words themselves in
+Spanish bear a sound of contempt) were changed to _Capitan Municipal_
+and _Secretario_ respectively (Municipal Captain and Secretary) with
+nominally extended powers. For instance, the Municipal Captains were
+empowered to disburse for public works, without appeal to Manila,
+a few hundred pesos in the year (to be drawn, in some cases, from
+empty public coffers, or private purses). The functions of the local
+Justices of the Peace were amplified and abused to such a degree
+that these officials became more the originators of strife than
+the guardians of peace. The old-established obligation to supply
+travellers, on payment therefor, with certain necessaries of life
+and means of transport was abolished.
+
+Hitherto it had been the custom for a traveller on arriving at a town
+without knowing any one there, or without letters of introduction,
+to alight (by right) at the Tribunal, or Town Hall. Each such
+establishment had, or ought to have had, a tariff of necessary
+provisions and the means of travelling to the next town (such
+as ponies, gigs, hammocks, sedan-chairs, etc., according to the
+particular conditions of the locality). Each _Barangay_ or _Cabezeria_
+furnished one _Cuadrillero_ (_vide_ pp. 223, 224) for the service
+of the Tribunal, so that the supply of baggage-carriers, bearers,
+etc., which one needed could not be refused on payment. The native
+official in charge of this service to travellers, and in control of the
+_Cuadrilleros_, was styled the _Alguacil_. Hence the Tribunal served
+the double purpose of Town Hall and casual ward for wayfarers. There
+were all sorts of Tribunales, from the well-built stone and wood
+house to the poverty-stricken bamboo shanty where one had to pass
+the night on the floor or on the table.
+
+By decree of Gov.-General Weyler (1888-91) dated October 17, 1888,
+which came into force on January 1, 1889, the obligation of the
+Tribunal officials to supply provisions to travelling civilians had
+been already abolished, although, under both reforms, civilians could
+continue to take refuge at the Tribunal as theretofore. Notwithstanding
+the reform of 1890, until the American advent the European traveller
+found it no more difficult than before to procure _en route_ the
+requisite means for provincial travelling.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+Spanish-Philippine Finances
+
+
+The secession of Mexico from the Spanish Crown in the second decade
+of last century brought with it a complete revolution in Philippine
+affairs. Direct trade with Europe through one channel or another had
+necessarily to be permitted. The "Situado," or subsidy (_vide_ p. 244),
+received from Mexico became a thing of the past, and necessity urged
+the home authorities to relax, to a certain extent, the old restraint
+on the development of Philippine resources.
+
+In 1839 the first Philippine Budget was presented in the Spanish
+Cortes, but so little interest did the affairs of the Colony excite
+that it provoked no discussion. After the amendment of only one
+item the Budget was adopted in silence. It was not the practice
+in the earliest years to publish the full Philippine Budget in the
+Islands, although allusion was necessarily made to items of it in the
+_Gaceta de Manila_. However, it could be seen without difficulty in
+Madrid. Considering that the Filipinos had no political rights, except
+for the very brief period alluded to in Chapter xxii. (_vide Cortes de
+Cadiz_), it is evident that popular discussion of public finance would
+have been undesirable, because it could have led to no practical issue.
+
+There is apparently no record of the Philippine Islands having been at
+any time in a flourishing financial condition. With few exceptions,
+in latter years the collected revenue of the Colony was usually much
+less than the estimated yield of taxes. The Budget for 1888 is here
+given in detail as an example.
+
+
+PHILIPPINE BUDGETS
+
+
+    Financial   Estimated       Income          Difference.
+    Year.       Income.         Realized.
+                P               P               P
+    1884-85     11,298,508.98    9,893,745.87   1,404,763.11
+    1885-86     11,528,178.00    9,688,029.70   1,840,148.30
+    1886-87     11,554,379.00    9,324,974.08   2,229,404.92
+    1894-95     13,280,139.40   13,579,900.00     299,760.60
+    1896-97     17,086,423.00   17,474,000.00     387,577.00
+
+
+ANTICIPATED REVENUE, YEAR 1888
+
+
+                                                            P cts.
+
+Direct Taxes                                        5,206,836 93
+
+Customs Dues                                        2,023,400 00
+
+Government Monopolies (stamps, cock-fighting,
+opium, gambling, etc.)                              1,181,239 00
+Lotteries and Raffles                                 513,200 00
+Sale of State property                                153,571 00
+War and Marine Department (sale of useless
+articles. Gain on repairs to private ships in
+the Government Arsenal)                                15,150 00
+Sundries                                              744,500 00
+
+                                                    9,837,896 93
+
+Anticipated Expenditure, year 1888                  9,825,633 29
+
+Anticipated Surplus                                  P 12,263 64
+
+
+The actual deficit in the last previous Budget for which there was
+no provision was estimated at P1,376,179.56, against which the above
+balance would be placed. There were some remarkable inconsistencies
+in the 1888 Budget. The Inspection of Woods and Forests was an
+institution under a Chief Inspector with a salary of P6,500,
+assisted by a technical staff of 64 persons and 52 non-technical
+subordinates. The total cost for the year was estimated at P165,960,
+against which the expected income derived from duties on felled
+timber was P80,000; hence a loss of P85,960 was duly anticipated to
+satisfy office-seekers. Those who wished to cut timber were subjected
+to very complicated and vexatious regulations. The tariff of duties
+and mode of calculating it were capriciously modified from time to
+time on no commercial basis whatever. Merchants who had contracted to
+supply timber at so much per foot for delivery within a fixed period
+were never sure of their profits; for the dues might, meanwhile,
+be raised without any consideration for trading interests. The most
+urgent material want of the Colony was easy means of communication
+with the interior of the Islands. Yet, whilst this was so sadly
+neglected, the Budget provided the sum of P113,686.64 for a School of
+Agriculture in Manila and 10 model farms and Schools of Cultivation
+in the provinces. It was not the want of farming knowledge, but the
+scarcity of capital and the scandalous neglect of public highways
+and bridges for transport of produce which retarded agriculture. The
+113,000 pesos, if disbursed on roads, bridges, town halls, and
+landing-jetties, would have benefited the Colony; as it was, this
+sum went to furnish salaries to needy Spaniards.
+
+
+
+
+The following are some of the most interesting items of the Budget:
+
+
+CURIOUS ITEMS OF REVENUE
+
+
+                                                                P cts.
+
+2,760,613 Identification Documents (_Cedulas personales_),
+costing 4 per cent, to collect--gross value
+                                                        4,401,629 25
+Tax on the above, based on the estimated local consumption
+of Tobacco
+                                                          222,500 00
+Chinese Capitation Tax
+                                                          236,250 00
+Tax on the above for the estimated local consumption of Tobacco
+                                                           11,250 00
+Recognition of vassalage  collected  from  the unsubdued
+mountain tribes
+                                                           12,000 00
+Industrial and Trading Licences (costing 1/2 per cent, to
+collect), gross value
+                                                        1,350,000 00
+Yield of the Opium Contract (farmed out)
+                                                          483,400 00
+Yield of the Cock-fighting Contract (farmed out)
+                                                          149,039 00
+Lotteries and Raffles, nett profit say
+                                                          501,862 00
+State Lands worked by miners
+                                                              100 00
+Sale of State Lands
+                                                           50,000 00
+Mint--Profits on the manipulation of the bullion, less expenses
+of the Mint (P 46,150), nett
+                                                          330,350 00
+Stamps and Stamped Paper
+                                                          548,400 00
+Convict labour hired out
+                                                           50,000 00
+
+
+CURIOUS ITEMS OF EXPENDITURE
+
+
+
+                                                                P cts.
+34 per cent, of the maintenance of Fernando Po (by Decree of
+August 5, 1884)
+                                                           68,618 18
+Share of the pension paid to the heir of Christopher Columbus,
+the Duke de Veragua (P 23,400 a year)
+                                                            3,000 00
+Share of the pension paid to Ferdinand Columbus, Marquis
+de Barboles
+                                                            1,000 00
+The Marquis de Bedmar is the heir of the assayer and caster
+in the Mint of Potosi (Peru). The concern was taken over by
+the Spanish Government, in return for an annual perpetual
+pension, of which this Colony contributed the sum of
+                                                            1,500 00
+The Consular and Diplomatic Services, Philippine Share
+                                                           66,000 00
+Postal and Telegraph Services (staff of 550 persons)
+                                                          406,547 17
+The Submarine Cable Co. Subsidy (Bolinao to Hong-Kong)
+                                                           48,000 00
+Charitable Institutions partly supported by Government,
+including the "Lepers' Hospital" P500
+                                                           26,887 50
+
+
+THE ARMY AND ARMED LAND FORCES
+
+Rank and File and Non-commissioned Officers as follows:--
+
+
+Infantry, Artillery, Engineer, and Carabineer Corps       9,470
+Cavalry Corps                                               407
+Disciplinary Corps (Convicts)                               630
+Disciplinary Corps (Non-commissioned Officers)               92
+Three Civil Guard Corps (Provincial Constabulary)         3,342
+Veteran Civil Guard Corps (Manila Military Police)          400
+
+Total number of men                                      14,341
+
+
+
+
+ARMY OFFICERS IN THE PHILIPPINES.
+
+Year 1888.
+
+How Employed.                   Lieutenant-Generals.
+                                |   Brigadier-Generals.
+                                |   |   Colonels.
+                                |   |   |   Lieutenant-Colonels.
+                                |   |   |   |   Majors.
+                                |   |   |   |   |   Captains.
+                                |   |   |   |   |   |   Lieutenants.
+                                |   |   |   |   |   |   |   Sub-Lieutenants.
+                                |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   Totals.
+                                |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |
+
+Governor-General, with local
+rank of Captain-General         1                               1
+Employed in Government
+Administration, Political
+Military Provincial
+Governments, Staff Officers
+and Officers at the Orders
+of the Governor-General         1   7   7   14  39  37  23  12  140
+With command or attached to
+Army Corps and Disciplinary
+Corps                                   5   11  14  88  136 127 381
+Civil Guard                             3   3   9   33  54  54  156
+Veteran Civil Guard                             1       6   6   13
+Invalid Corps                                           1       1
+Military Academy                        1           1   2       4
+Prisons and Penitentiaries                  1   1   4   3       9
+Commissariat Department             1   1   1       14  18      35
+Judicial Audit Department           1   1       2   2           6
+In expectation of service               1   3   6   12  12  12  46
+In excess of Active Service
+requirements                                3   1       7   9   20
+Total of Officers               2   9   19  36  73  191 262 220 812
+
+
+The Archbishop, as Vicar-General of the Armed Forces, ranked in
+precedence as a Field-Marshal. (In the Spanish Army a Field-Marshal
+ranks between a Brig.-General and Lieut.-General.)
+
+
+
+
+OFFICERS' PAY PER ANNUM
+
+
+Rank.                   Ordinary Pay.
+                        |       When Commanding a Corps. _Extra_.
+                        |       |       When in Civil Guard.
+                        |       |       |       When in Veteran
+                        |       |       |       Civil Guard.
+                        |       |       |       |
+                        P       P       P       P
+Captain-General
+was paid as
+Governor-General
+of the Colony           40,000 [108]
+Lieutenant-General
+(local rank), Sub-
+Inspector of
+Army Corps              12,000
+Brigadier-General        4,500    800
+Colonel                  3,450    600    4,200
+Lieutenant-Colonel       2,700    400    3,288
+Major                    2,400           2,520   2,880
+Captain                  1,500           1,584
+Lieutenant               1,125           1,242   1,485
+Sub-Lieutenant             975           1,068   1,275
+
+
+After 6 years' and up to 9 years' service, an officer could claim
+a free passage back to the Peninsula for himself and, if married,
+his family.
+
+After 9 years' service, his retirement from the Colony for three years
+was compulsory. If he nevertheless wished to remain in the Colony,
+he must quit military service. If he left before completing six
+years' service, he would have to pay his own passage unless he went
+"on commission" or with sick-leave allowance.
+
+
+Estimated Annual Disbursements for--
+
+                                                              P cts
+
+The Civil Guard (Constabulary), composed of Three
+Corps = 3,342 Men and 156 Officers                      638,896 77
+The Veteran Civil Guard (Manila Police) One Corps =
+400 Men and 13 Officers                                  73,246 88
+                                                        ----------
+The Disciplinary Corps, Maintenance of 630 Convicts
+and Material                                             56,230 63
+(For the Disciplinary Convict Corps) 92 Non-commissioned
+Officers and 23 Officers                                 47,909 51
+                                                        ==========
+                                                      P 104,140 14
+
+
+Army Estimates
+
+                                                              P cts
+
+Estimate according to the Budget for 1888 _Plus_
+the following sums charged on other estimates,
+viz.:--                                               3,016,185 91
+Disciplinary Corps, maintenance of 630 Convicts
+and material                                             56,230 63
+The Civil Guard                                         638,896 77
+The Veteran Civil Guard                                  73,246 88
+Pensions                                                117,200 00
+Transport and maintenance of Recruits from Provinces      6,000 00
+Expeditions to be made against the Moros--Religious
+ceremonies to celebrate Victories gained over
+them--Maintenance of War Prisoners, etc.                 11,000 00
+                                                      ============
+Total cost of Army and Armed Land Forces            P 3,918,760 19
+
+
+Before the walls were built around Manila, about the year 1590,
+each soldier and officer lived where he pleased, and, when required,
+the troops were assembled by the bugle call.
+
+At the close of the 16th century barracks were constructed, but up
+to the middle of last century the native troops were so badly and
+irregularly paid that they went from house to house begging alms of
+the citizens (_vide_ p. 53, King Philip II.'s Decree).
+
+In the 17th century troops died of sheer want in the Fort of Yligan
+(Mindanao Is.), and when this was represented to the Gov.-General
+he generously ordered that the Spanish soldiers were in future to be
+paid P2 per month and native soldiers P1 per month to hold the fort,
+at the risk of their lives, against attack from the Mahometans.
+
+In the forts of Labo and Taytay (Palauan Is.) the soldiers' pay was
+only nominal, rations were often short, and their lives altogether
+most wretched. Sometimes they were totally overlooked by the military
+chiefs, and they had to seek subsistence as best they could when
+provisions were not sent from the capital (_vide_p. 157).
+
+Mexican soldiers arrived in nearly every ship, but there were no
+barracks for them, no regular mode of living, no regulations for
+their board and lodging, etc.; hence many had to subsist by serving
+natives and half-breeds, much to the discredit of the mother country,
+and consequent loss of prestige. Each time a new expedition was
+organized a fresh recruiting had to be made at great cost and with
+great delay. There was practically no regular army except those
+necessarily compelled to mount guard, etc., in the city. Even the
+officers received no regular pay until 1754, and there was some excuse
+for stealing when they had a chance, and for the total absence of
+enthusiasm in the Service. When troops were urgently called for, the
+Gov.-General had to bargain with the officers to fill the minor posts
+by promises of rewards, whilst the high commands were eagerly sought
+for, not for the pay or the glory, but for the plunder in perspective.
+
+In 1739 the Armoury in Manila contained only 25 Arquebuses of
+native make, 120 Biscayan muskets, 40 Flint guns, 70 Hatchets, and
+40 Cutlasses.
+
+The first regular military organization in these Islands was in the
+time of Governor Pedro Manuel de Arandia (1754), when one regiment
+was formed of five companies of native soldiers, together with four
+companies of troops which arrived with the Governor from Mexico. This
+corps, afterwards known as the "King's Regiment" [109] (_Regimiento
+del Rey_) was divided into two battalions, increased to 10 companies
+each as the troops returned from the provinces.
+
+The 20 companies were each composed as follows:--
+
+1 captain, 1 lieutenant, 1 sub-lieutenant, 4 sergeants, 2 drummers,
+6 first corporals, 6 seconds corporals, and 88 rank and file.
+
+The Gov.-General's Body Guard of Halberdiers was reformed, and
+thenceforth consisted of 18 men, under a captain and a corporal.
+
+The Monthly Pay under these reforms was as follows:--
+
+
+Staff Officers.          Regimental Officers            Governor-General's
+                    P.   and Staff          P. c.   Body Guard      P.
+
+Chief of the Staff  40   Captain            25 00   Captain         35
+Adjutant-Major.     25   Lieutenant.        18 00   Corporal        10
+Adjutant.           18   Sub-Lieutenant.    14 00   Guards           5
+Captain             12   Sergeant            4 00
+                         Drummer             3 00
+                         First Corporal      3 25
+                         Second Corporal     3 00
+                         Rank and File       2 62 1/2
+
+
+From October 1, 1754, the troops were quartered in barracks,
+Commissariat Officers were appointed, and every man and every officer
+was regularly paid fortnightly. The soldiers were not used to this
+discipline, and desertion was frequent. They much preferred the old
+style of roaming about to beg or steal and live where they chose
+until they were called out to service, and very vigorous measures
+had to be adopted to compel them to comply with the new regulations.
+
+In May, 1755, four artillery brigades were formed, the commanding
+officer of each receiving P30 per month pay.
+
+In 1757 there were 16 fortified provincial outposts, at a total
+estimated cost of P37,638 per annum (including Zamboanga, the chief
+centre of operations against the Mahometans, which alone cost P18,831
+in 1757), besides the armed forces and Camp of Manila, Fort Santiago,
+and Cavite Arsenal and Fort, which together cost a further sum of
+P157,934 for maintenance in that year.
+
+
+    SPANISH VESSELS IN PHILIPPINE WATERS
+
+    Year 1898
+
+
+    Name.                   Class.      Tons.       H.P.
+
+    Reina Cristina          Cruiser     3,500       3,950
+    Castilla                Cruiser     3,260       4,400
+    Don Anto. de Ulloa      Cruiser     1,200       1,523
+    Don Juan de Austria     Cruiser     1,130       1,600
+    Isla de Cuba            Cruiser     1,048       2,200
+    Isla de Luzon           Cruiser     1,048       2,200
+    Velasco                 Gunboat     1,152       1,500
+    Elcano                  Gunboat       560         600
+    General Lezo            Gunboat       520         600
+    Argos                   Gunboat       508         600
+    Marques del Duero       Gunboat       500         550
+    Manila                  Transport   1,900         750
+    General Alava           Transport   1,200       1,000
+    Cebu                    Transport     532         600
+    Callao                  Gunboat, and 4 others very small,
+                            besides 3 armed steam launches built
+                            in Hong-Kong, viz.:--_Lanao, Corcuera_,
+                            and _General Blanco_.
+
+
+
+    NAVAL DIVISIONS
+
+    Station.              Commander's Pay.
+                                        P
+
+    South Division                  5,760
+    Palauan (Pta. Princesa)         4,560
+    Isabel de Basilan               3,360
+    Balabac Island                  3,360
+    Corregidor Island               3,360
+    West Caroline Islands           3,360
+    East Caroline Islands           4,560
+
+
+
+    HARBOUR-MASTERS
+
+    Station.        Pay.        Station.                 Pay.
+                      P                                     P
+    Manila        3,200         Pangasinan              1,500
+    Yloilo        3,200         Ilocos Norte y Sur.     1,500
+    Cebu          1,500         Cagayan                 1,500
+    Capis         1,500         Ladrone Islands         1,500
+    Zamboanga     1,500         Laguimanoc (Civilian)     144
+
+
+The Chief of the Philippine Naval Forces was a Rear-Admiral receiving
+P16,392 per annum.
+
+There were two Brigades of Marine Infantry, composed of 376 men with
+18 officers.
+
+
+_Cavite Arsenal_
+
+The chief Naval Station was at Cavite, six miles from Manila. The
+forces at this station were 90 Marines as Guards, and 244 Marines as
+reserves. One hundred convicts were employed for Arsenal labour.
+
+The Officer in command of the Cavite Arsenal and Naval Station took
+rank after the Rear-Admiral, and received a salary of P8,496 per annum.
+
+The Navy Estimates (Budget for 1888) amounted to P2,573,776.27.
+
+
+
+_Spanish Judicial Statistics_
+
+
+
+_Civil and Criminal Law Courts_
+
+The Civil and Criminal Law Courts were as follows, viz.:--
+
+
+ 2 Supreme Courts in Manila and Cebu, quite independent of each other.
+ 4 First-Class Courts of Justice in Manila (called "de termino.")
+ 8 First-Class Courts of Justice in the Provinces (called "de termino_.")
+10 Second-Class Courts of Justice in the Provinces (called "de ascenso.")
+19 Third-Class Courts of Justice in the Provinces (called "de entrada.")
+ 7 Provincial Governments with judicial powers.
+
+
+
+_Judges' Salaries_
+
+
+President of the Supreme Court of Manila            P7,000
+President of the Supreme Court of Cebu               6,000
+Judge of each of the 12 First-Class Courts           4,000
+Judge of each of the 10 Second-Class Courts          3,000
+Judge of each of the 19 Third-Class Courts           2,000
+
+
+
+_Law Courts Estimate for_ 1888
+
+                                                          P cts.
+
+Supreme Court of Manila                              90,382 00
+Supreme Court of Cebu                                49,828 00
+All the minor Courts and allowances to Provincial
+Governors with judicial powers                      192,656 00
+                                                    ------- --
+Estimated total cost for the year                  P332,866 00
+
+
+
+
+_Penitentiaries and Convict Settlements_
+
+
+Manila (Bilibid Jail) containing on an average      900 Native Convicts
+And in 1888 there were also                           3 Spanish Convicts
+Cavite Jail contained in 1888                        51 Native Convicts
+Zamboanga Jail contained in 1888                     98 Native Convicts
+Agricultural Colony of San Ramon (Zamboanga),
+worked by convict labour, contained in 1888         164 Native Convicts
+Ladrone Island Penal Settlement contained in 1888   101 Native Convicts
+Ladrone Island Penal Settlement contained in 1888     3 Spanish Convicts
+In the Army and Navy Services                       730 Native Convicts
+                                                  -----
+                                                  2,045 Convicts
+
+Total estimated disbursements for Penitentiaries
+and Convict maintenance in the Settlements for the year     P82,672.71
+
+
+_Brigandage_ first came into prominence in Governor Arandia's time
+(1754-59), and he used the means of "setting a thief to catch a
+thief," which answered well for a short time, until the crime became
+more and more habitual as provincial property increased in value
+and capital was accumulated there. In 1888 the Budget provided an
+allowance of 2,000 pesos for rewards for the capture or slaughter of
+these ruffians. Up to the end of Spanish rule, brigandage, pillage,
+and murder were treated with such leniency by the judges that there
+was little hope for the extinction of such crimes. When a band of
+thieves and assassins attacked a village or a residence, murdered its
+inhabitants, and carried off booty, the Civil Guard at once scoured the
+country, and often the malefactors were arrested. The Civil Guard was
+an excellent institution, and performed its duty admirably well; but
+as soon as the villains were handed over to the legal functionaries,
+society lost hope. Instead of the convicted criminals being garrotted
+according to law, as the public had a right to demand, they were
+"protected"; some were let loose on the world again, whilst others
+were sent to prison and allowed to escape, or they were transported to
+a penal settlement to work without fetters, where they were just as
+comfortable as if they were working for a private employer. I record
+these facts from personal knowledge, for my wanderings in the Islands
+brought me into contact with all sorts and conditions of men. I have
+been personally acquainted with many brigands, and I gave regular
+employment to an ex-bandit for years.
+
+The Philippine brigand--known in the northern islands as _Tulisan_
+and in the southern islands as _Pulajan_--is not merely an outlaw,
+such as may yet be found in Southern and Eastern Europe; his infamous
+work of freebooting is never done to his satisfaction without the
+complement of bloodshed, even though his victim yield to him all
+without demur. Booty or no booty, blood must flow, if he be the
+ordinary _Tulisan_ of the type known to the Tagalogs as _dugong-aso_
+(blood of a dog). as distinguished from the milder _Tulisan pulpul_
+(literally, the blunt brigand), who robs, uses no unnecessary violence,
+but runs away if he can, and only fights when he must.
+
+At Christmas, 1884, I went to Laguimanoc in the Province of Tayabas
+to spend a few days with an English friend of mine. [110] On the way
+there, at Sariaya, I stayed at the house of the Captain of the Civil
+Guard, when a message came to say that an attack had been made the
+night before on my friend's house, his manager, a Swede, having been
+killed, and many others in the village wounded. The Captain showed me
+the despatch, and invited me to join him as a volunteer to hunt down
+the murderers. I agreed, and within half an hour we were mounted and
+on their track all through that dark night, whilst the rain poured in
+torrents. Four native soldiers were following us on foot. We jumped
+over ditches, through rice-paddy fields and cocoanut plantations,
+and then forded a river, on the opposite bank of which was the
+next guards' post in charge of a lieutenant, who joined us with
+eight foot-soldiers. That same night we together captured five of
+the wretches, who had just beached a canoe containing part of their
+spoils. The prisoners were bound elbows together at their backs and
+sent forward under escort. We rode on all night until five o'clock
+the next morning, arriving at the convent of Pagbilao just as Father
+Jesus was going down to say Mass. I had almost lost my voice through
+being ten hours in the rain; but the priest was very attentive to us,
+and we went on in a prahu to the village where the crime had been
+committed. In another prahu the prisoners were sent in charge of
+the soldiers. In the meantime, the Chief Judge and the Government
+Doctor of the province had gone on before us. On the way we met a
+canoe going to Pagbilao, carrying the corpse of the murdered Swede
+for burial. When we arrived at Laguimanoc, we found one native dead
+and many natives and Chinese badly wounded.
+
+My friend's house had the front door smashed in--an iron strong-box
+had been forced, and a few hundred pesos, with some rare coins, were
+stolen. The furniture in the dining-room was wantonly hacked about
+with bowie-knives, only to satisfy a savage love for mischief. His
+bedroom had been entered, and there the brigands began to make
+their harvest; the bundles of wearing-apparel, jewellery, and
+other valuables were already tied up, when lo! the Virgin herself
+appeared, casting a penetrating glance of disapproval upon the wicked
+revelry! Forsaking their plunder, the brigands fled in terror from the
+saintly apparition. And when my friend re-entered his home and crossed
+the bloodstained floor of the dining-room to go to his bedroom, the
+cardboard Virgin, with a trade advertisement on the back, was still
+peeping round the door-jamb to which she was nailed, with the words
+"Please to shut the door" printed on her spotless bust.
+
+The next day the Captain remained in the village whilst I went on
+with the Lieutenant and a few guards in a prahu down the coast,
+where we made further captures, and returned in three days. During
+our journey in the prahu the wind was so strong that we resolved to
+beach our craft on the seashore instead of attempting to get over
+the shoal of the San Juan River. We ran her ashore under full sail,
+and just at that moment a native rushed towards us with an iron
+bar in his hand. In the evening gloom he must have mistaken us for
+a party of weather-beaten native or Chinese traders whose skulls
+he might smash in at a stroke and rifle their baggage. He halted,
+however, perfectly amazed when two guards with their bayonets fixed
+jumped forward in front of him. Then we got out, took him prisoner,
+and the next day he was let off with a souvenir of the lash, as
+there was nothing to prove that he was a brigand by profession. The
+second leader of the brigand gang was shot through the lungs a week
+afterwards, by the guards who were on his track, as he was jumping
+from the window-opening of a hut, and there he died.
+
+The Captain of the Civil Guard received an anonymous letter stating
+where the brigand chief was hiding. This fact came to the knowledge of
+the native _cuadrillero_ officer who had hitherto supplied his friend,
+the brigand, with rice daily, so he hastened on before the Captain
+could arrive, and imposed silence for ever on the fugitive bandit by
+stabbing him in the back. Thus the _cuadrillero_ avoided the disclosure
+of unpleasant facts which would have implicated himself. The prisoners
+were conducted to the provincial jail, and three years afterwards,
+when I made inquiries about them, I learnt that two of them had died
+of their wounds, whilst not a single one had been sentenced.
+
+The most ignorant classes believe that certain persons are possessed
+of a mystic power called _anting-anting_, which preserves them from
+all harm, and that the body of a man so affected is even refractory
+to bullet or steel. Brigands are often captured wearing medallions of
+the Virgin Mary or the Saints as a device of the _anting-anting_. In
+Maragondon (Cavite), the son of a friend of mine was enabled to go
+into any remote place with impunity, because he was reputed to be
+possessed of this charm. Some highwaymen, too, have a curious notion
+that they can escape punishment for a crime committed in Easter Week,
+because the thief on the cross was pardoned his sins.
+
+In 1885 I purchased a small estate, where there was some good wild-boar
+hunting and snipe-shooting, and I had occasion to see the man who
+was tenant previous to my purchase, in Manila Jail. He was accused
+of having been concerned in an attack upon the town of Mariquina,
+and was incarcerated for eighteen months without being definitely
+convicted or acquitted. Three months after his release from prison
+he was appointed petty-governor of his own town, much to the disgust
+of the people, who in vain petitioned against it in writing.
+
+I visited the Penal Settlement, known as the Agricultural Colony of
+San Ramon, situated about fifteen miles north of Zamboanga, where I
+remained twelve days. The director of the settlement was D. Felipe
+Dujiols, an army captain who had defended Onate (in Guipuzcoa, Spain),
+during the Carlist war; so, as we were each able to relate our personal
+experiences of that stirring period, we speedily became friends. As
+his guest, I was able to acquire more ample information about the
+system of convict treatment. With the 25 convicts just arrived,
+there were in all 150 natives of the most desperate class--assassins,
+thieves, conspirators, etc., working on this penal settlement. They
+were well fed, fairly well lodged, and worked with almost the same
+freedom as independent labourers. Within a few yards of the director's
+bungalow were the barracks, for the accommodation of a detachment
+of 40 soldiers--under the command of a lieutenant--who patrolled the
+settlement during the day and mounted guard at night. During my stay
+one prisoner was chained and flogged, but that was for a serious
+crime committed the day before. The severest hardship which these
+convicts had to endure under the rule of my generous host, D. Felipe,
+was the obligation to work as honest men in other countries would be
+willing to do. In this same penal settlement, some years ago, a party
+of convicts attacked and killed three of the European overseers,
+and then escaped to the Island of Basilan, which lies to the south
+of Zamboanga. The leader of these criminals was a native named Pedro
+Cuevas, whose career is referred to at length in Chap. xxix.
+
+Within half a day's journey from Manila there are several well-known
+marauders' haunts, such as San Mateo, Imus, Silan, Indan, the mouths
+of the Hagonoy River (Pampanga), etc. In 1881 I was the only European
+amongst 20 to 25 passengers in a canoe going to Balanga on the west
+shore of Manila Bay, when about midday a canoe, painted black and
+without the usual outriggers, bore down upon us, and suddenly two
+gun-shots were fired, whilst we were called upon to surrender. The
+pirates numbered eight; they had their faces bedaubed white and their
+canoe ballasted with stones. There was great commotion in our craft;
+the men shouted and the women fell into a heap over me, reciting
+Ave Marias, and calling upon all the Saints to succour them. Just
+as I extricated myself and looked out from under the palm-leaf
+awning, the pirates flung a stone which severely cut our pilot's
+face. They came very close, flourishing their knives, but our crew
+managed to keep them from boarding us by pushing off their canoe
+with the paddles. When the enemy came within range of my revolver,
+one of their party, who was standing up brandishing a bowie-knife,
+suddenly collapsed into a heap. This seemed to discourage the rest,
+who gave up the pursuit, and we went on to Balanga.
+
+The most famous _Tulisan_ within living memory was a Chinese half-caste
+named Juan Fernandez, commonly known as _Tancad_ ("tall," in Tagalog)
+because of his extraordinary stature. His sphere of operations was
+around Bulacan, Tarlac, Morong, and Nueva Ecija. He took part in
+21 crimes which could have been proved against him, and doubtless
+many more. A man of wonderful perception and great bravery, he was
+only 35 years old when he was captured in Bulacan Province by the
+Spanish Captain Villa Abrille. Brought before a court-martial on the
+specific charge of being the chief actor in a wholesale slaughter at
+Tayud, which caused a great sensation at the time, he and ten of his
+companions were executed on August 28, 1877, to the immense relief of
+the people, to whom the very name of _Tancad_ gave a thrill of horror.
+
+No one experienced in the Colony ever thought of privately prosecuting
+a captured brigand, for a criminal or civil lawsuit in the Philippines
+was one of the worst calamities that could befall a man. Between
+notaries, procurators, barristers, and the sluggish process of the
+courts, a litigant was fleeced of his money, often worried into a
+bad state of health, and kept in horrible suspense for years. It was
+as hard to get the judgement executed as it was to win the case. Even
+when the question at issue was supposed to be settled, a defect in the
+sentence could always be concocted to re-open the whole affair. If the
+case had been tried and judgement given under the Civil Code, a way
+was often found to convert it into a criminal case; and when apparently
+settled under the Criminal Code, a flaw could be discovered under the
+_Laws of the Indies_, or the _Siete Partidas_, or the _Roman Law_,
+or the _Novisima Recopilacion_, or the _Antiguos fueros_, Decrees,
+Royal Orders, _Ordenanzas de buen Gobierno_, and so forth, by which
+the case could be re-opened. It was the same in the 16th century
+(_vide_ p. 56).
+
+I knew a planter in Negros Island who was charged with homicide. The
+judge of his province acquitted him, but fearing that he might
+again be arrested on the same charge, he came up to Manila with me
+to procure a ratification of the sentence in the Supreme Court. The
+legal expenses were so enormous that he was compelled to fully mortgage
+his plantation. Weeks passed, and having spent all his money without
+getting justice, I lent his notary L40 to assist in bringing the case
+to an end. The planter returned to Negros apparently satisfied that he
+would be troubled no further, but later on, the newly-appointed judge
+in that Island, whilst prospecting for fees by turning up old cases,
+unfortunately came across this one, and my planter acquaintance was
+sentenced to eight years' imprisonment, although the family lawyer,
+proceeding on the same shifty lines, still hoped to find defects in
+the sentence in order to reverse it in favour of his client.
+
+Availing one's self of the dilatoriness of the Spanish law, it was
+possible for a man to occupy a house, pay no rent, and refuse to quit
+on legal grounds during a couple of years or more. A person who had
+not a cent to lose could persecute another of means by a trumped-up
+accusation until he was ruined, by an "_informacion de pobreza_"--a
+declaration of poverty--which enabled the persecutor to keep the
+case going as long as he chose without needing money for fees. [111]
+A case of this kind was often started at the instigation of a native
+lawyer. When it had gone on for a certain time, the prosecutor's
+adviser would propose an "extra-judicial arrangement," to extort
+costs from the wearied and browbeaten defendant.
+
+About the year 1886 there was a _cause celebre_, the parties being
+the firm of Jurado & Co. _versus_ the Hong-Kong and Shanghai Banking
+Corporation. The Bank had agreed to make advances on goods to be
+imported by the firm in exchange for the firm's acceptances. The
+agreement was subject to six months' notice from the Bank. In
+due course the Bank had reason to doubt the genuineness of certain
+documents. Mr. Jurado was imprisoned, but shortly released on bail. He
+was dismissed from his official post of second chief of Telegraphs,
+worth P4,000 a year. Goods, as they arrived for his firm, were
+stored pending litigation, and deteriorated to only a fraction of
+their original value. His firm was forced by these circumstances into
+liquidation, and Mr. Jurado sued the Bank for damages. The case was
+open for several years, during which time the Bank coffers were once
+sealed by judicial warrant, a sum of cash was actually transported from
+the Bank premises, and the manager was nominally arrested, but really
+a prisoner on parole in his house. Several sentences of the Court were
+given in favour of each party. Years after this they were all quashed
+on appeal to Madrid. Mr. Jurado went to Spain to fight his case,
+and in 1891 I accidentally met him and his brother (a lawyer) in the
+street in Madrid. The brother told me the claim against the Bank then
+amounted to P935,000, and judgement for that sum would be given within
+a fortnight. Still, years after that, when I was again in Manila, the
+case was yet pending, and another onslaught was made on the Bank. The
+Court called on the manager to deliver up the funds of the Bank, and
+on his refusal to do so a mechanic was sent there to open the safes,
+but he laboured in vain for a week. Then a syndicate of Philippine
+capitalists was formed to fleece the Bank, one of its most energetic
+members being a native private banker in Manila. Whilst the case was
+in its first stages I happened to be discussing it at a shop in the
+_Escolta_ when one of the partners, a Spaniard, asked me if I would
+like to see with my own eyes the contending lawyers putting their
+heads together over the matter. "If so," said he, "you have only to
+go through my shop and up the winding back staircase, from the landing
+of which you can see them any day you like at one o'clock." I accepted
+his invitation, and there, indeed, were the rival advocates laughing,
+gesticulating, and presumably cogitating how they could plunder the
+litigant who had most money to spend. At one stage of the proceedings
+the Bank specially retained a Spanish lawyer of great local repute,
+who went to Madrid to push the case. Later on Mr. Francis, Q.C.,
+was sent over to Manila from Hong-Kong to advise the Bank. The Prime
+Minister was appealed to and the good offices of our Ambassador in
+Madrid were solicited. For a long time the Bank was placed in a most
+awkward legal dilemma. The other side contended that the Bank could
+not be heard, or appear for itself or by proxy, on the ground that
+under its own charter it had no right to be established in Manila;
+that, in view of the terms of that charter, it had never been legally
+registered as a Bank in Manila, and that it had no legal existence
+in the Philippines. This was merely a technical quibble. Several
+times when the case was supposed to be finally settled, it was again
+re-opened. Happily it may now be regarded as closed for ever.
+
+A great many well-to-do natives have a mania for seeing their sons
+launched into the "learned professions"; hence there was a mob of
+native doctors who made a scanty living, and a swarm of half-lawyers,
+popularly called "abogadillos," who were a pest to the Colony. Up
+to the beginning of the 18th century the offices of solicitors and
+notaries were filled from Mexico, where the licences to practise
+in Manila were publicly sold. After that period the colleges and
+the university issued licences to natives, thus creating a class of
+native pettifogging advocates who stirred up strife to make cases,
+for this purpose availing themselves of the intricacies of the law.
+
+The Spanish-Philippine _Criminal Law Procedure_ was briefly as
+follows:--(1) The Judge of Instruction took the _sumaria_, i.e.,
+the inquiry into whether a crime had been committed, and, if so,
+who was the presumptive culprit. It was his duty to find the facts
+and sift the case. In a light case he could order the immediate
+arrest of the presumptive delinquent; in a grave case he would
+remit it. (2) In the Court of First Instance the verbal evidence was
+heard and sifted, the _fiscal_, or prosecuting attorney, expressing
+his opinion to the judge. The judge would then qualify the crime,
+and decide who was the presumptive culprit. Then the defence began,
+and when this was exhausted the judge would give his opinion. This
+court could not acquit or condemn the accused. The opinion on the
+_sumaria_ was merely advisory, and not a sentence. This inquiry was
+called the "vista"; it was not in reality a trial, as the defendant
+was not allowed to cross-examine; but, on the other hand, in theory,
+he was not called upon to prove his innocence before two courts, but
+before the sentencing court (_Audiencia_) only. The case would then
+be remitted with the _sumaria_, and the opinion of the Court of First
+Instance, to the _Audiencia_, or Supreme Court, for review of errors
+of law, but not of facts which remained. The _Audiencia_ did not call
+for testimony, but, if new facts were produced, it would remit back
+the _sumaria_ to the lower court, with the new written testimony
+added to the _autos_ (documents in the case). These new witnesses
+were never confronted with the accused, and might never be seen by
+him, and were not cross-examined. If no new facts were elicited,
+the record of the lower court would be accepted by the _Audiencia_,
+errors of law being the only point at issue, and this court might
+at once pass sentence. In practice the _Audiencia_ usually treated
+the finding of the lower court as sentence (not merely opinion),
+and confirmed it, if no new testimony were produced and there were no
+errors of law. But, although the opinion of the lower court might be
+practically an acquittal, the _Audiencia_ might find errors of law,
+thus placing the accused twice in jeopardy. If the case were remitted
+back, in view of new testimony, it finally returned to the _Audiencia_
+for decision, nine judges being required to give their opinion in a
+grave case, so that if the Court of First Instance and five judges
+of the _Audiencia_ found the accused guilty, there was a majority
+against him. The sentencing court was always the _Audiencia_. If
+the sentence were against the accused, a final appeal could be made,
+by "writ of error," to the Supreme Court of Spain, whose decision,
+however, rested not on facts, but on errors of law.
+
+The (American) Insular Government tacitly admitted that the Spanish
+written law was excellent, notwithstanding its fulfilment being
+dilatory. The Spanish Penal Code has been adopted in its general
+application, but a new code, based on it, was in course of compilation
+in 1904. The application of the Spanish Code occasionally evolves
+some curious issues, showing its variance with fundamental American
+law. For instance, in September, 1905, a native adulteress having
+been found by her husband _in flagrante delicto_, he stabbed her
+to death. The Spanish law sustains the husband's right to slay his
+faithless consort and her paramour, in such circumstances (_vide_
+p. 80), but provides that the lawful slayer shall be banished
+from the country. The principle of this law is based on Roman law,
+human instinctive reasoning, and the spirit of the law among the
+Latin nations of Europe. American law assumes this natural act of
+the husband to be a crime, but whilst admitting the validity of the
+Spanish Code in these Islands, the American bench was puzzled to
+decide what punishment could be inflicted if the arraigned husband
+committed contempt of court by thereafter returning to his native land.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+Trade of the Islands
+Its Early History
+
+
+From within a year after the foundation of the Colony up to the
+second decade of last century direct communication with Mexico was
+maintained by the State galleons, termed the _Naos de Acapulco_. The
+first sailings of the galleons were to Navidad, but for over two
+centuries Acapulco was the port of destination on the Mexican side, and
+this inter-communication with New Spain only ceased a few years before
+that Colony threw off its allegiance to the mother country. But it was
+not alone the troubled state of political affairs which brought about
+the discontinuance of the galleons' voyages, although the subsequent
+secession of Mexico would have produced this effect. The expense of
+this means of intercourse was found to be bearing too heavily upon
+the scanty resources of the Exchequer, for the condition of Spain's
+finances had never, at any period, been so lamentable.
+
+The Commander of the State _Nao_ had the title of General, with a
+salary of P40,000 per annum. The chief officer received P25,000 a
+year. The quarter-master was remunerated with 9 per cent, on the value
+of the merchandise shipped, and this amounted to a very considerable
+sum per voyage.
+
+The last State galleon left Manila for Mexico in 1811, and the last
+sailing from Acapulco for Manila was in 1815.
+
+These ships are described as having been short fore and aft, but
+of great beam, light draught, and, when afloat, had a half-moon
+appearance, being considerably elevated at bows and stern. They were
+of 1,500 tons burden, had four decks, and carried guns.
+
+The Gov.-General, the clergy, the civil functionaries, troops,
+prisoners, and occasionally private persons, took passage in these
+ships to and from the Philippines. It was practically the Spanish Mail.
+
+The Colony had no coin of its own. [112] It was simply a dependency
+of Mexico; and all that it brought in tribute and taxes to its Royal
+Treasury belonged to the Crown, and was at the King's disposal. For
+many years these payments were made wholly--and afterwards
+partially--in kind, and were kept in the Royal Stores. As the junks
+from China arrived each spring, this colonial produce belonging to the
+Crown was bartered for Chinese wares and manufactures. These goods,
+packed in precisely 1,500 bales, each of exactly the same size,
+constituted the official cargo, and were remitted to Mexico by the
+annual galleon. The surplus space in the ship was at the disposal of
+a few chosen merchants who formed the "_Consulado_,"--a trading ring
+which required each member to have resided in the Colony a stipulated
+number of years, and to be possessed of at least eight thousand pesos.
+
+For the support of the Philippine administration Mexico remitted
+back to Manila, on the return of the galleon, a certain percentage of
+the realized value of the above-mentioned official cargo, but seeing
+that in any case--whether the Philippine Treasury were flourishing
+or not--a certain sum was absolutely necessary for the maintenance
+of the Colony, this remittance, known as the "_Real Situado_," or
+royal subsidy, was, from time to time, fixed. [113]
+
+The Philippine Colony was therefore nominally self-supporting, and
+the _Situado_ was only a guaranteed income, to be covered, as far as
+it could be, by shipments of foreign bartered manufactures and local
+produce to Mexico. But, as a matter of fact, the Mexican subsidy
+seldom, if ever, was so covered.
+
+By Royal Decree of June 6, 1665, the Mexican subsidy to the Philippines
+was fixed at P2,500,000, of which P2,000,000 was remitted in coin
+and P500,000 in merchandise for the Royal Stores. Against this was
+remitted value in goods (Philippine taxes and tribute) P 176,101.40
+so that the net Subsidy, or donation, from Mexico was P 2,323,898.60.
+
+Hence, in the course of time, coin--Mexican dollars called
+_pesos_--found its way in large quantities to the Philippines, and
+thence to China.
+
+The yearly value of the merchants' shipments was first limited to
+P250,000, whilst the return trade could not exceed P500,000 in coin
+or stores, and this was on the supposition that 100 per cent. profit
+would be realized on the sales in Mexico.
+
+The allotment of surplus freight-room in the galleon was regulated by
+the issue of _boletas_--documents which, during a long period, served
+as paper money in fact, for the holders were entitled to use them for
+shipping goods, or they could transfer them to others who wished to
+do so. The demand for freight was far greater than the carrying power
+provided. Shipping warrants were delivered gratis to the members
+of the _Consulado_, to certain ecclesiastics, and others. Indeed,
+it is asserted by some writers that the Governor's favourites were
+served with preference, to the prejudice of legitimate trade.
+
+The Spaniards were not allowed to go to China to fetch merchandise
+for transhipment, but they could freely buy what was brought by the
+Chinese. Indian and Persian goods uninterruptedly found their way to
+Manila. Spanish goods came exclusively _via_ Mexico.
+
+The mail galleon usually sailed in the month of July in each year, and
+the voyage occupied about five months. Very strict regulations were
+laid down regarding the course to be steered, but many calamities
+befell the ships, which were not unfrequently lost through the
+incapacity of the officers who had procured their appointments
+by favour. For a century and a half there was practically no
+competition. All was arranged beforehand as to shape, quantity, size,
+etc., of each bale. There was, however, a deal of trickery practised
+respecting the declared values, and the _boletas_ were often quoted
+at high prices. Even the selling-price of the goods sent to Mexico
+was a preconcerted matter.
+
+The day of the departure of the galleon or its arrival with a couple
+of millions of pesos or more, [114] and new faces, was naturally one
+of rejoicing--it was almost the event of the year. A _Te Deum_ was
+chanted in the churches, the bells tolled, and musicians perambulated
+the streets, which were illuminated and draped with bunting.
+
+So far as commercial affairs were concerned, the Philippine merchants
+passed very easy lives in those palmy days. One, sometimes two, days
+in the week were set down in the calendar as Saint-days to be strictly
+observed; hence an active business life would have been incompatible
+with the exactions of religion. The only misadventure they had to fear
+was the loss of the galleon. Market fluctuations were unknown. During
+the absence of the galleon, there was nothing for the merchants to do
+but to await the arrival of the Chinese junks in the months of March,
+April, and May, and prepare their bales. For a century and a half this
+sort of trading was lucrative; it required no smartness, no spirit of
+enterprise or special tact. Shippers were busy for only three months
+in the year, and during the remaining nine months they could enjoy
+life as they thought fit--cut off from the rest of the world.
+
+Some there were who, without means of their own, speculated with the
+_Obras Pias_funds, lent at interest. [115]
+
+The Philippine merchants often lost the value of their shipments in the
+State galleons by shipwreck or seizure by enemies. Mexico frequently
+lost the Philippine remittances to her, and the specie she sent to
+the Philippines. The State galleon made only one voyage a year there
+and back, if all went well; but if it were lost, the shipment had to
+be renewed, and it often happened that several galleons were seized
+in a year by Spain's enemies.
+
+The abortive attempt to annex the British Isles to the Spanish Crown in
+1588 brought about the collapse of Spain's naval supremacy, enabling
+English mariners to play havoc with her galleons from America. The
+Philippine Islands, as a colony, had at that date only just come into
+existence, but during the series of Anglo-Spanish wars which preceded
+the "Family Compact" (_vide_ p. 87), Philippine-Mexican galleons
+laden with treasure became the prey of British commanders, notably
+Admiral Anson. The coasts were beset by Anson's squadron. He was the
+terror of the Philippines from the year 1743. His exploits gave rise
+to consternation, and numerous councils were held to decide what to
+do to get rid of him. The captured galleon _Pilar_ gave one-and-a-half
+million pesos to the enemy--the _Covadonga_ was an immense prize. All
+over the Islands the Spaniards were on the alert for the dreaded foe;
+every provincial Governor sent look-outs to high promontories with
+orders to signal by beacons if the daring Britisher's ships were seen
+hovering about, whilst, in Manila, the citizens were forewarned that,
+at any moment, they might be called upon to repel the enemy.
+
+Not only in fleets of gold-laden vessels did Spain and her dependencies
+lose immense wealth through her hostile ambition, for in view of the
+restrictions on Philippine trade, and the enormous profits accruing
+to the Spanish merchants on their shipments, British, Dutch, French,
+and Danish traders competed with them. Shippers of these nationalities
+bought goods in Canton, where they established their own factories,
+or collecting-stores. In 1731 over three millions of Mexican dollars
+(pesos) were taken there for making purchases, and these foreign ships
+landed the stuffs, etc., in contraband at the American ports, where
+Spaniards themselves co-operated in the trade which their absolute King
+declared illicit, whilst the traders considered it a natural right.
+
+As the Southern (Peninsula) Spanish merchants were helpless to stay
+this competition, which greatly affected their profits, their rancorous
+greed made them clamour against the Philippine trade, to which they
+chose to attribute their misfortunes, and the King was petitioned to
+curtail the commerce of this Colony with Mexico for their exclusive
+benefit. But it was not Spanish home trade alone which suffered:
+Acapulco was so beset by smugglers, whose merchandise, surreptitiously
+introduced, found its way to Mexico City, that, in latter days, the
+Philippine galleons' cargoes did not always find a market. Moreover,
+all kinds of frauds were practised about this time in the quality of
+the goods baled for shipment, and the bad results revealed themselves
+on the Mexican side. The shippers, unwisely, thought it possible to
+deceive the Mexicans by sending them inferior articles at old prices;
+hence their disasters became partly due to "the vaulting ambition that
+o'erleaps itself and falls on t'other side." The Governor commissioned
+four of the most respectable Manila traders to inspect the sorting
+and classification of the goods shipped. These citizens distinguished
+themselves so highly, to their own advantage, that the Governor had
+to suppress the commission and abandon the control, in despair of
+finding honest colleagues. Besides this fraud, contraband goods were
+taken to Acapulco in the galleons themselves, hidden in water-jars.
+
+In the time of Governor Pedro de Arandia (1754-59) the 100 per
+cent. fixed profit was no longer possible. Merchants came down to
+Acapulco and forced the market, by waiting until the ships were obliged
+to catch the monsoon back, or lie up for another season, so that often
+the goods had to be sold for cost, or a little over. In 1754 returns
+were so reduced that the _Consulado_ was owing to the _Obras Pias_
+over P300,000, and to the _Casa Misericordia_ P147,000, without any
+hope of repayment. The _Casa Misericordia_ lent money at 40 per cent.,
+then at 35 per cent., and in 1755 at 20 per cent. interest, but the
+state of trade made capital hardly acceptable even at this last rate.
+
+Early in the 18th century the Cadiz merchants, jealous of the
+Philippine shippers, protested that the home trade was much injured by
+the cargoes carried to Mexico in Philippine bottoms. So effectually
+did they influence the King in their favour that he issued a decree
+prohibiting the trade between China and the Philippines in all
+woven stuffs, skein and woven silk and clothing, except the finest
+linen. Manila imports from China were thereby limited to fine linen,
+porcelain, wax, pepper, cinnamon, and cloves. At the expiration of six
+months after the proclamation of the decree, any remaining stocks of
+the proscribed articles were to be burnt! Thenceforth trade in such
+prohibited articles was to be considered illicit, and such goods
+arriving in Mexico after that date were to be confiscated.
+
+By Royal Decree dated October 27, 1720, and published in Mexico by the
+Viceroy on February 15, 1724, the following was enacted, viz.:--That
+in future there should be two galleons per annum, instead of one
+as heretofore, carrying merchandise to Acapulco, each to be of 500
+tons. That the merchandise sent in the two was to be of the value of
+P300,000 precisely in gold, cinnamon, wax, porcelain, cloves, pepper,
+etc., but not silks, or stuffs of any kind containing silk, under
+pain of confiscation, to be allotted in three equal parts, namely,
+to the Fiscal officer, the Judge intervening, and the informer, and
+perpetual banishment from the Indies of all persons concerned in the
+shipment. That the number of Manila merchants was to be fixed, and any
+one not included in that number was to be prohibited from trading. No
+ecclesiastic, or professor of religion, or foreigner could be included
+in the elected few, whose rights to ship were non-transferable. That if
+the proceeds of the sale happened to exceed the fixed sum of P600,000,
+on account of market prices being higher than was anticipated,
+only that amount could be brought back in money, and the difference,
+or excess, in goods. [If it turned out to be less than that amount,
+the difference could not be remitted in cash by Mexican merchants for
+further purchases, the spirit of the decree being to curtail the supply
+of goods from this Colony to Mexico, for the benefit of the Spanish
+home traders. The infringer of this regulation was subject to the
+penalties of confiscation and two years' banishment from the Indies.]
+
+By Royal Decree of the year 1726, received and published in Manila
+on August 9, 1727, the following regulations were made known,
+viz.:--That the prohibition relating to silk and all-silk goods was
+revoked. That only one galleon was to be sent each year (instead of
+two) as formerly. That the prohibition on clothing containing some
+silk, and a few other articles, was maintained. That for five years
+certain stuffs of fine linen were permitted to be shipped, to the
+limit of 4,000 pieces per annum, precisely in boxes containing each
+500 pieces.
+
+The Southern Spanish traders in 1729 petitioned the King against the
+Philippine trade in woven goods, and protested against the five-years'
+permission granted in the above decree of 1726, declaring that it
+would bring about the total ruin of the Spanish weaving industry,
+and that the galleons, on their return to the Philippines, instead of
+loading Spanish manufactures, took back specie for the continuance
+of their traffic to the extent of three or four millions of pesos
+each year. The King, however, refused to modify the decree of 1726
+until the five years had expired, after which time the Governor was
+ordered to load the galleons according to the former decree of 1720.
+
+The Manila merchants were in great excitement. The Governor, under
+pretext that the original Royal Decree ought to have been transmitted
+direct to the Philippines and not merely communicated by the Mexican
+Viceroy, agreed to "obey and not fulfil" its conditions.
+
+From the year 1720, during the period of prohibitions, the Royal
+Treasury lost about P50,000 per annum, and many of the taxes were
+not recovered in full. Besides this, the donations to Government by
+the citizens, which sometimes had amounted to P40,000 in one year,
+ceased. A double loss was also caused to Mexico, for the people there
+had to pay much higher prices for their stuffs supplied by Spanish
+(home) monopolists, whilst Mexican coffers were being drained to make
+good the deficits in the Philippine Treasury. The Manila merchants
+were terribly alarmed, and meeting after meeting was held. A Congress
+of Government officials and priests was convened, and each priest
+was asked to express his opinion on the state of trade.
+
+Commercial depression in the Philippines had never been so marked,
+and the position of affairs was made known to the King in a petition,
+which elicited the Royal Decree dated April 8, 1734. It provided
+that the value of exports should thenceforth not exceed P500,000,
+and the amount permitted to return was also raised to P1,000,000
+(always on the supposition that 100 per cent. over cost laid down
+would be realized). The dues and taxes paid in Acapulco on arrival,
+and the dues paid in Manila on starting, amounted to 17 per cent. of
+the million expected to return. [116] This covered the whole cost
+of maintenance of ships, salaries, freight, and charges of all kinds
+which were paid by Government in the first instance, and then recovered
+from the _Consulado_.
+
+The fixed number of merchants was to be decided by the merchants
+themselves without Government intervention. Licence was granted
+to allow those of Cavite to be of the number, and both Spaniards
+and natives were eligible. Military and other professional men,
+except ecclesiastics, could thenceforth be of the number. Foreigners
+were strictly excluded. The right to ship (_boleta_) was not to be
+transferable, except to _poor widows_. A sworn invoice of the shipment
+was to be sent to the royal officials and magistrate of the Supreme
+Court of Mexico for the value to be verified. The official in charge,
+or supercargo, was ordered to make a book containing a list of the
+goods and their respective owners, and to hand this to the commander of
+the fortress in Acapulco, with a copy of the same for the Viceroy. The
+Viceroy was to send his copy to the Audit Office to be again copied,
+and the last copy was to be forwarded to the Royal Indian Council.
+
+Every soldier, sailor, and officer was at liberty to disembark with a
+box containing goods of which the Philippine value should not exceed
+P30, in addition to his private effects. All hidden goods were to be
+confiscated, one-half to the Royal Treasury, one-fourth to the Judge
+intervening, and one-fourth to the informer; but, if such confiscated
+goods amounted to P50,000 in value, the Viceroy and Mexican Council
+were to determine the sum to be awarded to the Judge and the informer.
+
+If the shipment met a good market and realized more than 1,000,000
+pesos, only 1,000,000 could be remitted in money, and the excess
+in duty-paid Mexican merchandise. If the shipment failed to fetch
+1,000,000, the difference could not be sent in money for making new
+purchases. (The same restriction as in the decree of 1720.)
+
+The object of these measures was to prevent Mexicans supplying
+trading capital to the Philippines instead of purchasing Peninsula
+manufactures. It was especially enacted that all goods sent to Mexico
+from the Philippines should have been purchased with the capital
+of the Philippine shippers, and be their exclusive property without
+lien. If it were discovered that on the return journey of the galleon
+merchandise was carried to the Philippines belonging to the Mexicans,
+it was to be confiscated, and a fine imposed on the interested parties
+of three times the value, payable to the Royal Treasury, on the first
+conviction. The second conviction entailed confiscation of all the
+culprits' goods and banishment from Mexico for 10 years.
+
+The weights and measures of the goods shipped were to be Philippine,
+and, above all, wax was to be sent in pieces of precisely the same
+weight and size as by custom established.
+
+The Council for freight allotment in Manila was to comprise the
+Governor, the senior Magistrate, and, failing this latter, the
+Minister of the Supreme Court next below him; also the Archbishop, or
+in his stead the Dean of the Cathedral; an ordinary Judge, a Municipal
+Councillor, and _one merchant_ as Commissioner in representation of
+the eight who formed the _Consulado_ of merchants.
+
+The expulsion of the non-christian Chinese in 1755 (_vide_
+p. 111) caused a deficit in the taxes of P30,000 per annum. The
+only exports of Philippine produce at this date were cacao, sugar,
+wax, and sapanwood. Trade, and consequently the Treasury, were in a
+deplorable state. To remedy matters, and to make up the above P30,000,
+the Government proposed to levy an export duty which was to be applied
+to the cost of armaments fitted out against pirates. Before the tax
+was approved of by the King some friars loaded a vessel with export
+merchandise, and absolutely refused to pay the impost, alleging
+immunity. The Governor argued that there could be no religious
+immunity in trade concerns. The friars appealed to Spain, and the
+tax was disapproved of; meantime, most of the goods and the vessel
+itself rotted pending the solution of the question by the Royal
+Indian Council.
+
+There have been three or four periods during which no galleon arrived
+at the Philippines for two or three consecutive years, and coin became
+very scarce, giving rise to rebellion on the part of the Chinese
+and misery to the Filipinos. After the capture of the _Covadonga_ by
+the British, six years elapsed before a galleon brought the subsidy;
+then the _Rosario_ arrived with 5,000 gold ounces (nominally P80,000).
+
+However, besides the subsidy, the Colony had certain other sources
+of public revenue, as will be seen by the following:--
+
+
+    PHILIPPINE BUDGET FOR THE YEAR 1757
+
+    Income.
+                                                         P cts.
+    Stamped Paper                                   12,199 87 1/2
+    Port and Anchorage Dues                         25,938 00
+    Sale of Offices, such as Notaries, Public
+    Scribes, Secretaryships, etc.                    5,839 12 1/2
+    Offices hired out                                4,718 75
+    Taxes farmed out                                28,500 00
+    Excise duties                                    4,195 00
+    Sale of _Encomiendas_, and 22 provincial
+    govts. hired out                               263,588 00
+    Divers taxes, fines, pardons, etc.              18,156 00
+    Tribute, direct tax                              4,477 00
+    Sudsidy from Mexico                            250,000 00
+    Deficit                                         79,844 00
+                                                   ------- --
+                                                 P 697,455 75
+
+    Expenditure.
+                                                         P cts.
+    Supreme Court                                   34,219 75
+    Treasury and Audit Office                       12,092 00
+    University                                         800 00
+    Cost of the annual Galleon                      23,465 00
+    Clergy                                         103,751 00
+    Land and sea forces all over the Philippines
+    including offensive and defensive operations
+    against Moros--Staff and Material              312,864 00
+    Salaries, Hospital and Divers Expenses          70,158 00
+    Remittance in Merchandise to Mexico on account
+    of the Subsidy                                 140,106 00
+                                                   ------- --
+                                                 P 697,455 75
+
+
+When the merchant citizens of Manila were in clover, they made
+donations to the Government to cover the deficits, and loans were
+raised amongst them to defray extraordinary disbursements, such as
+expeditions against the Mahometans, etc. In the good years, too, the
+valuation of the merchandise shipped and the corresponding returns were
+underrated in the sworn declarations, so that an immensely profitable
+trade was done on a larger scale than was legally permitted. Between
+1754 and 1759, in view of the reduced profits, due to the circumstances
+already mentioned, the Manila merchants prayed the King for a reduction
+of the royal dues, which had been originally fixed on the basis of
+the gross returns being equal to double the cost of the merchandise
+laid down in Acapulco. To meet the case, another Royal Decree was
+issued confirming the fixed rate of royal dues and disbursements, but
+in compensation the cargo was thenceforth permitted to include 4,000
+pieces of fine linen, without restriction as to measure or value; the
+sworn value was abolished, and the maximum return value of the whole
+shipment was raised to one-and-a-half millions of pesos. Hence the
+total dues and disbursements became equal to 11 1/3 per cent. instead
+of 17 per cent., as heretofore, on the anticipated return value.
+
+In 1763 the Subsidy, together with the _Consulado_ shippers' returns,
+amounted in one voyage to two-and-a-half millions of pesos (_vide_
+p. 88). After the independence of Mexico (1819), tribute in kind
+(tobacco) was, until recently, shipped direct to Spain, and Peninsula
+coin began to circulate in these Islands (_vide_ Currency).
+
+Consequent on the banishment of the non-christian Chinese in 1755,
+trade became stagnant. The Philippines now experienced what Spain had
+felt since the reign of Phillip III., when the expulsion of 900,000
+Moorish agriculturists and artisans crippled her home industries,
+which needed a century and a half to revive. The Acapulco trade was
+fast on the wane, and the Manila Spanish merchants were anxious to get
+the local trade into their own hands. Every Chinese shop was closed
+by Government order, and a joint-stock trading company of Spaniards
+and half-breeds was formed with a capital of P76,500, in shares of
+P500 each. Stores were opened in the business quarter, each under the
+control of two Spaniards or half-breeds, the total number of shopmen
+being 21. The object of the company was to purchase clothing and
+staple goods of all kinds required in the Islands, and to sell the
+same at 30 per cent. over cost price. Out of the 30 per cent. were to
+be paid an 8 per cent. tax, a dividend of 10 per cent. per annum to
+the shareholders, and the remainder was to cover salaries and form a
+reserve fund for new investments. The company found it impossible to
+make the same bargains with the Chinese sellers as the Chinese buyers
+had done, and a large portion of the capital was soon lost. The
+funds at that date in the _Obras Pias_ amounted to P159,000, and
+the trustees were applied to by the company for financial support,
+which they refused. The Governor was petitioned; theologians and
+magistrates were consulted on the subject. The theological objections
+were overruled by the judicial arguments, and the Governor ordered
+that P130,000 of the _Obras Pias_ funds should be loaned to the
+company on debentures; nevertheless, within a year the company failed.
+
+A commercial company, known as the "_Compania Guipuzcoana de
+Caracas_," was then created under royal sanction, and obtained
+certain privileges. During the term of its existence, it almost
+monopolized the Philippine-American trade, which was yet carried on
+exclusively in the State galleons. On the expiration of its charter,
+about the year 1783, a petition was presented to the Home Government,
+praying for a renewal of monopolies and privileges in favour of a new
+trading corporation, to be founded on a modified basis. Consequently,
+a charter (_Real cedula_) was granted on March 10, 1785, to a company,
+bearing the style and title of the "_Real Compania de Filipinas_." Its
+capital was P8,000,000, in 32,000 shares of P250 each. King Charles
+III. took up 4,000 shares; another 3,000 shares were reserved for the
+friars and the Manila Spanish or native residents, and the balance
+was allotted in the Peninsula.
+
+The defunct company had engaged solely in the American trade, employing
+the galleons; its successor left that sphere of commerce and proposed
+to trade with the East and Europe.
+
+[117] "To the '_Real Compania de Filipinas_' was conceded the
+exclusive privilege of trade between Spain and the Archipelago,
+with the exception of the traffic between Manila and Acapulco. Its
+ships could fly the Royal Standard, with a signal to distinguish them
+from war-vessels. It was allowed two years, counting from the date of
+charter, to acquire foreign-built vessels and register them under the
+Spanish flag, free of fees. It could import, duty free, any goods for
+the fitting out of its ships, or ships' use. It could take into its
+service royal naval officers, and, whilst these were so employed,
+their seniority would continue to count, and in all respects they
+would enjoy the same rights as if they were serving in the navy. It
+could engage foreign sailors and officers, always provided that the
+captain and chief officer were Spaniards. All existing Royal Decrees
+and Orders, forbidding the importation into the Peninsula of stuffs
+and manufactured articles from India, China, and Japan were abrogated
+in favour of this company. Philippine produce, too, shipped to Spain
+by the company, could enter duty free. The prohibition on direct
+traffic with China and India was thenceforth abolished in favour of all
+Manila merchants, and the company's ships in particular could call at
+Chinese ports. The company undertook to support Philippine agriculture,
+and to spend, with this object, 4 per cent, of its nett profits."
+
+In order to protect the company's interests, foreign ships were not
+allowed to bring goods from Europe to the Philippines, although they
+could land Chinese and Indian wares.
+
+By the Treaties of Tordesillas and Antwerp (q.v.), the Spaniards
+had agreed that to reach their Oriental possessions they would
+take only the Western route, which would be _via_ Mexico or round
+Cape Horn. These treaties, however, were virtually quashed by
+King Charles III. on the establishment of the "_Real Compania de
+Filipinas_." Holland only lodged a nominal protest when the company's
+ships were authorized to sail to the Philippines _via_ the Cape of
+Good Hope, for the Spaniards' ability to compete had, meanwhile,
+vastly diminished.
+
+With such important immunities, and the credit which ought to have
+been procurable by a company with P8,000,000 paid-up capital, its
+operations might have been relatively vast. However, its balance
+sheet, closed to October 31, 1790 (five-and-a-half years after it
+started), shows the total nominal assets to be only P10,700,194,
+largely in unrecoverable advances to tillers. The working account is
+not set out. Although it was never, in itself, a flourishing concern,
+it brought immense benefit to the Philippines (at the expense of its
+shareholders) by opening the way for the Colony's future commercial
+prosperity. This advantage operated in two ways. (1) It gave great
+impulse to agriculture, which thenceforth began to make important
+strides. By large sums of money, distributed in anticipation of the
+4 per cent, on nett profit, and expended in the rural districts, it
+imparted life, vigour and development to those germs of husbandry--such
+as the cultivation of sugar-cane, tobacco, cotton, indigo, pepper,
+etc.--which, for a long time had been, and to a certain extent are
+still, the staple dependence of many provinces. (2) It opened the
+road to final extinction of all those vexatious prohibitions of trade
+with the Eastern ports and the Peninsula which had checked the energy
+of the Manila merchants. It was the precursor of free trade--the
+stepping-stone to commercial liberty in these regions.
+
+The causes of its decline are not difficult to trace. Established as
+it was on a semi-official basis, all kinds of intrigues were resorted
+to--all manner of favouritism was besought--to secure appointments,
+more or less lucrative, in the _Great Company_. Influential incapacity
+prevailed over knowledge and ability, and the men intrusted with the
+direction of the company's operations proved themselves inexperienced
+and quite unfit to cope with unshackled competition from the outer
+world. Their very exclusiveness was an irresistible temptation to
+contrabandists. Manila private merchants, viewing with displeasure
+monopoly in any form, lost no opportunity of putting obstacles in
+the way of the company. Again, the willing concurrence of native
+labourers in an enterprise of magnitude was as impossible to secure
+then as it is now. The native had a high time at the expense of the
+company, revelling in the enjoyment of cash advances, for which some
+gave little, others nothing. Success could only have been achieved
+by forced labour, and this right was not included in the charter.
+
+In 1825 the company was on the point of collapse, when, to support
+the tottering fabric, its capital was increased by P12,500,000 under
+_Real Cedula_ of that year, dated June 22. King Charles IV. took
+15,772 (P250) shares of this new issue. But nothing could save the
+wreck, and finally it was decreed, by _Real Cedula_ of May 28, 1830,
+that the privileges conceded to the "_Real Compania de Filipinas_"
+had expired--and Manila was then opened to Free Trade with the whole
+world. It marked an epoch in Philippine affairs.
+
+In 1820 the declared independence of Mexico, acknowledged subsequently
+by the European Powers, forced Spain to a decision, and direct trade
+between the Philippines and the mother country became a reluctant
+necessity. No restrictions were placed on the export to Spain of
+colonial produce, but value limitations were fixed with regard to
+Chinese goods. The export from the Philippines to Acapulco, Callao,
+and other South American ports was limited to P750,000 at that date. In
+the same year (1820) permission was granted for trade between Manila
+and the Asiatic ports. Twenty-two years afterwards one-third of all
+the Manila export trade was done with China.
+
+When the galleons fell into disuse, communication was definitely
+established with Spain by merchant sailing ships _via_ the Cape of
+Good Hope, whilst the opening of the Suez Canal (1869) brought the
+Philippines within 32 days' journey by steamer from Barcelona.
+
+The voyage _via_ the Cape of Good Hope occupied from three to six
+months; the sailings were less frequent than at the present day, and
+the journey was invariably attended with innumerable discomforts. It
+was interesting to hear the few old Spanish residents, in my time,
+compare their privations when they came by the Cape with the luxurious
+facilities of later times. What is to-day a pleasure was then a
+hardship, consequently the number of Spaniards in the Islands was
+small; their movements were always known. It was hardly possible for
+a Spaniard to acquire a sum of money and migrate secretly from one
+island to another, and still less easy was it for him to leave the
+Colony clandestinely.
+
+The Spaniard of that day who settled in the Colony usually became
+well known during the period of the service which brought him to
+the Far East. If, after his retirement from public duty, on the
+conclusion of his tenure of office, he decided to remain in the
+Colony, it was often due to his being able to count on the pecuniary
+support and moral protection of the priests. The idea grew, so that
+needy Spaniards in the Philippines, in the course of time, came
+to entertain a kind of socialistic notion that those who had means
+ought to aid and set up those who had nothing, without guarantee of
+any kind: "_Si hubiera quien me proteja!_" was the common sigh--the
+outcome of Caesarism nurtured by a Government which discountenanced
+individual effort. Later on, too, many natives seemed to think that
+the foreign firms, and others employing large capital, might well
+become philanthropic institutions, paternally assisting them with
+unsecured capital. The natives were bred in this moral bondage:
+they had seen trading companies, established under royal sanction,
+benefit the few and collapse; they had witnessed extensive works,
+undertaken _por via de administracion_ miscarry in their ostensible
+objects but prosper in their real intent, namely, the providing of
+berths for those who lived by their wits.
+
+The patriarchal system was essayed by a wealthy firm of American
+merchants (Russell & Sturgis) with very disastrous results to
+themselves. They distributed capital all over the Colony, and the
+natives abused their support in a most abominable manner. A native,
+alleging that he had opened up a plantation, would call on the firm
+and procure advances against future crops after scant inquiry. Having
+once advanced, it was necessary to continue doing so to save the
+first loans.
+
+Under the auspices of the late Mr. Nicholas Loney, great impulse was
+given to the commerce of Yloilo, and, due to his efforts, the Island
+of Negros was first opened up. His memory is still revered, and he is
+often spoken of as the original benefactor to the trading community
+of that district. Russell & Sturgis subsequently extended their
+operations to that locality. The result was that they were deceived in
+every direction by the natives, who, instead of bringing in produce
+to pay off advances, sent their sons to college, built fine houses,
+bought pianos, jewellery, etc., and in a hundred ways satisfied their
+pride and love for outward show in a manner never known before, at
+the expense of the American capitalists. As bankers, the firm enjoyed
+the unlimited confidence of those classes who had something to lose as
+well as to gain; hence it is said that, the original partners having
+withdrawn their money interest, the firm endeavoured to continue
+the business with a working capital chiefly derived from the funds
+deposited by private persons at 8 per cent, per annum. All might
+have gone well but for the rascality of the native agriculturists,
+who brought about the failure of the house in 1875 by taking loans
+and delivering no produce. The news amazed everybody. Trade was,
+for the moment, completely paralyzed. The great firm, which for years
+had been the mainspring of all Philippine mercantile enterprise, had
+failed! But whilst many individuals suffered (principally depositors
+at interest), fifty times as many families to-day owe their financial
+position to the generosity of the big firm; and I could mention the
+names of half a dozen real-estate owners in Yloilo Province who,
+having started with nothing, somehow found themselves possessing
+comparatively large fortunes at the time of the liquidation.
+
+Consequent on the smash, a reaction set in which soon proved beneficial
+to the Colony at large. Foreign and Spanish houses of minor importance,
+which had laboured in the shade during the existence of the great
+firm, were now able to extend their operations in branches of trade
+which had hitherto been practically monopolized.
+
+
+
+Before Manila was opened to foreign trade, even in a restricted form,
+special concessions appear to have been granted to a few traders. One
+writer mentions that a French mercantile house was founded in Manila
+many years prior to 1787, and that an English firm obtained permission
+to establish itself in 1809. In 1789 a foreign ship was allowed to
+enter the port of Manila and to discharge a cargo. This would appear
+to have been the first. In olden times the demand for ordinary foreign
+commodities was supplied by the Chinese traders and a few Americans
+and Persians. During the latter half of the 18th century a Spanish
+man-of-war occasionally arrived, bringing European manufactures for
+sale, and loaded a return cargo of Oriental goods.
+
+The Philippine Islands were but little known in the foreign markets
+and commercial centres of Europe before the middle of the 19th
+century. Notwithstanding the special trading concessions granted to
+one foreigner and another from the beginning of last century, it was
+not until the port of Manila was unrestrictedly opened to resident
+foreign merchants in 1834 that a regular export trade with the whole
+mercantile world gradually came into existence.
+
+It is said that whilst the charter of the "_Real Compania
+de Filipinas_" was still in force (1785-1830) a Mr. Butler [118]
+solicited permission to reside in and open up a trade between Manila
+and foreign ports; but his petition was held to be monstrous and
+grievously dangerous to the political security of the Colony; hence it
+was rejected. The Spaniards had had very good reason to doubt foreign
+intercourse after their experience of 1738, when they preferred a
+war with England to a gross abuse of the _Asiento_ contract entered
+into under the Treaty of Utrecht. [119] Subsequently the American firm
+already mentioned, Russell & Sturgis, made a request to be allowed to
+trade, which, having the support of the Gov.-General of the day, was
+granted; and Mr. Butler, taking advantage of this recent precedent,
+also succeeded in founding a commercial house in Manila. To these
+foreigners is due the initiation of the traffic in those products
+which became the staple trade of the Colony and paved the way for the
+bulk of the business being, as it is to-day, in the hands of European
+and American merchants.
+
+The distrustful sentiment of olden times (justifiable in the 18th
+century) pervaded the Spaniards' commercial and colonial policy up to
+their last day. Proposed reforms and solicitations for permission
+to introduce modern improvements were by no means welcomed. In
+the provinces clerical opposition was often cast against liberal
+innovations, and in the Government bureaux they were encompassed with
+obstructive formalities, objections, and delays. [120]
+
+By Royal Ordinance of 1844 strangers were excluded from the interior;
+in 1857 unrepealed decrees were brought forward to urge the prohibition
+of foreigners to establish themselves in the Colony; and, as late
+as 1886, their trading here was declared to be "prejudicial to the
+material interests of the country." [121]
+
+The support of the friars referred to in p. 255 became a thing of
+the past. Colonists had increased tenfold, the means of communication
+and of exit were too ample for the security of the lenders, who, as
+members of religious communities, could not seek redress at law, and,
+moreover, those "lucky hits" which were made by penniless Europeans
+in former times by pecuniary help "just in the nick of time" were
+no longer possible, for every known channel of lucrative transaction
+was in time taken up by capitalists.
+
+It was the capital brought originally to the Philippines through
+foreign channels which developed the modern commerce of the Colony,
+and much of the present wealth of the inhabitants engaged in trade
+and agriculture is indirectly due to foreign enterprise. Negros Island
+was entirely opened up by foreign capital. In Manila, the fathers of
+many of the half-castes and pure natives who at this day figure as
+men of position and standing, commenced their careers as messengers,
+warehouse-keepers, clerks, etc., of the foreign houses.
+
+There were a great many well-to-do Spaniards in trade, but few whose
+funds on starting were brought by them from the Peninsula. The first
+Spanish steamer-owner in the Colony, a baker by trade, owed his
+prosperity to the support of Russell & Sturgis. One of the richest
+Spanish merchants (who died in 1894) once kept a little grocer's shop,
+and after the failure of Russell & Sturgis he developed into a merchant
+and shipowner whose firm became, in time, the largest Spanish house
+operating in hemp and other produce.
+
+About 14 Spanish firms of a certain importance were established in
+Manila, Yloilo, and Cebu, in addition to the Europeans trading here
+and there on the coasts of the Islands. In Manila there were (and
+are still) two foreign bank branches [122] (one with a sub-branch in
+Yloilo), three bank agencies, and the Philippine private banking-house
+of J. M. Tuason & Co.; also the "Banco Espanol-Filipino," which was
+instituted in 1852, with a capital of P400,000, in 2,000 shares of
+P200 each. The capital was subsequently increased to P600.000. [123]
+Authorized by charter, it issued notes payable to bearer on demand from
+P10 upwards. The legal maximum limit of note issue was P1,200,000,
+whilst the actual circulation was about P100,000 short of that
+figure. This bank did a very limited amount of very secure business,
+and it has paid dividends of 12 to 15 per cent.; hence the shares were
+always at a premium. In 1888, when 12 per cent, dividend was paid,
+this stock was quoted at P420; in 1895 it rose to P435. The _Obras
+Pias_ funds (_vide_ p. 245) constituted the orginal capital of the
+bank. The new position of this institution, under the (American)
+Insular Government since 1905, is explained in Chapter xxxi.
+
+The first Philippine bank was opened in Manila by a certain Francisco
+Rodriguez about the year 1830.
+
+From the conquest up to the year 1857 there was no Philippine
+coinage. Mexican dollars were the only currency, and in default of
+subsidiary money these dollars, called _pesos_, were cut. In 1764 cut
+money was prohibited, and small Spanish silver and copper coins came
+to the Islands. In 1799 the Gov.-General forbade the exportation of
+money, and fixed the peso at 8 _reales fuertes_ and the _real_ at
+17 _cuartos._ Shortly afterwards gold came to the Islands, and was
+plentiful until 1882. In 1837 other copper coins came from Spain,
+and the _real fuerte_ was fixed at 20 _cuartos_. In 1857 the Manila
+mint was established, _pesetas_ were introduced, five being equal to
+one peso, and 32 cuartos being equal to one peseta. Contemporaneously
+the coinage in Spain was 34 cuartos to one peseta and 5 pesetas to
+one _duro_--the coin nominally equivalent to the peso--but the duro
+being subdivided into 20 _reales vellon_, the colonial real fuerte
+came to be equivalent to 2 1/2 reales vellon. The evident intention
+was to have one common nominal basis (peso and duro), but subdivided
+in a manner to limit the currency of the colonial coinage to its own
+locality. With pesos, reales, cuartos, maravedis, and ounces of gold,
+bookkeeping was somewhat complicated; however, the Government accounts
+were rendered easy by a decree dated January 17, 1857, which fixed
+pesos and cents for official reckoning. Merchants then adopted this
+standard. Up to 1860 gold was so abundant that as much as 10 per cent,
+was paid to exchange an _onza_ of gold (P16) for silver. In 1878 gold
+and silver were worth their nominal relative values. Gold, however,
+has gradually disappeared from the Colony, large quantities having
+been exported to China. In 1881 the current premium for purchasing
+gold was 2 per cent., and at the beginning of 1885 as much as 10 per
+cent. premium was paid for Philippine gold of the Isabella II or
+any previous coinage. The gold currency of Alfonso XII. (1875-85)
+was always of less intrinsic value than the coin of earlier date,
+the difference averaging about 2 per cent. At the present day gold
+could only be obtained in very limited quantities at about the same
+rate as sight drafts on Europe. Philippine gold pieces are rare.
+
+In 1883 Mexican dollars of a later coinage than 1877 were called
+in, and a term was fixed after which they would cease to be legal
+tender. In 1885 decimal bronze coins were introduced. In July, 1886,
+a decree was published calling in all foreign and Chinese chop dollars
+[124] within six months, after which date the introducer of such coin
+into the Colony would be subject to the penalty of a fine equal to
+20 per cent. of the value imported, the obligation to immediately
+re-export the coin, and civil action for the misdemeanour. At the
+expiration of the six months the Treasury was not in a position to
+effect the conversion of the foreign medium in private hands prior
+to the publication of the decree. The term was extended, but in time
+the measure became practically void, so far as the legal tender was
+concerned. However, the importation of Mexican dollars was still
+prohibited; but, as they remained current in Manila at par value,
+whilst in Hong-Kong and Singapore they could be bought for 8 to 12
+per cent, (and in 1894 25 per cent.) less than Manila dollars, large
+quantities were smuggled into the Colony. It is estimated that in the
+year 1887 the clandestine introduction of Mexican dollars into Manila
+averaged about P150,000 per month. I remember a Chinaman was caught in
+September, 1887, with P164,000, imported in cases declared to contain
+matches. In 1890 there was a "boom" in the silver market. Owing to
+the action of the American Silverites, the Washington Treasury called
+for a monthly supply of 4,000,000 of silver dollars; consequently
+sight rate on London in Hong-Kong touched 3s. 10 1/4d., and in Manila
+rose to 3s. 10 1/2d., but a rapid reaction set in when the Treasury
+demand ceased. In 1895 we heard in Manila that the Government were
+about to coin Philippine pesos and absolutely demonetize Mexicans
+as a medium in the Islands. But this measure was never carried out,
+probably because the Government had not the necessary cash with
+which to effect the conversion. Some few Philippine peso pieces were,
+however, put into circulation concurrently with the Mexican pesos.
+
+In June, 1903, the ss. _Don Juan_, owned by Francisco L. Rojas, of
+Manila, took on board in Hong-Kong about $400,000 Mexicans (i.e.,
+pesos) for the purpose of smuggling them into Manila. On board there
+were also, as passengers, a Senor Rodoreda and a crowd of Chinese
+coolies. The vessel caught fire off the west coast of Luzon. The
+captain, the crew, and the Spanish passenger abandoned the ship in
+boats, leaving the Chinese to their awful fate. A steam launch was
+sent alongside and saved a few dollars, whilst the despairing Chinese
+became victims to the flames and sharks. The ship's burnt-out hull
+was towed to Manila Bay. The remaining dollars were confiscated,
+and the captain and chief engineer were prosecuted.
+
+The universal monetary crisis due to the depreciation of silver was
+experienced here, and the Government made matters still worse by
+coining half-pesos and 20-cent pieces, which had not the intrinsic
+value expressed, and exchange consequently fell still lower. In
+September, 1887, a Madrid periodical, _Correo de Espana_, stated that
+the bastard Philippine 50-cent pieces were rejected in Madrid even by
+money-changers. In May, 1888, the peso was quoted at 3s.2 3/4d. (over
+19 per cent. below nominal value), and shippers to the Colony, who
+had already suffered considerably by the loss on exchange, had their
+interests still further impaired by this action of the Treasury. For
+Exchange Fluctuations _vide_ Chap, xxxi., "Trade Statistics."
+
+
+
+A Custom-house was established and port opened in Zamboanga (Mindanao
+Is.) for direct communication with abroad in 1831; those of Sual
+(Pangasinan) and Yloilo (Panay Is.) in 1855, and that of Cebu in
+1863. The Custom-house of Sual was subsequently abolished, and the
+port having been closed to direct foreign trade, the place has lost
+its former importance, and lapsed into the state of a lifeless village.
+
+Special permission could be obtained for ships to load in and sail
+direct from harbours where no Custom-houses were established, on a
+sum of money being lodged beforehand at the _Caja de Depositos _in
+Manila, to cover duties, dues, etc., to be assessed.
+
+After the opening of the port of Yloilo, three years elapsed before a
+cargo of produce sailed thence to a foreign port. Since then it has
+gradually become the shipping centre for the crops (chiefly sugar
+and sapanwood) raised in the islands of Panay and Negros. From
+about the year 1882 to 1897 it attracted a portion of what was
+formerly the Cebu trade. Since then the importance of Yloilo has
+diminished. Its development as a port was entirely due to foreigners,
+and considerably aided agriculture in the Visayas Islands. Heretofore
+the small output of sugar (which had never reached 1,000 tons in
+any year) had to be sent up to Manila. The expense of local freight,
+brokerages, and double loading and discharging left so little profit
+to the planters that the results were then quite discouraging. None
+but wooden sugar-cane mills were employed at that time, but since
+then many small steam-power factories have been erected (_vide_
+Sugar). The produce shipped in Yloilo [125] was principally carried
+to the United States in American sailing-ships.
+
+For figures relating to Chief Exports from the various ports, _vide_
+Chap. xxxi., "Trade Statistics."
+
+Most of the carrying Import trade was in the hands of subsidized
+Spanish steamer-owners, whilst the larger portion of the Exports was
+conveyed in foreign vessels, which arrived in ballast from Eastern
+ports where they had left cargoes.
+
+Smuggling was carried on to a considerable extent for years, and in
+1891 a fresh stimulus was given to contraband by the introduction of a
+Protectionist Tariff, which came into force on April 1 of that year,
+and under which Spanish goods brought in Spanish ships were allowed
+to enter free of duty. [126]
+
+In order to evade the payment of the Manila Port Works Tax (q.v.), for
+which no value was given, large quantities of piece-goods for Manila
+were shipped from Europe to Yloilo, passed through the Custom-house
+there and re-shipped in inter-island steamers to Manila. In 1890 some
+two-thirds of the Yloilo foreign imports were for re-shipment.
+
+The circumstances which directly led to the opening of Zamboanga (in
+1831) as a commercial port are interesting when it is remembered that
+Mindanao Island is still quasi-independent in the interior--inhabited
+by races unconquered by the Spaniards, and where agriculture by
+civilized settlers is as yet nascent. It appears that the Port of Jolo
+(Sulu Is.) had been, for a long time, frequented by foreign ships,
+whose owners or officers (chiefly British) unscrupulously supplied the
+Sulus with sundry manufactured goods, including _arms of warfare_,
+much to the detriment of Spanish interests there, in exchange for
+mother-of-pearl, pearls, gums, etc. The Spaniards claimed suzerain
+rights over the island, but were not strong enough to establish and
+protect a Custom-house, so they imposed the regulation that ships
+loading in Jolo should put in at Zamboanga for clearance to foreign
+ports. The foreigners who carried on this illicit traffic protested
+against a sailing-ship being required to go out of her homeward
+course about one hundred and twenty miles for the mere formality
+of customs clearance. A British ship (and perhaps many before her)
+sailed straight away from Jolo, in defiance of the Spaniards, and
+the matter was then brought to the notice of the British Government,
+who intimated that either Jolo must be declared a free port or a
+Custom-house must be established there. The former alternative was
+chosen by the Spaniards, but Zamboanga remained an open port for
+foreign trade which very rarely came.
+
+The supreme control of merchant shipping and naval forces was
+vested in the same high official. No foreigner was permitted to own
+a vessel trading between Spain and her colonies, or between one
+Spanish colony and another, or doing a coasting trade within the
+Colony. This difficulty was however readily overcome, and reduced to
+a mere ineffective formality, by foreigners employing Spaniards to
+become nominal owners of their vessels. Thus a very large portion of
+the inter-island steamer carrying-trade was virtually conducted by
+foreigners, chiefly British.
+
+Mail-steamers, subsidized by the Government, left the capital every
+fortnight for the different islands, and there was a quarterly Pacific
+Mail Service to the Ladrone Islands. [127] Regular mails arrived from,
+and left for, Europe every fortnight, but as there were intermediate
+opportunities of remitting and receiving correspondence, really
+about three mails were received and three despatched every month. The
+mail-route for Europe is _via_ Singapore, but there were some seven
+or eight sailings of steamers per month between Manila and Hong-Kong
+(the nearest foreign colony--640 miles), whence mails were forwarded
+to Europe, Australia, Japan, the United States, etc.
+
+Between the capital and several ports in the adjacent provinces there
+was a daily service of passenger and light cargo-steamers.
+
+Between Yloilo and the adjoining Province of Antique, the District
+of Concepcion and the Islands of Negros and Cebu, there were some
+half-dozen small steamers, belonging to Filipinos and Spaniards,
+running regularly with passengers and merchandise, whilst in the
+sugar-producing season--from January to May--they were fully freighted
+with cargoes of this staple article.
+
+The carrying-trade in sailing craft between the Islands was chiefly
+in the hands of natives and half-castes. There were also a few Spanish
+sailing-ship owners, and in the Port of Yloilo a few schooners (called
+_lorchas_), loading from 40 to 100 tons of sugar, were the property
+of foreigners, under the nominal ownership of Spanish subjects,
+for the reasons mentioned in the preceding page.
+
+The principal exporters employ middlemen for the collecting of produce,
+and usually require their guarantee for sales at credit to the
+provincial purchasers of imports. These middlemen are always persons
+of means, born in the Colony, and, understanding both the intricacies
+of the native character and the European mode of transacting business,
+they serve as very useful--almost indispensable--intermediaries.
+
+It was only when the crisis in the Sugar trade affected the whole
+world, and began to be felt in the Philippines in 1884, that the
+majority of the natives engaged in that industry slowly began to
+understand that the current price of produce fluctuated according
+to supply and demand. Before transactions were so thoroughly in the
+hands of middlemen, small producers used to take their samples to the
+purchasers, "to see how much they cared to pay" as they expressed
+it--the term "market price" seldom being used or understood in the
+provinces, because of the belief that prices rose or fell according
+to the caprice or generosity of the foreign buyer. Accustomed to
+deal, during the first centuries of the Spanish occupation, with the
+Chinese, the natives, even among themselves, rarely have fixed prices
+in retail dealings, and nearly every quotation in small traffic is
+taken only as a fancy price, subject to considerable rebate before
+closing. The Chinese understand the native pretty well; they study his
+likings, and they so fix their prices that an enormous reduction can
+be made for his satisfaction. He goes away quite contented, whilst
+the Chinaman chuckles over having got the best of the bargain. Even
+the import houses, when they advertise their goods for sale, seldom
+state the prices; it seems as if all regarded the question of price
+as a shifty one.
+
+The system of giving credit in the retail trade of Manila, and a few
+provincial towns, was the ruin of many shopkeepers. There were few
+retailers who had fixed prices; most of them fluctuated according to
+the race, or nationality, of the intending customer. The Chinese dealer
+made no secret about his price being merely nominal. If on the first
+offer the hesitating purchaser were about to move away, he would call
+after him and politely invite him to haggle over the bargain. [128]
+
+
+
+The only real basis of wealth in the Colony is the raw material
+obtained by Agriculture, and Forest produce. Nothing was done by the
+conquerors to foster the Industrial Arts, and the Manufacturing Trades
+were of insignificant importance. Cigars were the only _manufactured_
+export staple, whilst perfumes, a little cordage, and occasionally
+a parcel of straw or finely-split bamboo hats were shipped.
+
+In the Provinces of Bulacan and Pampanga, split-cane and Nito
+(_lygodium_) hats, straw mats, and cigar-cases are made. Some of
+the finest worked cigar-cases require so much time for making that
+they cost up to P20 each. Hats can only be obtained in quantities by
+shippers through native middlemen.
+
+In Yloilo Province a rough cloth called _Sinamay_ is woven [129]
+from selected hemp fibre. Also in this province and that of Antique
+(Panay Is.), _Pina_ muslin of pure pine-leaf fibre and _Husi_ of mixed
+pine-leaf and hemp filament are made. Ilocos Province has a reputation
+in these Islands for its woollen and dyed cotton fabrics. Taal
+(Batangas) also produces a special make of cotton stuffs. Pasig,
+on the river of that name, and Sulipan (Pampanga), are locally known
+for their rough pottery, and Capiz and Romblon for their sugar-bags.
+
+Paete, at the extreme east of the Laguna de Bay, is the centre for
+white-wood furniture and wood-carving. In Mariquina, near Manila,
+wooden clogs and native leather shoes are made. Santa Cruz (Manila)
+is the gold and silver-workers' quarter. The native women in nearly
+all the civilized provinces produce some very handsome specimens of
+embroidery on European patterns. Mats to sleep upon (_petates_) straw
+bags (_bayones_), baskets (_tampipes_), alcohol, bamboo furniture,
+buffalo-hide leather, wax candles, soap, etc., have their centres of
+manufacture on a small scale. The first Philippine brewery was opened
+October 4, 1890, in San Miguel (Manila) by Don Enrique Barretto,
+to whom was granted a monopoly by the Spanish Government for twenty
+years. It is now chiefly owned by a Philippine half-caste, Don Pedro
+P. Rojas (resident in Paris), who formed it into a company which has
+become a very flourishing concern. Philippine capital alone supports
+these manufactures. The traffic and consumption being entirely local,
+the consequent increase of wealth to the Colony is the economized
+difference between them and imported articles. These industries bring
+no fresh capital to the Colony, by way of profits, but they contribute
+to check its egress by the returns of agriculture changing hands to
+the local manufacturer instead of to the foreign merchant.
+
+Want of cheap means of land-transport has, so far, been the chief
+drawback to Philippine manufactures, which are of small importance
+in the total trade of the Colony.
+
+Philippine railways were first officially projected in 1875,
+when a Royal Decree of that year, dated August 6, determined the
+legislative basis for works of that nature. The Inspector of Public
+Works was instructed to form a general plan of a railway system
+in Luzon Island. The projected system included (1) a line running
+north from Manila through the Provinces of Bulacan, Pampanga, and
+Pangasinan. (2) A line running south from Manila, along the Laguna
+de Bay shore and eastwards through Tayabas, Camarines, and Albay
+Provinces. (3) A branch from this line on the Laguna de Bay shore to
+run almost due south to Batangas. The lines to be constructed were
+classed under two heads, viz.:--(1) Those of general public utility
+to be laid down either by the State or by subsidized companies, the
+concession in this case being given by the Home Government; and (2)
+those of private interest, for the construction of which concessions
+could be granted by the Gov.-General.
+
+In 1885 the Government solicited tenders for the laying of the
+first line of railway from Manila to Dagupan--a port on the Gulf
+of Lingayen, and the only practicable outlet for produce from the
+Province of Pangasinan and Tarlac District. The distance by sea
+is 216 miles--the railway line 196 kilometres (say 120 miles). The
+subsidy offered by the Government amounted to about P7,650 per mile,
+but on three occasions no tender was forthcoming either from Madrid
+or in Manila, where it was simultaneously solicited. Subsequently
+a modified offer was made of a guaranteed annual interest of 8 per
+cent, on a maximum outlay of P4,964,473.65, and the news was received
+in Manila in October, 1886, that the contract had been taken up by
+a London firm of contractors. The prospectus of "The Manila Railway
+Co., Ltd," was issued in February, 1888. The line was to be completed
+within four years from July 21, 1887, and at the end of ninety-nine
+years the railway and rolling-stock were to revert to the Spanish
+Government without compensation. The rails, locomotives (36 tons and
+12 tons each), tenders, coaches, waggons, and ironwork for bridges all
+came from England. The first stone of the Central Station in Manila
+(Bilibid Road, Tondo) was laid by Gov.-General Emilio Terrero on July
+31, 1887. In 1890 the original contractors failed, and only the first
+section of 28 miles was opened to traffic on March 24, 1891.
+
+Many other circumstances, however, contributed to delay the opening
+of the whole line. Compensation claims were very slowly agreed to;
+the Government engineers slightly altered the plans; the company's
+engineers could not find a hard strata in the bed of the Calumpit
+River [130] (a branch of the Rio Grande de Pampanga) on which to
+build the piers of the bridge; and lastly the Spanish authorities,
+who had direct intervention in the work, found all sorts of excuses
+for postponing the opening of the line. When the Civil Director was
+applied to, he calmly replied that he was going to the baths, and
+would think about it. Finally, on appeal to the highest authority,
+Gov.-General Despujols himself went up to Tarlac, and in an energetic
+speech, reflecting on the dilatoriness of his subordinates, he declared
+the first Philippine railway open to traffic on November 23, 1892. For
+about a year and a half passengers and goods were ferried across the
+Calumpit River in pontoons. Large caissons had to be sunk in the river
+in which to build the piers for the iron bridge, which cost an enormous
+sum of money in excess of the estimate. Later on heavy rains caused
+a partial inundation of the line, the embankment of which yielded to
+the accumulated mass of water, and traffic to Dagupan was temporarily
+suspended. The total outlay on the line far exceeded the company's
+original calculation, and to avert a financial collapse fresh capital
+had to be raised by the issue of 6 per cent. Prior Lien Mortgage Bonds,
+ranking before the debenture stock. The following official quotations
+on the London Stock Exchange will show the public appreciation of
+the Manila Railway Company's shares and bonds:--
+
+
+        OFFICIAL QUOTATIONS.
+
+        December.
+        |       7% Cum. Pref. L10 Shares.
+        |       |       6% Deb. L100 Stock.
+        |       |       |       6% Prior Lien Mort. Bonds,
+        |       |       |       Series A., L100.
+        |       |       |       |          6% Prior Lien Mort. Bonds,
+        |       |       |       |          Series B., L100.
+
+                L        L        L         L
+        1893    2       49       98        87
+        1894    1       32      104        91
+        1895    1/2     29      107        85
+        1896    1/4     22       96        64
+        1897    1/4     19      101        75
+        1898    1 3/4   45      110        98
+        1899    1 3/4   33 1/2  101 1/2    87 1/2
+        1900    1 1/2   42      103 1/2    97
+        1901    2       55      108       102
+        1902    1 1/2   52      109       102
+        1903    1 1/2   58      108       104
+        1904    3 1/2   83      110       107
+        1905    4 3/4   117     110       106
+
+
+Up to July 1, 1905, the interest has been regularly paid on the
+Prior Lien Bonds. No interest has been paid on the debentures (up to
+December, 1905) since July 1, 1891, nor on the 7 per cent. Cumulative
+Preference Shares since July 1, 1890. On January 26, 1895, these
+shares were officially quoted, for sellers, 0.
+
+Including the termini in Manila (Tondo) and Dagupan, there are 29
+stations and 16 bridges along the main line, over which the journey
+occupies eight hours. There are two branch lines, viz.:--from Bigaa
+to Cabanatuan (Nueva Ecija), and from Angeles (Pampanga) to Camp
+Stotsenberg. From the Manila terminus there is a short line (about a
+mile) running down to the quay in Binondo for goods traffic only. The
+country through which this line passes is flat, and has large natural
+resources, the development of which--without a railway--had not been
+feasible owing to the ranges of mountains--chiefly the Cordillera of
+Zambales--which run parallel to the coast.
+
+The railway is ably managed, but when I travelled on it in 1904 much
+of the rolling-stock needed renewal.
+
+In 1890, under Royal Order No. 508, dated June 11 of that year, a 99
+years' concession was granted to a British commercial firm in Manila
+to lay a 21-mile line of railway, without subsidy, from Manila to
+Antipolo, to be called the "Centre of Luzon Railway." The work was to
+be commenced within one year and finished within two years. The basis
+of the anticipated traffic was the conveyance of pilgrims to the Shrine
+of Our Lady of Good Voyage and Peace (_vide_ p. 184); but, moreover,
+the proposed line connected the parishes of Dilao (then 4,380 pop.),
+Santa Ana (then 2,115 pop.), Mariquina (then 10,000 pop.), Cainta
+(then 2,300 pop.), and Taytay (then 6,500 pop.)--branching to Pasig
+and Angono--with Antipolo (then 3,800; now 2,800 pop.). The estimated
+outlay was about P1,000,000, but the concession was abandoned. The
+project has since been revived under American auspices.
+
+
+
+Under Spanish government there was a land Telegraph Service from Manila
+to all civilized parts of Luzon Island--also in Panay Island from Capiz
+to Yloilo, and in Cebu Island from the city of Cebu across the Island
+and up the west coast as far north as Tuburan. There was a land-line
+from Manila to Bolinao (Zambales), from which point a submarine cable
+was laid in April, 1880, by the Eastern Extension Australasia and
+China Telegraph Company, Ltd., whereby Manila was placed in direct
+telegraphic communication with the rest of the world. For this
+service the Spanish Government paid the company P4,000 a month for
+a period of 10 years, which expired in June, 1890. In April, 1898,
+the same company detached the cable from Bolinao and carried it on
+to Manila in the s.s. _Sherard Osborn_, 207 nautical miles having
+been added to the cable for the purpose. In return for this service
+the Spanish Government gave the company certain exclusive rights and
+valuable concessions. In May, 1898, the American Admiral Dewey ordered
+the Manila-Hong-Kong cable to be cut, but the connection was made
+good again after the Preliminaries of Peace with Spain were signed
+(August 12, 1898). Cable communication was suspended, therefore,
+from May 2 until August 21 of that year.
+
+In 1897 another submarine cable was laid by the above company,
+under contract with the Spanish Government, connecting Manila with
+the Southern Islands of Panay and Cebu (Tuburan). The Manila-Panay
+cable was also cut by order of Admiral Dewey (May 23, 1898), but after
+August 12, under an arrangement made between the American and Spanish
+Governments, it was re-opened on a neutral basis, and the company's
+own staff worked it direct with the Manila public, instead of through
+the medium of Spanish officials.
+
+Since the American occupation a new cable connecting the Islands
+with the United States has been laid (opened July 4, 1903), whilst a
+network of submarine and land-wires has been established throughout
+the Archipelago.
+
+
+
+Owing to their geographical position, none of the Philippine ports
+are on the line of the regular mail and passenger steamers _en route_
+elsewhere; hence, unlike Hong-Kong, Singapore, and other Eastern ports,
+there is little profit to be derived from a cosmopolitan floating
+population. Due, probably, to the tedious Customs regulations--the
+obligation of every person to procure, and carry on his person, a
+document of identification--the requirement of a passport to enter
+the Islands, and complicated formalities to recover it on leaving--the
+absence of railroads and hotels in the interior and the difficulties of
+travelling--this Colony, during the Spanish _regime_, was apparently
+outside the region of tourists and "globe-trotters." Indeed the
+Philippine Archipelago formed an isolated settlement in the Far East
+which traders or pleasure-seekers rarely visited _en passant_ to
+explore and reveal to the world its natural wealth and beauty. It was
+a Colony comparatively so little known that, forty years ago, fairly
+educated people in England used to refer to it as "The Manillas,"
+whilst up to the end of Spanish rule old residents, on visiting
+Singapore and Hong-Kong, were often highly amused by the extravagant
+notions which prevailed, even there, concerning the Philippines. But
+the regulations above referred to were an advantage to the respectable
+resident, for they had the desirable effect of excluding many of those
+nondescript wanderers and social outcasts who invade other colonies.
+
+Since the Revolution there has been a large influx of American tourists
+to the Islands, arriving in the army-transports, passage free, to see
+"the new possession," as the Archipelago is popularly called in the
+United States.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+Agriculture
+
+
+In years gone by, before so many colonies were opened up all over
+the world, the few who, in the Philippines, had the courage to face
+the obstacles to agriculture in a primitive country made fairly large
+fortunes in the main staple products--sugar and hemp. Prices were then
+treble what they have since been, labour was cheaper, because the needs
+of the labouring-class were fewer, and, owing to the limited demand
+and the rarity of epidemic cattle-disease, buffaloes for tilling were
+worth one-eighth of what they cost at the present day. Although the
+amount of trade was vastly less, those natives engaged in it were in
+sounder positions than the same class generally is now.
+
+Within the last few years there are hundreds who have embarked in
+agricultural enterprises with only one-tenth of the capital necessary
+to make them successful. A man would start planting with only a few
+hundred pesos and a tract of cleared land, without title-deeds, and
+consequently of no negotiable value. In the first year he inevitably
+fell into the hands of money-lenders, who reasonably stipulated for a
+very high rate of interest in view of the absence of guarantees. The
+rates of interest on loans under such circumstances varied as a rule
+from 12 to 24 per cent. I know a Visayo native who, by way of interest,
+commission, and charges, demanded as much as 30 per cent. I need not
+refer to the isolated cases which have come to my knowledge of over
+100 per cent. being charged. As at the present day agriculture in
+the Philippines does not yield 30 per cent. nett profit, it naturally
+follows that the money-lender at this rate has to attach the estate
+upon which he has made loans, and finally becomes owner of it. In
+the meantime, the tiller who has directed the labour of converting a
+tract of land into a plantation, simply gets a living out of it. Some
+few were able to disencumber their property by paying, year by year,
+not only the whole of the nett returns from the plantation, but also
+the profits on small traffic in which they may have speculated. It
+seldom happened, however, that the native planter was sufficiently
+loyal to his financial supporter to do this: on the contrary, although
+he might owe thousands of pesos, he would spend money in feasts, and
+undertake fresh obligations of a most worthless nature. He would buy
+on credit, to be paid for after the next crop, a quantity of paltry
+jewellery from the first hawker who passed his way, or let the cash
+slip out of his hands at the cock-pit or the gambling-table.
+
+Even the most provident seemed to make no reserve for a bad year, and
+the consequence was that in 1887 I think I may safely assert that if
+all the Philippine planters had had to liquidate within twelve months,
+certainly 50 per cent. of them would have been insolvent. One of
+the most hazardous businesses in the Colony is that of advancing to
+the native planters, unless it be done with the express intention of
+eventually becoming owner of an estate, which is really often the case.
+
+The conditions of land-tenure in Luzon Island under Spanish rule
+stood briefly thus:--The owners either held the lands by virtue of
+undisturbed possession or by transferable State grant. The tenants--the
+actual tillers--were one degree advanced beyond the state of slave
+cultivators, inasmuch as they could accumulate property and were free
+to transfer their services. They corresponded to that class of farmers
+known in France as _metayers_ and amongst the Romans of old as _Coloni
+Partiarii_, with no right in the land, but entitled to one-half of its
+produce. Like the ancients, they had to perform a number of services
+to the proprietor which were not specified in writing, but enforced
+by usage. Tenants of this kind recently subsisted--and perhaps
+still do--in Scotland (_vide_ "Wealth of Nations," by Adam Smith,
+edition of 1886, p. 160). Leases for long periods were exceptional,
+and I never heard of compensation being granted for improvements of
+Philippine estates. The conditions in Visayas are explained on p. 274.
+
+The value of land suitable for _Sugar-cane_ growing varies
+considerably, being dependent on proximity to a port, or sugar-market,
+and on quality, facilities for drainage, transport, site, boundaries,
+etc.
+
+In the Province of Bulacan, land which in a great measure is exhausted
+and yields only an average of 21 tons of cane per acre, was valued
+(prior to the American occupation), on account of its nearness to
+the capital, at P115 per acre. In Pampanga Province, a little further
+north, the average value of land, yielding, say, 30 tons of cane per
+acre, was P75 per acre. Still further north, in the Province of Nueva
+Ecija, whence transport to the sugar-market is difficult and can only
+be economically effected in the wet season by river, land producing
+an average of 35 tons of cane per acre would hardly fetch more than
+P30 per acre. Railroads will no doubt eventually level these values.
+
+In reality, Bulacan land is priced higher than its intrinsic value as
+ascertained by yield and economy of produce-transport. The natives
+are, everywhere in the Colony, more or less averse to alienating
+real estate inherited from their forefathers, and as Bulacan is one
+of the first provinces where lands were taken up, centuries ago, an
+attachment to the soil is particularly noticeable. In that province,
+as a rule, only genuine necessity, or a fancy price far in excess of
+producing-worth, would induce an owner to sell his land.
+
+Land grants were obtainable from the Spanish Government by proving
+priority of claim, but the concession was only given after wearisome
+delay, and sometimes it took years to obtain the title-deeds. Then
+large capital was requisite to utilize the property, the clearance
+often costing more than the virgin tract, whilst the eviction of
+squatters was a most difficult undertaking: "_J'y suis et j'y reste_,"
+thought the squatter, and the grantee had no speedy redress at law. On
+the other hand, the soil is so wonderfully rich and fertile that the
+study of geoponics and artificial manuring was never thought essential.
+
+The finest sugar-cane producing island in the Archipelago is Negros,
+in the Visaya district, between N. latitudes 9 deg. and 11 deg.. The area
+of the Island is about equal to that of Porto Rico, but for want of
+capital is only about one-half opened up. Nevertheless, it sent to
+the Yloilo market in 1892 over 115,000 tons of raw sugar--the largest
+crop it has yet produced. In 1850 the Negros sugar yield was 625 tons.
+
+The price of uncleared land there, suitable for sugar-cane cultivation,
+in accessible spots, was, say, P35 per acre, and cleared land might
+be considered worth about P70 per acre. The yield of sugar-cane may
+be estimated at 40 tons per acre on the estates opened up within the
+last ten years, whilst the older estates produce per acre nearly 30
+tons of cane, but of a quality which gives such a high-class sugar
+that it compensates for the decrease in quantity, taking also into
+account the economy of manipulating and transporting less bulk.
+
+Otaheiti cane (yellow) is generally planted in Luzon, whilst Java cane
+(red) is most common in the southern islands. _Tubo_ is the Tagalog
+generic name for sugar-cane.
+
+The following equivalents of Philippine land-measures may be useful,
+viz.:--
+
+
+    1 Quinon        = 40,000 square varas = 10,000 square brazas.
+                    = 5 cabans = 6.9444 acres = 2.795 hectares.
+
+    1 Balita        = 4,000 square varas = 1,000 square brazas.
+                    = .69444 acre = .2795 hectare.
+
+    1 Loan          = 400 square varas = 100 square brazas.
+                    = .06944 acre = .02795 hectare.
+
+    1 Square Braza  = 3.3611 square English yards.
+                    = 4,355.98 square English inches.
+
+    1 Square Vara   = .8402 square English yards.
+                    = 1,088.89 square English inches.
+
+    1 Acre          = 5,760 square varas = 1.44 balitas.
+                    = .72 caban = .404671 hectare.
+
+
+The average yield of sugar per acre is about as follows, viz.:--
+
+
+Pampanga Province,
+    say @ 6 1/2% extraction                 = 1.95 Tons of Sugar.
+Other Northern provinces,
+    say @ 5 1/2% extraction                 = 1.65 Tons of Sugar.
+Negros Island (with almost exclusively European mills),
+    say @ 7 1/2% extraction                 = 2.75 Tons of Sugar.
+
+
+From Yloilo the sugar is chiefly exported to the United States,
+where there is a demand for raw material only from the Philippines
+for the purpose of refining, whilst from Manila a certain
+quantity of crystal-grain sugar is sent, ready for consumption,
+to Spain. Consequently, in the Island of Luzon, a higher class of
+machinery is employed. In 1890 there were five private estates, with
+vacuum-pans erected, and one refinery, near Manila, (at Malabon). Also
+in 1885 the Government acquired a sugar-machinery plant with vacuum-pan
+for their model estate at San Ramon in the Province of Zamboanga; the
+sugar turned out at the trial of the plant in my presence was equal
+to 21 D. S. of that year. Convict labour was employed. During the
+Rebellion half the machinery on this estate was destroyed or stolen.
+
+It is a rare thing to see other than European mills in the Island of
+Negros, whilst in every other sugar-producing province roughly-made
+vertical cattle-mills of wood, or stone (wood in the south and stone
+in the north), as introduced by the Chinese, are still in use. With
+one exception (at Cabanatuan, Nueva Ecija), which was a failure,
+the triple-effect refining-plant is altogether unknown in this Colony.
+
+The sugar-estates generally are small. There are not a dozen estates
+in the whole Colony which produce over 1,000 tons of raw sugar each
+per season. An estate turning out 500 tons of sugar is considered a
+large one. I know of one estate which yielded 1,500 tons, and another
+1,900 tons in a good season. In the Island of Negros there is no port
+suitable for loading ships of large tonnage, and the crops have to
+be carried to the Yloilo market, in small schooners loading from 40
+to 100 tons (_vide_ p. 263). From the estates to the coast there are
+neither canals nor railroads, and the transport is by buffalo-cart.
+
+The highest tablelands are used for cane-planting, which imperatively
+requires a good system of drainage. In Luzon Island the output of sugar
+would be far greater if more attention were paid to the seasons. The
+cane should be cut in December, and the milling should never last over
+ten weeks. The new cane-point setting should be commenced a fortnight
+after the milling begins, and the whole operation of manufacture
+and planting for the new crop should be finished by the middle of
+March. A deal of sugar is lost by delay in each branch of the field
+labour. In the West Indies the planters set the canes out widely,
+leaving plenty of space for the development of the roots, and the
+ratoons serve up to from five to twenty years. In the Philippines
+the setting of cane points is renewed each year, with few exceptions,
+and the planting is comparatively close.
+
+Bulacan sugar-land, being more exhausted than Pampanga land, will
+not admit of such close planting, hence Bulacan land can only find
+nourishment for 14,300 points per acre, whilst Pampanga land takes
+17,800 points on average computation.
+
+In Negros, current sugar is raised from new lands (among the best) and
+from lands which are hardly considered suitable for cane-planting. Good
+lands are called "new" for three crops in Negros, and during that
+period the planting is close, to choke the cane and prevent it becoming
+aqueous by too rapid development.
+
+In the Northern Philippines "clayed" sugar (Spanish, _Azucar de pilon_)
+is made. The _massecuite_, when drawn from the pans, is turned into
+earthenware conic pots containing about 150 lb. weight. When the mass
+has set, the pot is placed over a jar (Tagalog, _oya_) into which the
+molasses drains. In six months, if allowed to remain over the jar,
+it will drain about 20 per cent, of its original weight, but it is
+usually sold before that time, if prices are favourable.
+
+The molasses is sold to the distilleries for making Alcohol,
+[131] whilst there is a certain demand for it for mixing with the
+drinking-water given to Philippine ponies, although this custom is
+now falling into disuse, in Manila at least, because molasses is
+never given to the American imported horses.
+
+From nine tests which I made with steam machinery, of small capacity,
+in different places in the northern provinces, without interfering
+with the customary system of manipulating the cane or the adjustment
+of the mill rolls, I found the--
+
+
+    Average juice extraction to be                      56.37%
+    Average moisture in the megass on leaving the mill  23.27%
+    Average amount of dry megass [132]                  20.36%
+                                                       100.00%
+
+
+The average density of juice in the cane worked off as above was 10
+3/4 deg. Beaume.
+
+In Negros the process is very different. The juice is evaporated
+in the pan-battery to a higher point of concentration, so that the
+molasses becomes incorporated with the saccharine grain. It is then
+turned out into a wooden trough, about 8 feet long by 4 feet wide,
+and stirred about with shovels, until it has cooled so far as to be
+unable to form into a solid mass, or lumps. When quite cold, the few
+lumps visible are pounded, and the whole is packed in grass bags
+(_bayones_). Sugar packed in this way is deliverable to shippers,
+whereas "clayed" sugar can only be sold to the assorters and packers
+(_farderos_), who sun-dry it on mats and then bag it after making up
+the colour and quality to exporter's sample (_vide_ p. 173).
+
+The Labour system in the Northern Philippines is quite distinct
+from that adopted in the South. The plantations in the North are
+worked on the co-operative principle (_sistema de inquilinos_). The
+landowner divides his estate into tenements (_aparcerias_), each tenant
+(_aparcero_) being provided with a buffalo and agricultural implements
+to work up the plot, plant, and attend to the cane-growth as if it
+were his own property. Wherever the native goes to work he carries the
+indispensable bowie-knife (Tagalog, _guloc_; Spanish, _bolo_). When
+the cutting-season arrives, one tenant at a time brings in his cane
+to the mill, and when the sugar is worked off, usually one-third,
+but often as much as one-half of the output, according to arrangement,
+belongs to the tenant. The tenant provides the hands required for the
+operations of cane-crushing and sugar-making; the cost of machinery
+and factory establishment is for the account of the landowner, who
+also has to take the entire risk of typhoons, inundations, drought,
+locusts, [133] etc.
+
+During the year, whilst the cane is maturing, the tenants receive
+advances against their estimated share, some even beyond the real
+value, so that, in nearly every case, the full crop remains in the
+hands of the estate-owner. In the general working of the plantation
+hired day-labour is not required, the tenants, in fact, being
+regarded, in every sense, as servants of the owner, who employs them
+for whatever service he may need. Interest at 10 to 12 per cent. per
+annum is charged upon the advances made in money, rice, stuffs, etc.,
+during the year; and on taking over the tenant's share of output,
+as against these advances, a rebate on current price of the sugar is
+often agreed to.
+
+In the South, plantations are worked on the daily-wages system,
+(_sistema de jornal_), and the labourer will frequently exact his
+pay for several weeks in advance. Great vigilance is requisite,
+and on estates exceeding certain dimensions it is often necessary to
+subdivide the management, apportioning it off to overseers, or limited
+partners, called "Axas." Both on European and native owners' estates
+these _axas_ were often Spaniards. The _axas'_ interest varies on
+different properties, but, generally speaking, he is either credited
+with one-third of the product and supplied with necessary capital,
+or he receives two-thirds of the yield of the land under his care and
+finds his own working capital for its tilth, whilst the sunk capital in
+land, machinery, sheds, stores, etc., is for the account of the owner.
+
+In 1877 a British company--the "Yengarie"--was started with a large
+capital for the purpose of acquiring cane-juice all over the Colony
+and extracting from it highly-refined sugar. The works, fitted with
+vacuum-pans and all the latest improvements connected with this class
+of apparatus, were established at Mandaloyan, about three miles from
+Manila up the Pasig River. From certain parts of Luzon Island the
+juice was to be conveyed to the factory in tubes, and the promoter,
+who visited Cebu Island, proposed to send schooners there fitted with
+tanks, to bring the defecated liquid to Mandaloyan. The project was
+an entire failure from the beginning (for the ordinary shareholders
+at least), and in 1880 the machinery plant was being realized and
+the company wound up.
+
+The classification of sugar in the South differs from that in the
+North. In the former market it is ranked as Nos. 0, 1, 2, 3 Superior
+and Current. For the American market these qualities are blended,
+to make up what is called "Assorted Sugar," in the proportion
+of one-eighth of No. 1, two-eighths of No. 2, and five-eighths
+of No. 3. In the North the quality is determined on the Dutch
+standard. The New York and London markets fix the prices, which are
+cabled daily to the foreign merchants in Manila.
+
+From a series of estimates compiled by me I find that to produce
+7,000 to 10,000 piculs, the cost laid down in Yloilo would be, say,
+P2.00 per picul (P32.00 per ton); the smaller the output the larger
+is the prime cost, and _vice-versa._
+
+Fortunes have been made in this Colony in cane-sugar, and until the
+end of 1883 sugar-planting paid the capitalist and left something to
+the borrowing planter; now it pays only interest on capital. From
+the year 1884 the subsidized beet-root sugar manufacturers on the
+continent of Europe turned out such enormous quantities of this article
+that the total yield of sugar exceeded the world's requirements. The
+consequence was that the cane-sugar manufacture declined almost at
+the same ratio as that of beet-root advanced, as will be seen from
+the subjoined figures:--
+
+
+                                                             Tons.
+
+    The world's production in 1880; cane sugar          3,285,714
+    The world's production in 1880; beet sugar          1,443,349
+                                                        =========
+                                                        4,729,063
+
+                                                            Tons.
+    The world's production in 1887, cane sugar          2,333,004
+    The world's production in 1887, beet sugar          2,492,610
+                                                        =========
+                                                        4,825,614
+
+                                                             Tons.
+    Beet sugar                  Increase                1,049,261
+    Cane sugar                  Decrease                  952,710
+
+    The world's output was      Increased                  96,551
+
+
+Since the above date, however, the output of Beet Sugar has become
+about double that of Cane Sugar, as will be seen from the following
+figures, viz.:--
+
+
+    World's Production.  Season of 1899-1900.    Season of 1900-1901.
+                                     Tons.                   Tons.
+
+    Cane sugar                  2,867,041               3,425,022
+    Beet sugar                  5,607,944               6,096,858
+                                =========               =========
+                                8,474,985               9,521,880
+
+
+On estates already established at old prices, cane-sugar production
+pays an interest on capital, but the capitalist is not necessarily the
+planter and nominal owner, as has been explained. Since the American
+occupation the cost of labour, living, material, live-stock, and all
+that the planter or his estate need, has increased so enormously that
+the colonist should ponder well before opening up a new estate for
+cane-growing in world-wide competition. For figures of Sugar Shipments
+_vide_ Chap, xxxi., "Trade Statistics."
+
+
+
+_Rice_ (_Oryza_) being the staple food of the Filipinos, it is
+cultivated more or less largely in every province of the Colony. Its
+market value fluctuates considerably according to the stocks in
+hand and the season of the year. It appears to be the only branch
+of agriculture in which the lower classes of natives take a visible
+pleasure and which they understand thoroughly. In 1897 about 80,000
+tons were raised.
+
+The natives measure and sell rice (Tagalog, _bigas_) and paddy
+(Tagalog, _palay_) by the caban and its fractions; the caban dry
+measure is as follows, viz:--
+
+4 Apatans = 1 Chupa; 8 Chupas = 1 Ganta; 25 Gantas = 1 Caban,
+
+the equivalent of which in English measure is thus, viz:--
+
+
+            1 Atapan =   .16875 of a pint.
+            1 Chupa  =   .675 of a pint.
+            1 Ganta  =  2 quarts, 1 2/5 pints.
+            1 Caban  = 16 gallons, 3 quarts, 1 pint.
+
+
+Rice of foreign importation is weighed and quoted by the picul of
+133 1/3 lbs. avoirdupois, subdivided as follows, viz.:--
+
+16 Taels = 1 Catty; 10 Catties = 1 Chinanta; 10 Chinantas = 1 Picul.
+
+Thirty years ago rice was exported from the Philippines, but now not
+even sufficient is produced for home consumption, hence this commodity
+is imported in large quantities from Siam, Lower Burmah, and Cochin
+China to supply the deficiency. In 1897 nearly 65,000 tons of rice
+were brought from those countries, and since the American occupation
+the annual receipts of foreign rice have increased to fivefold. Sual
+(Pangasinan), on the Gulf of Lingayen, was, thirty-five years ago,
+a port of importance, whence rice was shipped to China (_vide_
+p. 261). This falling off of rice-production did not, however,
+imply a loss to the population in Spanish times when imported rice
+was sold cheaply, because, in many provinces, land formerly used for
+rice-growing was turned to better account for raising other crops
+which paid better in a fairly good market.
+
+The natives everywhere continue to employ the primitive method of
+treating rice-paddy for domestic and local use. The grain is generally
+husked by them in a large mortar hewn from a block of _molave_,
+or other hardwood, in which it is beaten by a pestle. Sometimes
+two or three men or women with wooden pestles work at the same
+mortar. This mortar is termed, in Tagalog dialect, _Luzon_, the name
+given to the largest island of the group. However, I have seen in
+the towns of Candava (Pampanga), Pagsanjan (La Laguna), near Calamba
+in the same province, in Naig (Cavite), in Camarines Province, and
+a few other places, an attempt to improve upon the current system
+by employing an ingenious wooden mechanical apparatus worked by
+buffaloes. It consisted of a vertical shaft on which was keyed a
+bevel-wheel revolving horizontally and geared into a bevel pinion
+fixed upon a horizontal shaft. In this shaft were adjusted pins,
+which, at each revolution, caught the corresponding pins in vertical
+sliding columns. These columns (five or six)--being thereby raised
+and allowed to fall of their own weight when the raising-pins had
+passed on--acted as pounders, or pestles, in the mortars placed below
+them. Subsequently, notable progress was made in Camarines Province
+by Spaniards, who, in 1888, employed steam power, whilst in Pagsanjan
+(La Laguna) animal motive power was substituted by that of steam. Also,
+near Calamba, in the same province, water power was eventually employed
+to advantage. In Negros, near the village of Candaguit, there was
+one small rice-machinery plant worked by steam power, brought by a
+Spaniard from Valencia in Spain. Presumably it was not a success,
+as it remained only a short time in use.
+
+Finally the Manila-Dagupan Railway gave a great stimulus to
+the rice-husking and pearling industry, which was taken up by
+foreigners. There are now important rice steam-power mills established
+at Calumpit, Gerona, Moncada, Bayambang, and other places along the
+line from Calumpit towards Dagupan, which supply large quantities of
+cleaned rice to Manila and other provinces, where it is invariably
+more highly appreciated than the imported article. Also, at Nueva
+Caceres (Camarines), in 1896, a large steam-power rice mill was being
+worked by Don Manuel Pardo, who had a steamer specially constructed
+in Hong-Kong for the transport of his output to the provincial markets.
+
+The average yield of cleaned rice from the paddy is 50 per cent.,
+whilst no special use is found for the remaining 50 per cent. of coarse
+paddy-bran. The fine bran, almost dust (called in Tagalog _Tiki Tiki_),
+serves, however, for several purposes on the farm. The rice grain
+which is broken in the husking is known as _Pinaua_ in Tagalog.
+
+The customary charge for husking and winnowing a caban of paddy is
+12 1/2 cents, so that as two cabans of paddy give one caban of rice,
+the cost of this labour would be 25 cents per caban of rice.
+
+The average amount of rice consumed by a working man per day is
+estimated at four chupas, or, say, close upon eight cabans per annum,
+which, on the old reckoning--that is to say in Spanish times, taking
+an average price of 1 peso per caban of paddy = 2 pesos per caban
+of rice, plus 25 cents for cleaning = 2.25 pesos per caban of clean
+rice--amounts to 18 pesos per annum. A native's further necessities
+are fish, an occasional piece of buffalo, betel-nut, tobacco, six
+yards of cotton print-stuff, and payment of taxes, all of which
+(including rice) amounted to say P50 in the year, so that a man
+earning 20 cents per day during 300 days lived well, provided he had
+no unforeseen misfortunes. Cock-fighting and gambling of course upset
+the calculation.
+
+There are, it is said, over 20 different kinds of rice-paddy. These
+are comprised in two common groups--the one is called _Macan_ rice
+(Spanish, _Arroz de Semillero_) which is raised on alluvial soil
+on the lowlands capable of being flooded conveniently with water,
+and the other has the general denomination (in Luzon Is.) of _Paga_
+or _Dumali_ (Spanish, _Arroz de Secano_) and is cultivated on high
+lands and slopes where inundation is impracticable.
+
+The _Macan_, or low-land rice, is much the finer quality, the grain
+being usually very white, although _Macan_ rice is to be found
+containing up to 25 per cent. of red grain, known in Tagalog as
+_Tangi_, or _Malagcquit_. The white grain is that most esteemed. The
+yield of grain varies according to the quality of the soil. In the
+north of Bulacan Province the average crop of _Macan_ rice may be
+taken at 80 cabans of grain for one caban of seed. In the south of
+the same province the return reaches only one-half of that. In the
+east of Pampanga Province, in the neighbourhood of Arayat, Magalang,
+and Candava villages, the yield is still higher, giving, in a good
+year, as much as 100 cabans for one of seed. In Negros a return of
+50 cabans to one may be taken as a fair average.
+
+_Paga_ rice always shows a large proportion of red grain, and the
+return is, at the most, half that of _Macan_ yield, but whilst rarely
+more than one crop per annum is obtained from low-lands (_Macan_
+rice)--taking the average throughout the Islands--in most places up
+to three crops of _Paga_ rice can be obtained.
+
+Besides the ordinary agricultural risks to which rice cultivation is
+exposed, a special danger often presents itself. The _Paga_ rice is
+frequently attacked by flies (Tagalog, _Alutangia_), which suck the
+flower just before seeding, and the person in charge of the plantation
+has to stroll in the evenings and mornings among the setting to whisk
+off these insects with a bunch of straws on the end of a stick, or
+catch them with a net to save the grain. Both _Macan_ and _Paga_
+are sometimes damaged by an insect, known in Ilocos Province as
+_Talibatab_, which eats through the stalk of the plant before maturity,
+causing the head, or flower, to droop over and wither, but this does
+not happen every season.
+
+To plant _Macan_ rice the grain or seed is sown in the month of June
+on a piece of land called the "seeding-plot," where, in six weeks,
+it attains a height of about one foot, and, provided the rains have
+not failed, it is then pulled up by the roots and transplanted, stem
+by stem, in the flooded fields. Each field is embanked with earth
+(Tagalog, _pilapil_) so that the water shall not run off, and just
+before the setting is commenced, the plough is passed for the last
+time. Then men, women, and children go into the inundated fields
+with their bundles of rice-plant and stick the stalks in the soft
+mud one by one. It would seem a tedious operation, but the natives
+are so used to it that they quickly cover a large field. In four
+months from the transplanting the rice is ripe, but as at the end of
+November there is still a risk of rain falling, the harvest is usually
+commenced at the end of December, after the grain has hardened and
+the dry season has fairly set in. If, at such an abnormal period, the
+rains were to return (and such a thing has been known), the sheaves,
+which are heaped for about a month to dry, would be greatly exposed
+to mildew owing to the damp atmosphere. After the heaping--at the
+end of January--the paddy, still in the straw, is made into stacks
+(Tagalog, _Mandala_). In six weeks more the grain is separated from
+the straw, and this operation has to be concluded before the next
+wet season begins--say about the end of April. On the Pacific coast
+(Camarines and Albay), where the seasons are reversed (_vide_ p. 22),
+rice is planted out in September and reaped in February.
+
+The separation of the grain is effected in several ways. Some beat
+it out with their feet, others flail it, whilst in Cavite Province
+it is a common practice to spread the sheaves in a circular enclosure
+within which a number of ponies and foals are trotted.
+
+In Negros Island there is what is termed _Ami_ rice--a small crop
+which spontaneously rises in succession to the regular crop after
+the first ploughing.
+
+It seldom happens that a "seeding-plot" has to be allowed to run to
+seed for want of rain for transplanting, but in such an event it is
+said to yield at the most tenfold.
+
+Nothing in Nature is more lovely than a valley of green half-ripened
+rice-paddy, surrounded by verdant hills. Rice harvest-time is a lively
+one among the poor tenants in Luzon, who, as a rule, are practically
+the landowner's partners working for half the crop, against which they
+receive advances during the year. Therefore, cost of labour may be
+taken at 50 per cent. plus 10 per cent. stolen from the owner's share.
+
+Paddy-planting is not a lucrative commercial undertaking, and few
+take it up on a large scale. None of the large millers employing
+steam power are, at the same time, grain cultivators. There is this
+advantage about the business, that the grower is less likely to be
+confronted with the labour difficulty, for the work of planting out
+and gathering in the crop is, to the native and his family, a congenial
+occupation. Rice-cultivation is, indeed, such a poor business for the
+capitalist that perhaps a fortune has never been made in that sole
+occupation, but it gives a sufficient return to the actual tiller
+of his own land. The native woman is often quite as clever as her
+husband in managing the estate hands, for her tongue is usually as
+effective as his rattan. I venture to say there are not six white
+men living who, without Philippine wives, have made fortunes solely
+in agriculture in these Islands.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+Manila Hemp--Coffee--Tobacco
+
+
+_Hemp_ (_Musa textilis_)--referred to by some scientific
+writers as _M. troglodytarum_--is a wild species of the plantain
+(_M. paradisiaca_) found growing in many parts of the Philippine
+Islands. It so closely resembles the _M. paradisiaca,_ which bears
+the well-known and agreeable fruit--the edible banana, that only
+connoisseurs can perceive the difference in the density of colour and
+size of the green leaves--those of the hemp-plant being of a somewhat
+darker hue, and shorter. The fibre of a number of species of _Musa_
+is used for weaving, cordage, etc., in tropical countries.
+
+This herbaceous plant seems to thrive best on an inclined plane,
+for nearly all the wild hemp which I have seen has been found on
+mountain slopes, even far away down the ravines. Although requiring a
+considerable amount of moisture, hemp will not thrive in swampy land,
+and to attain any great height it must be well shaded by other trees
+more capable of bearing the sun's rays. A great depth of soil is not
+indispensable for its development, as it is to be seen flourishing
+in its natural state on the slopes of volcanic formation. In Albay
+Province it grows on the declivities of the Mayon Volcano.
+
+The hemp-tree in the Philippines reaches an average height of 10
+feet. It is an endogenous plant, the stem of which is enclosed in
+layers of half-round petioles. The hemp-fibre is extracted from these
+petioles, which, when cut down, are separated into strips, five to six
+inches wide, and drawn under a knife attached at one end by a hinge to
+a block of wood, whilst the other end is suspended to the extremity
+of a flexible stick. The bow tends to raise the knife, and a cord,
+attached to the same end of the knife, and a treadle are so arranged
+that by a movement of the foot the operator can bring the knife to
+work on the hemp petiole with the pressure he chooses. The bast is
+drawn through between the knife and the block, the operator twisting
+the fibre, at each pull, around a stick of wood or his arm, whilst the
+parenchymatous pulp remains on the other side of the knife. There is
+no use for the pulp. The knife should be without teeth or indentations,
+but nearly everywhere in Capis Province I have seen it with a slightly
+serrated edge. The fibre is then spread out to dry, and afterwards
+tightly packed in bales with iron or rattan hoops for shipment.
+
+A finer fibre than the ordinary hemp is sometimes obtained in
+small quantities from the specially-selected edges of the petiole,
+and this material is used by the natives for weaving. The quantity
+procurable is limited, and the difficulty in obtaining it consists
+in the frequent breakage of the fibre whilst being drawn, due to
+its comparative fragility. Its commercial value is about double
+that of ordinary first-class cordage hemp. The stuff made from this
+fine fibre (in Bicol dialect, _Lupis_) suits admirably for ladies'
+dresses. Ordinary hemp fibre is used for the manufacture of coarse
+native stuff, known in Manila as _Sinamay_, much worn by the poorer
+classes of natives; large quantities of it come from Yloilo. In Panay
+Island a kind of texture called _Husi_ is made of a mixture of fine
+hemp (_lupis_) and pine-apple leaf fibre. Sometimes this fabric is
+palmed off on foreigners as pure _pina_ stuff, but a connoisseur
+can easily detect the hemp filament by the touch of the material,
+there being in the hemp-fibre, as in horsehair, a certain amount of
+stiffness and a tendency to spring back which, when compressed into a
+ball in the hand, prevents the stuff from retaining that shape. _Pina_
+fibre is soft and yielding.
+
+Many attempts have been made to draw the hemp fibre by machinery,
+but in spite of all strenuous efforts, no one has hitherto succeeded
+in introducing into the hemp districts a satisfactory mechanical
+apparatus. If the entire length of fibre in a strip of bast could
+bear the strain of full tension, instead of having to wind it
+around a cylinder (which would take the place of the operator's
+hand and stick under the present system), then a machine could be
+contrived to accomplish the work. Machines with cylinders to reduce
+the tension have been constructed, the result being admirable so
+far as the extraction of the fibre is concerned, but the cylinder
+upon which the fibre coiled, as it came from under the knife, always
+discoloured the material. A trial was made with a glass cylinder,
+but the same inconvenience was experienced. On another occasion the
+cylinder was dispensed with, and a reciprocating-motion clutch drew
+the bast, running to and fro the whole length of the fibre frame,
+the fibre being gripped by a pair of steel parallel bars on its
+passage in one or two places, as might be necessary, to lessen the
+tension. These steel bars, however, always left a transversal black
+line on the filament, and diminished its marketable value. What is
+desired is a machine which could be worked by one man and turn out
+at least as much clean fibre as the old apparatus could with two
+men. Also that the whole appliance should be portable by one man.
+
+In 1886 the most perfect mechanical contrivance hitherto brought out
+was tried in Manila by its Spanish inventor, Don Abelardo Cuesta;
+it worked to the satisfaction of those who saw it, but the saving
+of manual labour was so inconsiderable that the greater bulk of hemp
+shipped is still extracted by the primitive process.
+
+In September, 1905, Fray Mateo Atienza, of the Franciscan Order,
+exhibited in Manila a hemp-fibre-drawing machine of his own invention,
+the practical worth of which has yet to be ascertained. It is alleged
+that this machine, manipulated by one man, can, in a given time, turn
+out 104 per cent. more clean fibre than the old-fashioned apparatus
+worked by two men.
+
+_Musa textilis_ has been planted in British India as an experiment,
+with unsatisfactory result, evidently owing to a want of knowledge
+of the essential conditions of the fibre-extraction. One report
+[134] says--
+
+
+    "The first trial at extracting the fibre failed on account of our
+    having no proper machine to _bruise_ the stems. We extemporized
+    a two-roller mill; but as it had no cog-gearing to cause both
+    rollers to turn together, the only one on which the handle or
+    crank was fixed turned, with, the result of grinding the stems
+    to pulp instead of simply _bruising_ them."
+
+
+In the Philippines one is careful _not_ to bruise the stems, as this
+would weaken the fibre and discolour it.
+
+Another statement from British India shows that Manila hemp requires
+a very special treatment. It runs thus:--
+
+
+    "The mode of extraction was the same as practised in the locality
+    with _Ambadi_ (brown hemp) and _sunn_ hemp, with the exception that
+    the stems were, in the first place, passed through a sugar-cane
+    mill which got rid of sap averaging 50 per cent. of the whole. The
+    stems were next rotted in water for 10 to 12 days, and afterwards
+    washed by hand and sun-dried. The out-turn of fibre was 1 3/4
+    lbs. per 100 lbs. of fresh stem, a percentage considerably higher
+    than the average shown in the Saidapet experiments; it was however
+    of bad colour and defective in strength."
+
+
+If treated in the same manner in the Philippines, a similar bad result
+would ensue; the pressure of mill rollers would discolour the fibre,
+and the soaking with 48 per cent. of pulp, before being sun-dried,
+would weaken it.
+
+Dr. Ure, in his "Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures and Mines," p. 1,
+thus describes Manila Hemp:--
+
+
+    "A species of fibre obtained in the Philippine Islands in
+    abundance. Some authorities refer these fibres to the palm-tree
+    known as the _Abaca_ or _Anisa textilis_. There seem indeed to be
+    several well-known varieties of fibre included under this name,
+    some so fine that they are used in the most delicate and costly
+    textures, mixed with fibres of the pine-apple, forming _pina_
+    muslins and textures equal to the best muslins of Bengal. [135]
+
+    "Of the coarser fibres, mats, cordage and sail-cloth are
+    made. M. Duchesne states that the well-known fibrous manufactures
+    of Manila have led to the manufacture of the fibres themselves,
+    at Paris, into many articles of furniture and dress. Their
+    brilliancy and strength give remarkable fitness for bonnets,
+    tapestry, carpets, network, hammocks, etc. The only manufactured
+    articles exported from the Philippine Islands, enumerated by
+    Thomas de Comyn, Madrid, 1820 (translated by Walton), besides a
+    few tanned buffalo-hides and skins, are 8,000 to 12,000 pieces
+    of light sail-cloth and 200,000 lbs. of assorted _Abaca_ cordage."
+
+
+Manila-hemp rope is very durable; it is equally applicable to
+cables and to ships' standing and running rigging, but wanting in
+flexibility. [136]
+
+Hemp-growing, with ample capital, appears to be the most lucrative
+and least troublesome of all agricultural enterprises in staple
+export produce in the Colony, whilst it is quite independent of the
+seasons. The plant is neither affected by disease nor do insects
+attack it, and the only ordinary risks appear to be hurricanes,
+drought, insufficient weeding, and the ravages of the wild boar.
+
+Planted in virgin soil, each shoot occupies, at first, a space of
+20 English square feet. In the course of time, this regularity of
+distribution disappears as the original plant is felled and the
+suckers come up anywhere, spontaneously, from its root. The plant
+requires three years to arrive at cutting maturity, or four years if
+raised from the seed; most planters, however, transplant the six-month
+suckers, instead of the seed, when forming a new plantation. The stem
+should be cut for fibre-drawing at the flowering maturity; in no case
+should it be allowed to bear fruit, as the fibre is thereby weakened,
+and there is sometimes even a waste of material in the drawing,
+as the accumulation of fibre with the sap at the knife is greater.
+
+The average weight of dry fibre extracted from one plant equals
+10 ounces, or say 2 per cent, of the total weight of the stem and
+petioles; but as in practice there is a certain loss of petioles,
+by cutting out of maturity, whilst others are allowed to rot through
+negligence, the average output from a carefully-managed estate does
+not exceed 3-60 cwt. per acre, or say 4 piculs per caban of land.
+
+The length of the _bast_, ready for manipulation at the knife,
+averages in Albay 6 feet 6 inches.
+
+The weight of moisture in the wet fibre, immediately it is drawn
+from the bast, averages 56 per cent. To sun-dry the fibre thoroughly,
+an exposure of five hours is necessary.
+
+The first petioles forming the outer covering, and the slender central
+stem itself around which they cluster, are thrown away. Due to the
+inefficient method of fibre-drawing, or rather the want of mechanical
+appliances to effect the same, the waste of fibre probably amounts
+to as much as 30 per cent. of the whole contained in the bast.
+
+In sugar-cane planting, the poorer the soil is the wider the cane is
+planted, whilst the hemp-plant is set out at greater space on virgin
+land than on old, worked land, the reason being that the hemp-plant
+in rich soil throws out a great number of shoots from the same root,
+which require nourishment and serve for replanting. If space were
+not left for their development, the main stem would flower before
+it had reached its full height and circumference, whereas sugar-cane
+is purposely choked in virgin soil to check its running too high and
+dispersing the saccharine matter whilst becoming ligneous.
+
+A great advantage to the colonist, in starting hemp-growing in virgin
+forest-land, consists in the clearance requiring to be only partial,
+whilst newly opened up land is preferable, as on it the young plants
+will sometimes throw up as many as thirty suckers. The largest
+forest-trees are intentionally left to shade the plants and young
+shoots, so that only light rooting is imperatively necessary. In
+cane-planting, quite the reverse is the case, ploughing and sunshine
+being needful.
+
+The great drawback to the beginner with limited capital is the
+impossibility of recouping himself for his labour and recovering
+profit on outlay before three years at least. After that period the
+risk is small, drought being the chief calamity to be feared. The
+plants being set out on high land are extremely seldom inundated, and
+a conflagration could not spread far amongst green leaves and sappy
+petioles. There is no special cropping season as there is in the case
+of sugar-cane, which, if neglected, brings a total loss of crop; the
+plants naturally do not all mature at precisely the same time, and the
+fibre-extraction can be performed with little precipitation, and more
+or less all the year round, although the dry season is preferable for
+the sun-bleaching. If, at times, the stage of maturity be overlooked,
+it only represents a percentage of loss, whilst a whole plantation
+of ripe sugar-cane must all be cut with the least possible delay. No
+ploughing is necessary, although the plant thrives better when weeding
+is carefully attended to; no costly machinery has to be purchased
+and either left to the mercy of inexperienced hands or placed under
+the care of highly-paid Europeans, whilst there are few agricultural
+implements and no live-stock to be maintained for field labour.
+
+The hemp-fibre, when dry, runs a greater risk of fire than sugar,
+but upon the whole, the comparative advantages of hemp cultivation
+over sugar-cane planting appear to be very great.
+
+Hemp-fibre is classified by the large provincial dealers and Manila
+firms as of first, second, and third qualities. The dealers, or
+_acopiadores_, in treating with the small native collectors, or
+their own workpeople, take delivery of hemp under two classes only,
+viz.:--first quality (_corriente_) and second quality (_colorada_),
+the former being the whiter, with a beautiful silky gloss.
+
+The difficulties with which the European hemp-cultivator has to
+contend all centre to the same origin--the indolence of the native;
+hence there is a continual struggle between capitalist and labourer
+in the endeavour to counterbalance the native's inconstancy and
+antipathy to systematic work. Left to himself, the native cuts the
+plant at any period of its maturity. When he is hard pressed for a
+peso or two he strips a few petioles, leaving them for days exposed
+to the rain and atmosphere to soften and render easier the drawing
+of the fibre, in which putrefaction has commenced. The result is
+prejudicial to the dealer and the plantation owner, because the
+fibre discolours. Then he passes the bast under a _toothed_ knife,
+which is easy to work, and goes down to the village with his bundle of
+discoloured coarse fibre with a certain amount of dried sap on it to
+increase the weight. He chooses night-time for the delivery, so that
+the _acopiador_ may be deceived in the colour upon which depends the
+selection of quality, and in order that the fibre, absorbing the dew,
+may weigh heavier. These are the tricks of the trade well known to
+the native. The large dealers and plantation owners use every effort
+to enforce the use of knives without teeth, so that the fibre may be
+fine, perfectly clean and white, to rate as first-class; the native
+opposes this on the ground that he loses in weight, whilst he is too
+dull to appreciate his gain in higher value. For instance, presuming
+the first quality to be quoted in Manila at a certain figure per picul
+and the third quality at two pesos less, even though the first-class
+basis price remained firm, the third-class price would fall as the
+percentage of third-class quality in the supplies went on increasing.
+
+Here and there are to be found hemp-plants which give a whiter fibre
+than others, whilst some assert that there are three or four kinds of
+hemp-plant; but in general all will yield commercial first-class hemp
+(_Abaca corriente_), and if the native could be coerced to cut the
+plant at maturity--draw the fibre under a toothless knife during the
+same day of stripping the petioles--lodge the fibre as drawn on a clean
+place, and sun-dry it on the first opportunity, then (the proprietors
+and dealers positively assert) the output of third-quality need not
+exceed 5 to 6 per cent. of the whole produced. In short, the question
+of quality in _Abaca_ has vastly less relation to the species of the
+plant than to the care taken in its extraction and manipulation.
+
+The Chinese very actively collect parcels of hemp from the smallest
+class of native owners, but they also enter into contracts which
+bring discredit to the reputation of a province as a hemp-producing
+district. For a small sum in cash a Chinaman acquires from a native
+the right to work his plantation during a short period. Having no
+proprietary interest at stake, and looking only to his immediate
+gain, he indiscriminately strips plants, regardless of maturity,
+and the property reverts to the small owner in a sorely dilapidated
+condition. The market result is that, although the fibre drawn may be
+white, it is weak, therefore dealings with the Chinese require special
+scrutiny. Under the native system each labourer on an "estate" (called
+in Albay Province _late_) is remunerated by receiving one-half of all
+the fibre he draws; the other half belongs to the _late_ owner. The
+share corresponding to the labourer is almost invariably delivered
+at the same time to the employer, who purchases it at the current
+local value--often at much less.
+
+In sugar-planting, as no sugar can be hoped for until the fixed
+grinding-season of the year, planters have to advance to their
+workpeople during the whole twelve months in Luzon, under the
+_aparcero_ system. If, after so advancing during six or eight months,
+he loses half or more of his crop by natural causes, he stands a poor
+chance of recovering his advances of that year. There is no such risk
+in the case of hemp; when a man wants money he can work for it, and
+bring in his bundle of fibre and receive his half-share value. The
+few foreigners engaged in hemp-planting usually employ wage labour.
