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+The Project Gutenberg eBook of History of the United States, Volume 5, by E. Benjamin Andrews
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
+most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
+whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
+of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
+www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you
+will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before
+using this eBook.
+
+Title: History of the United States, Volume 5
+
+Author: E. Benjamin Andrews
+
+Release Date: September 27, 2007 [eBook #22777]
+[Most recently updated: December 18, 2021]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+Produced by: Don Kostuch
+
+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES ***
+
+
+
+
+HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+From a photograph copyright, 1899, by Pach Bros., N. Y.
+President William McKinley.
+
+
+
+HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES
+
+FROM THE EARLIEST DISCOVERY OF AMERICA TO THE PRESENT TIME
+
+BY
+
+E. BENJAMIN ANDREWS
+
+CHANCELLOR OF THE UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA
+FORMERLY PRESIDENT OF BROWN UNIVERSITY
+
+With 650 Illustrations and Maps
+
+VOLUME V.
+
+NEW YORK
+CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS
+1912
+
+COPYRIGHT, 1903 AND 1905, BY
+CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS
+[Illustration: Scribner's Logo.]
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+PERIOD VI
+
+
+EXPANSION
+
+
+1888--1902
+
+CHAPTER I. DRIFT AND DYE IN LAW--MAKING
+General Revision and Extension of State Constitutions.—Introduction of
+Australian Ballot in Various States.—Woman Suffrage in the West.—Negro
+Suffrage in the South.—Educational Qualification.—“The Mississippi
+Plan.”—South Carolina Registration Act.—The “Grandfather” Clause in
+Louisiana Constitution.—Alabama Suffrage.
+
+
+CHAPTER II. THE PRESIDENTIAL CAMPAIGN OF 1888
+Tariff Reform Democratic Creed.—Republican Banner, High
+Protection.—Republican Convention at Chicago.—Nomination of Benjamin
+Harrison for President.—Biographical Sketch of Benjamin
+Harrison.—Political Strength in the West.—National Association of
+Democratic Clubs and Republican League.—Civil Service as an Issue in
+Campaign.—Democratic Blunders.—The “Murchison” Letter.—Lord
+Sackville-West Given His Passports.—Use of Money in Campaign by Both
+Political Parties.—Tariff the Main Issue.—Trusts.—“British Free
+Trade.”—Popular Vote at the Election.
+
+
+CHAPTER III. MR. HARRISON'S ADMINISTRATION
+Steamship Subsidies Advocated.—Chinese Immigration and the Geary
+Law.—Immigration Restriction.—Thomas B. Reed Institutes Parliamentary
+Innovations in the House of Representatives.—Counting a Quorum.—The
+“Force Bill” in Congress.—Resentment of the South.—Defeated in
+Senate.—The “Billion Dollar Congress” and the Dependent Pensions
+Act.—Pension Payments.—The McKinley Tariff Act and “Blaine”
+Reciprocity.—International Copyright Act Becomes a Law.—Mr. Blaine as
+Secretary of State.—Murder by “Mafia” Italians Causes Riot in New
+Orleans.—The Itata at San Diego, California.—The “Barrundia”
+Incident.—U. S. Assumes Sovereignty Over Tutuila, Samoa.—Congressional
+Campaign, 1890.
+
+
+CHAPTER IV. NON-POLITICAL EVENTS OF PRESIDENT HARRISON'S TERM
+Commemorative Exercises of the Centennial Anniversary of Washington’s
+Inauguration as President.—Verse Added to Song “America.”—Whittier
+Composes an Ode.—Unveiling of Lee Monument.—Sectional Feeling
+Allayed.—The Louisiana Lottery Put Down.—The Opening of Oklahoma.—Sum
+Paid Seminole Indians.—The Messiah Craze of the Indians.—The Johnstown
+Flood.—The Steel Strike at Homestead, Pa.—Congressional
+Investigation.—Riot in Tennessee Over Convict Labor in the
+Mines.—Mormonism.—America Aids Russia in Famine.
+
+
+CHAPTER V. THE WORLD'S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION
+Preparation for the World’s Fair.—Columbus Day in Chicago.—In New
+York.—Presidential Election of 1892.—The Campaign.—Cleveland and
+Harrison Nominated by the Respective Parties.—Populism.—Gen. Weaver
+Populistic Candidate.—Reciprocity in the Campaign of 1892.—Result of
+the Election.—Opening Exercises of the World’s Fair.—The Buildings and
+Grounds.—The Spanish Caravals.—The Court of Honor.—Burning of the Cold
+Storage Building.—Government Exhibits.—Midway Plaisance.—The Ferris
+Wheel.—Buildings Burned.—Fair Not a Financial Success.—The Attendance.
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.  ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL MOVEMENT
+Growth of Population in Cities and States.—Centre of Population.—The
+Railroads.—Industrial Progress.—Development of Use of Electricity in
+Telegraph, Telephone, Lighting, and Manufacturing.—Niagara Falls
+Harnessed.—Thomas A. Edison.—Nikola Tesla.—The Use of the
+Bicycle.—Growth of Agriculture and Improvement of Implements.—Position
+of Women.—The Salvation Army Established in America.—Its Growth and
+Work.
+
+
+CHAPTER VII. MR. CLEVELAND AGAIN PRESIDENT
+Democratic Congress.—President Extends Merit System.—Anti-Lottery
+Bill.—President Calls a Special Session of Congress.—Sale of Bonds to
+Maintain Reserve of Gold.—The Wilson Tariff Law Passed.—Income Tax
+Unconstitutional.—Bond Issues.—Foreign Affairs.—Coup d’état of
+Provisional Government of Hawaii.—Special Commissioner.—Queen
+Liliuokalani.—Queen Renounces Throne.—President Cleveland’s—Venezuelan
+Message.—Measures to Preserve National Credit.—Venezuelan Boundary
+Commission.—Lexow Committee Investigation in New York City.—Reform
+Ticket Elected.—Greater New York.—American Protective Association.
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII. LABOR AND THE RAILWAYS
+The March of the Coxey Army.—Arrest of Leaders.—The American Railway
+Union—Strike.—Refusal of Pullman Company to Arbitrate.—Association of
+General Managers.—Federal Injunction.—Federal Riot Proclamation and
+Troops Detailed.—Governor Altgeld’s Protest.—Debs.—“Government by
+Injunction.”—Commission of Investigation.—General Allotment of Indian
+Lands Under the Dawes Act.
+
+
+CHAPTER IX. NEWEST DIXIE
+Harmony Between North and South.—Consecration of
+Chickamauga-Chattanooga Military Park.—Agricultural Development in the
+South.—Manufactures.—Natural Products.—Southern Characteristics.—The
+“Black Belt.”—Montgomery Conference on the Negro
+Question.—Lynching.—Booker T. Washington and the Tuskegee
+Institute.—Negro Population.
+
+
+CHAPTER X. THE MEN AND THE ISSUE IN 1896
+Free Silver Coinage Issue in the Campaign.—Republican Convention in St.
+Louis.—The Money Plank in the Platform.—Withdrawal of Senator Teller
+and Free Silver Delegates.—William McKinley and Garret A. Hobart
+Nominated for President and Vice-President.—Sketch of Life of William
+McKinley.—Democratic Convention Held in Chicago.—Demand for Free and
+Unlimited Coinage of Silver.—William J. Bryan Makes “Cross of Gold”
+Speech.—Delegates Refuse to Vote.—W. J. Bryan and Arthur Sewall
+Nominated.—Sketch of William J. Bryan.—Thomas Watson Nominated for
+Vice-President by Populist Convention.—National or Gold Democratic
+Ticket.—Speeches Made by Candidates.—Result of the Election.
+
+
+CHAPTER XI. MR. MCKINLEY'S ADMINISTRATION
+John Sherman, William R. Day, and John Hay as Secretary of State.—Other
+Members of Cabinet.—Revival of Business in 1897.—Gold Discovery in
+Yukon, Klondike, and Cape Nome.—Alaskan Boundary Controversy Between
+United States and Great Britain.—Joint High Commission Canvasses
+Boundary and Sealing Question.—Estimate of Loss to Seal Herd.—Sealskins
+Ordered Confiscated and Destroyed at United States Ports.—Hawaiian
+Islands Annexed.—Special Envoys to the Powers Appointed to Consider
+International Bi-Metallism.—President Withdraws Positions from the
+Classified Service.—Extra Session of Congress.—Passes Dingley Tariff
+Act.—Reciprocity Clauses.—Grant Mausoleum Completed.—Presentation
+Ceremonies at New York.
+
+
+CHAPTER XII. THE WAR WITH SPAIN
+Cuban Discontent with Spanish Rule.—United States’ Neutral Attitude
+Toward Spain and Cuba.—Red Cross Society Aids Reconcentrados.—Spanish
+Minister Writes Letter that Leads to Resignation.—United States
+Battleship Maine Sunk in Havana Harbor.—Congress Declares the People of
+Cuba Free and Independent.—Minister Woodford Receives his Passports at
+Madrid.—Increase of the Regular Army.—Spain Prepares for War.—Army
+Equipment Insufficient.—Strength of Navy.—The Oregon Makes
+Unprecedented Run.—Admiral Cervera’s Fleet in Santiago Harbor.—Navy at
+Santiago Harbor Entrance.—Army Lands near Santiago.—The Darkest Day of
+the War.—Sinking of the Collier Merrimac to Block Harbor
+Entrance.—Spanish Ships Leave.—General Toral Surrenders.—Expedition of
+General Miles to Porto Rico.—Commodore George Dewey Enters Manila
+Bay.—Destroys Spanish Fleet.—Manila Capitulates.—Treaty of Paris
+Signed.
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII. "CUBA LIBRE"
+Admiral Sampson and Admiral Schley in Santiago Naval Battle.—Court of
+Inquiry Appointed.—Paris Treaty of Peace Ratified.—Foreign
+Criticism.—The Samoan Islands.—Civil Government Established in Porto
+Rico.—Foreign Commerce of Porto Rico.—Congressional Pledge about
+Cuba.—Census of Cuba.—General Leonard Wood, Governor of Cuba.—Cuban
+Constitutional Convention.—“Platt Amendment.”—Cuban Constitution
+Adopted.—First President of Cuba.—Reciprocity with Cuba.
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV. THE UNITED STATES IN THE ORIENT--PHILIPPINES AND FILIPINOS.
+Area of the Philippines.—The Native Tribes.—Population.—Education Under
+Spanish Rule.—Filipinos.—Iocoros.—Igorrotes.—Ilocoans.— Moros.—Spain as
+a Colonist.—Religious Orders.—Secret Leagues.—Spain and the
+Filipinos.—Emilio Aguinaldo.—The Philippines in the Treaty of
+Paris.—Senate Resolution.
+
+
+CHAPTER XV. THE UNITED STATES IN THE ORIENT.--WAR.--CONTROVERSY.--PEACE.
+Filipinos’ Foothold in Philippines.—Attitude Toward
+Filipinos.—President Orders Government Extended Over
+Archipelago.—American Rule Awakens Hostility.—First Philippine
+Commission.—Philippine Congress Votes for Peace.—Revolution.—Treachery
+of Filipinos.—General Frederick Funston Captures Aguinaldo.—Aguinaldo
+Swears Allegiance to the United States.—The Constitution and the
+Philippines.—United States Supreme Court
+Decisions.—Tariff.—Anti-Imperialism.—Second Commission.—Civil
+Government Inaugurated.—Educational Reforms.
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI. POLITICS AT THE TURNING OF THE CENTURY.
+Candidates for President in 1900.—McKinley Renominated.—Bryan
+Nominated.—Gold Democrats.—Fusion.—Populists.—Silver
+Republicans.—Anti-Imperialism.—Tariff for Colonies.—Porto Rico
+Tariff.—President McKinley’s Opposition to Bill.—Campaign Issues.—Boer
+War.—Trusts.—Democratic Defeat.—Coal Strike.—Reasons for Democratic
+Defeat.—Mr. Bryan Insists on Silver Issue.—Monetary System on a Gold
+Basis.—Result of Election.
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII. THE TWELFTH CENSUS
+Permanent Census Bureau.—Alaska Census.—Method of Taking Census.—Two
+Thousand Employees.—Population of United States.—Nevada Loses in
+Population.—Urban Increase.—Greater New York.—Cities of More than a
+Million Inhabitants.—Loss in Rural Population.—Centre of
+Population.—Proportion of Males to Females.—Foreign Born
+Population.—Character of Immigration.—Chinese.—Congressional
+Apportionment.—Farms.—Crops.—Manufacturing Capital Invested.—Foreign
+Commerce.—Revenues.—War Taxes Repealed.—National Debt.
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII. THE PAN-AMERICAN EXPOSITION, 1901
+The Opening.—Triumphal Bridge.—Electric Tower.—Temple of
+Music.—Architecture.—Coloring of the “Rainbow City.”—Symbolism of
+Coloring.—Sculpture.—Electrical Illumination.—The Chaining of
+Niagara.—The Midway.—The Athletic Congress.—Conservatory.—The
+Spanish-American Countries Represented.—United States Government
+Building.
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX. MR. McKINLEY'S END
+President McKinley’s Address at the Pan-American Exposition.—The
+President Shot.—His Illness and Death.—The Funeral Ceremony.—In
+Washington.—At Canton.—Commemorative Services.—Mr. McKinley’s
+Career.—Political Insight.—Americanism.—His Administration as
+President.—Leon Czolgosz, the Murderer of President
+McKinley.—Anarchists.—Anti-Anarchist Law.—Vice-President Theodore
+Roosevelt Succeeds to the—Presidency.
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+PRESIDENT WILLIAM MCKINLEY.
+(From a copyright photograph, 1899, by Pach Bros., New York).
+
+A NEW YORK POLLING PLACE, SHOWING BOOTHS ON THE LEFT.
+
+BENJAMIN R. TILLMAN.
+
+GROVER CLEVELAND. (Photograph copyrighted by C. M. Bell).
+
+W. Q. GRESHAM.
+
+LEVI P. MORTON.
+
+BENJAMIN HARRISON.
+
+LORD L. S. SACKVILLE-WEST.
+
+JOSEPH B. FORAKER.
+
+"THE CHINESE MUST GO!" DENIS KEARNEY ADDRESSING THE WORKINGMEN ON THE
+NIGHT OF OCTOBER 29, ON NOB HILL, SAN FRANCISCO.
+
+THOMAS B. REED.
+
+DAVID C. HENNESSY.
+
+AN EPISODE OF THE LYNCHING OF THE ITALIANS IN NEW ORLEANS.
+
+THE CITIZENS BREAKING DOWN THE DOOR OF THE PARISH PRISON WITH THE BEAM
+BROUGHT THERE THE NIGHT BEFORE FOR THAT PURPOSE.
+
+OLD PARISH JAIL, NEW ORLEANS, LA.
+
+CANAL STREET, NEW ORLEANS, LA.
+
+A. G. THURMAN.
+
+CHILIAN STEAMER ITATA IN SAN DIEGO HARBOR.
+
+PRESIDENT HARRISON BEING ROWED ASHORE AT FOOT OF WALL STEEET, NEW YORK,
+APRIL 29, 1889.
+
+WASHINGTON INAUGURAL CELEBRATION, 1889, NEW YORK.
+
+PARADE  PASSING UNION SQUARE ON BROADWAY.
+
+UNVEILING OF THE EQUESTRIAN STATUE OF ROBERT E. LEE, MAY 29, 1890.
+
+HENRY W. GRADY.
+
+FRANCIS T. NICHOLLS.
+
+THE BUILDING OF A WESTERN TOWN, GUTHRIE, OKLAHOMA: A GENERAL VIEW OF THE
+TOWN ON APRIL 24, 1889, THE SECOND DAY AFTER THE OPENING. A VIEW ALONG
+OKLAHOMA A VENUE ON MAY 10, 1889. OKLAHOMA AVENUE AS IT APPEARED ON MAY
+10, 1893, DURING GOVERNOR NOBLE'S VISIT.
+
+MAIN STREET, JOHNSTOWN, AFTER THE FLOOD.
+
+BURNING OF BARGES DURING HOMESTEAD STRIKE.
+
+THE CARNEGIE STEEL WORKS. SHOWING THE SHIELD USED BY THE STRIKERS WHEN
+FIRING THE CANNON AND WATCHING THE PINKERTON MEN--HOMESTEAD STRIKE.
+
+INCITING MINERS TO ATTACK FORT ANDERSON.
+
+THE GROVE BETWEEN BRICEVILLE AND COAL CREEK.
+
+STATE TROOPS AND MINERS AT BRICEVILLE, TENN.
+
+THE MORMON TEMPLE AT SALT LAKE CITY.
+
+COLUMBIAN CELEBRATION, NEW YORK, APRIL 28, 1893.
+PARADE PASSING FIFTH AVENUE HOTEL.
+
+PINTA, SANTA MARIA, NINA--LYING IN THE NORTH RIVER, NEW YORK--THE
+CARAVELS WHICH CROSSED FROM SPAIN TO BE PRESENT AT THE WORLD'S FAIR AT
+CHICAGO.
+
+THE MANUFACTURES AND LIBERAL ARTS BUILDING, SEEN FROM THE SOUTHWEST.
+
+HORTICULTURAL BUILDING, WITH ILLINOIS BUILDING IN THE BACKGROUND.
+
+A VIEW TOWARD THE PERISTYLE FROM MACHINERY HALL.
+
+THE ADMINISTRATION BUILDING, SEEN FROM THE AGRICULTURAL BUILDING.
+
+MIDWAY PLAISANCE, WORLD'S FAIR, CHICAGO.
+
+THE BURNING OF THE WHITE CITY: ELECTRICITY BUILDING--MINES AND MINING
+BUILDING.
+
+THE NEW YORK LIFE INSURANCE BUILDING IN CHICAGO.
+(Showing the construction of outer walls).
+
+INTERIOR OF THE POWER HOUSE AT NIAGARA FALLS.
+
+THOMAS ALVA EDISON. (Copyright-photograph by W. A. Dickson).
+
+NIKOLA TESLA.
+
+BICYCLE PARADE, NEW YORK, FANCY COSTUME DIVISION.
+
+HATCHERY ROOM OF THE FISH COMMISSION BUILDING AT WASHINGTON, D. C.,
+SHOWING THE HATCHERY JARS IN OPERATION.
+
+WILLIAM BOOTH. (From a photograph by Rockwood, New York).
+
+GROVER CLEVELAND. (From a photograph by Alexander Black).
+
+WILLIAM L. WILSON.
+
+PRINCESS (AFTERWARDS QUEEN) LILIUOKALANI.
+
+JAMES H. BLOUNT.
+
+ALBERT S. WILLIS.
+
+RICHARD OLNEY.
+
+THE LEXOW INVESTIGATION. THE SCENE IN THE COURT ROOM
+AFTER CREEDEN'S CONFESSION, DECEMBER 15, 1894.
+
+CHARLES H. PARKHURST. (Copyright photograph by C. C. Langill).
+
+WILLIAM L. STRONG.
+
+COXEY'S ARMY ON THE MARCH TO THE CAPITOL STEPS AT WASHINGTON.
+
+THE TOWN OF PULLMAN.
+
+GEORGE M. PULLMAN.
+
+CAMP OF THE U. S. TROOPS ON THE LAKE FRONT, CHICAGO.
+
+BURNED CARS IN THE C., B. & Q. YARDS AT HAWTHORNE, CHICAGO.
+
+OVERTURNED BOX CARS AT CROSSING OF RAILROAD TRACKS AT 39TH STREET,
+CHICAGO.
+
+HAZEN S. PINGREE.
+
+GOV. JOHN P. ALTGELD.
+
+EUGENE V. DEBS.
+
+THE CHICKAMAUGA NATIONAL MILITARY PARK. GROUP OF MONUMENTS ON KNOLL
+SOUTHWEST OF SNODGRASS HILL.
+
+A GROVE OF ORANGES AND PALMETTOES NEAR ORMOND, FLORIDA.
+
+BOOKER T. WASHINGTON.
+
+THE ATLANTA EXPOSITION. ENTRANCE TO THE ART BUILDING.
+
+SENATOR TELLER, OF COLORADO.
+
+SENATOR CANNON.
+
+GARRET A. HOBART. VICE-PRESIDENT.
+(Copyright photograph, 1899, by Pach Bros., New York).
+
+THE McKINLEY-HOBART PARADE PASSING
+THE REVIEWING STAND, NEW YORK, OCTOBER 31, 1896.
+
+BRYAN SPEAKING FROM THE REAR END OF A TRAIN.
+
+ARTHUR SEWALL.
+
+EX-SENATOR PALMER.
+
+SIMON E. BUCKNER.
+
+JOHN SHERMAN.
+
+LYMAN J. GAGE, SECRETARY OF THE TREASURY.
+
+JOHN D. LONG, SECRETARY OF THE NAVY.
+
+CORNELIUS N. BLISS, SECRETARY OF THE INTERIOR.
+
+RUSSELL A. ALGER, SECRETARY OF WAR.
+
+JAMES WILSON, SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE.
+
+POSTMASTER-GENERAL GARY. (Copyright photograph by Clinedinst).
+
+RUSH OF MINERS TO THE YUKON. THE CITY OF CACHES AT THE SUMMIT OF
+CHILCOOT PASS.
+
+NELSON DINGLEY.
+
+WARSHIPS IN THE HUDSON RIVER CELEBRATING THE DEDICATION OF GRANT'S TOMB,
+APRIL 27, 1897.
+
+GRANT'S TOMB, RIVERSIDE DRIVE, NEW YORK. (Copyright photograph, 1901, by
+Detroit Photographic Co.).
+
+GOVERNOR-GENERAL WEYLER.
+
+U. S. BATTLESHIP MAINE ENTERING THE HARBOR OF HAVANA,
+JANUARY, 1898. (Copyright photograph, 1898, by J. C. Hemment).
+
+WRECK OF U. S. BATTLESHIP MAINE. (Photograph by J. C. Hernment).
+
+BOW OF THE SPANISH CRUISER ALMIRANTE OQUENDO.
+(Photograph by J. C. Hemment--copyright, 1898, by W. R. Hearst).
+
+THE LANDING AT DAIQUIRI. TRANSPORTS IN THE OFFING.
+
+CAPTAIN CHARLES E. CLARK.
+
+AFTERDECK ON THE OREGON, SHOWING TWO 13-INCH, FOUR 8-INCH, AND Two
+6-INCH GUNS. (Copyright photograph, 1899, by Strohmeyer & Wyman).
+
+BLOCKHOUSE ON SAN JUAN HILL.
+
+ADMIRAL CERVERA, COMMANDER OF THE SPANISH SQUADRON.
+
+MAJOR-GENERAL WILLIAM R. SHAFTER.
+
+TROOPS IN THE TRENCHES, FACING SANTIAGO.
+
+GENERAL JOSEPH WHEELER.
+
+VIEW OF SAN JUAN HILL AND BLOCKHOUSE, SHOWING THE CAMP OF THE UNITED
+STATES FORCES.
+
+THE COLLIER MERRIMAC SUNK BY HOBSON AT THE MOUTH OF SANTIAGO HARBOR.
+
+THE SPANISH CRUISER CRISTOBAL COLON. (From a photograph by J. C.
+Hemment-copyright, 1898, by W. R. Hearst).
+
+THE U. S. S. BROOKLYN. (Copyright photograph, 1898, by C, C. Langill,
+New York).
+
+GENERAL NELSON A. MILES.
+
+ADMIRAL GEORGE DEWEY.
+
+PROTECTED CRUISER OLYMPIA.
+
+GENERAL A. R. CHAFFEE.
+
+GENERAL MERRITT AND GENERAL GREENE TAKING A LOOK AT A SPANISH FIELD-GUN
+ON THE MALATE FORT.
+
+ADMIRAL WILLIAM T. SAMPSON.
+
+ADMIRAL W. S. SCHLEY.
+
+THE NEW CUBAN POLICE AS ORGANIZED BY EX-CHIEF OF NEW YORK POLICE
+McCULLAGH.
+
+SHOWING CONDITION OF STREETS IN SANTIAGO BEFORE STREET CLEANING
+DEPARTMENT WAS ORGANIZED.
+
+SANTIAGO STREET CLEANING DEPARTMENT.
+
+GOVERNOR-GENERAL LEONARD A. WOOD IN THE UNIFORM OF COLONEL OF ROUGH
+RIDERS.
+
+GOVERNOR-GENERAL LEONARD A. WOOD TRANSFERRING THE ISLAND OF CUBA TO
+PRESIDENT TOMASO ESTRADA PALMA, AS A CUBAN REPUBLIC, MAY, 1902.
+(Copyright stereoscopic photograph, by Underwood & Underwood, New York).
+
+THE JOLO TREATY COMMISSION.
+
+THREE HUNDRED BOYS IN THE PARADE OF JULY 4, 1902, YIGAN, ILOCOS.
+
+GIRL'S NORMAL INSTITUTE, YIGAN, ILOCOS, APRIL, 1902.
+
+IGORROTE RELIGIOUS DANCE, LEPONTO.
+
+IGORROTE HEAD HUNTERS, WITH HEAD AXES AND SPEARS.
+
+NATIVE MOROS--INTERIOR OF JOLO.
+
+EMILIO AGUINALDO.
+
+GENERAL FREDERICK FUNSTON--GENERAL A. McARTHUR.
+
+A COMPANY OF INSURRECTOS, NEAR BONGUED, ABIA PROVINCE, JUST PREVIOUS TO
+SURRENDERING EARLY IN 1901.
+
+ELEVENTH CAVALRY LANDING AT VIGAN, ILOCOS, APRIL, 1902.
+
+JULES CAMBON, THE FRENCH AMBASSADOR, ACTING FOR   SPAIN, RECEIVING FROM
+THE HONORABLE JOHN HAY, THE U. S. SECRETARY OF STATE, DRAFTS TO THE
+AMOUNT OF $20,000,000, IN PAYMENT FOR THE PHILIPPINES. (Copyright
+photograph, 1899, by Frances B. Johnston).
+
+NATIVE TAGALS AT ANGELES, FIFTY-ONE MILES FROM MANILA.
+
+BRINGING AMMUNITION TO THE FRONT FOR GENERAL OTIS'S BRIGADE, NORTH OF
+MANILA.
+
+FORT MALATE, CAVlTE.
+
+THE PASIG RIVER, MANILA.
+
+THE INAUGURATION OF GOVERNOR TAFT, MANILA, JULY 4, 1901.
+
+GROUP OF AMERICAN TEACHERS ON THE STEPS OF THE ESCUELA MUNICIPAL,
+MANILA.
+
+W. J. BRYAN ACCEPTING THE NOMINATION FOR PRESIDENT AT A JUBILEE MEETING
+HELD AT INDIANAPOLlS, AUGUST 8, 1900.
+
+THE REPUBLICAN NATIONAL CONVENTION, HELD IN PHILADELPHIA, JUNE, 1900.
+
+PARADE OF THE SOUND MONEY LEAGUE, NEW YORK, 1900
+PASSING THE REVIEWING STAND.
+
+MR. MERRIAM, DIRECTOR OF THE CENSUS.
+
+CENSUS EXAMINATION.
+
+THE CENSUS OFFICE, WASHINGTON, D. C.
+
+A CENSUS-TAKER AT WORK.
+
+ELECTRIC TOWER AND FOUNTAINS [BUFFALO].
+
+ETHNOLOGY BUILDING AND UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT BUILDING.
+
+TEMPLE OF MUSIC BY ELECTRIC LIGHT.
+
+GROUP OF BUFFALOS--PAN-AMERICAN EXPOSITION.
+
+ELECTRIC TOWER AT NIGHT.
+
+TRIUMPHAL BRIDGE AND ENTRANCE TO THE EXPOSITION, SHOWING ELECTRIC
+DISPLAY AT NIGHT.
+
+THE ELECTRICITY BUILDING.
+
+PRESIDENT McKINLEY AT NIAGARA--ASCENDING THE STAIRS FROM LUNA ISLAND TO
+GOAT ISLAND. (Copyright photograph, 1901, by C. E. Dunlap).
+
+THE LAST PHOTOGRAPH OF THE LATE PRESIDENT McKINLEY--TAKEN AS HE WAS
+ASCENDING THE STEPS OF THE TEMPLE OF MUSIC, SEPTEMBER 6, 1901.
+
+THE MILBURN RESIDENCE, WHERE PRESIDENT McKINLEY DIED--BUFFALO, N. Y.
+(Copyright photograph, 1902, by Underwood & Underwood).
+
+ASCENDING THE CAPITOL STEPS AT WASHINGTON, D. C., WHERE THE CASKET LAY
+IN STATE IN THE ROTUNDA.
+
+PRESIDENT McKINLEY'S REMAINS PASSING THE UNITED STATES TREASURY,
+WASHINGTON, D. C. (Copyright photograph, 1901, by Underwood &
+Underwood).
+
+THE HOME OF WILLIAM McKINLEY AT CANTON, OHIO. (Copyright photograph,
+1901, by Underwood & Underwood).
+
+INTERIOR OF ROOM IN WILCOX HOUSE WHERE THEODORE ROOSEVELT TOOK THE OATH
+OF PRESIDENCY.
+
+
+
+
+PERIOD VI.
+EXPANSION
+
+1888-1902
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+DRIFT AND DYE IN LAW-MAKING
+
+
+Race war at the South following the abolition of slavery, new social
+conditions everywhere, and the archaic nature of many provisions in the
+old laws, induced, as the century drew to a close, a pretty general
+revision of State constitutions. New England clung to instruments
+adopted before the civil war, though in most cases considerably amended.
+New Jersey was equally conservative, as were also Ohio, Indiana,
+Michigan, and Wisconsin. New York adopted in 1894 a new constitution
+which became operative January 1, 1895. Of the old States beyond the
+Mississippi only Kansas, Iowa, Minnesota, and Oregon remained content
+with ante-bellum instruments. Between 1864 and 1866 ten of the southern
+States inaugurated governments which were not recognized by Congress and
+had to be reconstructed. Ten of the eleven reconstruction constitutions
+were in turn overthrown by 1896. In a little over a generation,
+beginning with Minnesota, 1858, fourteen new States entered the Union,
+of which all but West Virginia and Nebraska retained at the end of the
+century their first bases of government. In some of these cases,
+however, copious amendments had rendered the constitutions in effect
+new.
+
+As a rule the new constitutions reserved to the people large powers
+formerly granted to one or more among the three departments of
+government. Most of them placed legislatures under more minute
+restrictions than formerly prevailed. The modern documents were much
+longer than earlier ones, dealing with many subjects previously left to
+statutes. Distrust of legislatures was further shown by shortening the
+length of sessions, making sessions biennial, forbidding the pledging of
+the public credit, inhibiting all private or special legislation, and
+fixing a maximum for the rate of taxation, for State debts, and for
+State expenditures.
+
+South Dakota, the first State to do so, applied the initiative and
+referendum, each to be set in motion by five per cent. of the voters, to
+general statutory legislation. Wisconsin provided for registering the
+names of legislative lobbyists, with various particulars touching their
+employment. The names of their employers had also to be put down. Many
+new points were ordered observed in the passing of laws, such as
+printing all bills, reading each one thrice, taking the yeas and nays on
+each, requiring an absolute majority to vote yea, the inhibition of
+"log-rolling" or the joining of two or more subjects under one title,
+and enactments against legislative bribery, lobbying, and "riders."
+
+While the legislature was snubbed there appeared a quite positive
+tendency to concentrate responsibility in the executive, causing the
+powers of governors considerably to increase. The governor now enjoyed a
+longer term, was oftener re-eligible, and could veto items or sections
+of bills. By the later constitutions most of the important executive
+officers were elected directly by the people, and made directly
+responsible neither to governors nor to legislatures.
+
+The newer constitutions and amendments paid great attention to the
+regulation of corporations, providing for commissions to deal with
+railroads, insurance, agriculture, dairy and food products, lands,
+prisons, and charities. They restricted trusts, monopolies, and
+lotteries. Modifications of the old jury system were introduced. Juries
+were made optional in civil cases, and not always obligatory in criminal
+cases. Juries of less than twelve were sometimes allowed, and a
+unanimous vote by a jury was not always required. Growing wealth and the
+consequent multiplication of litigants necessitated an increase in the
+number of judges in most courts. Efforts were made, with some success,
+by combining common law with equity procedure, and in other ways, to
+render lawsuits more simple, expeditious, and inexpensive.
+
+Restrictions were enacted on the hours of labor, the management of
+factories, the alien ownership of land. The old latitude of giving and
+receiving by inheritance was trenched upon by inheritance taxes. The
+curbing of legislatures, the popular election of executives, civil
+service reform, and the creation of a body of administrative
+functionaries with clearly defined duties, betrayed movement toward an
+administrative system.
+
+A stronghold of political corruption was assaulted from 1888 to 1894 by
+a hopeful measure known as the "Australian" ballot. It took various
+forms in different States yet its essence everywhere was the provision
+enabling every voter to prepare and fold his ballot in a stall by
+himself, with no one to dictate, molest, or observe. Massachusetts, also
+the city of Louisville, Ky., employed this system of voting so early as
+1888. Next year ten States enacted similar laws. In 1890 four more
+followed, and in 1891 fourteen more. By 1898 thirty-nine States, all the
+members of the Union but six, had taken up "kangaroo voting," as its
+foes dubbed it. Of these six States five were southern.
+
+
+[Illustration: About twenty men in a room with tables, some voters, and
+others officials.]
+A New York Polling Place, showing booths on the left.
+
+
+An official ballot replaced the privately--often dishonestly--prepared
+party ballots formerly hawked about each polling place by political
+workers. The new ballot was a "blanket," bearing a list of all the
+candidates for each office to be filled. The arrangement of candidates'
+names varied in different States. By one style of ticket it was easy for
+the illiterate or the straight-out party man to mark party candidates.
+Another made voting difficult for the ignorant, but a delight to the
+discriminating.
+
+The new ballot, though certainly an improvement, failed to produce the
+full results expected of it. The connivance of election officials and
+corrupt voters often annulled its virtue by devices growing in variety
+and ingenuity as politicians became acquainted with the reform. Statutes
+and sometimes constitutions therefore went further, making the count of
+ballots public, ordering it carried out near the polling place, and
+allowing municipalities to insure a still more secret vote and an
+instantaneous, unerring tally by the use of voting machines.
+
+In the North and West the tendency of the new fundamental laws was to
+widen the suffrage, rendering it, for males over twenty-one years of
+age, practically universal. Woman suffrage, especially on local and
+educational matters, spread more and more. Wyoming, Colorado, Idaho, and
+Utah women voted upon exactly the same terms as men. In Idaho women sat
+in the legislature. There was much agitation for minority
+representation. Illinois set an example by the experiment of cumulative
+voting in the election of lower house members of the legislature.
+
+Nearly everywhere at the South constitutional reform involved negro
+disfranchisement. The blacks were numerous, but their rule meant ruin.
+It was easy for the whites to keep them in check, as had been done for
+years, by bribery and threats, supplemented, when necessary, by flogging
+and the shotgun, But this gave to the rising generation of white men the
+worst possible sort of a political education. The system was too
+barbarous to continue. What meaning could free institutions have for
+young voters who had never in all their lives seen an election carried
+save by these vicious means! New constitutions which should legally
+eliminate most of the negro vote were the alternative.
+
+In Florida, Alabama, Tennessee, Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi,
+Georgia, North and South Carolina, proof of having paid taxes or
+poll-taxes was (as in some northern and western States) made an
+indispensable prerequisite to voting, either alone or as an alternative
+for an educational qualification. Virginia used this policy until 1882
+and resumed it again in 1902, cutting off such as had not paid or had
+failed to preserve or bring to the polls their receipts. Many States
+surrounded registration and voting with complex enactments. An
+educational qualification, often very elastic, sometimes the voter's
+alternative for a tax-receipt, was resorted to by Alabama, Arkansas,
+Mississippi, Tennessee, and South Carolina. Georgia in 1898 rejected
+such a device. Alabama hesitated, jealous lest illiterate whites should
+lose their votes. But, after the failure of one resolution for a
+convention, this State, too, upon the stipulation that the new
+constitution should disfranchise no white voter and that it should be
+submitted to the people for ratification, not promulgated directly by
+its authors as was done in South Carolina, Louisiana, and later in
+Virginia and Delaware, consented to a revision, which was ratified at
+the polls November, 1901, not escaping censure for its drastic
+thoroughness. Its distinctive feature was the "good character clause,"
+whereby an appointment board in each county registers "all voters under
+the present [previous] law" who are veterans or the lawful descendants
+of such, and "all who are of good character and understand the duties
+and obligations of citizenship."
+
+In the above line of constitution-framing, whose problem was to steer
+between the Scylla of the Fifteenth Amendment and the Charybdis of negro
+domination, viz., legally abridge the negro vote so as to insure
+Caucasian supremacy at the polls, Mississippi led. The "Mississippi
+plan," originating, it is believed, in the brain of Senator James Z.
+George, had for its main features a registry tax and an educational
+qualification, all adjustable to practical exigencies. Each voter must
+pay a poll-tax of at least $2.00 and never to exceed $3.00, producing to
+the election overseers satisfactory evidence of having paid such poll
+and all other legal taxes. He must be registered "as provided by law"
+and "be able to read any section of the constitution of the State, to
+understand the same when read to him, or to give a reasonable
+interpretation thereof." In municipal elections electors were required
+to have "such additional qualifications as might be prescribed by law."
+
+This constitution was attacked as not having been submitted to the
+people for ratification and as violating the Act of Congress readmitting
+Mississippi; but the State Supreme Court sustained it, and was confirmed
+in this by the United States Supreme Court in dealing with the similar
+Louisiana constitution.
+
+As a spur to negro education the Mississippi constitution worked well.
+The Mississippi negroes who got their names on the voting list rose from
+9,036 in 1892 to 16,965 in 1895. This result of the "plan" did not deter
+South Carolina from adopting it. Dread of negro domination haunted the
+Palmetto State the more in proportion as her white population, led by
+the enterprising Benjamin R. Tillman, who became governor and then
+senator, got control and set aside the "Bourbons."
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Benjamin R. Tillman.
+
+
+So early as 1882 South Carolina passed a registration act which, amended
+in 1893 and 1894, compelled registration some four months before
+ordinary elections and required registry certificates to be produced at
+the polls. Other laws made the road to the ballot-box a labyrinth
+wherein not only most negroes but some whites were lost. The multiple
+ballot-boxes alone were a Chinese puzzle. This act was attacked as
+repugnant to the State and to the federal constitution. On May 8, 1895,
+Judge Goff of the United States Circuit Court declared it
+unconstitutional and enjoined the State from taking further action under
+it. But in June the Circuit Court of Appeals reversed Judge Goff and
+dissolved the injunction, leaving the way open for a convention.
+
+The convention met on September 10th and adjourned on December 4, 1895.
+By the new constitution the Mississippi plan was to be followed until
+January 1, 1898. Any male citizen could be registered who was able to
+read a section of the constitution or to satisfy the election officers
+that he understood it when read to him. Those thus registered were to
+remain voters for life. After the date named applicants for registry
+must be able both to read and to write any section of the constitution
+or to show tax-receipts for poll-tax and for taxes on at least $300
+worth of property. The property and the intelligence qualification each
+met with strenuous opposition, but it was thought that neither alone
+would serve the purpose.
+
+The Louisiana constitution of 1898, in place of the Mississippi
+"understanding" clause or the Alabama "good character" clause, enacted
+the celebrated "grandfather" clause. The would-be voter must be able to
+read and write English or his native tongue, or own property assessed at
+$300 or more; but any citizen who was a voter on January I, 1867, or his
+son or his grandson, or any person naturalized prior to January 1, 1898,
+if applying for registration before September 1, 1898, might vote,
+notwithstanding both illiteracy and poverty. Separate registration lists
+were provided for whites and blacks, and a longer term of residence
+required in State, county, parish, and precinct before voting than by
+the constitution of 1879.
+
+North Carolina adopted her suffrage amendment in 1900. It lengthened the
+term of residence before registration and enacted both educational
+qualification and prepayment of poll-tax, only exempting from this tax
+those entitled to vote January 1, 1867. In 1902 Virginia adopted an
+instrument with the "understanding" cause for use until 1904, hedging the
+suffrage after that date by a poll-tax. Application for registration
+must be in the applicant's handwriting, written in the presence of the
+registrar.
+
+White solidarity yielding with time, there were heard in the Carolinas,
+Alabama, and Louisiana, loud allegations, not always unfounded, that
+this side or that had availed itself of negro votes to make up a deficit
+or turned the enginery of vote suppression against its opponents' white
+supporters.
+
+Most States which overthrew negro suffrage seemed glad to think of the
+new regime as involving no perjury, fraud, violence, or
+lese-constitution. Some of Alabama's spokesmen were of a different
+temper, paying scant heed to the federal questions involved. "The
+constitution of '75," they said, "recognized the Fifteenth Amendment,
+which Alabama never adopted, and guaranteed the negro all the rights of
+suffrage the white man enjoys. The new constitution omits that section.
+Under its suffrage provisions the white man will rule for all time in
+Alabama."
+
+The North, once ablaze with zeal for the civil and political rights of
+the southern negro, heard the march of this exultant southern crusade
+with equanimity, with indifference, almost with sympathy. Perfunctory
+efforts were made in Congress to secure investigation of negro
+disfranchisement, but they evoked feeble response.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+THE PRESIDENTIAL CAMPAIGN OF 1888
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Grover Cleveland.
+Photograph copyrighted by C. M. Bell.
+
+
+In looking forward to the presidential campaign of 1888 the Democracy
+had no difficulty in selecting its leader or its slogan. The custom,
+almost like law, of renominating a presidential incumbent at the end of
+his first term, pointed to Mr. Cleveland's candidacy, as did the
+considerable success of his administration in quelling factions and in
+silencing enemies. At the same time reform for a lower tariff, with
+which cause he had boldly identified himself, was marked anew as a main
+article of the Democratic creed. The nomination of Allen G. Thurman for
+Vice-President brought to the ticket what its head seemed to
+lack--popularity among the people of the West--and did much to hearten
+all such Democrats as insisted upon voting a ticket free from all taint
+of mugwumpery.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+W. Q. Gresham.
+
+The attitude of the Democratic party being favorable to tariff
+reduction, the Republicans must perforce raise the banner of high
+protection; but public opinion did not forestall the convention in
+naming the Republican standard-bearer. The convention met in Chicago. At
+first John Sherman of Ohio received 229 votes; Walter Q. Gresham of
+Indiana, 111; Chauncey M. Depew of New York, 99; and Russell A. Alger of
+Michigan, 84. Harrison began with 80; Blaine had but 35. After the third
+ballot Depew withdrew his name. On the fourth, New York and Wisconsin
+joined the Harrison forces. A stampede of the convention for Blaine was
+expected, but did not come, being hindered in part by the halting tenor
+of despatches received from the Plumed Knight, then beyond sea. After
+the fifth ballot two cablegrams were received from Blaine, requesting
+his friends to discontinue voting for him. Two ballots more having been
+taken, Allison, who had been receiving a considerable vote, withdrew.
+The eighth ballot nominated Harrison, and the name of  Levi P. Morton,
+of New York, was at once placed beneath his on the ticket.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Levi P. Morton.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Benjamin Harrison.
+
+
+Mr. Harrison was the grandson of President William Henry Harrison, great
+grandson, therefore, of Governor Benjamin Harrison, of Virginia, the
+ardent revolutionary patriot, signer of the Declaration of Independence.
+An older scion of the family had served as major-general in Cromwell's
+army and been executed for signing the death-warrant of King Charles I.
+The Republican candidate was born on a farm at North Bend, Ohio, August
+20, 1883. The boy's earliest education was acquired in a log
+schoolhouse. He afterward attended Miami University, in Ohio, where he
+graduated at the age of nineteen. The next year he was admitted to the
+bar. In 1854 he married, and opened a law office in Indianapolis. In
+1860 he became Reporter of Decisions to the Indiana Supreme Court. When
+the civil war broke out, obeying the spirit that in his grandfather had
+won at Tippecanoe and the Thames, young Harrison recruited a regiment,
+of which he was soon commissioned colonel. Gallant services under
+Sherman at Resaca and Peach Tree Creek brought him the brevet of
+brigadier. After his return from war, owing to his high character, his
+lineage, his fine war record, his power as a speaker and his popularity
+in a pivotal State, he was a prominent figure in politics, not only in
+Indiana, but more and more nationally. In 1876 he ran for the Indiana
+Governership, but was defeated by a small margin. In 1880 he was
+chairman of the Indiana delegation to the Republican National
+Convention. In 1881 he was elected United States Senator, declining an
+offer of a seat in Garfield's Cabinet. From 1880, when Indiana presented
+his name to the Republican National Convention, General Harrison was, in
+the West, constantly thought of as a presidential possibility. Eclipsed
+by Blaine in 1884, he came forward again in 1888, this time to win.
+
+In the East General Harrison was much underrated. Papers opposing his
+election fondly cartooned him wearing "Grandfather's hat," as if family
+connection alone recommended him. It was a great mistake. The grandson
+had all the grandsire's strong qualities and many besides. He was a
+student and a thinker. His character was absolutely irreproachable. His
+information was exact, large, and always ready for use. His speeches had
+ease, order, correctness, and point. With the West he was particularly
+strong, an element of availability which Cleveland lacked. In the Senate
+he had won renown both as a debater and as a sane adviser. As a
+consistent protectionist he favored restriction upon Chinese immigration
+and prohibition against the importation of contract labor. He upheld all
+efforts for reform in the civil service and for strengthening the navy.
+
+In the presidential campaign of 1888 personalities had little place.
+Instead, there was active discussion of party principles and policies.
+The tariff issue was of course prominent. A characteristic piece of
+enginery in the contest was the political club, which now, for the first
+time in our history, became a recognized force. The National Association
+of Democratic Clubs comprised some 3,000 units, numerous auxiliary
+reform and tariff reform clubs being active on the same side. The
+Republican League, corresponding to the Democratic Association, boasted,
+by August, 1887, 6,500 clubs, with a million voters on their rolls.
+Before election day Indiana alone had 1,100 Republican clubs and New
+York 1,400.
+
+During most of the campaign Democratic success was freely predicted and
+seemed assured. Yet from the first forces were in exercise which
+threatened a contrary result. Federal patronage helped the
+administration less than was expected, while it nerved the opposition.
+The Republicans had a force of earnest and harmonious workers. Of the
+multitude, on the other hand, who in 1884 had aided to achieve victory
+for the Democracy, few, of course, had received the rewards which they
+deemed due them. In vain did officeholders contribute toil and money
+while that disappointed majority were so slow and spiritless in rallying
+to the party's summons, and so many of them even hostile. The zeal of
+honest Democrats was stricken by what Gail Hamilton wittily called "the
+upas bloom" of civil service reform, which the President still displayed
+upon his lapel. To a large number of ardent civil service reformers who
+had originally voted for Cleveland this decoration now seemed so wilted
+that, more in indignation than in hope, they went over to Harrison.
+The public at large resented the loss which the service had suffered
+through changes in the civil list. Harrison without much of a record
+either to belie or to confirm his words, at least commended and espoused
+the reform.
+
+Democratic blunders thrust the sectional issue needlessly to the fore.
+Mr. Cleveland's willingness to return to their respective States the
+Confederate flags captured by Union regiments in the civil war; his
+fishing trip on Memorial Day; the choice of Mr. Mills, a Texan, to lead
+the tariff fight in Congress; and the prominence of southerners among
+the Democratic campaign orators at the North, were themes of countless
+diatribes.
+
+A clever Republican device, known as "the Murchison letter," did a great
+deal to impress thoughtless voters that Mr. Cleveland was "un-American."
+The incident was dramatic and farcical to a degree. The Murchison
+letter, which interested the entire country for two or three weeks,
+purported to come from a perplexed Englishman, addressing the British
+Minister at Washington, Lord Sackville-West. It sought counsel of Her
+Majesty's representative, as the "fountainhead of knowledge," upon "the
+mysterious subject" how best to serve England in voting at the
+approaching American election. The seeker after light recounted
+President Cleveland's kindness to England in not enforcing the
+retaliatory act then recently passed by Congress as its ultimatum in the
+fisheries dispute, his soundness on the free trade question, and his
+hostility to the "dynamite schools of Ireland." The writer set Mr.
+Harrison down as a painful contrast to the President. He was "a
+high-tariff man, a believer on the American side of all questions, and
+undoubtedly, an enemy to British interests generally." But the inquirer
+professes alarm at Cleveland's message on the fishery question which had
+just been sent to Congress, and wound up with the query "whether Mr.
+Cleveland's policy is temporary only, and whether he will, as soon as he
+secures another term of four years in the presidency, suspend it for one
+of friendship and free trade."
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Lord L. S. Sackville-West.
+
+
+The Minister replied:
+
+"Sir:--I am in receipt of your letter of the 4th inst., and beg to say
+that I fully appreciate the difficulty in which you find yourself in
+casting your vote. You are probably aware that any political party which
+openly favored the mother country at the present moment would lose
+popularity, and that the party in power is fully aware of the fact. The
+party, however, is, I believe, still desirous of maintaining friendly
+relations with Great Britain and still desirous of settling questions
+with Canada which have been, unfortunately, reopened since the
+retraction of the treaty by the Republican majority in the Senate and by
+the President's message to which you allude. All allowances must
+therefore be made for the political situation as regards the
+Presidential election thus created. It is, however, impossible to
+predict the course which President Cleveland may pursue in the matter of
+retaliation should he be elected; but there is every reason to believe
+that, while upholding the position he has taken, he will manifest a
+spirit of conciliation in dealing with the question involved in his
+message. I enclose an article from the New York 'Times' of August 22d,
+and remain, yours faithfully,
+                                                "L. S. SACKVILLE-WEST."
+
+This correspondence, published on October 24th, took instant and
+universal effect. The President at first inclined to ignore the
+incident, but soon yielded to the urgency of his managers, and, to keep
+"the Irish vote" from slipping away, asked for the minister's recall.
+Great Britain refusing this, the minister's passports were delivered
+him. The act was vain and worse. Without availing to parry the enemy's
+thrust, it incurred not only the resentment of the English Government,
+but the disapproval of the Administration's soberest friends at home.
+
+Influences with which practical politicians were familiar had their
+bearing upon the outcome. In New York State, where occurred the worst
+tug of war, Governor Hill and his friends, while boasting their
+democracy, were widely believed to connive at the trading of Democratic
+votes for Harrison in return for Republican votes for Hill. At any rate,
+New York State was carried for both.
+
+It is unfortunately necessary to add that the 1888 election was most
+corrupt. The campaign was estimated to have cost the two parties
+$6,000,000. Assessments on office-holders, as well as other subsidies,
+replenished the Democrats' campaign treasury; while the manufacturers of
+the country, who had been pretty close four years before, now regarding
+their interest and even their honor as assailed, generously contributed
+often as the Republican hat went around.
+
+In Indiana, Mr. Harrison's home State, no resource was left untried. The
+National Republican Committee wrote the party managers in that State:
+"Divide the floaters into blocks of five, and put a trusted man with
+necessary funds in charge of these five, and make him responsible that
+none get away, and that all vote our ticket." This mandate the workers
+faithfully obeyed.
+
+So far as argument had weight the election turned mainly upon the tariff
+issue. The Republicans held that protection was on trial for its life.
+Many Democrats cherished the very same view, only they denounced the
+prisoner at the bar as a culprit, not a martyr. They inveighed against
+protection as pure robbery. They accused the tariff of causing Trusts,
+against which several bills had recently been introduced in Congress.
+Democratic extremists proclaimed that Republicans slavishly served the
+rich and fiendishly ground the faces of the poor. Even moderate
+Democrats, who simply urged that protective rates should be reduced,
+more often than otherwise supported their proposals with out and out
+free trade arguments. As to President Cleveland himself no one could
+tell whether or not he was a free trader, but his discussions of the
+tariff read like Cobden Club tracts. The Mills bill, which passed the
+House in the Fiftieth Congress, would have been more a tariff for
+revenue than in any sense protective. Republican orators and organs
+therefore pictured "British free trade" as the dire, certain sequel of
+the Cleveland policy if carried out, and, whether convinced by the
+argument or startled by the ado of Harrison's supporters, people, to be
+on the safe side, voted to uphold the "American System."
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Joseph B. Foraker.
+
+
+More than eleven million ballots were cast at the election, yet so
+closely balanced were the parties that a change of 10,000 votes in
+Indiana and New York, both of which went for Harrison would have
+reelected Cleveland. As it was, his popular vote of 5,540,000 exceeded
+by 140,000 that of Harrison, which numbered 5,400,000. Besides bolding
+the Senate the Republicans won a face majority of ten in the House,
+subsequently increased by unseating and seating. They were thus in
+control of all branches of the general government.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+MR. HARRISON'S ADMINISTRATION.
+
+
+The new President, of course, renounced his predecessor's policy upon
+the tariff, but continued it touching the navy. He advocated steamship
+subsidies, reform in electoral laws, and such amendment to the
+immigration laws as would effectively exclude undesirable foreigners.
+
+A chief effect of the Kearney movement in California, culminating in the
+California constitution of 1879, was intense opposition throughout the
+Pacific States to any further admission of the Chinese. The constitution
+named forbade the employment of Chinese by the State or by any
+corporation doing business therein. This hostility spread eastward, and,
+in spite of interested capitalists and disinterested philanthropists,
+shaped all Subsequent Chinese legislation in Congress. The pacific
+spirit of the Burlingame treaty in 1868, shown also by President Hayes
+in vetoing the Anti-Chinese bill of 1878, died out more and more.
+
+
+[Illustration: Speaker exhorting a crowd.]
+"The Chinese must go!"
+Denis Kearney addressing the working-men on the night of October 29, on
+Nob Hill, San Francisco.
+
+
+A law passed in 1881 provided that Chinese immigration might be
+regulated, limited, or suspended by the United States. A bill
+prohibiting such immigration for twenty years was vetoed by President
+Arthur, but another reducing the period to ten years became law in 1882.
+In 1888 this was amended to prohibit the return of Chinese laborers who
+had been in the United States but had left. In 1892 was passed the Geary
+law re-enacting for ten years more the prohibitions then in force, only
+making them more rigid. Substantially the same enactments were renewed
+in 1902.
+
+Mr. Harrison wished this policy of a closed state put in force against
+Europe as well as against Asia. An act of Congress passed August 2,
+1882, prohibited the landing from any country of any would-be immigrant
+who was a convict, lunatic, idiot, or unable to take care of himself.
+This law, like the supplementary one of March 3, 1887, proved
+inadequate. In 1888 American consuls represented that transatlantic
+steamship companies were employing unscrupulous brokers to procure
+emigrants for America, the brokerage being from three to five dollars
+per head, and that most emigrants were of a class utterly unfitted for
+citizenship.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Thomas B. Reed.
+
+
+The President's urgency in this matter had little effect, the attention
+of Congress being early diverted to other subjects. Three great measures
+mainly embodied the Republican policy--the Federal Elections Bill, the
+McKinley Tariff Bill, and the Dependent Pensions Bill.
+
+As Speaker of the House, Hon. Thomas B. Reed, of Maine, put through
+certain parliamentary innovations necessary to enact the party's will.
+He declined to entertain dilatory motions. More important, he ordered
+the clerk to register as "present and not voting," those whom he saw
+endeavoring by stubborn silence to break a quorum. A majority being the
+constitutional quorum, theretofore, unless a majority answered to their
+names upon roll-call, no majority appeared of record, although the
+sergeant-at-arms was empowered to compel the presence of every member.
+As the traditional safeguard of minorities and as a compressed airbrake
+on majority action, silence became more powerful than words. Under the
+Reed theory, since adopted, that the House may, through its Speaker,
+determine in its own way the presence of a quorum, the Speaker's or the
+clerk's eye was substituted for the voice of any member in demonstrating
+such member's presence.
+
+Many, not all Democrats, opposed the Reed policy as arbitrary. Mr.
+Evarts is said to have remarked, "Reed, you seem to think a deliberative
+body like a woman; if it deliberates, it is lost." On the "yeas and
+nays" or at any roll-call some would dodge out of sight, others break
+for the doors only to find them closed. A Texas member kicked down a
+door to make good his escape. Yet, having calculated the scope of his
+authority, Mr. Reed coolly continued to count and declare quorums
+whenever such were present. The Democratic majority of 1893 transferred
+this newly discovered prerogative of the Speaker, where possible, to
+tellers. Now and then they employed it as artillery to fire at Mr. Reed
+himself, but he each time received the shot with smiles.
+
+The cause for which the counting of quorums was invoked made it doubly
+odious to Democratic members. To restore the suffrage to southern
+negroes the Republicans proposed federal supervision of federal
+elections. This suggestion of a "Force Bill" rekindled sectional
+bitterness. One State refused to be represented at the World's Columbian
+Exposition of 1893, a United States marshal was murdered in Florida, a
+Grand Army Post was mobbed at Whitesville, Ky. Parts of the South
+proposed a boycott on northern goods. Many at the North favored white
+domination in the South rather than a return of the carpet-bag regime,
+regarding the situation a just retribution for Republicans' highhanded
+procedure in enfranchising black ignorance. Sober Republicans foresaw
+that a force law would not break up the solid South, but perpetuate it.
+The House, however, passed the bill. In the Senate it was killed only by
+"filibuster" tactics, free silver Republican members joining members
+from the South to prevent the adoption of cloture.
+
+A Treasury surplus of about $97,000,000 (in October, 1888) tempted the
+Fifty-first Congress to expenditures then deemed vast, though often
+surpassed since. The Fifty-first became known as the "Billion Dollar
+Congress." What drew most heavily upon the national strong-box was the
+Dependent Pensions Act. In this culminated a course of legislation
+repeating with similar results that which began early in the history of
+our country, occasioning the adage that "The Revolutionary claimant
+never dies." By 1820 the experiment entailed an expenditure of a little
+over twenty-five cents per capita of our population.
+
+In 1880 Congress was induced to endow each pensioner with a back pension
+equal to what his pension would have been had he applied on the date of
+receiving his injury. Under the old law pension outlay had been at high
+tide in 1871, standing then at $34,443,894. Seven years later it shrank
+to $27,137,019. In 1883 it exceeded $66,000,000; in 1889 it approached
+$88,000,000. But the act of 1890, similar to one vetoed by President
+Cleveland three years before, carried the pension figure to $106,493,000
+in 1890, to $118,584,000 in 1891, and to about $159,000,000 in 1893. It
+offered pensions to all soldiers and sailors incapacitated for manual
+labor who had served the Union ninety days, or, if they were dead, to
+their widows, children, or dependent parents. 311,567 pension
+certificates were issued during the fiscal year 1891-1892.
+
+While thus increasing outgo, the Fifty-first Congress planned to
+diminish income, not by lowering tariff rates, as the last
+Administration had recommended, but by pushing them up to or toward the
+prohibitive point. The McKinley Act, passed October 1, 1890, made sugar,
+a lucrative revenue article, free, and gave a bounty to sugar producers
+in this country, together with a discriminating duty of one-tenth of a
+cent per pound on sugar imported hither from countries which paid an
+export bounty thereon.
+
+The "Blaine" reciprocity feature of this act proved its most popular
+grace. In 1891 we entered into reciprocity agreements with Brazil, with
+the Dominican Republic, and with Spain for Cuba and Porto Rico. In 1892
+we covenanted similarly with the United Kingdom on behalf of the British
+West Indies and British Guiana, and with Nicaragua, Salvador, Honduras,
+Guatemala and Austria-Hungary. How far our trade was thus benefited is
+matter of controversy. Imports from these countries were certainly much
+enlarged. Our exportation of flour to these lands increased a result
+commonly ascribed to reciprocity, though the simultaneous increase in
+the amounts of flour we sent to other countries was a third more rapid.
+
+The international copyright law, meeting favor with the literary, was
+among the most conspicuous enactments of the Fifty-first Congress. An
+international copyright treaty had been entered into in 1886, but it did
+not include the United States. Two years later a bill to the same end
+failed in Congress. At last, on March 3, 1891, President Harrison signed
+an act which provided for United States copyright for any foreign
+author, designer, artist, or dramatist, albeit the two copies of a book,
+photograph, chromo, or lithograph required to be deposited with the
+Librarian of Congress must be printed from type set within the limits of
+the United States or from plates made therefrom, or from negatives or
+drawings on stone made within the limits of the United States or from
+transfers therefrom. Foreign authors, like native or naturalized, could
+renew their United States copyrights, and penalties were prescribed to
+protect these rights from infringement.
+
+Mr. Blaine, the most eminent Republican statesman surviving, was now
+less conspicuous than McKinley, Lodge, and Reed, with whom, by his
+opposition to extreme protection and to the Force Bill, he stood at
+sharp variance. As Secretary of State, however, to which post President
+Harrison had perforce assigned him, he still drew public attention,
+having to deal with several awkward international complications.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+David C. Hennessy.
+
+
+The city of New Orleans, often tempted to appeal from bad law to
+anarchy, was in the spring of 1891 swept off its feet by such a
+temptation. Chief of Police David C. Hennessy was one night ambushed and
+shot to death near his home by members of the Sicilian "Mafia," a
+secret, oath-bound body of murderous blackmailers whom he was hunting to
+earth. When at the trial of the culprits the jury, in face of cogent
+evidence, acquitted six and disagreed as to the rest, red fury succeeded
+white amazement. A huge mob encircled the jail, crushed in its
+barricaded doors, and shot or hung the trembling Italians within.
+
+
+[Illustration: Mob breaking into a prison.]
+An episode of the lynching of the Italians in New Orleans. The citizens
+breaking down the door of the parish prison with the beam brought there
+the night before for that purpose.
+
+
+[Illustration: Three story building.]
+Old Parish Jail, New Orleans, La.
+
+
+[Illustration: Downtown street, three and fours story buildings,
+streetcars.]
+Canal Street, New Orleans La.
+
+
+Italy forthwith sent her protest to Mr. Blaine, who expressed his horror
+at the deed, and urged Governor Nicholls to see the guilty brought to
+justice. The Italian consul at New Orleans averred that, while the
+victims included bad men, many of the charges against them were without
+foundation; that the violence was foreseen and avoidable; that he had in
+vain besought military protection for the prisoners, and had himself,
+with his secretary, been assaulted and mobbed.
+
+The Marquis di Rudini insisted on indemnity for the murdered men's
+families and on the instant punishment of the assassins. Secretary
+Blaine, not refusing indemnity in this instance, denied the right to
+demand the same, still more the propriety of insisting upon the instant
+punishment of the offenders, since the utmost that could be done at once
+was to institute judicial proceedings, which was the exclusive function
+of the State of Louisiana. The Italian public thought this equivocation,
+mean truckling to the American prejudice against Italians. Baron Fava,
+Italian Minister at Washington, was ordered to "affirm the inutility of
+his presence near a government that had no power to guarantee such
+justice as in Italy is administered equally in favor of citizens of all
+nationalities." "I do not," replied Mr. Blaine, "recognize the right of
+any government to tell the United States what it shall do; we have never
+received orders from any foreign power and shall not begin now. It is to
+me," he said, "a matter of indifference what persons in Italy think of
+our institutions. I cannot change them, still less violate them."
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+A. G. Thurman.
+
+Such judicial proceedings as could be had against the lynchers broke
+down completely. The Italian Minister withdrew, but his government
+finally accepted $25,000 indemnity for the murdered men's families.
+
+Friction with Chile arose from the "Itata incident." Chile was torn by
+civil war between adherents of President Balmaceda and the
+"congressional party." Mr. Egan, American Minister at Santiago, rendered
+himself widely unpopular among Chilians by his espousal of the
+President's cause. The Itata, a cruiser in the congressionalist service,
+was on May 6, 1891, at Egan's request, seized at San Diego, Cal., by the
+federal authorities, on the ground that she was about to carry a cargo
+of arms to the revolutionists. Escaping, she surrendered at her will to
+the United States squadron at Iquique. The congressionalists resented
+our interference; the Balmaceda party were angry that we interfered to
+so little effect. A Valparaiso mob killed two American sailors and hurt
+eighteen more. Chile, however, tendered a satisfactory indemnity.
+
+
+[Illustration: Ship with two masts and one smokestack.]
+Chilian steamer Itata in San Diego Harbor.
+
+
+In the so-called "Barrundia incident" occurring in 1890 Americanism
+overshot itself. The Guatemalan refugee, General Barrundia, boarded the
+Pacific Mail steamer Acapulco for Salvador upon assurance that he would
+not be delivered to the authorities of his native land. At San Jose de
+Guatemala the Guatemala authorities sought to arrest him, and United
+States Minister Mizner, Consul-General Hosmer, and Commander Reiter of
+the United States Ship of War Ranger, concurred in advising Captain
+Pitts of the Acapulco that Guatemala had a right to do this. Barrundia
+resisted arrest and was killed. Both Mizner and Reiter were reprimanded
+and removed, Reiter being, however, placed in another command.
+
+Our government's attitude in this matter was untenable. The two
+officials were in fact punished for having acted with admirable judgment
+and done each his exact duty.
+
+One of President Harrison's earliest diplomatic acts was the treaty of
+1889 with Great Britain and Germany, by which, in conjunction with those
+nations, the United States established a joint protectorate over the
+Samoan Islands. On December 2, 1899, the three powers named agreed to a
+new treaty, by which the United States assumed full sovereignty over
+Tutuila and all the other Samoan islands east of longitude 171 degrees
+west from Greenwich, renouncing in favor of the other signatories all
+rights and claims over the remainder of the group.
+
+In the congressional campaign of 1890 issue was squarely joined upon the
+neo-Republican policy. The billion dollars gone, the Force Bill, and,
+to a less extent, the McKinley tariff, especially its sugar bounty, had
+aroused popular resentment. The election, an unprecedented "landslide,"
+precipitated a huge Democratic majority into the House of
+Representatives. Every community east of the Pacific slope felt the
+movement. Pennsylvania elected a Democratic governor.
+
+
+[Illustration: Rowboat with sixteen men leaving a ship.]
+President Harrison being rowed ashore at foot of Wall Street,
+New York, April 29, 1889.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+NON-POLITICAL EVENTS OF PRESIDENT HARRISON'S TERM
+
+
+President Harrison's quadrennium was a milestone between two
+generations. Memorials on every hand to the heroes of the Civil War
+shocked one with the sense that they and the events they molded were
+already of the past. Logan, Arthur, Sheridan, and Hancock had died. In
+1891 General Sherman and Admiral Porter fell within a day of each other.
+General Joseph E. Johnston, who had been a pall-bearer at the funeral of
+each, rejoined them in a month.
+
+This presidential term was pivotal in another way. The centennial
+anniversary of Washington's inauguration as President fell on April 30,
+1889. In observance of the occasion President Harrison followed the
+itinerary of one hundred years before, from the Governor's mansion in
+New Jersey to the foot of Wall Street, in New York City, to old St.
+Paul's Church, on Broadway, and to the site where the first Chief
+Magistrate first took the oath of office. Three days devoted to the
+commemorative exercises were a round of naval, military, and industrial
+parades, with music, oratory, pageantry, and festivities. For this
+Centennial Whittier composed an ode. The venerable Rev. S. F. Smith, who
+had written "America" fifty-seven years before, was also inspired by the
+occasion to pen a Century Hymn, and to add to "America" the stanza:
+
+"Our joyful hearts to-day,
+Their grateful tribute pay,
+  Happy and free,
+After our toils and fears,
+After our blood and tears,
+Strong with our hundred years,
+  O God, to Thee."
+
+
+[Illustration: Parade.]
+Washington Inaugural Celebration, 1889, New York.
+Parade passing Union Square on Broadway.
+
+At the opening of this its second century of existence the nation was
+confronted by entirely new issues. Bitterness between North and South,
+spite of its brief recrudescence during the pendency of the Force Bill,
+was fast dying out. At the unveiling of the noble monument to Robert E.
+Lee at Richmond, in May, 1890, while, of course, Confederate leaders
+were warmly cheered and the Confederate flag was displayed, various
+circumstances made it clear that this zeal was not in derogation of the
+restored Union.
+
+The last outbreaks of sectional animosity related to Jefferson Davis, in
+whom, both to the North and to the South, the ghost of the Lost Cause
+had become curiously personified. The question whether or not he was a
+traitor was for years zealously debated in Congress and outside. The
+general amnesty after the war had excepted Davis. When a bill was before
+Congress giving suitable pensions to Mexican War soldiers and sailors,
+an amendment was carried, amid much bitterness, excluding the
+ex-president of the Confederacy from the benefits thereof. Northerners
+naturally glorified their triumph in the war as a victory for the
+Constitution, nor could they wholly withstand the inclination to
+question the motives of the secession leaders. Southerners, however
+loyal now to the Union, were equally bold in asserting that, since in
+1861 the question of the nature of the Union had not been settled, Mr.
+Davis and the rest might attempt secession, not as foes of the
+Constitution, but as, in their own thought, its most loyal friends and
+defenders.
+
+
+[Illustration: Statue about three times life size on a 30 foot pedestal.]
+Unveiling of the Equestrian Statue of Robert E. Lee, May 29. 1890.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Henry W. Grady.
+
+
+By 1890 the days were passed when denunciation of Davis or of the South
+electrified the North, nor did the South on its part longer waste time
+in impotent resentments or regrets. The brilliant and fervid utterances
+on "The New South" by editor Henry W. Grady, of the Atlanta
+Constitution, went home to the hearts of Northerners, doing much to
+allay sectional feeling. Grady died, untimely, in 1889, lamented nowhere
+more sincerely than at the North.
+
+
+When Federal intervention occurred to put down the notorious Louisiana
+Lottery, the South in its gratitude almost forgot that there had been a
+war. This lottery had been incorporated in 1868 for twenty-five years.
+In 1890 it was estimated to receive a full third of the mail matter
+coming to New Orleans, with a business of $30,000 a day in postal notes
+and money orders. As the monster in 1890, approaching its charter-term,
+bestirred itself for a new lease of life, it found itself barred from
+the mails by Congress.
+
+And this was, in effect, its banishment from the State and country. It
+could still ply its business through the express companies, provided
+Louisiana would abrogate the constitutional prohibition of lotteries it
+had enacted to take effect in 1893. For a twenty-five year
+re-enfranchisement the impoverished State was offered the princely sum
+of a million and a quarter dollars a year. This tempting bait was
+supplemented by influences brought to bear upon the venal section of the
+press and of the legislature. A proposal for the necessary
+constitutional change was vetoed by Governor Nicholls. Having pushed
+their bill once more through the House, the lottery lobby contended that
+a proposal for a constitutional amendment did not require the governor's
+signature, but only to be submitted to the people, a position which was
+affirmed by the State Supreme Court. A fierce battle followed in the
+State, the "anti" Democrats of the country parishes, in fusion with
+Farmers' Alliance men, fighting the "pro" Democrats of New Orleans. The
+"Antis" and the Alliance triumphed. Effort for a constitutional
+amendment was given up, and Governor Foster was permitted to sign an act
+prohibiting, after December 31, 1893, all sale of lottery tickets and
+all lottery drawings or schemes throughout the State of Louisiana. In
+January, 1894, the Lottery Company betook itself to exile on the island
+of Cuanaja, in the Bay of Honduras, a seat which the Honduras Government
+had granted it, together with a monopoly of the lottery business for
+fifty years.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Francis T. Nicholls.
+
+
+Matters in the West drew attention. The pressure of white population,
+rude and resistless as a glacier, everywhere forcing the barriers of
+Indian reservations, now concentrated upon the part of Indian territory
+known as Oklahoma. This large tract the Seminole Indians had sold to the
+Government, to be exclusively colonized by Indians and freedmen. In
+1888-89, as it had become clearly impossible to shut out white settlers,
+Congress appropriated $4,000,000 to extinguish the trust upon which the
+land was held. By December the newly opened territory boasted 60,000
+denizens, eleven schools, nine churches, and three daily and five weekly
+newspapers. In a few years it was vying for statehood with Arizona and
+New Mexico.
+
+
+[Illustration: About twenty-five tents.]
+A general view of the town on April 24, 1889,
+the second day after the opening.
+
+
+[Illustration: About 25 one-story buildings.]
+A view along Oklahoma Avenue on May 10, 1889.
+
+
+[Illustration: Several two story buildings on a crowded street.]
+Oklahoma Avenue as it appeared on May 10, 1893,
+during Governor Noble's visit.
+THE BUILDING OF A WESTERN TOWN, GUTHRIE, OKLAHOMA.
+
+
+In addition to the prospect of thus losing all their lands, the Indians
+were, in the winter of 1890, famine-stricken through failure of
+Government rations. With little hope of justice or revenge in their own
+strength, the aggrieved savages sought supernatural solace. The
+so-called "Messiah Craze" seized upon Sioux, Cheyennes, Arapahoes,
+Osages, Missouris, and Seminoles. Ordinarily at feud with one another,
+these tribes all now united in ghost dances, looking for the Great
+Spirit or his Representative to appear with a high hand and an
+outstretched arm to bury the white and their works deep underground,
+when the prairie should once more thunder with the gallop of buffalo and
+wild horses. Southern negroes caught the infection. Even the scattered
+Aztecs of Mexico gathered around the ruins of their ancient temple at
+Cholula and waited a Messiah who should pour floods of lava from
+Popocatapetl, inundating all mortals not of Aztec race.
+
+While frontiersmen trembled lest massacres should follow these Indian
+orgies, people in the East were shuddering over the particulars of a
+real catastrophe indescribably awful in nature. On a level some two
+hundred and seventy-five feet lower than a certain massive reservoir,
+lay the city of Johnstown, Pa. The last of May, 1889, heavy rains having
+fallen, the reservoir dam burst, letting a veritable mountain of water
+rush down upon the town, destroying houses, factories, bridges, and
+thousands of lives. Relief work, begun at once and liberally supplied
+with money from nearly every city in the Union and from many foreign
+contributors, repaired as far as might be the immediate consequences of
+the disaster.
+
+Along with the Johnstown Flood will be remembered in the annals of
+Pennsylvania the Homestead strike, in 1892, against the Carnegie Steel
+Company, occasioned by a cut in wages. The Amalgamated Steel and Iron
+Workers sought to intercede against the reduction, but were refused
+recognition. Preparing to supplant the disaffected workmen with
+non-union men, a force of Pinkerton detectives was brought up the river
+in armored barges. Fierce fighting ensued. Bullets and cannon-balls
+rained upon the barges, and receptacles full of burning oil were floated
+down stream. The assailants wished to withdraw, repeatedly raising the
+white flag, but it was each time shot down. Eleven strikers were killed;
+of the attacking party from thirty to forty fell, seven dead. When at
+last the Pinkertons were forced to give up their arms and ammunition and
+retire, a bodyguard of strikers sought to shield them, but so violent
+was the rage which they had provoked that, spite of their escort, the
+mob brutally attacked them. Order was restored only when the militia
+appeared.
+
+
+[Illustration: City street piled with debris several feet thick.]
+Main Street, Johnstown, after the flood.
+
+
+[Illustration: River front, factories in the background, fires in the
+foreground.]
+Burning of Barges during Homestead Strike.
+
+
+[Illustration: Man standing behind a large curved steel plate.]
+The Carnegie Steel Works. Showing the shield used by the strikers when
+firing the cannon and watching the Pinkerton men. Homestead strike.
+
+
+This bloodshed was not wholly in vain. Congress made the private militia
+system, the evil consequences of which were so manifest in these
+tragedies, a subject of investigation, while public sentiment more
+strongly than ever reprobated, on the one hand, violence by strikers or
+strike sympathizers, and, on the other, the employment of armed men, not
+officers of the law, to defend property.
+
+That, however, other causes than these might endanger the peace was
+shown about the same time at certain Tennessee mines where prevailed the
+bad system of farming out convicts to compete with citizen-miners.
+Business being slack, deserving workmen were put on short time.
+Resenting this, miners at Tracy City, Inman, and Oliver Springs
+summarily removed convicts from the mines, several of these escaping. At
+Coal Creek the rioters were resisted by Colonel Anderson and a small
+force. They raised a flag of truce, answering which in person, Colonel
+Anderson was commanded, on threat of death, to order a surrender. He
+refused. A larger force soon arrived, routed the rioters, and rescued
+the colonel.
+
+
+[Illustration: Several hundred men.]
+Inciting miners to attack Fort Anderson.
+The grove between Briceville and Coal Creek.
+
+
+[Illustration: Train.]
+State troops and miners at Briceville, Tenn.
+
+
+The year 1891 formed a crisis in the history of Mormonism in America.
+For a long time after their settlement in the "Great American Desert,"
+as it was then called, Mormons repudiated United States authority.
+Gentile pioneers and recreant saints they dealt with summarily, witness
+the Mountain Meadow massacre of 1857, where 120 victims were murdered in
+cold blood after surrendering their arms.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+The Mormon Temple at Salt Lake City.
+
+
+Anti-polygamy bills were introduced in Congress in 1855 and 1859. In
+1862 such a bill was made law. Seven years later the enforcement of it
+became possible by the building of a trans-continental railroad and the
+influx of gentiles drawn by the discovery of precious metals in Utah. In
+1874 the Poland Act, and in 1882 the Edmunds Act, introduced reforms.
+Criminal law was now much more efficiently executed against Mormons. In
+1891 the Mormon officials pledged their church's obedience to the laws
+against plural marriages and unlawful cohabitation.
+
+America was quick and generous in her response to the famine cry that in
+1891 rose from 30,000,000 people in Russia. Over a domain of nearly a
+half million square miles in that land there was no cow or goat for
+milk, nor a horse left strong enough to draw a hearse. Old grain stores
+were exhausted, crops a failure, and land a waste. Typhus, scurvy, and
+smallpox were awfully prevalent. To relieve this misery, our people,
+besides individual gifts, despatched four ship-loads of supplies
+gathered from twenty-five States. In values given New York led,
+Minnesota was a close second, and Nebraska third. America became a
+household word among the Russians even to the remotest interior.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+THE WORLD'S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION
+
+
+[Illustration: Large parade.]
+Columbian Celebration, New York, April 28, 1893.
+Parade passing Fifth Avenue Hotel.
+
+The thought of celebrating by a world's fair the third centennial of
+Columbus's immortal deed anticipated the anniversary by several years.
+Congress organized the exposition so early as 1890, fixing Chicago as
+its seat. That city was commodious, central, typically American. A
+National Commission was appointed; also an Executive Committee, a Board
+of Reference and Control, a Chicago Local Board, and a Board of Lady
+Managers.
+
+The task of preparation was herculean. Jackson Park had to be changed
+from a dreary lakeside swamp into a lovely city, with roads, lawns,
+groves and flowers, canals, lagoons and bridges, a dozen palaces, and
+ten score other edifices. An army of workmen, also fire, police,
+ambulance, hospital, and miscellaneous service was organized.