+
+In Manila the export-houses estimate the prices of second and third
+qualities by a rebate from first-class quality price. These rates
+necessarily fluctuate. When the deliveries of second and third
+qualities go on increasing in their proportion to the quantity of
+first-class sent to the market, the rebate for lower qualities on
+the basis price (first-class) is consequently augmented. If the total
+supplies to Manila began to show an extraordinarily large proportionate
+increase of lower qualities, these differences of prices would be made
+wider, and in this manner indirect pressure is brought to bear upon the
+provincial shippers to send as much first-class quality as possible.
+
+The labour of young plant-setting in Albay Province in Spanish times
+was calculated at 3 pesos per 1,000 plants; the cost of shoots 2 feet
+high, for planting out, was from 50 cents to one peso per 100. However,
+as proprietors were frequently cheated by natives who, having agreed
+to plant out the land, did not dig holes sufficiently deep, or set
+plants without roots, it became customary in Luzon to pay 10 pesos
+per 100 live plants, to be counted at the time of full growth, or
+say in three years, in lieu of paying for shoots and labour at the
+prices stated above. The contractor, of course, lived on the estate.
+
+In virgin soil, 2,500 plants would be set in one _pisoson_ of land
+(_vide_ Albay land measure), or say 720 to each acre.
+
+A hemp-press employing 60 men and boys should turn out 230 bales per
+day. Freight by mail steamer to Manila in the year 1890 from Albay
+ports beyond the San Bernardino Straits, was 50 cents per bale;
+from ports west of the Straits, 37 1/2 cents per bale.
+
+In the extraction of the fibre the natives work in couples; one man
+strips the bast, whilst his companion draws it under the knife. A fair
+week's work for a couple, including selection of the mature plants
+and felling, would be about 300 lbs. However, the labourer is not
+able to give his entire attention to fibre-drawing, for occasionally
+a day has to be spent in weeding and brushwood clearance, but his
+half-share interest covers this duty.
+
+The finest quality of hemp is produced in the Islands of Leyte and
+Marinduque, and in the Province of Sorsogon, especially Gubat, in
+Luzon Island.
+
+Previous to the year 1825, the quantity of hemp produced in these
+Islands was insignificant; in 1840 it is said to have exceeded 8,500
+tons. The _average annual_ shipment of hemp during the 20 years
+preceding the American occupation, i.e., 1879-98, was 72,815 tons,
+produced (annual average over that period) approximately as follows,
+viz.:--in Albay and Sorsogon, 32,000 tons; in Leyte, 16,000 tons; in
+Samar, 9,000 tons; in Camarines, 4,500 tons; in Mindanao, 4,000 tons;
+in Cebu, 2,500 tons; in all the other districts together, 4,815 tons.
+
+Albay Province is still the leading hemp district in the Islands. A
+small quantity of low-quality hemp is produced in Capis Province
+(Panay Is.); collections are also made along the south-east coast of
+Negros Island from Dumaguete northwards and in the district of Mauban
+[137] on the Pacific coast of Tayabas Province (Luzon Is). For figures
+of Hemp Shipments, _vide_ Chap. xxxi., "Trade Statistics."
+
+The highest Manila quotation for first-quality hemp (_corriente_)
+during the years 1882 to 1896 inclusive was P17.21 1/2 per picul,
+and the lowest in the same period P6.00 per picul (16 piculs = 1 ton;
+2 piculs = 1 bale), whilst specially selected lots from Sorsogon and
+Marinduque fetched a certain advance on these figures.
+
+
+               _Albay Province (local) Land Measure_
+
+      1     Topon   = 16 square Brazas = 53.776 English square yards.
+    312 1/2 Topones = 1 Pisoson = 5,000 square Brazas.
+    312 1/2 Topones = 1/2 of Quinon = 2 1/2 Cabanes = 3.472 acres.
+
+
+During the decade prior to the commercial depression of 1884, enormous
+sums of money were lent by foreign firms and wealthy hemp-staplers to
+the small producers against deliveries to be effected. But experience
+proved that lending to native producers was a bad business, for,
+on delivery of the produce, they expected to be again paid the full
+value and pass over the sums long due. Hence, capital which might
+have been employed to the mutual advantage of all concerned, was
+partially withheld, and the natives complained then, as they do now,
+that there is no money.
+
+Fortunately for the Philippines, the fibre known as Manila hemp is a
+speciality of the Colony, and the prospect of over-production, almost
+annihilating profits to producers--as in the sugar colonies--is
+at present remote, although the competition with other fibre is
+severe. The chief fibre-producing countries, besides this colony,
+are New Zealand, Mauritius, East Indies, Italy, Russia, North America
+(sisal) and Mexico (henequen).
+
+In 1881 the _Abaca_ plants presented to the Saigon Botanical Gardens
+were flourishing during the management of Mons. Coroy, but happily for
+this Colony the experiment, which was to precede the introduction
+of "Manila Hemp" into French Cochin China, was abandoned, the
+plants having been removed by that gentleman's successor. In 1890
+"Manila Hemp" was cultivated in British North Borneo by the Labuk
+Planting Company, Limited, and the fibre raised on their estates was
+satisfactorily reported on by the Rope Works in Hong-Kong.
+
+In view of the present scarcity of live-stock, hemp, which needs
+no buffalo tillage, would seem to be the most hopeful crop of
+the future. It will probably advance as fast as sugar cultivation
+is receding, and command a good remunerative price. Moreover, as
+already explained, not being distinctly a season crop as sugar is,
+nor requiring expensive machinery to produce it, its cultivation is
+the most recommendable to American colonists.
+
+
+
+_Coffee_ _(Coffea arabica)_ planting was commenced in the Colony
+early in the last century. Up to 1889 plantation-owners in the
+Province of Batangas assured me that the trees possessed by their
+grandfathers were still flourishing, whilst it is well known
+that in many coffee-producing colonies the tree bears profitably
+only up to the twenty-fifth year, and at the thirtieth year it is
+quite exhausted. Unless something be done to revive this branch of
+agriculture it seems as if coffee would soon cease to be an article
+of export from these Islands. In the year 1891 the crops in Luzon
+began to fall off very considerably, in a small measure due to the
+trees having lost their vigour, but chiefly owing to the ravages
+of a worm in the stems. In 1892-93 the best and oldest-established
+plantations were almost annihilated. Nothing could be done to stop
+the scourge, and several of the wealthiest coffee-owners around Lipa,
+personally known to me, ploughed up their land and started sugar-cane
+growing in place of coffee. In 1883 7,451 tons of coffee were shipped,
+whilst in 1903 the total export did not reach four tons.
+
+The best Philippine Coffee comes from the Provinces of Batangas,
+La Laguna and Cavite (Luzon Is.), and includes a large proportion of
+_caracolillo_, which is the nearest shape to the Mocha bean and the
+most esteemed. The temperate mountain regions of Benguet, Bontoc,
+and Lepanto (N.W. Luzon) also yield good coffee.
+
+The most inferior Philippine coffee is produced in Mindanao Island,
+and is sent up to Manila sometimes containing a quantity of rotten
+beans. It consequently always fetches a lower price than Manila (i.e.,
+Luzon) coffee, which is highly prized in the market.
+
+
+MANILA QUOTATIONS FOR THE TWO QUALITIES
+
+Average Prices throughout the Years
+
+
+Per Picul of 133 1/3 Eng. lbs.
+
+Manila (Luzon) Coffee
+        1882   1883   1884   1885   1886   1887   1888   1890   1891
+        P.cts. P.cts. P.cts. P.cts. P.cts. P.cts. P.cts. P.cts. P.cts.
+
+        10.25  12.00  12.68  12.00  12.17  26.14  21.47  31.00  30.50
+
+Mindanao Coffee
+        1882   1883   1884   1885   1886   1887   1888   1890   1891
+        P.cts. P.cts. P.cts. P.cts. P.cts. P.cts. P.cts. P.cts. P.cts.
+         9.30  10.00  12.00   9.87   9.56  19.50   20.34  25.80  24.40
+                                           _nom._
+
+
+Quotations later than 1891 would serve no practical purpose in the
+above table of comparison, as, due to the extremely small quantity
+produced, almost fancy prices have ruled since that date. In 1896,
+for instance, the market price ran up to P35 per picul, whilst some
+small parcels exchanged hands at a figure so capriciously high that
+it cannot be taken as a quotation. For figures of Coffee Shipments,
+_vide_ Chap, xxxi., "Trade Statistics."
+
+I investigated the system of coffee-growing and trading in all the
+Luzon districts, and found it impossible to draw up a correct general
+estimate showing the nett cost laid down in Manila market. The manner
+of acquiring the produce and the conditions of purchase varied so
+greatly, and were subject to so many peculiar local circumstances,
+that only an approximate computation could be arrived at.
+
+Some of the provincial collectors had plantations of their own; others
+had not, whilst none of them depended entirely upon the produce of
+their own trees for fulfilling the contracts in the capital.
+
+Coffee was a much more fluctuating concern than hemp, as the
+purchase-rate (although perhaps low) was determined out of season
+several months before it was seen how the market would stand for the
+sale of that coffee; in hemp transactions (there being practically no
+season for hemp) the purchase-money need only be paid on delivery of
+the produce by the labourer at rates proportionate to Manila prices,
+unless the dealer be simply a speculator, in which case, having
+contracted in Manila to deliver at a price, he must advance to secure
+deliveries to fulfil his contract. Therefore, in coffee, a provincial
+collector might lose something on the total year's transactions or he
+might make an enormous profit, if he worked with his own capital. If
+he borrowed the capital from Manila dealers--middlemen--as was often
+the case, then he might make a fortune for his Manila friends, or he
+might lose another year's interest on the borrowed funds.
+
+In Cavite Province districts there was another way of negotiating
+coffee speculations. The dealer with capital advanced at, say, 6 or 7
+pesos per picul "on joint account up to Manila." The planter then bound
+himself to deliver so many piculs of coffee of the next gathering,
+and the difference between the advance rate and the sale price in
+Manila was shared between the two, after the capitalist had deducted
+the charges for transport, packing, commission in Manila, etc. All
+the risk was, of course, on the part of the capitalist, for if the
+crop failed the small planter had no means of refunding the advance.
+
+On a carefully-managed plantation, a caban of land (8,000 square
+Spanish yards) was calculated to yield 10.40 piculs (= 12 1/2
+cwt.) of clean coffee, or, say, 9 cwt. per acre. The selling value
+of a plantation, in full growth, was about P250 per caban, or, say,
+P180 per acre. After 1896 this land value was merely nominal.
+
+The trees begin to give marketable coffee in the fourth year of
+growth, and flourish best in hilly districts and on highlands, where
+the roots can be kept dry, and where the average temperature does
+not exceed 70 deg. Fahr. _Caracolillo_ is found in greater quantities on
+the highest declivities facing east, where the morning sun evaporates
+the superfluous moisture of the previous night's dew.
+
+In the Province of Cavite there appeared to be very little system in
+the culture of the coffee-tree. Little care was taken in the selection
+of shading-trees, and pruning was much neglected. Nevertheless,
+very fine coffee was brought from the neighbourhood of Indan, Silan,
+Alfonso, and Amadeo. The Batangas bean had the best reputation in
+Manila; hence the Indan product was sometimes brought to that market
+and sold as Batangas coffee.
+
+In Batangas the coffee-plant is usually shaded by a tree called
+_Madrecacao_ (_Gliricidia maculata_)--Tagalog, _Galedupa pungam_. On
+starting a plantation this tree is placed in rows, each trunk occupying
+one Spanish yard, and when it has attained two or three feet in height
+the coffee-shoot is planted at each angle. Between the third and
+eighth years of growth every alternate shading-tree and coffee-plant
+is removed, as more space for development becomes necessary. The
+coffee-plants are pruned from time to time, and on no account should
+the branches be allowed to hang over and meet. Around the wealthy town
+of Lipa some of the many coffee-estates were extremely well kept up,
+with avenues crossing the plantations in different directions.
+
+At the end of eight years, more or less, according to how the
+quality of soil and the situation have influenced the development,
+there would remain, say, about 2,400 plants in each caban of land,
+or 1,728 plants per acre. Comparing this with the yield per acre,
+each tree would therefore give 9.33 ounces of marketable coffee,
+whilst in Peru, where the coffee-tree is planted at an elevation of
+5,000 to 6,000 feet above sea-level, each tree is said to yield one
+pound weight of beans.
+
+In the Philippines the fresh ripe berries, when thoroughly sun-dried,
+lose an average weight of 52 per cent. moisture.
+
+The sun-dried berries ready for pounding (husking) give an average
+of 33.70 of their weight in marketable coffee-beans.
+
+It takes _eight_ cabanes measure (_vide_ p. 276) of fresh-picked ripe
+berries to turn out _one_ picul weight of clean beans.
+
+Owing to the fact that one year in every five gives a short crop,
+due either to the nature of the plant or to climatic variations,
+it pays better to collect coffee from the very small growers rather
+than sink capital in large estates on the _aparcero_ system (q.v.).
+
+The coffee-plant imperatively requires shade and moisture, and
+over-pruning is prejudicial. If allowed to run to its natural height
+it would grow up to 15 to 25 feet high, but it is usually kept
+at 7 to 10 feet. The leaves are evergreen, very shining, oblong,
+leathery, and much resemble those of the common laurel. The flowers
+are small, and cluster in the axils of the leaves. They are somewhat
+similar to the Spanish jasmine, and being snow-white, the effect
+of a coffee plantation in bloom is delightful, whilst the odour is
+fragrant. The fruit, when ripe, is of a dark scarlet colour, and the
+ordinary coffee-berry contains two semi-elliptic seeds of a horny or
+cartilaginous nature glued together and enveloped in a coriaceous
+membrane; when this is removed each seed is found covered with a
+silver-grey pellicle.
+
+The _Caracolillo_ coffee-berry contains only one seed, with a furrow
+in the direction of the long axis, which gives it the appearance of
+being a geminous seed with an inclination to open out on one side.
+
+In Arabia Felix, where coffee was first planted in the 15th century,
+and its cultivation is still extensive, the collection of the fruit
+is effected by spreading cloths under the trees, from which, on being
+violently shaken, the ripe berries fall, and are then placed upon
+mats to dry, after which the beans are pressed under a heavy roller.
+
+In the Philippines, women and children--sometimes men--go into the
+plantations with baskets and pick the berries. The fruit is then
+heaped, and, in a few days, washed, so that a great portion of the
+pulp is got rid of. Then the berries are dried and pounded in a mortar
+to separate the inner membrane and pellicle; these are winnowed from
+the clean bean, which constitutes the coffee of commerce and is sent
+in bags to Manila for sale.
+
+The Philippine plantations give only one crop yearly, whilst in the
+West Indies beans of unequal ripeness are to be found during eight
+months of the twelve, and in Brazil there are three annual gatherings.
+
+
+
+The seed of the _Tobacco-plant_ (_Nicotiana tabacum_) was among the
+many novelties introduced into the Philippines from Mexico by Spanish
+missionaries, soon after the possession of the Colony by the Spaniards
+was an accomplished fact. From this Colony it is said to have been
+taken in the 16th or 17th century into the south of China, where
+its use was so much abused that the sale of this so-called noxious
+article was, for a long time, prohibited under penalty of death.
+
+During the first two centuries of Spanish dominion but little direct
+attention was paid to the tobacco question by the Government, who only
+nominally held, but did not assert, the exclusive right of traffic in
+this article. At length, in the year 1781, during the Gov.-Generalship
+of Jose Basco y Vargas (a naval officer), the cultivation and sale
+of tobacco was formally decreed a State monopoly, which lasted up
+to the end of the year 1882. In the meantime, it became an important
+item of public revenue. In 1882 the profits of the Tobacco Monopoly
+amounted to half the Colony's Budget expenditure.
+
+A few years before that date a foreign company offered to guarantee the
+Budget (then about P15,000,000), in exchange for the Tobacco Monopoly,
+but the proposal was not entertained, although in the same year the
+Treasury deficit amounted to P2,000,000.
+
+By Royal Decree of July 1, 1844, a contract was entered into with
+the firm of O'Shea & Co., renting to them the Monopoly, but it was
+suddenly rescinded. The annual profits from tobacco to the Government
+at that date were about P2,500,000.
+
+
+                    GOVERNMENT PROFIT
+
+                    1840        P2,123,505
+                    1845         2,570,679
+                    1850         3,036,611
+                    1855         3,721,168
+                    1859         4,932,463
+                    1860    over 5,000,000
+                    1869         5,230,581
+
+
+A bale of tobacco contains 4,000 leaves in 40 bundles (_manos_),
+of 100 leaves each.
+
+
+The classification of the deliveries depended on the districts where
+the crop was raised and the length of the leaf.
+
+The tobacco trade being also a Government concern in Spain, this
+Colony was required to supply the Peninsula State Factories with
+90,000 quintals (of 100 Span, lbs.) of tobacco-leaf per annum.
+
+Government Monopoly was in force in Luzon Island only. The tobacco
+districts of that island were Cagayan Valley (which comprises La
+Isabela), La Union, El Abra, Ilocos Sur y Norte and Nueva Ecija. In no
+other part of Luzon was tobacco-planting allowed, except for a short
+period on the Caraballo range, inhabited by undomesticated mountain
+tribes, upon whom prohibition would have been difficult to enforce. In
+1842 the Igorrotes were allowed to plant, and, in the year 1853,
+the Government collection from this source amounted to 25,000 bales
+of excellent quality. The total population of these districts was,
+in 1882 (the last year of Monopoly), about 785,000.
+
+The Visayas Islands were never under the Monopoly system. The natives
+there were free to raise tobacco or other crops on their land. It was
+not until 1840 that tobacco-planting attracted general attention in
+Visayas. Government factories or collecting-centres were established
+there for classifying and storing such tobacco as the Visayos cared
+to bring in for sale to the State, but they were at liberty to sell
+their produce privately or in the public markets. They also disposed
+of large quantities by contraband to the Luzon Island Provinces. [138]
+
+Antique Province never yielded more tobacco than could be consumed
+locally. In 1841 the Antique tobacco crop was valued at P80,000. But,
+in the hope of obtaining higher prices, the enthusiastic Provincial
+Governor, Manuel Iturriaga, encouraged the growers, in 1843, to
+send a trial parcel to the Government collectors; it was, however,
+unclassed and rejected.
+
+Mindoro, Lucban, and Marinduque Islands produced tobacco about sixty
+years ago, and in 1846 the Government established a collecting-centre
+in Mindoro; but the abuses and cruelty of the officials towards the
+natives, to force them to bring in their crops, almost extinguished
+this class of husbandry.
+
+During the period of Monopoly in the Luzon districts, the
+production was very carefully regulated by the Home Government, by
+enactments revised from time to time, called "General Instructions
+for the Direction, Administration and Control of the Government
+Monopolies." [139] Compulsory labour was authorized, and those natives
+in the northern provinces of Luzon Island who wished to till the land
+(the property of the State)--for title-deeds were almost unknown and
+never applied for by the natives--were compelled to give preference to
+tobacco. In fact, no other crops were allowed to be raised. Moreover,
+they were not permitted peacefully to indulge their indolent nature--to
+scrape up the earth and plant when and where they liked for a mere
+subsistence. Each family was coerced into contracting with the
+Government to raise 4,000 plants per annum, subject to a fine in the
+event of failure. The planter had to deliver into the State stores
+all the tobacco of his crop--not a single leaf could he reserve for
+his private consumption.
+
+Lands left uncultivated could be appropriated by the Government, who
+put their own nominees to work them, and he who had come to consider
+himself owner, by mere undisturbed possession, lost the usufruct and
+all other rights for three years. His right to the land, in fact,
+was not freehold, but tenure by villein socage.
+
+Emigrants were sent north from the west coast Provinces of North and
+South Ilocos. The first time I went up to Cagayan about 200 emigrant
+families were taken on board our vessel at North Ilocos, _en route_
+for the tobacco districts, and appeared to be as happy as other
+natives in general. They were well supplied with food and clothing,
+and comfortably lodged on their arrival at the Port of Aparri.
+
+In the Government Regulations referred to, the old law of Charles
+III., which enacted that a native could not be responsible at law
+for a debt exceeding P5, was revived, and those emigrants who had
+debts were only required to liquidate them out of their earnings in
+the tobacco district up to that legal maximum value.
+
+As soon as the native growers were settled on their lands their
+condition was by no means an enviable one. A Nueva Ecija landowner
+and tobacco-grower, in a letter to _El Liberal_ (Madrid) in 1880,
+depicts the situation in the following terms:--The planter, he
+says, was only allowed to smoke tobacco of his own crop inside the
+aerating-sheds which were usually erected on the fields under tilth. If
+he happened to be caught by a carabineer only a few steps outside the
+shed with a cigar in his mouth he was fined 2 pesos--if a cigarette,
+50 cents--and adding to these sums the costs of the conviction,
+a cigar of his own crop came to cost him P7.37 1/2, and a cigarette
+P1.87 1/2. The fines in Nueva Ecija amounted to an annual average of
+P7,000 on a population of 170,000. From sunrise to sunset the native
+grower was subject to domiciliary search for concealed tobacco--his
+trunks, furniture, and every nook and corner of his dwelling were
+ransacked. He and all his family--wife and daughters--were personally
+examined: and often an irate husband, father, or brother, goaded to
+indignation by the indecent humiliation of his kinswoman, would lay
+hands on his bowie-knife and bring matters to a bloody crisis with
+his wanton persecutors... The leaves were carefully selected, and
+only such as came under classification were paid for. The rejected
+bundles were not returned to the grower, but burnt--a despairing
+sacrifice to the toiler! The _Cabezas de Barangay_ (_vide_ p. 223)
+had, under penalty of arrest and hard labour, to see that the families
+fulfilled their onerous contract. Corporal punishment, imprisonment,
+and amercement resulted; of frequent occurrence were those fearful
+scenes which culminated in riots such as those of Ilocos in 1807 and
+1814, when many Spaniards fell victims to the natives' resentment of
+their oppression.
+
+Palpable injustice, too, was imposed by the Government with respect
+to the payments. The Treasury paid loyally for many years, but as
+generation succeeded generation, and the native growers' families
+came to feel themselves attached to the soil they cultivated, the
+Treasury, reposing on the security of this constancy, no longer
+kept to the compact. The officials failed to pay with punctuality
+to the growers the contracted value of the deliveries to the State
+stores. They required exactitude from the native--the Government set
+the example of remissness. The consequence was appalling. Instead of
+money Treasury notes were given them, and speculators of the lowest
+type used to scour the tobacco-growing districts to buy up this paper
+at an enormous discount. The misery of the natives was so distressing,
+the distrust of the Government so radicate, and the want of means of
+existence so urgent, that they were wont to yield their claims for an
+insignificant relative specie value. The speculators held the bonds for
+realization some day; the total amount due by the Government at one
+time exceeded P1,500,000. Once the Treasury was so hard-pressed for
+funds that the tobacco ready in Manila for shipment to Spain had to
+be sold on the spot and the 90,000 quintals could not be sent--hence
+purchases of Philippine tobacco had to be made by tender in London
+for the Spanish Government cigar factories.
+
+At length, during the government of General Domingo Moriones (1877-80),
+it was resolved to listen to the overwhelming complaints from the
+North, and pay up to date in coin. But, to do this, Spain, always in
+a state of chronic insolvency, had to resort to an abominable measure
+of disloyalty. The funds of the Deposit Bank (_Caja de Depositos_)
+were arbitrarily appropriated, and the deposit-notes, bearing 8 per
+cent. interest per annum, held by private persons, most of whom were
+Government clerks, etc., were dishonoured at due date. This gave rise
+to great clamour on the part of those individuals whose term of service
+had ceased (_cesantes_), and who, on their return to Spain, naturally
+wished to take their accumulated savings with them. The Gov.-General
+had no other recourse open to him but to reinstate them in their old
+positions, on his own responsibility, pending the financial crisis
+and the receipt of instructions from the Government at Madrid.
+
+For a long time the question of abolishing the Monopoly had
+been debated, and by Royal Order of May 20, 1879, a commission
+was appointed to inquire into the convenience of farming out the
+tobacco traffic. The natives were firmly opposed to it; they dreaded
+the prospect of the provinces being overrun by a band of licensed
+persecutors, and of the two evils they preferred State to private
+Monopoly. Warm discussions arose for and against it through the medium
+of the Manila newspapers. The "Consejo de Filipinas," in Madrid,
+had given a favourable report dated May 12, 1879, and published in
+the _Gaceta de Madrid_ of July 13, 1879. The clergy defeated the
+proposal by the Corporations of Friars jointly presenting a Memorial
+against it--and it was thenceforth abandoned. The Tobacco Monopoly
+was the largest source of public revenue, hence the doubt as to the
+policy of free trade and the delay in granting it. There existed a
+possibility of the Treasury sustaining an immense and irretrievable
+loss, for a return to Monopoly, after free trade had been allowed,
+could not for a moment be thought of. It was then a safe income to
+the Government, and it was feared by many that the industry, by free
+labour, would considerably fall off.
+
+As already stated, the Government Monopoly ceased on December 31,
+1882, when the tobacco cultivation and trade were handed over to
+private enterprise. At that date there were five Government Cigar and
+Cigarette Factories, viz.:--Malabon, Arroceros, Meisig, El Fortin,
+and Cavite, giving employment to about 20,000 operatives.
+
+Up to within a year of the abolition of Monopoly, a very good smokeable
+cigar could be purchased in the _estancos_ [140] from one half-penny
+and upwards, but as soon as the free trade project was definitely
+decided upon, the Government factories, in order to work off their
+old stocks of inferior leaf, filled the _estancos_ with cigars of
+the worst quality.
+
+The Colonial Treasurer-General at the time of this reform entertained
+very sanguine hopes respecting the rush which would be made for the
+Government brands, and the general public were led to believe that
+a scarcity of manufactured tobacco would, for some months, at least,
+follow the establishment of free trade in this article. With this idea
+in view, Government stocks sold at auction aroused competition and
+fetched unusually high prices at the close of 1882 and the first month
+of the following year, in some cases as much as 23/- per cwt. being
+realized over the upset prices. However, the Treasurer-General was
+carried too far in his expectations. He was unfortunately induced to
+hold a large amount of Government manufactured tobacco in anticipation
+of high offers, the result being an immense loss to the Treasury,
+as only a part was placed, with difficulty, at low prices, and the
+remainder shipped to Spain. In January, 1883, the stock of tobacco in
+Government hands amounted to about 100 tons of 1881 crop, besides the
+whole crop of 1882. Little by little the upset prices had to be lowered
+to draw buyers. The tobacco shipped during the first six months of the
+year 1883 was limited to that sold by auction out of the Government
+stocks, for the Government found themselves in a dilemma with their
+stores of this article, and the free export only commenced half a year
+after free production was granted. On December 29, 1883, a Government
+sale by auction was announced at 50 per cent. reduction on their
+already low prices, but the demand was still very meagre. Finally,
+in the course of 1884, the Government got rid of the bulk of their
+stock, the balance being shipped to the mother country. The colonial
+authorities continued to pay the ancient tobacco-tribute to Spain,
+and the first contract, with this object, was made during that year
+with a private company for the supply of about 2,750 tons.
+
+During the first year of Free Trade, cigar and cigarette factories were
+rapidly started in Manila and the provinces, but up to 1897 only some
+eight or ten factories had improved the quality of the manufactured
+article, whilst prices rose so considerably that the general public
+probably lost by the reform. Cigars, like those sold in the _estancos_
+in 1881, could never again be got so good for the same price, but at
+higher prices much better brands were offered.
+
+A small tax on the cigar and tobacco-leaf trade, officially announced
+in August, 1883, had the beneficial effect of causing the closure of
+some of the very small manufactories, and reduced the probability of
+a large over-supply of an almost worthless article.
+
+Export-houses continued to make large shipments of leaf-tobacco and
+cigars until the foreign markets were glutted with Philippine tobacco
+in 1883, and in the following years the export somewhat decreased. For
+figures of Tobacco Leaf and Cigar Shipments, _vide_ Chap, xxxi.,
+"Trade Statistics."
+
+As to the relative quality of Philippine tobacco, there are very
+divided opinions. Decidedly the best Manila cigars cannot compare
+with those made from the famous leaf of the Vuelta de Abajo (Cuba),
+and in the European markets they have very justly failed to meet with
+the same favourable reception as the Cuban cigars generally.
+
+During my first journey up the Cagayan River, I was told that some
+years ago the Government made earnest efforts to improve the quality of
+the plant by the introduction of seed from Cuba, but unfortunately it
+became mixed up with that usually planted in the Philippine provinces,
+and the object in view failed completely. On my renewed visit to the
+tobacco districts, immediately after the abolition of monopoly, the
+importance of properly manipulating the green leaf did not appear to
+be thoroughly appreciated. The exact degree of fermentation was not
+ascertained with the skill and perseverance necessary to turn out a
+well-prepared article. Some piles which I tested were over-heated
+(taking the Java system as my standard), whilst larger quantities
+had been aerated so long in the shed, after cutting, that they had
+lost their finest aroma.
+
+There are many risks in tobacco-leaf trading. The leaf, during its
+growth, is exposed to perforation by a worm which, if not brushed off
+every morning, may spread over the whole field. Through the indolence
+of the native cultivator this misfortune happens so frequently that
+rarely does the Cagayan Valley tobacco contain (in the total crop of
+the season) more than 10 per cent. of perfect, undamaged leaves. In
+the aerating-sheds another kind of worm appears in the leaf; and,
+again, after the leaves are baled or the cigars boxed, an insect
+drills little holes through them--locally, it is said to be "picado."
+
+Often in the dry season (the winter months) the tobacco-leaf,
+for want of a little moisture, matures narrow, thick and gummy,
+and contains an excess of nicotine, in which case it can only be
+used after several years' storage. Too much rain entirely spoils
+the leaf. Another obstacle to Philippine cigar manufacture is the
+increasing universal demand for cigars with light-coloured wrappers,
+for which hardly two per cent. of the Philippine leaf is suitable in
+world competition, whilst the operative cannot handle with economy the
+delicate light-coloured Sumatra wrapper. The difficulties of transport
+are so great that it costs more to bring the finest tobacco-leaf from
+the field to the Manila factory than it would to send it from Manila
+to Europe in large parcels. The labour question is also an important
+consideration, for it takes several years of daily practice for a
+Filipino to turn out a first-class marketable cigar; the most skilful
+operatives can earn up to P50 a month.
+
+The best quality of Philippine tobacco is produced in the northern
+provinces of Luzon Island, the choicest selections coming from Cagayan
+and La Isabela. The Provinces of Nueva Vizcaya, Ilocos Sur y Norte,
+La Union, Nueva Ecija, and even Pampanga, yield tobacco.
+
+In the Visayas, tobacco is cultivated in Panay Island and on the east
+coast of Negros Island (district of Escalante) and Cebu Island--also to
+a limited extent in Mindanao. The Visaya leaf generally is inferior
+in quality, particularly that of Yloilo Province, some of which,
+in fact, is such rubbish that it is difficult to understand how a
+profit can be expected from its cultivation. The Escalante (Negros,
+E. coast) and the Barili (Cebu W. coast) tobacco seemed to me to be
+the fullest flavoured and most agreeable leaf in all the Visayas.
+
+A tobacco plantation is about as pretty as a cabbage-field.
+
+In 1883 a company, styled The General Philippine Tobacco Company
+("Compania General de Tabacos de Filipinas"), formed in Spain and
+financially supported by French capitalists, was established in
+this Colony with a capital of L3,000,000. It gave great impulse
+to the trade by soon starting with five factories and purchasing
+four estates ("San Antonio," "Santa Isabel," "San Luis," and "La
+Concepcion"), with buying-agents in every tobacco district. Up to
+1898 the baled tobacco-leaf trade was chiefly in the hands of this
+company. Little by little the company launched out into other branches
+of produce-purchasing, and lost considerable sums of money in the
+provinces in its unsuccessful attempt to compete with the shrewd
+foreign merchants, but it is still a good going concern.
+
+
+    PRICES AND WEIGHTS OF SOME OF THE BEST CIGARS MANUFACTURED IN
+    MANILA PACKED IN BOXES READY FOR USE OR SHIPMENT.
+
+    Per Thousand. In Boxes of       Per Thousand.   In Boxes of
+    lbs.   Pesos                    lbs.   Pesos
+
+    30     500          10          17      45          50
+    30     200          25          17      40          50
+    17     150          25          12      30          50
+    25     125          25          16      24          50
+    23      70          25          12      20         100
+    17      60          50          16      18         100
+    18      50          50           4 1/2  13         100
+
+
+Cigars and cigarettes are now offered for sale in every town, village,
+and hamlet of the Islands, and their manufacture for the immense home
+consumption (which, of cigars, is about one-third of the whole output),
+and to supply the demand for export, constitutes an important branch
+of trade, giving employment to thousands of operatives.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+Sundry Forest and Farm Produce
+Maize--Cacao--Coprah, Etc.
+
+
+Maize (_Zea mays_), or "Indian Corn," forms the staple article of
+food in lieu of rice in a limited number of districts, particularly
+in the South, although as a rule this latter cereal is preferred.
+
+Many agriculturists alternate their crops with that of maize, which, it
+is said, does not impoverish the land to any appreciable extent. There
+is no great demand for this grain, and it is generally cultivated
+rather as an article for consumption in the grower's household than
+for trade. Planted in good land it gives about 200-fold, and two crops
+in the year = 400-fold per annum; but the setting out of one caban of
+maize grain occupies five times the surface required for the planting
+of the same measure of rice grain. An ordinary caban of land is 8,000
+square Spanish yards (_vide_ Land Measure, p. 271), and this superficie
+derives its denomination from the fact that it is the average area
+occupied by the planting out of one caban measure of rice grain. The
+maize caban of land is quite a special measure, and is equal to 5 rice
+cabans. Estimating, therefore, the average yield of rice-paddy to be
+50 cabanes measure per ordinary caban of land, the same superficie,
+were it suitable for maize-raising, would give one-fifth of 400-fold
+per annum = 80 cabanes measure of maize per rice caban of land.
+
+The current price of maize, taking the average in several provinces,
+is rarely above that of paddy for the same measure, whilst it is often
+lower, according to the demand, which is influenced by the custom of
+the natives in the vicinity where it is offered for sale.
+
+It is eaten after being pulverized between stone or hardwood slabs with
+the surfaces set horizontally, the upper one being caused to revolve
+on the lower one, which is stationary. In many village market-places
+one sees heads of maize roasted and exposed for sale. This is of
+a special quality, grown in alluvial soil--the intervals of rivers
+which overflow at certain seasons of the year. Three crops per annum
+are obtainable on land of this kind, so that the supply is constant
+all the year round. Before the American occupation, the price of the
+raw maize-heads to the market-sellers was about 60 cuartos per 100,
+which they retailed out roasted at one cuarto each (3 1/2 cuartos
+equal about one penny); the profit was therefore proportionately
+large when local festivities created a demand.
+
+
+
+The _Cacao-tree_--(_Theobroma cacao_, or "Food of the gods," as Linnaeus
+called it)--a native of Central America, flourishes in these Islands
+in the hot and damp districts.
+
+It is said to have been imported into the Philippines towards the end
+of the 17th century from Mexico, where it has been in very ancient
+use. Gaspar de San Agustin records the following [141]:--"In the year
+1670 a navigator, Pedro Brabo de Lagunas, brought from Acapulco a pot
+containing a cacao-plant which he gave to his brother, Bartolome Brabo,
+a priest in Camarines, from whom it was stolen by a Lipa native,
+Juan del Aguila, who hid it and took care of it, and from it was
+propagated all the original Philippine stock."
+
+Outside the tropics the tree will grow in some places, but gives no
+fruit. The Philippine quality is very good, and compares favourably
+with that of other countries, the best being produced between latitudes
+11 deg. and 12 deg. N.
+
+The cultivation of cacao is an extremely risky and delicate business,
+as, often when the planter's hopes are about to be realized, a slight
+storm will throw down the almost-ripened fruit in a day. A disease
+sometimes attacks the roots and spreads through a plantation. It
+would be imprudent, therefore, to devote one's time exclusively to
+the cultivation of this product at the risk of almost instantaneous
+ruin. Usually, the Philippine agriculturist rightly regards cacao
+only as a useful adjunct to his other crops. In the aspect of a cacao
+plantation there is nothing specially attractive. The tree itself
+is not pretty. The natives who grow the fruit usually make their own
+chocolate at home by roasting the beans over a slow fire, and after
+separating them from their husks (like almond-skins), they pound
+them with wet sugar, etc., into a paste, using a kind of rolling-pin
+on a concave block of wood. The roasted beans should be made into
+chocolate at once, as by exposure to the air they lose flavour. Small
+quantities of cacao are sent to Spain, but the consumption in the
+Colony, when made into chocolate [142] by adding sugar, vanilla,
+cinnamon, etc., to counteract the natural bitterness of the bean,
+is considerable. In making the paste, a large quantity of sugar is
+added, varying from one-third of its weight to equal parts, whilst
+one pod of vanilla is sufficient for 1 1/2 lbs. of cacao. Chocolate
+is often adulterated with roasted rice and _Pili_ nuts. The roasted
+_Pili_ nut alone has a very agreeable almond taste. As a beverage,
+chocolate is in great favour with the Spaniards and half-castes and
+the better class of natives. In every household of any pretensions
+the afternoon caller is invited to "merendar con chocolate," which
+corresponds to the English "5 o'clock tea."
+
+The cacao-beans or kernels lie in a fruit something like a gherkin,
+about 5 inches long and 3 inches in diameter, and of a dark reddish
+colour when ripe. The tree bears its fruit on the main branches, or
+on the trunk itself, but never on twigs or thin branches. The fruit
+contains from 15 to 25 beans, in regular rows, with pulpy divisions
+between them like a water-melon. The kernels are about the size,
+shape, and colour of almonds, obtuse at one end, and contain a fatty
+or oily matter to the extent of one-half their weight. In order to make
+"soluble cocoa" as sold in Europe this fatty substance is extracted.
+
+The beans are planted out at short distances in orchards, or in the
+garden surrounding the owner's dwelling. The tree, in this Colony,
+does not attain a great height--usually up to 10 feet--whereas in its
+natural soil it grows up to 30 feet at least. Like coffee, it bears
+fruit in the fourth year, and reaches maturity in the sixth year. The
+fair annual yield of a tree, if not damaged by storms or insects,
+would be about three pints measure of beans, which always find a ready
+sale. The tree is most delicate; a slight laceration of the root,
+or stagnant water near it, may kill it; it needs a moisture-laden
+sultry air, which, however, must not exceed 75 deg. Fahr.
+
+If all went well with the crop, large profits might accrue to the
+cacao-planter, but it rarely happens (perhaps never) during the six
+months of fruit-ripening that losses are not sustained by hurricanes,
+disease in the tree, the depredations of parrots, monkeys, rats,
+and other vermin, etc. Practically speaking, cacao-planting should
+only be undertaken in this Colony by agriculturists who have spare
+capital and can afford to lose a crop one year to make up for it in
+the next. The venture pays handsomely in fortunate seasons, but it
+is not the line of planting to be taken up by hand-to-mouth colonists
+who must seek immediate returns, nor as a sole occupation.
+
+
+
+_Castor Oil_ is obtained in a few places from the seeds of the _Palma
+Christi_ or _Ricinus communis_, but the plant is not cultivated,
+and the oil has not yet become an article of current trade.
+
+_Gogo_ (_Entada pursaetha_), sometimes called _Bayogo_ in Tagalog,
+is a useful forest product in general demand, on sale at every
+market-place and native general shop. It is a fibrous bark, taken
+in strips of 3 or 4 feet long. It looks exactly like cocoa-nut coir,
+except that its colour is a little lighter and brighter. It is used
+for cleansing the hair, for which purpose a handful is put to soak
+in a basin of water overnight, and the next morning it will saponify
+when rubbed between the hands. The soap which issues therefrom is then
+rubbed in the hair at the time of bathing. It is in common use among
+the natives of both sexes and many Europeans. An infusion of _Gogo_ is
+a purgative. If placed dry in the _tinaja_ jars (Tagalog, _Tapayan_),
+containing cacao-beans, the insects will not attack the beans.
+
+_Camote_ (_Convolvulus batatas_) is the sweet potato or Yam, the
+foliage of which quickly spreads out like a carpet over the soil and
+forms tubers, like the common potato. It is a favourite article of
+food among the natives, and in nearly every island it is also found
+wild. In kitchen-gardens it is planted like the potato, the tuber being
+cut in pieces. Sometimes it is dried (Tagalog, _Pacumbong camote_). It
+is also preserved whole in molasses (Tagalog, _Palubog na camote_).
+
+_Gabi_ (_Caladium_) is another kind of esculent root, palatable to
+the natives, similar to the turnip, and throws up stalks from 1 to 3
+feet high, at the end of which is an almost round leaf, dark green,
+from 3 to 5 inches diameter at maturity.
+
+_Potatoes_ are grown in Cebu Island, but they are rarely any larger
+than walnuts. With very special care a larger size has been raised
+in Negros Island; also potatoes of excellent flavour and of a pinkish
+colour are cultivated in the district of Benguet; in Manila there is
+a certain demand for this last kind.
+
+_Mani_ (_Arachis hypogaea_), commonly called the "Pea-nut," is a
+creeping plant, which grows wild in many places. It is much cultivated,
+however, partly for the sake of the nut or fruit, but principally
+for the leaves and stalks, which, when dried, even months old, serve
+as an excellent and nutritious fodder for ponies. It contains a large
+quantity of oil, and in some districts it is preferred to the fresh-cut
+_zacate_ grass, with which the ponies and cattle are fed in Manila.
+
+The Philippine pea-nut is about as large as that seen in England. In
+1904 the American Bureau of Agriculture brought to the Islands for
+seed a quantity of New Orleans pea-nuts two to three times larger.
+
+_Areca Palm_ (_Areca calechu_) (Tagalog, _Bonga_), the nut of which
+is used to make up the chewing betel when split into slices about
+one-eighth of an inch thick. This is one of the most beautiful
+palms. The nuts cluster on stalks under the tuft of leaves at
+the top of the tall slender stem. It is said that one tree will
+produce, according to age, situation, and culture, from 200 to 800
+nuts yearly. The nut itself is enveloped in a fibrous shell, like
+the cocoa-nut. In Europe a favourite dentifrice is prepared from
+the areca-nut.
+
+_Buyo_ (_Piper betle_) (Tagalog, _Igmo_), is cultivated with much
+care in every province, as its leaf, when coated with lime made from
+oyster-shells and folded up, is used to coil round the areca-nut,
+the whole forming the _buyo_ (betel), which the natives of these
+Islands, as in British India, are in the habit of chewing. To the
+chew a quid of tobacco is sometimes added. A native can go a great
+number of hours without food if he has his betel; it is said to be
+stomachical. After many years of habit in chewing this nut and leaf
+it becomes almost a necessity, as is the case with opium, and it is
+believed that its use cannot, with safety, be suddenly abandoned. To
+the newly-arrived European, it is very displeasing to have to converse
+with a native betel-eater, whose teeth and lips appear to be smeared
+with blood. The _buyo_ plant is set out on raised beds and trained
+(like hops) straight up on sticks, on which it grows to a height of
+about 6 feet. The leaf is of a bright green colour, and only slightly
+pointed. In all market-places, including those of Manila, there is
+a great sale of this leaf, which is brought fresh every day.
+
+_Cocoanut_ (_Cocos nucifera_) plantations pay very well, and there is a
+certain demand for the fruit for export to China, besides the constant
+local sales in the _tianguis_. [143] _Niog_ is the Tagalog name for
+the cocoanut palm. Some tap the tree by making an incision in the
+flowering (or fruit-bearing) stalk, under which a bamboo vessel, called
+a _bombon_, is hung to receive the sap. This liquid, known as _tuba_,
+is a favourite beverage among the natives. As many as four stalks of
+the same trunk can be so drained simultaneously without injury to the
+tree. In the bottom of the _bombon_ is placed about as much as a desert
+spoonful of pulverized _Tongo_ bark (_Rhizophora longissima_) to give a
+stronger taste and bright colour to the _tuba_. The incision--renewed
+each time the _bombon_ is replaced--is made with a very sharp knife,
+to which a keen edge is given by rubbing it on wood (_Erythrina_)
+covered with a paste of ashes and oil. The sap-drawing of a stalk
+continues incessantly for about two months, when the stalk ceases to
+yield and dries up. The _bombons_ containing the liquid are removed,
+empty ones being put in their place every twelve hours, about sunrise
+and sunset, and the seller hastens round to his clients with the
+morning and evening draught, concluding his trade at the market-place
+or other known centres of sale. If the _tuba_ is allowed to ferment,
+it is not so palatable, and becomes an intoxicating drink. From the
+fermented juice the distilleries manufacture a spirituous liquor,
+known locally as cocoa-wine. The trees set apart for _tuba_ extraction
+do not produce nuts, as the fruit-forming elements are taken away.
+
+The man who gets down the _tuba_ has to climb the first tree, on the
+trunk of which notches are cut to place his toes in. From under the
+tuft of leaves two bamboos are fastened, leading to the next nearest
+tree, and so on around the group which is thus connected. The bottom
+bamboo serves as a bridge, and the top one as a handrail. Occasionally
+a man falls from the top of a trunk 70 or 80 feet high, and breaks his
+neck. The occupation of _tuba_ drawing is one of the most dangerous.
+
+When the tree is allowed to produce fruit, instead of yielding _tuba_,
+the nuts are collected about every four months. They are brought
+down either by a sickle-shaped knife lashed on to the end of a long
+pole, or by climbing the tree with the knife in hand. When they are
+collected for oil-extraction, they are carted on a kind of sleigh,
+[144] unless there be a river or creek providing a water-way, in which
+latter case they are tied together, stalk to stalk, and floated in
+a compact mass, like a raft, upon which the man in charge stands.
+
+The water or milk found inside a cocoanut is very refreshing to the
+traveller, and has this advantage over fresh water, that it serves
+to quench the thirst of a person who is perspiring, or whose blood
+is highly heated, without doing him any harm.
+
+Well-to-do owners of cocoanut-palm plantations usually farm out to
+the poorer people the right to extract the _tuba_, allotting to each
+family a certain number of trees. Others allow the trees to bear fruit,
+and although the returns are, theoretically, not so good, it pays the
+owner about the same, as he is less exposed to robbery, being able
+more closely to watch his own interests. The trees bear fruit in the
+fifth year, but, meanwhile, care must be taken to defend them from
+the browsing of cattle. If they survive that period they will live
+for a century. At seven years' growth the cocoanut palm-tree seldom
+fails to yield an unvarying average crop of a score of large nuts,
+giving a nett profit of about one peso per annum.
+
+The cocoanut is largely used for culinary purposes in the Islands. It
+is an ingredient in the native "curry" (of no resemblance to Indian
+curry), and is preserved in several ways, the most common being the
+_Bocayo_, a sort of cocoanut toffee, and the _Matamis na macapuno_,
+which is the soft, immature nut preserved in molasses.
+
+In the Provinces of Tayabas, La Laguna, E. Batangas and district of La
+Infanta, the cocoanut-palm is extensively cultivated, solely for the
+purpose of extracting the oil from the nut. The cocoanut-oil factories
+are very rough, primitive establishments, usually consisting of eight
+or ten posts supporting a nipa palm-leaf roof, and closed in at all
+sides with split bamboos. The nuts are heaped for a while to dry and
+concentrate the oil in the fruit. Then they are chopped, more or less,
+in half. A man sits on a board with his feet on a treadle, from which a
+rope is passed over, and works to and fro a cylindrical block, in the
+end of which is fixed an iron scraper. He picks up the half-nuts one
+at a time, and on applying them to the scraper in motion, the white
+fruit, or pith, falls out into a vessel underneath. These scrapings
+are then pressed between huge blocks of wood to express the oil, and
+the mass is afterwards put into cast-iron cauldrons, of Chinese make,
+with water, which is allowed to simmer and draw out the remaining
+fatty particles, which are skimmed off the surface. When cold, it
+is sent off to market in small, straight-sided kegs, on ponies which
+carry two kegs--one slung on each side. The average estimated yield of
+the cocoanuts, by the native process, is as follows, viz.:--250 large
+nuts give one cwt. of dried coprah, yielding, say, 10 gallons of oil.
+
+Small quantities of Cocoanut Oil (Tagalog, _Languis ng niog_)
+are shipped from the Philippines, but in the Colony itself it is
+an important article of consumption. Every dwelling, rich or poor,
+consumes a certain amount of this oil nightly for lighting. For this
+purpose it is poured into a glass half full of water, on which it
+floats, and a wick, made of pith, called _tinsin_, introduced by
+the Chinese, is suspended in the centre of the oil by a strip of
+tin. As the oil is consumed, the wick is lowered by slightly bending
+the tin downwards. There are few dwelling-houses, or huts, without a
+light of some kind burning during the whole night in expectation of
+a possible earthquake, and the vast majority use cocoanut oil because
+of the economy.
+
+It is also in use for cooking in some out-of-the-way places, and
+is not unpalatable when quite fresh. It is largely employed as a
+lubricant for machinery, for which purpose, however, it is very
+inferior. Occasionally it finds a medicinal application, and the
+natives commonly use it as hair-oil. In Europe, cocoa-nut oil is
+a white solid, and is used in the manufacture of soap and candles;
+in the tropics it is seldom seen otherwise than in a liquid state,
+as it fuses a little above 70 deg. Fahr.
+
+It is only in the last few years that Coprah has acquired importance as
+an article of export. There are large cocoanut plantations on all the
+principal islands, whence supplies are furnished to meet the foreign
+demand, which is likely to increase considerably.
+
+For figures of _Coprah_ Shipments, _vide_ Chap. xxxi., "Trade
+Statistics."
+
+Uses are also found for the hard Shell of the nut (Tagalog, _Baoo_). In
+native dwellings these shells serve the poor for cups (_tabo _) and a
+variety of other useful domestic utensils, whilst by all classes they
+are converted into ladles with wooden handles. Also, when carbonized,
+the shell gives a black, used for dyeing straw hats.
+
+Very little use is made of the Coir (Tagalog, _Bunot_), or outer
+fibrous skin, which in other countries serves for the manufacture
+of cocoanut matting, coarse brushes, hawsers, etc. It is said that
+coir rots in fresh water, whereas salt water strengthens it. It
+would therefore be unsuitable for running rigging, but for ships'
+cables it cannot be surpassed in its qualities of lightness and
+elasticity. As it floats on water, it ought to be of great value
+on ships, whilst of late years its employment in the manufacture of
+light ocean telegraph cables has been seriously considered, showing,
+as it does, an advantage over other materials by taking a convex curve
+to the water surface--an important condition in cable-laying. [145]
+The Spaniards call this product _Banote_. In this Colony it often
+serves for cleaning floors and ships' decks, when the nut is cut into
+two equal parts across the grain of the coir covering, and with it
+a very high polish can be put on to hardwoods.
+
+The stem of the Cocoanut Palm is attacked by a very large beetle
+with a single horn at the top of its head. It bores through the bark
+and slightly injures the tree, but I never heard that any had died
+in consequence. In some countries this insect is described as the
+rhinoceros beetle, and is said to belong to the _Dynastidae_ species.
+
+In the Philippines, the poorest soil seems to give nourishment to the
+cocoanut-palm; indeed, it thrives best on, or near, the sea-shore,
+as close to the sea as where the beach is fringed by the surf at high
+tide. The common cocoanut-palm attains a height of about sixty feet,
+but there is also a dwarf palm with the stem sometimes no taller
+than four feet at full growth, which also bears fruit, although less
+plentifully. A grove of these is a pretty sight.
+
+Sir Emerson Tennent, referring to these trees in Ceylon, is reported
+to have stated [146] that the cocoanut-palm "acts as a conductor
+in protecting houses from lightning. As many as 500 of these trees
+were struck in a single _pattoo_ near Pattalam during a succession
+of thunderstorms in April 1859."--_Colombo Observer_.
+
+_Nipa Palm_ (_Nipa fruticans_) is found in mangrove swamps and flooded
+marshy lands. It has the appearance of a gigantic fern, and thrives
+best in those lands which are covered by the sea at high tide. In the
+same manner as the cocoanut-palm, the sap is extracted by incision made
+in the fruit-bearing stalk, and is used for distilling a liquid known
+as nipa wine, which, however, should properly be termed a spirit. The
+leaves, which are very long, and about three to five inches wide,
+are of immense value in the country for thatched roofs. Nipa is not
+to be found everywhere; one may go many miles without seeing it, in
+districts devoid of marshes and swampy lowlands. In El Abra district
+(Luzon Is.) nipa is said to be unknown. In such places, another
+material supplies its want for thatching, viz.:--
+
+_Cogon_ (_Saccharum koenigii_), a sort of tall jungle grass with a
+very sharp edge, plentifully abundant precisely where nipa cannot be
+expected to grow. I have ridden through cogon five feet high, but a
+fair average would be about three to four feet. It has simply to be
+cut and sun-dried and is ready for roof thatching.
+
+The _Cotton-tree_ (_Gossypium herbaceum_, Linn. ?), (Tagalog,
+_Bulac_), is found growing in an uncultivated state in many islands
+of the Archipelago. Long-staple cotton was formerly extensively
+cultivated in the Province of Ilocos Norte, whence, many years ago,
+large quantities of good cotton-stuffs were exported. This industry
+still exists. The cultivation of this staple was, however, discouraged
+by the local governors, in order to urge the planting of tobacco for
+the Government supplies. It has since become difficult to revive the
+cotton production, although an essay, in pamphlet form (for which
+a prize was awarded in Madrid), was gratuitously distributed over
+the Colony in 1888 with that object. Nevertheless, cotton spinning
+and weaving are still carried on, on a reduced scale, in the Ilocos
+provinces (Luzon west coast).
+
+Wild cotton is practically useless for spinning, as the staple is
+extremely short, but perhaps by hybridization and careful attention its
+culture might become valuable to the Colony. The pod is elliptical,
+and the cotton which bursts from it at maturity is snow-white. It
+is used for stuffing pillows and mattresses. It was a common thing,
+before the American occupation, to see (wild) cotton-trees planted
+along the highroad to serve as telegraph-posts; by the time the seed
+is fully ripe, every leaf has fallen, and nothing but the bursting
+pods remain hanging to the branches.
+
+The _Buri Palm_ is a handsome species, of tall growth, with fan-like
+leaves. Its juice serves as a beverage resembling _tuba_. The trunk
+yields a sago flour. The leaves are beaten on boulder stones to extract
+a fibre for rope-making, of great strength and in constant demand.
+
+The _Dita Tree_, said to be of the family of the _Apocynese_ and
+known to botanists as _Alstonia scholaris_, is possibly a species of
+cinchona. The pulverized bark has a bitter taste like quinine, and
+is successfully used by the natives to allay fever. A Manila chemist
+once extracted from the bark a substance which he called _ditaine_,
+the yield of crystallizable alkaloid being 2 per cent.
+
+_Palma Brava_ (_Coripha minor_) (Tagalog, _Banga_), [147] is a species
+of palm, the trunk of which is of great local value. It is immensely
+strong, and will resist the action of water for years. These trees are
+employed as piles for quay and pier making--for bridges, stockades,
+and in any works where strength, elasticity, and resistance to water
+are required in combination. When split, a fibrous pith is found
+in the centre much resembling cocoanut coir, but the ligneous shell
+of the stem still retains its qualities of strength and flexibility,
+and is used for vehicle-shafts, coolies' carrying-poles, and a variety
+of other purposes.
+
+_Bambusa_ (_Bambusa arundinacea_) is a graminifolious plant--one of the
+most charmingly picturesque and useful adornments of Nature bestowed
+exuberantly on the Philippine Islands. It grows in thick tufts in
+the woods and on the banks of rivers. Its uses are innumerable, and
+it has not only become one of the articles of primary necessity to
+the native, but of incalculable value to all in the Colony.
+
+There are many kinds of bamboos, distinct in formation and size. The
+Tagalog generic name for knotted bamboo is _Cauayan_; the Spanish
+name is _Cana espina_. The most common species grows to a height of
+about 60 feet, with a diameter varying up to eight inches, and is of
+wonderful strength, due to its round shape and the regularity of its
+joints. Each joint is strengthened by a web inside. It is singularly
+flexible, light, elastic, and of matchless floating power. The fibre
+is tough, but being perfectly straight, it is easy to split. It has a
+smooth glazed surface, a perfectly straight grain, and when split on
+any surface, it takes a high polish by simple friction. Three cuts
+with the bowie-knife are sufficient to hew down the largest bamboo
+of this kind, and the green leaves, in case of extreme necessity,
+serve for horses' fodder.
+
+There is another variety also hollow, but not so large as that just
+described. It is covered with a natural varnish as hard as steel. It
+is also used for native cabin-building and many other purposes.
+
+A third species, seldom found more than five inches in diameter, is
+much more solid, having no cavity in the centre divided by webs. It
+cannot be applied to so many purposes as the first, but where great
+strength is required it is incomparable.
+
+When the bamboo-plant is cultivated with the view of rendering it
+annually productive, the shoots are pruned in the dry season at a
+height of about seven feet from the ground. In the following wet
+season, out of the clump germinate a number of young shoots, which,
+in the course of six or eight months, will have reached their normal
+height, and will be fit for cutting when required. Bamboo should be
+felled in the dry season before the sap begins to ascend by capillary
+attraction. If cut out of season it is prematurely consumed by grub
+(_gojo_), but this is not much heeded when wanted in haste.
+
+The northern native builds his hut entirely of bamboo with nipa
+palm-leaf or cogon thatching; in the Province of Yloilo I have seen
+hundreds of huts made entirely of bamboo, including the roofing. To
+make bamboo roofing, the hollow canes are split longitudinally, and,
+after the webbed joints inside have been cut away, they are laid on
+the bamboo frame-work, and fit into each other, the one convexly,
+the next one concavely, and so on alternately. In frame-work, no
+joiner's skill is needed; two-thirds of the bamboo are notched out on
+one side, and the other third is bent to rectangle. A rural bungalow
+can be erected in a week. When Don Manuel Montuno, the late Governor
+of Morong, came with his suite to stay at my up-country bungalow for
+a shooting expedition, I had a wing added in three days, perfectly
+roofed and finished.
+
+No nails are ever used, the whole being bound with _bejuco_. The walls
+of the cabin are made by splitting the bamboo, and, after removing
+the webbed joints, each half is beaten out flat. Even in houses of
+certain pretensions I have often seen split-bamboo flooring, which is
+highly effective, as it is always clean and takes a beautiful polish
+when rubbed over a few times with plantain-leaves. In the parish
+church of Las Pinas, near Manila, there was an organ made of bamboo,
+of excellent tone, extant up to the year of the Revolution.
+
+When the poor village native wants to put up his house he calls
+a _bayanin_, and his neighbours assemble to give him a hand. The
+bowie-knife is the only indispensable tool. One cuts the bamboo to
+lengths, another splits it, a third fits it for making the frame-work,
+another threads the dried nipa-leaves for the roofing, and thus a
+modest _bahay_ is erected in a week. The most practicable dwelling
+is the bamboo and nipa house, the only serious drawback being the
+risk of fire.
+
+Rafts, furniture of all kinds, scaffolding, spoons, carts, baskets,
+sledges, fishing-traps, fleams, water-pipes, hats, dry and liquid
+measures, cups, fencing, canoe-fittings, bridges, carrying-poles for
+any purpose, pitchforks, and a thousand other articles are made of
+this unexcelled material. Here it serves all the purposes to which the
+osier is applied in Europe. It floats in water, serves for fuel, and
+ropes made of it are immensely strong. Bamboo salad is prepared from
+the very young shoots, cut as soon as they sprout from the root. The
+value of bamboo in Manila varies according to the season of the year
+and length of the bamboo, the diameter of course being proportionate.
+
+_Bojo_ (Tagalog, _Buho_) is a kind of cane, somewhat resembling the
+bamboo in appearance only. It has very few knots; is brittle, perfectly
+smooth on the outer and inner surfaces--hollow, and grows to about
+25 feet high by 2 inches diameter, and is not nearly so useful as
+the bamboo. It is used for making light fences, musical instruments,
+fishing-rods, inner walls of huts, fishing-traps, torches, etc.
+
+_Bejuco_, or Rattan-cane, belonging to the _Calamus_ family
+(Tagalog, _Hiantoc_, also _Dit-an_), is a forest product commonly
+found in lengths of, say, 100 feet, with a maximum diameter of
+half-an-inch. It is of enormous strength and pliancy. Its uses are
+innumerable. When split longitudinally it takes the place of rope
+for lashing anything together; indeed, it is just as useful in the
+regions of its native habitat as cordage is in Europe. It serves for
+furniture and bedstead-making, and it is a substitute for nails and
+bolts. Hemp-bales, sugar-bags, parcels of all kinds are tied up with
+it, and hats are made of it. The ring through a buffalo's nose is
+made of whole rattan, to which is often attached a split strip for
+a guiding-rein. Every joint in a native's hut, his canoe, his fence,
+his cart, woodwork of any kind--indeed, everything to be made fast,
+from a bundle of sticks to a broken-down carriage, is lashed together
+with this split material, which must, when so employed, be bent with
+the shiny skin outside, otherwise it will infallibly snap. The demand
+for this article is very large.
+
+_Bush-rope_ (_Calamus maximus_) (Tagalog, _Palasan_) is also a forest
+product, growing to lengths of about 100 feet, with a maximum diameter
+of one inch and a quarter. It is immensely strong. It is used for raft
+cables for crossing rivers, stays for bamboo suspension-bridges, and a
+few other purposes. It is sometimes found with knots as far apart as 30
+feet. It is a species quite distinct from the _Walking-stick Palasan_
+(_Calamus gracilis_) (Tagalog, _Tabola_) the appreciated feature of
+which is the proximity of the knots. I have before me a specimen 34
+inches long with 26 knots.
+
+_Gum Mastic_ (_Almaciga_) is an article of minor importance in the
+Philippine exports, the supply being very limited. It is said that
+large quantities exist; but as it is only procurable in almost
+inaccessible mountainous and uncivilized districts, first-hand
+collectors in the provinces, principally Chinese, have to depend
+upon the services and goodwill of unsubdued tribes. It is chiefly
+obtained by barter, and is not a trade which can be worked up
+systematically. The exports of this product fluctuate considerably
+in consequence. For figures of _Gum Mastic_ shipments, _vide_ Chap,
+xxxi., "Trade Statistics."
+
+_Gutta-percha_ was formerly a more important article of trade in these
+Islands until the Chinese drove it out of the market by adulteration. A
+little is shipped from Zamboanga.
+
+_Wax_ (Tagalog, _patquit_) and cinnamon are to be found in much the
+same way as gum mastic. There is a large consumption of wax in the
+Islands for candles used at the numerous religious feasts. The cinnamon
+is very inferior in quality. It is abundant in Mindanao Island, but,
+like gum mastic, it can only be procured in small quantities, depending
+on the caprice or necessities of the mountain-tribes. Going along the
+seashore in Zamboanga Province, on one occasion, I met a mountaineer
+carrying a bundle of cinnamon to Zamboanga Port--many miles distant--to
+sell the bark to the Chinese at [Peso}8 per picul. I bought his load,
+the half of which I sent to Spain, requesting a friend there to
+satisfy my curiosity by procuring a quotation for the sample in the
+Barcelona market. He reported that the quality was so low that only
+a nominal price could be quoted, and that it stood nowhere compared
+with the carefully cultivated Ceylon product.
+
+_Edible Bird's Nest_ (_Collocalia troglodytes--Coll. nodifica
+esculenta_ Bonap.) is an article of trade with the Chinese, who readily
+purchase it at high prices. It is made by a kind of sea-swallow, and
+in appearance resembles vermicelli, variegated with blood-coloured
+spots. The nests are found in high cliffs by the sea, and the natives
+engaged in their collection reach them by climbing up bush-rope
+or bamboos with the branch-knots left on to support themselves with
+their toes. It is a very dangerous occupation, as the nests are always
+built high in almost inaccessible places. The Filipino risks his life
+in collecting them, whilst the Chinaman does the safe and profitable
+business of trading in the article. In the Philippines the collection
+begins in December, and the birds deprived of their nests have then
+to build a second nest for laying their eggs. These second nests are
+gathered about the end of January, and so on up to about the fourth
+collection. Each successive nest decreases in commercial value, and
+the last one is hardly worth the risk of taking. Even though there
+might be venturesome collectors who would dislodge the last nests,
+the wet season fortunately sets in and prevents their being reached,
+hence the bird is at length able to continue propagation. Bird's-nest
+soup is a delicacy in great demand in China.
+
+These nests are chiefly found in the Calamities group of islands,
+particularly in Busuanga Island. The Sulu Archipelago and Palauan
+Island also furnish a small quantity of edible birds'-nests.
+
+_Balate_, or Trepang, is a species of sea-slug, for which the natives
+find a ready sale to the Chinese at good prices. The fish is preserved
+by being gutted, cooked, and sun-dried, and has a shrimp taste. It
+is found in greatest quantities off the Calamianes and Palauan Islands.
+
+_Sapan-wood_ (_Caesalpina sappan_) (Tagalog, _Sibucao_, or _Sapang_),
+of an inferior quality compared with the Pernambuco wood, is a
+Philippine product found in most of the large islands. It is a short,
+unattractive tree, with epigeous branches spreading out in a straggling
+manner. The leaves are small and sparse. The wood is hard, heavy,
+crooked, and full of knots. It sinks in water, and is susceptible
+of a fine polish. It is whitish when fresh cut, but assumes a deep
+red colour on exposure to the air. The only valuable portion is the
+heart of the branch, from which is taken a dye known in the trade as
+"false crimson," to distinguish it from the more permanent cochineal
+dye. The whole of the colouring-matter can be extracted with boiling
+water. It is usually shipped from Manila and Yloilo as dunnage,
+a small quantity coming also from Cebu. For figures of _Sapan-wood_
+shipments, _vide_ Chap, xxxi., "Trade Statistics."
+
+The _Saps_ of certain Philippine trees serve to give a polished
+coating to the smoothed surface of other woods. The kind which I
+have experimented with most successfully is that of the _Ipil_ tree
+(_Eperna decandria_). This gives a glazed covering very similar to
+Japan-ware varnish. It takes better to the wood in a cold climate than
+in the tropics. I have tried it both in the Philippines and in Europe.
+
+_Dye Saps_ are also numerous--for instance, that of the species
+_Marsedenia_, called in Bicol dialect _Payanguit_ and _Aringuit_,
+with which hemp can be dyed blue; the juice of the skin of a root,
+known in Bicol as _Morinda_, is used for dyeing hemp red; the sap
+of the _Talisay_ tree (_Terminalia mauritiana_) gives a black dye,
+and that of the _Calumpit_ tree (_Terminalia edulis_) is a good
+straw-coloured dye.
+
+_Hardwoods_.--These Islands are remarkably rich in valuable
+timber-trees. For some of the details which I will give of the
+properties and applicability of the varieties in general demand,
+I am indebted to Mr. H. G. Brown (of H. G. Brown & Co. Limited,
+[148] steam saw-mill proprietors in Tayabas Province), admitted to
+be the most experienced person in this branch of Philippine trade.
+
+_Aranga_ (_Homalium_) gives logs up to 75 feet long by 24 inches
+square. It is specially used for sea piling and all kinds of marine
+work which is subject to the attacks of sea-worm (_Teredo navalis_).
+
+_Acle_ (_Mimosa acle)_ gives logs up to 32 feet by 28 inches square. It
+is strong, tenacious, and durable, whilst it has the speciality
+of being difficult to burn, and is much used in house-building; it
+polishes well, and is much prized by the natives. It is supposed to
+be identical with the _Payengadu_ of Burmah.
+
+_Anagap_ (_Pithecolobium montanum_, Benth.) gives logs up to 18 feet
+long by 16 inches square. It is sometimes used for house furniture
+and fittings and for other purposes where a light durable wood is
+wanted and is not exposed to sun and rain.
+
+_Apiton_ (_Dipterocarpus griffithi_, Miq.) gives logs up to 70 feet
+long by 24 inches square. It contains a gum of which incense is made,
+is light when seasoned, works well, and will serve for furniture and
+general joiner's purposes.
+
+_Antipolo_ (_Artocarpus incisa_) is much esteemed for vessels' outside
+planking, keels, etc. It is light, very strong, resists sea-worm
+(_Teredo navalis_) entirely, and effects of climate. It does not warp
+when once seasoned, and is a most valuable wood.
+
+_Anobing_ (_Artocarpus ovata)_ is said to resist damp as well as
+_Molave_ does, but it is not appreciated as a good hardwood. It is
+plentiful, especially in the district of Laguna de Bay.
+
+_Betis_ (_Azaola--Payena betis?_) gives logs up to 65 feet long by
+20 inches square. It is proof against sea-worm, is used for salt or
+fresh water piling, piers, wharves, etc.; also for keels and many other
+parts of ship-building, and where a first-class wood is indispensably
+necessary. It is somewhat scarce.
+
+_Batitinan_ (_Lagerstroemia batitinan_) gives logs up to 40 feet long
+by 18 inches square. Is very strong, tough, and elastic; generally
+used for ships' outside planking above water. It stands the climate
+well when properly seasoned; is a wood of the first quality, and can
+be used for any purpose except those involving interment in the ground
+or exposure to ravages of sea-worm. This wood is very much stronger
+than Teak, and could be used to advantage in its place for almost
+all purposes. It makes a good substitute for Black Walnut in furniture.
+
+_Banaba_ (_Munchaustia speciosa--Lagerstremis speciosa?_)--a strong
+and useful wood much used in house- and ship-building; it is thoroughly
+reliable when seasoned, otherwise it shrinks and warps considerably.
+
+_Bansalague_ (_Mimusops elengi_, Linn.) gives logs up to 45 feet long
+by 18 inches square. It seems to be known in Europe as bullet-tree
+wood. It can be driven like a bolt, and from this fact and its
+durability it is frequently used for treenails in ship-building
+in Manila, etc. It is also used for axe and other tool-handles,
+belaying-pins, etc., and on account of its compact, close grain it
+is admirably adapted for turning purposes; it lasts well in the ground.
+
+_Bancal_ (_Nauclea gluberrima)_ gives logs up to 24 feet long by
+16 inches square. This wood is of a yellow colour and very easy to
+work. It is used for general joiner's work in house-building, etc.
+
+_Cedar_ (_Cedrela odorata_), of the same natural order as Mahogany
+(Linn.), gives logs up to 40 feet long by 35 inches square, and
+is used principally for cigar-boxes. In the Colony it is known as
+_Calantas_. It makes very handsome inside house-fittings.
+
+_Camagon_ or _Mabolo_ (a variety of _Diospyros philoshantera_) is
+procured in roughly rounded logs of 9 feet and upwards in length,
+by up to 12 inches in diameter. It is a close-grained, brittle wood,
+and takes a good polish; its colour is black with yellow streaks,
+and it is used for furniture-making. It might be termed the Philippine
+Coromandel wood, and is sometimes referred to as "false ebony."
+
+_Dungon_ (a variety of _Herculia ambiformis--Sterculia cymbiformis_,
+Blanco) grows up to 50 feet long, giving logs up to 20 inches
+square. It is sometimes called _Ironwood_, is very hard and durable,
+and specially strong in resisting great transverse pressure,
+or carrying such weight as a heavy roof. It is used for keels on
+account of its great strength--it does not resist the sea-worm; it is
+applied to all purposes in Manila where more than ordinary strength
+is required when _Molave_ cannot be procured in sufficiently great
+lengths and _Ipil_ is unattainable.
+
+_Dinglas_ (_Decandria--Bucida comintana_) gives logs up to 30 feet
+by 16 inches square--occasionally even larger sizes. This will also
+serve as a substitute for Black Walnut in furniture; it is very strong,
+hard, and durable.
+
+_Ebony_ (_Diospyros nigra_) is also found in very limited quantities.
+
+_Guijo_ (_Dipterocarpus guijo_) gives logs up to 75 feet long by 24
+inches square--is very strong, tough and elastic. In Manila this wood
+is invariably used for carriage wheels and shafts. In Hong-Kong it
+is used, amongst other purposes, for wharf-decks or flooring.
+
+_Ipil_ (_Eperna decandria_) gives logs up to 50 feet long by 26 inches
+square. It has all the good qualities of _Molave_, except resistance to
+sea-worm (in which respect it is the same as Teak), and may be as much
+relied on for duration under ground; for sleepers it equals _Molave_.
+
+_Lanete_ (_Anaser laneti_) gives logs up to 25 feet long by 18 inches
+square. It is useful for sculpture, musical instruments, decoration,
+turning, and cabinet purposes.
+
+_Lauan_ (_Dipterocarpus thurifera_) is obtained in sizes the same as
+_Guijo_. It is a light, useful wood, and easily worked. It is said
+that the outside planks of the old Philippine-Mexican galleons were
+of this wood because it did not split with shot.
+
+_Molave_ (_Vitex geniculata_) (Tagalog, _Molauin_), gives logs up to 35
+feet long by 24 inches square. It resists sea-worm (_Teredo navalis_),
+white ants (_Termes_), and action of climate, and consequently
+is specially valuable for work on the surface of or under ground,
+and generally for all purposes where an extra strong and durable
+wood is required. Often growing crooked, it is commonly used (where
+produced and in adjacent countries) for frames of vessels. Owing to
+its imperviousness to ligniperdous insects and climate, it cannot
+possibly be surpassed for such purposes as railway-sleepers. This wood
+is practically everlasting, and is deservedly called by the natives,
+"Queen of the Woods." It pays better to sell _Molave_ in baulks or
+logs, rather than sawn to specification, because this tree has the
+great defect of being subject to heart-cup.
+
+Mr. Thomas Laslett, in his work on timber, [149] says, in reference to
+_Molave_, "It can be recommended to notice as being fit to supplement
+any of the hardwoods in present use for constructive purposes." From
+the same work I have extracted the following record of experiments
+made by Mr. Laslett with this wood:--
+
+
+    TENSILE EXPERIMENTS.--AVERAGE OF FIVE SPECIMENS
+
+    Dimensions of each piece.           2'' x 2'' x 30''
+    Specific gravity.                               1021.6
+    Weight the piece broke with.                  31,248    lbs.
+    Direct cohesion one square inch.               7,812
+
+
+    TRANSVERSE EXPERIMENTS.--AVERAGE OF THREE SPECIMENS
+
+    _Deflections_.
+    Total weight required to break each piece.         1.25 lbs.
+    Specific gravity.                                   .166
+    Weight reduced to specific gravity 1,000.          5.166
+    Weight required to break one square inch.      1,243.3  lbs.
+
+    With the apparatus weighing 390 lbs.            1013
+    After the weight was removed                    1231
+    At the crisis of breaking.                       310.83
+
+    N.B.--It breaks on test with a scarf-like fracture.
+
+
+_Mangachapuy_ (_Dipterocarpus mangachapuy--Vatica apteranthera_) gives
+logs up to 55 feet long by 20 inches square. It is very elastic and
+withstands the climate, when seasoned, as well as Teak. It is used
+in Manila for masts and decks of vessels and for all work exposed to
+sun and rain. It is much esteemed and in great demand by those who
+know its good qualities.
+
+_Macasin_ can be used for interior house work and floors. It is
+somewhat inferior to _Banaba_, but supplies its place when _Banaba_
+is scarce. It can be got in greater length and square than _Banaba_.
+
+_Malatapay_ (a variety of _Diospyros philoshantera_), veined black
+and red. It resembles _Camagon_.
+
+_Mancono_ is a very hard wood found in Mindanao Island; it is classed
+as a species of lignum-vitae.
+
+_Narra_ (_Pterocarpus palidus santalinus_) gives logs up to 35 feet
+long by 26 inches square. It is the Mahogany of the Philippines,
+inasmuch as it is always employed in Manila in the manufacture of
+furniture, for notwithstanding its somewhat open grain, it polishes
+well, and is prettily marked. There is a variety of shades in different
+logs varying from straw colour to blood-red, the former being more
+common; all are, however, equally esteemed. It is a first-rate wood
+for general purposes. In the London market it is classed with the
+_Padouk_ of Burmah.
+
+_Palo Maria de Playa_ (_P. Polyandria--Calophyllum inophyllum_)
+(Tagalog, _Dangcalan_), is greatly appreciated for crooks and curves,
+but as a rule cannot be found of suitable dimensions for large
+vessels. It is better than _Molave_ for this purpose, for, due to
+the absence of acrid juices, iron bolts do not corrode in it. It is
+exceedingly tough and not so heavy as _Molave_.
+
+_Supa_ (_Sindora wallichii_, Benth.) gives logs up to 40 feet long
+by 28 inches square. It produces an oil, and is a strong wood for
+general purposes, polishes well and can be used advantageously for
+house decorations and furniture.
+
+_Tindalo_ (_Eperna rhomboidea_) is about the same as _Acle_ in
+its principal features, but not notable for resisting fire. It is
+useful for general purposes, and in particular for decorations and
+furniture. It is somewhat brittle, and takes a high polish.
+
+_Yacal_ (_Dipterocarpus plagatus_) gives logs up to 50 feet long by
+22 inches square. It is proof against white ants, has great strength
+and tenacity, and is much valued in Manila for house-building, etc.
+
+Natives employed in the felling of timber often become very expert
+in the selection and appreciation of the standing trunks.
+
+The approximate order of resistance of the best woods, estimated
+by their practical employment and not by theoretical comparative
+experiments, would be as follows, viz.:--
+
+
+    HARDWOOD STRAINS
+
+    Tensile Strain.                  Transverse Strain.
+
+    1 Dungon.        8 Acle.         1 Molave.       8 Banaba.
+    2 Yacal.         9 Narra.        2 Camagon.      9 Yacal.
+    3 Ipil.         10 Tindalo.      3 Ipil.        10 Mangachapuy.
+    4 Mangachapuy.  11 Molave.       4 Acle.        11 Lauan.
+    5 Guijo.        12 Lauan.        5 Dungon.      12 Guijo.
+    6 Banaba.       13 Cedar.        6 Tindalo.     13 Cedar.
+    7 Camagon.      14 Lanete.       7 Narra.       14 Lanete.
+
+
+The hardwoods of the Philippines, suitable for building and
+trade requirements as described above, are those in general use
+only. Altogether about fifty kinds exist, but whilst some are
+scarce, others do not yield squared logs of sufficient sizes to be
+of marketable value. Amongst these are the _Quercus concentrica_
+(Tagalog, _Alayan_), a sort of oak; the _Gimbernatia calamansanay_
+(Tagalog, _Calamansanay_); the _Cyrtocarpa quinquestyla_ (Tagalog,
+_Amaguis_), and others.
+
+To carry on successfully a timber trade in this Colony, with ability
+to fulfil contracts, it is necessary to employ large capital. Firstly,
+to ensure supplies by the cutters, the trader must advance them sums
+amounting in the total to thousands of pesos, a large percentage of
+which he can only nominally recover by placing them against future
+profits; secondly, he must own several sailing-ships, built on a
+model suited to this class of business. Several Europeans have lost
+the little money they had by having to freight unsuitable craft for
+transport to the place of delivery, and by only advancing to the
+native fellers just when they wanted logs brought down to the beach,
+instead of keeping them constantly under advance. With sufficient
+capital, however, a handsome profit is to be realized in this line
+of business, if it is not killed by too much new legislation.
+
+So far Philippine woods have not met in London with the appreciation
+due to their excellent qualities, possibly because they are not
+sufficiently well known. In China, however, they are in great demand,
+in spite of the competition from Borneo (Kudat and Sandakan) and
+Australian shippers. Since the American occupation, large shipments
+of Oregon Pine have been made to the Colony: how this wood will stand
+the climate is not yet ascertainable.
+
+
+
+_Fruits_.--There are few really choice, luscious fruits in the
+Philippines which can compare with the finest European species. Nothing
+in this Colony can equal our grape, peach, cherry, or strawberry.
+
+The _Mango_ (_Manguifera indica--Pentandrie_, Linn.) ranks first in
+these Islands. It is oblong--oval-shaped--flattened slightly on both
+sides, about five inches long, and of a yellow colour when ripe. It
+is very delicious, succulent, and has a large stone in the centre
+from which fibres run at angles. To cut it, the knife must be pressed
+down from the thick end, otherwise it will come in contact with the
+fibres. Philippine mangoes are far superior to any others grown in the
+East. This fruit has a slight flavour of turpentine, and, as to smell,
+Manuel Blanco [150] doubts whether it more resembles bugs, onions,
+or tar. The trees are very large and majestic--the leaves are dark
+green, and the whole appearance strikingly noble. Great care is needed
+to rear the fruit. The natives cut notches in the trunk, and from the
+time the tree begins to flower until the fruit is half matured, they
+light fires on the ground under its branches, as the smoke is said to
+hasten the development. The tree begins to bear fruit at ten years old.
+
+The first mangoes of the season are forced, and even picked before
+they are ripe, so that they may more quickly turn yellow. They are
+brought to the Manila market in February, and fetch as much as 20
+cents each. The natural ripening time is from the end of March. In
+the height of the season they can be bought for two dollars per
+hundred. Epicures eat as many as ten to a dozen a day, as this
+fruit is considered harmless to healthy persons. Mango jelly is also
+appreciated by Europeans as well as natives. Luzon and Cebu Islands
+appear to produce more mangoes than the rest of the Archipelago. From
+my eight mango-trees in Morong district I got annually two pickings,
+and one year three pickings from two trees.
+
+There are other species of mango-tree of the genus _Terebinthaceae_,
+viz.:--_Manguifera anisodora, M. altissima, M. rostrata_ and
+_M. sinnata_.
+
+The _Banana_ or _Plantain_ (_Musa paradisiaca_) is plentiful
+all over the Islands at all seasons. It grows wild, and is also
+largely cultivated. It is the fruit of an herbaceous endogenous
+plant of the natural order _Musaceae_. It is said that the specific
+name _paradisiaca_ is derived, either from a supposition that the
+plantain was the forbidden fruit of Eden [151], or from an Arabic
+legend that Adam and Eve made their first aprons of the leaves of
+this tree, which grow to a length of five to six feet, with a width
+of 12 to 14 inches. Some 10 to 12 distinct varieties of bananas are
+commonly to be seen, whilst it is asserted that there are over 50
+sorts differing slightly from each other. The Tagalog generic name
+for this tree and fruit is _Saguing_. The species known in Tagalog
+dialect as _Lacatan_ and _Bongulan_, of a golden or orange tinge
+when the skin is removed and possessing a slight pineapple flavour,
+are the choicest. The _Tondoc_ is also a very fine class. The stem
+of the banana-plantain is cut down after fruiting, and the tree
+is propagated by suckers. [152] Renewal of the tree from the seed
+is only necessary every 12 to 18 years. The fruit is borne in long
+clusters on strong stalks which bend over towards the earth. As the
+suckers do not all rise simultaneously, the stages of growth of the
+young fruit-bearing trees vary, so that there is a constant supply
+all the year round. Moreover, it is customary to cut down, and hang
+up in the house, the stalk sustaining the fruit before it is ripe,
+so that each fruit can be eaten as it matures. The glossy leaves
+of the banana-plantain are exceedingly beautiful. They are used for
+polishing hardwood floors; they serve as a substitute for plates at
+the _tianguis_ and for wrapping-paper at the small native and Chinese
+grocers' shops. In rural places if a _carromata_ driver cannot find
+a leather horse-collar, he improvises one of banana-leaf.
+
+The _Papaw_ tree (_Carica. papaya_) flourishes wild--a prolific
+growth--attains a height of 20 to 25 feet, and is very picturesque. The
+leaves emerge in a cluster from the top of the stem, and are about
+20 to 30 inches long. They can be used as a substitute for soap for
+washing linen. The foliage has the peculiar property of making meat
+or poultry tender if hung up in the branches. The fruit is of a rich
+olive green, and remains so almost to maturity, when it quickly turns
+yellow. Both in shape and flavour it is something like a melon, and,
+although more insipid, it is refreshing in this climate. Containing a
+quantity of pepsine, it is often recommended by doctors as a dessert
+for persons with weak digestive organs.
+
+Besides these fruits, there are _Pomelo_ oranges, about four times
+the size of the largest European orange; ordinary-sized _Oranges_
+of three sorts; _Citron; Jack fruit_ (_Anona muricata,_ Linn., or
+more probably _Artocarpus integrifolia_) (Tagalog, _Nangca); Custard
+Apples (Anona squamosa,_ Linn.) (Tagalog, _Atis_); _Bread-fruit_
+(_Artocarpus camansi)_ (Tagalog, _Dalangian_ or _Dalamian_); _Lomboy_
+(_Calyptrantes jambolana--Icosandrie_, Linn.), which looks like a
+damson; _Santol_ (_Sandoricum ternatum--Decandrie_, Linn.), delicious
+prepared in syrup; _Condol_, (_Monoecia syngenesia--Cucurbita
+pepo aspera_), a kind of white pumpkin for preserving; _Limes_
+(Tagalog, _Limonsuangi_); small green _Limes_ (Tagalog, _Calamansi_)
+for preserving; another kind called _Lucban_; a diminutive _Mango_
+(_Manguifera altissima_) (Tagalog, _Paho_), which is brined and then
+put in vinegar; _Pomegranates_ (_Punica granatum_); a very inferior
+species of wild _Strawberry_; _Chico_ (_Achras sapota--Hexandrie_,
+Linn.), the _Chico sapoti_ of Mexico, extremely sweet, the size and
+colour of a small potato; _Lanson_ (_Lansium domesticum_), a curious
+kind of fruit of an agreeable sweet and acid flavour combined. The
+pericarp is impregnated with a white viscous fluid, which adheres
+very tenaciously to the fingers. When the inner membrane is removed
+the edible portion is exhibited in three divisions, each of which
+envelops a very bitter stone. It is abundant in La Laguna.
+
+_Guavas_ (_Psidium pyriferum guyava_, Linn.) (Tagalog, _Bayabas_) of
+very fine quality, from which jelly is made, are found wild in great
+abundance. They are so plentiful on waste lands that I have never
+seen them cultivated. The peel is an excellent astringent. _Lemons_
+[153] of two kinds are grown--sometimes as many as a dozen of the small
+species, about the size of a walnut, may be seen hanging at one time
+on a tree only 18 inches high; a well-known small species is called
+_Dayap_ in Tagalog. _Mangosteens_, the delicate fruit of the Straits
+Settlements, are found in the islands of Mindanao and Sulu. In Mindanao
+Island, on the neck of land forming the western extremity, the _Durien_
+thrives. It is about as large as a pineapple, white inside, and when
+ripe it opens out in three or four places. It is very delicious eating,
+but has a fetid smell. The seeds, as large as beans, are good to eat
+when roasted. The tree bears fruit about every 20 years.
+
+_Pineapples_ (_Bromelia ananas_, Linn.) are abundant in the Southern
+Islands, where they are cultivated exclusively for the sake of the
+leaves, the delicate fibres of which are used to manufacture the fine,
+costly texture known as _Pina_ (q.v.). This fruit, which is not so
+fine as the Singapore and Cuban species, is in little demand in the
+Philippines, as it is justly considered dangerous to eat much of it.
+
+_Grape_ acclimatization has been attempted in the Philippines, but
+with very mediocre results. Cebu seems to be the island most suitable
+for vine culture, but the specimens of fruit produced can bear no
+comparison with the European. In Naga (Cebu Is.) I have eaten green
+_Figs_ grown in the orchard of a friend's house.
+
+_Tamarinds_ (_Tamarindus indica_, Linn.) (Tagalog, _Sampaloc_)
+are never planted for the sake of the fruit. The tree grows wild,
+and the fruit resembles a bean. Picked whilst green, it is used by
+the natives to impart a flavour to certain fish sauces. When allowed
+to ripen fully, the fruit-pod takes a light-brown colour--is brittle,
+and cracks all over under a slight pressure of the fingers. The whole
+of the ripe fruit can then be drawn out by pulling the bean-stalk. The
+ripe tamarind appears to be little appreciated by any one, and it is
+extremely seldom seen, even in the form of a preserve, in a native
+dwelling. Containing, as it does, a large quantity of tannin, it is
+sometimes used by the Manila apothecaries, and I once heard that a
+small parcel was being collected for shipment to Italy.
+
+The _Mabolo_ (_Diospyros discolor_) (Tagalog, _Mabolo_, also _Talang_)
+is a fruit of great external beauty and exquisite aroma. It is
+about the size of a large peach, the pubescent skin being of a fine
+red colour, but it is not very good eating. _Chillies_ (_Capsicum
+minimum_, Blanco), _Ginger_ (_Zingiber officinale_, Linn.), _Capsicums_
+(_Capsicum tetragonum_, Mill), _Capers_ (_Capparris mariana_) and
+_Vanilla_ are found in a wild state. _Sago_ is produced in small
+quantities in Mindoro Island, where the sago-plant flourishes. The
+pith is cut out, washed, sun-dried, and then pounded. The demand for
+this nutritious article is very limited. In 1904 I found the _Cassava_
+plant growing near the south coast of Mindanao Island.
+
+There are many other kinds of orchard and wild fruits of comparatively
+inferior quality, chiefly used by the natives to make preserves. There
+is also a large variety of tuberose and other vegetable products,
+never eaten by Europeans, such as the favourite _Sincamas_
+(_Decandria--Pachyrhizus angulatus_), resembling a small turnip. The
+natives have a taste for many fruits plucked half ripe.
+
+The _Flowers_ of these Islands are too numerous for their description
+to come within the scope of this work. To the reader who seeks
+an exhaustive treatise on the Botany of the Philippines, I would
+recommend Manuel Blanco's "Flora de Filipinas," [154] from which I
+have taken the following brief notes.
+
+
+                            _Philippine Flowers_
+                        _According to Manuel Blanco_
+
+                Orders.   Genera.   Species.  Varieties.  Sub-varieties.
+
+Dicotyledones     126       842     2,571        349         5
+Monocotyledones    26       325     1,425        270        25
+Acotyledones        3        56       483         11        --
+
+                  155     1,223     4,479        630        30
+
+
+Some of the most curious and beautiful botanical specimens, not
+already described in the preceding pages, are the following, viz.:--
+
+_Arum (?) divaricatum_, Linn. (Tagalog, _Gabigabihan_).--A delicate
+bulb. Common in Pasig and Manila.
+
+_Amaryllis atamasco_, Blanco (Tagalog, _Bacong_).--A bulb. Grows to
+3 feet. Beautiful large red flower. Blooms in February.
+
+_Agave americana_ (Tagalog, _Magui_).--It is one of a large variety
+of Aloes. (Mexican origin?)
+
+_Asplendium nidus._--The beautiful Nest-fern.
+
+_Bignonia quadripinnata_, Blanco (Tagalog, _Pinca-Pincahan_).--A
+curious flower.
+
+_Clerodendron longiflorum_, D.C.--An extremely beautiful and delicate
+white flower.
+
+_Cactus pitajaya_, Blanco (Tagalog, _Flor de Caliz_).--Gives a grand,
+showy flower.
+
+_Caryota urens_, Linn (Tagalog, _Taquipan_).--A beautiful palm. Grows
+to 22 feet. The fruit, when tender, is masticated like the _Areca
+catechu_.
+
+_Caryota onusta_, Blanco (Tagalog, _Cauong_).--A fine palm. Gives a
+sweet juice which turns into good vinegar. The trunk gives a Sago,
+called by the natives _Yoro_. The ripe seeds are a deadly poison. An
+infusion of the seeds in water is so caustic that it has been used to
+throw on to Moro pirates and thieves; wherever it touches the body
+it burns so terribly that none can suffer it or cure it. Sometimes
+it is thrown into the rivers to stupefy the fish, which then float
+and can be caught with the hand. When _unripe_ the seeds are made
+into a preserve. The seeds have also medicinal properties.
+
+_Cryptogamia_.--Nine families of very luxuriant ferns.
+
+_Cryptogamia_.--_Boletus sanguineus_ (Tagalog, _Culapo_).--A curious
+blood-red Fungus.
+
+_Dillenia Reifferscheidia_ (Tagalog, _Catmon_).--A very singular,
+showy flower.
+
+_Exocarpus ceramica_, D.C.--A curious Cactus.
+
+_Euphorbia tirucalli_, Linn.--A curious Cactus.
+
+_Erythrina carnea_, Blanco (Tagalog, _Dapdap_).--Grows to 20
+feet. Gives a lovely red flower.
+
+_Hibiscus syriacus_, Linn. (Several varieties of Hibiscus.)
+
+_Hibiscus abelmoschus_, Linn.
+
+_Mimosa pudica_, Linn.--_Mimosa asperata_, Blanco (Tagalog,
+_Mahihin_).--The "Sensitive Plant," so called because at the least
+contact with anything it closes up all the little petals forming
+the leaf. It is one of the most curious plants in the Islands. It
+has a small red flower. Grows only a few inches from the ground,
+among the grass.
+
+_Mimosa tenuifolia_, Blanco.--The "Sensitive Tree," which has the
+same property of closing the leaf on contact.
+
+_Mimosa scutifera_, Blanco.--A tree with seed-pods hanging down
+like curls.
+
+_Momordica sphoeroidea_, Blanco (Tagalog, _Buyoc-buyoc_).--Climbs high
+trees. The fruit is eaten when cooked. Soap is obtained from the roots.
+
+_Nelumbium speciosum_, Wild (Tagalog, _Baino_; Igorrote, _Sucao_).--An
+aquatic plant found in the Lake of Bay and other places. Beautiful
+pink or red flower. The natives eat the roots and seeds.
+
+_Passiflora laurifolia_, Linn.--A curious Passion-flower, quite
+different to the European species.
+
+_Pancratium zeylanicum_ (Tagalog, _Catongal_).--A bulb giving a very
+peculiar flower.
+
+_Pinus toeda_.--The only kind of Pine known here. To be found in the
+mountains of Mancayan (Lepanto) and Benguet.
+
+_Spathodea luzonica_, Blanco (Tagalog, _Tue_).--Grows to 15 feet. Gives
+a gorgeous white flower. Common on the sea-shores. The wood is used
+for making guitars and clogs.
+
+
+
+                     _Philippine Orchids_
+                    _The principal Orders_
+
+        ** Natural crosses or hybrids--rare and valuable.
+
+        Genera.                 Species.
+        Aerides                 Augustiarium
+                                Lawrenciae
+                                Marginatum
+                                Quinquevulnerum
+                                Roebelinii
+                                Sanderianum
+        Bulbophyllum            Dearei
+        Cymbidium               Pendulum
+                                Pendulum atro purpureum
+        Cypripedium             Laevigatum
+                                Boxallii
+                                Stonei
+                                Argus
+        Dendrobium              Anosmum
+                                Aurem philippinense
+                                Crumenatum
+                                Erythroxanthum
+                                Dearei
+                                Macrophyllum
+                                Superbum
+                                Superbum giganteum
+                                Platycanlon
+                                Taurinum
+        Gramatophyllum          Measuresianum
+                                Multiflorum
+                                Multiflorum tigrinum
+                                Speciosum
+        Phalaenopsis             Amabalis
+                              **Casta
+                              **Intermedia
+                              **Intermedia brymeriana
+                              **Intermedia portei
+                              **Intermedia lencorrhoda
+                                Luddemaniana ochracia
+                                Schilleriana
+                                Rosea
+                                Sanderiana
+                                Sanderiana punctata
+                                Stuartiana
+                                Stuartiana bella
+                                Stuartiana nobilis
+                                Stuartiana punctatissima
+                                Schilleriana vestalis
+                                Veitchiana
+                                Veitchiana brachyodon
+        Platyclinis or          Cobbiana
+        Dendrochilum            Filiformis
+                                Glumacea
+                                Uncata
+        Renanthera              Storiei
+        Saccolabeum             Violaccum
+                                Blumei
+                                Blumei majus
+        Sarcochilus             Unguiculatus
+        Vanda                   Sanderiana
+                                Sanderiana albata
+                                Sanderiana labello viridi
+                                Batemanii
+                                Lamellata boxallii
+
+
+The generic name for Orchid in Tagalog is _Dapo_.
+
+
+_Some interesting facts relating to Philippine Botany_
+
+Sweet-smelling _Flowers_ are very rare. Of the few, the most popular
+in Manila is the _Sampaguita_ (probably a corruption of the Spanish
+name _Santa Paquita_), which is sold made up in necklet form on cotton.
+
+Looking on to the Pasig River at Manila in the early morning,
+one often sees large masses of floating verdure of a small-cabbage
+appearance. This aquatic plant is the _Pistia stratiotes_, Linn.,
+(Tagalog, _Quiapo_).
+
+The firewood in common use as fuel, in great demand, and known as
+_Raja de Tangal_, is the _Rhizophora longissima_. It is also useful
+for fencing, roof-framing, etc. Another well-known firewood is the
+_Rhizophora gynnorhiza_ (Tagalog, _Bacauan_). _Langary_ is also used
+as firewood of an inferior quality. They are swamp-trees.
+
+The species _Pteclobyum_ gives the "Locust-bean," as sold at
+every little sweetmeat shop in London. This tree (when raised
+on or transplanted to highlands) may be called the friend of the
+coffee-plant, for it opens its leaves in the sunshine to shade it and
+closes them when rain is about to fall, so that the coffee-plant may
+be refreshed by the water. Also, at night, it closes its leaves to
+give the coffee-plant the benefit of the dew. Another peculiar feature
+is that the branches lopped off for household fuel can, when barked,
+be used at once, without needing to be dried or seasoned. Its natural
+habitat is the mangrove swamp, and the trunk and root give market fuel.
+
+_Colot-colotan_, or _Manquit_, is the Tagalog name given to the
+_Chrysopogon aciculatus_, Trin. (Spanish, _Amor seco_)--the little
+particles like pointed grass-seeds which stick to one's trousers or
+skirt when crossing an uncultivated field and can only be removed by
+picking them out one by one.
+
+The Tagalog affix _aso_, to the name of a botanical specimen,
+means _pseudo_, i.e. not the genuine species; v.g., _Sincamas_
+is the _Decandria--Pachyrhizus angulatus_ (_vide_ p. 321), whereas
+_Sincamas-aso_ is the _D.--Pachyrhizus montanus_.
+
+Many places take their names from trees and plants, v.g.:--
+
+
+    Antipolo        (Rizal)         a tree.
+    Bauang          (Batangas)      garlic.
+    Bulacan         (Bulacan)       a tree.
+    Capas           (Pangasinan)    the cotton-tree (Igorrote
+                                    dialect).
+    Camagon Is.                     a tree.
+    Cabuyao         (Laguna)        a tree.
+    Calumpit        (Bulacan)       a tree.
+    Culasi          (Antique)       a tree.
+    Iba             (Zambales)      a plant.
+    Lucbang         (Tayabas)       a small lime.
+    Lipa            (Batangas)      nettle.
+    Quiapo          (Manila suburb) an aquatic plant.
+    Sampaloc        (Manila suburb) the tamarind-tree.
+    Salomague       (Ilocos)        the tamarind-tree. (Igorrote
+                                    dialect).
+    Tabaco          (Albay)         the tobacco-plant.
+    Taal            (Batangas)      a tree (same as _Ipil_).
+    Talisay         (Batangas)      a tree.
+
+
+_Medicinal Herbs, Roots, Leaves, and Barks_ abound everywhere. Nature
+provides ample remedies for dysenteric, strumatic, scorbutic, and
+many other diseases. An extensive work on the subject was compiled by
+Ignacio de Mercado, the son of a Spanish Creole father and Tagalog
+mother, born in 1648 at Paranaque, seven miles from Manila. He was
+parish priest in Lipa in 1674, and subsequently held several other
+incumbencies up to his death, which took place in Bauang (Batangas)
+on March 29, 1698. His MS. passed from the pharmacy of one religious
+corporation to another to be copied, and for over a century after
+the British occupation of Manila (1762-63) it was supposed to be
+lost. Finally, in 1876, it was discovered by Don Domingo Vidal y Soler,
+who gave it to the Augustine friars for publication, but I am not
+aware that it was ever printed. According to Manuel Blanco, Ignacio
+de Mercado's MS. describes 483 medicinal specimens, and attached
+to the description are 171 coloured sketches of medicinal plants,
+leaves, woods, and barks, and also 35 coloured sketches of plants,
+etc., without any description of their medicinal properties. The only
+one of these remedies which I have had occasion to test on myself
+is _Tagulauay Oil_, extracted from the leaves of the plant called in
+Tagalog _Tangantangan_. It is an excellent styptic.
+
+_Ylang-Ylang_ (_Anona odoratissima_, Blanco; _Cananga odorata_,
+Hook) and _Champaca_ (_Michelia champaca_, Linn.) yield odoriferous
+essential oils, and these fine perfumes are, especially the former,
+exported to foreign countries. The export of _Ylang-Ylang_ in the
+years 1902 and 1903 amounted to 3,949 and 5,942 gallons respectively.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+Mineral Products
+Coal--Gold--Iron--Copper--Sulphur, Etc.
+
+
+Owing to the scarcity of manufacturing industries in this Colony,
+the consumption of _Coal_ is very limited, and up to 1889 it hardly
+exceeded 25,000 tons per annum. In 1892 nearly double that quantity
+found a market. In 1896 the coal imported from Newcastle (New South
+Wales) alone amounted to 65,782 tons; in 1897 to 89,798 tons. A small
+proportion of this is employed in the forges, foundries, and a few
+steam-power factories, most of them situated around Manila, but by
+far the greater demand is for coaling steam-ships. Since the American
+occupation the increase of steam-shipping and the establishment
+of ice-plants all over the Colony have raised the consumption of
+coal. Wood fuel is still so abundant in rural districts that coal
+will probably not be in general request for the steam sugar-mills
+for many years to come.
+
+Australia, Great Britain, and Japan supply coal to this Colony;
+in 1892 Borneo traders sent several cargoes of inferior product to
+Manila; nevertheless, local capital has been expended from time to
+time in endeavours to work up the home deposits.
+
+Philippine coal is more correctly speaking highly carbonized lignite
+of the Tertiary age, and analogous to Japanese coal. Batan Island,
+off the south-east coast of Luzon Island, is said to have the finest
+lignite beds in the Archipelago.
+
+The island of Cebu contains large deposits of lignite. The mines
+of Compostela are estimated to be very rich in quantity and of
+medium quality. The late owner, Isaac Conui, for want of capital,
+was unable to develop them fully. Transport by buffalo-carts from
+the mines to the coast was very deficient and costly, and Conui,
+who was frequently my guest in Manila in 1883, unsuccessfully
+sought to raise capital for constructing a line of railway from the
+collieries to Compostela village (east coast). They were then taken
+up by a Spaniard, with whom the Spanish Government made contracts
+for coaling the gunboats. A tram line was laid down to the pits, but
+there was a great lack of promptitude in deliveries, and I heard of
+ships lying off the coaling-wharf for several hours waiting to _start_
+coaling. The enterprise has by no means given an adequate return for
+the over P100,000 invested in it up to the year 1897. The coal-mine of
+Danao, on the same coast, has not been more prosperous. When I visited
+it in 1896 it had not yielded a cent of nett profit. In 1904 I made
+the acquaintance, in Cebu Island, of a holder of P47,000 interest
+in this enterprise. He told me that he had got no return for his
+money in it. He had spent P1,000 himself to have the mine inspected
+and reported on. He sent the report to his co-partners in Manila,
+and heard no more about it until he went to the capital, where he
+learnt that the Managing Director had resigned, and no one knew who
+was his successor, what had become of his report, or anything definite
+relating to the concern.
+
+Anthracite has been found in Cebu, [155] and satisfactory trials have
+been made with it, mixed with British bituminous coal. Perhaps volcanic
+action may account for the volatile bituminous oils and gases having
+been driven off the original deposits. The first coal-pits were sunk
+in Cebu in the Valle de Masanga, but the poor commercial results led
+to their abandonment about the year 1860. There are also extensive
+unworked coal deposits a few miles from the west coast village of
+Asturias, which I visited in 1896 with a planter friend, Eugenio
+Alonso, who was endeavouring to form a coal-mining syndicate. The
+_Revista Minera_ (a Madrid mining journal) referred in 1886 to the
+coal of the Alpaco Mountain, in the district of Naga (Cebu Is.) as
+being pure, dry, of easy combustion, carrying a strong flame, and
+almost free from sulphur pyrites. Cebu coal is said to be of better
+quality and cleaner than the Labuan and Australian products, but its
+heating powers being less, it is less serviceable for long sea voyages.
+
+The coal-mines in the hills around the Cumansi Valley, about eight
+miles from the Cebu coast (Danao) have been worked for years without
+financial success. The quality is reported excellent. Indeed,
+in several of the larger islands of the Colony there are outcrop
+indications of workable coal, unobtainable for want of transport
+facilities.
+
+In the Province of Albay, the Sugod Collieries were started by a
+company formed in the year 1874. There were some fifteen partners,
+each of whom subscribed a capital of P14,300. One of these partners,
+Ceferino de Aramburu, told me that for a while the result was so
+good that a Manila banking firm offered to take over the concern
+from the shareholders at a premium of 20 per cent. upon the original
+capital. About 4,000 tons of coal were extracted, most of which was
+given away as samples, in the hope of large contracts resulting from
+the trials, although it is said that the consumption was too rapid,
+and that it had to be mixed with Cardiff coal. Seven pits were sunk,
+and the concern lingered on until the year 1881, when its working
+was relinquished. The failure was attributed to the shallowness of
+the pits, which were only 30 metres deep, whilst it was supposed that
+if the excavation had been continued before these pits were flooded,
+shale and limestone strata could have been removed, exposing a still
+more valuable seam, in which case it might have been worth while
+providing pumping-machinery. The cost of extraction and delivery on
+the coast was estimated at 75 cents of a peso per ton, whilst Cardiff
+coal in Manila was worth, at the time, about eight pesos per ton,
+and the Australian product ranged usually at one to one and a half
+pesos below that figure, port tax unpaid.
+
+In January, 1898, "The Philippine Mining and Development Company,
+Limited," was formed in Hong-Kong with a capital of $1,600,000
+(Mex.) in 160,000 $10 shares for the development of Philippine
+coal deposits and other industries, under the management of a
+Scotch merchant of long standing and good repute in Manila (since
+deceased). The Spanish-American conflict which arose four months
+later impeded active operations by the company.
+
+In May, 1902, a company styled "Minas de Carbon de Batan" was
+constituted to purchase from and exploit the coal-mines of Messrs. Gil
+Hermanos, situated in the Island of Batan, Sorsogon Province. The
+purchase price was fixed at P500,000, and the company's capital at
+P1,000,000 divided into 5,000 equal shares. Hopeful reports were made
+on the property by an American, a Spanish, and a Japanese mining
+engineer respectively. When I interviewed the Managing Director of
+the company, in Manila, two years after its formation, no dividend
+had yet been paid to the shareholders.
+
+
+                _Comparative Analyses of Coal_
+
+Source.     Fixed Carbon.   Volatile matter.    Water.      Ash.
+            per cent.       per cent.           per cent.   per cent.
+Cardiff     83.00            8.60               4.50        3.90
+Australia   71.45           16.25               2.90        9.40
+Cebu        57.94           31.75               9.23        1.08
+Rock Spring,
+Wyo.        56.50           34.50               6.25        2.75
+Cebu        51.96           37.56               7.80        2.68
+Cebu        49.50           35.03               11.18       3.62
+
+
+
+I do not know that any capitalist has ever received an adequate return
+for his investment in Philippine coal-mining.
+
+
+
+From the earliest period of the Spanish occupation of these Islands,
+attention has been given to _Gold-seeking_.
+
+It is recorded that in the year 1572 Captain Juan Salcedo (Legaspi's
+grandson) went to inspect the mines of Paracale, (Camarines); and in
+the same district the village of Mambulao has long enjoyed fame for
+the gold-washing in its vicinity.
+
+In the time of Governor Pedro de Arandia (1754-59), a certain Francisco
+Estorgo obtained licence to work these Paracale mines, and five veins
+are said to have been struck. The first was in the Lipa Mountain,
+where the mine was called "San Nicolas de Tolentino"; the second,
+in the Dobojan Mountain, was called "Nuestra Senora de la Soledad de
+Puerta Vaga"; the third, in Lipara, was named "Mina de las Animas";
+the fourth, in the territory of San Antonio, took the name of "San
+Francisco," and the fifth, in the Minapa Mountains, was named "Nuestra
+Senora de los Dolores," all in the district of Paracale, near the
+village of Mambulao. The conditions of Estorgo's licence were, that
+one-fifth (_real quinto_) of the output should belong to the King;
+that Estorgo was authorized to construct, arm, and garrison a fort
+for his own defence against anticipated attacks from Mahometans,
+and that he should have the title of Castellano, or guardian of
+the fort. It was found necessary to establish the smelting-works
+in Mambulao, so he obtained a licence to erect another fort there
+on the same conditions, and this fort was named "San Carlos." In a
+short time the whole enterprise came to grief. Estorgo's neighbours,
+instigated by native legal pettifoggers in Manila, raised endless
+lawsuits against him; his means were exhausted, and apparatus being
+wanted to work the mines, he had to abandon them.
+
+About the same time, the gold-mines of Pangotcotan and Acupan (Benguet
+district) were worked to advantage by Mexicans, but how much metal was
+won cannot be ascertained. The extensive old workings show how eagerly
+the precious metal was sought in the past. The Spanish Government
+granted only concessions for gold-mining, the title remaining in the
+Crown. Morga relates (1609) that the Crown royalty of one-tenth (_vide_
+p. 53) of the gold extracted amounted to P10,000 annually. According
+to Centeno, the total production of gold in all the Islands in 1876
+did not not exceed P3,600.
+
+During the Government of Alonso Fajardo de Tua (1618-24) it came to
+the knowledge of the Spaniards that half-caste Igorrote-Chinese in
+the north of Luzon peacefully worked gold-deposits and traded in the
+product. Therefore Francisco Carreno de Valdes, a military officer
+commanding the Provinces of Pangasinan and Ilocos, obtained permission
+from the Governor to make a raid upon these Igorrote-Chinese and
+appropriate their treasure-yielding territory. After a seven days'
+march the Spanish gold-seekers and troops arrived at the deposits,
+where they took up their quarters without resistance. The natives held
+aloof whilst mutual offers of peace were made. When the Spaniards
+thought they were in secure possession of the neighbourhood, the
+natives attacked and slaughtered a number of them. The commander of the
+district and the leader of the native troops were among the slain. Then
+they removed the camp to a safer place; but provisions ran short and
+the wet season set in, so the survivors marched back to the coast with
+the resolution to renew their attempt to possess the spoil in the
+following year. In the ensuing dry season they returned and erected
+a fort, whence detachments of soldiers scoured the neighbourhood to
+disperse the Igorrote-Chinese, but the prospectors do not appear to
+have procured much gold.
+
+Many years ago a Spanish company was formed to work a gold-mine near
+the mountain of Malaguit, in the Province of Camarines Norte, but it
+proved unsuccessful.
+
+At the beginning of last century a company was founded, under the
+auspices of the late Queen Christina of Spain (great-grandmother of
+the present King Alfonso XIII.), which was also an utter failure. I
+was told that the company had spacious offices established in Manila,
+whence occasionally the employees went up to the mines, situated near
+the Caraballo Mountain, as if they were going to a picnic. When they
+arrived there, all denoted activity--for the feast; but the mining
+work they did was quite insignificant compared with the squandered
+funds, hence the disaster of the concern.
+
+The coast of Surigao (north-east extremity of Mindanao Is.) has been
+known for centuries to have gold-deposits. A few years ago it was
+found in sufficiently large quantities near the surface to attract the
+attention of capitalists. A sample of the washings was given to me,
+but gold extraction was never taken up in an organized way in that
+district. A friend of mine, a French merchant in Manila, told me in
+1886 that for a long time he received monthly remittances of 4 1/2
+to 5 1/2 lbs. of alluvial gold from the Surigao coast, extracted by
+the natives on their own account. In the same district a Spaniard
+attempted to organize labour for systematic gold-washing, but the
+friars so influenced the natives against him that he could only have
+continued his project at the risk of his life, therefore he gave it up.
+
+In an independent way, the natives obtain gold from earth-washings in
+many districts, particularly in the unsubdued regions of Luzon Island,
+where it is quite a common occupation. The product is bartered on the
+spot to the Chinese ambulant traders for other commodities. Several
+times, whilst deer-stalking near the river, a few miles past Montalban
+(Rizal), I have fallen in with natives washing the sand from the river
+bed in search of gold, and they have shown me some of their findings,
+which they preserve in quills.
+
+In other places in Luzon Island gold is procured in very small
+quantities by washing the earth from the bottoms of pits dug from 20 to
+25 feet deep and 3 feet wide. The extraction of gold from auriferous
+rock is also known to the natives. The rock is broken by a stone on
+an anvil of the same material. Then the broken pieces are crushed
+between roughly-hewn stone rollers put in motion by buffaloes,
+the pulverized ore being washed to separate the particles of the
+precious metal. I should hardly think the yield was of much account,
+as the people engaged in its extraction seemed to be miserably poor.
+
+Gold probably exists in all the largest islands of the Archipelago,
+but in a dispersed form; for the fact is, that after centuries of
+search, large pockets or veins of it have never been traced to defined
+localities, and, so far as discoveries up to the present demonstrate,
+this Colony cannot be considered rich in auriferous deposits. Until
+the contrary has been proved, I venture to submit the theory that
+every gold-bearing reef in these Islands, accessible to man, has been
+disintegrated by volcanic action ages ago.
+
+In 1887 a Belgian correspondent wrote to me inquiring about a company
+which, he stated, had been formed for working a Philippine mine of
+Argentiferous Lead. On investigation I learnt that the mines referred
+to were situated at Acsubing, near the village of Consolacion, and at
+Panoypoy, close to the village of Talamban in Cebu Island. They became
+the property of a Frenchman [156] about the beginning of 1885, and so
+far no shipment had been made, although the samples sent to Europe were
+said to have yielded an almost incredibly enormous amount of gold (!),
+besides being rich in galena (sulphide of lead) and silver. I went to
+Cebu Island in June, 1887, and called on the owner in Mandaue with
+the object of visiting these extraordinary mines; but they were not
+being worked for want of funds, and he left for Europe the same year,
+the enterprise being finally abandoned.
+
+In 1893 "The Philippines Mineral Syndicate" was formed in London
+to work scientifically the historical Mambulao Gold Mines already
+referred to. One pound shares were offered in these Islands and
+subscribed to by all classes, from the British Consul at that time
+down to native commercial clerks. Mr. James Hilton, a mining engineer,
+had reported favourably on the prospects. After the usual gold-mining
+period of disappointment had passed away, an eccentric old gentleman
+was sent out as an expert to revive the whole concern and set it
+upon a prosperous basis. I had many conversations with him in Manila
+before he went to Mambulao, where he soon died. Heavy machinery came
+out from Europe, and a well-known Manila resident, not a mining
+engineer, but an all-round smart man, was sent to Mambulao, and,
+due to his ability, active operations commenced. This most recent
+earnest venture in Philippine gold-mining has not, however, so far
+proved to be a Golconda to the shareholders.
+
+That there is gold in Mindoro Island is evident from the fact that
+the Minguianes, a wild tribe, wear gold jewellery made by themselves,
+and come down to the coast villages to barter with this metal, for
+they do not understand trading with the coin medium.
+
+As a general rule, failure in most Philippine mining speculations
+was chiefly due to the unwillingness of the native to co-operate with
+European capitalists in search of quick fortunes for themselves. The
+native rustic did not seek and would not submit to constant organized
+and methodical labour at a daily wage, to be paid periodically when
+he had finished his work. The only class whom one could employ in the
+neighbourhood of the mines was migratory and half-subjected, whilst
+there was no legislation whatever in force regulating the relations
+between workers and capitalists. Some suggested the employment of
+Chinese, but the obstacles to this proposal have been pointed out
+in Chap. viii. It is very doubtful whether much profitable mining
+will ever be done in this Colony without Chinese labour. Again, the
+wretched state of the public highways obliged the few enterprising
+capitalists to spend their money on the construction of roads which
+had already been paid for in taxes.
+
+It is calculated that in the working of mines in the Philippines, as
+much as P1,300,000 was spent from the beginning of the last century
+up to 1876, without the least satisfactory result.
+
+A Spanish writer [157] asserts that on the coasts of Taal and Bauan,
+in the Province of Batangas, there were many traces of old gold-mines,
+and remarks: "We are already scared in this enlightened century at
+the number who have spent their silver and their health in excavating
+mines in the Philippines, only to undeceive themselves, and find
+their miserable greed punished."
+
+Still Gold-seeking continues, and the hope of many an American to-day
+is centred in the possibility of finding the smile of fortune in the
+Benguet and other districts now being scoured by prospectors.
+
+
+
+Iron-mines, situated a few miles from Manila, were worked about
+the middle of the 18th century by Government, but the result being
+disastrous, a concession of working rights was put up to public
+auction, and adjudicated to a certain Francisco Salgado, who engaged
+to pay annually to the State P20,500 in gold and 125 tons of iron. The
+concern was an entire failure, chiefly owing to the usual transport
+difficulty. Salgado afterwards discovered an iron mine in a place
+called Santa Ines, near Bosoboso, in the district of Morong, and
+obtained a concession to work it. The ore is said to have yielded 75
+per cent. of pure metal. The greatest obstacle which Salgado had to
+contend with was the indolence of the natives, but eventually this
+was overcome by employing Chinese in their stead. All went well for a
+time, until the success which attended the undertaking awoke envy in
+the capital. Salgado found it desirable to erect his smelting-furnaces
+on the banks of the Bosoboso River to obtain a good water supply. For
+this a special permission had to be solicited of the Gov.-General,
+so the opportunity was taken to induce this authority to put a stop
+to the whole concern on the ground that the Chinese workmen were
+not Christians! Salgado was ordered to send these Chinese to the
+Alcayceria in Binondo (Manila), and ship them thence to China at his
+own expense. Moreover, on the pretext that the iron supplied to the
+Royal Stores had been worked by infidels, the Government refused
+to pay for the deliveries, and Salgado became a ruined victim of
+religious fanaticism.
+
+The old parish priest of Angat, in Bulacan Province, once gave me
+the whole history of the rich iron-mines existing a few miles from
+that town. It appears that at about the beginning of last century,
+two Englishmen made vain efforts to work these mines. They erected
+expensive machinery (which has since disappeared piece by piece),
+and engaged all the headmen around, at fixed salaries, to perform
+the simple duty of guaranteeing a certain number of men each to work
+there daily. The headmen were very smart at receiving their pay,
+some of them having the audacity to ask for it in advance; yet the
+number of miners diminished, little by little, and no reasonable terms
+could induce them to resume work. The priest related that, after the
+Englishmen had spent a fortune of about L40,000, and seeing no result,
+in despair they hired a canoe, telling the native in charge to paddle
+out to sea, where they blew their brains out with pistols.
+
+Afterwards a Spaniard, who had made money during years of office as
+Chief Judge and Governor of the Bulacan Province, thought he could,
+by virtue of the influence of his late position, command the services
+of all the labourers he might require to work the mine. It was a vain
+hope; he lost all his savings, and became so reduced in circumstances
+that for a long time he was a pauper, accepting charity in the parish
+convents of the province.
+
+The Angat iron-mines undoubtedly yield a very rich ore--it is stated up
+to 85 per cent. of metal. Up to the Revolution they were still worked
+on a small scale. In 1885, at the foot of these ferruginous hills, I
+saw a rough kind of smelting-furnace and foundry in a dilapidated shed,
+where the points of ploughshares were being made. These were delivered
+at a fixed minimum price to a Chinaman who went to Binondo (Manila) to
+sell them to the Chinese ironmongers. In Malolos (Bulacan) I met one of
+the partners in this little business--a Spanish half-caste--who told me
+that it paid well in proportion to the trifling outlay of capital. If
+the natives chose to bring in mineral they were paid for it; when
+they did not come, the works and expenses were temporarily stopped.
+
+In Baliuag, a few miles from Angat, where I have stayed a score
+of times, I observed, at the threshold of several houses, slabs of
+iron about 8 feet long by 2 feet wide and 5 inches thick. I inquired
+about the origin of this novelty, and several respectable natives,
+whom I had known for years, could only inform me that their elders
+had told them about the foreigners who worked the Angat mines, and
+that the iron in question came from there. Appearing to belong to no
+one in particular, the slabs had been appropriated.
+
+Copper is extracted in small quantities by both the wild tribes of
+the North and the Mahometans of the South, who manufacture utensils
+of this metal for their own use. In the North, half-worked copper
+is obtained from the Igorrotes, but the attempt of a company--the
+_Compania Cantabro-Filipina_, established in the middle of last
+century--to exploit the copper deposits in Mancayan, in the district
+of Lepanto, has hardly been more successful than all other mining
+speculations undertaken on a large scale in this Colony.
+
+Marble exists in large beds in the Province of Bataan, which is the
+west-coast boundary of Manila Bay, and also in the Island of Romblon,
+but, under the circumstances explained, no one cared to risk capital
+in opening quarries. In 1888 surface (boulder) marble was being cut
+near Montalban (Rizal) under contract with the Dominican friars to
+supply them with it for their church in Manila. It was of a motley
+whitish colour, polished well, and a sample of it sent by me to a
+marble-importer in London was reported on favourably.
+
+Granite is not found in these Islands, and there is a general want
+of hard stone for building purposes. Some is procurable at Angono,
+up the Lake of Bay, and it is from here that the stone was brought
+by the Spaniards for the Manila Port Works. Granite is brought over
+from Hong-Kong when needed for works of any importance, such as the
+new Government House in Manila City, in course of construction when
+the Spaniards evacuated the Islands. For ordinary building operations
+there is a material--a kind of marl-stone called _Adobe_--so soft
+when quarried that it can be cut out in small blocks with a hand-saw,
+but it hardens considerably on exposure to the air.
+
+Gypsum deposits occur in a small island opposite to the town of
+Culasi (Antique) on the west coast of Panay, called Marilisan. The
+superincumbent marl has been removed in several places where regular
+workings were carried on for years by natives, and shiploads of it
+were sent to Manila until the Spanish Government prohibited its free
+extraction and export.
+
+Sulphur exists in many islands, sometimes pure, in unlimited
+quantities, and often mixed with copper, iron, and arsenic. The
+crater peak of the Taal Volcano in the Bombon Lake burst in 1749
+(_vide_ p. 18), and from that date, until the eruption of 1754,
+sulphur was extracted by the natives. These deposits were again
+worked in 1780, and during a few years following. Bowring states
+[158] that a well-known naturalist once offered a good sum of money
+for the monopoly of working the sulphur mines in the Taal district.
+
+Mineral oil was discovered some 12 years ago in the mountains of Cebu
+Island, a few miles from the west-coast town of Toledo. A drill-boring
+was made, and I was shown a sample of the crude _Oil_. An Irishman was
+then conducting the experimental works. Subsequently a British engineer
+visited the place, and reported favourably on the prospects. In 1896
+I was again at the borings. Some small machinery had been erected for
+working the drills. A Dutch mining engineer was in charge of the work,
+which was being financed by a small British syndicate; but so far
+a continuous flow had not been obtained, and it was still doubtful
+whether a well had been struck or not. The Dutchman was succeeded
+by an American, who, when the Spanish-American War was on the point
+of breaking out, had to quit the place, and the enterprise has since
+remained in suspense.
+
+There is a tendency, in most new and unexplored countries, to
+see visionary wealth in unpenetrated regions--to cast the eye of
+imagination into the forest depths and the bowels of the earth, and
+become fascinated with the belief that Nature has laid vast treasures
+therein; and the veil of mystery constitutes a tradition until it is
+rent by scientific investigation.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX
+
+Domestic Live-stock--Ponies, Buffaloes, Etc.
+
+
+The Phillipine pony is not an indigenous animal. It is said to have
+originated from the small Andalusian horse and the Chinese mare. I have
+ridden more than 500 Philippine ponies, and, in general, I have found
+them swift, strong, and elegant animals when well cared for. Geldings
+are rarely met with. Before the American occupation ponies ranged
+in value from P25 to P150 for a sound animal. Unfortunately,
+prices of everything have risen since 1898, and, moreover, a fatal
+horse-disease, called "surra," unknown in the Islands before that
+period, has considerably reduced the stock of ponies. Due to these
+causes, ponies cost to-day about three times the former prices.
+
+The importation of Spanish and Australian horses resulted in failure,
+because green grass (_zacate_)--the fodder of Philippine ponies--was
+not the diet they had been accustomed to. Amateur enthusiasts
+constantly urged the Spanish authorities to take measures for the
+improvement of the breed, and in 1888 the acting Gov.-General Molto
+sent a commission to British India to purchase breeding-horses
+and mares. A number of fine animals was brought to Manila, but the
+succeeding Gov.-General, Weyler, disapproved of the transaction, and
+the stock was sold to the public. Two stallions and two mares fetched
+together P2,600, the prices of the others ranging about P700 each.
+
+Pony-races took place at Santa Mesa (Manila) every spring. They
+were organized by "the Manila Jockey Club," usually patronized by
+the Gov.-General of the day, and the great meet lasted three days,
+when prizes were awarded to the winners. Ponies which had won races
+in Manila fetched from P300 to P1,000. The new racecourse is at Pasay.
+
+In Cebu also there were pony races every autumn on the racecourse
+facing the _Cotta_ and the Government House.
+
+Since 1898 the American authorities have imported thousands of horses
+from the United States for the public service, and American dealers
+have brought quantities of them from Australia and the United States
+for private sale. All their fodder, however, has to be procured from
+America in pressed bales, as they cannot thrive on the food of the
+country. It is thought, however, that a plant, called _Teosinte_,
+which is now being cultivated, will be suitable for horse-fodder when
+the animals become thoroughly acclimatized.
+
+The ordinary native has no notion of the proper treatment of ponies,
+his idea being, generally, that this highly nervous animal can be
+managed by brute force and the infliction of heavy punishment. Sights,
+as painful as they are ridiculous, are often the result of this
+error. Unfortunately, the lower-class native feels little attachment
+to any animal but the Buffalo, or _Carabao_, as it is called here,
+and the family pig.
+
+Buffaloes six years old are considered in the prime of life
+for beginning work, and will continue at hard labour, when well
+pastured and bathed, for another six years. At 12 years of age a
+carefully worked buffalo will still serve for light labour for about
+five years. It is an amphibious animal, and if left to itself it
+would pass quite one-third of its life in water or mud, whilst it
+is indispensable to allow it to bathe every day. When grazing near
+flooded land it will roam into the water up to its neck and immerse
+its head for two minutes at a time, searching for vegetable food
+below the surface. Whilst undisturbed in the field it is usually
+accompanied by five or six white herons, which follow in its trail
+in perfect security and feed on the worms and insects brought to the
+surface by its foot-prints. It seems also to enjoy the attentions of
+a small black bird, which hops about on its back and head to cleanse
+its skin and ears of vermin. It is curious to watch this bird flying
+towards the buffalo, which raises its head to receive it.
+
+The rustic and the buffalo are familiar companions, and seem to
+understand each other perfectly well. There is a certain affinity
+between them in many ways. When a peasant is owner of the animal he
+works, he treats it almost like one of the family. It is very powerful,
+docile, slow in its movements, and easy to train. Many times I have
+seen a buffalo ridden and guided by a piece of split rattan attached
+to a rattan-ring in its nostril by a child three years of age. It
+knows the voices of the family to which it belongs, and will approach
+or stand still when called by any one of them. It is not of great
+endurance, and cannot support hard work in the sun for more than a
+couple of hours without rest and bathing if water be near. Europeans
+cannot manage this animal, and very few attempt it; it requires the
+patience, the voice, and the peculiar movement of the native.
+
+Altogether the buffalo may be considered the most useful animal in
+the Philippines. It serves for carting, ploughing, carrying loads
+on its back, and almost all labour of the kind where great strength
+is required for a short time. A peasant possessed of a bowie-knife,
+a buffalo, and good health, need not seek far to make an independent
+living. I owe a certain gratitude to buffaloes, for more than once they
+have pulled my carriage out of the mud in the provinces, where horses
+could get along no farther. Finally, buffalo-meat is an acceptable
+article of food when nothing better can be got; by natives it is
+much relished. Its flesh, like that of deer and oxen, is sometimes
+cut into thin slices and sun-dried, to make what is called in the
+Philippines _Tapa_, in Cuba _Tasajo_, and in Spain _Cecina_.
+
+In the Visayas Islands oxen are used as draught-animals as frequently
+as buffaloes,--sometimes even for carriages.
+
+Wild buffaloes are met with, and, when young, they are easily
+tamed. Buffalo-hunting, as a sport, is a very dangerous diversion, and
+rarely indulged in, as death or victory must come to the infuriated
+beast or the chaser. A good hunting-ground is Nueva Ecija, near the
+Caraballo de Baler Mountain.
+
+The domesticated buffalo is subject to a bronchial disease called
+_garrotillo_; it rarely recovers from a serious sprain, and more
+rarely still from a broken leg. In 1887-88, an epidemic disease,
+previously unknown, appeared among the cattle, and several thousands
+of them died. From the autopsy of some diseased buffaloes, it was
+seen that the inside had become converted into blood. Agriculturists
+suffered great losses. In the poor neighbourhood of Antipolo alone,
+1,410 head of cattle died within four months, according to a report
+which the Governor of Morong showed to me. An old acquaintance of mine
+in Bulacan Province lost 85 per cent. of his live-stock in the season,
+whilst the remainder were more or less affected.
+
+As a consequence of the Revolution (1896-98) and the War of
+Independence (1899-1901) the stock of buffaloes was considerably
+reduced, many thousands of these useful animals having been stolen
+from their owners by the belligerents, only to slay them or work them
+to death. When peace dawned again on the Colony, rinderpest commenced
+to make ravages in the buffalo herds, which are now reduced to a
+mere fraction of what they were in 1896. The consequences of these
+losses in live-stock are referred to in Chap. xxxi. Before the wars,
+a buffalo could be got for P10 in places, such as hemp districts,
+where ploughing is seldom necessary, whilst in the sugar-yielding
+Island of Negros P30 was about the lowest price for an average trained
+animal. The present value is from P125 to P250.
+
+In all my travels in this Colony I have seen only five _Donkeys_,
+which were imported simply as curiosities.
+
+Mules have been imported into the Islands by the American authorities
+for the public service. If sold they would fetch about P300 each. They
+are the most satisfactory draught-animals ever introduced and, but
+for the fear of the new disease "surra," might take the place of
+buffaloes in agriculture.
+
+Sheep do not thrive in this climate. They are brought from Shanghai,
+and, as a rule, they languish and die in a few months. Oxen, goats,
+dogs, cats, pigs, monkeys, fowls, ducks, turkeys, and geese are
+among the ordinary domestic live-stock. Both the dogs and the cats
+are of very poor species, and the European breeds are eagerly sought
+for. The better class of natives have learned to appreciate the higher
+instincts of the European dog. Many Chinese dogs with long, straight
+hair, pointed nose, small eyes, and black tongues are brought over
+from Hong-Kong. All thoroughbred Philippine cats have a twist in
+their tails, and are not nearly so fine as the European race.
+
+Natives do not particularly relish mutton or goat's flesh, which
+they say is heating to the blood. I have found stewed monkey very
+good food, but the natives only eat it on very rare occasions,
+solely as a cure for cutaneous diseases. No flesh, fish or poultry
+has the same flavour here as in Europe; sometimes, indeed, the meat
+of native oxen sold in Manila has a repulsive taste when the animal
+has been quickly fattened for the market on a particular herb, which
+it eats readily. Neither can it be procured so tender as in a cold
+climate. If kept in an ice-chest it loses flavour; if hung up in
+cool air it becomes flabby and decomposes. However, the cold-storage
+established by the American authorities and private firms, since
+1898, has greatly contributed to improve the supply of tender meat,
+and meat shipments are regularly received from Australia and America.
+
+The seas are teeming with fish, and there are swarms of sharks,
+whose victims are numerous, whilst crocodiles are found in most of
+the deep rivers and large swamps in uncultivated tracts. The _Taclobo_
+sea-shell is sometimes found weighing up to about 180 lbs. Fresh-water
+fish is almost flavourless and little appreciated.
+
+In all the rice-paddy fields, small fish called _Dalag_ (_Ophiocephalus
+vagus_), are caught by the natives, for food, with cane nets, or
+rod and line, when the fields are flooded. Where this piscatorial
+phenomenon exists in the dry season no one has been able satisfactorily
+to explain.
+
+The only beast of prey known in the Philippines is the wild cat,
+and the only wild animal to be feared is the buffalo.
+
+Both the jungles and the villages abound with insects and reptilia,
+such as lizards, snakes, iguanas, frogs, and other batrachian species,
+land-crabs, centipedes [159], tarantulas, scorpions, huge spiders,
+hornets, common beetles, queen-beetles (_elator noctilucus_) and
+others of the vaginopennous order, red ants (_formica smaragdina_),
+etc. Ants are the most common nuisance, and food cannot be left on
+the table a couple of hours without a hundred or so of them coming
+to feed. For this reason sideboards and food-cupboards are made
+with legs to stand in basins of water. There are many species of
+ants, from the size of a pin's head to half an inch long. On the
+forest-trees a bag of a thin whitish membrane, full of young ants,
+is sometimes seen hanging, and the traveller, for his own comfort,
+should be careful not to disturb it.
+
+Boa-Constrictors are also found, but they are rare, and I have never
+seen one in freedom. They are the most harmless of all snakes in
+the Philippines. Sometimes the Visayos keep them in their houses,
+in cages, as pets. Small _Pythons_ are common. The snakes most to
+be dreaded are called by the natives _Alupong_ and _Daghong-palay_
+(Tagalog dialect). Their bite is fatal if not cauterized at once. The
+latter is met with in the deep mud of rice-fields and amongst the tall
+rice-blades, hence its name. Stagnant waters are nearly everywhere
+infested with _Leeches_. In the trees in dense forests there is also
+a diminutive species of leech which jumps into one's eyes.
+
+In the houses and huts in Manila, and in most low-lying places,
+mosquitoes are troublesome, but thanks to an inoffensive kind of
+lizard with a disproportionately big ugly head called the _chacon_,
+and the small house-newt, one is tolerably free from crawling
+insects. _Newts_ are quite harmless to persons, and are rather
+encouraged than otherwise. If one attempts to catch a newt by its
+tail it shakes it off and runs away, leaving it behind. Rats and mice
+are numerous. There are myriads of cockroaches; but happily fleas,
+house-flies, and bugs are scarce. In the wet-season evenings the
+croaking of frogs in the pools and swamps causes an incessant din.
+
+In the dry-season evenings certain trees are illuminated by swarms
+of fire-flies, which assemble and flicker around the foliage as do
+moths around the flame of a candle. The effect of their darting in
+and out like so many bright sparks between the branches is very pretty.
+
+There are many very beautiful _Moths_ and _Butterflies_. In 1897 I
+brought home about 300 specimens of Philippine butterflies for the
+Hon. Walter Rothschild.
+
+The _White Ant_ (_termes_), known here as _Anay_, is by far the
+most formidable insect in its destructive powers. It is also common
+in China. Here it eats through most woods, but there are some rare
+exceptions, such as Molave, Ipil, Yacal, etc. If white ants earnestly
+take possession of the woodwork of a building not constructed of
+the finest timber, it is a hopeless case. I have seen deal-wood
+packing-cases, which have come from Europe, so eaten away that they
+could not be lifted without falling to pieces. Merchants' warehouses
+have had to be pulled down and rebuilt owing to the depredations of
+this insect, as, even if the building itself were not in danger, no
+one would care to risk the storage of goods inside. The destruction
+caused by _anay_ is possibly exaggerated, but there is no doubt that
+many traders have lost considerable sums through having had to realize,
+at any price, wares into which this insect had penetrated.
+
+Bats are to be seen in this Colony, measuring up to 5 feet from
+tip to tip of their wings. They are caught for the value of their
+beautiful soft skins, which generally find a sale to Europeans
+returning home. Bat-shooting is a good pastime, and a novelty to
+Europeans. Small Bats frequently fly into the houses in the evening.
+
+Deer and _Wild Boars_ are plentiful, and afford good sport to the
+huntsman. In Morong district--in Negros Island--and in Rizal Province,
+on and in the vicinity of the estate which I purchased--I have had
+some good runs. Monkeys, too, abound in many of the forests. In all
+the islands there is enjoyment awaiting the sportsman. Pheasants,
+snipe, a dozen varieties of wild pigeons, woodcock, jungle-fowl
+(_gallus bankiva_), wild ducks, water-fowl, etc. are common, whilst
+there are also turtle-doves, _calaos_ (_buceros hydrocorax_), hawks,
+cranes, herons, crows, parrots, cockatoos, kingfishers, parroquets,
+and many others peculiar to the Archipelago which I will leave to
+ornithologists to describe. [160] One curious species of pigeon
+(_calanas nicobarina_) is called in Spanish _Paloma de punalada_
+because of the crimson feathers on its breast, which look exactly as if
+they were blood-stained from a dagger-stab. [161] In 1898 I saw some
+specimens of this pigeon in the Hamburg Zoological Gardens. There
+are several birds of gorgeous plumage, such as the _oropendolo_
+(Spanish name).
+
+It is a curious fact that these Islands have no singing birds.
+
+The _Locust Plague_ is one of the great risks the planter has to
+run. In 1851 the Government imported some _Martins_ from China with
+the hope of exterminating the locusts. When the birds arrived in
+the port of Manila they were right royally received by a body of
+troops. A band of music accompanied them with great ceremony to Santa
+Mesa, where they were set at liberty, and the public were forbidden
+to destroy them under severe penalties. At that date there were
+countless millions of locusts among the crops. These winged insects
+(Tagalog, _balang_) come in swarms of millions at a time, and how
+to exterminate them is a problem. I have seen a mass of locusts so
+dense that a row of large trees the other side of them could not be
+distinguished. Sailing along the Antique coast one evening, I observed,
+on the fertile shore, a large brown-coloured plateau. For the moment I
+thought it was a tract of land which had been cleared by fire, but on
+nearing it I noticed that myriads of locusts had settled on several
+fields. We put in quite close to them and I fired off a revolver,
+the noise of which caused them to move off slowly in a cloud. When
+locusts settle on cultivated lands, miles of crops are often ruined
+in a night by the foliage being consumed, and at daybreak only fields
+of stalks are to be seen. In the daytime, when the locusts are about
+to attack a planted field, the natives rush out with their tin cans,
+which serve as drums, bamboo clappers, red flags, etc., to scare
+them off, whilst others light fires in open spaces with damp fuel to
+raise smoke. Another effective method adopted to drive them away is to
+fire off small mortars, such as the natives use at provincial feasts,
+as these insects are sensitive to the least noise.
+
+The body of a locust is similar in appearance to a large
+grasshopper. The females are of a dark brown colour, and the males of
+a light reddish-brown. The female extends the extremity of her body
+in the form of an augur, with which she pierces the earth to the depth
+of an inch, there to deposit her eggs. In two or three weeks the eggs
+hatch. Every few days the females lay eggs, if allowed to settle. The
+newly-born insects, having no wings until they are about ten days
+old, cannot be driven off, and in the meantime they make great havoc
+among the crops, where it is difficult to extinguish them. The method
+employed to get rid of them is to place a barrier, such as sheets of
+corrugated iron roofing, at one side of a field, dig a pit in front of
+the barrier, and send a number of men to beat round the three sides
+of the field until the young locusts jump in heaps into the pit. I
+have heard planters say that they have succeeded, in this way, in
+destroying as much as 20 tons of locusts in one season. I do not know
+the maximum distance that locusts can fly in one continuous journey,
+but they have been known to travel as much as 60 miles across the
+sea. Millions of unwinged locusts (called _lucton_) have been seen
+floating down river streams, whilst, however, the winged insect cannot
+resist the heavy rains which accompany a hurricane.
+
+It is said that the food passes through the body of a locust as
+fast as it eats, and that its natural death is due either to want of
+nourishment, or to a small worm which forms in the body and consumes
+it. It is also supposed that the female dies after laying a certain
+number of eggs. Excepting the damage to vegetation, locusts are
+perfectly harmless insects, and native children catch them to play
+with; also, when fried, they serve as food for the poorest classes--in
+fact, I was assured, on good authority, that in a certain village in
+Tayabas Province, where the peasants considered locusts a dainty dish,
+payment was offered to the parish priest for him to say Mass and pray
+for the continuance of the luxury. In former times, before there were
+so many agriculturists interested in their destruction, these insects
+have been known to devastate the Colony during six consecutive years.
+
+In the mud of stagnant waters, a kind of beetle, called in Visaya
+dialect _Tanga_, is found, and much relished as an article of food. In
+the dry season, as much as fifty cents a dozen is paid for them in Molo
+(Yloilo) by well-to-do natives. Many other insects, highly repugnant
+to the European, are a _bonne bouche_ for the natives.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI
+
+Manila Under Spanish Rule
+
+
+Manila, the capital of the Philippines, is situated on the Island of
+Luzon at the mouth and on the left (south) bank of the Pasig River,
+at N. lat. 14 deg. 36' by E. long. 120 deg. 52'. It is a fortified city,
+being encircled by bastioned and battlemented walls, which were
+built in the time of Governor Gomez Perez Dasmarinas, about the
+year 1590. It is said that the labour employed was Chinese. These
+walls measure about two miles and a quarter long, and bore mounted
+old-fashioned cannon. The fortifications are of stone, and their solid
+construction may rank as a _chef d'oeuvre_ of the 16th century. The
+earthquake of 1880 caused an arch of one of the entrances to fall in,
+and elsewhere cracks are perceptible. These defects were never made
+good. The city is surrounded by water--to the north the Pasig River,
+to the west the sea, and the moats all around. These moats are paved
+at the bottom, and sluices--perhaps not in good working order at the
+present day--are provided for filling them with water from the river.
+
+The demolition of the walls and moats was frequently debated by
+commissions specially appointed from Spain--the last in October,
+1887. It is said that a commission once recommended the cleansing of
+the moats, which were half full of mud, stagnant water, and vegetable
+putrid matter, but the authorities hesitated to disturb the deposit,
+for fear of fetid odours producing fever or other endemic disease.
+
+These city defences, although quite useless in modern warfare with
+a foreign Power, as was proved in 1898, might any day have been
+serviceable as a refuge for Europeans in the event of a serious revolt
+of the natives or Chinese. The garrison consisted of one European
+and several native regiments.
+
+There are eight drawbridge entrances to the Citadel [162] wherein
+were some Government Offices, branch Post and Telegraph Offices,
+the Custom-house (temporarily removed to Binondo since May 4, 1887,
+during the construction of the new harbour), Colleges, Convents,
+Monasteries, a Prison, numerous Barracks, a Mint, a Military Hospital,
+an Academy of Arts, a University, a statue of Charles IV. situated
+in a pretty square, a fine Town Hall, a Meteorological Observatory,
+of which the director was a Jesuit priest, an Artillery Depot, a
+Cathedral and 11 churches. [163] The little trade done in the city
+was exclusively retail. In the month of April or May, 1603, a great
+fire destroyed one-third of the city, the property consumed being
+valued at P1,000,000.
+
+Manila City was a lifeless capital, with narrow streets all running at
+right angles with each other, of sombre, monastic aspect. It had no
+popular cafes, no opera-house or theatre; indeed absolutely no place
+of recreation. Only the numerous religious processions relieved the
+uniformity of city life. The whole (walled) city and its environments
+seem to have been built solely with a view to self-defence. Since
+1887 it had been somewhat embellished by gardens in the public squares.
+
+Besides the churches of the walled city, those of the suburbs are of
+great historical interest. In the Plaza de Santa Cruz is established
+the _Monte de Piedad_, or Public Pawnshop--a fine building--erected
+under the auspices of Archbishop Pedro Payo.
+
+The great trading-centre is the Island of Binondo, on the right (north)
+bank of the Pasig River, where the foreign houses are established. On
+the city side of the river, where there was little commerce and
+no export or import trade whatever, a harbour was in course of
+construction, without the least hope of its ever being completed by
+the Spaniards. All the sea-wall visible of these works was carried
+away by a typhoon on September 29, 1890. To defray the cost of making
+this harbour, a special duty (not included in the Budget) of one per
+cent. on exports, two per cent. on imports, 10 cents per ton on vessels
+(besides the usual tonnage dues of eight cents per register ton), and a
+fishing-craft tax were collected since June, 1880. For eighteen years'
+dues-collection of several millions of pesos only a scrap of sea-wall
+was to be seen beyond the river in 1898, of no use to trade or to
+any one. In 1882 fourteen huge iron barges for the transport of stone
+from Angono for the harbour were constructed by an English engineer,
+Mr. W. S. Richardson, under contract with the Port Works, for P82,000.
+
+The Port of Manila was officially held to extend for 27 miles
+westward from the mouth of the Pasig River. This tortuous river,
+about 14 miles long, flows from the Laguna de Bay.
+
+The anchorage of the port was in the bay, two to two and a half miles
+south-west from the red light at the river-entrance, in about six
+fathoms. There was no special locality reserved for warships.
+
+Ships at the anchorage communicated with the shore by their own
+boats or steam-launch, and the loading and discharging of vessels was
+chiefly effected in the bay, one to three miles off the river mouth,
+by means of lighters called _cascoes_.
+
+Manila Bay has a circumference of 120 nautical miles, and is far too
+large to afford adequate protection to ships. The country around it
+is flat in character and has really nothing attractive.
+
+On October 20, 1882, a typhoon drove 11 ships and one steamer ashore
+from their anchorage, besides dismasting another and causing three
+more to collide. When a typhoon is approaching vessels have to run
+to Cavite for shelter.
+
+The entrance to the bay is divided into two passages by the small
+Island of Corregidor, on which was a lighthouse showing a revolving
+bright light, visible 20 miles off. Here was also a signal-station,
+communicating by a semaphore with a telegraph station on the opposite
+Luzon coast, and thence by wire with Manila. North of Corregidor
+Island is situated the once important harbour of Mariveles. [164]
+
+The entrance to the Pasig River is between two moles, which run out
+westward respectively from the citadel on the south bank and from the
+business suburb of Binondo on the north bank. At the outer extremity
+of the northern mole was a lighthouse, showing a fixed red light,
+visible eight miles.
+
+Vessels drawing up to 13 feet could enter the river. In the middle of
+1887 a few electric lights were established along the quays from the
+river mouth to the first bridge, and one light also on that bridge,
+so that steamers could enter the river after sunset if desired. The
+wharfage is wholly occupied by steamers and sailing-craft trading
+within the Archipelago. The tides are very irregular. The rise and
+fall at springs may be taken to be five feet.
+
+Up to 1887 ships needing repairs had to go to Hong-Kong, but in that
+year a patent slip was established at Canacao Bay, near Cavite, seven
+miles southward from the Manila Bay anchorage. The working capacity
+of the hydraulic hauling power of the slip was 2,000 tons.
+
+At Cavite, close by Canacao, there was a Government Arsenal and a
+small slip, having a hauling power of about 500 tons.
+
+Up to the year 1893 the streets of Manila City and suburbs were
+badly lighted--petroleum lamps, and sometimes cocoanut oil, being
+used. (The paving was perhaps more defective than the lighting.) In
+1892 an Electric Light Company was formed, with a share capital of
+P500,000 (P350,000 paid up) for illuminating the city and suburbs and
+private lighting. Under the contract with the Municipality the company
+received a grant of P60,000, and the concern was in full working order
+the following year. The poorest working class of Manila--fishermen,
+canoemen, day labourers, etc.--live principally in the ward of Tondo,
+where dwellings with thatched roofs were allowed to be constructed. In
+the wet season the part of this ward nearest to the city was simply
+a mass of pollution. The only drainage was a ditch cut around the
+mud-plots on which the huts were erected. Many of these huts had
+pools of stagnant water under them for months, hence it was there
+that the mortality from fever was at its maximum ratio in the dry
+season when evaporation commenced. Half the shore side of Tondo
+has been many times devastated by conflagrations and by hurricanes,
+locally termed _baguios_.
+
+Binondo presents an aspect of great activity during the day. The import
+and export trade is still largely in the hands of British merchants,
+and the retail traffic is, to a great extent, monopolized by the
+Chinese. Their tiny shops, grouped together in rows, form bazaars. At
+each counter sits a Chinaman, casting up accounts, with the ancient
+_abacus_ [165] still serving him for practical reckoning. Another
+is ready at the counter to strike the bargain, whilst a third crafty
+Celestial lounges about the entrance to tout for custom, with a margin
+on his prices for haggling which is high or low according to whether
+the intending purchaser be American, European, half-caste, or native.
+
+There is hardly a street without Chinese dealers, but their principal
+centre is the _Rosario_, whilst the finest American and European
+shops are to be found in the _Escolta_. [166]
+
+In 1881 a great fire occurred in the _Escolta_, and since then
+the class of property in that important thoroughfare has been much
+improved. In October, 1885, a second serious fire took place in this
+street, and on the site of the ruins there now stands a fine block of
+buildings formerly occupied by the Central Post Office and Telegraph
+Station, and a row of good shops in European style.
+
+During the working hours were to be seen hundreds of smart Chinese
+coolies, half-naked, running in all directions with loads, or driving
+carts, whilst the natives dreamily sauntered along the streets,
+following their numerous occupations with enviable tranquillity. In the
+doorways here and there were native women squatting on the flag-stones,
+picking lice from each other's heads, and serving a purchaser
+between-times with cigars, betel-nut, and food, when occasion offered.
+
+Certain small handicrafts are almost entirely taken up by the Chinese,
+such as boot-making, furniture-making, small smith's-work and
+casting, tin-working, tanning, dyeing, etc., whilst the natives are
+occupied as silversmiths, engravers, saddlers, water-colour painters,
+furniture-polishers, bookbinders, etc. A few years ago the apothecaries
+were almost exclusively Germans; now the profession is shared with
+natives, half-castes, and one British firm.
+
+The thoroughfares were crowded with carriages during the whole day
+drawn by pretty native ponies. The public conveyance regulations in
+Spanish times were excellent. The rates for hiring were very moderate,
+and were calculated by the time engaged. Incivility of drivers was
+a thing almost unknown. Their patience was astonishing. They would,
+if required, wait for the fare for hours together in a drenching rain
+without a murmur. Having engaged a vehicle (in Manila or elsewhere)
+it is usual to guide the driver by calling out to him each turn he has
+to take. Thus, if he be required to go to the right--_mano_ (hand)
+is the word used; if to the left--_silla_ (saddle) is shouted. This
+custom originated in the days before natives were intrusted to drive,
+when a postilion rode the left (saddle) pony, and guided his right
+(hand) animal with a short rein.
+
+Through the city and suburbs ran lines of tramway with cars drawn
+by ponies, and (from October 20, 1888 until 1905) a steam tramway
+operated as far as Malabon.
+
+Fortunately, Easter week brought two days of rest every year for
+the ponies, namely, Holy Thursday and Good Friday. As in Spain also,
+with certain exceptions, such as doctors, urgent Government service,
+etc., vehicles were not permitted in the streets and highways on those
+days. Soldiers passing through the streets on service carried their
+guns with the muzzles pointing to the ground. The church bells were
+tolled with muffled hammers; hence, the vibration of the metal being
+checked, the peal sounded like the beating of so many tin cans. The
+shops were closed, and, so far as was practicable, every outward
+appearance of care for worldly concerns was extinguished, whilst it was
+customary for the large majority of the population--natives as well as
+Europeans--who went through the streets to be attired in black. On Good
+Friday afternoon there was an imposing religious procession through
+the city and suburbs. On the following Saturday morning (_Sabado de
+Gloria_), there was a lively scene after the celebration of Mass. In a
+hundred portals and alleys, public and private vehicles were awaiting
+the peal of the unmuffled church bells. The instant this was heard
+there was a rush in all directions--the clanking of a thousand ponies'
+feet; the rumbling sound of hundreds of carriages. The mingled shouts
+of the natives and the Chinese coolies showed with what bated anxiety
+and forced subjection material interest and the affairs of this life
+had been held in check and made subservient to higher thoughts.
+
+An official computation in the year 1885 stated the average number
+of vehicles which passed through the main street of the city (_Calle
+Real_) _per day_ to be 950; through the _Escolta_, the principal
+street of Binondo, 5,000; and across the bridge, connecting Binondo
+with Manila City (where the river is 350 feet wide), 6,000.
+
+Sir John Bowring, in the account of his short visit to Manila in 1858,
+says he was informed on good authority that the average number of
+vehicles passing daily at that date through the _Escolta_ amounted to
+915; across the bridge, between Binondo and Manila, 1,256; so that
+apparently in 27 years the number of vehicles in use had increased
+by about five to one.
+
+The Pasig River is navigable by steam-launches and
+specially-constructed steamers of light draught, which go up the whole
+distance into the Laguna de Bay. The river is crossed at Manila and
+suburbs by three bridges, the chief of which is the _Puente de Espana._
+[167]
+
+In the suburbs there were four Theatres, in none of which a dramatic
+company of any note would consent to perform. In one (the _Teatro
+Filipino_) the performance could be partly seen from the street;
+another (the _Teatro de Tondo_) was situated in a dirty thoroughfare
+in a low quarter; the third (the _Teatro del Principe_) usually gave
+an entertainment in dialect for the amusement of the natives; and the
+fourth (the _Teatro Zorrilla_), located in Tondo, was built to serve
+as theatre or circus without any regard to its acoustic properties;
+hence only one-third of the audience could hear the dialogue. There
+was a permanent Spanish Comedy Company (on tour at times in Yloilo
+and Cebu), and occasionally a troupe of foreign strolling players,
+a circus, a concert, or an Italian Opera Company came to Manila to
+entertain the public for a few weeks.
+
+In 1880 there used to be a kind of tent-theatre, called the _Carrillo_
+where performances were given without any pretence to histrionic
+art or stage regulations. The scenes were highly ridiculous, and
+the gravest spectator could not suppress laughter at the exaggerated
+attitudes and comic display of the native performers. The public had
+full licence to call to the actors and criticize them in loud voices
+_seance tenante_--often to join in the choruses and make themselves
+quite at home during the whole spectacle. About a year afterwards
+the _Carrillo_ was suppressed. The first Spaniards who systematically
+taught the Filipinos European histrionics were Ramon Cubero and his
+wife, Elisea Raguer (both very popular in their day), whose daughter
+married the Philippine actor and dramatic author Jose Carvajal. The
+old-fashioned native play was the "_Moro Moro_," which continued in
+full vogue, in the provinces, up to the end of Spanish dominion. [168]
+
+In the suburb of Paco there was a bull-ring, which did not generally
+attract the _elite_, as a bull-fight there was simply a burlesque
+upon this national sport as seen in Spain. I have witnessed a Manila
+_espada_ hang on to the tail of his victim, and a _banderillero_ meet
+the rush of the bull with a vault over his head, amidst hoots from the
+shady class of audience who formed the _habitues_ of the Manila ring.
+
+The Civil Governor of the Province had full arbitrary power to enforce
+the regulations relating to public performances, but it was seldom he
+imposed a fine. The programme had to be sanctioned by authority before
+it was published, and it could neither be added to nor any part of
+it omitted, without special licence. The performance was given under
+the censorship of the Corregidor or his delegate, whose duty it was
+to guard the interests of the public, and to see that the spectacle
+did not outrage morality.
+
+The ostensible purpose of every annual feast all over the Colony
+was to render homage to the local patron Saint and give thanks for
+mercies received in the past year. Every town, village, and suburb
+was supposed to be specially cared for by its patron Saint, and when
+circumstances permitted it there was a religious procession, which
+was intended to impress on the minds of the faithful the virtue of
+the intercessors by ocular demonstration. Vast sums of money were
+expended from time to time in adornment of the images, the adoration
+of which seemed to be tinctured with pantheistic feeling, as if these
+symbols were part of the Divine essence.
+
+Among the suburban feasts of Manila, that of Binondo was particularly
+striking. It took place in the month of October. An imposing
+illuminated procession, headed by the clergy, guarded by troops, and
+followed up by hundreds of native men, women and children carrying
+candles, promenaded the principal streets of the vicinity. But the
+religious feeling of the truly devoted was shocked by one ridiculous
+feature--the mob of native men, dressed in gowns and head-wreaths,
+in representation of the Jews who persecuted our Saviour, rushing
+about the streets in tawdry attire before and after the ceremony in
+such apparent ignorance of the real intention that it annulled the
+sublimity of the whole function.
+
+All Saints' Day--November 1--brought a large income to the priests in
+the most frequented parish churches. This is one of the days on which
+souls can be got out of Purgatory. The faithful flocked in mobs to the
+popular shrines, where an effort was made to place a lighted wax candle
+at the foot of the altar, and on bended knee to invoke the Saints' aid
+on behalf of their departed relatives and friends. But the crowd was
+so great that the pious were not permitted this consolation for more
+than two or three minutes. Sacristans made them move on, to leave room
+for new-comers, and their candles were then extinguished and collected
+in heaps, Chinese infidel coolies being sometimes employed to carry
+away the spoil to the parish priest's store. The wax was afterwards
+sold to dealers. One church is said to have collected on November 1,
+1887, as much as 40 cwts., valued at P37 per cwt. This day was a
+public holiday, and in the afternoon and evening it was the custom
+to visit the last resting-places, to leave a token of remembrance on
+the tombs of the lamented.
+
+The Asylum for Lepers, at Dalumbayan, in the ward of Santa Cruz, was
+also visited the same day, and whilst many naturally went there to
+see their afflicted relations and friends, others, of morbid tastes,
+satisfied their curiosity. This Asylum, subsidized by Government
+to the extent of P500 per annum, was, in the time of the Spaniards,
+under the care of Franciscan friars.
+
+In January or February the Chinese celebrate their New Year, and
+suspend work during a week or ten days. The authorities did not
+permit them to revel in fun to the extent they would have done in
+their own country; nevertheless, Chinese music, gongs, and crackers
+were indulged in, in the quarters most thickly populated by this race.
+
+The natives generally have an unbounded passion for cock-fighting,
+and in the year 1779 it occurred to the Government that a profitable
+revenue might be derived from a tax on this sport. Thenceforth it
+was only permitted under a long code of regulations on Sundays and
+feast days, and in places officially designated for the "meet" of
+the combatants. In Manila alone the permission to meet was extended
+to Thursdays. The cock-pit is called the _Gallera_, and the tax was
+farmed out to the highest bidding contractor, who undertook to pay
+a fixed annual sum to the Government, making the best he could for
+himself out of the gross proceeds from entrance-fees and sub-letting
+rents in excess of that amount. In like manner the Government farmed
+out the taxes on horses, vehicles, sale of opium, slaughter of animals
+for consumption, bridge-tolls, etc., and, until 1888, the market
+dues. Gambling licences also brought a good revenue, but it would
+have been as impossible to suppress cock-fighting in the Islands as
+gambling in England. [169]
+
+The Spanish laws relating to the cock-pit were very strict, and
+were specially decreed on March 21,1861. It was enacted that the
+maximum amount to be staked by one person on one contest should be 50
+pesos. That each cock should wear only one metal spur. That the fight
+should be held to be terminated on the death of one or both cocks,
+or when one of them retreated. However, the decree contained in all a
+hundred clauses too tedious to enumerate. Cock-fighting is discussed
+among the natives with the same enthusiasm as horse-racing is in
+England. The majority of sportsmen rear cocks for several years,
+bestowing upon them as much tender care as a mother would on her
+infant. When the hope of the connoisseur has arrived at the age of
+discretion and valour, it is put forward in open combat, perhaps
+to perish in the first encounter. And the patient native goes on
+training others.
+
+Within twenty minutes' drive from Manila, at Nagtajan, on the
+right bank of the Pasig River, there was a good European club (since
+removed to Ermita), of which the members were chiefly English-speaking
+merchants and employees. The entrance-fee was [Pesos]30; the monthly
+subscription was [Pesos]5, and [Pesos]1 per month extra for the use
+of a fairly good library.
+
+The principal hotel--the "Hotel de Oriente"--was opened in Binondo
+in January, 1889, in a large two-storeyed building, with 83 rooms
+for the public service, and stabling for 25 horses. It was the
+first building specially erected in the Colony for an hotel. The
+accommodation and board were good. It ranked with the best hotels
+in the East. [In 1903 the building was purchased by the (American)
+Insular Government for public offices.] In Manila City and Binondo
+there were several other Spanish hotels where the board was tolerable,
+but the lodging and service abominable. There was a telephone system
+established throughout the city and its environs.
+
+The press was represented by five dailies--_El Diario de Manila,
+La Oceania Espanola_, three evening papers, _El Comercio, La Voz de
+Espana_, and (from March 3, 1889) _La Correspondencia de Manila_--also
+a bi-weekly, _La Opinion_. Some good articles appeared at times
+in the three dailies first mentioned, but as newspapers strictly
+so-called, the information in all was remarkably scant, due to the
+strict censorship exercised jointly by a priest and a layman. There
+was also a purely official organ--the _Gaceta de Manila_.
+
+The first news-sheet published in Manila appears to have been the
+_Filantropo_, in the year 1822, which existed only a few years. Others
+followed and failed in a short time. The first Manila daily paper was
+the _Estrella_, which started in 1846 and lasted three years. Since
+then several dailies have seen the light for a brief period. The
+_Diario de Manila_, started in 1848, was the oldest newspaper of
+those existing at the end of the Spanish regime.
+
+In Spain journalism began in the 17th century by the publication,
+at irregular intervals, of sheets called "_Relaciones_." The first
+Spanish newspaper, correctly so called, was established in the 18th
+century. Seventy-eight years ago there was only one regular periodical
+journal in Madrid. After the Peninsula War, a step was made towards
+political journalism. This led to such an abuse of the pen that in
+1824 all, except the _Gaceta de Madrid_, the _Gaceta de Bayona_, the
+_Diario_, and a few non-political papers were suppressed. Madrid has
+now scores of newspapers, of which half a dozen are very readable. The
+_Correspondencia de Espana_, founded by the late Marquis de Santa
+Ana as a Montpensier organ, used to afford me great amusement in
+Madrid. It contained columns of most extraordinary events in short
+paragraphs (_gacetillas_), and became highly popular, hundreds of
+persons eagerly waiting to secure a copy. In a subsequent issue, a
+few days later, many of the paragraphs in the same columns were merely
+corrections of the statements previously published, but so ingeniously
+interposed that the hoax took the public for a long time. Newspapers
+from Spain were not publicly exposed for sale in Manila; those which
+were seen came from friends or by private subscription, whilst many
+were proscribed as inculcating ideas dangerously liberal.
+
+There was a botanical garden, rather neglected, although it cost the
+Colony about P8,600 per annum. The stock of specimens was scanty,
+and the grounds were deserted by the general public. It was at least
+useful in one sense--that bouquets were supplied at once to purchasers
+at cheap rates, from 25 cents and upwards.
+
+In the environs of Manila there are several pleasant drives and
+promenades, the most popular one being the _Luneta_, where a military
+band frequently played after sunset. The Gov.-General's palace [170]
+and the residences of the foreign European population and well-to-do
+natives and Spaniards were in the suburbs of the city outside the
+commercial quarter. Some of these private villas were extremely
+attractive, and commodiously designed for the climate, but little
+attention was paid until quite the latter days to architectural beauty.
+
+Very few of the best private residences have more than one storey
+above the ground-floor. The ground-floor is either uninhabited or
+used for lodging the native servants, or as a coach-house, on account
+of the damp. From the vestibule main entrance (_zaguan_) one passes
+to the upper floor, which constitutes the house proper, where the
+family resides. It is usually divided into a spacious hall (_caida_),
+leading from the staircase to the dining and reception-rooms; on
+one or two sides of these apartments are the dormitories and other
+private rooms. The kitchen is often a separate building, connected
+with the house by a roofed passage; and by the side of the kitchen,
+on the same level, is a yard called the _azotea_--here the bath-room
+is erected. The most modern houses have corrugated-iron roofs. The
+ground-floor exterior walls are of stone or brick, and the whole of the
+upper storey is of wood, with sliding windows all around. Instead of
+glass, opaque oyster-shells (Tagalog, _capis_) are employed to admit
+the light whilst obstructing the sun's rays. Formerly the walls up to
+the roof were of stone, but since the last great earthquake of 1880
+the use of wood from the first storey upwards has been rigorously
+enforced in the capital and suburbs for public safety. Iron roofs
+are very hot, and there are still some few comfortable, spacious,
+and cool suburban residences with tile roof or with the primitive
+cogon-grass or nipa palm-leaf thatching, very conducive to comfort
+although more liable to catch fire.
+
+In Spanish times there were no white burglars, and the main entrance
+of a dwelling-house was invariably left open until the family
+retired for the night. Mosquitoes abound in Manila, coming from the
+numerous malarious creeks which traverse the wards, and few persons
+can sleep without a curtain. To be at one's ease, a daily bath is
+indispensable. The heat from 12 to 4 p.m. is oppressive from March
+to May, and most persons who have no afternoon occupation, sleep the
+_siesta_ from 1 to 3 o'clock. The conventional lunch-hour all over
+the Colony is noon precisely, and dinner at about 8 o'clock. The
+visiting hours are from 5 to 7 in the evening, and _reunions_ and
+musical _soirees_ from 9. Society was far less divided here than
+in the British-Asiatic Colonies. There was not the same rigid line
+drawn as in British India between the official, non-official, and
+native. Spaniards of the best families in the capital endeavoured,
+with varying success, to europeanize the people of the country, and
+many of them exchanged visits with half-breeds, and at times with
+wealthy pure natives. Spanish hospitality in the Philippines was far
+more marked than in Europe, and educated foreigners were generally
+received with great courtesy.
+
+Since the year 1884 the city and suburbs are well supplied with
+good drinking-water, which is one of the most praiseworthy modern
+improvements undertaken by the Spanish Government. To provide for
+this beneficial work, a Spanish philanthropist, named Carriedo--a
+late commander of an Acapulco galleon--left a sum of money in the
+18th century, in order that the capital and accumulated interest might
+one day defray the expense. The water supply (brought from Santolan,
+near Mariquina), being more than sufficient for general requirements,
+the city and suburbs were, little by little, adorned with several
+public fountains. Although Manila lies low the climate is healthy,
+and during several years of personal observation I found the average
+maximum and minimum temperature at noon in the shade to be 98 deg. and 75 deg.
+Fahr. respectively. The climate of Manila may be generally summed up as
+follows, viz.:--December, January, and February, a delightful spring;
+March, April, and May, an oppressive heat; June, July, August, and
+September, heavy rains and more tolerable heat; October and November,
+doubtful--sometimes very wet, sometimes fairly dry. Briefly, as to
+climate, it is a pleasant place to reside in.
+
+In 1593 Manila already had a coat-of-arms, with the title of "_Muy
+Insigne y siempre leal Ciudad_" and in the beginning of the 17th
+century King Philip III. conferred upon it the title of "_La muy noble
+Ciudad _"; hence it was lately styled "_La muy noble y siempre leal
+Ciudad_" (the very noble and always loyal city).
+
+According to Gironniere, [171] the civilized population of this Colony
+in 1845 was as follows, namely:--
+
+
+    Europeans (including 500 Friars)                4,050
+    Spanish-native half-breeds                      8,584
+    Spanish-native-Chinese half-breeds.           180,000
+    Chinese                                         9,901
+    Pure natives                                3,304,742
+
+    Total civilized population                  3,507,277
+
+
+In the last Spanish census, taken in 1876, the total number of
+inhabitants, including Europeans and Chinese, was shown to be a little
+under 6,200,000, but a fixed figure cannot be relied upon because it
+was impossible to estimate exactly the number of unsubdued savages
+and mountaineers, who paid no taxes. The increase of native population
+was rated at about two per cent, per annum, except in the Negrito or
+Aeta tribes, which are known to be decreasing.
+
+In Manila City and wards it is calculated there were in 1896 about
+340,000 inhabitants, of which the ratio of classes was approximately
+the following, namely:--
+
+                                            Per cent.
+        Pure natives                            68.00
+        Chinese half-breeds                     16.65
+        Chinese                                 12.25
+        Spaniards and Creoles                    1.65
+        Spanish half-breeds                      1.30
+        Foreigners (other than Chinese)          0.15
+
+                                               100.00
+
+
+The walled city alone contained a population of about 16,000 souls.
+
+Typhoons affect Manila more or less severely about once a year,
+nearly always between April and middle of December, and sometimes
+cause immense destruction to property. Roofs of houses are carried
+away; the wooden upper-storey frontages are blown out; ships are torn
+from their moorings; small craft laden with merchandise are wrecked,
+and the inhabitants flee from the streets to make fast their premises,
+and await in intense anxiety the conclusion of the tempest. A hurricane
+of this description desolated Manila in October, 1882, and, at the same
+time, the wind was accompanied by torrents of rain, which did great
+damage to the interiors of the residences, warehouses, and offices. A
+small house, entirely made of wood, was blown completely over, and the
+natives who had taken refuge on the ground-floor were left, without a
+moment's notice, with the sky for a roof. Two Chinamen, who thought to
+take advantage of the occasion and economically possess themselves of
+galvanized-iron roofing, had their heads nearly severed by sheets of
+this material flying through the air, and their dead bodies were picked
+up in the _Rosario_ the next morning. I was busy with the servants
+all that day in my house, in the unsuccessful attempt to fasten the
+windows and doors. Part of the kitchen was carried away; water came
+in everywhere; and I had to wait patiently, with an umbrella over me,
+until the storm ceased. The last similarly destructive hurricane,
+affecting Manila, occurred on September 26, 1905.
+
+Manila is also in constant danger of destruction from earthquakes. The
+most serious one within the last century occurred in June,
+1863. The shock lasted half a minute, and the falling _debris_ of
+the upheaved buildings caused 400 deaths, whilst 2,000 persons were
+wounded. The total loss of property on that occasion was estimated at
+P 8,000,000. Official returns show that 46 public edifices were thrown
+down; 28 were nearly destroyed; 570 private buildings were wrecked,
+and 528 were almost demolished. Simultaneously, an earthquake occurred
+in Cavite--the port and arsenal south-west of Manila--destroying
+several public buildings. In 1898 many of the ruins caused by this
+earthquake were still left undisturbed within the City of Manila. In
+1863 the best buildings had heavy tiled roofs, and many continued so,
+in spite of the severe lesson, until after the shock of 1880, when
+galvanized corrugated iron came into general use for roofing, and,
+in fact, no one in Manila or Binondo now builds a house without it.
+
+In 1880 no lives were lost, but the damage to house property was
+considerable. The only person who suffered physically from this
+calamity was an Englishman, Mr. Parker, whose arm was so severely
+injured that it was found necessary to amputate it.
+
+Prior to 1863 the most serious earthquakes recorded happened in
+November, 1610; November, 1645; August, 1658; in 1675; in 1699; in
+1796, and in 1852. Consequent on the shock of 1645, all the public
+buildings were destroyed excepting one monastery and two churches,
+some 600 persons were killed, and the Gov.-General was extricated
+from the ruins of his palace.
+
+ [172]According to the Jesuit Father Faura, Director of the Manila
+ Observatory, the following slight quakes occurred in 1881, viz.:--3
+ in July, 7 in August, 10 in September, and 3 in October. Earth-tremors
+ almost imperceptible are so frequent in these Islands that one hardly
+ heeds them after a few months' residence.
+
+In a cosmopolitan city like Manila--the temporary home of so
+many different races--it was interesting to observe the varied
+wearing-apparel in vogue. The majority of the Spaniards wore the
+European costume; the British generally dressed in white drill, with
+the coat buttoned up to the neck, and finished off with a narrow
+collar of the same material. The Chinese always preserved their own
+peculiar national dress--the most rational of all--with the pig-tail
+coiled into a chignon. The pure natives and many half-breeds wore
+the shirt outside the trousers. It was usually white, with a long
+stiff front, and cut European fashion; but often it was made of
+an extremely fine yellow-tinted expensive material, called _pina_
+(_vide_ p. 283). Some few of the native _jeunesse doree_ of Manila
+donned the European dress, much to their apparent discomfort. The
+official attire of the headman of a Manila ward and his subordinates
+was a shirt with the tail outside the trousers, like other natives
+or half-breeds, but over which was worn the official distinction of
+a short Eton jacket, reaching to the hips. All this is now changing,
+with a tendency to imitate the Americans.
+
+A native woman wore, as she does now, a flowing skirt of gay
+colours--bright red, green, and white being the common choice. The
+length of train, and whether the garment be of cotton, silk, or
+satin, depends on her means. Corsets are not yet the fashion, but a
+chemisette, which just covers her breast, and a starched neckcloth
+(_panuelo_) of _pina_ or _husi_ stuff are in common use. The _panuelo_
+is square, and, being folded triangularly, it hangs in a point down the
+back and stands very high up at the neck, in the 17th century style,
+whilst the other two points are brooched where they meet at the top of
+the chemisette _decolletee_. To this chemisette are added immensely
+wide short sleeves. Her hair is brushed back from the forehead,
+without a parting, and coiled into a tight, flat chignon. In her
+hand she carries a fan, without which she would feel lost. Native
+women have an extravagant desire to possess jewellery--even if they
+never wear it. The head is covered with a white mantle of very thin
+material, sometimes figured, but more often this and the neckcloth
+are embroidered--a work in which they excel. Finally, her naked
+feet are partly enveloped in _chinelas_--a kind of slipper, flat,
+like a shoe-sole with no heel, but just enough upper in front to put
+four toes inside. Altogether, the appearance of a Philippine woman of
+well-to-do family dressed on a gala day is curious, sometimes pretty,
+but, in any case, admirably suited to the climate.
+
+Since 1898 American example, the great demand for _pina_ muslin, at
+any price, by American ladies, and the scarcity of this texture, due
+to the plants having been abandoned during the wars, have necessarily
+brought about certain modifications in female attire.
+
+There is something very picturesque in the simple costume of a peasant
+woman going to market. She has no flowing gown, but a short skirt,
+enveloped in a _tapis_, generally of cotton. It is simply a rectangular
+piece of stuff; as a rule, all blue, red, or black. It is tucked in
+at the waist, drawn very tightly around the loins, and hangs over
+the skirt a little below the knees, the open edges being at the back.
+
+At times the better class wear the more becoming short skirt and
+_tapis_ of silk or satin, with gold-lace embroidered _chinelas_. This
+dress is elegant, and adds a charm to the wearer.
+
+The _tapi_ is smaller. It is not used in the street; it is a sort
+of _neglige_ apparel worn in the house only, or for going to the
+bath. The poorest classes go to the river-side to bathe in it. It is
+drawn all around from the waist downwards.
+
+The _patadiong_ is more commonly worn by the Visaya than the northern
+woman. It is somewhat like the _tapis_, but is drawn round the waist
+from the back, the open edges meeting, more or less, at the front. In
+Luzon Island the old women generally prefer this to the _tapis_.
+
+On feast days and special occasions, or for dances, the young women
+who can afford it sport the gaudy flowing gown of bright particoloured
+striped silk or satin, known as the _saya suelta_, with the train
+cut in a peculiar fashion unknown in Europe.
+
+The figure of a peasant woman is erect and stately, due to her habit
+from infancy of carrying jars of water, baskets of orchard produce,
+etc., on her head with a pad of coiled cloth. The characteristic
+bearing of both sexes, when walking, consists in swinging the arms
+(but more often the right arm only) to and fro far more rapidly than
+the stride, so that it gives them the appearance of paddling.
+
+A "first class" Manila funeral, before the American advent, was
+a whimsical display of pompous ignorance worth seeing once. There
+was a hideous bier with rude relics of barbarism in the shape of
+paltry adornments. A native driver, with a tall "chimney pot" hat,
+full of salaried mournfulness, drove the white team. The bier was
+headed by a band of music playing a lively march, and followed by
+a line of carriages containing the relations and friends of the
+deceased. The burial was almost invariably within twenty-four hours
+of the decease--sometimes within six hours.
+
+There is nothing in Manila which instantly impresses one as strikingly
+national, whether it be in artistic handicraft, music, painting,
+sculpture, or even diversions. The peculiar traditional customs of
+an Eastern people--their native dress, their characteristic habits,
+constitute--by their originality and variation, the only charm to
+the ordinary European traveller. The Manila middle-class native,
+in particular, possesses none of this. He is but a vivid contrast
+to his vivacious Spanish model, a striking departure from his own
+picturesque aboriginal state, and an unsuccessful imitator of the
+grace and easy manners of his Western tutor. In short, he is neither
+one thing nor the other in its true representation compared with the
+genial, genuine, and natural type to be found in the provinces.
+
+
+
+Many years' residence in Manila, or in any one particular locality of
+the Archipelago, will not enable either the alien or the native to form
+a just opinion of the physical, social, or economic conditions of the
+Colony; they can only be understood after extensive travelling through
+and around the Islands. Nor will three or four tours suffice for the
+intelligent inquirer, because first impressions often lead to false
+conclusions; information obtained through one source must needs be
+verified by another; the danger of mistaking isolated cases for general
+rules has to be avoided, and, lastly, the native does not reveal to the
+first-time traveller the intricacies of Philippine life. Furthermore,
+the traveller in any official capacity is necessarily the least
+informed person concerning the real thought and aspirations of the
+Filipino or true Philippine life; his position debars him from the
+opportunity of investigating these things.
+
+It would be beyond the scope of this work to take the reader mentally
+through the thousand or more miles of lovely scenery, and into the
+homes of the unsophisticated classes who still preserve, unalloyed,
+many of their natural characteristics and customs. But within half a
+day's journey from the capital there are many places of historical
+interest, among which, on account of its revived popularity since
+the American advent, may be mentioned Los Banos, on the south shore
+of the Laguna de Bay.
+
+Los Banos (the baths) owes its origin to the hot springs flowing from
+the volcanic Maquiling Mountain, which have been known to the natives
+from time immemorial when the place was called Maynit, which signifies
+"hot."
+
+At the close of the 16th century these mineral waters attracted the
+attention of Martyr Saint Pedro Bautista (_vide_ p. 64), who sent
+a brother of his Order to establish a hospital for the natives. The
+brother went there, but shortly returned to Manila and died. So the
+matter remained in abeyance for years. Subsequently a certain Fray
+Diego de Santa Maria, an expert in medicine and the healing art, was
+sent there to test the waters. He found they contained properties
+highly beneficial in curing rheumatism and certain other maladies,
+so thenceforth many natives and Spaniards went there to seek bodily
+relief. But there was no convenient abode for the visitors; no
+arrangements for taking the baths, and the Government did nothing. A
+Franciscan friar was appointed chaplain to the sick visitors, but
+his very incommodious residence was inadequate for the lodging of
+patients, and, for want of funds, the priest abandoned the project
+of establishing a hospital, and returned to Manila. In 1604 the
+Gov.-General, Pedro Bravo de Acuna, gave his attention to this
+place, and consented to the establishment of a hospital, church,
+and convent. The hospital was constructed of bamboo and other light
+material, and dedicated to Our Lady of Holy Waters.
+
+Fray Diego de Santa Maria was appointed to the vicarage and the charge
+of the hospital. The whole was supported by gifts from the many sick
+persons who went there, but the greatest difficulty was to procure
+food. Several natives made donations of lands, with the produce of
+which the hospital was to be maintained. These gifts, however, proved
+insufficient. The priests then solicited permission from the villagers
+of Pila (on the lake shore near Santa Cruz) to pasture cattle on the
+tongue of land on the opposite coast called Jalajala, which belonged
+to them. With their consent a cattle-ranche was established there;
+subsequently, a building was erected, and the place was in time known
+as the _Estancia de Jalajala_. Then the permission was asked for and
+obtained from the Pila natives to plant cocoanut palms, fruit-trees,
+and vegetables. Later on the Austin and Franciscan friars quarrelled
+about the right of dominion over the place and district called Maynit,
+but eventually the former gave way and ceded their alleged rights in
+perpetuity to the Franciscans.
+
+In 1640 Los Banos (formerly a dependency of Bay, under the Austin
+friars) was constituted a "town." The Franciscans continued to
+beg one concession after another, until at length, in 1671, stone
+buildings were commenced--a church, convent, hospital, bathing-pond,
+vapour-house, etc., being constructed. Natives and Europeans flocked in
+numbers to these baths, and it is said that people even came from India
+to be cured. The property lent and belonging to the establishment,
+the accumulated funds, and the live-stock had all increased so much in
+value that the Government appointed an administrator. Thenceforth the
+place declined; its popularity vanished; the administrator managed
+matters so particularly for his own benefit that food again became
+scarce, and the priest was paid only 10 pesos per month as salary. In
+Jalajala a large house was built; the land was put under regular
+cultivation; tenants were admitted; but when the property was declared
+a royal demesne the Pila inhabitants protested, and nominally regained
+possession of the lent property. But the administrator re-opened
+and contested the question in the law-courts, and, pending these
+proceedings, Jalajala was rented from the Government. During this
+long process of legal entanglements the property had several times
+been transferred to one and another until the last holder regarded
+it as his private estate.
+
+At the beginning of last century Jalajala came into the possession of
+M. Paul de la Gironniere, from whom it passed to another Frenchman,
+at whose death a third Frenchman, M. Jules Daillard, became owner. On
+his decease it became the property of an English Bank, from whom it was
+purchased by the Franciscan friars, in 1897, for the sum of P.50,000,
+and re-sold by them to a Belgian firm in 1900.
+
+The bathing establishment was gradually falling into decay, until
+its complete ruin was brought about by a fire, which left only the
+remnant of walls. The priest continued there as nominal chaplain
+with his salary of 10 pesos per month and an allowance of rice. The
+establishment was not restored until the Government of Domingo
+Moriones (1877-80). A vapour bath-house and residence were built,
+but the hospital was left unfinished, and it was rotting away from
+neglect when the Spaniards evacuated the Islands.
+
+The portion of the Hospital of Los Banos which remained intact, and
+the house attached thereto, which the natives called "the palace,"
+served to accommodate invalids who went to take the cure. These baths
+should only be taken in the dry season--December to May.
+
+Besides the convent and church the town simply consisted of a row of
+dingy bungalows on either side of the highroad, with a group of the
+same on the mountain side. Since the American advent the place has
+been much improved and extended.
+
+On his way from Manila to Los Banos the traveller will pass (on
+the left bank of the Pasig River) the ruins of _Guadalupe Church_,
+which mark the site of a great massacre of Chinese during their
+revolt in 1603 (_vide_ p. 114). The following legend of this once
+beautiful and popular church was given to me by the Recoleto friars
+at the convent of the Church of La Soledad, in Cavite:--During the
+construction of the world-famed _Escorial_, by order of Philip II.,
+the architect's nephew, who was employed by his uncle on the work,
+killed a man. The King pardoned him on condition that he be banished
+to the Philippines. He therefore came to Manila, took holy orders,
+and designed and superintended the building of Guadalupe Church,
+from the scaffolding of which he fell, and having been caught by the
+neck in a rope suspended from the timbers he was hanged.
+
+During the wars of the Rebellion and Independence this ancient building
+was destroyed, only the shot-riddled and battered outer walls remaining
+in 1905.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII
+
+The Tagalog Rebellion of 1896-98
+First Period
+
+
+After the Napoleonic wars in Spain, the "Junta Suprema Central
+del Reino" convened the famous "Cortes de Cadiz" by decree dated
+September 12, 1809. This _junta_ was succeeded by another--"El
+Supremo Consejo de la Regencia"--when the _Cortes_ passed the first
+Suffrage Bill known in Spain on January 29, 1810. These _Cortes_
+assembled deputies from all the Colonies--Cuba, Venezuela, Chile,
+Guatemala, Santa Fe, Puerto Rico, the Philippines, etc.; in fact,
+all those dependencies which constituted the four Viceroyalties and
+the eight Captain-Generalships of the day. The Philippine deputy,
+Ventura de los Reyes, signed the Act of Constitution of 1812. In 1820
+the _Cortes_ again admitted this Colony's representatives, amongst
+whom were Vicente Posadas, Eulalio Ramirez, Anselmo Jorge Fajardos,
+Roberto Pimental, Esteban Marques, Jose Florentino, Manuel Saez
+de Vismanos, Jose Azcarraga, and nine others. They also took part
+in the parliamentary debates of 1822 and 1823. The Constitution was
+shortly afterwards suspended, but on the demise of Ferdinand VII. the
+Philippine deputies, Brigadier Garcia Gamba and the half-breed Juan
+Francisco Lecaros, sat in Parliament. Again, and for the last time,
+Philippine members figured in the _Cortes_ of the Isabella II. Regency;
+then, on the opening of Parliament in 1837, their exclusion, as well as
+the government of the Ultramarine Provinces by special laws, was voted.
+
+The friars, hitherto regarded by the majority of Filipinos as their
+protectors and friendly intermediaries between the people and the civil
+rulers, had set their faces against the above radical innovations,
+foreseeing in them a death-blow to their own preponderance. Indeed,
+the "friar question" only came into existence after the year 1812.
+
+In 1868 Queen Isabella II. was deposed, and the succeeding Provisional
+Government (1868-70), founded on Republican principles, caused an
+Assembly of Reformists to be established in Manila. The members of
+this _Junta General de Reformas_ were five Filipinos, namely, Ramon
+Calderon, Bonifacio Saez de Vismanos, Lorenzo Calvo, Gabriel Gonzalez
+Esquibel, and Joaquin Pardo de Tavera; eleven civilian Spaniards,
+namely, Joaquin J. Inchausti, Tomas Balbas y Castro, Felino Gil,
+Antonio Ayala, with seven others and five Spanish friars, namely,
+Father Fonseca, Father Domingo Trecera, Rector of the University,
+(Dominicans), one Austin, one Recoleto and one Franciscan friar. This
+_junta_ had the power to vote reforms for the Colony, subject to the
+ratification of the Home Government. But monastic influence prevailed;
+the reforms voted were never carried into effect, and long before
+the Bourbon restoration took place (1874) the Philippine Assembly had
+ceased to exist. But it was impossible for the mother country, which
+had spontaneously given the Filipinos a taste of political equality,
+again to yoke them to the old tutelage without demur. Alternate
+political progress and retrogression in the Peninsula cast their reflex
+on this Colony, but the first sparks of liberty had been gratuitously
+struck which neither reaction in the Peninsula nor persecution in the
+Colony itself could totally extinguish. No Filipino, at that period,
+dreamed of absolute independence, but the few who had been taught by
+their masters to hope for equal laws, agitated for their promulgation
+and became a thorn in the side of the Monastic Orders. Only as their
+eyes were spontaneously opened to liberty by the Spaniards themselves
+did they feel the want of it.
+
+The Cavite Rising of 1872 (_vide_ p. 106), which the Philippine
+Government unwisely treated as an important political movement and
+mercilessly avenged itself by executions and banishment of many of the
+best Manila families, was neither forgotten nor forgiven. To me, as a
+foreigner, scores of representative provincial natives did not hesitate
+to open their hearts in private on the subject. The Government lost
+considerably by its uncalled-for severity on this occasion. The natives
+regarded it as a sign of apprehension, and a proof of the intention
+to rule with an iron rod. The Government played into the hands of
+the Spanish clergy, and all the friars gained by strengthening their
+monopoly of the incumbencies they lost in moral prestige. Thinking men
+really pitied the Government, which became more and more the instrument
+of the ecclesiastics. Since then, serious ideas of a revolution to be
+accomplished one day took root in the minds of influential Filipinos
+throughout the provinces adjacent to Manila. _La Solidaridad_, a
+Philippine organ, founded in Madrid by Marcelo Hilario del Pilar,
+Mariano Ponce, Eduardo Leyte and Antonio Luna for the furtherance of
+Philippine interests was proscribed, but copies entered the Islands
+clandestinely. In the villages, secret societies were formed which the
+priests chose to call "Freemasonry"; and on the ground that all vows
+which could not be explained at the confessional were anti-christian,
+the Archbishop gave strict injunctions to the friars to ferret out
+the so-called Freemasons. Denunciations by hundreds quickly followed,
+for the priests willingly availed themselves of this licence to get rid
+of anti-clericals and others who had displeased them. In the town of
+Malolos (which in 1898 became the seat of the Revolutionary Congress)
+Father Moises Santos caused all the members of the Town Council to
+be banished, and when I last dined with him in his convent, he told
+me he had cleared out a few more and had his eye on others. From
+other villages, notably in the provinces around the capital, the
+priests had their victims escorted up to Manila and consigned to
+the Gov.-General, who issued the deportation orders without trial
+or sentence, the recommendation of the all-powerful _padre_ being
+sufficient warrant. Thus hundreds of families were deprived of fathers
+and brothers without warning or apparent justification;--but it takes
+a great deal to rouse the patient native to action. Then in 1895 came
+the Marahui campaign in Mindanao (_vide_ p. 144). In order to people
+the territory around Lake Lanao, conquered from the _Moros_, it was
+proposed to invite families to migrate there from the other islands,
+and notifications to this effect were issued to all the provincial
+governors. At first it was put to the people in the smooth form of a
+proposal. None volunteered to go, because they could not see why they
+should give up what they had to go and waste their lives on a tract
+of virgin soil with the very likely chance of a daily attack from the
+_Moros_. Peremptory orders followed, requiring the governors to send up
+"emigrants" for the Yligan district. This caused a great commotion in
+the provinces, and large numbers of natives abandoned their homes to
+evade anticipated violence. I have no proof as to who originated this
+scheme, but there is the significant fact that the _orders_ were issued
+only to the authorities of those provinces supposed to be affected by
+the secret societies. Under the then existing system, the governors
+could not act in a case like this without the co-operation of the
+parish priests; hence during the years 1895 and 1896 a systematic
+course of official sacerdotal tyranny was initiated which, being
+too much even for the patient Filipino, was the immediate cause of
+the members of the _Katipunan_ secret society hastening their plans
+for open rebellion, the plot of which was prematurely discovered on
+Thursday, August 20, 1896. The rebellion in Cuba was calling for all
+the resources in men and material that Spain could send there. The
+total number of European troops dispersed over these Islands did
+not exceed 1,500 well armed and well officered, of which about 700
+were in Manila. The native auxiliaries amounted to about 6,000. The
+impression was gaining ground that the Spaniards would be beaten
+out of Cuba; but whilst this idea gave the Tagalogs moral courage to
+attempt the same in these Islands, so far as one could then foresee,
+Spain's reverse in the Antilles and the consequent evacuation would
+have permitted her to pour troops into Manila, causing the natives'
+last chance to vanish indefinitely.
+
+Several months before the outbreak, the _Katipunan_ sent a deputation
+to Japan to present a petition to the Mikado, praying him to annex
+the Philippines. This petition, said to have been signed by 5,000
+Filipinos, was received by the Japanese Government, who forwarded
+it to the Spanish Government; hence the names of 5,000 disaffected
+persons were known to the Philippine authorities, who did not find
+it politic to raise the storm by immediate arrests.
+
+The so-called "Freemasonry" which had so long puzzled and irritated
+the friars, turned out, therefore, to be the _Katipunan_, which simply
+means the "League." [173] The leaguers, on being sworn in, accepted the
+"blood compact" (vide p. 28), taking from an incision on the leg or arm
+the blood with which to inscribe the roll of fraternity. The cicatrice
+served also as a mark of mutual recognition, so that the object and
+plans of the leaguers should never be discussed with others. The drama
+was to have opened with a general slaughter of Spaniards on the night
+of August 20, but, just in the nick of time, a woman sought confession
+of Father Mariano Gil (formerly parish priest of Bigaa, Bulacan),
+then the parish priest of Tondo, a suburb of Manila, and opened the
+way for a leaguer, whose heart had failed him, to disclose the plot on
+condition of receiving full pardon. With this promise he made a clean
+breast of everything, and without an hour's delay the civil guard
+was on the track of the alleged prime movers. Three hundred supposed
+disaffected persons were seized in Manila and the Provinces of Pampanga
+and Bulacan within a few hours, and, large numbers being brought
+in daily, the prisons were soon crowded to excess. The implacable
+Archbishop Bernardino Nozaleda advocated extermination by fire and
+sword and wholesale executions. Gov.-General Ramon Blanco hesitated to
+take the offensive, pending the arrival of reinforcements which were
+called for. He informed the Home Government that the rising was of no
+great importance, but that he required 1,000 more troops to be sent
+at once. The reply from Madrid was that they were sending 2,000 men,
+2,000,000 cartridges, 6,000 Remington rifles, and the gunboats _Isla
+de Cuba_ and _Isla de Luzon_. Each steamer brought a contingent of
+troops, so that General Blanco had a total of about 10,000 Spanish
+regulars by the end of November. Spain's best men had been drafted
+off to Cuba, and these were chiefly raw levies who had all to learn
+in the art of warfare.
+
+Meanwhile, the rebellion had assumed alarming proportions. Among the
+first to be seized were many of the richest and most prominent men in
+the Colony--the cream of Manila society. There was intense excitement
+in the capital as their names gradually leaked out, for many of them
+were well known to us personally or by repute. No one who possessed
+wealth was safe. An opulent Chinese half-caste, Don Pedro P. Rojas,
+who was popularly spoken of as the prime supporter of the rebellion,
+was a guest at Government House two days before the hour fixed for
+the general slaughter. It cost him a fortune to be allowed to leave
+the Islands. He took his passage for Europe in the _Isla de Panay_,
+together with Dr. Rizal, but very prudently left that steamer at
+Singapore and went on in the French mail to Marseilles and thence to
+Paris, where he was still residing in 1905. No _documentary_ evidence
+could be produced against him, and on June 1, 1897, the well-known
+politician, Romero Robledo, undertook his defence in the _Cortes_, in
+Madrid, in a brilliant speech which had no effect on his parliamentary
+colleagues. For the Spaniards, indeed, the personal character of Pedro
+P. Rojas was a matter of no moment. The Manila court-martial, out of
+whose jurisdiction Rojas had escaped, held his estates, covering over
+70,000 acres, under embargo, caused his numerous steam cane-mills to be
+smashed, and his beautiful estate-house to be burnt, whilst his 14,000
+head of cattle disappeared. Subsequently the military court exonerated
+Pedro P. Rojas in a decree which stated "that all those persons who
+made accusations against him have unreservedly retracted them, and that
+they were only extracted from such persons by the tortures employed by
+the Spanish officials; that the supposed introduction of arms into the
+Colony through an estate owned by Pedro P. Rojas is purely fantastical,
+and that the only arms possessed by the rebels were those taken by them
+in combat from the Spanish soldiers." [174] But his second cousin,
+Francisco L. Rojas, a shipowner, contrabandist, and merchant, was
+not so fortunate. He was also one of the first seized, and his trial
+was pending until General Blanco left the Islands. During this period
+Rojas' wife besought the General to release him, but he could not do
+so without incurring public censure, in view of the real or fictitious
+condemnatory evidence brought against him by the court-martial. The
+chief accusation was that of importing arms for the rebellion. It
+even became a current topic, for a few weeks, that some German
+merchants had made a contract with Rojas to sell him the arms, but
+the Spanish authorities had sufficient good sense, on this occasion,
+not to be guided by public outcry. When General Polavieja arrived,
+Francisco L. Rojas' fate became a certainty, and he was executed as a
+traitor. The departure of Pedro P. Rojas and the serenity of General
+Blanco aroused great indignation among the civilian Spaniards who
+clamoured for active measures. A week passed before it was apparent
+to the public that he had taken any military action. Meanwhile, he
+was urged in vain by his advisers to proclaim martial law. The press
+censor would not allow the newspapers to allude to the conspirators as
+"rebels," but as "brigands" (_tulisanes_). The authorities were anxious
+to stifle the notion of rebellion, and to treat the whole movement
+as a marauding affair. On August 23 the leading newspaper published
+a patriotic appeal to the Spaniards to go _en masse_ the next day to
+the Gov.-General to concert measures for public safety. They closed
+their shops and offices, and assembled before Government House; but
+the General refused to receive them, and ordered the newspaper to pay
+a fine of P500, which sum was at once raised in the streets and cafes.
+
+On August 26, 1,000 rebels made a raid on Coloocan, four miles outside
+the capital. They killed a few Chinese, and seized others to place them
+in the van of their fighting men. The armed crowd was kept at bay by a
+posse of civil guards, until they learnt that a cavalry reinforcement
+was on the way from Manila. Then the rebels, under cover of darkness,
+fled towards the river, and were lost sight of. The next morning I
+watched the troopers cross over the _Puente de Espana_. There was
+mud up to the ponies' bellies, for they had scoured the district all
+around. The hubbub was tremendous among the habitual saunterers on
+the _Escolta_--the Rialto of Manila. For the next few days every
+Spaniard one met had some startling news to tell, until, by the
+end of the week, a reaction set in, and amidst jokes and _copitas_
+of spirits, the idea that the Coloocan affair was the prelude to a
+rebellion was utterly ridiculed. The Gov.-General still refused to
+proclaim martial law, considering such a grave measure unnecessary,
+when suddenly the whole city was filled with amazement by the news
+of a far more serious attack near Manila.
+
+About 4 a.m. on Sunday, August 30, the rebels concentrated at the
+village of San Juan del Monte, distant half an hour on horseback from
+the city gates. They endeavoured to seize the powder magazine. One
+Spanish artilleryman was killed and several of the defenders were badly
+wounded whilst engaged in dropping ammunition from window openings into
+a stream which runs close by. Cavalry and infantry reinforcements were
+at once sent out, and the first battle was fought at the entrance to
+the village of San Juan del Monte. The rebels made a hard stand this
+time under the leadership of Sancho Valenzuela (a hemp-rope maker in
+a fairly good way of business), but he showed no military skill and
+chiefly directed his men by frantic shouts from the window of a wooden
+house. Naturally, as soon as they had to retreat, Valenzuela and his
+three companions were taken prisoners. The rebels left about 80 dead
+on the field and fled towards the Pasig River, which they tried to
+cross. Their passage was at first cut off by gunboats, which fired
+volleys into the retreating mob and drove them higher up the bank,
+where there was some hand-to-hand fighting. Over a hundred managed
+to get into canoes with the hope of reaching the Lake of Bay; but,
+as they passed up the river, the civil guard, lying in ambush on
+the opposite shore, fired upon them, and in the consequent confusion
+every canoe was upset. The loss to the rebels in the river and on the
+bank was reckoned at about 50. The whole of that day the road to San
+Juan del Monte was occupied by troops, and no civilian was allowed
+to pass. At 3 p.m. the same day martial law was proclaimed in Manila
+and seven other Luzon provinces.
+
+The next morning at sunrise I rode out to the battlefield with the
+correspondent of the _Ejercito Espanol_ (Madrid). The rebel slain had
+not yet been removed. We came across them everywhere--in the fields and
+in the gutters of the highroad. Old men and youths had joined in the
+scrimmage and, with one exception, every corpse we saw was attired in
+the usual working dress. This one exception we found literally upside
+down with his head stuck in the mud of a paddy-field. Our attention
+was drawn to him (and possibly the Spaniards' bullets, too) by his
+bright red baggy zouave trousers. We rode into the village, which
+was absolutely deserted by its native inhabitants, and stopped at
+the estate-house of the friars where the Spanish officers lodged. The
+_padre_ looked extremely anxious, and the officers advised us not to
+go the road we intended, as rebel parties were known to be lurking
+there. The military advice being practically a command, we took the
+highroad to Sampaloc on our way back to the city.
+
+In the meantime the city drawbridges, which had probably not been
+raised since 1852 (_vide_ p. 343, footnote), were put into working
+order--the bushes which had been left to flourish around the approaches
+were cut down, and the Spanish civilians were called upon to form
+volunteer cavalry and infantry corps. So far the rebel leaders had
+issued no proclamation. It was not generally known what their aims
+were--whether they sought independence, reforms, extermination of
+Spaniards or Europeans generally. The attitude of the thoroughbred
+native non-combatants was glum silence born of fear. The half-castes,
+who had long vaunted their superior birth to the native, found
+themselves between two stools. If the natives were going to succeed
+in the battle, they (the half-castes) would want to be the peaceful
+wire-pullers after the storm. On the other hand, they had so long
+striven to be regarded as on a social equality with the Spaniards
+that they could not now abstain from espousing their cause against the
+rebels without exciting suspicion. Therefore, in the course of a few
+days, the half-castes resident in the capital came forward to enlist
+as volunteers. But no one imagined, at that time, how widespread was
+the _Katipunan_ league. To the profound surprise of the Spaniards it
+was discovered, later on, that many of the half-caste volunteers were
+rebels in disguise, bearing the "blood compact" mark, and presumably
+only waiting to see which way the chances of war would turn to join
+the winning side.
+
+Under sentence of the court-martial established on August 30, the
+four rebel leaders in the battle of San Juan del Monte were executed
+on September 4, on the Campo de Bagumbayan, facing the fashionable
+Luneta Esplanade, by the seashore. Three sides of a square were
+formed by 1,500 Spanish and half-caste volunteers and 500 regular
+troops. Escorted by two Austin and two Franciscan friars, the condemned
+men walked to the execution-ground from the chapel within the walled
+city, where they had been confined since the sentence was passed. They
+were perfectly self-composed. They arrived on the ground pinioned;
+their sentence was read to them and Valenzuela was unpinioned for
+a minute to sign some document at a table. When he was again tied
+up, all four were made to kneel on the ground in a row facing the
+open sea-beach side of the square. Then amidst profound silence, an
+officer, at the head of 16 Spanish soldiers, walked round the three
+sides of the square, halting at each corner to pronounce publicly
+the formula--"In the name of the King! Whosoever shall raise his
+voice to crave clemency for the condemned shall suffer death." The 16
+soldiers filed off in fours and stood about five yards behind each
+culprit. As the officer lowered his sword the volley was fired, and
+all but Valenzuela sank down and rolled over dead. It was the most
+impressive sight I had witnessed for years. The bullets, which had
+passed clean through Valenzuela's body, threw up the gravel in front
+of him. He remained kneeling erect half a minute, and then gradually
+sank on his side. He was still alive, and four more shots, fired close
+to his head, scattered his brains over the grass. Conveyances were
+in readiness to carry off the corpses, and the spectators quitted
+the mournful scene in silence. This was the first execution, which
+was followed by four others in Manila and one in Cavite in General
+Blanco's time, and scores more subsequently.
+
+Up the river the rebels were increasing daily, and at Pasig a thousand
+of them threatened the civil guard, compelling that small force and the
+parish priest to take refuge in the belfry tower. On the river-island
+of Pandacan, just opposite to the European Club at Nagtajan, a crowd
+of armed natives, about 400 strong, attacked the village, sacked the
+church, and drove the parish priest up the belfry tower. In this plight
+the _padre_ was seen to wave a handkerchief, and so drew the attention
+of the guards stationed higher up the river. Aid was sent to him at
+once; the insurgents were repulsed with great loss, but one European
+sergeant was killed, and several native soldiers wounded. The rebellion
+had spread to the northern province of Nueva Ecija, where the Governor
+and all the Europeans who fled to the Government House in San Isidro
+were besieged for a day (September 8) and only saved from capture
+by the timely arrival from Manila of 500 troops, who outflanked the
+insurgents and dispersed them with great slaughter. In Bulacan the
+flying column under Major Lopez Arteaga had a score of combats with
+the rebels, who were everywhere routed. Spaniards and creoles were
+maltreated wherever they were found. A young creole named Chofre,
+well known in Manila, went out to Mariquina to take photographic views
+with a foreign half-caste friend of his named Augustus Morris. When
+they saw the rebels they ran into a hut, which was set fire to. Morris
+(who was not distinguishable as a foreigner) tried to escape and was
+shot, whilst Chofre was burnt to death. From Maragondon a Spanish lady
+was brought to Manila raving mad. At 23, _Calle Cabildo_ (Manila),
+the house of a friend of mine, I several times saw a Spanish lady
+who had lost her reason in Mariquina, an hour's drive from Manila.
+
+Crowds of peaceful natives swarmed into the walled city from the
+suburbs. The Gov.-General himself abandoned his riverside residence
+at Malacanan, and came with his staff to _Calle Potenciana_. During
+the first four months quite 5,000 Chinese, besides a large number
+of Spanish and half-caste families, fled to Hong-Kong. The passport
+system was revived; that is to say, no one could leave Manila for the
+other islands or abroad without presenting himself personally at the
+Civil Governor's office to have his _cedula personal_ vised.
+
+The seditious tendency of a certain Andres Bonifacio, a warehouse-man
+in the employ of a commercial firm in Manila, having come to the
+knowledge of the Spaniards, he was prematurely constrained to seek
+safety in Cavite Province which, thenceforth, became the most important
+centre of the rebellion. Simultaneously Emilio Aguinaldo [175] rallied
+his fighting-men, and for a short while these two organizers operated
+conjointly, Bonifacio being nominally the supreme chief. From the
+beginning, however, there was discord between the two leaders as to
+the plan of campaign to be adopted. Bonifacio advocated barbarous
+persecution and extermination of the Europeans, whilst Aguinaldo
+insisted that he was fighting for a cause for which he sought the
+sympathy and moral support of friends of liberty all the world over and
+that this could never be obtained if they conducted themselves like
+savages. Consequent on this disagreement as to the _modus operandi_,
+Bonifacio and Aguinaldo became rivals, each seeking the suppression
+of the other. Aguinaldo himself explains [176] that Bonifacio
+having condemned him to death, he retaliated in like manner, and the
+contending factions met at Naig. Leaving his armed followers outside,
+Aguinaldo alone entered the house where Bonifacio was surrounded by
+his counsellors, for he simply wished to have an understanding with
+his rival. Bonifacio, however, so abusively confirmed his intention
+to cut short Aguinaldo's career that the latter withdrew, and ordered
+his men to seize Bonifacio, who was forthwith executed, by Aguinaldo's
+order, for the prosperity of the cause and the good of his country.
+
+Bonifacio's followers were few, and, from this moment, Emilio
+Aguinaldo gradually rose from obscurity to prominence. Born at Cauit
+[177] (Cavite) on March 22, 1869, of poor parents, he started life
+in the service of the incumbent of San Francisco de Malabon. Later
+on he went to Manila, where, through the influence of a relative,
+employed in a humble capacity in the capital, he was admitted
+into the College of San Juan de Letran under the auspices of the
+Dominican friars. Subsequently he became a schoolmaster at Silan
+(Cavite), and at the age of twenty-six years he was again in his
+native town as petty-governor (Municipal Captain). He is a man
+of small frame with slightly webbed eyes, betraying the Chinese
+blood in his veins, and a protruding lower lip and prominent chin
+indicative of resolve. Towards me his manner was remarkably placid
+and unassuming, and his whole bearing denoted the very antithesis of
+the dashing warrior. Throughout his career he has shown himself to be
+possessed of natural politeness, and ever ready with the soft answer
+that turneth away wrath. He understands Spanish perfectly well, but
+does not speak it very fluently. Aguinaldo's explanation to me of the
+initial acts of rebellion was as follows:--He had reason to know that,
+in consequence of something having leaked out in Manila regarding
+the immature plans of the conspirators, he was a marked man, so he
+resolved to face the situation boldly. He had then been petty-governor
+of his town (Cauit) sixteen months, and in that official capacity he
+summoned the local detachment of the civil guard to the Town Hall,
+having previously arranged his plan of action with the town guards
+(_cuadrilleros_). Aguinaldo then spoke aside to the sergeant, to whom
+he proposed the surrender of their arms. As he quite anticipated, his
+demand was refused, so he gave the agreed signal to his _cuadrilleros_,
+who immediately surrounded the guards and disarmed them. Thereupon
+Aguinaldo and his companions, being armed, fled at once to the next
+post of the civil guard and seized their weapons also. With this
+small equipment he and his party escaped into the interior of the
+province, towards Silan, situated at the base of the Sungay [178]
+Mountain, where the numerous ravines in the slopes running towards
+the Lake Bombon (popularly known as the Lake of Taal) afforded a
+safe retreat to the rebels. Hundreds of natives soon joined him,
+for the secret of Aguinaldo's influence was the widespread popular
+belief in his possession of the _anting-anting_ (_vide_ p. 237);
+his continuous successes, in the first operations, strengthened this
+belief; indeed, he seemed to have the lucky star of a De Wet without
+the military genius.
+
+On August 31, 1896, eleven days after the plot was discovered in
+Manila, he issued his _pronunciamiento_ simultaneously at his
+birthplace, at Novaleta, and at San Francisco de Malabon. This
+document, however, is of little historic value, for, instead of
+setting forth the aims of the revolutionists, it is simply a wild
+exhortation to the people, in general vague terms, to take arms and
+free themselves from oppression. In San Francisco de Malabon Aguinaldo
+rallied his forces prior to their march to Imus, [179] their great
+strategic point. The village itself, situated in the centre of a large,
+well-watered plain, surrounded by planted land, was nothing--a mere
+collection of wooden or bamboo-and-thatch dwellings. The distance
+from Manila would be about 16 miles by land, with good roads leading
+to the bay shore towns. The people were very poor, being tenants
+or dependents of the friars; hence the only building of importance
+was the friars' estate-house, which was really a fortress in the
+estimation of the natives. This residence was situated in the middle
+of a compound surrounded by massive high walls, and to it some 17
+friars fled on the first alarm. For the rebels, therefore, Imus
+had a double value--the so-called fortress and the capture of the
+priests. After a siege which lasted long enough for General Blanco to
+have sent troops against them, the rebels captured Imus estate-house
+on September 1, and erected barricades there. Thirteen of the priests
+fell into their hands. They cut trenches and threw up earthworks in
+several of the main roads of the province, and strengthened their
+position at Novaleta. Marauding parties were sent out everywhere
+to steal the crops and live-stock, which were conveyed in large
+quantities to Imus. Some of the captured priests were treated most
+barbarously. One was cut up piecemeal; another was saturated with
+petroleum and set on fire, and a third was bathed in oil and fried
+on a bamboo spit run through the length of his body. There was a
+_Requiem_ Mass for this event. During the first few months of the
+rising many such atrocities were committed by the insurgents. The
+Naig outrage caused a great sensation in the capital. The lieutenant
+had been killed, and the ferocious band of rebels seized his widow
+and daughter eleven years old. The child was ravished to death,
+and they were just digging a pit to bury the mother alive when she
+was rescued and brought to Manila in the steam-launch _Mariposa_
+raving mad, disguised as a native woman. Aguinaldo, personally,
+was humanely inclined, for at his headquarters he held captive one
+Spanish trooper, an army lieutenant, a Spanish planter, a friar, and
+two Spanish ladies, all of whom were fairly well treated. The priest
+was allowed to read his missal, the lieutenant and trooper were made
+blacksmiths, and the planter had to try his hand at tailoring.
+
+The insurgents occupied Paranaque and Las Pinas on the outskirts
+of Manila, and when General Blanco had 5,000 fresh troops at his
+disposal he still refrained from attacking the rebels in their
+positions. Military men, in conversation with me, excused this
+inaction on the ground that, to rout the rebels completely without
+having sufficient troops to garrison the places taken and to form
+flying columns to prevent the insurgents fleeing to the mountain
+fastnesses, would only require them to do the work over again when
+they reappeared. So General Blanco went on waiting in the hope that
+more troops would arrive with which to inflict such a crushing defeat
+on the rebels as would ensure a lasting peace. The rebels were in
+possession of Imus for several months. Three weeks after they took it,
+artillery was slowly carried over to Cavite, which is connected with
+the mainland by a narrow isthmus, so the rebels hastened to construct
+a long line of trenches immediately to the south of this (_vide_ map),
+whereby communication with the heart of the province was effectually
+cut off. Not only did their mile and a half of trenches and stockade
+check any advance into the interior from the isthmus, but it served
+as a rallying-point whence Cavite itself was menaced. The Spaniards,
+therefore, forced to take the offensive to save Cavite falling into
+rebel hands, made an attack on the Novaleta defences with Spanish
+troops and loyal native auxiliaries on November 10. The next day the
+Spaniards were repulsed at Binacayan with the loss of one-third of
+the 73rd Native Regiment and 60 Spanish troops, with 50 of both corps
+wounded. The intention to carry artillery towards Imus was abandoned
+and the Spaniards fell back on Dalahican, about a mile north of the
+rebel trenches of Novaleta, where they established a camp at which I
+spent a whole day. They had four large guns and two bronze mortars;
+in the trench adjoining the camp they had one gun. The troops numbered
+3,500 Spaniards under the command of General Rios. The 73rd Native
+Regiment survivors had quarters there, but they were constantly engaged
+in making sorties on the road leading to Manila. No further attempt
+was made in General Blanco's time to dislodge the rebels from their
+splendidly-constructed trenches, which, however, could easily have
+been shelled from the sea side.
+
+A number of supposed promoters of the rebellion filled the Cavite
+prison, and I went over to witness the execution of 13 of them on
+September 12. I knew two or three of them by sight. One was a Chinese
+half-caste, the son of a rich Chinaman then living. The father was
+held to be a respectable man of coolie origin, but the son, long
+before the rebellion, had a worthless reputation.
+
+In the Provinces of Pampanga and Bulacan, north of Manila, the rebel
+mob, under the command of a native of Cabiao (Nueva Ecija) named
+Llaneras, was about 3,000 strong. To oppose this Major Lopez Arteaga
+had a flying column of 500 men, and between the contending parties
+there were repeated encounters with no definite result. Whenever the
+rebels were beaten off and pursued they fled to their strongholds
+of San Mateo (Manila, now Rizal) and Angat (Bulacan). The Spaniards
+made an unsuccessful attempt to dislodge the enemy at Angat, whilst
+at San Mateo, where they were supposed to be 5,000 strong, they were
+left undisturbed. The rebels attacked Calumpit (Bulacan), pillaged
+several houses, decapitated an Englishman's cook, and drove the civil
+guard and the parish priest up the belfry tower. On the other side
+of the river, Llaneras visited the rice-mills of an Anglo-American
+firm, took some refreshment, and assured the manager, Mr. Scott,
+that the rebels had not the least intention to interfere with any
+foreigners (as distinguished from Spaniards), against whom they had
+no complaint whatever.
+
+At length a plan of campaign was prepared, and expeditionary forces
+were to march in two directions through the disaffected provinces south
+of Manila, and combine, according to circumstances, when the bulk of
+the rebels could be driven together. One division operated from the
+lake town of Vinan, whilst General Jaramillo took his troops round to
+Batangas Province and worked northwards. Before the lake forces had
+gone very far they met with a reverse at the hands of the rebels in
+the neighbourhood of Carmona, but rallied and pushed on towards the
+rebel quarters near Silan, where the enemy was apparently concentrating
+for a great struggle. The combined columns under General Jaramillo at
+length opened the attack. A pitched battle was fought, and no quarter
+was given on either side. This fierce contest lasted a whole day,
+and the Spaniards were forced to retire with considerable loss. The
+combined operations accomplished nothing decisive, and served only
+to check an advance on the capital by the rebels, who were already
+in practical possession of the whole of Cavite province excepting
+the port, arsenal, and isthmus of Cavite.
+
+In Manila the volunteers mounted guard whilst the regulars went to
+the front. For a while the volunteers were allowed to make domiciliary
+search, and they did very much as they liked. Domiciliary search was
+so much abused that it had to be forbidden, for the volunteers took
+to entering any house they chose, and roughly examined the persons of
+natives to see if they had the _Katipunan_ brand. Crowds of suspects
+were brought into Manila, and shiploads of them were sent away in
+local steamers to the Caroline Islands and Mindanao, whilst every
+mail-steamer carried batches of them _en route_ for Fernando Po. On
+October 1 the s.s. _Manila_ sailed with 300 Filipinos for Chafarinas
+Islands, Ceuta, and other African penal settlements. In the local
+steamers many of them died on the way. The ordinary prisons were more
+than full, and about 600 suspects were confined in the dungeons of Fort
+Santiago at the mouth of the Pasig River, where a frightful tragedy
+occurred. The dungeons were over-crowded; the river-water filtered in
+through the crevices in the ancient masonry; the Spanish sergeant on
+duty threw his rug over the only light- and ventilating-shaft, and in
+a couple of days carts were seen by many citizens carrying away the
+dead, calculated to number 70. Provincial governors and parish priests
+seemed to regard it as a duty to supply the capital with batches of
+"suspects" from their localities. In Vigan, where nothing had occurred,
+many of the heads of the best families and moneyed men were arrested
+and brought to Manila in a steamer. They were bound hand and foot,
+and carried like packages of merchandise in the hold. I happened to
+be on the quay when the steamer discharged her living freight with
+chains and hooks to haul up and swing out the bodies like bales of
+hemp. From Nueva Caceres (Camarines), the Abellas and several other
+rich families and native priests were seized and shipped off. Poor
+old Manuel Abella, like scores of others, was tortured in Bilibid
+prison and finally shot. He was a notary, unfortunately possessed of a
+fine estate coveted by an impecunious Spaniard, who denounced Abella,
+and was rewarded by being appointed "Administrator" of his property,
+out of which he so enriched himself that he was able, in a few months,
+to return to Spain in a good financial position. A friend of mine,
+a native planter of Balayan, was imprisoned for months, and then
+sent back to his town declared innocent. He had been a marked man
+since 1895, just after his son Quintin, a law student, had had a
+little altercation with his clerical professors in Manila. Thousands
+of peaceful natives were treated with unjustifiable ferocity. The old
+torture-chamber on the ground-floor of the convent of Baliuag (Bulacan)
+is still shown to visitors. The court-martial, established under
+the presidency of a colonel, little by little practised systematic
+extortion, for, within three months of the outbreak, hundreds of the
+richest natives and half-castes in Manila were imprisoned for a few
+days and released _conditionally_. From the lips of my late friend,
+Telesforo Chuidian, a wealthy Chinese half-caste, known to all Manila
+society, I heard of the squalid misery and privations to which he and
+others of his class were subjected, but the complete list would fill
+a page. Some were even re-arrested for the same nefarious purpose,
+and the daily papers published their names on each occasion. Archbishop
+Nozaleda and Gov.-General Blanco were at variance from the beginning of
+the revolt, and in accordance with historical precedent it could only
+end in one way, namely, that the clerical party advised the Canovas
+Ministry to recall the General and appoint in his stead another who
+would be obedient to the friars.
+
+General Blanco was not sufficiently sanguinary for the monks. As a
+strategist he had refused, at the outset, to undertake with 1,500
+European troops a task which was only accomplished by his successor
+with 28,000 men. But the priests thought they knew better, and Blanco
+left for Spain in December, 1896. The relative positions of the parties
+at this crisis stood as follows:--The rebels were in possession of
+the whole of the Province of Cavite excepting the city and arsenal of
+Cavite and the isthmus connecting that city with the mainland. They
+were well fortified at Imus with trenches and stockades extending
+from the estate-house fort in several directions, defended by an
+army of 6,000 to 7,000 men. Their artillery was most primitive,
+however, consisting only of a few small guns called _lantacas_,
+some new guns of small calibre roughly cast out of the church bells,
+and iron waterpipes of large diameter converted into _mitrailleuse_
+mortars. They were strongly entrenched behind a mile and a half of
+strategically constructed earthworks defending the town of Novaleta,
+which they held. They were supposed to have at least 20,000 men
+in occupation there. Including San Francisco de Malabon, Silan,
+Perez Dasmarinas, and the several other places they held, their
+total force in the whole province was estimated at 35,000 men. About
+one-fifth of that number was armed with rifles (chiefly Mauesers), the
+remainder carrying bowie-knives and bamboo lances. The bowie-knife was
+irresistible by the Spaniards when the native came to close-quarter
+fighting. The rebels had ample supplies of rice, buffaloes, etc.,
+stolen from the non-combatant natives. To my personal knowledge
+they had daily communication with Manila, and knew everything that
+was going on there and the public feeling in the capital. They had
+failed in the attempt to seize the town of Santa Cruz (La Laguna),
+where they killed one Spaniard and then retreated. Loyal natives in
+Vinan organized volunteer forces to keep them out of that town. Those
+Manila volunteers known as the _Guerrilla a muerte_ battalion, with
+a few regulars, frequently patrolled the lake coast in steam-launches
+from Manila, and kept the rebels from occupying that district. North
+of Manila the rebellion reached no farther than Bulacan and Pampanga
+Provinces, where Llaneras's flying column, together with the rebels
+in the mountain fastnesses of Angat and San Mateo, amounted to
+about 10,000 men. Llaneras notified the Manila-Dagupan (English)
+Railway officials that they were to cease carrying loyal troops on
+their line; but as those orders were not heeded, a train was wrecked
+on November 19 about 20 miles up from the capital. The locomotive
+and five carriages were smashed, the permanent-way was somewhat
+damaged, five individuals were wounded, and the total loss sustained
+was estimated at P40,000. In the last week of November the friars'
+estate-house at Malinta, some five miles north of Manila, was in
+flames; we could see the blaze from the bay. The slightest reverse
+to Spanish arms always drew a further crowd of rebels into the field.
+
+The total European force when General Blanco left was about 10,000
+men. In Cavite Province the Spaniards held only the camp of Dalahican,
+and the city and arsenal of Cavite with the isthmus. The total number
+of suspects shipped away was about 1,000. I was informed by my friend
+the Secretary of the Military Court that 4,377 individuals were
+awaiting trial by court-martial. The possibility of the insurgents
+ever being able to enter the capital was never believed in by the
+large majority of Europeans, although from a month after the outbreak
+the rebels continued to hold posts within a couple of hours' march
+from the old walls. The natives, however, were led to expect that the
+rebels would make an attempt to occupy the city on Saint Andrew's Day
+(the patron-saint day of Manila, _vide_ p. 50). The British Consul
+and a few British merchants were of opinion that a raid on the
+capital was imminent, and I, among others, was invited by letter,
+dated Manila, November 16, 1896, and written under the authority of
+H.B.M.'s Consul, to attend a meeting on the 18th of that month at the
+offices of a British establishment to concert measures for escape in
+such a contingency. In spite of these fears, business was carried on
+without the least apparent interruption.
+
+When General Blanco reached Spain he quietly lodged at the Hotel de
+Roma in Madrid, and then took a private residence. Out of courtesy
+he was offered a position in the _Cuarto Militar_, which he declined
+to accept. For several months he remained under a political cloud,
+charged with incompetency to quell the Philippine Rebellion. But there
+is something to be said in justification of Blanco's inaction. He was
+importuned from the beginning by the relentless Archbishop and many
+leading civilians to take the offensive and start a war _a outrance_
+with an inadequate number of European soldiers. His 6,000 native
+auxiliaries (as it proved later on) could not be relied upon in a
+_civil_ war. Against the foreign invader, with Spanish prestige still
+high, they would have made good loyal fighting-material. Blanco was
+no novice in civil wars. I remember his career during the previous
+twenty-five years. With his 700 European troops he parried off the
+attacks of the first armed mobs in the Province of Manila (now Rizal),
+and defended the city and the approaches to the capital. Five hundred
+European troops had to be left, here and there, in Visayas for the
+ordinary defence. Before the balance of 300 could be embarked in half
+a dozen places in the south and landed in Manila, the whole Province
+of Cavite was in arms. He could not leave the defence of the city
+entirely in the hands of untrained and undrilled volunteers and march
+the whole of his European regular troops into another province. A
+severe reverse, on the first encounter, might have proved fatal
+to Spanish sovereignty. Blanco had the enormous disadvantage (one
+must live there to appreciate it) of the wet season, and the rebels
+understood this. He had, therefore, to damp the movement by feigning
+to attach to it as little importance as possible. Lastly, Blanco was
+a man of moderate and humane tendencies; a colonial governor of the
+late Martinez Campos school, whose policy is--when all honourable
+peaceful means are exhausted, use force.
+
+The Canovas party was broken up by the assassination of the Prime
+Minister on August 8, 1897. This ministry was followed by the
+provisional Azcarraga Cabinet, which, at the end of six weeks, was
+superseded by the Liberal party under the leadership of Praxedes
+Sagasta, who, to temporize with America, recalled the inflexible
+General Weyler from Cuba, and on October 9 appointed General Ramon
+Blanco, Marquis de Pena Plata, to take the command there.
+
+General Camilo Polavieja (Marquis de Polavieja) arrived in Manila in
+December, 1896, as the successor of Blanco and the chosen _Messiah_
+of the friars. He had made a great name in Cuba as an _energetic_
+military leader, which, in Spanish colonies, always implied a tinge
+of wanton cruelty. In Spain he was regarded as the right arm of the
+ultra-clericals and a possible supporter of Carlism. He was accompanied
+by General Lachambre, whose acquaintance I made in Havana. In the
+same steamer with General Polavieja came 500 troops, whilst another
+steamer simultaneously brought 1,500. Polavieja, therefore, on landing,
+had about 12,000 European troops and 6,000 native auxiliaries; but
+each steamer brought fresh supplies until the total European land
+forces amounted to 28,000. By this time, however, the 6,000 native
+troops were very considerably reduced by desertion, and the remainder
+could hardly be relied upon. But Polavieja started his campaign with
+the immense advantage of having the _whole_ of the dry season before
+him. General Lachambre, as Deputy Commander of the forces, at once took
+the field against the rebels in Cavite Province. It would be tedious
+to relate in detail the numerous encounters with the enemy over this
+area. Battles were fought at Naig, Maragondon, Perez Dasmarinas,
+Nasugbu, Taal, Bacoor, Novaleta, and other places. Imus, which in
+Manila was popularly supposed to be a fortress of relative magnitude,
+whence the rebels would dispute every inch of ground, was attacked
+by a large force of loyal troops. On their approach the rebels set
+fire to the village and fled. Very few remained to meet the Spaniards,
+and as these few tried to escape across the paddy-fields and down the
+river they were picked off by sharp-shooters. It was a victory for the
+Spaniards, inasmuch as their demonstration of force scared the rebels
+into evacuation. But it was necessary to take Silan, which the rebels
+hastened to strengthen, closely followed up by the Spaniards. The
+place was well defended by earthworks and natural parapets, and
+for several hours the issue of the contest was doubtful. The rebels
+fought bravely, leaping from boulder to boulder to meet the foe. In
+every close-quarter combat the bowie-knife had a terrible effect, and
+the loyal troops had suffered heavily when a column of Spaniards was
+marched round to the rear of the rebels' principal parapet. They were
+lowered down with ropes on to a rising ground facing this parapet, and
+poured in a continuous rifle fire until the rebels had to evacuate it,
+and the general rout commenced with great slaughter to the insurgents,
+who dispersed in all directions. Their last stronghold south of Manila
+having been taken, they broke up into small detachments, which were
+chased and beaten wherever they made a stand. The Spaniards suffered
+great losses, but they gained their point, for the rebels, unable
+to hold any one place against this onslaught, were driven up to the
+Laguna Province and endeavoured unsuccessfully to hold the town of
+Santa Cruz. It is interesting to remark, in order to show what the
+rebel aim at that time really was, that they entered here with the
+cry of "Long live Spain; Death to the Friars!" After three months'
+hard fighting, General Lachambre was proclaimed the Liberator of Cavite
+and the adjoining districts, for, by the middle of March, 1897, every
+rebel contingent of any importance in that locality had been dispersed.
+
+Like every other Spanish general in supreme command abroad, Polavieja
+had his enemies in Spain. The organs of the Liberal party attacked him
+unsparingly. Polavieja, as everybody knew, was the chosen executive
+of the friars, whose only care was to secure their own position. He
+was dubbed the "General Cristiano." He was their ideal, and worked
+hand-in-hand with them. He cabled for more troops to be sent with
+which to garrison the reconquered districts and have his army corps
+free to stamp out the rebellion, which was confined to the Northern
+Provinces. Cuba, which had already drained the Peninsula of over
+200,000 men, still required fresh levies to replace the sick and
+wounded, and Polavieja's demand was refused. Immediately after
+this he cabled that his physical ailments compelled him to resign
+the commandership-in-chief, and begged the Government to appoint a
+successor. The Madrid journals hostile to him thereupon indirectly
+attributed to him a lie, and questioned whether his resignation was
+due to ill-health or his resentment of the refusal to send out more
+troops. Still urging his resignation, General Fernando Primo de Rivera
+was gazetted to succeed him, and Polavieja embarked at Manila for Spain
+on April 15, 1897. General Lachambre, as the hero of Cavite, followed
+to receive the applause which was everywhere showered upon him in
+Spain. As to Polavieja's merits, public opinion was very much divided,
+and as soon as it was known that he was on the way, a controversy was
+started in the Madrid press as to how he ought to be received. _El
+Imparcial_ maintained that he was worthy of being honoured as a 19th
+century conquering hero. This gave rise to a volley of abuse on the
+other side, who raked up all his antecedents and supposed tendencies,
+and openly denounced him as a dangerous politician and the supporter
+of theocratic absolutism. According to _El Liberal_ of May 11, Senor
+Ordax Avecilla, of the Red Cross Society, stated in his speech at
+the Madrid Mercantile Club, "If he (the General) thought of becoming
+dictator, he would fall from the heights of his glory to the Hades
+of nonentity." His enemies persistently insinuated that he was really
+returning to Spain to support the clericals actively. But perhaps the
+bitterest satire was levelled against him in _El Pais_ of May 10,
+which, in an article headed "The Great Farce," said: "Do you know
+who is coming? Cyrus, King of Persia; Alexander, King of Macedonia;
+Caesar Augustus; Scipio the African; Gonzalo de Cordova; Napoleon, the
+Great Napoleon, conqueror of worlds. What? Oh, unfortunate people,
+do you not know? Polavieja is coming, the incomparable Polavieja,
+crowned with laurels, commanding a fleet laden to the brim with rich
+trophies; it is Polavieja, gentlemen, who returns, discoverer of new
+worlds, to lay at the feet of Isabella the Catholic his conquering
+sword; it is Polavieja who returns after having cast into obscurity
+the glories of Hernan Cortes; Polavieja, who has widened the national
+map, and brings new territories to the realm--new thrones to his
+queen. What can the people be thinking of that they remain thus in
+silence? Applaud, imbeciles! It is Narvaez who is resuscitated. Now
+we have another master!" No Spanish general who had arrived at
+Polavieja's position would find it possible to be absolutely neutral
+in politics, but to compare him with Narvaez, the military dictator,
+proved in a few days' time to be the grossest absurdity. On May
+13 Polavieja arrived in Barcelona physically broken, half blind,
+and with evident traces of a disordered liver. His detractors were
+silent; an enthusiastic crowd welcomed him for his achievements. He
+had broken the neck of the rebellion, but by what means? Altogether,
+apart from the circumstances of legitimate warfare, in which probably
+neither party was more merciful than the other, he initiated a system
+of striking terror into the non-combatant population by barbarous
+tortures and wholesale executions. On February 6, 1897, in one
+prison alone (Bilibid) there were 1,266 suspects, most of whom were
+brought in by the volunteers, for the forces in the field gave little
+quarter and rarely made prisoners. The functions of the volunteers,
+organized originally for the defence of the city and suburbs, became
+so elastic that, night after night, they made men and women come
+out of their houses for inspection conducted most indecorously. The
+men were escorted to the prisons from pure caprice, and subjected to
+excessive maltreatment. Many of them were liberated in the course of a
+few days, declared innocent, but maimed for life and for ever unable
+to get a living. Some of these victims were well known to everybody
+in Manila; for instance, Dr. Zamora, Bonifacio Arevalo the dentist,
+Antonio Rivero (who died under torture), and others. The only apparent
+object in all this was to disseminate broadcast living examples of
+Spanish vengeance, in order to overawe the populace. Under General
+Blanco's administration such acts had been distinctly prohibited on
+the representation of General Carlos Roca.
+
+Polavieja's rule brought the brilliant career of the notable Filipino,
+Dr. Jose Rizal y Mercado, to a fatal end. Born in Calamba (La Laguna),
+three hours' journey from Manila, on June 19, 1861, he was destined
+to become the idol of his countrymen, and consequently the victim of
+the friars and General Polavieja. Often have I, together with the old
+native parish priest, Father Leoncio Lopez, spent an hour with Jose's
+father, Francisco Mercado, and heard the old man descant, with pride,
+on the intellectual progress of his son at the Jesuits' school in
+Manila. Before he was fourteen years of age he wrote a melodrama in
+verse entitled _Junto al Pasig_ ("Beside the Pasig River"), which was
+performed in public and well received. But young Jose yearned to set
+out on a wider field of learning. His ambition was to go to Europe,
+and at the age of twenty-one he went to Spain, studied medicine,
+and entered the Madrid University, where he graduated as Doctor of
+Medicine and Philosophy. He subsequently continued his studies in
+Paris, Brussels, London, and at several seats of learning in Germany,
+where he obtained another degree, notwithstanding the fact that he had
+the difficulty of a foreign language to contend with. As happened to
+many of his _confreres_ in the German Universities, a career of study
+had simultaneously opened his eyes to a clearer conception of the
+rights of humanity. Thrown among companions of socialistic tendencies,
+his belief in and loyalty to the monarchical rule of his country were
+yet unshaken by the influence of such environment; he was destined
+only to become a disturbing element, and a would-be reformer of that
+time-worn institution which rendered secular government in his native
+land a farce. To give him a party name, he became an anti-clerical,
+strictly in a political and lawful sense. He was a Roman Catholic, but
+his sole aim, outside his own profession, was to save his country from
+the baneful influence of the Spanish friars who there held the Civil
+and Military Government under their tutelage. He sought to place his
+country on a level of material and moral prosperity with others, and he
+knew that the first step in that direction was to secure the expulsion
+of the Monastic Orders. He sympathized with that movement which, during
+his childhood, culminated in the Cavite Conspiracy (_vide_ p. 106). He
+looked profoundly into the causes of his country's unhappiness, and to
+promote their knowledge, in a popular form, he wrote and published in
+Germany, in the Spanish language, a book entitled "Noli me tangere." It
+is a censorious satirical novel, of no great literary merit, but it
+served the author's purpose to expose the inner life, the arrogance,
+and the despotism of the friars in their relations with the natives. On
+his return to the Islands, a year after the publication of this work,
+we met at the house of a mutual friend and conversed on the subject of
+"Noli me tangere," a copy of which he lent to me.
+
+As an oculist Rizal performed some very clever operations, but he
+had another mission--one which brought upon him all the odium of the
+clerical party, but which as quickly raised him in popular esteem in
+native circles. He led a party in his own town who dared to dispute
+the legality of the Dominican Order's possession of a large tract of
+agricultural land. He called upon the Order to show their title-deeds,
+but was met with a contemptuous refusal. At length prudence dictated
+a return to Europe. I often recall the farewell lunch we had together
+at the Restaurant de Paris, in the _Escolta_. During his absence his
+own relations and the chief families in his town became the objects
+of persecution. They were driven from the lands they cultivated and
+rented from the Religious Order, without compensation for improvements,
+and Spaniards took their holdings. In 1890 Rizal saw with his own eyes,
+and perhaps with envy, the growing prosperity of Japan; but the idea
+of annexation to that country was distasteful to him, as he feared
+the Japanese might prove to be rather harsh masters. On his return to
+Europe he contributed many brilliant articles to _La Solidaridad_, the
+Madrid-Philippine organ mentioned on p. 363; but, disgusted with his
+failure to awaken in Spain a sympathetic interest in his own country's
+misfortunes, he left that field of work and re-visited London, where he
+found encouragement and very material assistance from an old friend of
+mine, a distinguished Filipino. Rizal's financial resources were none
+too plentiful, and he himself was anxious for a position of productive
+activity. It was proposed that he should establish himself in London
+as a doctor, but with his mind always bent on the concerns of his
+country he again took to literary work. He edited a new edition of
+Dr. Antonio de Morga's work on the Philippines [180] (the original
+was published in Mexico in 1609), with notes, and wrote a new book in
+the form of romance, entitled "El Filibusterismo," [181] the purpose
+of which was to show how the Filipinos were goaded into outlawry.
+
+About this time two priests, C---- and C----, who had seceded from
+the Roman Catholic Church, called upon my Philippine friend to urge
+him to take an interest in their projected evangelical work in the
+Islands. They even proposed to establish a new Church there and appoint
+a hierarchy--an extremely risky venture indeed. My friend was asked
+to nominate some Filipino for the archbishopric. It was put before
+Rizal, but he declined the honour on the ground that the acceptance
+of such an office would sorely offend his mother. Finally, in 1893,
+a Pampanga Filipino, named C----, came on the scene and proposed to
+furnish Rizal with ample funds for the establishment of a Philippine
+college in Hong-Kong. Rizal accepted the offer and set out for that
+colony, where he waited in vain for the money. For a while he hesitated
+between following the medical profession in Hong-Kong and returning
+to Manila. Mutual friends of ours urged him not to risk a re-entry
+into the Islands; nevertheless, communications passed between him
+and the Gov.-General through the Spanish Consul, and nothing could
+induce him to keep out of the lion's mouth. Rizal avowed that he had
+been given to understand that he could return to the Islands without
+fear for his personal safety and liberty. He arrived in Manila and was
+arrested. His luggage was searched in the Custom-house, and a number
+of those seditious proclamations referred to at p. 204 were found,
+it was alleged, in his trunks. It is contrary to all common sense to
+conceive that a sane man, who had entertained the least doubt as to
+his personal liberty, would bring with him, into a public department of
+scrutiny, documentary evidence of his own culpability. He was arraigned
+before the supreme authority, in whose presence he defended himself
+right nobly. The clerical party wanted his blood, but Gov.-General
+Despujols would not yield. Rizal was either guilty or innocent,
+and should have been fully acquitted or condemned; but to meet the
+matter half way he was banished to Dapitan, a town on the north shore
+of Mindanao Island. I saw the bungalow, situated at the extremity of
+a pretty little horse-shoe bay, where he lived nearly four years in
+bondage. His bright intelligence, his sociability, and his scientific
+attainments had won him the respect and admiration of both the civil
+and religious local authorities. He had such a well-justified good
+repute as an oculist that many travelled across the seas to seek his
+aid. The Cuban insurrection being in full operation, it opened the
+way for a new and interesting period in Rizal's life. Reading between
+the lines of the letters he was allowed to send to his friends, there
+was evidence of his being weighed down with _ennui_ from inactivity,
+and his friends in Europe took the opportunity of bringing pressure
+on the Madrid Government to liberate him. In a house which I visit
+in London there were frequent consultations as to how this could be
+effected. In the end it was agreed to organize a bogus "Society for
+the Liberation of Prisoners in the Far East." A few ladies met at the
+house mentioned, and one of them, Miss A----, having been appointed
+secretary, she was sent to Madrid to present a petition from the
+"Society" to the Prime Minister, Canovas del Castillo, praying for
+the liberation of Rizal in exchange for his professional services
+in the Spanish army operating in Cuba, where army doctors were much
+needed. Hints were deftly thrown out about the "Society's" relations
+with other European capitals, and the foreign lady-secretary played
+her part so adroitly that the Prime Minister pictured to himself
+ambassadorial intervention and foreign complications if he did not
+grant the prayer of what he imagined to be an influential society with
+potential ramifications. The Colonial Minister opposed the petition;
+the War Minister, being Philippine born, declined to act on his own
+responsibility for obvious reasons. Repeated discussions took place
+between the Crown advisers, to whom, at length, the Prime Minister
+disclosed his fears, and finally the Gov.-General of the Philippines,
+Don Ramon Blanco, was authorized to liberate Rizal, on the terms
+mentioned, if he saw no objection. As my Philippine friend, who went
+from London to Madrid about the matter, remarked to the War Minister,
+"Rizal is loyal; he will do his duty; but if he did not, one more or
+less in the rebel camp--what matters?" The Gov.-General willingly
+acted on the powers received from the Home Government, and Rizal's
+conditional freedom dated from July 28, 1896. The governor of Dapitan
+was instructed to ask Rizal if he wished to go to Cuba as an army
+doctor, and the reply being in the affirmative, he was conducted on
+board the steamer for Manila, calling on the way at Cebu, where crowds
+of natives and half-castes went on board to congratulate him. He had
+become the idol of the people in his exile; his ideas were _then_
+the reflection of all Philippine aims and ambitions; the very name of
+Rizal raised their hopes to the highest pitch. Most fantastic reports
+were circulated concerning him. Deeds in Europe, almost amounting
+to miracles, were attributed to his genius, and became current talk
+among the natives when they spoke _sotto voce_ of Rizal's power and
+influence. He was looked up to as the future regenerator of his race,
+capable of moving armies and navies for the cause of liberty. Their
+very reverence was his condemnation in the eyes of the priests.
+
+There were no inter-island cables in those days, and the arrival
+of Rizal in the port of Manila was a surprise to the friars. They
+expostulated with General Blanco. They openly upbraided him for
+having set free the soul of disaffection; but the general would not
+relinquish his intention, explaining, very logically, that if Rizal
+were the soul of rebellion he was now about to depart. The friars were
+eager for Rival's blood, and the parish priest of Tondo arranged
+a revolt of the _caudrilleros_ (guards) of that suburb, hoping
+thereby to convince General Blanco that the rebellion was in full
+cry, consequent on his folly. No doubt, by this trick of the friars,
+many civilian Spaniards were deceived into an honest belief in the
+ineptitude of the Gov.-General. In a state of frenzy a body of them,
+headed by Father Mariano Gil, marched to the palace of Malacanan to
+demand an explanation of General Blanco. The gates were closed by order
+of the captain of the guard. When the general learnt what the howling
+outside signified he mounted his horse, and, at the head of his guards,
+met the excited crowd and ordered them to quit the precincts of the
+palace, or he would put them out by force. The abashed priest [182]
+thereupon withdrew with his companions, but from that day the occult
+power of the friars was put in motion to bring about the recall of
+General Blanco. In the meantime Rizal had been detained in the Spanish
+cruiser _Castilla_ lying in the bay. Thence he was transferred to the
+mail-steamer _Isla de Panay_ bound to Barcelona. He carried with him
+letters of recommendation to the Ministers of War and the Colonies,
+courteously sent to him by General Blanco with the following letter
+to himself:--
+
+
+(_Translation_.)
+
+_Manila_, _30th August_, 1896.
+
+_Dr. Jose Rizal_.
+
+_My Dear Sir_,--
+
+Enclosed I send you two letters, for the Ministers of War and the
+Colonies respectively, which I believe will ensure to you a good
+reception. I cannot doubt that you will show me respect in your
+relations with the Government, and by your future conduct, not only
+on account of your word pledged, but because passing events must make
+it clear to you how certain proceedings, due to extravagant notions
+can only produce hatred, ruin, tears and bloodshed. That you may be
+happy is the desire of Yours, etc.,
+
+_Ramon Blanco_.
+
+
+He had as travelling companion Don Pedro P. Rojas, already referred
+to, and had he chosen he could have left the steamer at Singapore as
+Rojas did. Not a few of us who saw the vessel leave wished him "God
+speed." But the clerical party were eager for his extermination. He
+was a thorn in the side of monastic sway; he had committed no crime,
+but he was the friars' arch-enemy and _bete noire_. Again the lay
+authorities had to yield to the monks. Dr. Rizal was cabled for to
+answer certain accusations; hence on his landing in the Peninsula he
+was incarcerated in the celebrated fortress of Montjuich (the scene of
+so many horrors), pending his re-shipment by the returning steamer. He
+reached Manila as a State prisoner in the _Colon_, isolated from all
+but his jailors. It was materially impossible for him to have taken
+any part in the rebellion, whatever his sympathies may have been. Yet,
+once more, the wheel of fortune turned against him. Coincidentally the
+parish priest of Morong was murdered at the altar whilst celebrating
+Mass on Christmas Day, 1896. The importunity of the friars could be
+no longer resisted; this new calamity seemed to strengthen their
+cause. The next day Rizal was brought to trial for _sedition_ and
+_rebellion_, before a court-martial composed of eight captains,
+under the presidency of a lieutenant-colonel. No reliable testimony
+could be brought against him. How could it be when, for years, he had
+been a State prisoner in forced seclusion? He defended himself with
+logical argument. But what mattered? He was condemned beforehand to
+ignominious death as a traitor, and the decree of execution was one of
+Polavieja's foulest acts. During the few days which elapsed between
+sentence and death he refused to see any priest but a Jesuit, Padre
+Faura, his old preceptor, who hastened his own death by coming from a
+sick bed to console the pupil he was so proud of. In his last moments
+his demeanour was in accordance with his oft-quoted saying, "What is
+death to me? I have sown the seed; others are left to reap." In his
+condemned cell he composed a beautiful poem of 14 verses ("My last
+Thought"), which was found by his wife and published. The following
+are the first and last verses.
+
+
+_Mi Ultimo Pensamiento_.
+
+
+    Adios, Patria adorada, region del sol querida,
+    Perla del Mar de Oriente, nuestro perdido Eden.
+    A darte voy alegre la triste mustia vida,
+    Y fuera mas brillante, mas fresca, mas florida,
+    Tambien por ti la diera, la diera por tu bien.
+
+
+
+    Adios, padres y hermanos, trozos del alma mia.
+    Amigos de la infancia en el perdido hogar.
+    Dad gracias que descanso del fatigoso dia;
+    Adios, dulce extrangera, mi amiga, mi alegria,
+    Adios, queridos seres, morir es descansar.
+
+
+
+The woman who had long responded to his love was only too proud to
+bear his illustrious name, and in the sombre rays which fell from his
+prison grating, the vows of matrimony were given and sanctified with
+the sad certainty of widowhood on the morrow. Fortified by purity of
+conscience and the rectitude of his principles, he felt no felon's
+remorse, but walked with equanimity to the place of execution. About
+2,000 regular and volunteer troops formed the square where he knelt
+facing the seashore, on the blood-stained field of Bagumbayan. After an
+officer had shouted the formula, "In the name of the King! Whosoever
+shall raise his voice to crave clemency for the condemned, shall
+suffer death," four bullets, fired from behind by Philippine soldiers,
+did their fatal work. This execution took place at 6 a.m. on December
+30, 1896. An immense crowd witnessed, in silent awe, this sacrifice
+to priestcraft. The friars, too, were present _en masse_, many of
+them smoking big cigars, jubilant over the extinction of that bright
+intellectual light which, alas! can never be rekindled.
+
+The circumstances under which Rizal, in his exile, made the
+acquaintance of Josephine Taufer, who became his wife, are curious. The
+account was given to me by Mrs. Rizal's foster-father as we crossed the
+China Sea together. The foster-father, who was an American resident in
+Hong-Kong, found his eyesight gradually failing him. After exhausting
+all remedies in that colony, he heard of a famous oculist in Manila
+named Rizal, a Filipino of reputed Japanese origin. Therefore,
+in August, 1894, he went to Manila to seek the great doctor, taking
+with him a Macao servant, his daughter, and a girl whom he had adopted
+from infancy. The Philippine Archipelago was such a _terra incognita_
+to the outside world that little was generally known of it save the
+capital, Manila. When he reached there he learnt, to his dismay,
+that the renowned practitioner was a political exile who lived in
+an out-of-the-way place in Mindanao Island. Intent on his purpose,
+he took ship and found the abode of Dr. Rizal. The American had been
+forsaken by his daughter in Manila, where she eventually married a
+young native who had neither craft nor fortune. The adopted daughter,
+therefore, was his companion to Dapitan. When they arrived at the
+bungalow the bright eyes of the lovely Josephine interested the doctor
+far more than the sombre diseased organs of her foster-father. The
+exile and the maiden, in short, fell in love with each other, and they
+mutually vowed never to be parted but by force. The old man's eyes
+were past all cure, and in vain he urged the girl to depart with him;
+love dissented from the proposition, and the patient found his way
+back to Manila, and thence to Hong-Kong, with his Macao servant--a
+sadder, but a wiser man. The foster-child remained behind to share
+the hut of the political exile. When, an hour after her marriage,
+she became Widow Rizal, her husband's corpse, which had received
+sepulture in the cemetery, was guarded by soldiers for four days lest
+the superstitious natives should snatch the body and divide it into
+a thousand relics of their lamented idol. Then Josephine started
+off for the rebel camp at Imus. On her way she was often asked,
+"Who art thou?" but her answer, "Lo! I am thy sister, the widow of
+Rizal!" not only opened a passage for her, but brought low every head
+in silent reverence. Amidst mourning and triumph she was conducted to
+the presence of the rebel commander-in-chief, Emilio Aguinaldo, who
+received her with the respect due to the sorrowing relict of their
+departed hero. But the formal tributes of condolence were followed
+by great rejoicing in the camp. She was the only free white woman
+within the rebel lines. They lauded her as though an angelic being
+had fallen from the skies; they sang her praises as if she were a
+modern Joan of Arc sent by heaven to lead the way to victory over
+the banner of Castile. But she chose, for the time being, to follow a
+more womanly vocation, and, having been escorted to San Francisco de
+Malabon, she took up her residence in the convent to tend the wounded
+for about three weeks. Then, when the battle of Perez Dasmarinas was
+raging, our heroine sallied forth on horseback with a Maeuser rifle
+over her shoulder, and--as she stated with pride to a friend of mine
+who interviewed her--she had the satisfaction of shooting dead one
+Spanish officer, and then retreated to her convent refuge. Again,
+she was present at the battle of Silan, where her heroic example of
+courage infused new life into her brother rebels. The carnage on both
+sides was fearful, but in the end the rebels fell back, and there,
+from a spot amidst mangled corpses, rivulets of blood, and groans of
+death, Josephine witnessed many a scene of Spanish barbarity--the
+butchery of old inoffensive men and women, children caught up by
+the feet and dashed against the walls, and the bayonet-charge on the
+host of fugitive innocents. The rebels having been beaten everywhere
+when Lachambre took the field, Josephine had to follow in their
+retreat, and after Imus and Silan were taken, she, with the rest,
+had to flee to another province, tramping through 23 villages on
+the way. She was about to play another _role_, being on the point
+of going to Manila to organize a convoy of arms and munitions, when
+she heard that certain Spaniards were plotting against her life. So
+she sought an interview with the Gov.-General, who asked her if she
+had been in the rebel camp at Imus. She replied fearlessly in the
+affirmative, and, relying on the security from violence afforded
+by her sex and foreign nationality, there passed between her and
+the Gov.-General quite an amusing and piquant colloquy. "What did
+you go to Imus for?" inquired the General. "What did you go there
+for?" rejoined Josephine. "To fight," said the General. "So did I,"
+answered Josephine. "Will you leave Manila?" asked the General. "Why
+should I?" queried Josephine. "Well," said the General, "the priests
+will not leave you alone if you stay here, and they will bring false
+evidence against you. I have no power to overrule theirs." "Then
+what is the use of the Gov.-General?" pursued our heroine; but the
+General dismissed the discussion, which was becoming embarrassing,
+and resumed it a few days later by calling upon her emphatically to
+quit the Colony. At this second interview the General fumed and raged,
+and our heroine too stamped her little foot, and, woman-like, avowed
+"she did not care for him; she was not afraid of him." It was temerity
+born of inexperience, for one word of command from the General could
+have sent her the way many others had gone, to an unrevealed fate. Thus
+matters waxed hot between her defiance and his forbearance, until
+visions of torture--thumb-screws and bastinado--passed so vividly
+before her eyes that she yielded, as individual force must, to the
+collective power which rules supreme, and reluctantly consented to
+leave the fair Philippine shores in May, 1897, in the s.s. _Yuensang_,
+for a safer resting-place on the British soil of Hong-Kong.
+
+The execution of Dr. Rizal was a most impolitic act. It sent into
+the field his brother Pasciano with a large following, who eventually
+succeeded in driving every Spaniard out of their native province of
+La Laguna. They also seized the lake gunboats, took an entire Spanish
+garrison prisoner, and captured a large quantity of stores. Pasciano
+rose to the rank of general before the rebellion ended. [183]
+
+General Fernando Primo de Rivera, Marquis de Estella, arrived in
+Manila, as the successor of General Camilo Polavieja, in the spring
+of 1897. He knew the country and the people he was called upon to
+pacify, having been Gov.-General there from April, 1880, to March,
+1883. A few days after his arrival he issued a proclamation offering
+an amnesty to all who would lay down their arms within a prescribed
+period. Many responded to this appeal, for the crushing defeat of
+the rebels in Cavite Province, accompanied by the ruthless severity
+of the soldiery during the last Captain-Generalcy, had damped the
+ardour of thousands of would-be insurgents. The rebellion was then
+confined to the north of Manila, but, since Aguinaldo had evacuated
+Cavite and joined forces with Llaneras, the movement was carried far
+beyond the Provinces of Bulacan and Pampanga. Armed mobs had risen
+in Pangasinan, Zambales, Ilocos, Nueva Ecija, and Tarlac. Many
+villages were entirely reduced to ashes by them; crops of young
+rice too unripe to be useful to anybody were wantonly destroyed;
+pillage and devastation were resorted to everywhere to coerce the
+peaceful inhabitants to join in the movement. On the other hand, the
+nerves of the priests were so highly strung that they suspected every
+native, and, by persistently launching false accusations against their
+parishioners, they literally made rebels. Hence at Candon (Ilocos Sur),
+a town of importance on the north-west coast of Luzon, five influential
+residents were simply goaded into rebellion by the frenzied action
+of the friars subordinate to the Bishop of Vigan, Father Jose Hevia
+de Campomanes. These residents then killed the parish priest, and
+without arms fled for safety to the mountain ravines. A few months
+before, at the commencement of the rebellion, this same Austin friar,
+Father Rafael Redondo, had ignominiously treated his own and other
+native curates by having them stripped naked and tied down to benches,
+where he beat them with the prickly tail of the ray-fish to extort
+confessions relating to conspiracy. In San Fernando de la Union the
+native priests Adriano Garces, Mariano Gaerlan, and Mariano Dacanaya
+were tortured with a hot iron applied to their bodies to force a
+confession that they were freemasons. The rebels attacked Bayambang
+(Pangasinan), drove out the Spanish garrison, seized the church
+and convent in which they had fortified themselves, made prisoner
+the Spanish priest, burnt the Government stores, Court-house, and
+Spanish residences, but carefully avoided all interference with the
+British-owned steam rice-mill and paddy warehouses. Troops were sent
+against them by special train from Tarlac, and they were beaten out
+of the place with a loss of about 100 individuals; but they carried
+off their clerical prisoner. General Monet operated in the north
+against the rebels with Spanish and native auxiliary forces. He
+attacked the armed mobs in Zambales Province, where encounters of
+minor importance took place almost daily, with no decisive victory
+for either party. He showed no mercy and took no prisoners; his
+troops shot down or bayoneted rebels, non-combatants, women and
+children indiscriminately. Tillage was carried on at the risk of
+one's life, for men found going out to their lands were seized as
+spies and treated with the utmost severity as possible sympathizers
+with the rebels. He carried this war of extermination up to Ilocos,
+where, little by little, his forces deserted him. His auxiliaries
+went over to the rebels in groups. Even a few Spaniards passed to
+the other side, and after a protracted struggle which brought no
+advantage to the Government, he left garrisons in several places
+and returned to Manila. In Aliaga (Nueva Ecija) the Spaniards had
+no greater success. The rebels assembled there in crowds, augmented
+by the fugitive mobs from Pangasinan, and took possession of the
+town. The Spaniards, under General Nunez, attacked them on two sides,
+and there was fought one of the most desperate battles of the north. It
+lasted about six hours: the slaughter on both sides was appalling. The
+site was strewn with corpses, and as the rebels were about to retreat
+General Nunez advanced to cut them off, but was so severely wounded
+that he had to relinquish the command on the field. But the flight of
+the insurgents was too far advanced to rally them, and they retired
+south towards Pampanga.
+
+In Tayabas the officiousness of the Governor almost brought him to
+an untimely end. Two well-known inhabitants of Pagsanjan (La Laguna)
+were accused of conspiracy, and, without proof, court-martialled
+and executed. The Governor went to witness the scene, and returning
+the next day with his official suite, he was waylaid near Lucbang
+by a rebel party, who killed one of the officers and wounded the
+Governor. Filipinos returning to Manila were imprisoned without trial,
+tortured, and shipped back to Hong-Kong as deck passengers. The wet
+season had fully set in, making warfare in the provinces exceedingly
+difficult for the raw Spanish recruits who arrived to take the place
+of the dead, wounded, and diseased. Spain was so hard pressed by
+Cuban affairs that the majority of these last levies were mere boys,
+ignorant of the use of arms, ill clad, badly fed, and with months of
+pay in arrear. Under these conditions they were barely a match for
+the sturdy Islanders, over mountains, through streams, mud-pools,
+and paddy-fields. The military hospitals were full; the Spaniards
+were as far off extinguishing the _Katipunan_ as the rebels were
+from being able to subvert Spanish sovereignty. The rebels held only
+two impregnable places, namely Angat and San Mateo, but whilst they
+carried on an interminable guerilla warfare they as carefully avoided
+a pitched battle. The Gov.-General, then, had resort to another edict,
+dated July 2, 1897, which read thus:--
+
+
+
+    _Edict_
+
+    Don Fernando Primo de Rivera y Sobremonte, Marquis de
+    Estella, Governor and Captain-General of the Philippines, and
+    Commander-in-Chief of the Army.
+
+    Whereas the unlimited amplitude given to my former edicts by
+    some authorities who are still according the benefits of the
+    amnesty to those who present themselves after the expiration of
+    the conceded time, imperatively calls for a most absolute and
+    positive declaration that there is a limit to clemency and pardon,
+    otherwise the indefinite postponement of the application of the
+    law may be interpreted as a sign of debility; and
+
+    Whereas our generosity has been fully appreciated by many who
+    have shown signs of repentance by resuming their legal status,
+    whilst there are others who abuse our excessive benevolence
+    by maintaining their rebellious attitude, and encroach on our
+    patience to prolong the resistance; and
+
+    Whereas it is expedient to abolish the spectacle of a few groups,
+    always vanquished whilst committing all sorts of felonies under
+    the protection of a fictitious political flag, maintaining a
+    state of uneasiness and corruption;
+
+    Now, therefore, the authorities must adopt every possible means
+    of repression, and I, as General-in-Chief of the Army,
+
+
+
+    Order and Command
+
+    _Article_ 1.--All persons having contracted responsibilities up
+    to date on account of the present rebellion who fail to report
+    themselves to the authorities or military commanders before the
+    10th of July will be pursued and treated as guilty.
+
+    _Article_ 2.--Commanding generals in the field, military and civil
+    governors in districts where the rebels exist, will prohibit all
+    inhabitants from leaving the villages and towns, unless under
+    absolute necessity for agricultural purposes, or taking care of
+    rural properties or other works. Those comprised in the latter
+    class will be provided by the municipal captains with a special
+    pass, in which will be noted the period of absence, the place to
+    be visited, and the road to be taken, always provided that all
+    persons absenting themselves from the villages without carrying
+    such passes, and all who, having them, deviate from the time,
+    road, or place indicated, will be treated as rebels.
+
+    _Article 3._--After the 10th instant all persons will be required
+    to prove their identity by the personal document (_cedula
+    personal_), together with the pass above-mentioned, and neither
+    the amnesty passes already granted nor any other document will
+    have any legal validity.
+
+    All who contravene these orders will be tried by court-martial.
+
+    _Fernando Primo de Rivera_.
+
+
+
+The indiscreetness of this measure was soon evident. It irritated
+the well-disposed inhabitants, from whom fees were exacted by the
+Gov.-General's venal subordinates; the rigorous application of the
+edict drove many to the enemy's camp, and the rebels responded to
+this document by issuing the following Exhortation in Tagalog dialect,
+bearing the pseudonym of "Malabar." It was extensively circulated in
+July, 1897, but bears no date. The Spanish authorities made strenuous
+but unsuccessful efforts to confiscate it. It is an interesting
+document because (1) It admits how little territory the _Katipunan_
+itself considered under its dominion. (2) It sets forth the sum total
+of the rebels' demands at that period. (3) It admits their impotence
+to vanquish the loyal forces in open battle.
+
+
+
+    To the Brave Sons of the Philippines
+
+    The Spaniards have occupied the towns of Cavite Province because we
+    found it convenient to evacuate them. We must change our tactics
+    as circumstances dictate.
+
+    We have proved it to be a bad policy to be fortified in one place
+    awaiting the enemy's attack. We must take the offensive when we
+    get the chance, adopting the Cuban plan of ambush and guerilla
+    warfare. In this way we can, for an indefinite period, defy Spain,
+    exhaust her resources, and oblige her to surrender from poverty,
+    for it must be remembered that the very Spanish newspapers admit
+    that each soldier costs a dollar a day, and adding to this
+    his passage money, clothing and equipment, the total amounts
+    to a considerable sum. Considering that Spanish credit abroad
+    is exhausted, that her young men, to avoid conscription, are
+    emigrating to France and elsewhere in large numbers, Spain must
+    of necessity yield in the end. You already know that Polavieja
+    resigned because the Government were unable to send him the
+    further 20,000 men demanded. The Cubans, with their guerilla
+    system, avoiding encounters unfavourable to themselves, have
+    succeeded in wearying the Spaniards, who are dying of fever in
+    large numbers. Following this system, it would be quite feasible
+    to extend the action of the _Katipunan_ to Ilocos, Pangasinan,
+    Cagayan, and other provinces, because our brothers in these places,
+    sorely tyrannized by the Spaniards, are prepared to unite with us.
+
+    The Provinces of Zambales, Tarlac, Tayabas, etc., are already
+    under the _Katipunan_ Government, and to complete our success,
+    the revolutionary movement should become general, for the ends
+    which we all so ardently desire, namely:
+
+    (1) Expulsion of the friars and restitution to the townships
+    of the lands which the friars have appropriated, dividing the
+    incumbencies held by them, as well as the episcopal sees equally
+    between Peninsular and Insular secular priests.
+
+    (2) Spain must concede to us, as she has to Cuba, Parliamentary
+    representation, freedom of the Press, toleration of all religious
+    sects, laws common with hers, and administrative and economic
+    autonomy.
+
+    (3) Equality in treatment and pay between Peninsular and Insular
+    civil servants.
+
+    (4) Restitution of all lands appropriated by the friars to the
+    townships, or to the original owners, or in default of finding
+    such owners, the State is to put them up to public auction in
+    small lots of a value within the reach of all and payable within
+    four years, the same as the present State lands.
+
+    (5) Abolition of the Government authorities' power to banish
+    citizens, as well as all unjust measures against Filipinos;
+    legal equality for all persons, whether Peninsular or Insular,
+    under the Civil as well as the Penal Code.
+
+    The war must be prolonged to give the greatest signs of vitality
+    possible, so that Spain may be compelled to grant our demands,
+    otherwise she will consider us an effete race and curtail, rather
+    than extend, our rights.
+
+    _Malabar_.
+
+
+
+Shortly after this Emilio Aguinaldo, the recognized leader of the
+rebels, issued a _Manifiesto_ in somewhat ambiguous terms which might
+imply a demand for independence. In this document he says:--
+
+
+    We aspire to the glory of obtaining the liberty, _independence_,
+    and honour of the country.... We aspire to a Government
+    representing all the live forces of the country, in which the most
+    able, the most worthy in virtue and talent, may take part without
+    distinction of birth, fortune, or race. We desire that no monk,
+    or friar, shall sully the soil of any part of the Archipelago,
+    nor that there shall exist any convent, etc., etc.
+
+
+Every month brought to light fresh public exhortations, edicts, and
+proclamations from one side or the other, of which I have numerous
+printed copies before me now. About this time the famous Philippine
+painter, Juan Luna (_vide_ p. 195), was released after six months'
+imprisonment as a suspect. He left Manila _en route_ for Madrid in
+the Spanish mail-steamer _Covadonga_ in the first week of July and
+returned to Manila the next year (November 1898).
+
+In the field there were no great victories to record, for the rebels
+confined themselves exclusively to harassing the Spanish forces
+and then retreating to the mountains. To all appearances trade in
+Manila and throughout the Islands was little affected by the war,
+and as a matter of fact, the total exports showed a fair average
+when compared with previous years. The sugar production was, however,
+slightly less than in 1896, owing to a scarcity of hands, because, in
+the ploughing season, the young labourers in Negros were drafted off
+to military service. Total imports somewhat increased, notwithstanding
+the imposition of a special 6 per cent. _ad valorem_ tax.
+
+But the probability of an early pacification of the Islands was
+remote. By the unscrupulous abuse of their functions the volunteers
+were obliging the well-intentioned natives to forsake their allegiance,
+and General Primo de Rivera was constrained to issue a decree, dated
+August 6, forbidding all persons in military service to plunder,
+or intimidate, or commit acts of violence on persons, or in their
+houses, or ravish women, under penalty of death. In the same month
+the General commissioned a Filipino, Don Pedro Alejandro Paterno, to
+negotiate terms of capitulation with the rebels. By dint of bribes and
+liberal expenditure of money (_vide_ Paterno's own letter at p. 410)
+Paterno induced the minor chiefs in arms to accept, in principle,
+the proposal of peace on the basis of reforms and money. Paterno was
+appointed by the Gov.-General sole mediator in the discussion of the
+terms to be made with Emilio Aguinaldo, and the General's private
+secretary, Don Niceto Mayoral, was granted special powers to arrange
+with Paterno the details of the proposed treaty. From Paterno's lips
+I have the following account of the negotiations:--
+
+On August 4, 1897, he started on a series of difficult journeys
+into the rebel camps to negotiate severally with the chiefs, who,
+one after the other, stoutly refused to capitulate. On August 9 he
+interviewed Aguinaldo at Biac-na-bato, situated in the mountains, about
+a mile north of San Miguel de Mayumo (Bulacan). Aguinaldo withheld his
+decision until Paterno could report to him the definite opinions of his
+generals. Thereupon Paterno returned to the rebel chiefs, some of whom
+still tenaciously held out, whilst others were willing to capitulate,
+subject to Aguinaldo's approval. Paterno's mission was daily becoming
+more perilous, for the irreconcilable leaders regarded him as an
+evil genius sent to sow discord in the camp. After many delays the
+principal warriors assembled at Biac-na-bato on October 31 and held a
+great meeting, which Paterno, who is a fluent speaker, attended and
+harangued his audience in eloquent phrases, but to no purpose. His
+position was now a somewhat critical one. Several of the chiefs assumed
+such a defiant attitude that but for the clement nature of Aguinaldo,
+Paterno might never have returned to tell the tale. They clamorously
+insisted on their resolution to fight. Then Paterno adroitly brought
+matters to a crisis in a bold peroration which changed the whole
+scene. "Capitulate," he exclaimed, "or get hence and vanquish the
+enemy! Is victory to be gained in this hiding-place?" Piqued by
+this fearless challenge, General Natividad immediately sallied
+forth with his troops and encountered the Spaniards for the last
+time. His dead body was brought into the camp, and, in the shades of
+night, with sombre lights flickering around them, in the presence of
+Natividad's bleeding corpse, again Paterno exhorted them to reflect on
+the prospects in the field and the offer of capitulation. Impressed
+by the lugubrious scene, Aguinaldo yielded, and the next day peace
+negotiations were opened. But other difficulties intervened. Aguinaldo
+having heard that a subordinate chief was conspiring to force his hand
+to capitulate, abruptly cast aside the papers, declaring that he would
+never brook coercion. The deadlock lasted a whole day, but at length
+Aguinaldo signed conditions, which Paterno conveyed to General Primo
+de Rivera at San Fernando (Pampanga). The willingness to capitulate
+was by no means unanimous. Paterno was forewarned that on his route
+a party of 500 Irreconcilables were waiting to intercept and murder
+him, so to evade them he had to hide in a wood. Fifteen minutes' delay
+would have cost him his life. Even a Spanish colonel for some occult
+reason sought to frustrate the peace negotiations by falsely reporting
+to General Primo de Rivera that Paterno was inciting the rebels to
+warfare. But the General believed in Paterno's good faith, although
+he declared the terms proposed unacceptable, and in like manner three
+other amended proposals were rejected, until finally the fifth document
+was accepted as tantamount to a Protocol of Peace to serve as a basis
+for the treaty. Here ends Paterno's verbal declaration.
+
+The Protocol was signed in duplicate by Emilio Aguinaldo of the one
+part, and Pedro A. Paterno, as Peacemaker, of the other part. One
+copy was archived in the office of the _Gobierno General_ in Manila,
+[184] and the other was remitted to the Home Government with a despatch
+from the Gov.-General.
+
+After many consultations and much deliberation it was decided at
+a Cabinet meeting to approve unreservedly of the negotiations,
+and to that effect a cablegram was sent to General Primo de Rivera
+fully empowering him to conclude a treaty of peace on the basis
+of the Protocol. Meanwhile, it soon became evident that there
+were three distinct interests at stake, namely, those of Spain
+and the Spanish people, those of the friars, and the claims of the
+rebels. Consequently the traditional feud between the Archbishop of
+Manila and the Captain-General was revived.
+
+General Primo de Rivera in his despatch urged the Madrid Government to
+grant certain reforms, in any case, which could not fail to affect the
+hitherto independent position of the friars in governmental affairs. He
+also drew the attention of the Government to the defenceless
+condition of the capital in the event of a foreign attack (_vide_
+Senate speeches reported in the _Diario de las Sesiones_, Madrid,
+1899 and 1900). The friars were exceedingly wroth, and combined to
+defeat the General's efforts to come to an understanding with the
+rebels. They secretly paid natives to simulate the _Katipunan_ in
+the provinces, and the plot only came to light when these unfortunate
+dupes fell into the hands of the military authorities and confessed
+what had happened. Nevertheless, the General pursued the negotiations
+with Paterno as intermediary. Aguinaldo's original demand was for a
+total indemnity of P3,000,000, but, in the course of the negotiations
+alluded to, it was finally reduced to P1,700,000, inclusive of P800,000
+to be paid to Aguinaldo on his retirement from the Colony.
+
+The terms of the Protocol of Peace having been mutually agreed upon,
+a treaty, known as the _Pacto de Biac-na-bato_, [185] is alleged to
+have been signed at Biac-na-bato on December 14, 1897, between Emilio
+Aguinaldo and others of the one part, and Pedro A. Paterno, as attorney
+for the Captain-General, acting in the name of the Spanish Government,
+of the other part. Under this treaty the rebels undertook to deliver up
+their arms and ammunition of all kinds to the Spaniards; to evacuate
+the places held by them; to conclude an armistice for three years for
+the application and development of the _reforms to be introduced_
+by the other part, and not to conspire against Spanish sovereignty
+in the Islands, nor aid or abet any movement calculated to counteract
+those reforms. Emilio Aguinaldo and 34 other leaders undertook to quit
+the Philippine Islands and not return thereto until so authorized by
+the Spanish Government, in consideration whereof the above-mentioned
+P800,000 was to be paid as follows:--P400,000 in a draft on Hong-Kong
+to be delivered to Aguinaldo on his leaving Biac-na-bato [This draft
+was, in fact, delivered to him]; P200,000 payable to Aguinaldo as soon
+as he should send a telegram to the revolutionary general in command
+at Biac-na-bato, ordering him to hand over the rebels' arms to the
+Captain-General's appointed commissioner [This telegram was sent],
+and the final P200,000 immediately after the singing of the _Te Deum_
+which would signify an official recognition of peace.
+
+_It was further alleged_ that on behalf of the Spanish Government
+many radical reforms and conditions were agreed to (outside the
+Treaty of Biac-na-bato), almost amounting to a total compliance
+with the demands of the rebels. But no evidence whatever has been
+adduced to confirm this allegation. Indeed it is a remarkable fact
+that neither in the Madrid parliamentary papers (to copies of which
+I have referred), nor in the numerous rebel proclamations and edicts,
+nor in the published correspondence of Pedro A. Paterno, is even the
+full text of the treaty given. It is singular that the rebels should
+have abstained from publishing to the world those precise terms which
+they say were accepted and not fulfilled by the Spanish Government,
+which denies their existence.
+
+Whatever reforms might have been promised would have been purely
+governmental matters which required no mediator for their execution;
+but as to the money payments to be made, Paterno was to receive them
+from the Government and distribute them. An Agreement to this effect
+was, therefore, signed by General Primo de Rivera and Pedro A. Paterno
+in the following terms, viz.:--
+
+    In the peace proposals presented by the sole mediator, Don Pedro
+    Alejandro Paterno, in the name and on behalf of the rebels in arms,
+    and in the Peace Protocol which was agreed to and submitted to His
+    Majesty's Government, _which approved of the same_, there exists
+    a principal clause relating to the sums of money which were to be
+    handed over to the rebels and their families as indemnity for the
+    loss of their goods consequent on the war, which sums amounted to
+    a total of P1,700,000, which the mediator, Senor Paterno, was to
+    distribute absolutely at his discretion, but the payment of the
+    said sum will have to be subject to the conditions proposed by
+    the representative of the Government, H.E. the General-in-Chief of
+    this Army. These conditions were agreed to be as follows, viz.:--
+
+    (1) For the rebels in arms a draft for the sum of P400,000 will
+    be handed to Senor Paterno, payable in Hong-Kong, as well as
+    two cheques for P200,000 each, payable only on the condition
+    of the Agreement being fulfilled on the other part. (2) For
+    the families of those who were not rebels in arms, or engaged
+    in rebellion, but who have likewise suffered the evils of war,
+    the balance of the sum offered shall be paid in three equal
+    instalments, the last to be paid six months after the date on
+    which the _Te Deum_ shall be sung, assuming the peace to become
+    an accomplished fact. Peace shall be held to be effectively
+    concluded if, during the interval of these instalment periods,
+    no party of armed rebels, with recognized leader, shall exist,
+    and if no secret society shall have been discovered as existing
+    here or abroad with the proved object of conspiracy by those who
+    benefit by these payments. The representative of the rebels, Don
+    Pedro Alejandro Paterno, and the representative of the Government,
+    the Captain-General Don Fernando Primo de Rivera, agree to the
+    above conditions, in witness whereof each representative now
+    signs four copies of the same tenour and effect, one being for
+    the Government, another for the archives of the Captain-Generalcy,
+    and one copy each for the said representatives.
+
+     [186]Done in Manila on the 15th of December, 1897.
+
+
+    _Fernando Primo de Rivera_,
+    _The General-in-Chief._
+    _Pedro A. Paterno_,
+    _The Mediator._
+
+
+In the course of a few days a military deputation was sent by the
+Gov.-General, under the leadership of Lieut.-Colonel Primo de Rivera,
+to meet Aguinaldo and his 34 companions-in-arms at a place agreed
+upon in the Province of Pangasinan. They had a repast together,
+and Aguinaldo called for cheers for Spain, in which all heartily
+joined. Thence they proceeded in vehicles to Sual to await the arrival
+of the s.s. _Uranus_, in which they embarked for Hong-Kong on Monday,
+December 27, 1897. Armed rebel troops were stationed at several places
+all along the route to Sual, ready to avenge any act of treachery,
+whilst two Spanish generals were held as hostages at the rebel camp
+at Biac-na-bato until Aguinaldo cabled his safe arrival in Hong-Kong.
+
+Aguinaldo had very rightly stipulated that a Spanish officer of high
+rank should accompany him and his followers to Hong-Kong as a guarantee
+against foul play. The Gov.-General, therefore, sent with them his
+two nephews, Lieut.-Colonel Primo de Rivera and Captain Celestino
+Espinosa, and Major Antonio Pezzi. Aguinaldo and eight other chiefs,
+namely, Gregorio H. del Pilar, Wenceslao Vinegra, Vito Belarmino,
+Mariano Llaneras, Antonio Montenegro, Luis Viola, Manuel Fino, and
+Escolastico Viola, stayed at the Hong-Kong Hotel, whilst the remainder
+took up their abode elsewhere in the city. Aguinaldo cashed his draft
+for P400,000, but as to the other two instalments of the P800,000,
+the Spanish Government defaulted.
+
+There was great rejoicing in Manila, in Madrid, and in several Spanish
+cities, and fetes were organized to celebrate the conclusion of
+peace. In Manila particularly, amidst the pealing of bells and strains
+of music, unfeigned enthusiasm and joy were everywhere evident. It was
+a tremendous relief after sixteen months of persecution, butchery,
+torture, and pecuniary losses. General Primo de Rivera received
+the thanks of the Government, whilst the Queen-Regent bestowed on
+him the Grand Cross of San Fernando, with the pension of 10,000
+pesetas (nominal value L400). But no one in Spain and few in Manila
+as yet could foresee how the fulfilment of the Agreement would be
+bungled. According to a letter of Pedro A. Paterno, dated March 7,
+1898, published in _El Liberal_ of Madrid on June 17, 1898, it would
+appear that (up to the former date) the Spanish Government had failed
+to make any payment to Paterno on account of the P900,000, balance of
+indemnity, for distribution according to Clause (2) of the Agreement
+set forth on the preceding page. The letter says:--
+
+
+    As a matter of justice, I ought to have received the two
+    instalments, amounting to P600,000. Why is this obligation not
+    carried out, and why has General Primo de Rivera not followed my
+    advice by arresting Yocson and his followers from the 5th of last
+    February? I have my conscience clear respecting the risings in
+    Zambales and Pangasinan Provinces and those about to take place
+    in La Laguna and Tayabas.
+
+
+Whatever were the means employed, the rebellion was disorganized for a
+while, but the Spanish authorities had not the tact to follow up this
+_coup_ by temperate and conciliatory measures towards their wavering
+quondam foes. Persons who had been implicated in the rebellion
+were re-arrested on trivial trumped-up charges and imprisoned,
+whilst others were openly treated as seditious suspects. The priests
+started a furious campaign of persecution, and sought, by all manner
+of intrigue, to destroy the compact, which they feared would operate
+against themselves. More executions took place. Instead of the expected
+general amnesty, only a few special pardons were granted.
+
+There had been over two months of nominal peace; the rebels had
+delivered up their arms, and there was nothing to indicate an
+intention to violate their undertakings. Primo de Rivera, who
+believed the rebellion to be fast on the wane, shipped back to
+Spain 7,000 troops. The Madrid Government at once appointed to vacant
+bishoprics two friars of the Orders obnoxious to the people, and it is
+inconceivable that such a step would have been so speedily taken if
+there were any truth in the rebels' pretension that the expulsion of
+the friars had been promised to them. Rafael Comenge, the President
+of the Military Club, was rewarded with the Grand Cross of Military
+Merit for the famous speech which he had delivered at the Club. It
+was generally lauded by Spaniards, whilst it filled all classes of
+natives with indignation. Here are some extracts from this oration:--
+
+
+    You arrive in time; the cannibals of the forest are still there;
+    the wild beast hides in his lair (_bravo_); the hour has come
+    to finish with the savages; wild beasts should be exterminated;
+    weeds should be extirpated. (_Great applause_.) Destruction
+    is the purport of war; its civilizing virtue acts like the
+    hot iron on a cancer, destroying the corrupt tendons in order
+    to arrive at perfect health. No pardon! (_Very good, very
+    good_.) Destroy! Kill! Do not pardon, for this prerogative belongs
+    to the monarch, not to the army. . . . From that historical,
+    honoured, and old land Spain, which we all love with delirious joy,
+    no words of peace come before this treason, but words of vigour
+    and of justice, which, according to public opinion, is better
+    in quality than in quantity. (_Frantic applause, several times
+    repeated, which drowned the voice of the orator_.) Soldiers! you
+    are the right arm of Spain. Execute; exterminate if it be
+    necessary. Amputate the diseased member to save the body;
+    cut off the dry branches which impede the circulation of the
+    sap, in order that the tree may again bring forth leaves and
+    flowers. (_Senor Penaranda interposed, shouting, "That is the
+    way to speak!" Frantic applause_.)
+
+
+Thirty thousand pesos were subscribed at the Military Club for the
+benefit of General Primo de Rivera. Admiral Patricio Montojo, who had
+co-operated against the rebels by firing a few shots at them when they
+occupied the coast towns of Cavite Province and transporting troops
+to and from Manila, was the recipient of a sword of honour on March
+17, 1898. It was presented to him, on behalf of the Military Club,
+by Senor Comenge (who escaped from Manila as soon as the Americans
+entered the port) as a "perpetual remembrance of the triumph of our
+ships off the coast of Cavite," although no deed of glory on the
+part of the fleet, during the period of the rebellion, had come to
+the knowledge of the general public.
+
+The reforms alluded to in the treaty made with the rebel chiefs were
+a subject of daily conversation; but when the _Diario de Manila _
+published an article on March 17, demanding autonomy for the Islands
+and urging the immediate application of those reforms, General
+Primo de Rivera suspended the publication of the newspaper. Some
+were inquisitive enough to ask, Has a treaty been signed or a trick
+been played upon the rebels? The treatment of the people was far from
+being in harmony with the spirit of a treaty of peace.
+
+The expatriated ex-rebels became alarmed by the non-receipt of the
+indemnity instalment and the news from their homes. A committee of
+Filipinos, styled _La Junta Patriotica,_ was formed in Hong-Kong. They
+were in frequent communication with their friends in the Islands. The
+seed of discontent was again germinating under the duplicity of the
+Spanish lay and clerical authorities. Thousands were ready to take
+the field again, but their chiefs were absent, their arms surrendered,
+and the rebellion disorganized. Here and there roving parties appeared,
+but having no recognized leaders, their existence did not invalidate
+the treaty. The Spaniards, indeed, feigned to regard them only
+as a remnant of the rebels who had joined the pre-existing brigand
+bands. The volunteers were committing outrages which might have driven
+the people again into open revolt, and General Primo de Rivera had,
+at least, the sagacity to recognize the evil which was apparent to
+everybody. The volunteers and guerilla battalions were consequently
+disbanded, not a day too soon for the tranquillity of the city. On
+March 25, the tragedy of the _Calle de Camba _took place. This street
+lies just off the _Calle de San Fernando _in Binondo, a few hundred
+yards from the river. In a house frequented by seafaring men a large
+number of Visayan sailors had assembled and were, naturally, discussing
+the topics of the day with the warmth of expression and phraseology
+peculiar to their race, when a passer-by, who overheard the talk,
+informed the police. The civil guard at once raided the premises,
+accused these sailors of conspiracy, and, without waiting for proof
+or refutation, shot down all who could not escape. The victims of this
+outrage numbered over 70. The news dismayed the native population. The
+fact could no longer be doubted that a reign of terrorism and revenge
+had been initiated with impunity, under the assumption that the
+rebellion was broken for many a year to come. How the particulars of
+this crime were related by the survivors to their fellow-islanders we
+cannot know, but it is a coincidental fact that only now the flame of
+rebellion spread to the southern Island of Cebu. For over a generation
+the Cebuanos around Talisay, Minglanilla, and Talambau had sustained
+a dispute with the friars respecting land-tenure. From time to time
+procurators of the Law Court secretly took up the Cebuanos' cause,
+and one of them, Florencio Gonzalez, was cast into prison and slowly
+done to death. This event, which happened almost coincidentally with
+the _Calle de Camba_ tragedy, excited the Cebuanos to the utmost
+degree. Nine days after that unfortunate episode, on April 3, 1898,
+a party of about 5,000 disaffected natives made a raid on the city of
+Cebu. The leaders were armed with rifles, but the rank-and-file carried
+only bowie-knives. About 4 p.m. all the forces which could be mustered
+in the city went out against the rebels, who overwhelmed the loyalists,
+cutting some to pieces, whilst the remainder hastened back to the
+city in great disorder. But, instead of following up their victory,
+the half-resolute rioters camped near Guadalupe for the night. At
+5 a.m. on April 4 they marched upon the city. Peaceful inhabitants
+fled before the motley, yelling crowd of men, women and children
+who swarmed into the streets, armed with bowie-knives and sticks,
+demanding food and other trifles. The terrified Spanish volunteers,
+after their defeat, took refuge in the _Cotta de San Pedro _(the
+Fort), where the Governor, General Montero, joined them, and ordered
+all foreigners to do the same. Later on the foreigners were permitted
+to return to their residences. Amidst the confusion which prevailed,
+the flight of peaceful citizens, the street-fighting, and the moans of
+the dying, the rebels helped themselves freely to all they wanted. The
+mob of both sexes told the townspeople that they (the rioters) had
+nothing to fear, as _anting-anting _wafers (q.v.) had been served
+out to them. The rebels had cut the Cebu-Tuburan telegraph-wires
+(_vide_ p. 267), but in the meantime three small coasting steamers
+had been despatched to Yloilo, Yligan, and another port to demand
+reinforcements. The next day, at sunrise, the rebels attempted
+to reach the Fort, but were fired upon from the Governor's house,
+which is situated in front of it, compelling them to withdraw along
+the shore road, where the gunboat _Maria Cristina _opened fire on
+them. The rebels then retreated to the Chinese quarter of Lutao,
+around the Cathedral and the Santo Nino Church. The Spaniards remained
+under cover whilst the mob held possession of the whole city except the
+Fort, Government House, the College, the churches, and the foreigners
+houses. During the whole day there was an incessant fusillade, the
+rebels' chief stronghold being the Recoleto Convent. Groups of them
+were all over the place, plundering the shops and Spanish houses and
+offices. On April 5 a small force of Spanish regulars, volunteers,
+and sailors made a sortie and fired on the insurgents in Lutao from
+long range. They soon retired, however, as the Fort was in danger of
+being attacked from another side. The same afternoon the steamer sent
+to Yligan for troops returned with 240 on board. During the night the
+Spanish troops ventured into the open and shots were exchanged. On
+April 6 the _Venus_ arrived with 50 soldiers from Yloilo and was at
+once sent on to Bojol Island in search of rice and cattle, which were
+difficult to procure as that island was also in revolt. Native women
+were not interfered with by either party, nor were the foreigners,
+many of whom took refuge at the British Consulate. The rebels wished
+to advance from Lutao, but were kept back by the fire from the gunboat
+_Maria Cristina_. The Spanish troops did not care to venture past a
+block of buildings in which were the offices and stores of a British
+firm. On April 7 the merchant steamer _Churruca_ arrived with troops,
+and in a couple of hours was followed by the cruiser _Don Juan de
+Austria_, also bringing reinforcements under the command of General
+Tejeiro (a former Governor of Cebu Is.). The total fresh troops
+amounted to about 500 men of the 73rd Native Regiment and Spanish
+_cazadores_. Whilst these troops were landing, many of the rebels
+hastened out of the city towards San Nicolas. General Montero and
+the Spanish refugees then emerged from the _cotta_. After General
+Tejeiro had strategically deployed his troops, a squad of them,
+crossing the General Lono Square (now called _Plaza de Rizal_)
+drove the rebels before them and dislodged them from the vicinity
+of the Recoleto Convent. At the same time the rebels were attacked
+at the _mestizo_ quarter called the Parian and at Tiniago, whence
+they had to retreat, with severe loss, towards San Nicolas, which
+practically adjoins Cebu and is only separated therefrom by a narrow
+river. Simultaneously, the _Don Juan de Austria_ threw a shell into
+the corner house of the (chiefly Chinese) shopping-quarter, Lutao,
+which killed several Chinese and set fire to the house. The flames,
+however, did not catch the adjoining property, so the troops burst open
+the doors, poured petroleum on the goods found therein, and caused
+the fire to extend until the whole quarter was, as I saw it, a mass
+of charred ruins with only the stone walls remaining. To complete
+the destruction of Lutao, once a busy bazaar, situated in that part
+of the city immediately facing the sea, another bomb was thrown into
+the centre. The troops then marched to San Nicolas, and a third shell
+fired at the retreating enemy entered and completely destroyed a large
+private residence. An attempt was made to procure supplies from the
+little Island of Magtan, which lies only half a mile off the coast
+of Cebu, but the expedition had to return without having been able
+to effect a landing at the capital town of Opon, which had risen in
+rebellion. On April 8 the loyal troops continued their pursuit of the
+rebels, who suffered severe losses at San Nicolas and Pili, on the road
+south of Cebu city. The corpses collected in the suburbs were carted
+into the city, where, together with those lying about the streets,
+they were piled into heaps, partly covered with petroleum-bathed logs,
+and ignited. The stench was very offensive for some hours, especially
+from a huge burning pile topped with a dead white horse in the General
+Lono Square. Practically the whole of the east coast of the island
+had risen against the Spaniards, but the rebels were careful not to
+interfere with foreigners when they could distinguish them as such. A
+large force of insurgents made another stand at Labangan, where they
+were almost annihilated; it is estimated they left quite a thousand
+dead on the field. The loyal troops followed up the insurgents towards
+the mountain region, whilst the _Don Juan de Austria_ cruised down
+the coast with the intention of bombarding any town which might be in
+rebel hands. The material losses in Cebu amounted to about P1,725,000
+in Lutao, represented by house property of Chinese and half-castes
+and their cash and stock-in-trade. The "Compania General de Tabacos"
+lost about P30,000 in cash in addition to the damage done to their
+offices and property. Rich natives and Chinese lost large sums of
+money, the total of which cannot be ascertained. From the Recoleto
+Convent P19,000 in cash were stolen, and there, as well as in many of
+the Spanish residences, everything valuable and easily removable was
+carried off; but whether all this pillage was committed by the rebels
+alone must ever remain a mystery. The only foreigner who lost his life
+was my late Italian friend Signor Stancampiano, who is supposed to have
+died of shock, for when I last saw him he was hopelessly ill. As usual,
+a considerable number of well-known residents of the city were arrested
+and charged with being the prime movers in these doleful events.
+
+Upon the hills on the west coast of Cebu, near Toledo town,
+some American friends of mine experienced a series of thrilling
+adventures. Mr. and Mrs. Wilson, mother and son, to whom I am indebted
+for their generous hospitality, resided on a large sugar-estate at
+Calumampao, of which Mr. Wilson was part owner. They were, naturally,
+in ignorance of what had taken place in Cebu City. The rebellion spread
+to their district, and many of the natives on and about the estate were
+eager to join in the movement. Mr. Wilson did his utmost to point out
+to them the futility of the attempt, but they indulged in all sorts of
+superstitions about the invulnerability of their chief, Claudio, and
+the charm attached to a red flag he carried, and they were determined
+to take their chance with him. On April 19 an insurgent force came on
+to the plantation, compelled the labourers to join their standard, and
+coolly quartered themselves in the out-buildings and warehouses. They
+did no harm to the Wilsons, but they kidnapped a Spanish gentleman who
+lived close by, and shot him, in spite of Mr. Wilson's entreaties to
+spare his life. The insurgents moved off, taking with them the estate
+hands, and in a couple of days a company of Spanish soldiers, under the
+command of Captain Suarez, arrived at the estate-house. The officer
+was very affable, and Mr. and Mrs. Wilson treated him as hospitably
+as they did all their friends and European passers-by. Naturally
+the conversation fell on the all-absorbing topic of the day and the
+object of his mission. After he and his men had been well refreshed
+they started down the hill to meet some cavalry reinforcements, and,
+as the Wilsons watched their departure, to their astonishment they
+saw Claudio, at the head of 200 rebels, rushing down the hill with
+the red flag floating in the air. Simultaneously a body of Spanish
+horse approached through the valley; Claudio and his followers, caught
+between the Spanish cavalry and infantry, retreated to a storehouse
+in the valley. The result was that some 40 rebels were killed,
+others taken prisoners, and the remainder escaped into the planted
+fields. Every leader was killed, and every peaceful native whom the
+Spaniards met on their way was unmercifully treated. Mr. Wilson was
+then asked to go on board a Spanish vessel, and when he complied he
+was charged with being in league with the rebels. He was allowed to
+return to shore to fetch his mother--a highly-educated, genial old
+lady--and when they both went on board they found there two Englishmen
+as prisoners. Their guest of a few days previous treated them most
+shamefully. When they were well on the voyage to Cebu the prisoners
+were allowed to be on the upper deck, and Mrs. Wilson was permitted
+to use an armchair. The soldiers insulted them, and, leaning their
+backs against Mrs. Wilson's chair, some sang ribald songs, whilst
+others debated whether their captives would be shot on the beach or
+at the _Cotta_ in Cebu. Sometimes they would draw their swords and
+look viciously towards them. At last, after a series of intimidations,
+they reached Cebu, where, after being detained on board several hours,
+they were all taken before the Governor and the Chief Justice, and
+were only saved from further miseries through the intercession of
+the American Vice-Consul, who, by the way, was an Englishman. War
+had just been declared between America and Spain (April 23, 1898),
+and the estate had to be left to the mercy of the rebels, whilst my
+friends took passage to Singapore on the _Gulf of Martaban_.
+
+All immediate danger having now been dispelled, the Spaniards solaced
+themselves with the sweets of revenge. A Spanish functionary (who
+with his wife and brother's family were well known to me for several
+years) caused the soldiers to raid private houses, and bring out
+native families by force into the public square, or conduct them to
+the cemetery on the Guadalupe road, where they were shot in batches
+without inquiry and cremated. The heartrending scenes and wailing
+of the people failed to turn their persecutor from his purpose,
+save in one case--that of a colleague, who, wearing his chain of
+office, stepped forward and successfully begged for his life. A low
+estimate of this official's victims is 200. The motive for his awful
+crime was greed, for he formally confiscated his victims' goods and
+shipped them off daily in schooners to Yloilo. His ill-gotten gains
+would have been greater but for the action of the Governor, who,
+fearing that retribution might fall on his own head as the highest
+authority, ordered his guilty subordinate to appear before him, and
+in the presence of Filipinos he reprimanded him, boxed his ears,
+and commanded him to quit the island within a given period under
+pain of death. The Governor's indignation was evidently feigned,
+for he very shortly availed himself of an altogether novel means
+of terrorism. Sedition was smouldering throughout the island, but
+after the events of April the Spaniards seemed too daunted to take
+the field against the Cebuanos. The Christian Governor, therefore,
+took into his service a Mindanao Mahometan, Rajahmudah Datto Mandi, and
+his band of about 100 Samal Moros to overrun the island and punish the
+natives. This chief, with his warriors, had been called from Zamboanga
+(Mindanao Is.) to Yloilo by General Rios, who immediately commissioned
+him to Cebu in the month of July, 1898. On his arrival there he at once
+started his campaign under the auspices of the Governor, who granted
+him full liberty to dispose of the lives and property of the Cebuanos
+to his heart's content, and as proof of the accomplishment of his gory
+mission he brought in and presented to his patron the ears which he
+had cut off the Cebuanos. North of Cebu City he and his retainers made
+a fresh start, slaying the people, burning villages, and devastating
+the standing crops. Having accomplished his task within three months
+Datto Mandi withdrew with all his men, except two who wished to
+settle at Pardo. He could not persuade them to leave, and after his
+departure they were cut to pieces by the Cebuanos. Pending positive
+corroboration I was very sceptical about this strange narrative; but,
+being in Mindanao Island six years afterwards, I went to visit Datto
+Mandi, who most readily confirmed all the above particulars, and
+presented me with his portrait. Prior to the American advent, Datto
+Mandi, _protege_ as well as protector of the Spaniards, exercised a
+sort of feudal dominion over the services and the sundry cherished
+belongings of his people. Speaking of him as I myself found him, he
+was extremely affable and hospitable. The invitation to Datto Mandi
+was perhaps the most singular event of this period, and goes to show
+with what desperate fear the Spaniards retained their hold on the
+island up to the evacuation, which took place on December 26, 1898.