+
+Wednesday, October 21 (Old Style, October 12), 1892, was observed as
+Columbus Day, marking the four hundredth anniversary of Columbus's
+discovery. A reception was held in the Chicago Auditorium, followed by
+dedication of the buildings and grounds at Jackson Park and an award of
+medals to artists and architects. Many cities held corresponding
+observances. New York chose October 12th for the anniversary.  On April
+26-28, 1893, again, the eastern metropolis was enlivened by grand
+parades honoring Columbus. In the naval display, April 22d, thirty-five
+war ships and more than 10,000 men of divers flags, took part.
+
+
+[Illustration: Three small ships.]
+Pinta, Santa Maria, Nina,
+Lying in the North River, New York.
+The caravels which crossed from Spain
+to be present at the World's Fair at Chicago.
+
+
+Between Columbus Day and the opening of the Exposition came the
+presidential election of 1892. Ex-President Cleveland had been nominated
+on the first ballot, in spite of the Hill delegation sent from his home
+State to oppose. Harrison, too, had overcome Platt, Hill's Republican
+counterpart in New York, and in Pennsylvania had preferred John
+Wanamaker to Quay. But Harrison was not "magnetic" like Blaine. With
+what politicians call the "boy" element of a party, he was especially
+weak. Stalwarts complained that he was ready to profit by their
+services, but abandoned them under fire. The circumstances connected
+with the civil service that so told against Cleveland four years before,
+now hurt Harrison equally. Though no doubt sincerely favoring reform, he
+had, like his predecessor, succumbed to the machine in more than one
+instance.
+
+The campaign was conducted in good humor and without personalities.
+Owing to Australian voting and to a more sensitive public opinion, the
+election was much purer than that of 1888. The Republicans defended
+McKinley protection, boasting of it as sure, among other things, to
+transfer the tin industry from Wales to America. Free sugar was also
+made prominent. Some cleavage was now manifest between East and West
+upon the tariff issue. In the West "reciprocity" was the Republican
+slogan; in the East, "protection." Near the Atlantic, Democrats
+contented themselves with advocacy of "freer raw materials"; those by
+the Mississippi denounced "Republican protection" as fraud and robbery.
+If the platform gave color to the charge that Democrats wished "British
+free trade," Mr. Cleveland's letter of acceptance was certainly
+conservative.
+
+Populism, emphasizing State aid to industry, particularly in behalf of
+the agricultural class, made great gains in the election. General Weaver
+was its presidential nominee. In Colorado, Idaho, Kansas, and Wyoming
+most Democrats voted for him. Partial fusion of the sort prevailed also
+in North Dakota, Nevada, Minnesota, and Oregon. Weaver carried all these
+States save the two last named. In Louisiana and Alabama Republicans
+fused with Populists. The Tillman movement in South Carolina, nominally
+Democratic, was akin to Populism, but was complicated with the color
+question, and later with novel liquor legislation. It was a revolt of
+the ordinary whites from the traditional dominance of the aristocracy.
+In Alabama a similar movement, led by Reuben F. Kolb, was defeated, as
+he thought, by vicious manipulation of votes in the Black Belt.
+
+Of the total four hundred and forty-four electoral votes Cleveland
+received two hundred and seventy-seven, a plurality of one hundred and
+thirty-two. The Senate now held forty-four Democrats, thirty-seven
+Republicans, and four Populists; the House two hundred and sixteen
+Democrats, one hundred and twenty-five Republicans, and eleven
+Populists.
+
+
+[Illustration: Tall, ornate building about 300 feet square.]
+The Manufactures and liberal Arts Building, seen from the southwest.
+
+
+Early on the opening day of the Exposition, May 1, 1893, the Chief
+Magistrate of the nation sat beside Columbus's descendant, the Duke of
+Veragua. Patient multitudes were waiting for the gates of Jackson Park
+to swing. "It only remains for you, Mr. President," said the
+Director-General, concluding his address, "if in your opinion the
+Exposition here presented is commensurate in dignity with what the world
+should expect of our great country, to direct that it shall be opened to
+the public. When you touch this magic key the ponderous machinery will
+start in its revolutions and the activity of the Exposition will begin."
+After a brief response Mr. Cleveland laid his finger on the key. A
+tumult of applause mingled with the jubilant melody of Handel's
+"Hallelujah Chorus." Myriad wheels revolved, waters gushed and sparkled,
+bells pealed and artillery thundered, while flags and gonfalons
+fluttered forth.
+
+The Exposition formed a huge quadrilateral upon the westerly shore of
+Lake Michigan, from whose waters one passed by the North Inlet into the
+North Pond, or by the South Inlet into the South Pond. These united with
+the central Grand Basin in the peerless Court of Honor. The grounds and
+buildings were of surpassing magnitude and splendor. Interesting but
+simple features were the village of States, the Nations' tabernacles,
+lying almost under the guns of the facsimile battleship Illinois, and
+the pigmy caravels, Nina, Pinta, and Santa Maria, named and modelled
+after those that bore Columbus to the New World. These, like their
+originals, had fared from Spain across the Atlantic, and then had come
+by the St, Lawrence and the Lakes, without portage, to their moorings at
+Chicago.
+
+
+[Illustration: Several domed buildings reflected in a pool.]
+Horticultural Building, with Illinois Building in the background.
+
+
+Near the centre of the ground stood the Government Building, with a
+ready-made look out of keeping with the other architecture. Critics
+declared it the only discordant note in the symphony, Looking from the
+Illinois Building across the North pond, one saw the Art Palace, of pure
+Ionic style, perfectly proportioned, restful to view, contesting with
+the Administration Building for the architectural laurels of the Fair.
+South of the Illinois Building rose the Woman's Building, and next
+Horticultural Hall, with dome high enough to shelter the tallest palms.
+The Manufactures and Liberal Arts Building, of magnificent proportions,
+did not tyrannize over its neighbors, though thrice the size of St.
+Peter's at Rome, and able easily to have sheltered the Vendome Column.
+It was severely classical, with a long perspective of arches, broken
+only at the corners and in the centre by portals fit to immortalize
+Alexander's triumphs.
+
+The artistic jewel of the Exposition was the "Court of Honor." Down the
+Grand Basin you saw the noble statue of the Republic, in dazzling gold,
+with the peristyle beyond, a forest of columns surmounted by the
+Columbus quadriga. On the right hand stood the Agricultural Building,
+upon whose summit the "Diana" of Augustus St. Gaudens had alighted. To
+the left stood the enormous Hall of Manufactures. Looking from the
+peristyle the eye met the Administration Building, a rare
+exemplification of the French school, the dome resembling that of the
+Hotel des lnvalides in Paris.
+
+
+[Illustration: Several people walking on a promenade, surrounded by tall
+buildings.]
+A view toward the Peristyle from Machinery Hall.
+
+
+A most unique conception was the Cold Storage Building, where a hundred
+tons at ice were made daily. Save for the entrance, flanked by windows,
+and the fifth floor, designed for an ice skating rink, its walls were
+blank. Four corner towers set off the fifth, which rose from the centre
+sheer to a height of 225 feet.
+
+The cheering coolness of this building was destined not to last. Early
+in the afternoon of July 10th flames burst out from the top of the
+central tower. Delaying his departure until he had provided against
+explosion, the brave engineer barely saved his life. Firemen were soon
+on hand. Sixteen of them forthwith made their way to the balcony near
+the blazing summit. Suddenly their retreat was cut off by a burst of
+fire from the base of the tower. The rope and hose parted and
+precipitated a number who were sliding back to the roof. Others leaped
+from the colossal torch. In an instant, it seemed, the whole pyre was
+swathed in flames. As it toppled, the last wretched form was seen to
+poise and plunge with it into the glowing abyss.
+
+The Fisheries Building received much attention. Its pillars were twined
+with processions of aquatic creatures and surmounted by capitals
+quaintly resembling lobster-pots. Its balustrades were supported by
+small fishy caryatids.
+
+If wonder fatigued the visitor, he reached sequestered shade and quiet
+upon the Wooded Island, where nearly every variety of American tree and
+shrub might be seen.
+
+The Government's displays were of extreme interest. The War Department
+exhibits showed our superiority in heavy ordnance, likewise that of
+Europe in small arms. A first-class post-office was operated on the
+grounds. A combination postal car, manned by the most expert sorters and
+operators, interested vast crowds. Close by was an ancient mail coach
+once actually captured by the Indians, with effigies of the pony express
+formerly so familiar on the Western plains, of a mail sledge drawn by
+dogs, and of a mail carrier mounted on a bicycle. Models of a quaint
+little Mississippi mail steamer and of the ocean steamer Paris stood
+side by side.
+
+[Illustration: Two large domed building with several hundred people
+walking about.]
+The Administration Building,
+seen from the Agricultural Building.
+
+
+Swarms visited the Midway Plaisance, a long avenue out from the fair
+grounds proper, lined with shows. Here were villages transported from
+the ends of the earth, animal shows, theatres, and bazaars. Cairo Street
+boasted 2,250,000 visitors, and the Hagenbeck Circus over 2,000,000. The
+chief feature was the Ferris Wheel, described in engineering terms as a
+cantilever bridge wrought around two enormous bicycle wheels. The axle,
+supported upon steel pyramids, alone weighed more than a locomotive. In
+cars strung upon its periphery passengers were swung from the ground far
+above the highest buildings.
+
+
+[Illustration: Several ornate buildings surrounding a busy street.]
+Midway Plaisance, World's Fair, Chicago.
+
+
+Facilitating passenger transportation to and from the Fair remarkable
+railway achievements were made. One train from New York to Chicago
+covered over 48 miles an hour, including stops. In preparation for the
+event the Illinois Central raised its tracks for two and a half miles
+over thirteen city streets, built 300 special cars, and erected many new
+stations. These improvements cost over $2,000,000. The Fair increased
+Illinois Central traffic over 200 per cent.
+
+Save the Art Building, the structures at the Fair were designed to be
+temporary, and they were superfluous when the occasion which called them
+into being had passed. The question of disposing of them was summarily
+solved. One day some boys playing near the Terminal Station saw a
+sinister leer of flame inside. A high wind soon blew a conflagration,
+which enveloped the structures, leaving next day naught but ashes,
+tortured iron work, and here and there an arch, to tell of the regal
+White City that had been.
+
+
+[Illustration: Several people watching a fire.]
+Electricity Building.   Mines and Mining Building.
+The Burning of the White City.
+
+
+The financial backers of the Fair showed no mercenary temper. The
+architects, too, worked with public spirit and zeal which money never
+could have elicited. Notwithstanding the World's Fair was not
+financially a "success," this was rather to the credit of its unstinted
+magnificence than to the want of public appreciation. The paid
+admissions were over 21,000,000, a daily average of 120,000. The gross
+attendance exceeded by nearly a million the number at the Paris
+Exposition of 1889 for the corresponding period, though rather more than
+half a million below the total at the French capital. The monthly
+average at Chicago increased from 1,000,000 at first to 7,000,000 in
+October.
+
+The crowd was typical of the best side of American life; orderly,
+good-natured, intelligent, sober. The grounds were clean, and there was
+no ruffianism. Of the $32,988 worth of property reported stolen,
+$31,875 was recovered and restored.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL MOVEMENT
+
+
+The century from 1790 to 1890 saw our people multiplied sixteen times,
+from 3,929,214 at its beginning, to 62,622,250 at its end. The low
+percentage of increase for the last decade, about 20 per cent.,
+disappointed even conservative estimates. The cities not only absorbed
+this increase, but, except in the West, made heavy draughts upon the
+country population. Of each 1,000 people in 1880, 225 were urban; in
+1890, 290. Chicago's million and a tenth was second only to New York's
+million and a half. Philadelphia, Brooklyn, and St. Louis appeared
+respectively as the third, fourth, and fifth in the list of great
+cities. St. Paul, Omaha, and Denver domiciled three or four times as
+many as ten years before. Among Western States only Nevada lagged. The
+State of Washington had quintupled its numbers. The centre of population
+had travelled fifty miles west and nine miles north, being caught by the
+census about twenty miles east of Columbus, Indiana.
+
+
+[Illustration: Frame of twelve story building.]
+The New York Life Insurance Building in Chicago.
+(Showing the construction of outer walls.)
+
+
+The railroads of the country spanned an aggregate of 163,000 miles,
+twice the mileage of 1880. The national wealth was appraised at
+$65,037,091,197, an increase for the decade of $21,395,091,197 in the
+gross. Our per capita wealth was now $1,039, a per capita increase of
+$169. Production in the mining industry had gone up more than half. The
+improved acreage, on the other hand, had increased less than a third,
+the number of farms a little over an eighth.
+
+School enrollment had advanced from 12 per cent. in 1840 to 23 per cent.
+in 1890. Not far from a third of the people were communicants of the
+various religious bodies. About a tenth were Roman Catholics.
+
+Improvement in iron and steel manufacture revolutionized the
+construction of bridges, vessels, and buildings. The suspension bridge,
+instanced by the stupendous East River bridge between New York and
+Brooklyn, was supplanted by the cantilever type, consisting of trusswork
+beams poised upon piers and meeting each other mid-stream. Iron and
+steel construction also made elevated railways possible. In 1890 the
+elevated roads of New York City alone carried over 500,000 passengers
+daily. Steel lent to the framework of buildings lightness, strength, and
+fire-proof quality, at the same time permitting swift construction.
+Walls came to serve merely as covering, not sustaining the floors, the
+weight of which lay upon iron posts and girders.
+
+At the time of the Centennial, electricity was used almost exclusively
+for telegraphic communication. By 1893 new inventions, as wonderful as
+Morse's own, had overlaid even that invention. A single wire now
+sufficed to carry several messages at once and in different directions.
+Rapidity of transmission was another miracle. During the electrical
+exposition in New York City, May, 1896, Hon. Chauncey M. Depew dictated
+a message which was sent round the world and back in fifty minutes. It
+read:
+
+"God creates, nature treasures, science utilizes electrical power for
+the grandeur of nations and the peace of the world." These words
+travelled from London to Lisbon, thence to Suez, Aden, Bombay, Madras,
+Singapore, Hong-Kong, Shanghai, Nagasaki, and Tokio, returning by the
+same route to New York, a total distance of over 27,500 miles.
+
+
+[Illustration: Three vertical generators about thirty feet in diameter.]
+Interior of the Power House at Niagara Falls.
+
+
+Self-winding and self-regulating clocks came into vogue, being
+automatically adjusted through the Western Union telegraph lines, so
+that at noon each day the correct time was instantly communicated to
+their hands from the national observatory. Another invaluable use of the
+telegraph was its service to the Weather Bureau, established in 1870. By
+means of simultaneous reports from a tract of territory 3,000 miles long
+by 1,500 wide, this bureau was enabled to make its forecasts
+indispensable to every prudent farmer, traveller, or mariner.
+
+The three great latter-day applications of electrical force were the
+telephone, the electric light, and the electric motor. In 1876, almost
+simultaneously with its discovery by other investigators, Alexander
+Graham Bell exhibited an electric transmitter of the human voice. By the
+addition of the Edison carbon transmitter the same year the novelty was
+assured swift success. In 1893 the Bell Telephone Company owned 307,748
+miles of wire, an amount increased by rival companies' property to
+444,750. Estimates gave for that year nearly 14,000 "exchanges," 250,000
+subscribers, and 2,000,000 daily conversations. New York and Chicago
+were placed on speaking terms only three or four days before "Columbus
+Day." All the chief cities were soon connected by telephone.
+
+At the Philadelphia Exposition arc electric lamps were the latest
+wonder, and not till two years later did Edison render the incandescent
+lamp available.
+
+The use of electricity for the development of power as well as of light,
+unknown in the Centennial year, was in the Columbian year neither a
+scientific nor a practical novelty. On the contrary, it was fast
+supplanting horses upon street railways, and making city systems nuclei
+for far-stretching suburban and interurban lines. Street railways
+mounted steep hills inaccessible before save by the clumsy system of
+cables. Even steam locomotives upon great railways gave place in some
+instances to motors. Horseless carriages and pedalless bicycles were
+clearly in prospect.
+
+It was found that by the use of copper wiring electric power could be
+carried great distances. A line twenty-five miles long bore from the
+American River Falls, at Folsom, California, to Sacramento, a current
+which the city found ample for traction, light, and power. Niagara Falls
+was harnessed to colossal generators, whose product was transmitted to
+neighboring cities and manufactories. Loss en route was at first
+considerable, but cunning devices lessened it each year.
+
+Thomas Alva Edison and Nikola Tesla were conspicuously identified with
+these astonishing applications of electric energy. Edison, first a
+newsboy, then (like Andrew Carnegie) a telegraph operator, without
+school or book training in physics, rose step by step to the repute of
+working miracles on notification. Tesla, a native of Servia, who
+happened, upon migrating to the United States, to find employment with
+Edison, was totally unlike his master. He was a highly educated
+scientist, herein at a great advantage. He was, in opposition to Edison,
+peculiarly the champion of high tension alternating current
+distribution. He aimed to dispense so far as possible with the
+generation of heat, pressing the ether waves directly into the service
+of man.
+
+
+[Illustration: Edison working in his laboratory.]
+Thomas Alva Edison.
+Copyright by W. A. Dickson.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Nikola Tesla.
+
+
+The bicycle developed incredible popularity in the '90's. Through all
+the panic of 1893 bicycle makers prospered. It was estimated in 1896
+that no less than $100,000,000 had been spent in the United States upon
+cycling. A clumsy prototype of the "wheel" was known in 1868, but the
+first bicycle proper, a wheel breast-high, with cranks and pedals
+connected with a small trailing wheel by a curved backbone and
+surmounted by a saddle, was exhibited at the Centennial. Two years later
+this kind of wheel began to be manufactured in America, and soon, in
+spite of its perils, or perhaps in part because of them, bicycle riding
+was a favorite sport among experts. In 1889 a new type was introduced,
+known as the "safety." Its two wheels were of the same size, with saddle
+between them, upon a suitable frame, the pedals propelling the rear
+wheel through a chain and sprocket gearing. An old invention, that of
+inflated or pneumatic tires of rubber, coupled with more hygienic
+saddles, gave great impetus to cycling sport. The fad dwindled, but the
+bicycle remained in general use as a convenience and even as a
+necessity.
+
+
+[Illustration: Several people riding bicycles.]
+Bicycle Parade, New York.
+Fancy Costume Division.
+
+
+[Illustration: Hundreds of jars with hoses attached.]
+Hatchery Room of the Fish Commission Building at Washington, D. C.,
+showing the hatchery jars in operation.
+
+
+The Fish Commission, created by the Government in 1870, proved an
+important agency in promoting the great industries of fishing and fish
+culture. At the World's Fair it appeared that the fishing business had
+made progress greater than many others which were much more obtrusively
+displayed, though the fishtrap, the fyke net, and the fishing steamer
+had all been introduced within a generation.
+
+In no realm did invention and the application of science mean more for
+the country's weal than in agriculture. Each State had its agricultural
+college and experiment station, mainly supported by United States funds
+provided under the Morrill Acts. Soils, crops, animal breeds, methods of
+tillage, dairying, and breeding were scientifically examined. Forestry
+became a great interest. Intensive agriculture spread. By early
+ploughing and incessant use of cultivators keeping the surface soil a
+mulch, arid tracts were rendered to a great extent independent of both
+rainfall and irrigation. Improved machinery made possible the farming of
+vast areas with few hands. The gig horse hoe rendered weeding work
+almost a pleasure. A good reaper with binder attachment, changing horses
+once, harvested twenty acres a day. The best threshers bagged from 1,000
+to 2,500 bushels daily. One farmer sowed and reaped 200 acres of wheat
+one season without hiring a day's work.
+
+Woman's position at the Fair was prominent and gratifying. How her touch
+lent refinement and taste was observed both in the Woman's Building, the
+first of its kind, and in other departments of the Exposition. Power of
+organization was noticeably exemplified in the Woman's Christian
+Temperance Union. This body originated in the temperance crusade of 1873
+and the following year, when a State Temperance Association was formed
+in Ohio, leading shortly to the rise of a national union.
+
+Related to this movement in elevated moral aims, as well as in the
+prominent part it assigned to women, was the Salvation Army. In 1861
+William Booth, an English Methodist preacher, resigned his charge and
+devoted himself to the redemption of London's grossest proletariat.
+Deeming themselves not wanted in the churches, his converts set up a
+separate and more militant organization. In 1879 the Army invaded
+America, landing at Philadelphia, where, as in the Old Country and in
+other American cities, pitiable sin and wretchedness grovelled in
+obscurity. In 1894 there were in the United States 539 corps and 1,953
+officers, and in the whole world 3,200 corps and 10,788 officers.
+Without proposing any programme of social or political reform, and
+without announcing any manifesto of human rights, the Salvationists
+uplifted hordes of the fallen, while drawing to the lowliest the notice,
+sympathy, and help of the middle classes and the rich. Army discipline
+was rigidly maintained. The soldiers were sworn to wear the uniform, to
+obey their officers, to abstain from drink, tobacco, and worldly
+amusements, to live in simplicity and economy, to earn their living, and
+of their earnings always to give something to advance the Kingdom.  The
+officers could not marry or become engaged without the consent of the
+Army authorities, for their spouses must be capable of cooperating with
+them. They could receive no presents, not even food, except in cases of
+necessity. An officer must have experienced "full salvation"--that is,
+must endeavor to be living free from every known sin. Except as to pay,
+the Army placed women on an absolute equality with men, a policy which
+greatly furthered its usefulness.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+William Booth.
+From a photograph by Rockwood, New York.
+
+
+The peculiar uniform worn by the Salvation soldiers, always sufficing to
+identify them, called attention to a fact never obvious till about
+1890--the relative uniformity in the costumes of all fairly dressed
+Americans whether men or women. The wide circulation of fashion plates
+and pictorial papers accounted for this. About this time cuts came to be
+a feature even of newspapers, a custom on which the more conservative
+sheets at first frowned, though soon adopting it themselves.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+MR. CLEVELAND AGAIN PRESIDENT
+
+
+In the special session beginning August 7, 1893, a Democratic Congress
+met under a Democratic President for the first time since 1859. The
+results were disappointing. Divided, leaderless, in large part at bitter
+variance with the Administration, the Democrats trooped to their
+overthrow two years later.
+
+During his second Administration Mr. Cleveland considerably extended the
+merit system in the civil service. Candidates for consulships were
+subjected to (non-competitive) examination. Public opinion commended
+these moves, as it did the President's prompt signing of the
+Anti-Lottery Bill, introduced in Congress when it was learned that the
+expatriated Louisiana Lottery from its seat under Honduras jurisdiction
+was operating in the United States through the express companies. The
+bill prohibiting this abuse was passed at three in the morning on the
+last day of the Congressional session, and received the President's
+signature barely five minutes before the Congress expired.
+
+
+[Illustration: Cleveland seated at a cluttered desk.]
+Grover Cleveland.
+From a photograph by Alexander Black.
+
+
+At the opening of the Special Session, in August, 1893, the President
+demanded the repeal of that clause in the Sherman law of 1890 requiring
+the Government to make heavy monthly purchases of silver. The suspension
+in India of the free coinage of silver the preceding June had
+precipitated a disastrous monetary panic in the United States. Gold was
+hoarded and exported, vast sums being drained from the Treasury. Credits
+were refused, values shrivelled, business was palsied, labor idle. It
+was this situation which led the President to convoke Congress in
+special session.
+
+Though achieving the repeal on November 1st, after Congressional
+wrangles especially long and bitter in the Senate, President Cleveland,
+pursuing the policy of paying gold for all greenbacks presented at the
+Treasury, was unable, even by the sale of $50,000,000 in bonds, to keep
+the Treasury gold reserve up to the $100,000,000 figure. Both old
+greenbacks and Sherman law greenbacks, being redeemed in gold, reissued
+and again redeemed, were used by exchangers like an endless chain pump
+to pump the Treasury dry. In February, 1895, the reserve stood at the
+low figure of $41,340,181. None knew when the country might be forced to
+a silver basis. In consequence, business revived but slightly, if at
+all, after the repeal.
+
+In its first regular session the same Congress enacted the Wilson
+Tariff. As it passed the House the bill provided for free sugar, wool,
+coal, lumber, and iron ore, besides reducing duties on many other
+articles.
+It also taxed incomes exceeding $4,000 per annum. The Senate, except in
+the case of wool and lumber, abandoned the proposal of free raw
+materials, stiffened the rates named by the House, and preferred
+specific to ad valorem duties. Many believed, without proof, that
+improper influences had helped the Senate to shape its sugar schedule
+favorably to the great refiners. The President pronounced sugar a
+legitimate subject for taxation in spite of the "fear, quite likely
+exaggerated," that carrying out this principle might "indirectly and
+inordinately encourage a combination of sugar refining interests." In a
+letter read in the House, however, he upbraided as guilty of "party
+perfidy and dishonor" Democratic Senators who would abandon the
+principle of free raw materials. But nothing shook the senatorial will.
+What was in substance the Senate bill passed Congress, and the President
+permitted it to become a law without his signature.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+William L. Wilson.
+
+
+The Wilson law pleased no one. It violated the Democrats' plighted word
+apparently at the dictation of parties selfishly interested. The Supreme
+Court declared its income tax unconstitutional. The revenue from it was
+inadequate, and had to be eked out with new bond issues. These were
+alleged to be necessary to meet the greenback debt, but this need not
+have embarrassed the Government had it followed the French policy of
+occasionally paying in silver a small percentage of the demand notes
+presented. Borrowing gold abroad, moreover, tended to inflate prices
+here, stimulating imports, discouraging exports, increasing the
+exportation of gold to settle the unfavorable balance of trade, and so
+on in ceaseless round.
+
+The Democratic management of foreign affairs was severely criticised.
+Our extradition treaty with Russia, a country supposed to pay little or
+no regard to personal rights, and our delay in demanding reparation from
+Spain for firing upon the Allianca, a United States passenger steamer,
+were quite generally condemned. There were those who thought that Cuban
+insurgents against the sovereignty of Spain might have received some
+manifestation of sympathy from our Government, and that we should not
+have permitted Great Britain to endanger the Monroe Doctrine by
+occupying Corinto in Nicaragua to enforce the payment of an indemnity.
+
+The President offended many in dealing as he did with the Hawaiian
+Islands' problem. Most did not consider it the duty of this country to
+champion the cause of the native dynasty there, a course likely to
+subserve no enlightened interest. Whites, chiefly Americans, had come to
+own most of the land in the islands, while imported Asiatics and
+Portuguese competed sharply with the natives as laborers. Political
+power, even, was largely exercised by the whites, through whose
+influence the monarchy had been reduced to a constitutional form.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Princess (afterwards Queen) Liliuokalani.
+
+
+In January, 1893, Queen Liliuokalani sought by a coup d'etat to reinvest
+her royal authority with its old absoluteness and to disfranchise
+non-naturalized whites. The American man-of-war Boston, lying in
+Honolulu harbor, at the request of American residents, landed marines
+for their protection. The American colony now initiated a counter
+revolution, declaring the monarchy abrogated and a provisional
+government established. Minister Stevens at once recognized the
+Provisional Government as de facto sovereign. Under protest the Queen
+yielded.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+James H. Blount.
+
+
+The new government formally placed itself under the protectorate of the
+United States, and the Stars and Stripes were hoisted over the
+Government Building. President Harrison disavowed the protectorate,
+though he did not withdraw the troops from Honolulu, regarding them as
+necessary to assure the lives and property of American citizens. Nor did
+he lower the flag. A treaty for the annexation of the islands was soon
+negotiated and submitted to the Senate.
+
+The Cleveland Administration reversed this whole policy with a jolt. The
+treaty withdrawn, Mr. Cleveland despatched to Honolulu Hon. James H.
+Blount as a special commissioner, with "paramount authority," which he
+exercised by formally ending the protectorate, hauling down the flag,
+and embarking the garrison of marines. Mr. Blount soon superseded Mr.
+Stevens as minister. Meantime the Provisional Government had organized a
+force of twelve hundred soldiers, got control of the arms and ammunition
+in the islands, enacted drastic sedition laws, and suppressed disloyal
+newspapers.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Albert S. Willis.
+
+
+So complete was its sway, and so relentless did the dethroned Queen
+threaten to be toward her enemies in case she recovered power, that
+Minister Albert S. Willis, on succeeding Mr. Blount, lost heart in the
+contemplated enterprise of restoring the monarchy. He found the
+Provisional Government and its supporters men of "high character and
+large commercial interests," while those of the Queen were quite out of
+sympathy with American interests or with good government for the
+islands. A large and influential section of Hawaiian public opinion was
+unanimous for annexation, even Prince Kunniakea, the last of the royal
+line, avowing himself an annexationist with heart, soul, and, if
+necessary, with rifle.
+
+A farcical attempt at insurrection was followed by the arrest of the
+conspirators and of the ex-Queen, who thereupon, for herself and heirs,
+forever renounced the throne, gave allegiance to the Republic,
+counselled her former subjects to do likewise, and besought clemency.
+Her chief confederates were sentenced to death, but this was commuted to
+a heavy fine and long imprisonment. After the retirement of the
+Democracy from power in 1896 the annexation of the islands was promptly
+consummated.
+
+Walter Q. Gresham, Secretary of State in the early part of Cleveland's
+second term, died in May, 1895, being succeeded by Richard Olney,
+transferred from the portfolio of Attorney General. In a day,
+Cleveland's foreign policy, hitherto so inert, became vigorous to the
+verge of rashness. Deeming the Monroe Doctrine endangered by Great
+Britain's apparently arbitrary encroachments on Venezuela in fixing the
+boundary between Venezuela and British Guiana, he insisted that the
+boundary dispute should be settled by arbitration.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Richard Olney.
+
+
+The message in which the President took this ground shook the country
+like a declaration of war against Great Britain. American securities
+fell, the gold reserve dwindled. The President was, however, supported.
+Congress was found ready to aid the Administration by passing any
+measures necessary to preserve the national credit. In December, 1895,
+it unanimously authorized the appointment of a commission to decide upon
+the true boundary line between Venezuela and British Guiana, with the
+purpose of giving its report the full sanction and support of the United
+States. The dispute was finally submitted to a distinguished tribunal at
+Paris, ex-President Harrison, among others, appearing on behalf of the
+Venezuelan Republic. While Great Britain's claim was, in a measure,
+vindicated, this proceeding established a new and potent precedent in
+support both of the Monroe Doctrine and of international arbitration.
+
+In 1894 a ten months' session of the famous Lexow legislative committee
+in New York City uncovered voluminous evidence of corrupt municipal
+government there. The police force habitually levied tribute for
+protection not only upon legitimate trade and industry, but upon illicit
+liquor-selling, gambling, prostitution, and crime. The chief credit for
+the exposures was due to Rev. Charles H. Parkhurst, President of the New
+York City Society for the Prevention of Crime. A fusion of anti-Tammany
+elements carried the autumn elections of 1894 for a reform ticket
+nominated by a committee of seventy citizens and headed by William L.
+Strong as candidate for mayor. At the next election, however, the
+Tammany candidate, Van Wyck, became the first mayor of the new
+municipality known as Greater New York, in which had been merged as
+boroughs the metropolis itself, Brooklyn, and other near cities. As was
+revealed by the Mazet Committee, little change had occurred in Tammany's
+predatory spirit. In 1901, therefore, through an alliance similar to
+that which elected Mayor Strong, Greater New York chose as its mayor to
+succeed Van Wyck, Seth Low, who resigned the Presidency of Columbia
+University to become Fusion candidate for the position.
+
+
+[Illustration: About fifty men standing in a Court room.]
+The Lexow Investigation. The scene in the Court Room after
+Creeden's confession, December 15, 1894.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Charles H. Parkhurst.
+Copyright by C. C. Langill.
+
+
+A recrudescence of the old Know-Nothing spirit in a party known as the
+"A. P. A.," or "American Protective Association," marked these years. So
+early as 1875 politicians had noticed the existence of a secret
+anti-Catholic organization, the United American Mechanics, but it had a
+brief career. The A. P. A., organized soon after 1885, drew inspiration
+partly from the hostility of extreme Protestants to the Roman Catholic
+Church, and partly from the aversion felt by many toward the Irish. In
+1894 the A. P. A., though its actual membership was never large,
+pretended to control 2,000,000 votes. Its subterranean methods estranged
+fair-minded people. Still more turned against it when its secret oath
+was exposed. The A. P. A. member promised (1) never to favor or aid the
+nomination, election, or appointment of a Roman Catholic to any
+political office, and (2) never to employ a Roman Catholic in any
+capacity if the services of a Protestant could be obtained. A. P. A.
+public utterances garbled history and disseminated clumsy falsehoods
+touching Catholics, which reacted against the order. The Association
+declined as swiftly as it rose. Chiefly affiliating with the
+Republicans, it received no substantial countenance from any political
+party.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+William L. Strong.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+LABOR AND THE RAILWAYS
+
+
+In March, 1894, bands of the unemployed in various parts of the West,
+styling themselves "Commonweal," or "Industrial Armies," started for
+Washington to demand government relief for "labor." "General" Coxey, of
+Ohio, led the van. "General" Kelly followed from Trans-Mississippi with
+a force at one time numbering 1,250. Smaller itinerant groups joined the
+above as they marched. For supplies the tattered pilgrims taxed the
+sympathies or the fears of people along their routes. Most of them were
+well-meaning, but their destitution prompted some small thefts. Even
+violence occasionally occurred, as in California, where a town marshal
+killed a Commonweal "general," and in the State of Washington, where two
+deputy marshals were wounded. The Commonwealers captured a few freight
+trains and forced them into service.
+
+
+[Illustration: Hundreds of men marching.]
+Coxey's army on the march to the Capitol steps at Washington.
+
+
+Only Coxey's band reached Washington. On May Day, attempting to present
+their "petition-in-boots" on the steps of the Capitol, the leaders were
+jailed under local laws against treading on the grass and against
+displaying banners on the Capitol Grounds. On June 10th Coxey was
+released, having meantime been nominated for Congress, and in little
+over a month the remnant of his forces was shipped back toward the
+setting sun.
+
+The same year, 1894, marked a far more widespread and formidable
+disorder, the A. R. U. Railway Strike. The American Railway Union
+claimed a membership of 100,000, and aspired to include all the 850,000
+railroad workmen in North America. It had just emerged with prestige
+from a successful grapple with the Great Northern Railway, settled by
+arbitration.
+
+The union's catholic ambitions led it to admit many employees of the
+Pullman Palace Car Company, between whom and their employers acute
+differences were arising. The company's landlordism of the town of
+Pullman and petty shop abuses stirred up irritation, and when Pullman
+workers were laid off or put upon short time and cut wages, the feeling
+deepened. They pointed out that rents for the houses they lived in were
+not reduced, that the company's dividends the preceding year had been
+fat, and that the accumulation of its undivided surplus was enormous.
+The company, on the other hand, was sensible of a slack demand for cars
+after the brisk business done in connection with World's Fair travel.
+
+
+[Illustration: Town in background, lake in foreground.]
+The town of Pullman.
+
+
+The Pullman management refused the men's demand for the restoration of
+the wages schedule of June, 1893, but promised to investigate the abuses
+complained of, and engaged that no one serving on the laborer's
+committee of complaint should be prejudiced thereby. Immediately after
+this, however, three of the committee were laid off, and five-sixths of
+the other employees, apparently against the advice of A. R. U. leaders,
+determined upon a strike.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+George M. Pullman.
+
+
+Unmoved by solicitations from employees, from the Chicago Civic
+Federation, from Mayor Pingree of Detroit, indorsed by the mayors of
+over fifty other cities, the Pullman Company steadfastly refused to
+arbitrate or to entertain any communication from the union. "We have
+nothing to arbitrate" was the company's response to each appeal. A
+national convention of the A. R. U. unanimously voted that unless the
+Pullman Company sooner consented to arbitration the union should, on
+June 26th, everywhere cease handling Pullman cars.
+
+
+[Illustration: About one hundred tents in background, several hundred
+people in the foreground.]
+Camp of the U. S. troops on the lake front, Chicago.
+
+
+[Illustration: Hundreds of railroad cars, some burning.]
+Burned cars in the C., B. & Q. yards at Hawthorne, Chicago.
+
+
+[Illustration: Railroad crossing, houses in the background.]
+Overturned box cars at crossing of railroad tracks at 39th street, Chicago.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Hazen S. Pingree.
+
+
+At this turn of affairs the A. R. U. found itself confronted with a new
+antagonist, the Association of General Managers of the twenty-four
+railroads centering in Chicago, controlling an aggregate mileage of over
+40,000, a capitalization of considerably over $2,000,000,000, and a
+total workingmen force of 220,000 or more. The last-named workers had
+their own grievances arising from wage cuts and black-listing by the
+Managers' Association. Such of them as were union men were the objects
+of peculiar hostility, which they reciprocated. Thus the Pullman
+boycott, sympathetic in its incipience, swiftly became a gigantic trial
+of issues between the associated railroad corporations and the union.
+
+For a week law and order were preserved. On July 2d the Federal Court in
+Chicago issued an injunction forbidding A. R. U. men, among other
+things, to "induce" employees to strike. Next day federal troops
+appeared upon the scene. Thereupon, in contempt of the injunction,
+railroad laborers continued by fair means and foul to be persuaded from
+their work.
+
+Disregarding the union leaders' appeal and defying regular soldiers,
+State troops, deputy marshals, and police, rabble mobs fell to
+destroying cars and tracks, burning and looting. The mobs were in large
+part composed of Chicago's semi-criminal proletariat, a mass quite
+distinct from the body of strikers.
+
+The A. R. U. strike approached its climax about the 10th of July.
+Chicago and the Northwest were paralyzed. President Cleveland deemed it
+necessary to issue a riot proclamation. A week later Debs and his
+fellow-leaders were jailed for contempt of court, and soon after their
+following collapsed.
+
+Governor Altgeld, of Illinois, protested against the presence of federal
+troops, denying federal authority to send force except upon his
+gubernatorial request, inasmuch as maintaining order was a purely State
+province, and declaring his official ignorance of disorder warranting
+federal intervention.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Gov. John P. Altgeld.
+
+
+Mr. Cleveland answered, appealing to the Constitution, federal laws, and
+the grave nature of the situation. United States power, he said, may and
+must whenever necessary, with or without request from State authorities,
+remove obstruction of the mails, execute process of the federal courts,
+and put down conspiracies against commerce between the States.
+
+During the Pullman troubles, the judicial department of the United
+States Government, no less prompt or bold than the Executive, extended
+the equity power of injunction a step farther than precedents went.
+After 1887 United States tribunals construed the Interstate Commerce Law
+as authorizing injunctions against abandonment of trains by engineers.
+Early in 1894 a United States Circuit judge inhibited Northern Pacific
+workmen from striking in a body. For contempt of his injunctions during
+the Pullman strike Judge Woods sentenced Debs to six months'
+imprisonment and other arch-strikers to three months each under the
+so-called Anti-Trust Law.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Eugene V. Debs.
+
+
+As infringing the right of trial by jury this course of adjudication
+aroused protest even in conservative quarters. Later, opposition to
+"government by injunction" became a tenet of the more radical Democracy.
+A bill providing for jury trials in instances of contempt not committed
+in the presence of the court commanded support from members of both
+parties in the Fifty-eighth Congress. Federal decisions upheld
+workingmen's right, in the absence of an express contract, to strike at
+will, although emphatically affirming the legitimacy of enjoining
+violent interference with railroads, and of enforcing the injunction by
+punishing for contempt.
+
+Federal injunctions subsequently went farther still, as in the miners'
+strike of 1902 during which Judge Jackson of the United States District
+Court for Northern West Virginia, enjoined miners' meetings, ordering
+the miners, in effect, to cease agitating or promoting the strike by any
+means whatever, no matter how peaceful. Speech intended to produce
+strikes the judge characterized as the abuse of free speech, properly
+restrainable by courts. Refusing to heed the injunction, several strike
+leaders were sentenced to jail for contempt, periods varying from sixty
+to ninety days.
+
+Late in July, 1894, the President appointed a commission to investigate
+the Pullman strike. The report of this body, alluding to the Managers'
+Association as a usurpation of powers not obtainable directly by the
+corporations concerned, recommended governmental control over
+quasi-public corporations, and even hinted at ultimate government
+ownership. They counselled some measure of compulsory arbitration, urged
+that labor unions should become incorporated, so as to be responsible
+bodies, and suggested the licensing of railway employees. The
+Massachusetts State Board of Conciliation and Arbitration was favorably
+mentioned in this report, and became the model for several like boards
+in various States.
+
+The labor question and other problems excluded from public thought a
+change in our dealings with our Indian wards that should not be
+overlooked. Up to 1887 the Indian village communities could, under the
+law, hold land only in common. Individual Indians could not, without
+abandoning their tribes, become citizens of the United States. Such a
+legal status could not but discourage Indians' emergence from barbarism.
+
+A better method was hinted at in an old Act of the Massachusetts General
+Court, passed so early as October, 1652.
+
+"It is therefore ordered and enacted by this Court and the authority
+thereof, that what landes any of the Indians, within this jurisdiction,
+have by possession or improvement, by subdueing of the same, they have
+just right thereunto accordinge to that Gen: 1: 28, Chap. 9:1, Psa: 115,
+16." This old legislation further provided that any Indians who became
+civilized might acquire land by allotment in the white settlements on
+the same terms as the English.
+
+In 1887, the so-called "General Allotment" or "Dawes" Act, empowered
+the President to allot in severalty a quarter section to each head of an
+Indian family and to each other adult Indian one eighth of a section, as
+well as to provide for orphaned children and minors, the land to be held
+in trust by the United States for twenty-five years. The act further
+constituted any allottee or civilized Indian a citizen of the United
+States, subject to the civil and criminal laws of the place of his
+residence.
+
+The Dawes Act was later so amended as to allot one-eighth of a section
+or more, if the reservation were large enough, to each member of a
+tribe. The amended law also regulated the descent of Indian lands, and
+provided for leases thereof with the approval of the Indian Department.
+This last provision was in instances twisted by white men to their
+advantage and to the Indians' loss; but on the whole the new system gave
+eminent satisfaction and promise.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+NEWEST DIXIE
+
+
+The reader of this history is already aware how forces and events after
+the Civil War gradually evolved a New South, unlike the contemporary
+North, and differing still more, if possible, from ante-bellum Dixie. By
+1900 this interesting situation had become quite pronounced. The picture
+here given is but an enlargement of that presented earlier--few features
+new, but many of them more salient, and the whole effect more
+impressive.
+
+Harmony and good feeling between the capital sections of our country
+continued to manifest itself in striking ways, as by the dedication of a
+Confederate monument at Chicago, the gathering of the Grand Army of the
+Republic at Louisville, Ky., and the cordial fraternizing of Gray and
+Blue at the consecration of the Chickamauga-Chattanooga Military Park,
+on the spot where had occurred, perhaps, the fiercest fighting which
+ever shook United States ground.
+
+
+[Illustration: Several stone monuments.]
+The Chickamauga National Military Park.
+Group of monuments on knoll southwest of Snodgrass Hill.
+
+The Atlanta Exposition, opening on September 18, 1895, epitomized the
+Newest South. The touch of an electric button by President Cleveland's
+little daughter, Marian, at his home on Buzzard's Bay, Mass., opened the
+gates and set the machinery awhirl. Atlanta was a city of but 100,000,
+hardly more than 60,000 of them whites, yet her Fair not only excelled
+the Atlanta Exposition of 1881, that at Louisville in 1883, and the New
+Orleans World's Industrial and Cotton Centennial Exposition of 1884-5,
+all which were highly successful, but in many features outdid even the
+Centennial at Philadelphia. The Tennessee Centennial and International
+Exposition at Nashville, in 1897, was another revelation. Its total
+expenditures, fully covered by receipts, were $1,087,227.85; its total
+admissions 1,886,714. On J. W. Thomas Day the attendance was within a
+few of 100,000. The exhibits were ample, and many of them strikingly
+unique. Few, even at the South, believed that the Southern States could
+set forth such displays. The fact that this was possible so soon after a
+devastating war, which had left the section in abject poverty, was a
+speaking compliment to the land and to the energy of those developing
+it.
+
+The progress of most Southern communities was extraordinary.
+Agriculture, still too backward in methods and variety, gradually
+improved, gaining marked impetus and direction from the agricultural
+colleges planted in the several States by the aid of United States funds
+conveyed under the "Morrill" acts. The abominable system of store credit
+kept the majority of farmers, black and white, in servitude, but was
+giving way, partly to regular bank credit--a great improvement--and
+partly to cash transactions.
+
+
+[Illustration: Men tending trees.]
+A grove of oranges and palmettoes near Ormond, Florida.
+
+
+Florida came to the front as a lavish producer of tropical fruits.
+Winter was rarely known there. If it paid a visit now and then the
+State's sugar industry made up for the losses which frost inflicted upon
+her orange crop. The rich South Carolina rice plantations bade fair to
+be left behind by the new rice belt in Louisiana and Texas, a strip
+averaging thirty miles in width and extending from the Mississippi to
+beyond the Brazos, 400 miles. Improved methods of rice farming had
+transformed this region, earlier almost a waste, into one of the most
+productive areas in the country, attracting to it settlers from various
+parts of the North and West, and even from Scandinavia. Dairying, fruit
+and cattle-raising and market-gardening for northern markets, other new
+lines of enterprise, created wealth for multitudes. King Cotton was not
+dethroned to make way for these rivals, but increased his domain each
+decade.
+
+In 1880 the value of farm products at the South exceeded by more than
+$200,000,000 that of the manufactured products there. In 1900 the case
+was nearly reversed: manufactures outvaluing farm products by over
+$190,000,000. During this decade the persons engaged in agriculture at
+the South increased in number 36 per cent., but the wage-earners in
+manufacturing multiplied more than four times as much, viz., 157 per
+cent. Each of these rates at the South was larger than the corresponding
+rate for the country. The same decade the capital which the South had
+invested in manufacturing increased 348 per cent., that of the whole
+United States only 252 per cent. The increase in manufactured products
+value was for the South 220 per cent., for the whole country only 142
+per cent. The increase in farm property value was for the South 92 per
+cent., for the country only 67 per cent. The increase in farm products
+value was for the South 92 per cent.; for the whole United States it was
+greater, viz., 133 per cent.
+
+Land at the South was boundlessly rich in unexploited resources. More
+than half the country's standing timber grew there, much of it hard wood
+and yellow pine. Quantities of phosphate rock, limestone, and gypsum
+were to be dug, also salt, aluminum, mica, topaz, and gold. Especially
+in Texas, petroleum sought release from vast underground reservoirs. The
+farmer did not lack for rain, the manufacturer for water-power, or the
+merchant for water transportation to keep down railroad rates.
+
+The white Southerner, of purest Saxon-Norman blood, had the vigorous and
+comely physique of that race. Nowhere else in the land were the
+generality of white men and women so fine-looking. Easy circumstances
+had enabled them to become gracious as well, with the dignified and
+pleasing manners characterizing Southern society before the Civil War.
+High intelligence was another racial trait. The administration of the
+various Industrial Expositions named in this chapter required and
+evinced business ability of the highest order. During the quarter
+century succeeding reconstruction popular education developed even more
+astonishingly at the South than in the North or the West. Nothing could
+surpass the avidity with which young Southern men and women sought and
+utilized intellectual opportunities.
+
+With few exceptions Southerners had become intensely loyal to the
+national ideal, faithfully abiding the arbitrament of the war, which
+alone, to their mind--but at any rate, finally and forever--overthrew
+the old doctrine that the Union was a compact among States, with liberty
+to each to secede at will.
+
+Straightforwardness and intensity of purpose marked the Southern temper.
+If a county or a city voted "dry," practically all the whites aided to
+see the mandate enforced. The liquor traffic was thus regulated more
+stringently and prohibited more widely and effectively at the South than
+in any other part of the country. Even the lynchings occurring from time
+to time in some quarters, while atrocious and frowned upon by the best
+people, seemed due in most cases less to disregard for the spirit of the
+law than to distrust of legal methods and machinery. Indications
+multiplied, moreover, that this damning blot on Southern civilization
+would ere long disappear.
+
+The most aggravating and insoluble perplexity which tormented the
+Southern people lay in dealing with the colored race. Sections of the
+so-called black belts still weltered in unthrift and decay, as in the
+darkest reconstruction days. These belts were three in number. The
+first, about a hundred miles wide, reached from Virginia and the
+Carolinas through the Gulf States to the watershed of the State of
+Mississippi. The second bordered the Mississippi from Tennessee to just
+above New Orleans, and extended up the Red River into Arkansas and
+Texas. A third region of negro preponderance covered fifteen counties of
+southern Texas.
+
+In these tracts and elsewhere white political supremacy was maintained,
+as it had been regained, by the forms of law when possible; if not, then
+in some other way. The wisest negro leaders dismissed, as for the
+present a dream, all thought of political as of social equality between
+whites and blacks. Swarms of the colored, resigned to political
+impotence, were prolific of defective, pauper, and criminal population.
+Education, book-education at least, did not seem to improve them; many
+believed that it positively injured them, producing cunning and vanity
+rather than seriousness. This was perhaps the rule, though there were
+many noble exceptions. In 1892, while the proportion of vicious negroes
+seemed to be increasing in cities and large towns, it was almost to a
+certainty decreasing in rural districts--improvement due in good part
+to enforced temperance.
+
+A conference on the negro and the South opened at Montgomery May 8,
+1900. Many able and fair-minded men participated, representing various
+attitudes, parties, and sections of the country. Limitation of the
+colored franchise, the proper sort of education for negroes, the evils
+of "social equality" agitation, and the causes and frequency of lynching
+were the main subjects discussed. The consensus of opinion seemed to be
+that for "the negro, on account of his inherent mental and emotional
+instability," acquirement of the franchise should be less easy than for
+whites. It was maintained that the industrially trained colored men
+became leaders among their people, commanding the respect of both races
+and acquiring much property, yet that ex-slaves, rather than the
+younger, educated set, formed the bulk of colored property-holders.
+Figures revealed among the colored population a frightful increase of
+illegitimacy and of flagrant crimes. It seemed that crimes against
+women, almost unknown before the war but now increasing at an alarming
+rate, proceeded not from ex-slaves, but from the smart new generation.
+Lynching for these offences was by some excused in that negroes would
+not assist in bringing colored perpetrators to justice, and in that a
+spectacular mode of punishment affected negroes more deeply than the
+slow process of law, even when this issued in conviction. The severer
+utterances at this conference may have been more or less biased; still,
+if, allowing for this, one considered the data available for forming a
+judgment, one was forced to feel that calm Southerners had apprehended
+the case better than Northern enthusiasts. Colored people as a class
+lacked devotion to principle, also initiative and endurance, whether
+mental or physical. Colored deputies, of whom there were many in various
+parts of the South, so long as they acted under white chiefs, were, like
+most colored soldiers, marvels of bravery, defying revolvers, bowie
+knives, and wounds, and fighting to the last gasp with no sign of
+flinching; but the black men who could be trusted as sheriffs-in-chief
+were extremely rare.
+
+Whether the faults named were strictly hereditary or resulted rather
+from the long-continued ill education and environment of the race, none
+could certainly tell. As a matter of fact, however, few even among
+friendly critics longer regarded these faults as entirely eliminable. A
+well qualified and wholly unbiased judge of negro character gave it as
+emphatically his opinion that any autonomous community of colored
+people, no matter how highly educated or civilized, would relapse into
+barbarism in the course of two generations. This view was not rendered
+absurd by the existence of fairly well administered municipalities here
+and there with negro mayors. Many negroes were extremely bright and apt
+in imitation, also in all memoriter and linguistic work. The New
+Orleans Cotton Centennial and the Nashville Exposition each had its
+negro department. But it was distinctive of the Atlanta Fair that one of
+its buildings was entirely devoted to exhibits of negro handicraft. At
+once in range and in the quality of the objects which it embraced, the
+display was creditable to the race. Here and there, moreover, the race
+had produced a grand character. The most notable of the opening
+addresses at the Atlanta Fair was made by the colored educator, Booker
+T. Washington, President of the Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute
+for negro youth.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Booker T. Washington.
+
+
+His oration on this occasion directed attention to Mr. Washington not
+only as a remarkable negro, but as a remarkable man. Born poor as could
+be and fighting his way to an education against every conceivable
+obstacle, he had at the age of forty distinguished himself as a business
+organizer, as an educator, as a writer, and as, a public speaker. His
+modesty, discretion, and industry were phenomenal, at once constituting
+him a leader of his race and rendering his leadership valuable. He
+eschewed politics, avoided in everything the demagogue's ways, and never
+spoke ill of the whites, not even of Southern whites.
+
+But, unfortunately, a great negro such as Washington stood like a
+mountain in a marsh, sporadic and solitary.
+
+
+[Illustration: People walking in front of a large columned building.]
+The Atlanta Exposition.
+Entrance to the Art Building.
+
+
+Save in West Virginia, Florida, and the black belts the whites at the
+South increased more swiftly than the blacks. Certain of what Malthus
+called the "positive checks" upon population--viz., diseases, mainly
+syphilis, typhoid, and consumption--decimated the negroes everywhere.
+Colored population drifted from the country to cities, which probably
+accounted for the fact that in 1890 more negroes lived in the North than
+ever before.  In the South itself, on the other hand, the movement of
+colored population was southward and westward, from the highlands to the
+lowlands, so that Kentucky, along with western Virginia, northeastern
+Mississippi, and rural parts of Maryland, North Alabama, and eastern
+Virginia, had, in 1890, fewer colored inhabitants than ten years
+previous.
+
+These confusing data explain why few were rash enough to prophesy the
+fate of the American negro. Such predictions as were heard, were, in the
+main, little hopeful. Colonization abroad was no resource. In 1895 the
+International Immigration Society shipped 300 negroes to Liberia, and in
+1897 the Central Labor Union of New York 311 more, but no movement of
+the kind could be set going. In fact, the one certainty touching the
+American negroes' future was that they would remain in the United
+States.
+
+From 1870 to 1880 the percentage of negroes to the total population had
+increased, but a century had reduced this ratio from 19.3 per cent. to
+12 per cent. The climatic area where black men had any advantage over
+white in the struggle for life was less than eight per cent. of the
+country. White laborers competed more and more sharply. The paternal
+affection of the old slave-holding generation toward negroes was not
+inherited by the makers of the New South.
+
+There was one hopeful force at work--Booker Washington at Tuskegee, in
+the very heart of the Alabama black belt. His personality, his example,
+his ideas were inspiring. He bade his race to expect improvement in its
+condition not from any political party nor from Northern benevolence,
+but from its own advance in industry and character. His great and
+successful college at Tuskegee, with an enrolment of 1,231 students in
+1889, gave much impetus to industrial education among the blacks,
+turning in that direction educational interest and energy which had
+previously found vent to too great an extent, relatively, in providing
+negro students with mere literary training. The Slater-Armstrong
+Memorial Trades' Building, dedicated January 10, 1890, was erected and
+finished by the students practically alone. At least three-fourths of
+those receiving instruction at this school pursued, after leaving, the
+industries learned there.
+
+The color line had ceased to be sectional. In 1900 mobs in New York City
+and Akron, Ohio, baited black citizens with barbarity little less than
+that of the worst Southern lynchings. Texas courts the same year
+affirmed negroes' right to serve as jurymen. After 1900 one noticed in
+several Southern States a tendency to oust negroes from official
+connection even with the Republican party, each State organization
+affecting to be "Lily-White." The Administration seemed to favor this
+movement by appointing liberal Democrats at the South to federal
+offices, allying such, in a way, with the Republican cause. This helped
+make President Roosevelt popular at the South, spite of the criticism
+with which the press there greeted his entertainment of Booker T.
+Washington at the White House. When he visited the Exposition at
+Charleston, December, 1901-May, 1902, he was enthusiastically received.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+THE MEN AND THE ISSUE IN 1896
+
+
+Early in 1896 it became clear that the dominant issue of the
+presidential campaign would be the resumption by the United States of
+silver-dollar free coinage. Agitation for this, hushed only for a moment
+by the passage of the Bland Act, had been going on ever since
+demonetization in 1873. The fall in prices, which the new output of gold
+had not yet begun to arrest; the money stringency since 1893; the
+insecure, bond-supplied gold reserve, and the repeal of the
+silver-purchase clause in the Sherman Act combined to produce a wish for
+increase in the nation's hard-money supply. Had the climax of fervor
+synchronized with an election day, a free-coinage President might have
+been elected.
+
+Only the Populists were a unit in favoring free coinage. Recent
+Republican and Democratic platforms had been phrased with Delphic genius
+to suit the East and West at once. The best known statesmen of both
+parties had "wobbled" upon the question. The Republican party contained
+a large element favorable to silver, while the Democratic President, at
+least, had boldly and steadfastly exerted himself to establish the gold
+standard.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Senator Teller of Colorado.
+
+
+Realignment of forces begot queer alliances between party foes, lasting
+bitterness between party fellows. Even the Prohibitionists, who held the
+first convention, were riven into "narrow-gauge" and "broad-gauge," the
+latter in a rump convention incorporating a free-coinage plank into
+their creed. If the Republicans kept their ranks closed better than the
+Democrats, this was largely due to the prominence they gave to
+protection, attacked by the Wilson-Gorman Act.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Senator Cannon.
+
+
+Their convention sat at St. Louis, June 16th. It was an eminently
+business-like body, even its enthusiasm and applause wearing the air of
+discipline. In making the platform, powerful efforts for a
+catch-as-catch-could declaration upon the silver question succumbed to
+New England's and New York's demand for an unequivocal statement. The
+party "opposed the free coinage of silver except by international
+agreement with the leading commercial nations of the world." . . .
+"Until such agreement can be obtained, the existing gold standard must
+be preserved." Senator Teller, of Colorado, moved a substitute favoring
+"the free, unrestricted, and independent coinage of gold and silver at
+our mints at the ratio of 16 parts of silver to 1 of gold." It was at
+once tabled by a vote of 818-1/2 to 105-1/2. The rest of the platform
+having been adopted, Senator Cannon, of Utah, read a protest against the
+money plank, which recited the evils of falling prices as discouraging
+industry and threatening perpetual servitude of American producers to
+consumers in creditor nations.
+
+Then occurred a dramatic scene, the first important bolt from a
+Republican convention since 1872. "Accepting the present fiat of the
+convention as the present purpose of the party," Teller shook hands with
+the chairman, and, tears streaming down his face, left the convention,
+accompanied by Cannon and twenty other delegates, among them two entire
+State delegations. Senators Mantle, of Montana, and Brown, of Utah,
+though remaining, protested against the convention's financial
+utterance.
+
+The Republican platform lauded protection and reciprocity, favored
+annexing the Hawaiian Islands, and the building, ownership, and
+operation of the Nicaragua Canal by the United States. It reasserted the
+Monroe Doctrine "in its full extent," expressed sympathy for Cuban
+patriots, and bespoke United States influence and good offices to give
+Cuba peace and independence.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Garret A. Hobart, Vice-President.
+Copyright,1899, by Pack Bros., N. Y.
+
+The first ballot, by a majority of over two-thirds, nominated for the
+presidency William McKinley, Jr., of Ohio, the nomination being at once
+made unanimous. Garret A. Hobart, of New Jersey, was nominated for
+Vice-President.
+
+William McKinley, Jr., was born at Niles, Ohio, January 29, 1843, of
+Scotch-Irish stock. In 1860 he entered Allegheny College, Meadville,
+Pa., but ill health compelled him to leave. He taught school. For a time
+he was a postal clerk at Poland, Ohio. At the outbreak of the Civil War
+he enlisted as a private in Company E, 23d Ohio Infantry, the regiment
+with which William S. Rosecrans, Rutherford B. Hayes, and Stanley
+Matthews were connected. Successive promotions attended his gallant and
+exemplary services. He shared every engagement in which his regiment
+took part, was never absent on sick leave, and had only one short
+furlough. A month before the assassination of President Lincoln McKinley
+was commissioned a major by brevet.
+
+After the war Major McKinley studied law. He was admitted to the bar in
+1867, settling in Canton, Ohio. In 1876 he made his debut in Congress,
+where he served with credit till 1890, when, owing partly to a
+gerrymander and partly to the unpopular McKinley Bill, he was defeated
+by the narrow margin of 300 votes. As Governor of Ohio and as a public
+speaker visiting every part of the country, McKinley was more and more
+frequently mentioned in connection with the presidency.
+
+The nomination was a happy one. No other could have done so much to
+unite the party. Not only had Mr. McKinley's political career been
+honorable, he had the genius of manly affability, drawing people to him
+instead of antagonizing them. Republicans who could not support the
+platform, in numbers gave fealty to the candidate as a true man, devoted
+to their protective tenets, and a "friend of silver."
+
+The Democratic convention sat at Chicago July 7th to 10th. Though
+Administration and Eastern Democratic leaders had long been working to
+stem free coinage sentiment, this seemed rather to increase. By July
+1st, in thirty-three of the fifty States and Territories, Democratic
+platforms had declared for free coinage. The first test of strength in
+the convention overruled the National Committee's choice of David B.
+Hill for temporary chairman, electing Senator Daniel, of Virginia, by
+nearly a two-thirds vote. The silver side was then added to by unseating
+and seating.
+
+Hot fights took place over planks which the minority thought unjust to
+the Administration or revolutionary. The income-tax plank drew the
+heaviest fire, but was nailed to the platform in spite of this. It
+attacked the Supreme Court for reversing precedents in order to declare
+that tax unconstitutional, and suggested the possibility of another
+reversal by the same court "as it may hereafter be constituted."
+
+The platform assailed "government by injunction as a new and highly
+dangerous form of oppression, by which federal judges in contempt of the
+laws of the States and the rights of citizens become at once
+legislators, judges, and executioners."
+
+Attention having been called to the demonetization of silver in 1873 and
+to the consequent fall of prices and the growing onerousness of debts
+and fixed charges, gold monometallism was indicted as the cause "which
+had locked fast the prosperity of an industrial people in the paralysis
+of hard times" and brought the United States into financial servitude to
+London. Demand was therefore made for "the free and unlimited coinage of
+silver at the present legal ratio of 16 to 1 without waiting for the aid
+or consent of any other nation." Practically the entire management of
+the Treasury under Mr. Cleveland was condemned.
+
+
+[Illustration: Parade.]
+The McKinley-Hobart Parade Passing the Reviewing Stand,
+New York, October 31, 1896.
+
+
+The platform being read, Hill, of New York, Vilas, of Wisconsin, and
+ex-Governor Russell, of Massachusetts, spoke. William J. Bryan, of
+Nebraska, was called upon to reply. In doing so he made the memorable
+"cross of gold" speech, which more than aught else determined his
+nomination. In a musical but penetrating voice, that chained the
+attention of all listeners, he sketched the growth of the free-silver
+belief and prophesied its triumph. While, shortly before, the Democratic
+cause was desperate, now McKinley, famed for his resemblance to
+Napoleon, and nominated on the anniversary of Waterloo, seemed already
+to hear the waves lashing the lonely shores of St. Helena. The gold
+standard, he said, not any "threat" of silver, disturbed business. The
+wage-worker, the farmer, and the miner were as truly business men as
+"the few financial magnates who in a dark room corner the money of the
+world." "We answer the demand for the gold standard by saying, 'You
+shall not press down upon the brow of labor this crown of thorns. You
+shall not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold!'"
+
+
+[Illustration]
+Bryan Speaking from the Rear End of a Train.
+
+
+Sixteen members of the Resolutions Committee presented a minority report
+criticising majority declarations. As a substitute for the silver plank
+they offered a declaration similar to that of the Republican convention.
+In a further plank they commended the Administration. The substitute
+money plank was lost 301 to 628, and the resolution of endorsement 357
+to 564. No delegates withdrew, but a more formidable bolt than shook the
+Republican convention here expressed itself silently. In the subsequent
+proceedings 162 delegates, including all of New York's 72, 45 of New
+England's 77, 18 of New Jersey's 20, and 19 of Wisconsin's 24 took no
+part whatever.
+
+Before Bryan spoke, a majority of the silver delegates probably favored
+Hon. Richard P. Bland, of Missouri, father of the Bland Act, as the
+presidential candidate, but the first balloting showed a change. Upon
+the fifth ballot Bryan received 500 votes, a number which changes before
+the result was announced increased to the required two-thirds. Arthur
+Sewall, of Maine, was the nominee for Vice-President.
+
+Mr. Bryan, then barely thirty-six, was the youngest man ever nominated
+for the presidency. He was born in Salem, Ill., March 19, 1860. His
+father was a man of note, having served eight years in the Illinois
+Senate, and afterwards upon the circuit bench. Young Bryan passed his
+youth on his father's farm, near Salem, and at Illinois College,
+Jacksonville, where he graduated in 1881 with oratorical honors. Having
+read law in Chicago, and in 1887 been admitted to the bar, he removed to
+Lincoln, Neb., and began practising law.
+
+Mr. Bryan was inclined to politics, and his singular power on the
+platform drew attention to him as an available candidate. In 1890 he was
+elected to Congress as a Democrat. He served two terms, declining a
+third nomination. In 1894 he became editor of the Omaha World-Herald,
+but later resumed the practice of law.
+
+In Nebraska, as in some other Western States, Republicans so outnumbered
+Democrats that Populist aid was indispensable in any State or
+congressional contest. In 1892 it had been eagerly courted on
+Cleveland's behalf. Bryan had helped in consummating fusion between
+Populism and Democracy in Nebraska. This occasioned the unjust charge
+that he was no Democrat. The allegation gained credence when the
+Populist national convention at St. Louis placed him at the head of its
+ticket, refusing at the same time to accept Sewall, choosing instead a
+typical Southern Populist, Thomas Watson, of Georgia.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Arthur Sewall.
+
+
+To Southern Populists Democrats were more execrable than Republicans.
+Westerners of that faith were jealous of Sewall as an Eastern man and
+rich. Too close union with Democracy threatened Populism with
+extinction. Rightly divining that their leaders wished such a "merger,"
+the Populist rank and file insisted on nominating their candidate for
+the vice-presidency first. Bryan was made head of the ticket next day.
+The silver Republicans acclaimed the whole Democratic ticket, Sewall as
+well as Bryan.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Ex-Senator Palmer.
+
+
+The Democratic opponents of the "Chicago Democracy" determined to place
+in the field a "National" or "Gold" Democratic ticket. A convention for
+this purpose met in Indianapolis, September 3d. The Indianapolis
+Democrats lauded the gold standard and a non-governmental currency as
+historic Democratic doctrines, endorsed the Administration, and assailed
+the Chicago income-tax plank. Ex-Senator Palmer, of Illinois, and Simon
+E. Buckner, of Kentucky, were nominated to run upon this platform, Gold
+Democrats who could not in conscience vote for a Republican here found
+their refuge.
+
+Parties were now seriously mixed. Thousands of Western Republicans
+declared for Bryan; as many or more Eastern Democrats for McKinley.
+Party newspapers bolted. In Detroit the Republican Journal supported
+Bryan, the Democratic Free Press came out against him. Not a few from
+both sides "took to the woods"; while many, to be "regular," laid
+inconvenient convictions on the table.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Simon E. Buckner.
+
+
+The campaign was fierce beyond parallel. Neither candidate's character
+could be assailed, but the motives governing many of their followers
+were. Catchwords like "gold bug" and "popocrat" flew back and forth. The
+question-begging phrase "sound money"--both parties professed to wish
+"sound money"--did effective partisan service. Neither party's deepest
+principles were much discussed. Many gold people assumed as beyond
+controversy that free coinage would drive gold from the country and
+wreck public credit. Advocates of silver too little heeded the
+consequences which the mere fear of those evils must entail, impatiently
+classing such as mentioned them among bond-servants to the money power.
+
+So great was the fear of free silver in financial circles, corporations
+voted money to the huge Republican campaign fund. The opposition could
+tap no such mine. Never before had a national campaign seen the
+Democratic party so abandoned by Democrats of wealth, or with so slender
+a purse.
+
+Nor was this the worst. Had Mr. Bryan been able through the campaign to
+maintain the passionate eloquence of his Chicago speech, or the lucid
+logic of that with which at Madison Square Garden he opened the
+campaign, he would still not have succeeded in sustaining "more hard
+money" ardor at its mid-summer pitch. His eloquence, indeed, in good
+degree continued, but the level of his argument sank. Instead of
+championing the cause of producers, whether rich or poor, against mere
+money-changers, which he might have done with telling effect, he more
+and more fell to the tone of one speaking simply against all the rich,
+an attitude which repelled multitudes who possessed neither wealth nor
+much sympathy for the wealthy.
+
+Save for one short trip to Cleveland the Republican candidate did not,
+during the campaign, leave Canton, though from his doorstep he spoke to
+visiting hordes. His opponent, in the course of the most remarkable
+campaigning tour ever made by a candidate, preached free coinage to
+millions. The immense number of his addresses; their effectiveness,
+notwithstanding the slender preparation possible for most of them
+severally; the abstract nature of his subject when argued on its merits,
+as it usually was by him; and the strain of his incessant journeys
+evinced a power in the man which was the amazement of everyone.
+
+Spite of all this, as election day drew near, the feeling rose that it
+post-dated by at least two months all possibility of a Democratic
+victory. Republicans' limitless resources, steady discipline, and
+ceaseless work told day by day. They polled, of the popular vote,
+7,104,244; the combined Bryan forces, 6,506,853; the Gold Democracy,
+134,652; the Prohibitionists, 144,606; and the Socialists, 36,416.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+MR. McKINLEY'S ADMINISTRATION
+
+
+The Nestor of the original McKinley Cabinet was John Sherman, who left
+his Senate seat to the swiftly rising Hanna that he himself might devote
+his eminent but failing powers to the Secretaryship of State. Upon the
+outbreak of the Spanish War he was succeeded by William R. Day, who had
+been Assistant Secretary. In 1898 Day in turn resigned, when Ambassador
+John Hay was called to the place from the Court of St. James. The
+Treasury went to Lyman J. Gage, a distinguished Illinois banker. Mr.
+Gage was a Democrat, and this appointment was doubtless meant as a
+recognition of the Gold Democracy's aid in the campaign. General Russell
+A. Alger, of Michigan, took charge of the War Department, holding it
+till July 19, 1899, after which Elihu Root was installed.
+Postmaster-General James A. Gary, of Maryland, resigned the same month
+with Sherman, giving place to Charles Emory Smith, of the Philadelphia
+Press. The Navy portfolio fell to John D. Long, of Massachusetts; that
+of the Interior to Cornelius N. Bliss, of New York; that of Agriculture
+to James Wilson, of Iowa. In December, 1898, Ethan Allen Hitchcock, of
+Missouri, succeeded Bliss.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+John Sherman.
+
+
+[Illustration: Working at desk.]
+Lyman J. Gage, Secretary of the Treasury.
+
+
+[Illustration: Working at desk.]
+John D. Long, Secretary of the Navy.
+
+
+[Illustration: Working at desk.]
+Cornelius N. Bliss,
+Secretary of the Interior.
+
+
+[Illustration: Working at desk.]
+Russell A. Alger,
+Secretary of War.
+
+
+Fortunately for the new Chief Magistrate, who had been announced as the
+"advance agent of prosperity," the year 1897 brought a revival of
+business. This was due in part to the end, at least for the time, of
+political suspense and agitation, in part to the confidence which
+capitalists felt in the new Administration.
+
+The money stringency, too, now began to abate. The annual output of the
+world's gold mines, which had for some years been increasing, appeared
+to have terminated the fall of general prices, prevalent almost
+incessantly since 1873. Moreover, continued increase seemed assured, not
+only by the invention of new processes, which made it lucrative to work
+tailings and worn-out mines, but also by the discovery of several rich
+auriferous tracts hitherto unknown.
+
+
+[Illustration: Working at desk.]
+James Wilson,
+Secretary of Agriculture.
+
+
+[Illustration: Working at desk.]
+Postmaster-General Gary.
+From a copyrighted photo by Clinedinst.
+
+
+The valley of the Yukon, in Alaska and the adjacent British territory,
+had long been known to contain gold, but none suspected there a bonanza
+like the South African Rand. In the six months' night of 1896-1897 an
+old squaw-man made an unprecedented strike upon the Klondike
+(Thron-Duick or Tondak) River, 2,000 miles up the Yukon. By spring all
+his neighbors had staked rich claims. Next July $2,000,000 worth of gold
+came south by one shipment, precipitating a rush to the inhospitable
+mining regions hardly second to the California migration of 1849.
+
+Latter-day Argonauts, not dismayed by the untold dangers and hardships
+in store, toiled up the Yukon, or, swarming over the precipitous
+Chilcoot Pass, braved, too often at cost of life, the boiling rapids to
+be passed in descending the Upper Yukon to the gold fields. Later the
+easier and well-wooded White Pass was found, traversed, at length, by a
+railroad. In October, 1898, the Cape Nome coast, north of the Yukon
+mouth, uncovered its riches, whereupon treasure-seekers turned thither
+their attention, even from the Yukon.
+
+Little lawlessness pestered the gold settlements. The Dominion promptly
+despatched to Dawson a body of her famous mounted police. Our
+Government, more tardily, made its authority felt from St. Michaels,
+near the Yukon mouth, all the way to the Canadian border. On June 6,
+1900, Alaska was constituted a civil and judicial district, with a
+governor, whose functions were those of a territorial governor. When
+necessary the miners themselves formed tribunals and meted out a
+rough-and-ready justice.
+
+
+[Illustration: Men with huge piles of supplies.]
+Rush of Miners to the Yukon.
+The City of Caches at the Summit of Chilcoot Pass.
+
+
+The rush of miners to the middle Yukon gold region, which, together with
+certain ports and waters on the way thither, were claimed by both the
+United States and Great Britain, made acute the question of the true
+boundary between Alaskan and British territory.
+
+In 1825 Great Britain and Russia, the latter then owning Alaska, agreed
+by treaty to separate their respective possessions by a line commencing
+at the southernmost point of Prince of Wales Island and running along
+Portland Channel to the continental coast at 56 degrees north latitude.
+North of that degree the boundary was to run along mountain summits
+parallel to the coast until it intersected the 141st meridian west
+longitude, which was then to be followed to the frozen ocean. In case
+any of the summits mentioned should be more than ten marine leagues from
+the ocean, the line was to parallel the coast, and be never more than
+ten marine leagues therefrom.
+
+When it became important to determine and mark the boundary in a more
+exact manner, Great Britain advanced two new claims; first, that the
+"Portland Channel" mentioned in the Russo-British treaty was not the
+channel now known by that name, but rather Behm Channel, next west, or
+Clarence Straits; and, secondly, that the ten-league limit should be
+measured from the outer rim of the archipelago skirting Alaska, and not
+from the mainland coast. If conceded, these claims would add to the
+Canadian Dominion about 29,000 square miles, including 100 miles of
+sea-coast, with harbors like Lynn Channel and Tahko Inlet, several
+islands, vast mining, fishery, and timber resources, as well as Juneau
+City, Revilla, and Fort Tongass, theretofore undisputably American.
+
+In September, 1898, a joint high commission sat at Quebec and canvassed
+all moot matters between the two countries, among them that of the
+Alaska boundary. It adjourned, however, without settling the question,
+though a temporary and provisional understanding was reached and signed
+October 20, 1899.
+
+The commissioners gave earnest attention to the sealing question, which
+had been plaguing the United States ever since the Paris arbitration
+tribunal upset Secretary Blaine's contention that Bering Sea was mare
+clausum. Upon that tribunal's decision the modus vivendi touching seals
+lapsed, and Canadians, with renewed and ruthless zeal, plied
+seal-killing upon the high seas. Dr. David S. Jordan, American delegate
+to the 1896-1897 Conference of Fur-Seal Experts, estimated that the
+American seal herd had shrunken 15 per cent. in 1896, and that a full
+third of that year's pups, orphaned by pelagic sealing, had starved.
+Reckoning from the beginning of the industry and in round numbers, he
+estimated that 400,000 breeding females had been slaughtered, that
+300,000 pups had perished for want of nourishment, and that 400,000
+unborn pups had died with their dams. This estimate disregarded the
+multitude of females lost after being speared or shot. Dr. Jordan
+predicted the not distant extinction of the fur-seal trade unless
+protective measures should be forthwith devised. British experts
+questioned some of his conclusions, but admitted the need of restriction
+upon pelagic sealing.
+
+The McKinley Administration besought Great Britain for a suspension of
+seal-killing during 1897. After a delay of four months the Foreign
+Office replied that it was too late to stop the sealers that year. In a
+rather undiplomatic note, dated May 10, 1897, Secretary Sherman charged
+dilatory and evasive conduct upon this question. The retort was that the
+American Government was seeking to embarrass British subjects in
+pursuing lawful vocations.
+
+Moved by Canada, Great Britain recanted her offer to join the United
+States, Russia, and Japan in a complete system of sealing regulations.
+The three countries last named thereupon agreed with each other to
+suspend pelagic sealing so long as expert opinion declared it necessary
+to the continued existence of the seals. The Canadians declined to
+consider suspension save on the condition that the owners of sealing
+vessels should receive compensation. In December, the same year (1897),
+our Government ordered confiscated and destroyed all sealskins brought
+to our ports not accompanied with invoices signed by the United States
+Consul at the place of exportation, certifying that they were not taken
+at sea. This cut off the Canadians' best market and so far diminished
+their activity; but pelagic sealing still continued, under the
+inefficient Paris regulations, and the herd went on diminishing.
+
+That these Canadian controversies left so little sting, but were
+followed by closer and closer rapprochement between the United States
+and Great Britain, was fortunate in view of the failure of the
+Anglo-American Arbitration Treaty. This had been negotiated by Mr.
+Cleveland's able Secretary of State, Hon. Richard Olney, and represented
+the best ethical thought of both nations. President McKinley endorsed
+it, but it fell short of a two-thirds Senatorial vote.
+
+On June 16, 1897, a treaty was signed annexing the Hawaiian Republic to
+the United States. The Government of Hawaii speedily ratified this, but
+it encountered in the United States Senate such buffets that after a
+year it was withdrawn, and a resolution to the same end introduced in
+both Houses. A majority in each chamber would annex, while the treaty
+method would require a two-thirds vote in the Senate. The resolution
+provided for the assumption by the United States of the Hawaiian debt up
+to $4,000,000. Our Chinese Exclusion Law was extended to the islands,
+and Chinese immigration thence to the continental republic prohibited.
+The joint resolution passed July 6, 1898, a majority of the Democrats
+and several Republicans, among these Speaker Reed, opposing. Shelby M.
+Cullom, John T. Morgan, Robert R. Hitt, Sanford B. Dole, and Walter F.
+Frear, made commissioners by its authority, drafted a territorial form
+of government, which became law April 30, 1900.