+
+In the provinces north of Manila the rebellion was again in full
+vigour, and, all trust in Spanish good faith was irrevocably lost. The
+Spanish quarters at Subig (Zambales) and Apalit (Pampanga) were
+attacked and looted in the first week of March. The new movement bore
+a more serious aspect than that under Aguinaldo and his colleagues,
+who, at least, were men of certain intelligence, inspired by a wish
+to secure reforms, whereas their successors in revolt were of far
+less mental capacity, seeking, apparently, only retaliation for the
+cruelties inflicted on the people. It is possible, too, that the
+premium of P800,000 per 35 rebel chiefs inflamed the imaginations of
+the new leaders, who were too ignorant to appreciate the promised
+reforms linked with the same bargain. During the month of February
+the permanent-way of the Manila-Dagupan Railway had been three times
+torn up to prevent the transport of loyal troops. At the same time
+the villages around were looted and burnt. Early in March the rebels,
+under the chief leadership of Yocson, of Malolos, attacked and killed
+the garrisons and the priests in the north of Pangasinan and Zambales,
+excepting six soldiers who managed to escape. [187] Some of the
+garrison troops were murdered after surrender. The telegraph-line
+between Lingayen (Pangasinan) and a place a few miles from Bolinao
+(Zambales) was cut down and removed. A lineman was sent out to repair
+it under escort of civil guards, who were forced by the rebels to
+retire. On March 7, about 2 a.m., the Eastern Extension Telegraph
+Company's cable-station at Bolinao was besieged by rebels. The village
+was held by about 400 armed natives, who had killed one native and
+two European soldiers on the way. The lighthouse-keeper and the
+Inspector of Forests safely reached Santa Cruz, 40 miles south, in
+a boat. The other civilian Spaniards and priests escaped in another
+boat, but were pursued and captured by the insurgents, who killed
+two of the civilians and brought the European women and friars into
+the village as prisoners at 4.30 the same afternoon. Eight soldiers
+had taken refuge in the cable-station, and at 6 a.m. a message was
+sent to the British staff requiring them to turn out the soldiers or
+quit the premises themselves. They refused to take either course, and
+declared their neutrality. A similar message was sent several times,
+with the same result. By 4 p.m. the soldiers had fortified the station
+as well as they could, and the rebels attacked, but were repulsed
+with a few shots. Nothing happened during the night, but the next day
+(March 8) another message was sent to the British staff urging them to
+withdraw as the rebels would renew the assault at 10 a.m. The staff
+again refused to comply. Then it appears that the rebels delayed
+their attack until the arrival of their chief, hourly expected. An
+ultimatum was at length received at the station, to the effect that
+if all arms were given up they would spare the soldiers' lives. They
+also demanded the surrender of the two rebels held prisoners by these
+soldiers. At this stage one of the company's staff, who were allowed
+to go and come as they pleased, volunteered to interview the rebels;
+but matters could not be arranged, as the Spanish corporal (a plucky
+youth of twenty years of age) in the station refused to surrender
+anything at any price. Still parleying was continued, and on March 11
+one of the company's staff again visited the rebel camp to state that
+if the regular bi-monthly steamer failed to arrive on the morrow the
+corporal would surrender arms. Then the rebel chief proposed that the
+corporal should meet him half-way between the company's office and the
+rebel camp, the rebel pledging his word of honour that no harm should
+befall the corporal. The corporal, however, could not do this, as it
+would have been contrary to the Spanish military code to capitulate
+on his own authority, but he confirmed his willingness to surrender
+arms if no steamer arrived the next day, and the company's employee
+returned to the camp to notify this resolution. But in a few minutes
+he observed a commotion among the insurgents; some one had descried
+a warship approaching, and the native canoes were very busy making
+ready for escape or attack. The British delegate, therefore, hastened
+back to the station, and at 3 p.m. a Spanish gunboat arrived, to
+their immense relief, and landed 107 marines. Heavy firing continued
+all that afternoon, inflicting great loss on the rebels, whilst the
+Spaniards lost one soldier. On March 12 a Spanish cruiser anchored
+off the Bay of Bolinao; also a merchant steamer put into port bringing
+the Company's Manila Superintendent with apparatus for communicating
+with Hong-Kong in case the station were demolished. The next day
+H.M.S. _Edgar_ entered, and Bolinao was again perfectly safe.
+
+In consequence of this threatened attack on the cable-station the
+cable was detached from Bolinao and carried on to Manila in the
+following month (_vide_ p. 267).
+
+As soon as the news reached Manila that Bolinao was menaced, General
+Monet proceeded north with 1,000 men, whilst 3,000 more followed by
+railway as far as they could reach. On the way the General had five
+engagements with the enemy, between Lingayen (Pangasinan) and Bolinao,
+where he arrived on the night of March 14, having routed the insurgents
+everywhere with great loss to them. On the Spanish side one lieutenant
+and one soldier were killed. After leaving a garrison of 300 men in
+Bolinao, General Monet returned to Manila in the Spanish cruiser the
+next day.
+
+On March 31 Father Moises Santos, who had caused all the members of the
+Town Council of Malolos to be banished in 1895, was assassinated. He
+had been appointed Vicar of the Augustine Order and was returning to
+Malolos station, en route for Manila, in a buggy which stuck fast in
+a mud-pool (the same in which I have found myself several times),
+where he was stabbed to death. His body was recovered and taken by
+special train to Manila, where it was interred with great pomp in
+the Church of St. Augustine. He was 44 years of age, and had been 19
+years in the Colony (_vide_ p. 364).
+
+In April, 1898, the Home Government recalled General Primo de Rivera,
+appointing in his stead General Basilio Augusti, who had never before
+held chief command in the Islands. Primo de Rivera was no doubt
+anxious to be relieved of a position which he could not well continue
+to hold, with dignity to himself, after the Madrid Government had
+shelved his recommendations for reforms. His subsequent speeches in
+the Senate incline one to draw this conclusion. The Colonial Minister,
+Segismundo Moret (who became Prime Minister in 1905), warmly supported
+the proposed reforms, but monastic influences were brought to bear
+which Praxedes Sagasta had not the moral courage to resist.
+
+Don Pedro A. Paterno, the peacemaker, was sorely disappointed, too,
+that the Government had failed to remunerate him for his services. His
+position will be best understood from the subjoined translation of
+the letter which he addressed to a high authority on the subject. The
+original document was read in public session of Congress in Madrid
+on June 16, 1898, by the Deputy Senor Muro.
+
+
+    _Manila_, _23rd of February_, 1898.
+
+
+    _My Esteemed Friend_,--
+
+    As it appears that, at last, one is thinking of giving me something
+    for the services rendered by me, and as, according to you, the
+    recompense is going to be a title of Castile, I wish to speak
+    frankly, in secret, on the subject. I do not wish to fall into
+    ridicule, because in such a material and mercantile place as Manila
+    a title without rent-roll, or grandeur, or anything of the nature
+    of an employment, or Cross of Maria Christina, or rewards such
+    as have been showered broadcast by three Captain-Generals would,
+    in Philippine circles, make me appear as the gullible boy and
+    the laughing-stock of my fellows. To express my private opinion,
+    I aspire, above all, to the preservation of my name and prestige,
+    and if I were asked to renounce them for a childish prize,
+    even though it be called a title of Castile, despised by serious
+    statesmen in Europe, I think I should be obliged to refuse it. But
+    I am willing to meet half-way the state of Spanish society in
+    the Philippines, and as I belong to the family of the _Maguinoo_
+    Paterno, I must express myself in another way. That title of
+    Castile might become the cherished ideal in the Philippines if
+    it were valued as I desire.
+
+    In the first place, it _must not be less than that of Duke_,
+    because the natives have obeyed me as the _Great Maguinoo_, or
+    Prince of Luzon, and the ex-revolutionists call me the arbiter
+    of their destinies.
+
+    The reward from Spain must not be less than the Philippine public
+    already award to me.
+
+    In the second place, the reward, to be accepted by me with dignity
+    and preservation of prestige, must be presented to me in the sense
+    that it is for the general welfare of the Philippines as implied
+    in the title of _Grandee of Spain of the First Class_ with the
+    consequent right to a seat in the Senate to defend the interests
+    of the Colony, seeing that we have no Members of Parliament,
+    and parliamentary representation is anxiously desired.
+
+    I can show that I possess an income of P25,000 and more,
+    if necessary.
+
+    In the third place, it must be in the nature of a gift and not
+    a purchase, that is to say, the patent of nobility must be a
+    free gift.
+
+    In the fourth place, it must be valued in dollars, so that the
+    reward may not be held in contempt by the public, who know my
+    liberality when I pay, with splendid generosity, sea voyages,
+    river and land journeys for myself and for my emissaries, or
+    when I distribute with abundant profusion pecuniary and material
+    recompenses _to buy over the wills of and unite all the insurgent
+    chiefs to bring them to surrender to Spain_. Up to the present,
+    I have not received a cent from the revolutionists or from the
+    Spanish Government to cover these expenses.
+
+    It is notorious that I have worked so grandly that no one can
+    now ask me to sink into insignificance.
+
+    The recent concessions made by the Spanish Government have been
+    seen by the Philippine public. The grade of Captain-General was
+    given for subjecting a few Moslem chiefs of Mindanao; promotions
+    and grand crosses with pensions have been awarded, and I, who have
+    put an end to the war at a stroke, saving Spain many millions of
+    dollars--I, who, amidst inundations and hurricanes have assaulted
+    and conquered the barracks and military posts of the enemy, causing
+    them to lay down their arms to Spain without bloodshed, and at my
+    command surrender all their chiefs and revolutionary Government
+    with their brigades and companies, I think I have good right to
+    ask Spain, if she wishes to show herself a mother to me, to give
+    me as much as she has given to other sons for lesser services.
+
+    To conclude, for family reasons, _ I want a title of Castile,
+    that of Prince or Duke, if possible, and to be a Grandee of the
+    first class_, free of nobility patent fees and the sum of P----
+    once for all.
+
+    I think that the title of Castile, or Spain's reward, if it
+    reaches me without the mentioned formalities, will be an object
+    of ridicule, and Spain ought not to expose me to this, because
+    I wish to serve her always, in the present and in the future.
+
+    I also recommend you very strongly to procure for my brother
+    Maximino Molo Agustin Paterno y Debera Ignacio the title of Count
+    or a Grand Cross free of duties, for he has not only rendered
+    great services to the nation, but he has continually sustained
+    the prestige of Spain with the natives.
+
+    I am, etc., etc.,
+    _Pedro A. Paterno_.
+
+
+    N.B.--1. I told you verbally that if my merits did not reach two
+    millimetres, it is the friend's duty to amplify them and extend
+    them and make others see them as if they were so many metres,
+    especially as they have _no equal_.
+
+    Prince of Limasaba is the first title of Castile conceded to a
+    native of the Philippines. He was the first king of the Island
+    of Limasaba in the time of Maghallanes, according to Father Jose
+    Fernandez Cuevas, of the Company of Jesus, in his "Spain and
+    Catholicism in the Far East," folio 2 (years 1519 to 1595). In
+    Spain, in modern times, Prince of Peace, Prince of Vergara, etc.
+
+    2. and 3. Verbally I mentioned _one million_ of dollars, and
+    that Parliament should meet sometimes for the Philippines and for
+    extraordinary reasons. Take note that out of the 25,000 men sent
+    here by Spain on account of the insurrection, statistics show
+    6,000 struck off the effective list in the first six months and
+    many millions of dollars expenses. The little present, or the
+    Christmas-box (_mi Aguinaldo_) is of no mean worth.
+
+
+
+Some biographical notes of Don Pedro A. Paterno, with most of which
+he furnished me himself, may be interesting at this stage.
+
+His Excellency Don Pedro Alejandro Paterno belongs to the class of
+Filipinos--the Chinese half-caste--remarkable in this Colony for that
+comparative intellectual activity of which Don Pedro himself is one of
+the brightest living examples. In the early decades of last century
+a Chinaman, called Molo, carried on a prosperous trade in the _Calle
+del Rosario_, in the Manila district of Binondo. His Philippine wife,
+whose family name was Yamson, carried in her veins the "blue blood,"
+as we should say in Europe, of Luzonia. She was the direct descendant
+of the Great _Maguinoo_, or Prince of Luzon, a title hereditary,
+according to tradition. Three sons were the issue of this marriage,
+one of whom, Maximino Molo, was the father of Pedro. Averse to indolent
+pleasure during his father's lifetime, Maximino, with his own scant
+but independent resources, started active life with a canoe and a
+barge, conveying goods out as far as Corregidor Island to secure the
+first dealings with the ships entering the port. In this traffic
+he made money so fast that he opened an office, and subsequently
+a store of his own, in the _Escolta_. His transactions attained
+large proportions, and by the time this kind of trade in the bay
+became obsolete, he was already one of the most respected middlemen
+operating between the foreign houses and provincial producers. His
+Christian name was abbreviated to Maximo; and so proverbial were his
+placidity and solicitude for others that his friends affectionately
+nicknamed him Paterno (paternal), which henceforth became the adopted
+cognomen of the family. His unbounded generosity won for him the
+admiration of all his race, who graciously recognized him as their
+_Maguinoo_. Sympathetic in the ambitions and in the distress of his
+own people, he was, nevertheless, always loyal to Spanish authority;
+but whether his fortune awakened Spanish cupidity, or his influence
+with the masses excited the friars' jealousy, the fact is that in 1872
+he was banished to the Ladrone Islands, accused of having taken part
+in the rising of Cavite. Ten years afterwards he was again in Manila,
+where I had the pleasure of his acquaintance, and on his decease,
+which took place July 26, 1900, he left considerable wealth.
+
+Born in 1857, Pedro A. Paterno, at the early age of 14 years, was
+sent for his education to Spain, where he resided 11 years. The
+preparatory period over, he entered the University of Salamanca, and
+later on that of Madrid, where, under the protection and tutelage of
+the Marquis de Heredia, he was introduced into aristocratic circles,
+in which he became a great favourite. Amongst his college companions
+was the Marquis de Mina. At one time it was proposed that he should
+wed the daughter of the Marchioness de Montolibar, a suggestion which
+he disregarded because his heart already inclined towards the Filipina
+who is now his wife.
+
+His assistance to the Home Government was of no mean importance. In
+1882 he supported the abolition of the Government Tobacco Monopoly. In
+1893 he again rendered valuable service to the State, in consideration
+of which he was awarded the Grand Cross of Isabella the Catholic, with
+the distinction of "Excellency." In 1895 the oft-discussed question
+of the title of nobility he was to receive was revived. After the
+Peace of Biac-na-bato he fully expected that the usual Spanish custom
+would have been followed of conceding a title to the Peacemaker. The
+precedents for such an act, in modern times, are the titles given
+to Manuel Godoy (1795) and to General Espartero [188] (1840), who
+became respectively Prince of Peace and Prince of Vergara for similar
+services rendered to the Crown. A dukedom, Paterno believes, would
+have been his reward if the revolution had definitely terminated with
+the retirement of Emilio Aguinaldo from the Islands in 1897.
+
+A man of versatile gifts, Pedro A. Paterno has made his mark in
+literature with works too numerous to mention; he is a fluent orator,
+a talented musician, and the composer of the argument of an opera,
+_Sangdugong Panaguinip_ ("The Dreamed Alliance"). As a brilliant
+conversationalist and well-versed political economist he has few
+rivals in his country. A lover of the picturesque and of a nature
+inclined to revel in scenes of aesthetic splendour, his dream of
+one day wearing a coronet was nurtured by no vulgar veneration for
+aristocracy, but by a desire for a recognized social position enabling
+him, by his prestige, to draw his fellow-men from the sordid pleasure
+of mere wealth-accumulation towards the sentimental, imaginative
+ideals of true nobility. In 1904 Pedro A. Paterno was the editor and
+proprietor of the newspaper _La Patria_, the mission of which was (1)
+to support the American dominion as a _fait accompli_, (2) to urge
+the fulfilment of the promise of eventual Philippine home rule, (3)
+to sustain a feeling of gratitude towards Spain, whence the Filipinos
+derived their civilization, and (4) to support Roman Catholic unity,
+on the ground that unity is strength.
+
+In the second week of April, 1898, General Primo de Rivera left Manila
+for Spain, on the arrival of his successor in the Captain-Generalcy,
+General Basilio Augusti, in the s.s. _Isla de Mindanao_. [189] Some
+days before General Primo de Rivera's departure the American Consul
+at Manila had received despatches from his Government to prepare
+to quit the Islands, as war was imminent between Spain and the
+United States. He was further instructed to hand over his consulate
+archives to the British Consul, who would take charge of American
+interests. But without the concurrence of the Spanish authorities no
+official transfer could be made from one consulate to the other, and
+the General professed ignorance of the existing relations between his
+country and America. He cabled to Madrid for information, but managed
+to delay matters until his successor assumed office, when the transfer
+was duly made. Consul Oscar F. Williams was in no way molested. He
+passed to and fro in the city without the least insult being offered
+him by any Spaniard. The Gov.-General courteously proposed to send
+a large bodyguard to his consulate, but it was not necessary. Yet,
+as soon as Consul Williams closed his office and went on board the
+s.s. _Esmeralda_, the American Consulate escutcheon was painted out,
+and the notice boards outside the doors were kicked about the streets.
+
+General Primo de Rivera was so well aware of the strained relations
+between Spain and America, that the s.s. _Leon XIII._, in which he
+travelled from Manila to Barcelona, was armed as a cruiser, with two
+4-inch Hontoria guns mounted aft of the funnel and two Nordenfeldts
+in the bows. This steamer, crowded with refugee Spanish families,
+some of whom slept on the saloon floors, made its first stoppage at
+Singapore on April 17. At the next port of call General Primo de Rivera
+learnt that the United States of America had presented an ultimatum
+to his Government. Before he reached Barcelona, in the third week of
+May, war between the two countries had already broken out (April 23,
+1898). There were riots in Madrid; martial law was proclaimed; the
+Parliamentary Session was suspended; a strict censorship of the press
+was established; the great disaster to Spanish arms in Philippine
+waters had taken place; the Prime Minister Sagasta had intimated
+his willingness to resign, and Primo de Rivera entered Madrid when
+it was too late to save the Philippine Islands for Spain, even had
+the rebel version of the implied reforms under the alleged Treaty of
+Biac-na-bato been fulfilled to the letter.
+
+The leaders of the principal political parties were hastily summoned
+to the palace to consult separately with the Queen-Regent on the
+situation, and they were unanimously of opinion that the Prime Minister
+who had accepted war should carry them through the crisis. Spain was
+apparently more concerned about the salvation of the Antilles than
+of her Far Eastern Colony.
+
+The friars, fully alive to their moral responsibility towards the
+nation for the loss of the Philippines, were, nevertheless, desirous
+of finding a champion of their cause in the political arena, and Deputy
+Uria was willing to accept this onerous task. The Bishop-elect of Porto
+Rico (an Austin friar) was a fellow-passenger with General Primo de
+Rivera. According to _El Liberal_ of June 3, 1898, when he arrived
+in Madrid he went with the Procurator of his Order to interview the
+Colonial Minister, Senor Romero Giron, on the prospects of Deputy
+Uria's proposed debate when Congress should meet again. The Minister
+pointed out to them the attendant difficulties, and referred them to
+the Prime Minister. They immediately went to Senor Sagasta's residence,
+where they were promptly given to understand that _if any one could
+be found to defend them, there might well be others who would oppose
+them_, so their champion withdrew.
+
+When, months later, Parliament was re-opened, the Minister of War
+denied in Congress that the Treaty of Biac-na-bato had ever existed,
+[190] and in support of his contention he cited a cablegram which
+the Gov.-General Primo de Rivera is alleged to have sent to the
+Prime Minister Sagasta. It was published in the _Gaceta de Madrid_
+of December 16, 1897, and reads as follows:--
+
+
+
+    _(Translation)_
+
+    _Manila_, 12th of December, 1897
+
+    To the President of the Council of Ministers, from the
+    Governor-General
+
+    At the expiration of the time allowed and announced in the
+    _Gazette_ of November 28, after which rigorous and active
+    war measures would be taken against the rebels, a deputation
+    from the enemy came to me on behalf of the brothers Aguinaldo,
+    Llaneras, and the so-called Republican Government, offering to
+    surrender themselves, their followers, and their arms, _on the
+    sole conditions of their lives being spared and that they should
+    receive means with which to emigrate_. It appears to me, and to the
+    general officers of this army, that this surrender is the result
+    of the successive combats by which we have held the positions
+    taken in Morong, Paray, Minuyan, and Arayat, and the enthusiasm
+    displayed by the resolute volunteers in the provinces outside
+    Tagalog sphere. I feel sure of being able to take Biac-na-bato,
+    as well as all the other points occupied by the rebels, but I am
+    not so certain of being able to secure the persons of the chiefs
+    of the rebellion with their followers. The war would then be
+    carried on by roving parties who, from their hiding-places in
+    the forests and mountains, might appear from time to time, and
+    although of little importance, they would sustain the rebellion.
+
+    The generals agree with me that the peace will save the honour
+    of Spain and the army, but in view of the importance of the event
+    I consider it necessary to solicit the approval of the Government.
+
+    If the Government should accept the proposals, I will bring them
+    to an issue at once, but I so far distrust them that I cannot
+    be sure of anything until I have the men and the arms in my
+    possession. In any case, it is now the unanimous opinion that
+    the situation is saved.
+
+    _Primo de Rivera_.
+
+
+    _(Translation of reply)_
+
+    _Madrid_, 13th of December, 1897
+
+    President of the Council of Ministers to the Governor-General,
+
+    Manila
+
+    Colonial Ministry Code. H.M. the Queen has perused with great
+    satisfaction your Excellency's telegram, and commands me to
+    congratulate you in the name of the nation. In view of the opinion
+    of your Excellency and the generals under your orders that _the
+    honour of the army is saved_, the Government fully authorizes
+    your Excellency to accept the surrender of the rebel chiefs and
+    their Government on the terms specified in your telegram. Please
+    advise the surrender as soon as possible in order to give due and
+    solemn publicity to the event. Receive my sincere congratulations
+    and those of the Government.
+
+    _Sagasta_.
+
+
+
+At the period of the above despatches the Peninsular and the Insular
+authorities were living in a fool's paradise with respect to Philippine
+affairs. Had it been officially admitted that those reforms which the
+clerical party so persistently opposed, but which the home legislators
+were willing to concede, had been granted to the rebels as a condition
+of peace, "the honour of the army" would have suffered in Spanish
+public opinion. Hence, the Spaniards' conception of national dignity
+imposed on the Government the necessity of representing the rebel
+chiefs as repentant, begging for their lives, and craving the means
+of existence in exile as the result of Spanish military valour.
+
+But abroad, where the ministerial denial, mentioned on p. 414, was
+published by the foreign press, Aguinaldo was universally spoken of
+as having been "bought off."
+
+A wiser government would have learnt a lesson from a sixteen-months'
+rebellion and have afterwards removed its causes, if only to ensure
+the mother country's sovereignty. The probability of the Filipinos
+being able to subvert Spanish rule by their own unaided efforts was
+indeed remote, but a review of Spanish colonial history ought to
+have suggested to the legislators that that extraneous assistance to
+sedition which promoted emancipation in the former Spanish-American
+territories might one day be extended to the Filipinos.
+
+The publication of the above documents, however, did little to calm
+the anger of the Madrid politicians who maintained that Spanish
+dominion in the Philippines could only be peacefully assured by a
+certain measure of reform in consonance with the natives' aspirations.
+
+Months afterwards, when Spanish sovereignty in the Archipelago
+was drawing to a close, the Conde de las Almenas opened a furious
+debate in the Senate, charging all the Colonial Govs.-General with
+incompetency, but its only immediate effect was to widen the breach
+between political parties.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIII
+
+The Tagalog Rebellion of 1896-98
+Second Period
+American Intervention
+
+
+The prelude to the American occupation of Manila was the demand made
+on Spain by the Government of the United States of America to evacuate
+the Island of Cuba.
+
+Generations of Spanish misrule in that Island had produced a recurrence
+of the many attempts to throw off the sovereignty of Spain. In
+February, 1895, the flag of insurrection was again unfurled, and at
+Baira a proclamation, claiming independence, was issued at the instance
+of one of Cuba's most intelligent patriots--Marti. This civil leader,
+however, died a natural death a few months afterwards, but the chief
+command of the insurgents in the field was continued by the mulatto
+Antonio Maceo. The rebellion was assuming a serious aspect when General
+Martinez Campos, who had been instrumental in duping the Cubans in
+1878 by the Treaty of Zanjon, was again sent out as Captain-General
+of the Island. But the Cubans refused to be caught a second time in
+the same trap. Martinez Campos' theme of "political action combined
+with military force" held no weight. During his mild _regime_ the
+insurrection increased rapidly, and in one encounter he himself was
+very near falling a prisoner. In eight months he was relieved of his
+post, and General Weyler, Marquis de Teneriffe, who had a reputation
+for severity, succeeded him in command. He was a man of the Duke of
+Alba type--the ideal of the traditional Spanish Colonial party who
+recognized no colonists' rights, and regarded concessions of liberty
+to the colonies as maternal dispensations to be hoped for only,
+but never demanded. Antonio Canovas, the ultra-Conservative Prime
+Minister, had declared that so long as an armed rebel remained in
+the field he would not grant reforms, so the prospect of a settlement
+of the disputes between the Government and the governed was hopeless
+during that administration. The duration of the civil war had seriously
+prejudiced American trade interests; the pursuance of a conflict under
+the conditions imposed by General Weyler, who caused all non-combatant
+Islanders to be "concentrated" in places where they were left to
+starve, aroused the just indignation of America and Europe alike. The
+hand of the assassin brought the Canovas Ministry to an end on August
+8, 1897; General Weyler was recalled six weeks later, and the United
+States Government, which had so repeatedly protested against the
+indefinite and wanton waste of lives and fortune in Cuba, dictated to
+Spain a limit to its continuance. After a Conservative interregnum
+of six weeks under the leadership of General Marcelo Azarraga,
+Praxedes Sagasta came into power at the head of a Liberal ministry
+and with a Cuban autonomy bill in his portfolio. The newly-appointed
+Gov.-General, Ramon Blanco, Marquis de Pena Plata, ex-Gov.-General
+of the Philippines (_vide_ p. 377)--a more noble and compassionate
+man than his predecessor--unsuccessfully essayed the policy of
+coercing the rebels in arms whilst cajoling peaceful autonomists and
+separatists with the long-talked-of self-government. Nevertheless,
+the separatist movement had in no way abated when the Autonomy Bill was
+promulgated, and an insular Cuban Government was formed on January 1,
+1898. In the meantime the incident of the blowing-up of the American
+warship _Maine_, the cause of which has not yet been made clear to
+the satisfaction of the world, had further incensed the war party
+in the United States. [191] Autonomy had come too late; examined in
+detail it was but another form of Spanish dominion, open to almost
+similar abuses; it was not the will of the people, and it failed
+to bring peace. The thousands "concentrated" under Weyler's rule
+still formed a moribund mass of squalid misery which Spain was still
+unable or unwilling to relieve. America's offer to alleviate their
+wretchedness materially was received with suspicion, hemmed in with
+conditions, and not openly rejected for the want of physical power to
+do so. Three months of insular government and over 200,000 Spanish
+troops had effected practically nothing; the prospect of peace was
+hopeless, and the United States of America formally called upon Spain
+to evacuate the Island. Spain argued the point; America insisted on
+the course dictated, and sent an ultimatum to Madrid on April 20,
+1898, to be accepted or otherwise within three days. The ministers
+Polo de Bernabe and General Woodford withdrew from Washington and
+Madrid respectively, and war broke out between the United States and
+Spain on Saturday, April 23, 1898.
+
+In anticipation of hostilities an American fleet had concentrated at
+Hong-Kong. On April 23 Major-General Black, the officer administering
+the Colony, issued a proclamation of neutrality, and Commodore Dewey
+withdrew his fleet from British waters to Mirs Bay, [192] at that
+time within Chinese jurisdiction.
+
+It was known in Manila that the hostile squadron was on the way to
+the Philippine capital. Submarine mines were laid, or said to have
+been laid, for some old cable was purchased for the purpose from the
+telegraph-ship _Sherard Osborn _when the submarine cable was removed
+from Bolinao and carried on to Manila. Admiral Patricio Montojo went
+with four ships to await the arrival of the enemy off Subig (Zambales)
+on the west coast of Luzon. Subig is a fine natural harbour, but
+with precipitous shores just as Nature has made it. For years the
+"project" had existed to carry a State railway there from Manila, and
+make Subig the principal Government Naval Station and Arsenal instead
+of Cavite. But personal interests and the sloth of the Government
+combined to frustrate the plan. Under the pressing circumstances
+the military authorities pretended to be doing something there,
+and sent up a commission. Admiral Montojo expected to find batteries
+of artillery mounted and 14 torpedoes in readiness, but absolutely
+nothing had been done, so he at once returned to Manila Bay, and
+prepared to meet the adversary off Cavite. In Cavite there were two
+batteries, with three guns between them, but at the last moment two
+defective guns were put ashore there from the _Don Juan de Austria_
+and two similar pieces from the _Castilla_.
+
+In Hong-Kong there was great agitation among the members of the
+Philippine Patriotic League (_Junta Patriotica_) and the rebel chiefs
+exiled under the alleged Treaty of Biac-na-bato. The League had
+presented to several European Governments, through its own agents,
+a sort of _Memorandum_, to which no official recognition could be
+given. The leaguers were now anxious to co-operate with the Americans
+in compelling the Spaniards to evacuate the Archipelago. An influential
+American in Hong-Kong accepted the honorary post of treasurer of the
+Patriotic League Fund, but quarrels over the spoil resulted in General
+Aguinaldo being obliged by one of his ex-ministers to pay him his
+share, amounting to several thousands of Mexican dollars. Under these
+circumstances General Aguinaldo and his suite proceeded to Singapore,
+travelling _incognito_, so as to avoid any undue interference,
+and Aguinaldo took the opportunity to explain in certain official
+quarters the existing conditions in the Philippines. The rebel general
+opportunely arrived in Singapore at or about the time of the outbreak
+of American-Spanish hostilities. Certain American authorities in
+the Far East were desirous of utilizing Aguinaldo's services and
+prestige with the armed natives to control them and prevent reprisals
+when the American forces should appear before Manila. It was hoped
+that, in this way, the lives of many Spaniards in the Islands would
+be spared. Indeed, it eventually resulted so, for Aguinaldo, with
+admirable tact, restrained any impolitic movement on the part of his
+followers during the American operations against the Spaniards. Only
+one who had lived in the Islands could adequately appreciate the
+unbounded confidence some 20,000 armed natives must have had in
+Aguinaldo to have refrained, at his bidding, from retaliating on
+their old masters. According to _El Liberal _newspaper of Madrid,
+dated June 28, 1898 (which quotes from _El Dia_), the aspirations
+of the Revolutionary Party would appear to have been, at that date,
+as follows, viz.:--
+
+
+    1. Philippine Independence to be proclaimed.
+
+    2. A Federal Republic to be established by vote of the rebels;
+    pending the taking of this vote Aguinaldo was to appoint the
+    members of that Government.
+
+    3. The Federal Republic to recognize a temporary intervention of
+    American and European Administrative Commissions.
+
+    4. An American Protectorate to be recognized on the same terms
+    as those fixed for Cuba.
+
+    5. Philippine ports to be opened to all the world.
+
+    6. Precautionary measures to be adopted against the influx
+    of Chinese.
+
+    7. The existing judicial system to be reformed.
+
+    8. Liberty of the press and right of assembly to be proclaimed.
+
+    9. Ample tolerance of all religions and sects, but abolition and
+    expulsion of all monastic Orders.
+
+    10. Measures to be adopted for working up the natural resources
+    of the Archipelago.
+
+    11. The wealth of the country to be developed by the construction
+    of highroads and railways.
+
+    12. The obstacles operating against the development of enterprises
+    and employment of foreign capital to be removed.
+
+    13. The new Government to preserve public order and check all
+    reprisals against the Spaniards.
+
+    14. Spanish officials to be transported to another safe and
+    healthy island until there should be an opportunity for their
+    return to Spain.
+
+
+
+From Singapore, General Emilio Aguinaldo returned with his suite to
+Hong-Kong, where instructions had been given apparently favouring
+his plans for co-operation in the Islands. Consequent on this,
+General Aguinaldo and his staff made preparations for proceeding to
+Manila in an American warship when it should be deemed opportune to
+do so. About the same time the Philippine Patriotic League issued a
+proclamation which is too long to reproduce here, as it covers eight
+folios of print. This document sets forth that whereas the Treaty of
+Biac-na-bato had not been fulfilled by the Spanish Government, the
+Revolutionists considered themselves absolved therefrom, and morally
+free again to take the offensive in open warfare for the security of
+their rights and liberty. But this document does not quote any of the
+text of the above alleged treaty. Proclamations and exhortations to
+the rebels were issued with such frequency that it would be tedious
+to cite them all, but the following is a fair example:--
+
+
+
+    _(Translation of Full Text)_
+
+
+    _Philippine Patriots_:--
+
+    A nation which has nothing good can give nothing. It is evident
+    we cannot depend on Spain to obtain the welfare we all desire. A
+    country like Spain, where social evolution is at the mercy of
+    monks and tyrants, can only communicate to us its own instincts
+    of calumny, infamy, inquisitorial proceedings, avarice, secret
+    police, false pretences, humiliation, deprivation of liberties,
+    slavery, and moral and material decay which characterize its
+    history. Spain will need much time to shake off the parasites
+    which have grown upon and cling to her; she has no self-dependence
+    so long as her nationality is composed of inquisitorial monks,
+    ambitious soldiers, demoralized civil servants, and a populace
+    bred to support this state of things in silence. It is therefore
+    useless to expect anything from Spain.
+
+    During three and a half centuries Spain's policy has been a
+    delusion. Is there a conflict between Spain and England or
+    Holland? Then the friars come and relate to us preposterous
+    absurdities of the miracles of Saint Francis and of the Image of
+    the Virgin of the Rosary, whilst Simon de Anda calls the Pampango
+    natives his brothers so long as they fight to save the Spanish
+    flag falling into the hands of English or Dutch _savages!_
+    Is the foreign invasion ended? Then the friars, through their
+    salaried agents in the press, reward us with epithets such as
+    monkey, buffalo, etc. Is there another conflict imminent between
+    Germany and Spain? Then the friars call the natives Spaniards and
+    the military officers own us as their sons and they dub us brave
+    soldiers. Is the conflict finished? Then we are again overgrown
+    boys, beings of inferior race and incapable of being civilized. Is
+    there now to be a struggle with Americans? Then General Augusti,
+    who is the living symbol of Spanish authority, who ought to be the
+    most prudent of the prudent, the most cultivated of the cultivated,
+    points at America as a nation composed of all social excrescences;
+    the friars and their enslaved Spaniards want again to cajole
+    and cheat us with offers of participation in public affairs,
+    recognition of the military grades of ex-rebel chiefs, and other
+    twaddle degrading to those who would listen to it. In fact,
+    they have called into their councils the sons of the country,
+    whilst they exclusively carry out their own ideas, and reserve
+    to themselves the right to set aside all the resolutions at a
+    stroke. They offer to enrol in their ranks the insurgents of
+    yesterday, so that they can have them all shot on the morrow of
+    the present difficulty. What irrision! Do you want another trick
+    exposed? Now that Spain is in danger of losing the Philippines,
+    the executioners of the other day--the everlasting tyrants--tell us
+    that America will sell the Islands to England. No, America has its
+    past and its present. America will preserve a clear intelligence;
+    she is not dominated by friars and tyrants like Spain; she is
+    liberal; she has liberated her slaves against the will of the
+    Spaniards who were, for the most part, their owners. A country
+    is known by its national character; review its past history
+    and it is easy to understand the calumny launched against the
+    Americans. But even though we became English, should we not gain
+    by it? The English have conceded self-government to many of their
+    colonies, and not of the frail delusive sort that Spain granted
+    to Cuba. In the English colonies there are liberties which Spain
+    never yielded to hers in America or the Philippines.
+
+    Our country is very rich, and as a last resource we can buy it
+    from the Americans. Do not be deceived by the Spaniards! Help
+    the Americans, who promise us our liberty. Do not fall into
+    the error of taking Spain to be a civilized country. Europe and
+    America consider her the most barbarous of the century. There the
+    weakest is the most persecuted. In no country to-day but Spain is
+    the Inquisition tolerated. It is proved by the tortures imposed on
+    the prisoners of Montjuich, of the Philippines, and of Cuba. Spain
+    did not fulfil the agreement entered into with Maximo Gomez at
+    Zanjon, nor that made with Aguinaldo at Biac-na-bato. Spain is
+    a nation always more ready to promise than to perform. But ask
+    for friars, soldiers, and State dependents to come and devour
+    our wealth, and instantly you will get them. Spain has nothing
+    else to give, and God grant she will keep what she has. Spain
+    will flatter you under the present circumstances, but do not be
+    deceived. Submit every fawning offer to your conscience. Remember
+    the executions of the innocents, the tortures and atrocities which
+    have been the means of covering with decorations the breasts of
+    those who took the blood of your fathers, brothers, relations
+    and friends. Providence will aid the Americans in their triumph,
+    for the war is a just one for the nation elected to lead us to the
+    goal of our liberty. Do not rail against the designs of Providence;
+    it would be suicidal. Aid the Americans!
+
+    _(Anonymous.)_
+
+
+On the other side, far richer in poetic imagination and religious
+fervour, is the Allocution of the Archbishop of Madrid-Alcala published
+in Madrid on the day hostilities commenced. The following extract
+will suffice to show how the religious sentiment of the people was
+indirectly appealed to to convince them that Spain was defending a
+noble cause.
+
+
+    _Very Beloved Sons_:--
+
+    The cursed hunger for gold and the unquenchable thirst for power
+    have combined to tarnish that flag which the Great Queen Isabella
+    raised, by the hand of Columbus, in the West Indies. With justice
+    trodden under foot, the voice of the Pope unheeded, and the
+    intervention of the nations despised with arrogance, every road
+    to the counsels of peace has been barred and the horrors of war
+    have become a necessity. Let Heaven be witness that we are not
+    the authors of this disaster, and let the responsibility before
+    God be on that vain people whose dogma seems to be that money
+    is the God of the world.... There, ploughing the seas, go our
+    soldiers and our sailors. Have no fear, let no one weep, unless,
+    indeed, it be for fear of arriving too late for the fray. Go,
+    braves, to fight with the blessing of the Fatherland. With you
+    goes all Spain, from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic, from Irun
+    to Tarifa. With what envy do We contemplate you weighing anchor
+    to leave our shores! Oh! why does juvenility, or decrepitude, or
+    duty deprive us of the joy of taking part in your enterprise? But
+    no! with you goes our Spanish heart.... May the Immaculate Virgin,
+    whose scapulary hangs around your necks and whose blessed image
+    floats on your flags, protect you under her mantle in the moment
+    of danger, deliver you from all evil, and shower blessings upon
+    you! May Saint James, patron of Spain, and the martyr Nicodemus
+    and Saint Telmo and Saint Raymond and the King Saint Ferdinand
+    go before you and ever march in the vanguard wherever you may go
+    and make you invulnerable to the bullets of the enemy, so that you
+    may return victorious to tread once more this noble soil and kiss
+    the cheek of the weeping mother who bore you!... We, who cannot
+    go to take part in the battles, will hold and brandish the arms
+    of prayer, like Moses who prayed on the mountain, whilst Joshua
+    slew his ferocious enemies in the valley.... God has triumph in
+    His hand and will give it to whom He pleases. He gave it to Spain
+    in Covadonga, in Las Navas, in El Salado, in the river of Seville,
+    on the plain of Granada, and in a thousand battles which overflow
+    the pages of history. O Lord, give it us now! Let the nations
+    see that against the right of might there is the might of right!
+
+    To all beloved sons, from our heart We have pleasure in sending
+    you our pastoral benediction, in the name of the Father, and the
+    Son, and the Holy Ghost. Amen.
+
+    Given in our palace in Madrid on the 23rd of April, 1898.
+
+
+    _Jose Ma_
+    _Archbishop-bishop of Madrid-Alcala_.
+
+
+
+This Allocution calls to mind Spain's last struggle with Mexico. Was
+it a battle of the saints? The Spaniards relied on Santa Isabel;
+the Mexicans appealed to Santa Guadalupe, and the latter came out
+victorious.
+
+In Manila, as the critical day approached, Gov.-General Augusti issued
+his general order as to special military service and his proclamation
+to the Philippine people. The latter is couched in vituperative and
+erroneously prophetic language, but both can be better appreciated
+from the following translated texts:--
+
+
+    _Special Military Service_
+
+    Whereas it is necessary to adopt every possible means for the
+    defence of this territory and to render assistance to the army
+    and the fleet in the approaching operations against the United
+    States of North America, I order:
+
+    1. It is hereby declared that a state of war exists.
+
+    2. All public functionaries of the State and the municipalities,
+    not exceeding 50 years of age and not physically unfit, are obliged
+    to take up arms in defence of the country and serve whenever they
+    are required. They will proceed, at once, to their offices and
+    lodge their names and serve under their present chiefs.
+
+    3. All Spaniards and sons of Spaniards (although not born in the
+    Peninsula) above the age of 20 and not more than 50, living in
+    the Provinces, are also hereby required to take up arms.
+
+    4. All those not comprised in the foregoing are at liberty to
+    serve as Volunteers.
+
+    (_a_) All native Spaniards who are not employed in the
+    public offices.
+
+    (_b_) All those who are under 20 and more than 50 years of age,
+    and who are strong enough to endure the fatigue of a campaign.
+
+    (_c_) All foreigners (except North Americans) who are domiciled
+    in Manila or in the capitals of the Provinces.
+
+    5. The General Sub-Inspector will organize these Volunteers,
+    and distribute them as required for defensive purposes.
+
+    6. Public functionaries will receive their orders for military
+    service from their respective administrative chiefs.
+
+    7. From this date no one capable of bearing arms is allowed to
+    leave these Islands. This prohibition does not apply to those
+    who are seriously ill.
+
+
+
+
+    _Proclamation_
+
+    _Spaniards_:--
+
+    Between Spain and the United States of North America hostilities
+    have broken out.
+
+    The moment has arrived to prove to the world that we possess
+    the spirit to conquer those who, pretending to be loyal friends,
+    take advantage of our misfortunes and abuse our hospitality, using
+    means which civilized nations consider unworthy and disreputable.
+
+    The North American people, composed of all the social excrescences,
+    have exhausted our patience and provoked war with their perfidious
+    machinations, with their acts of treachery, with their outrages
+    against the law of nations and international treaties.
+
+    The struggle will be short and decisive. The God of Victories
+    will give us one as brilliant and complete as the righteousness
+    and justice of our cause demand. Spain, which counts upon the
+    sympathies of all the nations, will emerge triumphantly from
+    this new test, humiliating and blasting the adventurers from
+    those States that, without cohesion and without a history, offer
+    to humanity only infamous traditions and the sorry spectacle
+    of Chambers in which appear united insolence and defamation,
+    cowardice and cynicism.
+
+    A squadron manned by foreigners, possessing neither instruction
+    nor discipline, is preparing to come to this Archipelago with
+    the blackguardly intention of robbing us of all that means life,
+    honour, and liberty. Pretending to be inspired by a courage of
+    which they are incapable, the North American seamen undertake
+    as an enterprise capable of realization the substitution of
+    Protestanism for the Catholic religion you profess, to treat you
+    as tribes refractory to civilization, to take possession of your
+    riches as if they were unacquainted with the rights of property,
+    and to kidnap those persons whom they consider useful to man their
+    ships or to be serviceable in agricultural or industrial labour.
+
+    Vain designs! Ridiculous boastings!
+
+    Your indomitable bravery will suffice to frustrate the attempt
+    to carry out their plans. You will not allow the faith you
+    profess to be made a mockery of, with impious hands placed on
+    the temple of the true God, the images you adore to be thrown
+    down by unbelief. The aggressors shall not profane the tombs of
+    your fathers, they shall not gratify their lustful passions at
+    the cost of your wives' and daughters' honour, or appropriate
+    the property that your industry has accumulated as a provision
+    for your old age. No, they shall not perpetrate any of the crimes
+    inspired by their wickedness and covetousness, because your valour
+    and your patriotism will suffice to punish and abase the people
+    who, claiming to be civilized and polished, have exterminated the
+    natives of North America instead of bringing to them the life of
+    civilization and of progress.
+
+    Filipinos, prepare for the struggle, and united under the
+    glorious Spanish banner, which is ever bedecked with laurels,
+    let us fight with the conviction that victory will reward our
+    efforts; against the shouts of our enemies let us resist with
+    Christian decision and the patriotic cry of "Viva Espana!
+
+    _Manila_, _23rd of April_, 1898.
+
+    Your General,
+    _Basilio Augusti y Davila_.
+
+
+
+The volunteers and guerilla battalions which had been so recently
+disbanded by General Primo de Rivera, because they terrorized the
+peaceful inhabitants, were now publicly thanked and praised for their
+past services and called upon again to serve their country. The Mayor
+of Manila issued his own proclamation, exhorting the inhabitants
+to help the Spaniards against the Americans. Archbishop Nozaleda
+also made his appeal to the people, assuring them that four Spanish
+battleships were on their way out (although, as a matter of fact,
+only one existed, namely, the _Pelayo_ 8,500 tons, built in 1887),
+and that from direct communication with the Almighty he had learnt that
+the most Christian Spain would be victorious in the next engagement.
+
+There was a general stampede of those who could get away; numbers
+of families fled up the Pasig River towards the Lake of Bay. The
+approaches to Manila from the north were held by the rebels; Cavite
+Province threw off the cloak of pacification and sent fresh levies to
+invest the highroads leading from the south to the capital. General
+Augusti's wife and children, who had been conducted for safety to
+Macabebe (Lower Pampanga), were kidnapped by the rebels. All Americans
+(about 25), except one family, took refuge on board foreign ships in
+the bay. The one exception was a Mr. Johnson, who had been travelling
+through the Islands with a cinematograph show, and he refused to remove
+his wife, who had just given birth. The well-known s.s. _Esmeralda_
+took on board a crowd of passengers for Hong-Kong at fancy rates of
+passage. Refugees offered as much as four times the usual passage-money
+for a saloon berth, and deck-passengers were willing to pay three
+times the normal rate. The Chinese were leaving the Islands by
+hundreds by any available opportunity, for they had just as much to
+fear from the loyal as the rebel faction. The rich Chinese were robbed
+and the labouring class were pressed into service fit for beasts of
+burden. Despised by the Spaniards and hated by the natives, their lives
+were not safe anywhere. Foreign families of neutral nationality sought
+more tranquil asylum far beyond the suburbs or on ships lying in the
+harbour. Two days before the Americans arrived a native regiment was
+suspected of disaffection. The Spanish officers therefore picked out
+six corporals and shot them forthwith, threatening to do the same
+on the morrow if the ringleaders were not handed over. During the
+night the whole regiment went over to the rebels with their rifles
+and accoutrements. No intelligent European foreigner entertained any
+doubt as to the result of the coming contest, but the general fear
+(which happily proved to be unfounded) was that it would be followed
+by an indiscriminate massacre of the Spaniards.
+
+There were warships of several nations in the bay, and the Spanish
+fleet was moored off Cavite awaiting the arrival of the adversary's
+squadron. The Spanish men-of-war, which were always painted white, had
+their colour changed to dark grey like the American ships. All coast
+lights were extinguished. The Island of Corregidor and Funta Restinga
+were hastily supplied with a few 6-inch guns from the _Castilla_. Punta
+Gorda, Punta Larisi, the rock El Fraile, and Caballo Island had toy
+batteries compared with the American armament.
+
+The American men-of-war left Mirs Bay (opposite to Hong-Kong Island)
+on April 27, under the command of Commodore Dewey, and on the way made
+a reconnaissance at Subig, but finding no opponent there, they steamed
+on to Manila. With all lights put out the American ships entered the
+bay, passing Corregidor Island at 3 a.m. on Sunday, May 1, 1898. The
+_Olympia_, with Commodore Dewey aboard, led the way. The defenders of
+Corregidor Island [193] were apparently slumbering, for the _Olympia_
+had already passed when a solitary cannon-shot was heard and responded
+to. Then a shot or two were fired from the rock El Fraile and from
+the battery of Punta Sangley. The American squadron kept its course
+in line of battle; the Spanish ships, under the command of Admiral
+Montojo, who was on board the _Reina Cristina_, cleared for action,
+and the opposing fleets took up positions off the north of Cavite
+(_vide_ plan of Cavite).
+
+After an intimation of "no surrender" from the Spaniards, by a
+cannon-shot fired from the Fort of Santiago towards the approaching
+United States fleet, the American ships opened fire, to which the
+Spanish fleet responded with a furious broadside; but being badly
+directed it did very little damage. The _Don Antonio de Ulloa_
+discharged a broadside at the enemy's ships with almost no effect,
+and simultaneously the drums were beaten, whilst the officers and
+crews shouted "Long live the King, Queen, and Spain!" Firing on both
+sides then became general. The well-aimed shots of the Americans were
+beginning to tell forcibly against the Spaniards. The _Don Juan de
+Austria_ advanced towards the _Olympia_ and was met with a shower
+of shot and shell, obliging her to turn back. The _Reina Cristina_,
+seeing the failure of the _Don Juan de Austria_, steamed full-speed
+towards the _Olympia_, intending to engage her at short range,
+but a perfect hurricane of projectiles from the _Olympia_ made her
+retreat with her decks strewn with the dead and dying. The _Baltimore_
+had one gun put out of action by the Hontoria guns of Punta Sangley,
+whilst half a dozen men were slightly injured. The _Boston_ also was
+slightly damaged, but further than that the American ships suffered
+little or nothing. By 7.30 a.m. the Spanish flagship _Reina Cristina_
+was in flames, so a boat was lowered to transfer the Admiral and his
+staff to the _Isla de Cuba_. The captain of the _Reina Cristina_,
+Don Luis Cadarso, although mortally wounded, heroically commanded
+his men up to the moment of death. By 8 a.m. the Spanish ships were
+decidedly crippled, and the American squadron withdrew to another
+part of the bay, where, behind a number of foreign war and merchant
+ships, they had left two supply transports, from which they took fresh
+ammunition. Meantime the little Spanish gunboats _General Lezo, Marques
+del Duero, Manila, Velasco_, and _Argos_, which were quite unfit for
+action, ran ashore at Cavite Viejo. The three shore-batteries of Fort
+Santiago, the Luneta battlement, and Fort San Antonio Abad (Malate)
+respectively continued ineffectual firing towards the American fleet
+until the Commodore sent a message telling them to cease fire or he
+would shell the city. At 11 a.m. the Americans returned in line of
+battle, and opened fire on the Spanish ships which still had their
+flags flying, and cannonaded and silenced the forts at Punta Sangley
+and Canacao. These operations lasted about one hour. Of the Spanish
+ships the _Castillo_, and _Reina Cristina_ were burnt; the _Don Juan
+de Austria_ was blown up, and the _Don Antonio de Ulloa_, pierced all
+over with shot, sank after the action, and about half of her crew
+which had survived the battle were drowned. Only the two cruisers
+_Isla de Cuba_ and _Isla de Luzon_ remained in fighting condition,
+but the position was so hopeless that Admiral Montojo ordered them
+to run aground in the Bay of Bacoor.
+
+The Americans then opened fire on the Arsenal and Fort of Cavite,
+which had not a single gun left in place. Soon a Spanish officer,
+named Lostoa, signalled for a truce to save the women, children, and
+wounded. An American officer met him and replied that having destroyed
+the fleet the American mission was ended for the present, and agreed
+to suspend firing provided the shore-batteries at the river-mouth
+were silent. General Augusti was consulted as to this condition, and
+agreed to it. The mail-steamer _Isla de Mindanao_ was aground off Las
+Pinas, and being armed as a cruiser the Americans fired on her and
+she was soon ablaze. There was still another parley with reference
+to Cavite. The Americans demanded the surrender of the Arsenal, the
+Admiral, and the surviving crews of the destroyed fleet. As General
+Pena declined to surrender Cavite, the Americans gave the Spaniards
+two hours to evacuate, under the threat of bombarding Manila if the
+demand were not complied with. Again the answer was negative, and
+five hours were allowed so that General Pena could consult with the
+Captain-General. General Augusti having authorized the evacuation, in
+less than two hours Cavite and the whole isthmus, including San Roque,
+Caridad, Estanzuela, and Dalahican, were under American control. All
+the Spanish families returned to Manila by land. The next day (May 2)
+the _debris_was cleared away from Cavite and the environs, and the
+dwellings were cleansed and put in order for indefinite military
+occupation.
+
+The evacuation of Corregidor Island was demanded by the Americans,
+and the 100 men composing the garrison were allowed to depart in
+boats for Naig on the west coast of Cavite. Their commander, however,
+surrendered himself prisoner, and went on board the _Baltimore_ with
+his family. He was at once offered (but wisely refused) his liberty,
+and later on he was put ashore at Balanga (Bataan).
+
+On the Spanish side the losses in men and officers amounted to about
+400 killed. It was a decisive victory for the Americans; the entire
+Spanish fleet in Philippine waters was destroyed, excepting a few small
+gunboats stationed about the southern islands. [194] After a 15 months'
+cruise one of these--the _Callao_--steamed into Manila Bay on May
+12 in complete ignorance of what had happened. The Americans fired a
+warning shot, and ordered her to lower her flag. With little hesitation
+she did so, in view of the immensely superior force displayed. The
+vessel became a prize, and the commander a prisoner of war. But he
+was shortly offered his liberty on parole, which he unfortunately
+accepted, for the Spaniards in Manila had so lost their heads that
+they accused him of cowardice in not having fought the whole American
+squadron! He was actually court-martialled and condemned to death,
+but afterwards reprieved.
+
+The Spaniards exhibited great bravery in the battle of Cavite, and
+man for man they proved themselves to be in no way inferior to their
+opponents. Considering the wretched condition of their old-fashioned
+ships and armament compared with the splendid modern equipment which
+the Americans brought, no other result could have been expected. The
+American losses were seven men wounded, none killed, and only slight
+damage to one vessel.
+
+Long before sunset Admiral Montojo and his surviving officers found
+their way to Manila. [195] In the evening the Admiral serenely
+passed the hours in his suburban villa, whilst the Americans were in
+possession of the Port of Manila, and the stars and stripes floated
+over the town and arsenal of Cavite, and the forts of Canacao and Punta
+Sangley. So little did the people and the ignorant Spanish priests
+understand how a modern military occupation was conducted that when
+Commodore Dewey landed his marines a deputation of friars and nuns
+met him to humbly crave clemency for the vanquished. The entry of the
+American squadron, without opposition, into the Bay of Manila, was
+a great surprise to the inhabitants of the capital. Whilst the women
+and children were driven off to the suburbs of the city and near-lying
+villages, male Spaniards, from the highest to the lowest--merchants,
+State dependents, Spanish troops, and even those native auxiliaries
+who still remained loyal hastened to assure the Gov.-General that
+"the enemy should not land in Manila without passing over their dead
+bodies." Subsequent facts, however, proved these pompous vows to
+be merely a figure of speech. From the city walls, the terraces of
+houses, the church towers, and every available height, thousands of
+curious sightseers witnessed the brave defence and the complete defeat
+of the Spaniards. As the American fleet advanced in line of battle a
+Spanish transport was scuttled at the mouth of the Pasig River to bar
+the entrance. All the small steamers and sailing-craft in the river
+moved up as near as possible to the _Puente de Espana_. The obsolete
+guns on the Luneta battlement fired a few solitary shots without the
+least effect; the Fort of Santiago, defending the Pasig River entrance,
+was almost silent, although guns, said to be over a century old, had
+been hastily mounted there, notwithstanding the fact that the colonel,
+who was instructed to have the rust chipped off these ancient pieces
+of artillery, committed suicide in despair. Not a single torpedo had
+been brought into action by the Spaniards. There were several in stock
+at Cavite Arsenal, but, when wanted, each had an important piece
+missing, so they were unserviceable. About 4.30 p.m. the American
+ships changed their position, and moved towards Manila City. A
+formal demand was made on the Gov.-General Augusti to surrender the
+capital. The British Consul, who had received instructions to look
+after American interests pending hostilities, served as the medium
+of communication between the representatives of the conflicting
+parties. The Consuls had an interview with the Captain-General, who,
+after a brief consultation with his colleagues, gave the customary
+Spanish reply to the effect that he would resist to the last drop of
+blood in his veins. Frequent intercourse took place between the Spanish
+Gov.-General and the American Commodore through the intermediary of the
+British Consul. The same afternoon another British, another French,
+and another German man-of-war entered the Bay. Rear-Admiral Dewey
+(for he had just been promoted in rank) declared the port blockaded.
+
+On May 2 he demanded to be put in possession of the telegraph-station,
+and on this being refused he ordered the cable connecting Luzon with
+Hong-Kong to be cut. The Spanish authorities had just time before this
+measure was taken to report the bare facts to Madrid by cable. The
+news produced immense consternation in the Spanish capital. The whole
+city was instantly in uproar. Mobs of people filled the streets,
+wildly denouncing the incapability of a Government which could lead
+them to such disaster. The newspaper offices were thronged. Special
+supplements were issued as quickly as possible. The cafes, clubs,
+and other public meeting-places were besieged. General Borbon drove
+out in a carriage from which he harangued the populace, and was,
+in consequence, sent to a fortress for three months. There was an
+attempt at holding a mass meeting in the _Puerta del Sol_, but the
+surging crowd started down the _Calle de Sevilla_ and the _Carrera
+de San Geronimo_ shouting, "Long live Weyler!" "To the house of
+Weyler!" They reached his residence, and after a series of frantic
+_vivas_ for the army, navy, etc., they called on General Weyler
+to appear at the balcony. But being himself in somewhat strained
+relations with the existing Government, he did not think it prudent
+to show himself. Then some one having set up the cry of "Down with
+the whole Government!" which was responded to with frenzied applause,
+the rioters set out for Sagasta's house, returning by the _Carrera de
+San Geronimo_. At that moment the mounted civil guard met and charged
+the crowd. Many were trodden under foot, and arrests were made. The
+Civil Governor, Senor Aguilera, followed up in his carriage, and when
+the military police had dispersed the general mass, leaving only here
+and there a group, the Civil Governor stepped out of his carriage and
+addressed them. His words were hissed from the balcony of a club,
+and it was already past midnight when the first outburst of public
+indignation and despair had exhausted itself. On May 2 the _Heraldo_
+of Madrid, calmly reviewing the naval disaster, commented as follows:--
+
+
+    It was no caprice of the fortune of war. From the very first
+    cannon-shot our fragile ships were at the mercy of the formidable
+    hostile squadron; were condemned to fall one after the other
+    under the fire of the American batteries; they were powerless
+    to strike, and were defended only by the valour and breasts of
+    their sailors. What has been gained by the illusion that Manila
+    was fortified? What has been gained by the intimation that the
+    broad and beautiful bay on whose bosom the Spanish Fleet perished
+    yesterday had been rendered inaccessible? What use was made of the
+    famous Island of Corregidor? What was done with its guns? Where
+    were the torpedoes? Where were those defensive preparations
+    concerning which we were requested to keep silence?
+
+
+Several merchant vessels were seized in and about Manila Bay, and
+supplies from seawards were cut off from the city, which was quite at
+the mercy of Admiral Dewey, who could have bombarded it and forced
+surrender the same day. But it was not easy to foresee what might
+follow. Admiral Dewey had full discretion to act as circumstances might
+seem to guide him, but it was evident that whatever the surrender of
+the Captain-General of the Archipelago might theoretically imply,
+a military occupation of Manila was far from being tantamount to
+possession of the Islands. Hemmed in everywhere on land by the
+insurgent forces which now occupied and collected taxes in several
+Luzon provinces, the Spaniards could have been shelled out of the
+capital and forced to capitulate, or driven to extermination by the
+thousands of armed natives thirsting for their blood. The Americans
+had, consequently, a third party to consider. The natives' anxiety
+to oust the Spaniards was far stronger than their wish to be under
+American, or indeed any foreign, control. But whilst a certain section
+of the common people was perfectly indifferent about such matters,
+others, wavering at the critical moment between their opposition
+to the Spaniards and repulsion of the foreign invader, whoever he
+might be, proclaimed their intention to cast in their lot with the
+former. Lastly, there was Aguinaldo's old rebel party, which rallied
+to the one cry "Independence." "Nothing succeeds like success," and
+if the rebel version of the alleged Treaty of Biac-na-bato had been
+fulfilled in the spirit, no doubt Aguinaldo would have been unanimously
+revered as a great reformer. But the relinquishment of the strife
+by the leaders, the money transaction, and the immediate renewal of
+Spanish severities, together created an impression in the minds of
+the rebel rank-and-file that, in some way, their general welfare had
+been sacrificed to personal interest. It was doubtful, therefore,
+how Aguinaldo would be received on his return to the Islands. With
+the object of investigating the feelings of the old rebel party,
+the leader Jose Alejandrino and two other rebels accompanied the
+American expedition to Cavite, where they disembarked. Several days
+passed in convincing the rebels of Aguinaldo's good faith in all
+that had occurred, and in the meantime Aguinaldo himself arrived on
+May 19 with 12 other rebel leaders in the American despatch-boat
+_Hugh McCulloch_. It yet remained doubtful whether he still held
+the confidence of the rank-and-file; but when he at length landed
+at Cavite, his old companions-in-arms, and many more, rallied to
+his standard with the greatest enthusiasm. The rebels at that date
+were computed to number 30,000, and Aguinaldo, on taking the command,
+declared himself Dictator. Aguinaldo was, naturally, at that period,
+on the most amicable terms with Admiral Dewey, who allowed him to have
+two modern field-pieces, 500 rifles, and 200,000 rounds of ammunition,
+enjoining on him the strict observance of his engagement to repress
+reprisals against the Spaniards.
+
+To prepare the natives for the arrival of the Americans, Emilio
+Aguinaldo sent over in advance of the American Fleet the following
+exhortation:--
+
+
+
+    _Compatriots_:--
+
+    Divine Providence is about to place independence within our reach,
+    in a manner most acceptable to a free and independent people.
+
+    The Americans, not for mercenary motives but for the sake of
+    humanity, in response to the woes of the persecuted, have thought
+    fit to extend their protecting arm to our beloved country,
+    now that they have been obliged to sever their relations with
+    Spain on account of the tyranny practised in Cuba, to the great
+    prejudice of the large commercial interests which the Americans
+    have there. An American squadron is at this moment preparing
+    to sail for the Philippines. We, your brothers, fear you may be
+    induced to fire on the Americans. No, brothers, never make this
+    mistake. Rather blow out your own brains than treat with enmity
+    those who are your liberators.
+
+    Your natural enemies, your executioners, the authors of your
+    misery and your woe, are the Spaniards who rule you. Raise
+    against these your weapons and your hatred. Understand well,
+    against the Spaniards; never against the Americans. Do not
+    heed the Governor-General's decree, calling you to arms, even
+    though it cost you your lives. Die rather than be ungrateful
+    to our American liberators. The Governor-General calls you
+    to arms. Why? To defend your Spanish tyrants? To defend those
+    who have despised you and in public speeches called for your
+    extermination--those who have treated you little better than
+    savages? No! no! a thousand times, no!
+
+    Glance at history and you will see that in all Spain's wars
+    undertaken in the Far East, Philippine blood has been sacrificed;
+    we were sent to fight for the French in Cochin China over a
+    matter which in no way concerned us; we were forced by Simon de
+    Anda to spill our blood against the English, who, in any case,
+    would have been better rulers than the Spaniards; every year our
+    sons are taken away to be sacrificed in Mindanao and Sulu against
+    those who, we are led to believe, are our enemies when, in reality,
+    they are our brothers, fighting, like us, for their liberty. After
+    such a sacrifice of blood against the English, the Annamites,
+    the Mindanaos, etc., what reward or thanks have we received from
+    the Spanish Government? Obscurity, poverty, the slaughter of our
+    dear ones. Enough, brothers, of this Spanish tutelage!
+
+    Note that the Americans will attack by sea and prevent any
+    reinforcements coming from Spain, therefore the insurgents must
+    attack by land.
+
+    You will, probably, have more than sufficient arms, because the
+    Americans, having arms, will find means to help us. Wherever
+    you see the American flag, there flock in numbers. They are
+    our redeemers.
+
+    Our unworthy names are nothing, but we all invoke the name of the
+    greatest patriot our country has seen, certain in the hope that
+    his spirit will be with us and guide us to victory, our immortal
+    _Jose Rizal_.
+
+
+
+Cavite being occupied by the American forces, foreign Manila residents
+were permitted to take refuge there, for no one could tell when the
+Spaniards would be forced to capitulate, or what might happen if they
+did. Meantime the rebels had cut off, to a considerable extent, but
+not entirely, supplies of food to the capital, which was, however,
+well stored; and at no time during the three and a half months'
+siege was there a danger of famine among the civilian population,
+although prices of commodities gradually advanced to about double
+the normal rates. Even the hotels in the city only charged double
+prices. The Spanish troops fared far worse; their condition became
+more and more deplorable. All were badly and insufficiently fed, as
+much from disorganized commissariat arrangements as from actual want
+of supplies. The latest arrivals of youthful raw recruits particularly
+felt the pangs of hunger, and as the swarming rebels took one outpost
+after another from its emaciated defenders and raided the adjacent
+provinces, the Spanish prisoners in their hands (soldiers, friars,
+and civil servants) reached the figure of thousands. Among them was
+Brig.-General Garcia Pena (lately in command of Cavite), a colonel,
+several other officers, a civil governor, etc., and some hundreds
+of volunteers.
+
+Of the neutral warships in the bay, Germany had sent the largest
+number, and the actions of their commanders caused much anxiety to
+the blockading forces. In the city the German Consul made little
+secret of his sympathies for Spain, and was in frequent consultation
+with the Captain-General. German and Spanish officers fraternized
+freely in the streets and cafes. On May 18 a German steamer, with
+cargo and provisions, was reported outside Manila Bay, but her entry
+into the port was forbidden by the Americans. Later on the commander
+of a German man-of-war and his staff were received and feted by the
+Captain-General. These German officers were invited to a picnic at San
+Juan del Monte accompanied by several general and other high Spanish
+military officers. The German commander's post-prandial oration at
+the feast was much commented upon, for he is said to have declared
+(presumably on his own responsibility) that so long as William II was
+Emperor of Germany the Philippines should never come under American
+sway. The party then rode back to Manila, watched by the rebels, who
+were too wise to intercept them and so jeopardize their own cause by
+creating international complications. There is little doubt that the
+attitude taken up by the Germans nurtured the hope entertained by
+Spaniards all over the world, that at the last hour some political
+entanglement between the other Powers might operate beneficially for
+Spain's interests.
+
+The city and commercial suburb of Binondo wore their usual aspect,
+although trade was almost at a standstill. The undisguised sympathies
+of Great Britain for America revived the long dormant feeling of
+distrust and ill-will towards the British residents, which now became
+so marked that the Captain-General issued a proclamation commanding due
+respect to be paid to neutral foreigners. Even this did not prevent
+a Spanish officer spitting in the face of an Englishman. Indeed,
+at any time, there was far more danger to all civilian classes from
+the Spanish soldiery than from the rebels, who were strictly enjoined
+by Admiral Dewey not to attempt to enter the city. Had they done so,
+certainly their choicest prize would have been the Archbishop Nozaleda,
+who, well aware of this, escaped, long before the capitulation of
+the city, to Shanghai on board the German warship _Darmstadt_.
+
+The volunteers, too, were constantly giving trouble to the Spanish
+authorities, from whom they demanded their pay, and once when this
+was refused they threatened to seize the stores.
+
+Although trade in and with Manila had been more or less suspended,
+and at intervals absolutely so, since the great naval engagement, just
+a few profited by the circumstances of war. One British firm there,
+figuratively speaking, "coined" money. They were able frequently to
+run a steamer, well known in Chinese waters (in which I have travelled
+myself), between Manila and Hong-Kong carrying refugees, who were
+willing to pay abnormally high rates of passage. In ordinary times
+fares ranged from P50 saloon accommodation to P8 a deck passage. On one
+trip, for instance, this steamer, with the cabins filled at P125 each,
+carried 1,200 deck passengers (no food) at P20, and 30 deck passengers
+(with food) at P30. Their unsold cargoes on the way in steamers when
+Manila was blockaded came in for enormously advanced prices. Shiploads
+of produce which planters and native middlemen were glad to convert
+into pesos at panic rates were picked up "dirt cheap," leaving
+rich profits to the buyers. When steamers could not leave Manila, a
+Britisher, Mr. B----, walked for several days under the tropical sun
+to embark for Yloilo with trade news, and steamers were run at high
+war rates in and out of Borneo, Hong-Kong, and the Philippine southern
+ports. One British firm obtained a special licence to run a steamer
+between Hong-Kong and the port of Dagupan, hitherto closed to foreign
+traffic. These were, naturally, the exceptions, for, upon the whole,
+the dislocation and stoppage of trade entailed very serious losses
+to the general body of merchants. A few days after the bombardment of
+Cavite the natives refused to accept the notes of the _Banco Espanol
+Filipino_ (the Spanish bank), and a run was made on the bank to convert
+them into silver. However, the managers of the Hong-Kong and Shanghai
+Banking Corporation, and the Chartered Bank of India, Australia, and
+China, came to the rescue of the _Banco Espanol-Filipino_ and agreed
+to honour the paper issue in order to check the scare. The three
+banks thereupon opened their doors and satisfied the note-holders,
+ordinary business being, meanwhile, suspended.
+
+Aguinaldo had not only been busy organizing his forces, but had, in
+several engagements with the Spaniards, driven them back with loss,
+made prisoners, and replenished his own armouries. He then assumed
+the _Dictatorship_ and issued the following proclamation:--
+
+
+    _Filipinos_:--
+
+    The Great North American nation, example of true liberty, and,
+    as such, the friend of freedom for our country oppressed and
+    subjugated by the tyranny and despotism of its rulers, has
+    come to offer its inhabitants protection as decisive as it is
+    disinterested, regarding our unfortunate country as _gifted with
+    sufficient civilization and aptitude for self-government_. In
+    order to justify this high conception formed of us by the great
+    American nation, we ought to abstain from all acts which would
+    destroy that opinion, such as pillage, robbery and every kind of
+    outrage against persons or property. So as to avoid international
+    conflicts during the period of our campaign I order as follows:--
+
+    _Article_ 1.--The lives and properties of all foreigners shall
+    be respected, including in this denomination the Chinese and all
+    Spaniards who have not directly or indirectly contributed to the
+    bearing of arms against us.
+
+    _Article_ 2.--Those of the enemy who shall surrender their arms
+    shall be, in like manner, respected.
+
+    _Article_ 3.--Medical establishments and ambulances shall also be
+    respected as well as the persons and effects connected therewith,
+    provided they show no hostility.
+
+    _Article_ 4.--Persons disobeying the above three articles shall
+    be summarily tried and executed if their disobedience should lead
+    to assassination, incendiarism, robbery or rape.
+
+    Given at Cavite, May 24, 1898.
+
+    _Emilio Aguinaldo_.
+
+
+
+On June 8, at 5 p.m., a Philippine deputation, headed by Dr. Santos,
+waited on the American Consul-General in Singapore and delivered to
+him a congratulatory address on the American successes in the war
+with Spain. In reply to this address, the Consul-General made some
+pleasing remarks which were received with vociferous cheers by the
+Filipinos for the President of the United States and all sympathizers
+with their welfare. At the close of the reception a band of Philippine
+musicians played a selection of graceful airs of their native isles.
+
+With his despatch No. 229, dated Singapore, June 9, the Consul-General
+sent press reports of these proceedings to the Secretary of State in
+Washington, who replied as follows [196]:--
+
+
+    No. 87.
+
+    _Department of State_,
+
+    _Washington, July_ 20, 1898.
+
+    _Sir_,--
+
+    Your No. 229 of the 9th ultimo, inclosing printed copies of
+    a report from the _Straits Times_ of the same day ... with a
+    view to its communication to the Press, has been received and
+    considered. By Department's telegram of the 17th of June you were
+    instructed to avoid unauthorized negotiations with the Philippine
+    insurgents. The reasons for this instruction were conveyed to you
+    in my No. 78 of the 16th of June, by which the President's views
+    on the subject of your relations with General Aguinaldo were
+    fully expressed. The extract now communicated by you from the
+    _Straits Times_ of the 9th of June, has occasioned a feeling of
+    disquietude and a doubt as to whether some of your acts may not
+    have borne a significance and produced an impression which this
+    Government would be compelled to regret. The address presented
+    to you by the 25 or 30 Filipinos who gathered about the consulate
+    discloses an understanding on their part that the object of Admiral
+    Dewey was to support the cause of General Aguinaldo, and that the
+    ultimate object of our action is to secure the independence of
+    the Philippines "under the protection of the United States." Your
+    address does not repel this implication, and it moreover represents
+    that General Aguinaldo was "sought out by you," whereas it had
+    been the understanding of the Department that you received him
+    only upon the request of a British subject ... who formerly lived
+    in the Philippines. Your further reference to General Aguinaldo
+    as "the man for the occasion" and to your "bringing about" the
+    "arrangement" between "General Aguinaldo and Admiral Dewey which
+    has resulted so happily" also represents the matter in a light
+    which causes apprehension lest your action may have laid the
+    ground of future misunderstandings and complications. For these
+    reasons the Department has not caused the article to be given to
+    the Press, lest it might seem thereby to lend a sanction to views,
+    the expression of which it had not authorized.
+
+    Respectfully yours,
+
+    _William R. Day_.
+
+
+
+During the first few weeks following the Cavite naval battle nothing
+remarkable occurred between the belligerents. The British Consul
+and Vice-Consul were indefatigable in the services they rendered
+as intermediaries between Admiral Dewey and General Augusti. The
+American fleet was well supplied with coal from British vessels. The
+Manila-Dagupan Railway was in working order, and bringing supplies
+into the city. The Spanish authorities issued a decree regulating the
+price of meat and other commodities. American vessels made occasional
+trips outside the Bay, and brought in captive sailing-vessels. Neutral
+passenger-steamers were allowed to take away refugees other than
+Spanish subjects. The rebels outside Manila were very active in the
+work of burning and pillaging churches and other property. Streams
+of smoke were daily seen rising from the valleys. In the outskirts
+of the city, skirmishes between Spanish troops and rebels were of
+frequent occurrence. The Spaniards still managed to preserve routes
+of communication with the country districts, although, little by
+little, the rebels were closing in upon them. Aguinaldo and his
+subordinate leaders were making strenuous efforts effectually to cut
+off all supplies to the city, with the view of co-operating with the
+Americans to starve the Spaniards into capitulation. The hospitals in
+the capital were crowded with wounded soldiers, brought in at great
+risk from the rural districts. Spanish soldiers sauntered about the
+city and Binondo--sad spectacles of emaciation in which body and soul
+were only kept together by small doles of rice and dried fish. The
+volunteers who had enlisted on the conditions of pay, food, and
+clothing, raised an unheeded cry of protest, and threatened revolt,
+whilst the officers whiled away the time in the cafes with resigned
+indifference. The Archbishop issued his Pastoral Letter, in which he
+told the natives that if the foreigners obtained possession of the
+Islands there would be an end to all they most dearly cherished. Their
+altars would be desecrated; the churches would become temples of
+heresy; Christian morality would be banished, and vice would become
+rampant. He reminded them (with the proviso "circumstances permitting")
+that he had appointed June 17 as the day on which the consecration
+of these Islands to the "Heart of Jesus" would be solemnly confirmed.
+
+To draw the remnant of loyalty to his side, the Gov.-General instituted
+a reformed "Consulting Assembly" composed of 15 half-castes and
+natives, under the nominal presidency of Pedro A. Paterno, the
+mediator in the Biac-na-bato negotiations. Senor Paterno, whose
+sympathy for Spain was still unalienated, issued a _Manifiesto_
+of which the following is a translation (published in _El Comercio_
+of Manila on June 2, 1898):--
+
+
+    _Filipinos: Beloved Brethren_.
+
+    I love our country as none other does. I want it to be great,
+    free, and happy, and to shape its own destinies according to
+    its desires and aspirations. Therefore, I respect all the vital
+    forces in it at the cost of my life and my fortune. A long time
+    ago I risked my existence for the rights and liberties of the
+    Philippine people, who were sorely agitated, by bringing the
+    majority together, and directing the salvation of their interests
+    based on liberty and justice. My ideas are neither strange nor new;
+    they are the _result of study and political experience,_ and not
+    recently conceived under the existing circumstances. I desire,
+    with all the vehemence of my soul, to see my country strong and
+    great--its honour and dignity respected and in the enjoyment
+    of the greatest happiness. But however great our efforts may be
+    we need an ally. Let us imitate the example of the Great Powers;
+    they cannot exist alone, however strong and great they may be. They
+    need help, and the union of strength increases their power. Russia
+    seeks France; Germany seeks Italy and Austria. Unhappy is the Power
+    that isolates itself! And what better ally can we have than Spain,
+    a nation with which we are united for nearly four centuries in
+    religion, laws, morals, and customs, understanding full well her
+    virtues and her defects? The evil days of Spanish colonization are
+    over, and by dint of experience and the sacrifice of blood Spain
+    has understood that we are already of age, and require reforms
+    in our territory such as the formation of Philippine Militia,
+    which gives us the force of arms, and the Consulting Assembly,
+    which gives us the power of speech, participation in the higher
+    public employments, and the ability to control the peaceful
+    development and progress of society. Spain is at war with the
+    United States; we neither know that nation nor its language. The
+    Americans will endeavour by all imaginable means to induce us to
+    help them against Spain. And then, alas! they, the all-powerful,
+    will absorb us and reward our treachery to Spain by betraying
+    us, making us slaves and imposing upon us all the evils of a new
+    colonization. On the other hand, by helping Spain, if we die, we
+    do so in the fulfilment of our duty; if we live, we shall obtain
+    the triumph of our aspirations without the dangers and risks of
+    a civil war. We shall not die! No! Under the flag which shields
+    us and our garrisons, fighting with faith, decision, and ardour,
+    as a country does which yearns to be free and great, the enemy
+    will disappear like the wave which washes the seashore. Let us
+    hope to obtain from Spain all the good that the American stranger
+    can offer to us. Let us help our old ally, our old friend Spain,
+    and realize, with her, more quickly our aspirations. These are
+    they:--With the greatest decentralization possible consistent with
+    national unity, the organization and attributions of public powers
+    must be based on three principles:--(1) Spanish sovereignty. (2)
+    Local representation. (3) Colonial Government responsibility. Three
+    institutions correspond to these three principles, viz.: (1)
+    The institution of the General Government of the Philippines. (2)
+    The Insular Deputation or Philippine Assembly. (3) The Governative
+    Council. In this way the rights of the Government and those of
+    the Colony are harmonized. Let us shun the policy of suspicion
+    and doubt. With these firm and solid guarantees let us establish
+    civil and political liberty. The Assembly, representing the will of
+    the people, deliberates and resolves as one would treat one's own
+    affairs in private life, and thus constitutes the legislative power
+    of the Archipelago. Its resolution will be put into practice with
+    all fidelity by the executive power in its character of responsible
+    government. There are only Spaniards in the Archipelago; we are all
+    Filipinos and all European Spaniards. Such is _the programme of
+    the party who want home rule for the Philippines--ever Spanish!_
+    Thus shall we see the destinies of this country guided under the
+    orange and red flag. Thus will my beloved country be governed,
+    without detriment to the integrity of Spain. Finally, under Spain
+    our future is clear, and with all certainty we shall be free and
+    rule. Under the Americans our future is cloudy; we shall certainly
+    be sold and lose our unity; some provinces will become English,
+    others German, others French, others Russian or Chinese. Let us
+    struggle, therefore, side by side with Spain, we who love the
+    Philippines united and free. Long live Spain!
+
+    _Pedro Alejandro Paterno_.
+    _Manila_, _31st of May_, 1898.
+
+
+
+This _Manifiesto_ was replied to a week later by the rebel party,
+who published a Refutation, of which the following is a translation:--
+
+
+    _Refutation_ of the _Manifiesto_ of Senor Paterno.
+
+    "Actions speak louder than words."
+
+    A better phrase, or idea, could not be found with which to reply
+    to the _Manifiesto_ of Don Pedro A. Paterno, published in _El
+    Comercio_ of the 2nd instant, than the epigraph which heads
+    these lines.
+
+    Senor Paterno begins by saying that he loves his country as
+    none other does; he wants it to be great, free, and happy,
+    and to shape its own destinies according to its own desires and
+    aspirations. _Would to God such beautiful language represented
+    the truth_, for it is just what we wish and what we have, long
+    ago, been aiming at, at the risk of our lives and property,
+    as proved by our actions and our arguments, especially since
+    the middle of the glorious year of 1896, the period in which we
+    commenced the conquest, by force of arms, of our most cherished
+    liberties. May Senor Paterno forgive us if we cite a little of
+    the history of this movement, so that he may see that neither
+    are we ungrateful, nor are we acting with precipitation, but as
+    a logical and undeniable consequence of the vile conduct and bad
+    faith of the Spanish Government.
+
+    For over 300 years the country slumbered in ignorance of all that
+    referred to its rights and political liberties. It was resigned to
+    the Spanish governmental system of spoliation, and no one thought
+    of reforms. But when the Revolution of September, 1868, broke
+    out in Spain and overthrew the throne of Isabella II., the first
+    revolutionary leaders, inspired by ideas of humanity and justice,
+    caused an Assembly of Reformists to be established here, one of
+    the members of which, if we remember rightly, was Don Maximo Molo
+    Paterno, father of Don Pedro. The Assembly agreed to and proposed
+    good and appropriate reforms, amongst which was that relating
+    to the incumbencies which were monopolized by the friars. What
+    did the Spanish Government do with these reforms? What did the
+    friars do? Ah! though it may appear cruel to Senor Paterno,
+    historical facts oblige us to remind him that the Government,
+    in agreement with the friars, engineered the military rising
+    of the City of Cavite in January, 1872, and at the instigation
+    of its authors and accomplices, sentenced the secular priests
+    Father Jose Burgos, Father Jacinto Zamora, Father Mariano Gomez,
+    parish priests of Manila, Santa Cruz (suburb), and Bacoor (Cavite)
+    respectively, to be garotted. Moreover, another secular priest,
+    Father Agustin, the Philippine lawyers and landed proprietors, Don
+    Joaquin Pardo de Tavera, Don Antonio Regidor, Don Pedro Carrillo,
+    Don Jose Basa, and others, amongst whom was Don Maximo Molo
+    Paterno, the father of Don Pedro, were banished to the Ladrone
+    Islands. This virtuous grand old man (Don Maximo Paterno) did
+    indeed (and we proclaim it with pride) make sacrifices of health
+    and fortune for the advancement of the liberties of his native
+    country. From the year 1872 the Spanish Government carried on a
+    persistent persecution of all the Philippine reformers by unjust
+    imprisonment and banishment. In 1888 the authorities went so far
+    as to prosecute 700 representative men of the suburbs of Manila,
+    simply for having presented a petition of rights and aspirations
+    to the Gov.-General Don Emilio Terrero. There is not a single
+    insalubrious island or gloomy corner in the country which has not
+    been the forced home of some banished Filipino. No one was sure
+    of his personal liberty; none were safe in their homes, and if
+    three or four Filipinos met together for an innocent purpose,
+    they were spied, arrested, and banished. Calumny has brought
+    about enough banishments to Fernando Po, Chafarinas Islands,
+    Ceuta, and other African and Spanish places to demonstrate the
+    bad faith, cruelty, and injustice of the Spanish Government with
+    respect to the Philippine people. This virile, intelligent people
+    received the supreme decree of reforms with joy and enthusiasm,
+    sharing the feelings of those who felt in their souls the flame
+    of liberty. This people worked, through legitimate channels, to
+    advance its ideal, inspired by the purest loyalty to Spain. How
+    did the Spanish Government fulfil, on its part, the decree
+    spontaneously issued in 1868? By prosecuting and banishing the
+    reformists, and employing a system of terror to damp the courage
+    of the Filipinos. Vain, ridiculous fallacy!--for it ought to
+    have known better after three centuries of rule of that country
+    of intelligence, birthplace of Rizal, Luna, Rosario and other
+    living examples of Philippine energy. The Filipinos, lovers
+    of their liberty and independence, had no other recourse open
+    to them than an appeal to arms, to bring force against force,
+    terror against terror, death for death, resolute and sworn to
+    practise the system of fire and blood, until they should attain
+    for the whole Philippine Archipelago absolute freedom from the
+    ignominious sovereignty of Spain. Now let us continue our comments
+    on the _Manifiesto_.
+
+    Senor Paterno says that a long time ago he risked his existence
+    for the rights and liberties of the Philippine people, even at
+    the cost of his health and his fortune. We, however, do not see
+    how he put into practice such magnificent ideas, for what we do
+    know is that Senor Paterno passed his younger days in Madrid,
+    where, by dint of lavish expenditure, he was very well treated
+    by the foremost men in Spanish politics, without gaining from
+    Spain anything whereby the Philippine people were made free and
+    happy during that long period of his brilliant existence. On
+    the contrary, the very epoch of the persecutions narrated above
+    coincided with the period of Don Pedro A. Paterno's brilliant
+    position and easy life in Madrid, where, because he published a
+    collection of poems under the title of "Sampaguitas," he became
+    distinguished by the nickname of _Sampaguitero_. We know, also,
+    that Senor Paterno came back to this, his native soil, appointed
+    director of a Philippine Library and Museum not yet established,
+    without salary, but with the decoration of the Grand Cross of
+    Isabella the Catholic. This was no gain to us, no distinction to
+    him, seeing that the same decoration was given to the Chinaman
+    Palanca and two others, without their leaving their homes to
+    obtain them.
+
+    How are we then to understand those generous sacrifices of health
+    and fortune for the cause of Philippine liberty? Perhaps he
+    refers to the recently created Philippine Militia and Consulting
+    Assembly. Well, admitting for argument sake, that with such
+    Militia and Consulting Assembly the liberty and happiness of the
+    Philippines were assured (a doubtful hypothesis, Senor Paterno),
+    this happiness is not due to Senor Paterno's efforts, but simply
+    to the circumstances. Spain is at war with North America, and
+    now offers us this sugar-plum to draw us to her side to defend
+    her against invasion.
+
+    We ask you again, Senor Paterno, where are those sacrifices?
+
+    We do not see them, although we seek them with the light of
+    impartiality, for, as the splendour of justice shines on our flag,
+    we should not fail to do this even for our greatest enemies,
+    amongst whom we do not count you.
+
+    Do you allude to the Peace of Biac-na-bato? If so, we ask, what
+    have you done with that peace to which we subscribed in good
+    faith, and which you and General Primo de Rivera together have
+    stupidly and scandalously torn into shreds? You have, indeed,
+    bungled the amnesty when many of the banished are, up to now,
+    suffering the miseries of their sad and unjust fate.
+
+    You have put off the promised reforms which, even yet, have
+    not come.
+
+    You have delayed the payment of the P400,000 for the second and
+    third instalments of the agreed sum.
+
+    You have not delivered into the hands of our chief, Don Emilio
+    Aguinaldo, the money as agreed upon.
+
+    Ah! You thought that when we had surrendered to you our arms and
+    our garrisoned strongholds--when our forces were dispersed and we
+    were absent--you could turn back to the Government of iniquity
+    without reflecting that Divine Providence could permit, in the
+    hour of great injustice, her emissary Don Emilio Aguinaldo to
+    return resolved to chastise energetically the immoral and impotent
+    Spanish Government.
+
+    Then comes Senor Paterno, telling us that however great our efforts
+    may be in the cause of liberty, we cannot live without an ally,
+    and that we can find no better alliance than the sovereignty of
+    Spain. Frankly, we must say that this is inconceivably incompatible
+    with Senor Paterno's clear intelligence. How do you understand an
+    alliance with sovereignty? How can you imagine a people great,
+    free and happy under the sovereignty of Spain? Senor Paterno
+    cites, as examples, the alliances between Russia and France,
+    Germany and Italy and Austria, but, so far, we do not know that
+    Russia is the sovereign power of the French, nor the Germans that
+    of the Italians and Austrians. Senor Paterno further says that by
+    helping Spain in the war with the United States, if we die, we do
+    so in the fulfilment of our duty; if we live, we shall obtain the
+    triumph of our aspirations without the dangers and risks of a civil
+    war. Know, Senor Paterno, and let all know, that in less than six
+    days' operations in several provinces we have already taken 1,500
+    prisoners, amongst whom is the Brigadier-General Garcia Pena,
+    one Colonel, several Lieutenant-Colonels, Majors and officers,
+    besides the Governor of the Province of Bulacan, his wife and all
+    the civil service staff of that province. We also have about 500
+    Philippine volunteers as prisoners, of whom 10 have died and 40
+    are wounded, whilst among the European prisoners there is only one
+    wounded. This goes to prove that the Europeans were too cowardly
+    to defend the sovereignty of Spain in these Islands, therefore we
+    do not understand the appeal you make to the Filipinos to defend
+    Spain as a duty, when the Spaniards themselves are heedless of
+    that which ought to be a more rigorous and strict obligation
+    with them, seeing that they defend their own possession which
+    brings them so much lucre and profit. This does not say much for
+    the duty when the favoured ones themselves forget it and trample
+    upon it. To die to-day for cowardly Spain! This implies not only
+    want of dignity and delicate feeling, but also gross stupidity in
+    weaving a sovereignty of frightened Spaniards over the heads of
+    brave Filipinos. It is astonishing that in the face of such an
+    eloquent example of impotence there should still be a Filipino
+    who defends the sovereignty of Spain.
+
+    Remember, Senor Paterno, that we make war without the help of any
+    one, not even the North Americans; but no! we have the help of God,
+    who is the eternal ally of the great and just causes such as that
+    which we defend against Spain--our own beloved _independence_!!!
+
+    Senor Paterno concludes by explaining his political and
+    administrative principles on the basis of Spanish sovereignty, but,
+    as we have charged that sovereignty with cowardice and immorality,
+    we dismiss this detail.
+
+    To conclude, we will draw the attention of Senor Paterno to two
+    things, viz.:
+
+    1. That he _commits an injustice in imputing to the North Americans
+    the intention of taking possession of these Islands_ as soon as we
+    have conquered the Spaniards, for, besides having no grounds on
+    which to make such an allegation against a nation distinguished
+    for its humanity like the Federal Republic, there is the fact
+    that _its own constitution prohibits the absorption of territory
+    outside America, _in accordance with that principle laid down
+    by the immortal Monroe, of America for the Americans. There is,
+    moreover, the historical antecedent that the independence of
+    South America, once under Spanish dominion, is largely due to
+    the protection of the United States; and
+
+    2. That Senor Paterno should reflect on the fact that the Spaniards
+    would never have allowed him to publish his _Manifiesto_ had it not
+    been for the existence and attitude of our Dictator, Don Emilio
+    Aguinaldo. This ought to serve Senor Paterno as further proof of
+    the cowardice of the Spaniards, who, notwithstanding all that has
+    been shown, insist on creating discord by provoking civil war:
+    on their heads will fall the responsibilities of the moment and
+    of the historical past.
+
+    _Cavite_, _9th of June_, 1898.
+
+    _The Revolutionists_.
+
+
+
+The feeling against Don Pedro A. Paterno in the rebel camp was very
+strong for the time being, because of his supposed complicity in the
+alleged Biac-na-bato fraud.
+
+The rebels stopped all the traffic on the Tondo-Malabon steam tramway
+line, and shortly afterwards the Manila-Dagupan railway trains had
+temporarily to cease running.
+
+On June 10, 1898, General Monet received, through a Chinaman,
+a message from the Gov.-General to hasten to Manila with all
+the force he could bring. Monet had been so long in the northern
+provinces unsuccessfully trying to hold them against the rebels
+that his fate was, for a time, despaired of in the capital. Hemmed
+in on all sides by the enemy, concentration of all his detachments
+for general retreat was impossible. The forces spread over Tarlac,
+North Pangasinan and Nueva Ecija had to be left to their fate; their
+junction was quite impracticable, for, surrounded everywhere by
+the enemy, each group was then only just able to defend itself, and
+subsequently most of them fell prisoners. With only 600 fighting men,
+escorting 80 wounded, General Monet set out on his terrible southward
+march amidst recurring scenes of woe and despair. At every few miles
+between San Fernando and Macabebe his progress was hampered by an
+ever-increasing terror-stricken, weeping crowd of European women
+and children who besought him not to let them fall into the hands
+of a revengeful enemy. In the course of his march at most another
+hundred fighting men, a few of whom were natives, were able to join the
+retreating column. Their ammunition was scarce; they had no artillery
+waggons; every _carromata_ (gig) of the districts traversed had been
+seized by the enemy. Near San Fernando his passage was disputed,
+but he entered the town, nevertheless, and evacuated it immediately
+after, having secured only 12 carts for the transport of the sick
+and the wounded and what little remained of the war-material. The
+greatest difficulty was how to feed the swelling mob of refugees. At
+6 a.m. on June 14 a start was made for Santo Tomas, but they were
+so fiercely attacked on the road that, for the moment, annihilation
+seemed inevitable. Concentrated between Apalit, Santo Tomas, Bacolor,
+and Mexico the rebel forces were estimated at 9,000 well-armed men,
+between whom Monet's column had to pass or die. The sobs of the
+children, the lamentations of the women, the invocation of the saints
+by the helpless were drowned in the united yelling of half-starved
+troopers in their almost superhuman struggle for existence. Fortunately
+the best order possible, under such distressing circumstances, was
+maintained by the splendid officers supporting Monet. They were men
+personally known to many of us years before. Lieut.-Colonel Dujiols
+commanded the vanguard; the rearguard was under Major Roberto White;
+the refugee families were in charge of Lieut.-Colonel Oyarzabal, all
+under the superior orders of Colonel Perez Escotado. At length they
+cut their way through to Apalit, where the railway station served
+them as a stronghold, which they were able to defend whilst food
+was served out and some attention could be bestowed on the sick and
+wounded. On leaving Apalit a group of rebels approached the column
+with a white flag saying they were friendly Macabebes, but when they
+were close enough they opened fire. Nearly the whole town turned out
+against the fugitives, and Monet had to hasten the march by deploying
+his troops to keep the road clear. Understanding well that Monet was
+acting only on the defensive to cover his retreat, the rebels sent him
+an audacious message offering to spare the lives of his people if he
+would surrender their arms. The general's reply was in the negative,
+adding that if he once reached Santo Tomas not a stick or stone of
+it would he leave to mark its site. This defiant answer nonplussed
+the rebels, who had private interests to consider. To save their
+property they sent another message to General Monet, assuring him
+that he would not be further molested; and to guarantee their promise
+they sent him the son of a headman as hostage, whose life they said
+he could take if they broke their word. That night was, therefore,
+passed, without attack, at Mandaling, around which outposts were
+established and trenches occupied. The following day the retreating
+column and the refugees reached Macabebe safely, [197] but what became
+of their leader at this crisis we must leave to future historians to
+explain. Some nine months afterwards the acts of two generals were
+inquired into by a court of honour in Spain; one of them was disgraced,
+[198] and the other, who was accused of having abandoned his whole
+party to escape alone in disguise, was acquitted.
+
+General Augusti's wife and family were chivalrously escorted
+from Macabebe, where they were quite safe, by a loyal Philippine
+volunteer named Blanco (the son of a planter in Pampanga), who was
+afterwards promoted to effective rank of colonel in Spain. They were
+conducted from the Hagonoy marshes to the Bay of Manila and found
+generous protection from the Americans, who allowed them to quit the
+Islands. The Spanish garrisons in the whole of La Laguna and Pampanga
+had surrendered to the rebels, who were in practical possession of
+two-thirds of Luzon Island. General Augusti was personally inclined
+to capitulate, but was dissuaded from doing so by his officers.
+
+Several American generals arrived with reinforcements, more were
+_en route_, and about the middle of July the Commander-in-Chief,
+Maj.-General Wesley Merritt, reached the Islands and remained
+there until the end of the following month, that is to say, for
+about 10 or 12 days after the Spanish surrender and the American
+military occupation of Manila were accomplished facts. On the way
+out from San Francisco to Manila some American ships called at the
+Ladrone Islands and brought the Spanish garrison of about 40 men
+prisoners. The surrender of the capital had been again demanded
+and refused, for the Spaniards were far from being starved out, and
+the American commander had strictly forbidden Aguinaldo to make an
+attack on the city. Aguinaldo, however, had been wonderfully active
+elsewhere. In several engagements the Spaniards were completely
+routed, and in one encounter the rebel party took over 350 prisoners,
+including 28 officers; in another, 250 prisoners and four guns; and 150
+Spaniards who fled to Cavite Viejo church were quietly starved into
+surrender. Amongst the prisoners were several provincial governors,
+one of whom attempted to commit suicide. At Bacoor a hotly-contested
+battle was fought which lasted about nine hours. The Spaniards were
+surprised very early one morning, and by the afternoon they were
+forced to retreat along the Cavite-Manila road to Las Pinas. The
+Spanish loss amounted approximately to 250 troops wounded, 300 dead,
+and 35 officers wounded or dead. The rebels are said to have lost more
+than double this number, but whatever may have been the sacrifice,
+the victory was theirs. The Spaniards would probably have come
+better out of this combat but for the fact that a native regiment,
+hitherto loyal, suddenly murdered their officers and went over to
+the rebels. The Spaniards undoubtedly suffered much from unexpected
+mutinies of native auxiliaries and volunteers at critical moments,
+whilst in no case did rebels pass over to the Spanish side. [199]
+They were not long left in possession of Las Pinas, where a subsequent
+attack in overwhelming numbers drove the survivors still nearer to
+the capital.
+
+Long before the capitulation of Manila the rebels were as well armed
+as they could wish from three sources,--that is to say, the Americans,
+the Spanish arms seized in warfare, and consignments from China. They
+also made good use of their field-pieces, and ever and anon the
+booming of cannon was heard in the streets of Manila. The Spaniards,
+hard pressed on all sides, seemed determined to make their last stand
+in the old citadel. The British banks shipped away their specie to
+China, and the British community, whose members were never united as
+to the course they should adopt for general safety, was much relieved
+when several steamers were allowed, by the mutual consent of Admiral
+Dewey and General Augusti, to lie in the bay to take foreigners on
+board in case of bombardment. Emilio Aguinaldo, on his return to the
+Islands, had declared himself Dictator. The Dictatorial Government
+administered the provinces as they were conquered from the Spaniards,
+collected taxes, and enacted laws. In a month's time the management
+of these rural districts had so far assumed shape that Aguinaldo
+convened deputies therefrom and summoned a Congress on June 18. He
+changed the name of Dictatorial to Revolutionary Government, and on
+June 23 proclaimed the Constitution of that provisional government,
+of which the statutes are as follows:--
+
+
+    _(Translation)_
+
+    _Don Emilio Aguinaldo y Famy_,
+
+    President of the Philippine Revolutionary Government and
+    Commander-in-Chief of its army
+
+    This Government, desirous of demonstrating to the Philippine
+    people that one of its objects is to abolish with a firm hand
+    the inveterate vices of Spanish administration, substituting
+    a more simple and expeditious system of public administration
+    for that superfluity of civil service and ponderous, tardy and
+    ostentatious official routine, I hereby declare as follows, viz:--
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+    Chapter I
+    Of the Revolutionary Government
+
+    _Article_ 1.--The Dictatorial Government shall be henceforth called
+    the Revolutionary Government, whose object is to struggle for
+    the independence of the Philippines, until all nations, including
+    Spain, shall expressly recognize it, and to prepare the country
+    for the establishment of a real Republic. The Dictator shall be
+    henceforth styled the President of the Revolutionary Government.
+
+    _Article_ 2.--Four Government Secretaryships are created: (1)
+    of Foreign Affairs, Navy and Trade; (2) of War and Public Works;
+    (3) of Police, Public Order, Justice, Public Education and Health;
+    (4) of Finance, Agriculture, and Manufactures. The Government has
+    power to increase the number of secretaryships when experience has
+    shown that the above distribution of public offices is insufficient
+    to meet public requirements.
+
+    _Article_ 3.--Each Secretary shall assist the President in the
+    administration of affairs concerning his particular branch. The
+    Secretary at the head of each respective department shall not
+    be responsible for the Presidential Decrees, but shall sign the
+    same to give them authenticity. But if it should appear that
+    the decree has been issued on the proposal of the Secretary of
+    the corresponding branch, then the Secretary shall be jointly
+    responsible with the President.
+
+    _Article_ 4.--The Secretaryship of Foreign Affairs shall be
+    divided into three centres, one of Diplomacy, one of Navy, and
+    another of Trade. The first centre shall study and execute all
+    affairs which concern the direction of diplomatic negotiations
+    with other Powers and the correspondence of this Government
+    connected therewith. The second shall study all that relates to
+    the formation and organization of our Navy, and the fitting out
+    of whatever expeditions the circumstances of the Revolution may
+    require; and the third shall attend to all matters concerning
+    home and foreign trade and the preliminary work in connection
+    with the Treaties of Commerce to be made with other nations.
+
+    _Article_ 5.--The Secretaryship of War shall be divided into two
+    centres, the one exclusively of War and the other exclusively
+    of Public Works. The first centre shall be divided into four
+    sections, one of Campaign, one of Military Justice, one of Military
+    Administration, and the other of Military Health.
+
+    The Campaign section shall draw up and attend to all matters
+    concerning the service and enlistment of the Revolutionary Militia,
+    the direction of campaigns, the making of plans, fortifications,
+    and the editing of the announcements of battles, the study of
+    military tactics for the Army, and organization of the respective
+    staffs, artillery, and cavalry corps, and all other matters
+    concerning campaigns and military operations.
+
+    The section of Military Justice shall attend to all matters
+    concerning courts-martial and military sentences, the appointment
+    of judges and assistant judges in all military-judicial
+    affairs. The military administrator shall take charge of the
+    commissariat department and all Army equipment, and the Military
+    Health department shall take charge of matters concerning the
+    health and salubrity of the Militia.
+
+    _Article_ 6.--The other secretaryships shall be divided into so
+    many centres corresponding to their functions, and each centre
+    shall be sub-divided into sections as the nature and importance
+    of the work requires.
+
+    _Article_ 7.--The Secretary of each department shall inspect and
+    watch over the work therein and be responsible to the President
+    of the Government. At the head of each section there shall be
+    a director, and in each section there shall be an official in
+    charge assisted by the necessary staff.
+
+    _Article_ 8.--The President shall have the sole right to appoint
+    the secretaries, and in agreement with them he shall appoint all
+    the staff subordinate to the respective departments. Nevertheless,
+    in the election of individuals favouritism must be avoided on
+    the understanding that the good name of the Fatherland and the
+    triumph of the Revolution need the services of the most really
+    capable persons.
+
+    _Article_ 9.--The secretaries can take part in the sessions of the
+    Revolutionary Congress, whenever they have a motion to present in
+    the name of the President, or on the interpellation of any deputy,
+    but when the question under debate, or the motion on which they
+    have been summoned is put to the vote, they shall retire and not
+    take part in that voting.
+
+    _Article_ 10.--The President of the Government is the
+    personification of the Philippine people, and as such he cannot be
+    held responsible for any act whilst he holds that position. His
+    position is irrevocable until the Revolution shall triumph,
+    unless extraordinary circumstances should compel him to tender
+    his resignation to Congress, in which case only Congress shall
+    elect whomsoever is esteemed most fit.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER 2
+
+    Chapter II
+    Of the Revolutionary Congress
+
+
+    _Article_ 11.--The Revolutionary Congress is the assembly of those
+    deputies from the Philippine provinces, elected in due form, as
+    prescribed in the Decree of the 18th inst. Nevertheless, if any
+    province could not elect deputies because the majority of its towns
+    had not yet been able to free themselves from Spanish dominion,
+    the Government can nominate provisional deputies chosen from the
+    persons of highest consideration by reason of their education
+    and social position up to the number fixed by the said Decree,
+    always provided that such persons shall have been born or have
+    resided for a long time in the provinces to be represented.
+
+    _Article_ 12.--When the deputies shall have met in the town and
+    in the building to be provided by the Revolutionary Government
+    the preliminary act shall be the election by majority of votes
+    of a commission of five persons who shall examine the documents
+    accrediting the personality of each person, and another commission
+    of three persons who shall examine the documents exhibited by
+    the first commission of five.
+
+    _Article_ 13.--The next day the said deputies shall again meet
+    and the two commissions shall read their respective reports on
+    the validity of the said documents, all doubts on the same to
+    be resolved by an absolute majority of votes. They shall then
+    at once proceed to the election, by absolute majority, of a
+    president, a vice-president, and two secretaries, to be chosen
+    from among the same deputies, after which the Congress shall be
+    held to be constituted, and notice of the same shall be given to
+    the Government.
+
+    _Article_ 14.--The meeting-place of Congress is sacred and
+    inviolable, and no armed force can enter therein except on the
+    summons of the President of the Congress for the purpose of
+    restoring order, should the same have been disturbed by those
+    who know not how to honour themselves and their solemn functions.
+
+    _Article_ 15.--The powers of Congress are:--To look after the
+    general interests of the Philippine people and the fulfilment of
+    the revolutionary laws; to discuss and vote laws; to discuss and
+    approve, before ratification, all treaties and loans to examine
+    and approve the accounts of the general expenses which shall
+    be presented annually by the Finance Secretary and to fix the
+    extraordinary taxes, and others which, in future, may be imposed.
+
+    _Article_ 16.--The voice of Congress shall also be heard in all
+    matters of grave importance the resolution of which will admit of
+    delay, but the President of the Government can resolve questions of
+    an urgent character, rendering an account of his acts to Congress
+    by means of a message.
+
+    _Article_ 17.--Any Deputy can present a bill in Congress, and any
+    Secretary can do so by order of the President of the Government.
+
+    _Article_ 18.--The sessions of Congress shall be public, and only
+    in cases where reserve is necessary shall secret sessions be held.
+
+    _Article_ 19.--The order of debate and parliamentary usages shall
+    be determined by instructions to be formulated by Congress. The
+    President shall lead the debate, but shall not vote, unless
+    there fail to be a majority, in which case he shall give his
+    casting vote.
+
+    _Article_ 20.--The President of the Government cannot, in any
+    manner, impede the meeting of Congress, nor interfere with the
+    sessions of the same.
+
+    _Article_ 21.--Congress shall appoint a permanent judicial
+    commission, to be presided over by the Vice-President, assisted
+    by one of the Secretaries and composed of these persons and
+    seven assessors, elected by majority of votes, from among the
+    deputies. This commission shall revise the sentences given in
+    criminal cases by the provincial councils, and shall judge and
+    sentence, without right of further appeal, cases brought against
+    the Government Secretaries, Provincial Chiefs and Provincial
+    Councillors.
+
+    _Article_ 22.--In the office of the Secretary to Congress there
+    shall be a Book of Honour, in which shall be noted the great
+    services rendered to the Fatherland and esteemed as such by
+    Congress. Any Filipino, military or civil, can solicit of Congress
+    inscription in the said book on producing the documents which
+    prove the praiseworthy acts performed by him for the good of the
+    Fatherland since the present Revolution began. For extraordinary
+    services which may, in future, be rendered, the Government will
+    propose the inscription, the proposal being accompanied by the
+    necessary justification.
+
+    _Article_ 23.--Congress shall determine, on the proposal of the
+    Government, the money rewards to be paid, once for all, to the
+    families of those who were victims to duty and patriotism in the
+    execution of heroic acts.
+
+    _Article_ 24.--The resolutions of Congress shall not be binding
+    until they have received the sanction of the President of the
+    Government. When the said President shall consider any resolution
+    undesirable, or impracticable, or pernicious, he shall state his
+    reasons to Congress for opposing its execution, and if Congress
+    still insist on the resolution the said President can outvote it
+    on his own responsibility.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+    Chapter III
+    Of Military Justice
+
+
+    _Article_ 25.--When any commandant of a detachment shall receive
+    notice of an individual in the service having committed a fault or
+    having performed any act reputed to be a military misdemeanour,
+    he shall inform the Commandant of the District of the same, and
+    this officer shall appoint a judge and secretary to constitute
+    a Court of Inquiry in the form prescribed in the instructions
+    dated 20th instant. If the accused held the rank of lieutenant,
+    or a higher one, the same Commandant shall be the judge, and if the
+    Commandant himself were the accused the Superior Commandant of the
+    Province shall appoint as judge an officer of a higher rank, and
+    if there were none such the same Commandant of the Province shall
+    open the inquiry. The judge shall always hold the rank of chief.
+
+    _Article_ 26.--When the Court of Inquiry has finished its labours,
+    the Superior Commandant shall appoint three assistant judges of
+    equal or superior rank to the judge, and a Court-Martial shall be
+    composed of the three assistant judges, the judge, the assessor,
+    and the president. The Commandant of the District shall be the
+    judge if the accused held the rank of sergeant, or a lower one,
+    and the Superior Commandant shall be judge if the accused held the
+    rank of lieutenant, or a higher one. This court shall pass sentence
+    in the same form as the Provincial Courts, but the sentence can
+    be appealed against before the Superior Council of War.
+
+    _Article 27_.--The Superior Council of War shall be composed
+    of six assistant judges, who shall hold the minimum rank of
+    Brigadier-General, and the War Office adviser. If the number of
+    generals residing in the capital of the Revolutionary Government
+    be insufficient, the number shall be made up by deputies to
+    be appointed on commission by Congress. The President of this
+    Council shall be the general of the highest rank amongst them,
+    and if there were more than one of the same rank, one shall be
+    elected by themselves by majority of votes.
+
+    _Article 28_.--The Superior Council shall judge and sentence,
+    without right of further appeal, Superior Commandants, Commandants
+    of Districts, and all officers who hold rank of Commandant,
+    or a higher one.
+
+    _Article 29_.--Military misdemeanours are the following:--
+
+    (1) Violation of the immunity due to foreigners, both as to
+    their persons and their goods, and violation of the privileges
+    appertaining to sanitary establishments and ambulances, as well
+    as the persons and effects in, or belonging to, one or the other,
+    and persons employed in the service of the same so long as they
+    commit no hostile act. (2) Want of respect for the lives, money,
+    and jewellery of the enemy who surrenders his arms, and for
+    prisoners of war. (3) The entry of Filipinos into the service of
+    the enemy as spies, or to discover war secrets, make plans of the
+    revolutionists' positions and fortifications, or present themselves
+    to parley without proving their mission or their individuality. (4)
+    Violation of the immunity due to those who come with this mission,
+    duly accredited, in the form prescribed by international law.
+
+    The following persons also commit military misdemeanours:--
+
+    (1) Those who endeavour to break up the union of the
+    revolutionists, fomenting rivalry between the chiefs, and forming
+    divisions and armed bands. (2) Those who collect taxes without
+    being duly authorized by Government, or misappropriate public
+    funds. (3) Those who, being armed, surrender to the enemy or
+    commit any act of cowardice before the same; and (4) Those who
+    sequester any person who has done no harm to the Revolution, or
+    violate women, or assassinate, or seriously wound any undefended
+    persons, or commit robbery or arson.
+
+    _Article_ 30.--Those who commit any of the above-named
+    misdemeanours shall be considered declared enemies of the
+    Revolution and shall be punished on the highest scale of punishment
+    provided for in the Spanish Penal Code. If the misdemeanour be
+    not provided for in the said code, the culprit shall be confined
+    until the Revolution has triumphed, unless his crime shall have
+    caused an irreparable injury which, in the opinion of the court,
+    would justify the imposition of capital punishment.
+
+
+
+    Additional Clauses
+
+
+    _Article_ 31.--The Government shall establish abroad a
+    Revolutionary Committee, composed of an indefinite number of
+    the most competent persons in the Philippine Archipelago. This
+    Committee shall be divided into three sections, viz.:--Of
+    diplomacy; of the navy; and of the army. The diplomatic section
+    shall negotiate with the foreign cabinets the recognition of
+    belligerency and Philippine independence. The naval section shall
+    be intrusted with the study and organization of a Philippine
+    navy and prepare the expeditions which the circumstances of the
+    Revolution may require. The army section shall study military
+    tactics and the best form of organizing staff, artillery and
+    engineer corps, and all that is necessary to put the Philippine
+    army on a footing of modern advancement.
+
+    _Article_ 32.--The Government shall dictate the necessary
+    instructions for the execution of the present decree.
+
+    _Article_ 33.--All decrees of the Dictatorial Government which
+    may be in opposition to the present one are hereby rescinded.
+
+
+    Given at Cavite, June 23, 1898.
+
+    _Emilio Aguinaldo_.
+
+
+
+The Promulgation of the Constitution of the Revolutionary Government
+was accompanied by a Message from Emilio Aguinaldo, of which the
+following is a translation:--
+
+
+    _Message of the President of the Philippine Revolution_
+
+    It is an established fact that a political Revolution, judiciously
+    carried out, is the violent means employed by nations to recover
+    the sovereignty which naturally belongs to them, when the same has
+    been usurped and trodden under foot by tyrannical and arbitrary
+    government. Therefore, the Philippine Revolution cannot be more
+    justifiable than it is, because the country has only resorted
+    to it after having exhausted all peaceful means which reason and
+    experience dictated.
+
+    The old Kings of Castile were obliged to regard the Philippines
+    as a sister nation united to Spain by a perfect similarity
+    of aims and interests, so much so that in the Constitution of
+    1812, promulgated at Cadiz, as a consequence of the Spanish War
+    of Independence, these Islands were represented in the Spanish
+    Parliament. But the monastic communities, always unconditionally
+    propped up by the Spanish Government, stepped in to oppose the
+    sacred obligation, and the Philippine Islands were excluded from
+    the Spanish Constitution, and the country placed at the mercy of
+    the discretional or arbitrary powers of the Gov.-General.
+
+    Under these circumstances the country clamoured for justice,
+    and demanded of the Peninsular Government the recognition and
+    restitution of its secular rights, through reforms which should
+    gradually assimilate it to Spain. But its voice was soon stifled,
+    and its children were rewarded for their abnegation by punishment,
+    martyrdom and death. The religious corporations, whose interests
+    were always at variance with those of the Filipinos and identified
+    with the Spanish Government, ridiculed these pretensions, calmly
+    and persistently replying that liberty in Spain had only been
+    gained by the sacrifice of blood.
+
+    What other channel, then, was open to the country through which
+    to insist upon the recovery of its lawful rights? No other remedy
+    remained but the application of force, and convinced of this,
+    it had recourse to revolution.
+
+    Now its demands are no longer limited to assimilation with the
+    Spanish Constitution. It asks for a definite separation therefrom;
+    it struggles for its independence, with the certainty that the
+    time has arrived when it is able and ought to rule itself.
+
+    Hence, it has constituted a Revolutionary Government, based
+    on wise and just laws, suited to the abnormal circumstances
+    it is passing through, preparatory to the founding of a real
+    Republic. Accepting Right as the only standard of its acts,
+    Justice as its sole aim, and honourable Labour as its sole means,
+    it calls upon all Filipinos, without distinction of birth, and
+    invites them to unite firmly with the object of forming a noble
+    society, not by bloodshed, nor by pompous titles, but by labour
+    and the personal merit of each one; a free society where no egoism
+    shall exist--where no personal politics shall overflow and crush,
+    nor envy nor partiality debase, nor vain boasting nor charlatanry
+    throw it into ridicule.
+
+    Nothing else could be expected from a country which has proved
+    by its long suffering and courage in tribulation and danger,
+    and industry and studiousness in peace, that it is not made for
+    slavery. That country is destined to become great; to become one of
+    the most solid instruments of Providence for ruling the destinies
+    of humanity. That country has resources and energy sufficient to
+    free itself from the ruin and abasement into which the Spanish
+    Government has drawn it, and to claim a modest, though worthy,
+    place in the concert of free nations.
+
+
+    Given at Cavite, June 23, 1898.
+
+    _Emilio Aguinaldo_.
+
+
+
+These public documents were supplemented by the issue, on June 27,
+of "Instructions," signed by Emilio Aguinaldo, which, as they relate
+solely to working details of the Revolutionary Government offices,
+are of minor interest to the general reader.
+
+Since June 30 the rebels were in possession of Coloocan (the first,
+station--beyond Manila--on the Manila-Dagupan Railway) and the Manila
+suburbs of Santa Cruz and Tondo. The rebels purchased four vessels in
+Singapore and armed them, but, later on, Admiral Dewey forbade them to
+fly their flag pending the ultimate settlement of the whole Philippine
+problem. They also took possession of the waterworks of Santolan
+(near San Juan del Monte), but did not cut off the water-supply to the
+capital. Dissensions arose in the rebel camp between Emilio Aguinaldo
+and the leaders Yocson and Sandico. Yocson was the chief who carried
+on the war in the northern provinces during the absence of Aguinaldo
+and his companions (_vide_ pp. 399, 407). The Americans had no less
+difficulty in dealing with the natives than with the Spaniards. There
+were frequent altercations between individual rebels and American
+soldiers which, in one case at least, near Cavite, resulted very
+seriously. The rebels were irritated because they considered
+themselves slighted, and that their importance as a factor in the
+hostilities was not duly recognized; in reality, there was nothing
+for them to do in co-operation with the Americans, who at any time
+could have brought matters to a crisis without them (by shelling the
+city) but for considerations of humanity. Aguinaldo's enemies were
+naturally the Spaniards, and he kept his forces actively employed in
+harassing them in the outlying districts; his troops had just gained
+a great victory in Dagupan (Pangasinan), where, on July 22, the whole
+Spanish garrison and a number of civilian Spaniards had to capitulate
+in due written form. But experience had taught him that any day an
+attempt might be made to create a rival faction. Such a contingency
+had been actually provided for in Article 29 of the Statutes of the
+Revolutionary Government already cited. Presumably with a view to
+maintaining his prestige and keeping his individuality well before
+the people, he was constantly issuing edicts and proclamations. He was
+wise enough to understand the proverbs, "_L'union fait la force_," and
+"A house divided against itself shall surely fall." Not the least of
+his talents was that of being able to keep united a force of 30,000 to
+40,000 Filipinos for any object. His proclamation of the Constitution
+of the Revolutionary Government on June 23 implied a declaration of
+independence. He really sought to draw the American authorities into
+a recognition of it; but he did not seem to see, what others saw, the
+inopportunity of their doing so at that stage of America's relations
+with Spain. The generals were not the arbiters of the _political_
+situation. Then Aguinaldo adopted a course quite independently of
+the Great Power which had undertaken the solution of the Philippine
+question, and addressed a Memorandum to the foreign Governments, with a
+copy of an Act of Independence. The result was altogether negative; not
+a single Power chose to embarrass America, at that critical period, by
+a recognition of Aguinaldo's party. The Memorandum read as follows:--
+
+
+    (_Translation_)
+
+    _To the Powers_:--
+
+    The Revolutionary Government of the Philippines, on being
+    constituted, explained, by means of a message of the 23rd June
+    last, the real causes of the Philippine Revolution, and went on to
+    show that this popular movement is the result of those laws which
+    regulate the life of a nation ardently desiring progress, and
+    the attainment of perfection by the only possible road of liberty.
+
+    The Revolution, at the present moment, is predominant in the
+    provinces of Cavite, Batangas, Mindoro, Tayabas, La Laguna, Morong,
+    Bulacan, Bataan, Pampanga, Nueva Ecija, Tarlac, Pangasinan, La
+    Union, La Infanta, and Zambales, and is besieging the capital,
+    Manila. In these provinces the most perfect order and tranquillity
+    reign; they are administered by the authorities elected by
+    themselves in conformity with the decrees of the 18th and 23rd
+    of June last.
+
+    Moreover, the Revolution has about 9,000 prisoners of war, who are
+    treated with the same consideration observed by cultured nations,
+    agreeably with the sentiments of humanity, and a regular organized
+    army of more than 30,000 men fully equipped on a war footing.
+
+    Under these circumstances the representatives of the townships
+    comprised within the provinces above mentioned, interpreting the
+    popular will of those who have elected them, have proclaimed the
+    Independence of the Philippines, and requested the Revolutionary
+    Government to petition and solicit of the foreign Powers
+    an acknowledgment of their belligerency and independence,
+    under the conviction that the Philippine nation has arrived
+    at that state in which it can and ought to govern itself. As a
+    consequence, the annexed document has been signed by the said
+    representatives. Wherefore the undersigned, using the faculties
+    reserved to him as President of the Revolutionary Government
+    of the Philippines, and in the name and representation of the
+    Philippine nation, implores the protection of all the Powers of
+    the civilized world, and beseeches them formally to recognize the
+    belligerency, the Revolutionary Government, and the Independence of
+    the Philippines, because these Powers are the bulwarks designated
+    by Providence to maintain the equilibrium amongst nations by
+    sustaining the weak and _restraining the ambitions of the more
+    powerful_, in order that the most faultless justice may illuminate
+    and render effective indefinitely the progress of humanity.
+
+    Given under my hand and seal in Bacoor, in the Province of Cavite,
+    this 6th day of August 1898.
+
+
+    _Emilio Aguinaldo_,
+
+    _The President of the Revolutionary Government._
+
+
+
+The accompanying Act of Independence, dated August 1, 1898, and couched
+in the flowery language of the preceding edicts and proclamations,
+was signed by those Filipinos who had been appointed local presidents
+of the townships in the provinces referred to. The allusion to "the
+ambitions of the more powerful" could well be understood to signify
+an invitation to intervene in and counteract America's projects, which
+might, hereafter, clash with the Aguinaldo party's aspirations. At the
+same time a group of agitators, financed by the priests in and out of
+the Islands, was straining every nerve to disseminate false reports
+and create discord between the rebels and the Americans, in the hope
+of frustrating their coalition. But, even then, with a hostile host
+before Manila, and the city inevitably doomed to fall, the fate of
+Spanish sovereignty depended more on politicians than on warriors.
+
+In the absence of a Spanish Ambassador at Washington the French and
+Austro-Hungarian Governments had accepted, conjointly, the protection
+of Spanish subjects and interests in the United States on terms set
+forth in the French Ambassador's letter to the Secretary of State in
+Washington, dated April 22, 1898. In August the city of Santiago de
+Cuba was beleaguered by the Americans under General Shafter; the forts
+had been destroyed by Admirals Schley and Sampson; General Linares,
+in command there, had been wounded and placed _hors de combat_; the
+large force of Spanish troops within the walls was well armed and
+munitioned, but being half-starved, the _morale_ of the rank-and-file
+was at a low ebb, and General Toral, who succeeded General Linares,
+capitulated. The final blow to Spanish power and hopes in Cuba was the
+destruction of Admiral Cervera's fleet outside the port of Santiago de
+Cuba. Cuba was lost to Spain. No material advantage could then possibly
+accrue to any of the parties by a prolongation of hostilities, and on
+July 22 the Spanish Government addressed a Message to the President
+of the United States (Mr. William McKinley) to inquire on what terms
+peace might be re-established between the two countries. In reply to
+this inquiry the U.S. Secretary of State sent a despatch, dated July
+30, conveying an outline of the terms to be stipulated. The French
+Ambassador at Washington, M. Jules Cambon, having been specially
+appointed "plenipotentiary to negotiate and sign," by decree of the
+Queen-Regent of Spain, dated August 11, 1898, peace negotiations were
+entered into, and a Protocol was signed by him and the U.S. Secretary
+of State, Mr. William R. Day, for their respective Governments at
+4.25 p.m. on August 12, 1898. It is interesting to note the exact
+hour and date, in view of subsequent events.
+
+
+
+    Protocol of Peace
+
+
+    _The English Text_ [200]
+
+    _Article_ 1.--Spain will relinquish all claim of sovereignty over
+    and title to Cuba.
+
+    _Article_ 2.--Spain will cede to the United States the Island of
+    Porto Rico and other islands now under Spanish sovereignty in the
+    West Indies, and also an island in the Ladrones to be selected
+    by the United States.
+
+    _Article_ 3.--_The United States will occupy and hold the city,
+    bay, and harbour of Manila, pending the conclusion of a treaty
+    of peace which shall determine the control, disposition, and
+    government of the Philippines_.
+
+    _Article_ 4.--Spain will immediately evacuate Cuba, Porto Rico, and
+    other islands now under Spanish sovereignty in the West Indies; and
+    to this end each Government will, within ten days after the signing
+    of this protocol, appoint Commissioners, and the Commissioners so
+    appointed shall, within 30 days after the signing of this protocol,
+    meet at Havana for the purpose of arranging and carrying out
+    the details of the aforesaid evacuation of Cuba and the adjacent
+    Spanish islands; and each Government will, within ten days after
+    the signing of this protocol, also appoint other Commissioners,
+    who shall, within 30 days after the signing of this protocol,
+    meet at San Juan, in Porto Rico, for the purpose of arranging and
+    carrying out the details of the aforesaid evacuation of Porto Rico
+    and other islands now under Spanish sovereignty in the West Indies.
+
+    _Article_ 5.--The United States and Spain will each appoint
+    not more than five Commissioners to treat of peace, and the
+    Commissioners so appointed shall meet at Paris not later than
+    October 1, 1898, and proceed to the negotiation and conclusion of
+    a treaty of peace, which treaty shall be subject to ratification
+    according to the respective constitutional forms of the two
+    countries.
+
+    _Article_ 6.--Upon the conclusion and signing of this protocol,
+    hostilities between the two countries shall be suspended, and
+    notice to that effect shall be given as soon as possible by each
+    Government to the commanders of its military and naval forces.
+
+    Done at Washington in duplicate, in English and in French, by
+    the undersigned, who have hereunto set their hands and seals,
+    the 12th day of August, 1898.
+
+
+    _William R. Day_.
+    _Jules Cambon_.
+
+
+
+For a month before the Protocol was signed the relations between
+Spaniards and Americans were verging towards a crisis. The respective
+land forces were ever on the point of precipitating the end. General
+F. V. Greene had his brigade encamped along the Cavite-Manila road,
+about 2 1/2 miles from the Spanish fort at Malate, with outposts thrown
+forward to protect the camp. The rebel lines were situated nearer
+to Manila, between the Americans and Spaniards. On July 28 General
+Greene took possession of a line, from the road already occupied by
+his forces, in front of the rebels' advanced position, to be ready to
+start operations for the reduction of Manila. The American soldiers
+worked for three days at making trenches, almost unmolested by the
+Spaniards, who had a strong line of breastworks not more than 1,000
+yards in front. No Americans were killed or wounded whilst so working.
+
+On July 31, at 11 p.m., the Spaniards opened a furious infantry
+and artillery fire upon the American lines and kept it up for two
+hours. Fort San Antonio Abad (Malate) with five guns, Blockhouse No. 14
+with two guns, and connecting infantry trenches, concentrated fire
+upon the American breastworks, which caused considerable annoyance
+to the Americans. The night was pitch-dark, it rained in torrents,
+there was mud and water everywhere, and the ground was too flat
+to drain. The 10th Pennsylvania Regiment and four guns of the Utah
+Batteries occupied the American line, with two batteries of the 3rd
+Foot Artillery in reserve. The last was brought up under a heavy fire,
+and taking up a position on the right, silenced the Spaniards, who
+were pouring in a flanking fire. The whole camp was under arms, and
+ammunition and reinforcements were sent. The regiments were standing
+expectantly in the rain. The 1st California was ordered forward,
+the bugle sounded the advance, the whole camp cheered, and the men
+were delighted at the idea of meeting the enemy. Over a flat ground
+the American troops advanced under a heavy Spanish fire of shell and
+Maueser rifles, but they were steady and checked the Spaniards' attack.
+
+General Greene went forward to the trenches, firing was exchanged, and
+the wounded were being brought back from the front in _carromatas_. The
+contending parties were separated by bamboo thickets and swamp. The
+Americans lost that night 10 killed and 30 wounded. The Spanish
+loss was much heavier. Most of the Americans killed were shot in the
+head. The Maueser bullet has great penetrating power, but does not kill
+well; in fact it often makes a small wound which hardly bleeds. As
+pointed out at p. 369, four Maueser bullets passed right through Sancho
+Valenzuela at his execution and left him still alive. Captain Hobbs,
+of the 3rd Artillery, was shot through the thigh at night, and only
+the next morning saw the nature of the wound.
+
+During the following week the Spaniards made three more night-attacks,
+the total killed and wounded Americans amounting to 10 men. The
+American soldiers were not allowed to return the fire, unless the
+Spaniards were evidently about to rush the breastworks. There was
+some grumbling in the camp. The Spaniards, however, got tired of
+firing to so little purpose, and after the third night there was
+silence. Meanwhile, in the daytime the Americans went on strengthening
+their line without being molested.
+
+On August 7 Admiral Dewey and General Merritt sent a joint note
+to the Captain-General in Manila, giving him 48 hours to remove
+women and children, as, at any time after that, the city might be
+bombarded. The Captain-General replied thanking the Admiral and
+General for their kind consideration, but pointed out that he had no
+ships, and to send the women and children inland would be to place
+them at the mercy of the rebels. On the expiration of the 48 hours'
+notice, i.e., at noon on August 9, another joint note was addressed
+to General Augusti, pointing out the hopelessness of his holding out
+and formally demanding the surrender of the city, so that life and
+property of defenceless persons might be spared. The Captain-General
+replied requesting the American commanders to apply to Madrid; but
+this proposal being rejected, the correspondence ceased.
+
+On August 11 a Council of War was held between Generals Merritt,
+Anderson, McArthur, and Greene, and the plan of combined attack
+arranged between General Merritt and Admiral Dewey was explained. For
+some hours a storm prevented the landing of more American troops
+with supplies, but these were later on landed at Paranaque when the
+weather cleared up, and were hurriedly sent on to the camp, where
+preparations were being made for the assault on the city.
+
+Whilst the Protocol was being signed in Washington the American troops
+were entrenched about 350 yards from the Spaniards, who were prepared
+to make their last stand at the Fort San Antonio Abad (Malate). From
+the morning of that day there were apparent signs of an intended
+sortie by the Spaniards, and, in view of this, the rebels marched
+towards the American lines, but were requested to withdraw. Indeed,
+the native forces were only too anxious to co-operate with the American
+troops, or at least, to have the semblance of doing so, in order to
+justify their claim to enter the beleaguered city as allies of the
+invaders. General Merritt, however, discouraged any such alliance,
+and issued precise orders to his subordinate officers to avoid,
+as much as possible, all negotiation with the Aguinaldo party.
+
+Why the Spaniards were still holding the city of Manila at this date
+is perhaps best understood by the Americans. To the casual observer
+it would have appeared expedient to have made the possession of
+Manila a _fait accompli_ before the Protocol of Peace was signed. The
+Americans had a large and powerful fleet in Manila Bay; they were
+in possession of Cavite, the arsenal and forts, and they had a large
+army under Maj.-General Merritt and his staff. General Augusti was,
+for weeks previous, personally disposed to surrender, and only refused
+to do so as a matter of form, hence the same means as were finally
+employed could apparently have brought about the same result at an
+earlier date. [201] The only hope the Spaniards could entertain was a
+possible benefit to be derived from international complication. From
+the tone of several of the Captain-General's despatches, published
+in Madrid, one may deduce that capitulation to a recognized Power
+would have relieved him of the tremendous anxiety as to what would
+befall the city if the rebels did enter. It is known that, before the
+bombardment, Admiral Dewey and his colleagues had given the humane
+and considerate assurance that the city should not be left to the
+mercy of the revolutionary forces.
+
+The next day, Saturday, August 13, the Americans again demanded the
+surrender of the city within an hour, which was refused, according
+to Spanish custom. Without the slenderest hope of holding the city
+against the invaders, the Spaniards preconcerted a human sacrifice,
+[202] under the fallacious impression that the salvation of their
+honour demanded it, and operations commenced at 9.45 a.m. The ships
+present at the attack were the _Olympia_ (flagship), _Monterey,
+Raleigh, McCulloch, Petrel, Charleston, Baltimore, Boston_, and
+_Concord_, with the little gunboat _Rapido_, and the captured (Spanish)
+gunboat _Callao_, and the armed steam-launch _Barcelo_. The _Concord_
+watched the Fort Santiago at the Pasig River entrance. The American
+commanders confined the bombardment to the forts and trenches situated
+to the south of the city. The whole of the walled city and the trading
+quarter of Binondo were undamaged. The fighting-line was led by the
+_Olympia_, which sent 4-inch shells in the direction of the fort at
+Malate (San Antonio de Abad). A heavy shower of rain made it difficult
+to get the range, and every shell fell short. The _Petrel_ then took
+up position and shelled the fort with varying result, followed by
+the _Raleigh_. The _Rapido_ and the _Callao_, being of light draught,
+were able to lie close in shore and pour in a raking fire from their
+small-calibre guns with considerable effect. The distance between the
+ships and the fort was about 3,500 yards, and, as soon as this was
+correctly ascertained, the projectiles had a telling effect on the
+enemy's battery and earthworks. The _Olympia_ hurled about 70 5-inch
+shells and 16 8-inch shells, and the _Petrel_ and the _Raleigh_
+about the same number each. There was rather a heavy wash in the
+bay for the little _Callao_ and the _Barcelo_, but they were all the
+time capering about, pouring a hail of small shell whenever they had
+a chance. The Spaniards at Malate returned the fire and struck the
+_Callao_ without doing any damage. The transport _Zafiro_ lay between
+the fighting-line and the shore, having on board General Merritt, his
+staff, and a volunteer regiment. The transport _Kwonghoi_ was also in
+readiness with a landing-party of troops on board. In another steamer
+were the correspondents of the London _Times_ and _New York Herald_,
+and the special artists of the _Century Magazine_ and the _Herald_. The
+field artillery took no part in the operations. The shelling of the
+Fort San Antonio Abad from the ships lasted until about 11 a.m., when
+the general signal was given to cease firing. One shell, from Malate,
+reached the American camp. The firing from the ships had caused the
+Spaniards to fall back. General Greene then ordered the 1st Colorado
+to advance. Two companies deployed over a swamp and went along the
+beach under cover of the Utah Battery. Two other companies advanced in
+column towards the Spanish entrenchments with colours flying and bands
+of music playing lively tunes. The first and second companies fired
+volleys to cover the advance of the other columns. They crossed the
+little creek, near Malate, in front of the fort; then, by rushes, they
+reached the fort, which they entered, followed by the other troops,
+only to find it deserted. The Spaniards had retreated to a breastwork
+at the rear of the fort, where they kept up a desultory fire at the
+Colorado troops, killing one man and wounding several. Fort San Antonio
+Abad was now in possession of the 1st Colorado under Lieut.-Colonel
+McCoy, who climbed up the flagstaff, hauled down the Spanish flag, and
+hoisted the Stars and Stripes amidst cheers from the army and fleet.
+
+Four companies of the 1st Colorado advanced across the fields, entered
+the Spanish trenches, crossed the bridge, and moved up the road,
+the Spaniards still keeping up an ineffective fire from long range.
+
+The 3rd Colorado came up with a band of music, and then the whole
+regiment deployed in skirmishing order and maintained a continual rifle
+fire until they halted on the Luneta Esplanade. The band took up a
+position in an old Spanish trench and played as the troops filed past
+along the beach. The Spaniards were gradually falling back on the city,
+and the rebels who were located near the Spanish lines continued the
+attack; but the Americans gave them the order to cease firing, which
+they would not heed. The Americans thereupon turned their guns upon
+the rebels, who showed an inclination to fight. Neither, however,
+cared to fire the first shot; so the rebels, taking another road,
+drove the Spaniards, in confusion, as far as Ermita, when Emilio
+Aguinaldo ordered his men to cease firing as they were just outside
+the city walls. The rebel commander had received strict orders not
+to let his forces enter Manila. The American troops then developed
+the attack, the Spaniards making, at first, a stubborn resistance,
+apparently for appearance' sake, for the fight soon ended when the
+Spaniards in the city hoisted the white flag on a bastion of the old
+walls. Orders were then given to cease firing, and by one o'clock the
+terms of capitulation were being negotiated. General F. V. Greene then
+sent an order to the troops for the rear regiments to muster on the
+Luneta Esplanade, and there half the American army waited in silent
+expectation. The Spanish entrenchments extended out from the city
+walls in different directions as far as three miles. The defenders were
+about 2,500 in number, composed of Spanish regular troops, volunteers,
+and native auxiliaries; about the same number of troops being in the
+hospitals inside the city. The opponent force amounted to about 15,000
+rebels and 10,000 Americans ashore and afloat. The attacking guns threw
+heavier shot and had a longer range than the Spanish artillery. The
+Americans were also better marksmen than the Spaniards. They were,
+moreover, better fed and in a superior condition generally. The
+Americans were buoyed up with the moral certainty of gaining an
+easy victory, whereas the wearied Spaniards had long ago despaired
+of reinforcements coming to their aid; hence their defence in this
+hopeless struggle was merely nominal for "the honour of the country."
+
+For some time after the white flag was hoisted there was
+street-fighting between the rebels and the loyals. The rattle
+of musketry was heard all round the outskirts. The rebels had
+taken 300 to 400 Spanish prisoners and seized a large quantity
+of stores. General Basilio Augusti, who was personally averse to
+useless bloodshed, relinquished his command of the Colony about a
+week prior to the capitulation. Just before the attack on the city
+he went on board a German steam-launch which was waiting for him
+and was conveyed to the German cruiser _Kaiserin Augusta_, which
+at once steamed out of the bay northwards. General Fermin Jaudenes
+remained as acting-Captain-General. [203] Brig.-General of Volunteers
+and Insp.-General Charles A. Whittier and Lieutenant Brumby then
+went ashore in the Belgian Consul's launch, and on landing they
+were met by an interpreter, Carlos Casademunt, and two officers,
+who accompanied them to the house of the acting-Captain-General,
+with whom the draft terms of capitulation were agreed upon. In his
+evidence before the Peace Commission at Paris, General Whittier said:
+"I think the Captain-General was much frightened. He reported in great
+trepidation that the insurgents were coming into the city, and I said
+that I knew that that was impossible because such precautions had been
+taken as rendered it so. "His fear and solicitude about the natives
+entering the city when I received the surrender of Manila were almost
+painful to witness." Lieutenant Brumby returned to Admiral Dewey to
+report, and again went ashore with General Merritt. In the meantime
+General Jaudenes had taken refuge in the sacristy of a church which
+was filled with women and children, presumably with the wise object of
+keeping clear of the unrestrained mobs fighting in the suburbs. For
+some time the Spanish officers refused to reveal his whereabouts,
+but eventually he and General Merritt met, and on August 14 the
+terms of the Capitulation were signed between General Nicolas de la
+Pena y Cuellas and Colonels Jose Maria Olaguer Tellin and Carlos Rey
+y Rich, as Commissioners for Spain, and Generals F. V. Greene and
+Charles A. Whittier, Colonel Crowder, and Captain Lamberton, U.S.N.,
+as Commissioners for the United States. The most important conditions
+embodied in the Capitulation are as follows, viz.:
+
+
+    1. The surrender of the Philippine Archipelago.
+
+    2. Officers to be allowed to retain their swords and personal
+    effects, but not their horses.
+
+    3. Officers to be prisoners of war on parole.
+
+    4. The troops to be prisoners of war and to deposit their arms
+    at a place to be appointed by General Merritt.
+
+    5. All necessary supplies for their maintenance to be provided
+    from the public Treasury funds, and after they are exhausted,
+    by the United States.
+
+    6. All public property to be surrendered.
+
+    7. The disposal of the troops to be negotiated, later on, by the
+    United States and Spanish Governments.
+
+    8. Arms to be returned to the troops at General Merritt's
+    discretion.
+
+
+
+The Capitulation having been signed, Lieutenant Brumby immediately went
+to Fort Santiago with two signalmen from the _Olympia_ and lowered
+the Spanish flag, which had been flying there all day. Many Spanish
+officers and a general crowd from the streets stood around, and as he
+drew near to the flagstaff he was hissed by the onlookers. When the
+orange-and-red banner was actually replaced by the Stars and Stripes,
+many in the crowd shed tears. The symbol of Spanish sovereignty had
+disappeared for ever. The attitude of the mob was not reassuring, so
+Lieutenant Brumby asked an infantry officer who was present to bring
+his detachment as a guard. A company of infantry happened to be coming
+along, and presented arms, whilst the band, playing "The Star-spangled
+Banner," enlivened this dramatic ceremony. Whilst this was going on the
+Spaniards hoisted the Spanish flag on the transport _Cebu_ and brought
+it down to the mouth of the Pasig River, where they set fire to it. A
+party of American marines boarded her, hauled down the Spanish flag,
+and tried to save the hull, but it was too far consumed. The Spaniards
+also destroyed barges and other Government property lying in the river.
+
+In the official reports furnished by Generals T. M. Anderson and
+A. McArthur and published in America, the total casualties on the
+American side are stated to be as follows, viz.:--On August 13, five
+killed and 43 wounded. Previous to this in the trenches there were
+14 killed and 60 wounded, making a total of 122.
+
+The approximate number of European Spanish troops in the Archipelago
+during the year 1898 would stand thus:--
+
+
+    Total of troops under Gen. Primo de Rivera in
+    January, 1898, say                                  25,000
+    Shipped back to Spain by Gen. Primo de Rivera
+    after Aguinaldo's withdrawal to Hong-Kong
+    (_vide_ p. 400)                                      7,000
+
+    At the date of the Capitulation of Manila
+
+    Prisoners (regular troops) in hands of the rebels    8,000
+    Detachments in the Luzon Provinces (subsequently
+    surrendered to, or killed by, the rebels)            1,000
+    Killed or mortally wounded in general combat         1,000
+    Wounded and diseased in Manila hospitals             2,600
+    Approximate total in Visayas and Mindanao Island
+    (General Rios' jurisdiction)                         3,000
+    Approximate total of able-bodied troops in Manila,
+    prisoners of war (to America), up to December
+    10, 1898                                             2,400
+
+                                                        25,000
+
+
+General F. V. Greene marched his troops down the _Calzada_ and
+entered the walled city, where he massed his forces. Sentinels
+were placed at all the city gates; some rebels got inside the city,
+but were disarmed and sent out again. At 7 p.m. the American troops
+took up their quarters in public buildings, porches, and even on the
+streets, for they were tired out. One might have imagined it to be a
+great British festival, for the streets were bedecked everywhere with
+the British colours displayed by the Chinese who were under British
+protection. That night General Merritt, General Greene and the staff
+officers were served at dinner by the late Captain-General's servants
+in the Town Hall (_Plaza de la Catedral_), the splendid marble entrance
+of which became temporarily a depot for captured arms, ammunition,
+and accoutrements of war.
+
+No hostile feeling was shown by Spaniards of any class. The inhabitants
+of the city looked remarkably well after the 105 days' siege. Trade
+was absolutely at a standstill, and American troops were drafted out
+of the walled city to occupy the commercial quarter of Binondo on
+the opposite side of the river. The government of the city was at
+once taken over by Maj.-General Wesley Merritt, appointments being
+made by him to the principal departments as follows, viz.:--
+
+By General Order dated August 15, Brig.-General T. M. Anderson became
+Commandant of the Cavite district, the garrison of which would be
+increased on the arrival of the transports on the way. Brig.-General
+Arthur McArthur became Military Commandant of the walled city of Manila
+and Provost-Marshal of the city of Manila, including all the suburbs,
+his barracks and staff-quarters to be within the walled city. The
+Commandant was to take over the offices, staff, and functions of the
+late Civil Governor. Colonel Ovenshine became Deputy Provost-Marshal
+of the walled city south of the river; Colonel James S. Smith was
+appointed Deputy Provost-Marshal of Binondo and all districts situated
+north of the river.
+
+By General Order dated August 16, Brig.-General F. V. Greene became
+Treasurer-General; Brig.-General of Volunteers C. A. Whittier was
+nominated Commissioner of Customs.
+
+By General Order dated August 15, it was provided that within 10 days a
+complete list should be sent to Washington of all public establishments
+and properties of every description, including horses; that all private
+property, including horses, would be respected, and that lodging for
+the prisoners of war would be provided by the Military Commandant
+of the city in the public buildings and barracks not required for
+the American troops. Colonel C. M. C. Reeve was appointed Chief of
+Police, with the 13th Regiment of Volunteer Minnesota Infantry for
+this service.
+
+On August 16 a notice was placarded outside the General Post Office
+to the effect that, as all the Spanish staff had refused to work for
+the Americans, the local and provincial correspondence could not be
+attended to. This was, however, soon remedied.
+
+In an order issued on August 22 it was enacted that all natives and
+all Spanish soldiers were to be disarmed before they were admitted
+into the walled city. The insurgent troops were included in the above
+category, but their arms were restored to them on their leaving the
+city. An exception was made in favour of the insurgent officers,
+from the grade of lieutenant upwards, who were permitted to enter
+and leave Manila with their swords and revolvers.
+
+On August 25 a provisional agreement was entered into between the
+American authorities and Emilio Aguinaldo, to remain in force pending
+the result of the Paris Peace Commission, whereby their respective
+spheres were defined. The Americans retained jurisdiction over Manila
+City, Binondo, the right bank of the Pasig River up to the Calzada
+de Iris and thence to Malacanan, which was included. The remaining
+districts were necessarily in the hands of the rebels, there being
+no recognized independent government in Luzon other than the American
+military occupation of the capital and environs.
+
+Towards the end of August, the American Commander-in-Chief,
+Maj.-General Wesley Merritt, quitted the Islands in order to give
+evidence before the Peace Commission at Paris, after having appointed
+General E. S. Otis to be the first Military Governor of Manila.
+
+The British Consul, Mr. E. A. Rawson Walker, who had rendered such
+excellent service to both the contending parties, died of dysentery
+in the month of August, and was buried at Paco cemetery.
+
+Philippine refugees returned to the Islands in large numbers, but
+the American authorities notified the Consul in Hong-Kong that only
+those Chinese who could prove to his satisfaction previous residence
+in Manila would be allowed to return there.
+
+Trading operations were resumed immediately after the capitulation,
+and the first shipment of cigars made after that date was a parcel
+of 140,000 exported to Singapore in the first week of September
+and consigned to the _Tabaqueria Universal_. Business in Manila,
+little by little, resumed its usual aspect. The old Spanish newspapers
+continued to be published, and some of them, especially _El Comercio_,
+were enterprising enough to print alternate columns of English and
+Spanish, and, occasionally, a few advertisements in very amusing
+broken English. Two rebel organs, _La Independencia_ and _La Republica
+Filipina_, soon appeared. They were shortly followed by a number
+of periodicals of minor importance, such as _El Soldado Espanol, La
+Restauracion_ (a Carlist organ), _The Kon Leche, El Cometa_ and _El
+Motin_ (satirical papers) and two American papers, viz., _The Manila
+American_ and _The Manila Times_. Liberty of the press was such a
+novelty in Manila that _La Voz Espanola_ over-stepped the bounds of
+prudence and started a press campaign against the Americans. Delgado,
+the editor, after repeated warnings from the Provost-Marshal, was at
+length arrested. The paper was suppressed for abusing the Americans
+from the President downwards, and publishing matter calculated to
+incite the Spanish inhabitants to riot. The capital was seething
+with opposition to the new conditions; many were arrested, but few
+lamented the incarceration, for the prison was the porch which led to
+fame, and through it all who were ambitious to rise from obscurity
+had to pass. Moreover, imprisonment (for mere trifles) was such a
+commonplace event in Spanish times that no native lost caste by the
+experience of it, unless it were for a heinous crime which shocked
+his fellows. Meanwhile, in the public ways and the cafes and saloons,
+altercations between the three parties, Spanish, native, and American,
+were of frequent occurrence.
+
+For some weeks before the capitulation there had been a certain amount
+of friction between the American soldiery and the rebels, who resented
+being held in check by the American authorities. Emilio Aguinaldo had
+his headquarters at Bacoor, on the Cavite coast, situated between
+two divisions of the American army, one at Cavite and the other at
+Manila, and within easy shelling distance from the American fleet. For
+obvious reasons he decided to remove his centre of operations,
+for it was becoming doubtful how long peace between the two parties
+would continue. The rebels had been sorely disappointed that they
+were not allowed to enter Manila with the Americans, or even before,
+for since the first few months of the rebellion they had pictured to
+themselves the delights of a free raid on the city. Aguinaldo therefore
+removed his headquarters to a place three miles north of Manila, but
+General Otis requested him to go farther away from the capital. As
+he hesitated to do so the General sent him an ultimatum on September
+13 ordering him to evacuate that place by the afternoon of the 15th,
+so during the night of the 14th Aguinaldo moved on with his troops to
+Malolos. From this town, situate about 20 miles from Manila, he could
+better unite and control the rebel factions here and there over the
+northern provinces; he could, moreover, either make use of the line
+of railway or cut off the connection with Manila, or he could divert
+supplies from the rich rice districts and Pangasinan ports, whilst
+the almost impregnable mountains were of easy access in case of need.
+
+Aguinaldo declared Malolos to be the provisional capital of his
+Revolutionary Government, and convened a Congress to meet there on
+September 15 in the church of Barasoain. [204] Fifty-four deputies
+responded to the summons, and in conformity with Aguinaldo's
+proclamation of June 23 they proceeded to elect a President of
+Congress, Vice-President, Secretaries, etc. The result of the voting
+was a remarkable event of the revolution. Don Pedro A. Paterno was
+elected President of Congress! The man whom the revolutionists had,
+less than four months before, so satirically admonished for his
+leaning towards Spanish sovereignty, was chosen to guide the political
+destinies of this budding democracy and preside over their republican
+legislative body! Deputies Benito Legarda and Ocampo were chosen
+to be Vice-President and Secretary respectively. Congress voted
+for Aguinaldo a salary of P50,000 and P25,000 for representation
+expenses. These figures were afterwards reversed, i.e., P25,000
+salary, and P50,000 for expenses; but Aguinaldo, who never showed any
+desire for personal gain, was quite willing to set aside the vote. A
+decree in Congress, dated September 21, imposed compulsory military
+service on every able-bodied Philippine male over 18 years of age,
+except those holding office under the Revolutionary Government. At
+an early session of Congress Deputy Tomas del Rosario made a long
+speech advocating Church Disestablishment. [205]
+
+The night before Congress met to announce the election of President,
+etc., an attempt was made to poison Emilio Aguinaldo. Dinner was
+about to be served to him; the soup was in the tureen, when one of
+the three Spanish prisoners who were allowed to be about the kitchen
+tasted the soup in a manner to arouse suspicion. The steward at once
+took a spoonful of it and fell dead on the spot. The three prisoners
+in question, as well as 11 Franciscan friars, were consequently placed
+in close confinement. At the next sitting of Congress the incident
+was mentioned and it was resolved to go _en masse_ to congratulate
+Aguinaldo on his lucky escape. At 5 p.m. the same day a _Te Deum_
+was sung in Malolos Church anent this occurrence.
+
+On October 1 the _Ratification of Philippine Independence_ was
+proclaimed at Malolos with imposing ceremony. From 6 a.m. the Manila
+(Tondo) railway-station was besieged by the crowd of sightseers on
+their way to the insurgent capital (Malolos), which was _en fete_ and
+gaily decorated with flags for the triumphal entry of General Emilio
+Aguinaldo, who walked to the Congress House attired in a dress suit,
+with Don Pedro A. Paterno on his right and Don Benito Legarda on his
+left, followed by other representative men of the Revolutionary Party,
+amidst the vociferous acclamations of the people and the strains of
+music. After the formal proclamation was issued the function terminated
+with a banquet given to 200 insurgent notabilities. This day was
+declared by the Malolos Congress to be a public holiday in perpetuity.
+
+By virtue of Article 3 of the Protocol of Peace the Americans were
+in possession of the city, bay, and harbour of Manila pending the
+conclusion of a treaty of peace. The terms of peace were referred to
+a Spanish-American Commission, which met in Paris on October 1, five
+commissioners and a secretary being appointed by each of the High
+Contracting Parties. The representatives of the United States were
+the Hon. William R. Day, of Ohio, ex-Secretary of State, President
+of the American Commission; Senator Cushman K. Davis, of Minnesota;
+Senator William P. Frye, of Maine; Senator George Gray, of Delaware;
+and the Hon. Whitelaw Reid, of New York, ex-Minister Plenipotentiary
+of the United States in France, assisted by the Secretary and Counsel
+to their Commission, Mr. John Bassett Moore, an eminent professor
+of international law. The Spanish Commissioners were Don Eugenio
+Montero Rios, Knight of the Golden Fleece, President of the Senate,
+ex-Cabinet Minister, etc., President of the Spanish Commission;
+Senator Don Buenaventura Abarzuza, ex-Ambassador, ex-Minister,
+etc.; Don Jose de Garnica y Diaz, a lawyer; Don Wenceslao Ramirez de
+Villa-Urrutia, Knight of the Orders of Isabella the Catholic and of
+Charles III., etc., Minister Plenipotentiary to the Belgian Court;
+and General Don Rafael Cerero y Saenz, assisted by the Secretary
+to their Commission, Don Emilio de Ojeda, Minister Plenipotentiary
+to the Court of Morocco. The conferences were held in a suite of
+apartments at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, placed at their
+disposal by M. Delcasse. Among other questions to be agreed upon
+and embodied in the treaty was the future of the Philippines. For
+Washington officials these Islands really constituted a _terra
+incognita_. Maj.-General Merritt and a number of other officials went
+to Paris to give evidence before the Commission. At their request,
+conveyed to me through the American Embassy, I also proceeded to
+Paris in October and expressed my views before the Commissioners, who
+examined me on the whole question. The Cuban debts and the future of
+the Philippines were really the knotty points in the entire debate. The
+Spanish Commissioners argued (1) that the single article in the
+Protocol relating to the Philippines did not imply a relinquishment
+of Spanish sovereignty over those Islands, but only a temporary
+occupation of the city, bay, and harbour of Manila by the Americans
+pending the conclusion of a treaty of peace. (2) That the attack on
+Manila, its capitulation, and all acts of force consequent thereon,
+committed _after_ the Protocol was signed, were unlawful because the
+Protocol stipulated an immediate cessation of hostilities; therefore
+the Commissioners claimed indemnity for those acts, a restoration
+to the _status quo ante_, and "the immediate delivery of the place
+(Manila) to the Spanish Government" (_vide_ Annex to Protocol No. 12
+of the Paris Peace Commission conference of November 3).
+
+The American Commissioners replied: (1) "It is the contention on the
+part of the United States that this article leaves to the determination
+of the treaty of peace the entire subject of the future government and
+sovereignty of the Philippines necessarily embodied in the terms used
+in the Protocol." (2) It is erroneous to suggest "that the ultimate
+demands of the United States in respect of the Philippines were
+embodied in the Protocol." (3) That there was no cable communication
+with Manila, hence the American commanders could not possibly have been
+informed of the terms of the Protocol on the day of its signature. The
+Spanish Commissioners, nevertheless, tenaciously persisting in their
+contention, brought matters to the verge of a resumption of hostilities
+when the American Commissioners presented what was practically an
+ultimatum, in which they claimed an absolute cession of the Islands,
+offering, however, to pay to Spain $20,000,000 gold, to agree, for a
+term of years, to admit Spanish ships and merchandise into the Islands
+on the same terms as American ships and merchandise, and to mutually
+waive all claims for indemnity--(_vide_ Annex to Protocol No. 15 of
+the Paris Peace Commission conference of November 21).
+
+For a few days the Spaniards still held out, and to appease public
+feeling in the Peninsula a fleet under Admiral Camara was despatched,
+ostensibly to the Philippines. It was probably never intended that
+the fleet should go beyond Port Said, for on its arrival there it was
+ordered to return, the official explanation to the indignant Spanish
+public being that America was preparing to seize the Archipelago by
+force, if necessary, and send a fleet to Spanish waters under the
+command of Admiral Watson. Sagasta's Government had not the least
+intention of letting matters go so far as that, but it suited the
+Spanish Cabinet, already extremely unpopular, to make an appearance of
+resistance. Moreover, Senor Sagasta had personal motives for wishing
+to protract the negotiations, the examination of which would lead
+one too far away from the present subject into Spanish politics.
+
+At the next conference of the Commission the demands of the Americans
+were reluctantly conceded, and the form in which the treaty was to
+be drafted was finally settled. The sitting of the Commission was
+terminated by the reading of a strongly-worded protest by Senor
+Montero Rios in which the Spanish Commissioner declared that they
+had been compelled to yield to brute force and abuse of international
+law against which they vehemently protested. The secretaries of the
+respective Commissions were then instructed to draw up the document of
+the Treaty of Peace, which was signed at 9 p.m. on Saturday, December
+10, 1898, in the Grand Gallery of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in
+Paris. The expenses of the Spanish Commission amounted to L8,400. A
+delay of six months was agreed upon for the ratification by the two
+Governments of the treaty, the text of which is given at the end of
+this chapter. America undertook to establish equal duties on Spanish
+and American goods for a period of ten years; but it subsequently
+transpired that this was no special boon to Spain, seeing that America
+declared shortly after the signing of the treaty that there would be
+no preferential tariff, and that merchandise of all nations could
+enter the Islands at the same rate of duty and on equal terms with
+America. The clauses of the treaty relating to the Philippines met
+with determined opposition in the United States, where politicians
+were divided into three parties advocating respectively annexation,
+protection, and abandonment of the Islands to the natives.
+
+At the closing conferences of the Commission several additional
+clauses to the treaty were proposed by the one party and the other and
+rejected. Among the most singular are the following:--The Spaniards
+proposed that America should pay annually to the descendants of
+Christopher Columbus $7,400 to be charged to the treasuries of Porto
+Rico and Manila. The Americans proposed that Spain should concede
+to them the right to land telegraph-cables in the Canary Islands,
+or on any territory owned by Spain on the coast of Africa, or in
+the Peninsula, in consideration of a cash payment of one million
+gold dollars.
+
+We must now go back to September to follow the thread of events
+which intervened from that period and during the 71 days' sitting of
+the Peace Commission in Paris. My old acquaintance Felipe Agoncillo
+was sent to Washington in September by Emilio Aguinaldo to solicit
+permission from the American Government to represent the rebels'
+cause on the Paris Commission, or, failing this, to be allowed to
+state their case. The Government, however, refused to recognize
+him officially, so he proceeded to Paris. Having unsuccessfully
+endeavoured to be heard before the Commission, he drew up a protest in
+duplicate, handing a copy to the Spanish and another to the American
+Commissioners. The purport of this document was that whereas the
+Americans had supplied the Filipinos with war-material and arms to gain
+their independence and not to fight against Spain in the interests
+of America, and whereas America now insisted on claiming possession
+of the Archipelago, he protested, in the name of Emilio Aguinaldo,
+against what he considered a defraudment of his just rights. His
+mission led to nothing, so he returned to Washington to watch events
+for Aguinaldo. After the treaty was signed in Paris he was received
+at the White House, where an opportunity was afforded him of stating
+the Filipinos' views; but he did not take full advantage of it, and
+returned to Paris, where I met him in July, 1900, holding the position
+of "High Commissioner for the Philippine Republic." His policy was,
+then, "absolute independence, free of all foreign control." In 1904
+we met again in Hong-Kong, where he was established as a lawyer.
+
+In this interval, too, matters in Manila remained _in statu quo_
+so far as the American occupation was concerned. General E. S. Otis
+was still in supreme command in succession to General Merritt,
+and reinforcements were arriving from America to strengthen the
+position. General Otis's able administration wrought a wonderful change
+in the city. The weary, forlorn look of those who had great interests
+at stake gradually wore off; business was as brisk as in the old times,
+and the Custom-house was being worked with a promptitude hitherto
+unknown in the Islands. There were no more sleepless nights, fearing
+an attack from the dreaded rebel or the volunteer. The large majority
+of foreign (including Spanish) and half-caste Manila merchants showed
+a higher appreciation of American protection than of the prospect
+of sovereign independence under a Philippine Republic. On the other
+hand, the drunken brawls of the American soldiers in the cafes,
+drinking-shops, and the open streets constituted a novelty in the
+Colony. Drinking "saloons" and bars monopolized quite a fifth of
+the stores in the principal shopping street, _La Escolta_, where
+such unruliness obtained, to the detriment of American prestige,
+that happily the Government decided to exclude those establishments
+altogether from that important thoroughfare, which has since entirely
+regained its respectable reputation. The innovation was all the more
+unfortunate because of the extremely bad impression it made on the
+natives and Spaniards, who are remarkably abstemious. It must also
+have been the cause of a large percentage of the sickness of the
+American troops (wrongly attributed to climate), for it is well known
+that inebriety in the Philippines is the road to death. With three
+distinct classes of soldiers in Manila--the Americans, the rebels,
+and the Spanish prisoners--each living in suspense, awaiting events
+with divergent interests, there were naturally frequent disputes
+and collisions, sometimes of a serious nature, which needed great
+vigilance to suppress.
+
+The German trading community observed that, due to the strange conduct
+of the commanders of the German fleet, who showed such partiality
+towards the Spaniards up to the capitulation of Manila, the natives
+treated them with marked reticence. The Germans therefore addressed
+a more than ample letter of apology on the subject to the newspaper
+_La Independencia_ (October 17).
+
+As revolutionary steamers were again cruising in Philippine waters,
+all vessels formerly flying the Spanish flag were hastily placed on the
+American register to secure the protection of the Stars and Stripes,
+and ex-Consul Oscar F. Williams was deputed to attend to these and
+other matters connected with the shipping trade of the port.
+
+It was yet theoretically possible that the Archipelago might revert
+to Spain; hence pending the deliberations of the Peace Commission,
+no movement was made on the part of the Americans to overthrow
+the _de facto_ Spanish Government still subsisting in the southern
+islands. General Fermin Jaudenes, the vanquished Commander-in-Chief
+of the Spanish forces in Manila (Sub-Inspector until General Augusti
+left), was liberated on parole in the capital until the first week
+of October, when the American Government allowed him to return
+to Spain. He left in the s.s. _Esmeralda_ for Hong-Kong on October
+15. Meanwhile, a month before, the Spanish Government appointed General
+Diego de los Rios Gov.-General of the Philippines, with residence at
+Yloilo. Spaniards of all classes were at least personally safe in
+Manila under American protection. All who could reach the capital
+did so, for Spanish sway in the provinces was practically at an
+end. Aguinaldo therefore directed his attention both to matters of
+government in Luzon and to the control of the southern islands.
+
+Neither the Filipinos nor the Spaniards could foresee that the
+evacuation by the Spaniards of _all_ the Islands would be insisted upon
+by the American Commissioners in Paris. Moreover, it was no easy task
+for Aguinaldo to maintain his own personal prestige (an indispensable
+condition in all revolutions), carry out his own plans of government,
+and keep together, in inactivity, a large half-disciplined fighting
+force. Three weeks after the capitulation of Manila, Aguinaldo sent
+several small vessels to the Island of Panay, carrying Luzon rebels to
+effect a landing and stir up rebellion in Visayas. He was anxious to
+secure all the territory he could before the conditions of peace should
+be settled in Paris, in the hope that actual possession would influence
+the final issue. General Rios was therefore compelled to enter on a
+new campaign, assisted by the small gunboats which had remained south
+since hostilities commenced north in May. Spanish troops were sent
+to Singapore _en route_for Yloilo, and then a question arose between
+Madrid and Washington as to whether they could be allowed to proceed
+to their destination under the peace Protocol. The Tagalog rebels
+landed in the province of Antique (Panay Is.), and a few natives of the
+locality joined them. They were shortly met by the Spanish troops, and
+severe fighting took place in the neighbourhood of Bugason, where the
+rebels were ultimately routed with great loss of men and impedimenta.
+
+The survivors fled to their vessels and landed elsewhere on the same
+coast. In several places on the Island the flag of rebellion had been
+unfurled, and General Rios' troops showed them no quarter. At the
+end of six weeks the rebels had been beaten in numerous encounters,
+without the least apparent chance of gaining their objective point--the
+seizure of Yloilo. In the Concepcion district (East Panay) the rebel
+chief Perfecto Poblado took the command, but gained no victory with
+his following of 4,000 men. So far, what was happening in the Islands,
+other than Luzon, did not officially concern the Americans.
+
+About this time, in Manila, there was by no means that _entente
+cordiale_ which should have existed between the rebels and the
+Americans, supposing them to be real allies. In reality, it was only in
+the minds of the insurgents that there existed an alliance, which the
+Americans could not, with good grace, have frankly repudiated, seeing
+that General T. M. Anderson was frequently soliciting Aguinaldo's
+assistance and co-operation. [206] Aguinaldo was naturally uneasy about
+the possible prospect of a protracted struggle with the Spaniards,
+if the Islands should revert to them; he was none the less irritated
+because his repeated edicts and proclamations of independence received
+no recognition from the Americans. General Anderson had already stated,
+in his reply (July 22) to a letter from Aguinaldo, that he had no
+authority to recognize Aguinaldo's assumption of dictatorship. The
+native swaggering soldiery, with the air of conquerors, were ever
+ready to rush to arms on the most trivial pretext, and became a
+growing menace to the peaceful inhabitants. Therefore, on October 25,
+Aguinaldo was again ordered to withdraw his troops still farther,
+to distances varying from five to eight miles off Manila, and he
+reluctantly complied. When this order was sent to him his forces
+in the neighbourhood of Manila were estimated to be as follows:--At
+Coloocan, 3,000 men, with two guns trained on Binondo; Santa Mesa,
+380; Pasig, 400; Paco, Santa Ana, Pandacan, and Pasay, 400 to 500
+each; south of Malate, 1,200, and at Santolan waterworks (on which
+the supply of potable water to the capital depended), 380.
+
+In Panay Island General Rios published an edict offering considerable
+reforms, but the flame of rebellion was too widespread for it to
+have any effect. The Island of Cebu also was in revolt; the harsh
+measures of General Montero effected nothing to Spain's advantage,
+whilst that miserable system of treating suspects as proved culprits
+created rebels. Neither did the _Moro_ raid on the Cebuanos, referred
+to at p. 406, serve to break their spirit; more than half the villages
+defied Spanish authority, refused to pay taxes, and forced the friars
+to take refuge in Cebu City, which was, so far, safe. Those who were
+able took passage to ports outside the Archipelago. In Leyte Island
+there were risings of minor importance, instigated by Tagalogs, and
+chiefly directed against the friars, who were everywhere obnoxious
+to the people. At Catbalogan (Samar Is.) an armed mob attacked the
+Spaniards, who fled to the house of an American. General Rios had not
+sufficient troops to dominate several islands covering such a large
+area. He was so hard pressed in Panay alone that, even if he had had
+ample means of transport, he could neither divide his forces nor afford
+to spend time in carrying them from one island to another. Towards
+the end of October he ran short of ammunition, but, opportunely,
+the Spanish mail-steamer _Buenos Aires_ brought him a supply with
+which he could continue the struggle. Fresh Tagalog expeditions were
+meanwhile sent south, and coerced or persuaded the Panay people to
+rise in greater force than ever, until, finally, General Rios had to
+fall back on Yloilo. By the middle of November practically the whole
+island, except the towns of Yloilo, Molo, Jaro and La Paz, was under
+rebel dominion. In December General Rios held only the town and port
+of Yloilo. He had ordered the bridge of Manduriao to be destroyed, so
+as to establish a dividing line between him and the rebels who were
+entrenched on the opposite bank of the river, neither party being
+willing to make a bold onslaught on the other, although frequent
+skirmishing took place. On receipt of the news of the conclusion of
+the Treaty of Paris, General Rios proposed to the rebels a mutual
+cessation of hostilities, on the ground that no advantage could
+accrue to either party by a further sacrifice of blood and munitions
+of war, seeing that within a few days he was going to evacuate the
+town and embark his troops, and that, so far as he was concerned,
+they could then take his place without opposition. But the rebels,
+presumably interpreting his humane suggestion as a sign of weakness,
+continued to fire on the Spanish troops.
+
+The small detachments and garrisons in Negros Island had been unable
+to resist the tide of revolt; the west coast of that island was
+over-run by the rebels under the leadership of Aniceto Lacson and
+Juan Araneta (a much respected planter of Bago, personally known to
+me), and the local Spanish Governor, Don Isidro Castro, was forced to
+capitulate, in due written form, at Bacolod, on November 6, with his
+troops and all the Spanish civil and military employees. By December
+1 it was evident that, although Spanish empire in Visayas had been
+definitely broken, there was absolute discord among the (southern)
+rebels themselves. They split up into rival factions, each one wanting
+to set up a government of its own. The American Peace Commissioners
+had made their formal demand for the cession of all the Islands,
+and it was clear to the Spanish Government that General Rios would
+sooner or later have to evacuate under the treaty. It was useless,
+therefore, to continue to shed European blood and waste treasure in
+those regions. In the first week of December the Madrid Government
+ordered General Rios to suspend hostilities and retire to Mindanao
+Island with his troops, pending arrangements for their return to
+the Peninsula. General Rios replied to this order, saying that he
+would make the necessary preparations. Meanwhile, on December 11,
+the rebels approached the fortifications around Yloilo town, and the
+Spaniards kept up an almost continuous fusillade. Before daybreak on
+December 14 the rebels, armed with bowie-knives, attacked the Spanish
+entrenchments in great force and drove the Spaniards back from their
+first to their second redoubt. The Spaniards rallied, turned their four
+field-pieces on the enemy, and opened a raking artillery and rifle fire
+which mowed down the rebels, who retired in great disorder, leaving
+about 500 dead and wounded. The Spaniards, who were well protected
+behind their stockades, had 6 dead and 17 wounded. Notwithstanding
+their severe repulse, the rebels again fired on the Spaniards until
+some female relations of their General Araneta and others went out to
+the rebel lines and harangued and expostulated with the leaders, and
+so put them to shame with their tongues that thenceforth the rebels
+ceased to molest the Spaniards. General Rios then took measures for
+evacution. On December 23, 1898, he formally handed over Yloilo to the
+mayor of the town in the presence of his staff, the naval commanders,
+and the foreign consuls, and requested the German Vice-Consul to look
+after Spanish interests. On the following day the Spanish troops,
+numbering between five and six hundred, and several civilians were
+embarked in perfect order, without any unfortunate incident occurring,
+on board the s.s. _Isla de Luzon,_ which sailed for Zamboanga, the
+rallying-place of the Spaniards, whilst some small steamers went to
+other places to bring the officials to the same centre.
+
+Before leaving Yloilo, after many tedious delays respecting the
+conditions, an exchange of prisoners was effected with the rebels,
+who at the outset were inclined to be unduly exacting.
+
+The rebels at once took possession of Yloilo, but a controlling
+American force arrived in the roadstead on December 27, under the
+command of General Miller, and was afterwards reinforced up to a
+total strength of about 3,000 troops.
+
+The Caroline Islands (which were not ceded under the Treaty of
+Paris) were provisioned for three months, and the Spanish troops in
+Cebu Island and Yligan (Mindanao Is.) had been already ordered to
+concentrate and prepare for embarkation on the same day for Zamboanga
+(Mindanao Is.), where the bulk of them remained until they could be
+brought back to Spain on the terms of the treaty of peace. In a few
+days General Rios left Zamboanga in the s.s. _Leon XIII._ for Manila,
+and remained there until June 3, 1899, to endeavour to negotiate
+the liberation of the Spanish prisoners detained by Aguinaldo. They
+were kept under guard in the mountain districts, far away from the
+capital, in groups miles distant from each other. No one outside
+the rebel camp could ever ascertain the exact number of prisoners,
+which was kept secret. The strenuous efforts made by the Spaniards
+to secure their release are fully referred to in Chap. xxvi.
+
+During this period of evacuation the natives in Balabac Island
+assassinated all the male Europeans resident there, the Spanish
+Governor, a lieutenant, and a doctor being among the victims. The
+European women were held in captivity for awhile, notwithstanding
+the peaceful endeavours to obtain their release, supported by the
+Datto Harun Narrasid, Sultan of Paragua and ex-Sultan of Sulu (_vide_
+p. 142). The place was then attacked by an armed force, without result,
+but eventually the natives allowed the women to be taken away.
+
+Some of the Spanish soldiers and the civil servants concentrated in
+Zamboanga were carried direct to the Peninsula, _via_ the Straits
+of Balabac, in the steamers _Buenos Aires, Isla de Luzon_, and
+_Cachemir_, and from Manila many of them returned to their country in
+the s.s. _Leon XIII_. In conformity with the Treaty of Paris (Art. 5),
+little by little all the Spanish troops, temporarily prisoners of
+the United States in Manila, were repatriated.
+
+The Philippine Republican Congress at Malolos had now (December 26,
+1898) adjourned in great confusion. The deputies could not agree upon
+the terms of a Republican Constitution. They were already divided
+into two distinct parties, the Pacificos and the Irreconcilables. The
+latter were headed by a certain Apolinario Mabini (_vide_ p. 546),
+a lawyer hitherto unknown, and a notorious opponent of Aguinaldo
+until he decided to take the field against the Americans. The Cabinet
+having resigned, Aguinaldo prudently left Malolos on a visit to Pedro
+A. Paterno, at Santa Ana, on the Pasig River.
+
+At the end of the year 1898, after 327 years of sovereignty, all that
+remained to Spain of her once splendid Far Eastern colonial possessions
+were the Caroline, the Pelew, and the Ladrone Islands (_vide_ p. 39),
+minus the Island of Guam. Under the treaty of peace, signed in Paris,
+the Americans became nominal owners of the evacuated territories,
+but they were only in real possession, by force of arms, of Cavite
+and Manila. The rest of the Archipelago, excepting Mindanao and the
+Sulu Sultanate, was virtually and forcibly held by the natives in
+revolt. At the close of 1898 the Americans and the rebels had become
+rival parties, and the differences between them foreboded either
+frightful bloodshed or the humiliation of the one or the other.
+
+
+
+    Treaty of Peace
+
+    concluded between the United States of America and Spain, signed
+    in Paris on December 10, 1898, and ratified in Washington on
+    February 6, 1899. The original documents (in duplicate) are drawn
+    up in Spanish and in English respectively.
+
+    _The English Text_} [207]
+
+    _Article_ 1.--Spain relinquishes all claim of sovereignty over
+    and title to Cuba. And as the Island is, upon its evacuation by
+    Spain, to be occupied by the United States, the United States will,
+    so long as such occupation shall last, assume and discharge the
+    obligations that may under international law result from the fact
+    of its occupation, for the protection of life and property.
+
+    _Article_ 2.--Spain cedes to the United States the Island of Porto
+    Rico and other islands now under Spanish sovereignty in the West
+    Indies, and the Island of Guam in the Marianas or Ladrones.
+
+    _Article_ 3.--Spain cedes to the United States the archipelago
+    known as the Philippine Islands, and comprehending the islands
+    lying within the following line: A line running from W. to
+    E. along or near the 20th parallel of N. latitude, and through
+    the middle of the navigable channel of Bachi, from the 118th to
+    the 127th degree meridian of longitude E. of Greenwich, thence
+    along the 127th degree meridian of longitude E. of Greenwich to
+    the parallel of 4 deg. 45' N. latitude, thence along the parallel
+    of 4 deg. 45' N. latitude to its intersection with the meridian of
+    longitude 119 deg. 35' E. of Greenwich, thence along the meridian of
+    longitude 119 deg. 35' E. of Greenwich to the parallel of latitude 7 deg.
+    40' N., thence along the parallel of latitude of 7 deg. 40' N. to its
+    intersection with the 116th degree meridian of longitude E. of
+    Greenwich, thence by a direct line to the intersection of the 10th
+    degree parallel of N. latitude with the 118th degree meridian
+    of longitude E. of Greenwich, and thence along the 118th degree
+    meridian of longitude E. of Greenwich to the point of beginning.
+
+    The United States will pay to Spain the sum of $.20,000,000
+    within three months after the exchange of the ratifications of
+    the present treaty.
+
+    _Article_ 4.--The United States will, for the term of 10 years
+    from the date of the exchange of the ratifications of the present
+    treaty, admit Spanish ships and merchandise to the ports of the
+    Philippine Islands on the same terms as ships and merchandise of
+    the United States.
+
+    _Article_ 5.--The United States will, upon the signature of the
+    present treaty, send back to Spain, at its own cost, the Spanish
+    soldiers taken as prisoners of war on the capture of Manila by
+    the American forces. The arms of the soldiers in question shall
+    be restored to them.
+
+    Spain will, upon the exchange of the ratification of the present
+    treaty, proceed to evacuate the Philippines, as well as the
+    Island of Guam, on terms similiar to those agreed upon by the
+    Commissioners appointed to arrange for the evacuation of Porto
+    Rico and other islands in the West Indies, under the Protocol of
+    August 12, 1898, which is to continue in force till its provisions
+    are completely executed.
+
+    The time within which the evacuation of the Philippine
+    Islands and Guam shall be completed shall be fixed by the two
+    Governments. Stands of colours, uncaptured war-vessels, small arms,
+    guns of all calibres, with their carriages and accessories, powder,
+    ammunition, live-stock, and materials and supplies of all kinds,
+    belonging to the land and naval forces of Spain in the Philippines
+    and Guam, remain the property of Spain. Pieces of heavy ordnance,
+    exclusive of field artillery, in the fortifications and coast
+    defences, shall remain in their emplacements for the term of six
+    months, to be reckoned from the exchange of ratifications of the
+    treaty; and the United States may, in the meantime, purchase such
+    material from Spain, if a satisfactory agreement between the two
+    Governments on the subject shall be reached.
+
+    _Article_ 6.--Spain will, upon the signature of the present
+    treaty, release all prisoners of war, and all persons detained
+    or imprisoned for political offences in connection with the
+    insurrections in Cuba and the Philippines and the war with the
+    United States.
+
+    Reciprocally, the United States will release all persons made
+    prisoners of war by the American forces, and will undertake to
+    obtain the release of all Spanish prisoners in the hands of the
+    insurgents in Cuba and the Philippines.
+
+    The Government of the United States will at its own cost return to
+    Spain and the Government of Spain will at its own cost return to
+    the United States, Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Philippines, according
+    to the situation of their respective homes, prisoners released
+    or caused to be released by them, respectively, under this article.
+
+    _Article_ 7.--The United States and Spain mutually relinquish all
+    claims for indemnity, national and individual, of every kind,
+    of either Government, or of its citizens or subjects, against
+    the other Government, that may have arisen since the beginning
+    of the late insurrection in Cuba and prior to the exchange of
+    ratifications of the present treaty, including all claims for
+    indemnity for the cost of the war.
+
+    The United States will adjudicate and settle the claims of its
+    citizens against Spain relinquished in this article.
+
+    _Article_ 8.--In conformity with the provisions of Articles 1,
+    2 and 3 of this treaty, Spain relinquishes in Cuba, and cedes in
+    Porto Rico and other islands in the West Indies, in the Island
+    of Guam, and in the Philippine Archipelago, all the buildings,
+    wharves, barracks, forts, structures, public highways and other
+    immovable property which, in conformity with law, belong to the
+    public domain, and as such belong to the Crown of Spain.
+
+    And it is hereby declared that the relinquishment or cession,
+    as the case may be, to which the preceding paragraph refers,
+    cannot in any respect impair the property or rights which by
+    law belong to the peaceful possession of property of all kinds,
+    of provinces, municipalities, public or private establishments,
+    ecclesiastical or civic bodies, or any other associations having
+    legal capacity to acquire and possess property in the aforesaid
+    territories renounced or ceded, or of private individuals, of
+    whatsoever nationality such individuals may be.
+
+    The aforesaid relinquishment or cession, as the case may be,
+    includes all documents exclusively referring to the sovereignty
+    relinquished or ceded that may exist in the archives of the
+    Peninsula. Where any document in such archives only in part relates
+    to said sovereignty, a copy of such part will be furnished whenever
+    it shall be requested. Like rules shall be reciprocally observed
+    in favour of Spain in respect of documents in the archives of
+    the islands above referred to.
+
+    In the aforesaid relinquishment or cession, as the case may be,
+    are also included such rights as the Crown of Spain and its
+    authorities possess in respect of the official archives and
+    records, executive as well as judicial, in the islands above
+    referred to, which relate to the said islands or the rights and
+    property of their inhabitants. Such archives and records shall be
+    carefully preserved, and private persons shall without distinction
+    have the right to require, in accordance with law, authenticated
+    copies of the contracts, wills and other instruments forming part
+    of notarial protocols or files, or which may be contained in the
+    executive or judicial archives, be the latter in Spain or in the
+    islands aforesaid.
+
+    _Article_ 9.--Spanish subjects, natives of the Peninsula,
+    residing in the territory over which Spain by the present
+    treaty relinquishes or cedes her sovereignty, may remain in such
+    territory, or may remove therefrom, retaining in either event all
+    their rights of property, including the right to sell or dispose
+    of such property or of its proceeds; and they shall also have
+    the right to carry on their industry, commerce and professions,
+    being subject in respect thereof to such laws as are applicable to
+    other foreigners. In case they remain in the territory they may
+    preserve their allegiance to the Crown of Spain by making before
+    a court of record, within a year from the date of the exchange
+    of ratifications of this treaty, a declaration of their decision
+    to preserve such allegiance; in default of which declaration
+    they shall be held to have renounced it and to have adopted the
+    nationality of the territory in which they may reside.
+
+    The civil rights and political status of the native inhabitants
+    of the territories hereby ceded to the United States shall be
+    determined by the Congress.
+
+    _Article_ 10.--The inhabitants of the territories over which
+    Spain relinquishes or cedes her sovereignty shall be secured in
+    the free exercise of their religion.
+
+    _Article_ 11.--The Spaniards residing in the territories over
+    which Spain by this treaty cedes or relinquishes her sovereignty
+    shall be subject in matters civil as well as criminal to the
+    jurisdiction of the courts of the country wherein they reside,
+    pursuant to the ordinary laws governing the same; and they shall
+    have the right to appear before such courts, and to pursue the
+    same course as citizens of the country to which the courts belong.
+
+    _Article_ 12.--Judicial proceedings pending at the time of the
+    exchange of ratifications of this treaty in the territories
+    over which Spain relinquishes or cedes her sovereignty shall
+    be determined according to the following rules: (1) Judgements
+    rendered either in civil suits between private individuals, or in
+    criminal matters, before the date mentioned, and with respect to
+    which there is no recourse, or right of review under the Spanish
+    law, shall be deemed to be final, and shall be executed in due
+    form by competent authority in the territory within which such
+    judgements shall be carried out: (2) Civil suits between private
+    individuals which may on the date mentioned be undetermined shall
+    be prosecuted to judgement before the court in which they may
+    then be pending or in the court that may be substituted therefor:
+    (3) Criminal actions pending on the date mentioned before the
+    Supreme Court of Spain, against citizens of the territory which
+    by this treaty ceases to be Spanish, shall continue under its
+    jurisdiction until final judgement; but, such judgement having
+    been rendered, the execution thereof shall be committed to the
+    competent authority of the place in which the case arose.
+
+    _Article_ 13.--The rights of property secured by copyrights and
+    patents acquired by Spaniards in the Island of Cuba and in Porto
+    Rico, the Philippines and other ceded territories, at the time of
+    the exchange of the ratifications of this treaty, shall continue
+    to be respected. Spanish scientific, literary and artistic works,
+    not subversive of public order in the territories in question,
+    shall continue to be admitted free of duty into such territories,
+    for the period of ten years, to be reckoned from the date of the
+    exchange of the ratifications of this treaty.
+
+    _Article_ 14.--Spain will have the power to establish Consular
+    officers in the ports and places of the territories, the
+    sovereignty over which has been either relinquished or ceded by
+    the present treaty.
+
+    _Article_ 15.--The Government of each country will, for the term
+    of ten years, accord to the merchant vessels of the other country
+    the same treatment in respect of all port charges, including
+    entrance and clearance dues, light dues, and tonnage duties,
+    as it accords to its own merchant vessels, not engaged in the
+    coastwise trade. This article may at any time be terminated on
+    six months' notice given by either Government to the other.
+
+    _Article_ 16.--It is understood that any obligations assumed
+    in this treaty by the United States with respect to Cuba are
+    limited to the time of its occupancy thereof; but it will,
+    upon the termination of such occupancy, advise any Government
+    established in the Island to assume the same obligations.
+
+    _Article_ 17.--The present treaty shall be ratified by the
+    President of the United States, by and with the advice and consent
+    of the Senate thereof, and by Her Majesty the Queen-Regent of
+    Spain; and the ratifications shall be exchanged at Washington
+    within six months from the date hereof, or earlier if possible.
+
+    In faith whereof, we, the respective Plenipotentiaries, have
+    signed this treaty and have hereunto affixed our seals.
+
+    Done in duplicate at Paris, the 10th day of December, in the year
+    of our Lord 1898.
+
+        _William R. Day_.
+        _Cushman K. Davis_.
+        _William P. Frye_.
+        _Geo. Gray_.
+        _Whitelaw Reid_.
+        _Eugenio Montero Rios_.
+        _B. de Abarzuza_.
+        _J. de Garnica_.
+        _W. R. de Villa-Urrutia_.
+        _Rafael Cerero_.
+
+
+
+Two years afterwards a supplementary treaty was made between the
+United States and Spain, whereby the Islands of Cagayan de Jolo,
+Sibutu, and other islets not comprised in the demarcation set forth
+in the Treaty of Paris, were ceded to the United States for the sum
+of $100,000 gold. These small islands had, apparently, been overlooked
+when the Treaty of Paris was concluded.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIV
+
+An Outline of the War of Independence, Period 1899-1901
+
+
+"I speak not of forcible annexation because that is not to be
+thought of, and under our code of morality that would be criminal
+aggression."--_President McKinley's Message to Congress_; _December_,
+1897.
+
+"The Philippines are ours as much as Louisiana by purchase, or Texas
+or Alaska."--_President McKinley's Speech to the 10th Pennsylvania
+Regiment; August_ 28, 1899.
+
+
+_Ignorance_ of the world's ways, beyond the Philippine shores,
+was the cause of the Aguinaldo party's first disappointment. A
+score of pamphlets has been published to show how thoroughly the
+Filipinos believed America's mission to these Islands to be solely
+prompted by a compassionate desire to aid them in their struggle
+for immediate sovereign independence. Laudatory and congratulatory
+speeches, uttered in British colonies, in the presence of American
+officials, and hope-inspiring expressions which fell from their lips
+before Aguinaldo's return to Cavite from exile, strengthened that
+conviction. Sympathetic avowals and grandiloquent phrases, such as
+"for the sake of humanity," and "the cause of civilization," which were
+so freely bandied about at the time by unauthorized Americans, drew
+Aguinaldo into the error of believing that some sort of bond really
+existed between the United States and the Philippine Revolutionary
+Party. In truth, there was no agreement between America and the
+Filipinos. There was no American plenipotentiary empowered to make
+any political compact with the Islanders. At that date there was
+neither a Philippine policy nor any fixed programme regarding the
+future disposal of the Islands, and whatever naval, military, or other
+officers might have said to Aguinaldo was said on their own private
+responsibility, and could in no way affect the action of the American
+Government. Without any training in or natural bent for diplomacy,
+Aguinaldo had not the faintest idea of what foreign "protection"
+signified. He thought that after the capture of Manila the Americans
+would sail away and leave the Filipinos to themselves, and only
+reappear if any other Power interfered with their native government.
+
+Admiral Dewey had a double task to perform. He had to destroy the
+Spanish fleet, and to co-operate in the taking of Manila. In the
+destruction of the fleet the attitude of the natives was of little
+concern to him. In the taking of the capital it was important to know
+what part the natives would play. It was certain they would not be
+placid spectators of the struggle, wherever Aguinaldo might be. If
+they _must_ enter into it, it was desirable to have them led by one who
+could control them and repress excesses. It would have been better for
+the Americans if, pending the issue with the Spaniards, no third party
+had existed; but, as it did exist, both contending nations were anxious
+for its goodwill or its control. Therefore Admiral Dewey's recognition
+of Aguinaldo as a factor in the hostilities was nothing more nor
+less than a legitimate stratagem to facilitate his operations against
+the Spaniards. Dewey simply neutralized a possible adverse force by
+admissible military artifice, and Aguinaldo was too ingenuous to see
+that he was being outwitted. The fighting section of the Filipinos
+was intensely irritated at not having been allowed to enter and sack
+the capital. They had looked forward to it as the crowning act of
+victory. The general mass of the christianized Islanders hoped that
+Philippine independence would immediately follow the capitulation
+of Manila, although, in the capital itself, natives of position
+and property evinced little enthusiasm for the insurgents' triumph,
+whilst some inwardly doubted it. In September a native lawyer, Felipe
+Agoncillo, was sent to Washington to lay the Filipinos' case before the
+President in the hope of gaining his personal support of their claims
+(_vide_ p. 472). The first fear was that the Colony might revert to
+Spain, but that idea was soon dispelled by the news of the stipulations
+of the Treaty of Paris. Simultaneously Aguinaldo's revolutionary army
+was being pushed farther and farther away from the capital, and it
+was evident, from the mood of his fighting-men, that if the Americans
+remained in possession of the Colony, hostilities, sooner or later,
+must break out. The Americans officially ignored the Aguinaldo party as
+a factor in public affairs, but they were not unaware of the warlike
+preparations being made. Secret anti-American meetings were held at
+places called clubs, where it was agreed to attack simultaneously
+the Americans inside and outside the capital. General Pio del Pilar
+slept in the city every night, ready to give the rocket-signal for
+revolt. Natives between 18 and 40 years of age were being recruited
+for military service, according to a Malolos Government decree
+dated September 21, 1898. In every smithy and factory bowie-knives
+were being forged with all speed, and 10,000 men were already armed
+with them. General E. S. Otis was willing to confer with Aguinaldo,
+and six sessions were held, the last taking place on January 29, six
+days before the outbreak. Nothing resulted from these conferences, the
+Americans alleging that Aguinaldo would make no definite statement of
+his people's aims, whilst the Filipinos declare that their intentions
+were so well understood by the American general that he would listen
+to nothing short of unconditional submission.
+
+The following manifesto, dated January 5, signed by Emilio Aguinaldo,
+clearly shows the attitude of the Revolutionary Party at this period:--
+
+
+    _To My Brethren the Filipinos, and to All the Respected Consuls
+    and Other Foreigners_:--
+
+    General Otis styles himself Military Governor of these Islands,
+    and I protest one and a thousand times and with all the energy of
+    my soul against such authority. I proclaim solemnly that I have
+    not recognized either in Singapore or in Hong-Kong or in the
+    Philippines, by word or in writing, the sovereignty of America
+    over this beloved soil. On the contrary, I say that I returned to
+    these Islands on an American warship on the 19th of May last for
+    the express purpose of making war on the Spaniards to regain our
+    liberty and independence. I stated this in my proclamation of the
+    24th of May last, and I published it in my Manifesto addressed to
+    the Philippine people on the 12th of June. Lastly, all this was
+    confirmed by the American General Merritt himself, predecessor
+    of General Otis, in his Manifesto to the Philippine people some
+    days before he demanded the surrender of Manila from the Spanish
+    General Jaudenes. In that Manifesto it is distinctly stated that
+    the naval and field forces of the United States had come to give
+    us our liberty, by subverting the bad Spanish Government. And I
+    hereby protest against this unexpected act of the United States
+    claiming sovereignty over these Islands. My relations with the
+    American authorities prove undeniably that the United States did
+    not bring me over here from Hong-Kong to make war on the Spaniards
+    for their benefit, but for the purpose of our own liberty and
+    independence. . . .
+
+    _Emilio Aguinaldo_.
+
+
+
+Aguinaldo having been successively Dictator and President of the
+Revolutionary Government (_vide_ p. 448), now assumed the new title of
+President of the _Philippine Republic_, the Articles of Constitution
+of which (drawn up by his Prime Minister Apolinario Mabini) were
+dated January 21, 1899, and promulgated by him on the following
+day. In due course the news came that the date of voting in the
+Senate for or against the retention of the Islands was fixed. The
+Americans already in the Colony were practically unanimous in their
+desire for its retention, and every effort was made by them to that
+end. The question of the treaty ratification was warmly discussed
+in Washington. A week before the vote was taken it was doubtful
+whether the necessary two-thirds majority could be obtained. It was
+a remarkable coincidence that just when the Republican Party was
+straining every nerve to secure the two or three wavering votes, the
+first shots were exchanged between a native and an American outpost
+in the suburbs of the capital. Each side accuses the other of having
+precipitated hostilities. However that may be, this event took place
+precisely at a date when the news of it in Washington served to secure
+the votes of the hesitating senators in favour of retention. [208]
+The provocative demeanour of the insurgents at the outposts was
+such that a rupture was inevitable sooner or later, and if a Senate
+vote of abandonment had come simultaneously with insurrection, the
+situation would have been extremely complicated; it would have been
+difficult for the Oriental not to have believed that the invader
+was nervously beating a retreat. The Nebraska Regiment was at Santa
+Mesa, guarding its front. Americans were frequently insulted, called
+cowards, and openly menaced by the insurgents. In the evening of
+Saturday, February 4, 1899, an insurgent officer came with a detail
+of men and attempted to force his way past the sentinel on the San
+Juan bridge. About nine o'clock a large body of rebels advanced on
+the South Dakota Regiment's outposts, and to avoid the necessity
+of firing, for obvious reasons, the picquets fell back. For several
+nights a certain insurgent lieutenant had tried to pass the Nebraska
+lines. At length he approached a sentinel, who called "halt" three
+times without response, and then shot the lieutenant dead. Several
+insurgents then fired and retreated; rockets were at once sent up by
+the Filipinos, and firing started all along the line, from Caloocan
+to Santa Mesa. By ten o'clock the Filipinos concentrated at Caloocan,
+Santa Mesa, and Gagalanging, whence they opened a simultaneous, but
+ineffectual, fusillade, supplemented by two siege guns at Balichalic
+and a skirmishing attack from Pandacan and Paco. Desperate fighting
+continued throughout the night; the Filipinos, driven back from every
+post with heavy loss, rallied the next morning at Paco, where they
+occupied the parish church, to which many non-combatant refugees
+had fled. The American warships, co-operating with their batteries,
+poured a terrific fire on the church, and kept up a continuous attack
+on the insurgent position at Caloocan, where General Aguinaldo was in
+command. At daylight the Americans made a general advance towards Paco
+and Santa Ana. At the former place the Filipinos resisted desperately;
+the church, sheltering refugees and insurgents, was completely
+demolished; [209] the Filipinos' loss amounted to about 4,000 killed
+and wounded, whilst the Americans lost about 175 killed and wounded. It
+is estimated that the approximate number of troops engaged in this
+encounter was 13,000 Americans and 20,000 Filipinos. The insurgents
+at Santa Ana, the survivors of the Paco defeat, and the force which
+had to abandon the Santolan water-works, where they left behind them
+a howitzer, all concentrated at Caloocan. The insurgent and American
+lines formed a semicircle some 15 miles in extent, making it impossible
+to give a comprehensive description of the numerous small engagements.
+
+Immediately the news of the rupture reached Washington the Philippine
+Envoy, Felipe Agoncillo, fled to Montreal, Canada, in a great
+hurry, leaving his luggage behind. No one was troubling him, and
+there was not the least need for such a precipitate flight from a
+country where civilized international usages obtain. On February 5
+an engagement took place at Gagalanging, where the natives collected
+in the hundreds of bungalows around that village awaiting the advance
+of the Oregon Regiment. Amongst the spectators was the German Prince
+Ludwig von Loewenstein. The Americans continued advancing and firing,
+when suddenly the prince ran across an open space and took shelter in
+a hut which he must have known would be attacked by the Oregons. The
+order was given to fire into the native dwellings giving cover to
+the insurgents, and the prince's dead body was subsequently found
+perforated by a bullet. In his pocket he carried a pass issued by
+Aguinaldo conceding to the bearer permission to go anywhere within
+the insurgent lines, and stating that he was a sympathizer with their
+cause. It was noticed that the prince several times deliberately threw
+himself into danger. No one could ascertain exactly in what capacity
+he found himself near the fighting-line. Less than two years previously
+he had married the daughter of an English earl, and the popular belief
+was that, for private reasons, he intentionally courted death.
+
+The rebels were repulsed at every point with great loss. Lines of smoke
+from the burning villages marked the direction taken by the Americans
+advancing under the leadership of Generals Otis, Wheaton, Hale,
+and Hall. An immense amount of impedimenta in the shape of pontoons,
+telegraph posts and wires, ammunition, and provisions followed the
+infantry in perfect order. On the line taken by the troops many
+native householders hoisted white flags to indicate their peaceful
+intentions. Ambulances were frequently seen coming in with the wounded
+Americans and Filipinos, and among them was brought the chief of an
+Igorrote tribe with a broken thigh. His tribe, who had been persuaded
+by Aguinaldo to bring their bows and arrows to co-operate with him,
+were placed in the front and suffered great slaughter. In hospital
+the Igorrote chief spoke with much bitterness of how he had been
+deceived, and vowed vengeance against the Tagalogs. The next day
+at Caloocan the rebels made a determined stand, but were driven out
+of the place by 10-inch shells fired from the _Monadnock_ over the
+American lines. General Hall occupied Santolan and the pumping-station
+there and repelled the repeated attacks made on his column. General
+McArthur with a flying column cleared the surrounding district of the
+enemy, but owing to the roughness of the country he was unable to
+pursue them. Aguinaldo was therefore able to escape north with his
+army, reinforced by native troops who had been trained in Spanish
+service. There was also a concentration of about 2,500 natives from
+the southern Luzon provinces. The insurgents had cut trenches at
+almost every mile along the route north. In the several skirmishes
+which took place on March 25 the Americans lost one captain and 25 men
+killed and eight officers and 142 men wounded. The next day there was
+some hard fighting around Polo and Novaliches, where the insurgents
+held out for six hours against General McArthur's three brigades of
+cavalry and artillery. After the defeat at Paco, Aguinaldo moved
+on to the town of Malabon, which was shelled; the enemy therefore
+immediately evacuated that place in great confusion, after setting
+fire to the buildings. Over 1,000 men, women, and children hastened
+across the low, swampy lands carrying their household goods and their
+fighting-cocks; it was indeed a curious spectacle. General Wheaton's
+brigade captured Malinta, and the insurgents fled panic-stricken after
+having suffered severely. The American loss was small in numbers,
+but Colonel Egbert, of the 22nd Infantry, was mortally wounded whilst
+leading a charge. As he lay on the litter in the midst of the fight
+General Wheaton cheered him with the words, "Nobly done, Egbert!" to
+which the dying colonel replied, "Good-bye, General; I'm done; I'm
+too old," and at once expired.
+
+In March the natives tried to burn down one of the busiest Manila
+suburbs. At 8 o'clock one evening they set fire to the Chinese
+quarters in Santa Cruz, and the breeze rapidly wafted the flames. The
+conflagration lasted four hours. The English Fire-Brigade turned out
+to quench it. Hundreds of Chinese laden with chattels hurried to and
+fro about the streets; natives rushed hither and thither frantically
+trying to keep the fire going whilst the whites were endeavouring
+to extinguish it; and with the confusion of European and Oriental
+tongues the place was a perfect pandemonium. General Hughes was
+at the head of the police, but the surging mob pressed forward and
+cut the hose five times. With fixed bayonets the troops partially
+succeeded in holding back the swelling crowd. The electric wires got
+out of working order, and the city was lighted only by the glare of
+the flaming buildings. Bullets were flying in all directions about
+Tondo and Binondo. The intense excitement was intentionally sustained
+by batches of natives who rushed hither and thither with hideous
+yells to inspire a feeling of terror. Many families, fearing that the
+insurgents had broken through the American lines and entered the city
+_en masse_, frantically fled from the hotels and houses. Incessant
+bugle-calls from the natives added to the commotion, and thousands
+of Chinese crowded into the Chinese Consulate. Finally the rioters
+were driven back, and a cordon of troops assured the safety of the
+capital. Sharp engagements simultaneously took place at the Chinese
+cemetery and at San Pedro Macati. Bands of insurgents were arrested
+in Tondo. A group of 60 was captured escorting two cartloads of arms
+and ammunition to a house. Business was almost entirely suspended,
+and a general order was issued by the Military Governor commanding
+all civilians to remain in their houses after 7 p.m. This hour was
+gradually extended to 8 o'clock, then 9 o'clock, and finally to
+midnight, as circumstances permitted. An edict was posted up fixing
+the penalties for incendiarism. During two days smoke hovered around
+the neighbourhood, and the appearance of Manila from the bay was that
+of a smouldering city.
+
+In the fighting up country, one of the greatest difficulties for the
+Americans was that the insurgents would not concentrate and have a
+decisive contest. They would fire a few volleys from cover and retreat
+to other cover, repeating these harassing, but inconclusive, tactics
+over many miles of ground. On their march the Americans had to fight
+a hidden foe who slipped from trench to trench, or found safety in
+the woods. Sometimes a trenchful of the enemy would fire a volley and
+half of them disappear through gullies leading to other cover. The
+next point of importance to be reached was Malalos, and on the way
+some thirty villages had to be passed. Besides the volleys delivered
+by hidden insurgents all along the line, a hard-fought battle took
+place on March 28 under the personal direction of General Aguinaldo,
+who concentrated about 5,000 men near Marilao. Aguinaldo directed
+the movements without appearing on the field; indeed it is doubtful
+whether, during this war, he ever led his troops into action. General
+McArthur's division had halted at Meycauayan the previous night,
+and in the morning advanced north in conjunction with General Hale's
+brigade, which took the right, whilst General Otis led his troops
+to the left of the railroad, General Wheaton's brigade being held in
+reserve. After a three-mile march these forces fell in with the enemy,
+who opened fire from trenches and thickets; but General Otis's troops
+charged them gallantly and drove them back across the river. There the
+insurgents rallied, relying upon the splendid trenches which they had
+dug. The battle raged for three hours, the combatants being finally
+within fifty yards of each other. Eventually the American artillery
+came into play, when the advanced works of the insurgent defences were
+literally pulverized and the general rout of the enemy began. They
+retreated to their second stronghold of bamboo thickets, pursued by the
+1st South Dakota Infantry, which made a brilliant charge in the open,
+under a galling fire, with a loss of three lieutenants and seven men
+killed on the field and about a score wounded. The insurgents, however,
+were completely defeated and scattered, leaving 85 dead counted in
+the trenches and thickets, and a hundred prisoners in the hands of
+the Americans. Before abandoning Marilao the insurgents burnt the town
+to the ground and continued their hurried flight to Malolos. They had
+plenty of time to rally, for the Americans found great difficulty in
+bringing their artillery across the river at Guiguinto. It had to be
+drawn over the railway bridge by hand whilst the mules swam across
+to the northern bank, all being, at the same time, under a desultory
+fire from the enemy. The resistance of the Filipinos to the passage of
+the river at Guiguinto was so stubborn that the Americans lost about
+70 killed and wounded. At 6 a.m. the Americans started the advance
+towards Malolos in the same order taken for the march to Marilao,
+General Hale's brigade taking the right and General Otis's the left
+of the railroad. Several skirmishes took place on the way and General
+Wheaton brought his reserves forward into the general advance. At
+Bocaue the river presented the same difficulties for artillery
+transport as were experienced at Guiguinto, except that the enemy was
+nowhere to be seen. Bigaa was reached and not an armed native was in
+sight, all having apparently concentrated in the insurgent capital,
+Malolos. The American casualties that day, due solely to the morning
+skirmishes, amounted to four killed and thirty wounded.
+
+It is apparent, from the official despatches, that at this time
+the American generals seriously believed the Aguinaldo party would
+acknowledge its defeat and make peace if Malolos, the revolutionary
+seat of government, fell. All that was going on in Manila was well
+known to the insurgents in the field, as the news was brought to
+them daily by runners who were able to enter the city during daylight
+without interference. On March 30 General McArthur's division resumed
+the advance and brought up the baggage trains, after having repaired
+the several bridges damaged by the enemy. The environs of Malolos were
+reconnoitred up to within a mile of the town, and the dead bodies
+of insurgent soldiers were seen scattered here and there. Groups of
+hundreds of non-combatants were hurrying off from the beleaguered
+insurgent capital. General Otis's brigade pushed forward without
+any encounter with the enemy, but General Hale's column, which
+continued to take the right side of the railway, was fired upon
+from the woods, the total casualties that day being five killed and
+43 wounded. At 7 a.m. (March 31) the Americans opened the combined
+attack on Malolos. General McArthur directed the operations from
+the railway embankment, and half an hour's artillery fire dislodged
+the enemy from their cover. The columns advanced cautiously towards
+the town in anticipation of a fierce resistance and, it was hoped,
+a fight to the finish. General Otis marched on direct: General Hale
+executed a flanking movement to the east; General Wheaton's brigades
+were held in reserve, and a halt of half an hour was made preparatory
+to the final assault. The scouts then returned and reported that the
+insurgents had abandoned their capital! It was a disappointment to
+the Americans who had looked forward to inflicting a decisive and
+crushing defeat on the enemy. The first troops to enter the town
+were the 20th Kansas Regiment, under Colonel Funston. The natives,
+in the wildest confusion, scampered off, after firing a few parting
+shots at the approaching forces, and the Americans, with a total
+loss of 15 killed and wounded, were in undisputed possession of the
+insurgent capital. Aguinaldo had prudently evacuated it two days
+before with his main army, going in the direction of Calumpit. Only
+one battalion had been left behind to burn the town on the approach
+of the Americans. Aguinaldo's headquarters, the parish church,
+and a few hundred yards of railway were already destroyed when
+the Americans occupied the place, still partly in flames. Some
+few hundreds of Chinese were the only inhabitants remaining in
+Malolos. The value of the food-stuffs captured in this place was
+estimated at P1,500,000. Simultaneously, General Hall's brigade
+operated five to seven miles north of Manila and drove the insurgents
+out of Mariquina, San Mateo, and the environs of the Montalban River
+with a loss of 20 men wounded and Lieutenant Gregg killed. It was now
+evident that Aguinaldo had no intention to come to close quarters and
+bring matters to a crisis by pitched battles. His policy was apparently
+to harry the Americans by keeping them constantly on the move against
+guerilla parties, in the hope that a long and wearisome campaign would
+end in the Americans abandoning the Islands in disgust, leaving the
+Filipinos to their own desired independence. Aguinaldo had moved on
+to Calumpit with his main army with the intention of establishing
+his Government there. On the American side, active preparations were
+made to dislodge him. Small gunboats were fitted out for operating
+on the Rio Grande de Pampanga, and an armoured train was prepared for
+use farther north. From Paranaque, on the bay shore south of Manila,
+the insurgents fired on the monitor _Monadnock_, but a few shots from
+this vessel silenced the shore battery. In several places, within 10
+to 15 miles of the capital, armed groups of insurgents concentrated,
+but Aguinaldo moved on towards Baliuag, in the province of Bulacan,
+so as to be within easy reach of the hill district of Angat in case
+of defeat.
+
+A few days after the capture of Malolos, General Otis issued a
+proclamation to the Filipinos, in the hope that by drawing off public
+sympathy from the insurgent cause it would dwindle away. The terms
+of this document were as follows, viz.:--
+
+
+    (1) The supremacy of the United States must and will be enforced
+    throughout every part of the Archipelago. Those who resist can
+    accomplish nothing except their own ruin.
+
+    (2) The most ample liberty of self-government will be granted
+    which is reconcilable with the maintenance of a wise, just,
+    stable, effective, and economical administration, and compatible
+    with the sovereign and international rights and obligations of
+    the United States.
+
+    (3) The civil rights of the Filipinos will be guaranteed and
+    protected, religious freedom will be assured, and all will have
+    equal standing before the law.
+
+    (4) Honour, justice, and friendship forbid the exploitation of
+    the people of the Islands. The purpose of the American Government
+    is the welfare and advancement of the Filipino people.
+
+    (5) The American Government guarantees an honest and effective
+    civil service, in which, to the fullest extent practicable,
+    natives shall be employed.
+
+    (6) The collection and application of taxes and revenues will be
+    put on a sound and honest economical basis. Public funds will be
+    raised justly and collected honestly, and will be applied only in
+    defraying the proper expenses of the establishment and maintenance
+    of the Philippine Government, and such general improvements as
+    public interests demand. Local funds collected for local purposes
+    shall not be diverted to other ends. With such a prudent and
+    honest fiscal administration it is believed that the needs of
+    the Government will, in a short time, become compatible with a
+    considerable reduction of taxation.
+
+    (7) The pure, speedy, and effective administration of justice,
+    whereby the evils of delay, corruption, and exploitation will be
+    effectually eradicated.
+
+    (8) The construction of roads, railways, and other means of
+    communication and transportation, and other public works of
+    manifest advantage to the people will be promoted.
+
+    (9) Domestic and foreign trade, commerce, agriculture, and other
+    industrial pursuits, and the general development of the country
+    and interest of the inhabitants will be the constant objects of
+    the solicitude and fostering care of the Government.
+
+    (10) Effective provision will be made for the establishment of
+    elementary schools, in which the children of the people shall be
+    educated, and appropriate facilities will also be provided for
+    their higher education.
+
+    (11) Reforms in all departments of the Government, all branches
+    of the public service, and all corporations closely touching the
+    common life of the people must be undertaken without delay, and
+    effected conformably with right and justice in such a way as to
+    satisfy the well-founded demands and the highest sentiments and
+    aspirations of the Philippine people.
+
+
+
+The above proclamation, no doubt, embodies the programme of what
+the American Government desired to carry out at the time of its
+publication.
+
+The Americans resumed the aggressive against the insurgents, and
+an expedition of 1,509 men and two mountain-guns was fitted out
+under the command of General Lawton to proceed up the Pasig River
+into the Lake of Bay in order to capture Santa Cruz at the eastern
+extremity. The expedition presented a curious sight; it comprised 15
+native barges or "cascoes" towed by seven tugs. Some of the craft
+ran aground at Napindan, the entrance to the lake, and delayed the
+little flotilla until daylight. The barges ahead had to wait for the
+vessels lagging behind. Then a mist came over the shore, and there was
+another halt. A couple of miles off an insurgent steamer was sighted,
+but it passed on. Finally Santa Cruz was reached; 200 sharpshooters
+were landed under cover of the launch guns, and fighting continued
+all the afternoon until nightfall. Early in the morning the town was
+attacked, the church situated in the centre was captured, and the
+American loss was only six men wounded; the insurgents were driven
+far away, leaving 68 dead on the field, and a large number of wounded,
+whilst hundreds were taken prisoners.
+
+On April 12, at the request of the Spanish General Rios, [210] the
+gunboat _Yorktown_ was despatched to Baler, on the east coast of Luzon,
+to endeavour to rescue a party of 80 Spanish soldiers, three officers,
+and two priests who were holding out against 400 insurgents. These
+natives, who were all armed with Maueser rifles, laid in ambush,
+and surprised the landing-party under Lieutenant Gilmore. The whole
+party was captured by the insurgents, who were afterwards ordered to
+release them all. General Aguinaldo was always as humanely disposed
+as the circumstances of war would permit, and, at the request of the
+commissioners for the liberation of the Spanish prisoners, he gave
+this little band of 83 heroes and two priests their liberty under
+a decree so characteristic of Philippine imitative genius in its
+pompous allusion to the Spanish glorious past that it is well worth
+recording. [211]
+
+General Lawton asserted that 100,000 men would be required to conquer
+the Philippines, but they were never sent, because there was always
+an influential group of optimists who expected an early collapse
+of the insurgent movement. General Otis sent frequent cablegrams to
+Washington expressing his belief that the war would soon come to an
+end. However, in April, 1899, 14,000 regular troops were despatched
+to the Islands to reinforce the Volunteer regiments. It was a wise
+measure taken not too soon, for it was clear that a certain amount
+of discontent had manifested itself among the Volunteers. Moreover,
+the whole management of the Philippine problem was much hampered by
+an anti-annexation movement in America which did not fail to have its
+influence on the Volunteers, many of whom were anxious to return home
+if they could. Senator Hoar and his partisans persistently opposed the
+retention of the Islands, claiming that it was contrary to the spirit
+of the American Constitution to impose a government upon a people
+against its will. American sentiment was indeed becoming more and more
+opposed to expansion of territorial possession beyond the continent,
+in view of the unsatisfactory operations in the Philippines--a feeling
+which was, however, greatly counterbalanced by a recognition of the
+political necessity of finishing an unpleasant task already begun,
+for the sake of national dignity.
+
+About this time the Philippine envoy, Felipe Agoncillo, was in Paris
+as president of a _junta_ of his compatriots. Some of the members
+were of opinion that they ought to negotiate for peace directly with
+the American Secretary of State, but Agoncillo so tenaciously opposed
+anything short of sovereign Philippine independence that some of the
+members withdrew and returned to the Islands. A year later I found
+Agoncillo of exactly the same intransigent persuasion.
+
+At the end of April the Americans suffered a severe reverse at Guingua
+(Bulacan), where Major Bell, with 40 cavalrymen, came across a strong
+outpost from which the enemy fired, killing one and wounding five
+men. With great difficulty the dead and wounded were carried back under
+fire, and it was found that the enemy occupied a big trench encircling
+three sides of a paddy-field bordering on a wood. As the Americans
+retreated, the insurgents crept up, aided by a mist, to within short
+range and fired another volley. Major Bell sent for reinforcements,
+and a battalion of infantry was soon on the scene, but their advance
+was checked by the continuous firing from the trenches. Artillery
+was on the way, but the insurgents were not disposed to charge
+the Americans, who lay for two hours under cover of a rice-field
+embankment in a broiling hot sun. One man died of sunstroke. Finally
+a second battalion of infantry arrived under the command of Colonel
+Stotsenberg, who was very popular with his men. He was received with
+cheers, and immediately ordered a charge against the enemy in the
+trenches; but whilst leading the attack he was shot in the breast,
+and died immediately. Within short range of the trenches Lieutenant
+Sisson fell, shot through the heart. By this time the artillery had
+arrived, and shelled the trenches. The insurgents, however, held their
+position well for a time, until the infantry was close up to them,
+when, following their usual tactics, they ran off to another trench a
+mile or so away. The total American losses that day were two officers
+and four privates killed, and three officers and 40 men wounded.
+
+Spanish prisoners released by the Filipinos declared that the
+insurgents had 50,000 rifles and 200 pieces of artillery captured
+from the Spaniards, ample ammunition manufactured at two large
+factories up country, and occasional fresh supplies of war-material
+shipped from China by Chinese, European, and American merchants. The
+preparations made to dislodge Aguinaldo and his main army, entrenched
+and sheltered by fortifications at Calumpit, were now completed,
+and General McArthur's division steadily advanced. The flower of the
+insurgent army was there, well armed and supplied with artillery
+and shrapnel shell. Commanded by General Antonio Luna, they were
+evidently prepared to make at Calumpit the bold stand which was
+expected of them at Malolos. The transport difficulties were very
+great, and as General McArthur approached, every foot of ground was
+disputed by the enemy. Bridges had been broken down, and the guns had
+to be hauled through jungle and woods under a scorching sun. Many
+buffaloes succumbed to the fatigue, and hundreds of Chinamen were
+employed to do their work. The Bagbag River was reached, but it had
+to be crossed, and the passage cost the Americans six men killed and
+28 wounded. The Bagbag River was well fortified, and the Americans
+had to attack its defenders from an open space. There were trenches
+at every approach; enormous pieces of rock had been dislodged and
+hauled down towards the breastworks of the trenches to form cover. The
+armoured train, pushed along the railway by Chinamen, then came into
+action, and its quick-firing guns opened the assault on the enemy's
+position. Six-pounders were also brought into play; the insurgents were
+gradually receding; artillery was wheeled up to the river bank and a
+regular bombardment of the bridge ensued. The trenches were shelled,
+and the insurgents were firing their guns in the direction of the
+armoured train, but they failed to get the range. Meantime, a company
+of the Kansas Regiment made a bold charge across a paddy-field and
+found shelter in a ditch, whence they kept up a constant fire to divert
+the enemy's attention whilst Colonel Eunston, the commander of the
+regiment, with a lieutenant and four men, crept along the girders of
+the bridge. The enemy, however, got the range and bullets were flying
+all around them, so they slid down the bridge-supports, dropped into
+the river, and swam to the opposite shore. Scrambling up the bank,
+revolvers in hand, they reached the trenches just as the insurgents
+were hurriedly evacuating them. Indeed, the Filipinos' defence of their
+trenches was extremely feeble during the whole battle. On the other
+hand, for the first time, the insurgents ventured out into the open
+against the Americans. General Antonio Luna, the Commander-in-Chief,
+could be seen galloping furiously along the lines exhorting his men to
+hold their ground, and he succeeded in deploying them into an extended
+line of battle to receive the enemy's onslaught. The insurgents kept
+up a desultory fire whilst the troops forded the river, and then they
+were pursued and driven off to the outskirts of the town. The flames
+rising from several buildings appeared to indicate an intention on the
+part of the insurgents to abandon their stronghold. Simultaneously,
+Generals Hale and Wheaton were coming forward with their columns,
+each having had some hard fighting on the way. The junction of forces
+was effected; a fierce fire was poured into the trenches; General Hale
+and his men made a dash across a stream, up to their waists in water;
+the Utah men followed with their batteries, cheering and dragging
+their field-pieces with desperate energy to the opposite bank; the
+enemy gave way, and the armoured train crossed the bridge. The total
+American loss that day did not exceed nine in killed and wounded,
+whilst the insurgent losses were at least 70. During the night the
+engineers repaired the Bagbag bridge for the rest of the troops to
+pass, and fighting was resumed at six o'clock in the morning. The
+deserted trenches were occupied by the Americans to pick off any
+insurgents who might venture out into the open. A general assault by
+the combined columns was then made on the town, which was captured,
+whilst the bulk of the insurgents fled in great confusion towards the
+hills. The few who lingered in the trenches in the northern suburbs
+of the town were shelled out of them by the American artillery placed
+near the church, and the survivors decamped, hotly pursued for some
+distance by cavalry. So great was the slaughter that the insurgents'
+total losses are unknown. The trenches were choked with dead bodies,
+and piles of them were found in many places. When nightfall came
+and the Americans were resting in Calumpit after their two days'
+hard fighting, the whole district was illuminated for miles around
+by the flames from the burning villages and groups of huts, whilst
+the snapping of the burning bamboos echoed through the stillness like
+volleys of rifle-shots.
+
+Aguinaldo and his Government had hastened north towards Tarlac, and
+on April 28 he instructed General Antonio Luna to discuss terms of
+peace. Ostensibly with this object the general sent Colonel Manuel
+Argueelles with his aide-de-camp and an orderly to the American camp at
+Apalit (Pampanga). These men were seen coming down the railway-track
+carrying a white flag. An officer was sent out to meet them, and
+after handing their credentials to him they were forthwith conducted
+to General Wheaton's headquarters. General Wheaton sent them on
+to General McArthur, the chief commander of the Northern Division,
+and General McArthur commissioned Major Mallory to escort them to
+General Otis in Manila. They explained that they were empowered to ask
+for an armistice for a few days as it was proposed to summon their
+Congress for May 1 to discuss the question of peace or war. General
+Otis replied that he did not recognize the Philippine Republic, and
+that there would be no cessation of hostilities until his only terms
+were complied with, namely, unconditional surrender. The negotiations
+were resumed the next day, and Argueelles seemed personally inclined
+to meet the American view of the situation; but as his powers were
+limited to asking for an armistice, he and his companions returned to
+the insurgent camp with General Otis's negative answer. On his return
+to the camp Colonel Argueelles was accused of being an "Americanista"
+in favour of surrender, for which offence a court-martial passed
+sentence upon him of expulsion from the insurgent army and 12 years'
+imprisonment. Whatever Argueelles' personal conviction may have been
+matters little, but in the light of subsequent events and considering
+the impetuous, intransigent character of General Antonio Luna, it is
+probable that Argueelles was really only sent as a spy.
+
+On May 5 General McArthur's division advanced to Pampanga Province,
+and Santo Tomas and San Fernando were taken without loss. A portion of
+the latter place had been burnt by the retreating insurgents, and the
+townspeople fled leaving their household goods behind them. Generals
+Hale and Lawton were following up, and on the way Baliuag (Bulacan)
+was occupied and immense stores of foodstuffs were seized from the
+insurgents and private owners. The booty consisted of about 150,000
+bushels of rice and over 250 tons of sugar. In other places on the
+way large deposits of food fell into American hands. The men of the
+Nebraska Regiment considered they had had sufficient hard work for the
+present in long marching, continual fighting, and outpost duty. They
+therefore petitioned General McArthur to relieve them temporarily
+from duty to recuperate their strength. There was no doubting their
+bravery, of which they had given ample proof; they had simply reached
+the limit of physical endurance. The hospitals were already full of
+soldiers suffering as much from sunstroke as from wounds received
+in battle. Consequently some of the regular regiments who had been
+doing guard duty in the capital were despatched to the front. In the
+following July the Nebraska Volunteer Regiment was one of those sent
+back to the United States.
+
+On May 19 another party of insurgent officers presented themselves
+to the military authorities alleging that they had fuller
+powers than Argueelles possessed and were prepared to make peace
+proposals. Everything was discussed over again; but as General Otis's
+unalterable demand for unconditional surrender was already well known,
+one can only conclude that the insurgent commissioners were also spies
+sent to gauge the power and feeling of the Americans, for they promised
+to return within three weeks and then disappeared indefinitely.
+
+On May 22 more peace commissioners were sent by Aguinaldo. They were
+received by the Schurman Commission of Inquest, who communicated to
+them a scheme of government which they had had under consideration
+in agreement with President McKinley. The proposed plan embodied
+the appointment of a Gov.-General, who would nominate a Cabinet to
+act with him. The President of the United States was to appoint the
+judges. The Cabinet members and the judges might be all Americans, or
+all Filipinos, or both. Moreover, there was to be an Advisory Council
+elected by popular vote. This liberal scheme was, however, abandoned,
+as its proposal seemed to have no effect in bringing the war to an
+end, and the negotiations terminated with the Commissioners and the
+insurgent delegates lunching together on board the U.S. battleship
+_Oregon_, whilst the blood of both parties continued to flow on
+the battlefield.
+
+General Lawton's brigade was still operating in the Provinces of
+Bulacan and north of Manila (now called Rizal). The fighting was so
+severe and the exposure to sun so disastrous that about the beginning
+of June he had to send back to Manila 500 wounded and heat-stricken
+men. It was found impossible to follow up the ever-retreating
+insurgents, who again escaped still farther north. Along the Manila
+Bay shore detachments of insurgents passed from time to time, driving
+women and children before them, so that the Americans would not care to
+fire on them. Some, however, were picked off from the warships when the
+insurgents omitted their precautionary measure. It was impossible to
+"round up" the enemy and bring him into a combat to the finish. His
+movements were so alert that he would fight, vanish in a trice,
+conceal his arms and uniform, and mingle with the Americans with an
+air of perfect innocence. With wonderful dexterity he would change from
+soldier to civilian, lounging one day in the market-place and the next
+day fall into the insurgent ranks. These tactics, which led to nothing
+whatever in a purely military sense, were evidently adopted in the vain
+hope of wearying the Americans into an abandonment of their enterprise.
+
+In the middle of June General Lawton's brigade operated to the south
+of Manila and in the Cavite province, where the natives gave battle
+at the Zapote River, famous for a great Spanish defeat during the
+rebellion. The insurgents were under cover the whole time, and their
+assembled thousands could hardly be seen by the attacking columns. They
+were also in great force and strongly entrenched near Las Pinas and at
+Bacoor. [212] From the former place they worked one large and two small
+guns with much effect, firing canister loaded with nails. One canister
+shattered the legs of a private. American infantry, skirmishing along
+the beach, came across a posse of insurgents who at once retreated,
+pursued by the Americans until the latter found themselves surrounded
+on three sides by hidden sharpshooters, who poured in a raking fire
+upon them. The skirmishers withdrew, but were rallied by General
+Lawton and other officers, who themselves picked off some of the
+enemy with rifle-shots. Encouraged by this example, the skirmishers,
+with one cry, suddenly rushed towards the insurgents, scattering them
+in all directions, and safely reached the main body of the brigade
+with their wounded comrades.
+
+The only bridge across the Zapote River was strongly defended by
+the insurgents, who had trenches forming two sides of an angle. By
+noon their battery was silenced, and the Americans then attempted
+to ford the river, whilst others went knee-deep in mire across the
+paddy-mud flats. Then a deep stream was the only boundary between
+the contending parties. The Filipinos were hardly visible, being
+under shelter of thickets, whilst the Americans were wading through
+mud under a broiling sun for over two hours to reach them, keeping
+up a constant fusillade. The whole time there was an incessant din
+from a thousand rifles and the roar of cannon from the gunboats which
+bombarded the enemy's position near Las Pinas and Bacoor. The strain
+on the Americans was tremendous when the insurgents made a flanking
+movement and fired upon them as they were floundering in the mud. The
+14th Infantry eventually swam across the Zapote River, and under cover
+of artillery charged the insurgents, who retreated into the woods. The
+Filipinos displayed a rare intelligence in the construction of their
+defences near the Zapote River and its neighbourhood, and but for the
+employment of artillery their dislodgement therefrom would have been
+extremely difficult. After the battle was over General Lawton declared
+that it was the toughest contest they had yet undertaken in this war.
+
+At Perez Dasmarinas, in the east of Cavite Province, a battalion of
+infantry narrowly escaped annihilation. News had been brought to the
+American camp that the insurgents had evacuated that town, and that
+the native mayor was disposed to make a formal surrender of it to the
+Americans. The battalion forthwith went there to take possession, but
+before reaching the place the enemy closed in on all sides, and a heavy
+fire was mutually sustained for four hours. The Americans had only just
+saved themselves from destruction by a desperate bayonet-charge when
+they were rescued by General Wheaton, who arrived with reinforcements.
+
+Three months of warfare had wrought dissension in the insurgent
+camp. Organization was Aguinaldo's peculiar talent, without the
+exercise of which the movement would have failed at the outset. But
+the value of this gift was not fully appreciated by his people. A
+certain section of the fighting masses had far greater admiration
+for Antonio Luna's visible prowess than for the unseen astuteness
+of Aguinaldo's manoeuvres. It was characteristic of the Filipinos to
+split into factions, but the encouragement given to General Antonio
+Luna's aspiration to supersede his supreme chief was unfortunate, for
+Aguinaldo was not the man to tolerate a rival. He had rid himself of
+Andres Bonifacio (_vide_ p. 371) in 1896, and now another disturber
+of that unity which is strength had to be disposed of. The point
+of dispute between these two men was of public knowledge. It has
+already been shown how fully cognizant Antonio Luna was of the
+proposals made to the Americans for an armistice, for the express
+purpose of taking the vote of the Revolutionary Congress, for peace
+or war, on May 1. Aguinaldo was no longer a military dictator, but
+President of the so-called Philippine Republic (_vide_ p. 486), by
+whose will he was disposed loyally to abide. Antonio Luna's elastic
+conscience urged him to duplicity; he pretended to submit to the will
+of the majority, expressed through the Congress, with the reserved
+intention of carrying on the war at all hazards, as military dictator,
+if the vote were for peace. Congress met, and during the debate on
+the momentous question--peace or war--the hitherto compact group of
+intransigents weakened. No agreement could be arrived at in the first
+session. There was, however, a strong tendency to accept American
+sovereignty. Luna feared that Aguinaldo's acceptance of the vote
+of the majority (if a division were taken) might deprive him of the
+opportunity of rising to supreme eminence. Luna's violence at this
+time was intolerable, up to the point of smacking deputy F.B. in the
+face. His attempted coercion of the will of others brought about his
+own downfall. His impetuosity called forth the expression, "He is
+a fanatic who will lead us to a precipice." In his imagination, all
+who did not conform to his dominant will were conspirators against
+him. Hence, at Cavite (Aguinaldo's native province), he disarmed all
+the troops of that locality, and substituted Ilocanos of his own
+province, whilst he vented his ferocity in numerous executions of
+Tagalogs. Had he lived he would probably have created a tribal feud
+between Ilocanos and Tagalogs.
+
+On June 3, 1899, accompanied by his aide-de-camp, Captain Roman, and
+an escort, Luna entered the official residence of President Aguinaldo
+at Cabanatuan (Nueva Ecija). The guard, composed of a company of
+Cavite men from Canit (Aguinaldo's native town), under the command
+of Captain Pedro Janolino, saluted him on his entry. As Luna and
+Roman ascended the staircase to seek Aguinaldo a revolver-shot was
+heard. Luna rushed down the stairs in a furious rage and insulted
+Captain Janolino in the presence of his troops. This was too much
+for Janolino, who drew a dagger and thrust it violently into Luna's
+head. In the scuffle Luna was knocked down and shot several times. He
+was able to reach the roadway, and, after shouting "Cowards!" fell
+down dead. In the meantime, whilst Captain Roman was running towards
+a house he was shot dead by a bullet in his breast. The Insurgent
+Government passed a vote of regret at the occurrence, and the two
+officers were buried with military honours. As subsequent events
+proved, Aguinaldo had no personal wish to give up the struggle, or
+to influence a peace vote, but to execute the will of the people,
+as expressed through the revolutionary congressmen.
+
+The situation was becoming so serious for the Americans that a call for
+25,000 more volunteers was earnestly discussed at Washington. It was
+thought that the levy should be made at once, believing that General
+Otis really required them, but that he was reluctant to admit an
+under-estimate of the enemy's strength. The insurgents, finding they
+were not followed up (the rainy season was commencing), were beginning
+to take the offensive with greater boldness, attacking the Americans
+in the rear. The War Department, however, hesitated to make the levy
+owing to the friction which existed between the volunteers and the
+regulars, but the case was so urgent that at the end of June it was
+decided to raise the total forces in the Philippines to 40,000 men.
+
+On June 12, the anniversary of the proclamation at Cavite of
+Philippine Independence, Aguinaldo, from his northern retreat, issued
+a _Manifiesto_ to his countrymen reminding them of the importance
+of that event. This document, abundant in grandiloquent phrases,
+is too lengthy for full citation here, but the following paragraph
+in it is interesting as a recognition that, after all, there was a
+bright side to Spanish dominion:--
+
+
+    Filipinas! Beloved daughter of the ardent sun of the tropics,
+    commended by Providence to the care of noble Spain, be thou not
+    ungrateful; acknowledge her, salute her who warmed thee with the
+    breath of her own culture and civility. Thou hast longed for
+    independence, and thine emancipation from Spain has come; but
+    preserve in thine heart the remembrance of the more than three
+    centuries which thou hast lived with her usages, her language,
+    and her customs. It is true she sought to crush thine aspiration
+    for independence, just as a loving mother resists the lifelong
+    separation from the daughter of her bosom; it only proved the
+    excess of affection, the love Spain feels for thee. But thou,
+    Filipinas, flower of the ocean, delicate flower of the East, still
+    weak, scarce eight months weaned from thy mother's breast, hast
+    dared to brave a great and powerful nation such as is the United
+    States, with thy little army barely disciplined and shaped. Ah,
+    beloved brethren, all this is true; and still we say we will be
+    slaves to none, nor let ourselves be duped by gentle words.
+
+
+Certainly Aguinaldo could not have been the author of the above
+composition published in his name.
+
+By the middle of July the censorship of Press cablegrams from Manila
+had become so rigid that the public in America and Europe could get
+very little reliable telegraphic news of what was going on in the
+Islands. The American newspaper correspondents therefore signed a
+"round robin" setting forth their complaints to General Otis, who took
+little heed of it. It was well known that the hospitals were crowded
+with American soldiers, a great many of whom were suffering solely from
+their persistence in habits contracted at home which were incompatible
+with good health in a tropical climate. Many volunteers, wearied of the
+war, were urging to be sent back to the States, and there was a marked
+lack of cordiality between the volunteer and the regular regiments. In
+the field the former might well compare with the smartest and the
+bravest men who ever carried arms; off active service there was a
+difference between them and the disciplined regulars perceptible to
+any civilian. The natives particularly resented the volunteers' habit
+of entering their dwellings and tampering, in a free and easy manner,
+with their goods and the modesty of their women. They were specially
+disgusted with the coloured regiments, whose conduct was such that
+the authorities saw the desirability of shipping them all back to the
+United States as soon as other troops were available to replace them,
+for their lawlessness was bringing discredit on the nation.
+
+In July an expedition was sent up the Laguna de Bay, and the towns on
+the south shore were successively captured as far as Calamba, which
+was occupied on the 26th of the month. Early in the same month the
+inter-island merchant steamer _Saturnus_, on its regular voyage to the
+north-west coast of Luzon ports, put in at San Fernando de la Union to
+discharge cargo for that place, which was held by the insurgents. The
+vessel was flying the American flag. Part of the cargo had been
+discharged and preparations were being made to receive freight on
+board, when the insurgents seized the vessel, carried off the thousands
+of pesos and other property on board, poured petroleum on the woodwork,
+and hauled down the American flag. The American gunboat _Pampanga_,
+patrolling this coast, seeing there was something irregular, hove to
+and endeavoured to get a tow-line over the _Saturnus_, but was beaten
+off by the insurgents' fire from shore. The insurgents then brought
+field-pieces into action and shelled the _Saturnus_, setting her on
+fire. The vessel became a wreck and sank near the beach. Subsequently
+a gunboat was sent to San Fernando de la Union to shell the town.
+
+When the wet season had fully set in, operations of importance were
+necessarily suspended. Skirmishes and small encounters occurred in
+many places where the contending parties chanced to meet, but no
+further remarkable military event happened in this year of 1899 until
+the north-east monsoon brought a cessation of the deluging rains.
+
+Notwithstanding General Otis's oft-repeated intimation of
+"unconditional surrender" as the sole terms of peace, in October
+General Aguinaldo sent General Alejandrino from his new seat of
+government in Tarlac to General Otis with fresh proposals, but
+the letter was returned unopened. At that time Aguinaldo's army
+was estimated at 12,000 men. The insurgents had taken many American
+prisoners, some of whom were released a few days afterwards, and, in
+October, Aguinaldo issued a decree voluntarily granting liberty to all
+Americans held captive by his people. This resolution, proclaimed as
+an act of grace, was really owing to the scarcity of food, and for the
+same reason Aguinaldo simultaneously disbanded a portion of his army.
+
+In the month of December General Lawton led his brigade to the district
+of Montalban and San Mateo, a few miles north of Manila, to attack the
+insurgents. The agreed plan was to make a flanking movement against
+the enemy on the San Mateo River and a frontal attack immediately the
+enemy was engaged. The frontal attack was being personally directed
+by the general, who stood on the high bank of the river. Captain
+Breckinridge, the general's aide-de-camp, had just been hit in the
+groin, and General Lawton went to speak to him before he was carried
+away on a litter. Whilst so engaged, the general threw up his hands
+and fell without uttering a word. He had been shot through the heart,
+and died instantly. His body was carried to Manila for public burial,
+and the insurgents were as jubilant as the Americans were grieved
+over this sad occurrence. The date was fixed for the interment with
+military pomp, and immense crowds came out to witness the imposing
+procession. Some Filipinos, expecting the cortege would pass through
+a certain street, deposited a bomb in the house of an old woman,
+unknown to her, but fortunately for her and all concerned, it was
+not on the route taken. In memory of the late lamented general the
+present five-peso bank notes bear his vignette.
+
+In 1900 the war of independence began to wane. In January,
+General Joseph Wheeler left Manila to assume command of the late
+General Lawton's brigade, and overran the Laguna de Bay south shore
+towns. Vinan was taken on January 1, but as no garrison was left there,
+the insurgents re-entered the town when the Americans passed on. The
+armed natives were, in reality, playing a game of hide-and-seek,
+with no tangible result to themselves further than feeding at the
+expense of the townspeople. Aguinaldo was still roaming about central
+Luzon, but, one by one, his generals either surrendered or were
+captured. Among these was General Rizal, captured in January. In
+this month a plot to blow up the foreign consuls was opportunely
+frustrated. The Chinese General Paua, Aguinaldo's brother-in-law,
+surrendered in March and found shopkeeping in Binondo a less risky
+business than generalship. In the same month the Manila-Dagupan
+Railway was handed over to the company's management, after having
+been used for war purposes. General Montenegro surrendered in April,
+and a fortnight afterwards Don Pedro A. Paterno, late President of
+the Insurgent Congress, was captured at Antomoc (Beuguet district);
+Generals Garcia and Dumangtay were captured; five officers and two
+companies of insurgents surrendered in May; and in the same month one
+Gabriel Cayaban, of Pangasinan Province, was sentenced to five years'
+hard labour and a fine of 2,000 pesos for conspiring with guerillas
+to raise riot. It cannot be said that the insurgents in the field had
+advanced one step towards the attainment of their object. Manila was
+simultaneously full of conspirators cogitating over murderous plots
+against the Americans, and a band of them was arrested in the month
+of May. The insurgent movement was so far disorganized that it was
+deemed opportune to entrust natives with police duties, and in June
+a Philippine cavalry corps was created. Captain Lara, of the native
+police, took Generals Pio del Pilar and Salvador Estrella prisoners,
+but was himself assassinated on August 4. General Maximino Hizon [213]
+was captured at Mexico (Pampanga), and on June 21 the Military Governor
+published an amnesty proclamation, granting pardon and liberty to
+all who should declare their allegiance to the United States within
+ninety days. All who had surrendered and some who were captured
+took the required oath, and others were coming in. Pio del Pilar was
+among those who accepted the amnesty a week after its promulgation,
+but he was again arrested, September 6, for conspiracy. The Amnesty
+Proclamation was met by a counter-proclamation issued by Aguinaldo,
+dated August 3, 1900, in which he urged a continuance of the war,
+and offered rewards for arms. He promised to liberate all prisoners
+of war who might fall into insurgent hands, on surrender of their
+arms and ammunition. He would give them money to return to their
+lines and for petty expenses _en route_. He would pay 80 pesos for
+every American rifle brought in by a prisoner, and 20 pesos for any
+rifle voluntarily brought to a Philippine officer, but the deserter
+would not be allowed to enter the insurgent ranks.
+
+On June 28 there was an attempted rising in Manila, and Don Pedro
+A. Paterno was placed under closer guard. In July the insurgents were
+active in the neighbourhood of Vigan (Ilocos). About 40 volunteer
+infantry and 60 cavalry went out from Narvican to attack them, and
+came across a strongly-entrenched position held by about 300 riflemen
+and 1,000 men armed with bowie-knives. A sharp fight ensued, but the
+Americans, overwhelmed by the mass, had to retreat to Narvican. The
+insurgents lost about a hundred men, whilst the American loss was one
+lieutenant and four men killed, nine wounded and four missing. About
+the same time, the insurgents driven back from the Laguna de Bay
+shore occupied Taal (Batangas), where, under the leadership of
+Miguel Malvar, a small battle was fought in the streets on July 12
+and the town was burnt; a troop of cavalry was added to the police
+force this month, and there was no lack of Filipinos willing to
+co-operate with Americans for a salary. The backbone of insurgency
+having been broken, the dollar proved to be a mightier factor than
+the sword in the process of pacification. Compared with former times,
+the ex-insurgents found in the lucrative employments offered to them
+by the Americans a veritable El Dorado, for never before had they
+seen such a flow of cash. The country had been ravaged; the immense
+stores collected by the revolutionists had been seized; non-combatant
+partisans of the insurgent cause were wearied of paying heavy taxes
+for so little result; treasure was hidden; fields lay fallow, and for
+want of food Aguinaldo had had partially to disband his army. He told
+me himself that on one occasion they were so hard pressed for food
+that they had to live for three days on whatever they could find in
+the mountains. There were but two courses open to the majority of the
+ex-soldiers--brigandage or service under their new masters. Some chose
+the former, with results which will be hereafter referred to; others,
+more disposed towards civil life, were allured by the abundance of
+silver pesos, which made a final conquest where shot and shell had
+failed. Still, there were thousands incognizant of the olive-branch
+extended to them, and military operations had to be continued even
+within a day's journey from the capital. A request had to be made
+for more cavalry to be sent to the Islands, and the proportion of
+this branch of the service to infantry was gradually increased, for
+"rounding up" insurgents who refused to give battle was exhausting
+work for white foot-soldiers in the tropics. In the course of four
+months nearly all the infantry in the small towns was replaced by
+cavalry. In this same month (July) American cavalry successfully
+secured the Laguna de Bay south shore towns which the insurgents had
+re-taken on the departure of the infantry sent there in January. Many
+well-to-do proprietors in these towns (some known to me for 20 years),
+especially in Vinan, complained to me of what they considered an
+injustice inflicted on them. The American troops came and drove out
+the insurgents, or caused them to decamp on their approach; but, as
+they left no garrisons, the insurgents re-entered and the townspeople
+had to feed them under duress. Then, when the American forces returned
+six months afterwards, to the great relief of the inhabitants, and
+left garrisons, many of these townspeople, on a charge of having given
+succour to the insurgents, were imprisoned with the only consolation
+that, after all, a couple of months' incarceration by the Americans
+was preferable to the death which awaited them at the hands of the
+insurgents if they had refused them food. The same thing occurred in
+other islands, notably in Samar and in Cebu, where the people were
+persecuted for giving aid to the armed natives on whose mercy their
+lives depended. This measure was an unfortunate mistake, because it
+alienated the good feeling of those who simply desired peace with the
+ruling power, whether it were American or native. There were thousands
+of persons--as there would be anywhere in the world--quite incapable
+of taking up arms in defence of an absent party which gave them no
+protection, yet naturally anxious to save their lives by payment if
+need be. [214]
+
+On July 19 a proclamation was issued forbidding the possession
+of firearms without licence. On August 7 the curfew ordinance was
+extended to 11 p.m., and again, in the following month, to midnight. In
+September there was another serious outbreak up the Laguna de Bay,
+where two or three hundred insurgents, led by a French half-caste,
+General Cailles, [215] attacked Los Banos, and about the same time
+the insurgents north of Manila cut the railroad between Malolos and
+Guiguinto. Cailles was driven out of Los Banos, but hundreds more
+insurgents joined him, and a furious battle was fought at Siniloan,
+on September 17, between 800 insurgents and a company of the 15th
+Infantry, who drove the enemy into the mountains.
+
+In November Aguinaldo, who was camping in the province of Nueva Ecija,
+issued another of his numerous exhortations, in consequence of which
+there was renewed activity amongst the roaming bands of adventurers
+all over the provinces north of the capital. The insurgent chief
+advocated an aggressive war, and in the same month it was decided to
+send more American troops to Manila.
+
+Many of the riff-raff had been inadvertently enrolled in the native
+police force, and received heavy sentences for theft, blackmail, and
+violent abuse of their functions. Indeed it took nearly a couple of
+years to weed out the disreputable members of this body. The total
+army forces in the Islands amounted to about 70,000 men, and at the
+end of 1900 it was decided to send back the volunteer corps to America
+early in the following year, for, at this period, General Aguinaldo had
+become a wanderer with a following which could no longer be called an
+army, and an early collapse of the revolutionary party in the field
+was an anticipated event.
+
+From September 1, 1900, the legislative power of the military
+government was transferred to a civil government, Governor W. H. Taft
+being the President of the Philippine Commission, whilst Maj.-General
+McArthur continued in his capacity of Commander-in-Chief to carry
+on the war against the insurgents, which culminated in the capture
+of General Emilio Aguinaldo on March 23, 1901. This important event
+accelerated the close of the War of Independence. On January 14 General
+Emilio Aguinaldo had his headquarters at Palanan (Isabela), on the
+bank of a river which empties itself into Palanan Bay, situated about
+six miles distant from the town, on the east coast of Luzon. Being in
+want of reinforcements, he sent a member of his staff with messages to
+that effect to several of his subordinate generals. The fellow turned
+traitor, and carried the despatches to an American lieutenant, who sent
+him on to Colonel Frederick Funston at San Isidro (Nueva Ecija). The
+despatches disclosed the fact that General Emilio Aguinaldo requested
+his cousin, General Baldomero Aguinaldo, to send him, as soon as
+possible, 400 armed men. With General McArthur's approval, Colonel
+Funston proceeded to carry out a plan which he had conceived for the
+capture of General Emilio Aguinaldo. An expedition was made up of four
+Tagalog deserters from Aguinaldo's army, 78 Macabebe scouts (_vide_
+p. 446, footnote), and four American officers, besides Colonel Funston
+himself. Twenty of the scouts were dressed in insurgent uniforms,
+and the remaining natives in common working-clothes. Ten of them
+carried Spanish rifles, ten others had Krag-Joergensen rifles, which
+they were to feign to have captured from American troops, and the
+five Americans were disguised as private soldiers. The party was then
+carried round the north and east coasts of Luzon, and put ashore in the
+neighbourhood of Baler by the gunboat _Vicksburg_, which approached the
+coast without lights, and then waited off Palanan Bay. The expedition
+was nominally commanded by an insurgent deserter, Hilario Placido,
+[216] whilst three other deserters posed as officers, the Americans
+playing the _role_ of prisoners captured by the party. Before setting
+out for Casiguran, some 20 miles away, a messenger was sent on to
+the native headman of that town to tell him that reinforcements for
+Aguinaldo were on their way, and would require food and lodging, which
+were forthwith furnished by the headman to these 87 individuals. Some
+months previously some papers had been captured bearing the signature
+and seal of the insurgent general Lacuna, and this enabled the party
+to send on a letter in advance to Emilio Aguinaldo, ostensibly in the
+name of Lacuna, announcing the arrival of the reinforcements furnished
+in response to his request of January 14. This letter was accompanied
+by another one from the pseudo-chief of the expedition, stating that
+on the way they had captured five American soldiers and ten Krag
+rifles. A request was also made for food, which he explained had run
+short. Emilio Aguinaldo, therefore, sent Negritos to meet them on the
+way with a supply of rice. In the morning of March 23 they were near
+Palanan. The Macabebe scouts were sent in advance of the _soi-disant_
+five American prisoners, and when they entered the town Aguinaldo's
+bodyguard of 50 men was drawn up in parade to receive them. The
+native pseudo-officers marched into the camp, and were welcomed by
+Aguinaldo; but they shortly afterwards took temporary leave of him,
+and coming outside ordered their Macabebe troops to form up. Just at
+the moment the five supposed prisoners were conducted towards the camp
+the Macabebes poured three murderous volleys into Aguinaldo's troops,
+two of whom were killed and 18 wounded. On the other side only one
+Macabebe was slightly wounded. The Americans witnessed the effect of
+the first volley, and, together with the natives posing as officers,
+rushed into Aguinaldo's headquarters. Aguinaldo, Colonel Villa, and
+one civilian were taken prisoners, whilst other insurgent officers
+jumped from the window into the river and escaped. The expedition,
+after resting a day and a half at the camp, escorted their prisoners
+to Palanan Bay, where they were all taken on board the gunboat
+_Vicksburg_, which reached Manila on March 27.
+
+The closing scene in Emilio Aguinaldo's military career was a
+remarkable performance of consummate skill, but unworthy of record
+in the annals of military glory.
+
+The War of Independence, which lasted until the next year, was a
+triumph of science over personal valour about equally balanced. It
+was a necessary sacrifice of the few for the good of the many. No
+permanent peace could have been ever hoped for so long as the Islanders
+entertained the belief that they could any day eject the invaders
+by force.
+
+The American citizens naturally rejoiced over the bare fact, briefly
+cabled without ghastly details, that the Philippine generalissimo had
+fallen prisoner, because it portended the peace which all desired. In
+deference to public opinion, the President promoted Colonel Funston
+of the volunteers to the rank of Brig.-General in the regular army.
+
+Emilio Aguinaldo was first taken before General McArthur and then
+escorted to prison in _Calle de Anda_, in the walled city. On April 1,
+1901, he took the oath of allegiance in the following form, viz.:--
+
+
+    I, Emilio Aguinaldo, hereby renounce all allegiance to any and
+    all so-called revolutionary governments in the Philippine Islands
+    and recognize and accept the supreme authority of the United
+    States of America therein; I do solemnly swear that I will bear
+    true faith and allegiance to that Government; that I will at all
+    times conduct myself as a faithful and law-abiding citizen of
+    the said Islands, and will not, either directly or indirectly,
+    hold correspondence with or give intelligence to an enemy of the
+    United States, nor will I abet, harbour or protect such enemy;
+    that I impose upon myself these voluntary obligations without
+    any mental reservations or purpose of evasion, so help me God.
+
+
+After signing this declaration he was a free man. For a while he
+resided at Malacanan, on the north bank of the Pasig River, where one
+night a pirogue full of assassins came to seek the life of the man who
+had failed. But his lucky star followed him, and he removed to Paco and
+again to Ermita (suburbs of Manila) and finally to his native town of
+Cauit (Cavite), where I was his guest. He was living there in modest
+retirement with his mother and his two good-looking young nieces, who
+served us at table. The house is large and comparatively imposing as
+a provincial residence, being formed of two good substantial houses
+connected by a bridge-passage. The whole is enclosed by a low brick
+wall, topped by iron railings painted flaming red. In front there is a
+garden and a spacious compound at the back. In the large drawing-room
+there is a ceiling fresco representing a Filipina descending a flight
+of steps from a column to which the chains, now severed, held her
+captive. On the steps lies the Spanish flag with a broken staff,
+and in her hand she holds on high the Philippine flag of freedom.
+
+In conversation with him he stated that he and his companions returned
+to the Islands in May, 1898, with many assurances that America was
+simply going to aid them to gain their independence. He added that
+when he landed at Cavite he had no arms, and the Americans allowed
+him to take them from the Spanish arsenal. Then they turned him out,
+and he moved his headquarters to Bacoor, where his troops numbered
+between 30,000 and 35,000 men. He said he could easily have taken
+Manila then, but that he was begged not to do so as the Americans
+were waiting for more troops and they wished to make the victory a
+joint one. He confessed he had bought experience very dearly. But he
+profited by that experience when, at Cavite, the Belgian Consul and
+Prince Loewenstein came four times to make proposals to him in favour
+of Germany. The first time, he said, he received them and demanded
+their credentials as authorized agents for Germany, but, as they
+could not produce any, he declined to have any further intercourse
+with them. Referring to the first period of the rebellion, Aguinaldo
+admitted that the prospect of ejecting the Spaniards from the Islands
+was very doubtful.
+
+Immediately Aguinaldo had fallen captive, all kinds of extravagant and
+erroneous versions were current as to how it had happened. Thousands
+insisted that he must have voluntarily surrendered, for how could he
+have been caught when he had the _anting-anting_? (_vide_ p. 237). As
+the ball of conjecture went on rolling, some added to this that
+his voluntary surrender must have been for a money consideration,
+and there were still others who furnished a further inducement--his
+fear of revenge from the late Antonio Luna's party!
+
+Although Aguinaldo gave no proof of being a brilliant warrior,
+as an organizer he had no rival capable of keeping 30,000 or more
+Filipinos united by sentiment for any one purpose. He trusted no
+comrade implicitly, and for a long time his officers had to leave
+their side-arms in an antechamber before entering his apartment. He
+had, moreover, the adroitness to extirpate that rivalry which alone
+destroys all united effort. But the world makes no allowance for the
+general who fails. To-day he is left entirely alone, pitied by some,
+shunned by a few, and almost forgotten by the large majority. He is
+indeed worthy of respect for his humanity in the conduct of the war,
+and of some pity in his present peculiar position. Many of his late
+subordinates now occupy good and high-salaried posts. Members of the
+Government of which he was President have espoused American doctrine
+and enjoy high social positions and fat emoluments. Aguinaldo's
+scholarship is too meagre for an elevated position, and his dignity
+and self-respect too great for an inferior one.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXV
+
+The Philippine Republic in the Central and Southern Islands
+
+
+So interwoven were the circumstances of General Aguinaldo's Government
+in Luzon Island with the events of the period between the naval battle
+of Cavite and the ratification of the Treaty of Paris, that they form
+an integral and inseparable whole in historical continuity. In the
+other Islands, however, which followed the revolutionary movement,
+with more or less adherence to the supreme leadership of Aguinaldo, the
+local incidents severally constitute little histories in themselves,
+each such island having practically set up its own government with
+only the barest thread of administrative intercommunication.
+
+The smaller islands, adjacent to Luzon, cannot be justly included in
+this category, because their local rule, which naturally succeeded the
+withdrawal of Spanish administration, was nothing more than a divided
+domination of self-constituted chiefs whose freebooting exploits,
+in one instance, had to be suppressed at the sacrifice of bloodshed,
+and, in another, to succumb to the apathy of the people.
+
+In _Yloilo_, on December 23, 1898, General Diego de los Rios, in the
+presence of his staff, the naval commanders and the foreign consuls,
+formally surrendered the town to the native mayor, prior to his
+evacuation of Panay Island on the following day. On December 27
+an American military force (finally about 3,000 strong) arrived in
+the roadstead in transports under the command of General Miller in
+co-operation with two American warships, afterwards supplemented by
+two others. The Spanish troops having departed, the Filipinos who had
+assumed control of public affairs made their formal entry into Yloilo
+to the strains of music and the waving of banners and constituted
+a government whose effective jurisdiction does not appear to have
+extended beyond the town and a day's march therefrom. On January 17
+an election was held, Raymundo Melliza, [217] an excellent man, being
+chosen president for the term of two years. Business was resumed;
+sugar was being brought from Negros Island, and ships were laden with
+produce. During the civil administration, which lasted for seven weeks,
+the absorbing topic was the demand made by General Miller for the
+surrender of the town. General Miller's force had been despatched to
+Yloilo waters, after the signing of the Treaty of Paris, simply to make
+a demonstration in view of possible anarchy resulting from the Spanish
+evacuation. The ratification of that Treaty by a two-thirds Senate
+majority was not an accomplished fact until February 6 following. There
+was no certainty that the Senate would confirm the acquisition of
+the Islands, and in the interval it was not politic to pass from a
+formal demand for the surrender of Yloilo to open hostilities for
+its possession. These matters of political exigency were undoubtedly
+beyond the comprehension of the Ylongos. They attributed to fear the
+fact that a large fighting-force remained inactive within sight of the
+town, whereas General Miller was merely awaiting instructions from
+the capital which the Manila authorities, in turn, were delaying,
+pending the decision in Washington. Intervening circumstances,
+however, precipitated military action. On the night of February 4
+hostilities had broken out between Aguinaldo's troops and the American
+forces. Insurgent emissaries had brought Aguinaldo's messages to
+the Ylongos to hold the town against the invaders, and on February 7
+General Miller received orders from Maj.-General Otis to take Yloilo
+by force if necessary. General Miller thereupon renewed his demand for
+the surrender of the place, coupled this time with a declaration that
+he would bombard it if his demand were refused. Later on he notified
+the consular body that the bombardment would commence on the 12th of
+the month. During the seven weeks of native government, petty thefts
+were frequent; an armed insurgent would enter a store and carry off
+the article selected by him without paying for it; but there was no
+riotous open violence committed against the townspeople or foreign
+traders. The squabbles between the armed natives and their leaders,
+however, were several times on the point of producing bloodshed.
+
+According to ex-insurgent General Pablo Araneta, the insurgent army,
+at the time, in Panay Island was as follows, viz. [218]:--
+
+
+    Under the leadership of     Stationed at   Tagalogs   Visayos
+
+    Fulion                      Yloilo          250         150
+    Ananias Diocno              Yloilo          400          --
+    Pablo Araneta               Yloilo          250          --
+    Martin Delgado              Yloilo           --         150
+    Pablo Araneta               Molo             --         100
+    Silvestre Silvio            Antique         150          --
+    Detachment of Diocno's
+    forces                      Capiz           200          --
+
+    Total all armed with guns                 1,250         400
+
+
+The commander-in-chief of the whole army of 1,650 men was Martin
+Delgado. The Tagalog contingent was under the leadership of Ananias
+Diocno, a native of Taal, whose severity in his Capiz and Yloilo
+campaigns has left a lasting remembrance. The headquarters of the
+Visayos was in the parish-house (_convento_), whilst the Tagalogs were
+located in the Fine Arts Institute. Their stipulated remuneration was
+4 pesos a month and food, but as they had received only 1 peso per
+month on account, and moreover claimed a rise in pay to 5 pesos, the
+Visayos, on February 3, assembled on the central _plaza_ of the town
+and menaced their general officers, who were quartered together in a
+corner house over a barber's shop. They yelled out to their leaders
+that if they did not give them their pay they would kill them all,
+sack the town, and then burn it. Thereupon the generals hastened
+round the town to procure funds, and appeased the Visayos with a
+distribution of 1,800 pesos. The Tagalogs then broke out in much
+the same way, and were likewise restrained by a payment on account
+of arrears due. But thenceforth the insurgent troops became quite
+uncontrollable and insolent to their officers. The fact that white
+officers should have solicited their permission to come ashore unarmed
+could only be interpreted by the Oriental, soldier or civilian, in a
+way highly detrimental to the white man's prestige. The Americans'
+good and honest intentions were only equalled by their nescience
+of the Malay character. The officers came ashore; the townsfolk
+marvelled, and the fighting-men, convinced of their own invincibility,
+disdainfully left them unmolested. After the insurgent generals had
+doled out their pay, the men went round to the shops and braggingly
+avowed that it was lucky for the shopkeepers that they had got money,
+otherwise they would have looted their goods. The Chinese shut up
+their shops from the beginning of the troubles, leaving only a hole
+in the closed door to do a little business, as they were in constant
+fear for the safety of their lives and their stocks. A great many
+families packed up their belongings and went over to Negros Island in
+small schooners. The little passenger-steamers plying between Yloilo
+and Negros were running as usual, crowded to the brim, and flying the
+Philippine flag without interruption from the Americans. Amongst the
+better classes opinions on the situation were much divided. The best
+Philippine and Spanish families expressed their astonishment that
+the Americans made no attempt to take the town immediately after the
+Spanish evacuation. There were foreign merchants anxious to delay
+the American investment because, meanwhile, they were doing a brisk
+trade, and there were others longing to see the town in the hands
+of any civilized and responsible Power. Delegates from one party
+or the other, including the native civil government, went off in
+boats almost daily to parley with General Miller in the roadstead,
+each with a different line of real or sophistic argument. The best
+native families, the foreigners of all classes--those who desired a
+speedy entry of the Americans and those who sought to delay it--were
+agreed as to the needlessness and the mistaken policy of announcing
+a bombardment. Yloilo is a straggling, open town. The well-to-do
+people asked, "Why bombard?" There were no fortifications or anything
+to destroy but their house property. Plans were voluntarily offered
+showing how and at which points a midnight landing of 400 or 500 troops
+could be secretly effected for a sunrise surprise which would have
+cleared the town in an hour of every armed insurgent. The officers
+ashore declared they were ready; and as to the men, they were simply
+longing for the fray, but the word of command rested with General
+Miller.
+
+In the evening of February 10 the native civil government held an
+extraordinary session in the Town Hall to discuss the course to be
+adopted in view of the announced bombardment. The public, Filipinos
+and foreigners, were invited to this meeting to take part in the debate
+if they wished, Raymundo Melliza, Victorino Mapa, Martin Delgado, and
+Pablo Araneta, being amongst those who were present. It was proposed to
+burn the town. Melliza vehemently protested against such a barbarous
+act, and asked why they should destroy their own property? What
+could they gain by pillage and flames? [219] But a certain V----
+and his party clamoured for the destruction of the place, and being
+supported by an influential lawyer (native of another province) and
+by one of the insurgent generals, Melliza exclaimed, "If you insist
+on plunder and devastation, I shall retire altogether," whereupon
+a tremendous hubbub ensued, in the midst of which Melliza withdrew
+and went over to Guimaras Island. But there were touches of humour
+in the speeches, especially when a fire-eating demagogue gravely
+proposed to surround an American warship with canoes and seize her;
+and again when Quintin Salas declared that the Americans would have
+to pass over his corpse before the town surrendered! Incendiaries
+and thieves were in overwhelming majority at the meeting; naturally
+(to the common people in these Islands) an invitation to despoil,
+lay waste and slay, bolstered up by apparent authority, found a ready
+response, especially among the Tagalog mercenaries who had no local
+attachment here. The instigators of this barbarity sought no share
+of the spoils; they had no property interests in Yloilo, but they
+were jealous of those who had. The animosity of Jaro and Molo against
+Yloilo had existed for years, the formers' townspeople being envious
+of the prosperous development of Yloilo (once a mere fishing-village),
+which obscured the significance of the episcopal city of Jaro and
+detracted from the social importance of the rich Chinese half-caste
+residential town of Molo. [220] Chiefly from these towns came the
+advocates of anarchy, whose hearts swelled with fiendish delight at
+the prospect of witnessing the utter ruin and humiliation of their
+rivals in municipal prestige. Yloilo, from that moment, was abandoned
+to the armed rabble, who raided the small shops for petroleum to throw
+on to the woodwork of the houses prior to the coming onslaught. The
+bombardment having been announced for the 12th, they reckoned on a
+full day for burning and sacking the town. But early in the morning
+of the 11th the steam-launch _Pitt_, whilst reconnoitring the harbour,
+was fired upon; the launch replied and withdrew. Natives were observed
+to be busy digging a trench and hastening to and from the _cotta_
+at the harbour entrance; there was every indication of their warlike
+intentions. Therefore suddenly, at 9 o'clock that morning, without
+further notification, the Americans opened fire. The natives in the
+_cotta_ fled along the quayway towards the centre of the town under
+a shower of bullets hurled from the quick-firing guns. The attack
+on Yloilo was hardly a bombardment proper; shells were intentionally
+thrown over the houses as a warning and burst in suburban open spaces,
+but comparatively few buildings were damaged by the missiles. In
+the meantime, from early morn, the native soldiery, followed by a
+riff-raff mob, rushed hither and thither, throwing firebrands on to the
+petroleum-washed houses, looting stores, and cutting down whomsoever
+checked them in their wild career. The Chinese barricaded themselves,
+but the flames devoured their well-stocked bazaars; panic-stricken
+townsfolk ran helter-skelter, escaping from the yelling bands of
+bloodthirsty looters. Europeans, revolver in hand, guarded their
+properties against the murderous rabble; an acquaintance of mine was
+hastening to the bank to deposit P3,000 when he was met by the leader
+S----, who demanded his money or his life; one foreign business house
+was defended by 15 armed Europeans, whilst others threw out handfuls
+of pesos to stay the work of the _petroleur_. The German Vice-Consul,
+an old friend of mine, went mad at the sight of his total loss;
+a Swiss merchant, my friend for over 20 years, had his fine corner
+premises burnt down to the stone walls, and is now in comparative
+poverty. Even Spanish half-castes were menaced and contemptuously
+called _Cachilas_ [221]; and the women escaped for their lives on
+board the schooners in the harbour. Half the town was blazing, and
+the despairing cries of some, the yells of exultant joy of others,
+mingled with the booming of the invaders' cannon.
+
+Two British warships lying in the roadstead sent boats ashore to
+receive British subjects, and landed a party of marines, who made
+gallant efforts to save foreign property. A few British subjects were,
+however, unable to get away from the town on account of the premature
+attack of the Americans, which took place on the 11th instead of
+February 12, as previously announced.
+
+The American assault on the town, which lasted until 1 o'clock in
+the afternoon, was immediately followed up by the landing of about
+1,000 volunteers, and General Miller found that the prognostications
+of the townspeople were perfectly just, for the insurgents fled in
+all directions. There was not a fighting-man left in the town. Some
+of them continued their hurried flight as far as Santa Barbara and
+Janiuay. It was evident that a sudden night-landing, without a word
+about bombardment, would have been just as effective, and would
+have prevented much misery and loss of life and property. Indeed,
+the arrival of the American volunteers under these distressing
+circumstances produced a fresh commotion in Yloilo. Without any
+warrant private premises were entered, and property saved from the
+natives' grasp vanished before the eyes of the owners. Finally order
+was restored through the energetic intervention of American officials,
+who stationed sentinels here and there to protect what still remained
+of the townspeople's goods. In due course indemnity claims were
+forwarded to the military authorities, who rejected them all.
+
+The insurgents still lingered outside the town on the road to Jaro, and
+General Miller marched his troops, in battle array, against them. A
+couple of miles out of the town, in the neighbourhood of La Paz,
+the entrenched enemy was routed after a slight skirmish. The booming
+of cannon was heard in Yloilo for some hours as the American troops
+continued their march to Jaro, only molested by a few occasional
+shots from the enemy in ambush. The rebel chief Fulion and another,
+Quintin Salas, held out for a short while, gradually beating a retreat
+before the advancing column. The Tagalogs, once under the command of
+the semi-civilized Diocno, disappeared in all directions, and finally
+escaped from the province in small parties in canoes or as best they
+could. The handful of braves who still thought fit to resist decided
+to make a stand at Santa Barbara, but on the arrival of the American
+troops they dispersed like chaff before the wind. General Miller then
+relinquished the pursuit and returned to Yloilo to await reinforcements
+for a campaign through the Island. In the meantime military government
+was established in Yloilo, the town was policed, trade resumed its
+normal aspect, the insurgents in the Island gradually increased,
+but the Philippine Republic in Panay was no more. It was clear to
+all the most sober-minded and best-educated Ylongos that Aguinaldo's
+government was a failure in Panay at least. The hope of agreement on
+any policy was remote from its very initiation. Visayos of position,
+with property and interests at stake, were convinced that absolute
+independence without any control or protection from some established
+Power was premature and doomed to disaster. Visayan jealousy of Tagalog
+predominance had also its influence, but the ruling factor was the
+Tagalog troops' dictatorial air and brutal conduct, which destroyed
+the theory of fraternal unity. Self-government at this stage would
+have certainly led to civil war.
+
+Reinforcements arrived from Manila and the Americans entered
+upon the pacification of the Island, which needed two years for
+its accomplishment. The full record of the Panay campaign would
+be a monotonous recital of scores of petty encounters of analogous
+character. Pablo Araneta, in co-operation with a Spanish deserter named
+Mariano Perez, met the Americans several times, and gave better proof
+of his generalship in retreat than in advance. He operated only in the
+province of Yloilo, and at Sambang, near Pavia, his party was severely
+defeated and the "general" fled. Quintin Salas, over whose dead body,
+he himself declared, the Americans would have to pass before Yloilo
+surrendered, appeared and disappeared, from time to time, around
+Dumangas. There was an encounter at Potian with Jolandoni which ended
+badly for his party. The native priests not only sympathized with
+the insurgents, but took an active part in their operations. Father
+Santiago Pamplona, afterwards ecclesiastical-governor of the Visayas
+(Aglipayan), held a command under Martin Delgado. Father Agustin Pina,
+the parish priest of Molo and the active adviser in the operations
+around Pavia--Jaro district, was caught by the Americans and died
+of "water-cure." [222] The firebrand Pascual Macbanua was killed
+at Pototan; and finally came the most decisive engagement at Monte
+Singit, between Janiuay and Lambunao. The insurgent generalissimo,
+Martin Delgado, took the field in person; but after a bold stand, with
+a slight loss on the American side, the insurgents were completely
+routed and their leader fled. Pablo Araneta, tired of generalship
+without glory, surrendered to the Americans on December 31, 1899. The
+war still continued for another year, Martin Delgado being one of
+the last to declare his defeat. Early in December, 1900, overtures
+for peace were made to General Miller, the delegates on the insurgent
+side being Pablo Araneta, Jovito Yusay, and Father Silvestre Apura,
+whilst Captain Noble represented the Americans. Martin Delgado and his
+co-leaders soon surrendered. There was no question of conditions but
+that of convincing the natives of the futility of further resistance
+and the benefits to them of peace under American rule. With this end
+in view, delegates went in commission to the several districts. Pablo
+Araneta, Father Silvestre Apura, Father Praxedes Magalon and Nicolas
+Roses visited the district of Concepcion (East Panay) in January 1901
+and obtained the submission of the people there. Peace was at length
+agreed upon; but the Filipinos were not disposed silently to draw
+the veil over the past without glamour and pomp, even in the hour
+of defeat. Therefore, on February 2, 1901, in agreement between the
+parties, the remnant of the little Panay army made a formal surrender,
+marching under triumphal arches into the episcopal city of Jaro
+to stack their arms, between lines of American troops drawn up on
+either side of their passage, to the strains of peaceful melody,
+whilst the banners of the Stars and Stripes floated victoriously
+in the sultry air. Jaro was crowded with visitors to witness this
+interesting ceremonial. The booths did a bustling trade; the whole
+city was _en fete,_ and the vanquished heroes, far from evincing
+humiliation, mingled with the mob and seemed as merry as though the
+occasion were the marriage-feast of the headman's daughter.
+
+But to complete the picture of peace some finishing-strokes were yet
+needful. Antique Province was still in arms, and a native commission
+composed of Pablo Araneta, Father Silvestre Apura, Father Praxedes
+Magalon, Victorino Mapa, Cornelio Melliza, and Martin Delgado proceeded
+there, and succeeded in concluding peace for the Americans at the
+end of February, 1901.
+
+The Visayan chief who defied the American invader was no stout
+patriot who leaves his plough to fight for cherished liberty, and
+cheerfully returns to it when the struggle ends. The leaders of the
+little Panay army and their civilian colleagues had to be compensated
+for their acceptance of American rule. Aguinaldo was captured during
+the month following the Peace of Panay; the war was coming to an end,
+and Governor W. H. Taft made his provincial tour to inaugurate civil
+government in the pacified Islands. Martin T. Delgado, the very man who
+had inflicted such calamities upon the Yloilo people, was appointed,
+on April 11, to be their first provincial Civil Governor at a salary of
+$3,000 gold per annum, and held that office until March, 1904. Jovito
+Yusay was given the provincial government secretaryship with a yearly
+stipend of $1,800 gold; Pablo Araneta was rewarded with the post of
+President of the Board of Health at an annual salary of $1,500 gold,
+and Victorino Mapa was appointed a judge of the Supreme Court with an
+annual emolument of $7,000 gold. In March, 1904, Raymundo Melliza,
+ex-president of the native civil government, already referred to as
+the advocate of social order, succeeded Delgado in the civil government
+of the Yloilo province by popular vote.
+
+Yloilo, formerly the second port of the Philippines, is situated on
+the right bank of the creek. From the creek point to the square are
+sheds used for sugar-storing, with, here and there, a commercial or
+government office between. The most modern thoroughfares are traced
+with regularity, and there are many good houses. In the square is the
+church, which at a distance might be mistaken for a sugar-store, the
+ruins of the Town Hall, the convent, and a few small, fairly well-built
+houses of stone and wood, whilst all one side was once covered by a
+fine new block of buildings of brick, stone and wood, with iron roofs.
+
+The _Calle Real_ or High Street is a winding road, which leads through
+the town into the country. The houses are indescribable--they are of
+all styles. Without any pretence at architectural adornment, some are
+high, others low; some stand back with several feet of pavement before
+them, others come forward and oblige one to walk in the road. Here
+and there is a gap, then a row of dingy hovels. This is the retail
+trading-quarter and the centre for the Chinese. Going from the square
+the creek runs along at the back of the right-hand-side houses;
+turning off by the left-hand-side thoroughfares, which cannot be
+called streets, there is a number of roughly-built houses and a few
+good ones dispersed in all directions, with vacant, neglected plots
+between. At the extreme end of the _Calle Real_ is the Government
+House, built of wood and stone, of good style and in a fair condition,
+with quite the appearance of an official residence. Before it is a
+semicircular garden, and in front of this there is a round fenced-in
+plot, in the middle of which stands a flag-staff. Just past the
+Government House there is a bridge crossing the Jaro River, which
+empties itself into the creek of Yloilo, and this creek is connected
+with that of Otong. [223]
+
+Yloilo lies low, and is always hot. Quite one-third of the shipping
+and wholesale business quarter stands on land reclaimed from the
+swamp by filling up with earth and rubble. The opposite side of
+the creek, facing the shipping-quarter, is a low marshy waste,
+occasionally converted into a swamp at certain tides. The creek
+forms the harbour of Yloilo, which is just as Nature made it, except
+that there is a roughly-constructed quayway on the left-hand shore
+on entering. Only vessels of light draft can enter; large vessels
+anchor in the roadstead, which is the channel between Yloilo harbour
+and Guimaras Island.
+
+The general aspect of Yloilo and its environs is most depressing. In
+Spanish times no public conveyances were to be seen plying for hire
+in the streets, and there is still no public place of amusement. The
+Municipality was first established by Royal Order dated June 7, 1889.
+
+Evidences of the havoc of 1899 are still visible at every turn in
+Yloilo in the shape of old stone walls, charred remains, battered
+houses, vacant spaces, etc. On the other hand, there are many
+innovations since American administration superseded the native
+civil government. The _plaza_, till then a dreary open space, is
+now a pleasant shady promenade; electric lighting, an ice-factory,
+four hotels, one American, one English, and three Philippine clubs,
+large public schools, an improved quayway, a commodious Custom-house,
+a great increase of harbour traffic, a superabundance of lawyers'
+and pawnbrokers' sign-boards, and public vehicles plying for hire are
+among the novelties which strike one who knew Yloilo in days gone
+by. The Press is poorly represented by three daily and one weekly
+newspapers. Taken as a whole Yloilo still remains one of the most
+charmless spots in the Archipelago.
+
+
+
+The people of _Negros Island_ were in the free enjoyment of local
+independence since November 6, 1898, the day on which the Spanish
+Governor, D. Isidro Castro y Cinceros, together with all his
+official colleagues, capitulated to the revolutionists under the
+leadership of Aniceto Lacson, Leandro Lacson, Juan Araneta, Nicolas
+Gales, Simon Lizares, Julio Diaz, and Jose Montilla. Simultaneously
+with the prosecution of the Panay Island campaign General Miller
+opened negotiations for the submission of Negros Island to
+American sovereignty. At that time the government of the Island
+was being peacefully administered to the satisfaction of the Negros
+revolutionists, at least, under the constitution proclaimed by them,
+and presided over by their ex-commander-in-chief, Aniceto Lacson. [224]
+General Miller therefore commissioned two Filipinos, Esteban de la
+Rama and Pedro Regalado, [225] to proceed to Negros and negotiate
+terms of surrender to the Americans. For the moment nothing further
+was demanded than a recognition of American supremacy, and it was
+not proposed to subvert their local organization or depose their
+president. Aniceto Lacson accepted these terms, and General Miller
+formally appointed him Governor of the Island in March, 1899. It
+is evident, therefore, that no union existed between the local
+government of Negros and Aguinaldo's Republic in Luzon. In fact,
+when the Tagalog fighting-men, who were everywhere defeated in Panay,
+made their escape to Negros and raised the cry of insurrection against
+the Americans, Lacson was constrained to appeal to General Miller to
+send over troops to quell the movement. Thereupon Colonel Smith was
+deputed to take troops over to Negros to pursue the common enemy,
+whilst, in perfect accord with the native governor Lacson, he acted
+as military governor of the Island. The great cordillera which runs
+through the centre of the Island from north to south forms a sort
+of natural barrier between the people of Occidental and Oriental
+Negros. There are trails, but there are no transversal highroads
+from one coast to the other, and the inhabitants on each side live
+as separated in their interests, and, to a certain degree, in their
+habits, as though they were living in different islands. The people
+on the eastern side have always strongly opposed anything approaching
+governmental cohesion with the other side. Moreover, for many years
+past, the south-eastern district of Negros Island has been affected by
+sporadic apparitions of riotous religious monomaniacs called _Santones_
+(_vide_ p. 189). These conditions, therefore, favoured the nefarious
+work of the cunning Tagalog and Panay refugees, who found plenty
+of plastic material in the Negros inhabitants for the fruitful
+dissemination of the wildest and most fantastic notions anent the
+horrors awaiting them in the new Anglo-Saxon domination. They found no
+sympathy with the native government of Occidental Negros, which was as
+much their enemy as the American troops sent to pursue them, but they
+entertained the hope that by raising riot in Negros they would draw off
+troops from Panay, and so favour the movement in that Island. Armed
+groups rose everywhere against the Americans and the established
+government. In the south-east the notorious Papa Isio appeared as a
+_Santon_, preached idolatry, and drew to his standard a large band of
+ruffians as skilled as himself in villainous devices. Insurgency, in
+the true sense of the word, did not exist in Negros; opposition to the
+American domination was merely a pretext to harass, plunder, and extort
+funds from the planters and property-owners. The disaffected people
+increased so largely in numbers that Colonel Smith was obliged to call
+for reinforcements, and the disturbances only came to an end when it
+was known that the Panay people had formally laid down their arms in
+February, 1901. Shortly afterwards Governor W. H. Taft visited Negros
+Island; the quasi-autonomous government of that region was modified
+in conformity with the general plan of provincial civil governments,
+and on August 9, 1901, Leandro Locsin (Ylongo by birth) succeeded to
+the civil governorship, with a salary of $2,500 gold, by popular vote.
+
+
+
+Notwithstanding the severities imposed on the Cebuanos during the
+last eight months of Spanish rule, the Spaniards were able to evacuate
+_Cebu Island_ without menace or untoward event. For several months the
+Governor, General Montero, had held in prison, between life and death,
+a number of Filipinos of the best families, amongst whom was Julio
+Llorente, who afterwards became President of Cebu and subsequently
+a magistrate of the Supreme Court of Manila. General Montero made
+a compact with a young Philippine lawyer, Sergio Osmena (afterwards
+acting-Governor of Cebu) that in exchange for two Spaniards held as
+hostages in the interior he would release Llorente. Osmena procured the
+liberty of the Spaniards, but it was only on the eve of his departure
+that Montero permitted the prison doors to be opened.
+
+On December 26, 1898, a chartered merchant steamer called at Cebu
+to transport the retiring Spaniards to Zamboanga, the place of
+concentration designated by General Rios. The farewell was sadly brief,
+and almost in silence the Governor handed over the government property
+to a most worthy and loyal Cebuano, Pablo Mejia, who was my esteemed
+friend for many years. The Governor even offered Mejia about 40 rifles;
+but Mejia, a lover of order, wrongly believing that a long period
+of tranquillity was about to set in, declined to accept them. And
+without any manifestation of regret on the part of the governed,
+the last vestige of Spanish authority vanished from the city which,
+333 years before, was the capital of the Philippine Islands.
+
+On the day following the departure of the Spaniards the Cebuanos
+established a provincial government in agreement with the _Katipunan_
+party of Luzon, General Aguinaldo's direct representative being
+Luis Flores, the chief leader of the armed Cebuanos, to whom Pablo
+Mejia handed over all that he had received from the ex-governor
+Montero. From its establishment up to the last day of its existence,
+this government used the seal and stamps of the Philippine Republic,
+and was constituted as follows, viz.:--
+
+
+                _Provincial Council_
+
+    President and Commander-in-Chief    Luis Flores.
+    Vice-President                      Julio Llorente.
+    Commissioner of Police              Gen. Arcadio Maxilom.
+    Treasurer-General                   Pablo Mejia.
+    Minister of Justice                 Miguel Logarta.
+    Secretary to the Council            Leoncio Alburo.
+
+
+                _Military Department_
+
+    Chief-of-Staff                      Gen. Juan Climaco.
+    Military Administrator              Arsenio Climaco.
+                                        (Half-caste Chinese
+                                        and cousins.)
+
+
+                _Municipal Council (Junta Popular)_
+
+    Mayor                               Julio Llorente.
+    Councillors                         Several citizens elected
+                                        by popular vote.
+
+
+The above constitution was in conformity with a decree of General
+Aguinaldo dated June 18, 1898, and countersigned by Apolinario
+Mabini. Local representatives of the provincial government were
+appointed throughout the Island for the collection of taxes and the
+maintenance of order, and the system worked fairly smoothly until
+the arrival of the Americans in Cebu City, February 21, 1899. On that
+date the American gunboat _Petrel_ and a large steam-launch suddenly
+appeared in Cebu harbour. The United States Vice-Consul seems to have
+been the only person who had received prior advice of their intended
+arrival. The commander of the _Petrel_ sent a message ashore saying
+that he desired an interview with the government representatives
+and that he demanded the surrender of the city, and gave 14 hours
+to the people to consider his demands; but, as a matter of fact,
+the negotiations lasted about 24 hours, during which time a council
+of Filipinos was hurriedly called to decide upon the course the
+provincial government should adopt. Very divergent and extreme views
+were expressed; Pablo Mejia, supported by Julio Llorente and Father
+Julia, advocated an acceptance of the inevitable under protest,
+whilst General Gabino Sepulveda declared that he would spill his
+last drop of blood before the Americans should take possession of
+the city. But, in the end, Sepulveda reserved his blood for a better
+occasion, and eventually accepted employment under the Americans as
+prosecuting attorney in Bojol Island. Pablo Mejia's advice was acted
+upon, and in the name of the Cebuanos, Luis Flores, the President of
+the Council, signed a protest [226] which was handed to the commander
+of the _Petrel_ by Pablo Mejia and Julio Llorente in the presence
+of the United States Vice-Consul. The commander of the _Petrel_
+forthwith landed 40 marines, who marched to the _Cotta de San Pedro_
+(the fortress) and hoisted the American flag there in the presence of
+armed Filipinos who looked on in silence. The marines then returned to
+their vessel, which remained inactive anchored off the _cotta_, pending
+the arrival of reinforcements which were sent to Cebu under the command
+of Colonel Hamer. The provincial government was permitted to continue
+its functions and use its official seal, and during five months there
+was no manifest anti-American movement. During this period the American
+commander of the troops adopted tactics similar to those employed by
+General E. S. Otis in Manila against Aguinaldo prior to the outbreak
+in February, 1899. Little by little the Americans required the armed
+Filipinos to retire farther and farther away from the capital. This
+practical isolation disgusted the several chiefs, who therefore agreed
+to open the campaign against the invaders. Every act of the provincial
+councillors was closely watched and discussed by the Cebuanos, amongst
+whom an intransigent faction secretly charged Mejia and Llorente with
+being lukewarm in their protection of Philippine interests and unduly
+favourable to American dominion. Their death was decreed, and Mejia was
+assassinated as he was passing to his house from that of a neighbour
+a few yards off. Luis Flores had already resigned public office,
+and Llorente was, at this time, his successor in the presidency of
+the Council. Fortunately for him, whilst the murderers were plotting
+against his life he was called to Manila by General E. S. Otis,
+two weeks after Mejia's death, to become a magistrate in the Supreme
+Court. Segundo Singson (afterwards chief judge of the Court of First
+Instance) then assumed the presidency of the provincial council.
+
+On July 24, 1899, Juan Climaco and Arcadio Maxilom, chafing at the
+diminution of their influence in public affairs, suddenly disappeared
+into the interior and met at Pardo, where the military revolutionary
+centre was established. Aguinaldo's emissary, Pantaleon E. del
+Rosario, Melquiades Lasala, a Cebuano of Bogo (known as Dading),
+Andres Jayme, Lorega, and an Ilocano named Mateo Luga who had served
+in the Spanish army, led contingents under the supreme command of the
+insurgent General Arcadio Maxilom. In the interior they established
+a fairly well-organized military government. The Island was divided
+into districts; there was little interference with personal liberty;
+taxes for the maintenance of the struggle were collected in the form of
+contribution according to the means of the donor; agriculture was not
+altogether abandoned, and for over two years the insurgents held out
+against American rule. The brain of the movement was centred in Juan
+Climaco, whilst Mateo Luga exhibited the best fighting qualities. In
+the meantime American troops were drafted to the coast towns of
+Tuburan, Bogo, Carmen, etc. There were several severe engagements with
+slaughter on both sides, notably at Monte Sudlon and Compostela. Five
+white men joined the insurgent leader Luga, one being an English
+mercenary trooper, two sailors, and two soldiers; the last two were
+given up at the close of hostilities; one of them was pardoned, and
+the other was executed in the _cotta_ for rape committed at Mandaue.
+
+The co-existence of an American military administration in Cebu City
+conducting a war throughout the Island, and a Philippine provincial
+government with nominal administrative powers over the same region,
+but in strong sympathy with the insurgent cause, was no longer
+compatible. Moreover, outside the city the provincial government was
+unable to enforce its decrees amongst the people, who recognized
+solely the martial-law of the insurgents to whom they had to pay
+taxes. The Americans therefore abolished the provincial council,
+which was not grieved at its dissolution, because it was already
+accused by the people of being pro-American. Philippine views of the
+situation were expressed in a newspaper, _El Nuevo Dia_, founded by a
+lawyer, Rafael Palma, and edited conjointly by Jayme Veyra (afterwards
+a candidate for the Leyte Island governorship) and an intelligent
+young lawyer, Sergio Osmena, already mentioned at p. 521. This organ,
+the type and style of which favourably compared with any journal
+ever produced in these Islands, passed through many vicissitudes;
+it was alternately suppressed and revived, whilst its editors were
+threatened with imprisonment in the _cotta_ and deportation to
+Guam. Meanwhile the Americans made strenuous efforts to secure the
+co-operation of the Filipinos in municipal administration, but the
+people refused to vote. Leading citizens, cited to appear before
+the American authorities, persistently declined to take any part in
+a dual _regime_. The electors were then ordered, under penalties,
+to attend the polling, but out of the hundreds who responded to the
+call only about 60 could be coerced into voting. Finally a packed
+municipal council was formed, but one of its members, a man hitherto
+highly respected by all, was assassinated, and his colleagues went
+in fear of their lives.
+
+The war in Panay Island having terminated on February 2, 1901,
+by the general surrender at Jaro (_vide_ p. 518), General Hughes
+went to Samar Island, where he failed to restore peace, and thence
+he proceeded to Cebu in the month of August at the head of 2,000
+troops. A vigorous policy of devastation was adopted. Towns, villages
+and crops were laid waste; Pardo, the insurgent military centre,
+was totally destroyed; peaceful natives who had compulsorily paid
+tribute to the insurgents at whose mercy they were obliged to live,
+were treated as enemies; their homes and means of livelihood were
+demolished, and little distinction was made between the warrior and
+the victim of the war. Desolation stared the people in the face,
+and within a few weeks the native provincial governor proposed
+that terms of peace should be discussed. The insurgent chief Lorega
+surrendered on October 22; Mateo Luga and Arcadio Maxilom submitted
+five days afterwards and at the end of the month a general cessation
+of hostilities followed. A neutral zone was agreed upon, extending
+from Mandaue to Sogod, and there the three peace commissioners on
+behalf of the Americans, namely Miguel Logarta, Pedro Rodriguez,
+and Arsenio Climaco met the insurgent chiefs Juan Climaco and Arcadio
+Maxilom. As a result, peace was signed, and the document includes the
+following significant words, viz.: "putting the Philippine people in
+a condition to prove their aptitude for self-government as the basis
+of a future independent life." The signatories of this document on the
+part of the Filipinos were Pantaleon E. del Rosario, Melquiades Lasala
+and Andres Jayme. After the peace, Mateo Luga and P. E. del Rosario
+accepted employment under the Americans, the former as Inspector of
+Constabulary and the latter as Sheriff of Cebu. A few months later,
+the Americans, acting on information received, proceeded to Tuburan
+on the government launch _Philadelphia_, arrested Arcadio Maxilom and
+his two brothers, and seized the arms which they had secreted on their
+property. On the launch, one of the Maxiloms unsuccessfully attempted
+to murder the Americans and was immediately executed, whilst Arcadio
+and his other brother jumped overboard; but Arcadio being unable to
+swim, was picked up, brought to trial at Cebu, and acquitted. Thus
+ended the career of General Arcadio Maxilom, whom in 1904 I found
+living in retirement, almost a hermit's life, broken in spirit and
+body and worried by numerous lawsuits pending against him.
+
+On April 17,1901, Governor W. H. Taft went to Cebu accompanied by a
+Filipino, H. Pardo de Tavera, whose views were diametrically opposed
+to those of the Cebuano majority. Governor Taft established civil
+government there, although the law of _habeas corpus_ had to be
+suspended because the war was still raging throughout the Island
+outside the capital. The provincial government as established
+by Governor Taft comprises a provincial board composed of three
+members, namely the Philippine Provincial Governor, the American
+Supervisor, and the American Treasurer: hence the Americans are in
+permanent majority and practically rule the Island. The executive
+of this body is the provincial governor and his staff. The first
+provincial governor appointed by Governor Taft was Julio Llorente,
+who resigned the magistracy in Manila and returned to Cebu to take
+up his new office until the elections took place in January, 1902,
+when, by popular vote, Juan Climaco, the ex-insurgent chief, became
+provincial governor, and on the expiration of his term in January,
+1904, he was re-elected for another two years.
+
+There is no noteworthy change in the aspect of Cebu since the American
+occupation. It is a regularly-built city, with hundreds of good houses,
+many relatively imposing public buildings, monuments, churches, and
+interesting edifices. It is a cathedral city and bishop's see, full of
+historical remininscences, and has still a very pleasant appearance,
+notwithstanding its partial destruction and the many remaining
+ruins caused by the bombardment by the Spanish warship _Don Juan de
+Austria_ in April 1838, (_vide_ p. 403). Of special interest are the
+Cathedral, the Church of _Santo Nino_, or the "Holy Child of Cebu"
+(_vide_ p. 183), the Chapels of the Paul Fathers and of the Jesuits,
+and the _Cotta de San Pedro_ (fortress). Also, just outside the city
+proper is the Church of _San Nicolas_. Up to about the year 1876 the
+Jesuits had a fine church of their own, but the friars, jealous of
+its having become the most popular place of worship, caused it to be
+destroyed. Until a few years ago the quarter known as the, _Parian_
+was the flourishing centre of the half-caste traders. There was also a
+busy street of Chinese general shops and native ready-made clothiers in
+the _Lutao_ district, a thoroughfare which ran along the seashore from
+the south of the city proper towards San Nicolas; it was completely
+destroyed by the bombardment of 1898, and many of the shopkeepers have
+erected new premises in the principal shopping street, called _Calle de
+la Infanta_. Again, in 1905, a disastrous fire in the business quarter
+of the city caused damage to the estimated extent of $500,000 gold.
+
+There is a little colony of foreign merchants in Cebu, which formerly
+ranked as the third port of the Archipelago, but now stands second in
+importance to Manila (_vide_ Trade Statistics, Chap. xxxi.). Several
+vice-consulates are established here, and in Spanish times it was
+the residence of the military governor of Visayas as well as of the
+governor of the Island and his staff of officials. In 1886 a Supreme
+Court was inaugurated in Cebu. This city, which was the capital of
+the Colony from 1565 to 1571, had a municipality up to the time of
+Gov.-General Pedro de Arandia (1754-59). It was then abolished because
+there was only one Spaniard capable of being a city councillor. One
+alderman who had served--Juan Sebastian de Espina--could neither
+read nor write, and the mayor himself had been deprived of office
+for having tried to extort money from a Chinaman by putting his head
+in the stocks. By Royal Order dated June 7, 1889, and put into force
+by the Gov.-General's Decree of January 31, 1890, the municipality
+was re-established. The president was the governor of the Island,
+supported by an _Alcalde_ and 13 officials. For the government of
+the Island under the Spanish _regime, vide_ Chap. xiii.
+
+The municipality at present existing is that established by the
+Taft Commission. The Press, in the days of the Spaniards, was poorly
+represented by a little news-sheet, styled the _Boletin de Cebu_. There
+are now two periodicals of little or no interest.
+
+There are two large cemeteries at Guadalupe and Mabolo. In 1887 a
+shooting-butts was established at the end of the Guadalupe road,
+and the annual pony-races take place in January. On the Mabolo road
+there is a Leper Hospital, and the ruins of a partly well-built jail
+which was never completed.
+
+Cebu is a port of entry open to foreign trade, with a Custom-house
+established since the year 1863. The channel for vessels is marked by
+buoys, and there are two lighthouses at the north and two at the south
+entrance to the port. The environs are pretty, with Magtan Island
+(on which Maghallanes was killed) in front and a range of hills in
+the background. There are excellent roads for riding and driving a
+few miles out of the city. The climate is very healthy for Europeans;
+the low ranges of mountains running north to south of the Island are
+sparsely wooded, some being quite bare of trees, and the atmosphere is
+comparatively dry. The cactus is very common all over the Island, and
+miles of it are seen growing in the hedges. About an hour and a half's
+drive from Cebu City there is the little town of Naga, the environs
+of which are extremely pretty. From the top of Makdoc Mountain,
+at the back of the town, there is a splendid view of the Pandan Valley.
+
+The Cebuanos are the most sociable of the Visaya population, whilst
+the women are the best-looking of all the Filipinas of pure Oriental
+descent.
+
+Of all places in the Philippines Cebu will please the conchologist. An
+old native named Legaspi once had a splendid shell collection, which he
+freely exhibited to foreigners. At one time he had a _Gloria Maris_,
+which he sold for $150, and some Russian naval officers are said
+to have offered him $5,000 for a part of his collection. At certain
+seasons of the year the _Euplectella speciosa_, Gray, or Venus baskets,
+locally known as _Regaderas_, can be obtained in quantities; they are
+found in the Cebu waters. The _Eup. spec_, is the skeleton secretion of
+an insect of the Porifera division. The basket is a series of graceful
+fretted spirals. Also fine _Pina_ stuffs can be purchased here.
+
+The population of Cebu City was 9,629 in 1888; 10,972 in 1896; and
+18,330 in 1903. The inhabitants of the whole Island numbered 417,543
+in 1876; 518,032 in 1888; 595,726 in 1896; and 653,727 in 1903.
+
+
+
+In March, 1899, an American armed force was detailed from Cebu City
+to _Bojol Island_ to demand the surrender of the native provincial
+government established there since the Spanish evacuation. Interpreters
+from Cebu were sent ashore, and after hearing their explanation of the
+Americans demands the native president in council resolved to yield
+peacefully. A volunteer regiment was then sent ashore, positions were
+occupied, and all went smoothly on the surface until the Islanders'
+powers of endurance were exhausted after 22 months of alleged harsh
+treatment imposed upon them by the troops. In January, 1901, the cry
+of rebellion was raised by one Pedro Sanson, whose band of Bojolanos,
+augmented by levies from Leyte, Samar, and Panay Islands numbered
+about 2,000. Expeditions were sent out against them, and the lukewarm
+sympathy of the Islanders was turned to general indignation against the
+Americans by the alleged wanton destruction of a whole town by fire, by
+order of a captain of volunteers. Practically the whole Island became
+covertly anti-American. Having finished his campaign in Cebu Island in
+October, 1901, General Hughes carried his troops over to Bojol Island,
+where measures of repression were adopted similar to those which had
+been so effective in reducing the Cebuanos to submission. A large
+number of small towns and villages within the range of military
+operations were entirely destroyed. The once pretty little town
+of Lauang was left a complete ruin, and many landmarks of a former
+progressive civilization have disappeared for ever. Nevertheless, the
+insurgents refused to yield until a decree was issued to the effect
+that if the leaders did not surrender by December 27 the invaders
+would burn down the town of Tagbilaran. In this town, formerly the
+seat of the native provincial government, Pedro Sanson and most of his
+officers had all their property and worldly possessions; and in view
+of the beggary which awaited them if they held out any longer, they
+accepted terms of peace from Pantaleon E. del Rosario, who went up to
+the mountains and acted as negotiator between General Hughes and the
+insurgent chiefs who finally surrendered. The Filipino, Aniceto Clarin,
+appointed provincial governor on April 20, 1901, continued in office;
+Pedro Sanson quietly resumed his occupation of dealer in hemp, etc.,
+and thenceforth peace and poverty reigned in the Island.
+
+
+
+In _Cottabato_ (Mindanao Is.), the attempt to establish a local native
+government ended in tragic failure. In January, 1899, a Spanish
+gunboat silently entered the port without the customary whistling
+and firing of salute. It brought a despatch to the Governor from the
+nominal acting-Gov.-General Rios, who, coming from Yloilo, called at
+Zamboanga before proceeding to Manila, to receive on board a number of
+Spanish refugees. One of the crew of the gunboat also brought a private
+communication from the Jesuit Superior in Zamboanga to the Jesuit
+missionary Father Suarez. The official despatch notified the Governor
+that the Treaty of Paris had been signed, and consequently he was to
+evacuate Cottabato immediately. The private communication told the
+same tale to the missionary, with an inquiry from the Jesuit Superior
+as to whether he could continue his mission after the withdrawal of
+the Spanish Governor, and whether it would be of any advantage to do
+so. The Governor informed the missionary of his intended departure,
+and the missionary replied negatively to his superior in Zamboanga. The
+Governor then called Roman Vilo, his confidential christian native
+assistant, and told him that he and all who had been loyal to the
+Spanish Government and faithful in their service could take passage
+to Zamboanga. Vilo, however, for himself and his family, declined
+the offer on the ground that all his interests were in and about
+Cottabato, where he possessed real estate. The Governor then had the
+Moro-Chinese half-caste Datto Piang called, and in the presence of
+Vilo the former was appointed chief of the Moro people and the latter
+governor of the christian population. After making a short speech,
+exhorting the two chiefs, in benevolent phrases, to live in peace
+and act mutually for the common good, the Governor, accompanied by
+the Jesuit missionaries and others who were desirous of leaving the
+place, went to Zamboanga on the gunboat.