+
+Pursuant to the platform pledge of his party President McKinley early in
+his term appointed Edward O. Wolcott, Adlai E. Stevenson, and Charles J.
+Paine special envoys to the Powers in the interest of international
+bi-metallism. The mission was mentioned with smiles by gold men and with
+sneers by silver men, yet the cordial cooperation of France made it for
+a time seem hopeful. The British Cabinet, too, were not ill-disposed,
+pointing out that while Great Britain herself must retain the gold
+standard, they earnestly wished a stable ratio between silver and gold
+on British India's account. Sir Michael Hicks-Beach, Chancellor of the
+Exchequer, had little doubt that if a solid international agreement
+could be reached India would reopen her mints to silver. But the Indian
+Council unanimously declined to do this. The Bank of England was at
+first disposed to accept silver as part of its reserve, a course which
+the law permitted; but a storm of protests from the "city banks"
+dismayed the directors into withdrawal. Lacking England's cooperation
+the mission, like its numerous predecessors, came to naught.
+
+In Civil Service administration Mr. McKinley took one long and
+unfortunate step backward. The Republican platform, adopted after Mr.
+Cleveland's extension of the merit system, emphatically endorsed this,
+as did Mr. McKinley himself.  Against extreme pressure, particularly in
+the War Department, the President bravely stood out till May 29, 1899.
+His order of that date withdrew from the classified service 4,000 or
+more positions, removed 3,500 from the class theretofore filled through
+competitive examination or an orderly practice of promotion, and placed
+6,416 more under a system drafted by the Secretary of War. The order
+declared regular a large number of temporary appointments made without
+examination, besides rendering eligible, as emergency appointees,
+without examination, thousands who had served during the Spanish War.
+
+Republicans pointed to the deficit under the Wilson Law with much the
+same concern manifested by President Cleveland in 1888 over the surplus.
+A new tariff law must be passed, and, if possible, before a new
+Congressional election. An extra session of Congress was therefore
+summoned for March 15, 1897. The Ways and Means Committee, which had
+been at work for three months, forthwith reported through Chairman
+Nelson Dingley the bill which bore his name. With equal promptness the
+Committee on Rules brought in a rule, at once adopted by the House,
+whereby the new bill, spite of Democratic pleas for time to examine,
+discuss, and propose amendments, reached the Senate the last day of
+March. More deliberation marked procedure in the Senate. This body
+passed the bill after toning up its schedules with some 870 amendments,
+most of which pleased the Conference Committee and became law. The Act
+was signed by the President July 24, 1897.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Nelson Dingley.
+
+
+The Dingley Act was estimated by its author to advance the average rate
+from the 40 per cent. of the Wilson Bill to approximately 50 per cent.,
+or a shade higher than the McKinley rate. As proportioned to consumption
+the tax imposed by it was probably heavier than that under either of its
+predecessors.
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+Warships in the Hudson River Celebrating
+the Dedication of Grant's Tomb, April 27, 1897.
+
+Reciprocity, a feature of the McKinley Tariff Act, was suspended by the
+Wilson Act. The Republican platform of 1896 declared protection and
+reciprocity twin measures of Republican policy. Clauses graced the
+Dingley Act allowing reciprocity treaties to be made, "duly ratified" by
+the Senate and "approved" by Congress; yet, of the twins, protection
+proved stout and lusty, while the weaker sister languished. Under the
+third section of the Act some concessions were given and received, but
+the treaties negotiated under the fourth section, which involved
+lowering of strictly protective duties, met summary defeat when
+submitted to the Senate.
+
+
+[Illustration: Cone shaped dome, atop a cylinder of columns, atop a
+rectangular base.]
+Grant's Tomb, Riverside Drive, New York.
+Copyright, 1901, by Detroit Photographic Co.
+
+
+The granite mausoleum in Riverside Park, New York City, designed to
+receive the remains of General Grant, was completed in 1897, and upon
+the 27th of April, that year, formally presented to the city. Ten days
+previously the body had been removed thither from the brick tomb where
+it had reposed since August 8, 1885. Four massive granite piers, with
+rows of Doric columns between, supported the roof and the obtuse cone of
+the cupola, which rested upon a great circle of Ionic pillars. The
+interior was cruciform. In the centre was the crypt, where, upon a
+square platform, rested the red porphyry sarcophagus. From the mausoleum
+summit, 150 feet above, the eye swept the Hudson for miles up and down.
+
+The presentation day procession was headed by the presidential party.
+The Governor of New York State, the Mayor of the city, and the United
+States diplomatic corps were prominent. Other distinguished guests
+attended, including Union and Confederate Veterans. The entire
+procession reached six miles.  There were 53,500 participants, military
+and civil, and 160 bands of music. At the same time, in majestic column
+upon the Hudson, Great Britain, France, Italy, and Spain joined, with
+men-of-war, our North Atlantic squadron, saluting the President as he
+passed.
+
+The exercises at the tomb were simple. Bishop Newman offered prayer.
+"America" was sung. President McKinley delivered an address of eulogy.
+General Horace Porter gave the mausoleum into the city's keeping, a
+trust which Mayor Strong in a few words accepted.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+THE WAR WITH SPAIN
+
+
+How early Cuban discontent with Spain's rule became vocal is not known.
+An incipient revolt in 1766 was ruthlessly put down. Though the "Ever
+Faithful Isle" did not rebel with the South American colonies under
+Bolivar, it was never at rest, as attested by the servile revolts of
+1794 and 1844, the "Black Eagle" rebellion of 1829, and the ten-years'
+insurrection beginning in 1868. In 1894-1895, just as "Home Rule for
+Cuba" had become a burning issue in Spain, martial law was proclaimed in
+Havana, precipitating the last and successful revolution.
+
+American interest in the island, material and otherwise, was great. The
+barbarity and devastation marking the wars made a strong appeal to our
+humane instincts; nor could Americans be indifferent to a neighboring
+people struggling to be free. The suppression of filibustering
+expeditions taxed our Treasury and our patience. Equally embarrassing
+were the operations of Cuban juntas from our ports. To solve the complex
+difficulty Presidents Polk, Buchanan, and Grant had each in his time
+vainly sought to purchase the island. The Virginius outrage during
+Grant's incumbency brought us to the very verge of war, prevented only
+by the almost desperate resistance of Secretary Hamilton Fish.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Governor-General Weyler.
+
+
+When the final rebellion was under way the humane Governor-General
+Martinez Campos was succeeded by General Weyler, ordered to down the
+rebellion at all costs. Numberless buildings were burnt and plantations
+destroyed, the insurgents retaliating in kind. Non-combatants were
+huddled in concentration camps, where half their number perished.
+American citizens were imprisoned without trial. One, Dr. Ruiz, died
+under circumstances occasioning strong suspicions of foul play.
+
+President Cleveland, while willing to mediate between Spain and the
+Cubans, preserved a neutral attitude, refusing to recognize the
+insurgents even as belligerents, though they possessed all rural Cuba
+save one province. Only when about to quit office did Mr. Cleveland hint
+at intervention.
+
+Soon after McKinley's accession an anarchist shot Premier Canovas,
+when Sagasta, his Liberal successor, promised Cuba reform and home rule.
+Weyler was succeeded by Blanco, who revoked concentration, proclaimed
+amnesty, and set on foot an autonomist government. Americans were loosed
+from prison. Clara Barton, of the American Red Cross Society, hastened
+with supplies to the relief of the wretched reconcentrados, turned loose
+upon a waste. Spain, too, appropriated a large sum for reconcentrado
+relief, promising implements, seed, and other means for restoring ruined
+homes and plantations.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+Copyright. 1898, by F. C. Hemment.
+U. S. Battleship Maine Entering the Harbor of Havana, January, 1898.
+
+
+But the iron had entered the Cuban's soul. The belligerents rejected
+absolutely the offers of autonomy, demanding independence. The
+"pacificos" were no better off than before, and relations between the
+United States and Spain grew steadily more strained. Two incidents
+precipitated a crisis.
+
+A letter by the Spanish Minister at Washington, Senor de Lome, was
+intercepted and published, holding President McKinley up as a
+time-serving politician. De Lome forestalled recall by resigning; yet
+his successor, Polo y Bernabe, could not fail to note on arriving in
+Washington a chill diplomatic atmosphere.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+Wreck of U. S. Battleship Maine.
+Photograph by F. C. Hemment.
+
+
+In January, 1898, the United States battleship Maine was on a friendly
+visit at Havana, where she was received with the greatest courtesy,
+being taken to her harbor berth by the Spanish government pilot.  At
+9.40 on the evening of February 15th, the harbor air was rent by a
+tremendous explosion. Where the Maine had been, only a low shapeless
+hump was distinguishable. The splendid vessel, with officers and crew on
+board to the number of 355, had sunk, a wreck. Of the 355, 253 never saw
+day.
+
+Strong suspicions gained prevalence that this was a deed of Spanish
+treachery, or attributable, at the very least, to criminal indifference
+on the part of the authorities. Some alleged positive connivance by
+Spanish officials. War fever ran high. When, five days later, the
+Spanish cruiser Vizcaya visited New York City, it was thought well to
+accord her special protection. March, 9th, Congress placed in the
+President's hands $50,000,000 to be used for national defence. The 21st,
+a naval court of inquiry confirmed the view that the Maine disaster was
+due to the explosion of a submarine mine. War fever became a fire.
+"Remember the Maine" echoed up and down and across the land, the words
+uttered with deep earnestness.
+
+The war spirit welded North and South, permeating the Democracy even
+more than the party in power. Democrats would have at once recognized
+the Cuban Republic. This was at first the attitude of the Senate, which,
+upon deliberation, wisely forbore. It, however, on April 20th, joined
+the House in declaring the people of Cuba free and independent, adding
+that Spain must forthwith relinquish her authority there. The President
+was authorized to use the nation's entire army, navy, and militia to
+enforce withdrawal. This was in effect a declaration of war. Minister
+Woodford, at Madrid, received his passports; as promptly Bernabe
+withdrew to Montreal. April 23d, 125,000 volunteers were called out.
+April 26th an increase of the regular army to some 62,000 was
+authorized. Soon came a call for 75,000 more volunteers. Responses from
+all the States flooded the War Department.
+
+[Illustration]
+Bow of the Spanish Cruiser Almirante Oquendo.
+From a Photograph by F. C. Hemment.
+Copyright, 1898, by W. R. Hearst.
+
+
+[Illustration: Hundreds of soldiers on transport and dock.]
+The Landing at Daiquiri. Transports in the Offing.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Captain Charles E. Clark.
+
+
+Spain, ruled by a clique of privileged Catalonians, groaned under all
+the oppressiveness of militarism, with none of its power. Plagued by
+Carlism and anarchy at home, she was grappling, at tremendous outlay,
+with two rebellions abroad. Yet all her many parties cried for war.
+Popular subscriptions were taken to aid the impoverished treasury;
+reserves were called out; in Cuba, Blanco summoned all able-bodied men.
+The navy was supplemented by ships purchased wherever hands could be
+laid upon them.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+After Deck on the Oregon, Showing Two 13-inch,
+Four 8-inch, and Two 6-inch Guns.
+Copyright. 1899. by Strohmeyer & Wyman.
+
+
+Owing to the parsimony of Congress, our equipment for a large army, or
+even for our 25,000 regulars, if they were to go on a tropical campaign,
+was totally inadequate. Our artillery had no smokeless powder. Many
+infantry regiments came to camp armed with nothing but enthusiasm. No
+khaki cloth for uniforms was to be had in the country. Canvas had to be
+taken from that provided by the Post-Office Department for repairing
+mail bags. While the utmost possible at short notice was done with the
+just voted $50,000,000 defence fund, the comprehensive system of
+fortifications long before designed had hardly been begun. The navy had
+been treated least illiberally; still the construction budget had been
+so cut that only a few of the proposed vessels had been transferred from
+paper to the sea.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+Blockhouse on San Juan Hill.
+
+
+The United States navy which did exist was a noble one. Both its ships
+and their crews were as fine as any afloat. Had the Spanish navy been
+manned like ours the two would have been of about equal strength. Ours
+boasted the more battleships, but Spain had several new and first-rate
+armored cruisers, besides a flotilla of swift torpedo boats. The
+Spaniards were, however, poor gunners, clumsy sailors, awkward and
+careless mechanics; while American gunners had a deadly aim, and spared
+no skill or pains in the care or handling of their ships.
+
+American superiority in these points was tellingly proved by the
+Oregon's unprecedented run from ocean to ocean. Before hostilities she
+was ordered from San Francisco, via Cape Horn to join the Atlantic
+squadron. The long, hard, swift trip was made without the break of a bar
+or the loosening of a bolt, a result which attracted expert notice
+abroad as attesting the very highest order of seamanship. Meantime war
+had commenced. It was feared that off Brazil Admiral Cervera would
+endeavor to intercept and destroy her; yet, with well-grounded
+confidence, Captain Clark expected in that event not only to save
+himself but to punish his assailants. He met no interference, however,
+and at the end of her unparalleled voyage his noble ship was without
+overhauling ready to join in the Santiago blockade and in destroying the
+Spanish fleet.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Admiral Cervera, Commander of the Spanish Squadron.
+
+
+Admiral Cervera's departure westward from the Cape Verde Islands, and
+the subsequent discovery of his squadron in the harbor of Santiago,
+determined the Government to invest that city. The navy acted with
+promptitude. Commodore Schley first, then, in conjunction with him, his
+superior, Rear-Admiral Sampson, drew a tight line of war-vessels across
+the channel entrance.
+
+
+[Illustration: Working at desk.]
+Major-General William R. Shafter.
+
+
+Unfortunately delayed by inadequate shipping facilities and the
+unsystematic consignment of supplies, also by the unfounded rumor of a
+Spanish cruiser and destroyer lying in wait, the army of 17,000, under
+Major-General William R. Shafter, landed with little opposition a short
+distance east of Santiago. The sickly season had begun. Moreover, it was
+as good as certain that, spite of all the miserable Cuban army could do,
+Santiago's 8,000 defenders would soon be increased from neighboring
+Spanish garrisons. So, notwithstanding his inadequate provision for
+sound, sick, or wounded and his weakness in artillery, Shafter pushed
+forward. His gallant little army brushed the enemy's intercepting
+outpost from Las Guasimas, tore him, amid red carnage, from his stubborn
+holds at El Caney and San Juan Ridge, and by July 3d had the city
+invested, save on the west. From this quarter, however, General Escario,
+with 3,600 men, had forced his way past our Cuban allies and joined his
+besieged compatriots in Santiago.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+Troops in the Trenches, Facing Santiago.
+
+
+The third of July opened, for the Americans, the darkest day of the war.
+Drenched by night, roasted by day, haversacks which had been cast aside
+for battle lost or purloined, supply trains stalled in the rear,
+fighting by day, by night digging trenches and rifle-pits--little
+wonder that many lost heart and urged withdrawal to some position nearer
+the American base. Shafter himself for a moment considered such a step.
+But General Wheeler, on the fighting line, set his face against it, as,
+upon reflection, did Shafter. A bold demand for surrender was sent to
+General Toral, commanding the city, while Admiral Sampson came to confer
+with Shafter for a naval assault.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+General Joseph Wheeler.
+
+
+The squadron had not been idle. By day their vigilance detected the
+smallest movement at the harbor mouth. Upon that point each night two
+battleships bent their dazzling search-lights like cyclopean eyes.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+View of San Juan Hill and Blockhouse,
+Showing the Camp of the United States Forces.
+
+
+It was decided to block the narrow channel by sinking the collier
+Merrimac across its neck. Just before dawn on June 3d the young naval
+constructor, Hobson, with six volunteers chosen from scores of eager
+competitors, and one stowaway who joined them against orders, pushed the
+hulk between the headland forts into a roaring hell of projectiles.
+
+
+[Illustration: Only the masts and stack above surface.]
+The Collier Merrimac Sunk by Hobson at the Mouth of Santiago Harbor.
+
+
+ An explosion from within rent the Merrimac's hull, and she sank; but,
+ the rudder being shot away, went down lengthwise of the channel. When
+ the firing ceased, the little crew, exhausted, but not one of the eight
+ missing, clustered, only heads out of water, around their raft. A
+ launch drew near. In charge was the Spanish admiral, who took them
+ aboard with admiring kindness, and despatched a boat to notify the
+ American fleet of their safety.
+
+It was well that "Hobson's choice" as to the way his tub should sink
+failed. On July 3d, just after Sampson steamed away to see Shafter, the
+Maria Teresa was seen poking her nose from the Santiago harbor, followed
+by the Almirante Oquendo, the Vizcaya, and the Christobal Colon. Under
+peremptory orders from his Government, Admiral Cervera had begun a mad
+race to destruction. "It is better," said he, "to die fighting than to
+blow up the ships in the harbor." These had become the grim
+alternatives.
+
+The Brooklyn gave chase, the other vessels in suit, the Texas and the
+Oregon leading. As the admiral predicted, it was "a dreadful holocaust."
+One by one his vessels had to head for the beach, silenced, crippled,
+flames bursting from decks, portholes, and the rents torn by our
+cannonade. Two destroyers, Furor and Pluton, met their fate near the
+harbor. Only the Colon remained any time afloat, but her doom was
+sealed. Outdoing the other pursuers and her own contract speed the grand
+Oregon, pride of the navy, poured explosives upon the Spaniard, until,
+within three hours and forty minutes of the enemy's appearance, his last
+vessel was reduced to junk. Cervera was captured with 76 officers and
+1,600 men. 350 Spaniards were killed, 160 wounded. The American losses
+were inconsiderable. The ships' injuries also were hardly more than
+trifling.
+
+So closed the third of July, so opened the glorious Fourth! To Shafter
+and his men the navy's victory was worth a reenforcement of 100,000.
+Bands played, tired soldiers danced, shouted, and hugged each other.
+Correspondingly depressed were the Spaniards. They endeavored, as Hobson
+had, to choke the harbor throat with the Reina Mercedes; but she, like
+the Merrimac, had her steering apparatus shot away and sank lengthwise
+of the channel. Still, it was not deemed wise to attempt forcing a way
+in, nor did this prove necessary. Toral saw reenforcements extending the
+American right to surround him, and out at sea over fifty transports
+loaded with fresh soldiers. Spanish honor had been signalized not only
+by the devoted heroism of Cervera's men but by the gallantry of his own.
+The Americans offered to convey his command back to Spain free of
+charge. He therefore sought from Madrid, and after some days obtained,
+authority to surrender. He surrendered July 16th. Besides the Santiago
+garrison, Toral's entire command in eastern Cuba, about 24,000 men,
+became our prisoners of war.
+
+
+[Illustration: Ship on its side on the beach.]
+From a Photograph by F. C. Hemment. Copyright, 1898, by W. R. Hearst.
+The Spanish Cruiser Christobal Colon.
+
+
+[Illustration: Warship.]
+Copyright, 1898. by C C. Langill. N. Y.
+The U. S. S. Brooklyn.
+
+
+The Santiago surrender left the United States free to execute what
+proved the last important expedition of the war, that of General Miles
+to Porto Rico. It was a complete success. Miles proclaiming the
+beneficent purposes of our Government, numbers of volunteers in the
+Spanish army deserted, the regulars were swept back by four simultaneous
+movements, and our conquest was as good as complete when the peace
+protocol put an end to all hostilities.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+General Nelson A. Miles
+
+
+Meantime an independent campaign was under way in the far Orient. At
+once after war was declared Commodore George Dewey, commanding the
+United States naval forces in Asiatic waters, was ordered to capture or
+sink the Spanish Philippine fleet. Obliged at once to leave the neutral
+port of Hong-Kong, and on April 27th to quit Mirs Bay as well, he
+steamed for Manila.
+
+A little before midnight, on April 30th, Dewey's flagship Olympia
+entered the Boca Grande channel to Manila Bay, the Baltimore, Petrel,
+Raleigh, Concord, and Boston following. By daybreak Cavite stood
+disclosed and, ready and waiting, huddled under its batteries, Admiral
+Montojo's fleet: Reina Christina, Castilla, Don Antonio de Ulloa, Don
+Juan de Austria, Isla de Luzon, Isla de Cuba, General Lezo, Marquis del
+Duero, El Curreo and Velasco--ten vessels to Dewey's six. Counting those
+of the batteries, the Spaniards' guns outnumbered and outcalibred
+Dewey's. All the Spanish guns, from ships and from batteries alike,
+played on our fleet--a thunder of hostile welcome, harmless as a salute.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Admiral George Dewey.
+
+
+The commodore delayed his fire till every shot would tell, when,
+circling around in closer and closer quarters, he concentrated an
+annihilating cyclone of shot and shell upon the Spanish craft. Two
+torpedo boats ventured from shore. One was sunk, one beached. The Reina
+Christina, the Amazon of the fleet, steamed out to duel with the
+Olympia, but "overwhelmed with deadly attentions" could barely stagger
+back. One hundred and fifty men were killed and ninety wounded on the
+Christina alone. In a little less than two hours, having sunk the
+Christina, Castilla, and Ulloa and set afire the other warships, the
+American ceased firing to assure and arrange his ammunition supply and
+to breakfast and rest his brave crews. He reopened at 11.16 A.M. to
+finish. By half-past twelve every Spanish warship had been sunk or
+burned and the forts silenced. The Spanish reported their loss at 381
+killed and wounded. Seven Americans were wounded, not one killed.
+
+
+[Illustration: Warship.]
+Protected Cruiser Olympia.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+General A. R. Chaftee.
+
+
+As the Filipino insurgents encircled Manila on the land side the
+Spaniards could not escape, and, to spare life, Dewey deemed it best to
+await the arrival of land forces before completing the reduction.
+
+Waiting tried the admiral's discretion more than the battle had his
+valor. It was necessary to encourage the insurgents, at the same time to
+prevent excesses on their part, and to avoid recognizing them even as
+allies in such manner as to involve our Government. Another
+embarrassment, threatening for a time, was the German admiral's
+impertinence. One of his warships was about to steam into harbor
+contrary to Dewey's instructions, but was halted by a shot across her
+bows. Dewey's firmness in this affair was exemplary.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+General Merritt and General Greene taking a
+look at a Spanish field-gun on the Malate Fort.
+
+
+On June 30th the advance portion of General Merritt's troops arrived and
+supplanted the insurgents in beleaguering Manila. The war was now
+closing. Manila capitulated August 13th. The peace protocol was signed
+August 12th. The Treaty of Paris was signed December 10th. Spain
+evacuated Cuba and ceded to the United States Porto Rico, at the same
+time selling us the Philippine Archipelago for $20,000,000.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+"CUBA LIBRE"
+
+
+As if Santiago had not afforded "glory enough for all," some disparaged
+Admiral Sampson's part in the battle, others Admiral Schley's. As
+commander of the fleet, whose routine and emergency procedure he had
+sagaciously prescribed, Sampson, though on duty out of sight of the
+action at its beginning, was entitled to utmost credit for the brilliant
+outcome. The day added his name to the list of history's great sea
+captains.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Admiral William T. Sampson.
+
+
+Schley had the fortune to be senior officer during his chief's temporary
+absence. He fought his ship, the Brooklyn, to perfection, and, while it
+was not of record that he issued any orders to other commanders, his
+prestige and well-known battle frenzy inspired all, contributing much to
+the victory. The early accounts deeply impressed the public, and they
+made Schley the central figure of the battle. Unfortunately Sampson's
+first report did not even mention him. Personal and political partisans
+took up the strife, giving each phase the angriest possible look.
+Admiral Schley at length sought and obtained a court of inquiry.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Admiral W. S. Schley
+
+
+The court found Schley's conduct in the part of the campaign prior to
+June 1, 1898 (which our last chapter had not space to detail),
+vacillating, dilatory, and lacking enterprise. It maintained, however,
+that during the battle itself, despite the Brooklyn's famous "loop,"
+which it seemed to condemn, his conduct was self-possessed, and that he
+inspired his officers and men to courageous fighting. Admiral Dewey,
+president of the court, held in part a dissenting opinion, which carried
+great weight with the country. He considered Schley the actual fleet
+commander in the battle, thus giving him the main credit for the
+victory.
+
+Legally, it turned out, Sampson, not Schley, commanded during the hot
+hours. Moreover, the evidence seemed to reveal that the court's
+strictures upon Schley, like many criticisms of General Grant at Shiloh
+and in his Wilderness campaign, were probably just. In both cases the
+public was slow to accept the critics' view.
+
+Both before and after his resignation, July 19, 1899, Secretary of War
+Alger was subjected to great obloquy. Shafter's corps undoubtedly
+suffered much that proper system and prevision would have prevented. The
+delay in embarking at Tampa; the crowding of transports, the use of
+heavy uniforms in Cuba and of light clothing afterward at Montauk Point,
+the deficiency in tents, transportation, ambulances, medicines, and
+surgeons, ought not to have occurred. Indignation swept the country when
+it was charged that Commissary-General Eagan had furnished soldiers
+quantities of beef treated with chemicals and of canned roast beef unfit
+for use. A commission appointed to investigate found that "embalmed
+beef" had not been given out to any extent. Canned roast beef had been,
+and the commission declared it improper food.
+
+The commission made it clear that the Quartermaster's Department had
+been physically and financially unequal to the task of suddenly
+equipping and transporting the enlarged army--over ten times the size of
+our regular army--for which it had to provide. If wanting at times in
+system the department had been zealous and tireless. At the worst it was
+far less to blame than recent Congresses, which had stinted both army
+and navy to lavish money upon objects far less important to the country.
+The army system needed radical reform. There was no general staff, and
+the titular head of the army had less real authority than the
+adjutant-general with his bureau.
+
+These imbroglios had little significance compared with the problems
+connected with our new dependencies. The Senate ratified the peace
+treaty February 6, 1899, by the narrow margin of two votes--forty-two
+Republicans and fifteen others in favor, twenty-four Democrats and
+three others opposing. But for the advocacy of the Democratic leader,
+William J. Bryan, who thought that the pending problems could be dealt
+with by Congress better than in the way of diplomacy, ratification would
+have failed.
+
+The ratification of the Treaty of Paris marked a momentous epoch in our
+national life and policy. In a way, the very fact of a war with Spain
+did this. A century and a quarter before a Spanish monarch had furnished
+money and men to help the American colonies become free from England.
+"The people of America can never forget the immense benefit they have
+received from King Carlos III.," wrote George Washington. At that time a
+Spaniard predicted that the American States, born a pigmy, would become
+a mighty giant, forgetful of gratitude, and absorbed in selfish
+aggression at Spain's expense. Our change to quasi-alliance with Great
+Britain against Spain seemed to not a few the fulfilment of that
+prophecy. Europe declared that we had hopelessly broken with our ideals.
+Cynics there applied to the United States the Scriptures: "Hell from
+beneath is moved for thee to meet thee at thy coming: it stirreth up the
+dead for thee, even all the chief ones of the earth; it hath raised up
+from their thrones all the kings of the nations. All they shall speak
+and say unto thee, Art thou also become weak as we? art thou become like
+one of us? . . . How art thou fallen from heaven, O Lucifer, son of the
+morning!"
+
+
+[Illustration: Uniformed officers on parade.]
+The New Cuban Police as organized by
+ex-Chief of New York Police, McCullagh.
+
+
+The United States did not heed these sneers. Hawaii had been annexed.
+Sale tenure of the Samoan Islands west of 171 degrees west longitude,
+including Tutuila and Pago-Pago harbor, the only good haven in the
+group, was ours. These measures, which a few years earlier all would
+have deemed radical, did not stir perceptible opposition. Nearly all
+felt that they were justified, by considerations of national security,
+to obtain naval bases or strategic points. Such motives also excused the
+acquisition of Guam in the Pacific, ceded by Spain in Article II of the
+Paris Treaty, and that of Porto Rico.
+
+Civil government was established in Porto Rico with the happiest
+results. The Insular Treasury credit balance trebled in a year,
+standing, July 1, 1902, at $314,000. The exports for 1902 increased over
+50 per cent., most of the advance being consigned to the United States.
+The principal exports were sugar, tobacco, the superior coffee grown in
+the island, and straw hats. Of the coffee, the year named, Europe took
+$5,000,000 worth, America only $29,000 worth. Porto Rico imported from
+Spain over $95,000 worth of rice, $500,000 worth of potatoes. The first
+year under our government there were 13,000 fewer deaths than the year
+before, improvement due to better sanitation and a higher standard of
+living. Mutual respect between natives and Americans grew daily.
+
+Touching Cuba, too, the course of the Administration evoked no serious
+opposition. We were in the island simply as trustees for the Cubans. The
+fourth congressional resolution of April 20, 1898, gave pledge as
+follows: "The United States hereby disclaims any disposition or
+intention to exercise sovereignty, jurisdiction, or control over said
+island (Cuba) except for the pacification thereof, and asserts its
+determination when that is completed to leave the government and control
+of the island to its people." This "self-denying ordinance," than which
+few official utterances in all our history ever did more to shape the
+nation's behavior, was moved and urged, at first against strong
+opposition, by Senator Teller, of Colorado. Senator Spooner thought it
+likely that but for the pledge just recited European States would have
+formed a league against the United States in favor of Spain.
+
+December 13, 1898, a military government was established for "the
+division of Cuba," including Porto Rico. The New Year saw the last
+military relic of Spanish dominion trail out of Cuba and Cuban waters.
+The Cuban army gradually disbanded. The work of distributing supplies
+and medicines was followed by the vigorous prosecution of railroad,
+highway and bridge repairing and other public works, upon which many of
+the destitute found employment. Courts and schools were resumed.
+Hundreds of new schools opened--in Santiago city 60, in Santiago
+province over 300. Brigandage was stamped out. Cities were thoroughly
+cleaned and sewer systems constructed. The death rate fell steadily to a
+lower mark than ever before. In 1896 there were in Havana 1,262 deaths
+from yellow fever, and during the eleven years prior to American
+occupation an average of 440 annually. In 1901 there were only four.
+Under the "pax Americana" industry awoke. New huts and houses hid the
+ashes of former ones. Miles of desert smiled again with unwonted
+tillage.
+
+
+[Illustration: Slum with sewage running through the dirt street.]
+Showing Condition of Streets in Santiago
+before Street Cleaning Department was organized.
+
+
+[Illustration: Street cleaners working on dry roadway.]
+Santiago Street Cleaning Department.
+
+
+A census of Cuba taken by the War Department, October 16, 1899, showed a
+population of 1,572,797, a falling off of nearly 60,000 in the twelve
+years since the last Spanish census, indicating the loss due to the
+civil war. The average density of population was about that of Iowa,
+varying, however, from Havana province, as thickly peopled as
+Connecticut, to Puerto Principe, with denizens scattered like those of
+Texas. Seventy per cent. of the island's inhabitants were Cuban
+citizens, two per cent. were Spanish, eighteen per cent. had not
+determined their allegiance, while about ten per cent. were aliens.
+Eighty per cent. of the people in the rural districts could neither read
+nor write.
+
+In December, 1899, Governor Brooke retired in favor of General Leonard
+Wood. A splendid object-lesson in good government having been placed
+before the people, they were, in June, 1900, given control of their
+municipal governments and the powers of these somewhat enlarged.
+
+In July Governor Wood issued a call for a constitutional convention,
+which met in November. The fruit of its deliberations was an instrument
+modelled largely upon the United States Constitution. The bill of rights
+was more specific, containing a guarantee of freedom in "learning and
+teaching" any business or profession, and another calculated to prevent
+"reconcentration." The Government was more centralized than ours. The
+President, elected by an electoral college, held office four years, and
+was not re-eligible twice consecutively. The Senate consisted of six
+senators from each of the six departments, the term being six years.
+One-third were elected biennially. The House of Representatives
+consisted of one representative to every 25,000 people. One-half were
+elected biennially. Four years was the term of office. The judicial
+power vested in a Supreme Court and such other courts as might be
+established by law. Suffrage was universal.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+Governor-General Leonard A Wood
+in the Uniform of Colonel of Rough Riders.
+
+
+In his call for the convention, also in his opening address before it,
+Governor Wood mentioned its duty to determine the relations between Cuba
+and the United States. Jealous and suspicious, the convention, believing
+the United States bound by its pledge to leave the island to the
+unconditional control of its inhabitants, slighted these hints.
+Meantime, at President McKinley's instance, Congress adopted, March 2,
+1901, as a rider to the pending army appropriation bill, what was known
+as "the Platt amendment," so called from its author, Senator Platt, of
+Connecticut.
+
+This enacted that in fulfilment of the congressional joint resolution of
+April 20, 1898, which led to the freeing of Cuba, the President was to
+leave the government and Control of the island to its people only when a
+Government should be established there under a constitution defining the
+future relations of the United States with Cuba. The points to be
+safe-guarded were that Cuba should permit no foreign lodgment or
+control, contract no excessive debt, ratify the acts of the military
+government, and protect rights acquired thereunder, continue to improve
+the sanitation of cities, give the United States certain coaling and
+naval stations, and allow it to intervene if necessary to preserve Cuban
+independence, maintain adequate government, or discharge international
+obligations created by the Paris Treaty.
+
+
+[Illustration: Large group on men.]
+Judge Cruz Perez   Gov. Gen. Wood.
+  General Maximo Gomez.   T. E. Palma.
+Governor-General Leonard A. Wood transferring the Island of Cuba to
+President Tomaso Estrada Palma, as a Cuban Republic, May, 1902.
+From copyrighted stereoscopic photograph. By Underwood & Underwood. N. Y.
+
+
+A week before the Platt amendment passed, the Cuban convention adopted a
+declaration of relations, "provided the future government of Cuba thinks
+them advisable," not mentioning coaling stations or a right of
+intervention, but declaring that "the governments of the United States
+and Cuba ought to regulate their commercial relations by means of a
+treaty based on reciprocity."
+
+When the convention heard that the Platt amendment must be complied
+with, a commission was sent to Washington to have this explained. Upon
+its return the convention, June 12, 1901, not without much opposition,
+adopted the amendment.
+
+The first President of the Cuban Republic was Tomaso Estrada Palma. He
+had been years an exile in the United States, and was much in sympathy
+with our country. His home-coming was an ovation. In May, 1902, the
+Stars and Stripes were hauled down, and the Cuban tricolor raised. The
+military governor and all but a few of his soldiers left the island, as
+the Spaniards had done less than three years before; yet with a record
+of dazzling achievement that had in a few months done much to repair the
+mischiefs of Spain's chronic misrule.
+
+Cut off from her former free commercial intercourse with Spain, Cuba
+looked to the United States as the main market for her raw sugar.
+Advocates of reciprocity urged considerations of honor and fair dealing
+with Cuba, where, it was said, ruin stared planters in the face. The
+Administration and a majority of the Republicans favored the cause. Not
+so senators and representatives from beet-sugar sections. The
+"insurgents," as the opponents of reciprocity were called, urged that
+raising sugar beets was a distinctively American industry, and that to
+sacrifice it was to relinquish the principle of protection altogether.
+The so-called "Sugar Trust" favored reciprocity, being accused of
+expending large sums in that interest. Against it was pitted the "Sugar
+Beet Trust," a new figure among combinations.
+
+During the long session of the Fifty-seventh Congress, a Cuban
+reciprocity bill being before the House, the sugar-beet interest
+demonstrated its power. The House "insurgents," joining the Democratic
+members, overrode the Speaker and the Ways and Means chairman, and
+attached to the bill an amendment cutting off the existing differential
+duty in favor of refined sugar. A locking of horns thus arose, which
+outlasted the session, neither side being able to convince or outvote
+the other. Sanguine Democrats thought that they espied here a hopeful
+Republican schism like that of 1872.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+THE UNITED STATES IN THE ORIENT
+
+
+PHILIPPINES AND FILIPINOS
+
+
+The Philippine Archipelago lies between 4 degrees 45 minutes and 21
+degrees north latitude and 118 and 127 degrees east longitude. It
+consists of nineteen considerable and perhaps fifteen hundred lesser
+islands, an area nearly equal that of New Jersey, New York, and New
+England combined. The island of Luzon comprises a third of this, that of
+Mindanao a fifth or a sixth. The archipelago is rich in natural
+resources, but mining and manufactures had not at the American
+occupation been developed. Agriculture was the main occupation, though
+only a ninth of the land surface was under cultivation. The islands were
+believed capable of sustaining a population like Japan's 42,000,000.
+Luzon boasted a glorious and varied landscape and a climate salubrious
+and inviting, considering the low latitude. Manila hemp, sugar, tobaco,
+coffee, and indigo were raised and exported in large amounts.
+
+
+[Illustration: Sixteen men seated in a small room.]
+General Bates. The Sultan.
+The Jolo Treaty Commission.
+
+
+The islands lay in three groups, the Luzon, the Visaya (Negros, Panay,
+Cebu, Bohol, Leyte, Samar, and islets), and the Mindanao, including
+Palawan and the Sulu Islands. Some of these islands were in parts
+unexplored. The Tagals and the Visayas, Christian and more or less
+civilized Malay tribes, dominated respectively the first and the second
+group. The Mindanao coasts held here and there a few Christian
+Filipinos, but the chief denizens of the southern islands were the
+fierce Arab-Malay Mohammedans known as Moros, most important and
+dangerous of whose tribes were the Illanos.
+
+In all, there were thirty or more races, with an even greater number of
+different dialects. Northern Luzon housed the advanced Ilocoans,
+Pampangos, Pangasinanes, and Cagayanes, with their hardy bronze heathen
+neighbors, the Igorrotes. The Visayas had many degraded aborigines, the
+Negritos among them. Over against the Moros in the Mindanao group one
+could not ignore the warlike Visayan variation, or the swarming savages
+of the interior, hostile alike to Moro and Visaya.
+
+
+[Illustration: Parade.]
+Three Hundred Boys in the Parade of July 4, 1902, Vigan, Ilocos.
+
+
+The population of the islands numbered 8,000,000 or 10,000,000, 25,000
+being Europeans. Half the islanders were Christians, eight or ten per
+cent. Mohammedan, perhaps ten per cent. heathen. One considerable
+fraction were Chinese, another of mixed extraction. Probably none of the
+races were of pure Malay blood, though Malay blood predominated.
+Mercantile pursuits were largely in Chinese hands. The Moros disdained
+tillage and commerce alike, living on slave labor and captures in war.
+
+Spain had done in the islands much more educational work than the
+Americans at first recognized, though none of an advanced kind. Schools
+were numerous but not general. Many Filipinos had studied in Europe.
+There was a select class possessing information and manners which would
+have admitted them to cultivated circles in Paris or London, and
+thousands of Filipinos were intellectually the peers of average
+middle-class Europeans. The University of St. Thomas graced Manila. Some
+seventy colleges and academies at various centres professed to prepare
+pupils for it.
+
+Filipinos of aught like cosmopolitan intelligence numbered less than
+100,000. Below them were the half-breeds, perhaps 500,000 strong, white,
+yellow, or brown, according to the special blend of blood. They were
+"intelligent but uneducated, active but not over industrious. They loved
+excitement, military display, and the bustle and pomp of government."
+Farther down still were the vast toiling masses neither knowing nor
+caring much who governed them. Only in suffering were they experts,
+having learned of this under the iron heel of Spain all there was to be
+known.
+
+
+[Illustration: About fifty girls.]
+Girls' Normal Institute, Vigan, Ilocos, April, 1902.
+
+
+In the Philippines one had incessantly before him social and economic
+problems in their rudimentary form--populations the debris of centuries,
+and the reactions upon them of their first contact with real
+civilization. In case of any but the most advanced tribes the immediate
+suggestion was despair, a feeling that they could never appropriate the
+culture offered them. But the heartiness of the response which even such
+communities made to our advances brought hope. Our methods were better
+than the Spanish, and our progress correspondingly rapid; yet the task
+we undertook bade fair to last centuries. Nor were its initial steps
+undefaced by errors.
+
+A Blue Book would not suffice to describe this motley material. We can
+only illustrate.
+
+The Iocoros were in a forward state, if not of civilization, of
+preparation therefor. On all hands their youth were anxiously waiting to
+be taught. Compared with Teutonic races they were superficial and
+emotional, but they had great ambition and perseverance.
+
+
+[Illustration: Several men.]
+Igarrote Religious Dance, Lepanto.
+
+
+A sharp contrast were the Igorrotes. These appeared to be at bottom
+Malays, though Mongolian features marked many a face. They had withstood
+all attempts to christianize them, and stubbornly clung to their
+primitive mode of life as tillers of the soil. Mentally they were near
+savagery, entirely without ambition or moral outlook. Nevertheless they
+adhered to the American arms and rendered valuable porter service.
+
+Their religion had elements of sun and ancestor worship. The one
+tangible feature in it was the "kanyan," a drunken feast held on such
+occasions--fifteen in all--as marriage, birth, death, and serious
+illness. The feast began with an invocation to Kafunion, the sun god,
+and a dance much like that of the American Indians. Then came the
+drinking of tapi, a strong beer made from rice, and gorging with
+buffalo, horse, or dog meat, the last being the greatest delicacy. Till
+the Americans vetoed the practice, the Igorrotes were "head hunters."
+The theory was that the brains of the captured head became the captor's.
+
+
+The Igorrotes had magnificent chests and legs, and were extensively used
+as burden-bearers. Sustained by only a few bowlfuls of rice and some
+sweet potatoes, a man would carry fifty or even seventy-five pounds on
+his head or back all day over the most difficult mountain trails. The
+Igorrotes had a mild form of slavery, and, though good-natured and at
+times industrious, appeared utterly without spirit of progress. It was
+interesting to mark whether or not contact with a superior race would be
+a stimulus to them.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+Igarrote Head Hunters with Head Axes and Spears.
+
+
+A contrast, again, to the Igorrotes was presented by the Ilocoans, an
+intelligent, industrious, Christian people, eager for education, yet
+promising to cherish independent  ideals the more dearly the more
+prosperous and advanced they became.
+
+
+[Illustration: Six men on horseback.]
+Native Moros-Interior of Jolo.
+
+
+Most implacable of all the races were the Moros of the Sulu Islands.
+Warlike, and despising labor, their terrible piracies had been curbed
+only within fifty years, and their depredations and slave raiding by
+land were never wholly prevented. They were suspiciously eager to
+"assist" our forces in subduing the insurgents. The American authorities
+negotiated a treaty with the Sultan and his dattos, involving their
+submission to the United States.  A provision of this treaty excited
+reprobation, that permitting a slave to buy his freedom, a recognition
+of slavery in derogation of the Thirteenth Amendment to the
+Constitution. The provision was excused as an absolutely necessary
+makeshift to put off hostilities till the United States had a freer
+hand.
+
+Spain never governed a colony well. Her whole record outre-mer was of a
+piece with the enslavement and extermination of the gentle Caribs, with
+which it began. In slavery and the slave trade Anglo-Saxon conquistadors
+shared Spain's dishonor, but in sheer ugliness of despotism, in
+wholesale, systematic, selfish exploiting, and in corrupt and clumsy
+administration the Iberian monarchy surpassed all other powers ever
+called to deal with colonies. The truth of this indictment was, if
+possible, more manifest in the Philippines than anywhere else in the
+Spanish world.
+
+The religious orders, which early achieved the conversion of Tagals,
+Visayas, and some other tribes, after generations of evangelical
+devotion, ceased to be aggressive religiously, growing opulent and
+oppressive instead. They were the pedestal of the civil government.
+Their word could, and often did, cause natives to be deported, or even
+put to death. One of their victims was that beautiful spirit, Dr. Rizal,
+author of Noli me Tangere, the most learned and distinguished Malay ever
+known. He had taken no part whatever in rebellion or sedition, yet,
+because he was known to abominate clerical misrule, he was, without a
+scintilla of evidence that he had broken any law, first expatriated,
+then shot. This murder occurring December 30, 1896, did much to further
+the rebellion then spreading.
+
+"Once settled in his position, the friar, bishop, or curate usually
+remained till superannuated, being therefore a fixed political factor
+for a generation, while a Spanish civil or military officer never held
+post over four years. The stay of any officer attempting a course at
+variance with the order's wishes was invariably shortened by monastic
+influence. Every abuse leading to the revolutions of 1896 and 1898 the
+people charged to the friars; and the autocratic power which each friar
+exercised over the civil officials of his parish gave them a most
+plausible ground for belief that nothing of injustice, of cruelty, of
+oppression, of narrowing liberty was imposed on them for which the friar
+was not entirely responsible. The revolutions against Spain began as
+movements against the friars." [footnote: Abridged from Report of Taft
+Commission.]
+
+Senator Hoar wrote: "I should as soon give back a redeemed soul to Satan
+as give back the people of the Philippine Islands to the cruelty and
+tyranny of Spain."
+
+Freemasonry in the Philippines was a redoubtable antagonist to the
+orders. There were other secret leagues, like the Liga Filipina, with
+the same aim, most of them peaceful. Not so the "Katipunan," which
+adopted as its symbol the well-known initials, "K. K. K.,"
+"Kataas-Tassan, Kagalang-Galang, Katipunan," "sovereign worshipful
+association." If the Ku-Klux Klan did not give the hint for the
+society's symbol the programmes of the two organizations were alike. The
+Katipunan was probably the most potent factor in the insurrection of
+1896. Its cause was felt to be that of the whole Filipino people. In
+December, 1897, the conflict, as in Cuba, had degenerated into a
+"stalemate." The Spaniard could not be ousted, the Filipino could not be
+subdued. Spain ended the trouble for the time by promising reform, and
+hiring the insurgent leaders to leave the country. Only a small part,
+400,000 Mexican dollars, of the promised sum was ever paid. This was
+held in Hong-Kong as a trust fund against a future uprising.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+Emilio Aguinaldo.
+
+
+Chief among the leaders shipped to Hong-Kong was Emilio Aguinaldo. He
+was born March 22, 1869, at Cavite, of which town he subsequently became
+mayor. His blood probably contained Spanish, Tagal, and Chinese strains.
+He had supplemented a limited school education by extensive and eager
+contact with books and men. To a surprising wealth of information the
+young Filipino added inspiring eloquence and much genius for leadership.
+He had the "remarkable gift of surrounding himself with able coadjutors
+and administrators." The insurrection of 1896 early revealed him as the
+incarnation of Filipino hostility to Spain. Judging by appearances--his
+zeal in 1896, bargain with Spain in 1897, fighting again in Luzon in
+1898, acquiescence in peace with the United States, reappearance in
+arms, capture, and instant allegiance to our flag--he was a shifty
+character, little worthy the great honor he received where he was known
+and, for a long time, here. But if he lacked in constancy, he excelled
+in enterprise. Spaniards never missed their reckoning more completely
+than in thinking they had quieted Aguinaldo by sending him to China with
+a bag of money.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+Gen. Frederick Funston, Gen. A. McArthur.
+
+
+It being already obvious that Spain had not redressed, and had no
+intention of redressing, abuses in the Philippines, Aguinaldo and his
+aides planned to return. The American war was their opportunity.
+Conferences were had with Consul Wildman at Hong-Kong and with Commodore
+Dewey. Aguinaldo and those about him declared that Wildman, alleging
+authority from Washington, promised the Filipinos independence; and
+other Hong-Kong consuls and several press representatives received the
+impression that this was the case. Wildman absolutely denied having
+given any assurance of the kind. Admiral Dewey also denied in the most
+positive manner that he had done so.
+
+Whatever the understanding or misunderstanding at Hong-Kong, Aguinaldo
+came home with Dewey in the evident belief that the American forces and
+his own were to work for Filipino independence. He easily resumed his
+leadership and began planning for an independent Filipino State. Dewey
+furnished him arms and ammunition. The insurrection was reorganized on a
+grander scale than ever, with extraordinary ability, tact, energy, and
+success. Nearly every one of the Luzon provinces had its rebel
+organization. In each Aguinaldo picked the leader and outlined the plan
+of campaign. His scheme had unity; his followers were aggressive and
+fearless. Everywhere save in a few strongholds Spain was vanquished. At
+last only Manila remained. The insurgents must have captured 10,000
+prisoners, though part of those they had at the Spanish evacuation were
+from the Americans. They hemmed in Manila by a line reaching from water
+to water. We could not have taken Manila as we did, by little more than
+a show of force, had it not been for the fact that Spain's soldiers,
+thus, hemmed in by Aguinaldo's, could not retreat beyond the range of
+our naval guns. January 21, 1899, a Philippine Republic was set up, its
+capital being Malolos, which effectively controlled at least the Tagal
+provinces of Luzon. Its methods were irregular and arbitrary--natural in
+view of the prevalence of war. Aguinaldo, its soul from the first
+moment, became president.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+A Company of Insurrectos near Bongued, Abra Province,
+just previous to surrendering early in 1901.
+
+
+[Illustration: About twenty soldier landing on the beach in a small boat.]
+11th Cavalry Landing at Vigan, Ilocos, April, 1902.
+
+
+The Philippine Republic wished and assumed to act for the archipelago,
+taking the place of Spain. It, of course, had neither in law nor in fact
+the power to do this, nor, under the circumstances, could the
+Administration at Washington, however desirable such a course from
+certain points of view, consent that it should at present even try. The
+Philippine question divided the country, raising numerous problems of
+fact, law, policy, and ethics, on which neither Congress nor the people
+could know its mind without time for reflection.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+Copyright, 1899, by Frances B. Johnston.
+Jules Cambon, the French Ambassador, acting for Spain,
+receiving from the Honorable John Hay, the U. S. Secretary of State,
+drafts to the amount of $20,000,000, in payment for the Philippines.
+
+
+When our commissioners met at Paris to draft the Treaty of Peace, one
+wished our demands in the Orient confined to Manila, with a few harbors
+and coaling stations. Two thought it well to take Luzon, or some such
+goodly portion of the archipelago. That the treaty at last called for
+the entire Philippine domain, allowing $20,000,000 therefor, was
+supposed due to insistence from Washington. Only the Vice-President's
+casting vote defeated a resolution introduced in the Senate by Senator
+Bacon, of Georgia, declaring our intention to treat the Filipinos as we
+were pledged to treat the Cubans. After ratification the Senate passed a
+resolution, introduced by Senator McEnery, of Louisiana, avowing the
+purpose not to make the Filipinos United States citizens or their land
+American territory, but to establish for them a government suited to
+their needs, in due time disposing of the archipelago according to the
+interests of our people and of the inhabitants.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.
+THE UNITED STATES IN THE ORIENT
+
+
+WAR, CONTROVERSY, PEACE
+
+
+It was wholly problematical how long Aguinaldo unaided could dominate
+Luzon, still more so whether he would rule tolerably, and more uncertain
+yet whether centre or south would ever yield to him. The insurgents had
+foothold in four or five Visayan islands, but were never admitted to
+Negros, which of its own accord raised our flag. In Mindanao, the Sulu
+Islands, and Palawan they practically had no influence. Governor Taft
+was of opinion that they could never, unaided, have set up their sway in
+these southern regions. But should they succeed in establishing good
+government over the entire archipelago, clearly they must be for an
+indefinite period incompetent to take over the international
+responsibilities connected with the islands. To have at once conceded
+their sovereignty could have subserved no end that would have been from
+any point of view rational or humane.
+
+The American situation was delicate. We were present as friends, but
+could be really so only by, for the time, seeming not to be so. At
+points we failed in tact. We too little recognized distinctions among
+classes of Filipinos, tending to treat all alike as savages. When our
+thought ceased to be that of ousting Spain, and attacked the more
+serious question what to do next, our manner toward the Filipinos
+abruptly changed. Our purposes were left unnecessarily equivocal. Our
+troops viewed the Filipinos with ill-concealed contempt. "Filipinos"
+and "niggers" were often used as synonyms.
+
+Suspicion and estrangement reached a high pitch after the capture of
+Manila, when Aguinaldo, instead of being admitted to the capital, was
+required to fall still farther back, the American lines lying between
+him and the prize. December 21, 1898, the President ordered our
+Government extended with despatch over the archipelago. That the Treaty
+of Paris summarily gave not only the islands but their inhabitants to
+the United States, entirely ignoring their wishes in the matter, was a
+snub. Still worse, it seemed to guarantee perpetuation of the friar
+abuses under which the Filipinos had groaned so long. Outside Manila
+threat of American rule awakened bitter hostility. In Manila itself
+thousands of Tagals, lip-servants of the new masters, were in secret
+communion with their kinsmen in arms.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+Native Tagals at Angeles, fifty-one miles from Manila.
+
+
+No blood flowed till February 4, 1898, when a skirmish, set off by the
+shot of a bullyragged American sentry, led to war. February 22, 1899,
+the insurgents vainly attempted to fire Manila, but were pushed back
+with slaughter, their forces scattered.
+
+March 20, 1899, the first Philippine Commission--Jacob G. Schurman, of
+New York; Admiral Dewey; General Otis; Charles Denby, ex-minister to
+China; and Dean C. Worcester, of Michigan-began their labors at Manila.
+They set to work with great zeal and discretion to win to the cause of
+peace not only the Filipinos but the government of the Philippine
+Republic itself. In this latter they succeeded. Their proclamation that
+United States sway in the archipelago would be made "as free, liberal,
+and democratic as the most intelligent Filipino desired," "a firmer and
+surer self-government than their own Philippine Republic could ever
+guarantee," operated as a powerful agent of pacification.
+
+May 1, 1899, the Philippine Congress almost unanimously voted for peace
+with the United States. Aguinaldo consented. Mabini's cabinet, opposing
+this, was overturned, and a new one formed, pledged to peace. A
+commission of cabinet members was ready to set out for Manila to
+effectuate the new order.
+
+A revolution prevented this. General Luna, inspired by Mabini, arrested
+the peace delegates and charged them with treason, sentencing some to
+prison, some to death. This occurred in May, 1899.  After that time not
+so much as the skeleton of any Philippine public authority--president,
+cabinet, or other official--existed. Later opposition to the American
+arms seemed to proceed in the main not from real Filipino patriotism,
+but from selfishness, lust of power, and the spirit of robbery.
+
+Everywhere and always Americans had to guard against treachery. In Samar
+false guides led an expedition of our Marine Corps into a wilderness and
+abandoned the men to die, cruelty which was deemed to justify
+retaliation in kind. Eleven prisoners subsequently captured were shot
+without trial as implicated in the barbarity. For this Major Waller was
+court-martialed, being acquitted in that he acted under superior orders
+and military necessity. A sensational feature of his trial was the
+production of General Smith's command to Major Waller "to kill and
+burn"; "make Samar a howling wilderness"; "kill everything over ten"
+(every native over ten years old). General Smith was in turn
+court-martialed and reprimanded. President Roosevelt thought this not
+severe enough and summarily retired him from active service.
+
+
+[Illustration: Soldier on a train.]
+Bringing ammunition to the front for
+Gen. Otis's Brigade, north of Manila.
+
+Despite vigilant censorship by the War Department, rumors of other
+cruelties on the part of our troops gained credence. It appeared that in
+not a few instances American soldiers had tortured prisoners by the
+"water cure," the victim being held open-mouthed under a stream of
+water, the process sometimes supplemented by pounding on the abdomen
+with rifle-butts.
+
+These disgraces were sporadic, not general, and occurred, when they did
+occur, under terrible provocation. Devotion to duty, however trying the
+circumstances, was the characteristic behavior of our officers and men.
+Deeds of daring occurred daily. On November 14, 1900, Major John A.
+Logan, son of the distinguished Civil War general, lost his life in
+battle near San Jacinto. December 19th the brave General Lawton was
+killed in attacking San Mateo. Systematic opposition to our arms was at
+last ended by an enterprise involving both nerve and cleverness in high
+degree.
+
+Our forces captured a message from Aguinaldo asking reenforcements. This
+suggested to General Frederick Funston, who had served with Cuban
+insurgents, a plan for seizing Aguinaldo. Picking some trustworthy
+native troops and scouts, Funston, Captain Hazzard, Captain Newton, and
+Lieutenant Mitchell, passed themselves off as prisoners and their forces
+as the reenforcements expected. When the party approached Aguinaldo's
+headquarters word was forwarded that reenforcements were coming, with
+some captured Americans. Aguinaldo sent provisions, and directed that
+the prisoners be treated with humanity. March 23, 1901, he received the
+officers at his house. After brief conversation they excused themselves.
+Next instant a volley was poured into Aguinaldo's body-guard, and the
+American officers rushed upon Aguinaldo, seized him, his chief of staff,
+and his treasurer. April 2, 1901, Aguinaldo swore allegiance to the
+United States, and, in a proclamation, advised his followers to do the
+same. Great and daily increasing numbers of them obeyed.
+
+
+[Illustration: Stone fort with many large shell holes.]
+Fort Malate, Cavite.
+
+
+To the Philippines, though Spain's de facto sovereignty there was hardly
+more than nominal, our title, whether or not good as based on conquest,
+was unimpeachable considered as a cession by way of war indemnity or
+sale. Nor, according to the weight of authority, could the right of the
+federal power to acquire these islands be denied. But did "the
+Constitution follow the flag" wherever American jurisdiction went? If
+not, what were the relations of those outlands and their peoples to the
+United States proper? Could inhabitants of the new possessions emigrate
+to the United States proper? Did our domestic tariff laws apply there as
+well as here? Must free trade exist between the nation and its
+dependencies? Were rights such as that of peaceable assemblage and that
+to jury trial guaranteed to Filipinos, or could only Americans to the
+manner born plead them?
+
+On the fundamental question whether the dependencies formed part of the
+United States the Supreme Court passed in certain so-called "insular
+cases" which were early brought before it. Four of the justices held
+that at all times after the Paris Treaty the islands were part and
+parcel of United States soil. Four held that they at no time became
+such, but were rather "territories appurtenant" to the country.
+
+
+[Illustration: River crowded with small boats.]
+The Pasig River, Manila.
+
+
+Mr. Justice Brown gave the "casting" opinion. Though reasoning in a
+fashion wholly his own, he sided, on the main issue, with the latter
+four of his colleagues, making it the decision of the court that Porto
+Rico and the Philippines did not belong to the United States proper,
+yet, on the other hand, were not foreign. The revenue clauses of the
+Constitution did not, therefore, forbid tariffing goods from or going to
+the islands. In the absence of express legislation, the general tariff
+did not obtain as against imports from the dependencies. This reasoning,
+it was observed, was equally applicable to mainland territories and to
+Alaska. The court intimated that, so far as applicable, the
+Constitution's provisions in favor of personal rights and human liberty
+accompanied the Stars and Stripes beyond sea as well as between our old
+shores.
+
+Unsatisfactory to nearly all as was this utterance of a badly divided
+court, it sanctioned the Administration policy and opened the way for
+necessary legislation. It did nothing, however, to hush the
+anti-imperialist's appeal, based more upon the Declaration of
+Independence and the spirit of our national ideals.
+
+It was said that having delivered the Filipinos from Spain "we were
+bound in all honor to protect their newly acquired liberty against the
+ambition and greed of any other nation on earth, and we were equally
+bound to protect them against our own. We were bound to stand by them, a
+defender and protector, until their new government was established in
+freedom and in honor; until they had made treaties with the powers of
+the earth and were as secure in their national independence as
+Switzerland, Denmark, Belgium, Santo Domingo, or Venezuela." But we
+ought to bind ourselves and promise the world that so soon as these ends
+could be realized or assured we would leave the Filipinos to themselves,
+Such was the view of eminent and respected Americans like George F.
+Hoar, George S. Boutwell, Carl Schurz, and William J. Bryan.
+
+These and others urged that the Filipinos had inalienable right to life
+and to liberty; that our policy in the Philippines was in derogation of
+those rights; that Japan, left to herself, had stridden farther in a
+generation than England's crown colony of India in a century; that the
+Filipinos could be trusted to do likewise; that our increments of
+territory hitherto had been adapted to complete incorporation in the
+American empire while the new were not; and that growth of any other
+character would mean weakness, not strength. The mistakes, expense, and
+difficulties incident to expansion, and the misbehavior and crimes of
+some of our soldiers were exhibited in their worst light.
+
+Rejoinder usually proceeded by denying the capacity of the Filipinos for
+self-government without long training. Even waiving this consideration,
+men found in international law no such mid-status between sovereignty
+and non-sovereignty as anti-imperialists wished to have the United
+States assume while the Filipinos were getting upon their feet. Many
+made great point of minimizing the abuses of our military government and
+of dilating upon native atrocities. The material wealth of the
+archipelago was described in glowing terms. Only American capital and
+enterprise were needed to develop it into a mine of national riches. The
+military and commercial advantages of our position at the doorway of the
+East, our duty to protect lives and property imperilled by the
+insurgents, and our manifest destiny to lift up the Filipino races, were
+dwelt upon. The argument having chief weight with most was that there
+seemed no clear avenue by which we could escape the policy of American
+occupation save the dishonorable and humiliating one of leaving the
+islands to their fate--anarchy and intestine feuds at once, conquest by
+Japan, Germany, or Spain herself a little later.
+
+All demanded that abuses in connection with our rule should be punished
+and the repetition of such made impossible, and that whatever power we
+exercised should be lodged, without regard to party, in the hands of men
+of approved fitness and high and humane character. American tutelage, if
+it were to exist, must present to our wards the best and not the worst
+side of our civilization, and do so with tact and sympathy.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+The Inauguration of Governor Taft, Manila, July 4. 1901.
+
+
+On April 17, 1900, William H. Taft, of Ohio; Dean C. Worcester, of
+Michigan; Luke E. Wright, of Tennessee; Henry C. Ide, of Vermont; and
+Bernard Moses, of California, were commissioned to organize civil
+government in the archipelago. Three native members were subsequently
+added to the commission. Municipal governments were to receive attention
+first, then governments over larger units. Local self-government was to
+prevail as far as possible. Pending the erection of a central
+legislature, the commission was invested with extensive legislative
+powers. Civil government was actually inaugurated July 4, 1901. Judge
+Taft was the first civil governor, General Adna R. Chaffee military
+governor under him.
+
+Educational work in the Philippines was pressed from the very beginning
+of American control. Our military authorities reopened the Manila
+schools, making attendance compulsory. In a short time the number of
+schools in the archipelago doubled. By September, 1901, the commission
+had passed a general school law, and had placed the schools throughout
+the archipelago under systematic organization and able headship. About
+1,000 earnest and capable men and women went out from the States to
+teach Filipino youth. Five hundred towns received one or more American
+teachers each. Associated with them there were in the islands some 2,500
+Filipino teachers, mostly doing primary work.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+Group of American Teachers on the steps
+of the Escuela Municipal, Manila.
+
+
+American teachers advanced into the interior to the neediest tribes.
+Nine teachers early settled among the Igorrotes, scattered in towns
+along the Agno River, and an industrial and agricultural school was soon
+planned for Igorrote boys. Normal schools and manual training schools
+were organized. Colonial history, whether ancient or modern, had never
+witnessed an educational mission like this.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI.
+POLITICS AT THE TURNING OF THE CENTURY
+
+
+McKinley and Bryan were presidential candidates again in 1900. It was
+certain long beforehand that they would be, even when Admiral Dewey
+announced that he was available. The admiral seemed to offer himself
+reluctantly, and to be relieved when assured that all were sorry he had
+done so.
+
+McKinley was unanimously renominated. Unanimously also, yet against his
+will, Governor Theodore Roosevelt, of New York, was named with him on
+the ticket. The Democratic convention chose Bryan by acclamation; his
+mate, ex-Vice-President Adlai E. Stevenson, by ballot.
+
+The 1900 campaign called out rather more than the usual crop of one-idea
+parties. The Prohibitionists, a unit now, took the field on the "army
+canteen" issue, making much of the fact that our increased export to the
+Philippines consisted largely of beer and liquors to curse our soldiers.
+The anti-fusion or "Middle-of-the-road" Populists, the Socialist Labor
+Party, the Socialist-Democrats, and the United Christian Party all made
+nominations.
+
+The Gold Democratic National Committee, while recommending State
+committees to keep up their organizations, regarded it inexpedient to
+name a ticket. They reaffirmed the Indianapolis platform of 1896, and
+again recorded their antagonism to the Bryan Democracy. Certain
+volunteer delegates who met in September found themselves unable to
+tolerate either the commercialism which they said actuated the
+Philippine war, or "demagogic appeals to factional and class passions."
+They nominated Senator Caffery, of Louisiana, and Archibald M. Howe, of
+Massachusetts. These gentlemen declined, whereupon it was decided to
+have no ticket.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+W. J. Bryan accepting the nomination for President at
+a Jubilee Meeting held at Indianapolis, August 8, 1900.
+
+
+A number of loosely cohering bodies accorded the Democratic ticket their
+support while making each its own declaration of doctrine. The Farmers'
+Alliance and Industrial Union, through its Supreme Council, gave
+anticipatory endorsement to the Democratic candidate so early as
+February. May 10th the Fusion Populists nominated Bryan, naming,
+however, Charles A. Towne instead of Stevenson for the vice-presidency.
+Towne withdrew in Stevenson's favor. The Silver Republicans likewise
+nominated Bryan, making no vice-presidential nomination. The
+Anti-imperialist League, meeting in Indianapolis after the Democratic
+convention, approved its candidates, its view as to the "paramount
+issue," and its position thereon.
+
+For a time after his able Indianapolis speech accepting the various
+nominations, Mr. Bryan's election seemed rather probable spite of
+incessant Republican efforts to break him down. He had personally gained
+much strength since 1896. There was not a State in the Union whose
+Democratic organization was not to all appearance solid for him, an
+astounding change in four years. An organization of Civil War Veterans
+was electioneering for him among old soldiers. Powerful Democratic and
+independent sheets which had once vilified now extolled him. He was
+sincere, straightforward, and fearless. His demand at Kansas City that
+the platform read so and so or he would not run, while probably unwise,
+showed him no trimmer.
+
+Many Gold Democrats had returned to the party. The gold standard law,
+approved March 14, 1900, made it impossible for a President, even if he
+desired to do so, to place the country's money on an insecure basis
+without the aid of a Congress friendly in both its branches to such a
+design. There was, to be sure, effort to make this law appear imperfect;
+to show that Mr. Bryan, if elected, could, without aid from Congress,
+debauch the monetary system. But these assertions had little basis or
+effect. Silver dollars could be legally paid by the Government for a
+variety of purposes; but outside holders of silver could not get it
+coined, and the Treasury could not buy more.
+
+New issues--imperialism and the trusts--seemed certain to be
+vote-winners for the Democracy. The cause of anti-imperialism had taken
+deep hold of the public mind, drawing to its support a host of eminent
+and respected Republicans. The Democratic platform expressly named this
+the "paramount issue" of the campaign. The party in power defended its
+Philippine policy in the manner sketched at the end of the last chapter,
+ever asserting, of course, that so far as consistent with their welfare
+and our duties the Filipinos must be accorded the largest possible
+measure of self-government. In this tone was perceived some
+sensitiveness to the anti-imperialist cry. Though Republican campaign
+writers and speakers affected to ignore this issue, some of them denying
+its existence, imperialism was more and more discussed.
+
+After the Spanish War the question whether the United States should, the
+inhabitants agreeing, keep any of the territory obtained from Spain,
+divided the Democratic as well as the Republican ranks. So long as
+expansion meant merely addition to United States territory and
+population after the time-honored fashion, and this was at first all
+that anyone meant by expansion, no end of prominent Democrats were
+expansionists. But for their devotion to the policy of protection and
+their determination to continue high protection at all costs, the
+Republicans might have kept in existence this Democratic schism over
+expansion.
+
+According to the Constitution as almost unanimously interpreted (the
+"insular cases" referred to in the last chapter had not yet been
+decided), customs duties must be uniform at all United States ports. If
+Luzon was part of the United States in the usual sense of the words,
+rates of duty on given articles must be the same at Manila as at New
+York. If the Philippine Islands and Porto Rico were parts of the United
+States in the full sense, tariff rates at their ports could not be low
+unless low in New York, New Orleans, San Francisco, and elsewhere.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+The Republican National Convention, held in Philadelphia, June 1, 1900.
+
+
+No considerable or general tariff reduction for the United States proper
+was to be thought of by the Republicans. But it would not do to maintain
+in the ports of the new possessions the high duties established by law
+in the United States proper. Were this done, the United States would in
+effect be forcing its colonies to buy and sell in the suzerain country
+alone, as was done by George III. through those Navigation Acts which
+occasioned the Revolutionary War. Such a system was certain to be
+condemned. If the expansion policy was to succeed in pleasing our people
+a plan had to be devised by which duties at the new ports could be
+reduced to approximate a revenue level while remaining rigidly
+protective in the old ports.
+
+Out of this dilemma was gradually excogitated the theory, which had been
+rejected by nearly all interpreters of the Constitution, that the United
+States can possess "appurtenant" territory, subject to, but not part of
+itself, to which the Constitution does not apply save so far as Congress
+votes that it shall apply. So construed, the Constitution does not ex
+proprio vigore follow the flag. Under that construction, inhabitants of
+the acquired islands could not plead a single one of its guaranties
+unless Congress voted them such a right. If Congress failed to do this,
+then, so far as concerned the newly acquired populations, the
+Constitution might as well never have been penned. They were subjects of
+the United States, not citizens.
+
+The Republican party's first avowal of this "imperialist" theory and
+policy was the Porto Rico tariff bill, approved April 12, 1900,
+establishing for Porto Rico a line of customs duties differing from that
+of the United States. This bill was at first disapproved by President
+McKinley. "It is our plain duty," he said, "to abolish all customs
+tariffs between the United States and Porto Rico, and give her products
+free access to our markets." Until after its passage the bill was
+earnestly opposed both by a number of eminent Republican statesmen
+besides the President and by nearly all the leading Republican party
+organs. Every possible plea--constitutional, humanitarian, prudential--
+was urged against it. The bill passed, nevertheless.
+
+The result was a momentous improvement in Democratic prospects. The
+schism on expansion which had divided the Democratic party was closed at
+once, while many Republicans who had deemed the taking over of the
+Philippines simply a step in the nation's growth similar in nature to
+all the preceding ones, and had laughed at imperialism as a Democratic
+"bogy," changed their minds and sidled toward the Democratic lines.
+
+In their long and able arguments against the Porto Rico tariff,
+Republican editors and members of Congress provided the opposite party
+with a great amount of campaign material. Often as a Republican on the
+hustings or in the press declared imperialism not an issue, or at any
+rate not an important one, he was drowned in a flood of recent
+quotations from the most authoritative Republican sources proving that
+it was not only an issue, but one of the most important ones which ever
+agitated the Republic. As Democrats put it, Balaam prophesied in favor
+of Israel.
+
+Several minor matters were much dwelt upon by campaigners, with a net
+result favorable to the Democrats. A great many in his own party
+believed, no doubt wrongly, that the President's policy had in main
+features been influenced by consideration for powerful financial
+interests, or that at points these had in effect coerced him to courses
+contrary to what he considered best. The commissariat scandal in the
+Spanish War incensed many, as did the growth of army, navy, and
+"militarism" incident to the new colonial policy.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+Parade of the Sound Money League,
+New York, 1900. Passing the Reviewing Stand.
+
+
+Then there was the awkwardness with which the Administration had treated
+the Filipinos. In 1900 it seemed clear that these people could never be
+brought under the flag otherwise than by coercion. Anti-imperialists
+were not alone in the conviction that Aguinaldo's followers had been
+needlessly contemned, harassed, and exasperated, and that had greater
+frankness, tact, and forbearance been used toward them they would, of
+their own accord, have sought the shelter of the Stars and Stripes.
+Moreover, our measures toward the Filipinos had alienated Cuba, so that
+the voluntary adhesion of this island to the United States, so desirable
+and once so easily within reach, was no longer a possibility; while the
+coercion of Cuba, in view of our profession when we took up arms for
+her, would be condemned by all mankind as national perfidy.
+
+The sympathy of official Republicanism with the British in the Boer War
+tended to solidify the Irish vote as Democratic, but--and it was among
+the novelties of the campaign--Republicans no longer feared to alienate
+the Irish. The Government's apparent apathy toward the Boers also drove
+into the Democratic ranks for the time a great number of Dutch and
+German Republicans. Colored voters were in this hegira, believing that
+the adoption of the "subject-races" notion into American public law and
+policy would be the negro's despair. The championing of this movement by
+the Republican party they regarded as a renunciation of all its
+friendship for human liberty.
+
+The Republican campaign watchword was "Protection." Press and platform
+dilated on the fat years of McKinley's administration as amply
+vindicating the Dingley Act. "The full dinner pail," said they, "is the
+paramount issue." Trusts and monopolies they denounced, as their
+opponents did, but they declared that these "had nothing to do with the
+tariff." There was wide and intense hostility toward monopolistic
+organizations. They were decried on all hands as depressing wages,
+crushing small producers, raising the prices of their own products and
+lowering those of what they bought, depriving business officials and
+business travellers of positions, and working a world of other mischief
+politically, economically, and socially. They had rapidly multiplied
+since the Republicans last came into power, and nothing had been done to
+check the formation of them or to control them.
+
+Why, then, was not Democracy triumphant in the campaign of 1900? When
+the lines were first drawn a majority of the people probably disapproved
+the Administration's departure into fields of conquest, colonialism, and
+empire. Republicans themselves denied that a "full dinner pail" was the
+most fundamental of considerations. Few Republican anti-imperialists
+were saved to the party by the venerable Senator Hoar's faith that after
+a while it would surely retrieve the one mistake marring its record. Nor
+was it that men like Andrew Carnegie could never stomach the Kansas City
+and Chicago heresies, or that the Republicans had ample money, or yet
+that votes were attracted to the Administration because of its war
+record and its martial face. Agriculture had, to be sure, been
+remunerative. Also, before election, the strike in the Pennsylvania hard
+coal regions had, at the earnest instance of Republican leaders, been
+settled favorably to the miners, thus enlisting extensive labor forces
+in support of the status quo; but these causes also, whether by
+themselves or in conjunction with the others named, were wholly
+insufficient to explain why the election went as it did.
+
+A partial cause of Mr. Bryan's defeat in 1900 was the incipient waning
+of anti-imperialism, the conviction growing, even among such as had
+doubted this long and seriously, that the Administration painfully
+faulty as were some of its measures in the new lands, was pursuing there
+absolutely the only honorable or benevolent course open to it under the
+wholly novel and very peculiar circumstances.
+
+A deeper cause--the decisive one, if any single cause may be pronounced
+such--was the fact that Mr. Bryan primarily, and then, mainly owing to
+his strong influence, also his party, misjudged the fundamental meaning
+of the country's demand for monetary reform. The conjunction of good
+times with increase in the volume of hard money made possible by the
+world's huge new output of gold, might have been justly taken as
+vindicating the quantity theory of money value, prosperity being
+precisely the result which the silver people of 1896 prophesied as
+certain in case the stock of hard money were amplified. Bimetallists
+could solace themselves that if they had, with all other people, erred
+touching the geology of the money question, in not believing there would
+ever be gold enough to stay the fall of prices, their main and essential
+reasonings on the question had proved perfectly correct. Good fortune,
+it might have been held, had removed the silver question from politics
+and remanded it back to academic political economy.
+
+Probably a majority of the Democrats in 1900 felt this. At any rate the
+Kansas City convention would have been quite satisfied with a formal
+reaffirmation of the Chicago platform had not Mr. Bryan flatly refused
+to run without an explicit platform restatement of the 1896 position.
+His hope, no doubt, was to hold Western Democrats, Populists, and Silver
+Republicans, his anti-imperialism meanwhile attracting Gold Democrats
+and Republicans, especially at the East, who emphatically agreed with
+him on that paramount issue. But it appeared as if most of this,
+besides much else that was quite as well worth while, could have been
+accomplished by frankly acknowledging and carefully explaining that gold
+alone had done or bade fair to do substantially the service for which
+silver had been supposed necessary; for which, besides, it would really
+have been required but for the unexpected and immense increase in the
+world's gold crop through a long succession of years.
+
+The Republican leaders gauged the situation better. Mr. McKinley, to a
+superficial view inconsistent on the silver question, was on this point
+fundamentally consistent throughout. With all the more conservative
+monetary reformers he merely wished the fall of prices stopped, and such
+increment to the hard money supply as would effect that result. The
+metal, the kind of money producing the needed increase was of no
+consequence. When it became practically certain that gold alone, at
+least for an indefinite time, would answer the end, he was willing to
+relinquish silver except for subsidiary coinage.
+
+The law of March 14, 1900, put our paper currency, save the silver
+certificates, and also all national bonds, upon a gold basis, providing
+an ample gold reserve. Silver certificates were to replace the treasury
+notes, and gold certificates to be issued so long as the reserve was not
+under the legal minimum. If it ever fell below that the Secretary of the
+Treasury had discretion.
+
+Other notable features of this law were its provision for refunding the
+national debt in two per cent. gold bonds--a bold, but, as it proved,
+safe assumption that the national credit was the best in the world--and
+the clause allowing national banks to issue circulating notes to the par
+value of their bonds.
+
+Our money volume now expanded as rapidly as in 1896 advocates of free
+coinage could have expected even with the aid of free silver. July 1,
+1900, the circulation was $2,055,150,998, as against $1,650,223,400
+four years before. Nearly $163,000,000 in gold certificates had been
+uttered. The gold coin in circulation had increased twenty per cent. for
+the four years; silver about one-eighth; silver certificates one-ninth.
+The Treasury held $222,844,953 of gold coin and bullion, besides some
+millions of silver, paper, and fractional currency.
+
+The Republican victory was the most sweeping since 1872. The total
+popular vote was 13,970,300, out of which President McKinley scored a
+clear majority of 443,054, and a plurality over Bryan of 832,280. Of the
+Northern States Bryan carried only Colorado, Idaho, and Nevada. He lost
+his own State and was shaken even in the traditionally "solid South."
+Unnecessarily ample Republican supremacy was maintained in the
+legislative branch of the Government.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII.
+THE TWELFTH CENSUS
+
+
+The plan for a permanent census bureau was not realized in time for the
+1900 enumeration, but the act authorizing this provided important
+modifications in prior census procedure. Among several great
+improvements it made the census director practically supreme in his
+methods and over appointments and removals in his force.
+
+Initial inquiries were restricted to (1) population, (2) mortality, (3)
+agriculture, and (4) manufactures. Work on these topics was to be
+completed not later than July 1, 1902. During the year after, special
+reports were to be prepared on defective, criminal and pauper classes,
+deaths and births, social data in cities, public indebtedness, taxation
+and expenditures, religious bodies, electric light and power, telephone
+and telegraph, water transportation, express business, street railways,
+mines and mining. A few titles mentioned in the eleventh census were now
+omitted.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+Mr. Merriam, Director of the Census.
+
+
+The enumeration extended to Alaska. Two men had charge of it there.
+Enumerators went out afoot, by dog-teams, canoes, steamboats--up rivers,
+over mountains, through forests. The Indian Territory was for the first
+time canvassed like other portions of the Union, and so was the new
+territory of Hawaii.