+
+When, after the lapse of some weeks, Datto Piang felt sure that
+the Spaniards would never be again in authority at Cottabato, he
+begged Vilo to let him have twenty rifles to defend himself against a
+rival. The christian governor agreed to this, and week by week Datto
+Piang's demands grew until, at length, all the rifles in the possession
+of the Christians passed to the Moros. But there still remained some
+cannons, and Datto Piang, having represented the necessity of making
+war on another chief up the Cottabato River, Vilo was persuaded to
+lend them to him. Piang had them placed in _vintas_ (war-junks) and
+Vilo, with several friends, went down to the river-side to witness
+the departure of the supposed armed expedition. Suddenly Piang, his
+son-in-law Datto Ali and this man's brother, Datto Djimbangan, at the
+head of a large party of armed Moros, fell upon and slaughtered the
+Christians. Vilo's head was cut off and the savage Mahometans made a
+raid on the town, looting all but the shops of the Chinese who were in
+league, or accord, with their half-countryman Piang. The Christians who
+were unable to escape were either massacred or carried off as slaves
+into the interior, with the loot. Datto Djimbangan caused the Christian
+women to be stripped naked and marched through the streets, whilst he
+and his companions made their selections for themselves, leaving the
+remainder for their followers. Amongst the captives were a father and
+two sons. In October, 1899, the Americans sent a gunboat to Cottabato,
+and the wife of this captive, mother of his two boys, represented her
+plight to the commander, who forthwith sent for Piang and ordered him
+immediately to send a message to the individual holding the captives
+to release them and hand them over to the messenger, who would conduct
+them back to Cottabato. Piang, without a moment's hesitation, offered
+to comply, and sent a _vinta_ up the river with the required order,
+but at the same time he secretly sent another emissary overland with
+contrary instructions. The land messenger, as was expected, arrived
+first, and when the _vinta_ party reached the place of captivity,
+Piang's people expressed their regret that they could not oblige the
+party because they had just cut off the captives' heads. In 1904 a
+member of the victims' family was a teacher in the Jesuits' Catholic
+School in Zamboanga. Datto Piang, who owes his position and influence
+over the Moros to the protection of the late great Datto Utto (_vide_
+p. 143) is the father-in-law of the terrible Datto Ali whose continual
+depredations and defiance made Cottabato the centre of that unabated
+conflict for the Americans described in Chapter xxix.
+
+
+
+In the belief that the Zamboanguenos were loyally disposed towards
+Spain, the Spaniards, after the signing of the Treaty of Paris, chose
+_Zamboanga_ (Mindanao Is.) as their point of concentration of all the
+Spanish troops and civil servants in the southern islands. At that time
+General Jaramillo was Gov.-General of Mindanao Island and commander of
+the forces in Zamboanga; but on the arrival there, December 27, 1898,
+of the ex-governor of Cebu, General Montero, with his co-refugees,
+General Jaramillo transferred his command to him and left for Manila
+with General Rios, who had come from Yloilo to Zamboanga to receive
+refugee passengers for the capital. Before his departure Jaramillo
+had led the Zamboangueno Christians to believe that the war with
+America was, at every turn, a triumphant success for Spanish arms;
+fictitious printed telegrams were circulated announcing Spanish
+victories everywhere, and one of the most extravagant reported that
+General Weyler had landed on American soil at Key West with an army of
+80,000 Spanish troops. The motive of this harmless ruse was to bolster
+up Spanish prestige and thereby avoid bloodshed. During several months
+no trading or mail-steamer came, and the Zamboanguenos were practically
+cut off from the rest of the world. Military preparations were made
+for the feigned purpose of resisting a possible attack on the place
+by the Americans, who were described to the people as cannibals and
+ferocious monsters more terrible than the dreaded Moros. Naturally
+the real object of the military preparations was the Spaniards'
+justifiable endeavour to be ready to defend themselves against open
+rebellion when the true situation should ooze out. Nor was their
+misrepresentation of the Americans mere spiteful calumny; the Spaniards
+were in great jeopardy, and they instinctively wished to destroy any
+feeling of welcome which the natives might have for the new-comers
+for fear it might operate against themselves at the supreme moment of
+danger. Indeed, each party--native and Spanish--was seeking to outwit
+the other; hence, when the Zamboanguenos were promised a supply of arms
+for the ostensible purpose of resisting invasion, they pretended to
+co-operate heartily with the Spaniards' defensive measures, with the
+secret design of dispossessing the Spaniards of their arms in order to
+use them against them. The Zamboanguenos therefore became so persistent
+in their demand upon Montero to fulfil his predecessor's promise
+that at last he had frankly to confess that peace had been signed
+between Spain and America, whereby the Islands were surrendered to the
+United States, and that very shortly the Spaniards would evacuate the
+Archipelago. But the conflicting versions of the situation, published
+severally by Jaramillo and Montero, sorely puzzled the natives. The
+Spaniards were still in undisturbed possession of Zamboanga for over
+four months after Montero's arrival, notwithstanding the fact that
+the American warship _Boston_ called at the port and left the same
+day and that an officer came ashore without the least objection
+or consternation on the part of the Spaniards. The orange-and-red
+flag still floated over the Fortress del Pilar, and, so far as the
+Zamboanguenos could ascertain, it looked as if the Spaniards were
+going to remain. They therefore clamoured more loudly than ever for
+the distribution of arms, which this time Montero positively refused,
+for the Spaniards had never for a moment been deceived as to the real
+intentions of the Zamboanguenos. On the other hand, by this time,
+their inoffensive delusion of the people had lost its virtue, and
+natives and Spaniards thenceforth became open enemies. After the
+visit of the _Boston_ the fighting population, no longer able to
+conceal their disappointment, threw off the mask, quitted the town,
+cut off the water-supply which came from the mountains, in collusion
+with the mutinied crews seized the firearms on board the Spanish
+gunboats lying in the harbour, and prepared for war against their
+old masters. The Spaniards immediately compelled the non-combatant
+townspeople and the Chinese to throw up earthworks for mounting
+artillery and dig trenches for defence against the rebels. The gunboat
+_Alava_ co-operated by firing shells into the rebel camp situated
+just outside the town. The rebels made two unsuccessful assaults,
+and in the second attack General Montero was mortally wounded by a
+rifle-shot. On May 23 the S.S. _Leon XIII._ arrived; the Spaniards
+silently embarked for Manila with their dying general, who succumbed
+during the voyage, and Zamboanga, one-fourth of which the defenders
+had destroyed by fire, was occupied by the rebels. During the siege
+the Filipinos, true to their instincts, had split up into two rival
+factions headed by Vicente Alvarez and Isidoro Midel respectively,
+and in the interval between the first and second assault on the town
+these party chiefs had fought out their own quarrel, Midel claiming to
+have been the victor. Nevertheless, the popular favourite was Vicente
+Alvarez, known as the _Tamagun Datto_ (high chief), who became the
+chosen president of the Zamboanga revolutionary government established
+immediately after the Spanish evacuation. Party spirit ran high;
+life was held in little esteem; a lifeless body found on the highway
+startled no one; assassination was an occurrence of small moment;
+cattle-shooting was practised for amusement, and the five-and-a-half
+months' essay of christian Philippine autonomy was so signalized by
+jealous self-interest, bitter rivalry, rapacity, and bloodshed as to
+make one doubt whether the christian Zamboangueno is one whit superior
+to his Mahometan neighbour in moral character.
+
+The arrival of an American expedition in the waters of Zamboanga
+on November 15, 1899, produced a sanguinary crisis in these faction
+feuds. Vicente Alvarez at once took measures to oppose the invaders'
+landing, whilst his rival, Isidoro Midel, resolved to side with
+the Americans. _Divide et impera._ The want of unity amongst the
+natives themselves was a great help to the Americans' plans. By this
+time there appeared a third aspirant to local fame in the person of
+Melanio Sanson, a native marine engineer, until recently in the Spanish
+service, who pretended to co-operate with Alvarez, styling himself
+colonel of artillery in charge of the guns abandoned by his former
+masters. Each of these three individuals sought to rid himself of his
+two rivals. On the night of November 15 Isidoro Midel ended Melanio
+Sanson's rivalry for ever, and the Americans took peaceful possession
+of the town the next day. Subsequently Midel arranged a transfer
+to the Americans of the artillery which had, during the conflict,
+been under Sanson's control. Vicente Alvarez immediately fled to
+Mercedes, and thence to Basilan Island, where, aided by Datto Pedro
+Cuevas, he organized a brigand band, crossed over to Mindanao Island
+again, and made a raid on Oriquieta. Chased from place to place by
+American troops, he was finally captured and sent to Bilibid prison
+in Manila, but was subsequently pardoned on his taking the oath of
+allegiance, and sent back to Zamboanga, where he earns his living
+peacefully. Meanwhile, Isidoro Midel had been further rewarded for his
+services to the Americans with the office of municipal president, which
+he held for about 16 months in defiance of public opinion. The feeling
+which prompted public opposition to Midel's appointment was at least
+as much anti-American as it was dislike for the nominee. In March,
+1901, municipal elections were held, and Mariano Arquiza succeeded,
+by popular vote, to the presidency, which he held for two years. Some
+weeks before Arquiza vacated office two American miners were murdered
+by the natives a few miles up the province. The murderers, when caught,
+sought to justify their deed by alleging that a municipal councillor
+named Eduardo Alvarez (no relation to the Vicente Alvarez already
+mentioned) had persuaded them that the miners were secretly engaged in
+poisoning the local wells. The whole municipal council was therefore
+cited to appear before the American Governor, who severely reprimanded
+Alvarez, whereupon this man withdrew from the audience-chamber, and
+his fellow-councillors volunteered such information against him that
+the Governor instantly issued a warrant for his apprehension. But the
+native police who went to his house to execute the warrant let him
+escape on horseback to the mountains, where he organized a band of
+outlaws and lived for about four months by robbery and violence. Under
+these circumstances the American Governor summarily dismissed Mariano
+Arquiza from the municipal presidency in the spring of 1903, and, much
+to the public chagrin, re-appointed Midel to the vacancy. The offer of
+$1,000 for the capture of Eduardo Alvarez spurred Midel into further
+activity, and under his direction the bandit was discovered hiding
+in a canoe in a swamp. On the approach of his pursuers the outlaw
+threw up his hands in sign of surrender, which was responded to by
+a volley of gunshots, for it was Alvarez's corpse which was wanted
+in Zamboanga. Isidoro Midel is an interesting character, apparently
+about forty-eight years of age. Brought up as a Roman Catholic, he
+assured me that he was a Protestant, with the strongest sympathy,
+however, for the Aglipayan movement (_vide_ Chap. xxx.).
+
+Another interesting man, closely associated with recent events in
+Zamboanga, is the Mahometan Spanish-Moro half-caste Datto Mandi, the
+_Rajahmudah_ or heir-apparent to the _Manguiguin_ or Sultan of Mindanao
+(_vide_ p. 131). Born about the year 1860, he and his tribe of Samals
+lived on friendly terms with the Spaniards, who in 1887 sent him and
+a number of his people to the Philippine Exhibition held in Madrid in
+that year. His exploits in aid of the Spaniards in Cebu are recorded at
+page 406. He speaks Spanish fluently, and can just write his name. He
+is very affable and hospitable to visitors. The whole family professes
+the Mahometan religion. He has a beautiful daughter Gafas (which
+in Moro language signifies "cotton," and in Spanish "spectacles"),
+who attended the American School. His young son Facundo also goes to
+the American School, and his other son Pelayo went to the Catholic
+School in Zamboanga before he was sent to Manila. I was much struck
+with the intelligence of this handsome boy Pelayo. In the stirring
+events which immediately followed the Spanish evacuation, Datto Mandi
+remained neutral, his old antagonism to Alvarez being counterpoised by
+the conviction that a Zamboanga republic must end in a fiasco. He at
+once accepted the new situation under American dominion, and is headman
+of the Samal tribal ward of Magay, a suburb of Zamboanga. He told me
+in 1904 that he held under his control 9,600 persons, from 1,700 of
+whom he collected capitation tax for the American authorities. At
+the instance of the Americans, Datto Mandi issued a proclamation
+to his tribe, dated April 19, 1900, abolishing their traditional
+custom of slavery. His position is not at all an easy one, and it
+needs much tact to maintain an even balance of goodwill between his
+Samal subordinates and his American superiors. But Datto Mandi had a
+grievance which rankled in his breast. In the year 1868 the Spanish
+Government conceded to a christian native family named Fuentebella
+some 600 acres of land at Buluan, about 40 miles up the Zamboanga
+coast, which in time they converted into a prosperous plantation well
+stocked with cattle. During the anarchy which succeeded the Spanish
+evacuation, a band of about 600 Moros raided the property, murdered
+seven of the christian residents, and stole all they could possibly
+carry away from the plantation and well-furnished estate-house. When
+Datto Mandi heard of it he went there in person and rescued the
+women held in captivity and brought them to Zamboanga, where they
+lived in perfect security under his protection until the American
+advent. Then, in return for his kindness, these women accused the
+_Datto_ of having been the instigator of the crime, or, at least,
+a participator in the proceeds thereof, in the hope that, through
+the Americans, they would be able to exact an indemnity. The _Datto_
+was mulcted in the sum of 5,000 pesos, although he declared to me that
+neither before nor after the crime was he in any way concerned in it;
+and this was the honest belief of many American officials in Zamboanga.
+
+In January, 1905, Datto Mandi's daughter was married at a little town
+a few miles from Yligan (north Mindanao). Several American officers
+were present on the occasion, accompanied by a Spanish half-caste
+who acted as their interpreter. The assembled guests were having
+a merry time when suddenly the festivities were interrupted by the
+intrusion of a _juramentado_ Moro fanatic, who sprang forward with
+his _campilan_ and at one blow almost severed the interpreter's head
+from his body. Then he turned his attention to the other natives,
+mortally wounded two, and cut gashes in several others before he fell
+dead from the revolver-shots fired by the American officers. After
+the dead and wounded were carried away and the pools of blood were
+mopped up, the wedding ceremony was proceeded with and the hymeneal
+festival was resumed without further untoward incident.
+
+Zamboanga is a clean, pleasant town, and what was left of it
+after the Spanish evacution is well built, with many substantial
+houses and public offices, a church administered by the Jesuits,
+one large and one small jetty, a pretty esplanade facing the sea,
+and other open spaces. A canal running through the town adds to
+its picturesqueness. At the eastern extremity is the old fortress,
+called the _Fuerza del Pilar_, a fine historical monument reminding
+one of the Spaniards' many vicissitudes in this region, alluded to
+in the preceding pages. Many of the natives concerned, or alleged to
+have been concerned, in the Cavite Rising of 1872 (_vide_ p. 106)
+were confined in this fortress. They overcame their jailors and
+obtained possession of the guns and ammunition. The Spaniards were
+consequently in great straits, for possibly their existence depended
+on which side the townspeople took. The Zamboanguenos, however, helped
+the Spaniards against the revolted convicts, who were finally subdued;
+and as a reward for this proof of loyalty Zamboanga received the title
+of _Muy leal y valiente Villa_ (very loyal and heroic town). Many years
+ago a Moro attack was made on Zamboanga, and the Christian natives
+joined with the Spaniards in repelling it. It would have gone rather
+badly with them if they had not done so, for a Philippine Christian
+was just as good fish for the Moro net as a Spaniard. However, their
+co-operation was gratefully acknowledged by declaring the Zamboanguenos
+to be Spaniards of the first class.
+
+I have never been able to discern clearly what material advantage
+this brought them, although I have discussed the question on the
+spot. The disadvantage of this pompous distinction to the town arose
+from the ridiculous popular notion that whereas Spaniards in Spain
+are all cavaliers, they too, as Spaniards of the first water, ought to
+regard work as a degradation. Hence they are a remarkably indolent and
+effete community, and on landing from a ship there is seldom a porter
+to be seen to carry one's luggage. Their speech is a dialect called
+_Chabucano_--a mixture of very corrupt Spanish and native tongues.
+
+The environment of Zamboanga is very beautiful, with islands to the
+south and mountain scenery on the land sides. The climate is healthy,
+and with the frequent delightful breezes wafted across the Celebes
+Sea is not at all oppressive for a tropical region, and is cooler
+than Manila, which is 425 miles north.
+
+
+
+The people of _Samar Island_ for a long time tenaciously opposed
+the American occupation, under several leaders, notably Vicente
+Lucban and his right-hand man, Guevara; but neither here, nor in
+_Marinduque Island_ can it be said that native civil government was
+established. In the latter Island the insurgent chief was the titular
+Colonel Abad, who overran the villages with about 150 followers
+armed with rifles. In 1901 Abad surrendered, and hostilities, with
+real political aim, definitely ended in these Islands thirteen months
+after the capture of Aguinaldo in Luzon. Although in Samar Island the
+war was, as elsewhere, a succession of petty encounters, there were
+incidents in its prosecution which attracted much public attention
+from time to time. At the town of Balangiga, on September 28, 1901,
+the local headman and the native parish priest conspired with about
+450 armed natives to attack the American camp. The garrison stationed
+there was Company "C," 9th Infantry. The headman had represented to
+the Americans that he was busy with an important capture of about 90
+brigands, and on this pretext some 45 cut-throats were brought into
+the town and lodged in the church. Three officers of the garrison were
+quartered in the parish-house, and whilst the rank-and-file were at
+breakfast in a bamboo building, some distance away from their quarters
+where they had left their weapons, another 45 supposed brigands were
+led through the town to the church, but naturally the soldiers took
+little notice of this expected event. The town is surrounded on one
+side by the open valley and on three sides by almost perpendicular
+mountains, with defiles between them leading to the interior of the
+Island. As soon as the last batch of supposed brigands was brought
+in, the church bells were rung as a signal for a mob of natives,
+armed with bowie-knives, to creep silently through the defiles on two
+sides. The troopers were just then suddenly alarmed by the noise of a
+conflict in the parish-house. The 90 so-called brigands having been
+passed through from the church into this house, fired at the three
+officers and then killed them with their bowie-knives. Simultaneously
+the soldiers' quarters were attacked. Whilst the troops made a rush
+forward to secure their weapons they were intercepted by an armed
+crowd, through which a small party of Americans finally cut their
+way and beat off the howling mob, which had already slaughtered many
+soldiers, set fire to the quarters, and possessed themselves of over
+50 rifles and several thousand rounds of ammunition. A large number
+of hostile natives, including the headman, were killed; 28 Americans
+effected their escape, but the loss amounted to three officers and
+about 70 men killed and several more men wounded. General Hughes, in
+command of the Visayas District, was operating in Cebu Island at the
+time of this disaster. Public excitement was intense when the news
+of this serious reverse was published. The general who was sent to
+Samar to pursue the insurgents, or bandits, is alleged to have issued,
+in a moment of uncontrollable wrath, an order to "slay all over ten
+years and make Samar a howling wilderness." Consequently a great
+cry of public protest was raised, and the general and his executive
+officer in the affair were cited before a court-martial in April,
+1902; but the court having found that the general was justified in
+the measures he took, both officers were acquitted. Since the capture
+of Lucban (April 27, 1902), lawless agitation has been persistently
+rife all over the Island of Samar; but this is the work of brigands
+(_vide_ p. 551) and has no political signification.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVI
+
+The Spanish Prisoners
+
+
+Extreme interest was naturally taken by all Europeans in the miserable
+fate of the thousands of Spanish soldiers and civilians who had fallen
+into the rebels hands up to the capitulation of Manila. [227] Held
+captive in groups at different places in the Island of Luzon, many of
+them passed a wretched existence, with bad food, scant clothing, and
+deprived of every pleasure in life beyond the hope of one day seeing
+their native land. Many of them died, either from natural causes or
+the effect of their privations (some of starvation in Tayabas), or
+as a result of brutal treatment. A minority of them received as good
+treatment as possible under the circumstances. The fate of the majority
+depended chiefly upon the temperament of the native commander of the
+district. There were semi-savage native chiefs, and there were others,
+like Aguinaldo himself, with humane instincts. Amongst the former,
+for instance, there was Major Francisco Braganza, who, on February
+28, 1900, in Camarines Sur, ordered one hundred and three Spanish
+soldiers to be tied up to trees and cut and stabbed to death with
+bowie-knifes and their bodies stripped and left without burial. He
+was tried by court-martial and sentenced to be hanged, September 26,
+1901, and the sentence was carried out at Nueva Caceres (Camarines
+Sur) on November 15 following. Many prisoners managed to escape, no
+doubt with the aid or connivance of natives, until Aguinaldo issued a
+decree, dated Malolos, November 5, 1898, imposing a penalty of twenty
+years' imprisonment on whomsoever should give such aid. Aguinaldo
+told me he was personally inclined to liberate these prisoners, or,
+at least, those civilians accustomed to an easy office life who,
+if they went free, would have had no inclination whatever to fight,
+but would have done their best to embark for Spain. The few who might
+have broken their _parole_ would have been easily caught again "for
+the last time in their lives," and the women and children were an
+obstacle to military operations. Indeed, from time to time, Aguinaldo
+did liberate small groups of civilians, amongst whom were some of
+my old friends whom I afterwards met in Spain. Aguinaldo's Prime
+Minister, Apolinario Mabini (_vide_ p. 546), was, however, strongly
+in favour of retaining the Spaniards as hostages until the Spanish
+Government should officially recognize the Philippine Republic. It
+will be clearly seen from the negotiations entered into between the
+respective parties that this recognition was the condition which
+the rebels most pertinaciously insisted upon, whilst the Spaniards'
+offers of millions of dollars were always met by much larger demands,
+which practically implied a refusal to treat on a money basis. The
+facts in the negotiations certainly support Aguinaldo's statement
+to me that the rebels never sought money, but political advantage,
+by the retention of the prisoners.
+
+The intense excitement in Spain over the prisoners' doom called into
+existence meetings, liberation societies, frequent discussions in
+and out of Parliament, and continual protests against the apparent
+Ministerial lethargy. In reality, the Spanish Government, fearful of
+a rupture with America, could take no official action in the matter,
+further than appeal, indirectly, to the generosity of the captors, and
+remind America of her undertaking under Article 6 of the treaty. In
+January, 1899, the Colonial Minister cabled to several people in
+Manila, begging them to use their influence--but they themselves
+were already in the rebel camp. No form of compensation in money or
+armament for the captives' liberty could be officially made without
+involving Spain in a _casus belli_ with America. Recognition of a
+Philippine Republic would have been in direct opposition to the spirit
+of the treaty of peace. In September, 1898, the Superiors of the
+regular clergy in Manila appealed to Rome; the Vatican communicated
+with President McKinley, and the President sent an inquiry to
+Maj.-General E. S. Otis concerning the captive friars. General
+Otis, after investigation, reported that these prisoners were fairly
+well treated. In the following month, whilst the Treaty of Paris was
+under discussion, the Spanish Government appealed to the United States
+Government to aid them in the rescue of the prisoners, and orders to do
+so were transmitted to General Otis. The Filipinos and the Americans
+were ostensibly on good terms at that period, and General Otis
+suggested to Aguinaldo that the friars and civilian Spaniards should be
+set free. On the subject of this request, Aguinaldo replied to General
+Otis by letter dated Malolos, November 3, 1898, as follows, viz:--"The
+Philippine people wish to retain the Spanish civil functionaries in
+order to obtain the liberty of the Filipinos who are banished and
+under arrest, and the friars in  order to obtain from the Vatican a
+recognition of the rights of the Philippine secular clergy.... It is
+not hatred or vengeance which inspires the Filipinos to retain the
+Spanish civil and religious functionaries, but political expediency,
+and the tranquillity of the Philippine people demands this measure."
+
+At this date there were hundreds of Philippine prisoners held by
+the Spanish Government in different places, some of them under
+worse conditions than the Spanish prisoners. For instance, 218 were
+deported to the fever-stricken colony of Fernando Po, and only 94 of
+them came out alive. The treaty of peace was still being discussed,
+and on its conclusion, Article 6 stipulated a release of "all persons
+detained or imprisoned for political offences in connection with
+the insurrections in Cuba and the Philippines," and that the United
+States would "undertake to obtain the release of all Spanish prisoners
+in the hands of the insurgents"; but there was no proviso that the
+release of the Philippine prisoners should depend on that of the
+Spanish prisoners, and after the treaty was signed, Spain showed no
+particular haste immediately to carry out her undertaking to return
+the Philippine prisoners to their islands.
+
+When General Diego de los Rios evacuated the Visayas Islands and
+brought his Spanish troops to Manila, _en route_ for Spain, January,
+1899, he himself remained in  Manila as a Spanish Government Agent
+to obtain the release of the prisoners. For the special purpose, by
+courtesy of the American authorities, he held a kind of semi-official
+position;   but  he   did  not   care   to   risk   his person within
+the rebel lines. A Spanish merchant, Don Antonio Fuset, president of
+the Spanish Club, undertook the negotiations, and succeeded in inducing
+Apolinario Mabini to issue a decree signed by Aguinaldo and himself,
+dated  January 22, 1899, giving liberty to all invalid civilians
+and soldiers. Simultaneously the Spanish Press in Manila was abusing
+Aguinaldo and his officers, calling them  monkeys and using epithets
+which brought down their vengeance on the captives themselves.
+
+The outbreak of the War of Independence (February 4, 1899)
+precluded direct American intervention in favour of the Spanish
+prisoners. General Rios, whose importance was being overshadowed by
+Senor Fuset's productive activity, cabled to Madrid that he would
+attend to the matter himself. But the didactic tone of his letters
+to Aguinaldo was not conducive to a happy result, and having frankly
+confessed his failure, the general made an appeal to the consuls and
+foreign merchants to exercise conjointly their influence. A letter
+of appeal from them was therefore drawn up and confided for delivery
+in the insurgent camp to my late friend Baron Du Marais. [228] This
+chivalrous gentleman, well known as the personification of integrity
+and honour, had resided many years in the Islands and spoke Tagalog
+fluently. On reaching the insurgent camp he was imprisoned on the
+charge of being a spy, but was shortly afterwards released, and on
+his way back to the capital he was waylaid by the natives, who foully
+murdered him. Senor Fuset then resumed his labours, and, as a result
+of his appeal to the generosity of his countrymen, he was able to
+set out for Boac and Batangas in the little steamer _Castellano_ to
+carry supplies to the prisoners detained in those localities. On his
+journey he distributed to them 500 cotton suits, 290 pairs of shoes,
+100 pairs of _alpargatas_ (a sort of hempen shoe or sandal made in
+Spain), 14,375 packets of cigarettes, and P1,287. Several subsequent
+expeditions carried supplies to the prisoners, the total amount of
+material aid furnished to them, in goods and money, being estimated
+at P60,000.
+
+After five months of fruitless effort General Diego de los Rios
+left Manila for Spain on June 3, 1899, and was succeeded by General
+Nicolas Jaramillo as the negotiator representing Spain. Moreover,
+it was desirable to recall General Rios, whose cablegrams commenting
+on the Americans' military operations were making him a _persona non
+grata_ in official circles.
+
+With the requisite passes procured from Aguinaldo, two Spanish envoys,
+Senores Toral and Rio, and the Filipino Enrique Marcaida set out for
+the insurgent seat of government, which was then at Tarlac. On their
+arrival there (June 23) Aguinaldo appointed three commissioners to
+meet them. At the first meeting the Filipinos agreed to liberate
+all except the friars, because these might raise trouble. At the
+next meeting they offered liberty to all on the following terms,
+impossible of acceptance by the Spanish commissioners, viz.:--
+
+(1) Spain is to recognize the Independence of the Philippines and
+repudiate the cession of the Islands to America.
+
+(2) After the recognition and repudiation stipulated in Clause 1, the
+Philippine Republic will liberate all the prisoners, without exception,
+and will pay their expenses back to Spain. If Spain cannot possibly
+accede to the conditions of Clause 1, the Philippine Republic will
+accept, in lieu thereof, arms, munitions and provisions, or their
+money equivalent.
+
+(3) The Spanish Government is to exchange the receipts given for
+money subscribed to the Philippine loan for the certificates of that
+loan. [229]
+
+The Filipinos declined to say what sum they would consider an
+equivalent, as per Clause 2, and invited the Spaniards to make an
+offer. The Spaniards then proposed P1,000,000.
+
+On June 29, at the third conference, the Filipinos refused to accept
+less than P6,000,000. This demand stupefied the Spaniards, who said
+they would return to consult General Jaramillo; but they were reluctant
+to leave the matter unsettled, and a last conference was held the next
+day, when the Spaniards raised their offer to P2,000,000. The Filipinos
+then reduced their demand to P3,000,000, which the Spaniards objected
+to; but they were successful in obtaining the liberty of the Baler
+garrison and 22 invalids, with all of whom they returned to Manila
+(_vide_ Baler garrison, p. 494).
+
+On July 5 a decree was issued from Tarlac, signed by Emilio Aguinaldo
+and countersigned by his minister, Pedro A. Paterno, to the effect that
+all invalid prisoners would be at liberty to embark at certain ports
+designated, if vessels were sent for them flying only the Spanish
+flag and a white one bearing the Red Cross. Difficulties, however,
+arose with the American authorities which impeded the execution of
+this plan. General Jaramillo was preparing to send his commissioners
+again to Tarlac when he received a cablegram from Madrid telling him
+to suspend further overtures to the insurgents because international
+complications were threatened. It appears that America objected to
+the proposal to pay to the insurgents a large sum of money.
+
+On August 9 General Jaramillo wished to send the Spanish warship
+_General Alava_, or a Spanish merchant vessel with the Red Cross
+flag, to San Fernando de la Union with provisions for the prisoners,
+but General E. S. Otis objected to the proposed proceeding on the
+ground that it would compromise the dignity of America. But General
+Jaramillo still persisted in his project, and after a lapse of three
+days he again addressed a note on the subject to General E. S. Otis,
+from whom he received another negative reply. On September 5 General
+Jaramillo informed General Otis that the prisoners were concentrated in
+the ports named in the insurgents' decree, and solicited permission to
+send a vessel flying the Red Cross flag to receive them. Three days
+afterwards General Otis replied that a recognition of Aguinaldo's
+pretension to designate certain ports for the Spaniards' embarkation
+would be not only humiliating but ridiculous. Furthermore, he was
+expecting reinforcements shortly, with which peace would be assured
+and all the ports re-opened, and then America would co-operate for
+the liberty of the prisoners. General Jaramillo replied to this
+communication by addressing to General Otis a lengthy philosophical
+epistle on the principles involved in the question, but as General
+Otis did not care to continue the correspondence, General Jaramillo
+sought to bring pressure on him by notifying him that the s.s. _P. de
+Satrustegui_ would be detained 48 hours in order to learn his decision
+as to whether that vessel could call for the prisoners. As General
+Otis did not reply within the prescribed period General Jaramillo
+went to see him personally and ineffectually opened his heart to him
+in very energetic terms, which General Otis complacently tolerated
+but persisted in his negative resolution, and the interview ended
+with the suggestion that General Jaramillo should obtain Aguinaldo's
+consent for a vessel carrying the American flag to enter the ports
+and bring away the prisoners.
+
+About this time an incident occurred which, but for the graciousness
+of General Otis, might have operated very adversely to the interests
+of those concerned. In September, 1899, a Spanish lady arrived in
+Manila saying that she was the representative of a Society of Barcelona
+Ladies formed to negotiate the liberation of the prisoners. She brought
+with her a petition addressed to Aguinaldo, said to bear about 3,000
+signatures. But unfortunately the document contained so many offensive
+allusions to the Americans that General Jaramillo declined to be
+associated with it in any way. No obstacle was placed in the way of
+the lady if she wished to present her petition privately to Aguinaldo;
+but, apparently out of spite, she had a large number of copies printed
+and published broadcast in Manila. General Jaramillo felt it his duty
+to apologize to General Otis and repudiate all connexion with this
+offensive proceeding, which General Otis very affably excused as an
+eccentricity not worthy of serious notice.
+
+On September 29 the Spanish commissioners, Toral and Rio, again started
+for the insurgent capital, Tarlac. The proposal for vessels to enter
+the ports under the American flag was rejected by Aguinaldo's advisers,
+Pedro A. Paterno and Felipe Buencamino, and negotiations were resumed
+on the money indemnity basis. The Aguinaldo party had already had sore
+experience of the worth of an agreement made with Spanish officials,
+and during the discussion they raised the question of the validity of
+their powers and the guarantee for their proposed undertakings. The
+real difficulty was that America might object to Spain officially
+making any compact whatsoever which must necessarily involve a
+recognition of the Philippine Republic; and even as it was, the
+renewed suggestion of a payment of millions of dollars was a secret
+negotiation. The Spanish commissioners started by proposing that
+Aguinaldo should give up 80 per cent. of the prisoners on certain
+conditions _to be agreed upon thereafter_, and retain the 20 per
+cent. as guarantee for the fulfilment of these hypothetical terms;
+moreover, even the 20 per cent. were to be concentrated at a place to
+be _mutually agreed upon,_ etc. The artfulness of the commissioners'
+scheme was too apparent for Paterno and Buencamino to accept it. The
+commissioners then presented the Insurgent Government with a voluminous
+philosophical dissertation on the subject, whilst the Filipinos sought
+brief facts and tangible conditions. The Filipinos then offered to
+address a note to the Spanish Consul in Manila to the effect that
+the prisoners who were infirm would be delivered at certain ports
+as already stated, and that he could send ships for them on certain
+terms. Still the commissioners lingered in Tarlac, and on October 23
+the Filipinos made the following proposals, which were practically
+an intimation to close the debate.
+
+1. Recognition of the Philippine Republic as soon as the difficulties
+with America should be overcome.
+
+2. The payment of seven millions of pesos.
+
+These conditions having been rejected by the commissioners, Aguinaldo's
+advisers drew up a document stating the reasons why the negotiations
+had fallen through, with special reference to the insufficiency of
+the commissioners' powers and the inadmissibility of their attitude
+in desiring to treat with Aguinaldo individually instead of with
+his Government, for which reasons the Philippine Republic formally
+declared its resolution definitely to cease all negotiations with the
+Spanish commissioners, preferring to deal directly with the Spanish
+Government. Not satisfied with this formal intimation the commissioners
+asked that the conditions of the liberation already granted since
+January to the invalid prisoners should be modified, and that they
+should be handed over to them--the very persons already declared to
+be insufficiently authorized. In response to this importunity the
+requisite passports were immediately sent to the commissioners to
+enable them to quit the Philippine Republic's seat of government and
+territory forthwith.
+
+Apart from the moral aspect of the case, and regarded only in
+the light of a business transaction, it does not appear that the
+Filipinos were ever offered a solid guarantee for the fulfilment of
+any of the proposed conditions. But the insuperable difficulty was
+Spain's inability to comply with the Filipinos' essential condition
+of recognition of the Philippine Republic.
+
+Finally, in the prosecution of the War of Independence, the American
+troops drove the insurgents so hard, capturing town after town, that
+they were constrained to abandon the custody of the Spanish survivors,
+who flocked in groups to the American posts, and eventually embarked
+for their native land. On May 20, 1900, the Spanish Commission received
+a letter from the insurgent General Trias stating that orders had
+been issued to liberate all the prisoners.
+
+In due course the Spanish warships sunk at the Battle of Cavite were
+raised by the Americans, and the dead bodies of Spain's defenders on
+that memorable day were handed over to a Spanish Commission. The same
+organization also took charge of the bodies recovered from Baler (east
+coast of Luzon), and after a _Requiem_ mass was said at the Cathedral
+these mortal remains were conducted with appropriate solemnity on
+board the s.s. _Isla de Panay_, which left Manila for Barcelona on
+February 14, 1904.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVII
+
+End of the War of Independence and After
+
+
+In the month of May, 1901, the prisons were overflowing with captured
+insurgents, and the military authorities found an ostensible reason
+for liberating a number of them. A General Order was issued that to
+"signalize the recent surrender of General Manuel Tinio [230] and
+other prominent leaders," one thousand prisoners of war would be
+released on taking the oath of allegiance. The flame of organized
+insurrection was almost extinguished, but there still remained some
+dangerous embers. Bands of armed natives wandered through the provinces
+under the name of insurgents, and on July 31, 1901, one of Aguinaldo's
+subordinate generals, named Miguel Malvar, a native of Santo Tomas
+(Batangas) issued a manifesto from the "Slopes of the Maquiling"
+(Laguna Province), announcing that he had assumed the position of
+Supreme Chief. Before the war he had little to lose, but fishing
+in troubled waters and gulling the people with _anting-anting_ and
+the "signs in the clouds" proved to be a profitable occupation to
+many. An expedition was sent against him, and he was utterly routed
+in an engagement which took place near his native town. After Miguel
+Malvar surrendered (April 16, 1902) and Vicente Lucban was captured
+in Samar (April 27, 1902), the war (officially termed "insurrection")
+actually terminated, and was formally declared ended on the publication
+of President Roosevelt's Peace Proclamation and Amnesty grant, dated
+July 4, 1902. A sedition law was passed under which every disturber
+of the public peace would be thenceforth arraigned, and all acts of
+violence, pillage, etc., would come under the common laws affecting
+those crimes. In short, insurgency ceased to be a valid plea; if it
+existed in fact, officially it had become a dead letter. Those who
+still lingered in the penumbra between belligerence and brigandage
+were thenceforth treated as common outlaws whose acts bore no political
+significance whatever. The notorious "General" San Miguel, for a long
+time the terror of Rizal Province, was given no quarter, but shot on
+the field at Corral-na-bato in March, 1903. One of the famous bandits,
+claiming to be an insurgent, was Faustino Guillermo, who made laws,
+levied tribute, issued army commissions, divided the country up into
+military departments, and defied the Government until his stratagem
+to induce the constabulary to desert brought about his own capture in
+the Bosoboso Mountain (Morong) in June, 1903. A mass of papers seized
+revealed his pretension to be a patriotic saviour of his people, but
+it is difficult indeed to follow the reasoning of a man who starts on
+that line by sacking his own countrymen's villages. Another interesting
+individual was Artemio Ricarte, formerly a primary schoolmaster. In
+1899 he led a column under Aguinaldo, and was subsequently his
+general specially commissioned to raise revolt inside the capital;
+but the attempt failed, and many arrests followed. During the war he
+was captured by the Americans, to whom he refused to take the oath
+of allegiance and was deported to Guam. In Washington it was decided
+to release the political prisoners on that island, and Ricarte and
+Mabini were brought back to Manila. As Ricarte still refused to take
+the oath, he was banished, and went to Hong-Kong in February, 1903. In
+the following December he returned to Manila disguised as a seaman,
+and stole ashore in the crowd of stevedore labourers. Assuming the
+ludicrous title of the "Viper," he established what he called the
+"triumvirate" government in the provinces, and declared war on the
+Americans. His operations in this direction were mostly limited to
+sending crackbrained letters to the Civil Governor in Manila from his
+"camp in the sky," but his perturbation of the rural districts had to
+be suppressed. At length, after a long search, he was taken prisoner
+at the cockpit in Mariveles in May, 1904. He and his confederates were
+brought to trial on the two counts of carrying arms without licence
+and sedition, the revelations of the "triumvirate," which were comical
+in the extreme, affording much amusement to the reading public. The
+judgement of the court on Ricarte was six years' imprisonment and a
+fine of $6,000.
+
+Apolinario Mabini, Ricarte's companion in exile, was one of the most
+conspicuous figures in the War of Independence. Of poor parentage,
+he was born at Tanauan (Batangas) in May, 1864, and having finished
+his studies in Manila he took up the law as a profession, living in
+obscurity until the Rebellion, during which he became the recognized
+leader of the Irreconcilables and Prime Minister in the Malolos
+Government. In the political sphere he was the soul of the insurgent
+movement, the ruling power behind the presidency of Aguinaldo. It
+was he who drafted the Constitution of the Philippine Republic, dated
+January 21, 1899 (_vide_ p. 486). Taken prisoner by the Americans in
+December, 1899, he was imprisoned on his refusal to subscribe to the
+oath of allegiance. On August 1, 1900, he was granted leave to appear
+before the Philippine Commission, presided over by Mr. W. H. Taft. He
+desired to show that, according to his lights, he was not stubbornly
+holding out against reason. As Mabini was not permitted to discuss
+abstract matters, and Mr. Taft reiterated the intention to establish
+American sovereignty in the Islands, their views were at variance,
+and Mabini was deported to Guam, but allowed the privilege of taking
+his son there as his companion in exile. On his return to Manila in
+February, 1903, he reluctantly took the required oath and was permitted
+to remain in the capital. Suffering from paralysis for years previous,
+his mental energy, as a chronic invalid, was amazing. Three months
+after his return to the metropolis he was seized with cholera, to
+which he succumbed on May 13, 1903, at the early age of thirty-nine, to
+the great regret of his countrymen and of his many European admirers.
+
+The Irreconcilables, even at the present day, persist in qualifying
+as legitimate warfare that condition of provincial perturbation
+which the Americans and the Federal Party hold to be outlawry
+and brigandage. Hence the most desperate leaders and their bands
+of cut-throats are, in the Irreconcilables' phraseology, merely
+insurgents still protesting against American dominion. As late
+as February, 1902, an attempt was made to revive the war in Leyte
+Island. At that date a certain Florentino Penaranda, styling himself
+the Insurrectionary Political-Military Chief, issued a proclamation
+in his island addressed "in particular to those who are serving under
+the Americans." This document, the preamble of which is indited in
+lofty language, carrying the reader mentally all round North and
+South America, Abyssinia and Europe, terminates with a concession of
+pardon to all who repent their delinquency in serving the Americans,
+and an invitation to Filipinos and foreigners to join his standard. It
+had little immediate effect, but it may have given an impulse to the
+brigandage which was subsequently carried on so ferociously under a
+notorious, wary ruffian named Tumayo. Thousands, too long accustomed
+to a lawless, emotional existence to settle down to prosaic civil
+life, went to swell the ranks of brigands, but it would exceed the
+limits of this work to refer to the over 15,000 expeditions made
+to suppress them. Brigandage (_vide_ p. 235) has been rife in the
+Islands for a century and a half, and will probably continue to exist
+until a network of railways in each large island makes it almost
+impossible. But brigandage in Spanish times was very mild compared
+with what it is now. Such a thing as a common highwayman was almost
+unknown. The brigands of that period--the _Tulisanes_ of the north
+and the _Pulajanes_ of the south--went in parties who took days to
+concoct a plan for attacking a country residence, or a homestead, for
+robbery and murder. The assault was almost invariably made at night,
+and the marauders lived in the mountains, avoiding the highroads and
+the well-known tracks. The traveller might then go about the Islands
+for years without ever seeing a brigand; now that they have increased
+so enormously since the war, there is not business enough for them
+in the old way, and they infest the highways and villages. One effect
+of the revolution has been to diminish greatly the awe with which the
+native regarded the European before they had crossed swords in regular
+warfare. Again, since 1898, the fact that here and there a white man
+made common cause with outlaws has had a detrimental effect on the
+white man's prestige, and the new caste of bandits which has come
+into existence is far more audacious than its predecessor. Formerly
+the outlaws had only bowie-knives and a few fowling-pieces; now they
+have an ample supply of rifles. Hence, since the American advent,
+the single traveller and his servant journey at great risk in the
+so-called civilized provinces, especially if the traveller has
+Anglo-Saxon features. Parties of three or four, well armed, are
+fairly safe. Fierce fights with outlaws are of common occurrence;
+a full record of brigand depredations would fill a volume, and one
+can only here refer to a few remarkable cases.
+
+Early in 1904 a Spanish planter of many years' standing, named
+Amechazurra, and his brother-in-law, Joaquin Guaso, were kidnapped
+and held for ransom. When the sum was carried to the brigands'
+haunt, Guaso was found with his wrists broken and severely tortured
+with bowie-knife cuts and lance-thrusts. Having no power to use his
+hands, his black beard was full of white maggots. In this state he
+was delivered to his rescuers and died the next day. Since the close
+of the war up to the present day the provinces of Batangas and Cavite,
+less than a day's journey from the capital, have not ceased to be in a
+deplorable condition of lawlessness. The principal leaders, Montalon
+and Felizardo, [231] were formerly officers under the command of the
+insurgent General Manuel Trias, who surrendered to the Americans
+and afterwards accepted office as Civil Governor of the Province
+of Cavite. In this capacity he made many unsuccessful attempts to
+capture his former colleagues, but owing to his failure to restore
+tranquillity to the province he resigned his governorship in 1903. The
+Montalon and Felizardo bands, well armed, constantly overran the two
+adjoining provinces to murder the people, pillage their homes, and
+set fire to the villages. They bore an inveterate hatred towards all
+who accepted American dominion, and specially detested their former
+chief Trias, who, since his return from the St. Louis Exhibition,
+has shown a very pro-American tendency. The history of their crimes
+covers a period of five years. Felizardo was remarkable for his
+audacity, his fine horsemanship, and his expert marksmanship. During
+an attack on Paranaque, mounted on a beautiful pony stolen from the
+race-track of Pasay, he rode swiftly past a constabulary sentinel,
+who shot at him and missed him, whilst Felizardo, from his seat in the
+saddle, shot the sentinel dead. The evening before the day Governor
+Taft intended to sail for the United States, on his retirement from
+the governorship, Montalon hanged two constabulary men at a place
+within sight of Manila. In December, 1904, all this district was
+so infested with cut-throats that Manuel Trias, although no longer
+an official, offered to organize and lead a party of 300 volunteers
+against them. On January 24, 1905, the same bandits, Felizardo and
+Montalon, at the head of about 300 of their class, including two
+American negroes, raided Trias's native town of San Francisco de
+Malabon, murdered an American surgeon and one constabulary private,
+and seriously wounded three more. They looted the municipal treasury
+of 2,000 pesos and 25 carbines, and carried off Trias's wife and two
+children, presumably to hold them for ransom. The chief object of
+the attack was to murder Trias, their arch-enemy, but he was away
+from home at the time. On his return he set out in pursuit of the
+band at the head of the native constabulary. The outlaws had about
+160 small firearms, and during the chase several fierce fights took
+place. Being hunted from place to place incessantly, they eventually
+released Trias's wife and children so as to facilitate their own
+escape. Constabulary was insufficient to cope with the marauders,
+and regular troops had to be sent to these provinces. In February,
+1905, a posse of 25 Moro fighting-men was brought up from Siassi
+(Tapul group) to hunt down the brigands. Launches patrolled the
+Bay of Manila with constabulary on board to intercept the passage
+of brigands from one province to another, for lawlessness was, more
+or less, constantly rife in several of the Luzon provinces and half
+a dozen other islands for years after the end of the war. From 1902
+onwards, half the provinces of Albay, Bulacan, Bataan, Cavite, Ilocos
+Sur, and the islands of Camaguin, Samar, Leyte, Negros, Cebu, etc.,
+have been infested, at different times, with brigands, or latter-day
+insurgents, as the different parties choose to call them. The regular
+troops, the constabulary, and other armed forces combined were unable
+to exterminate brigandage. The system of "concentration" circuits,
+which had given such adverse results during the Rebellion (_vide_
+p. 392), was revived in the provinces of Batangas and Cavite, obliging
+the waverers between submission and recalcitration to accept a defined
+legal or illegal status. Consequently many of the common people went to
+swell the roving bands of outlaws, whilst those who had a greater love
+for home, or property at stake, remained within the prescribed limits,
+in discontented, sullen compliance with the inevitable. The system
+interrupted the people's usual occupations, retarded agriculture,
+and produced general dissatisfaction. The Insular Government then
+had recourse to an extreme measure which practically implied the
+imposition of compulsory military service on every male American,
+foreign, or native inhabitant between the ages of eighteen to fifty
+years, with the exception of certain professions specified in the
+Philippine Commission Act No. 1309, dated March 22, 1905. Under this
+law the native mayor of a town can compel any able-bodied American
+(not exempted under the Act) to give five days a month service in
+hunting down brigands, under a maximum penalty of P100 fine and three
+months' imprisonment. And, subject to the same penalty for refusal,
+any proprietor or tenant (white, coloured, or native) residing in any
+municipality, or ward, must report, within 24 hours, to the municipal
+authority, the name, residence, and description of _any_ person (not
+being a resident) to whom he gave assistance or lodging. In no colony
+where the value of the white man's prestige is appreciated would such
+a law have been promulgated.
+
+The proceedings of the constabulary in the disturbed provinces
+having been publicly impugned in a long series of articles and
+reports published in the Manila newspaper _El Renacimiento,_ the
+editors of that public organ were brought to trial on a charge of
+libel in July, 1905. The substance of the published allegations
+was that peaceable citizens were molested in their homes and were
+coerced into performing constabulary and military duties by becoming
+unwilling brigand-hunters. Among other witnesses who appeared at the
+trial was Emilio Aguinaldo, who testified that he had been forced to
+leave his home and present himself to a constabulary officer, who,
+he affirmed, bullied and insulted him because he refused to leave his
+daily occupations and risk his life in brigand-hunting. In view of
+the peculiar position of Aguinaldo as a fallen foe, perhaps it would
+have been better not to have disturbed him in his peaceful life as
+a law-abiding citizen, lest the world should misconstrue the intention.
+
+Confined to Pangasinan and La Union provinces, there is an organization
+known as the "Guards of Honour." Its recruits are very numerous,
+their chief vocation being cattle-stealing and filching other people's
+goods without unnecessary violence. It is feared they may extend their
+operations to other branches of perversity. The society is said to
+be a continuation of the _Guardia de Honor_ created by the Spaniards
+and stimulated by the friars in Pangasinan as a check on the rebels
+during the events of 1896-98. At the American advent they continued
+to operate independently against the insurgents, whom they harassed
+very considerably during the flight northwards from Tarlac. It was
+to escape the vengeance of this party that Aguinaldo's Secretary of
+State (according to his verbal statement to me) allowed himself to
+fall prisoner to the Americans.
+
+The _Pulajanes_ of Samar seem to be as much in possession of that
+Island as the Americans themselves, and its history, from the
+revolution up to date, is a lugubrious repetition of bloodshed,
+pillage, and incendiarism. The deeds of the notorious Vicente Lucban
+were condoned under the Amnesty of 1902, but the marauding organization
+is maintained and revived by brigands of the first water. Every
+move of the government troops is known to the _pulajanes_. The spy,
+stationed at a pass, after shouting the news of the enemy's approach
+to the next spy, darts into the jungle, and so on all along the line,
+in most orderly fashion, until the main column is advised. In July,
+1904, they slaughtered half the inhabitants of the little coast village
+of Taviran, mutilated their corpses, and then set out for the town of
+Santa Elena, which was burnt to the ground. In December of that year
+over a thousand _pulajanes_ besieged the town of Taft (formerly Tubig),
+held by a detachment of native scouts, whilst another party, hidden
+in the mountains, fell like an avalanche upon a squad of 43 scouts,
+led by an American lieutenant, on their way to the town of Dolores,
+and in ten minutes killed the officer and 37 of his men. After this
+mournful victory the brigands went to reinforce their comrades at
+Taft, swelling their forces _en route_, so that the besiegers of Taft
+amounted to a total of about 2,000 men. About the same time some 400
+_pulajanes_ were met by a few hundred so-called native volunteers, who,
+instead of fighting, joined forces and attacked a scout detachment
+whilst crossing a river. Twenty of the scouts were cut to pieces and
+mutilated, whilst thirteen more died of their wounds.
+
+Communication in the Island is extremely difficult; the maintenance of
+telegraph-lines is impossible through a hostile country, and messages
+sent by natives are often intercepted, or, as sometimes happens,
+the messengers, to save their lives, naturally make common cause
+with the bandits whom they meet on the way. The hemp-growers and
+coast-trading population, who have no sympathy with the brigands,
+are indeed obliged, for their own security, to give them passive
+support. Hundreds in the coast villages who are too poor to give, have
+to flee into hiding and live like animals in dread of constabulary
+and _pulajanes_ alike. Between "insurgency" and "brigandage," in this
+Island, there was never a very wide difference, and when General Allen,
+the Chief of the Constabulary, took the field in person in December,
+1904, he had reason to believe that the notorious ex-insurgent Colonel
+Guevara was the moving spirit in the lawlessness. Guevara, who had
+been disappointed at not securing the civil governorship of the
+Island, was suddenly seized and confined at Catbalogan jail to await
+his trial. The Samar _pulajanes_ are organized like regular troops,
+with their generals and officers, but they are deluded by a sort of
+mystic religious teaching under the guidance of a native pope. In
+January, 1905, the town of Balangiga (_vide_ p. 536), so sadly famous
+in the history of Samar on account of the massacre of American troops
+during the war, became a _pulajan_ recruiting station. A raid upon the
+place resulted in the capture of twenty chiefs, gorgeously uniformed,
+with gaudy _anting-anting _amulets on their breasts to protect them
+from American bullets. At this time the regimental Camp Connell, at
+Calbayoc, was so depleted of troops that less than a hundred men were
+left to defend it. Situated on a pretty site, the camp consists of two
+lines of wooden buildings running along the shore for about a mile. At
+one extremity is the hospital and at the other the quartermaster's
+depot. It has no defences whatever, and as I rode along the central
+avenue of beautiful palms, after meeting the ladies at a ball, I
+pictured to myself the chapter of horror which a determined attack
+might one day add to the doleful annals of dark Samar.
+
+Matters became so serious that in March, 1905, the divisional
+commander, General Corbin, joined General Allen in the operations
+in this Island. Full of tragedy is the record of this region, and
+amongst its numerous heroes was a Captain Hendryx. In 1902, whilst
+out with a detachment of constabulary, he was attacked, defeated, and
+reported killed. He was seen to drop and roll into a gully. But four
+days later there wandered back to the camp a man half dead with hunger
+and covered with festering wounds, some so infected that, but for the
+application of tobacco, gangrene would have set in. It was Captain
+Hendryx. Delirious for a while, he finally recovered and resumed his
+duties. A couple of years afterwards he was shipwrecked going round
+the coast on the _Masbate_. For days he and the ship-master alone
+battled with the stormy waves, a howling wind ahead, and a murderous
+rabble on the coast waiting for their blood. On the verge of death
+they reached a desolate spot whence the poor captain saved his body
+from destruction, but with prostrate nerves, rendering him quite unfit
+for further service. And the carnage in the Samar jungles, which has
+caused many a sorrow in the homeland, continues to the present day
+with unabated ferocity. By nature a lovely island, picturesque in
+the extreme, there is a gloom in its loveliness. The friendly native
+has fled for his life; the patches of lowland once planted with sweet
+potatoes or rows of hemp-trees, are merging into jungle for want of
+the tiller's hand. The voice of an unseen man gives one a shudder,
+lest it be that of a fanatic lurking in the _cogon_ grass to seek his
+fellow's blood. Near the coast, half-burnt bamboos show where villages
+once stood; bleached human bones mark the sites of human conflict,
+whilst decay and mournful silence impress one with the desolation of
+this fertile land. The narrow navigable channel separating Samar from
+Leyte Island is one of the most delightful bits of tropical scenery.
+
+The Constabulary Service Reports for 1903 and 1904 show that in
+the former period there were 357 engagements between brigand bands
+and the constabulary (exclusive of the army operations), and in the
+latter period 235 similar engagements. More than 5,000 expeditions
+were undertaken against the outlaws in each year; 1,185 outlaws
+were killed in 1903, and 431 in 1904, 2,722 were wounded or captured
+in 1903, and 1,503 in 1904; 3,446 arms of all sorts were seized in
+1903, and 994 in 1904. The constabulary losses in killed, wounded,
+died of wounds and disease, and deserted were 223 in 1904. In Cavite
+Province alone, with a population of 134,779, there were, in 1903,
+over 400 expeditions, resulting in 20 brigands killed, 23 wounded,
+and 253 captured. At this date brigandage is one of the greatest
+deterrents to the prosperous development of the Islands.
+
+The Adjutant-General's Report issued in Washington in December, 1901,
+gives some interesting figures relating to the Army, for the War of
+Independence period, i.e., from February 4, 1899, to June 30, 1901. The
+total number of troops sent to the Islands was as follows, viz.:--
+
+
+                            Officers.      Men.
+
+    Regular Army            1,342        60,933
+    Volunteers              2,135        47,867
+                            3,477       108,800
+
+
+Some were returning from, whilst others were going to the Islands;
+the largest number in the Islands at any one time (year 1900) was
+about 70,000 men.
+
+The total casualties in the above period were as follows, viz.:--
+
+
+                            Officers.  Men.         Total.
+
+    Dead (all causes)       115         3,384       3,499
+    Wounded                 170         2,609       2,779
+                            285         5,993       6,278
+
+
+In the same period the following arms were taken from the insurgents
+(captured and surrendered):--
+
+
+                    Revolvers               868
+                    Rifles               15,693
+                    Cannon                  122
+                    Bowie-knives          3,516
+
+
+The _Insurgent Navy,_ consisting of four small steamers purchased in
+Singapore and a few steam-launches, dwindled away to nothing. The
+"Admiral," who lived on shore at Gagalangin (near Manila), escaped
+to Hong-Kong, but returned to Manila, surrendered, and took the oath
+of allegiance on March 3, 1905.
+
+
+
+_Sedition_, in its more virulent and active forms, having been
+frustrated by the authorities since the conclusion of the war, the
+Irreconcilables conceived the idea of inflaming the passions of the
+people through the medium of the native drama. How the seditious
+dramatists could have ever hoped to succeed in the capital itself,
+in public theatres, before the eyes of the Americans, is one of those
+mysteries which the closest student of native philosophy must fail
+to solve.
+
+The most notable of these plays were _Hindi aco patay_ ("I am not
+dead"), _Ualang sugat_ ("There is no wound"), _Dabas ng pilac_ ("Power
+of Silver"), and _Cahapon, Ngayon at Bucas_ ("Yesterday, to-day, and
+to-morrow"). In each case there was an extra last scene not on the
+programme. Secret police and American spectators besieged the stage,
+and after a free fight, a cracking of heads, and a riotous scuffle
+the curtain dropped (if there were anything left of it) on a general
+panic of the innocent and the arrest of the guilty. The latter were
+brought to trial, and their careers cut short by process of law.
+
+The simple plot of _Hindi aco patay_ is as follows, viz.:--_Maimbot_
+(personifying America) is establishing dominion over the Islands,
+assisted by his son _Macamcam_ (American Government), and _Katuiran_
+(Reason, Right, and Justice) is called upon to condemn the conduct
+of a renegade Filipino who has accepted America's dominion, and
+thereby become an outcast among his own people and even his own
+family. There is to be a wedding, but, before it takes place, a
+funeral cortege passes the house of _Karangalan_ (the bride) with
+the body of _Tangulan_ (the fighting patriot). _Maimbot_ (America)
+exclaims, "Go, bury that man, that Karangalan and her mother may see
+him no more." _Tangulan_, however, rising from his coffin, tells them,
+"They must not be married, for I am not dead." And as he cries _Hindi
+aco patay,_ "I am not dead," a radiant sun appears, rising above
+the mountain peaks, simultaneously with the red flag of Philippine
+liberty. Then _Katuiran_ (Reason, Right, and Justice) declares that
+"Independence has returned," and goes on to explain that the new
+insurrection having discouraged America in her attempt to enslave the
+people, she will await a better opportunity. The flag of Philippine
+Independence is then waved to salute the sun which has shone upon
+the Filipinos to regenerate them and cast away their bondage.
+
+The theme of _Cahapon, ngayon at Bucas_ is somewhat similar--a protest
+against American rule, a threat to rise and expel it, a call to arms,
+and a final triumph of the Revolution. About the same time (May,
+1903) a seditious play entitled _Cadena de Oro_ ("The golden chain")
+was produced in Batangas, and its author was prosecuted. It must,
+however, be pointed out that there are also many excellent plays
+written in Tagalog, with liberty to produce them, one of the best
+native dramatists being Don Pedro A. Paterno.
+
+There will probably be for a long time to come a certain amount of
+disaffection and a class of wire-pullers, men of property, chiefly
+half-castes, constantly in the background, urging the masses forward
+to their own destruction. Lucrative employments have satisfied the
+ambition of so many educated Filipinos who must find a living, that
+the same principle--a creation of material interest--might perhaps be
+advantageously extended to the uneducated classes. All the malcontents
+cannot become State dependents, but they might easily be helped to
+acquire an interest in the soil. The native who has his patch of
+settled land with _unassailable title_ would be loth to risk his all
+for the chimerical advantages of insurrection. The native boor who
+has worked land for years on sufferance, without title, exposed to
+eviction by a more cunning individual clever enough to follow the
+tortuous path which leads to land settlement with absolute title,
+falls an easy prey to the instigator of rebellion. These illiterate
+people need more than a liberal land law--they need to be taken in
+hand like children and placed upon the parcelled-out State lands
+with indisputable titles thereto. And if American enterprise were
+fostered and encouraged in the neighbourhood of their holdings,
+good example might root them to the soil and convert the _boloman_
+into the industrious husbandman.
+
+The poorest native who cannot sow for himself must necessarily
+feed on what his neighbour reaps, and hunger compels him to become
+a wandering criminal. It is not difficult partially to account for
+the greater number in this condition to-day as compared with Spanish
+times. In those days there was what the natives termed _cayinin_. It
+was a temporary clearance of a patch of State land on which the
+native would raise a crop one, two, or more seasons. Having no legal
+right to the soil he tilled, and consequently no attachment to it,
+he would move on to other virgin land and repeat the operation. In
+making the clearance the squatter had no respect for State property,
+and the damage which he did in indiscriminate destruction of valuable
+timber by fire was not inconsiderable. The law did not countenance the
+_cayinin_, but serious measures were seldom taken to prevent it. The
+local or municipal headmen refrained from interference because, having
+no interest whatever in public lands, they did not care, as landowners,
+to go out of their way to create a bad feeling against themselves
+which might one day have fatal consequences. Although no one would
+for a moment suggest a revival of the system, there is the undeniable
+fact that in Spanish times thousands of natives lived for years in this
+way, and if they had been summarily evicted, or prosecuted by a forest
+bureau, necessity would have driven them into brigandage. High wages,
+government service, and public works are no remedy; on the contrary,
+if the people are thereby attracted to the towns, what will become of
+the true source of Philippine wealth, which is agriculture? Even in
+industrial England the cry of "Back to the soil" has been lately raised
+by an eminent Englishman known by name to every educated American.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVIII
+
+Modern Manila
+
+
+Commanding the entrance to Manila Bay there is the Island of
+Corregidor, situated 27 miles south-west of the city, towards which
+the traveller glances in vain, expecting to descry something of a
+modern fortress, bristling with artillery of the latest type which,
+if there, might hold the only channels leading to the capital against
+a hostile fleet. The anchorage for steamers is still half a mile to a
+mile and a half away from the Pasig River, but the new artificial port,
+commenced by the Spaniards, is being actively brought to completion
+by the Americans, so that the day may come when the ocean traveller
+will be able to walk from the steamer down a gangway to a quay and
+land on the south, or Walled City, side of the capital.
+
+In the city and beautiful suburbs of Manila many changes and some
+improvements have been effected since 1898. After cleansing the
+city to a certain extent, embellishment was commenced, and lastly,
+works of general public utility were undertaken. Public spaces were
+laid out as lawns with walks around them; the old botanical-gardens
+enclosure was removed and the site converted into a delightful
+promenade; the Luneta Esplanade,--the joy of the Manila elite who
+seek the sea-breezes on foot or driving--was reformed, the field of
+Bagumbayan, which recalls so many sad historical reminiscences since
+1872, was drained; breaches were made in the city walls to facilitate
+the entry of American vehicles; new thoroughfares were opened; an iron
+bridge, commenced by the Spaniards, was completed; a new Town Hall, a
+splendidly-equipped Government Laboratory, a Government Civil Hospital,
+and a Government Printing Office were built; an immense ice-factory
+was erected on the south side of the river to meet the American
+demand for that luxury [232]; also a large refrigerated-meat store,
+chiefly for army supply, was constructed, meat, poultry, vegetables,
+and other foodstuffs having to be imported on account of the dearth
+of beef and tilth cattle due to rinderpest. Fresh meat for private
+consumption (i.e., exclusive of army and navy) is imported into
+Manila to the value of about $700,000 gold per annum. Reforms of more
+urgent public necessity were then introduced. Existing market-places
+were improved, new ones were opened in Tondo and the Walled City;
+an excellent slaughter-house was established; the Bridge of Spain
+was widened; a splendidly-equipped fire-engine and brigade service,
+with 150 fire-alarm boxes about the city and suburbs, was organized
+and is doing admirable work; roads in the distant suburbs were put in
+good condition, and the reform which all Manila was looking forward
+to, namely, the repair of the roads and pavements in the _Escolta_,
+the _Rosario_, and other principal thoroughfares in the heart of the
+business quarter of Binondo, was postponed for six years. Up to the
+middle of 1904 they were in a deplorable condition. The sensation,
+whilst in a gig, of rattling over the uneven stone blocks was as if
+the whole vehicle might at any moment be shattered into a hundred
+fragments. The improvement has come at last, and these streets are
+now almost of a billiard-table smoothness. The General Post Office
+has been removed from the congested thoroughfare of the _Escolta_
+to a more commodious site. Electric tramcars, in supersession of
+horse-traction, run through the city and suburbs since April 10,
+1905. Electric lighting, initiated in Spanish times, is now in
+general use, and electric fans--a poor substitute for the punkah--work
+horizontally from the ceilings of many shops, offices, hotels, and
+private houses. In the residential environs of the city many acres
+of ground have been covered with new houses; the once respectable
+quarter of Sampaloc [233] has lost its good name since it became
+the favourite haunt of Asiatic and white prostitutes who were not
+tolerated in Spanish times. On the other hand, the suburbs of Ermita
+and Malate, which are practically a continuation of Manila along
+the seashore from the Luneta Esplanade, are becoming more and more
+the fashionable residential centre. About Sampaloc there is a little
+colony of Japanese shopkeepers, and another group of Japanese fishermen
+inhabits Tondo. The Japanese have their Consulate in Manila since the
+American advent, their suburban Buddhist temple was inaugurated in
+San Roque on April 22, 1905, and in the same year there was a small
+Japanese banking-house in the suburb of Santa Cruz.
+
+The Bilibid Jail has been reformed almost beyond recognition
+as the old Spanish prison. A great wall runs through the centre,
+dividing the long-term from the short-term prisoners. In the centre
+is the sentry-box, and from this and all along the top of the wall
+every movement of the prisoners can be watched by the soldier on
+guard. Nevertheless, a batch of convicts occasionally breaks jail,
+and those who are not shot down escape. Gangs of them are drafted
+off for road-making in the provinces, where, on rare occasions,
+a few have been able to escape and rejoin the brigands. In March,
+1905, a squad of 42 convicts working in Albay Province made a dash
+for freedom, and 40 of them got away.
+
+With the liberty accorded them under the new dominion the Filipinos
+have their freemason lodges and numerous _casinos_. [234] There are
+American clubs for all classes of society--the "Army and Navy," the
+"University," the "United States," a dozen other smaller social
+meeting-houses, and societies with quaint denominations such as
+"Knights of Pythias," "Haymakers," "Red Cloud Tribe," "Knights of
+the Golden Eagle," etc. Other nationalities have their clubs too; the
+_Cercle Francais_ is now located in _Calle Alcala_; the English Club,
+which was formerly at Nagtajan on the river-bank, has been removed
+to Ermita on the seashore, and under the new _regime_ the Chinese
+have their club-house, opened in 1904, in _Calle Dasmarinas_, where
+a reception was given to the Gov.-General and the elite of Manila
+society. The entertainment was very sumptuous, the chief attractions
+being the fantastic decorations, the gorgeous "joss house" to a dead
+hero, and the chapel in honour of the Virgin del Pilar.
+
+Several new theatres have been opened, the leading one being the
+_National_, now called the "Grand Opera House"; comedy is played at
+the _Paz_; the _Zorrilla_ (of former times) is fairly well-built,
+but its acoustic properties are extremely defective, and the other
+playhouses are, more properly speaking, large booths, such as the
+_Libertad_, the _Taft_, the _Variedades_, and the _Rizal_. In the
+last two very amusing Tagalog plays are performed in dialect. There
+is one large music-hall, and a number of cinematograph shows combined
+with variety entertainments.
+
+There are numerous second- and third-rate hotels in the city and
+suburbs. The old "Fonda Lala," which existed for many years in the
+_Plaza del Conde_, Binondo, as the leading hotel in Spanish days,
+is now converted into a large bazaar, called the "Siglo XX.," and
+its successor, the "Hotel de Oriente," was purchased by the Insular
+Government for use as public offices. The old days of comfortable
+hackney-carriages in hundreds about the Manila streets, at 50 cents
+Mex. an hour, are gone for ever. One may now search hours for one,
+and, if found, have to pay four or five times the old tariff. Besides
+the fact that everything costs more, the scarcity is due to _Surra_
+(_vide_ p. 336), which has enormously reduced the pony stock. There
+are occasionally sales of American horses, and it is now one of the
+novelties to see them driven in carriages, and American ladies riding
+straddle-legged on tall hacks. In Spanish days no European gentleman
+or lady could be seen in a _carromata_ [235] (gig) about Manila; now
+this vehicle is in general use for both sexes of all classes. Bicycles
+were known in the Islands ten years ago, but soon fell into disuse
+on account of the bad roads; however, this means of locomotion is
+fast reviving.
+
+The Press is represented by a large number of American, Spanish and
+dialect newspapers. These last were not permitted in Spanish times.
+
+Innumerable laundries, barbers' shops, Indian and Japanese bazaars,
+shoe-black stalls, tailors' shops, book-shops, restaurants, small
+hotels, sweetmeat stalls, newspaper kiosks, American drinking-bars,
+etc., have much altered the appearance of the city. The Filipino,
+who formerly drank nothing but water, now quaffs his iced keg-beer
+or cocktail with great gusto, but civilization has not yet made him a
+drunkard. American drinking-shops, or "saloons," as they call them, are
+all over the place, except in certain streets in Binondo, where they
+have been prohibited, as a public nuisance, since April 1, 1901. It
+was ascertained at the time of the American occupation that there were
+2,206 native shops in Manila where drinks were sold, yet no native
+was ever seen drunk. This number was compulsorily reduced to 400 for
+a native population of about 190,000, whilst the number of "saloons"
+on February 1, 1900, was 224 for about 5,000 Americans (exclusive of
+soldiers, who presumably would not be about the drinking-bars whilst
+the war was on). But "saloon" licences are a large source of revenue
+to the municipality, the cost being from $1,200 gold downwards per
+annum. A "saloon," however, cannot now be established in defiance
+of the general wishes of the neighbours. There is a law (similar
+in spirit to the proposed Option Law in England) compelling the
+intending "saloon" keeper to advertise in several papers for several
+days his intention to open such a place, so that the public may have
+an opportunity of opposing that intention if they desire to do so.
+
+The American advent has abolished the peaceful solitude of the
+Walled City where, in Spanish days, dwelt the friar in secluded
+sanctity--where dignitaries and officials were separated by a river
+from the bubbling world of money-makers. An avalanche of drinking-bars,
+toilet-saloons, restaurants, livery stables, and other catering
+concerns has invaded the ancient abodes of men who made Philippine
+history. The very names of the city streets remind one of so many
+episodes in the Islands' progress towards civilization that to-day
+one is led to pause in pensive silence before the escutcheon above the
+door of what was once a noble residence, to read below a wall-placard,
+"Horses and buggies for hire. The best turn-out in the city. Telephone
+No. ----." This levelling spirit is gradually converting the historic
+Walled City into a busy retail trading-centre. For a long time the
+question of demolishing the city walls has been debated. Surely those
+who advocate the destruction of this fine historical monument cannot
+be of that class of Americans whose delight is to travel thousands
+of miles, at great expense, only to glance at antiquities not more
+interesting, in the possession of others, and who would fain transport
+Shakespeare's house bodily to American soil. The moat surrounding the
+Walled City is already being filled up, but posterity will be grateful
+for the preservation of those ancient bulwarks--landmarks of a decadent
+but once glorious civilization. Most of the Spanish feast-days have
+been abolished, including the St. Andrew's day (_vide_ Li-ma-hong,
+p. 50), and the following have been officially substituted, viz.:--
+
+
+            New Year's Day              January 1
+            Washington's birthday       February 22
+            Holy Thursday               -- --
+            Good Friday                 -- --
+            Decoration Day              May 31
+            Independence Day            July 4
+            Occupation Day              August 13
+            Thanksgiving Day            November 24
+            Christmas Day               December 25
+            Rizal Day                   December 30
+
+
+Manila was formerly the capital of the province of that name, as
+well as the Philippine metropolis. Since the American occupation the
+city and suburbs form a kind of federal zone; what was once Manila
+Province is now known as Rizal Province, and with it is incorporated
+that territory formerly designated Morong District, the capital town
+of this newly-created province being Pasig.
+
+The Municipal Board of Manila is composed of five persons, namely
+a Philippine mayor and one Philippine and three American members,
+who are practically all nominees of the Insular Government. The
+emolument of the mayor and of each member is $4,500. The Board,
+assisted by a staff of 20 persons, native and American, has the
+control of the ten following departments, viz.:--Police, Fire, Law,
+Police Courts, Justice of the Peace Courts, Public Works, Assessments
+and Collections, Deeds Register, City Schools, and Sheriff's Office
+connected with the government of the federal zone of Manila.
+
+Manila is the seat of the Insular Government, which comprises (1) the
+Philippine Commission (Legislative), composed of eight members, of whom
+five (including the president) are Americans and three are Filipinos;
+(2) the Civil Commission (Executive), the president of which holds the
+dual office of President of the Philippine Commission and Gov.-General,
+whilst the four secretaries of Interior, Finance and Justice, Public
+Instruction, and Commerce and Police are those same Americans who
+hold office as members of the Philippine Commission. The Philippine
+Commission is empowered to pass statutes, subject to ratification
+by Congress, the enacting clause being, _By authority of the United
+States, be it enacted by the Philippine Commission_. The Insular
+Government communicates with the Washington Government through the
+Department of the Secretary of State for War.
+
+Up to the end of 1904 the chief authority in these Islands was styled
+the "Civil Governor." Thenceforth, by special Act of Congress, the
+title was changed to that of "Governor-General."
+
+The Emoluments of the Members of the Insular Government, the Chiefs of
+Departments, and the principal officers are as follows, viz. [236]:--
+
+
+                                                                $ gold
+President of the Philippine and Civil Commissions               20,000
+Four American Members of the Philippine Commission,
+    _ex-officio_ Members of the Civil Commission           each 15,500
+Three Philippine Members of the Philippine Commission       each 5,000
+
+
+_Departments_
+
+Architecture Bureau                     Chief                    4,000
+Archives, Patents, Copyright and
+    Trade Marks                         Chief                    3,000
+Agriculture Bureau                      Chief                    4,000
+Audit Office                            Auditor                  7,000
+Bilibid Prison                          Warden                   3,000
+[237] Civil Service Board               Chief Examiner           4,000
+Court of First Instance, Manila         each Judge               5,500
+Court of First Instance,                provincial Judge  $4,500 to 5,000
+Court of Land Registration              Judge                    5,000
+Court of Customs Appeal                 Judge                    4,500
+Civil Hospital                          Chief Physician          3,000
+Civil Sanatorium (Benguet)              Chief Physician          2,400
+Constabulary                            Executive Officer        5,500
+Coast Guard and Transport Office        Chief (Navy pay)            --
+Cold Storage and Ice-Plant              Superintendent           3,600
+Customs and Immigration                 Collector of Customs     7,000
+Engineering Department                  Consulting Engineer      5,000
+Ethnological Survey                     Chief                    3,500
+Education Department                    Gen. Superintendent      6,000
+Forestry Bureau                         Chief                    3,000
+Laboratories (Gov.)                     Superintendent           6,000
+Manila Port Works                       Chief (Army pay)            --
+Mining Bureau                           Chief                    3,000
+Non-Christian Tribes Bureau             --                          --
+_Official Gazette, The_                 Editor                   1,800
+Purchasing Agent                        --                       4,500
+Public Lands Office                     Chief                    3,200
+Public Health                           Commissioner             3,500
+Public Printing Office                  Public Printer           4,000
+Post Office                             Director                 6,000
+Public Lands                            Chief                    3,200
+Supreme Court                           Chief Justice [238]      7,500
+Supreme Court                           each associate Judge     7,000
+Treasury Office                         Treasurer                7,000
+Weather Bureau                          Director                 2,500
+
+
+The total cost of the Civil Service for the year 1903 amounted to
+8,014,098.77 pesos (_vide_ "Official Gazette," Vol. II., No. 8,
+dated February 4, 1904), equal to $4,007,049.38 gold.
+
+At the time of the American occupation (1898) the Government was
+necessarily military, the first governor being Maj.-General Elwell
+S. Otis up to May 5, 1900, when he returned to America and was
+immediately succeeded by Maj.-General Arthur McArthur. On January 20,
+1899, during General Otis's governorship, a Commission of Inquest
+was appointed under the presidency of Dr. Jacob Gould Schurman
+known as the Schurman Commission, which arrived in Manila on May 2
+to investigate the state of affairs in the Islands. The Commission
+was instructed to "endeavour, without interference with the military
+authorities of the United States now in control in the Philippines,
+to ascertain what amelioration in the condition of the inhabitants
+and what improvements in public order may be practicable." The other
+members of the Commission were Rear-Admiral George Dewey, Charles
+Denby, Maj.-General Elwell S. Otis, and Dean C. Worcester. Admiral
+Dewey, however, was soon relieved of his obligation to remain on
+the Commission, and sailed from Manila on May 19 on the _Olympia_
+for New York, _via_ Europe. The commissioners' inquiries into
+everything concerning the Islands, during their few months' sojourn,
+are embodied in a published report, dated December 20, 1900. [239]
+The War of Independence was being waged during the whole time, and
+military government, with full administrative powers, continued,
+as heretofore, until September 1, 1900. In the meantime the
+Washington Government resolved that military rule in the Islands
+should be superseded by civil government. The pacified provinces,
+and those in conditions considered fit for civil administration,
+were to be so established, and pending the conclusion of the war and
+the subsidence of brigandage, the remainder of the Archipelago was
+to be administered as military districts. With this end in view,
+on March 16, 1900, Judge William H. Taft [240] was commissioned
+to the Islands and sailed from San Francisco (Cal.) with his four
+colleagues, on April 15, for Manila, where he arrived on June 3. In
+the three months' interval, pending the assumption of legislative
+power, the Taft Commission was solely occupied in investigating
+conditions. To each commissioner certain subjects were assigned; for
+example, Mr. Taft took up the Civil Service, Public Lands, and the
+Friar questions. Each commissioner held a kind of Court of Inquiry,
+before which voluntary evidence was taken. This testimony, later on,
+appeared in print, and its perusal shows how difficult indeed it must
+have been for the Commission to have distinguished the true from
+the false, the valuable from the trivial. It was the beginning of
+the end of military rule in the Islands. "The days of the Empire,"
+as the military still designate that period, were numbered, and yet
+not without regret by several native communities, as evidenced by the
+fact that they sent petitions to the authorities in Manila against
+the change to civil government. Many law-abiding natives explained to
+me that the feature in military rule which particularly pleased them
+was its prompt action--such a contrast to the only civil government
+of which they had had any experience. About two years later, in 1903,
+Lieut.-Gen. Miles, Commander-in-Chief of the U.S. Army, made a tour in
+the Islands and drew up a report on the conduct of military operations,
+charging military officers with the grossest cruelty to the natives. A
+Senate Commission of Inquest was appointed, but it was quite impossible
+to prove anything conclusively on unimpeachable evidence; the general
+retired from his command without the blessing of his comrades, and
+the matter was abated.
+
+The Philippine Commission commenced its functions as the legislative
+body, with limitary executive powers in addition, on September 1,
+1900, the military governor continuing as the Chief Executive until
+July 4, 1901. Up to that date the civil executive authority in the
+organized provinces was vested in the military governor. From that
+date Maj.-General Adna R. Chaffee relieved Maj.-General McArthur in the
+sole capacity of commander-in-chief of the military division, the full
+executive civil power having been transferred to the Civil Commission,
+and thenceforth the Insular Government became constituted as it is at
+present. Governor Taft pursued his investigations until February, 1901,
+when he started on a provincial tour, heard opinions, and tendered
+the hand of peace. Municipalities united at certain centres to meet
+him; the rich vied with each other to regale him royally; the crowd
+flocked in from all parts to greet him; the women smiled in their
+gala dresses; the men were obsequiousness itself; delicate viands
+were placed before him, and, like every other intelligent traveller
+in these Islands, he was charmed by that distinguishing trait of the
+Luzon Islanders--that hospitality which has no parity elsewhere,
+and for which words cannot be found adequately to describe it to
+the reader. As Governor Taft himself said truly, "When a Filipino
+who has a house says it is yours, he turns out his family and puts
+you in." [241] Governor Taft's reception was only that which had
+been accorded to many a personage before his day, travelling in a
+style befitting his rank. He returned to Manila, captivated by the
+fascinating side of Philippine character: the reverse side he could
+never know by personal experience, and the natives secured in him a
+champion of their cause--"Philippines for the Filipinos." The main
+object of his official progress was to collect information for new
+legislation anent the municipalities. Civil government was rapidly
+established in all the provinces which were peaceful and otherwise
+suitable for it. The War of Independence was drawing to a close
+(April, 1902), and meanwhile Governor Taft made tours to Negros,
+Cebu, and other islands to explain and inaugurate the new _regime_
+based on President McKinley's Instructions to the Taft Commission,
+dated April 7, 1900. Governor Taft's administration was signalized
+by his complacency towards the natives, his frequent utterances
+favourable to their aspirations, and his discouragement of those
+Americans who sought to make quick fortunes and be gone. But there
+were other Americans than these, and his favourite theme, "Philippines
+for the Filipinos," aroused unconcealed dissatisfaction among the
+many immigrants, especially the ex-volunteers, who not unnaturally
+considered they had won a right to exploit, within reasonable bounds,
+the "new possession" gained by conquest. Adverse critics contended that
+he unduly protected the Filipino to the prejudice of the white man's
+interest. Frank and unfettered encouragement of American enterprise
+would surely have helped the professed policy of the State, which
+was to lead the Filipinos to habits of industry; and how could this
+have been more easily accomplished than by individual example? On
+the other hand, the Filipinos, in conformity, regarded him as their
+patron: many were unconsciously drawn to submission by the suavity
+of his rule, whilst his courtesy towards the vanquished served as
+the keynote to his countrymen to moderate their antipathy for the
+native and remove the social barriers to a better understanding. And,
+in effect, his example did serve to promote a _rapprochement_ between
+the conquerors and the conquered.
+
+Appointed to the Secretaryship of War, ex-Governor Taft left the
+Philippines in January, 1904, to take up his new office, and was
+succeeded in the presidency of the Philippine and Civil Commissions
+by Mr. Luke E. Wright. [242] On his way back to the United States
+ex-Governor Taft was entertained by the Emperor of Japan, and on his
+arrival in his native city of Cincinnati (Ohio) he made a remarkable
+speech on the subject of the Philippines, the published reports of
+which contain the following significant passage:--"The Filipinos
+elected the provincial governor and we appointed the treasurer. We
+went there to teach the Filipinos honesty, and we appointed American
+treasurers on the theory that the Americans could not steal. Never,
+never have I suffered the humiliation that came to me when seventeen
+of our disbursing officers, treasurers, were found defaulters! They
+are now in Bilibid prison serving out their twenty-five years."
+
+Since then the Manila Press has recorded many cases of breach of
+public trust by those who were sent to teach the Islanders how to
+rule themselves (_vide_ p. 493). The financial loss arising from
+malfeasance on the part of any civil servant is made good to the
+Treasury by a Guarantee Society, which gives a bond in each case,
+whilst it takes years to recover the consequent loss of prestige
+to the State. The obvious remedy for this state of things would
+be the establishment in America of a Colonial Civil Service into
+which only youths would be admitted for training in the several
+departments. Progressive emolument, with the prospect of a long,
+permanent career and a pension at the end of it would be inducements
+to efficiency and moral stability.
+
+The Philippine Civil Service is open to all United States citizens
+and Filipinos between the ages of 18 and 40 years in accordance with
+Philippine Commission Act No. 5, known as the "Civil Service Act,"
+passed September 19, 1900. The service is divided into "classified"
+and "unclassified." The former division is strictly subject to the
+provisions of the above Act; the latter indicates the positions which
+may be filled by appointment without subjection to the provisions of
+the said Act. The Act declares its purpose to be "the establishment
+and maintenance of an efficient and honest civil service in the
+Philippine Islands." American soldiers who have less than six months
+to serve can apply for permission to be examined for the civil
+service. The Act does not include examination for civil positions
+in the Military Division of the Islands, but the Civil Service Board
+is empowered to hold such examinations to fill vacancies as they may
+occur in the nine military departments which employ civilians. General
+examinations, some in English only, others in Spanish only, or both,
+are held every Monday, and special examinations which include those
+for scientific, professional, and technical positions are taken on
+specified dates. The commencing salaries of the positions offered range
+from $1,200 downwards. Medical attendance is furnished gratis, and
+the minimum working time is six and a half hours per day, except from
+April 1 until June 15--the hottest weather--when the minimum working
+day is five hours. American women are employed in the Post Office.
+
+The Civil Commission is located in the Walled City in the building
+which was formerly the Town Hall, a new Town Hall having been built
+outside the walls. Occasionally, when public interest is much aroused
+on the subject of a proposed measure, the Commission announces
+that a public conference will be held for the expression of opinion
+thereon. A few persons state their views before the Commissioners,
+who rebut them _seance tenante_, and the measure, as proposed,
+usually becomes law, unless outside agitation and popular clamour
+induce the Commissioners to modify it. At times the proceedings have
+been enlivened by sparkling humour. A worthy and patriotic Filipino
+once gravely prefaced his speech thus:--"I rise to speak, inspired
+by Divine Right"--but he had to wait until the roars of laughter
+had subsided. When the "Sedition Act" was being discussed, a less
+worthy auditor declared assassination of the Chief of a State to be
+merely a political offence. He expected to go to prison and pose as
+a martyr-patriot, but the Commission very rightly damped his ambition
+by declaring him to be a fool irresponsible for his acts.
+
+Philippine Commission Acts are passed with great rapidity, amended
+and re-amended, sometimes several times, to the bewilderment of the
+public. Out of 862 Acts passed up to the end of 1903, 686 of them
+were amended (some five times) and on 782 no public discussion was
+allowed. The "Internal Revenue Law of 1904" had not been in force nine
+months when it was amended (March, 1905) by another law. By Philippine
+Commission Acts Nos. 127 and 128 the limits of the Surigao and Misamis
+provinces were defined and afterwards upset by Act No. 787. The policy
+of the Americans anent the Philippines was continually shifting during
+the first five years of their occupation, and only since ex-Governor
+Taft became Secretary of War does it seem to have assumed a somewhat
+more stable character.
+
+The Archipelago is divided into 41 provinces (exclusive of the Moro
+Province, _vide_ p. 577), all under civil rule, in accordance with
+Congress Act of July 1, 1902, and War Office Order of July 4, 1902,
+whereby the remainder of military government ceased. In June, 1904,
+nearly all the above 41 provinces had native governors with salaries
+ranging from $3,000 gold downwards. In most of these provinces the
+native governor and two American officials of about equal rank, such as
+the Treasurer and the Supervisor, form a Provincial Council, but the
+member who disagrees with the vote of the other two can appeal to the
+Gov.-General. After the War of Independence several insurgent chiefs
+were appointed to provincial governments; for instance, Cailles in La
+Laguna, Trias in Cavite, Climaco in Cebu, etc. For obvious reasons the
+system is advantageous. Juan Cailles, Governor of La Laguna, is the
+son of a Frenchman who married a native in one of the French colonies
+and then settled in these Islands. For some time Juan Cailles was
+registered at the French Consulate as a French citizen. As commander of
+the insurgents of La Laguna and Tayabas during the War of Independence,
+he maintained strict discipline in his troops, and energetically drew
+the line between legitimate warfare and common freebooting.
+
+The provincial governor may be either elected or appointed by the
+Civil Commission. If he be a Filipino, he is usually elected by vote
+of the vice-presidents (ex-mayors) and municipal councillors of the
+province. The mayor of a municipality is styled "Presidente." Every
+male over twenty-three years of age who pays taxes amounting to 30
+pesos, or who possesses 500 pesos' value of goods is eligible for
+election by vote of the townspeople. He holds office for two years,
+but can be re-elected for a consecutive term. The municipalities are
+of four classes according to their importance, the mayor's salary
+being as follows, viz.: First class, 1,200 pesos; second class, 1,000
+pesos; third class, 800 pesos; and fourth class, 600 pesos. Provincial
+justices of the peace are paid by litigants' fees only. For municipal
+improvements, or other urgent necessity, the Insular Government,
+from time to time, grants loans to municipalities, repayable with
+interest. In some cases two or more towns have been wisely merged
+into one municipality: for instance, Cauit, Salinas, and Novaleta
+(Cavite) go together; Baliuag, Bustos, and San Rafael (Bulacan) form
+one; Barasoain and Malolos (Bulacan) are united; as are also Taal
+and Lemery (Batangas). By Philippine Commission Act No. 719 the 51
+municipalities of Yloilo Province were reduced to 17.
+
+Malolos is the new capital of Bulacan Province, and the two former
+provinces of Camarines Norte and Camarines Sur are now one, under the
+name of Ambos Camarines. In the dependent wards of towns (_barrios_)
+the municipal police are practically the only official representatives;
+the post of lieutenant (_teniente de barrio_) is gratis and onerous,
+and few care to take it.
+
+The _Guardia Civil_ or Rural Guard of Spanish times has been
+superseded by the _Philippine Constabulary_ under the supreme and
+independent command of a cavalry captain (U.S.A.) holding local rank
+of Brig.-General. In the private opinion of many regular army officers,
+this force ought to be under the control of the Division Commander. The
+officers are American, European, and Philippine. The privates are
+Filipinos, and the whole force is about 7,000 strong. The function
+of this body is to maintain order in rural districts. For some time
+there were cases of batches of the rank-and-file passing over to the
+brigands whom they were sent to disperse or capture. However, this
+disturbing element has been gradually eliminated, and the Philippine
+Constabulary has since performed very useful service. Nevertheless,
+many educated natives desire its improvement or suppression, on
+account of the alleged abuse of functions to the prejudice of peaceful
+inhabitants (_vide_ p. 550).
+
+Co-operating with municipal police and the Philippine Constabulary
+there is an organized Secret Police Service. It is a heterogeneous
+band of many nationalities, including Asiatics, which, as an
+_executive_ force to investigate crimes known to have been committed,
+renders good service; as an _initiative_ force, with power, with or
+without authority, to molest peaceful citizens in quest of imaginary
+misdemeanours, in order to justify the necessity of its employment,
+it is an unwelcome institution to all, especially the lower-middle
+and common classes, amongst whom it can operate with greater impunity.
+
+Not unfrequently when a European nation acquires a new tropical
+possession, the imaginative mind discovers therein unbounded wealth
+which the eye cannot see, hidden stores of gold procurable only by
+manual labour, and fortune-making possibilities awaiting whosoever
+has the courage to reveal them. The propagation of these fallacious
+notions always allures to the new territory a crowd of ne'er-do-wells,
+amongst the _bona fide_ workers, who ultimately become loafers preying
+upon the generosity of the toilers. This class was not wanting in
+the Philippines; some had followed the army; others who had finished
+their term of voluntary military service elected to remain in the
+visionary El Dorado. Some surreptitiously opened drinking-shanties;
+others exploited feminine frailty or eked out an existence by
+beggarly imposition, and it was stated by a provincial governor that,
+to his knowledge, at one time, there were 80 of this class in his
+province. [243] The number of undesirables was so great that it became
+necessary for the Insular Government to pass a Vagrant Act, under
+which the loafer could be arrested and disposed of. The Act declares
+vagrancy to be a misdemeanour, and provides penalties therefor; but
+it has always been interpreted in a generous spirit of pity for the
+delinquent, to whom the option of a free passage home or imprisonment
+was given, generally resulting in his quitting the Islands. This
+measure, which brought honour to its devisers and relief to society,
+was, in a few instances, abused by those who feigned to be vagrants
+in order to secure the passage home, but these were judiciously dealt
+with by a regulation imposing upon them a short period of previous
+training in stone-breaking to fit them for active life in the homeland.
+
+The following General Order was issued by the Division Commander in
+January, 1905, viz.:--
+
+    It is reported by the Civil Governor that in several places in
+    Luzon there have gathered numbers of dishonourably discharged men
+    from the army who are a hindrance to progress and good order. The
+    Division Commander desires that in future no dishonourably
+    discharged soldiers be allowed to remain in the Islands, where
+    their presence is very undesirable. It is therefore directed that,
+    in acting on cases where the sentence is dishonourable discharge
+    without confinement, the dishonourable discharge be made to take
+    effect after arrival in San Francisco, where the men so discharged
+    should be sent by first transport.
+
+The Philippine Archipelago is a military division under the supreme
+command of a Maj.-General. The commanders, since the taking of Manila
+(1898), have been successively Maj.-Generals Merritt, Otis, McArthur,
+Chaffee, Davis, Wade, Corbin, and Wood.
+
+The Division is administratively subdivided into three departments,
+namely Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao, the two former being commanded
+by Brig.-Generals and the last by a Maj.-General.
+
+The _Department of Luzon_, headquarters at Manila, includes the
+following principal islands, viz. Luzon, Catanduanes, Romblon,
+Masbate, Marinduque, Mindoro, Sibuyan, Polillo, Ticao, Tablas, Lucbang,
+and Burias.
+
+The _Department of Visayas_, headquarters at Yloilo, embraces the
+islands of Cebu, Negros, Panay, Leyte, Samar, and Bojol.
+
+The _Department of Mindanao_, headquarters at Zamboanga, includes
+all the remaining islands of the Philippine Archipelago.
+
+
+    STATEMENT OF ARMY STRENGTH IN THE PHILIPPINES ON JUNE 30, 1904 [244]
+
+                    Present             Absent              Present and Absent
+                    Officers. Troops.   Officers. Troops.   Officers. Troops.
+
+General Officers           5         0         0       0           5       0
+Gen. Staff Officers       45         0         4       0          49       0
+Non-Com Officers at
+    posts                  0       109         0       0           0     109
+Medical Department        93       919        10       0         103     919
+[245]Contract Surgeons    63         0        22       0          85       0
+[245]Contract Dental
+    Surgeons              17         0         0       0          17       0
+Engineers                 25       395         1       7          26     402
+Signal Corps               7       353         2       1           9     354
+Ordnance Corps             2        49         0       2           2      51
+Officers temporarily
+    in the Division       33         0         0       0          33       0
+Total Cavalry            172     2,903        27      32         199   2,935
+Total Artillery            9       293         3       0          12     293
+Total Infantry           356     7,020        78      70         434   7,090
+
+Total American Forces    827    12,041       147     112         974  12,153
+Philippine Scouts         77     4,565        23     413         100   4,978
+
+Total Strength           904    16,606       170     525       1,074  17,131
+
+
+
+Besides the American troops, there is a voluntary enlistment
+of Filipinos, forming the Philippine Scout Corps, a body of rural
+police supplementary to the constabulary, commanded by a major and 100
+American first and second lieutenants. Until recently the troops were
+stationed over the Islands in 98 camps and garrison towns, as follows,
+viz.:--In the Department of Luzon 76, Visayas 8, and Mindanao 14;
+but this number is now considered unnecessarily large and is being
+reduced to effect economy.
+
+The Army, Navy, and Philippine Scouts expenses are entirely defrayed
+by the United States Treasury. A military prison is established in
+the little Island of Malahi, in the Laguna de Bay, whence the escape
+of a prisoner is signalled by three shots from a cannon, and whoever
+captures him receives a $30-reward. As the original notice to this
+effect required the recovery of the prisoner "alive or dead," two armed
+natives went in pursuit of an American soldier. To be quite sure of
+their prey they adopted the safe course of killing him first. Such an
+unexpected interpretation of the notice as the grim spectacle of an
+American's head was naturally repugnant to the authorities, and the
+"alive or dead" condition was thenceforth expunged.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIX
+
+The Land of the Moros
+"Allah Akbar!"
+
+
+The Military Department of Mindanao comprises the large island of
+that name and the adjacent insular territories inhabited chiefly by
+Mahometans, called by the Christians _Moros_ (_vide_ p. 129, et seq.).
+
+The natural features of these southern islands are, in general,
+similar to those of the other large islands of the Archipelago,
+but being peopled by races (exclusive of the settlers) of different
+habits, customs, religions, and languages, some aggressively savage
+and warlike, others more or less tractable, but all semi-civilized,
+the social aspect is so distinct from that of the islands inhabited
+by the Christian Filipinos as almost to appear like another quarter
+of the tropical globe.
+
+Early in the year 1899 General John C. Bates was appointed to the
+command of the Mahometan islands. In Mindanao Island there was no
+supreme chieftain with whom to treat for the gradual introduction
+of civilization and American methods, the whole territory being
+parcelled out and ruled by petty Sultans, _Dattos_ or chiefs,
+in separate independence. In the Lake Lanao district, for instance,
+there is at least one _Datto_ for every 50 men. The only individual who
+had any pretence to general control of the Mahometan population was
+Hadji [246] Mohammad Jamalul Kiram, the Sultan of Sulu [247] (_vide_
+p. 141). Therefore, in August, 1899, General Bates and this petty
+prince made an agreement which was ratified by Congress on February
+1 following, on the recommendation of the Schurman Commission (_vide_
+p. 562), and thenceforth came into force. The principal conditions of
+this convention were: (1) The Sultan's dignity and certain monopoly
+rights were recognized under American suzerainty. (2) An annual pension
+of 3,000 pesos was secured to him, and annual salaries ranging from
+180 to 900 pesos were to be paid to eight of his _Dattos_ and one
+priest. (3) A Moro accused of crime was to be tried by a Moro judge,
+the maximum penalty for murder being fixed at 105 pesos (equal to
+about ten guineas), which was a fair price in this region, from the
+Moro point of view, for life here is held very cheap. (4) Absconding
+Americans or Sulus were to be mutually surrendered. (5) The Americans
+were (_a_) to protect the Sultan against encroachments by foreigners
+or European nations; (_b_) not to take arms against the Sulus without
+consulting the Sultan; (_c_) not to transfer their dominion over Jolo
+to others except in agreement with the Sultan; (_d_) to be at liberty
+to occupy any place in the Sultan's domains without trespassing on
+lands about the royal residence, except as a military necessity of
+war with a foreign Power; (_e_) not to interfere with the Mahometan
+religion, or its rites, or its customs; (_f_) not to travel about
+Sulu Island without the permission of the Sultan, who would provide an
+escort. (6) The American flag was to be used on land and at sea. (7)
+The Sulus were to be free to carry their native arms. (8) The Sultan
+was at liberty to collect tribute everywhere in his domains, and to
+have the right of direct intercourse with the American Gov.-General.
+
+In consideration of the above, the Sultan undertook to maintain order
+between his _Dattos_, to repress internecine warfare, and gradually
+to abolish slavery throughout his jurisdiction.
+
+Apparently the Sultan entered into the agreement much in the spirit
+of Mr. Micawber, who signed the I.O.U.'s and thanked God his
+debts were paid. The ruler of Sulu was not over-willing and far
+less able to give effect to its conditions, his power being more
+nominal than real in his own possessions, and in Mindanao almost
+_nil_. Nevertheless, it was a politic measure on the Americans'
+part, because its non-fulfilment opened the way for the adoption,
+with every appearance of justification, of more direct and coercive
+intervention in the affairs of this region. General Bates was
+succeeded by other generals in the command of this district, without
+any very visible progress towards definite pacification and subjection
+to civilization. The military posts on the coasts, evacuated by the
+Spaniards, were occupied by American troops and new ones were created,
+but every attempt to establish law and order beyond their limits, on
+the white man's system, was wasted effort. When the Spanish-American
+War broke out, the Spanish military authorities were on the point
+of maturing a plan for the final conquest of Mindanao. Due to the
+persistent activity of my old friend General Gonzalez Parrado, they
+had already achieved much in the Lake Lanao district, through the
+Marahui campaign. On the evacuation of the Spaniards the unrestrained
+petty chiefs were like lions released from captivity. Blood-shed,
+oppression, extortion, and all the instinctive habits of the shrewd
+savage were again rife. A preconcerted plan of campaign brings little
+definite result; it never culminates in the attainment of any final
+issue, for, on the native side, there is neither union of tribes nor
+any combined organized attempt at even guerilla warfare, hence the
+destruction of a _cotta_ or the decimation of a clan has no immediate
+and lasting moral effect on the neighbouring warlike tribe. Life is
+cheap among them; a Moro thinks no more about lopping off another's
+head than he does about pulling a cocoanut from the palm-tree. The
+chief abhors the white man because he interferes with the chief's
+living by the labour of his tribe, and the tribesman himself is
+too ignorant even to contemplate emancipation. Subservience to the
+bidding of the wily _Datto_, poverty, squalidity, and tribal warfare
+for bravado or interest seem as natural to the Moro as the sight of
+the rising sun. Hence, when the Americans resolved to change all this
+and marched into the tribal territories for the purpose, the war-gongs
+rallied the fighting-men to resist the dreaded foe, unconscious of
+his mission of liberty under the star-spangled banner. The sorrows
+or the joys of one tribe are no concern of the other; thus there was
+seldom, if ever, any large combination of forces, and the Americans
+might be fighting hard in the Taraca country, or around the Lanao
+Lake, whilst the neighbouring clan silently and doggedly awaited its
+turn for hostilities. The signal for the fray would be the defiant
+reply of a chief to the Americans' message demanding submission, or a
+voluntary throwing down of the gauntlet to the invader, for the Moro
+is valiant, and knows no cringing cowardice before the enemy. Troops
+would be despatched to the _cotta_, or fortress, of the recalcitrant
+ruler, whence the _lantaca_ cannon would come into action, whilst the
+surging mob of warriors would open fire in squads, or rush forward
+in a body, _barong_ or kris in hand, only to be mown down, or put to
+flight and the _cotta_ razed to the ground. A detailed account of the
+military operations in these islands would be but a tedious recital of
+continuous struggles with the irresistible white man. In Mindanao, the
+Malanao tribes, occupying the northern regions around the Lake Lanao
+districts, seem to have offered the most tenacious resistance. On
+April 5, 1902, a fierce encounter with the Bacolod tribes ended
+with their fort being destroyed, 120 Moros killed, and 11 Americans
+wounded. In the following month the bloody battle of Bayan brought
+such disastrous results to the natives that they willingly accepted
+peace for the time being. In the Taraca River engagement, 10 _cottas_
+were destroyed, 250 Moros were killed, 52 were taken prisoners, and
+the booty amounted to 36 cannon and 60 rifles. The Moros possessed a
+large number of Remington rifles, looted from the Spaniards, on whom
+they had often made surprise raids. The Bacolod and the Taraca tribes,
+although frequently defeated, gave much trouble long after the other
+districts had been forced into submission.
+
+One of the most exciting expeditions was that of Lieutenant Forsyth,
+who went out reconnoitring with 15 men, marching from Parang-Parang
+Camp northwards. Moros came to meet him on the way to warn him not to
+advance, but Forsyth bravely pushed on until his party, surrounded
+by hundreds of hostile natives, was almost all destroyed. Forsyth
+and his fellow-survivors fled into an unknown region, where they
+lost themselves, and all would have perished had they not been
+befriended by a _Datto_ who enabled them to get back. Then Colonel
+(now Brig.-General) F. D. Baldwin set out from Malabang Camp in
+May, attacked and captured the _cottas_ of the Datto of Binadayan
+and the Sultan of Bayan on Lake Lanao, and gained a signal victory
+over them with a loss of seven killed and 44 wounded. Lieutenant
+Forsyth's horses and rifles were recovered, and the Moros suffered
+so severely in this engagement that it was hardly thought they would
+rise again. In consequence of this humiliation of the great Sultan
+of Bayan, many minor Lake _Dattos_ voluntarily cultivated friendly
+relations with the Americans. Even among the recalcitrant chiefs there
+was a lull in their previous activity until they suddenly swept down
+on the American troops twelve times in succession, killing four and
+wounding 12 of them. The whole Lanao Lake district was in a ferment
+when, on September 28, 1902, Captain John J. Pershing was detached
+from Baldwin's force to lead another expedition against them "composed
+of a battalion of the 7th Infantry, a troop of the 15th Cavalry, and
+two platoons of the 25th Field Artillery." [248] Pershing inflicted
+such a crushing defeat on the Macui Moros, destroying many of their
+strongholds, one Sultan and a large number of his warriors, that he
+was hailed with delight as the pacifier of Mindanao. The expedition
+returned with a total loss of only two Americans wounded, and after
+Pershing's heroic exploit, not only was it in the mouth of every one,
+"there is peace in Mindanao," but in the Report of the Secretary of
+War for 1902, p. 19, there is a paragraph beginning thus:--"_Now that
+the insurrection has been disposed of_ we shall be able to turn our
+attention, not merely to the slave trade, but to the already existing
+slavery among the Moros." But peace was by no means assured, and
+again Captain J. J. Pershing distinguished himself as the successful
+leader of an expedition in the Marahui district. Starting from Camp
+Vicars [249] on April 5, 1903, with 150 men, Maxim guns, mortars, and
+artillery, his instructions were to "explore" the north and west coast
+of Lake Lanao, but to overcome any opposition offered. It was quite
+expected that his progress would be challenged, hence the warlike
+preparations. Arrived at Sugud, the Moros kept up a constant fire
+from the hills on the American front. On the high ridge running down
+to the lake the Bacolod fort was clearly seen flying the battle flags
+of defiance. On the battlements there was a yelling crowd of Moros
+beating their gongs, rushing to and fro, flourishing their weapons,
+and firing their _lantaca_ cannon towards the Americans; but the
+range was too great to have any effect. The artillery was brought into
+action, forcing many of the Moros to try their fortunes in the open;
+but again and again they were repulsed, and by nightfall the Bacolod
+ridge was occupied by the troops. The next morning the mortars were
+brought into play, and shells were dropped into the fort during all
+that day and night. On the third day Captain Pershing decided to storm
+the fort; bridges were constructed across the ravines, Maxim guns
+poured shot through the loopholes, and finally an assault party of
+10 men rushed across the bridge and climbed the parapet, where they
+were met by the Moros, with whom they had a desperate hand-to-hand
+fight. It was a fine display of American pluck. The attacking party
+was quickly supported by more troops, who either killed or captured
+the defenders. Finally all the combustible portion of the fort was
+burnt to the ground, 12 cannon were captured, and about 60 Moros
+were slain. The demolition of Bacolod fort was a great surprise to
+the Moros, who had considered it impregnable, whilst the defeat of
+the savage Sultan (the _Panandungan_) destroyed for ever his former
+unlimited prestige among the tribe. The force was then divided, and
+before the troops reached camp again there were several smaller fights,
+including the bombardment of Calahui _cotta_. The distance traversed by
+this expedition was about 80 miles, the American losses being one man
+killed and two officers and 14 men wounded. For this signal victory the
+War Department cabled its thanks to Captain J. J. Pershing on May 11.
+
+As to the management of the Moros, Captain J. J. Pershing expresses
+the following just opinion, viz.:--"As far as is consistent with
+advancement, a government by a Sultan, or a _Datto_, as the case may
+be, should be disturbed as little as possible; that is, the people
+should be managed through the _Dattos_ themselves," etc. [250]
+
+The last general in command of the District of Mindanao, prior to the
+present constitution of the Moro Province, was Brig.-General Samuel
+Sumner, who, just before his departure therefrom, wrote as follows,
+viz.:--"Murder and robbery will take place as long as we are in the
+country, at least for years to come. The Moro is a savage, and has no
+idea of law and order _as we understand it_. _Anarchy_ practically
+prevails throughout the region. To take power and control away from
+the Sultans and _Dattos_ until we can inaugurate and put in force a
+better government would add to the confusion already existing." [251]
+
+The instructions of the President of the United States to the
+Philippine Commission, dated April 7, 1900, direct as follows,
+viz.:--"In dealing with the uncivilized tribes of the Islands the
+Commission shall adopt the same course followed by Congress in
+permitting the tribes of our North American Indians to maintain
+their tribal organizations and government, and under which many of
+those tribes are now living in peace and contentment, surrounded by
+a civilization to which they are unable or unwilling to conform."
+
+From the American point of view, but not from the Moro way of looking
+at things, an apparent state of anarchy prevailed everywhere; but the
+Sultans and the _Dattos_ took very good care not to tolerate what,
+in Europe, one would term anarchy, tending to subvert the local
+rule. There is no written code of Moro justice. If a Moro stole a
+buffalo from another, and the case were brought before the judge,
+this functionary and the local chief would, by custom, expect to make
+some profit for themselves out of the dispute. The thief would have
+to pay a fine to the headman or go into slavery, but having no money
+he would have to steal it to purchase his freedom. The buffalo being
+the object of dispute would be confiscated, and to be even with the
+defendant for the loss of the buffalo, the plantiff would lop off
+the defendant's head if he were a man of means and could afford to
+pay 105 pesos fine for his revenge.
+
+The real difficulty was, and still is, that there is no Sultan,
+or _Datto_, of very extended authority to lay hold of and subdue,
+and whose defeat or surrender would entail the submission of a whole
+district or tribe. The work of subjection has to be performed piecemeal
+among the hundreds of _Dattos_, each of whom, by established custom,
+can only act for himself and his own retainers, for every _Datto_ would
+resent, at the risk of his life, any dictation from another. All this
+is extremely irritating to the white commander, who would prefer to
+bring matters to a definite crisis by one or more decisive contests,
+impossible of realization, however, in Mindanao or Sulu Islands.
+
+Such was the condition of affairs in the southern extremity of
+the Archipelago when it was decided to appoint a Maj.-General to
+command it and create a semi-independent government for its local
+administration. Maj.-General Leonard Wood [252] was happily chosen for
+this arduous and delicate task, and on July 25, 1903, he took up his
+appointment, holding it for about two years, when he was transferred
+to Manila to command the Division in succession to Maj.-General Henry
+C. Corbin.
+
+This region, now called the _Moro Province_, was established under
+Philippine Commission Act No. 787 of June 1, 1903 (which came into
+effect on July 15 following), and includes all Mindanao [253] except
+the larger portion of Misamis Province and all Surigao Province
+(N. and E.), which are under civil government, [254] the Jolo (Sulu)
+Archipelago, the Tawi Tawi group, and all the islands south of Lat. 8 deg.
+N., excepting therefrom Palauan (Paragua) and Balabac Islands and
+the islands immediately adjacent thereto, but including the Island
+of Cagayan de Jolo. The seat of government is at Zamboanga, the
+headquarters of the military district, whose commander (Maj.-General
+Wood) acted in the dual capacity (but not _ex-officio_) of military
+commander and President of the Legislative Council of the Moro
+Province, which was organized September 2, 1903, and is composed as
+follows, viz.:--
+
+
+    Legislative Council                         Emolument
+
+    President, the Provincial Governor          $6,000 gold (if he be
+                                                a civilian). [255]
+    Provincial Secretary                        Not exceeding
+    Provincial Treasurer                        $4,000 gold
+    Provincial Attorney
+    Provincial Superintendent of Schools
+    Provincial Engineer
+
+
+The Council has power to enact laws "by authority of and subject to
+annulment or amendment by the Philippine Commission," and four members
+of the six constitute a quorum for legislative action. The Provincial
+Governor is responsible, and must report from time to time to the
+Gov.-General of the Philippines. The province is sub-divided into
+five governmental districts, and one sub-district under governors
+and lieut.-governor respectively. [256]
+
+
+    Districts                                  Emolument of Governor
+
+    Zamboanga   (including Basilan Is.)
+    Jolo (sulu) (including Tawi Tawi group)
+    Lanao (including Yligan and Lake Lanao)    Not exceeding $3,500
+    Cottabato (including Polloc)               gold if he be a civilian.
+    Davao (including Catil)
+
+    Dapitan (a sub-district of Zamboanga)      Not exceeding $2,000
+                                               gold, if he be a civilian.
+
+
+Each district is controlled by a District Council composed of the
+governor, the secretary, and the treasurer. At present all the district
+governors are army officers.
+
+Section 15 of the above Act No. 787 provides that governors and
+secretaries of districts must learn and pass an examination in the
+dialects of their localities within 18 months after taking office,
+or be subject to dismissal.
+
+Under Philippine Commission Act No. 82, entitled "The Municipal Code,"
+amended in its application to the Moro Province by the Legislative
+Council of the Moro Province Act No. 35, of January 27, 1904, the
+Moro districts and sub-districts are furthermore sub-divided in the
+following manner, viz.:--
+
+_Municipalities_ are established in the district or sub-district
+capital towns, and wherever there is a population sufficiently large
+and enlightened to be entitled to municipal rights. [257] A president
+(mayor), vice-president, or councillor must be between twenty-six
+and sixty-five years of age, and must intelligently speak, read, and
+write Spanish, English, or the principal local dialect. Ecclesiastics,
+soldiers in active service, and persons receiving emolument from
+public funds are debarred from these offices. Every municipal officer
+must give a bond with two or more sureties equal to at least half
+of the amount of annual funds which will probably pass through his
+hands. The maximum salary of a president (mayor) is P1,200, and that
+of municipal secretary P600. Certain other officers are also paid,
+but the vice-presidency and councillorships are honorary posts. A
+person elected to office by the people is not permitted to decline it,
+except for certain reasons defined in the code, subject to a maximum
+penalty of six months' imprisonment. The mayor's symbol of office is
+a cane with a silver knob, plated ferrule, and black cord and tassels.
+
+Natives whose habits and social condition will not yet permit their
+inclusion in a municipality are segregated into _Tribal Wards_ [258]
+(Legislative Council Act No. 39, of February 19, 1904). The headman
+is generally the chief recognized by his race or people as such,
+and is immediately responsible to the district governor by whom
+he is appointed. His annual salary ranges from P240 to P1,800, and
+his badge of office is a baldric of red leather with a metal disc,
+bearing an impression of the Moro Province seal. He and his advisory
+council perform the usual municipal functions on a minor scale, and
+are permitted to "conform to the local customs of the inhabitants,
+unless such customs are contrary to law or repugnant to the usages
+or moral sense of civilized peoples."
+
+A Tribal Ward is furthermore divided into _Tribal Ward Districts_. The
+district headman is the deputy of the tribal ward headman to whom he
+is immediately responsible. His annual salary ranges from P96 to P600,
+and his badge of office is a baldric of yellow canvas with a metal
+disc as mentioned above. The tribal ward headman's district deputies
+together constitute the police force of the whole ward. Tribal ward
+headmen and their district deputies are not required to give bond. At
+any time, on certain conditions, a member of a tribal ward can apply
+for full citizenship in a municipality. In short, the governmental
+system adopted is intended to raise the native progressively from
+savagery to municipal life.
+
+The sources of _Revenue_ are briefly as follows, viz:--
+
+_Provincial._--Property tax (7/8 per cent. of assessed value),
+industrial, cedula (poll tax of 1 peso for each male over 18 years),
+stamps, court fees, fines, sales of supplies to municipalities,
+and forestry collection.
+
+_Municipal._--Ownership and transfer of cattle, rents and profits,
+licences, fines and carts.
+
+_Customs Revenues_ in the five ports of entry, viz.:--Jolo, Zamboanga,
+Cottabato, Siassi, and Bongao.
+
+The Summary of the fiscal year ending June 30, 1904, stands thus:--
+
+
+    Revenue
+
+    Provincial Taxes and Forestry payments          P114,713.66
+    Customs Revenue                                  222,664.39
+                                                     ----------
+                                                    P337,378.05
+
+    Expenditure
+
+    Provincial                                      P174,361.70
+    Appropriated for Public Works                     26,181.76
+    Customs Expenses                                  53,170.62
+    Balance available                                 83,663.97
+                                                     ----------
+                                                    P337,378.05
+
+
+The maintenance of the Constabulary Force, Post Office Department,
+and Courts of First Instance in this Province is an Insular Government
+charge.
+
+The revenue collected within the province (including the customs
+receipts) is spent therein. No remittance of funds is made to the
+Insular Treasury, but provincial accounts are subject to Insular
+Government audit, and have to be rendered to Manila.
+
+The troops assigned to this command are as follows, viz. [259]:--
+
+
+Armed Forces in the Moro Province.              Present and Absent.
+                                                Officers.   Troops.
+
+Regular troops [260]                                236     3,766
+Contract and Dental  Surgeons and attached Staff     25       --
+Total American forces                               261     3,766
+Native troops                                        11       543
+
+Total Strength, Military District                   272     4,309
+Philippine Constabulary (Moro and Christian mixed)
+    under Civil Government orders                    22       530
+                                                    ---     -----
+                                                    294     4,839
+
+
+On General Wood's recommendation, the Bates Agreement (_vide_
+p. 571) was rescinded on the ground that it was an obstacle to
+good government. In truth, the Sultan of Sulu was probably quite
+as unable as he was unwilling to carry out its provisions. However,
+under Philippine Commission Act No. 1259 (amended by Act No. 1320 of
+April 12, 1905), certain small annual money allowances are made to
+the present Sultan of Sulu and his principal advisers.
+
+In Mindanao, trouble again arose on the east shore of Lake Lanao,
+and an expedition was organized to march against the Taracas, who
+were, however, only temporarily subdued. Defiant messages were sent
+by the _Dattos_, and General Wood decided to conduct operations in
+person. According to private information given to me by officers
+in Mindanao some months after the battle, immense slaughter was
+inflicted on this tribe, whose _cottas_ were annihilated, and they were
+utterly crushed for the time being. About the beginning of 1904 the
+depredations of the Moros in the upper valley of the Cottabato River
+were revolting beyond all toleration. Cottabato town was pillaged under
+the leadership of Datto Ali and of his brother, Datto Djimbangan. In
+March an expedition invested the Serenaya territory in the Cottabato
+district and operated from the 4th to the 14th of that month without
+any American casualties. Datto Ali's fort at Kudarangan was taken and
+destroyed. [261] This formidable stronghold is described by General
+Wood thus:--"It was larger than twenty of the largest _cottas_ of the
+Lake region or Sulu, and would have easily held a garrison of four or
+five thousand men. It was well located, well built, well armed, and
+amply supplied with ammunition. There were embrasures for 120 pieces
+of artillery. Eighty-five pieces were captured, among them many large
+cannon of from 3 inches to 5 1/2 inches calibre. The other pieces in
+the work, small _lantacas_, were carried off or thrown into the river"
+(_vide_ First Annual Report of the Moro Province).
+
+Datto Ali thenceforth became a fugitive with some 60 armed followers
+and about a hundred others whom he pressed into his service as
+carriers. After the battle, Datto Djimbangan, Ali's brother, was
+taken unawares at his ranche by a detachment of American troops. He
+was conducted as a prisoner to Cottabato, and in February, 1905, he
+was transferred to the Zamboanga jail to await his trial for sedition
+and rebellion. Again the Taracas ventured on a series of attacks on
+the American military posts in the locality. A body of troops was
+despatched there in March, and after ten days' operations this tribe
+was routed and dispersed, the American casualties being two men killed,
+one drowned, 10 wounded, and one officer slightly wounded. On May
+8 a party of 39 men and two officers, reconnoitring about Simbalan,
+up the Cottabato Valley, was attacked, 13 men being killed, two taken
+prisoners, six wounded, and the two officers killed. It would appear
+that the guides were conducting the party safely, when a lieutenant
+insisted on taking another route and landed his troops in a plateau
+covered with _cogon_ (pampas-grass) about eight feet high. On emerging
+from this they all got into a stream, where the Moros suddenly fell
+upon them. The punitive Simpetan Expedition immediately set out for
+that district and successfully operated from the 13th to the 28th
+of May without any American casualties. Datto Ali, who was again
+on the warpath, is the son-in-law of old Datto Piang, the terror
+of the neighbourhood in his younger days and also just after the
+evacuation by the Spaniards. Ali declared that he would not yield to
+the Americans one iota of his independence, or liberate his slaves, and
+swore vengeance on all who went in his pursuit. Being the hereditary
+_Datto_, the inhabitants of the valley generally sympathized with him,
+at least passively. In the latter half of 1904, constant endeavour
+was made to effect the capture of this chieftain, whilst old Datto
+Piang, the son of a Chinaman with a keen eye to business, supplied
+the Americans with baggage-carriers at a peso a day per man for the
+troops sent to hunt down his refractory son-in-law. Active operations
+were sustained against him, and from the military posts of Malabang
+(formerly a Moro slave-market) and Parang-Parang on the Illana Bay
+coast there were continually small punitive parties scouring the
+district here and there. At the former camp I was the guest of the
+genial Colonel Philip Reade, in command of the 23rd Infantry, when
+Lieutenant C. R. Lewis was brought in wounded from a Cottabato River
+sortie. Colonel Reade, whose regiment had had about the roughest
+work of any in the Island, had certainly inspired his men with the
+never-know-when-you-are-beaten spirit, for the report of a reverse
+set them all longing to be the chosen ones for the next party. But
+up to July, 1905, Datto Ali had been able to elude capture, although
+General Wood personally conducted operations against him a year before,
+establishing his headquarters at Cabacsalan, near the Lake Ligusan.
+
+The most ferocious and arrogant Mindanao tribes occupy regions within
+easy access of the coast. Perhaps their character is due to their
+having led more adventurous lives by land and sea for generations,
+plundering the tribes of the interior and making slave raids in
+their _vintas_ on the northern islands and christian native coast
+settlements. In the centre of the Island and around the mountainous
+region of the Apo the tribes are more peaceful and submissive, without
+desire or means for warfare. Many of the Bagobo tribe (which I have
+twice visited), in the neighbourhood of Davao, have come down to
+settle in villages under American protection, paying only an occasional
+visit to their tribal territory to make a human sacrifice.
+
+In Basilan Island, a dependency of Zamboanga, about 13 miles distant,
+Datto Pedro Cuevas accepted the new situation, and under his influence
+peace was assured among the large Moro population of that island. The
+history of this man's career bristles with stirring episodes. Born in
+1845, of Tagalog parentage, he started life as a Cavite highwayman,
+but was captured and deported to the agricultural colony of San
+Ramon, near Zamboanga, where he, with other convicts, attacked and
+killed three of the European overseers, and Cuevas escaped to Basilan
+Island. After innumerable difficulties, involving the conquest of a
+score of villages, he gained the control of a large number of Yacan
+Moros and became a sort of chief. Some years afterwards the Moros
+organized an attack on the Christians at Zamboanga and Isabela de
+Basilan, and Cuevas offered to save the Spaniards on condition of
+receiving a full pardon. Two Spaniards were accordingly sent as
+hostages to Cuevas' camp, and after Isabela was freed of the enemy
+he came to see the Spanish governor. There were several Spaniards
+present at the interview, and it is related that one of them let
+slip a phrase implying doubt as to Cuevas' worthiness for pardon,
+whereupon the undaunted chief remarked, "Sir, I thought I had won my
+liberty, seeing that, but for me, you would not be alive to accord
+it." Thenceforth he was always a reliable ally of the Spaniards against
+Moro incursions. In 1882 Cuevas was opposed by an arrogant Sulu chief,
+Datto Calun, who challenged him to single combat, and Cuevas having
+slain his adversary, the tribe of the vanquished warrior, admiring
+the conqueror's valour, proclaimed him their _Datto_, which title was
+acknowledged by Datto Aliudi, the claimant to the Sulu Sultanate. On
+July 6, 1904, his graceful daughter Urang was married, with Mahometan
+rites, to a twenty-one-year-old Spanish half-caste, Ramon Laracoechea,
+who was introduced to me by his father, a very pleasant Vizcayan,
+resident in the Island since 1876. Educated in Manila, the son speaks
+English, Spanish, Yacano and Joloano. The festivities lasted for
+several days, some Americans being among the invited guests. Shortly
+after this event the _Datto_, at the age of fifty-nine years, ended
+his adventurous career in this world, regretted by all. In expectation
+of the demise of Datto Cuevas, which was anticipated months before,
+there were three aspirants to the coming vacant dattoship in the
+persons of the son-in-law, Ramon, Cuevas' nephew, and an American of
+humble origin and scant education who had married a Zamboanguena woman.
+
+In Sulu Island social conditions were most deplorable. Under the Bates
+Agreement the Moros became turbulent, and even attempted to take Jolo
+town by assault. In August, 1903, General Wood went there, and the
+_Dattos_ having been invited to meet him, quite a crowd of them came,
+accompanied by about 600 fighting-men in a splendid fleet of armed
+_vintas_ (war-canoes). Precautions had to be taken against possible
+treachery, and a company of troops was brought into the town in
+readiness for any event. The object of the meeting was to discuss the
+respective limits of the _Dattos'_ spheres, but owing to the haughty,
+insolent tone of the chiefs, nothing definite was arrived at. When
+they were invited to state their claims, they arrogantly replied,
+"We have no information to give. You say you are going to define
+our limits--well, what have you to tell us? We come to listen, not
+to talk." Some chiefs, however, feigned to offer their submission,
+and all was apparently quiet for a time.
+
+Major Hugh L. Scott (14th Cavalry) was then appointed (in September) to
+the government of that district. The Sultan being too weak to control
+his subordinates, many of them rallied their men and independently
+defied all interference with their old mode of living and rule. The
+Sultan, not unnaturally, was averse to ceding his sovereign rights to
+any one, and he and his _Dattos_ obstructed, as far as they could, the
+Americans' endeavours to better the conditions of the people. Every
+few days a _juramentado_ (_vide_ pp. 146, 150) would enter the town
+and attack a white man with his _barong_ in broad daylight. There
+was nothing furtive in his movements, no hiding under cover to take
+his victim unawares, but a straight, bold frontal attack. _Barong_
+in hand, a Moro once chased a soldier though the street, upstairs into
+a billiard-room, and down the other steps, where he was shot dead by
+a sentinel. At another time a _juramentado_ obtained access into the
+town by crawling through a drain-pipe, and chased two soldiers until
+he was killed. Many Americans were wounded in the streets of Jolo,
+but the aggressors were always pursued to death. Petty hostilities,
+attacks and counter-attacks, the sallies of punitive parties to avenge
+some violence committed, and the necessity for every individual in
+the town, civil or military, being armed and always alert, made life
+there one of continual excitement and emotion.
+
+In November, 1903, the attitude of the _Dattos_ became very
+menacing. Datto Andong actually cut a trench just outside the walled
+town of Jolo as a base of operations against the Americans. It was
+evident that an important rising of chiefs was contemplated. Major
+Scott having called upon the biggest chief, Panglima [262] Hassan,
+to present himself and account for the murder of an American survey
+party, he came with a large force, estimated at about 4,000, well
+armed, as far as the town walls. He said he wanted to enter the
+town with a suite of only 700 armed men, including his subordinate
+_Dattos_. Finally Major Scott agreed to his entry with 70 warriors,
+but still the position was threatening with Hassan's army in the
+vicinity. During the interview Panglima Hassan appeared quite friendly;
+indeed, whilst he and the major were riding together, the chief,
+perceiving that his host was unarmed, gallantly remarked, "As you are
+without arms I will relinquish mine also," and at once took off his
+_barong_ and handed it to his attendant. In the meantime Major Scott
+had sent a request to General Wood for more troops, but the general,
+who had only just finished his Taraca operations, replied that he
+would come to Jolo himself. Almost simultaneously with his arrival in
+Zamboanga the general had the satisfaction to receive a message from
+the Taraca _Datto_ offering his submission, and asking to be judged
+according to the Koran. On General Wood's arrival with troops in Jolo
+a demand was made on Panglima Hassan to surrender. After protracted
+negotiations and many insolent messages from Hassan, the general
+led his troops down to Lake Seite, where an engagement took place,
+leaving 60 dead Moros on the field. Panglima Hassan, pursued from
+place to place, lost many warriors at every halt, the total being
+estimated at 400 to 500. _Cottas_ were razed to the ground, and the
+notorious Panglima Hassan himself was captured on November 14, with a
+loss, so far, of one soldier killed and five wounded on the American
+side. Panglima Hassan was being escorted into Jolo town by Major
+Scott and other officers when suddenly the chief, pointing towards
+a native-built house, begged the major to save his family. Moved by
+compassion and influenced by Hassan's previous friendly attitude, the
+major generously consented, and as they all approached the entrance,
+in an instant out rushed the "family"--a mob of armed Moros, who
+attacked the officers whilst the Panglima made his escape. Poor Major
+Scott was so badly cut about on his hands that he had to go into
+hospital for four months, and I noticed that he had had one left-hand
+finger and two right-hand half-fingers amputated. Unable to handle
+any kind of weapon, in March, 1904, he led his troops against the
+cunning _Datto_, who sent out a large body of fighting-men to meet
+him. After several attacks were repelled, Panglima Hassan took to
+flight, his followers all the time decreasing in numbers until, with
+only 80 men, the chief sought refuge in his _cotta_ at Pang-Pang,
+the strongest fortress in the Island. Breaches were made in it, and
+Hassan fled for his life on a swift pony, with only two retainers,
+to the crater of an extinct volcano, which was quickly surrounded
+by the Americans. Each time a head appeared above the crater edge a
+volley was fired, but the wounded chief still bravely held out and
+hit some soldiers before he died, riddled by bullets, on March 4.
+
+Again, in May, 1905, Datto Pala, of Sulu Island, with a large
+following, threatened Jolo town, and General Wood personally led
+the expedition against this chief. Eight miles from Maybun the Moros
+had dug pits and placed wires to impede the Americans' advance, but,
+notwithstanding these obstacles, the enemy was vigorously attacked
+and surrounded near the Maybun Lake, three miles from the town. After
+several days' desperate fighting the _cotta_ of Lumbo was captured,
+and the _Datto_ and his men were vanquished, the losses being about
+seven Americans killed, about 20 wounded, and over 250 Moros killed.
+
+In June, 1904, Datto Ambutong had a dispute with another about the
+possession of some property, and on Major Scott being appealed to
+in the matter, he ordered Ambutong to appear before him in Jolo
+for a _bichara_ (judicial inquiry). The _Datto_, in a sulky mood,
+at first refused to come, but on further pressure he changed his
+mind. Early in the morning of the appointed day a friendly chief,
+Datto Timbang, came into town with four retainers, all armed, to
+see the Governor. Major Scott, whose guest I was, kindly invited me
+to the interview, during which it transpired that Datto Timbang had
+heard Ambutong declare he would come to the _bichara_, but he would
+not leave it without taking heads. Datto Timbang added that he too
+desired to attend the _bichara_ with his bodyguard, resolved to slay
+Ambutong if he observed any threatening move on his part. The major
+made no objection, and at the appointed hour four of us--my gallant
+host, Major Barbour, Captain Charles and myself--went to the _bichara_
+at the Governor's office in town. The Governor (i.e., the major) sat
+at his desk, and we other three took seats just behind him. Before
+us were the Datto Ambutong, his opponent in the question at issue,
+and, a yard off him, the friendly Datto Timbang and his followers,
+each with his hand on his _barong_, ready to cut down Ambutong at a
+stroke if need be. Whilst the case was being heard, Hadji Butu, the
+Sultan's Prime Minister, and Sultan Tattarassa, of Paragua Island,
+the latter afflicted with _locomotor ataxy_, came in, saluted us all,
+and took seats. The business ended, Datto Ambutong rose from his
+stool, gave his hand to the major, and then walked to the back of
+him to salute us. I thought I should like to handle the beautiful
+_barong_ which was to have served him in taking heads. The _Datto_
+complaisantly allowed me to draw it from the sheath and pass it round
+to my friends. Sharp as a razor, it was the finest weapon of the class
+I had ever touched. The handle was of carved ivory and Camagon wood
+(_vide_ p. 314), the whole instrument being valued at quite $100. Datto
+Timbang was watching, and the occasion was not a propitious one for
+taking christian blood.
+
+The following translation of a letter which Major Hugh L. Scott
+courteously gave me will serve to illustrate how lightly human life
+is appreciated by the Moro.
+
+
+    This letter from your son, His Highness Datto Mohammed Dahiatul
+    Kalbi, to my father, the Governor of Sulu, Major Scott, and to
+    my younger brother, Sali.
+
+    I want to inform you that at 7 o'clock in the morning of Saturday,
+    we had a fight with Tallu. I have taken his head, but if you
+    will allow it, I will bury it, if my father will let me do that,
+    because he is an Islam and I would commit an offence. It scared
+    my wife very much when she looked at the head in my house. Those
+    that are dead were Sadalani, Namla, Muhamad, and Salui. Beyond
+    that I have not investigated.
+
+    With greetings to my father and to my younger brother, I beg you,
+    my younger brother, to let me bury the head, if my father does not
+    feel bad about it. If our father should not believe that the head
+    is there, come to our house and see yourself, so to be sure. I
+    would not soil the faith my father has in me. To close I herewith
+    send the kris of Orang Kaya Tallu. The end of the pen. Sunday,
+    February 23, 1904.
+
+
+
+Whilst I was in Zamboanga in June, 1904, Datto Pedro Cuevas, of
+Basilan Island, sent a message over to say that there would be no
+more trouble with certain pirates who had been caught, as he had cut
+off their heads.
+
+It would fill a volume to recount the legends of the sharks near
+Cagayan de Jolo which wreck ships; the Moro who heard the voice of
+Allah rising from a floating cocoanut to urge him to denounce the
+Sultan's evil ways; the new prophet who could point at any object
+and make it disappear, and a hundred other superstitious extravagances.
+
+
+
+Jolo (_vide_ p. 149), one of the prettiest places on earth, has
+been improved since the American occupation. Apart from the many
+new buildings erected for military convenience, there is now a fine
+jetty with a tramway, a landing-stage for small vessels, a boys'
+and a girls' school, some new residences, etc. The municipality
+is under the presidency of a military officer, and the clean,
+orderly aspect of the town is evidence of Anglo-Saxon energy in
+its administration. In 1904 there was only one drinking-saloon,
+kept by a Bohemian-born American, who paid $6,000 a year for his
+monopoly licence. Much to the disgust of the military, a society of
+well-intentioned temperance ladies in America procured the prohibition
+of alcohol-selling in military canteens and Post Exchanges. The
+eastern extremity of Jolo is appropriated for military purposes,
+and on the rising ground is situated the stabling for the cavalry
+horses. There is a large military hospital, well appointed, and a
+club-house for whites, overlooking the picturesque harbour. Outside
+the town walls towards the west the dwellings of natives, chiefly from
+other islands in their origin, extend about a mile as far as Tulay,
+where the Sultan has a residence. On the way one passes through the
+little square, in the centre of which stands a monument erected to
+commemorate the landing here of Gov.-General Corcuera, April 17,
+1638. During my last visit to Jolo I called upon His Highness the
+Sultan at Tulay, accompanied by the civil interpreter, Mr. J. Schueck,
+whose late father I had known many years before. [263] Tulay signifies
+_bridge_ in Tagalog, and probably this place derives its name from the
+bridge spanning the rivulet, which forms a natural division between
+this village and the Jolo ex-mural western suburb. Just across the
+bridge, in most unattractive surroundings, stands a roofed rough pile
+of wooden planks--the residence of the Sultan. At a few paces to
+the left of it one sees another gloomy structure, smaller and more
+cheerless than the royal abode--it is the domicile of Hadji Butu,
+the Sultan's Prime Minister.
+
+Passing through the ground-floor, which serves as a vestibule and
+storehouse for nondescript rubbish, I was met by several armed Moros
+who conducted me up a dark staircase, the lid of which, at the top,
+was raised to admit me to the royal presence. His Highness, the
+Majasari Hadji Mohammad Jamalul Kiram, reclining on a cane-bottomed
+sofa, graciously smiled, and extending his hand towards me, motioned
+to me to take the chair in front of him, whilst Mr. Schueck sat on
+the sofa beside the Sultan. His Highness is about thirty-six years
+of age, short, thick set, wearing a slight moustache and his hair
+cropped very close. With a cotton _sarong_ around his loins, the
+nakedness of his body down to the waist was only covered by _jabul_
+(_vide_ p. 146) thrown loosely over him. Having explained that I
+was desirous of paying my respects to the son of the great Sultan
+whose hospitality I had enjoyed years ago at Maybun, I was offered
+a cigar and the conversation commenced. Just at that moment came
+the Prime Minister, who spoke a little English, and at the back of
+me, facing the Sultan, stood his trusted warriors in semi-circle,
+attired in fantastic garments and armed to the teeth. From time to
+time a dependent would come, bend the knee on the royal footstool and
+present the _buyo_ box, or a message, or whatever His Highness called
+for. The footstool attracted my curiosity, and my eye was fixed on
+it for a while until I could decipher the lettering, which was upside
+down. At last I made it out--"Van Houten's Cocoa." The audience-chamber
+needs no minute description; it can be all summed up in bare boards,
+boxes, bundles, weapons, dirt, a dilapidated writing-desk, a couple
+of old chairs, and the Sultan's sofa-seat. Of course the Sultan
+had a grievance. The Americans, he said, had appropriated his
+pearl-fisheries, his tribute-money, and other sources of valuable
+income; they were diverting the taxes payable to him into their own
+coffers, with detriment to his estate and his dignity as a ruler. [264]
+The questions in dispute and his position generally were, he added,
+to be discussed between him and the Insular Government in Manila in the
+following month. Naturally, the study of the man and his surroundings
+interested me far more than conversation on a subject which was not
+my business. Speaking with warmth, at every gesture the _jabul_ would
+slide down to his waist, exposing his bare breast, so that perhaps
+I saw more of the _Majasari_ than is the privilege of most European
+visitors. On leave-taking His Highness graciously presented me with
+a handsome Moro dress-sword and a betel-cutter set in a solid silver
+handle, and, in return, I sent him my portrait from Manila.
+
+Exactly a month after my visit, the Sultan, accompanied by Major
+Scott, the Governor and Commander of Jolo, came and made a short stay
+in Manila, where he was conducted around town and to the presence of
+the authorities. Many valuable presents were officially made to him,
+together with P5,000 pocket-money to console him for the postponement
+_sine die_ of the "settlement" question. Driving round in wagonettes,
+his retinue saw the sights of the capital and made their purchases,
+but the Sultan himself was strictly guarded from pressmen and others
+who might give local publicity to his claims.
+
+America's policy with regard to the Sultan of Sulu and all other
+Sultans and _Dattos_, as expounded to me by the best American
+authorities, is as clear as crystal. They wish all these petty
+potentates were elsewhere; but as that cannot be, they must be shorn
+of all power, princely dignity being out of harmony with American
+institutions. Nevertheless, they can call themselves what they like
+among their own people, provided that in their relations with the
+Government of the Islands they are to be simple citizens with dominion
+over their own personal property, but not over that of others. There
+is to be no sovereign power, great or small, other than American,
+and tribal wards are to supersede dattoships. The _Dattos_ are more
+numerous than Continental barons, and of varying grades, from the
+Panglima Hassan type, possessor of fortresses, commander of 5,000
+men, down to the titular lord of four score acres who lounges in the
+village, in filthy raiment, closely followed by two juveniles, the
+one carrying his bright metal _buyo_ box, in case he needs a quid,
+and the other the bearer of the _barong_, lest he must assert his
+dignity by force. America has decreed that from these and all their
+compeers the Philippines are to be preserved.
+
+In November, 1903, the District Governor of Zamboanga summoned
+the Manguiguin, or Sultan of Mindanao (_vide_ p. 131), and all the
+_Dattos_ in his district to attend a durbar. The aged Sultan very
+reluctantly responded to the call, and, accompanied by his Prime
+Minister, Datto Ducalat, and a large retinue, the royal party came
+in about 250 armed _vintas_. When they were within a few miles
+of the port they sent a message to ask if they would be allowed to
+salute with their _lantacas_, and the reply being in the affirmative,
+they entered the harbour with great _eclat_, amidst the booming of a
+hundred cannon. Interpreters put off to meet them and escorted them
+to the landing-stage, where the District Governor waited to receive
+them. The Sultan wore a gorgeous turban, a royal _sarong_ worked
+in thread of gold, and shoes with similar adornments. On landing,
+the old prince, trembling from top to toe, with despairing glance
+clutched the arm of the Governor for protection. Never before had
+he seen the great city of Zamboanga; he was overcome and terrified
+by its comparative grandeur, and possibly by the imposing figure of
+the six-foot Governor himself. The police had to be called out to
+restrain the mobs who watched his arrival. On the other hand, as the
+Sultans, the _Dattos_ and their suites together numbered about 600,
+and from other places by land about 400 more had come, all armed,
+many of the townspeople, with traditional dread, shut themselves
+up in their houses, believing that such a vast assemblage of Moros
+might, at any moment, commence a general massacre. It is well known
+that the question of public security did engage the attention of the
+American authorities, for the gathering was indeed a formidable one,
+and at the moment General Wood was in Sulu Island, leading his troops
+against Panglima Hassan. All the available forces were therefore
+held in readiness to meet any emergency. With faltering footsteps and
+shaking like an aspen leaf, the Manguiguin, followed by his _Dattos_,
+approached the double lines of soldiers with fixed bayonets stationed
+on the quay. There was a pause; the Sultan, who in his youthful days
+had known no fear, now realized the folly of walking into the jaws
+of death. But the Governor assured him, through the interpreters,
+that he was doing him the greatest honour that could be rendered to
+any prince or to the great president of the greatest republic. Only
+half convinced and full of suspicion, the Sultan walked on in a daze,
+as though he were going to his last doom. Having emerged safely from
+this peril, the great durbar was held, and lasted some hours. This was
+followed by a reception at the Army and Navy Club, where a throne was
+erected under a canopy for the Sultan, with seats of honour around
+it for the chief _Dattos_. The reception over, the royal party was
+conducted to where waggons and teams awaited them to take them to a
+suburb at the foothills of the great sierra. The Governor purposely
+had the biggest American horses and the largest vehicles brought
+out to make an impression. The Sultan point blank refused to enter
+the waggon. He had run the gauntlet through rows of pointed steel,
+and now new horrors awaited him. Perfectly bewildered at the sight
+of such enormous animals, he turned piteously to his Prime Minister
+and invited him to lead the way. "I will follow your Highness," the
+minister discreetly replied, but the muscular Governor, Captain John
+P. Finley, ended the palaver by gently lifting the Sultan into the
+vehicle, whilst he himself immediately entered it, and the timorous
+Prime Minister and suite summoned up courage to follow. During the
+drive the Governor gave the word to the teamsters to detach the
+forecarriages on reaching the foothills and let the teams go. To
+the great amazement of the Moro chiefs, the waggons suddenly became
+stationary, whilst the released horses galloped on ahead! The Sultan
+and his suite glanced at each other speechless with fright. Surely
+now their last day had come! So this was the trick treacherously
+prepared for them to segregate them from their fighting-men! But
+the teams were caught again, and the waggons brought them safely
+back to the sight of the port and the _vintas_. Allah had turned the
+hearts of the great white men and rescued his chosen people in the
+hour of imminent danger. The durbar was continued day by day until
+every point had been discussed. Meanwhile the Sultan and suite daily
+returned to their _vintas_ afloat to eat, drink, and sleep, whilst
+in the town of Zamboanga the christian natives quaked, and crowds
+of Moros perambulated the streets in rich and picturesque costumes,
+varying in design according to the usage of their tribes. Before the
+departure of the royal visitor the troops were formed up, military
+evolutions were performed with clockwork precision, and volley after
+volley was fired in the air. The Sultan declared he could never receive
+the Governor with such splendour, but he wanted him to promise to
+return his visit. It was not politic, however, to agree to do so. And
+the Sultan and his people left, passing once more through lines of
+troops with bayonets fixed, this time with a firmer step than when
+they landed, thanking the Great Prophet for their happy deliverance
+from what had appeared to them a dreamland of dreadful novelty.
+
+The Manguiguin of Mindanao was indeed "a man of sorrows and acquainted
+with grief," for in the days of his decrepitude he was jilted by the
+widow of Utto (_vide_ p. 143), the once celebrated Cottabato _Datto_,
+the idol of the Christian-haters.
+
+Education is one of the chief concerns of the Moro Province
+Government. The efforts of the _School Department_, up to June 30,
+1904, will be understood from the following official statistics,
+viz. [265]:--
+
+Teachers employed--15 Americans, 50 Christian Filipinos, and nine
+Mahometan Filipinos.
+
+41 Schools were established.
+
+2,114 Children were on the school rolls.
+
+1,342 Christian children attended on average.
+
+240 Moro children attended on average.
+
+P46,898.17 were expended in the School Department, of which P28,355.09
+were disbursed in Zamboanga District.
+
+Besides the public schools, the Jesuits are permitted to continue
+their excellent work of civilization and education in their own
+schools wherever they have a mission established.
+
+According to Moro custom the fruit of a man's labour belongs to
+the _Datto_ who gives the man a subsistence. The Americans are
+teaching the man that the fruit of his labour is his own, and, for
+that purpose, market-places are established at many centres on the
+coast with the hope of inculcating free-labour notions, so that the
+seller can get cash for his goods and keep it. I visited three of
+these markets on the south coast of Mindanao, and also the one in
+course of construction at Zamboanga (ward of Magay), where Governor
+John P. Finley was putting his heart and soul into his scheme for
+creating an important Moro Exchange. By Legislative Council Act
+No. 55, the sum of P1,850 was appropriated for its construction,
+and the Governor had succeeded in persuading the Moros themselves
+to contribute P1,300 towards its completion. The Moros are urged to
+come in their produce-laden _vintas_ and occupy the stalls erected
+for them in the large commodious market-shed, which has accommodation
+for carts and cattle if need be. Boats of less than 15 tons gross are
+free of tax, licence, or documents (Phil. Com. Act No. 1354, of June
+15, 1905). Whenever any trouble arises up the coast the Governor's
+official _vinta_ is despatched, manned by Moros, under the command
+of the Governor's messenger, Hadji Nuno, a parvenu _Datto_ whose name
+reveals his Spanish origin.
+
+Everything within the powers of the Legislative Council of the
+Moro Province seems to have been done to introduce law, order, and
+administrative uniformity, constrain violence, propagate knowledge
+and set the inhabitants on the path of morality and prosperity. The
+result of a century's labour, at the present rate of development,
+might, however, be achieved in a decade if the Insular Government had
+authority from Washington to relax the rigidity of the "Philippines for
+the Filipinos" doctrine in the special case of the Moro Province. It
+is true the Moros are as much Filipinos as the rest of the Philippine
+inhabitants, but it will be generations before they can know how to
+enjoy their birthright without the example of energetic white men who
+are, naturally, unwilling to come and philanthropically devote their
+lives to "pulling the chestnuts out of the fire" for the Moro. They
+want to reap some material advantage for themselves. Gen. Leonard Wood,
+in his First Annual Report of the Moro Province, remarks:--"What is
+needed to develop this portion of the world is a suitable class of
+settlers, bringing with them knowledge of modern agricultural methods,
+enterprise and some capital.... If he (the Moro) could see the results
+... it is believed that his ambition would be stimulated and that his
+development would be comparatively rapid. In short, a scattering of
+good agriculturists throughout the province would be of inestimable
+value to the people. At the present time such a class of settlers
+is _not_ coming, and it is not believed they will come until much
+more liberal inducements are offered them, especially in the way of
+obtaining land by settlement. Our standing among the people of these
+Islands has been much injured by the presence of a large and tough
+class of so-called Americans whose energies have been principally
+extended in the construction, maintenance and patronage of rum shops,
+which outnumber other American business establishments."
+
+The American who would go to Mindanao to settle on 40 acres of land
+could not be of the class desired. [266] A maximum of 1,000 acres to
+an individual settler and 10,000 acres to a company of not less than
+five persons, would produce a rapid and beneficial development of
+Mindanao and push on its civilization by giant strides. There would
+be little fear of the natives' rights being unduly encroached upon by
+whites if, in addition to the Homestead Law conditions, the period
+of application for land were limited to two or three years from the
+promulgation of the law, with solid guarantees to prevent a flood of
+bogus applications from land-grabbers. The Treasurer, in his First
+Annual Report of the Moro Province, says:--"It is not reasonable to
+expect, under present conditions, any systematic effort on their
+(the Moros') part to cultivate the soil, as they know, as well as
+the powers that be, that they have no assurance that the land they
+will improve to-day will be theirs to-morrow. They have title to not
+one foot of land, and no guarantee from the Government that present
+improvements will be theirs when they are finally settled by the
+former. A liberal _land law_ will also bring an influx of settlers
+and capital.... It will not only make this province the richest part
+of the Philippine Islands and the State the beneficiary, but it will
+remove the necessity for the soldier in the field. No other legislation
+is going to improve financial conditions here to any extent. There is
+no doubt the Government land unsettled and untouched in this province
+amounts to 90 per cent. of all the tillable land, and equals in area
+and excels in richness that of all the tillable land of Luzon."
+
+The District of Davao is far more developed agriculturally than the
+other four. Planters whom I know personally are opening up land and
+producing large quantities of hemp, giving employment to Bagobos
+and others, but without any certainty about the possession of the
+land. Inexhaustible forests of fine timber remain undisturbed,
+and are left to decay in the ordinary course of nature, whilst
+shiploads of Oregon pine arrive for public works. My attendance at
+the public conferences on the timber-felling question, before the
+Philippine Commission in Manila, did not help me to appreciate the
+policy underlying the Insular Government's apparent reluctance to
+stimulate the development of the timber industry; indeed, it is not
+easy to follow the working of the "Philippines for the Filipinos"
+policy in several details.
+
+In 1904 General Wood recommended to the Philippine Commission the
+incorporation of the present provinces of Misamis and Surigao in
+the Moro Province, seeing that the people of those provinces and
+the Moro Province belong to the same races and have identical
+interests. As it is, the hill tribes of Misamis find themselves
+between two jurisdictions, and have to pass nearly a hundred miles
+through the Moro Province to reach the sea coast--an anomaly which
+will no doubt be rectified by including the whole Island of Mindanao
+in the Moro Province.
+
+The American Government's abstinence from proselytism in dealing
+with the Moros is more likely to succeed than Spain's well-meant
+"policy of attraction" adopted in the last years of her rule, for
+whatever progress this system made was counterbalanced by the futile
+endeavour to induce the Mahometans to change their religion. Under
+the wise administration set in progress by General Leonard Wood there
+is a hopeful future for Moroland.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXX
+
+The Spanish Friars, After 1898
+
+The Aglipayan Schism. Education. Politics. Population.
+
+
+With the American dominion came free cult. No public money is
+disbursed for the support of any religious creed. No restraint is
+placed upon the practice of any religion exercised with due regard
+to morality. Proselytism in public schools is declared illegal. [267]
+The prolonged discussion of the friars' position and claims encouraged
+them to hope that out of the labyrinthine negotiations might emerge
+their restoration to the Philippine parishes. For a while, therefore,
+hundreds of them remained in Manila, others anxiously watched the
+course of events from their refuges in the neighbouring British and
+Portuguese colonies, and the unpopular Archbishop Bernardino Nozaleda
+only formally resigned the archbishopric of Manila years after he
+had left it. Having prudently retired from the Colony during the
+Rebellion, he returned to it on the American occupation, and resumed
+his archiepiscopal functions until the end of 1899. Preliminary
+negotiations in Church matters were facilitated by the fact of the
+Military Governor of the Islands at the time being a Roman Catholic,
+an American army chaplain acting as chief intermediary between the lay
+and ecclesiastical authorities. The common people were quite unable, at
+the outset, to comprehend that under American law a friar could be in
+their midst without a shred of civil power or jurisdiction. There were
+Filipinos of all classes, some in sympathy with the American cause,
+who were as loud in their denunciation of the proposed return of the
+friars as the most intransigent insurgents. They thought of them most
+in their lay capacity of _de facto_ Government agents all over the
+Islands. It cannot be said that the parish priests originally sought
+to discharge civil functions; they did so, at first, only by order
+of their superiors, who were the _de facto_ rulers in the capital,
+and afterwards by direct initiative of the lay authorities, because
+the Spanish Government was too poor to employ civil officials. What
+their functions were is explained in Chapter xii. The complaints of the
+people against the friars constituted the leading theme of Dr. Rizal's
+writings, notably his "Noli me tangere," and the expulsion of the four
+obnoxious Religious Orders is claimed to have been one of the most
+important reforms verbally promised in connexion with the alleged
+Treaty of Biac-na-bato. The allegation of the prelates and other
+members of the regular clergy who gave evidence before the American
+Civil Commission in 1900, to the effect that the _Katipunan Society_
+members invaded the parishes only to murder the friars and rob the
+churches, should be weighed against the fact that two hundred thousand
+Filipinos were ready to leave glowing life for grim death to rid
+the country of monastic rule. The townspeople, apparently apathetic,
+were afraid to express their opinion of the friars until they were
+backed up by the physical force of the _Katipunan_ legions. It was
+the conflict of material interests and the friars' censorship which
+created the breach between the vicar and the people. The immorality
+of the friars was not general and by no means the chief ground,
+if any, for hostility against them; the frailties of the few simply
+weakened the prestige of all and broke the pedestal of their moral
+superiority. My own investigations convinced me that the friars'
+incontinence was generally regarded with indifference by the people;
+concubinage being so common among the Filipinos themselves it did
+not shock them in the pastor's case. Moreover, women were proud of
+the paternity of their children begotten in their relationship to
+the friars.
+
+When, on the American occupation, the friar question could be freely
+discussed, hot disputes at once ensued between the friar party and
+the Philippine clergy, supported by the people. In the meantime, an
+Apostolic Delegate, Monsignor P. L. Chapelle, [268] was appointed by
+the Pope, in agreement with the American Government, to endeavour to
+adjust the friar problem. The details to be considered were manifold,
+but the questions which most interested the public were the return
+of the friars to the parishes and the settlement of their property
+claims. Monsignor Chapelle so vigorously espoused the cause of the
+friars that he appeared to be more their advocate than an independent
+judge in the controversy. Many friars, anxious to quit the Islands,
+were dissuaded from doing so by this prelate. [269] He arrived in
+Manila on January 2, 1900, and, without having made any personal
+investigations in the provinces, by the 16th of April he deemed
+himself competent to declare that "the accusations adduced against
+them (the Religious Orders) are the merest pretexts of shrewd and
+anti-American Filipino politicians." [270] As a matter of fact,
+nothing anti-American, or American, had any connexion with the
+subject. The struggle to expel the friars from these Islands was
+initiated years before the Americans contemplated intervention in
+Philippine affairs. Open rebellion was started against the friars
+twenty months before the Battle of Cavite. Nozaleda and Chapelle
+wished to appoint friars to the provincial benefices, whilst protests
+against this proposal were coming from nearly every Christian quarter
+of the Colony. The Filipinos desired to have the whole administration
+of the Church in their own hands and, if possible, to see every
+friar leave the Archipelago. The representative Philippine clergy
+were Dr. Mariano Sevilla, Father Rojas, Father Changco, and Father
+Singson. The great champions of the national cause were the first two,
+who stoutly opposed Nozaleda's schemes. Fierce discussions arose
+between the parties; Father Sevilla and party defied Nozaleda to
+make the appointments he desired, and then sent a cablegram to the
+Pope to the following effect:--"Archbishop and Apostolic Delegate
+want to appoint friars to the Philippine benefices. The Philippine
+people strongly oppose. Schism imminent." Father Sevilla could
+not be wheedled into agreeing to Nozaleda's and Chapelle's plans,
+so he was sent to prison for two months in the _Calle de Anda_,
+Manila, and deportation to the Island of Guam was menacingly hinted
+at. When the reply came from Rome, disapproving of the action of the
+two prelates, Father Sevilla was released from prison. Nevertheless,
+Nozaleda's wrath was unappeased. He then proposed that the benefices
+should be shared between Filipinos and friars, whilst Father Sevilla
+insisted on the absolute deposition of the friars. At this time there
+were 472 members of the four confraternities in the Islands, mostly
+in Manila. [271] At a meeting of the Philippine clergy the expulsion
+of the friars was proposed and supported by a majority; but Father
+Sevilla vetoed the resolution, and his ruling was obeyed. Moreover,
+he agreed that the friars should hold some benefices in and near Manila
+and the ecclesiastical-educational employments in the colleges. "We,"
+said Father Sevilla, "are for the Church; let them continue their work
+of education; it is not our function." Nozaleda then made advances
+towards Father Sevilla, and endeavoured to cajole him by the offer of
+an appointment, which he repeatedly refused. Rome, for the time being,
+had overruled the question of the benefices contrary to Nozaleda's
+wish. For the moment there was nothing further for the Philippine
+clergy to defend, but in their general interests Father Sevilla,
+their spokesman, elected to remain in an independent position until
+after the retirement of Monsignor Chapelle, when Father Sevilla became
+parish priest of Hagonoy (Bulacan).
+
+The outcome of the controversy respecting the benefices was that the
+friars could be sent to those parishes where the people were willing to
+receive them, without danger of giving rise to public disorder. This
+was in accordance with President McKinley's Instructions to the Taft
+Commission dated April 7, 1900, [272] which says: "No form of religion
+and no minister of religion shall be forced upon any community or
+upon any citizen of the Islands."
+
+Archbishop Nozaleda left for Spain, but did not relinquish his
+archbishopric until June, 1903. [273] In his absence his office was
+administered by Father Martin Garcia Alcocer, the Spanish bishop
+of Cebu, whilst the bishopric of Cebu was left in charge of a
+popular Chinese half-caste secular priest, Father Singson, [274] who
+subsequently became vicar of Cebu on the appointment of an American
+prelate, Father Hendrichs, to the bishopric.
+
+In the matter of the _Friars' lands_, it was apparently impossible
+to arrive at any settlement with the friars themselves. The purchase
+of their estates was recommended by the Insular Government, and the
+Congress at Washington favourably entertained that proposal. In many
+places the tenants refused to pay rent to the friars, who then put
+forward the extraordinary suggestion that the Government should send
+an armed force to coerce the tenants. The Government at once refused
+to do this, pointing out that the ordinary courts were open to them
+the same as to all citizens. Truly the friars found themselves in a
+dilemma. By the rules of their Order they could not sue in a court of
+law; but under the Spanish Government, which was always subservient
+to their will, they had been able to obtain redress by force. Under
+the American Government these immunities and privileges ceased.
+
+In 1902 the Civil Governor of the Philippines, Mr. W. H. Taft, visited
+the United States, and on May 9 in that year he was commissioned
+by his Government to visit Rome on his way back to the Islands in
+order to negotiate the question of the friars' lands with the Holy
+See. The instructions issued to him by the Secretary of War contain
+the following paragraphs, namely [275]:--
+
+One of the controlling principles of our Government is the complete
+separation of Church and State, with the entire freedom of each
+from any control or interference by the other. This principle is
+imperative wherever American jurisdiction extends, and no modification
+or shading thereof can be a subject of discussion. . . . By reason of
+the separation, the Religious Orders can no longer perform, in behalf
+of the State, the duties in relation to public instruction and public
+charities formerly resting upon them. . . . They find themselves the
+object of such hostility on the part of their tenantry against them
+as landlords, and on the part of the people of the parishes against
+them as representatives of the former Government, that they are no
+longer capable of serving any useful purpose for the Church. No rents
+can be collected from the populous communities occupying their lands,
+unless it be by the intervention of the civil government with armed
+force. Speaking generally, for several years past the friars, formerly
+installed over the parishes, have been unable to remain at their posts,
+and are collected in Manila with the vain hope of returning. They
+will not be voluntarily accepted again by the people, and cannot be
+restored to their positions except by forcible intervention on the
+part of the civil government, which the principles of our Government
+forbid....It is for the interest of the Church, as well as for the
+State, that the landed proprietorship of the Religious Orders in the
+Philippine Islands should cease, and that if the Church wishes...to
+continue its ministration among the people of the Islands...it should
+seek other agents therefor. It is the wish of our Government, in
+case Congress shall grant authority, that the titles of the Religious
+Orders to the large tracts of agricultural lands which they now hold
+shall be extinguished, but that full and fair compensation shall be
+made therefor. It is not, however, deemed to be for the interests
+of the people of the Philippine Islands that...a fund should thereby
+be created to be used for the attempted restoration of the friars to
+the parishes from which they are now separated, with the consequent
+disturbance of law and order. Your errand will not be, in any sense
+or degree, diplomatic in its nature; but will be purely a business
+matter of negotiation by you, as Governor of the Philippines, for the
+purchase of property from the owners thereof, and the settlement of
+land titles."
+
+Governor Taft arrived in Rome in June, 1902, in the pontificate
+of His Holiness Leo XIII., whose Secretary of State was Cardinal
+M. Rampolla. In Governor Taft's address to His Holiness, the following
+interesting passage occurs: "On behalf of the Philippine Government, it
+is proposed to buy the lands of the Religious Orders with the hope that
+the funds thus furnished may lead to their withdrawal from the Islands,
+and, if necessary, a substitution therefor, as parish priests, of
+other priests whose presence would not be dangerous to public order."
+
+In the document dated June 22, in reply to Governor Taft's address
+to His Holiness, Cardinal Rampolla says: "As to the Spanish religious
+in particular belonging to the Orders mentioned in the instructions,
+not even they should be denied to return to those parishes where the
+people are disposed to receive them without disturbance of public
+order . . . The Holy See will not neglect to promote, at the same
+time, the better ecclesiastical education and training of the native
+clergy, in order to put them in the way, according to their fitness,
+of _taking gradually_ the place of the Religious Orders in the
+discharge of the pastoral functions. The Holy See likewise recognizes
+that in order to reconcile more fully the feelings of the Filipinos
+to the religious possessing landed estates, _the sale of the same is
+conducive thereto_. The Holy See declares it is disposed to furnish the
+new Apostolic Delegate, who is to be sent to the Philippine Islands,
+with necessary and opportune instructions in order to treat amicably
+this affair in understanding with the American Government and the
+parties interested."
+
+In the same document the Holy See asked for indemnity for "the acts of
+vandalism perpetrated by the insurgents in the destruction of churches
+and the appropriation of sacred vestments," and also for the damage
+caused by the occupation by the American Government of "episcopal
+palaces, seminaries, convents, rectories, and other buildings intended
+for worship." The Holy See further claimed "the right and the liberty
+of administering the pious trusts of ecclesiastical origin, or of
+Catholic foundation, which do not owe their existence to the civil
+power exclusively"; also "suitable provisions for religious teaching
+in the public schools, especially the primary."
+
+Governor Taft, in his reply to the Holy See, dated July 3, expressed
+regret at the suggested appointment of a new Apostolic Delegate,
+and sought to bring the Holy See to a definite contract. For the
+settlement of the friars' land question he proposed "a tribunal
+of arbitration to be composed of five members--two to be appointed
+by His Holiness, two to be appointed by the Philippine Government,
+and one, the fifth, to be selected by an indifferent person, like
+the Governor-General of India"; the expenses to be defrayed wholly
+by the Philippine Government, and the tribunal to meet in the City
+of Manila not later than January 1, 1903. He further proposed that
+the lands should be valued in Mexican dollars, and be paid for in
+three cash instalments of three, six, and nine months after the
+report of the award and the delivery of the deeds. Furthermore, that
+"the payments ought to be made to the person designated by the Holy
+See to receive the same," on the condition that "no money shall be
+paid for the lands to be purchased until proper conveyances for the
+land shall have been made to the Philippine Government." Another
+condition was "that all the members of the four Religious Orders
+of Dominicans, Agustinians, Recoletos, and Franciscans now in the
+Islands shall withdraw therefrom after two years from the date of
+the first payment. An exception is made in favour of any member of
+those Orders who has been able to avoid hostility of the people and
+to carry on his duties as parish priest, in his parish outside Manila,
+from August, 1898, to date of this agreement," because "it is certain
+that such a priest is popular with the people." Governor Taft adds:
+"Nothing will calm the fears of the people.... except the definite
+knowledge ... that the Spanish friars of the four Orders are to leave
+the Islands at a definite time, and are not to return to the parishes."
+
+Cardinal Rampolla replied on July 9 to Governor Taft's communication
+of July 3, which covered his proposed contract and enclosed a counter
+project of convention, explaining as follows:--"The Holy See cannot
+accept the proposition of the Philippine Government to recall from the
+Archipelago in a fixed time all the religious of Spanish nationality
+... and to prevent their return in the future. In effect, such a
+measure ... would be contrary to the positive rights guaranteed by
+the Treaty of Paris, and would put, consequently, the Holy See in
+conflict with Spain ... Such a measure would be, in the eyes of the
+Filipinos and of the entire Catholic world, the explicit confirmation
+of all the accusations brought against the said religious by their
+enemies, accusations of which ... the evident exaggeration cannot
+be disputed. If the American Government, respecting, as it does,
+individual rights, does not dare to interdict the Philippine soil
+to the Spanish religious ... how could the Pope do it? The Holy See,
+in accord with the diocesan authorities, will not permit the return
+of the Spanish religious ... in the parishes where their presence
+would provoke troubles."
+
+The Holy See's counter-proposal was cabled to the Secretary of War,
+who, in his reply dated July 14, which was tantamount to a rejection of
+it, remarked: "The lay Catholic population and the parish priests of
+native and non-Spanish blood are practically a unit in desiring both
+to expel the friars and to confiscate their lands ... This proposed
+confiscation, without compensation for the Church lands, was one of the
+fundamental policies of the Insurgent Government under Aguinaldo." As
+an alternative, the Secretary of War accepted the proposal of the Holy
+See to send a new Apostolic Delegate, with necessary instructions to
+negotiate the affair amicably. Therefore, in transmitting this reply
+to Cardinal Rampolla on July 15, Gov. Taft closed the negotiations
+by stating: "I have the honour to request ... that the negotiations
+concerning the various subjects touched upon in the proposals and
+counter-proposals be continued in Manila between the Apostolic Delegate
+and myself, on the broad lines indicated in this correspondence.... I
+much regret that we cannot now reach a more precise agreement...."
+
+The receipt of this last communication was courteously acknowledged
+by Cardinal M. Rampolla on July 18, 1902, and Gov. Taft then continued
+his journey to the Philippines. [276]
+
+Monsignor Chapelle's mission had entirely failed to achieve its
+purpose, and he retired from the Islands on the appointment of the
+new Apostolic Delegate, Monsignor Giovanni Battista Guidi. Bora
+on April 27, 1852, this prelate was a man of great culture and a
+distinguished linguist, who had travelled considerably. From Rome he
+proceeded to Washington, and, with the United States _exequatur_,
+he entered Manila on November 18, 1902, and died there on June 26,
+1904. During his mission the conditions of the friars' land settlement
+were embodied in a contract dated December 28, 1903, whereby the
+United States undertook to pay, within six months from date, the sum
+of $7,227,000 gold in exchange for the title-deeds and conveyances of
+all the rural lands belonging to the three corporations possessing
+such--namely, the Dominicans, Agustinians, and Recoletos. [277]
+To cover this purchase, bonds were issued in America for $7,000,000
+bearing 4 per cent, interest per annum; but, as the bonds obtained
+a premium on the money market, the total amount realized on the
+issue was $7,530,370. It remained, therefore, with the corporations
+themselves to deliver the title-deeds, but on personal inquiry of
+the Gov.-General in the month of July following I learnt that up to
+that date they had only partially fulfilled this condition. This,
+however, concerns them more than it does the American Government,
+which is ready to pay for value received. The approximate extent of
+the friars' lands is as follows [278]:--
+
+
+    Province.                 Acres.
+
+    Cavite.                 121,747   Some held for centuries. None
+                                      less than one generation.
+    La Laguna                62,172
+    Rizal                    50,145
+    Bulacan                  39,441
+    Rizal (Morong)            4,940
+    Bataan                    1,000
+    Cebu                     16,413
+    Cagayan                  49,400   Gov't. grant to Austin friars,
+                                      Sept. 25, 1880.
+    Mindoro                  58,455   Gov't. grant to Recoleto friars
+                                      in 1894.
+                            -------
+    Total                   403,713
+
+
+The purchase negotiations became all the more complicated because,
+from 1893 onwards, the Religious Orders had sold some of their lands
+to speculators who undertook to form companies to work them; however,
+the friars were the largest stockholders in these concerns.
+
+As the lands become State property they will be offered to the tenants
+at the time being at cost price, payable in long terms with moderate
+interest. The annual compounded sum will be only a trifle more than
+the rent hitherto paid. [279]
+
+As Governor Taft stated before the United States Senate, it would be
+impolitic to allow the tenants to possess the lands without payment,
+because such a plan would be promotive of socialistic ideas. The
+friars' land referred to does not include their urban property in and
+around Manila, which, with the buildings thereon, they are allowed
+to retain for the maintenance of those members of their Orders who
+still hope to remain in the Islands. In July, 1904, there were about
+350 friars in the Islands, including the Recoletos in Cavite and the
+few who were amicably received by the people in provincial parishes,
+exclusively in their sacerdotal capacity. At this period, at least,
+the Filipinos were not unanimous in rejecting friars as parish
+priests. Bishop Hendrichs, of Cebu, told me that he had received a
+deputation of natives from Bojol Island, begging him to appoint friars
+to their parishes. In May, 1903, the _Centro Catolico_, a body of lay
+Filipinos, well enough educated to understand the new position of the
+clergy, addressed a memorial to the Papal delegate, Monsignor Guidi,
+expressing their earnest desire for the retention of the friars. In
+the localities where their presence is desired their influence over
+the people is great. Their return to such parishes is well worth
+considering. Their ability to restrain the natives extravagances is
+superior to that of any lay authority, and it is obvious that, under
+the new conditions of government, they could never again produce a
+conflict like that of the past.
+
+The administrator of the archbishopric of Manila, Father Martin Garcia
+Alcocer, retired to Spain (October 25, 1903) on the appointment of
+the present American Archbishop, Monsignor Jeremiah J. Harty, who
+arrived in the capital in January, 1904. He is a man of pleasing
+countenance, commanding presence, and an impressive orator. Since
+1898 churches and chapels of many denominations and creeds have been
+opened in the Islands. Natives join them from various motives, for it
+would be venturesome to assert that they are all moved by religious
+conviction. In Zamboanga I had the pleasure of meeting an enthusiastic
+propagandist, who assured me with pride that he had drawn quite a
+number of christian natives from their old belief. His sincerity of
+purpose enlisted my admiration, but his explanation of the advantages
+accruing to his neophytes was too recondite for my understanding.
+
+The limpid purity of purpose in the lofty ideal of uplifting all
+humanity, so characteristic of the Roman Catholic Church in Europe,
+was unfortunately obscured in the latter days of Spanish dominion in
+these Islands by the multifarious devices to convert the Church into a
+money-making channel. If the true religious spirit ever pervaded the
+provincial Filipino's mind, it was quickly impaired in his struggle
+to resist the pastor's greed, unless he yielded to it and developed
+into a fanatic or a monomaniac. [280]
+
+Astute Filipinos, of quicker discernment than their fellows, did not
+fail to perceive the material advantages to be reaped from a religious
+system, quite apart from the religion itself, in the power of union
+and its pecuniary potentiality. As a result thereof there came into
+existence, at the close of Spanish rule, the _Philippine Independent
+Church_, more popularly known as the _Aglipayan Church_. Some eight or
+nine years before the Philippine Rebellion a young Filipino went to
+Spain, where he imbibed the socialistic, almost anarchical, views of
+such political extremists as Lerroux and Blasco-Ybanez. By nature of
+a revolutionary spirit, the doctrines of these politicians fascinated
+him so far as to convert him into an intransigent opponent of Spanish
+rule in his native country. In 1891 he went to London, where the
+circumstance of the visit of the two priests alluded to at p. 383
+was related to him. He saw in their suggestion a powerful factor for
+undermining the supremacy of the friars. The young Filipino pondered
+seriously over it, and when the events of 1898 created the opportunity,
+he returned to the Islands impressed with the belief that independence
+could only be gained by union, and that a pseudo-religious organization
+was a good medium for that union.
+
+The antecedents and the subsequent career of the initiator of the
+Philippine Independent Church would not lead one to suppose that there
+was more religion in him than there was in the scheme itself. The
+principle involved was purely that of independence; the incidence of
+its development being in this case pseudo-religious, with the view
+of substituting the Filipino for the alien in his possession of sway
+over the Filipinos' minds, for a purpose. The initiator of the scheme,
+not being himself a gownsman, was naturally constrained to delegate
+its execution to a priest, whilst he organized another union, under
+a different title, which finally brought incarceration to himself
+and disaster to his successor.
+
+Gregorio Aglipay, the head of the Philippine Independent, or Aglipayan,
+Church, was born at Batac, in the province of Ilocos Norte, on May
+7, 1860, of poor parents, who owned a patch of tobacco land on which
+young Gregorio worked. Together with his father, he was led to prison
+at the age of sixteen for not having planted the obligatory minimum
+of 4,000 plants (_vide_ p. 294). On his release he left field-work
+and went to Manila, where he took his first lessons at the house
+of a Philippine lawyer, Julian Carpio. Two years afterwards, whilst
+working in a menial capacity, he attended the school of San Juan de
+Letran. Through a poor relation he was recommended to the notice of
+the Dominican friars, under whose patronage he entered Saint Thomas's
+University, where he graduated in philosophy and arts. Then he returned
+to his province, entered the seminary, and became a sub-deacon of the
+diocese of Nueva Segovia. In 1889 he was ordained a priest in Manila,
+Canon Sanchez Luna being his sponsor, and he said his first mass in the
+church of Santa Cruz. Although the friars had frequently admonished
+him for his liberal tendencies, he was appointed coadjutor curate
+of several provincial parishes, and was acting in that capacity at
+Victoria (Tarlac) when the rebellion of 1896 broke out. About that
+time he received a warning from a native priest in another parish
+that the Spaniards would certainly arrest him on suspicion of being
+in sympathy with the rebels. In fear of his life he escaped to Manila,
+where he found a staunch friend in Canon Sanchez Luna, who allowed him
+to stay at his house on the pretext of illness. Canon Luna, who was a
+Spaniard, obtained from Gov.-General Blanco papers in favour of Aglipay
+to ensure his safety back to Victoria. Aglipay then left the capital,
+making use of the safe-conduct pass to go straight to the rebel camp,
+where, with the title of chaplain to General Tinio's forces, he was
+present at several engagements and enjoyed the friendship of General
+Emilio Aguinaldo. The Malolos Government appointed him Vicar-General,
+and after the War of Independence broke out he assumed command of
+a large body of insurgents in the mountain region of his native
+province. In 1899 he proclaimed himself chief of the Philippine
+Independent Church, whereupon the Archbishop publicly excommunicated
+him. Later on he voluntarily presented himself to the military
+authorities, and obtained pardon under the amnesty proclamation.
+
+Dr. Mariano Sevilla and several other most enlightened Philippine
+priests were in friendly relation with Aglipay for some time, but
+eventually various circumstances contributed to alienate them from
+his cause. In his overtures towards those whose co-operation he sought
+there was a notable want of frankness and a disposition to treat them
+with that diplomatic reserve compatible only with negotiations between
+two adverse parties. His association with the lay initiator of the
+scheme, unrevealed at the outset, incidentally came to their knowledge
+with surprise and disapproval. Judging, too, from the well-known
+tenets of the initiator's associates, there was a suspicion lest the
+proposed Philippine Independent Church were really only a detail in
+a more comprehensive plan involving absolute separation from foreign
+control in any shape. Again, he hesitated openly to declare his views
+with respect to the relations with Rome. Conscience here seemed
+to play a lesser part than expediency. The millions in the world
+who conscientiously disclaim the supremacy of the Pope, at least
+openly avow it. In the present case the question of submission to,
+or rebellion against, the Apostolic successor was quite subordinate
+to the material success of the plans for independence. It is difficult
+to see in all this the evidence of religious conviction.
+
+Dr. Sevilla had been requested to proceed to Rome to submit to the
+Holy Father the aspirations of the Philippine people with respect to
+Church matters, and he consented to do so, provided the movement did
+not in any way affect their absolute submission to the Holy See, and
+that the Philippine Church should remain a Catholic Apostolic Church,
+with the sole difference that its administration should be confided
+to the Filipinos instead of to foreigners, if that reform met with
+the approval of his Holiness. [281]
+
+Only at this stage did Aglipay admit that he sought independence
+of Rome; thereupon the Philippine clergy of distinction abandoned
+all thought of participation in the new movement, or of any action
+which implied dictation to the Holy See. Nevertheless, two native
+priests were commissioned to go to Rome to seek the Pope's sanction
+for the establishment of an exclusively Philippine hierarchy under
+the supreme authority of the Pope. But His Holiness immediately
+dismissed the delegates with a _non possumus_. The petition to His
+Holiness was apparently only the prelude to the ultimate design to
+repudiate the white man's control in matters ecclesiastical, and
+possibly more beyond.
+
+Gregorio Aglipay then openly threw off allegiance to the Pope, went to
+Manila, and in the suburb of Tondo proclaimed himself _Obispo Maximo_
+(_Pontifex Maximus_) of his new Church.
+
+His sect at once found many followers in the provinces of Rizal,
+Bulacan and Ilocos, and eventually spread more or less over the other
+christian provinces. The movement is strongest in Ilocos, where several
+parishes, indeed, have no other priest than an Aglipayan. This district
+is part of the bishopric of Nueva Segovia, now administered by the
+American Bishop Dougherty. As to the number of Aglipayan adherents, no
+reliable figures are procurable from any source, but it is certain they
+amount to thousands. I found Aglipayans as far south as Zamboanga. Just
+a few priests ordained in the Roman Catholic Church have joined the
+schismatic cause. One of these repented and offered his submission
+to the administrator of the archbishopric (Father Martin Alcocer),
+who pardoned his frailty and received him again into the Church. No
+period of preparation was necessary, at least in the beginning, for
+the ordination of an Aglipayan priest. He might have been a domestic
+servant, an artisan, or a loafer shortly before; hence many would-be
+converts refused to join when they saw their own or their friends'
+retainers suddenly elevated to the priesthood. At Yligan (Mindanao
+Is.) an American official arrested a man, tonsured and robed as
+a priest in an Aglipayan procession, on a charge of homicide. In
+1904 they had not half a dozen well-built churches of their own, but
+mat-sheds for their meetings were to be seen in many towns. In the year
+1903 these sectarians made repeated raids on Roman Catholic property,
+and attempted to gain possession of the churches by force. Riots
+ensued, religion seemed to be forgotten by both parties in the _melee_,
+and several were given time for reflection in prison. In April, 1904,
+at Talisay and Minglanilla (Cebu Is.), they succeeded in occupying
+the churches and property claimed by the friars, and refused to vacate
+them. In the following month an Aglipayan priest, Bonifacio Purganan,
+was fined $25 for having taken forcible possession of the Chapel of
+Penafrancia (Paco suburb of Manila). In the province of Yloilo the
+Aglipayans were forcibly ejected from the church of La Paz. In 1904
+they entered a claim on the novel plea that, as many churches had
+been subscribed to or partially erected at their expense before they
+seceded from the Catholic Church, they were entitled to a restitution
+of their donations. The Catholics were anxious to have the contention
+decided in a formal and definite manner, and the case was heard at the
+Court of Guagua (Pampanga). The decision was against the sectarians,
+on the ground that what had been once given for a specific purpose
+could not be restored to the donor, or its application diverted from
+the original channel, notwithstanding any subsequent change in the
+views of the donor. It was probably in consequence of these disputes
+that in January, 1905, the Secretary of War approved of a proposed
+Act of the Insular Government conferring authority upon the Supreme
+Court of these Islands to hear cases relating to Church property
+claims and pronounce a final decision thereon.
+
+Up to the middle of 1904 the particular doctrines of the Philippine
+Independent Church were not yet defined, and the Aglipayans professed
+to follow the Roman ritual. It was intended, however, to introduce
+reforms of fundamental importance. For two days and a half I
+travelled in company with the titular Aglipayan ecclesiastical
+governor of the Visayas, from whom I learnt much concerning the
+opinions of his sect. It appears that many are opposed to celibacy of
+the clergy and auricular confession. My companion himself rejected
+the biblical account of the Creation, the doctrine of original sin,
+hereditary responsibility, the deity of Christ, and the need for the
+Atonement. His conception of the relations between God and mankind
+was a curious admixture of Darwinism and Rationalism; everything
+beyond the scope of human reasoning had but a slender hold on his mind.
+
+It is most probable that the majority of Aglipayans have given no
+thought as to the possible application of the power of union in this
+particular form, and that their adhesion to the movement is merely a
+natural reaction following the suppression of sacerdotal tyranny--an
+extravagant sense of untrammelled thought which time may modify by
+sober reflection when it is generally seen that the clergy of the
+Roman Catholic Church henceforth strictly limit themselves to the
+exercise of their proper functions. With the hope of re-establishing
+peace and conformity in the Church, His Holiness Pope Pius X. sent
+to the Islands his new Apostolic Delegate, Monsignor Ambrose Agius,
+who reached Manila on February 6, 1905. [282]
+
+It is doubtful whether the native parish priest, bereft of the
+white man's control, would have sufficient firmness of character to
+overcome his own frailties and lead his flock in the true path. Under a
+Philippine hierarchy there would be a danger of the natives reverting
+to paganism and fetichism. There have been many indications of that
+tendency from years back up to the present. Only a minority of native
+Christians seem to have grasped the true spirit of Christianity. All
+that appeals to the eye in the rites and ceremonies impresses
+them--the glamour and pomp of the procession attract them; they are
+very fervent in outward observances, but ever prone to stray towards
+the idolatrous. A pretended apparition of the Blessed Virgin is an old
+profitable trick of the natives, practised as recently as December,
+1904, in the village of Namacpacan (Ilocos), where a woman, who
+declared the Virgin had appeared to her in the _form_ of the Immaculate
+Conception and cured her bad leg, made a small fortune in conjunction
+with a native priest. In May, 1904, a small party of fanatics was seen
+on the Manila seashore going through some pseudo-religious antics,
+the chief feature of which was a sea-bath. Profiting by the liberty
+of cult now existing, it is alleged that the spirits of the departed
+have made known their presence to certain Filipinos. A native medium
+has been found, and the pranks which the spirits are said to play
+on those who believe in them have been practised, with all their
+orthodox frolic, on certain converts to the system. Tables dance
+jigs, mysterious messages are received, and the conjuring celestials
+manifest their power by displacing household articles. The _Coloram_
+sect of the southern Luzon provinces has, it is estimated, over
+50,000 adherents whose worship is a jumble of perverted Christian
+mysticism and idolatry. The _Baibailanes_ of Negros are not entirely
+pagans; there is just a glimmer of Christian precept mingled in their
+belief, whilst the scores of religious monomaniacs and saint-hawkers
+who appear from time to time present only a burlesque imitation of
+christian doctrine.
+
+
+
+Great progress has been made in the direction of _Education_. [283]
+Schools of different grades have been established throughout the
+Archipelago, and the well-intentioned efforts of the Government have
+been responded to by the natives with an astonishing alacrity. Since
+September 3, 1900, night-schools have also been opened for students
+to attend after their day's work. The natives exhibit great readiness
+to learn, many of them having already attained a very high standard--a
+fact which I had the opportunity of verifying through the courtesy of
+Dr. David P. Barrows, the able General Superintendent of Education, and
+his efficient staff. Both the higher schools and the night-schools are
+well attended. A special eagerness to learn English is very apparent,
+and they acquire the language quickly up to a certain point. In
+September, 1903, [284] out of the 934 towns in the Islands, 338 were
+supplied with American teachers, the total number of teachers in the
+Archipelago being 691 Americans and 2,496 Filipinos. The night-schools
+were attended by 8,595 scholars. The percentage of school-children who
+frequented the day-schools was as follows: In Manila, 10 per cent.;
+in Nueva Vizcaya Province, 77 per cent. (the highest); and in Paragua
+Island, 5 per cent. (the lowest). The average attendance throughout the
+provinces was 13 per cent. of the total population of school-children.
+
+Education has received the greatest solicitude of the Insular
+Government; and Dr. Barrows informed me that at the end of June,
+1904, there were 865 American teachers in the Islands (including about
+200 female teachers), 4,000 Philippine teachers of both sexes, and a
+school attendance throughout the Colony of 227,600 children. For the
+youngest children there are now seven kindergarten schools in Manila,
+and more applications for admission than can be satisfied.
+
+The _Normal School_, situated in the Manila suburb of Ermita, is a
+splendidly-equipped establishment, organized in the year 1901 with
+a branch for training Filipinos to become teachers in the public
+schools. The buildings are four of those (including the main structure)
+which served for the Philippine Exhibition some years ago. They
+contain an assembly hall, fourteen class-rooms, two laboratories,
+store-rooms, and the principal's office. In the same suburb, close
+to the school, there is a dormitory for the accommodation of forty
+girl boarders coming from the provinces. The school is open to both
+sexes on equal terms, subject to the presentation of a certificate
+of character and a preliminary examination to ascertain if they can
+understand written and spoken English and intelligibly express their
+thoughts in that language. The training covers four years, with the
+following syllabus, viz.:--
+
+
+
+    Algebra.
+    Arithmetic.
+    Botany.
+    Drawing.
+    English.
+    General History.
+    Geography.
+    Music.
+    Nature-study.
+    Philippine History.
+    Physics.
+    Physiology and Hygiene.
+    Professional Training.
+    United States History.
+    Zoology.
+
+
+
+The training-class for children ranging from five to eleven years
+serves a double purpose by enabling student-teachers to put into
+practice the theory of professional training under supervision. For
+the training of youths who intend to follow a trade, there is a branch
+_School of Arts and Trades_ equipped with class-rooms, workshops,
+mechanical and architectural drawing-rooms, and the allied branches
+of industry. The subjects taught are:--
+
+
+
+    Architectural Drawing.
+    Blacksmithing.
+    Cabinet-making.
+    Carpentry.
+    Cooking.
+    Machine-shop Practice.
+    Mathematics.
+    Mechanical Drawing.
+    Plumbing.
+    Steam Engineering.
+    Stenography.
+    Telegraphy.
+    Tinsmithing.
+    Typewriting.
+    Wood-carving.
+
+
+
+There is also a night-class for those working in the daytime who
+desire to extend their theoretical knowledge.
+
+The _Nautical School_ (_vide_ p. 195), established in Spanish times,
+is continued with certain reforms, additions having been made to the
+equipment. American naval officers have undertaken its superintendence
+from time to time, and it is now under the direction of a civilian
+graduate of the United States Naval Academy. The instruction ranges
+from history and geography to practical seamanship, with all the
+intermediate scientific subjects. Graduates of this school obtain
+third-mate's certificates, and many of them are actually navigating
+in the waters of the Archipelago.
+
+A course of study in _Vocal Music_ is also offered to Normal School
+students, and this may possibly lead to the first discovery of a fine
+Philippine musical voice.
+
+There is also a _Public School for Chinese_ situated in the _Calle
+de la Asuncion_, in the business quarter of Binondo (Manila).
+
+In the _Saint Thomas's University_ (_vide_ p. 194) there are few
+changes. The diplomas now issued to students in Law and Medicine
+are only honorific. With or without this diploma a student must pass
+an examination at the centres established by the Americans for the
+faculties of Law and Medicine before he can practise, and the same
+obligation applies to Americans who may arrive, otherwise qualified,
+in the Islands. Practical instruction in the healing art, or "walking
+the hospitals," as it is called in England, is given at the _San
+Juan de Dios Hospital_ as heretofore. The theoretical tuition in
+these faculties is furnished at the _College of San Jose_. Besides
+the Government schools, there are many others continuing the Spanish
+system, such as the _Colegio de San Juan de Dios_, where, besides
+the usual subjects taught, the syllabus is as follows:--
+
+
+
+    Commerce.
+    Drawing.
+    Japanese Language.
+    Modelling in Plaster.
+    Piano, Violin.
+    Sketching from Nature.
+    Stenography.
+    Typewriting.
+    Watercolouring.
+    And preparation for the B.A. examination.
+
+
+
+The _Seminario Central de San Javier_, under Jesuit superintendence,
+is really intended for students proposing to enter the Church. Many,
+however, follow the course of study and enter civil life. In the
+large provincial towns there are Spanish schools, and at Dagupan the
+_Colegio Instituto_ follows the same curriculum as that established
+in the Manila _College of San Juan de Letran_. In Spanish times Jaro
+was the educational centre of the Visayas Islands. Since the American
+advent Yloilo has superseded Jaro in that respect, and a large school
+is about to be erected on 75 acres of land given by several generous
+donors for the purpose. The system of education is uniform throughout
+the Islands, where schools of all grades are established, and others
+are in course of foundation in every municipality. Including about
+P1,000,000 disbursed annually for the schools by the municipalities,
+the cost of Education is about 20 per cent, of the total revenue--a
+sum out of all proportion to the taxpayers' ability to contribute.
+
+According to the Philippine Commission Act No. 1123, of April, 1904,
+the official language will be English from January 1, 1906. It will
+be used in court proceedings, and no person will be eligible for
+Government service who does not know that language.
+
+In general the popular desire for education is very
+pronounced. American opinion as to the capability of the Filipinos
+to attain a high degree of learning and _maintain_ it seems much
+divided, for many return to America and publicly express pessimistic
+views on this point. In daily conversation with young middle-class
+Filipinos one can readily see that the ambition of the majority is
+limited to the acquisition of sufficient English to qualify them for
+Government employment or commercial occupations. The industries of
+the Islands are relatively insignificant. The true source of their
+wealth is agriculture. In most, not to say all, tropical countries,
+the educated native shuns manual labour, and with this tendency
+dominant in the Filipino, it is difficult to foresee what may happen
+as education advances. The history of the world shows that national
+prosperity has first come from industrial development, with the
+desire and the need for education following as a natural sequence. To
+have free intercourse with the outside world it is necessary to
+know a European language. This is recognized even in Japan, where,
+notwithstanding its independent nationality, half the best-educated
+classes speak some European tongue. If the majority of the Filipinos
+had understood Spanish at the period of the American advent, it might
+be a matter of regret that this language was not officially preserved
+on account of the superior beauty of all Latin languages; but such
+was not the case. Millions still only speak the many dialects; and
+to carry out the present system of education a common speech-medium
+becomes a necessity. However, generations will pass away before native
+idiom will cease to be the vulgar tongue, and the engrafted speech
+anything more than the official and polite language of the better
+classes. The old belief of colonizing nations that European language
+and European dress alone impart civilization to the Oriental is an
+exploded theory. The Asiatic can be more easily moulded and subjected
+to the ways and the will of the white man by treating with him in his
+native language. It is difficult to gain his entire confidence through
+the medium of a foreign tongue. The Spanish friars understood this
+thoroughly. It is a deplorable fact that the common people of Asia
+generally acquire only the bad qualities of the European concurrently
+with his language, lose many of their own natural characteristics,
+which are often charmingly simple, and become morally perverted.
+
+The best native servants are those who can only speak their
+mother-tongue. In times past the rustic who came to speak Spanish
+was loth to follow the plough. If an English farm labourer should
+learn Spanish, perhaps he would be equally loth. One may therefore
+assume that if the common people should come to acquire the English
+language, agricultural coolie labour would become a necessity. In
+1903 one hundred Philippine youths were sent, at Government expense,
+to various schools in America for a four-years' course of tuition. It
+is to be hoped that they will return to their homes impressed with
+the dignity of labour and be more anxious to develop the natural
+resources of the country than to live at the expense of the taxpayers.
+
+Since the Rebellion, and especially since the American advent,
+a great number of Filipinos have migrated to the adjacent British
+colonies, China, Japan, America, and Europe. There is a small colony
+of rich Filipinos in Paris, and about 50 or 60 (principally students)
+in England. They have no nationality, and are officially described as
+"Filipinos under the protection of the United States." When the Treaty
+of Paris was being negotiated, the Spanish Commissioners wished to have
+the option of nationality conceded to all persons hitherto under the
+dominion of Spain in the ceded colonies; but the American Commissioners
+rejected the proposal, which might have placed their country in the
+peculiar position of administering a colony of foreigners.
+
+In 1904 the Government sent selected groups of the different Philippine
+wild and semi-civilized races to the St. Louis Exhibition, where
+they were on view for several months; also a Philippine Commission,
+composed of educated Filipinos, was sent, at public expense, to
+St. Louis and several cities in America, including Washington,
+where the President received and entertained its members. Many of
+the members of this Commission were chosen from what is called
+the _Federal Party_. In the old days politics played no part in
+Philippine life. The people were either anti-friar or conformists to
+the _status quo_. The Revolution, however, brought into existence
+several distinct parties, and developed the natural disintegrating
+tendency of the Filipinos to split up into factions on any matter of
+common concern. The Spanish reform party, led by Pedro A. Paterno,
+collapsed when all hope was irretrievably lost, and its leader passed
+over to Aguinaldo's party of sovereign independence. To-day there
+is practically only one organized party--the Federal--because there
+is no legislative assembly or authorized channel for the legitimate
+expression of opposite views. The Federal Party, which is almost
+entirely anti-clerical, comprises all those who unreservedly endorse
+and accept American dominion and legislation. They are colloquially
+alluded to as "Americanistas." Through the tempting offers of civil
+service positions with emoluments large as compared with times
+gone by, many leading men have been attracted to this party, the
+smarter half-caste predominating over the pure Oriental in the higher
+employments. There are other groups, however, which may be called
+parties in embryo, awaiting the opportunity for free discussion in
+the coining _Philippine Assembly_. [285] Present indications point to
+the _Nationalists_ as the largest of these coming opposition parties,
+its present programme being autonomy under American protection. The
+majority of those who clamour for "independence" [I am not referring
+to the masses, but to those who have thought the matter out in their
+own fashion] do not really understand what they are asking for, for
+it generally results from a close discussion of the subject that they
+are, in fact, seeking autonomy _dependent_ on American protection,
+with little idea of what the Powers understand by Protection. In
+a conversation which I had with the leader of the Nationalists, I
+inquired, "What do you understand by independence?" His reply was,
+"Just a thread of connexion with the United States to keep us from
+being the prey of other nations!" Other parties will, no doubt, be
+formed; and there will probably be, for some time yet, a small group
+of _Irreconcilables_ affiliated with those abroad who cannot return
+home whilst they refuse to take the oath of allegiance prescribed in
+the United States President's peace and amnesty proclamation, dated
+July 4, 1902. The Irreconcilables claim real sovereign independence for
+the Filipinos; they would wish the Americans to abandon the Islands as
+completely as if they had never occupied them at all. It is doubtful
+whether entire severance from American or European control would last
+a year, because some other Power, Asiatic or European, would seize
+the Colony. Sovereign independence would be but a fleeting vision
+without a navy superior in all respects to that of any second-rate
+naval Power, for if all the fighting-men of the Islands were armed to
+the teeth they could not effectively resist a simultaneous bombardment
+of their ports; nor could they, as inhabitants of an archipelago,
+become united in action or opinion, because their inter-communication
+would be cut off. When this is explained to them, there are those who
+admit the insuperable difficulty, and suggest, as a compromise, that
+America's position towards them should be merely that of the policeman,
+standing by ready to interfere if danger threatens them! This is the
+naive definition of the relation which they (the Irreconcilables)
+term "Protection."
+
+However, the cry for "independence" has considerably abated since the
+Secretary of War, Mr. W. H. Taft, visited Manila in August, 1905,
+and publicly announced that America intended to retain the Islands
+for an indefinitely long period. Before America relinquishes her hold
+on the Colony (if ever) generations may pass away, and naturally the
+Irreconcilable, will disappear with the present one.
+
+That the Filipinos would, if ever they obtain their independence, even
+though it were a century hence, manage their country on the pattern
+set them by their tutors of to-day, is beyond all imagination. "We want
+them to learn to think as we do," an American minister is reported to
+have said at a public meeting held in Washington in May, 1905. The
+laudable aim of America to convert the Filipino into an American in
+action and sentiment will probably never be realized.
+
+Why the Philippines should continue to be governed by a Commission
+is not clear to the foreign investigator. Collective government
+is inconsonant with the traditions and instincts of these Asiatic
+people, who would intuitively fear and obey the arbitrary mandate of a
+paramount chief, whether he be called Nawab, Sultan, or Governor. Even
+as it is, the people have, in fact, looked more to the one man,
+the Mr. Taft or the Mr. Wright as the case may be, than they have to
+the Commission for the attainment of their hopes, and were there an
+uncontrolled native government, it would undoubtedly end in becoming
+a one-man rule, whatever its title might be. The difficulty in making
+the change does not lie in the choice of the man, because one most
+eminently fitted for personal rule in the name of the United States
+of America (assisted by a Council) is in the Islands just now.
+
+The Philippine Assembly, which is, conditionally, to be conceded
+to the Islanders in 1907, will be a Congress of deputies elected by
+popular vote; the Philippine Commission, more or less as at present
+constituted, will be practically the Senate or controlling Upper
+House. The Filipinos will have no power to make laws, but simply to
+propose them, because any bill emanating from the popular assembly
+can be rejected by the Upper House with an American majority. The
+Philippine Assembly will be, in reality, a School of Legislature to
+train politicians for the possible future concession of complete
+self-government. In connexion with the public schools a course of
+instruction in political economy prepares youths for the proper
+exercise of the right of suffrage on their attaining twenty-three
+years of age. The studies include the Congress Law of July 1, 1902;
+President McKinley's Instruction to the Civil Commission of April 7,
+1900; Government of the United States, Colonial Government in European
+States, and Parliamentary Law.
+
+The question of the Filipinos' capacity for _self-government_ has been
+frequently debated since the Rebellion of 1896. A quarter of a century
+ago the necessary 500 or 600 Filipinos, half-caste in the majority,
+could have been found with all the requisite qualifications for the
+formation of an intelligent oligarchy. The Constitution drawn up by
+Apolinario Mabini, and proclaimed by the Malolos Insurgent Government
+(January 22, 1899), was a fair proof of intellectual achievement. But
+that is not sufficient; the working of it would probably have been as
+successful as the Government of Hayti, because the Philippine character
+is deficient in disinterested thought for the common good. There is
+no lack of able Filipinos quite competent to enact laws and dictate
+to the people what they are to do; but if things are to be reversed
+and the elected assembly is to be composed of deputies holding the
+_people's_ mandates, there will be plenty to do between now and March,
+1907, in educating the electors to the point of intelligently using the
+franchise, uninfluenced by the _caciques_, who have hitherto dominated
+all public acts. According to the census of 1903, there were 1,137,776
+illiterate males of the voting age. In any case, independently of
+its legislative function, the Philippine Assembly will be a useful
+channel for free speech. It will lead to the open discussion of the
+general policy, the rural police, the trade regulations, the taxes,
+the desirability of maintaining superfluous expensive bureaux, the
+lavish (Manila) municipal non-productive outlay, and ruinous projects
+of no public utility, such as the construction of the Benguet road,
+[286] etc.
+
+The Act providing for a Philippine Assembly stipulates that the
+elected deputies shall not be less than 50 and not more than 100
+to represent the civilized portion of the following population,
+viz. [287]:--Civilized, 6,987,686; wild, 647,740; total, 7,635,426. The
+most numerous civilized races are the Visayos (about 2,602,000)
+and the Tagalogs (about 1,664,000).
+
+
+_Population of Manila_ (_Approximate Sub-divisions_) [288]
+
+
+Race.          Pop.  Race.        Pop. Race.                  Pop.
+
+Filipinos  189,915   Americans  3,700  Other Europeans      1,000
+Chinese     21,500   Spaniards  2,500  Other Nationalities  1,313
+
+Total in the Census of 1903 ... 219,928
+
+(Exclusive of the Army and Navy.)
+
+
+The divisions of the Municipality of Manila stand in the following
+order of proportion of population, viz.:--
+
+
+     1. Tondo (most).
+     2. Santa Cruz.
+     3. San Nicolas.
+     4. Sampaloc.
+     5. Binondo.
+     6. Ermita.
+     7. Intramuros (i.e., Walled City).
+     8. Quiapo.
+     9. Malate.
+    10. San Miguel.
+    11. Paco.
+    12. Santa Ana.
+    13. Pandacan (least).
+
+
+The total number of towns in the Archipelago is 934.
+
+_Populations of 40 Provincial Towns of the 934 Existing in the Islands_
+
+(_Exclusive of Their Dependent Suburbs, Districts, and Wards_) [289]
+
+
+    Town.                       Civilized Pop.
+
+    Bacolod                             5,678
+    Dagupan                             3,327
+    San Jose de Buenavista              3,636
+    Batangas                            1,610
+    Ilagan                              1,904
+    Balanga                             4,403
+    Iligan (or Yligan)                  2,872
+    San Fernando (La Union)             1,142
+    Balinag                             1,278
+    Imus                                1,930
+    Baguio                                270
+    Jaro                                7,169
+    San Fernando (Pampanga)             1,950
+    Binan (or Vinan)                    1,173
+    Jolo (Walled City)                    541
+    Cabanatuan                          1,894
+    S. Isidro                           3,814
+    Capiz                               7,186
+    Lipa                                4,078
+    Tabaco                              4,456
+    Calamba                             2,597
+    Lingayen                            2,838
+    Taal                                2,658
+    Calbayoc                            4,430
+    Olongapo                            1,121
+    Tacloban                            4,899
+    Cebu                               18,330
+    Majayjay                            1,680
+    Tarlac                              3,491
+    Cottabato                             931
+    Molo                                8,551
+    Tuguegarao                          3,421
+    Daet                                2,569
+    Puerta Princesa                       382
+    Vigan                               5,749
+    Davao                               1,010
+    Santa Cruz (Laguna)                 4,009
+    Yloilo                             19,054
+    Dapitan                             1,768
+    Zamboanga                           3,281
+
+
+
+_Civilized Population, Classified by Birth_
+
+_According to the Census of 1903_
+
+
+    Born in the Philippine Islands       6,931,548
+    Born in China                           41,035
+    Born in United States                    8,135
+    Born in Spain                            3,888
+    Born in Japan                              921
+    Born in Great Britain                      667
+    Born in Germany                            368
+    Born in East Indies                        241
+    Born in France                             121
+    Born in Other countries of Europe          487
+    Born in All other countries                275
+
+                                         6,987,686
+
+
+The regulations affecting Chinese immigration are explained at
+p. 633. Other foreigners are permitted to enter the Philippines
+(conditionally), but all are required to pay an entrance fee (I had
+to pay $5.30 Mex.) before embarking (abroad) for a Philippine port,
+and make a declaration of 19 items, [290] of which the following
+are the most interesting to the traveller:--(1) Sex; (2) whether
+married or single; (3) who paid the passage-money; (4) whether
+in possession of $30 upward or less; (5) whether ever in prison;
+(6) whether a polygamist. The master or an officer of the vessel
+carrying the passenger is required to make oath before the United
+States Consul at the port of embarkation that he has made a "personal
+examination" of his passenger, and does not believe him (or her) to
+be either an idiot, or insane person, or a pauper, or suffering from
+a loathsome disease, or an ex-convict, or guilty of infamous crime
+involving moral turpitude, or a polygamist, etc. The ship's doctor
+has to state on oath that he has also made a "personal examination"
+of the passenger. If the vessel safely arrives in port, say Manila,
+she will be boarded by a numerous staff of Customs' officials. In the
+meantime the passenger will have been supplied with declaration-forms
+and a printed notice, stating that an "Act provides a fine of not
+exceeding $2,000 or imprisonment at hard labour, for not more than
+five years, or both, for offering a gratuity to an officer of the
+Customs in consideration of any illegal act in connexion with the
+examination of baggage." The baggage-declaration must be ready for the
+officers, and, at intervals during an hour and a half, he (or she)
+has to sign six different declarations as to whether he (or she)
+brings fire-arms. The baggage is then taken to the Custom-house in
+a steam-launch for examination, which is not unduly rigid. Under a
+Philippine Commission Act, dated October 15, 1901, the Collector of
+Customs, or his deputy, may, at his will, also require the passenger
+to take an oath of allegiance in such terms that, in the event of
+war between the passenger's country and America, he who takes the
+oath would necessarily have to forfeit his claim for protection
+from his own country, unless he violated that oath. No foreigner
+is permitted to land if he comes "under a contract expressed, or
+implied, to perform labour in the Philippine Islands." In 1903 this
+prohibition to foreigners was disputed by a British bank-clerk who
+arrived in Manila for a foreign bank. The case was carried to court,
+with the result that the prohibition was maintained in principle,
+although the foreigner in question was permitted to remain in the
+Islands as an act of grace. But in February, 1905, a singular case
+occurred, exactly the reverse of the one just mentioned. A young
+Englishman who had been brought out to Manila on a four years'
+agreement, after four or five months of irregular conduct towards the
+firm employing him, presented himself to the Collector of Customs
+(as Immigration Agent), informed against himself, and begged to be
+deported from the Colony. The incentive for this strange proceeding
+was to secure the informer's reward of $1,000. It was probably the
+first case in Philippine history of a person voluntarily seeking
+compulsory expulsion from the Islands. The Government, acting on the
+information, shipped him off to Hong-Kong, the nearest British port,
+in the following month, with a through passage to Europe.
+
+Since the American advent the _Administration of Justice_ has been
+greatly accelerated, and Municipal Court cases, which in Spanish times
+would have caused more worry to the parties than they were worth, or,
+for the same reason, would have been settled out of court violently,
+are now despatched at the same speed as in the London Police Courts. On
+the other hand, quick despatch rather feeds the native's innate love
+for litigation, so that an agglomeration of lawsuits is still one
+of the Government's undesirable but inevitable burdens. There is a
+complaint that the fines imposed in petty cases are excessive, and
+attention was drawn to this by the Municipality of Manila. [291] After
+stating that the fines imposed on 2,185 persons averaged $5 per capita,
+and that they had to go to prison for non-payment, the Municipality
+adds: "It shows an excessive rigour on the part of the judges in the
+imposition of fines, a rigour which ought to be modified, inasmuch
+as the majority of the persons accused before the Court are extremely
+poor and ignorant of the ordinances and the laws for the violation of
+which they are so severely punished." Sentences of imprisonment and
+fines for high crimes are justly severe. During the governorship of
+Mr. W. H. Taft, 17 American provincial treasurers were each condemned
+to 25 years' imprisonment for embezzlement of public funds. In
+February, 1905, an army major, found guilty of misappropriation of
+public moneys, had his sentence computed at 60 years, which term
+the court reduced to 40 years' hard labour. The penalties imposed on
+some rioters at Vigan in April, 1904, were death for two, 40 years'
+imprisonment and $10,000 fine each for twelve, 30 years' imprisonment
+for thirty-one, and 10 years' imprisonment for twenty-five.
+
+The American law commonly spoken of in the Philippines as the
+"Law of Divorce" is nothing more than judicial separation in its
+local application, as it does not annul the marriage and the parties
+cannot marry again as a consequence of the action. The same could be
+obtained under the Spanish law called the _Siete Partidas_, with the
+only difference that before the _decree nisi_ was made absolute the
+parties might have had to wait for years, and even appeal to Home.
+
+On May 26,1900, the Military Governor authorized the solemnization
+of marriages by any judge of a court inferior to the Supreme Court,
+a justice of the peace, or a minister of any denomination. For the
+first time in the history of the Islands, _habeas corpus_ proceedings
+were heard before the Supreme Court on May 19, 1900. Besides the
+lower courts established in many provincial centres, sessions are
+held in circuit, each usually comprising two or three provinces. The
+provinces are grouped into 16 judicial districts, in each of which
+there is a Court of First Instance; and there is, moreover, one
+additional "Court of First Instance at large." The Chief Justice of
+the Supreme Court, some of his assistant judges, several provincial
+judges, the Attorney-General, and many other high legal functionaries,
+are Filipinos. The provincial justices of the peace are also natives,
+and necessarily so because their office requires an intimate knowledge
+of native character and dialect. Their reward is the local prestige
+which they enjoy and the litigants' fees, and happily their services
+are not in daily request. At times the findings of these local
+luminaries are somewhat quaint, and have to be overruled by the more
+enlightened judicial authorities in the superior courts. Manila and
+all the judicial centres are amply supplied with American lawyers who
+have come to establish themselves in the Islands, where the custom
+obtains for professional men to advertise in the daily newspapers. So
+far there has been only one American lady lawyer, who, in 1904, held
+the position of Assistant-Attorney in the Attorney-General's office.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXI
+
+Trade and Agriculture Since the American Advent
+
+
+During the year 1898 there were those who enriched themselves
+enormously as a consequence of the American advent, but the
+staple trade of the Colony was generally disrupted by the abnormal
+circumstances of the period; therefore it would serve no practical
+purpose to present the figures for that year for comparison with the
+results obtained in the years following that of the Treaty of Paris.
+
+The tables at the end of this chapter show the increase or decrease in
+the various branches of export and import trade. Regarded as a whole,
+the volume of business has increased since the American occupation--to
+what extent will be apparent on reference to the table of "Total Import
+and Export Values" at p. 639. When the American army of occupation
+entered the Islands, and was subsequently increased to about 70,000
+troops, occupying some 600 posts about the Archipelago, there came
+in their wake a number of enterprising business men, who established
+what were termed trading companies. Their transactions hardly affected
+the prosperity of the Colony one way or the other. For this class of
+trader times were brisk; their dealings almost exclusively related
+to the supply of commodities to the temporary floating population
+of Americans, with such profitable results that, although many of
+them withdrew little by little when, at the close of the War of
+Independence, the troops were gradually reduced to some 16,000 men,
+occupying about 100 posts, others had accumulated sufficient capital
+to continue business in the more normal time which followed. Those
+were halcyon days for the old-established retailers as well as the
+new-comers; but, as Governor W. H. Taft pointed out in his report
+to the Civil Commission dated December 23, 1903, [292] "The natural
+hostility of the American business men, growing out of the war, was
+not neutralized by a desire and an effort to win the patronage and
+goodwill of the Filipinos. The American business men controlled much of
+the advertising in the American papers, and the newspapers naturally
+reflected the opinion of their advertisers and subscribers in the
+advocacy of most unconciliatory measures for the native Filipino,
+and in decrying all efforts of the Government to teach Filipinos
+how to govern by associating the more intelligent of them in the
+Government.... The American business man in the Islands has really,
+up to this time, done very little to make or influence trade. He
+has kept close to the American patronage, and has not extended his
+efforts to an expansion of trade among the Filipinos.... There are
+a few Americans who have pursued a different policy with respect to
+the Filipinos to their profit."
+
+Governor Taft's comments were only intended to impress upon the
+permanent American traders, for their own good, the necessity
+of creating a new _clientele_ which they had neglected. The war
+finished, the wave of temporarily abnormal prosperity gradually
+receded with the withdrawal of the troops in excess of requirements;
+the palmy days of the retailer had vanished, and all Manila began to
+complain of "depression" in trade. The true condition of the Colony
+became more apparent to them in their own slack time, and for want of
+reflection some began to attribute it to a want of foresight in the
+Insular Government. Industry is in its infancy in the Philippines,
+which is essentially an agricultural colony. The product of the soil
+is the backbone of its wealth. The true causes of the depression
+were not within the control of the Insular Government or of any
+ruling factor. Five years of warfare and its sequence--the bandit
+community--had devastated the provinces. The peaceful pursuits of the
+husbandman had been nearly everywhere interrupted thereby; his herds
+of buffaloes had been decimated in some places, in others annihilated;
+his apparatus or machinery and farm buildings were destroyed, now
+by the common exigencies of war, now by the wantonness of the armed
+factions. The remnant of the buffaloes was attacked by rinderpest,
+or _epizootia_, as the Filipino calls this disease, and in some
+provinces up to 90 per cent. were lost. Some of my old friends
+assured me that, due to these two causes, they had lost every head
+of cattle they once possessed. Laudable effort was immediately made
+by the Insular Government to remedy the evil, for so great was the
+mortality that many agricultural districts were poverty-stricken,
+thousands of acres lying fallow for want of beasts for tillage and
+transport. Washington responded to the appeal for help, and a measure
+was passed establishing the Congressional Relief Fund, under which
+the sum of $3,000,000 was authorized to be expended to ameliorate the
+situation. By Philippine Commission Act No. 738, $100,000 of this
+fund were appropriated for preliminary expenses in the purchase of
+buffaloes. Under the supervision of the Insular Purchasing-Agent a
+contract was entered into with a Shanghai firm for the supply of 10,000
+head of inoculated buffaloes to be delivered in Manila, at the rate
+of 500 per month, at the price of P85 per head. An agent was sent to
+Shanghai with powers to reject unsuitable beasts before inoculation,
+and the Government undertook to remunerate the contractors at the rate
+of P40 for every animal which succumbed to the operation. The loss on
+this process was so great that a new contract was entered into with the
+same firm to deliver in Manila temporarily immunized buffaloes at the
+rate of P79 per head. On their arrival the animals were inspected, and
+those apparently fit were herded on the Island of Masbate for further
+observation before disposing of them to the planters. The attempt
+was a failure. Rinderpest, or some other incomprehensible disease,
+affected and decimated the imported herds. From beginning to end the
+inevitable wastage was so considerable that up to November 20, 1903,
+only 1,805 buffaloes (costing P118,805) were purchased, out of which
+1,370 were delivered alive, and of this number 429 died whilst under
+observation; therefore, whereas the price of the 1,805 averaged
+P65 per head, the cost exceeded P126 per head when distributed
+over the surviving 941, which were sold at less than cost price,
+although in private dealings buffaloes were fetching P125 to P250
+per head (_vide_ Buffaloes p. 337, et seq.). Veterinary surgeons and
+inoculators were commissioned to visit the buffaloes privately owned
+in the planting-districts, the Government undertaking to indemnify
+the owners for loss arising from the compulsory inoculation; but this
+has not sufficed to stamp out the disease, which is still prevalent.
+
+Another calamity, common in British India, but unknown in these
+Islands before the American advent, is _Surra_, a glandular disease
+affecting horses and ponies, which has made fatal ravages in the pony
+stock--to the extent, it is estimated, of 60 per cent. The pony which
+fully recovers from this disease is an exceptional animal. Again,
+the mortality among the field hands, as a consequence of the war,
+was supplemented by an outbreak of _Cholera morbus_ (_vide_ p. 197),
+a disease which recurs periodically in these Islands, and which was,
+on the occasion following the war, of unusually long duration. Together
+with these misfortunes, a visitation of myriads of locusts (_vide_
+p. 341) and drought completed the devastation.
+
+Consequent on the total loss of capital invested in live-stock, and
+the fear of rinderpest felt by the minority who have the wherewithal
+to replace their lost herds, there is an inclination among the
+agriculturists to raise those crops which need little or no animal
+labour. Hence sugar-cane and rice-paddy are being partially abandoned,
+whilst all who possess hemp or cocoanut plantations are directing
+their special attention to these branches of land-produce. Due to these
+circumstances, the increased cost of labour and living in the Islands
+since the American advent, the want of a duty-free entry for Philippine
+sugar into the United States, the prospective loss of the Japanese
+market, [293] the ever-accumulating capital indebtedness, and the
+need of costly machinery, it is possible to believe that sugar will,
+in time, cease to be one of the leading staple products of the Islands.
+
+With regard to the duty levied in the United States on Philippine
+sugar imports, shippers in these Islands point out how little it
+would affect either the United States' revenue or the sugar trade if
+the duty were remitted in view of the extremely small proportion of
+Philippine sugar to the total consumption in America. For instance,
+taking the average of the five years 1899-1903, the proportion was
+.313 per cent., so that if in consequence of the remission of duty
+this Philippine industry were stimulated to the extent of being able
+to ship to America threefold, it would not amount to 1 per cent,
+of the total consumption in that country.
+
+At the close of the 1903 sugar season the planters were more deeply
+in debt than at any previous period in their history. In 1904 the
+manager of an Yloilo firm (whom I have known from his boyhood)
+showed me statistics proving the deplorable financial position of
+the sugar-growers, and informed me that his firm had stopped further
+advances and closed down on twelve of the largest estates working on
+borrowed capital, because of the hopelessness of eventual liquidation
+in full. For the same reasons other financiers have closed their
+coffers to the sugar-planters.
+
+Another object of the grant called the Congressional Relief Fund was
+to alleviate the distress prevailing in several Luzon provinces,
+particularly Batangas, on account of the scarcity of rice, due,
+in a great measure, to the causes already explained. Prices of the
+imported article had already reached double the normal value in former
+times, and the Government most opportunely intervened to check the
+operations of a syndicate which sought to take undue advantage of
+the prevailing misery. Under Philippine Commission Acts Nos. 495,
+786 and 797, appropriations were made for the purchase of rice for
+distribution in those provinces where the speculator's ambition had
+run up the selling-price to an excessive rate. Hitherto the chief
+supplying-market had been the French East Indies, but the syndicate
+referred to contrived to close that source to the Government, which,
+however, succeeded in procuring deliveries from other places. The
+total amount distributed was 11,164 tons, costing P1,081,722. About
+22 tons of this amount was given to the indigent class, the rest
+being delivered at cost price, either in cash or in payment for the
+extermination of locusts, or for labour in road-making and other public
+works. The merchant class contended that this act of the Government,
+which deprived them of anticipated large profits, was an interference
+in private enterprise--a point on which the impartial reader must
+form his own conclusions. To obviate a recurrence of the necessity
+for State aid, the Insular Government passed an Act urging the people
+to hasten the paddy-planting. The proclamation embodying this Act
+permitted the temporary use of municipal lands, the seed supplied
+to be repaid after the crop. It is said that some of the local
+native councils, misunderstanding the spirit of the proclamation,
+made its non-observance a criminal offence, and incarcerated many
+of the supposed offenders; but they were promptly released by the
+American authorities.
+
+Under the circumstances set forth, the cultivation of rice in the
+Islands has fallen off considerably, to what extent may be partially
+gathered from a glance at the enormous imports of this cereal, which
+in the year 1901~ were 167,951 tons; in 1902, 285,473 tons; in 1903,
+329,055 tons (one-third of the value of the total imports in that
+year); and in 1904, 261,553 tons. The large increase of wages and
+taxes and the high cost of living since the American advent (rice in
+1904 cost about double the old price) have reduced the former margins
+of profit on sugar and rice almost to the vanishing-point.
+
+If all the land in use now, or until recently, for paddy-raising were
+suitable for the cultivation of such crops as hemp, tobacco, cocoanuts,
+etc., for which there is a steady demand abroad, the abandonment of
+rice for another produce which would yield enough to enable one to
+purchase rice, and even leave a margin of profit, would be rather an
+advantage than otherwise. But this is not the case, and naturally a
+native holds on to the land he possesses in the neighbourhood, where
+he was perhaps born, rather than go on a peregrination in search
+of new lands, with the risk of semi-starvation during the dilatory
+process of procuring title-deeds for them when found.
+
+Fortunately for the Filipinos, "Manila hemp" being a speciality
+of this region as a fibre of unrivalled quality and utility, there
+cannot be foreseen any difficulty in obtaining a price for it which
+will compensate the producer to-day as well as it did in former
+times. Seeing that buffaloes can be dispensed with in the cultivation
+of hemp and coprah, which, moreover, are products requiring no
+expensive and complicated machinery and are free of duty into the
+United States, they are becoming the favourite crops of the future.
+
+In 1905 there was considerable agitation in favour of establishing a
+Government Agricultural Bank, which would lend money to the planters,
+taking a first mortgage on the borrower's lands as guarantee. In
+connexion with this scheme, the question was raised whether the
+Government could, in justice, collect revenue from the people who had
+no voice at all in the Government, and then lend it out to support
+private enterprise. Moreover, without a law against usury (so common in
+the Islands) there would be little to prevent a man borrowing from the
+bank at, say, 6 per cent.--up to the mortgage value of his estate--to
+lend it out to others at 60 per cent. A few millions of dollars,
+subscribed by private capitalists and loaned out to the planters,
+would enormously benefit the agricultural development of the Colony;
+and if native wealthy men would demonstrate their confidence in the
+result by subscribing one-tenth of the necessary amount, perhaps
+Americans would be induced to complete the scheme. The foreign banks
+established in the Islands are not agricultural, but exchange banks,
+and any American-Philippine Agricultural Bank which may be established
+need have little reason to fear competition with foreign firms who
+remember the house of Russell & Sturgis (_vide_ p. 255) and also
+have their own more recent experiences. Philippine rural land is a
+doubtful security for loans, there being no free market in it.
+
+Between the years 1902 and 1904 the Insular Government confiscated the
+arable lands of many planters throughout the Islands for delinquency
+in taxes. The properties were put up to auction; some of them
+found purchasers, but the bulk of them remained in the ownership of
+the Government, which could neither sell them nor make any use of
+them. Therefore an Act was passed in February, 1905, restoring to
+their original owners those lands not already sold, on condition of
+the overdue taxes being paid within the year. In one province of Luzon
+the confiscated lots amounted to about one-half of all the cultivated
+land and one-third of the rural land-assessment in that province. The
+$2,400,000 gold spent on the Benguet road (_vide_ p. 615) would have
+been better employed in promoting agriculture.
+
+Up to 1898 Spain was the most important market for Philippine tobacco,
+but since that country lost her colonies she has no longer any
+patriotic interest in dealing with any particular tobacco-producing
+country. The entry of Philippine tobacco into the United States is
+checked by a Customs duty, respecting which there is, at present,
+a very lively contest between the tobacco-shippers in the Islands and
+the Tobacco Trust in America, the former clamouring for, and the latter
+against, the reduction or abolition of the tariff. It is simply a clash
+of trade interests; but, with regard to the broad principles involved,
+it would appear that, so long as America holds these Islands without
+the consent of its inhabitants, it is only just that she should do all
+in her power to create a free outlet for the Islands' produce. If this
+Archipelago should eventually acquire sovereign independence, America's
+moral obligations towards it would cease, and the mutual relations
+would then be only those ordinarily subsisting between two nations.
+
+By Philippine Commission Act dated April 30, 1902, a Bureau of
+Agriculture was organized. The chief of this department is assisted
+by experts in soil, farm-management, plant-culture, breeding, animal
+industry, seed and fibres, an assistant agrostologist, and a tropical
+agriculturist. Shortly after its organization, 18,250 packages of
+field and garden seeds were sent to 730 individuals for experiment
+in different parts of the Colony, with very encouraging results. The
+work of this department is experimental and investigative, with a
+view to the improvement of agriculture in all its branches.
+
+In Spanish times agricultural land was free of taxation. Now it pays a
+tax not exceeding .87 per cent. of the assessed value. The rate varies
+in different districts, according to local circumstances. For instance,
+in 1904 it was .87 per cent. in Baliuag (Bulacan) and in Vinan (La
+Laguna), and .68 per cent. in San Miguel de Mayumo (Bulacan). This tax
+is subdivided in its application to provincial and municipal general
+expenses and educational disbursements. The people make no demur
+at paying a tax on land-produce; but they complain of the system of
+taxation of capital generally, and particularly of its application to
+lands lying fallow for the causes already explained. The approximate
+yield of the land-tax in the fiscal year of 1905 was P2,000,000; it
+was then proposed to suspend the levy of this tax for three years in
+view of the agricultural depression.
+
+The Manila Port Works (_vide_ p. 344), commenced in Spanish times, are
+now being carried on more vigorously under contract with the Atlantic,
+Gulf, and Pacific Company. Within the breakwater a thirty-foot deep
+harbour, measuring about 400 acres, is being dredged, the mud raised
+therefrom being thrown on to 168 acres of reclaimed land which is to
+form the new frontage. Also a new channel entrance to the Pasig River
+is to be maintained at a depth of 18 feet. The Americans maintain
+that there will be no finer harbour in the Far East when the work is
+completed. The reclaimed acreage will be covered with warehouses and
+wharves, enabling vessels to load and discharge at all seasons instead
+of lying idle for weeks in the typhoon season and bad weather, as they
+often do now. With these enlarged shipping facilities, freights to
+and from Manila must become lower, to the advantage of all concerned
+in import and export trade. The cost of these improvements up to
+completion is estimated at about one million sterling.
+
+The port of Siassi (Tapul group), which was opened in recent years by
+the Spaniards, was discontinued (June 1, 1902) by the Americans, who
+opened the new coastwise ports of Cape Melville, Puerta Princesa, and
+Bongao (October 15, 1903) in order to assist the scheme for preventing
+smuggling between these extreme southern islands and Borneo. Hitherto
+there had been some excuse for this surreptitious trade, because
+inter-island vessels, trading from the other entry-ports, seldom,
+if ever, visited these out-of-the-way regions. In February, 1903,
+appropriations of $350,000 and $150,000 were made for harbour works in
+Cebu and Yloilo respectively, although in the latter port no increased
+facility for the entry of vessels into the harbour was apparent up to
+June, 1904. Zamboanga, the trade of which was almost nominal up to the
+year 1898, is now an active shipping centre of growing importance,
+where efforts are being made to foster direct trade with foreign
+eastern ports. An imposing Custom-house is to be erected on the new
+spacious jetty already built under American auspices. Arrangements
+have also been made for the Hong-Kong-Australia Steamship Company to
+make Zamboanga a port of call. Here, as in all the chief ports of the
+Archipelago, greater advantages for trade have been afforded by the
+administration, and one is struck with the appearance of activity and
+briskness as compared with former times. These changes are largely
+owing to the national character of the new rulers, for one can enter
+any official department, in any branch of public service, from that
+of the Gov.-General downwards, to procure information or clear up a
+little question "while you wait," and, if necessary, interview the
+chief of the department. The tedious, dilatory time and money-wasting
+"come later on" procedure of times gone by no longer obtains.
+
+What is still most needed to give a stimulus to agriculture and the
+general material development of the Islands is the conversion of
+hundreds of miles of existing highways and mud-tracks into good hard
+roads, so as to facilitate communication between the planting-districts
+and the ports. The corallaceous stone abounding in the Islands is
+worthless for road-making, because it pulverizes in the course of one
+wet season, and, unfortunately, what little hard stone exists lies
+chiefly in inaccessible places--hence its extraction and transport
+would be more costly than the supply of an equal quantity of broken
+granite brought over in sailing-ships from the Chinese coast, where
+it is procurable at little over the quarryman's labour. From the days
+of the Romans the most successful colonizing nations have regarded
+road-making as a work of primary importance and a civilizing factor.
+
+Among the many existing projects, there is one for the construction
+of railroads (1) from Manila (or some point on the existing railway)
+northward through the rich tobacco-growing valleys of Isabela and
+Cagayan, as far as the port of Aparri, at the mouth of the Cagayan
+River--distance, 260 miles; (2) from Dagupan (Pangasinan) to Laoag
+(Ilocos Norte), through 168 miles of comparatively well-populated
+country; (3) from San Fabian (Pangasinan) to Baguio (Benguet), 55
+miles; and three other lines in Luzon Island and one in each of the
+islands of Negros, Panay, Cebu, Leyte, and Samar. A railway line from
+Manila to Batangas, _via_ Calamba (a distance of about 70 miles), and
+thence on to Albay Province, was under consideration for many years
+prior to the American advent; but the poor financial result of the only
+(120 miles) line in the Colony has not served to stimulate further
+enterprise in this direction, except an endeavour of that same company
+to recuperate by feeder branches, two of which are built, and another
+(narrow gauge) is in course of construction from Manila to Antipolo,
+_via_ Pasig and Mariquina (_vide_ Railways, p. 265).
+
+Since February, 1905, a Congress Act, known as the "Cooper Bill,"
+offers certain inducements to railway companies. It authorizes the
+Insular Government to guarantee 4 per cent, annual interest on railway
+undertakings, provided that the total of such contingent liability
+shall not exceed $1,200,000--that is to say, 4 per cent, could be
+guaranteed on a maximum capital of $30,000,000. The Insular Government
+is further empowered under this Act to admit, at its discretion, the
+entry of railway material free of duty. As yet, no railway construction
+has been started by American capitalists. Projects _ad infinitum_ might
+be suggested for the development of trade and traffic--for instance, a
+ship-canal connecting the Laguna de Bay with the Pacific Ocean; another
+from Laguimanoc to Atimonan (Tayabas); an artificial entry-port in
+Negros Island, connected by railway with two-thirds of the coast, etc.
+
+Up to the present the bulk of the export and import trade is handled
+by Europeans, who, together with native capitalists, own the most
+considerable commercial and industrial productive "going concerns"
+in the Islands. In 1904 there were one important and several
+smaller American trading-firms (exclusive of shopkeepers) in the
+capital, and a few American planters and successful prospectors in
+the provinces. There are hundreds of Americans about the Islands,
+searching for minerals and other natural products with more hopeful
+prospects than tangible results. It is perhaps due to the disturbed
+condition of the Islands and the "Philippines for the Filipinos"
+policy that the anticipated flow of private American capital has
+not yet been seen, although there is evidently a desire in this
+direction. There is, at least, no lack of the American enterprising
+spirit, and, since the close of the War of Independence, several
+joint-stock companies have started with considerable cash capital,
+principally for the exploitation of the agricultural, forestal, and
+mineral wealth of the Islands. Whatever the return on capital may
+be, concerns of this kind, which operate at the natural productive
+sources, are obviously as beneficial to the Colony as trading can be
+in Manila--the emporium of wealth produced elsewhere.
+
+There are, besides, many minor concerns with American capital,
+established only for the purpose of selling to the inhabitants goods
+which are not an essential need, and therefore not contributing to
+the development of the Colony.
+
+The tonnage entered in Philippine ports shows a rapid annual increase
+in five years. Many new lines of steamers make Manila a port of call,
+exclusive of the army transports, carrying Government supplies,
+and in 1905 there was a regular goods and passenger traffic between
+Hong-Kong and Zamboanga. Still, the greater part of the freight
+between the Philippines and the Atlantic ports is carried in foreign
+bottoms. The shipping-returns for the year 1903 would appear to show
+that over 85 per cent, of the exports from the Islands to America,
+and about the same proportion of the imports from that country
+(exclusive of Government stores brought in army transports) were
+borne in foreign vessels. The carrying-trade figures for 1904 were
+78.41 per cent, in British bottoms; 6.69 per cent, in Spanish,
+and 6.65 per cent, in American vessels. The desire to dispossess
+the foreigners of the carrying monopoly is not surprising, but it
+is thought that immediately-operative legislation to that end would
+be impracticable. The latest legislation on the subject confines the
+carrying-trade between the Islands and the United States to American
+bottoms from July 1, 1906. It is alleged that the success of the new
+regulations which may (or may not, for want of American vessels)
+come into force on that date will depend on the freights charged;
+it is believed that exorbitant outward rates would divert the hemp
+cargoes into other channels, and a large rise in inward freights
+would facilitate European competition in manufactured goods. Any
+considerable rise in freights to America would tend to counterbalance
+the benefits which the Filipinos hope to derive from the free entry
+of sugar and tobacco into American ports. The text of the Shipping
+Law, dated April 15, 1904, reads thus; "On and after July 1, 1906, no
+merchandise shall be transported by sea, under penalty of forfeiture
+thereof, between ports of the United States and ports or places of
+the Philippine Archipelago, directly, or _via_ a foreign port, or
+for any part of the voyage in any other than a vessel of the United
+States. No foreign vessel shall transport passengers between ports of
+the United States and ports or places in the Philippine Archipelago,
+either directly, or _via_ a foreign port, under a penalty of $200
+for each passenger so transported and landed."
+
+The expenses of the Civil Government are met through the insular
+revenues (the Congressional Relief Fund being an extraordinary
+exception). The largest income is derived from the Customs'
+receipts, which in 1904 amounted to about $8,750,000, equal to about
+two-thirds of the insular treasury revenue (as distinguished from the
+municipal). The total _Revenue and Expenditure_ in the fiscal year
+1903 (from all sources, including municipal taxes expended in the
+respective localities, but exclusive of the Congressional Relief Fund)
+stood thus:--
+
+
+Total Revenue                           $14,640,988
+Total Expenditure                                     $15,105,374
+Excess of Expenditure over Revenue          464,386
+                                         ==========    ==========
+                                         15,105,374    15,105,374
+
+
+In 1903, therefore, Government cost the inhabitants the equivalent
+of about 46 per cent, of the exports' value, against 45 per cent, in
+Spanish times, taking the relative averages of 1890-94. The present
+abnormal pecuniary embarrassment of the people is chiefly due to the
+causes already explained, and perhaps partly so to the fact that the
+P30,000,000 to P40,000,000 formerly in circulation had two to three
+times the local purchasing value that pesos have to-day.
+
+The "Cooper Bill," already referred to, authorizes the Insular
+Government to issue bonds for General Public Works up to a total of
+$5,000,000, for a term of 30 years, at 4 1/2 per cent, interest per
+annum; and the municipalities to raise loans for municipal improvements
+up to a sum not exceeding 5 per cent. of the valuation of the real
+estate of the municipalities, at 5 per cent. interest per annum. For
+the purchase of the friars' lands a loan of $7,000,000 exists, bearing
+interest at 4 per cent. per annum, the possible interest liability
+on the total of these items amounting to about $2,000,000 per annum.
+
+On November 15, 1901, the high Customs tariff then in force was reduced
+by about 25 per cent. on the total average, bringing the average duties
+to about 17 per cent. _ad valorem_, but this was again amended by the
+new tariff laws of May 3, 1905. Opium is still one of the imports,
+but under a recent law its introduction is to be gradually restricted
+by tariff until March 1, 1908, from which date it will be unlawful to
+import this drug, except by the Government for medicinal purposes only.
+
+On August 1, 1904, a new scheme of additional taxation came into
+force under the "Internal Revenue Law of 1904." This tax having been
+only partially imposed during the first six months, the full yield
+cannot yet be ascertained, but at the present rate(P5,280,970.96,
+partial yield for the fiscal year 1905) it will probably produce at
+the annual rate of $4,250,000 gold, which, however, is not entirely
+extra taxation, taking into account the old taxes repealed under
+Art. XVII., sec. 244. The theory of the new scheme was that it
+might permit of a lower Customs tariff schedule. The new taxes are
+imposed on distilled spirits, fermented liquors, manufactured tobacco,
+matches, banks and bankers, insurance companies, forestry products,
+valid mining concessions granted prior to April 11, 1899, business,
+manufactures, occupations, licences, and stamps on specified objects
+(Art. II., sec. 25). Of the taxes accruing to the Insular Treasury
+under the above law, 10 per cent. is set apart for the benefit
+of the several provincial governments, apportioned _pro rata_ to
+their respective populations as shown by the census of 1903; 15 per
+cent. for the several municipal governments, provided that of this
+sum one-third shall be utilized solely for the maintenance of free
+public primary schools and expenditure appertaining thereto. In the
+aforesaid distribution Manila City ranks as a municipality and a
+province, and receives apportionment under this law on the basis of
+25 per cent. (Art. XVII., sec. 150).
+
+From the first announcement of the projected law up to its promulgation
+the public clamoured loudly against it. For months the public
+organs, issued in Spanish and dialect, persistently denounced it as a
+harbinger of ruin to the Colony. Chambers of Commerce, corporations and
+private firms, foreign and native, at meetings specially convened to
+discuss the new law, predicted a collapse of Philippine industry and
+commerce. At a public conference, held before the Civil Commission on
+June 24, 1904, it was stated that one distillery alone would have to
+pay a yearly tax of P744,000, and that a certain cigar-factory would
+be required to pay annually P557,425. Petitions against the coming
+law were sent by all the representative trading-bodies to the Insular
+Government praying for its withdrawal. When the Commissioners retired
+to their hill-station at Baguio (Benguet) they were followed up by
+protests against the measure, but it became law under Philippine
+Commission Act No. 1189. Since the imposition of this tax there
+has been a general complaint throughout the civilized provinces of
+depression in the internal trade, but to what extent it is justified
+there is no available precise data on which to form an estimate.
+
+As already stated, the American occupation brought about a rapid
+rise in the price of everything, not of necessity or in obedience
+to the law of supply and demand, but because it was the pleasure
+of the Americans voluntarily to enhance established values. To the
+surprise of the Filipinos, the new-comers preferred to pay wages
+at hitherto unheard-of rates, whilst the soldiers lavishly paid in
+gold for silver-peso value (say, at least, double), of their own
+volition--an innovation in which the obliging native complacently
+acquiesced, until it dawned upon him that he might demand anything he
+chose. The soldiers so frequently threw away copper coin given them in
+change as valueless, that many natives discontinued to offer it. It
+followed that everybody was reluctantly compelled to pay the higher
+price which the American spontaneously elected to give. Labour, food,
+house-rent, and all the necessaries of life rose enormously. [294]
+The Colony soon became converted from a cheap into an expensive place
+of residence. Living there to-day costs at least three times what
+it did in Spanish times. Urban property and lands were assessed at
+values far beyond those at which the owners truly estimated them. Up
+to 1904 it was not at all uncommon to find the rent of a house raised
+to five times that of 1898. Retailers had to raise their prices;
+trading-firms were obliged to increase their clerks' emoluments,
+and in every direction revenue and expenditure thenceforth ranged on
+an enhanced scale. It is remarkable that, whilst pains were taken by
+the new-comers to force up prices, many of them were simultaneously
+complaining of expensive living! Governor W. H. Taft, with an annual
+emolument of $20,000 gold, declared before the United States Senate
+that the Gov.-General's palace at Malacanan was too expensive a place
+for him to reside in. The lighting of the establishment cost him $125
+gold a month, and his servants' wages amounted to $250 monthly. He
+added that he would rather pay his own rent than meet the expenses
+of the Malacanan residence. [295]
+
+Two and a half years later General Leonard Wood reported:
+
+"There has been a great increase in the cost of living and in wages
+in this (Moro) as in other provinces--an increase which has not been
+accompanied either by improved methods or increased production. The
+cause of the increase can be traced, in most cases, to the _foolishly
+high prices paid_ by army officials for labour." [296]
+
+Wages steadily advanced as a natural consequence of the higher cost
+of living, and, under the guidance of a native demagogue, the working
+classes, for the first time in Philippine history, collectively began
+to grumble at the idea of labour-pay having a limit. It was one of
+the abuses of that liberty of speech suddenly acquired under the new
+dominion. On February 2, 1902, this person organized the malcontents
+under the title of a "Labour Union," of which he became the first
+president. The subscription was 20 cents of a peso per week. The
+legality of peacefully relinquishing work when the worker felt so
+inclined was not impugned; but when the strikers sought to coerce
+violently their fellow-men, the law justly interfered and imprisoned
+their leader. The presidency of the so-called "Labour Union" was
+thenceforth (September following) carried on by a half-caste, gifted
+with great power of organization and fluent oratory. He prepared the
+by-laws of the association, and fixed the monthly subscription at one
+peso per man and one peseta (one-fifth of a peso) per woman. About
+100,000 members were enrolled in the union, the ostensible aim of
+which was the defence of the working man's interests. It is difficult
+to discern what those interests were which needed protection; the
+position of the labouring class was the very reverse of that existing
+in Europe; the demand for labourers, at any reasonable wage, exceeded
+the supply. The idea of a Filipino philanthropically devoting his
+life to the welfare of the masses was beyond the conception of all who
+understood the Philippine character. At the end of about eight months,
+notwithstanding the enormous assets from subscriptions, the "Labour
+Union" became insolvent, with a deficit of 1,000 or more pesos. Where
+the assets had gone needed investigation. In the meantime the leader,
+posing as mediator between the Insular Government and certain notorious
+outlaws, had endeavoured to negotiate with Governor W. H. Taft for
+their surrender, on the condition of full pardon. The Government, at
+length, becoming suspicious of his intentions and the full measure of
+his sympathy for these individuals, caused the leader to be arrested on
+May 29, 1903, on the allegations of "founding, directing, and presiding
+over an illegal association known as 'The Democratic Labour Union,'"
+irregularities connected with the foundation and administration of
+the same, sedition, confederacy with brigands, and other minor counts.
+
+It was clear to every thinking man, American or European, that the
+control of such a formidable body was a menace to peace. The accused
+was brought to trial on the chief allegations, and in September,
+1903, he was sentenced to four years and two months' imprisonment,
+but appealed against the sentence to the Supreme Court. Later
+on he was tried on the other counts, and, although the public
+prosecution failed, it served the useful purpose of dissolving a
+league the scope of which was shrouded in obscurity, at a period
+when the political atmosphere was still clouded by aspirations of
+impossible and undesirable realization. I followed the course of
+the trial daily, and I interviewed the accused at his house a week
+before it ended. Three hundred documents were read at the trial, and
+160 witnesses were brought against him. To endeavour to establish
+a case of conspiracy against him, another individual was produced
+as his colleague. The first accused was defended by an American
+advocate with such fervid eloquence, apparently inspired by earnest
+conviction of his client's innocence, that those who had to decide his
+fate acquitted him of the charge of conspiracy on May 11, 1904. The
+defendant's verbal explanation to me of the "Labour Union" led me to
+the conclusion that its abolition would benefit the community.
+
+The abnormal rise in wages had the bad effect of inducing the
+natives to leave their pastoral pursuits to flock into the towns. The
+labour question is still a difficult problem, for it is the habit
+of the Filipino to discontinue work when he has a surplus in his
+pocket. Private employers complain of scarcity and the unreliability
+of the unskilled labourer. Undoubtedly the majority of them would
+welcome the return of Chinese coolies, whose entry into the Islands is
+prohibited by the Insular Government, in agreement with the desire of
+the Filipinos, who know full well that the industrious Chinaman would
+lower wages and force the Filipinos into activity for an existence.
+
+Consul-General Wildman, of Hong-Kong, in his report for 1900 to the
+State Department, Washington, said: "There has been, during the past
+year, quite an investment of Hong-Kong capital in Manila; but it
+is the general opinion that _no investment in mines or agriculture_
+in the Islands _will be of any great value until the introduction of
+Chinese labour_ is not only _permitted_ but _encouraged_."
+
+Section IV. of the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1902 provides that every
+Chinese labourer rightfully in any insular territory of the United
+States (Hawaii excepted), at the time of the passage of this Act,
+shall obtain, within one year thereafter, a certificate of residence,
+and upon failure to obtain such certificate he shall be deported;
+and the Philippine Commission is authorized and required to make all
+regulations necessary for the enforcement of this section in the
+Philippine Islands. No restriction is placed upon their movement
+from one island to another of the Philippines, but they cannot go
+from the Philippines to America.
+
+The regulations established by the Insular Government (Act of March
+27, 1903) in conformity with the above-cited Act are as follows: The
+Chinese can leave the Islands and return thereto within a year. They
+must obtain a certificate of departure and be photographed. To
+re-enter the Islands they must procure a certificate of departure at
+the place of embarkation (usually China) for the Philippines. Thus,
+during the year ending June 30, 1902, 10,158 Chinese entered Manila,
+and 11,432 left it with return certificates. Chinese resident in the
+Islands must be registered. The first banishment for contravention
+of this regulation took place on January 6, 1905.
+
+For a long time there was a big contraband business done in Chinese. A
+coolie would pay as much as 400 pesos premium to find himself where he
+could earn up to 100 pesos per month. The contraband agent in China
+was an ex-Custom-house officer. The Manila agent was in the Customs
+service, and the colleagues on the China side were high officials. When
+the conspiracy was discovered the agent in China came to Manila to
+answer the charge, and was at once arrested. A prosecution was entered
+upon; but after a protracted trial, the proceedings were quashed,
+for reasons which need not be discussed. The Exclusion Act is so
+rigidly upheld that in the case of a Chinese merchant who died in
+the Islands leaving a fortune of about 200,000 pesos, his (Chinese)
+executor was refused permission to reside temporarily in the Colony
+for the sole purpose of winding up the deceased's affairs.
+
+The social position of the Chinese permitted to remain in the
+Islands has changed since the American advent. In former times, when
+the highest authorities frowned upon the Chinese community, it was
+necessary to propitiate them with bags of silver pesos. There was no
+Chinese consul in those days; but Chino Carlos Palanca was practically
+the protector and dictator of his countrymen during the last decade of
+Spanish rule, and, if a cloud descended upon them from high quarters,
+he used to pass the word round for a dollar levy to dissipate it. In
+February, 1900, Chino Palanca was made a mandarin of the first class,
+and when his spirit passed away to the abode of his ancestors his
+body was followed to interment by an immense sympathetic crowd of
+Celestials. This pompous funeral was one of the great social events of
+the year. Now there is a Chinese consul in Manila whose relations to
+his people are very different from those between Europeans and their
+consuls. The Chinese consul paternally tells his countrymen what they
+are to do, and they do it with filial submission. He has given them
+to understand that they occupy a higher position than that formerly
+accorded to the Chinese in this Colony (_vide_ Chinese, Chapter viii).
+
+On my first visit to Manila alter the American occupation I was struck
+to see Chinese in the streets wearing the pigtail down their backs,
+and dressed in nicely-cut semi-European patrol-jacket costumes of cloth
+or washing-stuffs, with straw or felt "trilby" hats. Now, too, they
+mix freely among the whites in public places with an air of social
+equality, and occupy stall seats in the theatre, which they would
+not have dared to enter in pre-American times. The Chinese Chamber
+of Commerce is also of recent foundation, and its status is so far
+recognized by the Americans that it was invited to express an opinion
+on the Internal Revenue Bill, already referred to, before it became
+law. The number of Chinese in the whole Archipelago is estimated
+at about 41,000. When an enterprising American introduced a large
+number of jinrikishas, intending to establish that well-known system
+of locomotion here, the Chinese Consulate very shortly put its veto
+on the employment of Chinese runners. The few natives who ran them
+became objects of ridicule. The first person who used a jinrikisha in
+Manila, with Chinese in livery, was a European consul. Other whites,
+unaccustomed to these vehicles, took to beating the runners--a thing
+never seen or heard of in Japan or in colonies where they are used in
+thousands. The natural result was that the 'rikisha man bolted and the
+'rikisha tilted backwards, to the discomfort of the fool riding in
+it. The attempted innovation failed, and the vehicles were sent out
+of the Colony.
+
+Apart from the labour question, if the Chinese were allowed a free
+entry they would perpetuate the smartest pure Oriental mixed class
+in the Islands. On the other hand, if their exclusion should remain
+in force beyond the present generation it will have a marked adverse
+effect on the activity of the people (_vide_ pp. 182, 411).
+
+At the period of the American occupation the _Currency_ of the
+Islands was the Mexican and Spanish-Philippine peso, of a value
+constantly fluctuating between 49 and 37 cents. gold (_vide_ table
+at p. 647). The shifty character of the silver basis created such an
+uncertainty in trade and investment transactions that the Government
+resolved to place the currency on a gold standard. Between January 1
+and October 5, 1902, the Insular Treasury lost $956,750.37 1/2 from the
+fall of silver. A difficulty to be confronted was the impossibility
+of ascertaining even the approximate total amount of silver current
+in the Islands. Opinions varied from P30,000,000 upwards. [297]
+Pending the solution of the money problem, ineffectual attempts were
+made to fix the relative values by the publication of an official
+ratio between gold dollar and silver peso once a quarter; but as
+it never agreed with the commercial quotation many days running,
+the announcement of the official ratio was altered to once in ten
+days. Seeing that ten days or more elapsed before the current ratio
+could be communicated to certain remote points, the complications in
+the official accounts were most embarrassing. Congress Act of July
+1, 1902, authorized the coinage of subsidiary silver, but did not
+determine the unit of value or provide for the issue of either coin or
+paper money to take the place of the Mexican and Spanish-Philippine
+pesos in circulation, so that it was quite inoperative. Finally,
+Congress Act of March 2, 1903, provided that the new standard should
+be a peso equal in value to half a United States gold dollar. The
+maximum amount authorized to be coined was 75,000,000 silver pesos,
+each containing 416 grains of silver, nine-tenths fine. The peso was
+to be legal tender for all debts, public and private, in the Islands,
+and was to be issued when the Insular Government should have 500,000
+pesos ready for circulation. The peso is officially alluded to as
+"Philippine currency," whilst the popular term, "Conant," derives
+its name from a gentleman, Mr. Charles Conant, in whose report, dated
+November 25, 1901, this coin was suggested. He visited the Islands,
+immortalized his name, and modestly retired.
+
+The "Philippine currency," or "peso Conant," is guaranteed by the
+United States Treasury to be equal to 50 cents of a gold dollar. The
+six subsidiary coins are 50, 20, and 10 cents silver, 5 cents nickel,
+and 1 and 1/2 cent bronze, equivalent to a sterling value of one
+shilling to one farthing. This new coinage, designed by a Filipino, was
+issued to the public at the end of July, 1903. The inaugurating issue
+consisted of 17,881,650 silver pesos, in pesos and subsidiary coins,
+to be supplemented thereafter by the re-coinage of the Mexican and
+Philippine pesos as they found their way into the Treasury. For public
+convenience, silver certificates, or Treasury Notes, were issued,
+exchangeable for "Conant" silver pesos, to the extent of 6,000,000
+pesos' worth in 10-peso notes; another 6,000,000 pesos in 5-peso notes,
+and 3,000,000 pesos in 2-peso notes, these last bearing a vignette
+of the Philippine patriot, the late Dr. Jose Rizal. On December 23,
+1903, the Governor reported that "not till January 1, 1904, can the
+Mexican coin be demonetized and denied as legal tender value." A
+proclamation, dated January 28, 1904, was issued by the Insular
+Treasury in Spanish and Tagalog to the effect (1) that after October 1,
+1904, the Government would only accept Mexican or Philippine pesos at
+the value of their silver contents, and (2) that after December 31,
+1904, a tax would be levied on all deposits made at the banks of the
+above-mentioned coinage. Notwithstanding the publication of numerous
+official circulars urging the use of the new peso, the Mexican and
+Spanish-Philippine dollars remained in free circulation during the
+first six months of 1904, although rent and certain other payments
+were reckoned in "Conant" and current accounts at banks were kept in
+the new currency, unless otherwise agreed. Naturally, as long as the
+seller was willing to accept Mexican for his goods, the buyer was only
+too pleased to pay in that medium, because if, for instance, he had to
+pay 10 Mexican dollars, and only had "Conant" in his pocket, he could
+call at any of the hundred exchange shops about town, change his 10
+"Conant" into Mexican at a 5 to 20 per cent. premium, settle his bill,
+and reserve the premium. Almost any Far Eastern fractional coins served
+as subsidiary coins to the Mexican or Spanish-Philippine peso, and
+during nine or ten months there were no less than three currencies
+in use--namely, United States, Mexican (with Spanish-Philippine),
+and "Conant." It was not practicable to deny a legal-tender value
+to so much Mexican, and Spanish-Philippine coin in circulation. The
+retailer was required to exhibit in his shop a card, supplied by the
+municipality, indicating the exchange-rate of the day, and declaring in
+Spanish, English, and Tagalog as follows: "Our prices are in American
+currency. We accept Philippine currency at the rate of..."; but the
+reckoning in small-value transactions was so bewildering that, in
+practice, he would accept any coinage the purchaser chose to give him
+at face value. From August 1, 1904, when the "Internal Revenue Law"
+(_vide_ p. 630) came into operation, merchants' and bankers' accounts
+and all large transactions were settled on the new-currency basis. Many
+retailers followed the lead, and the acceptance of the new medium
+thenceforth greatly increased. Still, for several months, provincial
+natives were loth to part with their old coin at a discount, or, as
+they plainly put it, lose 10 to 20 per cent. of their cash capital
+at a stroke. The Insular Treasurer therefore issued another circular
+in December, 1904, stating that whosoever engaged in business should
+make use of the old coinage in trade transactions after December 31,
+1904, without special licence, would be condemned to pay not only
+that licence, but a heavy fine, or be _sent to prison_; and that
+all written agreements made after October, 1904, involving a payment
+in old currency, would pay a tax of 1 per cent. per month from the
+said date of December, 1904. Nevertheless, further pressure had to be
+exercised by the Civil Governor, who, in a circular dated January 7,
+1905, stated that "it is hereby ordered that the Insular Treasurer
+and all provincial treasurers in the Philippine Islands shall, on and
+after this date and until February 1, 1905, purchase Spanish-Filipino
+currency, Mexican currency, Chinese subsidiary silver coins, and all
+foreign copper coins now circulating in the Philippine Islands at
+_one peso_, Philippine currency, for _one peso and twenty centavos_,
+local currency."
+
+As late as March, 1905, there was still a considerable amount of old
+coinage in private hands, but practically the new medium was definitely
+established. The total number of "Conant" pesos in circulation in
+the Islands, in the middle of May, 1905, was 29,715,720 (all minted
+in America), and "Conant" paper, P10,150,000.
+
+From the time of the American occupation up to May, 1902, the two
+foreign banks--the Hong-Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation and
+the Chartered Bank of India, Australia, and China (_vide_ Banks,
+p. 258)--were the only depositaries for the Insular Treasury, outside
+the Treasury itself. In the meantime, two important American banks
+established themselves in the Islands--namely, the "Guaranty Trust
+Company," and the "International Banking Corporation." On May 15,
+1902, the "Guaranty Trust Company" was appointed a depositary for
+Philippine funds both in Manila and in the United States; and on June
+21 following the "International Banking Corporation" was likewise
+appointed a depositary for the Insular Treasury, each being under a
+bond of $2,000,000. These two banks also act as fiscal agents to the
+United States in the Philippines. [298]
+
+In 1904 the position of the "Banco Espanol-Filipino" (_vide_ p. 258)
+was officially discussed. This bank, the oldest established in Manila,
+holds a charter from the Spanish Government, the validity of which was
+recognized. The Insular Government sought to reduce the amount of its
+paper currency, which was alleged to be three times the amount of its
+cash capital. Meanwhile, the notes in circulation, representing the
+old Philippine medium, ceased to be legal tender, and were exchanged
+for "Conant" peso-value notes at the current rate of exchange.
+
+For a short period there existed an establishment entitled the
+"American Bank," which did not prosper and was placed in liquidation
+on May 18, 1905, by order of the Gov.-General, pursuant to Philippine
+Commission Act No. 52 as amended by Act No. 556.
+
+In February, 1909, the terms of Article 4 of the Treaty of Paris
+(_vide_ p. 479) will lapse, leaving America a freer hand to determine
+the commercial future of the Philippines. It remains to be seen
+whether the "Philippines for the Filipinos" policy, promoted by the
+first Civil Governor, or the "Equal opportunities for all" doctrine,
+propounded by the first Gov.-General, will be the one then adopted
+by America. Present indications point to the former merging into the
+latter, almost of necessity, if it is desired to encourage American
+capitalists to invest in the Islands. The advocate of the former
+policy is the present responsible minister for Philippine affairs,
+whilst, on this work going to press, the propounder of the latter
+doctrine has been justly rewarded, for his honest efforts to govern
+well, with the appointment of first American Ambassador to Japan.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Trade Statistics
+
+
+Total Import and Export Values (exclusive of Silver and Gold)
+
+
+Period.        Imports.     Exports.  Total Import   Excess       Excess
+                                          and        of Imports.  of Exports.
+                                      Export Trade.
+Annual
+Average.        Gold $.       Gold $.      Gold $.       Gold $.    Gold $.
+
+1880-84     19,500,274    20,838,325    40,338,599       --       1,338,051
+1885-89     15,789,165    20,991,265    36,780,430       --       5,202,100
+1890-94     15,827,694    19,751,293    35,578,987       --       3,923,599
+
+Year.
+1899        13,113,010    12,306,912    25,479,922      746,098       --
+1900        20,601,436    19,751,068    40,352,504      850,368       --
+1901        30,279,406    23,214,948    53,494,354    7,064,458       --
+1902        32,141,842    23,927,679    56,069,521    8,214,163       --
+1903        32,971,882    33,121,780    66,093,662       --         149,898
+
+
+Great Britain and the United States are the most important foreign
+markets for Philippine hemp, the distribution of shipments in 1850
+and in five recent years having been as follows:--
+
+
+
+Hemp Shipments To United States, United Kingdom, and Other Countries
+
+
+Year.   To United States. To Great Britain. To Other Countries.   Total.
+              Tons.               Tons.           Tons.            Tons.
+
+1850         7,387               1,092             323            8,802
+1899        26,713              21,511          26,808           75,092
+1900        20,304              46,419          22,715           89,438
+1901        30,336              82,190          11,731          124,257
+1902        60,384              44,813           6,303          111,500
+1903        69,912              59,189           8,651          137,752
+
+
+
+Hemp Shipments
+
+
+                    Year.          Total.
+                                    Tons.
+
+                    1850           8,802
+                    1855          14,936
+                    1860          24,812
+                    1865          24,862
+                    1870          30,535
+                    1875          32,864
+                    1880          49,934
+                    1885          52,141
+                    1890          63,269
+                    1895         104,040
+                    1896          95,736
+                    1897         112,755
+                    1898          99,076
+                    1899          75,092
+                    1900          89,438
+                    1901         124,257
+                    1902         111,500
+                    1903         137,752
+
+
+
+
+Total Chief Exports from the Philippine Islands
+
+
+             1885.    1886.    1887.    1888.    1889.    1890.     1891.     1892.     1893.
+             Tons.    Tons.    Tons.    Tons.    Tons.    Tons.     Tons.     Tons.     Tons.
+Sugar
+
+Manila      65,678   84,204   83,469   91,628   92,856   48,071    73,296    67,996   107,003
+Cebu        28,195   18,140   17,815   16,694   11,862    3,455     8,762    18,388    16,962
+Yloilo     109,609   83,456   77,847   76,997  114,207   96,000    85,104   165,407   137,716
+
+Total      203,482  185,800  179,131  185,319  218,925  147,526   167,162   251,791   261,681
+
+Hemp
+
+Manila      43,927   39,268   56,709   71,881   59,455   56,201    68,256    87,778    70,174
+Cebu         8,214    7,192    7,663   11,298   11,616    7,068    11,087    11,035    10,010
+
+Total       52,141   46,460   64,372   82,679   71,071   63,269    79,343    98,813    80,184
+
+Sapan-wood
+
+Manila       2,911    1,885      962      750      574    1,385       880     1,574     3,332
+Yloilo
+and Cebu     1,100    2,943    4,260    5,853    4,018    1,415     3,317     2,207     1,586
+
+Total        4,011    4,828    5,222    6,603    4,592    2,800     4,197     8,841     4,918
+
+Coprah
+
+tons          --        --       --       --       --     4,653    17,875     22,439   11,519
+
+
+Shipped from Manila only.
+
+
+                   1885.    1886.    1887.    1888.    1889.    1890.    1891.    1892.    1893.
+Coffee
+    tons          5,209    7,337    4,998    6,702    5,841    4,796    2,869    1,326      307
+Cigars
+    thousands   114,821  102,717   99,562  109,109  121,674  109,636   97,740  137,059  137,458
+Tobacco-Leaf
+    tons          6,799    6,039    4,841   10,229   10,161    8,952    9,803   12,714   11,534
+Buffalo-Hides
+    tons            632      666      566    1,888      755      394      272      327     --
+Indigo
+    tons             84       64      111      232      221       19       89      278     --
+Gum Mastic
+    tons            195      205      404      330      490      188      303      136     --
+Cordage
+    tons            265      187      175      124       94      196      149      100     --
+M.O.P. Shell
+    tons             10        8       13       12       23       31       18       10     --
+
+
+
+
+Total Chief Exports from the Philippine Islands--continued
+
+
+              1894.    1895.    1896.    1897.    1899.   1900.    1901.     1902.   1903.    1858.
+                                                  Under American Occupation.                  According
+              Tons.    Tons.    Tons.    Tons.    Tons.   Tons.    Tons.     Tons.    Tons.   to Sir John
+                                                                                              Bowring.
+Sugar
+
+Manila      94,656  107,221   97,705   57,382    5,041   27,473    5,567      421      368
+Cebu        10,198   13,335    7,701   15,257   12,363    3,731    8,283    4,595    6,202
+Yloilo      88,533  110,527  124,648  130,542   71,982   36,312   45,070   97,129   81,308
+
+Total      193,387  231,083  230,054  203,181   89,386   67,536   58,920  102,145   88,378   34,821
+
+Hemp
+
+Manila      82,693   93,595   83,172  102,721     --       --       --       --       --
+Cebu        16,804   10,445   12,564   10,034     --       --       --       --       --
+
+Total       99,497  104,040   95,736  112,755   75,092   89,438  124,257  111,500  137,752   25,781
+
+Sapanwood
+
+Manila       1,292    1,619      898    1,022   No quantities stated in the
+Yloilo                                          Office Returns since 1898.
+  & Cebu     1,633      694    2,743    3,165
+
+Total        2,925    2,313    3,551    4,187   Included in Table of                          4,201
+                                                Total Export Values, p. 639.
+Coprah
+
+tons        33,265   37,104   37,970   50,714   15,906   65,355   32,655   59,287   83,411
+
+
+Shipped from Manila only.
+
+Coffee
+    tons            309       194       89      136       34       13       30        7        4    1,560
+Cigars
+    thousands   137,877   164,430  183,667  156,916   No quantities officially stated.             85,142
+Tobacco-Leaf
+    tons          9,545    10,368   10,986   15,836    6,272    9,834    7,764    9,016    8,593    4,106
+Buffalo-Hides
+    tons            398       467      397      728     --       --       --       --       --        402
+Indigo
+    tons             72        27       23       33      114         5        8     247       40       36
+Gum Mastic
+    tons            189       275      172      223   No quantities officially stated.
+Cordage
+    tons            170       198      194      239
+M.O.P. Shell
+    tons             54        79       13       42
+
+
+
+
+Total Export of Sugar from the Phillipine Islands During 18 Years
+
+
+               1885.    1886.    1887.    1888.    1889.    1890.    1891.    1892.    1893.
+               Tons.    Tons.    Tons.    Tons.    Tons.    Tons.    Tons.    Tons.    Tons.
+
+Manila
+
+Dry          47,542   62,594   62,167   63,890    --      33,233   50,342   51,718   72,007
+Wet          18,136   21,610   21,302   27,738    --      14,838   22,954   16,278   34,996
+
+Total        65,678   84,204   83,469   91,628   92,856   48,071   73,296   67,996  107,003
+
+Cebu
+
+Dry          23,676   15,190   12,765   13,094    --       3,145    7,562   17,488   16,712
+Wet           4,519    2,950    5,050    3,600    --         310    1,200      900      250
+
+Total        23,195   18,140   17,815   16,694   11,862    3,455    8,762   18,388   16,962
+
+Yliolo
+
+Dry         102,369   81,201   71,722   72,882    --      87,966   82,515  160,050  135,191
+Wet           7,240    2,255    6,125    4,115    --       8,034    2,589    5,357    2,525
+
+Total       109,609   83,456   77,847   76,997  114,207   96,000   85,104  165,407  137,716
+
+Grand Total 203,482  185,800  179,131  185,319  213,925  147,526  167,162  251,791  261,631
+
+
+
+
+Total Export of Sugar from the Phillipine Islands During 18
+Years--continued
+
+
+               1894.    1895.    1896.    1897.    1898.    1899.    1900.    1902.    1903.
+               Tons.    Tons.    Tons.    Tons.    Tons.    Tons.    Tons.    Tons.    Tons.
+                                                            Under American Occupation
+Manila
+
+Dry          65,189   81,502   77,676   46,345
+Wet          18,136   21,610   21,302   27,738    5,041   27,473    5,567      421      868
+
+Total        94,656  107,221   97,703   57,382    5,041   27,473    5,567      421      868
+
+Cebu
+
+Dry          10,198   13,085    7,484   15,137
+Wet            --        250      217      120   12,363    3,751    8,283    4,595    6,202
+
+Total        10,198   13,335    7,701   15,257   12,363    3,751    8,283    4,595    6,202
+
+Yliolo
+
+Dry            --       --    123,720  129,174
+Wet            --       --        928    1,368   71,982   36,312   45,070   97,129   81,308
+
+Total        88,533  110,527  124,648  130,542   71,982   36,312   45,070   97,129   81,308
+
+Grand Total 193,387  231,083  230,054  203,181   89,386   67,536   58,920  102,145   88,378
+
+
+_N.B._--The total export of sugar in the year 1861 was 53,114 tons.
+
+
+
+
+Trade Statistics
+
+
+Tobacco and Cigar Shipments Before American Occupation
+
+
+             Year. Cigars.       Leaf.     Year. Cigars.       Leaf.
+                   Thousands.    Tons.       Thousands.    Tons.
+Under
+Monopoly     1880   82,783        8,657    1889  121,674       10,161
+             1881   89,502        7,027    1890  109,636        8,952
+             1882  103,597        6,195    1891   97,740        9,803
+             1883  190,079        7,267    1892  137,059       12,714
+             1884  125,091        7,181    1893  137,458       11,534
+             1885  114,821        6,799    1894  137,877        9,545
+             1886  102,717        6,039    1895  164,430       10,368
+             1887   99,562        4,841    1896  183,667       10,986
+             1888  109,109       10,229    1897  156,916       15,836
+
+
+
+Tobacco-leaf Shipments Since American Occupation
+
+
+        1899.  1900.  1901.  1902.  1903.
+        Tons.  Tons.  Tons.  Tons.  Tons.
+
+        6,272  9,834  7,764  9,016  8,593
+
+
+
+
+Cigar Shipments Since American Occupation
+
+The official returns do not state the quantities shipped
+
+
+             United States.
+                         British Empire. [299]
+                                        Other Countries.
+                                                       Total
+    Year.     Value.       Value.         Value.       Value.
+             Gold $.      Gold $.        Gold $.      Gold $.
+
+    1899      3,405      430,013        512,281      945,699
+    1900      5,662      937,872        214,883    1,158,417
+    1901        908    1,604,470        227,071    1,832,449
+    1902     11,006      813,083        164,429      988,518
+    1903      1,900      757,783        201,672      961,355
+
+
+
+
+Coprah Shipments
+
+
+        Year.    Manila.        Cebu.        Total.
+                   Tons.        Tons.         Tons.
+
+        1890      4,653          --           4,653
+        1891        --           --          17,875
+        1892        --           --          22,439
+        1893     11,519          --          11,519
+        1894     32,045         1,220        33,265
+        1895     34,332         2,772        37,104
+        1896     34,895         3,075        37,970
+        1897     47,814         2,900        50,714
+        1899     13,356         2,378        15,906
+        1900     62,469         2,886        65,355
+        1901     30,347         2,308        32,655
+        1902     41,816        17,471        59,287
+        1903     69,189        14,222        83,411
+
+
+
+
+Coprah Shipment Values
+
+
+                   United States.
+                            British Empire.
+                                      Other Countries.
+    Year.                                         Total Value
+                   Gold $.  Gold $.      Gold $.     Gold $.
+
+    1899           --       72,095      654,558     726,653
+    1900           4,450   246,243    2,931,788   3,182,481
+    1901            --      91,793    1,520,045   1,611,838
+    1902           9,057   531,421    2,161,247   2,701,725
+    1903           9,354   311,606    3,498,833   3,819,793
+
+
+
+Cocoanut-oil Shipment Values
+
+
+1893       1894       1899       1900      1901     1902     1903
+Value      Value      Value      Value     Value    Value    Value
+Gold $.    Gold $.    Gold $.    Gold $.   Gold $.  Gold $.  Gold $.
+
+10,336     33,333     None         105         20      346       81
+
+
+It will  be observed that with the increase of coprah shipment,
+the export of cocoanut-oil has decreased.
+
+
+
+
+_Sapan-wood Shipments Before American Occupation_
+
+
+                Year.     Tons.
+
+                1880      5,527
+                1881      4,253
+                1882      5,003
+                1883      2,924
+                1884      2,868
+                1885      4,011
+                1886      4,828
+                1887      5,222
+                1888      6,603
+                1889      4,592
+                1890      2,800
+                1891      4,197
+                1892      3,841
+                1893      4,918
+                1894      2,925
+                1895      2,313
+                1896      3,551
+                1897      4,187
+
+
+The official returns, since 1898, do not state the _quantities_
+of sapan-wood shipments.
+
+
+Gum-mastic Shipments
+
+
+                Year.     Tons.
+
+                1880      431
+                1881      440
+                1882      339
+                1883      235
+                1884      245
+                1885      195
+                1886      205
+                1887      404
+                1888      330
+                1889      490
+                1890      188
+                1891      303
+                1892      136
+                1894      189
+                1895      275
+                1896      172
+                1897      223
+
+
+The official figures of _quantity_ are not procurable since 1897. The
+_values_ of the shipments are as follows:--In 1901, $154,801; in 1902,
+$189,193; in 1903, $143,093.
+
+
+
+Coffee Shipments
+
+
+                Year. Tons.
+
+                1856       437
+                1858     1,560
+                1865     2,350
+                1871     3,335
+                1880     5,059
+                1881     5,383
+                1882     5,052
+                1883     7,451
+                1884     7,252
+                1885     5,209
+                1886     7,337
+                1887     4,998
+                1888     6,702
+                1889     5,841
+                1890     4,796
+                1891     2,869
+                1892     1,326
+                1893       307
+                1894       309
+                1895       194
+                1896        89
+                1897       136
+                1899        34
+                1900        13
+                1901        30
+                1902         7
+                1903         4
+
+
+
+
+Gold and Silver Imports and Exports Since American Occupation
+
+
+    Year                Imports               Exports
+                    Gold.     Silver.      Gold.     Silver.
+                  Gold $.     Gold $.    Gold $.     Gold $.
+
+    1899         109,965   1,141,392  3,487,050     939,756
+    1900          71,058   2,830,263    593,143   3,147,946
+    1901         751,909   6,269,613    857,563     637,844
+    1902           3,110   4,226,924    314,295   4,173,776
+    1903          50,730   1,403,475     63,540   7,494,347
+
+
+
+Tonnage Entered in Philippine Ports Since American Occupation
+
+
+    Year. Steamers.  Net Tonnage.  Sailing-ships  Net Tonnage.
+
+    1899     1,562       767,605         313        58,980
+    1900     2,969     1,278,740       3,252       147,153
+    1901     3,649     1,630,176       6,333       208,092
+    1902     3,744     1,819,547       7,222       242,669
+    1903     4,679     2,343,904       6,111       251,116
+
+
+
+Exchange Fluctuations (Of the Peso or Mexican Dollar).
+
+
+            Sight on London.
+            Year.           Highest.        Lowest.
+
+            1869            4/5-1/4         4/1-3/4
+            1879            3/11            3/9
+            1880            3/11-3/4        3/9-3/4
+            1881            4/1-1/2         3/11
+            1882            4/1             3/11-1/2
+            1883            4/0-1/4         3/9-1/2
+            1884            3/9-1/4         3/7-3/4
+            1885            3/10-1/4        3/8-1/2
+            1886            3/9-3/4         3/7-1/2
+            1887            3/8-1/2         3/3
+            1888            3/6-3/4         3/2-3/4
+            1889            3/6-1/4         3/3
+            1890            3/10-1/2        3/2-1/4
+            1892            3/3-3/4         3/-
+            1897            2/2             1/2-3/4
+            1898            2/0-5/8         1/9-1/2
+            1899            2/05/16         1/11-3/8
+            1900            2/0-7/8         1/11-7/8
+            1901            2/0-1/2         1/10-5/16
+            1902            1/10-13/16      1/6-1/4
+            1903            1/11-5/16       1/6-11/16
+            1904
+            Local Currency  1/11-9/16       1/9-11/16
+            "Conant" Peso   2/0-13/16       2/0-3/16
+
+
+
+Proportionate Table of Exports (Exclusive of Gold and Silver)
+Years 1899-1903
+
+
+Year 1899
+United States    ==================
+British Empire   ===================
+Spain            ======
+Other Countries  ==========================
+
+Year 1900
+United States    ====================
+British Empire   =======================================
+Spain            ========
+Other Countries  =======================================
+
+Year 1901
+United States    ======================
+British Empire   ====================================================
+Spain            =======
+Other Countries  ===============================
+
+Year 1902
+United States    ===================================================
+British Empire   =======================================
+Spain            =====
+Other Countries  ==================================
+
+Year 1903
+United States    =========================================================
+British Empire   =============================================
+Spain            ======
+Other Countries  =====================================
+
+
+
+Proportionate Table of Imports (Exclusive of Gold, Silver, and
+U.S. Govt. Supplies) Years 1899-1903
+
+
+Year 1899
+United States    =======
+British Empire   ==================
+Spain            ============
+Other Countries  ==================================================
+
+Year 1900
+United States    ===========
+British Empire   ==================================
+Spain            ==========
+Other Countries  ============================================================
+
+Year 1901
+United States    =================
+British Empire   ========================================
+Spain            =========
+Other Countries  ====================================================================
+
+Year 1902
+United States    ===================
+British Empire   ================================
+Spain            ==============
+Other Countries  ====================================================================
+
+Year 1903
+United States    =================
+British Empire   ================================
+Spain            ==========
+Other Countries  ====================================================================
+
+
+
+Proportionate Table of Hemp, Coprah, and Sugar Exports, and Rice
+Imports in the Years 1899-1903
+
+
+Hemp.
+1899    ===================
+1900    ======================
+1901    ===============================
+1902    ===========================
+1903    ===================================
+
+Coprah.
+1899    =========
+1900    ========================================
+1901    ====================
+1902    ==================================
+1903    ==============================================
+
+Sugar.
+1899    ==========================================
+1900    ================================
+1901    ============================
+1902    ===================================================
+1903    ===========================================
+
+Rice (Import).
+1899    ===================
+1900    ======================
+1901    ==========================
+1902    ===========================================
+1903    ====================================================
+
+
+
+Chronological Table of Leading Events
+
+
+1494     Treaty of Tordesillas (June 7).
+1519     Maghallanes' expedition sailed, resulting in discovery of
+         the Philippines.
+1521     Death of Hernando Maghallanes (April 27).
+1522     Elcano completed his voyage round the world (Sept. 6).
+1542     The Villalobos expedition sailed from Mexico (Nov. 1).
+1545-63  Council of Trent (Dec, 1545, to Dec, 1563). Decrees published
+         in 1564.
+1564     The Legaspi expedition sailed from Mexico (Nov. 21).
+1565     Miguel de Legaspi landed in Cebu.
+----     Austin friars' first arrival.
+----     The image of "The Holy Child" was found on Cebu shore.
+----     Cebu became the capital of the Philippines.
+1571     Manila became the capital of the Philippines.
+1572     Death of Miguel de Legaspi (Aug.  20).
+1574     Li-ma-hong, the Chinese corsair, attacked Manila (Nov.).
+1576     Death of Juan Salcedo, Legaspi's grandson (March 11).
+1577     Franciscan friars' first arrival.
+1578     Parish church at Manila was raised to the dignity of a
+         cathedral.
+1580     The _Alcayceria_ (for Chinese) was established in Binondo
+         (Manila).
+1581     Dominican friars' first arrival.
+----     Domingo Salazar, first Bishop of Manila, took possession.
+1587     Alonso Sanchez's mission to King Philip  II. Consequent
+         reforms.
+1590     The walls of Manila City were built about this year.
+1593     Japanese Emperor demanded the surrender of the Islands.
+----     First mission of friars from Manila to Japan.
+1596     First expedition went to subdue the Mindanao natives.
+1598     Ignacio de Santibanez, first Archbishop of Manila, took
+         possession.
+1603     Chinese mandarins came to see the "Mount of Gold" in Cavite.
+----     Massacre of Chinese; about 24,000 slain or captured.
+1604     Los Banos hospital, church, and convent were established.
+1606     Recoleto friars' first arrival.
+1613     The Spanish victory (over the Dutch) of Playa Honda.
+1616     Earliest recorded eruption of the Mayon Volcano.
+1622     Rebellion in Bojol Island led by Dagohoy.
+1626     The image of "The Virgin of Antipolo" was first brought
+         to Manila.
+----     A Spanish colony was founded in Formosa Island.
+1638     Corcuera's expedition against the Moros landed in Sulu Island.
+1640     Foundation of the sultanate of Mindanao.
+----     Separation of Spain and Portugal.
+1640     Spain made an unsuccessful attempt to capture Macao.
+1641     Earliest recorded eruption of the Taal Volcano.
+1642     Attempts to proselytize Japan ceased.
+1645     Saint Thomas' College was raised to the status of a
+         university.
+1649     Rebellion of "King" Malong and "Count" Gumapos.
+1660     Massacre of Chinese.
+1662     Koxinga, a Chinese adventurer, threatened invasion.
+----     Great Massacre of Chinese in Manila.
+1669     The "Letter of Anathema" was publicly read for the first time.
+1684     Spanish Prime Minister Valenzuela was banished to Cavite.
+1700     First admission of natives into the Religious Orders.
+1718     The "Letter of Anathema" was publicly read for the last time.
+1719     Friars in open riot incited the populace to rebellion.
+1751     Sultan Muhamad Alimudin was imprisoned in Manila.
+1754     Taal Volcano eruption destroyed Taal, Tananan, Sala,
+         Lipa, etc.
+----     First regular military organization.
+----     Treaty with Sultan Muhamad Alimudin (March 3).
+1755     Banishment of 2,070 Chinese from Manila.
+1762-63  British occupation of Manila.
+1762     Rebellion in Ilocos Province led by Diego de Silan.
+1763     Sultan Muhamad Alimudin was restored to his throne by the
+         British.
+1768     Expulsion of the Jesuits ordered (R. Decree, 1768; Papal
+         Brief, 1769).
+1770     Expulsion of the Jesuits was effectuated.
+----     Simon de Anda y Salazar became Gov.-General by appointment.
+1776     Death of Simon de Anda y Salazar (Oct. 30).
+1781     Government Tobacco Monopoly was established.
+1785     The _Real Compania de Filipinas_ was founded (March 10).
+1810     Philippine deputies were first admitted to the Spanish
+         Parliament.
+1811     The last State galleon left Manila for Mexico.
+1815     The last State galleon left Acapulco (Mexico) for Manila.
+1819     Secession of Mexico from the Spanish Crown.
+1820     Massacre of foreigners in Manila and Cavite (Oct. 9).
+1822     First Manila news-sheet (_El Filantropo_) was published.
+1823     Rebellion of Andres Novales (June).
+1830     The first Philippine bank was opened about this year.
+1831     Zamboanga port was opened to foreign trade.
+1834     Manila port was unrestrictedly opened to foreign trade.
+1835     Rebellion in Cavite led by Feliciano  Paran.
+1837     Philippine deputies were excluded from the Spanish Parliament.
+1841     Apolinario de la Cruz declared himself "King of the Tagalogs."
+1843     Chinese shops were first allowed to trade on equal terms.
+1844     Claveria's expedition against the Moros.
+----     Foreigners were excluded from the interior of the Islands.
+----     The office of Trading-Governor was abolished.
+1851     Urbiztondo's expedition against the Moros.
+1852     Manila City thenceforth remained open day and night.
+----     The _Banco Espanol-Filipino_ was instituted.
+1854     Rebellion of Cuesta.
+1855     Yloilo port was opened to foreign trade.
+1857     The Manila mint was established.
+1859     Return of the Jesuits to the Philippines.
+1801     Dr. Jose Rizal, the Philippine patriot, was born (June 19).
+1863     Manila City and Cathedral damaged by earthquake; 2,000
+         victims.
+----     Cebu port was opened to foreign trade.
+1868-70  The Assembly of Reformists in Manila.
+1869     General Emilio Aguinaldo was born (March 22).
+1870     Rebellion in Cavite led by Camerino.
+1872     The Cavite Conspiracy (Jan.).
+1875     Failure of Russell & Sturgis.
+1876     Malcampo's expedition against the Moros. Jolo annexed.
+1877     England and Germany recognized Spain's rights in Sulu.
+1880     The last destructive earthquake affecting Manila.
+----     The Hong-Kong-Manila submarine cable was laid (_via_ Bolinao).
+1883     Tobacco free planting was thenceforth permitted (Jan. 1).
+----     Tobacco free export was thenceforth permitted (July 1).
+1884     The "Carriedo" endowment water-supply for Manila was
+         established.
+----     Tribute and Poll Tax were abolished and _Cedula personal_
+         introduced.
+1886     Petition to the Crown asking for the expulsion of the Chinese.
+----     The office of Judge-Governor was abolished.
+----     Investiture in Manila of Sultan Harun Narrasid (Sept. 24).
+----     Capuchin friars' first arrival.
+1887     Terrero's expedition against the Moro Datto Utto.
+----     Colonel Juan Arolas' victory in Sulu Island. Capture of Maybun
+         (April 16).
+----     Philippine Exhibition was held in Madrid.
+1890     Municipalities in the christian provinces were created.
+1891     The first Philippine railway was opened to traffic.
+1895     The Marahui campaign against the Moros of Mindanao Island.
+----     Benedictine friars' first arrival.
+1896     The Tagalog Rebellion opened (August 20).
+----     First battle of the Rebellion (San Juan del Monte, Aug.  30).
+----     Gov.-General Ramon Blanco was recalled to Spain (Dec).
+----     Gov.-General Polavieja arrived in Manila (Dec).
+----     Dr. Jose Rizal, the Philippine patriot, was executed
+         (Dec. 30).
+1897     Gov.-General Polavieja left Manila for Spain (April 15).
+----     Gov.-General Primo de Rivera returned to Manila (April).
+----     First issue of the first Philippine Loan (July 15).
+----     Treaty of Biac-na-bato is alleged to have been signed
+         (Dec. 14).
+----     General Emilio Aguinaldo went into exile under treaty
+         (Dec. 27).
+----     Tremendous tidal wave on Leyte Island. Life and property
+         destroyed.
+1898     Tragedy of the _Calle de Camba_, Manila (March 23).
+----     Rebel rising in Cebu Island (April 3).
+----     Gov.-General Primo de Rivera left Manila for Spain (April).
+----     Gov.-General Basilio Augusti arrived in  Manila (April).
+----     The Spanish-American  War began (April 23).
+----     Battle of Cavite. The Spanish fleet destroyed (May 1).
+----     General Emilio Aguinaldo returned from exile to Cavite
+         (May 19).
+----     General Emilio Aguinaldo assumed the Dictature (May 24).
+----     Constitution of the Revolutionary Government promulgated
+         (June 23).
+----     Revolutionists' appeal to the Powers for recognition (Aug. 6).
+----     Spanish-American Protocol of Peace signed in Washington
+         (Aug. 12).
+----     American occupation of Manila (Aug. 13).
+----     Capitulation of Manila to the Americans (Aug. 14).
+----     Malolos (Bulacan) became the Revolutionary capital (Sept. 15).
+----     American and Spanish peace commissioners met in Paris
+         (Oct. 1).
+1898     Capitulation of the Spaniards in Negros island to the rebels
+         (Nov. 6).
+----     Treaty of Peace between America and Spain (Paris, Dec. 10).
+----     Evacuation of Panay Island by the Spaniards (Dec. 24).
+----     Evacuation of Cebu Island by the Spaniards (Dec. 26).
+1899     Evacuation of Cottabato by the Spaniards (Jan).
+----     Constitution of the Philippine Republic was promulgated
+         (Jan. 22).
+----     The War of Independence began (Feb. 4).
+----     Bombardment of Yloilo (Feb. 11).
+----     American occupation of Cebu City (Feb. 22).
+----     American occupation of Bojol Island (March).
+----     Malolos, the revolutionary capital, was captured (March 31).
+----     The Schurman Commission appointed (Jan. 20); in Manila
+         (May 2).
+----     Evacuation of Zamboanga by the Spaniards (May 23).
+----     Violent death of General Antonio Luna (June 3).
+----     The Ladrone, Caroline, and Pelew Is. (minus Guam) sold to
+         Germany (June).
+----     The Aglipayan schism began.
+----     The Bates agreement with the Sultan of Sulu (Aug.).
+----     American occupation of Zamboanga (Nov. 16).
+----     Death of General Lawton (Dec).
+1900     Monsignor P. L. Chapelle, papal delegate, arrived in Manila
+         (Jan. 2).
+----     The Taft Commission appointed (Mar. 16); in Manila (June 3).
+----     The Philippine Commission became the legislative body
+         (Sept. 1).
+1901     General surrender of the Panay insurgent army (Feb. 2).
+----     Capture of General Emilio Aguinaldo (Mar. 23).
+----     General Emilio Aguinaldo swore allegiance to America
+         (April 1).
+----     The Philippine Commission assumed full (civil) executive power
+         (July 4).
+----     General surrender of Cebuano chiefs (Oct.).
+----     General surrender of Bojolano chiefs (Dec).
+1902     Capture of V. Lucban, the last recognized insurgent chief
+         (April 27).
+----     Mr. W. H. Taft in Rome to negotiate purchase of friars'
+         lands (June).
+----     Civil rule throughout the Islands decreed (Congress Act,
+         July 1).
+----     War of Independence ended (actually, April 27; officially,
+         July 4).
+----     President Roosevelt's peace proclamation and amnesty grant
+         (July 4).
+----     Military rule (remainder of) declared ended (War Office Order,
+         July 4).
+----     Monsignor G. B. Guidi, papal delegate, arrived in Manila
+         (Nov. 18).
+1903     Apolinario Mabini died in Manila (May 13).
+----     "The Democratic Labour Union" prosecution (May).
+----     Moro Province constituted (Phil. Com. Act No. 787, June 1).
+----     Archbishop Nozaleda relinquished the archbishopric of Manila
+         (June).
+----     The Philippine peso ("Conant") issued to the public (July).
+----     Moro Province Legislative Council organized (Sept.  2).
+1904     Monsignor J. J. Harty, Archbishop of Manila, arrived (Jan.).
+----     Mr. W. H. Taft, appointed Secretary of War, left Manila
+         (Jan.).
+----     Mr. Luke E. Wright succeeded Mr. Taft as Civil Governor
+         (Jan.).
+----     Greatest inundation of Manila suburbs within living memory
+         (July 11).
+----     The "Internal Revenue Law of 1904" in operation (Aug. 1).
+1905     Monsignor Ambrogio Agius, papal delegate, arrived in Manila
+         (Feb. 6).
+----     The Philippine Assembly to be convened in 1907 proclaimed
+         (March 28).
+----     _El Renacimiento_ prosecution for alleged libel (July).
+------
+1906     English became the official language (Jan. 1; Phil. Com. Act
+         No. 1123).
+
+
+
+
+Index
+
+
+Acle (wood), 313
+
+Acuna, Gov.-General Bravo de, 74
+
+Adasaolan, the Moro chief, 129
+
+Aetas tribe, the, 37, 120, 145, 163
+
+Agana (Guam Is.), 41
+
+Agius, Monsignor Ambrogio, papal legate, 607
+
+Aglipay, Gregorio, career of, 603; heads the Independent Church, 604;
+throws off allegiance to Rome, 605
+
+Agno River, 14
+
+Agoncillo, Felipe, 472, 485, 495
+
+Agriculture, 269; proposed Bank of, 624; the Bureau of, 625
+
+Aguinaldo, Emilio, 370; claims independence, 394; goes into exile, 399;
+goes to Singapore, 419; returns to Hong-Kong, 421; becomes Dictator,
+436; becomes President of The Revolutionary Government, 469; triumphal
+entry into Malolos of, 470; capture of, 507; swears allegiance
+to America, 509; home of, 510; as witness in _El Renacimiento_
+prosecution, 550. _Vide_ War of Independence
+
+Agusan River, 14
+
+Albinos, 128
+
+_Alcayceria, _the, 110
+
+Alcocer, Father Martin Garcia, 597, 602
+
+_Alferez Real, _50
+
+Alva, Francisco, 31
+
+Alcalde-Governors, 212
+
+_Alcalde Mayor, _213
+
+_Alguacil_, 226
+
+Ali, Datto, 529, 580-2
+
+Allocution of the Archbishop of Madrid, 423
+
+Alvarez, Vicente, the _Tamagun Datto_, 532
+
+Ambutong, Datto, 585
+
+_Amor seco_, 324
+
+Anagap (wood), 313
+
+Anathema, the Letter of, 82
+
+Anda y Salazar, Simon de, usurps gov.-generalship, 91; offers rewards
+for British heads, 95; rewards to, 99; character of, 99; becomes
+Gov.-General, 99; death of, 100
+
+Andrew, Saint, patron of Manila, 50, 560
+
+Animals, 336 _et seq._
+
+Anobing (wood), 313
+
+Anson, Admiral, 246
+
+_Anting-anting_, the, 237
+
+Antipolo, Virgin of, 184
+
+Antipolo (wood), 313
+
+Antwerp, the Treaty of, 72
+
+_Aparcero_ (labour) system, 274
+
+Apiton (wood), 313
+
+Araudia, Gov.-General Pedro de, 61, 80, 138
+
+Araneta, General Pablo, 514, 517
+
+Araneta, Juan, 520
+
+Aranga (wood), 313
+
+Archbishopric created, 56
+
+Areca-nut, 303
+
+Army, the (under Spain) 53, 77; pay of, 53, 230; statistics of,
+229-30; the first barracks, 231; Halberdier Guard, 232; strength of,
+at the outbreak of the Rebellion, 364; in 1898, 466; (under America)
+strength of, during War of Independence, 553; arms captured by, 553;
+strength of, in 1904, 569; general officers' pay, 569; privates' pay,
+569; the three departments of, 569; scout corps; military prison, 570
+
+Arolas, Colonel Juan, captures Maybun, 144; death of, 144 (footnote)
+
+Artists, native, 196
+
+_Asiento_ Contract, the, 257
+
+Assembly of Reformists, the, 362
+
+_Asuan_ (evil spirit), 181
+
+Athenaeum, the, 194
+
+Augusti, General Basilio, succeeds Gen. Primo de Rivera, 413; issues
+a call to arms, 424; issues a proclamation against Americans, 425;
+quits Manila before the American occupation, 464
+
+Austin friars, 55
+
+Axa, 274
+
+Ayala, Antonio de, 367 (footnote)
+
+Azcarraga, General Marcelo, 105 (footnote)
+
+Bacoor town, rebel headquarters, 499
+
+Badiao destroyed, 16
+
+Bagobos, the Moro tribe of, 145
+
+_Bagsacay_ weapon, 147
+
+_Baibailanes_, sect of the, 608
+
+Balabac Island, 160; slaughter of Spaniards in, 478
+
+Balambangan, slaughter of British at, 139
+
+Balangiga, slaughter of Americans at, 536
+
+Balanguigui Island, Corcuera's victory in, 139
+
+Balate (trepang), 312
+
+Baler garrison captives, 494
+
+Balugas tribe, the, 163
+
+Bamboos, 308
+
+Banaba (wood), 313
+
+Banana fruit, 317
+
+Bancal (wood), 314
+
+_Banco Espanol-Filipino_, the, 258; run on the, 435, 638
+
+Bandits, notorious, 238-9, 546-9, 582, _Vide_ Brigands
+
+Banks, foreign and Philippine, 258, 638; American, 637
+
+Bansalague (wood), 314
+
+Barangay chiefs, 189, 222-3, 225 (footnote)
+
+Barasoain town, 469 (footnote), 567
+
+Barbosa, Duarte de, 28
+
+_Barong_ weapon, 147
+
+Barracks, the first, 231
+
+Basa, Jose M., 106; biographical note of, 108 (footnote)
+
+Basan tribe, the, 128
+
+Batac tribe, the, 158 (footnote;
+
+Bates Agreement, the, 571
+
+Batitinan (wood), 313
+
+Bato Lake, 15
+
+Bats, 340
+
+Battle-- of Playa Honda, 75; of Saint Juan del Monte, 368; of
+Binacayan, 373; of Cavite, 427; of Paco, 487; of Marilao, 490
+
+Bautista, Ambrosio Rianzares, 106
+
+Bautista, Fray Pedro, martyr-saint, 64
+
+Bay Lake, 15
+
+Bayabos, the Moro tribe of, 145
+
+Bejuco (rattan), 310
+
+Benguet Road, the, 615 (footnote)
+
+Berenguer y Marquina, Gov-General, 80
+
+Beri-beri disease, 197
+
+Betel, 303
+
+Betis (wood), 313
+
+Biac-na-bato, the alleged Treaty of, 396, 414 (footnote)
+
+Bicol River, 14, 37
+
+_Bigaycaya_, the, 178
+
+Bilibid jail, 557
+
+Binacayan, Battle of, 373
+
+Birds, 341
+
+Birds'-nests, edible, 311
+
+Bishop of Manila, the first, 51, 56
+
+Blanco, Gov.-General Ramon, 377
+
+Blood Compact, the, 28, 369
+
+Boar, 340
+
+Boayan Lake, 15
+
+_Bocayo_, 305
+
+Bojo, 310
+
+Bojol Island, rebellion in, 101; American occupation of, 528; Pedro
+Sanson, the insurgent leader in, 528
+
+_Boleta_ shipping-warrant, the, 244
+
+Bombon Lake, 15
+
+Bongso, Rajah, 130
+
+Bonifacio, Andres, 370
+
+Borneo Island, Spanish relations with, 29, 165
+
+Botanical specimens, 321
+
+Braganza, Duke of, 81
+
+Braganza, Major, execution of the rebel, 537
+
+Brewery, the first Philippine, 264
+
+Bridge of Spain, 349
+
+Brigands-- the _tulisan_; the _pulajan_, 235, 547 _et seq._; haunts
+of, 238; the _remontado_, 205; "Guards of Honour," 550. _Vide_ Bandits
+
+British North Borneo Co., 141
+
+British-- corsairs, 54; occupation of Manila by, 87
+
+Bronchial affections, 197
+
+Brunei, Sultanate of, 29, 141, 157, 165
+
+Budgets, 227 _et seq._; of 1757, 251, 629
+
+Buffaloes, 337; rinderpest epidemic, 338, 621; efforts of Government
+to replace the stocks of, 622
+
+Buffalo hides, shipments of, 640
+
+Buhi Lake, 15
+
+Bull-ring, 350
+
+Buluan Lake, 15
+
+Bureaux of the Insular Government, 561
+
+Burgos, Dr. Jose, 106; executed, 107
+
+Buri palm, 308
+
+Bush-rope, 310
+
+Bustamente Bustillo, Gov.-General, murder of, 60
+
+Bustos, 92-4
+
+Butler, John B., 257
+
+Butterflies, 340
+
+Butuan River, 14
+
+Buyo, 303
+
+
+_Cabeza de barangay, _189, 222-3
+
+Cable service, 267-8
+
+Cacao, 301; cultivation of, 302
+
+Cachil Corralat, King, 133
+
+Cachila or Castila, 169, 515 (footnote)
+
+Cagayan, river of, 14; lake of, 15
+
+Cagaaua destroyed, 16
+
+Cagsaysay, Our Lady of, 18, 19, 184
+
+"_Cahapon, ngayon at Bucas_," the seditious play of, 554
+
+_Caida_, 353
+
+_Caidas_, 224
+
+Cailles, General Juan, 507; as provincial governor, 507
+
+_Caja de comunidad_, 217
+
+Calderon, Rita, 139
+
+Calinga tribe, the, 125
+
+_Calle de Camba_ tragedy, the, 401
+
+Camagon (wood), 314
+
+Camaguin Volcano, 16
+
+Camerino, the rebel, 106, 397 (footnote)
+
+Camote, 303
+
+_Campilan_ weapon, 147
+
+Campo de Bagumbayan, 369
+
+Canga-Argueelles, Felipe, 143, 158, 161
+
+Canlauan Volcano, 16
+
+Canovas Ministry, 378, 384, 417
+
+Capers, 321
+
+_Capitan municipal_, 225
+
+Capsicums, 321
+
+Captives, the Spanish, 537; why detained, 539; Baron Du Marais
+murdered, 540; the captors' terms of release, 541
+
+Capture of Manila-- attempted by Li-ma-hong, 47; threatened by Japanese
+Emperor, 64; threatened by the Dutch, 75; threatened by Koxinga, 76;
+by the British, 87; by the Americans, 464
+
+Caraballo, Juan, 29
+
+_Carabaos_ (buffaloes), 337
+
+Caroline Islands, the discovery of, 41, 43; seized by Germany, 44;
+governor of, murdered, 45; sold to Germany, 46
+
+Carrillo Theatre, the, 349
+
+_Carromata_, 559 (footnote)
+
+Carrying-trade, the inter-island, 262; regulated by the Shipping Law
+of 1904, 628-9, 647
+
+Cartagena, Juan de, 26
+
+_Casa Misericordia_ loan office, 247
+
+Cassava, 321
+
+Castila or Cachila, 169, 515 (footnote)
+
+Castor-oil, 302
+
+_Catapusan_, the, 179 (footnote)
+
+Cathedral of Manila, the, 55
+
+_Catipad_, 177
+
+Cauit, 371 (footnote)
+
+Cavite the conspiracy of 1872, 106, 363; fort of, 233-4; executions
+in 1896, 374
+
+_Cayinin_, the, 555
+
+Cebu, discovery of, 27; Legaspi in, 34; the "Holy Child" of, 183;
+the patron saint of, 183; the port of, 261; rising in, 402 _et seq_.;
+executions of rebels in, 405; native government in the Island of, 521;
+American occupation of the City of, 523; General Hughes' expedition
+to, 525; the City of, 526
+
+Cedar (wood), 314
+
+_Cedula personal_, the, 224
+
+Census, the, 355, 615-6
+
+_Centro Catalico, El_, 602
+
+Chabucano dialect, the, 535
+
+Chaffee, Maj.-General A. R., 563
+
+Chambers of Commerce, 261
+
+Chamorro dialect, the, 40
+
+Champaca, 325
+
+_Chapdiki_, 351 (footnote)
+
+Chapelle, Monsignor P. L., papal legate, 595 and footnote
+
+Chartered Bank of India, Australia and China, the, 258, 435, 637
+
+Chillies, 321
+
+Chinese, the, 54, 109; slaughter of the Moluccas expedition leader
+by, 73; revolt of, 77; banishment of, 111; restrictions on, 111; as
+immigrants, 112; taxes first levied on, 112; social position of, under
+Spanish rule, 113; riots of, 114; mandarins come to seek the "Mount of
+Gold" in Cavite, 114; Saint Francis' victory over, 115; massacre by,
+115; massacre of, 77, 93, 115; as traders, 117, 263; Guilds of, 117;
+patron saint of, 118; population of, 118; _Macao_, 118; _Sangley_,
+118; _Suya_, 118; secret societies, 119; Exclusion Act, 119, 633;
+before the Spanish advent, 166; Club, 558; social position of, under
+American rule, 634; future probable effect of the exclusion of, 635
+
+Chocolate, 301
+
+Cholera epidemic, 116, 197
+
+Church-- relations of, to the State, 50; Dominican friars, 51
+(footnote); first bishop of Manila, 51, 56; tithes to, 55; Austin
+friars, 55; Mendicant friars, 55; friars' term of residence, 55; Manila
+Cathedral, 55; the Inquisition, 55, 59, 82; archbishopric created, 56;
+indulgences granted, 56; relics in cathedral, 57; excommunications, 58,
+67, 604; archbishop banished, 58; quarrels with the State authorities,
+57-8, 99, 209-10; Chap. vii; the martyrs of Japan, 66-9; the High
+Host is stolen, 82; Letter of Anathema, 82; the Hierarchy, 206;
+revenue and expenditure of the, 207, 209; position of the regular
+clergy after 1898, 594; Archbishop Nozaleda, 594, 597; Father Martin
+Garcia Alcocer, 597, 602; attitude of the native clergy towards the,
+after 1898, 596; Monsignor P. L. Chapelle, 595; Monsignor G. B. Guidi,
+601;  Monsignor A. Agius, 607; the friars'-7lands question, 597-601;
+the Aglipayan Schism, 604. _Vide_ Friars; Religious Orders
+
+Church, the Philippine Independent. _Vide_ Independent
+
+Cigars, 299; shipments of, 644
+
+Cinnamon, 311
+
+Civil--governor, duties of the Spanish, 215; his position, 216; guard
+(constabulary), the, 231; the title of Civil Governor, 561; Service,
+the, 565; Commission, the, 560, 565; rule established, 566
+
+Claudio, Juan, 81
+
+Claveria, expedition against the Moros by, 139
+
+Clergy, the native, capacity of, 607. _Vide_ Church; Friars
+
+Climaco, Arsenio, 522, 525
+
+Climaco, General Juan, 522
+
+Climate, 22; of the south, 157
+
+Clubs, 558
+
+Coal, 326, comparative analyses, 328
+
+Cock-fighting, 351
+
+Cocoanuts, 304
+
+Cocoanut-oil, 305; export values of, 645
+
+Coffee, 289; _caracolillo_, 289; where grown, 289; dealing, 290;
+cultivation, 291; statistics, 291; shipments of, 646
+
+Cogon-grass, 307
+
+Coir, 305
+
+_Colerin_ disease, 197
+
+_Coloram_, sect of the, 608
+
+Comenge, Rafael, inflammatory speech of, 400
+
+_Compania General de Tabacos_, 299
+
+_Compania Guipuzcoana de Caracas_, 252
+
+_Conant_ peso, the, 635-7
+
+Concentration circuits, 391, 549
+
+Congressional Relief Fund, the, 621, 623
+
+_Consulado_ trading-ring, the, 244
+
+Constabulary statistics (Spanish), 231; (American), 550, 553, 567
+
+Contentions, State and Church, 58
+
+Convent of Santa Clara, 81
+
+Convicts, corps of, 231; in Bilibid jail, 557
+
+Cooper Bill, the, 627, 629
+
+Copper, 334
+
+Coprah, 305; shipments of, 645
+
+Corcuera, Gov.-General Hurtado de, 58, 79, 81; in Sulu, 131
+
+Cordage, shipments of, 640
+
+Cornish, Admiral, 87
+
+Corregidor Island, 345 (footnote), 556
+
+Corsairs, British, 54
+
+_Cotta de San Pedro_ (Cebu), 402
+
+Cottabato, meaning of, 142 (footnote); Spanish evacuation of, 529;
+native rule in, 529; slaughter of Christians in, 530; American
+intervention at, 530
+
+Cotton-tree, 307
+
+Council of Trent, the, 605 (footnote)
+
+Count--of Albay, 105; of La Union, 124; of Manila, 139; of Lizarraga,
+210
+
+Courts of Justice, cost of the Spanish, 234; American, 618
+
+Criminal law procedure, Spanish-Philippine, 241
+
+Cruz, Apolinario de la, "King of the Tagalogs," 105
+
+_Cuadrillero_ guard, the, 224
+
+Cuba, America liberates, 417
+
+_Cubang-aso_, 166 (footnote)
+
+_Cueva del Ingles_, the, 21
+
+Cuevas, Datto Pedro, career of, 582; his death, 583; his justice, 586
+
+Currency, the, under Spain, 244, 259; under America, 635-7
+
+Custom-houses, 261, 467, 626
+
+Customs duty, the first levied, 53; under America, 629-30
+
+"_Dabas ng pilac_," the seditious play of, 554
+
+Dagohoy's rebellion, 101
+
+Dalahican camp, 374
+
+Danao River, 15
+
+Dancing, the _balitao_, the _comitan_, 180
+
+Dasmarinas, Gov.-General Perez, 56, 78
+
+_Datto_. _Vide_ Moros
+
+Dayfusama, Emperor of Japan, 69
+
+Death-rate, 198
+
+Deer, 340
+
+Delgado, General Martin, 513-14, 517-18
+
+Demarcation of Spanish and Portuguese spheres by papal bull, 25
+
+Democratic Labour Union, the, 632
+
+Departments of the Insular Government, 561
+
+Descent of Filipinos, theory of the, 120
+
+Despujols, Gov.-General, 383
+
+Dewey, Admiral George, 419, 427, 430, 432
+
+_Diario de Manila, El_, founded 352, suspended, 401
+
+Diaz, Julio, 520
+
+_Diezmos prediales_, 55
+
+Dilao village, 63
+
+_Dimas alang_, 389
+
+Dimasangcay, King of Mindanao, 129
+
+Dinagat Island, 27
+
+Dinglas (wood), 314
+
+Diocno, Ananias, 513, 516
+
+_Directorcillo_, 222
+
+Disciplinary (convict) corps, 231
+
+Discovery of the Philippines, 24 _et seq_.