+
+The United States were divided into 207 supervisor districts and 53,000
+enumeration districts. Enumeration began June 1, 1900, continuing two
+weeks in cities, elsewhere thirty days. Persons in the navy, army, and
+on Indian reservations were numbered. For those in institutions there
+were special enumerators. Each enumerator used a "street-book" or daily
+record, individual slips for returns of persons absent when the
+enumerator called, and an "absent family" schedule.
+
+The returns were tabulated by an electrical device first employed ten
+years before. Its work was automatic and so fine that it would even
+obviate errors. For instance, age, sex, etc., being denoted by
+punch-holes in cards, the machine would refuse to pass a card punched to
+indicate that the person was three years old and married.
+
+Nearly 2,000 employees toiled upon the census during the latter part of
+1900, and nearly a thousand during the entire year, 1901. From July 14,
+1900, piecemeal results were announced almost daily. By October the
+population of the principal cities was out. A preliminary statement of
+total population was given to the press, October 30, 1900, followed by a
+verified one a month later. The first official report on population was
+made December 6, 1901, within eighteen months from the completion of the
+enumerators' work. Results were first issued in sixty bulletins, all
+subsequently included in the first half of the first volume. Two volumes
+were devoted to population, three to manufactures, two to agriculture,
+and two to vital statistics. One contained an abstract of the whole.
+Following these came volumes on special lines of inquiry.
+
+
+[Illustration: Several people reviewing records.]
+Census Examination.
+
+The population of the United States, not including Porto Rico or the
+Philippines, was found to be 76,303,387, an increase of not quite 21 per
+cent. in the decade, or less than during any previous similar period of
+our history. All the States and territories save Nevada were better
+peopled than ever before. Nevada lost 10.6 per cent. of her inhabitants,
+as against two and a half times that percentage between 1880 and 1890,
+occupying in 1900 about the same tracks as in 1870. Oklahoma people
+increased 518.2 per cent. Indian Territory, Idaho, and Montana came next
+in rapidity of growth. Kansas, with 2.9 per cent. increase, and
+Nebraska, with only 0.7 per cent., showed the slowest progress, the
+figures resulting in considerable part from padded returns in 1890.
+Vermont, Delaware, and Maine crawled on at a snail's pace. In numerical
+advance New York, Pennsylvania, and Illinois led. Texas marched close to
+them, overhauling Massachusetts. In percentage of increase the southern,
+central, and western divisions were in the van.
+
+Almost a third of our people were now urban, ten times the proportion of
+1790. The rate of urban increase (36.8 per cent.) was, however, smaller
+than during any preceding decade, except 1810-1820, and was notably less
+than the 61.4 per cent. urban increase from 1880 to 1890. Numerically
+also city growth was less than at the preceding census.
+
+There were 545 places of 8,000 or more inhabitants, with an average
+population of 45,857. Of the larger cities fully half adjoined the
+Atlantic. Greater New York, a monster composite of nearly three and a
+half millions, ranked first among American cities, and second only to
+London among those of the world. Chicago, Philadelphia, St. Louis,
+Boston, and Baltimore followed in the same order as a decade before. The
+enterprising lake rivals, Cleveland and Buffalo, had raced past San
+Francisco and Cincinnati. Pittsburgh, instead of New Orleans, now came
+next after the ten just named.
+
+There were, as in 1890, three cities of more than a million inhabitants
+each. There were six of more than 500,000, as against four in 1890. Of
+cities having between 400,000 and 500,000 people none appeared in 1900;
+three in 1890. Five cities now had over 300,000 and less than 400,000, a
+class not represented at all in 1890. Thirty-eight cities used in
+numbering their people six figures or more each, a privilege enjoyed in
+1890 by only twenty-eight. The cities of the Pacific coast showed
+noteworthy increase.
+
+Ohio, Indiana, Delaware, Kansas, and Nebraska and all the North Atlantic
+States except Rhode Island, Connecticut, and Pennsylvania, lost in rural
+population. Rhode Island, with 407 inhabitants to the square mile, was
+the most densely peopled State. Massachusetts came next. Idaho, Montana,
+New Mexico, Arizona, Wyoming, and Nevada could not show two souls to the
+square mile. Alaska, doubled in population, had one in about ten square
+miles. No western State had ten to the mile.
+
+The Twelfth Census revealed slight change in the centre of population.
+This now stood six miles southeast of Columbus, Ind., having moved west
+only fourteen miles since 1890. In computing its position neither Hawaii
+nor Alaska were considered. Never before had its occidental shunt been
+less than thirty-six miles in a decade. For three score years it had not
+fallen under forty per decade. What sent it southward two and a half
+miles was the doubling of population in the Indian Territory and the
+filling of Oklahoma. The trifling shift of fourteen miles westward
+pointed significantly to the exhaustion of free land in the West and to
+the immense growth of manufactures, mining, and commerce in eastern and
+central States, retaining there the bulk of our immigrants and even
+recalling people from the newer States and territories.
+
+Males still bore about the same proportion to females as in 1890,
+although females had increased at a rate 0.2 per cent. greater than
+males. In the North Atlantic and South Atlantic groups the sexes were
+equal in numbers.
+
+At the South alone did the negro continue a considerable element.
+Eighty-nine per cent. of the negroes lived there. At the North only
+Pennsylvania had any large numbers. The country held 8,840,789, an
+increase of 18.1 per cent. in ten years, the percentage of white
+increase being 21.4 per cent. In West Virginia and Florida, also in the
+black belts, especially that of Alabama, blacks multiplied faster than
+whites. In Delaware and Georgia the pace was even. In Alabama as a
+whole, however, the negro element had not relatively increased since
+1850. Blacks outnumbered Caucasians in South Carolina and Mississippi,
+no longer in Louisiana. In Mississippi the black majority shot up
+phenomenally. Of the total population the negroes were now only 11.6 per
+cent., barely one-ninth, as against one-fifth in 1790. Between 1890 and
+1900 the proportion of the colored increased both at the North and at
+the far South, diminishing in the border southern States. This indicated
+migration both northward and southward from the belt of States just
+south of Mason and Dixon's line.
+
+
+[Illustration: Large office building.]
+The Census Office, Washington, D. C.
+
+
+The foreign-born fraction of our population, which had alternately risen
+and fallen since 1860, now fell again, from 14.8 per cent. to 13.7 per
+cent. The South retained its distinction as the most thoroughly American
+section of the land, having a foreign nativity population varying from
+7.9 per cent. in Maryland to only 0.2 per cent. in North Carolina.
+
+The foreign born, conspicuous in the Northwest and the North Atlantic
+States, were mostly confined to cities. They had augmented only 12.4 per
+cent. as against 38.5 per cent. from 1880 to 1890. Nearly a third of the
+recorded immigration from 1890 to 1900 was missing in the enumeration,
+due only in part to census errors. Many foreigners had returned to their
+native lands, most numerous among these being Canadians. The
+preponderance of immigrants was no longer from Ireland, Canada, Great
+Britain, and Germany, but from Austria-Hungary, Bohemia, Italy, Russia,
+and Poland.
+
+In 1900 the United States proper had 89,863 Chinese against 107,488 in
+1890. Of Japanese there were 24,326 against only 2,039 in 1890. In the
+Hawaiian Islands alone the Chinese numbered 25,767 and the Japanese
+61,111. Natives of Germany still constituted the largest body of our
+foreign born, being 25.8 per cent. of the whole foreign element compared
+with 30.1 per cent. in 1890. The proportion was about the same in 1900 as
+in 1850.
+
+The Irish were 15.6 per cent. of the foreign born. The figures had been
+20.2 per cent. in 1890, and 42.8 per cent. in 1850. The proportion of
+native Scandinavians and Danes had slightly increased. Poles. Bohemians,
+Austrians, Huns, and Russians comprised 13.4 per cent. of the foreign
+born as against 6.9 per cent. in 1890, and less than one-third per cent.
+in 1850.
+
+The congressional apportionment act based on the twelfth census, and
+approved January 16, 1902, avoided the disagreeable necessity of cutting
+down the representation of laggard States by increasing the House
+membership from 357 to 386, a gain of twenty-nine members. Twelve of
+these (reckoning Louisiana) came from west of the Mississippi, two from
+New England, three each from Illinois and New York, four from the
+southern States east of the Mississippi, two each from Pennsylvania and
+New Jersey, and one from Wisconsin.
+
+The number of farms shown by the twelfth census was over five and
+one-half million, four times the number reported in 1850, and more than
+a million above the number reported in 1890. This wonderful increase,
+greater for the last decade than for any other except that between 1870
+and 1880, denoted a vast augmentation of cultivated area in the South
+and in the middle West. Oklahoma, Indian Territory, and Texas alone
+added over two hundred thousand to the number of their farms. The
+increase in value of farm resources exceeded the total value of
+agricultural investments fifty years before.
+
+In the abundant year of 1899 our cereal crops exceeded $1,484,000,000 in
+value, more than half this being in corn. The hay crop was worth over
+$445,000,000, that of potatoes $98,387,000, that of tobacco $56,993,000.
+Next to corn stood cotton, the crop for this year reaching a value of
+$323,758,000. The total value of farm and range animals in 1900 was
+$2,981,722,945.
+
+
+[Illustration: Man interviewing a family on their doorstep.]
+A Census-taker at work.
+
+
+The census of 1850 reported 123,000 manufacturing establishments, with a
+capital of $533,000,000. In 1900 there were 512,000 manufacturing
+establishments, capitalized at $9,800,000,000, employing 5,321,000 wage
+earners, and evolving $13,004,400,000 worth of product.
+
+In ten years the number of manufacturing plants and the value of
+products appeared to have increased some 30 per cent. The capital
+invested had multiplied slightly more, about a third. The number of
+hands employed had risen but a fifth, betokening the greater efficiency
+of the individual laborer, and the substitution of machine work for that
+of men's hands.
+
+Of seventy-three selected industries in 209 principal cities, the most
+money, $464,000,000, was invested in foundries and machine shops; the
+next most, $363,000,000, in breweries. $289,000,000 are employed in iron
+and steel manufacturing.
+
+Our foreign commerce for the fiscal year 1899-1900 reached the
+astounding total of $2,244,424,266, exceeding that of the preceding
+year by $320,000,000. Our imports were $849,941,184, an amount
+surpassed only in 1893. Our total exports were $1,394,483,082. The
+favorable balance of trade had continued for some time, amounting for
+three years to $1,689,849,387, much of which meant the lessening of
+United States indebtedness abroad. The chief commodities for which we
+now looked to foreign lands were first of all sugar, then hides,
+coffee, rubber, silk, and fine cottons. In return we parted with cotton
+from the South and bread-stuffs from the North, each exceeding
+$260,000,000 in value. Next in volumes exported were provisions, meat,
+and dairy products, worth $184,453,055. Iron and steel exports,
+including $55,000,000 and more in machinery, were valued at about
+$122,000,000. The live-stock shipped abroad was appraised at about
+$181,820,000. About 3-1/2 per cent. of our imports came from Cuba,
+about 20 per cent. from Hawaii, and about 1 per cent. from Porto Rico,
+Samoa, and the Philippines.
+
+In 1902 the tables were turned somewhat. American exports fell off and
+the home market was again invaded. Imported steel billets were sold at
+the very doors of the Steel Corporation factories.
+
+So abundant were the revenues the year named, exceeding expenditures by
+$79,500,000, that war taxes were shortly repealed. "A billion dollar
+Congress" would now have seemed economical. Our gross expenditures the
+preceding year had been $1,041,243,523. For 1900 they were $988,797,697.
+Our national debt, lessened during the year by some $28,000,000 or
+$30,000,000, stood at $1,071,214,444.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII.
+
+THE PAN-AMERICAN EXPOSITION, 1901
+
+The time had come for North and South America to unite in a noble
+enterprise illustrating their community of interests. United States
+people were deplorably ignorant of their southern neighbors, this
+accounting in part for the paucity of our trade with them. They knew as
+little of us. Our war with Spain had caused them some doubts touching
+our intentions toward the Spanish-Americans. An exposition was a hopeful
+means of bringing about mutual knowledge and friendliness. But the fair
+could not be ecumenical. At Chicago and Paris World's Fairs had reached
+perhaps almost their final development. To compete in interest, so soon,
+with such vast displays, an exposition must specialize and condense.
+
+On May 20th, the day of opening, a grand procession marched from Buffalo
+to the Exposition grounds. Inspired by the music of twenty bands
+representing various nations, the parade wound through the park gate up
+over the Triumphal Bridge into the Esplanade. As the doors of the Temple
+of Music were thrown open, ten thousand pigeons were released, which,
+wheeling round and round, soared away to carry in all directions their
+messages announcing that the Exposition had begun. The Hallelujah Chorus
+was rendered, when Vice-President Roosevelt delivered the dedicatory
+address.
+
+The authors of the Pan-American, architects, landscape-gardeners,
+sculptors, painters, and electricians, aimed first of all to create a
+beautiful spectacle. Entering by the Park Gateway you passed from the
+Forecourt, attractive by its terraces and colonnades, to the Triumphal
+Bridge, a noble portal, with four monumental piers surmounted by
+equestrian figures, "The Standard-bearers." This dignified entrance was
+in striking contrast with the gaudy and barbarous opening to the Paris
+Exposition. From the gate the whole panorama spread out before the eye.
+Down the long court with its fountains, gardens, and encircling
+buildings, you saw the Electric Tower soaring heavenward, fit expression
+of the mighty power from Niagara, which at night made it so glorious.
+The central court bore the form of a cross. At either side of the gate
+lay transverse courts, each adorned with a lake, fountains, and sunken
+gardens, and ending in curved groups of buildings. On the east was the
+Government Group; on the west that devoted to horticulture, mines, and
+the graphic arts. The intersection of the two arms formed the Esplanade,
+spacious enough for a quarter of a million people, and commanding a
+superb view. Connected by pergolas with the building in the transverse
+ends two structures, the Temple of Music and the Ethnology Building,
+stood like sentinels at the entrance to the Court of Fountains. A group
+of buildings enclosed this court, terminating in the Electric Tower at
+the north. From the Electric Tower round to the Gateway again all the
+buildings were joined by cool colonnades. Beyond the Tower was the
+Plaza, a charming little court, its sunken garden and band-stand
+surrounded by colonnades holding statuary.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+The Electric Tower and Fountains.
+
+
+The broad and spacious gardens with their wealth of verdure, their
+lakes, fountains, and statuary, formed a picture of indescribable charm.
+Nothing here suggested exhibits. Instead, spectators yielded to the
+spell of the beautiful scene. Chicago was serious and classic; Buffalo
+romantic, picturesque, even frivolous. The thought seemed to have been
+that, life in America being so intense, a rare holiday ought to bring
+diversion and amusement. No style of architecture could have contributed
+better to such gayety than the Spanish-Renaissance, light, ornate, and
+infinitely varied, lending itself to endless decoration in color and
+relief, and no more delicate compliment could have been paid our
+southern neighbors than this choice of their graceful and attractive
+designs. Each building was unique and original in plan. Domes,
+pinnacles, colonnades, balconies, towers, and low-tiled roofs afforded
+endless variety. The Electric Tower, designed by Mr. Howard, the central
+point in the scheme of architecture, its background of columns and its
+airy perforated walls and circular cupola with the Goddess of Light
+above, combined massiveness with lightness. Other buildings were
+strikingly quaint and pleasing, especially those suggesting the old
+Southern Missions. All blended into the general scheme with scarcely a
+discord. This harmony was not accidental, but resulted from combined
+effort, each architect working at a general plan, yet not sacrificing
+his individual taste. It was an object lesson in massive architecture,
+showing how easily public edifices may be made beautiful each in itself,
+and to increase each other's beauty by artistic grouping.
+
+
+[Illustration: Large domed building.]
+The Ethnology Building and United States Government Building.
+
+
+Perhaps the most novel feature of the Fair was the coloring. Charles Y.
+Turner's colors-scheme, original and daring, called forth much
+criticism. With the Chicago White City the Rainbow City at Buffalo was a
+startling contrast. But the artist knew what he was doing when he boldly
+applied the gayest and brightest colors to buildings and columns, and
+added to the quaint architecture that bizarre and oriental touch in
+keeping with the festal purposes of the occasion. The rich, warm tones
+formed a perfect background for the white statuary, the green foliage,
+and the silvery fountains. The Temple of Music was a Pompeian red,
+Horticultural Hall orange, with details of blue, green, and yellow. The
+whole effect was fascinating, and at night, when the electric lights
+illumined and softened the tones, fairy-like.
+
+
+[Illustration: Building outlined in lights and reflected in the water.]
+The Temple of Music by Electric Light.
+
+
+But the coloring had a deeper meaning than this. Mr. Turner tried to
+depict, in his gradations of tone, the struggle of Man to overcome the
+elements, and his progress from barbarism to civilization. Thus, at the
+Gate, the strongest primary colors were used in barbaric warmth, yet in
+their warmth suggestive of welcome. As you advanced down the court the
+tones became milder and lighter, until they culminated in the soft ivory
+and gold of the Electric Tower, symbol of Man's crowning achievements.
+Everywhere you found the note of Niagara, green, symbolizing the great
+power of the falls.
+
+Many forgot that in all this Mr. Turner was working from Greek models.
+Color was lavishly used on the Athenian temples, rich backgrounds of red
+or blue serving to throw the sculptural adornments into vivid relief.
+Buffalo was in this a commentary on classic art, revealing what fine
+effects may be produced by out-of-door coloring when suited to
+surroundings. We saw that in our timid, conventional avoidance of
+exterior colors we had missed something; that cheerful colors might well
+supplant on our houses the eternal sombre of gray and brown, as they so
+often and so gloriously do in nature.
+
+The power sculpture may have in exterior decoration was also taught. At
+Buffalo statues were not set up in long rows as in museums. Instead you
+beheld noble and beautiful groups in natural environments of bright
+green foliage with temples and blue sky above, or forming pediments and
+friezes upon buildings. White nymphs and goddesses bent over fountains
+or peeped from beneath trees or the ornate columns of pergolas. One was
+greeted at every turn by these gleaming figures, a vital and integral
+part of the landscape.
+
+Carl Bitter, director of sculpture, aimed to make sculpture teach while
+it decorated. He sought to tell in sculpture the story of man and
+nature. In the lake fronting the Government Building stood a fountain of
+Man. A half-veiled form, mysterious Man, occupied a pedestal composed of
+figures of the five senses. Underneath the basin the Virtues struggled
+with the Vices. Minor groups depicted the different ages. The most
+remarkable was Mr. Konti's Despotic Age. The grim tyrant sat in his
+chariot, driven by Ambition, who goaded on the four slaves in the
+traces, while Justice and Mercy cowered in chains behind. In the
+opposite court was told the story of Nature. Most striking there was Mr.
+Elwell's figure of Kronos, standing, with winged arms, on a turtle. From
+the Fountain of Abundance on the Esplanade, Flora was represented as
+tossing garlands of flowers to the chubby cherubs at her feet. The main
+court, dedicated to the achievements of man, had groups representing the
+Human Intellect and Emotions. The sculptures about the Electric Tower
+naturally related to the Falls. There were primeval Niagara and the
+Niagara of today, as well as figures symbolic of the Lakes and the
+Rivers.
+
+
+[Illustration: Statue of buffalo.]
+Group of Buffalos--Pan-American Exposition.
+
+
+Copies of the most famous marbles, like the Playful Faun and the Venus
+of Melos, embellished the Plaza. Many fine modern pieces adorned the
+grounds, as Roth's stirring "Chariot Race" and St. Gaudens's equestrian
+statue of General Sherman. Sculpture was profusely used to beautify
+buildings. Wholly original and charming were the four groups for the
+Temple of Music: Heroic Music, Sacred Music, Dance Music, and Lyric
+Music. Perched in every corner were figures of children playing
+different instruments.
+
+Much of the sculpture, was careless in execution--not surprising when we
+consider that over 500 pieces were set up in less than five months, and
+that the artists' models had to be enlarged by machinery. But in vigor
+and originality of thought and as a testimony to the progress which art
+had made in this country, the exhibit was truly wonderful. All the arts
+were employed. To many it was mainly an Art Exhibition, the artistic
+feature making a stronger impression than any other. As a work of art
+the Exposition could not but effect permanent good, demonstrating what
+may be done to beautify our cities and dwellings and cultivating our
+love for the beautiful in art and nature.
+
+The supreme glory of the Exposition lay in its electrical illumination.
+Niagara was used to create a city of light more dazzling than any dream.
+"As the moment for the illumination approached, the band hushed and a
+stillness fell upon the multitude. Suddenly dull reddish threads
+appeared on the globes of the near-by lamp-pillars. A murmur of
+expectation ran through the crowd. For an instant the great tower seemed
+to pulse with a thread of life before the eye became sensible to what
+had taken place. Then its surfaces gleamed with a faint flush like the
+flush which church spires catch from the dawn. This deepened slowly to
+pink and then to red. . . . In a moment the architectural skeletons of
+the great buildings had been picked out in lines of red light. Then the
+whole effect mellowed into luminous yellow. The material exposition had
+been transfigured, and its glorified ghost was in its place. . . . Every
+night this modern miracle was worked by the rheostat housed in a humble
+shed somewhere in the inner recesses of the exposition."
+
+
+[Illustration: Lighted buildings reflected in the water.]
+The Electric Tower at Night.
+
+
+The centre of light was the Tower. It was suffused with the loveliest
+glow of gold, ivory, and delicate green, all blending. The lights
+revealed and interpreted the architecture softening the colors and
+adding the subtle charm of mystery. A hundred beautiful hues were
+reflected in the waters of the fountains. The floral effects made by
+submerged lights in the basin were exquisite, and the witchery of the
+scene was indescribable.
+
+The chaining of Niagara for electric purposes was of course a prominent
+feature of the fair. Electricity was almost, or quite, the sole motor
+used on the grounds; 5,000 horsepower being directly from Niagara's
+total of 50,000. Niagara circulated the salt water in the fisheries and
+kept their water at the right temperature. It operated telephones,
+phonographs, soda fountains, the big search-lights, the elevators, the
+machines in the Machinery Building, the shows and illusions in the
+Midway.
+
+At Chicago we were ashamed of the Midway. We had since learned to play.
+Buffalo used utmost ingenuity to provide sensations and novelties. The
+Midway was made fascinating. You saw in it every variety of buildings,
+representing all countries from Eskimodom to Darkest Africa. Cairo had
+eight streets with 600 natives. The Hawaiian and Philippine villages
+were centres of interest, revealing the every-day life of our new-won
+lands. In Alt-Nurnberg you dined to the strains of a German orchestra.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+Triumphal Bridge and entrance to the Exposition,
+showing electric display at night.
+
+
+The magnificent amphitheatre, covering ten acres, a monument to American
+athletics, was built after the marble Stadium of Lycurgus at Athens. An
+Athletic Congress celebrated American supremacy in athletic sports. The
+programme included basket-ball tournaments, automobile, bicycle, and
+track and field championship races, lacrosse matches, and canoe "meets."
+
+The exhibits at Buffalo, though less ample, naturally showed advance
+over the corresponding ones at Chicago. The guns and ammunition of the
+United States ordnance department excited interest, for we were now
+making our own war supplies. A picturesque log building was devoted to
+forestry. The Graphic Arts Building showed the great strides made in
+printing and engraving. A model dairy was operated in a quaint little
+cottage on the grounds. Fifty cows of the best breeds were tested and
+the tests recorded.
+
+A conservatory contained a very fine collection of food plants, alive
+and growing, sent from South and Central America; also eight different
+kinds of tea plants from South Carolina. A small coffee plantation and
+some vanilla vines had been transplanted from Mexico. Nearly every
+country in Spanish America was represented. Cuba, San Domingo, Ecuador,
+Chile, Honduras, Mexico, and Canada had buildings. Sections in the
+Government Building were devoted to exhibits from Porto Rico, the
+Hawaiian Islands, and the Philippines.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+The Electricity Building.
+
+
+The United States Government Building was most interesting. New
+inventions made its exhibits live. In place of reading reports and
+statistics, you saw scenes and heard sounds. Class-room songs and
+recitations were reproduced by the graphophone. The biograph showed
+naval cadets marching while at the same time you heard the band music.
+Labor-saving machines were represented in full operation. Pictures by
+wire, the mutoscope, and type-setting by electricity were among the
+wonders shown. Every day a crew of the life-saving service gave a
+demonstration, launching a life-boat and rescuing a sailor. Near by was
+a field hospital, where wounded soldiers were cared for. Many of the
+newest uses for electricity were displayed. Never before had lighting
+been so brilliant or covered such large areas, or such speed in
+telegraphy been attained, or telephoning reached such distances. The
+akouphone, a blessing to the deaf, was exhibited, as were also the
+powerful search-lights now a necessity at sea.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX.
+MR. MCKINLEY'S END
+
+
+Upon invitation President and Mrs. McKinley visited the Pan-American
+Exposition at Buffalo. September 5, 1901, the first day of his presence,
+the Chief Magistrate delivered an address, memorable both as a sagacious
+survey of public affairs and as indicating a modification of his
+well-known tariff opinions in the direction of freer commercial
+intercourse with foreign nations.
+
+"We must not," he said, "repose in fancied security that we can forever
+sell everything and buy little or nothing." ... "The period of
+exclusiveness is past." "Reciprocity treaties are in harmony with the
+spirit of the times; measures of retaliation are not." ... "If perchance
+some of our tariffs are no longer needed for revenue or to encourage and
+protect our industries at home, why should they not be employed to
+extend and promote our markets abroad?" In connection with this thought
+the President expressed his conviction that we must encourage our
+merchant marine and, in the same commercial interest, construct a
+Pacific cable and an Isthmian canal.
+
+The projects of Mr. McKinley's statesmanship thus announced were
+approved by nearly the entire public, but they were destined to be
+carried out by other hands. On his second day at Buffalo, Friday,
+September 6th, about four in the afternoon, the President stood in the
+beautiful Temple of Music receiving the hundreds who filed past to shake
+hands with him. A sinister fellow, resembling an Italian, tarried
+suspiciously, and was pushed forward by the Secret Service attendants.
+Next behind him followed a boyish-looking workman, his right hand
+swathed in a handkerchief. As the first made way Mr. McKinley extended
+his hand to the young man's unencumbered left. The next instant the
+bandaged right arm raised itself and two shots rang on the air. The
+President staggered back into the arms of a bystander, while his
+treacherous assailant was borne to the floor.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+President McKinley at Niagara
+Ascending the stairs from Luna Island, to Goat Island.
+Copyright, 1901, by C. E. Dunlap.
+
+
+
+[Illustration: McKinley and several other men ascending steps.]
+The last photograph of the late President McKinley.
+Taken as he was ascending the steps of the Temple of Music,
+September 6, 1901.
+
+
+Grievously wounded as he was in breast and in stomach, the President's
+first thoughts were for others. He requested that the news be broken
+gently to Mrs. McKinley, and, it was said, expressed regret that the
+occurrence would be an injury to the exposition. As cries of "Lynch him"
+arose from the maddened crowd, the stricken chief urged those about him
+to see that no hurt befel the assassin. The latter was speedily secured
+in prison to await the result of his black deed, while President
+McKinley was without delay conveyed to the Emergency Hospital, where his
+wounds were dressed.
+
+Except for continued weakness and rapid heart action, the symptoms
+during the early days of the succeeding week gave strong hopes of the
+patient's recovery. At the home of Mr. Milburn, President of the
+exposition, whose guest he was, President McKinley received the
+tenderest care and most skilful treatment. So far allayed was anxiety
+that the Cabinet officers left Buffalo, while Vice President Roosevelt
+betook himself to a sequestered part of the Adirondacks. The President
+himself, vigorous and naturally sanguine, did not give up till Friday, a
+week from the date of his injury.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+The Milburn Residence, where President McKinley died--Buffalo, N. Y.
+Copyright, 1902, by Underwood & Underwood.
+
+
+Upon that day his condition became alarming. The digestive organs
+abdicated their functions, nourishment even by injection became
+impossible, traces of septic poison were manifest. By night the world
+knew that McKinley was a dying man. In the evening he regained
+consciousness and bade farewell to those about him. "Good-by, good-by,
+all; it is God's way; His will be done." The murmured words came from
+his lips, "Nearer, my God, to Thee; e'en tho' it be a cross that raiseth
+me."
+
+At the early morning hour of 2.45, Saturday, September 14th, the rest
+which is deeper than any sleep came to the sufferer. The autopsy showed
+that death was due to gangrene of the tissues in the path of the wound,
+the system having failed to repair the ravages of the bullet that had
+entered the abdomen.
+
+The next Monday morning, after a simple funeral ceremony at the Milburn
+mansion, the remains were reverently borne to the Buffalo City Hall,
+where, till midnight, mourning columns filed past the catafalque. The
+body lay in state under the Capitol rotunda at Washington for a day, and
+was borne thence, hardly a moment out of hearing of solemn bells or out
+of sight of half-masted flags and dumb, mourning multitudes, to the old
+home at Canton, Ohio. Here the late Chief Magistrate's fellow-townsmen,
+his old army comrades, and other thousands joined the procession to the
+cemetery or tearfully lined the streets as it passed.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+Ascending the Capitol steps at Washington, D, C.,
+where the casket lay in state in the Rotunda.
+
+
+On the day of the interment, September 19th, appropriate exercises,
+attended by enormous concourses of people, occurred all over the
+country, and even in foreign parts. In hardly an American town of size
+could a single building contain the crowd, overflow meetings being
+necessary, filling several churches or halls. Special commemorative
+services were held in Westminster Cathedral by King Edward's orders.
+
+No king was ever honored by obsequies so widespread or more sincere.
+Messages of condolence poured in upon the widow from the four quarters
+of the globe. Business was suspended. For five minutes telegraph clicks
+and cable flashes ceased, and for ten minutes, upon many lines of
+railway and street railway, every wheel stood still.
+
+None but the rash undertook, at once after his lamented decease, to
+assign President McKinley's name to its exact altitude on the roll of
+America's illustrious men. Ardent eulogists spoke of him as beside the
+nation's greatest statesman, Lincoln, while his most pronounced
+opponents in life accorded him very high honor. During his career he had
+been accused of opportunism, of inconsistency, of partiality to the
+moneyed interests of the country. His views of great public questions
+underwent change. One of his altered attitudes, much remarked upon, that
+concerning silver, involved, as pointed out in the last chapter, no
+change of essential principle. In regard to protection he at last swung
+to Blaine's position favoring reciprocity, which, as author of the
+McKinley Bill, he had been understood to oppose; but it should be
+remembered that his final utterances on the subject contemplated an
+industrial situation very different from that prevalent during his early
+years in politics. The United States had become a mighty exporter of
+manufactured products, competing effectively with England, Germany, and
+France in the sale of such everywhere in the world.
+
+American material supplied in large part the Russian Trans-Siberian
+Railroad. American food-stuffs and meats wakened agrarian frenzy in
+Germany. The island-hive of England buzzed loudly with jealous
+foreboding lest America capture her world-markets. From an average of
+close to $163,000,000 annually from 1887 to 1897 United States exports
+of manufactured products reached in 1898 over $290,000,000, in 1899 over
+$339,000,000, in 1900 nearly $434,000,000, and in 1901, $412,000,000. As
+coal-producer the United States at last led Britain, American tin-plate
+reached Wales itself, American locomotives the English colonies and even
+the mother-country, while boots and shoes from our factories ruled the
+markets of West Australia and South Africa. For bridge and viaduct
+construction in British domains American bids heavily undercut British
+bids both in price and in time limit.
+
+His progressive insight into the tariff question betrayed Mr. McKinley's
+mental activity and hospitality, as his final deliverances thereupon
+exhibited fearlessness. None knew better than he that what he said at
+Buffalo would be challenged by many in the name of party orthodoxy. Even
+greater firmness was manifest when, at an earlier date, speaking at
+Savannah, he ranked Robert E. Lee and Stonewall Jackson as among
+America's "great" sons. With this brave tribute should be mentioned his
+commendable nomination of the ex-Confederate Generals Fitz-Hugh Lee and
+Joseph Wheeler as Major-Generals in the United States Army. Such words
+and deeds showed skilled leadership also. Each was fittingly timed so as
+best to escape or fend criticism and so as to impress the public deeply.
+
+
+[Illustration: Funeral parade.]
+President McKinley's Remains Passing the United States Treasury,
+Washington, D.C.
+Copyright, 1901, by Underwood & Underwood.
+
+
+Not a little of Mr. McKinley's apparent vacillation and of his
+complaisance toward men and interests representing wealth was due to an
+endowment of exquisite finesse which stooped to conquer, which led by
+seeming to follow, or by yielding an inch took an ell. In him was rooted
+by inheritance a quick sense of the manufacturer's point of view, for
+his father and grandfather had been iron-furnace men, and a certain
+conservative instinct, characteristic of his party, which deemed the
+counsel of broadcloth wiser than the clamor of rags, and equally
+patriotic withal. Notwithstanding this, history cannot but pronounce
+McKinley's love of country, his whole Americanism, in fact, as sincere,
+sturdy, and democratic as Abraham Lincoln's.
+
+Mr. McKinley's power and breadth as a statesman were greatly augmented
+by the responsibilities of the presidency. Before his accession to that
+exalted office he had helped devise but one great public measure, the
+McKinley Bill, and his speeches upon his chosen theme, protection, were
+more earnest than varied or profound. But witness the largeness of view
+marking the directions of April 7, 1900, to the Taft Philippine
+Commission: "The Commission should bear in mind that the government
+which they are establishing is designed not for our satisfaction or for
+the expression of our theoretical views, but for the happiness, peace,
+and prosperity of the people of the Philippine Islands, and the measures
+adopted should be made to conform to their customs, their habits, and
+even their prejudices, to the fullest extent consistent with the
+accomplishment of the indispensable requisites of just and effective
+government."
+
+Most of President McKinley's appointments were wise; several of the most
+important ones quite remarkably so. He managed discreetly in crises. He
+saw the whole of a situation as few statesmen have done, penetrating to
+details and obscure aspects, which others, even experts, had overlooked.
+During the Spanish War his advice was always wise and helpful, and at
+points vital. Courteous to all foreign powers, and falling into no
+spectacular jangles with any, he was obsequious to none. No other ruler,
+party to intervention in China during the Boxer rebellion in 1900, acted
+there so sanely, or withdrew with so creditable a record.
+
+What made it certain that Mr. McKinley's name would be forever
+remembered with honor was not merely or mainly the fact that his
+administration marked a great climacteric in our national career. His
+intimates in office and in public life unanimously testified that in
+shaping the nation's new destiny he played an active and not a passive
+role. He dominated his cabinet, diligently attending to the advice each
+member offered, but by no means always following it. Party bosses
+seeking to lead him were themselves led, oftenest without being aware of
+it, to accomplish his wishes.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+The Home of William McKinley, at Canton, Ohio.
+Copyright, 1901, by Underwood & Underwood.
+
+
+As a practical politician in the better sense of the word McKinley was a
+master. Repeatedly, at critical junctures, he saved his following from
+rupture, while the opposition became an impotent rout. Hardly a contrast
+in American political warfare has been more striking than the pitiful
+demoralization of the Democracy in the campaign of 1900 compared with
+the closed ranks and solid front of the Republican array.
+Anti-imperialists like Carnegie and Hoar, silver men like Senator
+Stewart, and the low-tariff Republicans of the West united to hold aloft
+the McKinley banner.
+
+The result was not due, as some fancied, to Mr. Hanna. Nor did it mean
+that there was no discord among Republicans, for there was much. The
+discipline proceeded from the candidate's influence, from his
+harmonizing personal leadership. This he exercised not through oratory,
+for he had none of the tricks of speech, not even the knack of
+story-telling, but by the mere force of his will and his wisdom.
+
+Mr. McKinley's private character was pure, exemplary, and noble. His
+life-long devotion to an invalid wife; his fidelity to his friends; the
+charm, consideration, and tact of his demeanor toward everyone; and,
+above all, the Christian sublimity of his last days created at once a
+foundation and a crown for his fame.
+
+Ex-President Cleveland said: "You will constantly hear as accounting for
+Mr. McKinley's great success that he was obedient and affectionate as a
+son, patriotic and faithful as a soldier, honest and upright as a
+citizen, tender and devoted as a husband, and truthful, generous,
+unselfish, moral, and clean in every relation of life. He never thought
+of those things as too weak for his manliness."
+
+A special grand jury forthwith indicted the assassin, who, talking
+freely enough with his guards, refused all intercourse with the
+attorneys assigned to defend him, and with the expert sent to test his
+sanity. He was promptly placed upon trial, convicted, sentenced, and
+executed, all without any of the unseemly incidents attending the trial
+of Guiteau after Garfield's assassination. No heed was given to those
+who, some of them from pulpits, fulminated anarchy as bad as that of the
+anarchists by demanding that Czolgosz be lynched. These prompt but
+perfectly orderly and dispassionate proceedings were a great credit to
+the State of New York.
+
+Leon Czolgosz, the murderer of President McKinley, was born in this
+country, of Russian-Polish parentage, in 1875. He received some
+education, was apprenticed to a blacksmith in Detroit, and later
+employed in Cleveland and in Chicago. At the time of his crime he had
+been working in a Cleveland wire mill. It was said that at Cleveland he
+had heard Emma Goldman deliver an anarchist address, and that this
+inspired his fell purpose. It was suspected that he was the tool of an
+anarchist plot, and that the man preceding him in the line when he shot
+the President was an accomplice, but there was no evidence that either
+was true. There were indications that Czolgosz had made overtures to the
+anarchists and been rejected as a spy. No accessories were found. Nor
+did the dreadful act betoken that anarchism was increasing in our
+country, or that any special propagandism in its favor was on. To all
+appearance, it stood unrelated, so far as America was concerned.
+
+Leon Czolgosz's heart had caught fire from the malignant passion of red
+anarchy abroad, which had within seven years struck down the President
+of France, the Empress of Austria, the King of Italy, and the Prime
+Minister of Spain. In their fanatic diabolism its devotees impartially
+hated government, whether despotic or free, and would, no doubt, gladly
+have made America, the freest of the great commonwealths, for that
+reason a hatching ground for their dark conspiracies.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+Interior of room in Wilcox House where
+Theodore Roosevelt took the oath of Presidency.
+
+
+They were no less hostile to one than to the other of our political
+parties. The murder had no political significance, though certainly
+calculated to rebuke virulent editorials and cartoons in political
+papers, wont to season political debate with too hot personal condiment,
+printed and pictorial. President McKinley had suffered from this and so
+had his predecessor.
+
+Upon such an occasion orderly government, both in the States and in the
+nation, reasonably sought muniment against any possible new danger from
+anarchy. McKinley's own State leading, States enacted statutes
+denouncing penalties upon such as assailed, by either speech or act, the
+life or the bodily safety of anyone in authority. The Federal Government
+followed with a similar anti-anarchist law of wide scope.
+
+Deeply as the country prized McKinley--and the sense of loss by his
+death increased with the days--Vice-President Theodore Roosevelt took
+over the presidency with as little jar as a military post suffers from
+changing guard.
+
+
+
+
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+
+<div style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of History of the United States, Volume 5, by E. Benjamin Andrews</div>
+<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
+most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
+whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
+of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online
+at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you
+are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the
+country where you are located before using this eBook.
+</div>
+<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: History of the United States, Volume 5</div>
+<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: E. Benjamin Andrews</div>
+<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: September 27, 2007 [eBook #22777]<br />
+[Most recently updated: December 18, 2021]</div>
+<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</div>
+<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Character set encoding: UTF-8</div>
+<div style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Produced by: Don Kostuch</div>
+<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES ***</div>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/0Title2Pic.jpg" width="473" height="661" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">From a photograph copyright, 1899, by Pach Bros., N. Y.<br/>
+President William McKinley.</p>
+</div>
+
+<h1>HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES</h1>
+
+<h3>FROM THE EARLIEST DISCOVERY OF AMERICA TO THE PRESENT TIME</h3>
+
+<h2 class="no-break">BY<br/>
+E. BENJAMIN ANDREWS</h2>
+
+<h4>CHANCELLOR OF THE UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA<br/>
+FORMERLY PRESIDENT OF BROWN UNIVERSITY</h4>
+
+<p class="center">
+With 650 Illustrations and Maps<br/>
+<br/>
+<br/>
+VOLUME V.<br/>
+<br/>
+NEW YORK<br/>
+CHARLES SCRIBNER&rsquo;S SONS<br/>
+1912<br/>
+<br/>
+COPYRIGHT, 1903 AND 1905, BY<br/>
+CHARLES SCRIBNER&rsquo;S SONS
+</p>
+
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/001Pic.jpg" width="200" height="227" alt="[Illustration]" />
+</div>
+
+<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+<p class="noindent">
+<a href="#period06">PERIOD VI<br/>
+EXPANSION</a><br/>
+1888–1902<br/>
+</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">
+<a href="#chap01">CHAPTER I. DRIFT AND DYE IN LAW&mdash;MAKING</a><br/>
+General Revision and Extension of State
+Constitutions.&mdash;Introduction of Australian Ballot in Various
+States.&mdash;Woman Suffrage in the West.&mdash;Negro Suffrage in the
+South.&mdash;Educational Qualification.&mdash;&ldquo;The Mississippi
+Plan.&rdquo;&mdash;South Carolina Registration Act.&mdash;The
+&ldquo;Grandfather&rdquo; Clause in Louisiana
+Constitution.&mdash;Alabama Suffrage.<br/><br/>
+</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">
+<a href="#chap02">CHAPTER II. THE PRESIDENTIAL CAMPAIGN OF 1888</a><br/>
+Tariff Reform Democratic Creed.&mdash;Republican Banner, High
+Protection.&mdash;Republican Convention at Chicago.&mdash;Nomination of
+Benjamin Harrison for President.&mdash;Biographical Sketch of Benjamin
+Harrison.&mdash;Political Strength in the West.&mdash;National Association of
+Democratic Clubs and Republican League.&mdash;Civil Service as an Issue in
+Campaign.&mdash;Democratic Blunders.&mdash;The &ldquo;Murchison&rdquo;
+Letter.&mdash;Lord Sackville-West Given His Passports.&mdash;Use of Money in
+Campaign by Both Political Parties.&mdash;Tariff the Main
+Issue.&mdash;Trusts.&mdash;&ldquo;British Free Trade.&rdquo;&mdash;Popular Vote
+at the Election.<br/><br/>
+</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">
+<a href="#chap03">CHAPTER III. MR. HARRISON&rsquo;S ADMINISTRATION</a><br/>
+Steamship Subsidies Advocated.&mdash;Chinese Immigration and the Geary
+Law.&mdash;Immigration Restriction.&mdash;Thomas B. Reed Institutes
+Parliamentary Innovations in the House of Representatives.&mdash;Counting a
+Quorum.&mdash;The &ldquo;Force Bill&rdquo; in Congress.&mdash;Resentment of the
+South.&mdash;Defeated in Senate.&mdash;The &ldquo;Billion Dollar
+Congress&rdquo; and the Dependent Pensions Act.&mdash;Pension
+Payments.&mdash;The McKinley Tariff Act and &ldquo;Blaine&rdquo;
+Reciprocity.&mdash;International Copyright Act Becomes a Law.&mdash;Mr. Blaine
+as Secretary of State.&mdash;Murder by &ldquo;Mafia&rdquo; Italians Causes Riot
+in New Orleans.&mdash;The Itata at San Diego, California.&mdash;The
+&ldquo;Barrundia&rdquo; Incident.&mdash;U. S. Assumes Sovereignty Over Tutuila,
+Samoa.&mdash;Congressional Campaign, 1890.<br/><br/>
+</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">
+<a href="#chap04">CHAPTER IV. NON-POLITICAL EVENTS OF PRESIDENT HARRISON&rsquo;S TERM</a><br/>
+Commemorative Exercises of the Centennial Anniversary of Washington&rsquo;s
+Inauguration as President.&mdash;Verse Added to Song
+&ldquo;America.&rdquo;&mdash;Whittier Composes an Ode.&mdash;Unveiling of Lee
+Monument.&mdash;Sectional Feeling Allayed.&mdash;The Louisiana Lottery Put
+Down.&mdash;The Opening of Oklahoma.&mdash;Sum Paid Seminole Indians.&mdash;The
+Messiah Craze of the Indians.&mdash;The Johnstown Flood.&mdash;The Steel Strike
+at Homestead, Pa.&mdash;Congressional Investigation.&mdash;Riot in Tennessee
+Over Convict Labor in the Mines.&mdash;Mormonism.&mdash;America Aids Russia in
+Famine.<br/><br/>
+</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">
+<a href="#chap05">CHAPTER V. THE WORLD&rsquo;S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION</a><br/>
+Preparation for the World&rsquo;s Fair.&mdash;Columbus Day in Chicago.&mdash;In
+New York.&mdash;Presidential Election of 1892.&mdash;The
+Campaign.&mdash;Cleveland and Harrison Nominated by the Respective
+Parties.&mdash;Populism.&mdash;Gen. Weaver Populistic
+Candidate.&mdash;Reciprocity in the Campaign of 1892.&mdash;Result of the
+Election.&mdash;Opening Exercises of the World&rsquo;s Fair.&mdash;The
+Buildings and Grounds.&mdash;The Spanish Caravals.&mdash;The Court of
+Honor.&mdash;Burning of the Cold Storage Building.&mdash;Government
+Exhibits.&mdash;Midway Plaisance.&mdash;The Ferris Wheel.&mdash;Buildings
+Burned.&mdash;Fair Not a Financial Success.&mdash;The Attendance.<br/><br/>
+</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">
+<a href="#chap06">CHAPTER VI. ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL MOVEMENT</a><br/>
+Growth of Population in Cities and States.&mdash;Centre of
+Population.&mdash;The Railroads.&mdash;Industrial Progress.&mdash;Development
+of Use of Electricity in Telegraph, Telephone, Lighting, and
+Manufacturing.&mdash;Niagara Falls Harnessed.&mdash;Thomas A.
+Edison.&mdash;Nikola Tesla.&mdash;The Use of the Bicycle.&mdash;Growth of
+Agriculture and Improvement of Implements.&mdash;Position of Women.&mdash;The
+Salvation Army Established in America.&mdash;Its Growth and Work.<br/><br/>
+</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">
+<a href="#chap07">CHAPTER VII. MR. CLEVELAND AGAIN PRESIDENT</a><br/>
+Democratic Congress.&mdash;President Extends Merit System.&mdash;Anti-Lottery
+Bill.&mdash;President Calls a Special Session of Congress.&mdash;Sale of Bonds
+to Maintain Reserve of Gold.&mdash;The Wilson Tariff Law Passed.&mdash;Income
+Tax Unconstitutional.&mdash;Bond Issues.&mdash;Foreign Affairs.&mdash;Coup
+d&rsquo;état of Provisional Government of Hawaii.&mdash;Special
+Commissioner.&mdash;Queen Liliuokalani.&mdash;Queen Renounces
+Throne.&mdash;President Cleveland&rsquo;s&mdash;Venezuelan
+Message.&mdash;Measures to Preserve National Credit.&mdash;Venezuelan Boundary
+Commission.&mdash;Lexow Committee Investigation in New York City.&mdash;Reform
+Ticket Elected.&mdash;Greater New York.&mdash;American Protective Association.<br/><br/>
+</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">
+<a href="#chap08">CHAPTER VIII. LABOR AND THE RAILWAYS</a><br/>
+The March of the Coxey Army.&mdash;Arrest of Leaders.&mdash;The American
+Railway Union&mdash;Strike.&mdash;Refusal of Pullman Company to
+Arbitrate.&mdash;Association of General Managers.&mdash;Federal
+Injunction.&mdash;Federal Riot Proclamation and Troops Detailed.&mdash;Governor
+Altgeld&rsquo;s Protest.&mdash;Debs.&mdash;&ldquo;Government by
+Injunction.&rdquo;&mdash;Commission of Investigation.&mdash;General Allotment
+of Indian Lands Under the Dawes Act.<br/><br/>
+</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">
+<a href="#chap09">CHAPTER IX. NEWEST DIXIE</a><br/>
+Harmony Between North and South.&mdash;Consecration of
+Chickamauga-Chattanooga Military Park.&mdash;Agricultural Development
+in the South.&mdash;Manufactures.&mdash;Natural
+Products.&mdash;Southern Characteristics.&mdash;The &ldquo;Black
+Belt.&rdquo;&mdash;Montgomery Conference on the Negro
+Question.&mdash;Lynching.&mdash;Booker T. Washington and the Tuskegee
+Institute.&mdash;Negro Population.<br/><br/>
+</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">
+<a href="#chap10">CHAPTER X. THE MEN AND THE ISSUE IN 1896</a><br/>
+Free Silver Coinage Issue in the Campaign.&mdash;Republican Convention in St.
+Louis.&mdash;The Money Plank in the Platform.&mdash;Withdrawal of Senator
+Teller and Free Silver Delegates.&mdash;William McKinley and Garret A. Hobart
+Nominated for President and Vice-President.&mdash;Sketch of Life of William
+McKinley.&mdash;Democratic Convention Held in Chicago.&mdash;Demand for Free
+and Unlimited Coinage of Silver.&mdash;William J. Bryan Makes &ldquo;Cross of
+Gold&rdquo; Speech.&mdash;Delegates Refuse to Vote.&mdash;W. J. Bryan and
+Arthur Sewall Nominated.&mdash;Sketch of William J. Bryan.&mdash;Thomas Watson
+Nominated for Vice-President by Populist Convention.&mdash;National or Gold
+Democratic Ticket.&mdash;Speeches Made by Candidates.&mdash;Result of the
+Election.<br/><br/>
+</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">
+<a href="#chap11">CHAPTER XI. MR. MCKINLEY&rsquo;S ADMINISTRATION</a><br/>
+John Sherman, William R. Day, and John Hay as Secretary of State.&mdash;Other
+Members of Cabinet.&mdash;Revival of Business in 1897.&mdash;Gold Discovery in
+Yukon, Klondike, and Cape Nome.&mdash;Alaskan Boundary Controversy Between
+United States and Great Britain.&mdash;Joint High Commission Canvasses Boundary
+and Sealing Question.&mdash;Estimate of Loss to Seal Herd.&mdash;Sealskins
+Ordered Confiscated and Destroyed at United States Ports.&mdash;Hawaiian
+Islands Annexed.&mdash;Special Envoys to the Powers Appointed to Consider
+International Bi-Metallism.&mdash;President Withdraws Positions from the
+Classified Service.&mdash;Extra Session of Congress.&mdash;Passes Dingley
+Tariff Act.&mdash;Reciprocity Clauses.&mdash;Grant Mausoleum
+Completed.&mdash;Presentation Ceremonies at New York.<br/><br/>
+</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">
+<a href="#chap12">CHAPTER XII. THE WAR WITH SPAIN</a><br/>
+Cuban Discontent with Spanish Rule.&mdash;United States&rsquo; Neutral Attitude
+Toward Spain and Cuba.&mdash;Red Cross Society Aids
+Reconcentrados.&mdash;Spanish Minister Writes Letter that Leads to
+Resignation.&mdash;United States Battleship Maine Sunk in Havana
+Harbor.&mdash;Congress Declares the People of Cuba Free and
+Independent.&mdash;Minister Woodford Receives his Passports at
+Madrid.&mdash;Increase of the Regular Army.&mdash;Spain Prepares for
+War.&mdash;Army Equipment Insufficient.&mdash;Strength of Navy.&mdash;The
+Oregon Makes Unprecedented Run.&mdash;Admiral Cervera&rsquo;s Fleet in Santiago
+Harbor.&mdash;Navy at Santiago Harbor Entrance.&mdash;Army Lands near
+Santiago.&mdash;The Darkest Day of the War.&mdash;Sinking of the Collier
+Merrimac to Block Harbor Entrance.&mdash;Spanish Ships Leave.&mdash;General
+Toral Surrenders.&mdash;Expedition of General Miles to Porto
+Rico.&mdash;Commodore George Dewey Enters Manila Bay.&mdash;Destroys Spanish
+Fleet.&mdash;Manila Capitulates.&mdash;Treaty of Paris Signed.<br/><br/>
+</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">
+<a href="#chap13">CHAPTER XIII. &ldquo;CUBA LIBRE&rdquo;</a><br/>
+Admiral Sampson and Admiral Schley in Santiago Naval Battle.&mdash;Court of
+Inquiry Appointed.&mdash;Paris Treaty of Peace Ratified.&mdash;Foreign
+Criticism.&mdash;The Samoan Islands.&mdash;Civil Government Established in
+Porto Rico.&mdash;Foreign Commerce of Porto Rico.&mdash;Congressional Pledge
+about Cuba.&mdash;Census of Cuba.&mdash;General Leonard Wood, Governor of
+Cuba.&mdash;Cuban Constitutional Convention.&mdash;&ldquo;Platt
+Amendment.&rdquo;&mdash;Cuban Constitution Adopted.&mdash;First President of
+Cuba.&mdash;Reciprocity with Cuba.<br/><br/>
+</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">
+<a href="#chap14">CHAPTER XIV. THE UNITED STATES IN THE ORIENT&mdash;PHILIPPINES AND FILIPINOS.</a><br/>
+Area of the Philippines.&mdash;The Native
+Tribes.&mdash;Population.&mdash;Education Under Spanish
+Rule.&mdash;Filipinos.&mdash;Iocoros.&mdash;Igorrotes.&mdash;Ilocoans.&mdash;
+Moros.&mdash;Spain as a Colonist.&mdash;Religious Orders.&mdash;Secret
+Leagues.&mdash;Spain and the Filipinos.&mdash;Emilio Aguinaldo.&mdash;The
+Philippines in the Treaty of Paris.&mdash;Senate Resolution.<br/><br/>
+</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">
+<a href="#chap15">CHAPTER XV. THE UNITED STATES IN THE ORIENT.&mdash;WAR.&mdash;CONTROVERSY.&mdash;PEACE.</a><br/>
+Filipinos&rsquo; Foothold in Philippines.&mdash;Attitude Toward
+Filipinos.&mdash;President Orders Government Extended Over
+Archipelago.&mdash;American Rule Awakens Hostility.&mdash;First Philippine
+Commission.&mdash;Philippine Congress Votes for
+Peace.&mdash;Revolution.&mdash;Treachery of Filipinos.&mdash;General Frederick
+Funston Captures Aguinaldo.&mdash;Aguinaldo Swears Allegiance to the United
+States.&mdash;The Constitution and the Philippines.&mdash;United States Supreme
+Court Decisions.&mdash;Tariff.&mdash;Anti-Imperialism.&mdash;Second
+Commission.&mdash;Civil Government Inaugurated.&mdash;Educational Reforms.<br/><br/>
+</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">
+<a href="#chap16">CHAPTER XVI. POLITICS AT THE TURNING OF THE CENTURY.</a><br/>
+Candidates for President in 1900.&mdash;McKinley Renominated.&mdash;Bryan
+Nominated.&mdash;Gold Democrats.&mdash;Fusion.&mdash;Populists.&mdash;Silver
+Republicans.&mdash;Anti-Imperialism.&mdash;Tariff for Colonies.&mdash;Porto
+Rico Tariff.&mdash;President McKinley&rsquo;s Opposition to
+Bill.&mdash;Campaign Issues.&mdash;Boer War.&mdash;Trusts.&mdash;Democratic
+Defeat.&mdash;Coal Strike.&mdash;Reasons for Democratic Defeat.&mdash;Mr. Bryan
+Insists on Silver Issue.&mdash;Monetary System on a Gold Basis.&mdash;Result of
+Election.<br/><br/>
+</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">
+<a href="#chap17">CHAPTER XVII. THE TWELFTH CENSUS</a><br/>
+Permanent Census Bureau.&mdash;Alaska Census.&mdash;Method of Taking
+Census.&mdash;Two Thousand Employees.&mdash;Population of United
+States.&mdash;Nevada Loses in Population.&mdash;Urban Increase.&mdash;Greater
+New York.&mdash;Cities of More than a Million Inhabitants.&mdash;Loss in Rural
+Population.&mdash;Centre of Population.&mdash;Proportion of Males to
+Females.&mdash;Foreign Born Population.&mdash;Character of
+Immigration.&mdash;Chinese.&mdash;Congressional
+Apportionment.&mdash;Farms.&mdash;Crops.&mdash;Manufacturing Capital
+Invested.&mdash;Foreign Commerce.&mdash;Revenues.&mdash;War Taxes
+Repealed.&mdash;National Debt.<br/><br/>
+</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">
+<a href="#chap18">CHAPTER XVIII. THE PAN-AMERICAN EXPOSITION, 1901</a><br/>
+The Opening.&mdash;Triumphal Bridge.&mdash;Electric Tower.&mdash;Temple of
+Music.&mdash;Architecture.&mdash;Coloring of the &ldquo;Rainbow
+City.&rdquo;&mdash;Symbolism of Coloring.&mdash;Sculpture.&mdash;Electrical
+Illumination.&mdash;The Chaining of Niagara.&mdash;The Midway.&mdash;The
+Athletic Congress.&mdash;Conservatory.&mdash;The Spanish-American Countries
+Represented.&mdash;United States Government Building.<br/><br/>
+</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">
+<a href="#chap19">CHAPTER XIX. MR. McKINLEY&rsquo;S END</a><br/>
+President McKinley&rsquo;s Address at the Pan-American Exposition.&mdash;The
+President Shot.&mdash;His Illness and Death.&mdash;The Funeral
+Ceremony.&mdash;In Washington.&mdash;At Canton.&mdash;Commemorative
+Services.&mdash;Mr. McKinley&rsquo;s Career.&mdash;Political
+Insight.&mdash;Americanism.&mdash;His Administration as President.&mdash;Leon
+Czolgosz, the Murderer of President
+McKinley.&mdash;Anarchists.&mdash;Anti-Anarchist Law.&mdash;Vice-President
+Theodore Roosevelt Succeeds to the&mdash;Presidency.
+</p>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
+
+<table summary="" style="">
+
+<tr>
+<td> PRESIDENT WILLIAM MCKINLEY. (From a copyright photograph, 1899, by Pach Bros., New York).</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> A NEW YORK POLLING PLACE, SHOWING BOOTHS ON THE LEFT.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> BENJAMIN R. TILLMAN.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> GROVER CLEVELAND. (Photograph copyrighted by C. M. Bell).</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> W. Q. GRESHAM.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> LEVI P. MORTON.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> BENJAMIN HARRISON.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> LORD L. S. SACKVILLE-WEST.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> JOSEPH B. FORAKER.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> &ldquo;THE CHINESE MUST GO!&rdquo; DENIS KEARNEY ADDRESSING THE WORKINGMEN ON THE NIGHT OF OCTOBER 29, ON NOB HILL, SAN FRANCISCO.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> THOMAS B. REED.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> DAVID C. HENNESSY.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> AN EPISODE OF THE LYNCHING OF THE ITALIANS IN NEW ORLEANS.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> THE CITIZENS BREAKING DOWN THE DOOR OF THE PARISH PRISON WITH THE BEAM BROUGHT THERE THE NIGHT BEFORE FOR THAT PURPOSE.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> OLD PARISH JAIL, NEW ORLEANS, LA.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> CANAL STREET, NEW ORLEANS, LA.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> A. G. THURMAN.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> CHILIAN STEAMER ITATA IN SAN DIEGO HARBOR.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> PRESIDENT HARRISON BEING ROWED ASHORE AT FOOT OF WALL STEEET, NEW YORK, APRIL 29, 1889.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> WASHINGTON INAUGURAL CELEBRATION, 1889, NEW YORK.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> PARADE PASSING UNION SQUARE ON BROADWAY.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> UNVEILING OF THE EQUESTRIAN STATUE OF ROBERT E. LEE, MAY 29, 1890.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> HENRY W. GRADY.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> FRANCIS T. NICHOLLS.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> THE BUILDING OF A WESTERN TOWN, GUTHRIE, OKLAHOMA: A GENERAL VIEW OF THE TOWN ON APRIL 24, 1889, THE SECOND DAY AFTER THE OPENING. A VIEW ALONG OKLAHOMA A VENUE ON MAY 10, 1889. OKLAHOMA AVENUE AS IT APPEARED ON MAY 10, 1893, DURING GOVERNOR NOBLE&rsquo;S VISIT.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> MAIN STREET, JOHNSTOWN, AFTER THE FLOOD.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> BURNING OF BARGES DURING HOMESTEAD STRIKE.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> THE CARNEGIE STEEL WORKS. SHOWING THE SHIELD USED BY THE STRIKERS WHEN FIRING THE CANNON AND WATCHING THE PINKERTON MEN&mdash;HOMESTEAD STRIKE.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> INCITING MINERS TO ATTACK FORT ANDERSON.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> THE GROVE BETWEEN BRICEVILLE AND COAL CREEK.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> STATE TROOPS AND MINERS AT BRICEVILLE, TENN.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> THE MORMON TEMPLE AT SALT LAKE CITY.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> COLUMBIAN CELEBRATION, NEW YORK, APRIL 28, 1893. PARADE PASSING FIFTH AVENUE HOTEL.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> PINTA, SANTA MARIA, NINA&mdash;LYING IN THE NORTH RIVER, NEW YORK&mdash;THE CARAVELS WHICH CROSSED FROM SPAIN TO BE PRESENT AT THE WORLD&rsquo;S FAIR AT CHICAGO.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> THE MANUFACTURES AND LIBERAL ARTS BUILDING, SEEN FROM THE SOUTHWEST.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> HORTICULTURAL BUILDING, WITH ILLINOIS BUILDING IN THE BACKGROUND.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> A VIEW TOWARD THE PERISTYLE FROM MACHINERY HALL.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> THE ADMINISTRATION BUILDING, SEEN FROM THE AGRICULTURAL BUILDING.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> MIDWAY PLAISANCE, WORLD&rsquo;S FAIR, CHICAGO.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> THE BURNING OF THE WHITE CITY: ELECTRICITY BUILDING&mdash;MINES AND MINING BUILDING.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> THE NEW YORK LIFE INSURANCE BUILDING IN CHICAGO. (Showing the construction of outer walls).</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> INTERIOR OF THE POWER HOUSE AT NIAGARA FALLS.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> THOMAS ALVA EDISON. (Copyright-photograph by W. A. Dickson).</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> NIKOLA TESLA.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> BICYCLE PARADE, NEW YORK, FANCY COSTUME DIVISION.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> HATCHERY ROOM OF THE FISH COMMISSION BUILDING AT WASHINGTON, D. C., SHOWING THE HATCHERY JARS IN OPERATION.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> WILLIAM BOOTH. (From a photograph by Rockwood, New York).</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> GROVER CLEVELAND. (From a photograph by Alexander Black).</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> WILLIAM L. WILSON.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> PRINCESS (AFTERWARDS QUEEN) LILIUOKALANI.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> JAMES H. BLOUNT.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> ALBERT S. WILLIS.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> RICHARD OLNEY.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> THE LEXOW INVESTIGATION. THE SCENE IN THE COURT ROOM AFTER CREEDEN&rsquo;S CONFESSION, DECEMBER 15, 1894.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> CHARLES H. PARKHURST. (Copyright photograph by C. C. Langill).</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> WILLIAM L. STRONG.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> COXEY&rsquo;S ARMY ON THE MARCH TO THE CAPITOL STEPS AT WASHINGTON.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> THE TOWN OF PULLMAN.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> GEORGE M. PULLMAN.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> CAMP OF THE U. S. TROOPS ON THE LAKE FRONT, CHICAGO.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> BURNED CARS IN THE C., B. &amp; Q. YARDS AT HAWTHORNE, CHICAGO.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> OVERTURNED BOX CARS AT CROSSING OF RAILROAD TRACKS AT 39TH STREET, CHICAGO.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> HAZEN S. PINGREE.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> GOV. JOHN P. ALTGELD.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> EUGENE V. DEBS.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> THE CHICKAMAUGA NATIONAL MILITARY PARK. GROUP OF MONUMENTS ON KNOLL SOUTHWEST OF SNODGRASS HILL.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> A GROVE OF ORANGES AND PALMETTOES NEAR ORMOND, FLORIDA.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> BOOKER T. WASHINGTON.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> THE ATLANTA EXPOSITION. ENTRANCE TO THE ART BUILDING.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> SENATOR TELLER, OF COLORADO.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> SENATOR CANNON.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> GARRET A. HOBART. VICE-PRESIDENT. (Copyright photograph, 1899, by Pach Bros., New York).</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> THE McKINLEY-HOBART PARADE PASSING THE REVIEWING STAND, NEW YORK, OCTOBER 31, 1896.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> BRYAN SPEAKING FROM THE REAR END OF A TRAIN.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> ARTHUR SEWALL.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> EX-SENATOR PALMER.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> SIMON E. BUCKNER.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> JOHN SHERMAN.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> LYMAN J. GAGE, SECRETARY OF THE TREASURY.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> JOHN D. LONG, SECRETARY OF THE NAVY.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> CORNELIUS N. BLISS, SECRETARY OF THE INTERIOR.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> RUSSELL A. ALGER, SECRETARY OF WAR.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> JAMES WILSON, SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> POSTMASTER-GENERAL GARY. (Copyright photograph by Clinedinst).</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> RUSH OF MINERS TO THE YUKON. THE CITY OF CACHES AT THE SUMMIT OF CHILCOOT PASS.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> NELSON DINGLEY.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> WARSHIPS IN THE HUDSON RIVER CELEBRATING THE DEDICATION OF GRANT&rsquo;S TOMB, APRIL 27, 1897.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> GRANT&rsquo;S TOMB, RIVERSIDE DRIVE, NEW YORK. (Copyright photograph, 1901, by Detroit Photographic Co.).</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> GOVERNOR-GENERAL WEYLER.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> U. S. BATTLESHIP MAINE ENTERING THE HARBOR OF HAVANA, JANUARY, 1898. (Copyright photograph, 1898, by J. C. Hemment).</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> WRECK OF U. S. BATTLESHIP MAINE. (Photograph by J. C. Hernment).</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> BOW OF THE SPANISH CRUISER ALMIRANTE OQUENDO. (Photograph by J. C. Hemment&mdash;copyright, 1898, by W. R. Hearst).</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> THE LANDING AT DAIQUIRI. TRANSPORTS IN THE OFFING.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> CAPTAIN CHARLES E. CLARK.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> AFTERDECK ON THE OREGON, SHOWING TWO 13-INCH, FOUR 8-INCH, AND Two 6-INCH GUNS. (Copyright photograph, 1899, by Strohmeyer &amp; Wyman).</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> BLOCKHOUSE ON SAN JUAN HILL.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> ADMIRAL CERVERA, COMMANDER OF THE SPANISH SQUADRON.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> MAJOR-GENERAL WILLIAM R. SHAFTER.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> TROOPS IN THE TRENCHES, FACING SANTIAGO.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> GENERAL JOSEPH WHEELER.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> VIEW OF SAN JUAN HILL AND BLOCKHOUSE, SHOWING THE CAMP OF THE UNITED STATES FORCES.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> THE COLLIER MERRIMAC SUNK BY HOBSON AT THE MOUTH OF SANTIAGO HARBOR.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> THE SPANISH CRUISER CRISTOBAL COLON. (From a photograph by J. C. Hemment-copyright, 1898, by W. R. Hearst).</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> THE U. S. S. BROOKLYN. (Copyright photograph, 1898, by C, C. Langill, New York).</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> GENERAL NELSON A. MILES.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> ADMIRAL GEORGE DEWEY.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> PROTECTED CRUISER OLYMPIA.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> GENERAL A. R. CHAFFEE.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> GENERAL MERRITT AND GENERAL GREENE TAKING A LOOK AT A SPANISH FIELD-GUN ON THE MALATE FORT.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> ADMIRAL WILLIAM T. SAMPSON.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> ADMIRAL W. S. SCHLEY.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> THE NEW CUBAN POLICE AS ORGANIZED BY EX-CHIEF OF NEW YORK POLICE McCULLAGH.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> SHOWING CONDITION OF STREETS IN SANTIAGO BEFORE STREET CLEANING DEPARTMENT WAS ORGANIZED.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> SANTIAGO STREET CLEANING DEPARTMENT.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> GOVERNOR-GENERAL LEONARD A. WOOD IN THE UNIFORM OF COLONEL OF ROUGH RIDERS.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> GOVERNOR-GENERAL LEONARD A. WOOD TRANSFERRING THE ISLAND OF CUBA TO PRESIDENT TOMASO ESTRADA PALMA, AS A CUBAN REPUBLIC, MAY, 1902. (Copyright stereoscopic photograph, by Underwood &amp; Underwood, New York).</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> THE JOLO TREATY COMMISSION.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> THREE HUNDRED BOYS IN THE PARADE OF JULY 4, 1902, YIGAN, ILOCOS.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> GIRL&rsquo;S NORMAL INSTITUTE, YIGAN, ILOCOS, APRIL, 1902.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> IGORROTE RELIGIOUS DANCE, LEPONTO.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> IGORROTE HEAD HUNTERS, WITH HEAD AXES AND SPEARS.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> NATIVE MOROS&mdash;INTERIOR OF JOLO.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> EMILIO AGUINALDO.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> GENERAL FREDERICK FUNSTON&mdash;GENERAL A. McARTHUR.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> A COMPANY OF INSURRECTOS, NEAR BONGUED, ABIA PROVINCE, JUST PREVIOUS TO SURRENDERING EARLY IN 1901.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> ELEVENTH CAVALRY LANDING AT VIGAN, ILOCOS, APRIL, 1902.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> JULES CAMBON, THE FRENCH AMBASSADOR, ACTING FOR SPAIN, RECEIVING FROM THE HONORABLE JOHN HAY, THE U. S. SECRETARY OF STATE, DRAFTS TO THE AMOUNT OF $20,000,000, IN PAYMENT FOR THE PHILIPPINES. (Copyright photograph, 1899, by Frances B. Johnston).</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> NATIVE TAGALS AT ANGELES, FIFTY-ONE MILES FROM MANILA.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> BRINGING AMMUNITION TO THE FRONT FOR GENERAL OTIS&rsquo;S BRIGADE, NORTH OF MANILA.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> FORT MALATE, CAVlTE.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> THE PASIG RIVER, MANILA.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> THE INAUGURATION OF GOVERNOR TAFT, MANILA, JULY 4, 1901.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> GROUP OF AMERICAN TEACHERS ON THE STEPS OF THE ESCUELA MUNICIPAL, MANILA.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> W. J. BRYAN ACCEPTING THE NOMINATION FOR PRESIDENT AT A JUBILEE MEETING HELD AT INDIANAPOLlS, AUGUST 8, 1900.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> THE REPUBLICAN NATIONAL CONVENTION, HELD IN PHILADELPHIA, JUNE, 1900.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> PARADE OF THE SOUND MONEY LEAGUE, NEW YORK, 1900 PASSING THE REVIEWING STAND.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> MR. MERRIAM, DIRECTOR OF THE CENSUS.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> CENSUS EXAMINATION.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> THE CENSUS OFFICE, WASHINGTON, D. C.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> A CENSUS-TAKER AT WORK.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> ELECTRIC TOWER AND FOUNTAINS [BUFFALO].</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> ETHNOLOGY BUILDING AND UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT BUILDING.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> TEMPLE OF MUSIC BY ELECTRIC LIGHT.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> GROUP OF BUFFALOS&mdash;PAN-AMERICAN EXPOSITION.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> ELECTRIC TOWER AT NIGHT.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> TRIUMPHAL BRIDGE AND ENTRANCE TO THE EXPOSITION, SHOWING ELECTRIC DISPLAY AT NIGHT.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> THE ELECTRICITY BUILDING.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> PRESIDENT McKINLEY AT NIAGARA&mdash;ASCENDING THE STAIRS FROM LUNA ISLAND TO GOAT ISLAND. (Copyright photograph, 1901, by C. E. Dunlap).</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> THE LAST PHOTOGRAPH OF THE LATE PRESIDENT McKINLEY&mdash;TAKEN AS HE WAS ASCENDING THE STEPS OF THE TEMPLE OF MUSIC, SEPTEMBER 6, 1901.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> THE MILBURN RESIDENCE, WHERE PRESIDENT McKINLEY DIED&mdash;BUFFALO, N. Y. (Copyright photograph, 1902, by Underwood &amp; Underwood).</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> ASCENDING THE CAPITOL STEPS AT WASHINGTON, D. C., WHERE THE CASKET LAY IN STATE IN THE ROTUNDA.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> PRESIDENT McKINLEY&rsquo;S REMAINS PASSING THE UNITED STATES TREASURY, WASHINGTON, D. C. (Copyright photograph, 1901, by Underwood &amp; Underwood).</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> THE HOME OF WILLIAM McKINLEY AT CANTON, OHIO. (Copyright photograph, 1901, by Underwood &amp; Underwood).</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td> INTERIOR OF ROOM IN WILCOX HOUSE WHERE THEODORE ROOSEVELT TOOK THE OATH OF PRESIDENCY.</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="period06"></a>PERIOD VI.<br/>
+EXPANSION</h2>
+
+<p class="center">
+1888-1902
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap01"></a>CHAPTER I.<br/>
+DRIFT AND DYE IN LAW-MAKING</h2>
+
+<p>
+Race war at the South following the abolition of slavery, new social
+conditions everywhere, and the archaic nature of many provisions in the
+old laws, induced, as the century drew to a close, a pretty general
+revision of State constitutions. New England clung to instruments
+adopted before the civil war, though in most cases considerably amended.
+New Jersey was equally conservative, as were also Ohio, Indiana,
+Michigan, and Wisconsin. New York adopted in 1894 a new constitution
+which became operative January 1, 1895. Of the old States beyond the
+Mississippi only Kansas, Iowa, Minnesota, and Oregon remained content
+with ante-bellum instruments. Between 1864 and 1866 ten of the southern
+States inaugurated governments which were not recognized by Congress and
+had to be reconstructed. Ten of the eleven reconstruction constitutions
+were in turn overthrown by 1896. In a little over a generation,
+beginning with Minnesota, 1858, fourteen new States entered the Union,
+of which all but West Virginia and Nebraska retained at the end of the
+century their first bases of government. In some of these cases,
+however, copious amendments had rendered the constitutions in effect
+new.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As a rule the new constitutions reserved to the people large powers
+formerly granted to one or more among the three departments of
+government. Most of them placed legislatures under more minute
+restrictions than formerly prevailed. The modern documents were much
+longer than earlier ones, dealing with many subjects previously left to
+statutes. Distrust of legislatures was further shown by shortening the
+length of sessions, making sessions biennial, forbidding the pledging of
+the public credit, inhibiting all private or special legislation, and
+fixing a maximum for the rate of taxation, for State debts, and for
+State expenditures.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+South Dakota, the first State to do so, applied the initiative and
+referendum, each to be set in motion by five per cent. of the voters, to
+general statutory legislation. Wisconsin provided for registering the
+names of legislative lobbyists, with various particulars touching their
+employment. The names of their employers had also to be put down. Many
+new points were ordered observed in the passing of laws, such as
+printing all bills, reading each one thrice, taking the yeas and nays on
+each, requiring an absolute majority to vote yea, the inhibition of
+&ldquo;log-rolling&rdquo; or the joining of two or more subjects under one title,
+and enactments against legislative bribery, lobbying, and &ldquo;riders.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+While the legislature was snubbed there appeared a quite positive
+tendency to concentrate responsibility in the executive, causing the
+powers of governors considerably to increase. The governor now enjoyed a
+longer term, was oftener re-eligible, and could veto items or sections
+of bills. By the later constitutions most of the important executive
+officers were elected directly by the people, and made directly
+responsible neither to governors nor to legislatures.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The newer constitutions and amendments paid great attention to the
+regulation of corporations, providing for commissions to deal with
+railroads, insurance, agriculture, dairy and food products, lands,
+prisons, and charities. They restricted trusts, monopolies, and
+lotteries. Modifications of the old jury system were introduced. Juries
+were made optional in civil cases, and not always obligatory in criminal
+cases. Juries of less than twelve were sometimes allowed, and a
+unanimous vote by a jury was not always required. Growing wealth and the
+consequent multiplication of litigants necessitated an increase in the
+number of judges in most courts. Efforts were made, with some success,
+by combining common law with equity procedure, and in other ways, to
+render lawsuits more simple, expeditious, and inexpensive.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Restrictions were enacted on the hours of labor, the management of
+factories, the alien ownership of land. The old latitude of giving and
+receiving by inheritance was trenched upon by inheritance taxes. The
+curbing of legislatures, the popular election of executives, civil
+service reform, and the creation of a body of administrative
+functionaries with clearly defined duties, betrayed movement toward an
+administrative system.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A stronghold of political corruption was assaulted from 1888 to 1894 by
+a hopeful measure known as the &ldquo;Australian&rdquo; ballot. It took various
+forms in different States yet its essence everywhere was the provision
+enabling every voter to prepare and fold his ballot in a stall by
+himself, with no one to dictate, molest, or observe. Massachusetts, also
+the city of Louisville, Ky., employed this system of voting so early as
+1888. Next year ten States enacted similar laws. In 1890 four more
+followed, and in 1891 fourteen more. By 1898 thirty-nine States, all the
+members of the Union but six, had taken up &ldquo;kangaroo voting,&rdquo; as its
+foes dubbed it. Of these six States five were southern.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/022Pic.jpg" width="454" height="350" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">A New York Polling Place, showing booths on the left.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+An official ballot replaced the privately&mdash;often dishonestly&mdash;prepared
+party ballots formerly hawked about each polling place by political
+workers. The new ballot was a &ldquo;blanket,&rdquo; bearing a list of all the
+candidates for each office to be filled. The arrangement of candidates&rsquo;
+names varied in different States. By one style of ticket it was easy for
+the illiterate or the straight-out party man to mark party candidates.
+Another made voting difficult for the ignorant, but a delight to the
+discriminating.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The new ballot, though certainly an improvement, failed to produce the
+full results expected of it. The connivance of election officials and
+corrupt voters often annulled its virtue by devices growing in variety
+and ingenuity as politicians became acquainted with the reform. Statutes
+and sometimes constitutions therefore went further, making the count of
+ballots public, ordering it carried out near the polling place, and
+allowing municipalities to insure a still more secret vote and an
+instantaneous, unerring tally by the use of voting machines.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In the North and West the tendency of the new fundamental laws was to
+widen the suffrage, rendering it, for males over twenty-one years of
+age, practically universal. Woman suffrage, especially on local and
+educational matters, spread more and more. Wyoming, Colorado, Idaho, and
+Utah women voted upon exactly the same terms as men. In Idaho women sat
+in the legislature. There was much agitation for minority
+representation. Illinois set an example by the experiment of cumulative
+voting in the election of lower house members of the legislature.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Nearly everywhere at the South constitutional reform involved negro
+disfranchisement. The blacks were numerous, but their rule meant ruin.
+It was easy for the whites to keep them in check, as had been done for
+years, by bribery and threats, supplemented, when necessary, by flogging
+and the shotgun, But this gave to the rising generation of white men the
+worst possible sort of a political education. The system was too
+barbarous to continue. What meaning could free institutions have for
+young voters who had never in all their lives seen an election carried
+save by these vicious means! New constitutions which should legally
+eliminate most of the negro vote were the alternative.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In Florida, Alabama, Tennessee, Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi,
+Georgia, North and South Carolina, proof of having paid taxes or
+poll-taxes was (as in some northern and western States) made an
+indispensable prerequisite to voting, either alone or as an alternative
+for an educational qualification. Virginia used this policy until 1882
+and resumed it again in 1902, cutting off such as had not paid or had
+failed to preserve or bring to the polls their receipts. Many States
+surrounded registration and voting with complex enactments. An
+educational qualification, often very elastic, sometimes the voter&rsquo;s
+alternative for a tax-receipt, was resorted to by Alabama, Arkansas,
+Mississippi, Tennessee, and South Carolina. Georgia in 1898 rejected
+such a device. Alabama hesitated, jealous lest illiterate whites should
+lose their votes. But, after the failure of one resolution for a
+convention, this State, too, upon the stipulation that the new
+constitution should disfranchise no white voter and that it should be
+submitted to the people for ratification, not promulgated directly by
+its authors as was done in South Carolina, Louisiana, and later in
+Virginia and Delaware, consented to a revision, which was ratified at
+the polls November, 1901, not escaping censure for its drastic
+thoroughness. Its distinctive feature was the &ldquo;good character clause,&rdquo;
+whereby an appointment board in each county registers &ldquo;all voters under
+the present [previous] law&rdquo; who are veterans or the lawful descendants
+of such, and &ldquo;all who are of good character and understand the duties
+and obligations of citizenship.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In the above line of constitution-framing, whose problem was to steer
+between the Scylla of the Fifteenth Amendment and the Charybdis of negro
+domination, viz., legally abridge the negro vote so as to insure
+Caucasian supremacy at the polls, Mississippi led. The &ldquo;Mississippi
+plan,&rdquo; originating, it is believed, in the brain of Senator James Z.
+George, had for its main features a registry tax and an educational
+qualification, all adjustable to practical exigencies. Each voter must
+pay a poll-tax of at least $2.00 and never to exceed $3.00, producing to
+the election overseers satisfactory evidence of having paid such poll
+and all other legal taxes. He must be registered &ldquo;as provided by law&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;be able to read any section of the constitution of the State, to
+understand the same when read to him, or to give a reasonable
+interpretation thereof.&rdquo; In municipal elections electors were required
+to have &ldquo;such additional qualifications as might be prescribed by law.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+This constitution was attacked as not having been submitted to the
+people for ratification and as violating the Act of Congress readmitting
+Mississippi; but the State Supreme Court sustained it, and was confirmed
+in this by the United States Supreme Court in dealing with the similar
+Louisiana constitution.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As a spur to negro education the Mississippi constitution worked well.
+The Mississippi negroes who got their names on the voting list rose from
+9,036 in 1892 to 16,965 in 1895. This result of the &ldquo;plan&rdquo; did not deter
+South Carolina from adopting it. Dread of negro domination haunted the
+Palmetto State the more in proportion as her white population, led by
+the enterprising Benjamin R. Tillman, who became governor and then
+senator, got control and set aside the &ldquo;Bourbons.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/028Pic.jpg" width="410" height="582" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Benjamin R. Tillman.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+So early as 1882 South Carolina passed a registration act which, amended
+in 1893 and 1894, compelled registration some four months before
+ordinary elections and required registry certificates to be produced at
+the polls. Other laws made the road to the ballot-box a labyrinth
+wherein not only most negroes but some whites were lost. The multiple
+ballot-boxes alone were a Chinese puzzle. This act was attacked as
+repugnant to the State and to the federal constitution. On May 8, 1895,
+Judge Goff of the United States Circuit Court declared it
+unconstitutional and enjoined the State from taking further action under
+it. But in June the Circuit Court of Appeals reversed Judge Goff and
+dissolved the injunction, leaving the way open for a convention.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The convention met on September 10th and adjourned on December 4, 1895.
+By the new constitution the Mississippi plan was to be followed until
+January 1, 1898. Any male citizen could be registered who was able to
+read a section of the constitution or to satisfy the election officers
+that he understood it when read to him. Those thus registered were to
+remain voters for life. After the date named applicants for registry
+must be able both to read and to write any section of the constitution
+or to show tax-receipts for poll-tax and for taxes on at least $300
+worth of property. The property and the intelligence qualification each
+met with strenuous opposition, but it was thought that neither alone
+would serve the purpose.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The Louisiana constitution of 1898, in place of the Mississippi
+&ldquo;understanding&rdquo; clause or the Alabama &ldquo;good character&rdquo; clause, enacted
+the celebrated &ldquo;grandfather&rdquo; clause. The would-be voter must be able to
+read and write English or his native tongue, or own property assessed at
+$300 or more; but any citizen who was a voter on January I, 1867, or his
+son or his grandson, or any person naturalized prior to January 1, 1898,
+if applying for registration before September 1, 1898, might vote,
+notwithstanding both illiteracy and poverty. Separate registration lists
+were provided for whites and blacks, and a longer term of residence
+required in State, county, parish, and precinct before voting than by
+the constitution of 1879.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+North Carolina adopted her suffrage amendment in 1900. It lengthened the
+term of residence before registration and enacted both educational
+qualification and prepayment of poll-tax, only exempting from this tax
+those entitled to vote January 1, 1867. In 1902 Virginia adopted an
+instrument with the &ldquo;understanding&rdquo; cause for use until 1904, hedging
+the
+suffrage after that date by a poll-tax. Application for registration
+must be in the applicant&rsquo;s handwriting, written in the presence of the
+registrar.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+White solidarity yielding with time, there were heard in the Carolinas,
+Alabama, and Louisiana, loud allegations, not always unfounded, that
+this side or that had availed itself of negro votes to make up a deficit
+or turned the enginery of vote suppression against its opponents&rsquo; white
+supporters.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Most States which overthrew negro suffrage seemed glad to think of the
+new regime as involving no perjury, fraud, violence, or
+lese-constitution. Some of Alabama&rsquo;s spokesmen were of a different
+temper, paying scant heed to the federal questions involved. &ldquo;The
+constitution of &rsquo;75,&rdquo; they said, &ldquo;recognized the Fifteenth Amendment,
+which Alabama never adopted, and guaranteed the negro all the rights of
+suffrage the white man enjoys. The new constitution omits that section.
+Under its suffrage provisions the white man will rule for all time in
+Alabama.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The North, once ablaze with zeal for the civil and political rights of
+the southern negro, heard the march of this exultant southern crusade
+with equanimity, with indifference, almost with sympathy. Perfunctory
+efforts were made in Congress to secure investigation of negro
+disfranchisement, but they evoked feeble response.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap02"></a>CHAPTER II.<br/>
+THE PRESIDENTIAL CAMPAIGN OF 1888</h2>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/033Pic.jpg" width="215" height="273" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Grover Cleveland.<br/>
+Photograph copyrighted by C. M. Bell.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+In looking forward to the presidential campaign of 1888 the Democracy
+had no difficulty in selecting its leader or its slogan. The custom,
+almost like law, of renominating a presidential incumbent at the end of
+his first term, pointed to Mr. Cleveland&rsquo;s candidacy, as did the
+considerable success of his administration in quelling factions and in
+silencing enemies. At the same time reform for a lower tariff, with
+which cause he had boldly identified himself, was marked anew as a main
+article of the Democratic creed. The nomination of Allen G. Thurman for
+Vice-President brought to the ticket what its head seemed to
+lack&mdash;popularity among the people of the West&mdash;and did much to hearten
+all such Democrats as insisted upon voting a ticket free from all taint
+of mugwumpery.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/034Pic.jpg" width="206" height="272" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">W. Q. Gresham.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The attitude of the Democratic party being favorable to tariff
+reduction, the Republicans must perforce raise the banner of high
+protection; but public opinion did not forestall the convention in
+naming the Republican standard-bearer. The convention met in Chicago. At
+first John Sherman of Ohio received 229 votes; Walter Q. Gresham of
+Indiana, 111; Chauncey M. Depew of New York, 99; and Russell A. Alger of
+Michigan, 84. Harrison began with 80; Blaine had but 35. After the third
+ballot Depew withdrew his name. On the fourth, New York and Wisconsin
+joined the Harrison forces. A stampede of the convention for Blaine was
+expected, but did not come, being hindered in part by the halting tenor
+of despatches received from the Plumed Knight, then beyond sea. After
+the fifth ballot two cablegrams were received from Blaine, requesting
+his friends to discontinue voting for him. Two ballots more having been
+taken, Allison, who had been receiving a considerable vote, withdrew.
+The eighth ballot nominated Harrison, and the name of Levi P.
+Morton,
+of New York, was at once placed beneath his on the ticket.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/035Pic.jpg" width="191" height="280" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Levi P. Morton.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/036Pic.jpg" width="341" height="432" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Benjamin Harrison.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Mr. Harrison was the grandson of President William Henry Harrison, great
+grandson, therefore, of Governor Benjamin Harrison, of Virginia, the
+ardent revolutionary patriot, signer of the Declaration of Independence.
+An older scion of the family had served as major-general in Cromwell&rsquo;s
+army and been executed for signing the death-warrant of King Charles I.
+The Republican candidate was born on a farm at North Bend, Ohio, August
+20, 1883. The boy&rsquo;s earliest education was acquired in a log
+schoolhouse. He afterward attended Miami University, in Ohio, where he
+graduated at the age of nineteen. The next year he was admitted to the
+bar. In 1854 he married, and opened a law office in Indianapolis. In
+1860 he became Reporter of Decisions to the Indiana Supreme Court. When
+the civil war broke out, obeying the spirit that in his grandfather had
+won at Tippecanoe and the Thames, young Harrison recruited a regiment,
+of which he was soon commissioned colonel. Gallant services under
+Sherman at Resaca and Peach Tree Creek brought him the brevet of
+brigadier. After his return from war, owing to his high character, his
+lineage, his fine war record, his power as a speaker and his popularity
+in a pivotal State, he was a prominent figure in politics, not only in
+Indiana, but more and more nationally. In 1876 he ran for the Indiana
+Governership, but was defeated by a small margin. In 1880 he was
+chairman of the Indiana delegation to the Republican National
+Convention. In 1881 he was elected United States Senator, declining an
+offer of a seat in Garfield&rsquo;s Cabinet. From 1880, when Indiana presented
+his name to the Republican National Convention, General Harrison was, in
+the West, constantly thought of as a presidential possibility. Eclipsed
+by Blaine in 1884, he came forward again in 1888, this time to win.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In the East General Harrison was much underrated. Papers opposing his
+election fondly cartooned him wearing &ldquo;Grandfather&rsquo;s hat,&rdquo; as if family
+connection alone recommended him. It was a great mistake. The grandson
+had all the grandsire&rsquo;s strong qualities and many besides. He was a
+student and a thinker. His character was absolutely irreproachable. His
+information was exact, large, and always ready for use. His speeches had
+ease, order, correctness, and point. With the West he was particularly
+strong, an element of availability which Cleveland lacked. In the Senate
+he had won renown both as a debater and as a sane adviser. As a
+consistent protectionist he favored restriction upon Chinese immigration
+and prohibition against the importation of contract labor. He upheld all
+efforts for reform in the civil service and for strengthening the navy.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In the presidential campaign of 1888 personalities had little place.
+Instead, there was active discussion of party principles and policies.
+The tariff issue was of course prominent. A characteristic piece of
+enginery in the contest was the political club, which now, for the first
+time in our history, became a recognized force. The National Association
+of Democratic Clubs comprised some 3,000 units, numerous auxiliary
+reform and tariff reform clubs being active on the same side. The
+Republican League, corresponding to the Democratic Association, boasted,
+by August, 1887, 6,500 clubs, with a million voters on their rolls.
+Before election day Indiana alone had 1,100 Republican clubs and New
+York 1,400.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+During most of the campaign Democratic success was freely predicted and
+seemed assured. Yet from the first forces were in exercise which
+threatened a contrary result. Federal patronage helped the
+administration less than was expected, while it nerved the opposition.
+The Republicans had a force of earnest and harmonious workers. Of the
+multitude, on the other hand, who in 1884 had aided to achieve victory
+for the Democracy, few, of course, had received the rewards which they
+deemed due them. In vain did officeholders contribute toil and money
+while that disappointed majority were so slow and spiritless in rallying
+to the party&rsquo;s summons, and so many of them even hostile. The zeal of
+honest Democrats was stricken by what Gail Hamilton wittily called &ldquo;the
+upas bloom&rdquo; of civil service reform, which the President still displayed
+upon his lapel. To a large number of ardent civil service reformers who
+had originally voted for Cleveland this decoration now seemed so wilted
+that, more in indignation than in hope, they went over to Harrison.
+The public at large resented the loss which the service had suffered
+through changes in the civil list. Harrison without much of a record
+either to belie or to confirm his words, at least commended and espoused
+the reform.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Democratic blunders thrust the sectional issue needlessly to the fore.
+Mr. Cleveland&rsquo;s willingness to return to their respective States the
+Confederate flags captured by Union regiments in the civil war; his
+fishing trip on Memorial Day; the choice of Mr. Mills, a Texan, to lead
+the tariff fight in Congress; and the prominence of southerners among
+the Democratic campaign orators at the North, were themes of countless
+diatribes.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A clever Republican device, known as &ldquo;the Murchison letter,&rdquo; did a great
+deal to impress thoughtless voters that Mr. Cleveland was &ldquo;un-American.&rdquo;
+The incident was dramatic and farcical to a degree. The Murchison
+letter, which interested the entire country for two or three weeks,
+purported to come from a perplexed Englishman, addressing the British
+Minister at Washington, Lord Sackville-West. It sought counsel of Her
+Majesty&rsquo;s representative, as the &ldquo;fountainhead of knowledge,&rdquo; upon &ldquo;the
+mysterious subject&rdquo; how best to serve England in voting at the
+approaching American election. The seeker after light recounted
+President Cleveland&rsquo;s kindness to England in not enforcing the
+retaliatory act then recently passed by Congress as its ultimatum in the
+fisheries dispute, his soundness on the free trade question, and his
+hostility to the &ldquo;dynamite schools of Ireland.&rdquo; The writer set Mr.
+Harrison down as a painful contrast to the President. He was &ldquo;a
+high-tariff man, a believer on the American side of all questions, and
+undoubtedly, an enemy to British interests generally.&rdquo; But the inquirer
+professes alarm at Cleveland&rsquo;s message on the fishery question which had
+just been sent to Congress, and wound up with the query &ldquo;whether Mr.
+Cleveland&rsquo;s policy is temporary only, and whether he will, as soon as he
+secures another term of four years in the presidency, suspend it for one
+of friendship and free trade.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/042Pic.jpg" width="372" height="512" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Lord L. S. Sackville-West.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The Minister replied:
+</p>
+
+<p>
+&ldquo;Sir:&mdash;I am in receipt of your letter of the 4th inst., and beg to say
+that I fully appreciate the difficulty in which you find yourself in
+casting your vote. You are probably aware that any political party which
+openly favored the mother country at the present moment would lose
+popularity, and that the party in power is fully aware of the fact. The
+party, however, is, I believe, still desirous of maintaining friendly
+relations with Great Britain and still desirous of settling questions
+with Canada which have been, unfortunately, reopened since the
+retraction of the treaty by the Republican majority in the Senate and by
+the President&rsquo;s message to which you allude. All allowances must
+therefore be made for the political situation as regards the
+Presidential election thus created. It is, however, impossible to
+predict the course which President Cleveland may pursue in the matter of
+retaliation should he be elected; but there is every reason to believe
+that, while upholding the position he has taken, he will manifest a
+spirit of conciliation in dealing with the question involved in his
+message. I enclose an article from the New York &lsquo;Times&rsquo; of August 22d,
+and remain, yours faithfully,
+&ldquo;L. S. SACKVILLE-WEST.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+This correspondence, published on October 24th, took instant and
+universal effect. The President at first inclined to ignore the
+incident, but soon yielded to the urgency of his managers, and, to keep
+&ldquo;the Irish vote&rdquo; from slipping away, asked for the minister&rsquo;s recall.
+Great Britain refusing this, the minister&rsquo;s passports were delivered
+him. The act was vain and worse. Without availing to parry the enemy&rsquo;s
+thrust, it incurred not only the resentment of the English Government,
+but the disapproval of the Administration&rsquo;s soberest friends at home.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Influences with which practical politicians were familiar had their
+bearing upon the outcome. In New York State, where occurred the worst
+tug of war, Governor Hill and his friends, while boasting their
+democracy, were widely believed to connive at the trading of Democratic
+votes for Harrison in return for Republican votes for Hill. At any rate,
+New York State was carried for both.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is unfortunately necessary to add that the 1888 election was most
+corrupt. The campaign was estimated to have cost the two parties
+$6,000,000. Assessments on office-holders, as well as other subsidies,
+replenished the Democrats&rsquo; campaign treasury; while the manufacturers of
+the country, who had been pretty close four years before, now regarding
+their interest and even their honor as assailed, generously contributed
+often as the Republican hat went around.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In Indiana, Mr. Harrison&rsquo;s home State, no resource was left untried. The
+National Republican Committee wrote the party managers in that State:
+&ldquo;Divide the floaters into blocks of five, and put a trusted man with
+necessary funds in charge of these five, and make him responsible that
+none get away, and that all vote our ticket.&rdquo; This mandate the workers
+faithfully obeyed.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+So far as argument had weight the election turned mainly upon the tariff
+issue. The Republicans held that protection was on trial for its life.
+Many Democrats cherished the very same view, only they denounced the
+prisoner at the bar as a culprit, not a martyr. They inveighed against
+protection as pure robbery. They accused the tariff of causing Trusts,
+against which several bills had recently been introduced in Congress.
+Democratic extremists proclaimed that Republicans slavishly served the
+rich and fiendishly ground the faces of the poor. Even moderate
+Democrats, who simply urged that protective rates should be reduced,
+more often than otherwise supported their proposals with out and out
+free trade arguments. As to President Cleveland himself no one could
+tell whether or not he was a free trader, but his discussions of the
+tariff read like Cobden Club tracts. The Mills bill, which passed the
+House in the Fiftieth Congress, would have been more a tariff for
+revenue than in any sense protective. Republican orators and organs
+therefore pictured &ldquo;British free trade&rdquo; as the dire, certain sequel of
+the Cleveland policy if carried out, and, whether convinced by the
+argument or startled by the ado of Harrison&rsquo;s supporters, people, to be
+on the safe side, voted to uphold the &ldquo;American System.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/046Pic.jpg" width="210" height="351" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Joseph B. Foraker.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+More than eleven million ballots were cast at the election, yet so
+closely balanced were the parties that a change of 10,000 votes in
+Indiana and New York, both of which went for Harrison would have
+reelected Cleveland. As it was, his popular vote of 5,540,000 exceeded
+by 140,000 that of Harrison, which numbered 5,400,000. Besides bolding
+the Senate the Republicans won a face majority of ten in the House,
+subsequently increased by unseating and seating. They were thus in
+control of all branches of the general government.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap03"></a>CHAPTER III.<br/>
+MR. HARRISON&rsquo;S ADMINISTRATION.</h2>
+
+<p>
+The new President, of course, renounced his predecessor&rsquo;s policy upon
+the tariff, but continued it touching the navy. He advocated steamship
+subsidies, reform in electoral laws, and such amendment to the
+immigration laws as would effectively exclude undesirable foreigners.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A chief effect of the Kearney movement in California, culminating in the
+California constitution of 1879, was intense opposition throughout the
+Pacific States to any further admission of the Chinese. The constitution
+named forbade the employment of Chinese by the State or by any
+corporation doing business therein. This hostility spread eastward, and,
+in spite of interested capitalists and disinterested philanthropists,
+shaped all Subsequent Chinese legislation in Congress. The pacific
+spirit of the Burlingame treaty in 1868, shown also by President Hayes
+in vetoing the Anti-Chinese bill of 1878, died out more and more.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/050Pic.jpg" width="469" height="575" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">&ldquo;The Chinese must go!&rdquo;<br/>
+Denis Kearney addressing the working-men on the night of October 29, on
+Nob Hill, San Francisco.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+A law passed in 1881 provided that Chinese immigration might be
+regulated, limited, or suspended by the United States. A bill
+prohibiting such immigration for twenty years was vetoed by President
+Arthur, but another reducing the period to ten years became law in 1882.
+In 1888 this was amended to prohibit the return of Chinese laborers who
+had been in the United States but had left. In 1892 was passed the Geary
+law re-enacting for ten years more the prohibitions then in force, only
+making them more rigid. Substantially the same enactments were renewed
+in 1902.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Mr. Harrison wished this policy of a closed state put in force against
+Europe as well as against Asia. An act of Congress passed August 2,
+1882, prohibited the landing from any country of any would-be immigrant
+who was a convict, lunatic, idiot, or unable to take care of himself.
+This law, like the supplementary one of March 3, 1887, proved
+inadequate. In 1888 American consuls represented that transatlantic
+steamship companies were employing unscrupulous brokers to procure
+emigrants for America, the brokerage being from three to five dollars
+per head, and that most emigrants were of a class utterly unfitted for
+citizenship.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/052Pic.jpg" width="209" height="260" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Thomas B. Reed.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The President&rsquo;s urgency in this matter had little effect, the attention
+of Congress being early diverted to other subjects. Three great measures
+mainly embodied the Republican policy&mdash;the Federal Elections Bill, the
+McKinley Tariff Bill, and the Dependent Pensions Bill.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As Speaker of the House, Hon. Thomas B. Reed, of Maine, put through
+certain parliamentary innovations necessary to enact the party&rsquo;s will.
+He declined to entertain dilatory motions. More important, he ordered
+the clerk to register as &ldquo;present and not voting,&rdquo; those whom he saw
+endeavoring by stubborn silence to break a quorum. A majority being the
+constitutional quorum, theretofore, unless a majority answered to their
+names upon roll-call, no majority appeared of record, although the
+sergeant-at-arms was empowered to compel the presence of every member.
+As the traditional safeguard of minorities and as a compressed airbrake
+on majority action, silence became more powerful than words. Under the
+Reed theory, since adopted, that the House may, through its Speaker,
+determine in its own way the presence of a quorum, the Speaker&rsquo;s or the
+clerk&rsquo;s eye was substituted for the voice of any member in demonstrating
+such member&rsquo;s presence.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Many, not all Democrats, opposed the Reed policy as arbitrary. Mr.
+Evarts is said to have remarked, &ldquo;Reed, you seem to think a deliberative
+body like a woman; if it deliberates, it is lost.&rdquo; On the &ldquo;yeas and
+nays&rdquo; or at any roll-call some would dodge out of sight, others break
+for the doors only to find them closed. A Texas member kicked down a
+door to make good his escape. Yet, having calculated the scope of his
+authority, Mr. Reed coolly continued to count and declare quorums
+whenever such were present. The Democratic majority of 1893 transferred
+this newly discovered prerogative of the Speaker, where possible, to
+tellers. Now and then they employed it as artillery to fire at Mr. Reed
+himself, but he each time received the shot with smiles.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The cause for which the counting of quorums was invoked made it doubly
+odious to Democratic members. To restore the suffrage to southern
+negroes the Republicans proposed federal supervision of federal
+elections. This suggestion of a &ldquo;Force Bill&rdquo; rekindled sectional
+bitterness. One State refused to be represented at the World&rsquo;s Columbian
+Exposition of 1893, a United States marshal was murdered in Florida, a
+Grand Army Post was mobbed at Whitesville, Ky. Parts of the South
+proposed a boycott on northern goods. Many at the North favored white
+domination in the South rather than a return of the carpet-bag regime,
+regarding the situation a just retribution for Republicans&rsquo; highhanded
+procedure in enfranchising black ignorance. Sober Republicans foresaw
+that a force law would not break up the solid South, but perpetuate it.
+The House, however, passed the bill. In the Senate it was killed only by
+&ldquo;filibuster&rdquo; tactics, free silver Republican members joining members
+from the South to prevent the adoption of cloture.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A Treasury surplus of about $97,000,000 (in October, 1888) tempted the
+Fifty-first Congress to expenditures then deemed vast, though often
+surpassed since. The Fifty-first became known as the &ldquo;Billion Dollar
+Congress.&rdquo; What drew most heavily upon the national strong-box was the
+Dependent Pensions Act. In this culminated a course of legislation
+repeating with similar results that which began early in the history of
+our country, occasioning the adage that &ldquo;The Revolutionary claimant
+never dies.&rdquo; By 1820 the experiment entailed an expenditure of a little
+over twenty-five cents per capita of our population.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In 1880 Congress was induced to endow each pensioner with a back pension
+equal to what his pension would have been had he applied on the date of
+receiving his injury. Under the old law pension outlay had been at high
+tide in 1871, standing then at $34,443,894. Seven years later it shrank
+to $27,137,019. In 1883 it exceeded $66,000,000; in 1889 it approached
+$88,000,000. But the act of 1890, similar to one vetoed by President
+Cleveland three years before, carried the pension figure to $106,493,000
+in 1890, to $118,584,000 in 1891, and to about $159,000,000 in 1893. It
+offered pensions to all soldiers and sailors incapacitated for manual
+labor who had served the Union ninety days, or, if they were dead, to
+their widows, children, or dependent parents. 311,567 pension
+certificates were issued during the fiscal year 1891-1892.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+While thus increasing outgo, the Fifty-first Congress planned to
+diminish income, not by lowering tariff rates, as the last
+Administration had recommended, but by pushing them up to or toward the
+prohibitive point. The McKinley Act, passed October 1, 1890, made sugar,
+a lucrative revenue article, free, and gave a bounty to sugar producers
+in this country, together with a discriminating duty of one-tenth of a
+cent per pound on sugar imported hither from countries which paid an
+export bounty thereon.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The &ldquo;Blaine&rdquo; reciprocity feature of this act proved its most popular
+grace. In 1891 we entered into reciprocity agreements with Brazil, with
+the Dominican Republic, and with Spain for Cuba and Porto Rico. In 1892
+we covenanted similarly with the United Kingdom on behalf of the British
+West Indies and British Guiana, and with Nicaragua, Salvador, Honduras,
+Guatemala and Austria-Hungary. How far our trade was thus benefited is
+matter of controversy. Imports from these countries were certainly much
+enlarged. Our exportation of flour to these lands increased a result
+commonly ascribed to reciprocity, though the simultaneous increase in
+the amounts of flour we sent to other countries was a third more rapid.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The international copyright law, meeting favor with the literary, was
+among the most conspicuous enactments of the Fifty-first Congress. An
+international copyright treaty had been entered into in 1886, but it did
+not include the United States. Two years later a bill to the same end
+failed in Congress. At last, on March 3, 1891, President Harrison signed
+an act which provided for United States copyright for any foreign
+author, designer, artist, or dramatist, albeit the two copies of a book,
+photograph, chromo, or lithograph required to be deposited with the
+Librarian of Congress must be printed from type set within the limits of
+the United States or from plates made therefrom, or from negatives or
+drawings on stone made within the limits of the United States or from
+transfers therefrom. Foreign authors, like native or naturalized, could
+renew their United States copyrights, and penalties were prescribed to
+protect these rights from infringement.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Mr. Blaine, the most eminent Republican statesman surviving, was now
+less conspicuous than McKinley, Lodge, and Reed, with whom, by his
+opposition to extreme protection and to the Force Bill, he stood at
+sharp variance. As Secretary of State, however, to which post President
+Harrison had perforce assigned him, he still drew public attention,
+having to deal with several awkward international complications.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/059Pic.jpg" width="195" height="300" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">David C. Hennessy.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The city of New Orleans, often tempted to appeal from bad law to
+anarchy, was in the spring of 1891 swept off its feet by such a
+temptation. Chief of Police David C. Hennessy was one night ambushed and
+shot to death near his home by members of the Sicilian &ldquo;Mafia,&rdquo; a
+secret, oath-bound body of murderous blackmailers whom he was hunting to
+earth. When at the trial of the culprits the jury, in face of cogent
+evidence, acquitted six and disagreed as to the rest, red fury succeeded
+white amazement. A huge mob encircled the jail, crushed in its
+barricaded doors, and shot or hung the trembling Italians within.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/060Pic.jpg" width="464" height="641" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">An episode of the lynching of the Italians in New Orleans. The citizens
+breaking down the door of the parish prison with the beam brought there
+the night before for that purpose.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/061APic.jpg" width="323" height="208" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Old Parish Jail, New Orleans, La.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/061BPic.jpg" width="331" height="218" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Canal Street, New Orleans La.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Italy forthwith sent her protest to Mr. Blaine, who expressed his horror
+at the deed, and urged Governor Nicholls to see the guilty brought to
+justice. The Italian consul at New Orleans averred that, while the
+victims included bad men, many of the charges against them were without
+foundation; that the violence was foreseen and avoidable; that he had in
+vain besought military protection for the prisoners, and had himself,
+with his secretary, been assaulted and mobbed.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The Marquis di Rudini insisted on indemnity for the murdered men&rsquo;s
+families and on the instant punishment of the assassins. Secretary
+Blaine, not refusing indemnity in this instance, denied the right to
+demand the same, still more the propriety of insisting upon the instant
+punishment of the offenders, since the utmost that could be done at once
+was to institute judicial proceedings, which was the exclusive function
+of the State of Louisiana. The Italian public thought this equivocation,
+mean truckling to the American prejudice against Italians. Baron Fava,
+Italian Minister at Washington, was ordered to &ldquo;affirm the inutility of
+his presence near a government that had no power to guarantee such
+justice as in Italy is administered equally in favor of citizens of all
+nationalities.&rdquo; &ldquo;I do not,&rdquo; replied Mr. Blaine, &ldquo;recognize the right of
+any government to tell the United States what it shall do; we have never
+received orders from any foreign power and shall not begin now. It is to
+me,&rdquo; he said, &ldquo;a matter of indifference what persons in Italy think of
+our institutions. I cannot change them, still less violate them.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/063Pic.jpg" width="414" height="630" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">A. G. Thurman.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Such judicial proceedings as could be had against the lynchers broke
+down completely. The Italian Minister withdrew, but his government
+finally accepted $25,000 indemnity for the murdered men&rsquo;s families.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Friction with Chile arose from the &ldquo;Itata incident.&rdquo; Chile was torn by
+civil war between adherents of President Balmaceda and the
+&ldquo;congressional party.&rdquo; Mr. Egan, American Minister at Santiago, rendered
+himself widely unpopular among Chilians by his espousal of the
+President&rsquo;s cause. The Itata, a cruiser in the congressionalist service,
+was on May 6, 1891, at Egan&rsquo;s request, seized at San Diego, Cal., by the
+federal authorities, on the ground that she was about to carry a cargo
+of arms to the revolutionists. Escaping, she surrendered at her will to
+the United States squadron at Iquique. The congressionalists resented
+our interference; the Balmaceda party were angry that we interfered to
+so little effect. A Valparaiso mob killed two American sailors and hurt
+eighteen more. Chile, however, tendered a satisfactory indemnity.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/064Pic_150.jpg" width="464" height="217" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Chilian steamer Itata in San Diego Harbor.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+In the so-called &ldquo;Barrundia incident&rdquo; occurring in 1890 Americanism
+overshot itself. The Guatemalan refugee, General Barrundia, boarded the
+Pacific Mail steamer Acapulco for Salvador upon assurance that he would
+not be delivered to the authorities of his native land. At San Jose de
+Guatemala the Guatemala authorities sought to arrest him, and United
+States Minister Mizner, Consul-General Hosmer, and Commander Reiter of
+the United States Ship of War Ranger, concurred in advising Captain
+Pitts of the Acapulco that Guatemala had a right to do this. Barrundia
+resisted arrest and was killed. Both Mizner and Reiter were reprimanded
+and removed, Reiter being, however, placed in another command.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Our government&rsquo;s attitude in this matter was untenable. The two
+officials were in fact punished for having acted with admirable judgment
+and done each his exact duty.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+One of President Harrison&rsquo;s earliest diplomatic acts was the treaty of
+1889 with Great Britain and Germany, by which, in conjunction with those
+nations, the United States established a joint protectorate over the
+Samoan Islands. On December 2, 1899, the three powers named agreed to a
+new treaty, by which the United States assumed full sovereignty over
+Tutuila and all the other Samoan islands east of longitude 171 degrees
+west from Greenwich, renouncing in favor of the other signatories all
+rights and claims over the remainder of the group.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In the congressional campaign of 1890 issue was squarely joined upon the
+neo-Republican policy. The billion dollars gone, the Force Bill, and,
+to a less extent, the McKinley tariff, especially its sugar bounty, had
+aroused popular resentment. The election, an unprecedented &ldquo;landslide,&rdquo;
+precipitated a huge Democratic majority into the House of
+Representatives. Every community east of the Pacific slope felt the
+movement. Pennsylvania elected a Democratic governor.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/067Pic.jpg" width="765" height="455" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">President Harrison being rowed ashore at foot of Wall Street,<br/>
+New York, April 29, 1889.</p>
+</div>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap04"></a>CHAPTER IV.<br/>
+NON-POLITICAL EVENTS OF PRESIDENT HARRISON&rsquo;S TERM</h2>
+
+<p>
+President Harrison&rsquo;s quadrennium was a milestone between two
+generations. Memorials on every hand to the heroes of the Civil War
+shocked one with the sense that they and the events they molded were
+already of the past. Logan, Arthur, Sheridan, and Hancock had died. In
+1891 General Sherman and Admiral Porter fell within a day of each other.
+General Joseph E. Johnston, who had been a pall-bearer at the funeral of
+each, rejoined them in a month.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+This presidential term was pivotal in another way. The centennial
+anniversary of Washington&rsquo;s inauguration as President fell on April 30,
+1889. In observance of the occasion President Harrison followed the
+itinerary of one hundred years before, from the Governor&rsquo;s mansion in
+New Jersey to the foot of Wall Street, in New York City, to old St.
+Paul&rsquo;s Church, on Broadway, and to the site where the first Chief
+Magistrate first took the oath of office. Three days devoted to the
+commemorative exercises were a round of naval, military, and industrial
+parades, with music, oratory, pageantry, and festivities. For this
+Centennial Whittier composed an ode. The venerable Rev. S. F. Smith, who
+had written &ldquo;America&rdquo; fifty-seven years before, was also inspired by the
+occasion to pen a Century Hymn, and to add to &ldquo;America&rdquo; the stanza:
+</p>
+
+<p>
+&ldquo;Our joyful hearts to-day,<br/>
+Their grateful tribute pay,<br/>
+    Happy and free,<br/>
+After our toils and fears,<br/>
+After our blood and tears,<br/>
+Strong with our hundred years,<br/>
+    O God, to Thee.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/071Pic.jpg" width="750" height="424" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Washington Inaugural Celebration, 1889, New York.<br/>
+Parade passing Union Square on Broadway.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+At the opening of this its second century of existence the nation was
+confronted by entirely new issues. Bitterness between North and South,
+spite of its brief recrudescence during the pendency of the Force Bill,
+was fast dying out. At the unveiling of the noble monument to Robert E.
+Lee at Richmond, in May, 1890, while, of course, Confederate leaders
+were warmly cheered and the Confederate flag was displayed, various
+circumstances made it clear that this zeal was not in derogation of the
+restored Union.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The last outbreaks of sectional animosity related to Jefferson Davis, in
+whom, both to the North and to the South, the ghost of the Lost Cause
+had become curiously personified. The question whether or not he was a
+traitor was for years zealously debated in Congress and outside. The
+general amnesty after the war had excepted Davis. When a bill was before
+Congress giving suitable pensions to Mexican War soldiers and sailors,
+an amendment was carried, amid much bitterness, excluding the
+ex-president of the Confederacy from the benefits thereof. Northerners
+naturally glorified their triumph in the war as a victory for the
+Constitution, nor could they wholly withstand the inclination to
+question the motives of the secession leaders. Southerners, however
+loyal now to the Union, were equally bold in asserting that, since in
+1861 the question of the nature of the Union had not been settled, Mr.
+Davis and the rest might attempt secession, not as foes of the
+Constitution, but as, in their own thought, its most loyal friends and
+defenders.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/074Pic.jpg" width="453" height="645" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Unveiling of the Equestrian Statue of Robert E. Lee, May 29. 1890.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/075Pic.jpg" width="214" height="330" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Henry W. Grady.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+By 1890 the days were passed when denunciation of Davis or of the South
+electrified the North, nor did the South on its part longer waste time
+in impotent resentments or regrets. The brilliant and fervid utterances
+on &ldquo;The New South&rdquo; by editor Henry W. Grady, of the Atlanta
+Constitution, went home to the hearts of Northerners, doing much to
+allay sectional feeling. Grady died, untimely, in 1889, lamented nowhere
+more sincerely than at the North.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+When Federal intervention occurred to put down the notorious Louisiana
+Lottery, the South in its gratitude almost forgot that there had been a
+war. This lottery had been incorporated in 1868 for twenty-five years.
+In 1890 it was estimated to receive a full third of the mail matter
+coming to New Orleans, with a business of $30,000 a day in postal notes
+and money orders. As the monster in 1890, approaching its charter-term,
+bestirred itself for a new lease of life, it found itself barred from
+the mails by Congress.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+And this was, in effect, its banishment from the State and country. It
+could still ply its business through the express companies, provided
+Louisiana would abrogate the constitutional prohibition of lotteries it
+had enacted to take effect in 1893. For a twenty-five year
+re-enfranchisement the impoverished State was offered the princely sum
+of a million and a quarter dollars a year. This tempting bait was
+supplemented by influences brought to bear upon the venal section of the
+press and of the legislature. A proposal for the necessary
+constitutional change was vetoed by Governor Nicholls. Having pushed
+their bill once more through the House, the lottery lobby contended that
+a proposal for a constitutional amendment did not require the governor&rsquo;s
+signature, but only to be submitted to the people, a position which was
+affirmed by the State Supreme Court. A fierce battle followed in the
+State, the &ldquo;anti&rdquo; Democrats of the country parishes, in fusion with
+Farmers&rsquo; Alliance men, fighting the &ldquo;pro&rdquo; Democrats of New Orleans. The
+&ldquo;Antis&rdquo; and the Alliance triumphed. Effort for a constitutional
+amendment was given up, and Governor Foster was permitted to sign an act
+prohibiting, after December 31, 1893, all sale of lottery tickets and
+all lottery drawings or schemes throughout the State of Louisiana. In
+January, 1894, the Lottery Company betook itself to exile on the island
+of Cuanaja, in the Bay of Honduras, a seat which the Honduras Government
+had granted it, together with a monopoly of the lottery business for
+fifty years.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/077pic.jpg" width="211" height="304" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Francis T. Nicholls.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Matters in the West drew attention. The pressure of white population,
+rude and resistless as a glacier, everywhere forcing the barriers of
+Indian reservations, now concentrated upon the part of Indian territory
+known as Oklahoma. This large tract the Seminole Indians had sold to the
+Government, to be exclusively colonized by Indians and freedmen. In
+1888-89, as it had become clearly impossible to shut out white settlers,
+Congress appropriated $4,000,000 to extinguish the trust upon which the
+land was held. By December the newly opened territory boasted 60,000
+denizens, eleven schools, nine churches, and three daily and five weekly
+newspapers. In a few years it was vying for statehood with Arizona and
+New Mexico.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/079PicA.jpg" width="574" height="317" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">A general view of the town on April 24, 1889,<br/>
+the second day after the opening.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/079PicB.jpg" width="576" height="229" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">A view along Oklahoma Avenue on May 10, 1889.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/079PicC.jpg" width="567" height="313" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Oklahoma Avenue as it appeared on May 10, 1893,<br/>
+during Governor Noble&rsquo;s visit.<br/>
+THE BUILDING OF A WESTERN TOWN, GUTHRIE, OKLAHOMA.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+In addition to the prospect of thus losing all their lands, the Indians
+were, in the winter of 1890, famine-stricken through failure of
+Government rations. With little hope of justice or revenge in their own
+strength, the aggrieved savages sought supernatural solace. The
+so-called &ldquo;Messiah Craze&rdquo; seized upon Sioux, Cheyennes, Arapahoes,
+Osages, Missouris, and Seminoles. Ordinarily at feud with one another,
+these tribes all now united in ghost dances, looking for the Great
+Spirit or his Representative to appear with a high hand and an
+outstretched arm to bury the white and their works deep underground,
+when the prairie should once more thunder with the gallop of buffalo and
+wild horses. Southern negroes caught the infection. Even the scattered
+Aztecs of Mexico gathered around the ruins of their ancient temple at
+Cholula and waited a Messiah who should pour floods of lava from
+Popocatapetl, inundating all mortals not of Aztec race.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+While frontiersmen trembled lest massacres should follow these Indian
+orgies, people in the East were shuddering over the particulars of a
+real catastrophe indescribably awful in nature. On a level some two
+hundred and seventy-five feet lower than a certain massive reservoir,
+lay the city of Johnstown, Pa. The last of May, 1889, heavy rains having
+fallen, the reservoir dam burst, letting a veritable mountain of water
+rush down upon the town, destroying houses, factories, bridges, and
+thousands of lives. Relief work, begun at once and liberally supplied
+with money from nearly every city in the Union and from many foreign
+contributors, repaired as far as might be the immediate consequences of
+the disaster.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Along with the Johnstown Flood will be remembered in the annals of
+Pennsylvania the Homestead strike, in 1892, against the Carnegie Steel
+Company, occasioned by a cut in wages. The Amalgamated Steel and Iron
+Workers sought to intercede against the reduction, but were refused
+recognition. Preparing to supplant the disaffected workmen with
+non-union men, a force of Pinkerton detectives was brought up the river
+in armored barges. Fierce fighting ensued. Bullets and cannon-balls
+rained upon the barges, and receptacles full of burning oil were floated
+down stream. The assailants wished to withdraw, repeatedly raising the
+white flag, but it was each time shot down. Eleven strikers were killed;
+of the attacking party from thirty to forty fell, seven dead. When at
+last the Pinkertons were forced to give up their arms and ammunition and
+retire, a bodyguard of strikers sought to shield them, but so violent
+was the rage which they had provoked that, spite of their escort, the
+mob brutally attacked them. Order was restored only when the militia
+appeared.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/083Pic.jpg" width="683" height="471" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Main Street, Johnstown, after the flood.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/085Pic.jpg" width="464" height="250" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Burning of Barges during Homestead Strike.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/086Pic.jpg" width="466" height="413" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">The Carnegie Steel Works. Showing the shield used by the strikers when
+firing the cannon and watching the Pinkerton men. Homestead strike.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+This bloodshed was not wholly in vain. Congress made the private militia
+system, the evil consequences of which were so manifest in these
+tragedies, a subject of investigation, while public sentiment more
+strongly than ever reprobated, on the one hand, violence by strikers or
+strike sympathizers, and, on the other, the employment of armed men, not
+officers of the law, to defend property.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+That, however, other causes than these might endanger the peace was
+shown about the same time at certain Tennessee mines where prevailed the
+bad system of farming out convicts to compete with citizen-miners.
+Business being slack, deserving workmen were put on short time.
+Resenting this, miners at Tracy City, Inman, and Oliver Springs
+summarily removed convicts from the mines, several of these escaping. At
+Coal Creek the rioters were resisted by Colonel Anderson and a small
+force. They raised a flag of truce, answering which in person, Colonel
+Anderson was commanded, on threat of death, to order a surrender. He
+refused. A larger force soon arrived, routed the rioters, and rescued
+the colonel.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/087Pic.jpg" width="471" height="335" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Inciting miners to attack Fort Anderson.<br/>
+The grove between Briceville and Coal Creek.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/088Pic.jpg" width="470" height="359" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">State troops and miners at Briceville, Tenn.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The year 1891 formed a crisis in the history of Mormonism in America.
+For a long time after their settlement in the &ldquo;Great American Desert,&rdquo;
+as it was then called, Mormons repudiated United States authority.
+Gentile pioneers and recreant saints they dealt with summarily, witness
+the Mountain Meadow massacre of 1857, where 120 victims were murdered in
+cold blood after surrendering their arms.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/089Pic.jpg" width="475" height="355" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">The Mormon Temple at Salt Lake City.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Anti-polygamy bills were introduced in Congress in 1855 and 1859. In
+1862 such a bill was made law. Seven years later the enforcement of it
+became possible by the building of a trans-continental railroad and the
+influx of gentiles drawn by the discovery of precious metals in Utah. In
+1874 the Poland Act, and in 1882 the Edmunds Act, introduced reforms.
+Criminal law was now much more efficiently executed against Mormons. In
+1891 the Mormon officials pledged their church&rsquo;s obedience to the laws
+against plural marriages and unlawful cohabitation.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+America was quick and generous in her response to the famine cry that in
+1891 rose from 30,000,000 people in Russia. Over a domain of nearly a
+half million square miles in that land there was no cow or goat for
+milk, nor a horse left strong enough to draw a hearse. Old grain stores
+were exhausted, crops a failure, and land a waste. Typhus, scurvy, and
+smallpox were awfully prevalent. To relieve this misery, our people,
+besides individual gifts, despatched four ship-loads of supplies
+gathered from twenty-five States. In values given New York led,
+Minnesota was a close second, and Nebraska third. America became a
+household word among the Russians even to the remotest interior.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap05"></a>CHAPTER V.<br/>
+THE WORLD&rsquo;S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION</h2>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/091Pic.jpg" width="474" height="372" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Columbian Celebration, New York, April 28, 1893.<br/>
+Parade passing Fifth Avenue Hotel.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The thought of celebrating by a world&rsquo;s fair the third centennial of
+Columbus&rsquo;s immortal deed anticipated the anniversary by several years.
+Congress organized the exposition so early as 1890, fixing Chicago as
+its seat. That city was commodious, central, typically American. A
+National Commission was appointed; also an Executive Committee, a Board
+of Reference and Control, a Chicago Local Board, and a Board of Lady
+Managers.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The task of preparation was herculean. Jackson Park had to be changed
+from a dreary lakeside swamp into a lovely city, with roads, lawns,
+groves and flowers, canals, lagoons and bridges, a dozen palaces, and
+ten score other edifices. An army of workmen, also fire, police,
+ambulance, hospital, and miscellaneous service was organized.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Wednesday, October 21 (Old Style, October 12), 1892, was observed as
+Columbus Day, marking the four hundredth anniversary of Columbus&rsquo;s
+discovery. A reception was held in the Chicago Auditorium, followed by
+dedication of the buildings and grounds at Jackson Park and an award of
+medals to artists and architects. Many cities held corresponding
+observances. New York chose October 12th for the anniversary. On
+April
+26-28, 1893, again, the eastern metropolis was enlivened by grand
+parades honoring Columbus. In the naval display, April 22d, thirty-five
+war ships and more than 10,000 men of divers flags, took part.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/093Pic.jpg" width="471" height="294" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Pinta, Santa Maria, Nina,<br/>
+Lying in the North River, New York.
+The caravels which crossed from Spain
+to be present at the World&rsquo;s Fair at Chicago.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Between Columbus Day and the opening of the Exposition came the
+presidential election of 1892. Ex-President Cleveland had been nominated
+on the first ballot, in spite of the Hill delegation sent from his home
+State to oppose. Harrison, too, had overcome Platt, Hill&rsquo;s Republican
+counterpart in New York, and in Pennsylvania had preferred John
+Wanamaker to Quay. But Harrison was not &ldquo;magnetic&rdquo; like Blaine. With
+what politicians call the &ldquo;boy&rdquo; element of a party, he was especially
+weak. Stalwarts complained that he was ready to profit by their
+services, but abandoned them under fire. The circumstances connected
+with the civil service that so told against Cleveland four years before,
+now hurt Harrison equally. Though no doubt sincerely favoring reform, he
+had, like his predecessor, succumbed to the machine in more than one
+instance.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The campaign was conducted in good humor and without personalities.
+Owing to Australian voting and to a more sensitive public opinion, the
+election was much purer than that of 1888. The Republicans defended
+McKinley protection, boasting of it as sure, among other things, to
+transfer the tin industry from Wales to America. Free sugar was also
+made prominent. Some cleavage was now manifest between East and West
+upon the tariff issue. In the West &ldquo;reciprocity&rdquo; was the Republican
+slogan; in the East, &ldquo;protection.&rdquo; Near the Atlantic, Democrats
+contented themselves with advocacy of &ldquo;freer raw materials&rdquo;; those by
+the Mississippi denounced &ldquo;Republican protection&rdquo; as fraud and robbery.
+If the platform gave color to the charge that Democrats wished &ldquo;British
+free trade,&rdquo; Mr. Cleveland&rsquo;s letter of acceptance was certainly
+conservative.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Populism, emphasizing State aid to industry, particularly in behalf of
+the agricultural class, made great gains in the election. General Weaver
+was its presidential nominee. In Colorado, Idaho, Kansas, and Wyoming
+most Democrats voted for him. Partial fusion of the sort prevailed also
+in North Dakota, Nevada, Minnesota, and Oregon. Weaver carried all these
+States save the two last named. In Louisiana and Alabama Republicans
+fused with Populists. The Tillman movement in South Carolina, nominally
+Democratic, was akin to Populism, but was complicated with the color
+question, and later with novel liquor legislation. It was a revolt of
+the ordinary whites from the traditional dominance of the aristocracy.
+In Alabama a similar movement, led by Reuben F. Kolb, was defeated, as
+he thought, by vicious manipulation of votes in the Black Belt.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Of the total four hundred and forty-four electoral votes Cleveland
+received two hundred and seventy-seven, a plurality of one hundred and
+thirty-two. The Senate now held forty-four Democrats, thirty-seven
+Republicans, and four Populists; the House two hundred and sixteen
+Democrats, one hundred and twenty-five Republicans, and eleven
+Populists.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/096Pic_150.jpg" width="292" height="186" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">The Manufactures and liberal Arts Building, seen from the southwest.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Early on the opening day of the Exposition, May 1, 1893, the Chief
+Magistrate of the nation sat beside Columbus&rsquo;s descendant, the Duke of
+Veragua. Patient multitudes were waiting for the gates of Jackson Park
+to swing. &ldquo;It only remains for you, Mr. President,&rdquo; said the
+Director-General, concluding his address, &ldquo;if in your opinion the
+Exposition here presented is commensurate in dignity with what the world
+should expect of our great country, to direct that it shall be opened to
+the public. When you touch this magic key the ponderous machinery will
+start in its revolutions and the activity of the Exposition will begin.&rdquo;
+After a brief response Mr. Cleveland laid his finger on the key. A
+tumult of applause mingled with the jubilant melody of Handel&rsquo;s
+&ldquo;Hallelujah Chorus.&rdquo; Myriad wheels revolved, waters gushed and sparkled,
+bells pealed and artillery thundered, while flags and gonfalons
+fluttered forth.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The Exposition formed a huge quadrilateral upon the westerly shore of
+Lake Michigan, from whose waters one passed by the North Inlet into the
+North Pond, or by the South Inlet into the South Pond. These united with
+the central Grand Basin in the peerless Court of Honor. The grounds and
+buildings were of surpassing magnitude and splendor. Interesting but
+simple features were the village of States, the Nations&rsquo; tabernacles,
+lying almost under the guns of the facsimile battleship Illinois, and
+the pigmy caravels, Nina, Pinta, and Santa Maria, named and modelled
+after those that bore Columbus to the New World. These, like their
+originals, had fared from Spain across the Atlantic, and then had come
+by the St, Lawrence and the Lakes, without portage, to their moorings at
+Chicago.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/098Pic_150.jpg" width="290" height="191" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Horticultural Building, with Illinois Building in the background.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Near the centre of the ground stood the Government Building, with a
+ready-made look out of keeping with the other architecture. Critics
+declared it the only discordant note in the symphony, Looking from the
+Illinois Building across the North pond, one saw the Art Palace, of pure
+Ionic style, perfectly proportioned, restful to view, contesting with
+the Administration Building for the architectural laurels of the Fair.
+South of the Illinois Building rose the Woman&rsquo;s Building, and next
+Horticultural Hall, with dome high enough to shelter the tallest palms.
+The Manufactures and Liberal Arts Building, of magnificent proportions,
+did not tyrannize over its neighbors, though thrice the size of St.
+Peter&rsquo;s at Rome, and able easily to have sheltered the Vendome Column.
+It was severely classical, with a long perspective of arches, broken
+only at the corners and in the centre by portals fit to immortalize
+Alexander&rsquo;s triumphs.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The artistic jewel of the Exposition was the &ldquo;Court of Honor.&rdquo; Down the
+Grand Basin you saw the noble statue of the Republic, in dazzling gold,
+with the peristyle beyond, a forest of columns surmounted by the
+Columbus quadriga. On the right hand stood the Agricultural Building,
+upon whose summit the &ldquo;Diana&rdquo; of Augustus St. Gaudens had alighted. To
+the left stood the enormous Hall of Manufactures. Looking from the
+peristyle the eye met the Administration Building, a rare
+exemplification of the French school, the dome resembling that of the
+Hotel des lnvalides in Paris.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/101Pic.jpg" width="290" height="190" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">A view toward the Peristyle from Machinery Hall.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+A most unique conception was the Cold Storage Building, where a hundred
+tons at ice were made daily. Save for the entrance, flanked by windows,
+and the fifth floor, designed for an ice skating rink, its walls were
+blank. Four corner towers set off the fifth, which rose from the centre
+sheer to a height of 225 feet.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The cheering coolness of this building was destined not to last. Early
+in the afternoon of July 10th flames burst out from the top of the
+central tower. Delaying his departure until he had provided against
+explosion, the brave engineer barely saved his life. Firemen were soon
+on hand. Sixteen of them forthwith made their way to the balcony near
+the blazing summit. Suddenly their retreat was cut off by a burst of
+fire from the base of the tower. The rope and hose parted and
+precipitated a number who were sliding back to the roof. Others leaped
+from the colossal torch. In an instant, it seemed, the whole pyre was
+swathed in flames. As it toppled, the last wretched form was seen to
+poise and plunge with it into the glowing abyss.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The Fisheries Building received much attention. Its pillars were twined
+with processions of aquatic creatures and surmounted by capitals
+quaintly resembling lobster-pots. Its balustrades were supported by
+small fishy caryatids.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+If wonder fatigued the visitor, he reached sequestered shade and quiet
+upon the Wooded Island, where nearly every variety of American tree and
+shrub might be seen.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The Government&rsquo;s displays were of extreme interest. The War Department
+exhibits showed our superiority in heavy ordnance, likewise that of
+Europe in small arms. A first-class post-office was operated on the
+grounds. A combination postal car, manned by the most expert sorters and
+operators, interested vast crowds. Close by was an ancient mail coach
+once actually captured by the Indians, with effigies of the pony express
+formerly so familiar on the Western plains, of a mail sledge drawn by
+dogs, and of a mail carrier mounted on a bicycle. Models of a quaint
+little Mississippi mail steamer and of the ocean steamer Paris stood
+side by side.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/102Pic.jpg" width="291" height="205" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">The Administration Building, seen from the Agricultural
+Building.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Swarms visited the Midway Plaisance, a long avenue out from the fair
+grounds proper, lined with shows. Here were villages transported from
+the ends of the earth, animal shows, theatres, and bazaars. Cairo Street
+boasted 2,250,000 visitors, and the Hagenbeck Circus over 2,000,000. The
+chief feature was the Ferris Wheel, described in engineering terms as a
+cantilever bridge wrought around two enormous bicycle wheels. The axle,
+supported upon steel pyramids, alone weighed more than a locomotive. In
+cars strung upon its periphery passengers were swung from the ground far
+above the highest buildings.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/103Pic.jpg" width="479" height="344" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Midway Plaisance, World&rsquo;s Fair, Chicago.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Facilitating passenger transportation to and from the Fair remarkable
+railway achievements were made. One train from New York to Chicago
+covered over 48 miles an hour, including stops. In preparation for the
+event the Illinois Central raised its tracks for two and a half miles
+over thirteen city streets, built 300 special cars, and erected many new
+stations. These improvements cost over $2,000,000. The Fair increased
+Illinois Central traffic over 200 per cent.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Save the Art Building, the structures at the Fair were designed to be
+temporary, and they were superfluous when the occasion which called them
+into being had passed. The question of disposing of them was summarily
+solved. One day some boys playing near the Terminal Station saw a
+sinister leer of flame inside. A high wind soon blew a conflagration,
+which enveloped the structures, leaving next day naught but ashes,
+tortured iron work, and here and there an arch, to tell of the regal
+White City that had been.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/105Pic.jpg" width="478" height="337" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Electricity Building. Mines and Mining Building.<br/>
+The Burning of the White City.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The financial backers of the Fair showed no mercenary temper. The
+architects, too, worked with public spirit and zeal which money never
+could have elicited. Notwithstanding the World&rsquo;s Fair was not
+financially a &ldquo;success,&rdquo; this was rather to the credit of its unstinted
+magnificence than to the want of public appreciation. The paid
+admissions were over 21,000,000, a daily average of 120,000. The gross
+attendance exceeded by nearly a million the number at the Paris
+Exposition of 1889 for the corresponding period, though rather more than
+half a million below the total at the French capital. The monthly
+average at Chicago increased from 1,000,000 at first to 7,000,000 in
+October.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The crowd was typical of the best side of American life;
+orderly, good-natured, intelligent, sober. The grounds were clean, and
+there was no ruffianism. Of the $32,988 worth of property reported
+stolen, $31,875 was recovered and restored.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap06"></a>CHAPTER VI.<br/>
+ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL MOVEMENT</h2>
+
+<p>
+The century from 1790 to 1890 saw our people multiplied sixteen times,
+from 3,929,214 at its beginning, to 62,622,250 at its end. The low
+percentage of increase for the last decade, about 20 per cent.,
+disappointed even conservative estimates. The cities not only absorbed
+this increase, but, except in the West, made heavy draughts upon the
+country population. Of each 1,000 people in 1880, 225 were urban; in
+1890, 290. Chicago&rsquo;s million and a tenth was second only to New York&rsquo;s
+million and a half. Philadelphia, Brooklyn, and St. Louis appeared
+respectively as the third, fourth, and fifth in the list of great
+cities. St. Paul, Omaha, and Denver domiciled three or four times as
+many as ten years before. Among Western States only Nevada lagged. The
+State of Washington had quintupled its numbers. The centre of population
+had travelled fifty miles west and nine miles north, being caught by the
+census about twenty miles east of Columbus, Indiana.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/109Pic.jpg" width="409" height="600" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">The New York Life Insurance Building in Chicago.<br/>
+(Showing the construction of outer walls.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The railroads of the country spanned an aggregate of 163,000 miles,
+twice the mileage of 1880. The national wealth was appraised at
+$65,037,091,197, an increase for the decade of $21,395,091,197 in the
+gross. Our per capita wealth was now $1,039, a per capita increase of
+$169. Production in the mining industry had gone up more than half. The
+improved acreage, on the other hand, had increased less than a third,
+the number of farms a little over an eighth.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+School enrollment had advanced from 12 per cent. in 1840 to 23 per cent.
+in 1890. Not far from a third of the people were communicants of the
+various religious bodies. About a tenth were Roman Catholics.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Improvement in iron and steel manufacture revolutionized the
+construction of bridges, vessels, and buildings. The suspension bridge,
+instanced by the stupendous East River bridge between New York and
+Brooklyn, was supplanted by the cantilever type, consisting of trusswork
+beams poised upon piers and meeting each other mid-stream. Iron and
+steel construction also made elevated railways possible. In 1890 the
+elevated roads of New York City alone carried over 500,000 passengers
+daily. Steel lent to the framework of buildings lightness, strength, and
+fire-proof quality, at the same time permitting swift construction.
+Walls came to serve merely as covering, not sustaining the floors, the
+weight of which lay upon iron posts and girders.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+At the time of the Centennial, electricity was used almost exclusively
+for telegraphic communication. By 1893 new inventions, as wonderful as
+Morse&rsquo;s own, had overlaid even that invention. A single wire now
+sufficed to carry several messages at once and in different directions.
+Rapidity of transmission was another miracle. During the electrical
+exposition in New York City, May, 1896, Hon. Chauncey M. Depew dictated
+a message which was sent round the world and back in fifty minutes. It
+read:
+</p>
+
+<p>
+&ldquo;God creates, nature treasures, science utilizes electrical power for
+the grandeur of nations and the peace of the world.&rdquo; These words
+travelled from London to Lisbon, thence to Suez, Aden, Bombay, Madras,
+Singapore, Hong-Kong, Shanghai, Nagasaki, and Tokio, returning by the
+same route to New York, a total distance of over 27,500 miles.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/111Pic.jpg" width="479" height="363" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Interior of the Power House at Niagara Falls.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Self-winding and self-regulating clocks came into vogue, being
+automatically adjusted through the Western Union telegraph lines, so
+that at noon each day the correct time was instantly communicated to
+their hands from the national observatory. Another invaluable use of the
+telegraph was its service to the Weather Bureau, established in 1870. By
+means of simultaneous reports from a tract of territory 3,000 miles long
+by 1,500 wide, this bureau was enabled to make its forecasts
+indispensable to every prudent farmer, traveller, or mariner.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The three great latter-day applications of electrical force were the
+telephone, the electric light, and the electric motor. In 1876, almost
+simultaneously with its discovery by other investigators, Alexander
+Graham Bell exhibited an electric transmitter of the human voice. By the
+addition of the Edison carbon transmitter the same year the novelty was
+assured swift success. In 1893 the Bell Telephone Company owned 307,748
+miles of wire, an amount increased by rival companies&rsquo; property to
+444,750. Estimates gave for that year nearly 14,000 &ldquo;exchanges,&rdquo; 250,000
+subscribers, and 2,000,000 daily conversations. New York and Chicago
+were placed on speaking terms only three or four days before &ldquo;Columbus
+Day.&rdquo; All the chief cities were soon connected by telephone.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+At the Philadelphia Exposition arc electric lamps were the latest
+wonder, and not till two years later did Edison render the incandescent
+lamp available.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The use of electricity for the development of power as well as of light,
+unknown in the Centennial year, was in the Columbian year neither a
+scientific nor a practical novelty. On the contrary, it was fast
+supplanting horses upon street railways, and making city systems nuclei
+for far-stretching suburban and interurban lines. Street railways
+mounted steep hills inaccessible before save by the clumsy system of
+cables. Even steam locomotives upon great railways gave place in some
+instances to motors. Horseless carriages and pedalless bicycles were
+clearly in prospect.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It was found that by the use of copper wiring electric power could be
+carried great distances. A line twenty-five miles long bore from the
+American River Falls, at Folsom, California, to Sacramento, a current
+which the city found ample for traction, light, and power. Niagara Falls
+was harnessed to colossal generators, whose product was transmitted to
+neighboring cities and manufactories. Loss en route was at first
+considerable, but cunning devices lessened it each year.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Thomas Alva Edison and Nikola Tesla were conspicuously identified with
+these astonishing applications of electric energy. Edison, first a
+newsboy, then (like Andrew Carnegie) a telegraph operator, without
+school or book training in physics, rose step by step to the repute of
+working miracles on notification. Tesla, a native of Servia, who
+happened, upon migrating to the United States, to find employment with
+Edison, was totally unlike his master. He was a highly educated
+scientist, herein at a great advantage. He was, in opposition to Edison,
+peculiarly the champion of high tension alternating current
+distribution. He aimed to dispense so far as possible with the
+generation of heat, pressing the ether waves directly into the service
+of man.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/114Pic.jpg" width="473" height="472" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Thomas Alva Edison.<br/>
+Copyright by W. A. Dickson.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/115Pic.jpg" width="199" height="284" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Nikola Tesla.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The bicycle developed incredible popularity in the &rsquo;90&rsquo;s. Through all
+the panic of 1893 bicycle makers prospered. It was estimated in 1896
+that no less than $100,000,000 had been spent in the United States upon
+cycling. A clumsy prototype of the &ldquo;wheel&rdquo; was known in 1868, but the
+first bicycle proper, a wheel breast-high, with cranks and pedals
+connected with a small trailing wheel by a curved backbone and
+surmounted by a saddle, was exhibited at the Centennial. Two years later
+this kind of wheel began to be manufactured in America, and soon, in
+spite of its perils, or perhaps in part because of them, bicycle riding
+was a favorite sport among experts. In 1889 a new type was introduced,
+known as the &ldquo;safety.&rdquo; Its two wheels were of the same size, with saddle
+between them, upon a suitable frame, the pedals propelling the rear
+wheel through a chain and sprocket gearing. An old invention, that of
+inflated or pneumatic tires of rubber, coupled with more hygienic
+saddles, gave great impetus to cycling sport. The fad dwindled, but the
+bicycle remained in general use as a convenience and even as a
+necessity.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/116Pic_150.jpg" width="476" height="265" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Bicycle Parade, New York.<br/>
+Fancy Costume Division.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/117Pic_150.jpg" width="478" height="405" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Hatchery Room of the Fish Commission Building at Washington, D. C.,<br/>
+showing the hatchery jars in operation.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The Fish Commission, created by the Government in 1870, proved an
+important agency in promoting the great industries of fishing and fish
+culture. At the World&rsquo;s Fair it appeared that the fishing business had
+made progress greater than many others which were much more obtrusively
+displayed, though the fishtrap, the fyke net, and the fishing steamer
+had all been introduced within a generation.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In no realm did invention and the application of science mean more for
+the country&rsquo;s weal than in agriculture. Each State had its agricultural
+college and experiment station, mainly supported by United States funds
+provided under the Morrill Acts. Soils, crops, animal breeds, methods of
+tillage, dairying, and breeding were scientifically examined. Forestry
+became a great interest. Intensive agriculture spread. By early
+ploughing and incessant use of cultivators keeping the surface soil a
+mulch, arid tracts were rendered to a great extent independent of both
+rainfall and irrigation. Improved machinery made possible the farming of
+vast areas with few hands. The gig horse hoe rendered weeding work
+almost a pleasure. A good reaper with binder attachment, changing horses
+once, harvested twenty acres a day. The best threshers bagged from 1,000
+to 2,500 bushels daily. One farmer sowed and reaped 200 acres of wheat
+one season without hiring a day&rsquo;s work.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Woman&rsquo;s position at the Fair was prominent and gratifying. How her touch
+lent refinement and taste was observed both in the Woman&rsquo;s Building, the
+first of its kind, and in other departments of the Exposition. Power of
+organization was noticeably exemplified in the Woman&rsquo;s Christian
+Temperance Union. This body originated in the temperance crusade of 1873
+and the following year, when a State Temperance Association was formed
+in Ohio, leading shortly to the rise of a national union.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Related to this movement in elevated moral aims, as well as in the
+prominent part it assigned to women, was the Salvation Army. In 1861
+William Booth, an English Methodist preacher, resigned his charge and
+devoted himself to the redemption of London&rsquo;s grossest proletariat.
+Deeming themselves not wanted in the churches, his converts set up a
+separate and more militant organization. In 1879 the Army invaded
+America, landing at Philadelphia, where, as in the Old Country and in
+other American cities, pitiable sin and wretchedness grovelled in
+obscurity. In 1894 there were in the United States 539 corps and 1,953
+officers, and in the whole world 3,200 corps and 10,788 officers.
+Without proposing any programme of social or political reform, and
+without announcing any manifesto of human rights, the Salvationists
+uplifted hordes of the fallen, while drawing to the lowliest the notice,
+sympathy, and help of the middle classes and the rich. Army discipline
+was rigidly maintained. The soldiers were sworn to wear the uniform, to
+obey their officers, to abstain from drink, tobacco, and worldly
+amusements, to live in simplicity and economy, to earn their living, and
+of their earnings always to give something to advance the
+Kingdom. The
+officers could not marry or become engaged without the consent of the
+Army authorities, for their spouses must be capable of cooperating with
+them. They could receive no presents, not even food, except in cases of
+necessity. An officer must have experienced &ldquo;full salvation&rdquo;&mdash;that is,
+must endeavor to be living free from every known sin. Except as to pay,
+the Army placed women on an absolute equality with men, a policy which
+greatly furthered its usefulness.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/121Pic.jpg" width="212" height="292" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">William Booth.<br/>
+From a photograph by Rockwood, New York.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The peculiar uniform worn by the Salvation soldiers, always sufficing to
+identify them, called attention to a fact never obvious till about
+1890&mdash;the relative uniformity in the costumes of all fairly dressed
+Americans whether men or women. The wide circulation of fashion plates
+and pictorial papers accounted for this. About this time cuts came to be
+a feature even of newspapers, a custom on which the more conservative
+sheets at first frowned, though soon adopting it themselves.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap07"></a>CHAPTER VII.<br/>
+MR. CLEVELAND AGAIN PRESIDENT</h2>
+
+<p>
+In the special session beginning August 7, 1893, a Democratic Congress
+met under a Democratic President for the first time since 1859. The
+results were disappointing. Divided, leaderless, in large part at bitter
+variance with the Administration, the Democrats trooped to their
+overthrow two years later.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+During his second Administration Mr. Cleveland considerably extended the
+merit system in the civil service. Candidates for consulships were
+subjected to (non-competitive) examination. Public opinion commended
+these moves, as it did the President&rsquo;s prompt signing of the
+Anti-Lottery Bill, introduced in Congress when it was learned that the
+expatriated Louisiana Lottery from its seat under Honduras jurisdiction
+was operating in the United States through the express companies. The
+bill prohibiting this abuse was passed at three in the morning on the
+last day of the Congressional session, and received the President&rsquo;s
+signature barely five minutes before the Congress expired.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/123Pic.jpg" width="475" height="501" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Grover Cleveland.<br/>
+From a photograph by Alexander Black.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+At the opening of the Special Session, in August, 1893, the President
+demanded the repeal of that clause in the Sherman law of 1890 requiring
+the Government to make heavy monthly purchases of silver. The suspension
+in India of the free coinage of silver the preceding June had
+precipitated a disastrous monetary panic in the United States. Gold was
+hoarded and exported, vast sums being drained from the Treasury. Credits
+were refused, values shrivelled, business was palsied, labor idle. It
+was this situation which led the President to convoke Congress in
+special session.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Though achieving the repeal on November 1st, after Congressional
+wrangles especially long and bitter in the Senate, President Cleveland,
+pursuing the policy of paying gold for all greenbacks presented at the
+Treasury, was unable, even by the sale of $50,000,000 in bonds, to keep
+the Treasury gold reserve up to the $100,000,000 figure. Both old
+greenbacks and Sherman law greenbacks, being redeemed in gold, reissued
+and again redeemed, were used by exchangers like an endless chain pump
+to pump the Treasury dry. In February, 1895, the reserve stood at the
+low figure of $41,340,181. None knew when the country might be forced to
+a silver basis. In consequence, business revived but slightly, if at
+all, after the repeal.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In its first regular session the same Congress enacted the Wilson
+Tariff. As it passed the House the bill provided for free sugar, wool,
+coal, lumber, and iron ore, besides reducing duties on many other
+articles.
+It also taxed incomes exceeding $4,000 per annum. The Senate, except in
+the case of wool and lumber, abandoned the proposal of free raw
+materials, stiffened the rates named by the House, and preferred
+specific to ad valorem duties. Many believed, without proof, that
+improper influences had helped the Senate to shape its sugar schedule
+favorably to the great refiners. The President pronounced sugar a
+legitimate subject for taxation in spite of the &ldquo;fear, quite likely
+exaggerated,&rdquo; that carrying out this principle might &ldquo;indirectly and
+inordinately encourage a combination of sugar refining interests.&rdquo; In a
+letter read in the House, however, he upbraided as guilty of &ldquo;party
+perfidy and dishonor&rdquo; Democratic Senators who would abandon the
+principle of free raw materials. But nothing shook the senatorial will.
+What was in substance the Senate bill passed Congress, and the President
+permitted it to become a law without his signature.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/126Pic.jpg" width="212" height="346" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">William L. Wilson.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The Wilson law pleased no one. It violated the Democrats&rsquo; plighted word
+apparently at the dictation of parties selfishly interested. The Supreme
+Court declared its income tax unconstitutional. The revenue from it was
+inadequate, and had to be eked out with new bond issues. These were
+alleged to be necessary to meet the greenback debt, but this need not
+have embarrassed the Government had it followed the French policy of
+occasionally paying in silver a small percentage of the demand notes
+presented. Borrowing gold abroad, moreover, tended to inflate prices
+here, stimulating imports, discouraging exports, increasing the
+exportation of gold to settle the unfavorable balance of trade, and so
+on in ceaseless round.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The Democratic management of foreign affairs was severely criticised.
+Our extradition treaty with Russia, a country supposed to pay little or
+no regard to personal rights, and our delay in demanding reparation from
+Spain for firing upon the Allianca, a United States passenger steamer,
+were quite generally condemned. There were those who thought that Cuban
+insurgents against the sovereignty of Spain might have received some
+manifestation of sympathy from our Government, and that we should not
+have permitted Great Britain to endanger the Monroe Doctrine by
+occupying Corinto in Nicaragua to enforce the payment of an indemnity.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The President offended many in dealing as he did with the Hawaiian
+Islands&rsquo; problem. Most did not consider it the duty of this country to
+champion the cause of the native dynasty there, a course likely to
+subserve no enlightened interest. Whites, chiefly Americans, had come to
+own most of the land in the islands, while imported Asiatics and
+Portuguese competed sharply with the natives as laborers. Political
+power, even, was largely exercised by the whites, through whose
+influence the monarchy had been reduced to a constitutional form.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/128Pic.jpg" width="211" height="294" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Princess (afterwards Queen) Liliuokalani.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+In January, 1893, Queen Liliuokalani sought by a coup d&rsquo;état to reinvest
+her royal authority with its old absoluteness and to disfranchise
+non-naturalized whites. The American man-of-war Boston, lying in
+Honolulu harbor, at the request of American residents, landed marines
+for their protection. The American colony now initiated a counter
+revolution, declaring the monarchy abrogated and a provisional
+government established. Minister Stevens at once recognized the
+Provisional Government as de facto sovereign. Under protest the Queen
+yielded.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/129Pic.jpg" width="208" height="323" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">James H. Blount.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The new government formally placed itself under the protectorate of the
+United States, and the Stars and Stripes were hoisted over the
+Government Building. President Harrison disavowed the protectorate,
+though he did not withdraw the troops from Honolulu, regarding them as
+necessary to assure the lives and property of American citizens. Nor did
+he lower the flag. A treaty for the annexation of the islands was soon
+negotiated and submitted to the Senate.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The Cleveland Administration reversed this whole policy with a jolt. The
+treaty withdrawn, Mr. Cleveland despatched to Honolulu Hon. James H.
+Blount as a special commissioner, with &ldquo;paramount authority,&rdquo; which he
+exercised by formally ending the protectorate, hauling down the flag,
+and embarking the garrison of marines. Mr. Blount soon superseded Mr.
+Stevens as minister. Meantime the Provisional Government had organized a
+force of twelve hundred soldiers, got control of the arms and ammunition
+in the islands, enacted drastic sedition laws, and suppressed disloyal
+newspapers.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/130Pic.jpg" width="209" height="338" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Albert S. Willis.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+So complete was its sway, and so relentless did the dethroned Queen
+threaten to be toward her enemies in case she recovered power, that
+Minister Albert S. Willis, on succeeding Mr. Blount, lost heart in the
+contemplated enterprise of restoring the monarchy. He found the
+Provisional Government and its supporters men of &ldquo;high character and
+large commercial interests,&rdquo; while those of the Queen were quite out of
+sympathy with American interests or with good government for the
+islands. A large and influential section of Hawaiian public opinion was
+unanimous for annexation, even Prince Kunniakea, the last of the royal
+line, avowing himself an annexationist with heart, soul, and, if
+necessary, with rifle.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A farcical attempt at insurrection was followed by the arrest of the
+conspirators and of the ex-Queen, who thereupon, for herself and heirs,
+forever renounced the throne, gave allegiance to the Republic,
+counselled her former subjects to do likewise, and besought clemency.
+Her chief confederates were sentenced to death, but this was commuted to
+a heavy fine and long imprisonment. After the retirement of the
+Democracy from power in 1896 the annexation of the islands was promptly
+consummated.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Walter Q. Gresham, Secretary of State in the early part of Cleveland&rsquo;s
+second term, died in May, 1895, being succeeded by Richard Olney,
+transferred from the portfolio of Attorney General. In a day,
+Cleveland&rsquo;s foreign policy, hitherto so inert, became vigorous to the
+verge of rashness. Deeming the Monroe Doctrine endangered by Great
+Britain&rsquo;s apparently arbitrary encroachments on Venezuela in fixing the
+boundary between Venezuela and British Guiana, he insisted that the
+boundary dispute should be settled by arbitration.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/132Pic.jpg" width="211" height="264" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Richard Olney.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The message in which the President took this ground shook the country
+like a declaration of war against Great Britain. American securities
+fell, the gold reserve dwindled. The President was, however, supported.
+Congress was found ready to aid the Administration by passing any
+measures necessary to preserve the national credit. In December, 1895,
+it unanimously authorized the appointment of a commission to decide upon
+the true boundary line between Venezuela and British Guiana, with the
+purpose of giving its report the full sanction and support of the United
+States. The dispute was finally submitted to a distinguished tribunal at
+Paris, ex-President Harrison, among others, appearing on behalf of the
+Venezuelan Republic. While Great Britain&rsquo;s claim was, in a measure,
+vindicated, this proceeding established a new and potent precedent in
+support both of the Monroe Doctrine and of international arbitration.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In 1894 a ten months&rsquo; session of the famous Lexow legislative committee
+in New York City uncovered voluminous evidence of corrupt municipal
+government there. The police force habitually levied tribute for
+protection not only upon legitimate trade and industry, but upon illicit
+liquor-selling, gambling, prostitution, and crime. The chief credit for
+the exposures was due to Rev. Charles H. Parkhurst, President of the New
+York City Society for the Prevention of Crime. A fusion of anti-Tammany
+elements carried the autumn elections of 1894 for a reform ticket
+nominated by a committee of seventy citizens and headed by William L.