+
+Diseases, the prevalent, 197
+
+Dita (quinine), 308
+
+Divisions of the Colony under Spain, 213
+
+Djimbangan, Datto, 530, 580
+
+Dollars, Mexican, first introduced, 244
+
+Doll-saints, 188
+
+Dominican friars, 51 (footnote)
+
+Donkeys, 388
+
+Dowries for native women, 53
+
+Draper, Brig.-General, 87-91
+
+Duarte de Barbosa, 28
+
+Du Marais, Baron, 540 (footnote)
+
+Dungon (wood), 314
+
+Dutch, naval battles with the, 72 _et seq._
+
+Dwelling-houses, 353
+
+Dye saps, 312
+
+
+Earthquakes, 23, 356
+
+Ebony (wood), 314
+
+_Eco de Filipinas,_ the seditious organ, 106
+
+Education, under Spain, school-teachers, 192; State aid for, 193;
+the Athenaeum syllabus, 194; the Santa Isabel College curriculum, 194;
+girls' schools, 194; St. Thomas' University, 194; the Nautical School,
+195; the provincial student, 195; in agriculture, 228; under America,
+608; the Normal School syllabus, 609; the Nautical School, 609; the
+School for Chinese, 610; University and remaining Spanish schools,
+610; the English language for Orientals, 611; in agriculture, 625
+
+Egbert, Colonel, death of, 489
+
+Elcano, Juan Sebastian, 29; voyage round the world of, 30; reward to,
+31; death of, 31
+
+"_El Filibusterismo_," 383
+
+_El Nuevo Dia_ newspaper, 524
+
+Emoluments of Spanish officials, 214; of American officials, 561
+
+_Encomiendas_, 211
+
+Espinosa, Gonzalo Gomez de, 29, 31
+
+Exchange fluctuations, 647
+
+Exclusion, of foreigners in general, 258; of Chinese in particular,
+111, 119, 633-5
+
+Excommunications, 58, 67, 604
+
+Executions of monks in Japan, 66, 69
+
+Exhortations and proclamations, rebel and insurgent, definition of
+demands, 392; claim of independence, 394, 421, 433, 436, 454, 486, 502
+
+Expenditure and revenue, under Spain, 227 _et seq._, 251; curious
+items of, 229; under America, 629
+
+Exports, duty first levied on, 53; table of values of, 639; of
+produce, 639-46
+
+
+Fajardo de Tua, Gov.-General, 70, 75; kills his wife, 80
+
+_Fallas_ tax, 224
+
+"Family Compact," the, 72, 87
+
+Family names, 179
+
+Farranda Kiemon, the Japanese Ambassador, 64-5
+
+Federal party, the, 547
+
+Felizardo, Cornelio, the famous bandit, 548 (footnote), 549
+
+Field of Bagumbayan, 369
+
+"_Filibusterismo, El_," 383
+
+Filipino, the, meaning of the term, 120 (footnote), 165; theory of
+the descent of, 163 _et seq._; meaning of the term "Tagalog," 164; at
+the St. Louis Exhibition, 165; character of, 167; characteristics of,
+168-71; notion of sleep of, 169; "Castila!" 169; hospitality of, 172,
+563; good qualities of, 173-4, 176; female activity, 173; aversion to
+discipline, 175; bravery of, 175; troops in Tonquin, 175; physiognomy
+of, 177; marriages of, 177-9; minors' rights, 178; widows of, 178;
+family names of, 179; mixed marriages of, 181; belief in evil spirits,
+181; conception of religion of, 189, 607-8; penance, 188; talent of,
+196; as artists, 196; as politicians, 547; the "Irreconcilables,"
+547, 553, 613; capacity for self-government of, 614
+
+Firewoods, 324
+
+Fish, 339
+
+Flowers, 321
+
+Flores, Luis, 522-3
+
+_Fondos locales_, 217. _Vide_ Government.
+
+Forests, inspection of, 228; produce of, 307 _et seq._
+
+Formosa Island, Spanish colony in, 76
+
+Fort of Yligan, 77, 231; of Zamboanga, 77, 133 (footnote), 233; of
+Sampanilla (Mindanao Is.), 131; of Jolo, 150; of Labo and Taytay
+(Palauan Is.), 231; of Cavite, 233-4; of Cebu, 402; of Santiago
+(Manila), 427, 430; of San Antonio Abad (Malate), 463
+
+Fortification of Manila, 54, 231, 343 (footnote)
+
+Fowls, 341
+
+"Frailuno," the term, 603 (footnote)
+
+Francis of Tears, Saint, 183
+
+Free trade penalties, Spanish, 250
+
+Freemasonry, 363, 365 (footnote)
+
+Friars, the Spanish, the Mendicant Order of, 55; term of residence
+of, 55; in open riot, 61; attitude of, during the British occupation
+(1762-3), 91-3, 96; fighting, 116, 133; as parish priests, 202; the
+several Orders of, 207; as traders, 250; position of, after 1898,
+594; causes of the anti-friar feeling, 595;  attitude of the native
+clergy towards, 596; number of, at the time of the rebellion (1896),
+596; position of, after 1898, determined, 597; the question of the
+real estate of, 597, _et seq._; America's negotiations with Rome,
+598-600; acreage of real estate of, 601; the term "frailuno," 603
+(footnote). _Vide_ Church; Religious Orders
+
+Fruits, 317 et seq.
+
+_Fuerza del Pilar_, 133 (footnote)
+
+_Funcion votiva de San Andres_, 50
+
+Funston, Colonel, 491, 496; captures Aguinaldo, 507; reward to, 509
+
+Fuset, Antonio, 539
+
+
+Gabi, 303
+
+Gaddanes tribe, the, 122
+
+Gales, Nicolas, 520
+
+Galleons, to and from Mexico, 243; officers' pay, 243; royal dues, 249
+
+_Gigantes, Paseo de los_, 134 (footnote)
+
+Gilolo Island, 32
+
+Ginger, 321
+
+_Gobernadorcillo_, 221
+
+Gogo, 302
+
+Goiti, Martin de, 35, 37
+
+Gold, mining, 328 et seq.; coin, 259; imports and exports of, after
+1898, 647
+
+Gomez, Father Mariano, executed, 107
+
+Gonzalez Parrado, General, 145, 150, 572
+
+Government, under Spain, 211 _et seq._; cost of, 214, _et seq._, 629;
+of towns, 221 _et seq._; under America, 560 _et seq._, 576; cost of,
+629; provincial, 566-7, 578-9
+
+Governor-General, the, Legaspi, Miguel de, 33-4, 36; Lavezares, Guido
+de, 35 (footnote), 47; Zabalburu, Domingo, 42; powers of, 54; Perez
+Dasmarinas, 56, 73; Corcuera, Hurtado de, 58, 79, 131; quarrels of,
+with the clergy, 58; Lara, Manrique de, 59; Salcedo, Diego, 59; Leon,
+Manuel de, 60; Nargas, Juan de, 60; Bustamente Bustillo murdered,
+60; Torralba, Jose, 60, 79, 80; Arandia, Pedro de, 61, 80; Moriones,
+Domingo, 62; Raon, Jose, 62, 99; Fajardo de Tua, 70, 75, 80; Bravo de
+Acuna, 74; Silva, Juan de, 74; Silva, Fernando de, 76; Vargas, Juan,
+79; peculations of, 79, 80, 212, 220-1; Berenguer y Marquina, 80; La
+Torre, Francisco, 97; Obando, Jose de, 134; Jovellar, Joaquin, 211;
+Despujols, 383; Primo de Rivera, Fernando, 124, 211, 389, 391, 399,
+408; Blanco, Ramon, 377; Polavieja, Camilo, 378-9; Augusti, Basilio,
+413, 424-5, 464; Weyler 417-8, 431
+
+Grants of land, 54, 211, 592
+
+Grapes, 320
+
+Guadalupe church, legend of, 361
+
+Guaranty Trust Company, 637
+
+"Guards of Honour," the, 550
+
+Guava fruit, 320
+
+Guidi, Monsignor G. B., papal legate, 601
+
+Guijo (wood), 314
+
+Guillermo, Faustino, the bandit, 546
+
+Gum mastic, 311; shipments of, 646
+
+Gumapos, "Count," 103
+
+Gutta-percha, 311
+
+Gypsum, 334
+
+
+_Hadji_, title of, 571 (footnote).
+
+Halberdiers (Bodyguard), 232
+
+Hale, General, 488, 490-1, 497-8
+
+Hall, General, 488, 492
+
+Hamabar, King, 28
+
+Harbour-masters, Spanish, 234
+
+Hardwoods, 312; relative strengths of, 317
+
+Harun Narrasid, Sultan, 141, 142 (footnote)
+
+Harty, Monsignor, J. J., 602
+
+Headhunters, the, 124-5
+
+Hemp, 281; various uses of, 282; extraction of, 282; experiments
+in British India, 283; statistics of, 284; cultivation of, 285;
+qualities of, 285; labour difficulties, 286; shipments of, 639
+
+Hendryx, Captain, the sad fate of, 552
+
+Heredia, Pedro de, 74
+
+Hierarchy, the, 206
+
+High Host stolen, the, 82
+
+_Hindi aco patay_, the seditious play of, 554
+
+Hindoos, the, 128
+
+"Historical Manifest," the, 136
+
+Histrionic art, 349
+
+"Holy Child" of Cebu, the, 183
+
+Homestead Law, the, 592 (footnote)
+
+Hong-Kong and Shanghai Banking Corp., the 240, 258, 435, 637
+
+Horses, 336
+
+Hospitals, 54
+
+Hughes, General, 489, 525, 528
+
+Hurricanes, 355
+
+Husi, 282
+
+
+Ibanac tribe, the, 123
+
+Identity document, the, 224
+
+Igorrote tribe, the, 123
+
+Igorrote-Chinese tribe, the, 126
+
+Illiterates, 192, 615
+
+Ilocos rebellion, 100
+
+Imbog, the Moro, 129
+
+Imports, table of values of, 639; proportionate table of Rice, 650
+
+Imus, 372 (footnote)
+
+Indemnity to British for Manila, 89
+
+Independent Church, the Philippine, initiation of, 603; severance
+from Rome of, 605; conflicts between Catholics and Schismatics of,
+606; doctrine of, 607
+
+Indigo, shipments of, 640-1
+
+Indulgences granted, 56
+
+Industries, native, 264, 347
+
+Inquisition, the, 55, 59, 82
+
+Insanity, 198
+
+Insects, 339; edible, 342
+
+Insular Government. _Vide_ Government
+
+Intellectuals, 192
+
+International Banking Corp., 637
+
+Ipil (wood), 314
+
+Iron, 332
+
+Irreconcilables, the, 547, 553; demands of, 613
+
+_Islas, del Poniente_, 28; _del Oriente_, 28; _Philipina_, 32; _de
+los Pintados_, 34 (footnote)
+
+Islands, the chief, 13; ancient names of, 13
+
+Itavis tribe, the, 123
+
+
+_Jabul_ dress, 147
+
+Jalajala, 360
+
+Japan--the Ambassador Farranda Kiemon, 64-5; Taycosama, Emperor of,
+65; Catholic missions to, 64-70, 164 (footnote); the martyrs of,
+66, 69, 71; Dayfusama, Emperor of, 69; Xogusama, Emperor of, 69;
+To-Kogunsama, Emperor of, 70
+
+Japanese, the, 63, 164; pre-Spanish immigration of, 166; industry of,
+166; in Vigan, Malalos, Taal and Pagsanjan, 166; expulsion of the,
+164 (footnote); under American rule, 557
+
+Jaramillo, General Nicolas, during the Rebellion, 374; in Zamboanga,
+530; as agent for the liberation of Spanish prisoners, 540
+
+Jaro, the See of, 515 (footnote)
+
+Jesuits, rivalry with friars, 58; in Nagasaki, 65-7; expulsion of,
+99, 206; number of, in the Islands in 1896, 206 (footnote)
+
+_Jinrikisha_, the, 635
+
+Jolo, capture of, 139; annexation of, 140; town of, 149, 587; port of,
+262; American occupation of, 571
+
+Jomonjol Island, 27
+
+Journalism, 106, 352, 363, 382, 412, 468, 524, 550
+
+Jovellar, Gov.--General Joaquin, 211
+
+Judicial statistics, Spanish, 234; American, 561, 618-19
+
+Judicial Governors, 212
+
+_Junta patriotica_, the, 419
+
+Jurado _v._ the Hong-Kong and Shanghai Banking Corp., 240
+
+_Juramentado_, the, 146, 148, 150, 583; runs amok, 152
+
+Justice, of the peace, first appointed, 56; in municipalities, 225,
+619; administration of, 618; provincial courts of, 619
+
+
+Kalbi, Datto, 586
+
+_Katipunan_ League, the, 364, 365 (footnote), 595; demands of the, 393
+
+Kiemon Farranda, 64-5
+
+"King of the Tagalogs," 105
+
+Koxinga, threatened invasion by, 76
+
+Kudarangan, Sultan of, 143; vanquished by General Wood, 581; cotta of,
+580 (footnote), 581
+
+
+Labo fort, 231
+
+Labour, problem, 225, 286, 332-3, 611, 631; on sugar estates, 274;
+"The Democratic Labour Union," 632; Consul-General Wildman quoted, 633
+
+Lacandola, Rajah, 35-7, 51; descendants of, 35 (footnote)
+
+Lachambre, General, 379
+
+Lacson, Aniceto, 520
+
+Ladrone Islands, discovery of, 27; sighted, 34; visited, 40
+
+Laguna de Bay, 15
+
+Lakes, 15
+
+Lamurrec Island, King of, 42
+
+Lanao Lake, 15
+
+Land, grants of, 54; tenure of, 270; measure of, 271; the Homestead
+Law, 592 (footnote); problem, 555, 592-3, 624-5
+
+Lanete (wood), 314
+
+_La Patria_ newspaper, 412
+
+Lara, Gov.-General Manrique de, 59
+
+Latitude of the Islands, 13
+
+La Torre, Gov.-General, 97
+
+Lauan (wood), 314
+
+Lavezares, Guido de, 35 (footnote), 47
+
+Law Spanish lawsuits, 56, 239; Spanish criminal law procedure, 241-2;
+under American rule, 618-9
+
+Lawton, General, 493, 498-500; death of, 504
+
+Leeches, 340
+
+Legaspi, the expedition of, 33; in Cebu, 34; death of, 36
+
+Leon, Gov.-General Manuel de, 60
+
+Lepers, 70, 197, 351
+
+Letter of Anathema, 82
+
+_Leyes de Indias_, 51
+
+Leyte Is., rebellion in, 102; insurgency in, 547
+
+Ligusan Lake, 15
+
+Li-ma-hong, the Chinese corsair, 47
+
+Limasaba, Prince of, 410
+
+Lipa destroyed, 18
+
+Lizares, Simon, 520
+
+Llaneras, General, 374
+
+Llorente, Julio, 521-2, 524
+
+Loaisa expedition, the, 31
+
+Loan, the first Philippine, 541 (footnote)
+
+Local funds, 217
+
+Locust bean, 324
+
+Locusts, 341
+
+Logarta, Miguel, 522, 525
+
+Loney, Nicholas, 255
+
+Longitude of the Islands, 13
+
+Los Banos, 359
+
+Losa, Diego de, 67
+
+Loewenstein, Prince Ludwig von, 488, 510
+
+Lucban, Vicente, 535; capture of, 545
+
+Luga, Mateo, 525
+
+Luna, General Antonio, 496-8; on the battlefield, 496; death of, 501
+
+Luneta Esplanade, the, 353
+
+Lung diseases, 197
+
+Lupis, 282
+
+Lutao (Cebu) destroyed, 403
+
+
+Mabini, Apolinario, 478, 486, 546
+
+Mabolo fruit, 320
+
+Macabebe, the, 446 (footnote)
+
+_Macao_ (Chinese), 118
+
+_Macacus radiata_, 177
+
+Macao, the colony of, 81 (footnote); Spanish attempt to capture, 81
+
+Macasin (wood), 316
+
+Maceo, Antonio, 417
+
+Macui, the Moro tribe of, 145
+
+Madrecacao tree, 291
+
+_Maestre del Campo_, 48 (footnote)
+
+Magellan Straits discovered, 27
+
+Maghallanes, Hernando de, 24; discovers the Straits of Magellan and
+Ladrone Islands, 27; reaches Cebu Island, 27; death of, 28; monuments
+to, 28
+
+Maghayin, Bartolome, 37
+
+Magtan Island, 28, 403
+
+Maguindanao Lake, 15
+
+Maguinoo, the, 409, 411
+
+Mahamad Alimudin, Sultan, 92, 98; vicissitudes of, 134-9
+
+Mahometans, chap. x. _Vide_ Moros
+
+Mail service, 262
+
+_Maine_, American warship, 418 (footnote)
+
+Maize, 300
+
+Malabang fort, 131
+
+Malahi military prison, 570
+
+Malanao Moros, 145
+
+Malatana tribe, the, 46
+
+Malatapay (wood), 316
+
+Malhou Island, 27
+
+Malinao destroyed, 16
+
+Malolos, Father Moises Santos murdered at, 408; becomes the insurgent
+capital, 469; Revolutionary congress convened at, 469; becomes the
+new capital of Bulacan Province, 567
+
+Malong's rebellion, "King," 103
+
+Malvar, General Miguel, in Taal, 505; defeat and surrender of, 545
+
+Mancono (wood), 316
+
+Mandi, Rajahmudah Datto, in Cebu, 407; at home, 533; his daughter's
+marriage, 534
+
+Mangachapuy (wood), 316
+
+Mango fruit, 317
+
+Manguiancs tribe, the, 128
+
+Manguiguin, the, 131; visits Zamboanga, 589
+
+Mani, 303
+
+Manila Province, 212 (footnote), 560
+
+Manila, proclaimed capital, 36; City Council of, 36; the city walls and
+fosse of, 54, 231, 343 (footnote); opened to foreigners, 256; public
+buildings, 344; port works, 344; the Bay of, 345; the public lighting
+of, 346; the business quarter of, 347; _La Escolta_, 347, 557; Easter
+week in, 348; vehicle traffic in, 348; theatres, 349, 558; bull-ring,
+350; hotels, 352, 558; the Press, 352, 468, 559; botanical gardens,
+353; Luneta Esplanade, 353; dwelling-houses, 353; society in, 354;
+population of, 355, 615-6; climate of, 354; earthquakes affecting,
+356; dress in, 357; after 1898, 556; refrigerated meat-stores, 556;
+innovations in, 557; Bilibid jail, 557; clubs, theatres, hotels, 558;
+drinking "Saloons," 559; new feast-days, 560; the municipality of,
+560; as seat of Insular Government, 560; the Federal zone of, 560
+
+Manobos, the Moro tribe of, 145
+
+Marahui campaign, the, 144
+
+Marble, 334
+
+Mariveles, 345 (footnote)
+
+Marriages, 177-81, 618
+
+Marti, the Cuban patriot, 417
+
+Martin, Geronimo, 51
+
+Martyrs, the, of Japan, 66-71; Philippine, 107
+
+Massacre of Chinese, 93, 115-6; of other foreigners, 116
+
+_Matamis na macapano_, 305
+
+Matienza, Dr. Sancho, 26
+
+Maxilom, General Arcadio, 524-6
+
+Mayon Volcano, 16; eruption of in 1897, 17
+
+McArthur, Maj.-General A., in the War of Independence, 489-91,
+496-8; 563
+
+Medicinal herbs, 324
+
+Mejia, Pablo, 522; assassinated, 523
+
+Melliza, Raymundo, 511, 514
+
+Mendicant friars, 55
+
+Mendoza, Father Agustin, 106
+
+Mendoza, Luis de, 26
+
+Merritt, General Wesley, 463, 466, 467
+
+_Mestizo_, the, 176; character of, 182
+
+Middlemen, 263
+
+Midel, Isidoro, 532
+
+Military departments, the, 569. _Vide_ Army
+
+Military service, Spanish, 231. _Vide_ Army
+
+Miller, General, 511 _et seq._
+
+Mineral oil, 335
+
+Mineral products, 326 _et seq._
+
+Miraculous saints, 187
+
+Mirs Bay, 419 (footnote), 427
+
+Mixed races, 176, marriages of, 181
+
+Mohammad Jamalul Kiram, Sultan, 141, 587-8
+
+Molasses, 273
+
+Molave (wood) 315
+
+Moluccas Islands, tragic end of the Philippine expedition to, 73;
+abandonment of the, 77
+
+Money, under Spain, 244, 259; lending, 255-6, 269; 246 (footnote)
+624; under America, 635-7.
+
+Monks, the. _Vide_ Religious Orders; Friars
+
+Monsoon region, 23
+
+Montalon, Julian, the famous bandit, 549
+
+Montera, General, in Cebu, 402, 521; in Zamboanga, 530 _et seq._
+
+Montilla, Jose, 520
+
+Montojo, Admiral Patricio, sword of honour presented to, 400; 419,
+428, 429 (footnote)
+
+Montoya, Gabriel, 37
+
+Moraga, Fray Hernando de, 78
+
+Moriones, Gov.-General Domingo, 62
+
+_Moro Moro_, 349
+
+Moro Province, the, 576 _et seq._; constitution of, 577; sub-division
+of, under Spanish rule, 577 (footnote); municipalities, tribal wards
+and districts of, 578-9; finances of, 579; armed forces in, 580;
+America's policy in, 588, 591, 593; education in, 591
+
+Moros, the, Brunei Sultanate, 29, 141, 157, 165; Dimasangeay, King
+of Mindanao, 129; Adasaolan, the chief, 129; Bongso, Rajah, 130;
+Rodriguez's expedition against, 130; the Manguiguin of Mindanao,
+131, 589; Corcuera's expedition against, 131; Cachil Corralat, King,
+133; friars take the field against, 133; Gastambide's expedition
+against, 137; Claveria's and Urbiztondo's expeditions against, 139;
+slaughter of British at Balambangan by, 139; Corcuera's victory over,
+in Balanguigui Island, 139; population of, 140; Malcampo's expedition
+against, 140; agreement with the British North Borneo Co., 141;
+Harun Narrasid, Sultan, 141-2; Mohammad Jamalul Kiram, Sultan, 141,
+587-8; Terrero's expedition against, 143; Arolas' expedition against,
+144; Blanco's expedition against; Marahui campaign, 144; Spanish
+occupation of Lake Lanao, 145; Buille's (the last Spanish punitive)
+expedition against, 145; the chief tribes of, 145; dress of, 146-7,
+154; physique of, 146; character, arts, weapons, trade of, 147; the
+_pandita_, the _datto_, customs of, 148, 155-6; slavery among the,
+151; pensions to the, 139, 140, 151, 571, 580; the _juramentado_, 146,
+148, 150, 152, 583; as divers, 155; Ali, Datto, 529, 580-2; Djimbangan,
+Datto, 530, 580; the _Tamagun Datto_, 532; American occupation of Jolo,
+571; Bates' agreement with the Sultan of Sulu, 571; engagements with
+warlike _dattos_, 573-4, 581, 584-5; Lieut. Forsyth's expedition,
+573; Gen. Baldwin's and Capt. Pershing's expeditions against, 574;
+Gen. Wood's expeditions against, 580-1, 584; Gen. Wood's victory at
+Kudarangan, 581; Major Hugh L. Scott's expedition, 584-5; capture of
+Panglima Hassan, 584; Hassan escapes and Major Scott vanquishes him,
+585; a _bichara_ with Datto Ambutong, 585. _Vide_ Sulu
+
+Morong district, 212 (footnote), 560
+
+Mother-of-pearl shell, shipments of, 640
+
+Moths, 340
+
+"Mount of Gold," the, in Cavite, 114
+
+Mountains, heights of, 13
+
+Mules, 338
+
+Municipal government, under Spain, 225; under America, 567. _Vide_
+Government
+
+Music, natives' passion for, 190
+
+
+
+Nagasaki, the Jesuits in, 65-7
+
+Names, of islands, the ancient, 13; of places, obsolete, 13, 129,
+131, 560, 567; of families, 179
+
+_Nao de Acapulco_, the, 243, 249
+
+Nargas, Gov.-General Juan de, 60
+
+Narra (wood), 316
+
+Natives, the civilized. _Vide_ Filipino
+
+Naujan Lake, 15
+
+Navarrete, Luis de, 67
+
+Navy, statistics of the Spanish, 233-4; the insurgent, 553
+
+Negrito tribe, the, 120, 163
+
+Negros Island, the development of, 255; Spaniards capitulate to the
+rebels in, 520; native government in, 520
+
+Newspapers, 106, 352, 363, 382, 412, 468, 524, 550
+
+Nipa palm, 307
+
+_Noli me tongere_, 382
+
+Notaries' offices, 54
+
+Novales, Andres, rebellion of, 104
+
+Nozaleda, Archbishop, 594, 597 (footnote)
+
+_Nuevo Dia, El_, newspaper, 524
+
+
+Obando, Gov.-General Jose de, 134
+
+_Obras Pias_, the, 245, 252
+
+Occupation of Manila, by the British, 87; agreed indemnity to British
+in, 89; by the Americans, 464
+
+Officers' pay, Spanish, 280. _Vide_ Army
+
+Oil, mineral, 335
+
+Onayans, the Moro tribe of, 145
+
+Opium, restrictions on the use of, 630
+
+Orchids, 323
+
+_Oriente, Islas del_, 28
+
+Origin of Filipinos, 120. _Vide_ Filipino
+
+Osmena, Sergio, 521, 524
+
+Otis, General E. S., in the War of Independence, 488, 490-4, 497,
+502-3; 563
+
+Otong, 519 (footnote)
+
+Our Lady of Cagsaysay, 18, 19
+
+Outlaws, 236 _et seq._, 517
+
+
+_Pacto de sangre_, the, 28, 369
+
+Pagbuaya, Prince, 34
+
+Paguian Goan, the Princess, 129
+
+Paguian Tindig, the Moro, 129
+
+Palasan, 310
+
+Palauan Island, Spanish colonization of, 157; across the, 158, 160;
+produce of, 160; concession to Canga-Argueelles in, 161 (footnote)
+
+Palma brava, 308
+
+Palma, Rafael, 524
+
+Palmero family, the, 105
+
+Palo Maria de playa (wood), 316
+
+_Paloma de punalada_, 341
+
+Panay Island, the war in, 511-18; Araneta, General Pablo, 514, 517;
+peace concluded, 518
+
+_Pandita_, 148, 155-6
+
+Pansipit River, 15, 37
+
+Pangasinan, revolt in, 103
+
+_Panguingui_, 351 (footnote)
+
+Papal legate, Maillard de Touruon, 84-5; Chapelle, P. L., 595; Guidi,
+G. B., 601; Agius, Ambrogio, 607
+
+Papaw fruit, 318
+
+Paran, Feliciano, revolt of, 105
+
+Paragua Island, 157. _Vide_ Palauan
+
+_Parian_, the, 110
+
+Paris Peace Commission. _Vide_ Peace of Paris
+
+Parrado, General Gonzalez, 145, 150, 572
+
+_Paseo de los gigantes_, 134 (footnote)
+
+_Paseo del Real Pendon_, 50
+
+Pasig River, 15
+
+Paterno, Maximo, 106; biographical note of, 411
+
+Paterno, Pedro A., 106, 394; negotiates peace, 395; claims a title,
+409; biographical note of, 411; pro-Spanish manifesto of, 489; becomes
+President of the Revolutionary Congress, 469; capture of, 504; in
+prison, 505; intervenes in the Spanish captives negotiations, 542;
+as playwright, 554
+
+_Patria, La_, newspaper, 412
+
+Patriarch Maillard de Tournon, 84-5
+
+Peace of Paris, of 1763, 96; of 1898, 470 _et seq._; concluded, 472;
+text of the treaty, 478; ratified, 487 (footnote)
+
+Peculations, of governors, 79-80, 212, 220-21; of other officials, 564
+
+Pelew Islands, 41; the people of, 42
+
+Penaranda, Florentino, 547
+
+Penitentiaries, 54; statistics of Spanish, 285; of San Ramon, 238
+
+Perez Dasmarinas, Gov.-General, 56, 73
+
+Perfumes, 325
+
+Peso, the first introduced, 244; the Spanish-Philippine, 259; the
+"Conant," 635-7
+
+Petty-governors, 221
+
+Philippine Assembly, the, 612, 614-5
+
+Philippine Commission, the, 560; as legislative body, 563
+
+Philippine Islands named, 32
+
+"Philippines for the Filipinos," doctrine of the, 564
+
+Piang, Datto, 529, 581
+
+Piernavieja, Father, 203
+
+Pilar, General Pio del, 485; capture of, 305
+
+_Pina_ (stuff), 282
+
+Pindan, Bernabe, 37
+
+Pineapple, 320
+
+_Pintados, Islas de los_, 34 (footnote)
+
+Piracy, Moro, 132
+
+Playa Honda, Battle of, 75
+
+Poblete, Archbishop, 59
+
+Polavieja, Gov.-General Camilo, 378-9
+
+Poll-tax, 224
+
+_Poniente, Islas del_, 28
+
+Ponies, 336; the _surra_ epidemic, 622
+
+Pontoon bridge, the, 349
+
+Population, of Chinese, 118; of Moros, 140, 355, 615-6; of Visayos,
+of Tagalogs, in Manila, 615; of 40 provincial towns, 616; classified
+by birth, 616
+
+Portugal and Spain, united, 72; separated, 81
+
+Posadillo, Governor of the Carolines, murdered, 45
+
+Potatoes, 303
+
+Press, the, 106, 352, 363, 382, 412, 468, 524, 550, 559
+
+_Principalia_, 222-3
+
+Prisoners, the Spanish, 537; why detained, 539; Baron du Marais
+murdered, 540; the captors' terms of release, 541
+
+Prohibition on trade, Spain's, 248-50
+
+Protocol of Peace, with rebels, 396; between America and Spain, 459
+
+Provincial Government, under Spain, 213, 225; under America,
+567. _Vide_ Government.
+
+Public Works, under Spain, 218
+
+Pudtli, Ranee, 143
+
+_Puente de Barcas_, 98
+
+Puerta Princesa, 157-8
+
+_Pulajan_, the, 235, 547, 551
+
+
+Quesada, Gaspar de, 26-7
+
+_Quiapo_, 324
+
+Quinine, 308
+
+
+Rada, Martin, 51
+
+Railway, the first, 265; in project, 627
+
+Rain, 22
+
+Rajah Lacandola, 35-7, 51
+
+Rajah Soliman, 35, 51
+
+_Rajahmudah_, the, 131
+
+Rama, Esteban de la, 520
+
+Raon, Gov.-General Jose, 62, 99
+
+Rattan-cane, 310
+
+_Real Compania de Filipinas_, the 252
+
+_Real quinto_, the, 53
+
+_Real situado_, the, 244
+
+Rebellion of 1896, the Tagalog--362; acts conducive to, 364; the
+_Katipanan_ League, 364-5; arrests of citizens, 366; Pedro P. Rojas'
+case, 366; F. L. Rojas executed, 367; first overt act of, 367; Battle
+of San Juan del Monte, 368; first executions of rebels in Manila, 369;
+in Cavite, 374; Bonifacio Andres and Emilio Aguinaldo, 370; rebels
+capture Imus, 372; Spanish defeat at Binacayan, 373; Spaniards at
+Dalahican, 374; rebel General Llaneras, 374; Gov.-General Ramon Blanco,
+377; definition of demands, 392; claim of independence, 394; treaty
+of Biac-na-bato, 396, 414 (footnote); Rafael Comenge's inflammatory
+speech, 400; the _Calle de Camba_ tragedy, 401; rising in Cebu, 402,
+_et seq._; execution of rebels in Cebu, 405; American intervention,
+417; the rebels' aspirations, 420; rebels attack the Spaniards in
+Panay Island, 475; Spanish Governor of Negros Island capitulates, 476
+
+Rebellion, of Diego de Silan, in llocos, 100; of Dagohoy, in Bojol
+Island, 101; in Leyte Island, Samar Island, and Surigao, 102; of "King"
+Malong and of Sumoroy, 103; of Andres Novales, 104; of Apolinario de
+la Cruz, 105; of Feliciano Paran, 105, 396 (footnote); in Tayabas, 105;
+of Camerino, 106, 397 (footnote); of Cuesta, 106; in Negros Island, 106
+
+Regalado, Pedro, 520
+
+Regidor, Dr. Antonio M., biographical note of, 108 (footnote)
+
+_Regium exequatur_, the, 85
+
+Relics in cathedral, 57
+
+Religion, fanaticism in, 187-9, 521, 602; shrines, 187; coercion in,
+189 (footnote); freedom in, 594 and footnote; infidel tendency in,
+607-8
+
+Religious Orders, the, 199; power and influence of, 200; opinions for
+and against, 201; function of the _regium morum_, 201; social origin
+of, 201; as parish priests, 202; frailties of, 203; persecution by,
+205; the hierarchy, 206; outcry against, 207; dates of foundation
+and arrival of, 207; revenues of, 207, 209; emoluments of, 207;
+training-colleges in Spain for, 209; jealousy and rivalry between,
+209. _Vide_ Friars; Church
+
+_Remontado_, the, 174, 205
+
+_Renacimiento, El_, prosecution of, 550
+
+Reptiles, 339
+
+Revenue and expenditure, under Spain, 227 _et seq._, 251; curious
+items of, 229; under America, 629.
+
+Revolts in provinces. _Vide_ Rebellion
+
+Revolutionary Government, the, 448; statutes of, 448-54; President's
+message to, 454; appeal to the Powers by, 457; Malolos becomes
+the capital of, 469; first Congress of, convened at Malolos, 469;
+ratification of Philippine independence by, 470
+
+Ricarte, Artemio, 546
+
+Riccio, Vittorio, 76
+
+Rice, measures of, 276; machinery for husking of, 277; _tiki-tiki_,
+277; _Macan_ and _Paga_, yield of, 278; planting of, 279; trade in, 281
+
+Rio de la Plata, 26
+
+Rio Grande, de la Pampanga, 14; de Mindanao, 15
+
+Rios, General Diego de los, 374, 474 _et seq._, 494 (footnote);
+evacuates Panay, 477, 511; as agent for the liberation of Spanish
+prisoners, 539
+
+Rivalry of Church and State, 57-8. _Vide_ Church.
+
+Rivera, General Primo de, attempts to subdue the Igorrotes, 124;
+reappointed Gov.-General to suppress the Rebellion of 1896, 211, 389;
+edict of concentration by, 391; reward to, for closing first period
+of the Rebellion, 399; recalled to Spain, 408
+
+Rivers, 14, 23
+
+Rizal, Dr. Jose, 366, 381 _et .seq._; "My last Thought," poem by, 386;
+the widow of, 386; public subscription to monument of, 389 (footnote);
+"_Dimas alang_," 389 (footnote)
+
+Rizal Province, 212 (footnote), 560
+
+Roads, under Spain, 218; under America, 627
+
+Rodas, Miguel de, 31
+
+Rodriguez, Estevan, 131
+
+Rojas, Pedro P., biographical note of, 366 (footnote)
+
+Rojo, Archbishop-Governor, 62, 88, 97
+
+Rosario, Pantaleon E. del, 524-5, 528
+
+Russell & Sturgis, 255, 257
+
+
+Sabas, Colonel, 107
+
+Sago, 321
+
+Sala destroyed, 18
+
+Salas, Quintin, 516-7
+
+Salaries, of Spanish officials, 214; of municipal officers, 560;
+of American officials, 561; of mayors, 567
+
+Salazar, Domingo, Bishop of Manila, 51, 56
+
+Salcedo, Gov.-General Diego, 59
+
+Salcedo, Juan, 35, 51, 212 (footnote)
+
+Samales, the Moro tribe of, 145
+
+Samar Island, rebellion in, 102; insurgency in, 535; slaughter of
+Americans in, 536; _pulajanes_ in, 551
+
+_Sampaguita_, 323
+
+San Juan del Monte, Battle of, 368
+
+San Miguel, the bandit, 546
+
+Sanchez, Alonso, 52
+
+_Sanctorum_ tax, 53
+
+_Sangdugong Panaguinip_, 412
+
+_Sangley_ (Chinese), 118
+
+Sanitation, 198
+
+Sanson, Melanio, 582
+
+Sanson, Pedro, 528
+
+Santa Clara Convent, 81
+
+San Victores, Fray Diego de, 39
+
+_Santo Officio_, 59
+
+_Santones_, 189, 521
+
+Santos, Father Moises, murdered, 408
+
+Sapan-wood, 312; shipments of, 646
+
+Saps of trees, 312
+
+Schools. _Vide_ Education.
+
+Schueck, Captain, 587 (footnote)
+
+Schurman Commission, the, 498, 562
+
+Scott, Major Hugh L., 583-6, 588
+
+Scout corps, 570
+
+Sculpture, 196
+
+Seasons, 22
+
+Secret Police Service, 567
+
+Sedition, 553; seditious plays, 554; law passed, 545
+
+Separation of Spain and Portugal, 81
+
+Serrano, Juan R., 26, 28
+
+Sevilla, Dr. Mariano, 596-7, 604-5
+
+Sheep, 338
+
+Shipping Law of 1904, the, 620
+
+Shrines, 187
+
+Siao (Moluccas), King of, 73-4
+
+_Sibucao_, 312
+
+Sibuguey, the Prince of, 131
+
+Siguey shells, 243
+
+Silan, Diego de, rebellion of, 100
+
+Silva, Geromino de, 76
+
+Silva, Gov.-General Fernando de, 76
+
+Silva, Gov.-General Juan de, 74
+
+Silver, imports and exports of, 647
+
+_Simbilin_ weapon, 147
+
+_Sinamnay_ stuff, 282
+
+Singson, Father, 597
+
+Sioco, 48
+
+_Situado_, the _real_, 244
+
+Slavery, 54, 55 (footnote), 191; among Moros, 151
+
+Small-pox, 197
+
+Smugglers, in Mexico, 247, 260, 262, 626
+
+Snakes, 339
+
+Soldiers in olden times, 231
+
+_Solidaridud, La_, the seditionary organ, 363, 382
+
+Soliman, Rajah, 35, 51
+
+Solis River, 26
+
+Somangalit, Cristobal, 37
+
+Spiritualists, 608
+
+Saint Lazarus, Archipelago of, 28
+
+State and Church feuds, 58
+
+Statistics of trade, 639-50
+
+Steamships introduced, 132
+
+Stone, 334
+
+Stotsenberg, Colonel, death of, 495
+
+Sual port, 261
+
+Subsidy, the Mexican, 244
+
+Subuanos, the Moro tribe of, 145-6, 155
+
+Sugar-cane, yield of, 271; cultivation of, 272; sugar-extraction from,
+278; molasses yield, 273; sugar-blends, 275; world's production of
+sugar, 275
+
+Sugar, the duty on, in America, 623; shipments of, 642-3
+
+Sulphur, 21, 334
+
+Sultan Mahamad Alimudin, 134; treaty with, 138
+
+Sulu, the Sultan of, 140; the present Sultan, 141, 587-8; visits
+Manila, 588; pension to him and chiefs, 151, 571, 580; titles of,
+151; dress of, 153; across Sulu to Maybun, 153; produce of Sulu, 153;
+official reception by, 154; the Sultanas of, 154. _Vide_ Moros
+
+Sumoroy's rebellion, 103
+
+Supa (wood), 316
+
+Supreme Court, abolished, 56; re-established, 57; of Cebu, 57
+
+Surigao, revolt in, 102
+
+_Surra_, the disease, 622
+
+_Suya_(Chinese), 118
+
+
+
+Taal, volcano of, 17; town of, destroyed, 18-20, 166
+
+Taft Commission, the, 562-3
+
+Taft, William II., biographical note of, 562 (footnote); his policy
+in the Islands, 564; appointed Secretary of War, 564; 613
+
+Tagalog, meaning of the term, 164; character of, 171; hospitality
+of, 172
+
+Tagalog rebellion, the, 362 _et seq._ _Vide_ Rebellion of 1896
+
+Tagbanuas tribe, the, 158; dress, customs, country of, 159
+
+Taguban tribe, the, 146
+
+Taguima, 129 (footnote)
+
+Tamarind, 320
+
+Tanauan destroyed, 18
+
+Tancad, the bandit, 239
+
+_Tanga_ (edible insect), 342
+
+Tattarassa, Sultan, 142 (footnote), 585
+
+Taxation, of land, 625, 629; the Internal Revenue Law of 1904, 630
+
+Taxes under Spain, 217, 224, 228
+
+Tayabas rebellion, 105
+
+Taycosama, Emperor of Japan, 65
+
+Taytay fort, 231
+
+Telegraph service, 267
+
+Temperature, 22; of Illana Hay coast (Mindanao Is.), 157; of Zamboanga,
+535
+
+Teng-teng, Datto, 139
+
+Theatres, 349, 558
+
+_Tiangui_, 304 (footnote)
+
+Tidal wave, 23
+
+_Tiki-tiki_, 277
+
+Timbang, Datto, 585
+
+Timber, 312; relative strengths of, 317
+
+_Tinaja_, 273 (footnote)
+
+Tindalo (wood), 316
+
+Tindig, Paguian, the Moro, 129
+
+Tinguian tribe, the, 126
+
+Tinio, General Manuel, 545 (footnote)
+
+Tiruraya tribe, the, 146
+
+Tithes to the Church, 55
+
+Tobacco, 292; under monopoly, 293; free trade in, 296; risks of
+trade in, 298; qualities and districts, 298; cigar values, 299;
+_Compania General de Tabacos_, 299; the duty on, in America, 625;
+shipments of, 644
+
+To-Kogunsama, Emperor of Japan, 70
+
+Tonnage, 628, 647
+
+Tordesillas, Treaty of, 25 (footnote)
+
+Torralba, acting Gov.-General, 60; impeachment of, 79; dies a
+beggar, 80
+
+Torres, Fray Juan de, 116
+
+Tournon, Mons. Maillard de, 84
+
+Town Hall, 217, 226
+
+Trade (under Spain), the early history of, 243 _et seq._; the
+Mexican subsidy, 244; the _Consulado_ trading-ring, 244; the _boleta_
+shipping-warrant, 244; the galleons, 245; the _Obras Pias_, 245; losses
+of treasure, 246; prohibitions on, 248; penalties on free-traders,
+250; the budget in 1757, 251; Spanish company failures, 252; the _Real
+Compania de Filipinas_, 252; the _Compania Guipuzcoana de Caracas_,
+252; foreign traders admitted, 255; Russell & Sturgis, 255; Nicholas
+Loney, 255; Manila port opened to foreign trade, 256; first foreign
+traders, 257; Banks, 258; the _Compania General de Tabacos_, 299 (under
+America), 620; effect of the war on, 621; the carrying-trade, 628;
+American traders, 628; proportion of tonnage, 628; total tonnage, 647;
+the new currency, 635-7; Banks, 637-8; statistical tables, 639-50;
+produce shipments, 639-46; gold and silver exports and imports,
+647; exchange fluctuations, 647; proportionate table of imports and
+exports, 648-50
+
+Trading Governors, 212
+
+Tragedy of the _Calle de Camba_, 401
+
+Travellers, regulations affecting alien, 617
+
+Treaties made with rebels, 396 (footnote)
+
+Treaty of Paris (1898), text of the, 478 _et seq._
+
+Treaty, of Tordesillas, 25 (footnote), 253; of Antwerp, 72, 253;
+of the "Family Compact," 72, 87;  of Paris (1703), 96; with Sultan
+Mahamad Alimudin, 138; of Utrecht and the Asiento Contract, 257;
+of Malacanan, 396 (footnote); of Biac-na-bato, 396, 414 (footnote);
+of Navotas, 397 (footnote); of Paris (1898), 472, 478
+
+Tree-saps, 312
+
+Trent, Council of, the, 605 (footnote)
+
+Trepang (_balate_), 312
+
+Trias, General Manuel, 544, 548-9
+
+_Tribunal_, 217, 226
+
+Tribute, 53, 224
+
+Tuba (beverage), 304
+
+_Talisan_, the, 235, 547; outrages by, 236, 239, 548-9
+
+Tupas, King of Cebu, 35
+
+Typhoons, 355
+
+
+
+"_Ualang sugat_," the seditious play of, 554
+
+Union of Spain and Portugal, 72
+
+Urbiztondo, expedition against Moros by, 139
+
+Urdaneta, Andres de, 31, 33, 35
+
+Utrecht, the Peace of, 257
+
+Utto, Datto, 142
+
+
+
+Vagrant Act, the, 568
+
+Valenzuela, Prime Minister, banished, 83
+
+Valenzuela, Sancho, 368; execution of, 369
+
+Vanilla, 321
+
+Vargas, Gov.-General Juan, impeachment of, 79
+
+Vegetable produce, 321
+
+Veteran civil guard, 231
+
+Vicars, Camp, 574 (footnote)
+
+Villa Corta, 94, 96, 98
+
+Villalobos expedition, the, 32
+
+Villa Fernandina, 48
+
+Vilo, Roman, 529
+
+Virgin of Antipolo, 267
+
+Visayo, characteristics of the, 172
+
+Volcano, Mayou, 16; Taal, 17
+
+Volcano Island discovered, 32
+
+
+
+War, the Spanish-American, 117; allocution of the Archbishop of
+Madrid, 423; General Augusti's call to arms, 424; General Augusti's
+proclamation, 425; volunteers reorganized, 426; the Battle of Cavite,
+427; Cavite occupied, 429; Spain makes peace overtures, 458; text of
+the Protocol of Peace, 459; Americans attack Manila, 462; surrender
+of the city, 464; capitulation signed, 465
+
+War of Independence, the, 484; the Philippine Republic, 486;
+opening shot and Battle of Paco, 487; fight at Coloocan, 487;
+fight at Gagalanging, 488; the Igorrote contingent, 488; Malabon
+and Malinta captured, 489; death of Col. Egbert, 489; Santa Cruz
+(Manila) in flames, 489; Battle of Marilao, 490; Malolos captured,
+491; insurgent retreat to Calumpit, 492; American proclamation of
+intentions, 492; Santa Cruz (La Laguna) captured, 494; Lieut. Gilmore's
+expedition to Baler captured, 494; American reverse at Gingua, 495;
+crossing the Bagbag River, 496; Calumpit captured, 496; burning of
+S.S. _Saturnus_, 503; death of Gen. Lawton, 504; fight at Narvican,
+505; capture of Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo, 507; American occupation of
+Yloilo, 511-6 --of Cebu, 523--of Bojol Island, 528--of Zamboanga,
+532; capture of Vicente Lucban, 545
+
+Water-cure, 517 (footnote)
+
+Wax, 311
+
+Weyler, General, 417-8, 431
+
+Wheaton, General, 488-91, 497
+
+White ants, 340
+
+Wild boar, 340
+
+Wild tribes, the, percentage of in the population, 120
+
+Wood, General Leonard, biographical note of, 576 (footnote); victory
+of, at Kudarangan, 581; captures Panglima Hassan, 584
+
+Woods, 312; relative strengths of, 317
+
+Wright, Governor Luke E., biographical note of, 564
+
+
+
+Xogusama, Emperor of Japan, 69
+
+
+
+Yacal (wood), 316
+
+Ylang-Ylang, 325
+
+Yligan fort, 77, 231
+
+Yloilo, the port of, 261; native government in, 511; Gen. Miller's
+expedition to, 511; the Panay insurgent army, 512; panic in, 513;
+incendiarism and looting in, 515; bombardment of, 516; surrenders
+of insurgent leaders, 517; general surrender at Jaro, 518; the town
+of, 518
+
+
+
+Zabalburu, Gov.-General Domingo, 42
+
+_Zaguan_, 353
+
+Zamboanga, the fort of, 77, 133, 233; the port of, 261-2; critical
+position of the Spaniards at, 531; anarchy in, 532; American occupation
+of, 532; the town of, 535
+
+Zamora, Father Jacinto, executed, 107
+
+Zobel, Jacobo, 367 (footnote)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Printed and Bound by Hazell, Watson and Viney, LD London and Aylesbury
+
+
+
+
+
+
+NOTES
+
+[1] "Historia General de Philipinas," Chap. I., Part I., Vol. I.,
+by Juan de la Concepcion published in 14 vols., Manila, 1788.
+
+[2] "No es necessario calificar el derecho a tales reinos o dominios,
+especialmente entre vasallos de reyes tan justos y Catholicos y tan
+obedientes hijos de la suprema autoridad apostolica con cuia facultad
+han ocupado estas regiones."--_Ibid._
+
+[3] "Dominium a possessione coepisse dicitur."--_Law maxim_.
+
+[4] In September, 1890, a lawsuit was still pending between the
+Dominican Corporation and a number of native residents in Calamba
+(Laguna) who disputed the Dominicans' claim to lands in that vicinity
+so long as the Corporation were unable to exhibit their title. For this
+implied monastic indiscriminate acquisition of real estate several
+of the best native families (some of them personally known to me)
+were banished to the Island of Mindoro.
+
+[5] According to the Spanish Hydrographic Map, it is 8,813 feet:
+the Pajal and Montano Expedition (1880) made it 10,270 feet; the
+Schadenberg and Koch Expedition (1882) computed it at 10,827 feet.
+
+[6] _Vide_ pamphlet published immediately after the event by Father
+Francisco Aragoneses, P.P. of Cagsaua, begging alms for the victims.
+
+[7] "Hist. de la Prov. de Batangas," por D. Pedro Andres de Castro
+y Amades. Inedited MS. in the Bauan Convent, Batangas.
+
+[8] MS. exhaustive report of the eruptions of Taal Volcano in
+1749 and 1754, dated December 22, 1754, compiled by Fray Francisco
+Vencuchillo. Preserved in the archives of the Corporation of Saint
+Augustine in Manila.
+
+[9] Still it appears that all classes were willing to risk their lives
+to save their property. They were not forcibly detained in that plight.
+
+[10] "Hist. de la Prov. de Batangas," por Don Pedro Andres de Castro
+y Amades. Inedited MS. in the Bauan Convent, Province of Batangas.
+
+[11] "Hist. de Filipinas," by Dr. Gaspar de San Agustin, 2 vols. First
+part published in Madrid, 1698, the second part yet inedited and
+preserved in the archives of the Corporation of Saint Augustine
+in Manila.
+
+[12] P.P. of Taal from 1572 to 1575.
+
+[13] In the same archives of the Saint Augustine Corporation in Manila
+an eruption in 1641 is recorded.
+
+[14] During the previous century jealousy had run so high between
+Spain and Portugal with regard to their respective colonization and
+trading rights, that the question of demarcation had to be settled by
+the Pope Alexander VI., who issued a bull dated May 4, 1493, dividing
+the world into two hemispheres, and decreeing that all heathen lands
+discovered in the Western half, from the meridian 100 leagues W. of
+Cape Verd Island, should belong to the Spaniards; in the Eastern half
+to the Portuguese. The bull was adopted by both nations in the Treaty
+of Tordesillas (June 7, 1494). It gave rise to many passionate debates,
+as the Spaniards wrongly insisted that the Philippines and the Moluccas
+came within the division allotted to them by Pontifical donation.
+
+[15] Probably so called from the enormous number of _patos_ (ducks)
+found there.
+
+[16] The Visayos, inhabiting the central group of the Archipelago,
+tattooed themselves; a cutaneous disease also disfigured the majority;
+hence for many years their islands were called by the Spaniards _Islas
+de los pintados_.
+
+[17] Legaspi and Guido Lavezares, under oath, made promises of rewards
+to the Lacandola family and a remission of tribute in perpetuity,
+but they were not fulfilled. In the following century--year 1660--it
+appears that the descendants of the Rajah Lacandola still upheld the
+Spanish authority, and having become sorely impoverished thereby,
+the heir of the family petitioned the Governor (Sabiniano Manrique de
+Lara) to make good the honour of his first predecessors. Eventually
+the Lacandolas were exempted from the payment of tribute and poll-tax
+for ever, as recompense for the filching of their domains.
+
+In 1884, when the fiscal reforms were introduced which abolished the
+tribute and established in lieu thereof a document of personal identity
+(_cedula personal_), for which a tax was levied, the last vestige of
+privilege disappeared.
+
+Descendants of Lacandola are still to be met with in several villages
+near Manila. They do not seem to have materially profited by their
+transcendent ancestry--one of them I found serving as a waiter in a
+French restaurant in the capital in 1885.
+
+[18] _Velas_, Spanish for sails.
+
+[19] _Ladrones_, Spanish for thieves.
+
+[20] Mr. Doane is reported to have died in Honolulu about June, 1890
+
+[21] Guido de Lavezares deposed a Sultan in Borneo in order to
+aid another to the throne, and even asked permission of King Philip
+II. to conquer China, which of course was not conceded to him. _Vide_
+also the history of the destruction of the Aztec (Mexican) and Incas
+(Peruvian) dynasties by the Spaniards, in W. H. Prescott's "Conquest
+of Mexico" and "Conquest of Peru."
+
+[22] _Maestre de Campo_ (obsolete grade) about equivalent to the modern
+General of Brigade. This officer was practically the military governor.
+
+[23] According to Juan de la Concepcion, in his "Hist. Gen. de
+Philipinas," Vol. I., p. 431, Li-ma-hong made his escape by cutting
+a canal for his ships to pass through, but this would appear to be
+highly improbable under the circumstances.
+
+[24] Some authors assert that only Soliman rebelled.
+
+[25] Domingo Salazar, the first Bishop of Manila, took possession in
+1581. He and one companion were the only Dominicans in the Islands
+until 1587.
+
+[26] Bondage in the Philippines was apparently not so necessary for
+the interests of the Church as it was in Cuba, where a commission of
+friars, appointed soon after the discovery of the Island, to deliberate
+on the policy of partially permitting slavery there, reported "that
+the Indians would not labour without compulsion and that, unless they
+laboured, they could not be brought into communication with the whites,
+nor be converted to Christianity." _Vide_ W. H. Prescott's Hist. of
+the Conquest of Mexico," tom. II., Chap, i., p. 104, ed. 1878.
+
+[27] "Hist. Gen. de Philipinas," by Juan de la Concepcion, Vol. III.,
+Chap, ix., p. 365, published at Manila, 1788.
+
+[28] "Long live the Church," "Long live our King Philip V."
+
+[29] Now the suburb of Paco. Between 1606 and 1608, owing to a rising
+of the Japanese settlers, their dwellings in Dilao were sacked and
+the settlement burnt.
+
+[30] Portugal was forcibly annexed to the Spanish Crown from 1581
+to 1640.
+
+[31] Philip II.'s persecution of religious apostates during the
+"Wars of the Flanders" was due as much to the fact that Protestantism
+was becoming a political force, threatening Spain's dominion, as to
+Catholic sentiment.
+
+[32] Religious intolerance in Spain was confirmed in 1822 by the New
+Penal Code of that date; the text reads thus: "Todo el que conspirase
+directamente y de hecho a establecer otra religion en las Espanas, o a
+que la Nacion Espanola deje de profesar la religion Apostolica Romana
+es traidor y sufrira la pena de muerte." Articulo 227 del Codigo Penal
+presentado a las Cortes en 22 de Abril de 1821 y sancionado en 1822."
+
+[33] "Hist. Gen. de Philipinas," by Juan de la Concepeion Vol. III.,
+Chap. viii.
+
+[34] This hospital was rebuilt with a legacy left by the Gov.-General
+Don Manuel de Leon in 1677. It was afterwards subsidized by the
+Government, and was under the care of the Franciscan friars up to
+the close of the Spanish dominion.
+
+[35] From this date the Molucca Islands were definitely evacuated and
+abandoned by the Spaniards, although as many men and as much material
+and money had been employed in garrisons and conveyance of subsidies
+there as in the whole Philippine Colony up to that period.
+
+[36] "Hist. Gen. de Philipinas," by Juan de la Concepcion, Vol. VII.,
+p. 48, published at Manila, 1788.
+
+[37] Macao is held by the Portuguese since 1557. During the Union
+of Spain and Portugal (1581-1640), the Dutch made two unsuccessful
+attempts to seize it (1622 and 1627). This colony was the great
+European-Chinese emporium prior to Hong-Kong (1841), and paid crown
+rent to China up to 1848.
+
+[38] Zuniga's History, Vol II., Chap xii., English translation,
+published in London, 1814.
+
+[39] Cronica de los P. P. Dominicos, Vol. IV., pp. 637 to 650,
+edition of Rivadenayra, published in Madrid.
+
+[40] This money constituted the Manila merchants' specie remittances
+from Acapulco, together with the Mexican subsidy to support the
+administration of this Colony, which was merely a dependency of Mexico
+up to the second decade of last century (_vide_ Chap. xv.).
+
+[41] Vicissitudes of Sultan Mahamad Alimudin (_vide_ Chap. x.).
+
+[42] So tenacious was the opposition of the Austin friars, both in
+Manila and the provinces, that the British appear to have regarded
+them as their special foes.
+
+From the archives of Bauan Convent, Province of Batangas, I have taken
+the following notes, viz.:--The Austin friars lost P 238,000 and 15
+convents. Six of their estates were despoiled. The troops killed were
+300 Spaniards, 500 Pampanga natives, and 300 Tagalog natives. Besides
+the Austin friars from the galleon _Trinidad_, who were made prisoners
+and shipped to Bombay, 10 of their Order were killed in battle and
+19 were captured and exiled to India and Europe.
+
+[43] The prominent men in this movement were the brothers Palmero,
+maternal uncles of the well-known Spanish soldier-politician, General
+Marcelo Azcarraga.
+
+Born in 1832 in Manila, General Marcelo Azcarraga was the son of
+Jose Azcarraga, a Biscayan Spaniard, and his creole wife Dr. Maria
+Palmero. Jose Azcarraga was a bookseller, established in the
+_Escolta_ (Binondo), in a building (burnt down in October, 1885) on
+the site where stood the General Post Office up to June, 1904. In
+the fire of 1885 the first MS. of the first edition of this work
+was consumed, and had to be re-written. Jose Azcarraga had several
+sons and daughters. His second son, Marcelo, first studied law at
+St. Thomas' University, and then entered the Nautical School, where
+he gained the first prize in mathematics. Sent to Spain to continue
+his studies, he entered the Military School, and in three years' time
+obtained the rank of Captain. For his services against the O'Donnell
+revolutionary movement (1854) in Madrid, he was promoted to Major. At
+the age of twenty-three he obtained the Cross of San Fernando (with
+pension). Having served Spain with distinction in several important
+missions to Mexico, Cuba, and Sto. Domingo, he returned to Cuba and
+espoused the daughter of the great banker, Fesser, who gave him a
+fortune of L20,000 on the day of his marriage. In the year of Isabella
+II.'s deposition (1868) he returned to Spain, promoted the Bourbon
+restoration, and became Lieut.-General on the proclamation of Alfonso
+XII. (1875). He then became successively M.P., Senator by election,
+and life Senator. He was Minister of War under Canovas del Castillo,
+on whose assassination (Aug. 8, 1897) he became Prime Minister of
+the Interim Government specially charged to keep order until after
+the unpopular marriage of the Princess of Asturias. After several
+Ministerial changes he again took the leadership of the Government,
+was lately President of the Senate, and on his retirement, at the age
+of seventy-two, he received the _Toison de Oro_ (Golden Fleece)--the
+most elevated Order in Spain. On his mother's side he descends from the
+Philippine creole family of the Conde de Lizarraga, and is uncle to the
+Conde de Albay, better known in Philippine society as Senor Govantes.
+
+[44] It was practically a secret branch of the _Junta General de
+Reformas_ authorized to discuss reforms, and created by the Colonial
+Minister Becerra during the governor-generalship of General La Torre
+in the time of the Provisional Government in Spain which succeeded
+the deposed Queen Isabella II.
+
+[45] He was the grandfather of one of the most conspicuous surviving
+generals of the Tagalog Rebellion (1896) and the War of Independence
+(1899).
+
+[46] Jose Maria Basa was the son of Matias Basa, a builder and
+contractor by trade, who made a contract with the Spanish Government
+to fill up the stream which branched from the Pasig River and crossed
+the _Escolta_ (Manila), where now stands the street called _Calle
+de San Jacinto_. In consideration of this work he was permitted to
+build houses on the reclaimed land, provided he made a thoroughfare
+where the former bed of the rivulet existed. This undertaking made
+his fortune. His son, Jose Maria, had several trading schemes,
+the most prosperous of which was his distillery at Trozo (Manila),
+which brought him large profits, and was a flourishing concern
+in 1872. On being amnestied, he established himself in Hong-Kong,
+where he is still living with his family in easy circumstances and
+highly respected. His unbounded hospitality to all who know him, and
+especially to his countrymen, has justly earned for him in Hong-Kong
+the title of the "Father of the Filipinos."
+
+Dr. Antonio Maria Regidor y Jurado, a young lawyer, was arrested
+and banished to the Ladrone Islands, whence he afterwards escaped to
+Hong-Kong in a foreign vessel, disguised as a priest. From that Colony
+he found his way to France, where he intended to settle, but eventually
+established himself in London, where he still holds a high position
+as a Spanish consulting lawyer. By his marriage with an Irish lady,
+he has a son and several charming daughters, his well-appointed home
+being the rendezvous of all the best class of Filipinos who visit
+the British metropolis.
+
+[47] "Hist. Gen. de Philipinas," by Juan de la Concepcion, Vol. IV.,
+p. 53. Published in Manila, 1788.
+
+[48] Ibid., Vol. V., p. 429.
+
+[49] About two per thousand of the resident Chinese were _not_
+originally coolies.
+
+[50] General Wong Yung Ho, accompanied by a Chinese Justice of the
+High Court, visited Australia in the middle of the year 1887. In a
+newspaper of that Colony, it was reported that after these persons
+had been courteously entertained and shown the local institutions and
+industries, they had the effrontery to protest against the State Laws,
+and asked for a repeal of the "poll tax"--considered there the only
+check upon a Chinese coolie inundation!
+
+[51] Just before the naval engagement of Playa Honda between Dutch
+and Spanish ships (_vide_ p. 75) the Dutch intercepted Chinese junks
+on the way to Manila, bringing, amongst their cargoes of food, as
+many as 12,000 capons.
+
+[52] Since about the year 1885, this system, which entailed severe
+losses, gradually fell into disuse, and business on _cash terms_
+became more general.
+
+[53] In old writings, laws, and documents, and in ordinary parlance up
+to the evacuation by the Spaniards in 1898, the inhabitants of these
+Islands (civilized or uncivilized) were almost invariably referred
+to as _Indios, Indigenas, Naturales, Mestizos, Espanoles-Filipinos_,
+etc., the term "Filipino" being seldom used. The Revolution of 1896
+generalized the appellation "Filipino" now in common use.
+
+Throughout this work, "Filipino" is taken as the substantive and
+"Philippine" as the adjective, that being the correct English form.
+
+The Americans, however, use "Filipino" both substantively and
+adjectivally.
+
+[54] For an exhaustive treatise on this subject the
+reader is recommended to peruse A. R. Wallace's "The Malay
+Archipelago." Published in London, 1869.
+
+[55] The _Ibanacs_ are the ordinary domesticated natives inhabiting
+the extreme north of Luzon and the banks of the Rio Grande de Cagayan
+for some miles up. Some of them have almost black skins. I found them
+very manageable.
+
+[56] According to Father Pedro Murillo, the ancient name of Basilan
+was Taguima, so called from a river there of that name.
+
+[57] Mahometanism appears to have been introduced into the Islands
+of Borneo and Mindanao by Arabian missionary prophets.
+
+[58] It was called the _Fuerza del Pilar_, and is now the American
+Moro Province military headquarters and head quartermaster's office
+and depot. The image of Our Lady in a niche in the north wall is much
+revered by Catholics.
+
+[59] _Paseo de los gigantes_, the custom still existing in Spain of
+introducing giant figures into popular festivities, reminding one of
+Guy Fawkes.
+
+[60] The Sultan complained that he had not been treated in Manila
+with dignity equal to his rank and quality, and that he had constantly
+been under guard of soldiers in his residence (this was explained to
+be a guard-of-honour).
+
+[61] Cholera has considerably reduced the population. In 1902 this
+disease carried off about 10 per cent.
+
+[62] Brunei signifies, in pure Malay, the _whole_ of Borneo Island.
+
+[63] The Sultan told me years afterwards that his uncle's nomination by
+the Spaniards troubled him very little, as he was always recognized
+by his people as their sovereign. In the end intrigues were made
+against Datto Harun Narrasid, who agreed to accept his nephew's vassal
+sultanate of Paragua, where he died, and was succeeded by his son,
+Sultan Tattarassa, whom I met in Jolo in 1904.
+
+[64] Cottabato is derived from _Cotta_, a fort, and _Bato_, stone.
+
+[65] By Royal Order of June, 1890, Brig.-General Arolas was appointed
+Governor of Mindanao. He died in Valencia (Spain) May, 1899.
+
+[66] According to Sonnerat, Sulu Island produced elephants!--_vide_
+"Voyages aux Indes et a la Chine," Vol. III., Chap. x. I have not
+seen the above statement confirmed in any writing. Certainly there
+is no such animal in these islands at the present day.
+
+[67] This building was destroyed by Colonel Arolas, April 15, 1887
+(_vide_ p. 144).
+
+[68] A few outposts had recently been established by Royal Decree. They
+were all under the command of a captain, _vide_ Chap. xiii.
+
+[69] There is another tribe in Palauan Island called _Batacs_,
+with Papuan noses, curly hair, and very dark skin. Their origin is
+a mystery.
+
+[70] Alfred Marche calls this the _Tragulus ranchil_, and says it is
+also to be found in Malacca, Cochin China, and Pulo Condor (_vide_
+"Lucon et Palaouan," par A. Marche. Paris, 1887).
+
+[71] By Royal Order of August 20, 1888, a concession of 12,000
+to 14,000 hectares of land in Palauan was granted to Felipe
+Canga-Argueelles y Villalba, ex-Governor of Puerta Princesa, for the
+term of 20 years.
+
+He could work mines, cut timber, and till the land so conceded under
+the law called "Ley de Colonias Agricolas," of September 4, 1884,
+which was little more than an extension to the Philippines of the
+Peninsula forest and agricultural law of June 3, 1868 (_vide Gaceta de
+Madrid_ of September 29, 1888). It appears, however, from the Colonial
+Minister's despatch No. 515, to the Gov.-General of the Colony, dated
+May 24, 1890, that the concessionaire had endeavoured to associate
+himself with foreigners for the working of the concession. I myself had
+received from him several letters on the subject. The wording of the
+despatch shows that suspicion was entertained of an eventual intention
+to declare territorial independence in Palauan. The Government,
+wishing to avoid the possibility of embroilment with a foreign nation,
+unfortunately felt constrained to impose such restrictions upon the
+concessionaire as to render his enterprise valueless.
+
+[72] We have several modern instances of similar volcanic disturbances
+creating and demolishing land surface, on an infinitely lesser
+scale--e.g., the disappearance of Krakatoa and the entire town and
+busy port of Anger in 1883; the eruption which swallowed up the whole
+inhabited Japanese island Torii Shima; the appearance of an entirely
+new island, Nii Shima (about lat. 25 deg. N.), within the past twelve
+months; and, within the historical period, the apparition of the
+Kurile Islands.
+
+[73] _Vide_ Chap. v. By way of retaliation for the expulsion of Spanish
+missionaries from Japan in the l7th century, all the male Japanese
+above ten years of age were ordered to leave their settlements up the
+Lake. Under this order over 20,000 of them were expelled from the
+Colony. There was a Japanese temple existing (though not in use as
+such) in the suburbs of Manila up to last century, when Gov.-General
+Norzagaray (1857-60) had it destroyed.
+
+[74] The Spaniards must have been quite cognisant of these rites,
+seeing that the Moorish invasion of Spain lasted nearly eight
+centuries, namely from the year 711 up to 1492--only a couple of
+decades before Legaspi's generation.
+
+[75] Based on this tradition, Don Jose Carvajal has written a very
+interesting play entitled _Ligaya_. It was produced at the National
+Theatre, Manila, in 1904.
+
+[76] Possibly the people of Tondo (Manila) learnt from the Chinese
+the art of preparing that canine delicacy called _Cubang-aso_.
+
+[77] Consequent on the American advent, wages steadily rose
+proportionately to the increased cost of everything. But when,
+later on, wages far exceeded the native's needs, he demanded more
+and actually went on strike to obtain it!
+
+[78] With regard to this characteristic among the Chinese, Sir John
+Bowring (late Governor of Hong-Kong) affirms that the Chinese respect
+their writings and traditions, whilst they do not believe a lie to
+be a fault, and in some of their classical works it is especially
+recommended, in order to cheat and confuse foreign intruders (_vide_
+"A Visit to the Philippine Islands," by Sir John Bowring, LL.D.,
+F.R.S. Manila, 1876 Spanish edition, p. 176).
+
+[79] See the Army Regulations for the advantages granted to military
+men who married Philippine-born women (_vide_also p. 53).
+
+[80] _Catapusan_ signifies in native dialect the gathering of friends,
+which terminates the festival connected with any event or ceremony,
+whether it be a wedding, a funeral, a baptism, or an election of
+local authorities, etc. The festivities after a burial last nine
+days, and on the last day of wailing, drinking, praying, and eating,
+the meeting is called the _Catapusan_.
+
+[81] "Historia de Nuestra Senora La Virgen de Antipolo," by
+M. Romero. Published in Manila, 1886.
+
+[82] He became a prelate twenty-one years afterwards, having been
+ordained Bishop of Nueva Segovia in 1671.
+
+[83] A decree issued by Don Juan de Ozaeta, a magistrate of the Supreme
+Court, in his general visit of inspection to the provinces, dated May
+26, 1696, enacts the following, viz.:--"That Chinese half-castes and
+headmen shall be compelled to go to church and attend Divine Service,
+and act according to the customs established in the villages." The
+penalty for an infraction of this mandate by a male was "20 lashes in
+the public highway and two months' labour in the Royal Rope Walk (in
+Taal), or in the Galleys of Cavite." If the delinquent was a female,
+the chastisement was "one month of public penance in the church." The
+_Alcalde_ or Governor of the Province who did not promptly inflict
+the punishment was to be mulcted in the sum of "P200, to be paid to
+the Royal Treasury."
+
+[84] _Diario de Manila_, Saturday, July 28, 1888.
+
+[85] _Vide p._ 54. According to Concepcion, there were headmen at the
+time of the Conquest who had as many as 300 slaves, and as a property
+they ranked next in value to gold (_vide_ "Hist. Gen. de Philipinas,"
+by Juan de la Concepcion, published in Manila in 1788, in 14 volumes).
+
+[86] _Vide_ "Recopilacion de las Leyes de Indias," Ley V. xiii.,
+lib. i.
+
+[87] Referring to Leprosy, the _Charity Record_, London, December
+15, 1898, says:--"Reliable estimates place the number of lepers in
+India, China, and Japan at 1,000,000. About 500,000 probably would
+be a correct estimate for India only, although the official number
+is less, owing to the many who from being hidden, or homeless, or
+from other causes, escape enumeration."
+
+[88] Navarrete's "Coleccion de los Viajes y Descubrimientos," tom. II.,
+Nos. 12, 18. Madrid, 1825.
+
+[89] In the turbulent ages, centuries ago, it was not an uncommon
+thing for a prince or nobleman to secure his domain against seizure
+or conquest by transferring it nominally to the Pope, from whom he
+thenceforth held it as a papal fief.
+
+[90] Under the Spanish Government, the See of Manila comprised the
+provinces of Bulacan, Pampanga, Zambales, Cavite, La Laguna, Bataan,
+Island of Mindoro, and part of Tarlac. The other part of Tarlac was in
+the See of Nueva Segovia, which had (in 1896) ecclesiastical control
+over 997,629 Christians and 172,383 pagans. The See of Jaro is the
+one most recently created (1867).
+
+[91] The Royal Decree setting forth the execution of this Brief was
+printed in Madrid in 1773. This politic-religious Order was banished
+from Portugal and Spain in 1767. In Madrid, on the night of March 31,
+the Royal Edict was read to the members of the Company of Jesus, who
+were allowed time to pack up their most necessary chattels and leave
+for the coast, where they were hurriedly embarked for Rome. The same
+Order was suppressed for ever in France in 1764.
+
+[92] At the date of the Tagalog Rebellion (1896) the Jesuits in the
+Islands were as follows: In Manila, 24 priests, 25 lay brothers, and
+13 teachers; in Mindanao, 62 priests and 43 lay brothers, making a
+total of 167 individuals. They were not allowed to possess real estate.
+
+[93] _Vide_ "Catalogo de los Religiosos de N.S.P. San
+Agustin." Published in Manila, 1864.
+
+[94] The Augustinian Order was founded in the 4th century; the
+Franciscan in 1210 and confirmed by Papal Bull in 1223; the Dominican
+in 1261; the Recoleto in 1602; the Benedictine in 530; the Capuchin
+in 1209 and the Paulist in 1625.
+
+[95] For any further expense this might incur, 3 per cent, was deducted
+from the parish priests' emoluments.
+
+[96] "Recopilacion de las Leyes de Indias."--Ley 46, tit. 14, lib. 1 deg.,
+forbids priests and members of any religious body to take part in
+matters of Civil Government.
+
+[97] In the early days of Mexican conquest, the conquered land was
+apportioned to the warriors under the name of _Repartimentos_, but
+such divisions included the absolute possession of the natives as
+slaves (_vide_ "La vida y escritos del P. Fray Bartolome de las Casas,
+Obispo de Chiapa," by Antonio Maria Fabie, Colonial Minister in the
+Canovas Cabinet of 1890 Madrid).
+
+[98] Juan Salcedo, Legaspi's grandson (_vide_ Chaps. ii. and iv.) was
+rewarded with several _Encomiendas_ in the Ilocos provinces, on the
+west coast of Luzon, where he levied a tribute on the natives whom
+he subdued.
+
+[99] Changed afterwards to Manila Province; now called Rizal Province
+(Morong district incorporated therein) since the American occupation.
+
+[100] "Noticias de Filipinas," by Don Eusebio Mazorca. Inedited
+MS. dated 1840, in the Archives of Bauan Convent, Province of Batangas.
+
+[101] The text reads thus:--"Para ser jefe de Provincia en estas Islas
+no se requiere carrera, conocimientos ni servicios determinados, todos
+son aptos y admisibles.... Es cosa bastante comun ver a un peluquero
+o lacayo de un gobernador, a un marinero y a un desertor transformado
+de repente en Alcalde-Mayor, sub-delegado y Capitan a guerra de una
+provincia populosa, sin otro consejero que su rudo entendimiento,
+ni mas guia que sus pasiones." Tomas de Comyn was an employee of
+the "_Real Compania de Filipinas_" (q.v.), and subsequently Spanish
+Consul-General in Lisbon.
+
+[102] Transferred to Bais in January, 1889, in consequence of the
+rise of brigandage in the S.E. of Negros Island.
+
+The brigands, under the leadership of a native named Camartin and
+another, who declared themselves prophets, plundered the planters
+along that coast, and committed such notorious crimes that troops had
+to be despatched there under the command of the famous Lieut.-Colonel
+Villa-Abrille. The Gov.-General Valeriano Weyler went to the Visayas
+Islands and personally directed the operations.
+
+[103] From January 1, 1889, the Government Financial year was made
+concurrent with the year of the Calendar.
+
+[104] The text reads thus:--"Cada Jefe de Provincia es un verdadero
+Sultan y cuando acaba su administracion solo se habla en la Capital
+de los miles de pesos que saco _limpios_ de su alcaldia."--"Noticias
+de Filipinas," by Don Eusebio Mazorca. Inedited MS. dated 1840. In
+the archives of Bauan Convent, Province of Batangas.
+
+[105] The text reads thus:--"Cobrando el Alcalde en palay el tributo,
+solo abona al indio dos reales plata por caban; introduce en cajas
+reales su importe en metalico y vende despues el palay en seis,
+ocho y a veces mas reales fuertes plata cada caban y le resulta con
+esta sencilla operacion un doscientos o trescientos por ciento de
+ganancia.... Ahora recientito esta acusado el Ministro Interventor de
+Zamboanga por el Gobernador de aquella plaza de haberse utilizado aquel
+de 15,000 a 16,000 pesos solo con el trocatinte de la medida.... Se
+cuenta al mismo interventor a que me refiero 50,000 a 60,000 pesos
+cuando el sueldo de su empleo--oficial 2 deg. de la Contaduria--es de
+540 pesos al ano."--_Ibid_.
+
+[106] The Audit Office was suppressed and revived, and again suppressed
+on January 1, 1889.
+
+[107] There was also a tenth class _gratis_ for the clergy, army
+and navy forces, and convicts, and a "_privileged_" class _gratis_
+for petty-governors and their wives, Barangay chiefs and their wives,
+and Barangay chiefs' assistants, called "primogenito" (primogenito
+means first born--perhaps it was anticipated that he Would "assist"
+his father in his gratuitous government service).
+
+[108] This was not included in Army Estimates, but in Civil
+Government. Officers from Captain (inclusive) upwards "In expectation
+of Service" and "In excess of Active Service requirements," received
+only four-fifths of ordinary pay.
+
+[109] In 1888 the "King's Regiment" was divided into two regiments,
+under new denominations, viz.:--"Castillo, No. 1" (April 3), and
+"Espana, No. 1" (June 18).
+
+[110] This gentleman is at present residing in the county of Essex,
+England.
+
+[111] Under British law, a litigant is not allowed to bring and
+conduct an action _in forma pauperis_ until it is proved that he is
+not worth L5 after his debts are paid; and, moreover, he must obtain
+a certificate from a barrister that he has _good cause of action_.
+
+[112] According to Zuniga ("Hist. de Philipinas"), the ancient
+inhabitants of Luzon Island had a kind of shell-money--the _Siguey_
+shell. _Siguey_ shells are so plentiful at the present day that they
+are used by children to play at _Sunca_.
+
+[113] _Situado_ is not literally "Subsidy," but it was tantamount
+to that.
+
+[114] The values of shipments by law established were little regarded.
+
+[115] The _Obras Pias_ (i.e., Pious Works) funds were legacies
+left exclusively by Spaniards, chiefly pious persons, for separate
+beneficent objects. Two-thirds of the capital were to be lent at
+interest, to stimulate trade abroad, and one-third was to be a reserve
+against possible losses. When the accumulated interest on the original
+capital had reached a certain amount, it was to be applied to the
+payment of masses for the repose of the donors' souls.
+
+The peculations of the Gov.-General Pedro Manuel de Arandia (1754-59)
+permitted him to amass a fortune of a quarter of a million pesos in
+less than five years' service, which sum he left to pious works. On the
+secession of Mexico (in 1819) the Government took over the _Obras Pias_
+funds, to control their administration. There is reason to believe
+that many of the donations were the fruits of the corrupt practices
+of high officials, the legacies being for their benefit hereafter.
+
+The funds were severally administered by the four boards of San
+Francisco, Santo Domingo, the Recoletos and Santa Isabel, controlled
+by one general board of management. In 1850 the Spanish Government,
+in the exercise of its right (_Real patronato_) to intervene in all
+ecclesiastical administrative affairs, ordered these funds to be
+transferred to a banking establishment entitled the "Banco Espanol
+de Isabel II.," more generally known as the "Banco Espanol-Filipino"
+(q.v.). The _Obras Pias_ funds constituted the original capital of
+this bank. The board, presided over by the Archbishop, still continued
+to control the manipulation of these funds by the bank, the income
+derived from the original capital having to be paid out in accordance
+with the wills of the several founders of the fund. Up to the close
+of Spanish rule, money was lent out of this fund on mortgages in and
+near Manila, at six per cent. interest per annum.
+
+[116] It happened at this date that the dues, etc., equalled 17 per
+cent. on the anticipated 1,000,000 pesos, but they were not computed
+by percentage. The Royal Dues were a fixed sum since about the year
+1625, so that when the legal value of the shipments was much less,
+the dues and other expenses represented a much higher percentage. The
+charges were as follows, viz.:--
+
+
+    Royal Dues.                                          P160,000
+    Port Dues at Acapulco.                                  2,000
+    Disbursements paid in Manila on the ship's departure.   7,500
+    Port and Anchorage Dues on arrival in Philippines.        500
+
+                                                         P170,000
+
+
+[117] "La Libertad del comercio de Filipinas," by Manuel Azcarraga.
+
+[118] Mr. John B. Butler, who was born in 1800, resided many years
+in Manila, and married a native wife. He died on October 4, 1855, in
+London, whence his mortal remains were brought to Manila in 1860, at
+the instance of his widow, and interred in Saint Augustine's Church,
+near an altar on the left side of the nave. The site is marked by a
+marble inscribed slab.
+
+[119] The Peace of Utrecht, signed in 1713, settled the succession of
+Philip, the French Dauphin, to the Spanish throne, whilst among the
+concessions which England gained for herself under this treaty was a
+convention with Spain, known as the _Asiento_ contract. This gave the
+British the right to send one shipload of merchandise yearly to the
+Spanish colonies of America. Nevertheless, many ships went instead of
+one. An armed contest ensued (1739-42), and although the Spaniards
+lost several galleons in naval combats undertaken by Admiral Vernon
+and Commodore Anson, the British losses were not inconsiderable.
+
+So prejudicial to the vital interests of Spain was the abuse of
+the ceded right held to be that the earliest efforts of the first
+new Cabinet under Ferdinand VI. were engaged in a revision of the
+commercial differences between that country and England. England
+was persuaded to relinquish the _Asiento_ contract in exchange for
+advantages of greater consideration in another direction.
+
+About a century ago England took over from Spain Nootka Sound,
+a station on the Pacific coast, where a nourishing fur trade was
+carried on by British settlers. The cession was accorded under a solemn
+promise not to trade thence with the Spanish colonies of South America.
+
+[120] For example: _vide_ "Memoria leida por el Secretario de la Camara
+de Comercio de Manila, Don F. de P. Rodoreda, en 28 de Marzo de 1890,"
+p. 6 (published in Manila by Diaz Puertas y Compania).
+
+It remarks: "Jurado Mercantil--El expediente siguio la penosa
+perigrinacion de nuestro pesado y complicado engranaje administrativo
+y llevaba ya muy cerca de dos anos empleados en solo recorrer dos de
+los muchos Centros consultivos a que debia ser sometido, etc."
+
+[121] The following is an extract from the text of the preamble to
+a Decree, dated March 19, 1886, relative to the organization of the
+Philippine Exhibition held in Madrid, signed by the Colonial Minister,
+Don German Gamazo:
+
+"Con el se lograra que la gran masa de numerario que sale de
+la Metropoli para adquirir en paises extranjeros algodon, azucar,
+cacao, tabaco y otros productos vaya a nuestras posesiones de Oceania
+_donde comerciantes extranjeros los acaparan con dano evidente de
+los intereses materiales del pais."_
+
+[122] (1) The "Hong-Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation,"
+incorporated in 1867. Position on June 30, 1905: Capital all paid up,
+$10,000,000 (Mex.): sterling reserve, L1,000,000; silver reserve,
+$8,500,000 (Mex.); reserve liability of proprietors, $10,000,000
+(Mex.). (2) The "Chartered Bank of India, Australia, and China,"
+incorporated in 1853. Position on December 31, 1904: Capital all
+paid up, L800,000; reserve fund, L875,000; reserve liability of
+proprietors, L800,000.
+
+[123] "Banco Espanol-Filipino." Position on June 30, 1905: Capital,
+P1,500,000; reserve fund, P900,000. It has a branch in Yloilo.
+
+[124] Chop dollars are those defaced by private Chinese marks.
+
+[125] Yloilo had its "Gremio de Comerciantes" (Board of Trade),
+constituted by Philippine General-Government Decree of September 5,
+1884, and Manila had Chamber of Commerce. Since the Revolution Yloilo
+has also a Chamber of Commerce, and Manila several of different
+nationalities.
+
+[126] _Vide Board of Trade Journal_ (British) for February and April,
+1891.
+
+[127] Manila to Yap, 1,160 miles. Yap to Ponape, 1,270 miles. Ponape
+to Apra, 880 miles.
+
+[128] "Vd cuidado de regatear," was the invitation to haggle.
+
+[129] Weaving was taught to the natives by a Spanish priest about
+the year 1595.
+
+[130] The extra delay was quite a year, and the cause having become
+common talk among the natives in the neighbourhood, many of them
+suggested that an evil spirit prevented the foundations of the bridge
+being built. They proposed to propitiate him by throwing live children
+into the river; consequently many mothers migrated with their infants
+until they heard that the difficulty was overcome.
+
+[131] The sale of Alcohol was a Government monopoly until
+1862. Molasses is sold by the _Tinaja_, an earthenware jar measuring
+19 inches in height and 17 1/2 inches at the maximum diameter; it
+contains 16 _gantas_ (liquid measure) = say 11 gallons.
+
+[132] British patents for paper-making from sugar-cane fibre were
+granted to Berry in 1838, Johnson in 1855, Jullion in 1855, Ruck and
+Touche (conjointly) in 1856, and Hook in 1857.
+
+[133] Since about the year 1885 a weed has been observed to germinate
+spontaneously around the roots of the sugar-cane in the Laguna
+Province. The natives have given it the name of _Bulaclac ng tubo_
+(Sugar-cane flower). It destroys the saccharine properties of the
+cane. The bitter juice of this weed has been found to be a useful
+palliative for certain diseases.
+
+[134] Extract from a letter dated September 29, 1885, from
+H. Strachan, Esq., Superintendent, Government Experimental Farm,
+Hyderabad, Sindh--and Extract from a letter dated February 13, 1886,
+from A. Stormont, Esq., Superintendent, Government Experimental Farm,
+Khandesh (_vide_ "The Tropical Agriculturist," Colombo, June 1, 1886,
+p. 876 _et seq_.).
+
+[135] The extremely fine muslin of delicate texture known in the
+Philippines as _Pina_ is made _exclusively_ of pine-apple _leaf_
+fibre. When these fibres are woven together with the slender filament
+drawn from the edges of the hemp petiole, the manufactured article
+is called _Husi_.
+
+[136] A British patent for Manila hemp-paper was granted to Newton
+in 1852.
+
+[137] A large proportion of the product sent from Mauban to Manila
+as marketable hemp is really a wild hemp-fibre locally known by the
+name of _Alinsanay_. It is a worthless, brittle filament which has
+all the external appearance of marketable hemp. A sample of it broke
+as easily as silk thread between my fingers. Its maximum strength is
+calculated to be one-fourth of hemp fibre.
+
+[138] _Vide_ Instructions _re_ Contraband from the Treasury
+Superintendent, Juan Manuel de la Matta, to the "Intendente de Visayas"
+in 1843.
+
+[139] _Instruccion General para la Direccion, Administracion y
+Intervencion de las Rentas Estancadas_, 1849.
+
+[140] Licensed depots for the sale of monopolized goods.
+
+[141] "Hist. de Filipinas," by Gaspar de San Agustin. MS. in the
+Convento de San Agustin, Manila. The date of the introduction of
+cacao into these Islands is confirmed by Juan de la Concepcion in his
+"Hist. General de Philipinas," Vol. IX. p. 150. Published in 14 vols.,
+Manila, 1788.
+
+[142] The word chocolate is derived from the Mexican word
+_chocolatl_. The Mexicans, at the time of the conquest, used
+cacao-beans as money. The grandees of the Aztec Court ate chocolate
+made of the ground bean mixed with Indian corn and rocou (_vide_
+W. H. Prescott's "Hist. of the Conquest of Mexico").
+
+Chocolate was first used in Spain in 1520; in Italy in 1606; in
+England in 1657, and in Germany in 1700.
+
+[143] _Tiangui_, from the Mexican word _Tianguez_, signifies "small
+market."
+
+[144] Spanish, _Carroza_; Tagalog, _Hila_ or _Paragus_; Visaya,
+_Cangas_ or _Dagandan_.
+
+[145] British patents for papermaking from cocoanut fibre were granted
+to Newton in 1852, and to Holt and Forster in 1854. A process for
+making paper from the cocoanut kernel was patented by Draper in 1854.
+
+[146] _Vide The Tropical Agriculturist_, Colombo, August 2, 1886.
+
+[147] Not to be confounded with _Banga_,--Tagalog for a terra-cotta
+water-pot.
+
+[148] This company was formed in Hong-Kong and incorporated May 16,
+1889, with a capital of P300,000 divided into 6,000 P50 shares, to take
+over and work the prosperous business of Mr. H. G. Brown. Its success
+continued under the three years' able management of Mr. Brown. During
+that period it paid an average yearly dividend of 8-1/3%, and in
+1890 its shares were freely dealt in on the Hong-Kong market at 50%
+premium. On the retirement of Mr. Brown in March, 1891, the company
+gradually dwindled down to a complete wreck in 1894. It is still
+(year 1905) in liquidation.
+
+[149] "Timber and Timber Trees," by Thomas Laslett (Timber Inspector
+to the Admiralty). London, 1875.
+
+[150] The same writer also makes the following interesting remark:--"Y
+tal vez de aqui viene el olor (brea) como empireumatico muy notable de
+los excrementos en este tiempo!" _Vide_ "Flora de Filipinos," by Father
+Manuel Blanco, Vol. I., p. 228. Published in Manila in 4 vols., 1879.
+
+[151] Clavigero's "Storia Antica del Messico."
+
+[152] British patents for paper-making from banana fibre were granted
+to Berry in 1838; Lilly in 1854; Jullion in 1855; Burke in 1855;
+and Hook in 1857. In these Islands a cloth is woven from this fibre.
+
+[153] To express juice from the small species of lemon, the fruit
+should be cut from the stalk end downwards. If cut otherwise the
+juice will not flow freely.
+
+[154] "Flora de Filipinas," by Father Manuel Blanco. Published in
+Manila by the Augustine Order in 4 vols., 1879.
+
+[155] For more ample details _vide_ "Rapida descripcion de la Isla
+de Cebu," by Enrique Abella y Casariega. Published by Royal Order in
+Madrid, 1886.
+
+[156] Monsieur Jean Labedan, who had been the original proprietor of
+the "Restaurant de Paris" in La Escolta, Manila.
+
+[157] "Hist. de la Provincia de Batangas," por D. Pedro Andres de
+Castro y Amades, 1790. Inedited MS. in the archives of Bauan Convent
+(Batangas).
+
+[158] "A Visit to the Philippine Islands," by Sir John Bowring,
+Spanish translation, p. 67. Manila, 1876.
+
+[159] An effective cure for a centipede bite is a plaster of garlic
+mashed until the juice flows. The plaster must be renewed every hour.
+
+[160] A good dish can be made of the rice-birds, known locally as
+_Maya_ (_Munia oryzivora_, Bonap.; _Estrelda amandava_, Gray) and
+the _Bato-Bato_ and _Punay_ pigeons (_Ptilinopus roseicollis_, Gray).
+
+[161] According to Edouard Verreux, cited by Paul de la Gironniere
+in his "Aventures d'un gentilhomme Breton aux Iles Philippines,"
+p. 394 (Paris 1857), there were at that date 172 classified birds in
+this Archipelago.
+
+[162] The city walls were undoubtedly a great safeguard for the
+Spaniards against the frequent threats of the Mindanao and Sulu pirates
+who ventured into the Bay of Manila up to within 58 years ago. Also,
+for more than a century, they were any day subject to hostilities from
+the Portuguese, whilst the aggressive foreign policy of the mother
+country during the 17th century exposed them to reprisals by the Dutch
+fleets, which in 1643 threatened the city of Manila. Formerly the
+drawbridges were raised, and the city was closed and under sentinels
+from 11 o'clock p.m. until 4 o'clock a.m. It continued so until 1852,
+when, in consequence of the earthquake of that year, it was decreed
+that the city should thenceforth remain open night and day. The
+walled city was officially styled the _Plaza de Manila_, its last
+Spanish military governor being General Rizzo, who left for Europe in
+December, 1898. The most modern drawbridge entrance was the _Puerta
+de Isabel II_, (1861), facing the Pasig River.
+
+[163] The Cathedral has been destroyed four times by fire and
+earthquake, and rebuilt by successive archbishops.
+
+[164] _Mariveles_.--Much historical interest is attached to this
+place. It was the chief port of the _Jurisdiction of Mariveles_
+under the old territorial division which comprised the island now
+called Corregidor. Mariveles is now included in the Province of Bataan.
+
+The first Spanish missionary who attempted to domesticate the natives
+of the Mariveles coast was stoned by them, and died in Manila
+in consequence. An insubordinate Archbishop was once banished to
+Mariveles. Through the narrow channel between this port and Corregidor
+Island, known as _Boca chica_, came swarms of Asiatic trading-junks
+every spring for over two centuries. Forming the extreme point of
+Manila Bay, here was naturally the watchguard for the safety of the
+capital. It was the point whence could be descried the movements of
+foreign enemies--Dutch, British, Mahometan, Chinese, etc.; it was the
+last refuge for ships about to venture from the Islands to foreign
+parts. Yet, with all these antecedents, it is, to-day, one of the
+poorest and most primitive villages of the Colony. From its aspect
+one could almost imagine it to be at the furthermost extremity of
+the Archipelago. Its ancient name was _Camaya_, and how it came to
+be called Mariveles is accounted for in the following interesting
+legend:--About the beginning of the 17th century one of the Mexican
+galleons brought to Manila a family named Velez, whose daughter was
+called Maria. When she was 17 years of age this girl took the veil
+in Santa Clara Convent (_vide_ p. 81), and there responded to the
+attentions of a Franciscan monk, who fell so desperately in love
+with her that they determined to elope to Camaya and wait there for
+the galleon which was to leave for Mexico in the following July. The
+girl, disguised in a monk's habit, fled from her convent, and the
+lovers arrived safely in Camaya in a hired canoe, tired out after the
+sea-passage under a scorching sun. The next day they went out to meet
+the galleon, which, however, had delayed her sailing. In the meantime
+the elopement had caused great scandal in Manila. A proclamation was
+published by the town-crier calling upon the inhabitants to give
+up the culprits, under severe penalties for disobedience. Nothing
+resulted, until the matter oozed out through a native who was aware
+of their departure. Then an alderman of the city set out in a prahu
+in pursuit of the amorous fugitives, accompanied by a notary and a
+dozen arquebusiers. After searching in vain all over the island now
+called Corregidor, they went to Camaya, and there found the young lady,
+Maria, on the beach in a most pitiable condition, with her dress torn
+to shreds, and by her side the holy friar, wearied and bleeding from
+the wounds he had received whilst fighting with the savage natives
+who disputed his possession of the fair maiden. The search-party
+found there a canoe, in which the friar was conveyed to Manila in
+custody, whilst the girl was taken charge of by the alderman in the
+prahu. From Manila the sinful priest was sent to teach religion and
+morality to the Visaya tribes; the romantic nun was sent back to the
+City of Mexico to suffer perpetual reclusion in a convent.
+
+From these events, it is said, arose the names of _Corregidor_
+(Alderman) Island, which lies between the rocks known as _Fraile_
+(Friar) and _Monja_ (Nun), whilst the lovers' refuge thenceforth took
+the name of _Mariveles_ (Maria Velez).
+
+Ships arriving from foreign or Philippine infected ports were
+quarantined off Mariveles, under Spanish regulations. During the
+great cholera epidemic of 1882 a Lazaretto was established here.
+
+[165] The _abacus_ consists of a frame with a number of parallel
+wires on which counting-beads are strung. It is in common use in China.
+
+[166] _Escolta_ (meaning Escort), the principal thoroughfare in the
+business quarter (Binondo), is said to have been so named during the
+British occupation (1762-63), when the British Commander-in-Chief
+passed through it daily with his escort.
+
+[167] On the site of this last bridge the _Puente de Barcas_ (Pontoon
+Bridge) existed from 1632 to 1863, when it was destroyed by the great
+earthquake of that year. The new stone bridge was opened in 1875,
+and called the _Puente de Espana_.
+
+[168] The burthen of a native play in the provinces was almost
+invariably founded on the contests between the Mahometans of the
+South and the Christian natives under Spanish dominion.
+
+The Spaniards, in attaching the denomination of _Moros_ to the
+Mahometans of Sulu, associated them in name with the Mahometan
+Moors who held sway over a large part of Hispania for over seven
+centuries (711-1492). A "_Moro Moro"_ performance is usually a
+drama--occasionally a melodrama--in which the native actors, clad in
+all the glittering finery of Mahometan nobility and Christian chivalry,
+assemble in battle array before the Mahometan princesses, to settle
+their disputes under the combined inspirations of love and religious
+persuasion. The princesses, one after the other, pining under the
+dictates of the heart in defiance of their creed, leave their fate
+to be sealed by the outcome of deadly combat between the contending
+factions. Armed to the teeth, the cavaliers of the respective parties
+march to and fro, haranguing each other in monotonous tones. After a
+long-winded, wearisome challenge, they brandish their weapons and meet
+in a series of single combats which merge in a general _melee_ as the
+princes are vanquished and the hand of the disputed enchantress is won.
+
+The dialogue is in the idiom of the district where the performance
+is given, and the whole play (lasting from four to six nights) is
+brief compared with Chinese melodrama, which often extends to a month
+of nights.
+
+Judged from the standard of European histrionism, the plot is weak
+from the sameness and repetition of the theme. The declamation
+is unnatural, and void of vigour and emphasis. The same tone is
+maintained from beginning to end, whether it be in expression of
+expostulatory defiance, love, joy, or despair. But the masses were
+intensely amused; thus the full object was achieved. They seemed
+never to tire of gazing at the situations created and applauding
+vociferously the feigned defeat of their traditional arch-foes.
+
+[169] The favourite game of the Tagalogs is _Panguingui_--of the
+Chinese _Chapdiki_.
+
+[170] The Government House, located in the city, which was thrown down
+in the earthquake of 1863, has not been rebuilt. Its reconstruction
+was only commenced by the Spaniards in 1895. The Gov.-General
+therefore resided after 1863 at his suburban palace at Malacanan,
+on the river-side.
+
+[171] "Aventures d'un gentilhomme Breton aux Iles Philippines,"
+par Paul de la Gironniere. Paris, 1875.
+
+[172] _Vide_ "Terremotos de Nueva Vizcaya en 1881," by Enrique Abella
+y Casariega Published in Madrid.
+
+[173] The _Katipunan League_ and _Freemasonry_ were not identical
+institutions. There were many Freemasons who were leaguers, but
+not _because_ they were Freemasons, as also there were thousands
+of leaguers who knew nothing of Freemasonry. There is little doubt
+that Freemasonry suggested the bare idea of that other secret society
+called _Katipunan_, whose signs and symbols were of masonic design,
+but whose aims were totally different. It is probable, too, that the
+liberty which Freemasons enjoyed to meet in secret session was taken
+advantage of by the leaguers. There were risings in the Islands
+long before the introduction of Freemasonry. This secret society
+was introduced into the Colony a little before the year 1850. In
+1893 the first lodges of the Spanish Grand Orient were opened,
+and there were never more than 16 lodges of this Order up to the
+evacuation by the Spaniards. Each lodge had about 30 members, or,
+say, a total of 500. The Spanish deputy, Dr. Miguel Morayta, in his
+speech in the Spanish Congress in April, 1904, stated that General
+Ramon Blanco's reply to Father Mariano Gil (the discoverer of the
+_Katipunan_) was that the identity of Freemasonry with _Katipunan_
+"existed only in the brains of the friars and fanatical Spaniards."
+
+[174] By intermarriage and blood relationship Don Pedro P. Rojas is
+allied with several of the best Manila families. His grandfather,
+Don Domingo Rojas, a prominent citizen in his time, having become a
+victim of intrigue, was confined in the Fortress of Santiago, under
+sentence of death. The day prior to that fixed for his execution, he
+was visited by a friend, and the next morning when the executioner
+entered his cell, Don Domingo was found in a dying condition,
+apparently from the effect of poison. Don Domingo had a son Jose and
+a daughter Marguerita. On their father's death, they and Jose's son,
+the present Don Pedro P. Rojas, went to Spain, where Dona Marguerita
+espoused a Spaniard, Don Antonio de Ayala, and Don Jose obtained from
+the Spanish Government a declaration stating that whereas Don Domingo
+had been unjustly condemned to capital punishment, the Gov.-General
+was ordered to refund, out of his own pocket, to the Rojas family
+the costs of the trial. The Rojas and Ayala families then returned
+to the Philippines, where Don Antonio de Ayala made a considerable
+fortune in business and had two daughters, one of whom, Dona Carmen,
+married Don Pedro P. Rojas, and the other wedded Don Jacobo Zobel, an
+apothecary of large means and of German descent. Don Pedro P. Rojas,
+who was born in 1848, has two sons and two daughters. The three
+families belonged to the _elite_ of Manila society, whilst the Rojas
+and the Ayalas acquired a just reputation both for their enterprising
+spirit, which largely benefited the Colony, and for their charitable
+philanthropy towards all classes.
+
+[175] _Aguinaldo_ is the Spanish for Christmas-box.
+
+[176] Part of a conversation which I had with Emilio Aguinaldo at
+his house at Cauit (Cavite Viejo) on July 26, 1904.
+
+[177] _Cauit_ signifies, in Tagalog, Fish-hook.
+
+[178] _Sungay_ signifies, in Tagalog, Deer.
+
+[179] _Imus_. The history of this place is interesting. In the 18th
+century a banished Spaniard of distinguished family settled there
+and supplied water to the natives for irrigation purposes. Some years
+afterwards, on the death of his wife, this gentleman returned to Spain
+and left the place in charge of a friar, Francisco de Santiago. As
+the owner never claimed the property, it fell definitely into
+the possession of the friars. A church was erected there at the
+people's expense. Later on the friar in charge extorted from the
+natives material and labour, without payment, for the building of
+a manor-house, but he was poisoned soon after it was finished. His
+successor was still bolder, and allowed escaped criminals to take
+sanctuary in his church to show his superiority to the civil law. After
+innumerable disputes and troubles with the natives, it developed
+into a fine property, comprising 27,500 acres of arable land, which
+the Recoletos claimed as theirs and rented it out to the natives. Its
+possession was the cause of the important risings of Paran and Camerino
+(_vide_ pp. 105, 106) and many other minor disturbances.
+
+[180] "Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas," por el Dr. Antonio de Morga,
+anotada por Jose Rizal. Published in Paris by Garnier freres, 1890.
+
+[181] "El Filibusterismo (continuacion del 'Noli me
+tangere')." Published in Ghent by F. Meyer-Van Loo, 1891.
+
+[182] Father Mariano Gil died in Spain in the spring of 1904.
+
+[183] Rizal's brother and sister were keeping (in 1904) the "_Dimas
+Alang_" restaurant, 62, _Calle Sacristia_, Binondo (Manila). It is
+so named after the pseudonym under which their distinguished brother
+often wrote patriotic articles.
+
+One of the ten annual official holidays, or feast days, appointed by
+the Civil Commission is "Rizal Day," December 30.
+
+The P2 banknote of the new Philippine currency bears a vignette of
+Dr. Rizal.
+
+The Manila Province of Spanish times is now called Rizal Province and
+with it is incorporated what was formerly the Morong District. Probably
+one-third of the towns of the colony have either a _Plaza de Rizal_,
+or a _Calle de Rizal_; it is about as general as the _Piazza di
+Vittorio Emanuele_ throughout Italy.
+
+A public subscription was open for about three years to defray
+the cost of a Rizal monument to be erected on the Luneta Esplanade
+(Ins. Gov. Act No. 243). By March 7, 1905, a total of P103,753.89
+had been collected, including the sum of P30,000 voted by the Insular
+Government.
+
+One is led to wonder what _role_ in Philippine affairs Rizal would
+have assumed had he outlived the rebellion.
+
+[184] It is alleged that this copy was removed from the archives
+about April, 1898, for the defence of a certain general in Madrid.
+
+[185] _Biac-na-bato _signifies, in Tagalog, Split Stone.
+
+This was the third time, during the 19th century, that the Spanish
+Gov.-General had been constrained to conclude a treaty with native
+rebels. In 1835 a certain Feliciano Paran raised the standard of
+revolt against the friars' claim to the Imus estate (Cavite), and
+after many fruitless attempts to suppress him, and much bloodshed,
+the _Treaty of Malacanan_ was signed by the rebel chief and the
+Gov.-General. Paran was then appointed Colonel of Militia with the
+monthly pay of P50. He lived peacefully in _Calle San Marcelino_,
+Manila, until a fresh outbreak (led by another) occurred, when the
+Spaniards made this a pretext to seize Paran and deport him to the
+Ladrone Islands (_vide_ p. 105).
+
+In 1870, during the command of General La Torre, a certain
+Camerino held the Province of Cavite for a long time against the
+Spaniards. Camerino's plan was to remain in ambush whilst the
+rank-and-file of the Spaniards advanced, and then pick off the
+officers. So many of them were killed that influence was brought
+to bear on the General, who consented to sign the _Treaty of
+Navotas_. Camerino was appointed Colonel of Militia and lived in Trozo
+(Manila) until the Cavite rising in 1872, when he and six others were
+executed for their past deeds (_vide_ p. 106).
+
+[186] The original of the above document was read in public session
+of Congress in Madrid, on June 16, 1898, by the Deputy Senor Muro.
+
+[187] _Vide_ Pedro A. Paterno's allusion to this at p. 399.
+
+[188] Manuel Godoy, of obscure family, was originally a common soldier
+in the Guards. He became field-marshal, Duke of Alcudia, Grandee of
+Spain, Councillor of State, and Cavalier of the Golden Fleece. For his
+intervention in the Peace of Basilea he received the title of Principe
+de la Paz. Baldomero Espartero was a successful general, who brought
+the first Carlist war to a close and concluded the Treaty of Vergara
+(1839), for which (in 1840) he was granted the titles of Duque de la
+Victoria and Principe de Vergara.
+
+[189] This steamer came into Manila flying the French ensign, and
+painted to resemble one of the Russian Volunteer Fleet, to avoid
+capture on the way.
+
+[190] The precise terms of the treaty or agreement made between
+the representative of the Philippine Government and the rebel
+chiefs are hitherto enveloped in mystery; but even though all the
+personal testimony referred to in this chapter were impugned, there
+is convincing circumstantial evidence that Emilio Aguinaldo and
+his followers received a very considerable amount of money from the
+Philippine Treasury _conditionally_. In the Suit No. 6 of 1899 in the
+Supreme Court of Hong-Kong, T. Sandico and others _versus_ R. Wildman
+(all the original filed documents of which I have examined), sworn
+evidence was given to show that $200,000 Mexican of the sum received
+by Aguinaldo was deposited in his name in the Chartered Bank of India,
+Australia and China. It is not feasible to suppose that this sum was
+paid to or accepted by Aguinaldo _unconditionally_.
+
+[191] On February 15, 1898, the U.S. man-of-war _Maine_, whilst lying
+in the harbour of Havana, was, accidentally or intentionally, blown
+up, causing the death of 266 of her crew. Public opinion in America
+attributed the disaster to Spanish malice. The Spaniards indignantly
+repudiated this charge and invited an official inquest. Again, at the
+Conference of December 6, 1898, the Spanish Commissioners of the Peace
+Commission at Paris proposed an additional article to the treaty "to
+appoint an International Commission to be entrusted with investigating
+the causes of, and responsibility for, the _Maine_ catastrophe,"
+but the proposal was rejected by the American Commissioners.
+
+[192] Mirs Bay has _since_ become British, being included in the
+extended Kowloon Concession on the mainland of China opposite
+Hong-Kong.
+
+[193] The distance from Corregidor Island to Manila City is 27 miles.
+
+[194] In July, 1904, I saw five rusty hulls--remnant of the Spanish
+fleet--afloat in Cavite harbour.
+
+[195] Admiral Patricio Montojo, born in 1831, entered the navy at the
+age of 14. After the Battle of Cavite he left for Europe in October,
+1898, and was committed to prison, March 3, 1899, pending the trial
+by court-martial which condemned him to compulsory retirement from
+the service. He died in 1902, aged 71 years.
+
+[196] _Vide_ Senate Document No. 62, Part II., 55th Congress, 3rd
+Session, pp. 350-6. Published by the Government Printing Office,
+Washington, 1899.
+
+[197] The _Macabebes_ who came so conspicuously into prominence
+during the Rebellion of 1896 are the inhabitants of the town of
+Macabebe and its dependent wards, situated in Lower Pampanga, near
+the Hagonoy River. They are the only Filipinos who have persistently
+and systematically opposed the revolutionary faction of their own free
+will, without bribe or extraneous influence. No one seems to be able to
+explain exactly why they should have adopted this course. They aided
+the Spaniards against the rebels, and also the Americans against the
+insurgents. All I have been able to learn of them in the locality is
+that they keep exclusively to themselves, and have little sympathy
+for, and no cordial intercourse with, the natives of other towns,
+either in their own province or elsewhere. A generation ago the
+Macabebes had a bad reputation for their petty piratical depredations
+around the north shore of Manila Bay and the several mouths of the
+Hagonoy River, and it is possible that their exclusiveness results
+from their consciousness of having been shunned by the more reputable
+inhabitants. The total population of Macabebe is about 14,000.
+
+[198] The finding of the court says: "Pasara a la seccion de reserva
+del Estado Mayor General del Ejercito con incapacidad para obtener
+destinos y sin figurar en la escala de los de dicha categoria." Signed
+by Canuto Garcia de Polavieja, dated April 28, 1899, and published
+in the _Gaceta de Madrid_.
+
+[199] It seems almost incredible that, even at this crisis, the
+Spaniards still counted on native auxiliaries to fight against their
+own kith and kin.
+
+[200] _Vide_ Senate Document No. 62, Part II., 55th Congress,
+3rd Session, p. 282. Published by the Government Printing Office,
+Washington, 1899.
+
+[201] Captain T. Bentley Mott, A.D.C to General Merritt, writing in
+_Scribner's Magazine_ (December, 1898) says: "Neither the fleet nor
+the army was, at this time, ready for a general engagement. The army
+did not have, all told, enough ammunition for more than _one day_
+of hard fighting, and only a part of this was in the camp." Admiral
+Dewey had then been in possession of Manila bay and port three months
+and 12 days.
+
+[202] _Vide_ Senate Document No. 62, Part II., 55th Congress, 3rd
+Session, p. 491.
+
+[203] "The Spanish Commander-in-Chief fled from the city shortly
+before it was attacked." Senate Document 62, Part II., 55th Congress,
+3rd Session, p. 146.
+
+[204] Barasoain is another parish, but it is only separated from
+Malolos by a bridged river. It is only five minutes' walk from Malolos
+Church to Barasoain Church. Since the American advent the two parishes
+have been united.
+
+[205] For want of space I am obliged to omit the summary of all the
+debates in the Revolutionary Congress of 1898, printed reports of
+which I have before me.
+
+[206] _Vide_ Senate Document No. 62, Part II., 55th Congress,
+3rd Session, p. 371. Published by the Government Printing Office,
+Washington, 1899.
+
+[207] _Vide_ Senate Document No. 62, Part I. of the 55th Congress, 3rd
+Session. Published by the Government Printing Office, Washington, 1899.
+
+[208] The Treaty was ratified by the Senate by 57 votes to 27 on
+February 6, 1899.
+
+[209] The Paco church was an ancient, imposing building; to-day there
+is not a stone left to show that it ever existed, and the plot is
+perfectly bare.
+
+[210] General Diego de los Rios was remaining in Manila to negotiate
+with the insurgents the liberation of the Spanish prisoners (_vide_
+p. 477).
+
+[211] The decree says:--"Seeing that the Spanish garrison in Baler,
+consisting of a handful of men, isolated, without hope of succour,
+is, by its valour and constant heroism worthy of universal admiration,
+and in view of its defence, comparable only with the legendary valour
+of the sons of the Cid and of Pelayo, I render homage to military
+virtues, and, interpreting the sentiments of the Philippine Republic,
+on the proposal of my Secretary of War, and in agreement with my
+Council of State, I hereby decree as follows, viz.:--That the said
+forces shall no longer be considered our prisoners, but our friends,
+and consequently the necessary passes shall be furnished them enabling
+them to return to their country. Given in Tarlac on the 30th of June,
+1899. The President of the Republic,--_Emilio Aguinaldo_."
+
+[212] After the war I visited this former insurgent stronghold. Of
+the ancient church three walls and a quarter of the roof were left
+standing. There was nothing inside but shrubs, which had grown up to
+3 feet high. In front of the church ruins stood an ironical emblem
+of the insurgents' power in the shape of an antiquated Spanish
+cannon on carriage, with the nozzle broken off. Judging from the
+numerous newly-erected dwellings in this little town, I surmise that
+three-fourths of it must have been destroyed during the war.
+
+[213] A Chinese half-caste Pampango. I knew him intimately as a
+planter. He was deported to and died a prisoner in the Island of Guam
+in 1901.
+
+[214] In 1905 one of the wealthiest men in the Colony was arrested and
+brought to trial on the charge of having paid, or caused to be paid,
+the sum of P 20 to an outlaw in Batangas Province. After putting the
+accused to a deal of expense and annoyance, the Government suddenly
+withdrew from the case, leaving the public in doubt as to the justice
+or injustice of the arraignment.
+
+[215] A very intelligent man who was appointed Civil Governor of La
+Laguna Province when the war terminated.
+
+[216] Early in 1905 the Court of Nueva Ecija passed sentence of
+imprisonment for life on this man for murder.
+
+[217] Raymundo Melliza, a Visayan lawyer, who afterwards became
+Provincial Governor of Yloilo, is the son of Cornelio Melliza, of Molo,
+a man much respected both by natives and foreigners.
+
+[218] A verbal statement made to me by ex-insurgent General Pablo
+Araneta, which I took down in writing at the time of the interview.
+
+[219] When I asked ex-General Pablo Araneta the same question he
+naively explained to me that it was thought if the Americans came
+ashore and found the town in ruins they would relinquish their
+undertaking!
+
+[220] The See of Jaro was created in 1867. The town was already rich
+with its trade in _pina_ and _jusi_ (_vide_ p. 283, footnote). Up to
+1876 Yloilo town was merely a group of houses built for commercial
+convenience.
+
+[221] _Vide_ p. 169. _Castila_ in the North; _Cachila_ in the South;
+signifying European, and said to be derived from the Spaniards'
+war-cry of _Viva Castilla!_
+
+[222] "Water-cure" was a method adopted by the Americans. Water was
+poured down the throat of the victim until the stomach was distended to
+the full; then it was pressed out again and the operation repeated. The
+pretext for this mode of torture was to extort confession; but it
+was quite inefficacious; because the victim was usually disposed to
+say anything, true or false, for his own salvation. The "water-cure"
+operation, in vogue for awhile all over the Islands, proved fatal in
+many cases. It is now a penal offence (Phil. Com. Act 619, Sec. 2).
+
+[223] Otong in olden times was a place of importance when the galleons
+put in there on their way to and from Mexico, taking the longer route
+in order to avoid the strong currents of the San Bernardino Straits.
+
+Under the old territorial division, the Jurisdiction of Otong
+comprised all Panay Island (except a strip of land all along the
+north coast--formerly Panay Province, now called Capis) and a point
+here and there on the almost unexplored Negros coast. Galleons were
+sometimes built at Otong, which was on several occasions attacked by
+the Dutch. Yloilo at that time was an insignificant fishing-village.
+
+[224] A half-caste Chinese family of large means and local influence.
+
+[225] Esteban de la Rama is of the family of the late Isidro de la
+Rama, a well-known prosperous and enterprising Yloilo merchant. Pedro
+Regalado, personally known to me, is the son of my late friend Jose
+Regalado, at one time a wealthy middleman, who, however, lost his
+fortune in adverse speculations. Pedro Regalado and I were, at one
+time, together in Hong-Kong, where he learnt English. On the entry
+of the American troops into Yloilo he was imprisoned on a charge
+of disaffection, but shortly released and appointed a government
+interpreter.
+
+[226] The protest contained the following significant clauses, viz:
+(1) "Ceder a tal exigencia en vista de la superioridad de las armas
+Americanas. (2) No tener poder, ni la provincia ni todos los habitantes
+juntos, de ejecutar actas como esta, prohibidas por el Presidente de
+la Republica, Senor Emilio Aguinaldo."--Extracts taken by myself from
+the official copy of the protest.
+
+[227] The approximate number of prisoners was as follows, viz:--
+
+
+    Military Officers (including Gen. Leopoldo Garcia Pena)     200
+    Military Regular troops                                   8,000
+    Civil Servants and private Civilians and families           560
+    Ecclesiastics and Nuns (including Bishop Hevia
+    Campomanes, of the diocese of Nueva Segovia                 400
+
+                             Total in long captivity, about   9,160
+
+    Taken prisoners and released voluntarily, or through
+    personal influences, or escaped from the camps--about     1,840
+
+                                   Approximate Grand Total   11,000
+
+
+[228] Baron Honore Frederic Adhemar Bourgeois du Marais, a Frenchman of
+noble birth and noble sentiments, was the son of Viscount Bourgeois du
+Marais. Born at Bourg Port, in the Algerian province of Constantina,
+in 1882 he left Europe with a party of gentlemen colonists in the
+s.s. _Nouvelle Bretagne_, intending to settle in Port Breton, in
+Australasia. The vessel having put into Manila, she was detained
+for debt, but escaped from port in the teeth of a hurricane. A
+Spanish gunboat went in pursuit and brought her back, and Baron Du
+Marais decided to remain in the Philippines. For several years he
+was associated with his countryman M. Daillard in the development
+of the Jalajala Estate (_vide_ p. 360). On M. Daillard's decease
+he became the representative of the "Compania Tabacalera" at their
+vast estate of Santa Lucia (Tarlac), which prospered under his able
+management. His wonderful tact in the handling of natives secured their
+attachment to him. After fifteen years' absence from home he went to
+Europe to recruit his health, returning to the Islands in November,
+1898. After the ill-fated mission of humanity referred to above, his
+body lay hidden in the jungle for nearly two years, until November,
+1900, when it was discovered and brought to Manila for interment
+at the Paco cemetery. The funeral, which took place on November 25,
+was one of the most imposing ceremonies of the kind ever witnessed in
+Manila. Monsignor Chapelle officiated at the _Requiem_ mass celebrated
+at the Cathedral in the presence of the chief American authorities,
+the French and Spanish Consuls-General and representatives of the
+foreign residents, Chambers of Commerce, the Army and Navy, the Clubs,
+the Press, and every important collectivity. The cortege was, moreover,
+escorted by a large body of troops to the last resting-place of this
+gallant hero.
+
+[229] By Royal Decree of June, 1897, a _Philippine Loan_ was
+authorized, secured on Custom-house revenue and general guarantee of
+Spain. The Loan was for 200 millions of pesetas in hypothecary bonds
+of the Philippine Treasury, bearing 6 per cent, interest, redeemable
+at par in 40 years.
+
+
+    Series A.    250,000 Bonds of 500 pts. = 125 millions
+    Series B.    750,000 Bonds of 100 pts. =  75 millions
+
+
+First issue of 100 millions A at 92 per cent. was made on July 15,
+1897.
+
+[230] Born at Aliaga (Nueva Ecija) June 17, 1877, he raised a troop
+of rebels in his native town and joined General Llaneras. Appointed
+colonel in June, 1897, he was one of the chiefs who retired to
+Hong-Kong after the alleged Treaty of Biac-na-bato. He returned to
+the Islands with Aguinaldo, and became a general officer at the age
+of twenty-three years.
+
+[231] At one time Cornelio Felizardo had an American in his gang. This
+degenerate, Luis A. Unselt, was fortunately captured and sentenced,
+on April 6, 1904, to twenty-five years' imprisonment as a deserter
+from the constabulary and bandit.
+
+Previous to this event, the piracy of Johnston and Hermann in the
+southern islands caused much sensation at the time.
+
+In September, 1905, it was rumoured that, in order to escape capture,
+Cornelio Felizardo had committed suicide.
+
+One can judge of the ferocity of these men by Clause 3 of what Julian
+Montalon calls his Law No. 9. Dated April 10, 1904, it says:--
+
+
+    "The Filipino who serves the American Government as scout,
+    constabulary or secret-service man, who does not sympathize with
+    his native country, shall, if caught, immediately suffer the
+    penalty of having the tendons of his feet cut, and the fingers
+    of both hands crushed."
+
+
+There were many cases of cutting off the lips; two victims of this
+atrocity were brought to Manila in 1905, during _El Renacimiento_
+trial (_vide_ p. 550).
+
+[232] This establishment was put up for sale by tender in 1904. The
+prospectus stated as follows:--
+
+
+    Revenue for one year            gold $332,194.17
+    Disbursements for one year            198,338.93
+
+                                  Profit $133,855.24
+
+
+Reserve price one million dollars gold. Conditions of payment
+one-third cash, and two-thirds in three annual payments with six per
+cent. interest per annum guaranteed by mortgage on the building and
+plant or other acceptable security. It was not stated whether the
+sale included a monopoly of army supply.
+
+[233] _Sampaloc_ signifies _Tamarind_ in Tagalog.
+
+[234] The first Philippine club was opened on November 6, 1898.
+
+[235] The _carromata_ is a two-wheeled spring vehicle with a light
+roof to keep off the sun and rain. In Spanish times it was commonly
+used by the natives in Manila and by all classes in the provinces,
+being a light, strong, and useful conveyance.
+
+[236] _Vide_ "Official Roster of the Officers and Employees in the
+Civil Service in the Philippine Islands." Manila, Bureau of Public
+Printing, 1904.
+
+[237] Independent Offices, i.e., not under control of a Civil
+Commission Secretary.
+
+[238] Under the "Cooper Bill," which came into operation on March 20,
+1905, the Insular Government was authorized to increase the salaries
+of the Chief Justice and the associated judges to $10,500 and $10,000
+gold respectively. Under the same Act, judges of First Instance can
+be called upon to serve in the Supreme Court when needed to form a
+quorum, for which service they are allowed ten pesos per day besides
+their travelling expenses from and to the place of their permanent
+appointments. By Philippine Commission Act No. 1,314, the salaries
+of the Chief Justice and associate judges were fixed at $10,000 each.
+
+[239] "Report of the Philippine Commission, 1900." Published by the
+Government Printing Office, Washington, 1901.
+
+[240] Mr. William H. Taft, the first Civil Governor of the Philippines,
+was born at Cincinnati (Ohio) on September 15, 1857. His father was
+a jurist of repute, diplomat, and member of the Cabinet. After his
+preparatory schooling in his native town, W. H. Taft graduated at
+Yale University in 1878, studied law at Cincinnati and was called
+to the bar in 1880. Since then he held several legal appointments
+up to the year 1900, when he became a district judge, which post he
+resigned on being commissioned to the Philippine Islands.
+
+[241] _Vide_ Senate Document No. 331, Part I., 57th Congress,
+1st Session.
+
+[242] Mr. Luke E. Wright, the second Civil Governor and first
+Gov.-General of the Philippines, was born in Tennessee in 1847, the
+son of Judge Archibald Wright. At the age of sixteen he took arms in
+the Confederate interest in the War of Secession. Called to the bar
+in 1868, he became a partner in his father's firm and held several
+important legal appointments. At the age of twenty-four he became
+Attorney-General, and held this post for eight years. A Democrat in
+politics, he is a strong character, as generous and courteous as he
+is personally courageous.
+
+[243] "Should we wish the Filipino people to judge of Americans by the
+drunken, truculent American loafers who infest the small towns of the
+Islands, living on the fruits of the labour of Filipino women, and who
+give us more trouble than any other element in the Islands? Should we
+wish the Filipino people to judge of American standards of honesty
+by reading the humiliating list of American official and unofficial
+defaulters in these Islands?"--_Extract from Governor W. H. Taft's
+speech at the Union Reading College, Manila, in 1903, quoted in_
+"Population of the Philippines," _Bulletin I, p. 9. Published by the
+Bureau of the Census, 1904_.
+
+[244] From a statement kindly furnished to me by the Adjutant-General,
+Colonel W. A. Simpson (Manila).
+
+[245] A "contract" Surgeon or Dental Surgeon is a civilian who comes
+to the Islands on a three-years' contract. He is only temporarily an
+Army officer.
+
+General Officers' pay is as follows; viz.:--
+
+
+    Lieut.-General, Active Service   $11,000; retired  $8,250 gold.
+    Maj.-General, Active Service      $7,500; retired  $5,625 gold.
+    Brig.-General, Active Service     $5,500; retired  $4,125 gold.
+
+
+The monthly pay of a private serving in the Islands is $15.60 gold.
+
+[246] _Hadji_ signifies Knight, a title which any Mahometan can assume
+after having made the pilgrimage to Mecca.
+
+[247] The Americans occupied and the Spaniards evacuated Jolo on May
+20, 1899.
+
+[248] _Vide_ Report of the Secretary of War for 1902, p. 18.
+
+[249] Camp Vicars is said to have an elevation of 2,000 feet above
+the sea. Lake Lanao is reputed to be 1,500 feet above sea-level.
+
+[250] _Vide_ Captain J. J. Pershing's Report to the Adjutant-General
+in Manila, dated Camp Vicars, Mindanao, May 15, 1903.
+
+[251] _Vide_ Brig.-General Sumner's Report to the Adjutant-General
+in Manila, dated Zamboanga, Mindanao, June 13, 1903.
+
+[252] Maj.-General Leonard Wood, born October 9, 1860, was a doctor
+of medicine by profession. On the outbreak of war with Spain he
+was appointed Colonel of the First Volunteer Cavalry in Cuba, with
+Mr. Roosevelt (now the United States President) as Lieut.-Colonel. At
+the close of the war he was promoted to Brig.-General, and on December
+13, 1899, received the appointment of Military Governor of Cuba,
+which he held until the government of that island was transferred to
+Senor Palma Estrada, the first President of the Cuban Republic. To
+his brilliant reputation for statesmanship gained in the Antilles,
+General Wood has now added the fame of a successful organizer of the
+Southern Philippines. Beloved by his subordinates, his large-hearted
+geniality wins him the admiration of all who know him, and even the
+respect of the savage whom he had to coerce.
+
+[253] _Mindanao_, the name of this southern island, signifies "Man
+of the Lake."
+
+[254] The limits and area of that portion of the Island under civil
+government are defined in Philippine Commission Acts Nos. 127 and 128,
+amended by Act No. 787. It is approximately all that land north of 8 deg.
+N. lat. and east of 123 deg. 34' E. long.
+
+[255] Under the above-cited Act No. 787, any military officer, from the
+commander of the district downwards, holding concurrent civil office
+in the province receives his army pay, plus 20 per cent, of the same
+as remuneration for his civil service. The combined emolument of a
+major-general as military commander and provincial governor would,
+therefore, be $9,000 gold.
+
+[256] Under Spanish rule the Moro country was divided thus:--Seven
+districts, namely, Zamboanga, Misamis, Surigao, Davao, Cottabato,
+Basilan, and Lanao, all under the Gov.-General of Mindanao. Jolo was
+ruled independently of Mindanao under another governor.
+
+[257] Up to June 30, 1904, there was a total of 12 municipalities
+organized.
+
+[258] Philippine Commission Act No. 787, Section 13, Clause II,
+provides that the Moro Government is to "vest in their local or tribe
+rulers as nearly as possible the same authority over the people as
+they now exercise." Clause L: "To enact laws for the abolition of
+slavery, and the suppression of all slave-hunting and slave trade."
+
+[259] From a statement kindly furnished to me by the Military and
+Provincial Governor, Maj.-General Leonard Wood, June, 1904.
+
+[260] At Malabang about 500, at Parang-Parang 205, and at Jolo 744.
+
+[261] _Kudarangan Cotta _was situated on the north bank of the Rio
+Grande. Datto Piang's fort stands at the junction of this river and the
+Bacat River. Fort Reina Regente, established in this neighbourhood,
+was the most inland Spanish stronghold in Mindanao, and was at one
+period in Spanish times garrisoned by 800 to 1,000 convict troops
+(_disciplinarios_).
+
+[262] _Panglima_ signifies General, or Chief of Warriors.
+
+[263] The father of Mr. J. Schueck was a German sea captain, who got
+into trouble with the Spaniards because he traded directly with the
+Sultan of Sulu. His ship and all he possessed were seized, and Captain
+Schueck decided to settle in the Island under the protection of the
+Sultan. He took a Mora wife, became a very prosperous planter, and the
+Spaniards were eventually only too glad to cultivate his friendship. He
+died in 1887, leaving three sons; one is the gentleman mentioned above,
+another is the military interpreter, and the third manages the fine
+property and trading interests of the family. Mr. J. Schueck's two
+sisters-in-law are Moras.
+
+[264] _Vide_ Legislative Council Act No. 51, relative to the Pearl
+Fisheries, in which the Sultan claims hereditary right. Also "Annual
+Report of Maj.-General George W. Davis, 1903," containing Colonel
+W. M. Wallace's report to the Adjutant-General to the effect that
+at Cagayan de Jolo, on May 21, 1903, he gave instructions that the
+Sultan's emissaries were not to be allowed to collect the customary
+P5 per capita of tribute.
+
+[265] _Vide_ Report of the Moro Province for the fiscal year ending
+June 30, 1904.
+
+[266] Under the _Homestead Law_, 39.54 acres of Government land
+may be acquired by any citizen of the Philippine Islands or of the
+United States, and 2,530 acres by a corporation. The grant or sale
+of such land is subject to occupancy and cultivation of the acreage
+for a period of not less than five years, and during that period the
+purchaser or grantee cannot alienate or encumber the land or the title
+thereto. Six consecutive months' absence from the land, during the
+above period of five years, cancels the grant. The land granted under
+this Act cannot be seized for debt contracted prior to the grant. Many
+applications have already been made for land under this Act.
+
+[267] "No teacher or other person shall teach or criticize the doctrine
+of any Church, religious sect, or denomination, or shall attempt to
+influence the pupils for or against any Church or religious sect in
+any public school established under this Act. If any teacher shall
+intentionally violate this section, he or she shall, after due hearing,
+be dismissed from the public service. _Provided, however_, that it
+shall be lawful for the priest, or minister of any church established
+in the town where a public school is situated ... to teach religion
+for one half an hour three times a week in the school building to
+those public school pupils whose parents or guardians desire it,"
+etc.--Section 16 of the Public School Act, No. 74.
+
+[268] Placido Louis Chapelle, Archbishop of New Orleans, was born
+in France in 1842, and, at the age of seventeen years, emigrated to
+America, where he entered the priesthood. In 1894 he received the
+mitre of Santa Fe, and in 1897 that of New Orleans. In 1898 he was
+appointed Apostolic Delegate to Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Philippine
+Islands. His mission ended, he returned to New Orleans, where he died
+of yellow fever in August, 1905.
+
+[269] _Vide_ Senate Document No. 190, p. 62, 56th Congress, 2nd
+Session.
+
+[270] _Ibid_., p. 221.
+
+[271] At the outbreak of the Rebellion (1896) the total number of
+friars of the four Orders of Dominicans, Agustinians, Recoletos,
+and Franciscans in these Islands was 1,105, of whom about 40 were
+killed by the rebels. There were, moreover, 86 Jesuit priests, 81
+Jesuit lay brothers and teachers, 10 Benedictines, and 49 Paulists;
+but all these were outside the "friar question."
+
+[272] _Vide_ Senate Document No. 190, p. 2, 56th Congress, 2nd Session.
+
+[273] Bernardino Nozaleda, a native of Asturias, Spain, of rustic
+parentage, was originally a professor in Manila, where he became
+Archbishop in 1889. In 1903 he was nominated for the archbishopric of
+Valencia, Spain, but the citizens absolutely refused to receive him,
+because of evil report concerning him.
+
+[274] In May, 1904, Father Singson was appointed by His Holiness
+Domestic Prelate of the Pope, with the title of Monsignore.
+
+[275] Report of the Secretary of War for 1902, p. 234. Published
+in Washington.
+
+[276] I was in Italy during the whole of the negotiations. The Italian
+clerical press alluded to the outcome as a diplomatic victory for
+the Vatican.
+
+[277] The Franciscan Order is not allowed by its rules to possess any
+property. It therefore had no agricultural lands, and no other property
+than dwelling-houses for members, two convents, and two infirmaries.
+
+[278] _Vide_ Senate Document No. 112, p. 27, 56th Congress, 2nd
+Session; and Senate Document No. 331, p. 180 of Part I., 57th Congress,
+1st Session. Published by the Government Printing Office, Washington.
+
+[279] _Vide_ speech of Gov.-General (then styled Civil Governor)
+Luke E. Wright on assuming office on February 1, 1904. Reported in
+the _Manila Official Gazette_, Vol. II., No. 5, dated February 3, 1904.
+
+[280] This condition was termed "frailuno." In its application to the
+European it simply denoted "partisan of the regular clergy." Its
+popular signification when applied to the native was a total
+relinquishment of, or incapacity for, independent appreciation of
+the friars' dicta in mundane matters.
+
+[281] Since the Treaty of Paris (1898) the Spanish friars are
+foreigners in these Islands. The Philippine clergy oppose a foreign
+monopoly of their Church. They declare themselves competent to
+undertake the cure of souls, and claim the fulfilment of the Council
+of Trent decrees which prohibit the regular clergy to hold benefices,
+except on two conditions, viz.:--(1) as missionaries to non-Christians,
+(2) as temporary parish priests in christian communities where
+qualified secular clergy cannot be found to take their places. The
+crux of the whole question is the competency or incompetency of
+the Philippine clergy. The Aglipayans allege that Pope Leo XIII.,
+in the last years of his pontificate, issued a bull declaring the
+Filipinos to be incompetent for the cure of souls. They strongly resent
+this. Whether the bull exists or not, the unfitness of the Philippine
+clergy to take the place of the regular clergy was suggested by the
+Holy See in 1902 (_vide_ p. 599).
+
+The Council of Trent was the 18th oecumenical council of the Church,
+assembled at Trent, a town in the Austrian Tyrol, and sat, with
+certain interruptions, from December 13, 1545, until December 4,
+1563. Nearly every point of doubt or dispute within the Catholic
+Church was discussed at this Council. Its decrees were confirmed and
+published by Pope Pius IV. in 1564 by papal decree, being a brief
+summary of the doctrines known as the Profession of the Tridentine
+Faith, commonly called also the Creed of Pius IV.
+
+[282] Monsignor Ambrogio Agius, born on September 17, 1856,
+of a distinguished Maltese family, entered on his novitiate at
+the Benedictine Monastery of Ramsgate, England, on September 8,
+1871. Having finished his studies of philosophy and theology in Rome,
+he was ordained as priest on October 16, 1881, in the Cathedral of
+Santo Scolastico at Subiaco. He then returned to England, but in
+1895 he was called to Rome, where for nine years he held several
+ecclesiastical offices. His ability was observed by Pope Leo XIII.,
+and by his successor Pius X., who raised Ambrogio Agius to the dignity
+of titular Archbishop of Palmyra and appointed him Apostolic Delegate
+to the Philippine Islands in the year 1904, in succession to the late
+Monsignor Giovanni Guidi.
+
+[283] The Census Report of 1903 shows the Civilized male population
+twenty-one years of age and over to be as follows: of Superior
+Education 50,140, Literate 489,609, and Illiterate 1,137,776.
+
+[284] _Vide Official Gazette_, Vol. II., No. 4, dated January 27, 1904.
+
+[285] Under the Act of Congress which authorized the taking of
+the census, dated July 1, 1902. it is provided (Section (6) that a
+Philippine Assembly shall be created two years after the publication of
+the Census Report. This publication, complete in four volumes, having
+been issued on March 27, 1905, the following day the Gov.-General at
+Manila notified by proclamation that "in case a condition of general
+and complete peace, with recognition of the authority of the United
+States, shall have continued in the territory of these Islands, not
+inhabited by Moros or non-christian tribes, and such facts shall have
+been certified to the President by the Philippine Commission, the
+President, upon being satisfied thereof, shall direct the Philippine
+Commission to call, and the Commission shall call, a general election
+for the choice of delegates to a popular assembly of the people of
+the said territory in the Philippine Islands, which shall be known as
+the _Philippine Assembly_, and which provides also that after the said
+Assembly shall have been convened and organized, all the legislative
+power heretofore conferred on the Philippine Commission in that
+part of these Islands not inhabited by Moros or other non-christian
+tribes shall be vested in a Legislature consisting of two Houses--the
+Philippine Commission and the Philippine Assembly. In witness whereof
+(etc., etc.) this 28th day of March, 1905."
+
+[286] At Baguio, in the mountain region of the Benguet district, at an
+altitude of about 5,000 feet, the Insular Government has established
+a health-resort for the recreation of the members of the Civil
+Commission. The air is pure, and the temperature so low (max. 78 deg.,
+min. 46 deg. Fahr.) that pine-forests exist in the neighbourhood, and
+potatoes (which are well known all over the Islands for many years
+past) are cultivated there. The distance from Manila to Baguio, in
+a straight line, would be about 130 miles. By this route--that is
+to say, by railway to Dagupan, 120 miles, and then by the 55-mile
+road (opened in the spring of 1905)--the travelling distance is 175
+miles. The new road runs through a country half uninhabited, and leads
+to (commercially) nowhere. The amount originally appropriated for the
+making of this 55-mile road was $75,000 gold (Philippine Commission
+Act No. 61). Up to January, 1905, $2,400,000 gold had been expended
+on its construction. It is curious to note that this sum includes
+$366,260 gold taken from the Congressional Relief Fund (_vide_
+p. 621). A further appropriation of $17,500 gold has been made for its
+improvement, with the prospect of large sums being yet needed for this
+undertaking, which is of no benefit whatever to the Filipinos. They
+need no sanatorium, and Europeans have lived in the Islands, up to 30
+years, without one. The word _Baguio_ in Tagalog signifies Hurricane.
+
+[287] _Vide_ "Population of the Philippines," Bulletin 1, published by
+the Department of Commerce and Labour. Bureau of the Census, 1904,
+Washington. Census taken in 1903 under the direction of General
+J. P. Sanger, U.S. Army.
+
+[288] There are four separate official returns, each showing different
+figures.
+
+[289] _Vide_ "Population of the Philippines," Bulletin 1, published
+by the Department of Commerce and Labour. Bureau of the Census,
+1904, Washington.
+
+[290] Under the provisions of Articles XII., XIII. and XIV.,
+Immigration Regulations for the Philippine Islands of June 7, 1899.
+
+[291] _Vide_, Report of the Municipal Board of Manila for the fiscal
+year ending June 30, 1904, p. 32.
+
+[292] Report on the Commerce of the Philippine Islands, prepared in
+the Bureau of Insular Affairs, War Department, Washington, 1903.
+
+[293] The Japanese Government is making an effort to produce cane
+sugar in Formosa sufficient for Japan's consumption.
+
+[294] "Ever since the occupation of these Islands by the American army,
+four years ago, the price of labour has steadily increased.... It is
+needless to say that every industry will be profoundly affected by
+this." _Vide_ Notes in "Monthly Summary of Commerce of the Philippine
+Islands," May, 1903. Prepared in the Bureau of Insular Affairs,
+War Department, Washington.
+
+[295] _Vide_ statement of Governor W. H. Taft before the U.S. Senate,
+January 31, 1902, in Senate Document No. 331, Part I., 57th Congress,
+1st Session, p. 258.
+
+[296] _Vide_ Report of the Moro Province for the fiscal year ending
+June 30, 1904, p. 27.
+
+[297] In the years 1888-97 the circulation of Mexican and
+Spanish-Philippine dollars (pesos) was computed at about 36,000,000.
+
+[298] The "International Banking Corporation": Capital paid up,
+L820,000; reserve fund, L820,000. The "Guaranty Trust Company":
+Capital, reserves, and undivided profits, about $7,500,000 gold.
+
+[299] Shipments to Hong-Kong are often goods in transit for United
+States.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Philippine Islands, by John Foreman
+
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author	Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org>	2025-10-15 01:54:33 -0700
committer	Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org>	2025-10-15 01:54:33 -0700
commit	65e8a8f331ffb6e6c1d5687fe00105be22dbf59c (patch)
tree	4485f8e45a4a1f9a16439e6aeaa739c6fa27b45b /22815.txt