+Strong as candidate for mayor. At the next election, however, the
+Tammany candidate, Van Wyck, became the first mayor of the new
+municipality known as Greater New York, in which had been merged as
+boroughs the metropolis itself, Brooklyn, and other near cities. As was
+revealed by the Mazet Committee, little change had occurred in Tammany&rsquo;s
+predatory spirit. In 1901, therefore, through an alliance similar to
+that which elected Mayor Strong, Greater New York chose as its mayor to
+succeed Van Wyck, Seth Low, who resigned the Presidency of Columbia
+University to become Fusion candidate for the position.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/134Pic.jpg" width="458" height="604" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">The Lexow Investigation. The scene in the Court Room after
+Creeden&rsquo;s confession, December 15, 1894.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/135Pic.jpg" width="215" height="315" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Charles H. Parkhurst.<br/>
+Copyright by C. C. Langill.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+A recrudescence of the old Know-Nothing spirit in a party known as the
+&ldquo;A. P. A.,&rdquo; or &ldquo;American Protective Association,&rdquo; marked these years. So
+early as 1875 politicians had noticed the existence of a secret
+anti-Catholic organization, the United American Mechanics, but it had a
+brief career. The A. P. A., organized soon after 1885, drew inspiration
+partly from the hostility of extreme Protestants to the Roman Catholic
+Church, and partly from the aversion felt by many toward the Irish. In
+1894 the A. P. A., though its actual membership was never large,
+pretended to control 2,000,000 votes. Its subterranean methods estranged
+fair-minded people. Still more turned against it when its secret oath
+was exposed. The A. P. A. member promised (1) never to favor or aid the
+nomination, election, or appointment of a Roman Catholic to any
+political office, and (2) never to employ a Roman Catholic in any
+capacity if the services of a Protestant could be obtained. A. P. A.
+public utterances garbled history and disseminated clumsy falsehoods
+touching Catholics, which reacted against the order. The Association
+declined as swiftly as it rose. Chiefly affiliating with the
+Republicans, it received no substantial countenance from any political
+party.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/136Pic.jpg" width="211" height="304" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">William L. Strong.</p>
+</div>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap08"></a>CHAPTER VIII.<br/>
+LABOR AND THE RAILWAYS</h2>
+
+<p>
+In March, 1894, bands of the unemployed in various parts of the West,
+styling themselves &ldquo;Commonweal,&rdquo; or &ldquo;Industrial Armies,&rdquo; started for
+Washington to demand government relief for &ldquo;labor.&rdquo; &ldquo;General&rdquo; Coxey, of
+Ohio, led the van. &ldquo;General&rdquo; Kelly followed from Trans-Mississippi with
+a force at one time numbering 1,250. Smaller itinerant groups joined the
+above as they marched. For supplies the tattered pilgrims taxed the
+sympathies or the fears of people along their routes. Most of them were
+well-meaning, but their destitution prompted some small thefts. Even
+violence occasionally occurred, as in California, where a town marshal
+killed a Commonweal &ldquo;general,&rdquo; and in the State of Washington, where two
+deputy marshals were wounded. The Commonwealers captured a few freight
+trains and forced them into service.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/139Pic.jpg" width="471" height="651" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Coxey&rsquo;s army on the march to the Capitol steps at Washington.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Only Coxey&rsquo;s band reached Washington. On May Day, attempting to present
+their &ldquo;petition-in-boots&rdquo; on the steps of the Capitol, the leaders were
+jailed under local laws against treading on the grass and against
+displaying banners on the Capitol Grounds. On June 10th Coxey was
+released, having meantime been nominated for Congress, and in little
+over a month the remnant of his forces was shipped back toward the
+setting sun.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The same year, 1894, marked a far more widespread and formidable
+disorder, the A. R. U. Railway Strike. The American Railway Union
+claimed a membership of 100,000, and aspired to include all the 850,000
+railroad workmen in North America. It had just emerged with prestige
+from a successful grapple with the Great Northern Railway, settled by
+arbitration.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The union&rsquo;s catholic ambitions led it to admit many employees of the
+Pullman Palace Car Company, between whom and their employers acute
+differences were arising. The company&rsquo;s landlordism of the town of
+Pullman and petty shop abuses stirred up irritation, and when Pullman
+workers were laid off or put upon short time and cut wages, the feeling
+deepened. They pointed out that rents for the houses they lived in were
+not reduced, that the company&rsquo;s dividends the preceding year had been
+fat, and that the accumulation of its undivided surplus was enormous.
+The company, on the other hand, was sensible of a slack demand for cars
+after the brisk business done in connection with World&rsquo;s Fair travel.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/141Pic.jpg" width="472" height="362" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">The town of Pullman.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The Pullman management refused the men&rsquo;s demand for the restoration of
+the wages schedule of June, 1893, but promised to investigate the abuses
+complained of, and engaged that no one serving on the laborer&rsquo;s
+committee of complaint should be prejudiced thereby. Immediately after
+this, however, three of the committee were laid off, and five-sixths of
+the other employees, apparently against the advice of A. R. U. leaders,
+determined upon a strike.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/142Pic.jpg" width="199" height="237" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">George M. Pullman.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Unmoved by solicitations from employees, from the Chicago Civic
+Federation, from Mayor Pingree of Detroit, indorsed by the mayors of
+over fifty other cities, the Pullman Company steadfastly refused to
+arbitrate or to entertain any communication from the union. &ldquo;We have
+nothing to arbitrate&rdquo; was the company&rsquo;s response to each appeal. A
+national convention of the A. R. U. unanimously voted that unless the
+Pullman Company sooner consented to arbitration the union should, on
+June 26th, everywhere cease handling Pullman cars.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/143PicA.jpg" width="479" height="249" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Camp of the U. S. troops on the lake front, Chicago.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/143PicB.jpg" width="477" height="208" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Burned cars in the C., B. &amp; Q. yards at Hawthorne, Chicago.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/143PicC.jpg" width="472" height="240" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Overturned box cars at crossing of railroad tracks at 39th street,
+Chicago.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/145Pic.jpg" width="213" height="349" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Hazen S. Pingree.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+At this turn of affairs the A. R. U. found itself confronted with a new
+antagonist, the Association of General Managers of the twenty-four
+railroads centering in Chicago, controlling an aggregate mileage of over
+40,000, a capitalization of considerably over $2,000,000,000, and a
+total workingmen force of 220,000 or more. The last-named workers had
+their own grievances arising from wage cuts and black-listing by the
+Managers&rsquo; Association. Such of them as were union men were the objects
+of peculiar hostility, which they reciprocated. Thus the Pullman
+boycott, sympathetic in its incipience, swiftly became a gigantic trial
+of issues between the associated railroad corporations and the union.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+For a week law and order were preserved. On July 2d the Federal Court in
+Chicago issued an injunction forbidding A. R. U. men, among other
+things, to &ldquo;induce&rdquo; employees to strike. Next day federal troops
+appeared upon the scene. Thereupon, in contempt of the injunction,
+railroad laborers continued by fair means and foul to be persuaded from
+their work.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Disregarding the union leaders&rsquo; appeal and defying regular soldiers,
+State troops, deputy marshals, and police, rabble mobs fell to
+destroying cars and tracks, burning and looting. The mobs were in large
+part composed of Chicago&rsquo;s semi-criminal proletariat, a mass quite
+distinct from the body of strikers.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The A. R. U. strike approached its climax about the 10th of July.
+Chicago and the Northwest were paralyzed. President Cleveland deemed it
+necessary to issue a riot proclamation. A week later Debs and his
+fellow-leaders were jailed for contempt of court, and soon after their
+following collapsed.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Governor Altgeld, of Illinois, protested against the presence of federal
+troops, denying federal authority to send force except upon his
+gubernatorial request, inasmuch as maintaining order was a purely State
+province, and declaring his official ignorance of disorder warranting
+federal intervention.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/147Pic.jpg" width="208" height="315" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Gov. John P. Altgeld.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Mr. Cleveland answered, appealing to the Constitution, federal laws, and
+the grave nature of the situation. United States power, he said, may and
+must whenever necessary, with or without request from State authorities,
+remove obstruction of the mails, execute process of the federal courts,
+and put down conspiracies against commerce between the States.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+During the Pullman troubles, the judicial department of the United
+States Government, no less prompt or bold than the Executive, extended
+the equity power of injunction a step farther than precedents went.
+After 1887 United States tribunals construed the Interstate Commerce Law
+as authorizing injunctions against abandonment of trains by engineers.
+Early in 1894 a United States Circuit judge inhibited Northern Pacific
+workmen from striking in a body. For contempt of his injunctions during
+the Pullman strike Judge Woods sentenced Debs to six months&rsquo;
+imprisonment and other arch-strikers to three months each under the
+so-called Anti-Trust Law.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/148Pic.jpg" width="212" height="341" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Eugene V. Debs.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+As infringing the right of trial by jury this course of adjudication
+aroused protest even in conservative quarters. Later, opposition to
+&ldquo;government by injunction&rdquo; became a tenet of the more radical Democracy.
+A bill providing for jury trials in instances of contempt not committed
+in the presence of the court commanded support from members of both
+parties in the Fifty-eighth Congress. Federal decisions upheld
+workingmen&rsquo;s right, in the absence of an express contract, to strike at
+will, although emphatically affirming the legitimacy of enjoining
+violent interference with railroads, and of enforcing the injunction by
+punishing for contempt.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Federal injunctions subsequently went farther still, as in the miners&rsquo;
+strike of 1902 during which Judge Jackson of the United States District
+Court for Northern West Virginia, enjoined miners&rsquo; meetings, ordering
+the miners, in effect, to cease agitating or promoting the strike by any
+means whatever, no matter how peaceful. Speech intended to produce
+strikes the judge characterized as the abuse of free speech, properly
+restrainable by courts. Refusing to heed the injunction, several strike
+leaders were sentenced to jail for contempt, periods varying from sixty
+to ninety days.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Late in July, 1894, the President appointed a commission to investigate
+the Pullman strike. The report of this body, alluding to the Managers&rsquo;
+Association as a usurpation of powers not obtainable directly by the
+corporations concerned, recommended governmental control over
+quasi-public corporations, and even hinted at ultimate government
+ownership. They counselled some measure of compulsory arbitration, urged
+that labor unions should become incorporated, so as to be responsible
+bodies, and suggested the licensing of railway employees. The
+Massachusetts State Board of Conciliation and Arbitration was favorably
+mentioned in this report, and became the model for several like boards
+in various States.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The labor question and other problems excluded from public thought a
+change in our dealings with our Indian wards that should not be
+overlooked. Up to 1887 the Indian village communities could, under the
+law, hold land only in common. Individual Indians could not, without
+abandoning their tribes, become citizens of the United States. Such a
+legal status could not but discourage Indians&rsquo; emergence from barbarism.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A better method was hinted at in an old Act of the Massachusetts General
+Court, passed so early as October, 1652.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+&ldquo;It is therefore ordered and enacted by this Court and the authority
+thereof, that what landes any of the Indians, within this jurisdiction,
+have by possession or improvement, by subdueing of the same, they have
+just right thereunto accordinge to that Gen: 1: 28, Chap. 9:1, Psa: 115,
+16.&rdquo; This old legislation further provided that any Indians who became
+civilized might acquire land by allotment in the white settlements on
+the same terms as the English.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In 1887, the so-called &ldquo;General Allotment&rdquo; or &ldquo;Dawes&rdquo; Act, empowered
+the President to allot in severalty a quarter section to each head of an
+Indian family and to each other adult Indian one eighth of a section, as
+well as to provide for orphaned children and minors, the land to be held
+in trust by the United States for twenty-five years. The act further
+constituted any allottee or civilized Indian a citizen of the United
+States, subject to the civil and criminal laws of the place of his
+residence.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The Dawes Act was later so amended as to allot one-eighth of a section
+or more, if the reservation were large enough, to each member of a
+tribe. The amended law also regulated the descent of Indian lands, and
+provided for leases thereof with the approval of the Indian Department.
+This last provision was in instances twisted by white men to their
+advantage and to the Indians&rsquo; loss; but on the whole the new system gave
+eminent satisfaction and promise.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap09"></a>CHAPTER IX.<br/>
+NEWEST DIXIE</h2>
+
+<p>
+The reader of this history is already aware how forces and events after
+the Civil War gradually evolved a New South, unlike the contemporary
+North, and differing still more, if possible, from ante-bellum Dixie. By
+1900 this interesting situation had become quite pronounced. The picture
+here given is but an enlargement of that presented earlier&mdash;few features
+new, but many of them more salient, and the whole effect more
+impressive.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Harmony and good feeling between the capital sections of our country
+continued to manifest itself in striking ways, as by the dedication of a
+Confederate monument at Chicago, the gathering of the Grand Army of the
+Republic at Louisville, Ky., and the cordial fraternizing of Gray and
+Blue at the consecration of the Chickamauga-Chattanooga Military Park,
+on the spot where had occurred, perhaps, the fiercest fighting which
+ever shook United States ground.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/154Pic.jpg" width="478" height="305" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">The Chickamauga National Military Park.<br/>
+Group of monuments on knoll southwest of Snodgrass Hill.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The Atlanta Exposition, opening on September 18, 1895, epitomized the
+Newest South. The touch of an electric button by President Cleveland&rsquo;s
+little daughter, Marian, at his home on Buzzard&rsquo;s Bay, Mass., opened the
+gates and set the machinery awhirl. Atlanta was a city of but 100,000,
+hardly more than 60,000 of them whites, yet her Fair not only excelled
+the Atlanta Exposition of 1881, that at Louisville in 1883, and the New
+Orleans World&rsquo;s Industrial and Cotton Centennial Exposition of 1884-5,
+all which were highly successful, but in many features outdid even the
+Centennial at Philadelphia. The Tennessee Centennial and International
+Exposition at Nashville, in 1897, was another revelation. Its total
+expenditures, fully covered by receipts, were $1,087,227.85; its total
+admissions 1,886,714. On J. W. Thomas Day the attendance was within a
+few of 100,000. The exhibits were ample, and many of them strikingly
+unique. Few, even at the South, believed that the Southern States could
+set forth such displays. The fact that this was possible so soon after a
+devastating war, which had left the section in abject poverty, was a
+speaking compliment to the land and to the energy of those developing
+it.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The progress of most Southern communities was extraordinary.
+Agriculture, still too backward in methods and variety, gradually
+improved, gaining marked impetus and direction from the agricultural
+colleges planted in the several States by the aid of United States funds
+conveyed under the &ldquo;Morrill&rdquo; acts. The abominable system of store credit
+kept the majority of farmers, black and white, in servitude, but was
+giving way, partly to regular bank credit&mdash;a great improvement&mdash;and
+partly to cash transactions.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/156Pic.jpg" width="475" height="395" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">A grove of oranges and palmettoes near Ormond, Florida.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Florida came to the front as a lavish producer of tropical fruits.
+Winter was rarely known there. If it paid a visit now and then the
+State&rsquo;s sugar industry made up for the losses which frost inflicted upon
+her orange crop. The rich South Carolina rice plantations bade fair to
+be left behind by the new rice belt in Louisiana and Texas, a strip
+averaging thirty miles in width and extending from the Mississippi to
+beyond the Brazos, 400 miles. Improved methods of rice farming had
+transformed this region, earlier almost a waste, into one of the most
+productive areas in the country, attracting to it settlers from various
+parts of the North and West, and even from Scandinavia. Dairying, fruit
+and cattle-raising and market-gardening for northern markets, other new
+lines of enterprise, created wealth for multitudes. King Cotton was not
+dethroned to make way for these rivals, but increased his domain each
+decade.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In 1880 the value of farm products at the South exceeded by more than
+$200,000,000 that of the manufactured products there. In 1900 the case
+was nearly reversed: manufactures outvaluing farm products by over
+$190,000,000. During this decade the persons engaged in agriculture at
+the South increased in number 36 per cent., but the wage-earners in
+manufacturing multiplied more than four times as much, viz., 157 per
+cent. Each of these rates at the South was larger than the corresponding
+rate for the country. The same decade the capital which the South had
+invested in manufacturing increased 348 per cent., that of the whole
+United States only 252 per cent. The increase in manufactured products
+value was for the South 220 per cent., for the whole country only 142
+per cent. The increase in farm property value was for the South 92 per
+cent., for the country only 67 per cent. The increase in farm products
+value was for the South 92 per cent.; for the whole United States it was
+greater, viz., 133 per cent.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Land at the South was boundlessly rich in unexploited resources. More
+than half the country&rsquo;s standing timber grew there, much of it hard wood
+and yellow pine. Quantities of phosphate rock, limestone, and gypsum
+were to be dug, also salt, aluminum, mica, topaz, and gold. Especially
+in Texas, petroleum sought release from vast underground reservoirs. The
+farmer did not lack for rain, the manufacturer for water-power, or the
+merchant for water transportation to keep down railroad rates.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The white Southerner, of purest Saxon-Norman blood, had the vigorous and
+comely physique of that race. Nowhere else in the land were the
+generality of white men and women so fine-looking. Easy circumstances
+had enabled them to become gracious as well, with the dignified and
+pleasing manners characterizing Southern society before the Civil War.
+High intelligence was another racial trait. The administration of the
+various Industrial Expositions named in this chapter required and
+evinced business ability of the highest order. During the quarter
+century succeeding reconstruction popular education developed even more
+astonishingly at the South than in the North or the West. Nothing could
+surpass the avidity with which young Southern men and women sought and
+utilized intellectual opportunities.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+With few exceptions Southerners had become intensely loyal to the
+national ideal, faithfully abiding the arbitrament of the war, which
+alone, to their mind&mdash;but at any rate, finally and forever&mdash;overthrew
+the old doctrine that the Union was a compact among States, with liberty
+to each to secede at will.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Straightforwardness and intensity of purpose marked the Southern temper.
+If a county or a city voted &ldquo;dry,&rdquo; practically all the whites aided to
+see the mandate enforced. The liquor traffic was thus regulated more
+stringently and prohibited more widely and effectively at the South than
+in any other part of the country. Even the lynchings occurring from time
+to time in some quarters, while atrocious and frowned upon by the best
+people, seemed due in most cases less to disregard for the spirit of the
+law than to distrust of legal methods and machinery. Indications
+multiplied, moreover, that this damning blot on Southern civilization
+would ere long disappear.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The most aggravating and insoluble perplexity which tormented the
+Southern people lay in dealing with the colored race. Sections of the
+so-called black belts still weltered in unthrift and decay, as in the
+darkest reconstruction days. These belts were three in number. The
+first, about a hundred miles wide, reached from Virginia and the
+Carolinas through the Gulf States to the watershed of the State of
+Mississippi. The second bordered the Mississippi from Tennessee to just
+above New Orleans, and extended up the Red River into Arkansas and
+Texas. A third region of negro preponderance covered fifteen counties of
+southern Texas.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In these tracts and elsewhere white political supremacy was maintained,
+as it had been regained, by the forms of law when possible; if not, then
+in some other way. The wisest negro leaders dismissed, as for the
+present a dream, all thought of political as of social equality between
+whites and blacks. Swarms of the colored, resigned to political
+impotence, were prolific of defective, pauper, and criminal population.
+Education, book-education at least, did not seem to improve them; many
+believed that it positively injured them, producing cunning and vanity
+rather than seriousness. This was perhaps the rule, though there were
+many noble exceptions. In 1892, while the proportion of vicious negroes
+seemed to be increasing in cities and large towns, it was almost to a
+certainty decreasing in rural districts&mdash;improvement due in good part
+to enforced temperance.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A conference on the negro and the South opened at Montgomery May 8,
+1900. Many able and fair-minded men participated, representing various
+attitudes, parties, and sections of the country. Limitation of the
+colored franchise, the proper sort of education for negroes, the evils
+of &ldquo;social equality&rdquo; agitation, and the causes and frequency of lynching
+were the main subjects discussed. The consensus of opinion seemed to be
+that for &ldquo;the negro, on account of his inherent mental and emotional
+instability,&rdquo; acquirement of the franchise should be less easy than for
+whites. It was maintained that the industrially trained colored men
+became leaders among their people, commanding the respect of both races
+and acquiring much property, yet that ex-slaves, rather than the
+younger, educated set, formed the bulk of colored property-holders.
+Figures revealed among the colored population a frightful increase of
+illegitimacy and of flagrant crimes. It seemed that crimes against
+women, almost unknown before the war but now increasing at an alarming
+rate, proceeded not from ex-slaves, but from the smart new generation.
+Lynching for these offences was by some excused in that negroes would
+not assist in bringing colored perpetrators to justice, and in that a
+spectacular mode of punishment affected negroes more deeply than the
+slow process of law, even when this issued in conviction.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The severer
+utterances at this conference may have been more or less biased; still,
+if, allowing for this, one considered the data available for forming a
+judgment, one was forced to feel that calm Southerners had apprehended
+the case better than Northern enthusiasts. Colored people as a class
+lacked devotion to principle, also initiative and endurance, whether
+mental or physical. Colored deputies, of whom there were many in various
+parts of the South, so long as they acted under white chiefs, were, like
+most colored soldiers, marvels of bravery, defying revolvers, bowie
+knives, and wounds, and fighting to the last gasp with no sign of
+flinching; but the black men who could be trusted as sheriffs-in-chief
+were extremely rare.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Whether the faults named were strictly hereditary or resulted rather
+from the long-continued ill education and environment of the race, none
+could certainly tell. As a matter of fact, however, few even among
+friendly critics longer regarded these faults as entirely eliminable. A
+well qualified and wholly unbiased judge of negro character gave it as
+emphatically his opinion that any autonomous community of colored
+people, no matter how highly educated or civilized, would relapse into
+barbarism in the course of two generations. This view was not rendered
+absurd by the existence of fairly well administered municipalities here
+and there with negro mayors.
+</p>
+
+<p>Many negroes were extremely bright and apt
+in imitation, also in all memoriter and linguistic work. The New
+Orleans Cotton Centennial and the Nashville Exposition each had its
+negro department. But it was distinctive of the Atlanta Fair that one of
+its buildings was entirely devoted to exhibits of negro handicraft. At
+once in range and in the quality of the objects which it embraced, the
+display was creditable to the race. Here and there, moreover, the race
+had produced a grand character. The most notable of the opening
+addresses at the Atlanta Fair was made by the colored educator, Booker
+T. Washington, President of the Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute
+for negro youth.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/165Pic.jpg" width="217" height="311" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Booker T. Washington.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+His oration on this occasion directed attention to Mr. Washington not
+only as a remarkable negro, but as a remarkable man. Born poor as could
+be and fighting his way to an education against every conceivable
+obstacle, he had at the age of forty distinguished himself as a business
+organizer, as an educator, as a writer, and as, a public speaker. His
+modesty, discretion, and industry were phenomenal, at once constituting
+him a leader of his race and rendering his leadership valuable. He
+eschewed politics, avoided in everything the demagogue&rsquo;s ways, and never
+spoke ill of the whites, not even of Southern whites.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+But, unfortunately, a great negro such as Washington stood like a
+mountain in a marsh, sporadic and solitary.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/167Pic.jpg" width="472" height="344" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">The Atlanta Exposition.<br/>
+Entrance to the Art Building.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Save in West Virginia, Florida, and the black belts the whites at the
+South increased more swiftly than the blacks. Certain of what Malthus
+called the &ldquo;positive checks&rdquo; upon population&mdash;viz., diseases, mainly
+syphilis, typhoid, and consumption&mdash;decimated the negroes everywhere.
+Colored population drifted from the country to cities, which probably
+accounted for the fact that in 1890 more negroes lived in the North than
+ever before. In the South itself, on the other hand, the movement of
+colored population was southward and westward, from the highlands to the
+lowlands, so that Kentucky, along with western Virginia, northeastern
+Mississippi, and rural parts of Maryland, North Alabama, and eastern
+Virginia, had, in 1890, fewer colored inhabitants than ten years
+previous.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+These confusing data explain why few were rash enough to prophesy the
+fate of the American negro. Such predictions as were heard, were, in the
+main, little hopeful. Colonization abroad was no resource. In 1895 the
+International Immigration Society shipped 300 negroes to Liberia, and in
+1897 the Central Labor Union of New York 311 more, but no movement of
+the kind could be set going. In fact, the one certainty touching the
+American negroes&rsquo; future was that they would remain in the United
+States.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+From 1870 to 1880 the percentage of negroes to the total population had
+increased, but a century had reduced this ratio from 19.3 per cent. to
+12 per cent. The climatic area where black men had any advantage over
+white in the struggle for life was less than eight per cent. of the
+country. White laborers competed more and more sharply. The paternal
+affection of the old slave-holding generation toward negroes was not
+inherited by the makers of the New South.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+There was one hopeful force at work&mdash;Booker Washington at Tuskegee, in
+the very heart of the Alabama black belt. His personality, his example,
+his ideas were inspiring. He bade his race to expect improvement in its
+condition not from any political party nor from Northern benevolence,
+but from its own advance in industry and character. His great and
+successful college at Tuskegee, with an enrolment of 1,231 students in
+1889, gave much impetus to industrial education among the blacks,
+turning in that direction educational interest and energy which had
+previously found vent to too great an extent, relatively, in providing
+negro students with mere literary training. The Slater-Armstrong
+Memorial Trades&rsquo; Building, dedicated January 10, 1890, was erected and
+finished by the students practically alone. At least three-fourths of
+those receiving instruction at this school pursued, after leaving, the
+industries learned there.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The color line had ceased to be sectional. In 1900 mobs in New York City
+and Akron, Ohio, baited black citizens with barbarity little less than
+that of the worst Southern lynchings. Texas courts the same year
+affirmed negroes&rsquo; right to serve as jurymen. After 1900 one noticed in
+several Southern States a tendency to oust negroes from official
+connection even with the Republican party, each State organization
+affecting to be &ldquo;Lily-White.&rdquo; The Administration seemed to favor this
+movement by appointing liberal Democrats at the South to federal
+offices, allying such, in a way, with the Republican cause. This helped
+make President Roosevelt popular at the South, spite of the criticism
+with which the press there greeted his entertainment of Booker T.
+Washington at the White House. When he visited the Exposition at
+Charleston, December, 1901-May, 1902, he was enthusiastically received.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap10"></a>CHAPTER X.<br/>
+THE MEN AND THE ISSUE IN 1896</h2>
+
+<p>
+Early in 1896 it became clear that the dominant issue of the
+presidential campaign would be the resumption by the United States of
+silver-dollar free coinage. Agitation for this, hushed only for a moment
+by the passage of the Bland Act, had been going on ever since
+demonetization in 1873. The fall in prices, which the new output of gold
+had not yet begun to arrest; the money stringency since 1893; the
+insecure, bond-supplied gold reserve, and the repeal of the
+silver-purchase clause in the Sherman Act combined to produce a wish for
+increase in the nation&rsquo;s hard-money supply. Had the climax of fervor
+synchronized with an election day, a free-coinage President might have
+been elected.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Only the Populists were a unit in favoring free coinage. Recent
+Republican and Democratic platforms had been phrased with Delphic genius
+to suit the East and West at once. The best known statesmen of both
+parties had &ldquo;wobbled&rdquo; upon the question. The Republican party contained
+a large element favorable to silver, while the Democratic President, at
+least, had boldly and steadfastly exerted himself to establish the gold
+standard.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/172Pic.jpg" width="211" height="304" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Senator Teller of Colorado.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Realignment of forces begot queer alliances between party foes, lasting
+bitterness between party fellows. Even the Prohibitionists, who held the
+first convention, were riven into &ldquo;narrow-gauge&rdquo; and &ldquo;broad-gauge,&rdquo; the
+latter in a rump convention incorporating a free-coinage plank into
+their creed. If the Republicans kept their ranks closed better than the
+Democrats, this was largely due to the prominence they gave to
+protection, attacked by the Wilson-Gorman Act.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/173Pic.jpg" width="202" height="301" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Senator Cannon.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Their convention sat at St. Louis, June 16th. It was an eminently
+business-like body, even its enthusiasm and applause wearing the air of
+discipline. In making the platform, powerful efforts for a
+catch-as-catch-could declaration upon the silver question succumbed to
+New England&rsquo;s and New York&rsquo;s demand for an unequivocal statement. The
+party &ldquo;opposed the free coinage of silver except by international
+agreement with the leading commercial nations of the world.&rdquo; . . .
+&ldquo;Until such agreement can be obtained, the existing gold standard must
+be preserved.&rdquo; Senator Teller, of Colorado, moved a substitute favoring
+&ldquo;the free, unrestricted, and independent coinage of gold and silver at
+our mints at the ratio of 16 parts of silver to 1 of gold.&rdquo; It was at
+once tabled by a vote of 818-1/2 to 105-1/2. The rest of the platform
+having been adopted, Senator Cannon, of Utah, read a protest against the
+money plank, which recited the evils of falling prices as discouraging
+industry and threatening perpetual servitude of American producers to
+consumers in creditor nations.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Then occurred a dramatic scene, the first important bolt from a
+Republican convention since 1872. &ldquo;Accepting the present fiat of the
+convention as the present purpose of the party,&rdquo; Teller shook hands with
+the chairman, and, tears streaming down his face, left the convention,
+accompanied by Cannon and twenty other delegates, among them two entire
+State delegations. Senators Mantle, of Montana, and Brown, of Utah,
+though remaining, protested against the convention&rsquo;s financial
+utterance.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The Republican platform lauded protection and reciprocity, favored
+annexing the Hawaiian Islands, and the building, ownership, and
+operation of the Nicaragua Canal by the United States. It reasserted the
+Monroe Doctrine &ldquo;in its full extent,&rdquo; expressed sympathy for Cuban
+patriots, and bespoke United States influence and good offices to give
+Cuba peace and independence.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/175Pic.jpg" width="211" height="282" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Garret A. Hobart, Vice-President.<br/>
+Copyright,1899, by Pack Bros., N. Y.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The first ballot, by a majority of over two-thirds, nominated for the
+presidency William McKinley, Jr., of Ohio, the nomination being at once
+made unanimous. Garret A. Hobart, of New Jersey, was nominated for
+Vice-President.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+William McKinley, Jr., was born at Niles, Ohio, January 29, 1843, of
+Scotch-Irish stock. In 1860 he entered Allegheny College, Meadville,
+Pa., but ill health compelled him to leave. He taught school. For a time
+he was a postal clerk at Poland, Ohio. At the outbreak of the Civil War
+he enlisted as a private in Company E, 23d Ohio Infantry, the regiment
+with which William S. Rosecrans, Rutherford B. Hayes, and Stanley
+Matthews were connected. Successive promotions attended his gallant and
+exemplary services. He shared every engagement in which his regiment
+took part, was never absent on sick leave, and had only one short
+furlough. A month before the assassination of President Lincoln McKinley
+was commissioned a major by brevet.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+After the war Major McKinley studied law. He was admitted to the bar in
+1867, settling in Canton, Ohio. In 1876 he made his debut in Congress,
+where he served with credit till 1890, when, owing partly to a
+gerrymander and partly to the unpopular McKinley Bill, he was defeated
+by the narrow margin of 300 votes. As Governor of Ohio and as a public
+speaker visiting every part of the country, McKinley was more and more
+frequently mentioned in connection with the presidency.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The nomination was a happy one. No other could have done so much to
+unite the party. Not only had Mr. McKinley&rsquo;s political career been
+honorable, he had the genius of manly affability, drawing people to him
+instead of antagonizing them. Republicans who could not support the
+platform, in numbers gave fealty to the candidate as a true man, devoted
+to their protective tenets, and a &ldquo;friend of silver.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The Democratic convention sat at Chicago July 7th to 10th. Though
+Administration and Eastern Democratic leaders had long been working to
+stem free coinage sentiment, this seemed rather to increase. By July
+1st, in thirty-three of the fifty States and Territories, Democratic
+platforms had declared for free coinage. The first test of strength in
+the convention overruled the National Committee&rsquo;s choice of David B.
+Hill for temporary chairman, electing Senator Daniel, of Virginia, by
+nearly a two-thirds vote. The silver side was then added to by unseating
+and seating.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Hot fights took place over planks which the minority thought unjust to
+the Administration or revolutionary. The income-tax plank drew the
+heaviest fire, but was nailed to the platform in spite of this. It
+attacked the Supreme Court for reversing precedents in order to declare
+that tax unconstitutional, and suggested the possibility of another
+reversal by the same court &ldquo;as it may hereafter be constituted.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The platform assailed &ldquo;government by injunction as a new and highly
+dangerous form of oppression, by which federal judges in contempt of the
+laws of the States and the rights of citizens become at once
+legislators, judges, and executioners.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Attention having been called to the demonetization of silver in 1873 and
+to the consequent fall of prices and the growing onerousness of debts
+and fixed charges, gold monometallism was indicted as the cause &ldquo;which
+had locked fast the prosperity of an industrial people in the paralysis
+of hard times&rdquo; and brought the United States into financial servitude to
+London. Demand was therefore made for &ldquo;the free and unlimited coinage of
+silver at the present legal ratio of 16 to 1 without waiting for the aid
+or consent of any other nation.&rdquo; Practically the entire management of
+the Treasury under Mr. Cleveland was condemned.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/179Pic.jpg" width="763" height="444" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">The McKinley-Hobart Parade Passing the Reviewing Stand,
+New York, October 31, 1896.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The platform being read, Hill, of New York, Vilas, of Wisconsin, and
+ex-Governor Russell, of Massachusetts, spoke. William J. Bryan, of
+Nebraska, was called upon to reply. In doing so he made the memorable
+&ldquo;cross of gold&rdquo; speech, which more than aught else determined his
+nomination. In a musical but penetrating voice, that chained the
+attention of all listeners, he sketched the growth of the free-silver
+belief and prophesied its triumph. While, shortly before, the Democratic
+cause was desperate, now McKinley, famed for his resemblance to
+Napoleon, and nominated on the anniversary of Waterloo, seemed already
+to hear the waves lashing the lonely shores of St. Helena. The gold
+standard, he said, not any &ldquo;threat&rdquo; of silver, disturbed business. The
+wage-worker, the farmer, and the miner were as truly business men as
+&ldquo;the few financial magnates who in a dark room corner the money of the
+world.&rdquo; &ldquo;We answer the demand for the gold standard by saying, &lsquo;You
+shall not press down upon the brow of labor this crown of thorns. You
+shall not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold!&rsquo;&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/182Pic.jpg" width="341" height="471" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Bryan Speaking from the Rear End of a Train.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Sixteen members of the Resolutions Committee presented a minority report
+criticising majority declarations. As a substitute for the silver plank
+they offered a declaration similar to that of the Republican convention.
+In a further plank they commended the Administration. The substitute
+money plank was lost 301 to 628, and the resolution of endorsement 357
+to 564. No delegates withdrew, but a more formidable bolt than shook the
+Republican convention here expressed itself silently. In the subsequent
+proceedings 162 delegates, including all of New York&rsquo;s 72, 45 of New
+England&rsquo;s 77, 18 of New Jersey&rsquo;s 20, and 19 of Wisconsin&rsquo;s 24 took no
+part whatever.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Before Bryan spoke, a majority of the silver delegates probably favored
+Hon. Richard P. Bland, of Missouri, father of the Bland Act, as the
+presidential candidate, but the first balloting showed a change. Upon
+the fifth ballot Bryan received 500 votes, a number which changes before
+the result was announced increased to the required two-thirds. Arthur
+Sewall, of Maine, was the nominee for Vice-President.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Mr. Bryan, then barely thirty-six, was the youngest man ever nominated
+for the presidency. He was born in Salem, Ill., March 19, 1860. His
+father was a man of note, having served eight years in the Illinois
+Senate, and afterwards upon the circuit bench. Young Bryan passed his
+youth on his father&rsquo;s farm, near Salem, and at Illinois College,
+Jacksonville, where he graduated in 1881 with oratorical honors. Having
+read law in Chicago, and in 1887 been admitted to the bar, he removed to
+Lincoln, Neb., and began practising law.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Mr. Bryan was inclined to politics, and his singular power on the
+platform drew attention to him as an available candidate. In 1890 he was
+elected to Congress as a Democrat. He served two terms, declining a
+third nomination. In 1894 he became editor of the Omaha World-Herald,
+but later resumed the practice of law.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In Nebraska, as in some other Western States, Republicans so outnumbered
+Democrats that Populist aid was indispensable in any State or
+congressional contest. In 1892 it had been eagerly courted on
+Cleveland&rsquo;s behalf. Bryan had helped in consummating fusion between
+Populism and Democracy in Nebraska. This occasioned the unjust charge
+that he was no Democrat. The allegation gained credence when the
+Populist national convention at St. Louis placed him at the head of its
+ticket, refusing at the same time to accept Sewall, choosing instead a
+typical Southern Populist, Thomas Watson, of Georgia.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/185Pic.jpg" width="209" height="308" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Arthur Sewall.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+To Southern Populists Democrats were more execrable than Republicans.
+Westerners of that faith were jealous of Sewall as an Eastern man and
+rich. Too close union with Democracy threatened Populism with
+extinction. Rightly divining that their leaders wished such a &ldquo;merger,&rdquo;
+the Populist rank and file insisted on nominating their candidate for
+the vice-presidency first. Bryan was made head of the ticket next day.
+The silver Republicans acclaimed the whole Democratic ticket, Sewall as
+well as Bryan.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/186Pic.jpg" width="207" height="296" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Ex-Senator Palmer.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The Democratic opponents of the &ldquo;Chicago Democracy&rdquo; determined to place
+in the field a &ldquo;National&rdquo; or &ldquo;Gold&rdquo; Democratic ticket. A convention for
+this purpose met in Indianapolis, September 3d. The Indianapolis
+Democrats lauded the gold standard and a non-governmental currency as
+historic Democratic doctrines, endorsed the Administration, and assailed
+the Chicago income-tax plank. Ex-Senator Palmer, of Illinois, and Simon
+E. Buckner, of Kentucky, were nominated to run upon this platform, Gold
+Democrats who could not in conscience vote for a Republican here found
+their refuge.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Parties were now seriously mixed. Thousands of Western Republicans
+declared for Bryan; as many or more Eastern Democrats for McKinley.
+Party newspapers bolted. In Detroit the Republican Journal supported
+Bryan, the Democratic Free Press came out against him. Not a few from
+both sides &ldquo;took to the woods&rdquo;; while many, to be &ldquo;regular,&rdquo; laid
+inconvenient convictions on the table.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/187Pic.jpg" width="213" height="303" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Simon E. Buckner.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The campaign was fierce beyond parallel. Neither candidate&rsquo;s character
+could be assailed, but the motives governing many of their followers
+were. Catchwords like &ldquo;gold bug&rdquo; and &ldquo;popocrat&rdquo; flew back and forth. The
+question-begging phrase &ldquo;sound money&rdquo;&mdash;both parties professed to wish
+&ldquo;sound money&rdquo;&mdash;did effective partisan service. Neither party&rsquo;s deepest
+principles were much discussed. Many gold people assumed as beyond
+controversy that free coinage would drive gold from the country and
+wreck public credit. Advocates of silver too little heeded the
+consequences which the mere fear of those evils must entail, impatiently
+classing such as mentioned them among bond-servants to the money power.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+So great was the fear of free silver in financial circles, corporations
+voted money to the huge Republican campaign fund. The opposition could
+tap no such mine. Never before had a national campaign seen the
+Democratic party so abandoned by Democrats of wealth, or with so slender
+a purse.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Nor was this the worst. Had Mr. Bryan been able through the campaign to
+maintain the passionate eloquence of his Chicago speech, or the lucid
+logic of that with which at Madison Square Garden he opened the
+campaign, he would still not have succeeded in sustaining &ldquo;more hard
+money&rdquo; ardor at its mid-summer pitch. His eloquence, indeed, in good
+degree continued, but the level of his argument sank. Instead of
+championing the cause of producers, whether rich or poor, against mere
+money-changers, which he might have done with telling effect, he more
+and more fell to the tone of one speaking simply against all the rich,
+an attitude which repelled multitudes who possessed neither wealth nor
+much sympathy for the wealthy.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Save for one short trip to Cleveland the Republican candidate did not,
+during the campaign, leave Canton, though from his doorstep he spoke to
+visiting hordes. His opponent, in the course of the most remarkable
+campaigning tour ever made by a candidate, preached free coinage to
+millions. The immense number of his addresses; their effectiveness,
+notwithstanding the slender preparation possible for most of them
+severally; the abstract nature of his subject when argued on its merits,
+as it usually was by him; and the strain of his incessant journeys
+evinced a power in the man which was the amazement of everyone.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Spite of all this, as election day drew near, the feeling rose that it
+post-dated by at least two months all possibility of a Democratic
+victory. Republicans&rsquo; limitless resources, steady discipline, and
+ceaseless work told day by day. They polled, of the popular vote,
+7,104,244; the combined Bryan forces, 6,506,853; the Gold Democracy,
+134,652; the Prohibitionists, 144,606; and the Socialists, 36,416.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap11"></a>CHAPTER XI.<br/>
+MR. McKINLEY&rsquo;S ADMINISTRATION</h2>
+
+<p>
+The Nestor of the original McKinley Cabinet was John Sherman, who left
+his Senate seat to the swiftly rising Hanna that he himself might devote
+his eminent but failing powers to the Secretaryship of State. Upon the
+outbreak of the Spanish War he was succeeded by William R. Day, who had
+been Assistant Secretary. In 1898 Day in turn resigned, when Ambassador
+John Hay was called to the place from the Court of St. James. The
+Treasury went to Lyman J. Gage, a distinguished Illinois banker. Mr.
+Gage was a Democrat, and this appointment was doubtless meant as a
+recognition of the Gold Democracy&rsquo;s aid in the campaign. General Russell
+A. Alger, of Michigan, took charge of the War Department, holding it
+till July 19, 1899, after which Elihu Root was installed.
+Postmaster-General James A. Gary, of Maryland, resigned the same month
+with Sherman, giving place to Charles Emory Smith, of the Philadelphia
+Press. The Navy portfolio fell to John D. Long, of Massachusetts; that
+of the Interior to Cornelius N. Bliss, of New York; that of Agriculture
+to James Wilson, of Iowa. In December, 1898, Ethan Allen Hitchcock, of
+Missouri, succeeded Bliss.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/191Pic.jpg" width="209" height="304" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">John Sherman.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/192PicA.jpg" width="214" height="263" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Lyman J. Gage, Secretary of the Treasury.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/192PicB.jpg" width="215" height="247" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">John D. Long, Secretary of the Navy.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/193PicA.jpg" width="214" height="307" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Cornelius N. Bliss,<br/>
+Secretary of the Interior.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/193PicB.jpg" width="214" height="176" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Russell A. Alger,<br/>
+Secretary of War.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Fortunately for the new Chief Magistrate, who had been announced as the
+&ldquo;advance agent of prosperity,&rdquo; the year 1897 brought a revival of
+business. This was due in part to the end, at least for the time, of
+political suspense and agitation, in part to the confidence which
+capitalists felt in the new Administration.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The money stringency, too, now began to abate. The annual output of the
+world&rsquo;s gold mines, which had for some years been increasing, appeared
+to have terminated the fall of general prices, prevalent almost
+incessantly since 1873. Moreover, continued increase seemed assured, not
+only by the invention of new processes, which made it lucrative to work
+tailings and worn-out mines, but also by the discovery of several rich
+auriferous tracts hitherto unknown.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/194PicA.jpg" width="212" height="228" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">James Wilson,<br/>
+Secretary of Agriculture.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/194PicB.jpg" width="216" height="226" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Postmaster-General Gary.<br/>
+From a copyrighted photo by Clinedinst.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The valley of the Yukon, in Alaska and the adjacent British territory,
+had long been known to contain gold, but none suspected there a bonanza
+like the South African Rand. In the six months&rsquo; night of 1896-1897 an
+old squaw-man made an unprecedented strike upon the Klondike
+(Thron-Duick or Tondak) River, 2,000 miles up the Yukon. By spring all
+his neighbors had staked rich claims. Next July $2,000,000 worth of gold
+came south by one shipment, precipitating a rush to the inhospitable
+mining regions hardly second to the California migration of 1849.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Latter-day Argonauts, not dismayed by the untold dangers and hardships
+in store, toiled up the Yukon, or, swarming over the precipitous
+Chilcoot Pass, braved, too often at cost of life, the boiling rapids to
+be passed in descending the Upper Yukon to the gold fields. Later the
+easier and well-wooded White Pass was found, traversed, at length, by a
+railroad. In October, 1898, the Cape Nome coast, north of the Yukon
+mouth, uncovered its riches, whereupon treasure-seekers turned thither
+their attention, even from the Yukon.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Little lawlessness pestered the gold settlements. The Dominion promptly
+despatched to Dawson a body of her famous mounted police. Our
+Government, more tardily, made its authority felt from St. Michaels,
+near the Yukon mouth, all the way to the Canadian border. On June 6,
+1900, Alaska was constituted a civil and judicial district, with a
+governor, whose functions were those of a territorial governor. When
+necessary the miners themselves formed tribunals and meted out a
+rough-and-ready justice.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/197Pic.jpg" width="468" height="372" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Rush of Miners to the Yukon.<br/>
+The City of Caches at the Summit of Chilcoot Pass.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The rush of miners to the middle Yukon gold region, which, together with
+certain ports and waters on the way thither, were claimed by both the
+United States and Great Britain, made acute the question of the true
+boundary between Alaskan and British territory.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In 1825 Great Britain and Russia, the latter then owning Alaska, agreed
+by treaty to separate their respective possessions by a line commencing
+at the southernmost point of Prince of Wales Island and running along
+Portland Channel to the continental coast at 56 degrees north latitude.
+North of that degree the boundary was to run along mountain summits
+parallel to the coast until it intersected the 141st meridian west
+longitude, which was then to be followed to the frozen ocean. In case
+any of the summits mentioned should be more than ten marine leagues from
+the ocean, the line was to parallel the coast, and be never more than
+ten marine leagues therefrom.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+When it became important to determine and mark the boundary in a more
+exact manner, Great Britain advanced two new claims; first, that the
+&ldquo;Portland Channel&rdquo; mentioned in the Russo-British treaty was not the
+channel now known by that name, but rather Behm Channel, next west, or
+Clarence Straits; and, secondly, that the ten-league limit should be
+measured from the outer rim of the archipelago skirting Alaska, and not
+from the mainland coast. If conceded, these claims would add to the
+Canadian Dominion about 29,000 square miles, including 100 miles of
+sea-coast, with harbors like Lynn Channel and Tahko Inlet, several
+islands, vast mining, fishery, and timber resources, as well as Juneau
+City, Revilla, and Fort Tongass, theretofore undisputably American.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In September, 1898, a joint high commission sat at Quebec and canvassed
+all moot matters between the two countries, among them that of the
+Alaska boundary. It adjourned, however, without settling the question,
+though a temporary and provisional understanding was reached and signed
+October 20, 1899.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The commissioners gave earnest attention to the sealing question, which
+had been plaguing the United States ever since the Paris arbitration
+tribunal upset Secretary Blaine&rsquo;s contention that Bering Sea was mare
+clausum. Upon that tribunal&rsquo;s decision the modus vivendi touching seals
+lapsed, and Canadians, with renewed and ruthless zeal, plied
+seal-killing upon the high seas. Dr. David S. Jordan, American delegate
+to the 1896-1897 Conference of Fur-Seal Experts, estimated that the
+American seal herd had shrunken 15 per cent. in 1896, and that a full
+third of that year&rsquo;s pups, orphaned by pelagic sealing, had starved.
+Reckoning from the beginning of the industry and in round numbers, he
+estimated that 400,000 breeding females had been slaughtered, that
+300,000 pups had perished for want of nourishment, and that 400,000
+unborn pups had died with their dams. This estimate disregarded the
+multitude of females lost after being speared or shot. Dr. Jordan
+predicted the not distant extinction of the fur-seal trade unless
+protective measures should be forthwith devised. British experts
+questioned some of his conclusions, but admitted the need of restriction
+upon pelagic sealing.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The McKinley Administration besought Great Britain for a suspension of
+seal-killing during 1897. After a delay of four months the Foreign
+Office replied that it was too late to stop the sealers that year. In a
+rather undiplomatic note, dated May 10, 1897, Secretary Sherman charged
+dilatory and evasive conduct upon this question. The retort was that the
+American Government was seeking to embarrass British subjects in
+pursuing lawful vocations.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Moved by Canada, Great Britain recanted her offer to join the United
+States, Russia, and Japan in a complete system of sealing regulations.
+The three countries last named thereupon agreed with each other to
+suspend pelagic sealing so long as expert opinion declared it necessary
+to the continued existence of the seals. The Canadians declined to
+consider suspension save on the condition that the owners of sealing
+vessels should receive compensation. In December, the same year (1897),
+our Government ordered confiscated and destroyed all sealskins brought
+to our ports not accompanied with invoices signed by the United States
+Consul at the place of exportation, certifying that they were not taken
+at sea. This cut off the Canadians&rsquo; best market and so far diminished
+their activity; but pelagic sealing still continued, under the
+inefficient Paris regulations, and the herd went on diminishing.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+That these Canadian controversies left so little sting, but were
+followed by closer and closer rapprochement between the United States
+and Great Britain, was fortunate in view of the failure of the
+Anglo-American Arbitration Treaty. This had been negotiated by Mr.
+Cleveland&rsquo;s able Secretary of State, Hon. Richard Olney, and represented
+the best ethical thought of both nations. President McKinley endorsed
+it, but it fell short of a two-thirds Senatorial vote.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+On June 16, 1897, a treaty was signed annexing the Hawaiian Republic to
+the United States. The Government of Hawaii speedily ratified this, but
+it encountered in the United States Senate such buffets that after a
+year it was withdrawn, and a resolution to the same end introduced in
+both Houses. A majority in each chamber would annex, while the treaty
+method would require a two-thirds vote in the Senate. The resolution
+provided for the assumption by the United States of the Hawaiian debt up
+to $4,000,000. Our Chinese Exclusion Law was extended to the islands,
+and Chinese immigration thence to the continental republic prohibited.
+The joint resolution passed July 6, 1898, a majority of the Democrats
+and several Republicans, among these Speaker Reed, opposing. Shelby M.
+Cullom, John T. Morgan, Robert R. Hitt, Sanford B. Dole, and Walter F.
+Frear, made commissioners by its authority, drafted a territorial form
+of government, which became law April 30, 1900.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Pursuant to the platform pledge of his party President McKinley early in
+his term appointed Edward O. Wolcott, Adlai E. Stevenson, and Charles J.
+Paine special envoys to the Powers in the interest of international
+bi-metallism. The mission was mentioned with smiles by gold men and with
+sneers by silver men, yet the cordial cooperation of France made it for
+a time seem hopeful. The British Cabinet, too, were not ill-disposed,
+pointing out that while Great Britain herself must retain the gold
+standard, they earnestly wished a stable ratio between silver and gold
+on British India&rsquo;s account. Sir Michael Hicks-Beach, Chancellor of the
+Exchequer, had little doubt that if a solid international agreement
+could be reached India would reopen her mints to silver. But the Indian
+Council unanimously declined to do this. The Bank of England was at
+first disposed to accept silver as part of its reserve, a course which
+the law permitted; but a storm of protests from the &ldquo;city banks&rdquo;
+dismayed the directors into withdrawal. Lacking England&rsquo;s cooperation
+the mission, like its numerous predecessors, came to naught.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In Civil Service administration Mr. McKinley took one long and
+unfortunate step backward. The Republican platform, adopted after Mr.
+Cleveland&rsquo;s extension of the merit system, emphatically endorsed this,
+as did Mr. McKinley himself. Against extreme pressure,
+particularly in
+the War Department, the President bravely stood out till May 29, 1899.
+His order of that date withdrew from the classified service 4,000 or
+more positions, removed 3,500 from the class theretofore filled through
+competitive examination or an orderly practice of promotion, and placed
+6,416 more under a system drafted by the Secretary of War. The order
+declared regular a large number of temporary appointments made without
+examination, besides rendering eligible, as emergency appointees,
+without examination, thousands who had served during the Spanish War.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Republicans pointed to the deficit under the Wilson Law with much the
+same concern manifested by President Cleveland in 1888 over the surplus.
+A new tariff law must be passed, and, if possible, before a new
+Congressional election. An extra session of Congress was therefore
+summoned for March 15, 1897. The Ways and Means Committee, which had
+been at work for three months, forthwith reported through Chairman
+Nelson Dingley the bill which bore his name. With equal promptness the
+Committee on Rules brought in a rule, at once adopted by the House,
+whereby the new bill, spite of Democratic pleas for time to examine,
+discuss, and propose amendments, reached the Senate the last day of
+March. More deliberation marked procedure in the Senate. This body
+passed the bill after toning up its schedules with some 870 amendments,
+most of which pleased the Conference Committee and became law. The Act
+was signed by the President July 24, 1897.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/205Pic.jpg" width="201" height="321" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Nelson Dingley.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The Dingley Act was estimated by its author to advance the average rate
+from the 40 per cent. of the Wilson Bill to approximately 50 per cent.,
+or a shade higher than the McKinley rate. As proportioned to consumption
+the tax imposed by it was probably heavier than that under either of its
+predecessors.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/206Pic_120.jpg" width="474" height="262" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Warships in the Hudson River Celebrating
+the Dedication of Grant&rsquo;s Tomb, April 27, 1897.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Reciprocity, a feature of the McKinley Tariff Act, was suspended by the
+Wilson Act. The Republican platform of 1896 declared protection and
+reciprocity twin measures of Republican policy. Clauses graced the
+Dingley Act allowing reciprocity treaties to be made, &ldquo;duly ratified&rdquo; by
+the Senate and &ldquo;approved&rdquo; by Congress; yet, of the twins, protection
+proved stout and lusty, while the weaker sister languished. Under the
+third section of the Act some concessions were given and received, but
+the treaties negotiated under the fourth section, which involved
+lowering of strictly protective duties, met summary defeat when
+submitted to the Senate.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/207pic.jpg" width="471" height="499" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Grant&rsquo;s Tomb, Riverside Drive, New York.<br/>
+Copyright, 1901, by Detroit Photographic Co.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The granite mausoleum in Riverside Park, New York City, designed to
+receive the remains of General Grant, was completed in 1897, and upon
+the 27th of April, that year, formally presented to the city. Ten days
+previously the body had been removed thither from the brick tomb where
+it had reposed since August 8, 1885. Four massive granite piers, with
+rows of Doric columns between, supported the roof and the obtuse cone of
+the cupola, which rested upon a great circle of Ionic pillars. The
+interior was cruciform. In the centre was the crypt, where, upon a
+square platform, rested the red porphyry sarcophagus. From the mausoleum
+summit, 150 feet above, the eye swept the Hudson for miles up and down.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The presentation day procession was headed by the presidential party.
+The Governor of New York State, the Mayor of the city, and the United
+States diplomatic corps were prominent. Other distinguished guests
+attended, including Union and Confederate Veterans. The entire
+procession reached six miles. There were 53,500 participants,
+military
+and civil, and 160 bands of music. At the same time, in majestic column
+upon the Hudson, Great Britain, France, Italy, and Spain joined, with
+men-of-war, our North Atlantic squadron, saluting the President as he
+passed.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The exercises at the tomb were simple. Bishop Newman offered prayer.
+&ldquo;America&rdquo; was sung. President McKinley delivered an address of eulogy.
+General Horace Porter gave the mausoleum into the city&rsquo;s keeping, a
+trust which Mayor Strong in a few words accepted.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap12"></a>CHAPTER XII.<br/>
+THE WAR WITH SPAIN</h2>
+
+<p>
+How early Cuban discontent with Spain&rsquo;s rule became vocal is not known.
+An incipient revolt in 1766 was ruthlessly put down. Though the &ldquo;Ever
+Faithful Isle&rdquo; did not rebel with the South American colonies under
+Bolivar, it was never at rest, as attested by the servile revolts of
+1794 and 1844, the &ldquo;Black Eagle&rdquo; rebellion of 1829, and the ten-years&rsquo;
+insurrection beginning in 1868. In 1894-1895, just as &ldquo;Home Rule for
+Cuba&rdquo; had become a burning issue in Spain, martial law was proclaimed in
+Havana, precipitating the last and successful revolution.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+American interest in the island, material and otherwise, was great. The
+barbarity and devastation marking the wars made a strong appeal to our
+humane instincts; nor could Americans be indifferent to a neighboring
+people struggling to be free. The suppression of filibustering
+expeditions taxed our Treasury and our patience. Equally embarrassing
+were the operations of Cuban juntas from our ports. To solve the complex
+difficulty Presidents Polk, Buchanan, and Grant had each in his time
+vainly sought to purchase the island. The Virginius outrage during
+Grant&rsquo;s incumbency brought us to the very verge of war, prevented only
+by the almost desperate resistance of Secretary Hamilton Fish.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/211Pic.jpg" width="211" height="286" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Governor-General Weyler.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+When the final rebellion was under way the humane Governor-General
+Martinez Campos was succeeded by General Weyler, ordered to down the
+rebellion at all costs. Numberless buildings were burnt and plantations
+destroyed, the insurgents retaliating in kind. Non-combatants were
+huddled in concentration camps, where half their number perished.
+American citizens were imprisoned without trial. One, Dr. Ruiz, died
+under circumstances occasioning strong suspicions of foul play.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+President Cleveland, while willing to mediate between Spain and the
+Cubans, preserved a neutral attitude, refusing to recognize the
+insurgents even as belligerents, though they possessed all rural Cuba
+save one province. Only when about to quit office did Mr. Cleveland hint
+at intervention.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Soon after McKinley&rsquo;s accession an anarchist shot Premier Canovas,
+when Sagasta, his Liberal successor, promised Cuba reform and home rule.
+Weyler was succeeded by Blanco, who revoked concentration, proclaimed
+amnesty, and set on foot an autonomist government. Americans were loosed
+from prison. Clara Barton, of the American Red Cross Society, hastened
+with supplies to the relief of the wretched reconcentrados, turned loose
+upon a waste. Spain, too, appropriated a large sum for reconcentrado
+relief, promising implements, seed, and other means for restoring ruined
+homes and plantations.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/213Pic.jpg" width="469" height="269" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Copyright. 1898, by F. C. Hemment.<br/>
+U. S. Battleship Maine Entering the Harbor of Havana, January, 1898.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+But the iron had entered the Cuban&rsquo;s soul. The belligerents rejected
+absolutely the offers of autonomy, demanding independence. The
+&ldquo;pacificos&rdquo; were no better off than before, and relations between the
+United States and Spain grew steadily more strained. Two incidents
+precipitated a crisis.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A letter by the Spanish Minister at Washington, Senor de Lome, was
+intercepted and published, holding President McKinley up as a
+time-serving politician. De Lome forestalled recall by resigning; yet
+his successor, Polo y Bernabe, could not fail to note on arriving in
+Washington a chill diplomatic atmosphere.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/215Pic.jpg" width="478" height="336" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Wreck of U. S. Battleship Maine.<br/>
+Photograph by F. C. Hemment.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+In January, 1898, the United States battleship Maine was on a friendly
+visit at Havana, where she was received with the greatest courtesy,
+being taken to her harbor berth by the Spanish government pilot.
+At
+9.40 on the evening of February 15th, the harbor air was rent by a
+tremendous explosion. Where the Maine had been, only a low shapeless
+hump was distinguishable. The splendid vessel, with officers and crew on
+board to the number of 355, had sunk, a wreck. Of the 355, 253 never saw
+day.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Strong suspicions gained prevalence that this was a deed of Spanish
+treachery, or attributable, at the very least, to criminal indifference
+on the part of the authorities. Some alleged positive connivance by
+Spanish officials. War fever ran high. When, five days later, the
+Spanish cruiser Vizcaya visited New York City, it was thought well to
+accord her special protection. March, 9th, Congress placed in the
+President&rsquo;s hands $50,000,000 to be used for national defence. The 21st,
+a naval court of inquiry confirmed the view that the Maine disaster was
+due to the explosion of a submarine mine. War fever became a fire.
+&ldquo;Remember the Maine&rdquo; echoed up and down and across the land, the words
+uttered with deep earnestness.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The war spirit welded North and South, permeating the Democracy even
+more than the party in power. Democrats would have at once recognized
+the Cuban Republic. This was at first the attitude of the Senate, which,
+upon deliberation, wisely forbore. It, however, on April 20th, joined
+the House in declaring the people of Cuba free and independent, adding
+that Spain must forthwith relinquish her authority there. The President
+was authorized to use the nation&rsquo;s entire army, navy, and militia to
+enforce withdrawal. This was in effect a declaration of war. Minister
+Woodford, at Madrid, received his passports; as promptly Bernabe
+withdrew to Montreal. April 23d, 125,000 volunteers were called out.
+April 26th an increase of the regular army to some 62,000 was
+authorized. Soon came a call for 75,000 more volunteers. Responses from
+all the States flooded the War Department.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/216Pic.jpg" width="477" height="242" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Bow of the Spanish Cruiser Almirante Oquendo.<br/>
+From a Photograph by F. C. Hemment.<br/>
+Copyright, 1898, by W. R. Hearst.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/217Pic.jpg" width="760" height="472" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">The Landing at Daiquiri. Transports in the Offing.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/219Pic.jpg" width="207" height="342" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Captain Charles E. Clark.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Spain, ruled by a clique of privileged Catalonians, groaned under all
+the oppressiveness of militarism, with none of its power. Plagued by
+Carlism and anarchy at home, she was grappling, at tremendous outlay,
+with two rebellions abroad. Yet all her many parties cried for war.
+Popular subscriptions were taken to aid the impoverished treasury;
+reserves were called out; in Cuba, Blanco summoned all able-bodied men.
+The navy was supplemented by ships purchased wherever hands could be
+laid upon them.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/220Pic.jpg" width="441" height="457" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">After Deck on the Oregon, Showing Two 13-inch,<br/>
+Four 8-inch, and Two 6-inch Guns.<br/>
+Copyright. 1899. by Strohmeyer &amp; Wyman.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Owing to the parsimony of Congress, our equipment for a large army, or
+even for our 25,000 regulars, if they were to go on a tropical campaign,
+was totally inadequate. Our artillery had no smokeless powder. Many
+infantry regiments came to camp armed with nothing but enthusiasm. No
+khaki cloth for uniforms was to be had in the country. Canvas had to be
+taken from that provided by the Post-Office Department for repairing
+mail bags. While the utmost possible at short notice was done with the
+just voted $50,000,000 defence fund, the comprehensive system of
+fortifications long before designed had hardly been begun. The navy had
+been treated least illiberally; still the construction budget had been
+so cut that only a few of the proposed vessels had been transferred from
+paper to the sea.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/221Pic.jpg" width="473" height="273" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Blockhouse on San Juan Hill.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The United States navy which did exist was a noble one. Both its ships
+and their crews were as fine as any afloat. Had the Spanish navy been
+manned like ours the two would have been of about equal strength. Ours
+boasted the more battleships, but Spain had several new and first-rate
+armored cruisers, besides a flotilla of swift torpedo boats. The
+Spaniards were, however, poor gunners, clumsy sailors, awkward and
+careless mechanics; while American gunners had a deadly aim, and spared
+no skill or pains in the care or handling of their ships.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+American superiority in these points was tellingly proved by the
+Oregon&rsquo;s unprecedented run from ocean to ocean. Before hostilities she
+was ordered from San Francisco, via Cape Horn to join the Atlantic
+squadron. The long, hard, swift trip was made without the break of a bar
+or the loosening of a bolt, a result which attracted expert notice
+abroad as attesting the very highest order of seamanship. Meantime war
+had commenced. It was feared that off Brazil Admiral Cervera would
+endeavor to intercept and destroy her; yet, with well-grounded
+confidence, Captain Clark expected in that event not only to save
+himself but to punish his assailants. He met no interference, however,
+and at the end of her unparalleled voyage his noble ship was without
+overhauling ready to join in the Santiago blockade and in destroying the
+Spanish fleet.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/223pic.jpg" width="213" height="340" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Admiral Cervera, Commander of the Spanish Squadron.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Admiral Cervera&rsquo;s departure westward from the Cape Verde Islands, and
+the subsequent discovery of his squadron in the harbor of Santiago,
+determined the Government to invest that city. The navy acted with
+promptitude. Commodore Schley first, then, in conjunction with him, his
+superior, Rear-Admiral Sampson, drew a tight line of war-vessels across
+the channel entrance.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/224Pic.jpg" width="274" height="321" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Major-General William R. Shafter.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Unfortunately delayed by inadequate shipping facilities and the
+unsystematic consignment of supplies, also by the unfounded rumor of a
+Spanish cruiser and destroyer lying in wait, the army of 17,000, under
+Major-General William R. Shafter, landed with little opposition a short
+distance east of Santiago. The sickly season had begun. Moreover, it was
+as good as certain that, spite of all the miserable Cuban army could do,
+Santiago&rsquo;s 8,000 defenders would soon be increased from neighboring
+Spanish garrisons. So, notwithstanding his inadequate provision for
+sound, sick, or wounded and his weakness in artillery, Shafter pushed
+forward. His gallant little army brushed the enemy&rsquo;s intercepting
+outpost from Las Guasimas, tore him, amid red carnage, from his stubborn
+holds at El Caney and San Juan Ridge, and by July 3d had the city
+invested, save on the west. From this quarter, however, General Escario,
+with 3,600 men, had forced his way past our Cuban allies and joined his
+besieged compatriots in Santiago.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/225Pic.jpg" width="467" height="258" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Troops in the Trenches, Facing Santiago.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The third of July opened, for the Americans, the darkest day of the war.
+Drenched by night, roasted by day, haversacks which had been cast aside
+for battle lost or purloined, supply trains stalled in the rear,
+fighting by day, by night digging trenches and rifle-pits&mdash;little
+wonder that many lost heart and urged withdrawal to some position nearer
+the American base. Shafter himself for a moment considered such a step.
+But General Wheeler, on the fighting line, set his face against it, as,
+upon reflection, did Shafter. A bold demand for surrender was sent to
+General Toral, commanding the city, while Admiral Sampson came to confer
+with Shafter for a naval assault.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/226Pic.jpg" width="163" height="389" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">General Joseph Wheeler.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The squadron had not been idle. By day their vigilance detected the
+smallest movement at the harbor mouth. Upon that point each night two
+battleships bent their dazzling search-lights like cyclopean eyes.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/227Pic.jpg" width="742" height="462" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">View of San Juan Hill and Blockhouse,<br/>
+Showing the Camp of the United States Forces.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+It was decided to block the narrow channel by sinking the collier
+Merrimac across its neck. Just before dawn on June 3d the young naval
+constructor, Hobson, with six volunteers chosen from scores of eager
+competitors, and one stowaway who joined them against orders, pushed the
+hulk between the headland forts into a roaring hell of projectiles.
+An explosion from within rent the Merrimac&rsquo;s hull, and she sank;
+but,
+the rudder being shot away, went down lengthwise of the channel.
+When
+the firing ceased, the little crew, exhausted, but not one of the
+eight
+missing, clustered, only heads out of water, around their raft. A
+launch drew near. In charge was the Spanish admiral, who took them
+aboard with admiring kindness, and despatched a boat to notify the
+American fleet of their safety.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/229Pic.jpg" width="467" height="365" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">The Collier Merrimac Sunk by Hobson at the Mouth of Santiago Harbor.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+It was well that &ldquo;Hobson&rsquo;s choice&rdquo; as to the way his tub should sink
+failed. On July 3d, just after Sampson steamed away to see Shafter, the
+Maria Teresa was seen poking her nose from the Santiago harbor, followed
+by the Almirante Oquendo, the Vizcaya, and the Christobal Colon. Under
+peremptory orders from his Government, Admiral Cervera had begun a mad
+race to destruction. &ldquo;It is better,&rdquo; said he, &ldquo;to die fighting than to
+blow up the ships in the harbor.&rdquo; These had become the grim
+alternatives.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The Brooklyn gave chase, the other vessels in suit, the Texas and the
+Oregon leading. As the admiral predicted, it was &ldquo;a dreadful holocaust.&rdquo;
+One by one his vessels had to head for the beach, silenced, crippled,
+flames bursting from decks, portholes, and the rents torn by our
+cannonade. Two destroyers, Furor and Pluton, met their fate near the
+harbor. Only the Colon remained any time afloat, but her doom was
+sealed. Outdoing the other pursuers and her own contract speed the grand
+Oregon, pride of the navy, poured explosives upon the Spaniard, until,
+within three hours and forty minutes of the enemy&rsquo;s appearance, his last
+vessel was reduced to junk. Cervera was captured with 76 officers and
+1,600 men. 350 Spaniards were killed, 160 wounded. The American losses
+were inconsiderable. The ships&rsquo; injuries also were hardly more than
+trifling.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+So closed the third of July, so opened the glorious Fourth! To Shafter
+and his men the navy&rsquo;s victory was worth a reenforcement of 100,000.
+Bands played, tired soldiers danced, shouted, and hugged each other.
+Correspondingly depressed were the Spaniards. They endeavored, as Hobson
+had, to choke the harbor throat with the Reina Mercedes; but she, like
+the Merrimac, had her steering apparatus shot away and sank lengthwise
+of the channel. Still, it was not deemed wise to attempt forcing a way
+in, nor did this prove necessary. Toral saw reenforcements extending the
+American right to surround him, and out at sea over fifty transports
+loaded with fresh soldiers. Spanish honor had been signalized not only
+by the devoted heroism of Cervera&rsquo;s men but by the gallantry of his own.
+The Americans offered to convey his command back to Spain free of
+charge. He therefore sought from Madrid, and after some days obtained,
+authority to surrender. He surrendered July 16th. Besides the Santiago
+garrison, Toral&rsquo;s entire command in eastern Cuba, about 24,000 men,
+became our prisoners of war.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/232Pic.jpg" width="465" height="294" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">From a Photograph by F. C. Hemment. Copyright, 1898, by W. R. Hearst.<br/>
+The Spanish Cruiser Christobal Colon.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/233Pic.jpg" width="463" height="453" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Copyright, 1898. by C C. Langill. N. Y.<br/>
+The U. S. S. Brooklyn.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The Santiago surrender left the United States free to execute what
+proved the last important expedition of the war, that of General Miles
+to Porto Rico. It was a complete success. Miles proclaiming the
+beneficent purposes of our Government, numbers of volunteers in the
+Spanish army deserted, the regulars were swept back by four simultaneous
+movements, and our conquest was as good as complete when the peace
+protocol put an end to all hostilities.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/234Pic.jpg" width="212" height="294" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">General Nelson A. Miles</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Meantime an independent campaign was under way in the far Orient. At
+once after war was declared Commodore George Dewey, commanding the
+United States naval forces in Asiatic waters, was ordered to capture or
+sink the Spanish Philippine fleet. Obliged at once to leave the neutral
+port of Hong-Kong, and on April 27th to quit Mirs Bay as well, he
+steamed for Manila.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A little before midnight, on April 30th, Dewey&rsquo;s flagship Olympia
+entered the Boca Grande channel to Manila Bay, the Baltimore, Petrel,
+Raleigh, Concord, and Boston following. By daybreak Cavite stood
+disclosed and, ready and waiting, huddled under its batteries, Admiral
+Montojo&rsquo;s fleet: Reina Christina, Castilla, Don Antonio de Ulloa, Don
+Juan de Austria, Isla de Luzon, Isla de Cuba, General Lezo, Marquis del
+Duero, El Curreo and Velasco&mdash;ten vessels to Dewey&rsquo;s six. Counting those
+of the batteries, the Spaniards&rsquo; guns outnumbered and outcalibred
+Dewey&rsquo;s. All the Spanish guns, from ships and from batteries alike,
+played on our fleet&mdash;a thunder of hostile welcome, harmless as a salute.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/235Pic.jpg" width="210" height="303" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Admiral George Dewey.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The commodore delayed his fire till every shot would tell, when,
+circling around in closer and closer quarters, he concentrated an
+annihilating cyclone of shot and shell upon the Spanish craft. Two
+torpedo boats ventured from shore. One was sunk, one beached. The Reina
+Christina, the Amazon of the fleet, steamed out to duel with the
+Olympia, but &ldquo;overwhelmed with deadly attentions&rdquo; could barely stagger
+back. One hundred and fifty men were killed and ninety wounded on the
+Christina alone. In a little less than two hours, having sunk the
+Christina, Castilla, and Ulloa and set afire the other warships, the
+American ceased firing to assure and arrange his ammunition supply and
+to breakfast and rest his brave crews. He reopened at 11.16 A.M. to
+finish. By half-past twelve every Spanish warship had been sunk or
+burned and the forts silenced. The Spanish reported their loss at 381
+killed and wounded. Seven Americans were wounded, not one killed.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/236Pic.jpg" width="475" height="277" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Protected Cruiser Olympia.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/237Pic.jpg" width="166" height="434" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">General A. R. Chaftee.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+As the Filipino insurgents encircled Manila on the land side the
+Spaniards could not escape, and, to spare life, Dewey deemed it best to
+await the arrival of land forces before completing the reduction.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Waiting tried the admiral&rsquo;s discretion more than the battle had his
+valor. It was necessary to encourage the insurgents, at the same time to
+prevent excesses on their part, and to avoid recognizing them even as
+allies in such manner as to involve our Government. Another
+embarrassment, threatening for a time, was the German admiral&rsquo;s
+impertinence. One of his warships was about to steam into harbor
+contrary to Dewey&rsquo;s instructions, but was halted by a shot across her
+bows. Dewey&rsquo;s firmness in this affair was exemplary.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/238Pic_150.jpg" width="406" height="445" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">General Merritt and General Greene taking a look at a
+Spanish field-gun on the Malate Fort.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+On June 30th the advance portion of General Merritt&rsquo;s troops arrived and
+supplanted the insurgents in beleaguering Manila. The war was now
+closing. Manila capitulated August 13th. The peace protocol was signed
+August 12th. The Treaty of Paris was signed December 10th. Spain
+evacuated Cuba and ceded to the United States Porto Rico, at the same
+time selling us the Philippine Archipelago for $20,000,000.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap13"></a>CHAPTER XIII.<br/>
+&ldquo;CUBA LIBRE&rdquo;</h2>
+
+<p>
+As if Santiago had not afforded &ldquo;glory enough for all,&rdquo; some disparaged
+Admiral Sampson&rsquo;s part in the battle, others Admiral Schley&rsquo;s. As
+commander of the fleet, whose routine and emergency procedure he had
+sagaciously prescribed, Sampson, though on duty out of sight of the
+action at its beginning, was entitled to utmost credit for the brilliant
+outcome. The day added his name to the list of history&rsquo;s great sea
+captains.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/240Pic_150.jpg" width="221" height="258" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Admiral William T. Sampson.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Schley had the fortune to be senior officer during his chief&rsquo;s temporary
+absence. He fought his ship, the Brooklyn, to perfection, and, while it
+was not of record that he issued any orders to other commanders, his
+prestige and well-known battle frenzy inspired all, contributing much to
+the victory. The early accounts deeply impressed the public, and they
+made Schley the central figure of the battle. Unfortunately Sampson&rsquo;s
+first report did not even mention him. Personal and political partisans
+took up the strife, giving each phase the angriest possible look.
+Admiral Schley at length sought and obtained a court of inquiry.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/241Pic.jpg" width="214" height="318" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Admiral W. S. Schley</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The court found Schley&rsquo;s conduct in the part of the campaign prior to
+June 1, 1898 (which our last chapter had not space to detail),
+vacillating, dilatory, and lacking enterprise. It maintained, however,
+that during the battle itself, despite the Brooklyn&rsquo;s famous &ldquo;loop,&rdquo;
+which it seemed to condemn, his conduct was self-possessed, and that he
+inspired his officers and men to courageous fighting. Admiral Dewey,
+president of the court, held in part a dissenting opinion, which carried
+great weight with the country. He considered Schley the actual fleet
+commander in the battle, thus giving him the main credit for the
+victory.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Legally, it turned out, Sampson, not Schley, commanded during the hot
+hours. Moreover, the evidence seemed to reveal that the court&rsquo;s
+strictures upon Schley, like many criticisms of General Grant at Shiloh
+and in his Wilderness campaign, were probably just. In both cases the
+public was slow to accept the critics&rsquo; view.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Both before and after his resignation, July 19, 1899, Secretary of War
+Alger was subjected to great obloquy. Shafter&rsquo;s corps undoubtedly
+suffered much that proper system and prevision would have prevented. The
+delay in embarking at Tampa; the crowding of transports, the use of
+heavy uniforms in Cuba and of light clothing afterward at Montauk Point,
+the deficiency in tents, transportation, ambulances, medicines, and
+surgeons, ought not to have occurred. Indignation swept the country when
+it was charged that Commissary-General Eagan had furnished soldiers
+quantities of beef treated with chemicals and of canned roast beef unfit
+for use. A commission appointed to investigate found that &ldquo;embalmed
+beef&rdquo; had not been given out to any extent. Canned roast beef had been,
+and the commission declared it improper food.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The commission made it clear that the Quartermaster&rsquo;s Department had
+been physically and financially unequal to the task of suddenly
+equipping and transporting the enlarged army&mdash;over ten times the size of
+our regular army&mdash;for which it had to provide. If wanting at times in
+system the department had been zealous and tireless. At the worst it was
+far less to blame than recent Congresses, which had stinted both army
+and navy to lavish money upon objects far less important to the country.
+The army system needed radical reform. There was no general staff, and
+the titular head of the army had less real authority than the
+adjutant-general with his bureau.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+These imbroglios had little significance compared with the problems
+connected with our new dependencies. The Senate ratified the peace
+treaty February 6, 1899, by the narrow margin of two votes&mdash;forty-two
+Republicans and fifteen others in favor, twenty-four Democrats and
+three others opposing. But for the advocacy of the Democratic leader,
+William J. Bryan, who thought that the pending problems could be dealt
+with by Congress better than in the way of diplomacy, ratification would
+have failed.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The ratification of the Treaty of Paris marked a momentous epoch in our
+national life and policy. In a way, the very fact of a war with Spain
+did this. A century and a quarter before a Spanish monarch had furnished
+money and men to help the American colonies become free from England.
+&ldquo;The people of America can never forget the immense benefit they have
+received from King Carlos III.,&rdquo; wrote George Washington. At that time a
+Spaniard predicted that the American States, born a pigmy, would become
+a mighty giant, forgetful of gratitude, and absorbed in selfish
+aggression at Spain&rsquo;s expense. Our change to quasi-alliance with Great
+Britain against Spain seemed to not a few the fulfilment of that
+prophecy. Europe declared that we had hopelessly broken with our ideals.
+Cynics there applied to the United States the Scriptures: &ldquo;Hell from
+beneath is moved for thee to meet thee at thy coming: it stirreth up the
+dead for thee, even all the chief ones of the earth; it hath raised up
+from their thrones all the kings of the nations. All they shall speak
+and say unto thee, Art thou also become weak as we? art thou become like
+one of us? . . . How art thou fallen from heaven, O Lucifer, son of the
+morning!&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/245Pic.jpg" width="470" height="320" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">The New Cuban Police as organized by ex-Chief of New York
+Police, McCullagh.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The United States did not heed these sneers. Hawaii had been annexed.
+Sale tenure of the Samoan Islands west of 171 degrees west longitude,
+including Tutuila and Pago-Pago harbor, the only good haven in the
+group, was ours. These measures, which a few years earlier all would
+have deemed radical, did not stir perceptible opposition. Nearly all
+felt that they were justified, by considerations of national security,
+to obtain naval bases or strategic points. Such motives also excused the
+acquisition of Guam in the Pacific, ceded by Spain in Article II of the
+Paris Treaty, and that of Porto Rico.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Civil government was established in Porto Rico with the happiest
+results. The Insular Treasury credit balance trebled in a year,
+standing, July 1, 1902, at $314,000. The exports for 1902 increased over
+50 per cent., most of the advance being consigned to the United States.
+The principal exports were sugar, tobacco, the superior coffee grown in
+the island, and straw hats. Of the coffee, the year named, Europe took
+$5,000,000 worth, America only $29,000 worth. Porto Rico imported from
+Spain over $95,000 worth of rice, $500,000 worth of potatoes. The first
+year under our government there were 13,000 fewer deaths than the year
+before, improvement due to better sanitation and a higher standard of
+living. Mutual respect between natives and Americans grew daily.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Touching Cuba, too, the course of the Administration evoked no serious
+opposition. We were in the island simply as trustees for the Cubans. The
+fourth congressional resolution of April 20, 1898, gave pledge as
+follows: &ldquo;The United States hereby disclaims any disposition or
+intention to exercise sovereignty, jurisdiction, or control over said
+island (Cuba) except for the pacification thereof, and asserts its
+determination when that is completed to leave the government and control
+of the island to its people.&rdquo; This &ldquo;self-denying ordinance,&rdquo; than which
+few official utterances in all our history ever did more to shape the
+nation&rsquo;s behavior, was moved and urged, at first against strong
+opposition, by Senator Teller, of Colorado. Senator Spooner thought it
+likely that but for the pledge just recited European States would have
+formed a league against the United States in favor of Spain.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+December 13, 1898, a military government was established for &ldquo;the
+division of Cuba,&rdquo; including Porto Rico. The New Year saw the last
+military relic of Spanish dominion trail out of Cuba and Cuban waters.
+The Cuban army gradually disbanded. The work of distributing supplies
+and medicines was followed by the vigorous prosecution of railroad,
+highway and bridge repairing and other public works, upon which many of
+the destitute found employment. Courts and schools were resumed.
+Hundreds of new schools opened&mdash;in Santiago city 60, in Santiago
+province over 300. Brigandage was stamped out. Cities were thoroughly
+cleaned and sewer systems constructed. The death rate fell steadily to a
+lower mark than ever before. In 1896 there were in Havana 1,262 deaths
+from yellow fever, and during the eleven years prior to American
+occupation an average of 440 annually. In 1901 there were only four.
+Under the &ldquo;pax Americana&rdquo; industry awoke. New huts and houses hid the
+ashes of former ones. Miles of desert smiled again with unwonted
+tillage.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/249Pic.jpg" width="471" height="520" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Showing Condition of Streets in Santiago before Street
+Cleaning Department was organized.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/250Pic.jpg" width="471" height="326" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Santiago Street Cleaning Department.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+A census of Cuba taken by the War Department, October 16, 1899, showed a
+population of 1,572,797, a falling off of nearly 60,000 in the twelve
+years since the last Spanish census, indicating the loss due to the
+civil war. The average density of population was about that of Iowa,
+varying, however, from Havana province, as thickly peopled as
+Connecticut, to Puerto Principe, with denizens scattered like those of
+Texas. Seventy per cent. of the island&rsquo;s inhabitants were Cuban
+citizens, two per cent. were Spanish, eighteen per cent. had not
+determined their allegiance, while about ten per cent. were aliens.
+Eighty per cent. of the people in the rural districts could neither read
+nor write.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In December, 1899, Governor Brooke retired in favor of General Leonard
+Wood. A splendid object-lesson in good government having been placed
+before the people, they were, in June, 1900, given control of their
+municipal governments and the powers of these somewhat enlarged.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In July Governor Wood issued a call for a constitutional convention,
+which met in November. The fruit of its deliberations was an instrument
+modelled largely upon the United States Constitution. The bill of rights
+was more specific, containing a guarantee of freedom in &ldquo;learning and
+teaching&rdquo; any business or profession, and another calculated to prevent
+&ldquo;reconcentration.&rdquo; The Government was more centralized than ours. The
+President, elected by an electoral college, held office four years, and
+was not re-eligible twice consecutively. The Senate consisted of six
+senators from each of the six departments, the term being six years.
+One-third were elected biennially. The House of Representatives
+consisted of one representative to every 25,000 people. One-half were
+elected biennially. Four years was the term of office. The judicial
+power vested in a Supreme Court and such other courts as might be
+established by law. Suffrage was universal.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/252Pic.jpg" width="160" height="468" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Governor-General Leonard A Wood in the Uniform of Colonel of
+Rough Riders.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+In his call for the convention, also in his opening address before it,
+Governor Wood mentioned its duty to determine the relations between Cuba
+and the United States. Jealous and suspicious, the convention, believing
+the United States bound by its pledge to leave the island to the
+unconditional control of its inhabitants, slighted these hints.
+Meantime, at President McKinley&rsquo;s instance, Congress adopted, March 2,
+1901, as a rider to the pending army appropriation bill, what was known
+as &ldquo;the Platt amendment,&rdquo; so called from its author, Senator Platt, of
+Connecticut.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+This enacted that in fulfilment of the congressional joint resolution of
+April 20, 1898, which led to the freeing of Cuba, the President was to
+leave the government and Control of the island to its people only when a
+Government should be established there under a constitution defining the
+future relations of the United States with Cuba. The points to be
+safe-guarded were that Cuba should permit no foreign lodgment or
+control, contract no excessive debt, ratify the acts of the military
+government, and protect rights acquired thereunder, continue to improve
+the sanitation of cities, give the United States certain coaling and
+naval stations, and allow it to intervene if necessary to preserve Cuban
+independence, maintain adequate government, or discharge international
+obligations created by the Paris Treaty.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/254Pic.jpg" width="472" height="290" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Judge Cruz Perez Gov. Gen. Wood.<br/>
+General Maximo Gomez. T. E. Palma.<br/>
+Governor-General Leonard A. Wood transferring the Island of Cuba to
+President Tomaso Estrada Palma, as a Cuban Republic, May, 1902.<br/>
+From copyrighted stereoscopic photograph. By Underwood &amp; Underwood.
+N. Y.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+A week before the Platt amendment passed, the Cuban convention adopted a
+declaration of relations, &ldquo;provided the future government of Cuba thinks
+them advisable,&rdquo; not mentioning coaling stations or a right of
+intervention, but declaring that &ldquo;the governments of the United States
+and Cuba ought to regulate their commercial relations by means of a
+treaty based on reciprocity.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+When the convention heard that the Platt amendment must be complied
+with, a commission was sent to Washington to have this explained. Upon
+its return the convention, June 12, 1901, not without much opposition,
+adopted the amendment.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The first President of the Cuban Republic was Tomaso Estrada Palma. He
+had been years an exile in the United States, and was much in sympathy
+with our country. His home-coming was an ovation. In May, 1902, the
+Stars and Stripes were hauled down, and the Cuban tricolor raised. The
+military governor and all but a few of his soldiers left the island, as
+the Spaniards had done less than three years before; yet with a record
+of dazzling achievement that had in a few months done much to repair the
+mischiefs of Spain&rsquo;s chronic misrule.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Cut off from her former free commercial intercourse with Spain, Cuba
+looked to the United States as the main market for her raw sugar.
+Advocates of reciprocity urged considerations of honor and fair dealing
+with Cuba, where, it was said, ruin stared planters in the face. The
+Administration and a majority of the Republicans favored the cause. Not
+so senators and representatives from beet-sugar sections. The
+&ldquo;insurgents,&rdquo; as the opponents of reciprocity were called, urged that
+raising sugar beets was a distinctively American industry, and that to
+sacrifice it was to relinquish the principle of protection altogether.
+The so-called &ldquo;Sugar Trust&rdquo; favored reciprocity, being accused of
+expending large sums in that interest. Against it was pitted the &ldquo;Sugar
+Beet Trust,&rdquo; a new figure among combinations.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+During the long session of the Fifty-seventh Congress, a Cuban
+reciprocity bill being before the House, the sugar-beet interest
+demonstrated its power. The House &ldquo;insurgents,&rdquo; joining the Democratic
+members, overrode the Speaker and the Ways and Means chairman, and
+attached to the bill an amendment cutting off the existing differential
+duty in favor of refined sugar. A locking of horns thus arose, which
+outlasted the session, neither side being able to convince or outvote
+the other. Sanguine Democrats thought that they espied here a hopeful
+Republican schism like that of 1872.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap14"></a>CHAPTER XIV.<br/>
+THE UNITED STATES IN THE ORIENT</h2>
+
+<p>
+PHILIPPINES AND FILIPINOS
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The Philippine Archipelago lies between 4 degrees 45 minutes and 21
+degrees north latitude and 118 and 127 degrees east longitude. It
+consists of nineteen considerable and perhaps fifteen hundred lesser
+islands, an area nearly equal that of New Jersey, New York, and New
+England combined. The island of Luzon comprises a third of this, that of
+Mindanao a fifth or a sixth. The archipelago is rich in natural
+resources, but mining and manufactures had not at the American
+occupation been developed. Agriculture was the main occupation, though
+only a ninth of the land surface was under cultivation. The islands were
+believed capable of sustaining a population like Japan&rsquo;s 42,000,000.
+Luzon boasted a glorious and varied landscape and a climate salubrious
+and inviting, considering the low latitude. Manila hemp, sugar, tobaco,
+coffee, and indigo were raised and exported in large amounts.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/259Pic.jpg" width="459" height="322" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">General Bates. The Sultan.<br/>
+The Jolo Treaty Commission.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The islands lay in three groups, the Luzon, the Visaya (Negros, Panay,
+Cebu, Bohol, Leyte, Samar, and islets), and the Mindanao, including
+Palawan and the Sulu Islands. Some of these islands were in parts
+unexplored. The Tagals and the Visayas, Christian and more or less
+civilized Malay tribes, dominated respectively the first and the second
+group. The Mindanao coasts held here and there a few Christian
+Filipinos, but the chief denizens of the southern islands were the
+fierce Arab-Malay Mohammedans known as Moros, most important and
+dangerous of whose tribes were the Illanos.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In all, there were thirty or more races, with an even greater number of
+different dialects. Northern Luzon housed the advanced Ilocoans,
+Pampangos, Pangasinanes, and Cagayanes, with their hardy bronze heathen
+neighbors, the Igorrotes. The Visayas had many degraded aborigines, the
+Negritos among them. Over against the Moros in the Mindanao group one
+could not ignore the warlike Visayan variation, or the swarming savages
+of the interior, hostile alike to Moro and Visaya.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/261Pic.jpg" width="760" height="453" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Three Hundred Boys in the Parade of July 4, 1902, Vigan, Ilocos.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The population of the islands numbered 8,000,000 or 10,000,000, 25,000
+being Europeans. Half the islanders were Christians, eight or ten per
+cent. Mohammedan, perhaps ten per cent. heathen. One considerable
+fraction were Chinese, another of mixed extraction. Probably none of the
+races were of pure Malay blood, though Malay blood predominated.
+Mercantile pursuits were largely in Chinese hands. The Moros disdained
+tillage and commerce alike, living on slave labor and captures in war.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Spain had done in the islands much more educational work than the
+Americans at first recognized, though none of an advanced kind. Schools
+were numerous but not general. Many Filipinos had studied in Europe.
+There was a select class possessing information and manners which would
+have admitted them to cultivated circles in Paris or London, and
+thousands of Filipinos were intellectually the peers of average
+middle-class Europeans. The University of St. Thomas graced Manila. Some
+seventy colleges and academies at various centres professed to prepare
+pupils for it.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Filipinos of aught like cosmopolitan intelligence numbered less than
+100,000. Below them were the half-breeds, perhaps 500,000 strong, white,
+yellow, or brown, according to the special blend of blood. They were
+&ldquo;intelligent but uneducated, active but not over industrious. They loved
+excitement, military display, and the bustle and pomp of government.&rdquo;
+Farther down still were the vast toiling masses neither knowing nor
+caring much who governed them. Only in suffering were they experts,
+having learned of this under the iron heel of Spain all there was to be
+known.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/264Pic.jpg" width="478" height="485" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Girls&rsquo; Normal Institute, Vigan, Ilocos, April, 1902.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+In the Philippines one had incessantly before him social and economic
+problems in their rudimentary form&mdash;populations the debris of centuries,
+and the reactions upon them of their first contact with real
+civilization. In case of any but the most advanced tribes the immediate
+suggestion was despair, a feeling that they could never appropriate the
+culture offered them. But the heartiness of the response which even such
+communities made to our advances brought hope. Our methods were better
+than the Spanish, and our progress correspondingly rapid; yet the task
+we undertook bade fair to last centuries. Nor were its initial steps
+undefaced by errors.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A Blue Book would not suffice to describe this motley material. We can
+only illustrate.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The Iocoros were in a forward state, if not of civilization, of
+preparation therefor. On all hands their youth were anxiously waiting to
+be taught. Compared with Teutonic races they were superficial and
+emotional, but they had great ambition and perseverance.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/266Pic.jpg" width="471" height="422" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Igarrote Religious Dance, Lepanto.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+A sharp contrast were the Igorrotes. These appeared to be at bottom
+Malays, though Mongolian features marked many a face. They had withstood
+all attempts to christianize them, and stubbornly clung to their
+primitive mode of life as tillers of the soil. Mentally they were near
+savagery, entirely without ambition or moral outlook. Nevertheless they
+adhered to the American arms and rendered valuable porter service.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Their religion had elements of sun and ancestor worship. The one
+tangible feature in it was the &ldquo;kanyan,&rdquo; a drunken feast held on such
+occasions&mdash;fifteen in all&mdash;as marriage, birth, death, and serious
+illness. The feast began with an invocation to Kafunion, the sun god,
+and a dance much like that of the American Indians. Then came the
+drinking of tapi, a strong beer made from rice, and gorging with
+buffalo, horse, or dog meat, the last being the greatest delicacy. Till
+the Americans vetoed the practice, the Igorrotes were &ldquo;head hunters.&rdquo;
+The theory was that the brains of the captured head became the captor&rsquo;s.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The Igorrotes had magnificent chests and legs, and were extensively used
+as burden-bearers. Sustained by only a few bowlfuls of rice and some
+sweet potatoes, a man would carry fifty or even seventy-five pounds on
+his head or back all day over the most difficult mountain trails. The
+Igorrotes had a mild form of slavery, and, though good-natured and at
+times industrious, appeared utterly without spirit of progress. It was
+interesting to mark whether or not contact with a superior race would be
+a stimulus to them.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/268Pic.jpg" width="432" height="342" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Igarrote Head Hunters with Head Axes and Spears.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+A contrast, again, to the Igorrotes was presented by the Ilocoans, an
+intelligent, industrious, Christian people, eager for education, yet
+promising to cherish independent ideals the more dearly the more
+prosperous and advanced they became.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/269Pic.jpg" width="468" height="254" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Native Moros-Interior of Jolo.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Most implacable of all the races were the Moros of the Sulu Islands.
+Warlike, and despising labor, their terrible piracies had been curbed
+only within fifty years, and their depredations and slave raiding by
+land were never wholly prevented. They were suspiciously eager to
+&ldquo;assist&rdquo; our forces in subduing the insurgents. The American authorities
+negotiated a treaty with the Sultan and his dattos, involving their
+submission to the United States. A provision of this treaty
+excited
+reprobation, that permitting a slave to buy his freedom, a recognition
+of slavery in derogation of the Thirteenth Amendment to the
+Constitution. The provision was excused as an absolutely necessary
+makeshift to put off hostilities till the United States had a freer
+hand.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Spain never governed a colony well. Her whole record outre-mer was of a
+piece with the enslavement and extermination of the gentle Caribs, with
+which it began. In slavery and the slave trade Anglo-Saxon conquistadors
+shared Spain&rsquo;s dishonor, but in sheer ugliness of despotism, in
+wholesale, systematic, selfish exploiting, and in corrupt and clumsy
+administration the Iberian monarchy surpassed all other powers ever
+called to deal with colonies. The truth of this indictment was, if
+possible, more manifest in the Philippines than anywhere else in the
+Spanish world.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The religious orders, which early achieved the conversion of Tagals,
+Visayas, and some other tribes, after generations of evangelical
+devotion, ceased to be aggressive religiously, growing opulent and
+oppressive instead. They were the pedestal of the civil government.
+Their word could, and often did, cause natives to be deported, or even
+put to death. One of their victims was that beautiful spirit, Dr. Rizal,
+author of Noli me Tangere, the most learned and distinguished Malay ever
+known. He had taken no part whatever in rebellion or sedition, yet,
+because he was known to abominate clerical misrule, he was, without a
+scintilla of evidence that he had broken any law, first expatriated,
+then shot. This murder occurring December 30, 1896, did much to further
+the rebellion then spreading.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+&ldquo;Once settled in his position, the friar, bishop, or curate usually
+remained till superannuated, being therefore a fixed political factor
+for a generation, while a Spanish civil or military officer never held
+post over four years. The stay of any officer attempting a course at
+variance with the order&rsquo;s wishes was invariably shortened by monastic
+influence. Every abuse leading to the revolutions of 1896 and 1898 the
+people charged to the friars; and the autocratic power which each friar
+exercised over the civil officials of his parish gave them a most
+plausible ground for belief that nothing of injustice, of cruelty, of
+oppression, of narrowing liberty was imposed on them for which the friar
+was not entirely responsible. The revolutions against Spain began as
+movements against the friars.&rdquo; [footnote: Abridged from Report of Taft
+Commission.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Senator Hoar wrote: &ldquo;I should as soon give back a redeemed soul to Satan
+as give back the people of the Philippine Islands to the cruelty and
+tyranny of Spain.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Freemasonry in the Philippines was a redoubtable antagonist to the
+orders. There were other secret leagues, like the Liga Filipina, with
+the same aim, most of them peaceful. Not so the &ldquo;Katipunan,&rdquo; which
+adopted as its symbol the well-known initials, &ldquo;K. K. K.,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;Kataas-Tassan, Kagalang-Galang, Katipunan,&rdquo; &ldquo;sovereign worshipful
+association.&rdquo; If the Ku-Klux Klan did not give the hint for the
+society&rsquo;s symbol the programmes of the two organizations were alike. The
+Katipunan was probably the most potent factor in the insurrection of
+1896. Its cause was felt to be that of the whole Filipino people.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In December, 1897, the conflict, as in Cuba, had degenerated into a
+&ldquo;stalemate.&rdquo; The Spaniard could not be ousted, the Filipino could not be
+subdued. Spain ended the trouble for the time by promising reform, and
+hiring the insurgent leaders to leave the country. Only a small part,
+400,000 Mexican dollars, of the promised sum was ever paid. This was
+held in Hong-Kong as a trust fund against a future uprising.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/273Pic.jpg" width="208" height="573" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Emilio Aguinaldo.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Chief among the leaders shipped to Hong-Kong was Emilio Aguinaldo. He
+was born March 22, 1869, at Cavite, of which town he subsequently became
+mayor. His blood probably contained Spanish, Tagal, and Chinese strains.
+He had supplemented a limited school education by extensive and eager
+contact with books and men. To a surprising wealth of information the
+young Filipino added inspiring eloquence and much genius for leadership.
+He had the &ldquo;remarkable gift of surrounding himself with able coadjutors
+and administrators.&rdquo; The insurrection of 1896 early revealed him as the
+incarnation of Filipino hostility to Spain. Judging by appearances&mdash;his
+zeal in 1896, bargain with Spain in 1897, fighting again in Luzon in
+1898, acquiescence in peace with the United States, reappearance in
+arms, capture, and instant allegiance to our flag&mdash;he was a shifty
+character, little worthy the great honor he received where he was known
+and, for a long time, here. But if he lacked in constancy, he excelled
+in enterprise. Spaniards never missed their reckoning more completely
+than in thinking they had quieted Aguinaldo by sending him to China with
+a bag of money.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/275Pic.jpg" width="243" height="481" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Gen. Frederick Funston, Gen. A. McArthur.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+It being already obvious that Spain had not redressed, and had no
+intention of redressing, abuses in the Philippines, Aguinaldo and his
+aides planned to return. The American war was their opportunity.
+Conferences were had with Consul Wildman at Hong-Kong and with Commodore
+Dewey. Aguinaldo and those about him declared that Wildman, alleging
+authority from Washington, promised the Filipinos independence; and
+other Hong-Kong consuls and several press representatives received the
+impression that this was the case. Wildman absolutely denied having
+given any assurance of the kind. Admiral Dewey also denied in the most
+positive manner that he had done so.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Whatever the understanding or misunderstanding at Hong-Kong, Aguinaldo
+came home with Dewey in the evident belief that the American forces and
+his own were to work for Filipino independence. He easily resumed his
+leadership and began planning for an independent Filipino State. Dewey
+furnished him arms and ammunition. The insurrection was reorganized on a
+grander scale than ever, with extraordinary ability, tact, energy, and
+success. Nearly every one of the Luzon provinces had its rebel
+organization. In each Aguinaldo picked the leader and outlined the plan
+of campaign. His scheme had unity; his followers were aggressive and
+fearless. Everywhere save in a few strongholds Spain was vanquished. At
+last only Manila remained. The insurgents must have captured 10,000
+prisoners, though part of those they had at the Spanish evacuation were
+from the Americans. They hemmed in Manila by a line reaching from water
+to water. We could not have taken Manila as we did, by little more than
+a show of force, had it not been for the fact that Spain&rsquo;s soldiers,
+thus, hemmed in by Aguinaldo&rsquo;s, could not retreat beyond the range of
+our naval guns. January 21, 1899, a Philippine Republic was set up, its
+capital being Malolos, which effectively controlled at least the Tagal
+provinces of Luzon. Its methods were irregular and arbitrary&mdash;natural in
+view of the prevalence of war. Aguinaldo, its soul from the first
+moment, became president.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/277Pic.jpg" width="465" height="277" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">A Company of Insurrectos near Bongued, Abra Province,
+just previous to surrendering early in 1901.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/278Pic_150.jpg" width="460" height="248" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">11th Cavalry Landing at Vigan, Ilocos, April, 1902.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The Philippine Republic wished and assumed to act for the archipelago,
+taking the place of Spain. It, of course, had neither in law nor in fact
+the power to do this, nor, under the circumstances, could the
+Administration at Washington, however desirable such a course from
+certain points of view, consent that it should at present even try. The
+Philippine question divided the country, raising numerous problems of
+fact, law, policy, and ethics, on which neither Congress nor the people
+could know its mind without time for reflection.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/279Pic.jpg" width="461" height="310" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Copyright, 1899, by Frances B. Johnston.<br/>
+Jules Cambon, the French Ambassador, acting for Spain, receiving from the
+Honorable John Hay, the U. S. Secretary of State, drafts to the amount of
+$20,000,000, in payment for the Philippines.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+When our commissioners met at Paris to draft the Treaty of Peace, one
+wished our demands in the Orient confined to Manila, with a few harbors
+and coaling stations. Two thought it well to take Luzon, or some such
+goodly portion of the archipelago. That the treaty at last called for
+the entire Philippine domain, allowing $20,000,000 therefor, was
+supposed due to insistence from Washington. Only the Vice-President&rsquo;s
+casting vote defeated a resolution introduced in the Senate by Senator
+Bacon, of Georgia, declaring our intention to treat the Filipinos as we
+were pledged to treat the Cubans. After ratification the Senate passed a
+resolution, introduced by Senator McEnery, of Louisiana, avowing the
+purpose not to make the Filipinos United States citizens or their land
+American territory, but to establish for them a government suited to
+their needs, in due time disposing of the archipelago according to the
+interests of our people and of the inhabitants.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap15"></a>CHAPTER XV.<br/>
+THE UNITED STATES IN THE ORIENT</h2>
+
+<p>
+WAR, CONTROVERSY, PEACE
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It was wholly problematical how long Aguinaldo unaided could dominate
+Luzon, still more so whether he would rule tolerably, and more uncertain
+yet whether centre or south would ever yield to him. The insurgents had
+foothold in four or five Visayan islands, but were never admitted to
+Negros, which of its own accord raised our flag. In Mindanao, the Sulu
+Islands, and Palawan they practically had no influence. Governor Taft
+was of opinion that they could never, unaided, have set up their sway in
+these southern regions. But should they succeed in establishing good
+government over the entire archipelago, clearly they must be for an
+indefinite period incompetent to take over the international
+responsibilities connected with the islands. To have at once conceded
+their sovereignty could have subserved no end that would have been from
+any point of view rational or humane.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The American situation was delicate. We were present as friends, but
+could be really so only by, for the time, seeming not to be so. At
+points we failed in tact. We too little recognized distinctions among
+classes of Filipinos, tending to treat all alike as savages. When our
+thought ceased to be that of ousting Spain, and attacked the more
+serious question what to do next, our manner toward the Filipinos
+abruptly changed. Our purposes were left unnecessarily equivocal. Our
+troops viewed the Filipinos with ill-concealed contempt. &ldquo;Filipinos&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;niggers&rdquo; were often used as synonyms.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Suspicion and estrangement reached a high pitch after the capture of
+Manila, when Aguinaldo, instead of being admitted to the capital, was
+required to fall still farther back, the American lines lying between
+him and the prize. December 21, 1898, the President ordered our
+Government extended with despatch over the archipelago. That the Treaty
+of Paris summarily gave not only the islands but their inhabitants to
+the United States, entirely ignoring their wishes in the matter, was a
+snub. Still worse, it seemed to guarantee perpetuation of the friar
+abuses under which the Filipinos had groaned so long. Outside Manila
+threat of American rule awakened bitter hostility. In Manila itself
+thousands of Tagals, lip-servants of the new masters, were in secret
+communion with their kinsmen in arms.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/283Pic.jpg" width="443" height="703" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Native Tagals at Angeles, fifty-one miles from Manila.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+No blood flowed till February 4, 1898, when a skirmish, set off by the
+shot of a bullyragged American sentry, led to war. February 22, 1899,
+the insurgents vainly attempted to fire Manila, but were pushed back
+with slaughter, their forces scattered.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+March 20, 1899, the first Philippine Commission&mdash;Jacob G. Schurman, of
+New York; Admiral Dewey; General Otis; Charles Denby, ex-minister to
+China; and Dean C. Worcester, of Michigan-began their labors at Manila.
+They set to work with great zeal and discretion to win to the cause of
+peace not only the Filipinos but the government of the Philippine
+Republic itself. In this latter they succeeded. Their proclamation that
+United States sway in the archipelago would be made &ldquo;as free, liberal,
+and democratic as the most intelligent Filipino desired,&rdquo; &ldquo;a firmer and
+surer self-government than their own Philippine Republic could ever
+guarantee,&rdquo; operated as a powerful agent of pacification.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+May 1, 1899, the Philippine Congress almost unanimously voted for peace
+with the United States. Aguinaldo consented. Mabini&rsquo;s cabinet, opposing
+this, was overturned, and a new one formed, pledged to peace. A
+commission of cabinet members was ready to set out for Manila to
+effectuate the new order.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A revolution prevented this. General Luna, inspired by Mabini, arrested
+the peace delegates and charged them with treason, sentencing some to
+prison, some to death. This occurred in May, 1899. After that
+time not
+so much as the skeleton of any Philippine public authority&mdash;president,
+cabinet, or other official&mdash;existed. Later opposition to the American
+arms seemed to proceed in the main not from real Filipino patriotism,
+but from selfishness, lust of power, and the spirit of robbery.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Everywhere and always Americans had to guard against treachery. In Samar
+false guides led an expedition of our Marine Corps into a wilderness and
+abandoned the men to die, cruelty which was deemed to justify
+retaliation in kind. Eleven prisoners subsequently captured were shot
+without trial as implicated in the barbarity. For this Major Waller was
+court-martialed, being acquitted in that he acted under superior orders
+and military necessity. A sensational feature of his trial was the
+production of General Smith&rsquo;s command to Major Waller &ldquo;to kill and
+burn&rdquo;; &ldquo;make Samar a howling wilderness&rdquo;; &ldquo;kill everything over ten&rdquo;
+(every native over ten years old). General Smith was in turn
+court-martialed and reprimanded. President Roosevelt thought this not
+severe enough and summarily retired him from active service.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/288Pic_150.jpg" width="467" height="288" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Bringing ammunition to the front for Gen. Otis&rsquo;s
+Brigade, north of Manila.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Despite vigilant censorship by the War Department, rumors of other
+cruelties on the part of our troops gained credence. It appeared that in
+not a few instances American soldiers had tortured prisoners by the
+&ldquo;water cure,&rdquo; the victim being held open-mouthed under a stream of
+water, the process sometimes supplemented by pounding on the abdomen
+with rifle-butts.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+These disgraces were sporadic, not general, and occurred, when they did
+occur, under terrible provocation. Devotion to duty, however trying the
+circumstances, was the characteristic behavior of our officers and men.
+Deeds of daring occurred daily. On November 14, 1900, Major John A.
+Logan, son of the distinguished Civil War general, lost his life in
+battle near San Jacinto. December 19th the brave General Lawton was
+killed in attacking San Mateo. Systematic opposition to our arms was at
+last ended by an enterprise involving both nerve and cleverness in high
+degree.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Our forces captured a message from Aguinaldo asking reenforcements. This
+suggested to General Frederick Funston, who had served with Cuban
+insurgents, a plan for seizing Aguinaldo. Picking some trustworthy
+native troops and scouts, Funston, Captain Hazzard, Captain Newton, and
+Lieutenant Mitchell, passed themselves off as prisoners and their forces
+as the reenforcements expected. When the party approached Aguinaldo&rsquo;s
+headquarters word was forwarded that reenforcements were coming, with
+some captured Americans. Aguinaldo sent provisions, and directed that
+the prisoners be treated with humanity. March 23, 1901, he received the
+officers at his house. After brief conversation they excused themselves.
+Next instant a volley was poured into Aguinaldo&rsquo;s body-guard, and the
+American officers rushed upon Aguinaldo, seized him, his chief of staff,
+and his treasurer. April 2, 1901, Aguinaldo swore allegiance to the
+United States, and, in a proclamation, advised his followers to do the
+same. Great and daily increasing numbers of them obeyed.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/291Pic.jpg" width="473" height="270" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Fort Malate, Cavite.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+To the Philippines, though Spain&rsquo;s de facto sovereignty there was hardly
+more than nominal, our title, whether or not good as based on conquest,
+was unimpeachable considered as a cession by way of war indemnity or
+sale. Nor, according to the weight of authority, could the right of the
+federal power to acquire these islands be denied. But did &ldquo;the
+Constitution follow the flag&rdquo; wherever American jurisdiction went? If
+not, what were the relations of those outlands and their peoples to the
+United States proper? Could inhabitants of the new possessions emigrate
+to the United States proper? Did our domestic tariff laws apply there as
+well as here? Must free trade exist between the nation and its
+dependencies? Were rights such as that of peaceable assemblage and that
+to jury trial guaranteed to Filipinos, or could only Americans to the
+manner born plead them?
+</p>
+
+<p>
+On the fundamental question whether the dependencies formed part of the
+United States the Supreme Court passed in certain so-called &ldquo;insular
+cases&rdquo; which were early brought before it. Four of the justices held
+that at all times after the Paris Treaty the islands were part and
+parcel of United States soil. Four held that they at no time became
+such, but were rather &ldquo;territories appurtenant&rdquo; to the country.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/292Pic.jpg" width="475" height="321" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">The Pasig River, Manila.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Mr. Justice Brown gave the &ldquo;casting&rdquo; opinion. Though reasoning in a
+fashion wholly his own, he sided, on the main issue, with the latter
+four of his colleagues, making it the decision of the court that Porto
+Rico and the Philippines did not belong to the United States proper,
+yet, on the other hand, were not foreign. The revenue clauses of the
+Constitution did not, therefore, forbid tariffing goods from or going to
+the islands. In the absence of express legislation, the general tariff
+did not obtain as against imports from the dependencies. This reasoning,
+it was observed, was equally applicable to mainland territories and to
+Alaska. The court intimated that, so far as applicable, the
+Constitution&rsquo;s provisions in favor of personal rights and human liberty
+accompanied the Stars and Stripes beyond sea as well as between our old
+shores.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Unsatisfactory to nearly all as was this utterance of a badly divided
+court, it sanctioned the Administration policy and opened the way for
+necessary legislation. It did nothing, however, to hush the
+anti-imperialist&rsquo;s appeal, based more upon the Declaration of
+Independence and the spirit of our national ideals.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It was said that having delivered the Filipinos from Spain &ldquo;we were
+bound in all honor to protect their newly acquired liberty against the
+ambition and greed of any other nation on earth, and we were equally
+bound to protect them against our own. We were bound to stand by them, a
+defender and protector, until their new government was established in
+freedom and in honor; until they had made treaties with the powers of
+the earth and were as secure in their national independence as
+Switzerland, Denmark, Belgium, Santo Domingo, or Venezuela.&rdquo; But we
+ought to bind ourselves and promise the world that so soon as these ends
+could be realized or assured we would leave the Filipinos to themselves,
+Such was the view of eminent and respected Americans like George F.
+Hoar, George S. Boutwell, Carl Schurz, and William J. Bryan.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+These and others urged that the Filipinos had inalienable right to life
+and to liberty; that our policy in the Philippines was in derogation of
+those rights; that Japan, left to herself, had stridden farther in a
+generation than England&rsquo;s crown colony of India in a century; that the
+Filipinos could be trusted to do likewise; that our increments of
+territory hitherto had been adapted to complete incorporation in the
+American empire while the new were not; and that growth of any other
+character would mean weakness, not strength. The mistakes, expense, and
+difficulties incident to expansion, and the misbehavior and crimes of
+some of our soldiers were exhibited in their worst light.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Rejoinder usually proceeded by denying the capacity of the Filipinos for
+self-government without long training. Even waiving this consideration,
+men found in international law no such mid-status between sovereignty
+and non-sovereignty as anti-imperialists wished to have the United
+States assume while the Filipinos were getting upon their feet. Many
+made great point of minimizing the abuses of our military government and
+of dilating upon native atrocities. The material wealth of the
+archipelago was described in glowing terms. Only American capital and
+enterprise were needed to develop it into a mine of national riches. The
+military and commercial advantages of our position at the doorway of the
+East, our duty to protect lives and property imperilled by the
+insurgents, and our manifest destiny to lift up the Filipino races, were
+dwelt upon. The argument having chief weight with most was that there
+seemed no clear avenue by which we could escape the policy of American
+occupation save the dishonorable and humiliating one of leaving the
+islands to their fate&mdash;anarchy and intestine feuds at once, conquest by
+Japan, Germany, or Spain herself a little later.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+All demanded that abuses in connection with our rule should be punished
+and the repetition of such made impossible, and that whatever power we
+exercised should be lodged, without regard to party, in the hands of men
+of approved fitness and high and humane character. American tutelage, if
+it were to exist, must present to our wards the best and not the worst
+side of our civilization, and do so with tact and sympathy.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/297Pic.jpg" width="458" height="408" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">The Inauguration of Governor Taft, Manila, July 4. 1901.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+On April 17, 1900, William H. Taft, of Ohio; Dean C. Worcester, of
+Michigan; Luke E. Wright, of Tennessee; Henry C. Ide, of Vermont; and
+Bernard Moses, of California, were commissioned to organize civil
+government in the archipelago. Three native members were subsequently
+added to the commission. Municipal governments were to receive attention
+first, then governments over larger units. Local self-government was to
+prevail as far as possible. Pending the erection of a central
+legislature, the commission was invested with extensive legislative
+powers. Civil government was actually inaugurated July 4, 1901. Judge
+Taft was the first civil governor, General Adna R. Chaffee military
+governor under him.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Educational work in the Philippines was pressed from the very beginning
+of American control. Our military authorities reopened the Manila
+schools, making attendance compulsory. In a short time the number of
+schools in the archipelago doubled. By September, 1901, the commission
+had passed a general school law, and had placed the schools throughout
+the archipelago under systematic organization and able headship. About
+1,000 earnest and capable men and women went out from the States to
+teach Filipino youth. Five hundred towns received one or more American
+teachers each. Associated with them there were in the islands some 2,500
+Filipino teachers, mostly doing primary work.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/299Pic.jpg" width="387" height="504" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Group of American Teachers on the steps of the Escuela
+Municipal, Manila.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+American teachers advanced into the interior to the neediest tribes.
+Nine teachers early settled among the Igorrotes, scattered in towns
+along the Agno River, and an industrial and agricultural school was soon
+planned for Igorrote boys. Normal schools and manual training schools
+were organized. Colonial history, whether ancient or modern, had never
+witnessed an educational mission like this.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap16"></a>CHAPTER XVI.<br/>
+POLITICS AT THE TURNING OF THE CENTURY</h2>
+
+<p>
+McKinley and Bryan were presidential candidates again in 1900. It was
+certain long beforehand that they would be, even when Admiral Dewey
+announced that he was available. The admiral seemed to offer himself
+reluctantly, and to be relieved when assured that all were sorry he had
+done so.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+McKinley was unanimously renominated. Unanimously also, yet against his
+will, Governor Theodore Roosevelt, of New York, was named with him on
+the ticket. The Democratic convention chose Bryan by acclamation; his
+mate, ex-Vice-President Adlai E. Stevenson, by ballot.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The 1900 campaign called out rather more than the usual crop of one-idea
+parties. The Prohibitionists, a unit now, took the field on the &ldquo;army
+canteen&rdquo; issue, making much of the fact that our increased export to the
+Philippines consisted largely of beer and liquors to curse our soldiers.
+The anti-fusion or &ldquo;Middle-of-the-road&rdquo; Populists, the Socialist Labor
+Party, the Socialist-Democrats, and the United Christian Party all made
+nominations.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The Gold Democratic National Committee, while recommending State
+committees to keep up their organizations, regarded it inexpedient to
+name a ticket. They reaffirmed the Indianapolis platform of 1896, and
+again recorded their antagonism to the Bryan Democracy. Certain
+volunteer delegates who met in September found themselves unable to
+tolerate either the commercialism which they said actuated the
+Philippine war, or &ldquo;demagogic appeals to factional and class passions.&rdquo;
+They nominated Senator Caffery, of Louisiana, and Archibald M. Howe, of
+Massachusetts. These gentlemen declined, whereupon it was decided to
+have no ticket.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/303pic.jpg" width="754" height="469" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">W. J. Bryan accepting the nomination for President at
+a Jubilee Meeting held at Indianapolis, August 8, 1900.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+A number of loosely cohering bodies accorded the Democratic ticket their
+support while making each its own declaration of doctrine. The Farmers&rsquo;
+Alliance and Industrial Union, through its Supreme Council, gave
+anticipatory endorsement to the Democratic candidate so early as
+February. May 10th the Fusion Populists nominated Bryan, naming,
+however, Charles A. Towne instead of Stevenson for the vice-presidency.
+Towne withdrew in Stevenson&rsquo;s favor. The Silver Republicans likewise
+nominated Bryan, making no vice-presidential nomination. The
+Anti-imperialist League, meeting in Indianapolis after the Democratic
+convention, approved its candidates, its view as to the &ldquo;paramount
+issue,&rdquo; and its position thereon.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+For a time after his able Indianapolis speech accepting the various
+nominations, Mr. Bryan&rsquo;s election seemed rather probable spite of
+incessant Republican efforts to break him down. He had personally gained
+much strength since 1896. There was not a State in the Union whose
+Democratic organization was not to all appearance solid for him, an
+astounding change in four years. An organization of Civil War Veterans
+was electioneering for him among old soldiers. Powerful Democratic and
+independent sheets which had once vilified now extolled him. He was
+sincere, straightforward, and fearless. His demand at Kansas City that
+the platform read so and so or he would not run, while probably unwise,
+showed him no trimmer.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Many Gold Democrats had returned to the party. The gold standard law,
+approved March 14, 1900, made it impossible for a President, even if he
+desired to do so, to place the country&rsquo;s money on an insecure basis
+without the aid of a Congress friendly in both its branches to such a
+design. There was, to be sure, effort to make this law appear imperfect;
+to show that Mr. Bryan, if elected, could, without aid from Congress,
+debauch the monetary system. But these assertions had little basis or
+effect. Silver dollars could be legally paid by the Government for a
+variety of purposes; but outside holders of silver could not get it
+coined, and the Treasury could not buy more.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+New issues&mdash;imperialism and the trusts&mdash;seemed certain to be
+vote-winners for the Democracy. The cause of anti-imperialism had taken
+deep hold of the public mind, drawing to its support a host of eminent
+and respected Republicans. The Democratic platform expressly named this
+the &ldquo;paramount issue&rdquo; of the campaign. The party in power defended its
+Philippine policy in the manner sketched at the end of the last chapter,
+ever asserting, of course, that so far as consistent with their welfare
+and our duties the Filipinos must be accorded the largest possible
+measure of self-government. In this tone was perceived some
+sensitiveness to the anti-imperialist cry. Though Republican campaign
+writers and speakers affected to ignore this issue, some of them denying
+its existence, imperialism was more and more discussed.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+After the Spanish War the question whether the United States should, the
+inhabitants agreeing, keep any of the territory obtained from Spain,
+divided the Democratic as well as the Republican ranks. So long as
+expansion meant merely addition to United States territory and
+population after the time-honored fashion, and this was at first all
+that anyone meant by expansion, no end of prominent Democrats were
+expansionists. But for their devotion to the policy of protection and
+their determination to continue high protection at all costs, the
+Republicans might have kept in existence this Democratic schism over
+expansion.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+According to the Constitution as almost unanimously interpreted (the
+&ldquo;insular cases&rdquo; referred to in the last chapter had not yet been
+decided), customs duties must be uniform at all United States ports. If
+Luzon was part of the United States in the usual sense of the words,
+rates of duty on given articles must be the same at Manila as at New
+York. If the Philippine Islands and Porto Rico were parts of the United
+States in the full sense, tariff rates at their ports could not be low
+unless low in New York, New Orleans, San Francisco, and elsewhere.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/309Pic.jpg" width="756" height="461" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">The Republican National Convention, held in Philadelphia, June 1, 1900.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+No considerable or general tariff reduction for the United States proper
+was to be thought of by the Republicans. But it would not do to maintain
+in the ports of the new possessions the high duties established by law
+in the United States proper. Were this done, the United States would in
+effect be forcing its colonies to buy and sell in the suzerain country
+alone, as was done by George III. through those Navigation Acts which
+occasioned the Revolutionary War. Such a system was certain to be
+condemned. If the expansion policy was to succeed in pleasing our people
+a plan had to be devised by which duties at the new ports could be
+reduced to approximate a revenue level while remaining rigidly
+protective in the old ports.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Out of this dilemma was gradually excogitated the theory, which had been
+rejected by nearly all interpreters of the Constitution, that the United
+States can possess &ldquo;appurtenant&rdquo; territory, subject to, but not part of
+itself, to which the Constitution does not apply save so far as Congress
+votes that it shall apply. So construed, the Constitution does not ex
+proprio vigore follow the flag. Under that construction, inhabitants of
+the acquired islands could not plead a single one of its guaranties
+unless Congress voted them such a right. If Congress failed to do this,
+then, so far as concerned the newly acquired populations, the
+Constitution might as well never have been penned. They were subjects of
+the United States, not citizens.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The Republican party&rsquo;s first avowal of this &ldquo;imperialist&rdquo; theory and
+policy was the Porto Rico tariff bill, approved April 12, 1900,
+establishing for Porto Rico a line of customs duties differing from that
+of the United States. This bill was at first disapproved by President
+McKinley. &ldquo;It is our plain duty,&rdquo; he said, &ldquo;to abolish all customs
+tariffs between the United States and Porto Rico, and give her products
+free access to our markets.&rdquo; Until after its passage the bill was
+earnestly opposed both by a number of eminent Republican statesmen
+besides the President and by nearly all the leading Republican party
+organs. Every possible plea&mdash;constitutional, humanitarian, prudential&mdash;
+was urged against it. The bill passed, nevertheless.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The result was a momentous improvement in Democratic prospects. The
+schism on expansion which had divided the Democratic party was closed at
+once, while many Republicans who had deemed the taking over of the
+Philippines simply a step in the nation&rsquo;s growth similar in nature to
+all the preceding ones, and had laughed at imperialism as a Democratic
+&ldquo;bogy,&rdquo; changed their minds and sidled toward the Democratic lines.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In their long and able arguments against the Porto Rico tariff,
+Republican editors and members of Congress provided the opposite party
+with a great amount of campaign material. Often as a Republican on the
+hustings or in the press declared imperialism not an issue, or at any
+rate not an important one, he was drowned in a flood of recent
+quotations from the most authoritative Republican sources proving that
+it was not only an issue, but one of the most important ones which ever
+agitated the Republic. As Democrats put it, Balaam prophesied in favor
+of Israel.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Several minor matters were much dwelt upon by campaigners, with a net
+result favorable to the Democrats. A great many in his own party
+believed, no doubt wrongly, that the President&rsquo;s policy had in main
+features been influenced by consideration for powerful financial
+interests, or that at points these had in effect coerced him to courses
+contrary to what he considered best. The commissariat scandal in the
+Spanish War incensed many, as did the growth of army, navy, and
+&ldquo;militarism&rdquo; incident to the new colonial policy.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/315Pic.jpg" width="676" height="470" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Parade of the Sound Money League, New York, 1900. Passing
+the Reviewing Stand.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Then there was the awkwardness with which the Administration had treated
+the Filipinos. In 1900 it seemed clear that these people could never be
+brought under the flag otherwise than by coercion. Anti-imperialists
+were not alone in the conviction that Aguinaldo&rsquo;s followers had been
+needlessly contemned, harassed, and exasperated, and that had greater
+frankness, tact, and forbearance been used toward them they would, of
+their own accord, have sought the shelter of the Stars and Stripes.
+Moreover, our measures toward the Filipinos had alienated Cuba, so that
+the voluntary adhesion of this island to the United States, so desirable
+and once so easily within reach, was no longer a possibility; while the
+coercion of Cuba, in view of our profession when we took up arms for
+her, would be condemned by all mankind as national perfidy.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The sympathy of official Republicanism with the British in the Boer War
+tended to solidify the Irish vote as Democratic, but&mdash;and it was among
+the novelties of the campaign&mdash;Republicans no longer feared to alienate
+the Irish. The Government&rsquo;s apparent apathy toward the Boers also drove
+into the Democratic ranks for the time a great number of Dutch and
+German Republicans. Colored voters were in this hegira, believing that
+the adoption of the &ldquo;subject-races&rdquo; notion into American public law and
+policy would be the negro&rsquo;s despair. The championing of this movement by
+the Republican party they regarded as a renunciation of all its
+friendship for human liberty.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The Republican campaign watchword was &ldquo;Protection.&rdquo; Press and platform
+dilated on the fat years of McKinley&rsquo;s administration as amply
+vindicating the Dingley Act. &ldquo;The full dinner pail,&rdquo; said they, &ldquo;is the
+paramount issue.&rdquo; Trusts and monopolies they denounced, as their
+opponents did, but they declared that these &ldquo;had nothing to do with the
+tariff.&rdquo; There was wide and intense hostility toward monopolistic
+organizations. They were decried on all hands as depressing wages,
+crushing small producers, raising the prices of their own products and
+lowering those of what they bought, depriving business officials and
+business travellers of positions, and working a world of other mischief
+politically, economically, and socially. They had rapidly multiplied
+since the Republicans last came into power, and nothing had been done to
+check the formation of them or to control them.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Why, then, was not Democracy triumphant in the campaign of 1900? When
+the lines were first drawn a majority of the people probably disapproved
+the Administration&rsquo;s departure into fields of conquest, colonialism, and
+empire. Republicans themselves denied that a &ldquo;full dinner pail&rdquo; was the
+most fundamental of considerations. Few Republican anti-imperialists
+were saved to the party by the venerable Senator Hoar&rsquo;s faith that after
+a while it would surely retrieve the one mistake marring its record. Nor
+was it that men like Andrew Carnegie could never stomach the Kansas City
+and Chicago heresies, or that the Republicans had ample money, or yet
+that votes were attracted to the Administration because of its war
+record and its martial face. Agriculture had, to be sure, been
+remunerative. Also, before election, the strike in the Pennsylvania hard
+coal regions had, at the earnest instance of Republican leaders, been
+settled favorably to the miners, thus enlisting extensive labor forces
+in support of the status quo; but these causes also, whether by
+themselves or in conjunction with the others named, were wholly
+insufficient to explain why the election went as it did.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A partial cause of Mr. Bryan&rsquo;s defeat in 1900 was the incipient waning
+of anti-imperialism, the conviction growing, even among such as had
+doubted this long and seriously, that the Administration painfully
+faulty as were some of its measures in the new lands, was pursuing there
+absolutely the only honorable or benevolent course open to it under the
+wholly novel and very peculiar circumstances.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A deeper cause&mdash;the decisive one, if any single cause may be pronounced
+such&mdash;was the fact that Mr. Bryan primarily, and then, mainly owing to
+his strong influence, also his party, misjudged the fundamental meaning
+of the country&rsquo;s demand for monetary reform. The conjunction of good
+times with increase in the volume of hard money made possible by the
+world&rsquo;s huge new output of gold, might have been justly taken as
+vindicating the quantity theory of money value, prosperity being
+precisely the result which the silver people of 1896 prophesied as
+certain in case the stock of hard money were amplified. Bimetallists
+could solace themselves that if they had, with all other people, erred
+touching the geology of the money question, in not believing there would
+ever be gold enough to stay the fall of prices, their main and essential
+reasonings on the question had proved perfectly correct. Good fortune,
+it might have been held, had removed the silver question from politics
+and remanded it back to academic political economy.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Probably a majority of the Democrats in 1900 felt this. At any rate the
+Kansas City convention would have been quite satisfied with a formal
+reaffirmation of the Chicago platform had not Mr. Bryan flatly refused
+to run without an explicit platform restatement of the 1896 position.
+His hope, no doubt, was to hold Western Democrats, Populists, and Silver
+Republicans, his anti-imperialism meanwhile attracting Gold Democrats
+and Republicans, especially at the East, who emphatically agreed with
+him on that paramount issue. But it appeared as if most of this,
+besides much else that was quite as well worth while, could have been
+accomplished by frankly acknowledging and carefully explaining that gold
+alone had done or bade fair to do substantially the service for which
+silver had been supposed necessary; for which, besides, it would really
+have been required but for the unexpected and immense increase in the
+world&rsquo;s gold crop through a long succession of years.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The Republican leaders gauged the situation better. Mr. McKinley, to a
+superficial view inconsistent on the silver question, was on this point
+fundamentally consistent throughout. With all the more conservative
+monetary reformers he merely wished the fall of prices stopped, and such
+increment to the hard money supply as would effect that result. The
+metal, the kind of money producing the needed increase was of no
+consequence. When it became practically certain that gold alone, at
+least for an indefinite time, would answer the end, he was willing to
+relinquish silver except for subsidiary coinage.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The law of March 14, 1900, put our paper currency, save the silver
+certificates, and also all national bonds, upon a gold basis, providing
+an ample gold reserve. Silver certificates were to replace the treasury
+notes, and gold certificates to be issued so long as the reserve was not
+under the legal minimum. If it ever fell below that the Secretary of the
+Treasury had discretion.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Other notable features of this law were its provision for refunding the
+national debt in two per cent. gold bonds&mdash;a bold, but, as it proved,
+safe assumption that the national credit was the best in the world&mdash;and
+the clause allowing national banks to issue circulating notes to the par
+value of their bonds.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Our money volume now expanded as rapidly as in 1896 advocates of free
+coinage could have expected even with the aid of free silver. July 1,
+1900, the circulation was $2,055,150,998, as against $1,650,223,400
+four years before. Nearly $163,000,000 in gold certificates had been
+uttered. The gold coin in circulation had increased twenty per cent. for
+the four years; silver about one-eighth; silver certificates one-ninth.
+The Treasury held $222,844,953 of gold coin and bullion, besides some
+millions of silver, paper, and fractional currency.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The Republican victory was the most sweeping since 1872. The total
+popular vote was 13,970,300, out of which President McKinley scored a
+clear majority of 443,054, and a plurality over Bryan of 832,280. Of the
+Northern States Bryan carried only Colorado, Idaho, and Nevada. He lost
+his own State and was shaken even in the traditionally &ldquo;solid South.&rdquo;
+Unnecessarily ample Republican supremacy was maintained in the
+legislative branch of the Government.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap17"></a>CHAPTER XVII.<br/>
+THE TWELFTH CENSUS</h2>
+
+<p>
+The plan for a permanent census bureau was not realized in time for the
+1900 enumeration, but the act authorizing this provided important
+modifications in prior census procedure. Among several great
+improvements it made the census director practically supreme in his
+methods and over appointments and removals in his force.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Initial inquiries were restricted to (1) population, (2) mortality, (3)
+agriculture, and (4) manufactures. Work on these topics was to be
+completed not later than July 1, 1902. During the year after, special
+reports were to be prepared on defective, criminal and pauper classes,
+deaths and births, social data in cities, public indebtedness, taxation
+and expenditures, religious bodies, electric light and power, telephone
+and telegraph, water transportation, express business, street railways,
+mines and mining. A few titles mentioned in the eleventh census were now
+omitted.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/326Pic.jpg" width="211" height="241" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Mr. Merriam, Director of the Census.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The enumeration extended to Alaska. Two men had charge of it there.
+Enumerators went out afoot, by dog-teams, canoes, steamboats&mdash;up rivers,
+over mountains, through forests. The Indian Territory was for the first
+time canvassed like other portions of the Union, and so was the new
+territory of Hawaii.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The United States were divided into 207 supervisor districts and 53,000
+enumeration districts. Enumeration began June 1, 1900, continuing two
+weeks in cities, elsewhere thirty days. Persons in the navy, army, and
+on Indian reservations were numbered. For those in institutions there
+were special enumerators. Each enumerator used a &ldquo;street-book&rdquo; or daily
+record, individual slips for returns of persons absent when the
+enumerator called, and an &ldquo;absent family&rdquo; schedule.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The returns were tabulated by an electrical device first employed ten
+years before. Its work was automatic and so fine that it would even
+obviate errors. For instance, age, sex, etc., being denoted by
+punch-holes in cards, the machine would refuse to pass a card punched to
+indicate that the person was three years old and married.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Nearly 2,000 employees toiled upon the census during the latter part of
+1900, and nearly a thousand during the entire year, 1901. From July 14,
+1900, piecemeal results were announced almost daily. By October the
+population of the principal cities was out. A preliminary statement of
+total population was given to the press, October 30, 1900, followed by a
+verified one a month later. The first official report on population was
+made December 6, 1901, within eighteen months from the completion of the
+enumerators&rsquo; work. Results were first issued in sixty bulletins, all
+subsequently included in the first half of the first volume. Two volumes
+were devoted to population, three to manufactures, two to agriculture,
+and two to vital statistics. One contained an abstract of the whole.
+Following these came volumes on special lines of inquiry.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/328Pic.jpg" width="474" height="325" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Census Examination.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The population of the United States, not including Porto Rico or the
+Philippines, was found to be 76,303,387, an increase of not quite 21 per
+cent. in the decade, or less than during any previous similar period of
+our history. All the States and territories save Nevada were better
+peopled than ever before. Nevada lost 10.6 per cent. of her inhabitants,
+as against two and a half times that percentage between 1880 and 1890,
+occupying in 1900 about the same tracks as in 1870. Oklahoma people
+increased 518.2 per cent. Indian Territory, Idaho, and Montana came next
+in rapidity of growth. Kansas, with 2.9 per cent. increase, and
+Nebraska, with only 0.7 per cent., showed the slowest progress, the
+figures resulting in considerable part from padded returns in 1890.
+Vermont, Delaware, and Maine crawled on at a snail&rsquo;s pace. In numerical
+advance New York, Pennsylvania, and Illinois led. Texas marched close to
+them, overhauling Massachusetts. In percentage of increase the southern,
+central, and western divisions were in the van.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Almost a third of our people were now urban, ten times the proportion of
+1790. The rate of urban increase (36.8 per cent.) was, however, smaller
+than during any preceding decade, except 1810-1820, and was notably less
+than the 61.4 per cent. urban increase from 1880 to 1890. Numerically
+also city growth was less than at the preceding census.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+There were 545 places of 8,000 or more inhabitants, with an average
+population of 45,857. Of the larger cities fully half adjoined the
+Atlantic. Greater New York, a monster composite of nearly three and a
+half millions, ranked first among American cities, and second only to
+London among those of the world. Chicago, Philadelphia, St. Louis,
+Boston, and Baltimore followed in the same order as a decade before. The
+enterprising lake rivals, Cleveland and Buffalo, had raced past San
+Francisco and Cincinnati. Pittsburgh, instead of New Orleans, now came
+next after the ten just named.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+There were, as in 1890, three cities of more than a million inhabitants
+each. There were six of more than 500,000, as against four in 1890. Of
+cities having between 400,000 and 500,000 people none appeared in 1900;
+three in 1890. Five cities now had over 300,000 and less than 400,000, a
+class not represented at all in 1890. Thirty-eight cities used in
+numbering their people six figures or more each, a privilege enjoyed in
+1890 by only twenty-eight. The cities of the Pacific coast showed
+noteworthy increase.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Ohio, Indiana, Delaware, Kansas, and Nebraska and all the North Atlantic
+States except Rhode Island, Connecticut, and Pennsylvania, lost in rural
+population. Rhode Island, with 407 inhabitants to the square mile, was
+the most densely peopled State. Massachusetts came next. Idaho, Montana,
+New Mexico, Arizona, Wyoming, and Nevada could not show two souls to the
+square mile. Alaska, doubled in population, had one in about ten square
+miles. No western State had ten to the mile.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The Twelfth Census revealed slight change in the centre of population.
+This now stood six miles southeast of Columbus, Ind., having moved west
+only fourteen miles since 1890. In computing its position neither Hawaii
+nor Alaska were considered. Never before had its occidental shunt been
+less than thirty-six miles in a decade. For three score years it had not
+fallen under forty per decade. What sent it southward two and a half
+miles was the doubling of population in the Indian Territory and the
+filling of Oklahoma. The trifling shift of fourteen miles westward
+pointed significantly to the exhaustion of free land in the West and to
+the immense growth of manufactures, mining, and commerce in eastern and
+central States, retaining there the bulk of our immigrants and even
+recalling people from the newer States and territories.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Males still bore about the same proportion to females as in 1890,
+although females had increased at a rate 0.2 per cent. greater than
+males. In the North Atlantic and South Atlantic groups the sexes were
+equal in numbers.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+At the South alone did the negro continue a considerable element.
+Eighty-nine per cent. of the negroes lived there. At the North only
+Pennsylvania had any large numbers. The country held 8,840,789, an
+increase of 18.1 per cent. in ten years, the percentage of white
+increase being 21.4 per cent. In West Virginia and Florida, also in the
+black belts, especially that of Alabama, blacks multiplied faster than
+whites. In Delaware and Georgia the pace was even. In Alabama as a
+whole, however, the negro element had not relatively increased since
+1850. Blacks outnumbered Caucasians in South Carolina and Mississippi,
+no longer in Louisiana. In Mississippi the black majority shot up
+phenomenally. Of the total population the negroes were now only 11.6 per
+cent., barely one-ninth, as against one-fifth in 1790. Between 1890 and
+1900 the proportion of the colored increased both at the North and at
+the far South, diminishing in the border southern States. This indicated
+migration both northward and southward from the belt of States just
+south of Mason and Dixon&rsquo;s line.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/333Pic.jpg" width="471" height="188" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">The Census Office, Washington, D. C.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The foreign-born fraction of our population, which had alternately risen
+and fallen since 1860, now fell again, from 14.8 per cent. to 13.7 per
+cent. The South retained its distinction as the most thoroughly American
+section of the land, having a foreign nativity population varying from
+7.9 per cent. in Maryland to only 0.2 per cent. in North Carolina.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The foreign born, conspicuous in the Northwest and the North Atlantic
+States, were mostly confined to cities. They had augmented only 12.4 per
+cent. as against 38.5 per cent. from 1880 to 1890. Nearly a third of the
+recorded immigration from 1890 to 1900 was missing in the enumeration,
+due only in part to census errors. Many foreigners had returned to their
+native lands, most numerous among these being Canadians. The
+preponderance of immigrants was no longer from Ireland, Canada, Great
+Britain, and Germany, but from Austria-Hungary, Bohemia, Italy, Russia,
+and Poland.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In 1900 the United States proper had 89,863 Chinese against 107,488 in
+1890. Of Japanese there were 24,326 against only 2,039 in 1890. In the
+Hawaiian Islands alone the Chinese numbered 25,767 and the Japanese
+61,111. Natives of Germany still constituted the largest body of our
+foreign born, being 25.8 per cent. of the whole foreign element compared
+with 30.1 per cent. in 1890. The proportion was about the same in 1900 as
+in 1850.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The Irish were 15.6 per cent. of the foreign born. The figures had been
+20.2 per cent. in 1890, and 42.8 per cent. in 1850. The proportion of
+native Scandinavians and Danes had slightly increased. Poles. Bohemians,
+Austrians, Huns, and Russians comprised 13.4 per cent. of the foreign
+born as against 6.9 per cent. in 1890, and less than one-third per cent.
+in 1850.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The congressional apportionment act based on the twelfth census, and
+approved January 16, 1902, avoided the disagreeable necessity of cutting
+down the representation of laggard States by increasing the House
+membership from 357 to 386, a gain of twenty-nine members. Twelve of
+these (reckoning Louisiana) came from west of the Mississippi, two from
+New England, three each from Illinois and New York, four from the
+southern States east of the Mississippi, two each from Pennsylvania and
+New Jersey, and one from Wisconsin.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The number of farms shown by the twelfth census was over five and
+one-half million, four times the number reported in 1850, and more than
+a million above the number reported in 1890. This wonderful increase,
+greater for the last decade than for any other except that between 1870
+and 1880, denoted a vast augmentation of cultivated area in the South
+and in the middle West. Oklahoma, Indian Territory, and Texas alone
+added over two hundred thousand to the number of their farms. The
+increase in value of farm resources exceeded the total value of
+agricultural investments fifty years before.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In the abundant year of 1899 our cereal crops exceeded $1,484,000,000 in
+value, more than half this being in corn. The hay crop was worth over
+$445,000,000, that of potatoes $98,387,000, that of tobacco $56,993,000.
+Next to corn stood cotton, the crop for this year reaching a value of
+$323,758,000. The total value of farm and range animals in 1900 was
+$2,981,722,945.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/337Pic.jpg" width="465" height="420" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">A Census-taker at work.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The census of 1850 reported 123,000 manufacturing establishments, with a
+capital of $533,000,000. In 1900 there were 512,000 manufacturing
+establishments, capitalized at $9,800,000,000, employing 5,321,000 wage
+earners, and evolving $13,004,400,000 worth of product.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In ten years the number of manufacturing plants and the value of
+products appeared to have increased some 30 per cent. The capital
+invested had multiplied slightly more, about a third. The number of
+hands employed had risen but a fifth, betokening the greater efficiency
+of the individual laborer, and the substitution of machine work for that
+of men&rsquo;s hands.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Of seventy-three selected industries in 209 principal cities, the most
+money, $464,000,000, was invested in foundries and machine shops; the
+next most, $363,000,000, in breweries. $289,000,000 are employed in iron
+and steel manufacturing.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Our foreign commerce for the fiscal year 1899-1900 reached the astounding total
+of $2,244,424,266, exceeding that of the preceding year by $320,000,000. Our
+imports were $849,941,184, an amount surpassed only in 1893. Our total exports
+were $1,394,483,082. The favorable balance of trade had continued for some
+time, amounting for three years to $1,689,849,387, much of which meant the
+lessening of United States indebtedness abroad. The chief commodities for which
+we now looked to foreign lands were first of all sugar, then hides, coffee,
+rubber, silk, and fine cottons. In return we parted with cotton from the South
+and bread-stuffs from the North, each exceeding $260,000,000 in value. Next in
+volumes exported were provisions, meat, and dairy products, worth $184,453,055.
+Iron and steel exports, including $55,000,000 and more in machinery, were
+valued at about $122,000,000. The live-stock shipped abroad was appraised at
+about $181,820,000. About 3-1/2 per cent. of our imports came from Cuba, about
+20 per cent. from Hawaii, and about 1 per cent. from Porto Rico, Samoa, and the
+Philippines.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In 1902 the tables were turned somewhat. American exports fell off and
+the home market was again invaded. Imported steel billets were sold at
+the very doors of the Steel Corporation factories.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+So abundant were the revenues the year named, exceeding expenditures by
+$79,500,000, that war taxes were shortly repealed. &ldquo;A billion dollar
+Congress&rdquo; would now have seemed economical. Our gross expenditures the
+preceding year had been $1,041,243,523. For 1900 they were $988,797,697.
+Our national debt, lessened during the year by some $28,000,000 or
+$30,000,000, stood at $1,071,214,444.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap18"></a>CHAPTER XVIII.<br/>
+THE PAN-AMERICAN EXPOSITION, 1901</h2>
+
+<p>
+The time had come for North and South America to unite in a noble
+enterprise illustrating their community of interests. United States
+people were deplorably ignorant of their southern neighbors, this
+accounting in part for the paucity of our trade with them. They knew as
+little of us. Our war with Spain had caused them some doubts touching
+our intentions toward the Spanish-Americans. An exposition was a hopeful
+means of bringing about mutual knowledge and friendliness. But the fair
+could not be ecumenical. At Chicago and Paris World&rsquo;s Fairs had reached
+perhaps almost their final development. To compete in interest, so soon,
+with such vast displays, an exposition must specialize and condense.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+On May 20th, the day of opening, a grand procession marched from Buffalo
+to the Exposition grounds. Inspired by the music of twenty bands
+representing various nations, the parade wound through the park gate up
+over the Triumphal Bridge into the Esplanade. As the doors of the Temple
+of Music were thrown open, ten thousand pigeons were released, which,
+wheeling round and round, soared away to carry in all directions their
+messages announcing that the Exposition had begun. The Hallelujah Chorus
+was rendered, when Vice-President Roosevelt delivered the dedicatory
+address.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The authors of the Pan-American, architects, landscape-gardeners,
+sculptors, painters, and electricians, aimed first of all to create a
+beautiful spectacle. Entering by the Park Gateway you passed from the
+Forecourt, attractive by its terraces and colonnades, to the Triumphal
+Bridge, a noble portal, with four monumental piers surmounted by
+equestrian figures, &ldquo;The Standard-bearers.&rdquo; This dignified entrance was
+in striking contrast with the gaudy and barbarous opening to the Paris
+Exposition. From the gate the whole panorama spread out before the eye.
+Down the long court with its fountains, gardens, and encircling
+buildings, you saw the Electric Tower soaring heavenward, fit expression
+of the mighty power from Niagara, which at night made it so glorious.
+The central court bore the form of a cross. At either side of the gate
+lay transverse courts, each adorned with a lake, fountains, and sunken
+gardens, and ending in curved groups of buildings. On the east was the
+Government Group; on the west that devoted to horticulture, mines, and
+the graphic arts. The intersection of the two arms formed the Esplanade,
+spacious enough for a quarter of a million people, and commanding a
+superb view. Connected by pergolas with the building in the transverse
+ends two structures, the Temple of Music and the Ethnology Building,
+stood like sentinels at the entrance to the Court of Fountains. A group
+of buildings enclosed this court, terminating in the Electric Tower at
+the north. From the Electric Tower round to the Gateway again all the
+buildings were joined by cool colonnades. Beyond the Tower was the
+Plaza, a charming little court, its sunken garden and band-stand
+surrounded by colonnades holding statuary.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/343Pic.jpg" width="469" height="285" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">The Electric Tower and Fountains.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The broad and spacious gardens with their wealth of verdure, their
+lakes, fountains, and statuary, formed a picture of indescribable charm.
+Nothing here suggested exhibits. Instead, spectators yielded to the
+spell of the beautiful scene. Chicago was serious and classic; Buffalo
+romantic, picturesque, even frivolous. The thought seemed to have been
+that, life in America being so intense, a rare holiday ought to bring
+diversion and amusement. No style of architecture could have contributed
+better to such gayety than the Spanish-Renaissance, light, ornate, and
+infinitely varied, lending itself to endless decoration in color and
+relief, and no more delicate compliment could have been paid our
+southern neighbors than this choice of their graceful and attractive
+designs. Each building was unique and original in plan. Domes,
+pinnacles, colonnades, balconies, towers, and low-tiled roofs afforded
+endless variety. The Electric Tower, designed by Mr. Howard, the central
+point in the scheme of architecture, its background of columns and its
+airy perforated walls and circular cupola with the Goddess of Light
+above, combined massiveness with lightness. Other buildings were
+strikingly quaint and pleasing, especially those suggesting the old
+Southern Missions. All blended into the general scheme with scarcely a
+discord. This harmony was not accidental, but resulted from combined
+effort, each architect working at a general plan, yet not sacrificing
+his individual taste. It was an object lesson in massive architecture,
+showing how easily public edifices may be made beautiful each in itself,
+and to increase each other&rsquo;s beauty by artistic grouping.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/345Pic.jpg" width="280" height="172" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">The Ethnology Building and United States Government Building.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Perhaps the most novel feature of the Fair was the coloring. Charles Y.
+Turner&rsquo;s colors-scheme, original and daring, called forth much
+criticism. With the Chicago White City the Rainbow City at Buffalo was a
+startling contrast. But the artist knew what he was doing when he boldly
+applied the gayest and brightest colors to buildings and columns, and
+added to the quaint architecture that bizarre and oriental touch in
+keeping with the festal purposes of the occasion. The rich, warm tones
+formed a perfect background for the white statuary, the green foliage,
+and the silvery fountains. The Temple of Music was a Pompeian red,
+Horticultural Hall orange, with details of blue, green, and yellow. The
+whole effect was fascinating, and at night, when the electric lights
+illumined and softened the tones, fairy-like.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/347Pic.jpg" width="434" height="482" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">The Temple of Music by Electric Light.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+But the coloring had a deeper meaning than this. Mr. Turner tried to
+depict, in his gradations of tone, the struggle of Man to overcome the
+elements, and his progress from barbarism to civilization. Thus, at the
+Gate, the strongest primary colors were used in barbaric warmth, yet in
+their warmth suggestive of welcome. As you advanced down the court the
+tones became milder and lighter, until they culminated in the soft ivory
+and gold of the Electric Tower, symbol of Man&rsquo;s crowning achievements.
+Everywhere you found the note of Niagara, green, symbolizing the great
+power of the falls.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Many forgot that in all this Mr. Turner was working from Greek models.
+Color was lavishly used on the Athenian temples, rich backgrounds of red
+or blue serving to throw the sculptural adornments into vivid relief.
+Buffalo was in this a commentary on classic art, revealing what fine
+effects may be produced by out-of-door coloring when suited to
+surroundings. We saw that in our timid, conventional avoidance of
+exterior colors we had missed something; that cheerful colors might well
+supplant on our houses the eternal sombre of gray and brown, as they so
+often and so gloriously do in nature.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The power sculpture may have in exterior decoration was also taught. At
+Buffalo statues were not set up in long rows as in museums. Instead you
+beheld noble and beautiful groups in natural environments of bright
+green foliage with temples and blue sky above, or forming pediments and
+friezes upon buildings. White nymphs and goddesses bent over fountains
+or peeped from beneath trees or the ornate columns of pergolas. One was
+greeted at every turn by these gleaming figures, a vital and integral
+part of the landscape.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Carl Bitter, director of sculpture, aimed to make sculpture teach while
+it decorated. He sought to tell in sculpture the story of man and
+nature. In the lake fronting the Government Building stood a fountain of
+Man. A half-veiled form, mysterious Man, occupied a pedestal composed of
+figures of the five senses. Underneath the basin the Virtues struggled
+with the Vices. Minor groups depicted the different ages. The most
+remarkable was Mr. Konti&rsquo;s Despotic Age. The grim tyrant sat in his
+chariot, driven by Ambition, who goaded on the four slaves in the
+traces, while Justice and Mercy cowered in chains behind. In the
+opposite court was told the story of Nature. Most striking there was Mr.
+Elwell&rsquo;s figure of Kronos, standing, with winged arms, on a turtle. From
+the Fountain of Abundance on the Esplanade, Flora was represented as
+tossing garlands of flowers to the chubby cherubs at her feet. The main
+court, dedicated to the achievements of man, had groups representing the
+Human Intellect and Emotions. The sculptures about the Electric Tower
+naturally related to the Falls. There were primeval Niagara and the
+Niagara of today, as well as figures symbolic of the Lakes and the
+Rivers.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/350Pic.jpg" width="467" height="359" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Group of Buffalos&mdash;Pan-American Exposition.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Copies of the most famous marbles, like the Playful Faun and the Venus
+of Melos, embellished the Plaza. Many fine modern pieces adorned the
+grounds, as Roth&rsquo;s stirring &ldquo;Chariot Race&rdquo; and St. Gaudens&rsquo;s equestrian
+statue of General Sherman. Sculpture was profusely used to beautify
+buildings. Wholly original and charming were the four groups for the
+Temple of Music: Heroic Music, Sacred Music, Dance Music, and Lyric
+Music. Perched in every corner were figures of children playing
+different instruments.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Much of the sculpture, was careless in execution&mdash;not surprising when we
+consider that over 500 pieces were set up in less than five months, and
+that the artists&rsquo; models had to be enlarged by machinery. But in vigor
+and originality of thought and as a testimony to the progress which art
+had made in this country, the exhibit was truly wonderful. All the arts
+were employed. To many it was mainly an Art Exhibition, the artistic
+feature making a stronger impression than any other. As a work of art
+the Exposition could not but effect permanent good, demonstrating what
+may be done to beautify our cities and dwellings and cultivating our
+love for the beautiful in art and nature.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The supreme glory of the Exposition lay in its electrical illumination.
+Niagara was used to create a city of light more dazzling than any dream.
+&ldquo;As the moment for the illumination approached, the band hushed and a
+stillness fell upon the multitude. Suddenly dull reddish threads
+appeared on the globes of the near-by lamp-pillars. A murmur of
+expectation ran through the crowd. For an instant the great tower seemed
+to pulse with a thread of life before the eye became sensible to what
+had taken place. Then its surfaces gleamed with a faint flush like the
+flush which church spires catch from the dawn. This deepened slowly to
+pink and then to red. . . . In a moment the architectural skeletons of
+the great buildings had been picked out in lines of red light. Then the
+whole effect mellowed into luminous yellow. The material exposition had
+been transfigured, and its glorified ghost was in its place. . . . Every
+night this modern miracle was worked by the rheostat housed in a humble
+shed somewhere in the inner recesses of the exposition.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/353Pic.jpg" width="467" height="382" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">The Electric Tower at Night.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The centre of light was the Tower. It was suffused with the loveliest
+glow of gold, ivory, and delicate green, all blending. The lights
+revealed and interpreted the architecture softening the colors and
+adding the subtle charm of mystery. A hundred beautiful hues were
+reflected in the waters of the fountains. The floral effects made by
+submerged lights in the basin were exquisite, and the witchery of the
+scene was indescribable.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The chaining of Niagara for electric purposes was of course a prominent
+feature of the fair. Electricity was almost, or quite, the sole motor
+used on the grounds; 5,000 horsepower being directly from Niagara&rsquo;s
+total of 50,000. Niagara circulated the salt water in the fisheries and
+kept their water at the right temperature. It operated telephones,
+phonographs, soda fountains, the big search-lights, the elevators, the
+machines in the Machinery Building, the shows and illusions in the
+Midway.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+At Chicago we were ashamed of the Midway. We had since learned to play.
+Buffalo used utmost ingenuity to provide sensations and novelties. The
+Midway was made fascinating. You saw in it every variety of buildings,
+representing all countries from Eskimodom to Darkest Africa. Cairo had
+eight streets with 600 natives. The Hawaiian and Philippine villages
+were centres of interest, revealing the every-day life of our new-won
+lands. In Alt-Nurnberg you dined to the strains of a German orchestra.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/355Pic.jpg" width="443" height="265" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Triumphal Bridge and entrance to the Exposition, showing
+electric display at night.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The magnificent amphitheatre, covering ten acres, a monument to American
+athletics, was built after the marble Stadium of Lycurgus at Athens. An
+Athletic Congress celebrated American supremacy in athletic sports. The
+programme included basket-ball tournaments, automobile, bicycle, and
+track and field championship races, lacrosse matches, and canoe &ldquo;meets.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The exhibits at Buffalo, though less ample, naturally showed advance
+over the corresponding ones at Chicago. The guns and ammunition of the
+United States ordnance department excited interest, for we were now
+making our own war supplies. A picturesque log building was devoted to
+forestry. The Graphic Arts Building showed the great strides made in
+printing and engraving. A model dairy was operated in a quaint little
+cottage on the grounds. Fifty cows of the best breeds were tested and
+the tests recorded.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A conservatory contained a very fine collection of food plants, alive
+and growing, sent from South and Central America; also eight different
+kinds of tea plants from South Carolina. A small coffee plantation and
+some vanilla vines had been transplanted from Mexico. Nearly every
+country in Spanish America was represented. Cuba, San Domingo, Ecuador,
+Chile, Honduras, Mexico, and Canada had buildings. Sections in the
+Government Building were devoted to exhibits from Porto Rico, the
+Hawaiian Islands, and the Philippines.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/357Pic.jpg" width="476" height="294" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">The Electricity Building.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The United States Government Building was most interesting. New
+inventions made its exhibits live. In place of reading reports and
+statistics, you saw scenes and heard sounds. Class-room songs and
+recitations were reproduced by the graphophone. The biograph showed
+naval cadets marching while at the same time you heard the band music.
+Labor-saving machines were represented in full operation. Pictures by
+wire, the mutoscope, and type-setting by electricity were among the
+wonders shown. Every day a crew of the life-saving service gave a
+demonstration, launching a life-boat and rescuing a sailor. Near by was
+a field hospital, where wounded soldiers were cared for. Many of the
+newest uses for electricity were displayed. Never before had lighting
+been so brilliant or covered such large areas, or such speed in
+telegraphy been attained, or telephoning reached such distances. The
+akouphone, a blessing to the deaf, was exhibited, as were also the
+powerful search-lights now a necessity at sea.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="chap19"></a>CHAPTER XIX.<br/>
+MR. MCKINLEY&rsquo;S END</h2>
+
+<p>
+Upon invitation President and Mrs. McKinley visited the Pan-American
+Exposition at Buffalo. September 5, 1901, the first day of his presence,
+the Chief Magistrate delivered an address, memorable both as a sagacious
+survey of public affairs and as indicating a modification of his
+well-known tariff opinions in the direction of freer commercial
+intercourse with foreign nations.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+&ldquo;We must not,&rdquo; he said, &ldquo;repose in fancied security that we can forever
+sell everything and buy little or nothing.&rdquo; ... &ldquo;The period of
+exclusiveness is past.&rdquo; &ldquo;Reciprocity treaties are in harmony with the
+spirit of the times; measures of retaliation are not.&rdquo; ... &ldquo;If perchance
+some of our tariffs are no longer needed for revenue or to encourage and
+protect our industries at home, why should they not be employed to
+extend and promote our markets abroad?&rdquo; In connection with this thought
+the President expressed his conviction that we must encourage our
+merchant marine and, in the same commercial interest, construct a
+Pacific cable and an Isthmian canal.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The projects of Mr. McKinley&rsquo;s statesmanship thus announced were
+approved by nearly the entire public, but they were destined to be
+carried out by other hands. On his second day at Buffalo, Friday,
+September 6th, about four in the afternoon, the President stood in the
+beautiful Temple of Music receiving the hundreds who filed past to shake
+hands with him. A sinister fellow, resembling an Italian, tarried
+suspiciously, and was pushed forward by the Secret Service attendants.
+Next behind him followed a boyish-looking workman, his right hand
+swathed in a handkerchief. As the first made way Mr. McKinley extended
+his hand to the young man&rsquo;s unencumbered left. The next instant the
+bandaged right arm raised itself and two shots rang on the air. The
+President staggered back into the arms of a bystander, while his
+treacherous assailant was borne to the floor.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/361Pic.jpg" width="761" height="473" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">President McKinley at Niagara<br/>
+Ascending the stairs from Luna Island, to Goat Island.<br/>
+Copyright, 1901, by C. E. Dunlap.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/363Pic.jpg" width="475" height="513" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">The last photograph of the late President McKinley. Taken as
+he was ascending the steps of the Temple of Music, September 6, 1901.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Grievously wounded as he was in breast and in stomach, the President&rsquo;s
+first thoughts were for others. He requested that the news be broken
+gently to Mrs. McKinley, and, it was said, expressed regret that the
+occurrence would be an injury to the exposition. As cries of &ldquo;Lynch him&rdquo;
+arose from the maddened crowd, the stricken chief urged those about him
+to see that no hurt befel the assassin. The latter was speedily secured
+in prison to await the result of his black deed, while President
+McKinley was without delay conveyed to the Emergency Hospital, where his
+wounds were dressed.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Except for continued weakness and rapid heart action, the symptoms
+during the early days of the succeeding week gave strong hopes of the
+patient&rsquo;s recovery. At the home of Mr. Milburn, President of the
+exposition, whose guest he was, President McKinley received the
+tenderest care and most skilful treatment. So far allayed was anxiety
+that the Cabinet officers left Buffalo, while Vice President Roosevelt
+betook himself to a sequestered part of the Adirondacks. The President
+himself, vigorous and naturally sanguine, did not give up till Friday, a
+week from the date of his injury.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/365Pic.jpg" width="475" height="488" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">The Milburn Residence, where President McKinley died&mdash;Buffalo, N. Y.<br/>
+Copyright, 1902, by Underwood &amp; Underwood.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Upon that day his condition became alarming. The digestive organs
+abdicated their functions, nourishment even by injection became
+impossible, traces of septic poison were manifest. By night the world
+knew that McKinley was a dying man. In the evening he regained
+consciousness and bade farewell to those about him. &ldquo;Good-by, good-by,
+all; it is God&rsquo;s way; His will be done.&rdquo; The murmured words came from
+his lips, &ldquo;Nearer, my God, to Thee; e&rsquo;en tho&rsquo; it be a cross that raiseth
+me.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+At the early morning hour of 2.45, Saturday, September 14th, the rest
+which is deeper than any sleep came to the sufferer. The autopsy showed
+that death was due to gangrene of the tissues in the path of the wound,
+the system having failed to repair the ravages of the bullet that had
+entered the abdomen.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The next Monday morning, after a simple funeral ceremony at the Milburn
+mansion, the remains were reverently borne to the Buffalo City Hall,
+where, till midnight, mourning columns filed past the catafalque. The
+body lay in state under the Capitol rotunda at Washington for a day, and
+was borne thence, hardly a moment out of hearing of solemn bells or out
+of sight of half-masted flags and dumb, mourning multitudes, to the old
+home at Canton, Ohio. Here the late Chief Magistrate&rsquo;s fellow-townsmen,
+his old army comrades, and other thousands joined the procession to the
+cemetery or tearfully lined the streets as it passed.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/367Pic.jpg" width="765" height="459" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Ascending the Capitol steps at Washington, D, C., where the
+casket lay in state in the Rotunda.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+On the day of the interment, September 19th, appropriate exercises,
+attended by enormous concourses of people, occurred all over the
+country, and even in foreign parts. In hardly an American town of size
+could a single building contain the crowd, overflow meetings being
+necessary, filling several churches or halls. Special commemorative
+services were held in Westminster Cathedral by King Edward&rsquo;s orders.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+No king was ever honored by obsequies so widespread or more sincere.
+Messages of condolence poured in upon the widow from the four quarters
+of the globe. Business was suspended. For five minutes telegraph clicks
+and cable flashes ceased, and for ten minutes, upon many lines of
+railway and street railway, every wheel stood still.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+None but the rash undertook, at once after his lamented decease, to
+assign President McKinley&rsquo;s name to its exact altitude on the roll of
+America&rsquo;s illustrious men. Ardent eulogists spoke of him as beside the
+nation&rsquo;s greatest statesman, Lincoln, while his most pronounced
+opponents in life accorded him very high honor. During his career he had
+been accused of opportunism, of inconsistency, of partiality to the
+moneyed interests of the country. His views of great public questions
+underwent change. One of his altered attitudes, much remarked upon, that
+concerning silver, involved, as pointed out in the last chapter, no
+change of essential principle. In regard to protection he at last swung
+to Blaine&rsquo;s position favoring reciprocity, which, as author of the
+McKinley Bill, he had been understood to oppose; but it should be
+remembered that his final utterances on the subject contemplated an
+industrial situation very different from that prevalent during his early
+years in politics. The United States had become a mighty exporter of
+manufactured products, competing effectively with England, Germany, and
+France in the sale of such everywhere in the world.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+American material supplied in large part the Russian Trans-Siberian
+Railroad. American food-stuffs and meats wakened agrarian frenzy in
+Germany. The island-hive of England buzzed loudly with jealous
+foreboding lest America capture her world-markets. From an average of
+close to $163,000,000 annually from 1887 to 1897 United States exports
+of manufactured products reached in 1898 over $290,000,000, in 1899 over
+$339,000,000, in 1900 nearly $434,000,000, and in 1901, $412,000,000. As
+coal-producer the United States at last led Britain, American tin-plate
+reached Wales itself, American locomotives the English colonies and even
+the mother-country, while boots and shoes from our factories ruled the
+markets of West Australia and South Africa. For bridge and viaduct
+construction in British domains American bids heavily undercut British
+bids both in price and in time limit.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+His progressive insight into the tariff question betrayed Mr. McKinley&rsquo;s
+mental activity and hospitality, as his final deliverances thereupon
+exhibited fearlessness. None knew better than he that what he said at
+Buffalo would be challenged by many in the name of party orthodoxy. Even
+greater firmness was manifest when, at an earlier date, speaking at
+Savannah, he ranked Robert E. Lee and Stonewall Jackson as among
+America&rsquo;s &ldquo;great&rdquo; sons. With this brave tribute should be mentioned his
+commendable nomination of the ex-Confederate Generals Fitz-Hugh Lee and
+Joseph Wheeler as Major-Generals in the United States Army. Such words
+and deeds showed skilled leadership also. Each was fittingly timed so as
+best to escape or fend criticism and so as to impress the public deeply.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/372Pic.jpg" width="466" height="461" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">President McKinley&rsquo;s Remains Passing the United States
+Treasury, Washington, D.C.<br/>
+Copyright, 1901, by Underwood &amp; Underwood.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Not a little of Mr. McKinley&rsquo;s apparent vacillation and of his
+complaisance toward men and interests representing wealth was due to an
+endowment of exquisite finesse which stooped to conquer, which led by
+seeming to follow, or by yielding an inch took an ell. In him was rooted
+by inheritance a quick sense of the manufacturer&rsquo;s point of view, for
+his father and grandfather had been iron-furnace men, and a certain
+conservative instinct, characteristic of his party, which deemed the
+counsel of broadcloth wiser than the clamor of rags, and equally
+patriotic withal. Notwithstanding this, history cannot but pronounce
+McKinley&rsquo;s love of country, his whole Americanism, in fact, as sincere,
+sturdy, and democratic as Abraham Lincoln&rsquo;s.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Mr. McKinley&rsquo;s power and breadth as a statesman were greatly augmented
+by the responsibilities of the presidency. Before his accession to that
+exalted office he had helped devise but one great public measure, the
+McKinley Bill, and his speeches upon his chosen theme, protection, were
+more earnest than varied or profound. But witness the largeness of view
+marking the directions of April 7, 1900, to the Taft Philippine
+Commission: &ldquo;The Commission should bear in mind that the government
+which they are establishing is designed not for our satisfaction or for
+the expression of our theoretical views, but for the happiness, peace,
+and prosperity of the people of the Philippine Islands, and the measures
+adopted should be made to conform to their customs, their habits, and
+even their prejudices, to the fullest extent consistent with the
+accomplishment of the indispensable requisites of just and effective
+government.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Most of President McKinley&rsquo;s appointments were wise; several of the most
+important ones quite remarkably so. He managed discreetly in crises. He
+saw the whole of a situation as few statesmen have done, penetrating to
+details and obscure aspects, which others, even experts, had overlooked.
+During the Spanish War his advice was always wise and helpful, and at
+points vital. Courteous to all foreign powers, and falling into no
+spectacular jangles with any, he was obsequious to none. No other ruler,
+party to intervention in China during the Boxer rebellion in 1900, acted
+there so sanely, or withdrew with so creditable a record.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+What made it certain that Mr. McKinley&rsquo;s name would be forever
+remembered with honor was not merely or mainly the fact that his
+administration marked a great climacteric in our national career. His
+intimates in office and in public life unanimously testified that in
+shaping the nation&rsquo;s new destiny he played an active and not a passive
+role. He dominated his cabinet, diligently attending to the advice each
+member offered, but by no means always following it. Party bosses
+seeking to lead him were themselves led, oftenest without being aware of
+it, to accomplish his wishes.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/376Pic.jpg" width="469" height="396" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">The Home of William McKinley, at Canton, Ohio.<br/>
+Copyright, 1901, by Underwood &amp; Underwood.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+As a practical politician in the better sense of the word McKinley was a
+master. Repeatedly, at critical junctures, he saved his following from
+rupture, while the opposition became an impotent rout. Hardly a contrast
+in American political warfare has been more striking than the pitiful
+demoralization of the Democracy in the campaign of 1900 compared with
+the closed ranks and solid front of the Republican array.
+Anti-imperialists like Carnegie and Hoar, silver men like Senator
+Stewart, and the low-tariff Republicans of the West united to hold aloft
+the McKinley banner.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The result was not due, as some fancied, to Mr. Hanna. Nor did it mean
+that there was no discord among Republicans, for there was much. The
+discipline proceeded from the candidate&rsquo;s influence, from his
+harmonizing personal leadership. This he exercised not through oratory,
+for he had none of the tricks of speech, not even the knack of
+story-telling, but by the mere force of his will and his wisdom.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Mr. McKinley&rsquo;s private character was pure, exemplary, and noble. His
+life-long devotion to an invalid wife; his fidelity to his friends; the
+charm, consideration, and tact of his demeanor toward everyone; and,
+above all, the Christian sublimity of his last days created at once a
+foundation and a crown for his fame.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Ex-President Cleveland said: &ldquo;You will constantly hear as accounting for
+Mr. McKinley&rsquo;s great success that he was obedient and affectionate as a
+son, patriotic and faithful as a soldier, honest and upright as a
+citizen, tender and devoted as a husband, and truthful, generous,
+unselfish, moral, and clean in every relation of life. He never thought
+of those things as too weak for his manliness.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A special grand jury forthwith indicted the assassin, who, talking
+freely enough with his guards, refused all intercourse with the
+attorneys assigned to defend him, and with the expert sent to test his
+sanity. He was promptly placed upon trial, convicted, sentenced, and
+executed, all without any of the unseemly incidents attending the trial
+of Guiteau after Garfield&rsquo;s assassination. No heed was given to those
+who, some of them from pulpits, fulminated anarchy as bad as that of the
+anarchists by demanding that Czolgosz be lynched. These prompt but
+perfectly orderly and dispassionate proceedings were a great credit to
+the State of New York.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Leon Czolgosz, the murderer of President McKinley, was born in this
+country, of Russian-Polish parentage, in 1875. He received some
+education, was apprenticed to a blacksmith in Detroit, and later
+employed in Cleveland and in Chicago. At the time of his crime he had
+been working in a Cleveland wire mill. It was said that at Cleveland he
+had heard Emma Goldman deliver an anarchist address, and that this
+inspired his fell purpose. It was suspected that he was the tool of an
+anarchist plot, and that the man preceding him in the line when he shot
+the President was an accomplice, but there was no evidence that either
+was true. There were indications that Czolgosz had made overtures to the
+anarchists and been rejected as a spy. No accessories were found. Nor
+did the dreadful act betoken that anarchism was increasing in our
+country, or that any special propagandism in its favor was on. To all
+appearance, it stood unrelated, so far as America was concerned.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Leon Czolgosz&rsquo;s heart had caught fire from the malignant passion of red
+anarchy abroad, which had within seven years struck down the President
+of France, the Empress of Austria, the King of Italy, and the Prime
+Minister of Spain. In their fanatic diabolism its devotees impartially
+hated government, whether despotic or free, and would, no doubt, gladly
+have made America, the freest of the great commonwealths, for that
+reason a hatching ground for their dark conspiracies.
+They were no less hostile to one than to the other of our political
+parties. The murder had no political significance, though certainly
+calculated to rebuke virulent editorials and cartoons in political
+papers, wont to season political debate with too hot personal condiment,
+printed and pictorial. President McKinley had suffered from this and so
+had his predecessor.
+</p>
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<img src="images/380Pic.jpg" width="478" height="311" alt="[Illustration]" />
+<p class="caption">Interior of room in Wilcox House where Theodore Roosevelt
+took the oath of Presidency.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Upon such an occasion orderly government, both in the States and in the
+nation, reasonably sought muniment against any possible new danger from
+anarchy. McKinley&rsquo;s own State leading, States enacted statutes
+denouncing penalties upon such as assailed, by either speech or act, the
+life or the bodily safety of anyone in authority. The Federal Government
+followed with a similar anti-anarchist law of wide scope.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Deeply as the country prized McKinley&mdash;and the sense of loss by his
+death increased with the days&mdash;Vice-President Theodore Roosevelt took
+over the presidency with as little jar as a military post suffers from
+changing guard.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES ***</div>
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+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
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+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #22777 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/22777)
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of History of the United States, Volume 5, by 
+E. Benjamin Andrews
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: History of the United States, Volume 5
+
+Author: E. Benjamin Andrews
+
+Release Date: September 27, 2007 [EBook #22777]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY UNITED STATES ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Don Kostuch
+
+
+
+
+[Transcriber's Notes]
+
+Text has been moved to avoid fragmentation of sentences.
+
+Here are the definitions of some uncommon words.
+
+ad valorem
+  In proportion to the value:
+
+akouphone
+  Table model hearing aid sold around 1900.
+
+auriferous
+  Containing gold.
+
+balustrades
+  Rail and the row of posts that support it.
+
+between Scylla and Charybdis
+  Between two perilous alternatives, which cannot be passed without
+  falling victim to one or the other.
+
+biograph
+  Moving-picture machine.
+
+brevet
+  Promoting a military officer to a higher rank without an increase of
+  pay and with limited exercise of the higher rank, often granted as an
+  honor immediately before retirement.
+
+Caryatids
+  Sculptured female figure used as a column.
+
+catafalque
+  Raised structure on which a deceased person lies or is carried in
+  state. A hearse.
+
+Charybdis
+  Daughter of Gaea and Poseidon, a monster mentioned in Homer and later
+  identified with the whirlpool Charybdis, in the Strait of Messina off
+  the NE coast of Sicily. See: between Scylla and Charybdis.
+
+climacteric
+  Period of decrease of reproductive capacity; any critical period; a
+  year of important changes in health and fortune.
+
+cloture
+  Closing a debate and causing an immediate vote to be taken on the
+  question.
+
+Cobden Club
+  A gentlemen's club in West London founded in the 1870s and named after
+  Richard Cobden. The club offers "art and entertainment for the working
+  man".
+
+derogation
+  Detract, as from authority, estimation, etc.; stray in character or
+  conduct; degenerate; disparage or belittle.
+
+enginery
+  Machinery consisting of engines collectively.
+
+Ethnology
+  Branch of anthropology that analyzes cultures, (formerly) a branch of
+  anthropology dealing with the origin, distribution, and distinguishing
+  characteristics of the races of humankind.
+
+excogitated
+  Think out; devise; invent; study intently to comprehend fully.
+
+execrable
+  Utterly detestable; abominable; abhorrent; very bad:
+
+ex proprio vigore
+  By its own strength; of its own force.
+
+fyke net
+  Long bag net distended by hoops; fish can pass easily in, without
+  being able to exit.
+
+gonfalons
+  Banner suspended from a crosspiece, especially for an ecclesiastical
+  procession or as the ensign of a medieval Italian republic.
+
+graphophone
+  Phonograph for recording and reproducing sounds on wax records.
+
+hegira
+  Journey to a more desirable or congenial place.
+
+hustings
+  Temporary platform where candidates for the British Parliament stood
+  when nominated and from which they addressed the electors; any place
+  where political campaign speeches are made; political campaign trail.
+
+imbroglios
+  Complicated or bitter misunderstanding; confused heap.
+
+mare clausum
+  Body of navigable water under the sole jurisdiction of a nation.
+
+memoriter
+  By heart; by memory.
+
+modus vivendi
+  Manner of living; way of life; lifestyle. Temporary arrangement
+  pending a settlement of matters in debate.
+
+mugwumpery
+  Republican who refused to support the party nominee, James G. Blaine,
+  in the presidential campaign of 1884. Uncommitted person; a person who
+  is neutral on a controversial issue.
+
+muniment
+  Title deed or a charter, defending rights.
+
+mutoscope
+  Simple form of moving-picture machine; a series of views are printed
+  on paper and mounted around the periphery of a wheel. The rotation of
+  the wheel brings them sequentially into view and the blended effect
+  renders apparent motion.
+
+Nestor
+  Oldest and wisest of the Greeks in the Trojan War and a king of Pylos.
+
+obloquy
+  Censure, blame, or abusive language; discredit, disgrace, denunciation.
+
+outre-mer
+  French: Overseas.
+
+pergolas
+  Arbor or a passageway of columns supporting a roof or trelliswork of
+  climbing plants.
+
+Plaisance
+  Place laid out as a pleasure garden or promenade.
+
+pelagic
+  Pertaining to the oceans; living near the surface of the ocean, far
+  from land.
+
+pendency
+  Pending, undecided, as a lawsuit awaiting settlement.
+
+peristyle
+  Colonnade surrounding a building or an open space.
+
+porphyry
+  Purplish-red rock containing small crystals of feldspar.
+
+quadrennium
+  Four years.
+
+quadriga
+  Two-wheeled chariot drawn by four horses abreast.
+
+rapprochement
+  Establishment of harmonious relations.
+
+recreant
+  Coward, craven, unfaithful, disloyal, apostate, traitor, renegade.
+
+recrudescence
+  Recurrence of symptoms after a period of improvement.
+
+redoubtable
+  To be feared; formidable; commanding respect, reverence.
+
+reprobated, reprobation
+  Depraved, unprincipled, wicked; beyond hope of salvation.
+
+Scylla
+  Female sea monster who lived in a cave opposite Charybdis and devoured
+  sailors. See: between Scylla and Charybdis.
+
+truckling
+  Submit tamely; grovel, bow, concede, kowtow.
+
+unwonted
+  Usual; rare.
+
+[End Transcriber's Notes]
+
+
+
+HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+From a photograph copyright, 1899, by Pach Bros., N. Y.
+President William McKinley.
+
+
+
+HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES
+
+FROM THE EARLIEST DISCOVERY OF AMERICA TO THE PRESENT TIME
+
+BY
+
+E. BENJAMIN ANDREWS
+
+CHANCELLOR OF THE UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA
+FORMERLY PRESIDENT OF BROWN UNIVERSITY
+
+With 650 Illustrations and Maps
+
+VOLUME V.
+
+NEW YORK
+CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS
+1912
+
+COPYRIGHT, 1903 AND 1905, BY
+CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS
+[Illustration: Scribner's Logo.]
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+PERIOD VI
+
+
+EXPANSION
+
+
+1888--1902
+
+CHAPTER I. DRIFT AND DYE IN LAW--MAKING
+
+General Revision and Extension of State Constitutions.
+Introduction of Australian Ballot in Various States.
+Woman Suffrage in the West.
+Negro Suffrage in the South.
+Educational Qualification.
+"The Mississippi Plan."
+South Carolina Registration Act.
+The "Grandfather" Clause in Louisiana Constitution.
+Alabama Suffrage.
+
+
+CHAPTER II. THE PRESIDENTIAL CAMPAIGN OF 1888
+
+Tariff Reform Democratic Creed.
+Republican Banner, High Protection.
+Republican Convention at Chicago.
+Nomination of Benjamin Harrison for President.
+Biographical Sketch of Benjamin Harrison.
+Political Strength in the West.
+National Association of Democratic Clubs and Republican League.
+Civil Service as an Issue in Campaign.
+Democratic Blunders.
+The "Murchison" Letter.
+Lord Sackville-West Given His Passports.
+Use of Money in Campaign by Both Political Parties.
+Tariff the Main Issue.
+Trusts.
+"British Free Trade."
+Popular Vote at the Election.
+
+
+CHAPTER III. MR. HARRISON'S ADMINISTRATION
+
+Steamship Subsidies Advocated.
+Chinese Immigration and the Geary Law.
+Immigration Restriction.
+Thomas B. Reed Institutes Parliamentary Innovations
+  in the House of Representatives.
+Counting a Quorum.
+The "Force Bill" in Congress.
+Resentment of the South.
+Defeated in Senate.
+The "Billion Dollar Congress" and the Dependent Pensions Act.
+Pension Payments.
+The McKinley Tariff Act and "Blaine" Reciprocity.
+International Copyright Act Becomes a Law.
+Mr. Blaine as Secretary of State.
+Murder by "Mafia" Italians Causes Riot in New Orleans.
+The Itata at San Diego, California.
+The "Barrundia" Incident.
+U. S. Assumes Sovereignty Over Tutuila, Samoa.
+Congressional Campaign, 1890.
+
+
+CHAPTER IV. NON-POLITICAL EVENTS OF PRESIDENT HARRISON'S TERM
+
+Commemorative Exercises of the Centennial Anniversary
+  of Washington's Inauguration as President.
+Verse Added to Song "America."
+Whittier Composes an Ode.
+Unveiling of Lee Monument.
+Sectional Feeling Allayed.
+The Louisiana Lottery Put Down.
+The Opening of Oklahoma.
+Sum Paid Seminole Indians.
+The Messiah Craze of the Indians.
+The Johnstown Flood.
+The Steel Strike at Homestead, Pa.
+Congressional Investigation.
+Riot in Tennessee Over Convict Labor in the Mines.
+Mormonism.
+America Aids Russia in Famine.
+
+
+CHAPTER V. THE WORLD'S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION
+
+Preparation for the World's Fair.
+Columbus Day in Chicago.
+In New York.
+Presidential Election of 1892.
+The Campaign.
+Cleveland and Harrison Nominated by the Respective Parties.
+Populism.
+Gen. Weaver Populistic Candidate.
+Reciprocity in the Campaign of 1892.
+Result of the Election.
+Opening Exercises of the World's Fair.
+The Buildings and Grounds.
+The Spanish Caravals.
+The Court of Honor.
+Burning of the Cold Storage Building.
+Government Exhibits.
+Midway Plaisance.
+The Ferris Wheel.
+Buildings Burned.
+Fair Not a Financial Success.
+The Attendance.
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.  ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL MOVEMENT
+
+Growth of Population in Cities and States.
+Centre of Population.
+The Railroads.
+Industrial Progress.
+Development of Use of Electricity in Telegraph, Telephone,
+  Lighting, and Manufacturing.
+Niagara Falls Harnessed.
+Thomas A. Edison.
+Nikola Tesla.
+The Use of the Bicycle.
+Growth of Agriculture and Improvement of Implements.
+Position of Women.
+The Salvation Army Established in America.
+Its Growth and Work.
+
+
+CHAPTER VII. MR. CLEVELAND AGAIN PRESIDENT
+
+Democratic Congress.
+President Extends Merit System.
+Anti-Lottery Bill.
+President Calls a Special Session of Congress.
+Sale of Bonds to Maintain Reserve of Gold.
+The Wilson Tariff Law Passed.
+Income Tax Unconstitutional.
+Bond Issues.
+Foreign Affairs.
+Coup d'etat of Provisional Government of Hawaii.
+Special Commissioner.
+Queen Liliuokalani.
+Queen Renounces Throne.
+President Cleveland's
+Venezuelan Message.
+Measures to Preserve National Credit.
+Venezuelan Boundary Commission.
+Lexow Committee Investigation in New York City.
+Reform Ticket Elected.
+Greater New York.
+American Protective Association.
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII. LABOR AND THE RAILWAYS
+
+The March of the Coxey Army.
+Arrest of Leaders.
+The American Railway Union
+Strike.
+Refusal of Pullman Company to Arbitrate.
+Association of General Managers.
+Federal Injunction.
+Federal Riot Proclamation and Troops Detailed.
+Governor Altgeld's Protest.
+Debs.
+"Government by Injunction."
+Commission of Investigation.
+General Allotment of Indian Lands Under the Dawes Act.
+
+
+CHAPTER IX. NEWEST DIXIE
+
+Harmony Between North and South.
+Consecration of Chickamauga-Chattanooga Military Park.
+Agricultural Development in the South.
+Manufactures.
+Natural Products.
+Southern Characteristics.
+The "Black Belt."
+ Montgomery Conference on the Negro Question.
+Lynching.
+Booker T. Washington and the Tuskegee Institute.
+Negro Population.
+
+
+CHAPTER X. THE MEN AND THE ISSUE IN 1896
+
+Free Silver Coinage Issue in the Campaign.
+Republican Convention in St. Louis.
+The Money Plank in the Platform.
+Withdrawal of Senator Teller and Free Silver Delegates.
+William McKinley and Garret A. Hobart Nominated for
+  President and Vice-President.
+Sketch of Life of William McKinley.
+Democratic Convention Held in Chicago.
+Demand for Free and Unlimited Coinage of Silver.
+William J. Bryan Makes "Cross of Gold" Speech.
+Delegates Refuse to Vote.
+W. J. Bryan and Arthur Sewall Nominated.
+Sketch of William J. Bryan.
+Thomas Watson Nominated for Vice-President by Populist Convention.
+National or Gold Democratic Ticket.
+Speeches Made by Candidates.
+Result of the Election.
+
+
+CHAPTER XI. MR. MCKINLEY'S ADMINISTRATION
+
+John Sherman, William R. Day, and John Hay as Secretary of State.
+Other Members of Cabinet.
+Revival of Business in 1897.
+Gold Discovery in Yukon, Klondike, and Cape Nome.
+Alaskan Boundary Controversy Between United States and Great Britain.
+Joint High Commission Canvasses Boundary and Sealing Question.
+Estimate of Loss to Seal Herd.
+Sealskins Ordered Confiscated and Destroyed at United States Ports.
+Hawaiian Islands Annexed.
+Special Envoys to the Powers Appointed
+  to Consider International Bi-Metallism.
+President Withdraws Positions from the Classified Service.
+Extra Session of Congress.
+Passes Dingley Tariff Act.
+Reciprocity Clauses.
+Grant Mausoleum Completed.
+Presentation Ceremonies at New York.
+
+
+CHAPTER XII. THE WAR WITH SPAIN
+
+Cuban Discontent with Spanish Rule.
+United States' Neutral Attitude Toward Spain and Cuba.
+Red Cross Society Aids Reconcentrados.
+Spanish Minister Writes Letter that Leads to Resignation.
+United States Battleship Maine Sunk in Havana Harbor.
+Congress Declares the People of Cuba Free and Independent.
+Minister Woodford Receives his Passports at Madrid.
+Increase of the Regular Army.
+Spain Prepares for War.
+Army Equipment Insufficient.
+Strength of Navy.
+The Oregon Makes Unprecedented Run.
+Admiral Cervera's Fleet in Santiago Harbor.
+Navy at Santiago Harbor Entrance.
+Army Lands near Santiago.
+The Darkest Day of the War.
+Sinking of the Collier Merrimac to Block Harbor Entrance.
+Spanish Ships Leave.
+General Toral Surrenders.
+Expedition of General Miles to Porto Rico.
+Commodore George Dewey Enters Manila Bay.
+Destroys Spanish Fleet.
+Manila Capitulates.
+Treaty of Paris Signed.
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII. "CUBA LIBRE"
+
+Admiral Sampson and Admiral Schley in Santiago Naval Battle.
+Court of Inquiry Appointed.
+Paris Treaty of Peace Ratified.
+Foreign Criticism.
+The Samoan Islands.
+Civil Government Established in Porto Rico.
+Foreign Commerce of Porto Rico.
+Congressional Pledge about Cuba.
+Census of Cuba.
+General Leonard Wood, Governor of Cuba.
+Cuban Constitutional Convention.
+"Platt Amendment."
+Cuban Constitution Adopted.
+First President of Cuba.
+Reciprocity with Cuba.
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV. THE UNITED STATES IN THE ORIENT--PHILIPPINES AND FILIPINOS.
+
+Area of the Philippines.
+The Native Tribes.
+Population.
+Education Under Spanish Rule.
+Filipinos.
+Iocoros.
+Igorrotes.
+Ilocoans.
+Moros.
+Spain as a Colonist.
+Religious Orders.
+Secret Leagues.
+Spain and the Filipinos.
+Emilio Aguinaldo.
+The Philippines in the Treaty of Paris.
+Senate Resolution.
+
+
+CHAPTER XV. THE UNITED STATES IN THE ORIENT.--
+WAR.--CONTROVERSY.--PEACE.
+
+Filipinos' Foothold in Philippines.
+Attitude Toward Filipinos.
+President Orders Government Extended Over Archipelago.
+American Rule Awakens Hostility.
+First Philippine Commission.
+Philippine Congress Votes for Peace.
+Revolution.
+Treachery of Filipinos.
+General Frederick Funston Captures Aguinaldo.
+Aguinaldo Swears Allegiance to the United States.
+The Constitution and the Philippines.
+United States Supreme Court Decisions.
+Tariff.
+Anti-Imperialism.
+Second Commission.
+Civil Government Inaugurated.
+Educational Reforms.
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI. POLITICS AT THE TURNING OF THE CENTURY.
+
+Candidates for President in 1900.
+McKinley Renominated.
+Bryan Nominated.
+Gold Democrats.
+Fusion.
+Populists.
+Silver Republicans.
+Anti-Imperialism.
+Tariff for Colonies.
+Porto Rico Tariff.
+President McKinley's Opposition to Bill.
+Campaign Issues.
+Boer War.
+Trusts.
+Democratic Defeat.
+Coal Strike.
+Reasons for Democratic Defeat.
+Mr. Bryan Insists on Silver Issue.
+Monetary System on a Gold Basis.
+Result of Election.
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII. THE TWELFTH CENSUS
+
+Permanent Census Bureau.
+Alaska Census.
+Method of Taking Census.
+Two Thousand Employees.
+Population of United States.
+Nevada Loses in Population.
+Urban Increase.
+Greater New York.
+Cities of More than a Million Inhabitants.
+Loss in Rural Population.
+Centre of Population.
+Proportion of Males to Females.
+Foreign Born Population.
+Character of Immigration.
+Chinese.
+Congressional Apportionment.
+Farms.
+Crops.
+Manufacturing Capital Invested.
+Foreign Commerce.
+Revenues.
+War Taxes Repealed.
+National Debt.
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII. THE PAN-AMERICAN EXPOSITION, 1901
+
+The Opening.
+Triumphal Bridge.
+Electric Tower.
+Temple of Music.
+Architecture.
+Coloring of the "Rainbow City."
+Symbolism of Coloring.
+Sculpture.
+Electrical Illumination.
+The Chaining of Niagara.
+The Midway.
+The Athletic Congress.
+Conservatory.
+The Spanish-American Countries Represented.
+United States Government Building.
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX. MR. McKINLEY'S END
+
+President McKinley's Address at the Pan-American Exposition.
+The President Shot.
+His Illness and Death.
+The Funeral Ceremony.
+In Washington.
+At Canton.
+Commemorative Services.
+Mr. McKinley's Career.
+Political Insight.
+Americanism.
+His Administration as President.
+Leon Czolgosz, the Murderer of President McKinley.
+Anarchists.
+Anti-Anarchist Law.
+Vice-President Theodore Roosevelt Succeeds to the
+Presidency.
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+PRESIDENT WILLIAM MCKINLEY.
+(From a copyright photograph, 1899, by Pach Bros., New York).
+
+A NEW YORK POLLING PLACE, SHOWING BOOTHS ON THE LEFT.
+
+BENJAMIN R. TILLMAN.
+
+GROVER CLEVELAND. (Photograph copyrighted by C. M. Bell).
+
+W. Q. GRESHAM.
+
+LEVI P. MORTON.
+
+BENJAMIN HARRISON.
+
+LORD L. S. SACKVILLE-WEST.
+
+JOSEPH B. FORAKER.
+
+"THE CHINESE MUST GO!" DENIS KEARNEY ADDRESSING THE WORKINGMEN ON THE
+NIGHT OF OCTOBER 29, ON NOB HILL, SAN FRANCISCO.
+
+THOMAS B. REED.
+
+DAVID C. HENNESSY.
+
+AN EPISODE OF THE LYNCHING OF THE ITALIANS IN NEW ORLEANS.
+
+THE CITIZENS BREAKING DOWN THE DOOR OF THE PARISH PRISON WITH THE BEAM
+BROUGHT THERE THE NIGHT BEFORE FOR THAT PURPOSE.
+
+OLD PARISH JAIL, NEW ORLEANS, LA.
+
+CANAL STREET, NEW ORLEANS, LA.
+
+A. G. THURMAN.
+
+CHILIAN STEAMER ITATA IN SAN DIEGO HARBOR.
+
+PRESIDENT HARRISON BEING ROWED ASHORE AT FOOT OF WALL STEEET, NEW YORK,
+APRIL 29, 1889.
+
+WASHINGTON INAUGURAL CELEBRATION, 1889, NEW YORK.
+
+PARADE  PASSING UNION SQUARE ON BROADWAY.
+
+UNVEILING OF THE EQUESTRIAN STATUE OF ROBERT E. LEE, MAY 29, 1890.
+
+HENRY W. GRADY.
+
+FRANCIS T. NICHOLLS.
+
+THE BUILDING OF A WESTERN TOWN, GUTHRIE, OKLAHOMA: A GENERAL VIEW OF THE
+TOWN ON APRIL 24, 1889, THE SECOND DAY AFTER THE OPENING. A VIEW ALONG
+OKLAHOMA A VENUE ON MAY 10, 1889. OKLAHOMA AVENUE AS IT APPEARED ON MAY
+10, 1893, DURING GOVERNOR NOBLE'S VISIT.
+
+MAIN STREET, JOHNSTOWN, AFTER THE FLOOD.
+
+BURNING OF BARGES DURING HOMESTEAD STRIKE.
+
+THE CARNEGIE STEEL WORKS. SHOWING THE SHIELD USED BY THE STRIKERS WHEN
+FIRING THE CANNON AND WATCHING THE PINKERTON MEN--HOMESTEAD STRIKE.
+
+INCITING MINERS TO ATTACK FORT ANDERSON.
+
+THE GROVE BETWEEN BRICEVILLE AND COAL CREEK.
+
+STATE TROOPS AND MINERS AT BRICEVILLE, TENN.
+
+THE MORMON TEMPLE AT SALT LAKE CITY.
+
+COLUMBIAN CELEBRATION, NEW YORK, APRIL 28, 1893.
+PARADE PASSING FIFTH AVENUE HOTEL.
+
+PINTA, SANTA MARIA, NINA--LYING IN THE NORTH RIVER, NEW YORK--THE
+CARAVELS WHICH CROSSED FROM SPAIN TO BE PRESENT AT THE WORLD'S FAIR AT
+CHICAGO.
+
+THE MANUFACTURES AND LIBERAL ARTS BUILDING, SEEN FROM THE SOUTHWEST.
+
+HORTICULTURAL BUILDING, WITH ILLINOIS BUILDING IN THE BACKGROUND.
+
+A VIEW TOWARD THE PERISTYLE FROM MACHINERY HALL.
+
+THE ADMINISTRATION BUILDING, SEEN FROM THE AGRICULTURAL BUILDING.
+
+MIDWAY PLAISANCE, WORLD'S FAIR, CHICAGO.
+
+THE BURNING OF THE WHITE CITY: ELECTRICITY BUILDING--MINES AND MINING
+BUILDING.
+
+THE NEW YORK LIFE INSURANCE BUILDING IN CHICAGO.
+(Showing the construction of outer walls).
+
+INTERIOR OF THE POWER HOUSE AT NIAGARA FALLS.
+
+THOMAS ALVA EDISON. (Copyright-photograph by W. A. Dickson).
+
+NIKOLA TESLA.
+
+BICYCLE PARADE, NEW YORK, FANCY COSTUME DIVISION.
+
+HATCHERY ROOM OF THE FISH COMMISSION BUILDING AT WASHINGTON, D. C.,
+SHOWING THE HATCHERY JARS IN OPERATION.
+
+WILLIAM BOOTH. (From a photograph by Rockwood, New York).
+
+GROVER CLEVELAND. (From a photograph by Alexander Black).
+
+WILLIAM L. WILSON.
+
+PRINCESS (AFTERWARDS QUEEN) LILIUOKALANI.
+
+JAMES H. BLOUNT.
+
+ALBERT S. WILLIS.
+
+RICHARD OLNEY.
+
+THE LEXOW INVESTIGATION. THE SCENE IN THE COURT ROOM
+AFTER CREEDEN'S CONFESSION, DECEMBER 15, 1894.
+
+CHARLES H. PARKHURST. (Copyright photograph by C. C. Langill).
+
+WILLIAM L. STRONG.
+
+COXEY'S ARMY ON THE MARCH TO THE CAPITOL STEPS AT WASHINGTON.
+
+THE TOWN OF PULLMAN.
+
+GEORGE M. PULLMAN.
+
+CAMP OF THE U. S. TROOPS ON THE LAKE FRONT, CHICAGO.
+
+BURNED CARS IN THE C., B. & Q. YARDS AT HAWTHORNE, CHICAGO.
+
+OVERTURNED BOX CARS AT CROSSING OF RAILROAD TRACKS AT 39TH STREET,
+CHICAGO.
+
+HAZEN S. PINGREE.
+
+GOV. JOHN P. ALTGELD.
+
+EUGENE V. DEBS.
+
+THE CHICKAMAUGA NATIONAL MILITARY PARK. GROUP OF MONUMENTS ON KNOLL
+SOUTHWEST OF SNODGRASS HILL.
+
+A GROVE OF ORANGES AND PALMETTOES NEAR ORMOND, FLORIDA.
+
+BOOKER T. WASHINGTON.
+
+THE ATLANTA EXPOSITION. ENTRANCE TO THE ART BUILDING.
+
+SENATOR TELLER, OF COLORADO.
+
+SENATOR CANNON.
+
+GARRET A. HOBART. VICE-PRESIDENT.
+(Copyright photograph, 1899, by Pach Bros., New York).
+
+THE McKINLEY-HOBART PARADE PASSING
+THE REVIEWING STAND, NEW YORK, OCTOBER 31, 1896.
+
+BRYAN SPEAKING FROM THE REAR END OF A TRAIN.
+
+ARTHUR SEWALL.
+
+EX-SENATOR PALMER.
+
+SIMON E. BUCKNER.
+
+JOHN SHERMAN.
+
+LYMAN J. GAGE, SECRETARY OF THE TREASURY.
+
+JOHN D. LONG, SECRETARY OF THE NAVY.
+
+CORNELIUS N. BLISS, SECRETARY OF THE INTERIOR.
+
+RUSSELL A. ALGER, SECRETARY OF WAR.
+
+JAMES WILSON, SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE.
+
+POSTMASTER-GENERAL GARY. (Copyright photograph by Clinedinst).
+
+RUSH OF MINERS TO THE YUKON. THE CITY OF CACHES AT THE SUMMIT OF
+CHILCOOT PASS.
+
+NELSON DINGLEY.
+
+WARSHIPS IN THE HUDSON RIVER CELEBRATING THE DEDICATION OF GRANT'S TOMB,
+APRIL 27, 1897.
+
+GRANT'S TOMB, RIVERSIDE DRIVE, NEW YORK. (Copyright photograph, 1901, by
+Detroit Photographic Co.).
+
+GOVERNOR-GENERAL WEYLER.
+
+U. S. BATTLESHIP MAINE ENTERING THE HARBOR OF HAVANA,
+JANUARY, 1898. (Copyright photograph, 1898, by J. C. Hemment).
+
+WRECK OF U. S. BATTLESHIP MAINE. (Photograph by J. C. Hernment).
+
+BOW OF THE SPANISH CRUISER ALMIRANTE OQUENDO.
+(Photograph by J. C. Hemment--copyright, 1898, by W. R. Hearst).
+
+THE LANDING AT DAIQUIRI. TRANSPORTS IN THE OFFING.
+
+CAPTAIN CHARLES E. CLARK.
+
+AFTERDECK ON THE OREGON, SHOWING TWO 13-INCH, FOUR 8-INCH, AND Two
+6-INCH GUNS. (Copyright photograph, 1899, by Strohmeyer & Wyman).
+
+BLOCKHOUSE ON SAN JUAN HILL.
+
+ADMIRAL CERVERA, COMMANDER OF THE SPANISH SQUADRON.
+
+MAJOR-GENERAL WILLIAM R. SHAFTER.
+
+TROOPS IN THE TRENCHES, FACING SANTIAGO.
+
+GENERAL JOSEPH WHEELER.
+
+VIEW OF SAN JUAN HILL AND BLOCKHOUSE, SHOWING THE CAMP OF THE UNITED
+STATES FORCES.
+
+THE COLLIER MERRIMAC SUNK BY HOBSON AT THE MOUTH OF SANTIAGO HARBOR.
+
+THE SPANISH CRUISER CRISTOBAL COLON. (From a photograph by J. C.
+Hemment-copyright, 1898, by W. R. Hearst).
+
+THE U. S. S. BROOKLYN. (Copyright photograph, 1898, by C, C. Langill,
+New York).
+
+GENERAL NELSON A. MILES.
+
+ADMIRAL GEORGE DEWEY.
+
+PROTECTED CRUISER OLYMPIA.
+
+GENERAL A. R. CHAFFEE.
+
+GENERAL MERRITT AND GENERAL GREENE TAKING A LOOK AT A SPANISH FIELD-GUN
+ON THE MALATE FORT.
+
+ADMIRAL WILLIAM T. SAMPSON.
+
+ADMIRAL W. S. SCHLEY.
+
+THE NEW CUBAN POLICE AS ORGANIZED BY EX-CHIEF OF NEW YORK POLICE
+McCULLAGH.
+
+SHOWING CONDITION OF STREETS IN SANTIAGO BEFORE STREET CLEANING
+DEPARTMENT WAS ORGANIZED.
+
+SANTIAGO STREET CLEANING DEPARTMENT.
+
+GOVERNOR-GENERAL LEONARD A. WOOD IN THE UNIFORM OF COLONEL OF ROUGH
+RIDERS.
+
+GOVERNOR-GENERAL LEONARD A. WOOD TRANSFERRING THE ISLAND OF CUBA TO
+PRESIDENT TOMASO ESTRADA PALMA, AS A CUBAN REPUBLIC, MAY, 1902.
+(Copyright stereoscopic photograph, by Underwood & Underwood, New York).
+
+THE JOLO TREATY COMMISSION.
+
+THREE HUNDRED BOYS IN THE PARADE OF JULY 4, 1902, YIGAN, ILOCOS.
+
+GIRL'S NORMAL INSTITUTE, YIGAN, ILOCOS, APRIL, 1902.
+
+IGORROTE RELIGIOUS DANCE, LEPONTO.
+
+IGORROTE HEAD HUNTERS, WITH HEAD AXES AND SPEARS.
+
+NATIVE MOROS--INTERIOR OF JOLO.
+
+EMILIO AGUINALDO.
+
+GENERAL FREDERICK FUNSTON--GENERAL A. McARTHUR.
+
+A COMPANY OF INSURRECTOS, NEAR BONGUED, ABIA PROVINCE, JUST PREVIOUS TO
+SURRENDERING EARLY IN 1901.
+
+ELEVENTH CAVALRY LANDING AT VIGAN, ILOCOS, APRIL, 1902.
+
+JULES CAMBON, THE FRENCH AMBASSADOR, ACTING FOR   SPAIN, RECEIVING FROM
+THE HONORABLE JOHN HAY, THE U. S. SECRETARY OF STATE, DRAFTS TO THE
+AMOUNT OF $20,000,000, IN PAYMENT FOR THE PHILIPPINES. (Copyright
+photograph, 1899, by Frances B. Johnston).
+
+NATIVE TAGALS AT ANGELES, FIFTY-ONE MILES FROM MANILA.
+
+BRINGING AMMUNITION TO THE FRONT FOR GENERAL OTIS'S BRIGADE, NORTH OF
+MANILA.
+
+FORT MALATE, CAVlTE.
+
+THE PASIG RIVER, MANILA.
+
+THE INAUGURATION OF GOVERNOR TAFT, MANILA, JULY 4, 1901.
+
+GROUP OF AMERICAN TEACHERS ON THE STEPS OF THE ESCUELA MUNICIPAL,
+MANILA.
+
+W. J. BRYAN ACCEPTING THE NOMINATION FOR PRESIDENT AT A JUBILEE MEETING
+HELD AT INDIANAPOLlS, AUGUST 8, 1900.
+
+THE REPUBLICAN NATIONAL CONVENTION, HELD IN PHILADELPHIA, JUNE, 1900.
+
+PARADE OF THE SOUND MONEY LEAGUE, NEW YORK, 1900
+PASSING THE REVIEWING STAND.
+
+MR. MERRIAM, DIRECTOR OF THE CENSUS.
+
+CENSUS EXAMINATION.
+
+THE CENSUS OFFICE, WASHINGTON, D. C.
+
+A CENSUS-TAKER AT WORK.
+
+ELECTRIC TOWER AND FOUNTAINS [BUFFALO].
+
+ETHNOLOGY BUILDING AND UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT BUILDING.
+
+TEMPLE OF MUSIC BY ELECTRIC LIGHT.
+
+GROUP OF BUFFALOS--PAN-AMERICAN EXPOSITION.
+
+ELECTRIC TOWER AT NIGHT.
+
+TRIUMPHAL BRIDGE AND ENTRANCE TO THE EXPOSITION, SHOWING ELECTRIC
+DISPLAY AT NIGHT.
+
+THE ELECTRICITY BUILDING.
+
+PRESIDENT McKINLEY AT NIAGARA--ASCENDING THE STAIRS FROM LUNA ISLAND TO
+GOAT ISLAND. (Copyright photograph, 1901, by C. E. Dunlap).
+
+THE LAST PHOTOGRAPH OF THE LATE PRESIDENT McKINLEY--TAKEN AS HE WAS
+ASCENDING THE STEPS OF THE TEMPLE OF MUSIC, SEPTEMBER 6, 1901.
+
+THE MILBURN RESIDENCE, WHERE PRESIDENT McKINLEY DIED--BUFFALO, N. Y.
+(Copyright photograph, 1902, by Underwood & Underwood).
+
+ASCENDING THE CAPITOL STEPS AT WASHINGTON, D. C., WHERE THE CASKET LAY
+IN STATE IN THE ROTUNDA.
+
+PRESIDENT McKINLEY'S REMAINS PASSING THE UNITED STATES TREASURY,
+WASHINGTON, D. C. (Copyright photograph, 1901, by Underwood &
+Underwood).
+
+THE HOME OF WILLIAM McKINLEY AT CANTON, OHIO. (Copyright photograph,
+1901, by Underwood & Underwood).
+
+INTERIOR OF ROOM IN WILCOX HOUSE WHERE THEODORE ROOSEVELT TOOK THE OATH
+OF PRESIDENCY.
+
+
+
+PERIOD VI.
+
+EXPANSION
+
+1888-1902
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+DRIFT AND DYE IN LAW-MAKING
+
+[1890]
+
+Race war at the South following the abolition of slavery, new social
+conditions everywhere, and the archaic nature of many provisions in the
+old laws, induced, as the century drew to a close, a pretty general
+revision of State constitutions. New England clung to instruments
+adopted before the civil war, though in most cases considerably amended.
+New Jersey was equally conservative, as were also Ohio, Indiana,
+Michigan, and Wisconsin. New York adopted in 1894 a new constitution
+which became operative January 1, 1895. Of the old States beyond the
+Mississippi only Kansas, Iowa, Minnesota, and Oregon remained content
+with ante-bellum instruments. Between 1864 and 1866 ten of the southern
+States inaugurated governments which were not recognized by Congress and
+had to be reconstructed. Ten of the eleven reconstruction constitutions
+were in turn overthrown by 1896. In a little over a generation,
+beginning with Minnesota, 1858, fourteen new States entered the Union,
+of which all but West Virginia and Nebraska retained at the end of the
+century their first bases of government. In some of these cases,
+however, copious amendments had rendered the constitutions in effect
+new.
+
+As a rule the new constitutions reserved to the people large powers
+formerly granted to one or more among the three departments of
+government. Most of them placed legislatures under more minute
+restrictions than formerly prevailed. The modern documents were much
+longer than earlier ones, dealing with many subjects previously left to
+statutes. Distrust of legislatures was further shown by shortening the
+length of sessions, making sessions biennial, forbidding the pledging of
+the public credit, inhibiting all private or special legislation, and
+fixing a maximum for the rate of taxation, for State debts, and for
+State expenditures.
+
+South Dakota, the first State to do so, applied the initiative and
+referendum, each to be set in motion by five per cent. of the voters, to
+general statutory legislation. Wisconsin provided for registering the
+names of legislative lobbyists, with various particulars touching their
+employment. The names of their employers had also to be put down. Many
+new points were ordered observed in the passing of laws, such as
+printing all bills, reading each one thrice, taking the yeas and nays on
+each, requiring an absolute majority to vote yea, the inhibition of
+"log-rolling" or the joining of two or more subjects under one title,
+and enactments against legislative bribery, lobbying, and "riders."
+
+While the legislature was snubbed there appeared a quite positive
+tendency to concentrate responsibility in the executive, causing the
+powers of governors considerably to increase. The governor now enjoyed a
+longer term, was oftener re-eligible, and could veto items or sections
+of bills. By the later constitutions most of the important executive
+officers were elected directly by the people, and made directly
+responsible neither to governors nor to legislatures.
+
+The newer constitutions and amendments paid great attention to the
+regulation of corporations, providing for commissions to deal with
+railroads, insurance, agriculture, dairy and food products, lands,
+prisons, and charities. They restricted trusts, monopolies, and
+lotteries. Modifications of the old jury system were introduced. Juries
+were made optional in civil cases, and not always obligatory in criminal
+cases. Juries of less than twelve were sometimes allowed, and a
+unanimous vote by a jury was not always required. Growing wealth and the
+consequent multiplication of litigants necessitated an increase in the
+number of judges in most courts. Efforts were made, with some success,
+by combining common law with equity procedure, and in other ways, to
+render lawsuits more simple, expeditious, and inexpensive.
+
+Restrictions were enacted on the hours of labor, the management of
+factories, the alien ownership of land. The old latitude of giving and
+receiving by inheritance was trenched upon by inheritance taxes. The
+curbing of legislatures, the popular election of executives, civil
+service reform, and the creation of a body of administrative
+functionaries with clearly defined duties, betrayed movement toward an
+administrative system.
+
+A stronghold of political corruption was assaulted from 1888 to 1894 by
+a hopeful measure known as the "Australian" ballot. It took various
+forms in different States yet its essence everywhere was the provision
+enabling every voter to prepare and fold his ballot in a stall by
+himself, with no one to dictate, molest, or observe. Massachusetts, also
+the city of Louisville, Ky., employed this system of voting so early as
+1888. Next year ten States enacted similar laws. In 1890 four more
+followed, and in 1891 fourteen more. By 1898 thirty-nine States, all the
+members of the Union but six, had taken up "kangaroo voting," as its
+foes dubbed it. Of these six States five were southern.
+
+
+[Illustration: About twenty men in a room with tables, some voters, and
+others officials.]
+A New York Polling Place, showing booths on the left.
+
+
+An official ballot replaced the privately--often dishonestly--prepared
+party ballots formerly hawked about each polling place by political
+workers. The new ballot was a "blanket," bearing a list of all the
+candidates for each office to be filled. The arrangement of candidates'
+names varied in different States. By one style of ticket it was easy for
+the illiterate or the straight-out party man to mark party candidates.
+Another made voting difficult for the ignorant, but a delight to the
+discriminating.
+
+The new ballot, though certainly an improvement, failed to produce the
+full results expected of it. The connivance of election officials and
+corrupt voters often annulled its virtue by devices growing in variety
+and ingenuity as politicians became acquainted with the reform. Statutes
+and sometimes constitutions therefore went further, making the count of
+ballots public, ordering it carried out near the polling place, and
+allowing municipalities to insure a still more secret vote and an
+instantaneous, unerring tally by the use of voting machines.
+
+In the North and West the tendency of the new fundamental laws was to
+widen the suffrage, rendering it, for males over twenty-one years of
+age, practically universal. Woman suffrage, especially on local and
+educational matters, spread more and more, Wyoming, Colorado, Idaho, and
+Utah women voted upon exactly the same terms as men, In Idaho women sat
+in the legislature. There was much agitation for minority
+representation. Illinois set an example by the experiment of cumulative
+voting in the election of lower house members of the legislature.
+
+Nearly everywhere at the South constitutional reform involved negro
+disfranchisement. The blacks were numerous, but their rule meant ruin.
+It was easy for the whites to keep them in check, as had been done for
+years, by bribery and threats, supplemented, when necessary, by flogging
+and the shotgun, But this gave to the rising generation of white men the
+worst possible sort of a political education. The system was too
+barbarous to continue. What meaning could free institutions have for
+young voters who had never in all their lives seen an election carried
+save by these vicious means! New constitutions which should legally
+eliminate most of the negro vote were the alternative.
+
+In Florida, Alabama, Tennessee, Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi,
+Georgia, North and South Carolina, proof of having paid taxes or
+poll-taxes was (as in some northern and western States) made an
+indispensable prerequisite to voting, either alone or as an alternative
+for an educational qualification. Virginia used this policy until 1882
+and resumed it again in 1902, cutting off such as had not paid or had
+failed to preserve or bring to the polls their receipts. Many States
+surrounded registration and voting with complex enactments. An
+educational qualification, often very elastic, sometimes the voter's
+alternative for a tax-receipt, was resorted to by Alabama, Arkansas,
+Mississippi, Tennessee, and South Carolina. Georgia in 1898 rejected
+such a device. Alabama hesitated, jealous lest illiterate whites should
+lose their votes. But, after the failure of one resolution for a
+convention, this State, too, upon the stipulation that the new
+constitution should disfranchise no white voter and that it should be
+submitted to the people for ratification, not promulgated directly by
+its authors as was done in South Carolina, Louisiana, and later in
+Virginia and Delaware, consented to a revision, which was ratified at
+the polls November, 1901, not escaping censure for its drastic
+thoroughness. Its distinctive feature was the "good character clause,"
+whereby an appointment board in each county registers "all voters under
+the present [previous] law" who are veterans or the lawful descendants
+of such, and "all who are of good character and understand the duties
+and obligations of citizenship."
+
+In the above line of constitution-framing, whose problem was to steer
+between the Scylla of the Fifteenth Amendment and the Charybdis of negro
+domination, viz., legally abridge the negro vote so as to insure
+Caucasian supremacy at the polls, Mississippi led. The "Mississippi
+plan," originating, it is believed, in the brain of Senator James Z.
+George, had for its main features a registry tax and an educational
+qualification, all adjustable to practical exigencies. Each voter must
+pay a poll-tax of at least $2.00 and never to exceed $3.00, producing to
+the election overseers satisfactory evidence of having paid such poll
+and all other legal taxes. He must be registered "as provided by law"
+and "be able to read any section of the constitution of the State, to
+understand the same when read to him, or to give a reasonable
+interpretation thereof." In municipal elections electors were required
+to have "such additional qualifications as might be prescribed by law."
+
+This constitution was attacked as not having been submitted to the
+people for ratification and as violating the Act of Congress readmitting
+Mississippi; but the State Supreme Court sustained it, and was confirmed
+in this by the United States Supreme Court in dealing with the similar
+Louisiana constitution.
+
+As a spur to negro education the Mississippi constitution worked well.
+The Mississippi negroes who got their names on the voting list rose from
+9,036 in 1892 to 16,965 in 1895. This result of the "plan" did not deter
+South Carolina from adopting it. Dread of negro domination haunted the
+Palmetto State the more in proportion as her white population, led by
+the enterprising Benjamin R. Tillman, who became governor and then
+senator, got control and set aside the "Bourbons."
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Benjamin R. Tillman.
+
+
+So early as 1882 South Carolina passed a registration act which, amended
+in 1893 and 1894, compelled registration some four months before
+ordinary elections and required registry certificates to be produced at
+the polls. Other laws made the road to the ballot-box a labyrinth
+wherein not only most negroes but some whites were lost. The multiple
+ballot-boxes alone were a Chinese puzzle. This act was attacked as
+repugnant to the State and to the federal constitution. On May 8, 1895,
+Judge Goff of the United States Circuit Court declared it
+unconstitutional and enjoined the State from taking further action under
+it. But in June the Circuit Court of Appeals reversed Judge Goff and
+dissolved the injunction, leaving the way open for a convention.
+
+The convention met on September 10th and adjourned on December 4, 1895.
+By the new constitution the Mississippi plan was to be followed until
+January 1, 1898. Any male citizen could be registered who was able to
+read a section of the constitution or to satisfy the election officers
+that he understood it when read to him. Those thus registered were to
+remain voters for life. After the date named applicants for registry
+must be able both to read and to write any section of the constitution
+or to show tax-receipts for poll-tax and for taxes on at least $300
+worth of property. The property and the intelligence qualification each
+met with strenuous opposition, but it was thought that neither alone
+would serve the purpose.
+
+The Louisiana constitution of 1898, in place of the Mississippi
+"understanding" clause or the Alabama "good character" clause, enacted
+the celebrated "grandfather" clause. The would-be voter must be able to
+read and write English or his native tongue, or own property assessed at
+$300 or more; but any citizen who was a voter on January I, 1867, or his
+son or his grandson, or any person naturalized prior to January 1, 1898,
+if applying for registration before September 1, 1898, might vote,
+notwithstanding both illiteracy and poverty. Separate registration lists
+were provided for whites and blacks, and a longer term of residence
+required in State, county, parish, and precinct before voting than by
+the constitution of 1879.
+
+North Carolina adopted her suffrage amendment in 1900. It lengthened the
+term of residence before registration and enacted both educational
+qualification and prepayment of poll-tax, only exempting from this tax
+those entitled to vote January 1, 1867. In 1902 Virginia adopted an
+instrument with the "understanding" cause for use until 1904, hedging the
+suffrage after that date by a poll-tax. Application for registration
+must be in the applicant's handwriting, written in the presence of the
+registrar.
+
+White solidarity yielding with time, there were heard in the Carolinas,
+Alabama, and Louisiana, loud allegations, not always unfounded, that
+this side or that had availed itself of negro votes to make up a deficit
+or turned the enginery of vote suppression against its opponents' white
+supporters.
+
+Most States which overthrew negro suffrage seemed glad to think of the
+new regime as involving no perjury, fraud, violence, or
+lese-constitution. Some of Alabama's spokesmen were of a different
+temper, paying scant heed to the federal questions involved. "The
+constitution of '75," they said, "recognized the Fifteenth Amendment,
+which Alabama never adopted, and guaranteed the negro all the rights of
+suffrage the white man enjoys. The new constitution omits that section.
+Under its suffrage provisions the white man will rule for all time in
+Alabama."
+
+The North, once ablaze with zeal for the civil and political rights of
+the southern negro, heard the march of this exultant southern crusade
+with equanimity, with indifference, almost with sympathy. Perfunctory
+efforts were made in Congress to secure investigation of negro
+disfranchisement, but they evoked feeble response.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+THE PRESIDENTIAL CAMPAIGN OF 1888
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Grover Cleveland.
+Photograph copyrighted by C. M. Bell.
+
+[1888]
+
+It looking forward to the presidential campaign of 1888 the Democracy
+had no difficulty in selecting its leader or its slogan. The custom,
+almost like law, of renominating a presidential incumbent at the end of
+his first term, pointed to Mr. Cleveland's candidacy, as did the
+considerable success of his administration in quelling factions and in
+silencing enemies. At the same time reform for a lower tariff, with
+which cause he had boldly identified himself, was marked anew as a main
+article of the Democratic creed. The nomination of Allen G. Thurman for
+Vice-President brought to the ticket what its head seemed to
+lack--popularity among the people of the West--and did much to hearten
+all such Democrats as insisted upon voting a ticket free from all taint
+of mugwumpery.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+W. Q. Gresham.
+
+The attitude of the Democratic party being favorable to tariff
+reduction, the Republicans must perforce raise the banner of high
+protection; but public opinion did not forestall the convention in
+naming the Republican standard-bearer. The convention met in Chicago. At
+first John Sherman of Ohio received 229 votes; Walter Q. Gresham of
+Indiana, 111; Chauncey M. Depew of New York, 99; and Russell A. Alger of
+Michigan, 84. Harrison began with 80; Blaine had but 35. After the third
+ballot Depew withdrew his name. On the fourth, New York and Wisconsin
+joined the Harrison forces. A stampede of the convention for Blaine was
+expected, but did not come, being hindered in part by the halting tenor
+of despatches received from the Plumed Knight, then beyond sea. After
+the fifth ballot two cablegrams were received from Blaine, requesting
+his friends to discontinue voting for him. Two ballots more having been
+taken, Allison, who had been receiving a considerable vote, withdrew.
+The eighth ballot nominated Harrison, and the name of  Levi P. Morton,
+of New York, was at once placed beneath his on the ticket.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Levi P. Morton.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Benjamin Harrison.
+
+
+Mr. Harrison was the grandson of President William Henry Harrison, great
+grandson, therefore, of Governor Benjamin Harrison, of Virginia, the
+ardent revolutionary patriot, signer of the Declaration of Independence.
+An older scion of the family had served as major-general in Cromwell's
+army and been executed for signing the death-warrant of King Charles I.
+The Republican candidate was born on a farm at North Bend, Ohio, August
+20, 1883. The boy's earliest education was acquired in a log
+schoolhouse. He afterward attended Miami University, in Ohio, where he
+graduated at the age of nineteen. The next year he was admitted to the
+bar. In 1854 he married, and opened a law office in Indianapolis. In
+1860 he became Reporter of Decisions to the Indiana Supreme Court. When
+the civil war broke out, obeying the spirit that in his grandfather had
+won at Tippecanoe and the Thames, young Harrison recruited a regiment,
+of which he was soon commissioned colonel. Gallant services under
+Sherman at Resaca and Peach Tree Creek brought him the brevet of
+brigadier. After his return from war, owing to his high character, his
+lineage, his fine war record, his power as a speaker and his popularity
+in a pivotal State, he was a prominent figure in politics, not only in
+Indiana, but more and more nationally. In 1876 he ran for the Indiana
+Governership, but was defeated by a small margin. In 1880 he was
+chairman of the Indiana delegation to the Republican National
+Convention. In 1881 he was elected United States Senator, declining an
+offer of a seat in Garfield's Cabinet. From 1880, when Indiana presented
+his name to the Republican National Convention, General Harrison was, in
+the West, constantly thought of as a presidential possibility. Eclipsed
+by Blaine in 1884, he came forward again in 1888, this time to win.
+
+In the East General Harrison was much underrated. Papers opposing his
+election fondly cartooned him wearing "Grandfather's hat," as if family
+connection alone recommended him. It was a great mistake. The grandson
+had all the grandsire's strong qualities and many besides. He was a
+student and a thinker. His character was absolutely irreproachable. His
+information was exact, large, and always ready for use. His speeches had
+ease, order, correctness, and point. With the West he was particularly
+strong, an element of availability which Cleveland lacked. In the Senate
+he had won renown both as a debater and as a sane adviser. As a
+consistent protectionist he favored restriction upon Chinese immigration
+and prohibition against the importation of contract labor. He upheld all
+efforts for reform in the civil service and for strengthening the navy.
+
+In the presidential campaign of 1888 personalities had little place.
+Instead, there was active discussion of party principles and policies.
+The tariff issue was of course prominent. A characteristic piece of
+enginery in the contest was the political club, which now, for the first
+time in our history, became a recognized force. The National Association
+of Democratic Clubs comprised some 3,000 units, numerous auxiliary
+reform and tariff reform clubs being active on the same side. The
+Republican League, corresponding to the Democratic Association, boasted,
+by August, 1887, 6,500 clubs, with a million voters on their rolls.
+Before election day Indiana alone had 1,100 Republican clubs and New
+York 1,400.
+
+During most of the campaign Democratic success was freely predicted and
+seemed assured. Yet from the first forces were in exercise which
+threatened a contrary result. Federal patronage helped the
+administration less than was expected, while it nerved the opposition.
+The Republicans had a force of earnest and harmonious workers. Of the
+multitude, on the other hand, who in 1884 had aided to achieve victory
+for the Democracy, few, of course, had received the rewards which they
+deemed due them. In vain did officeholders contribute toil and money
+while that disappointed majority were so slow and spiritless in rallying
+to the party's summons, and so many of them even hostile. The zeal of
+honest Democrats was stricken by what Gail Hamilton wittily called "the
+upas bloom" of civil service reform, which the President still displayed
+upon his lapel. To a large number of ardent civil service reformers who
+had originally voted for Cleveland this decoration now seemed so wilted
+that, more in indignation than in hope, they went over to Harrison.
+The public at large resented the loss which the service had suffered
+through changes in the civil list. Harrison without much of a record
+either to belie or to confirm his words, at least commended and espoused
+the reform.
+
+Democratic blunders thrust the sectional issue needlessly to the fore.
+Mr. Cleveland's willingness to return to their respective States the
+Confederate flags captured by Union regiments in the civil war; his
+fishing trip on Memorial Day; the choice of Mr. Mills, a Texan, to lead
+the tariff fight in Congress; and the prominence of southerners among
+the Democratic campaign orators at the North, were themes of countless
+diatribes.
+
+A clever Republican device, known as "the Murchison letter," did a great
+deal to impress thoughtless voters that Mr. Cleveland was "un-American."
+The incident was dramatic and farcical to a degree. The Murchison
+letter, which interested the entire country for two or three weeks,
+purported to come from a perplexed Englishman, addressing the British
+Minister at Washington, Lord Sackville-West. It sought counsel of Her
+Majesty's representative, as the "fountainhead of knowledge," upon "the
+mysterious subject" how best to serve England in voting at the
+approaching American election. The seeker after light recounted
+President Cleveland's kindness to England in not enforcing the
+retaliatory act then recently passed by Congress as its ultimatum in the
+fisheries dispute, his soundness on the free trade question, and his
+hostility to the "dynamite schools of Ireland." The writer set Mr.
+Harrison down as a painful contrast to the President. He was "a
+high-tariff man, a believer on the American side of all questions, and
+undoubtedly, an enemy to British interests generally." But the inquirer
+professes alarm at Cleveland's message on the fishery question which had
+just been sent to Congress, and wound up with the query "whether Mr.
+Cleveland's policy is temporary only, and whether he will, as soon as he
+secures another term of four years in the presidency, suspend it for one
+of friendship and free trade."
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Lord L. S. Sackville-West.
+
+
+The Minister replied:
+
+"Sir:--I am in receipt of your letter of the 4th inst., and beg to say
+that I fully appreciate the difficulty in which you find yourself in
+casting your vote. You are probably aware that any political party which
+openly favored the mother country at the present moment would lose
+popularity, and that the party in power is fully aware of the fact. The
+party, however, is, I believe, still desirous of maintaining friendly
+relations with Great Britain and still desirous of settling questions
+with Canada which have been, unfortunately, reopened since the
+retraction of the treaty by the Republican majority in the Senate and by
+the President's message to which you allude. All allowances must
+therefore be made for the political situation as regards the
+Presidential election thus created. It is, however, impossible to
+predict the course which President Cleveland may pursue in the matter of
+retaliation should he be elected; but there is every reason to believe
+that, while upholding the position he has taken, he will manifest a
+spirit of conciliation in dealing with the question involved in his
+message. I enclose an article from the New York 'Times' of August 22d,
+and remain, yours faithfully,
+                                                "L. S. SACKVILLE-WEST."
+
+This correspondence, published on October 24th, took instant and
+universal effect. The President at first inclined to ignore the
+incident, but soon yielded to the urgency of his managers, and, to keep
+"the Irish vote" from slipping away, asked for the minister's recall.
+Great Britain refusing this, the minister's passports were delivered
+him. The act was vain and worse. Without availing to parry the enemy's
+thrust, it incurred not only the resentment of the English Government,
+but the disapproval of the Administration's soberest friends at home.
+
+Influences with which practical politicians were familiar had their
+bearing upon the outcome. In New York State, where occurred the worst
+tug of war, Governor Hill and his friends, while boasting their
+democracy, were widely believed to connive at the trading of Democratic
+votes for Harrison in return for Republican votes for Hill. At any rate,
+New York State was carried for both.
+
+It is unfortunately necessary to add that the 1888 election was most
+corrupt. The campaign was estimated to have cost the two parties
+$6,000,000. Assessments on office-holders, as well as other subsidies,
+replenished the Democrats' campaign treasury; while the manufacturers of
+the country, who had been pretty close four years before, now regarding
+their interest and even their honor as assailed, generously contributed
+often as the Republican hat went around.
+
+In Indiana, Mr. Harrison's home State, no resource was left untried. The
+National Republican Committee wrote the party managers in that State:
+"Divide the floaters into blocks of five, and put a trusted man with
+necessary funds in charge of these five, and make him responsible that
+none get away, and that all vote our ticket." This mandate the workers
+faithfully obeyed.
+
+So far as argument had weight the election turned mainly upon the tariff
+issue. The Republicans held that protection was on trial for its life.
+Many Democrats cherished the very same view, only they denounced the
+prisoner at the bar as a culprit, not a martyr. They inveighed against
+protection as pure robbery. They accused the tariff of causing Trusts,
+against which several bills had recently been introduced in Congress.
+Democratic extremists proclaimed that Republicans slavishly served the
+rich and fiendishly ground the faces of the poor. Even moderate
+Democrats, who simply urged that protective rates should be reduced,
+more often than otherwise supported their proposals with out and out
+free trade arguments. As to President Cleveland himself no one could
+tell whether or not he was a free trader, but his discussions of the
+tariff read like Cobden Club tracts. The Mills bill, which passed the
+House in the Fiftieth Congress, would have been more a tariff for
+revenue than in any sense protective. Republican orators and organs
+therefore pictured "British free trade" as the dire, certain sequel of
+the Cleveland policy if carried out, and, whether convinced by the
+argument or startled by the ado of Harrison's supporters, people, to be
+on the safe side, voted to uphold the "American System."
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Joseph B. Foraker.
+
+
+More than eleven million ballots were cast at the election, yet so
+closely balanced were the parties that a change of 10,000 votes in
+Indiana and New York, both of which went for Harrison would have
+reelected Cleveland. As it was, his popular vote of 5,540,000 exceeded
+by 140,000 that of Harrison, which numbered 5,400,000. Besides bolding
+the Senate the Republicans won a face majority of ten in the House,
+subsequently increased by unseating and seating. They were thus in
+control of all branches of the general government.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+MR. HARRISON'S ADMINISTRATION.
+
+[1888]
+
+The new President, of course, renounced his predecessor's policy upon
+the tariff, but continued it touching the navy. He advocated steamship
+subsidies, reform in electoral laws, and such amendment to the
+immigration laws as would effectively exclude undesirable foreigners.
+
+A chief effect of the Kearney movement in California, culminating in the
+California constitution of 1879, was intense opposition throughout the
+Pacific States to any further admission of the Chinese. The constitution
+named forbade the employment of Chinese by the State or by any
+corporation doing business therein. This hostility spread eastward, and,
+in spite of interested capitalists and disinterested philanthropists,
+shaped all Subsequent Chinese legislation in Congress. The pacific
+spirit of the Burlingame treaty in 1868, shown also by President Hayes
+in vetoing the Anti-Chinese bill of 1878, died out more and more.
+
+
+[Illustration: Speaker exhorting a crowd.]
+"The Chinese must go!"
+Denis Kearney addressing the working-men on the night of October 29, on
+Nob Hill, San Francisco.
+
+
+A law passed in 1881 provided that Chinese immigration might be
+regulated, limited, or suspended by the United States. A bill
+prohibiting such immigration for twenty years was vetoed by President
+Arthur, but another reducing the period to ten years became law in 1882.
+In 1888 this was amended to prohibit the return of Chinese laborers who
+had been in the United States but had left. In 1892 was passed the Geary
+law re-enacting for ten years more the prohibitions then in force, only
+making them more rigid. Substantially the same enactments were renewed
+in 1902.
+
+Mr. Harrison wished this policy of a closed state put in force against
+Europe as well as against Asia. An act of Congress passed August 2,
+1882, prohibited the landing from any country of any would-be immigrant
+who was a convict, lunatic, idiot, or unable to take care of himself.
+This law, like the supplementary one of March 3, 1887, proved
+inadequate. In 1888 American consuls represented that transatlantic
+steamship companies were employing unscrupulous brokers to procure
+emigrants for America, the brokerage being from three to five dollars
+per head, and that most emigrants were of a class utterly unfitted for
+citizenship.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Thomas B. Reed.
+
+
+The President's urgency in this matter had little effect, the attention
+of Congress being early diverted to other subjects. Three great measures
+mainly embodied the Republican policy--the Federal Elections Bill, the
+McKinley Tariff Bill, and the Dependent Pensions Bill.
+
+As Speaker of the House, Hon. Thomas B. Reed, of Maine, put through
+certain parliamentary innovations necessary to enact the party's will.
+He declined to entertain dilatory motions. More important, he ordered
+the clerk to register as "present and not voting," those whom he saw
+endeavoring by stubborn silence to break a quorum. A majority being the
+constitutional quorum, theretofore, unless a majority answered to their
+names upon roll-call, no majority appeared of record, although the
+sergeant-at-arms was empowered to compel the presence of every member.
+As the traditional safeguard of minorities and as a compressed airbrake
+on majority action, silence became more powerful than words. Under the
+Reed theory, since adopted, that the House may, through its Speaker,
+determine in its own way the presence of a quorum, the Speaker's or the
+clerk's eye was substituted for the voice of any member in demonstrating
+such member's presence.
+
+Many, not all Democrats, opposed the Reed policy as arbitrary. Mr.
+Evarts is said to have remarked, "Reed, you seem to think a deliberative
+body like a woman; if it deliberates, it is lost." On the "yeas and
+nays" or at any roll-call some would dodge out of sight, others break
+for the doors only to find them closed. A Texas member kicked down a
+door to make good his escape. Yet, having calculated the scope of his
+authority, Mr. Reed coolly continued to count and declare quorums
+whenever such were present. The Democratic majority of 1893 transferred
+this newly discovered prerogative of the Speaker, where possible, to
+tellers. Now and then they employed it as artillery to fire at Mr. Reed
+himself, but he each time received the shot with smiles.
+
+The cause for which the counting of quorums was invoked made it doubly
+odious to Democratic members. To restore the suffrage to southern
+negroes the Republicans proposed federal supervision of federal
+elections. This suggestion of a "Force Bill" rekindled sectional
+bitterness. One State refused to be represented at the World's Columbian
+Exposition of 1893, a United States marshal was murdered in Florida, a
+Grand Army Post was mobbed at Whitesville, Ky. Parts of the South
+proposed a boycott on northern goods. Many at the North favored white
+domination in the South rather than a return of the carpet-bag regime,
+regarding the situation a just retribution for Republicans' highhanded
+procedure in enfranchising black ignorance. Sober Republicans foresaw
+that a force law would not break up the solid South, but perpetuate it.
+The House, however, passed the bill. In the Senate it was killed only by
+"filibuster" tactics, free silver Republican members joining members
+from the South to prevent the adoption of cloture.
+
+A Treasury surplus of about $97,000,000 (in October, 1888) tempted the
+Fifty-first Congress to expenditures then deemed vast, though often
+surpassed since. The Fifty-first became known as the "Billion Dollar
+Congress." What drew most heavily upon the national strong-box was the
+Dependent Pensions Act. In this culminated a course of legislation
+repeating with similar results that which began early in the history of
+our country, occasioning the adage that "The Revolutionary claimant
+never dies." By 1820 the experiment entailed an expenditure of a little
+over twenty-five cents per capita of our population.
+
+In 1880 Congress was induced to endow each pensioner with a back pension
+equal to what his pension would have been had he applied on the date of
+receiving his injury. Under the old law pension outlay had been at high
+tide in 1871, standing then at $34,443,894. Seven years later it shrank
+to $27,137,019. In 1883 it exceeded $66,000,000; in 1889 it approached
+$88,000,000. But the act of 1890, similar to one vetoed by President
+Cleveland three years before, carried the pension figure to $106,493,000
+in 1890, to $118,584,000 in 1891, and to about $159,000,000 in 1893. It
+offered pensions to all soldiers and sailors incapacitated for manual
+labor who had served the Union ninety days, or, if they were dead, to
+their widows, children, or dependent parents. 311,567 pension
+certificates were issued during the fiscal year 1891-1892.
+
+While thus increasing outgo, the Fifty-first Congress planned to
+diminish income, not by lowering tariff rates, as the last
+Administration had recommended, but by pushing them up to or toward the
+prohibitive point. The McKinley Act, passed October 1, 1890, made sugar,
+a lucrative revenue article, free, and gave a bounty to sugar producers
+in this country, together with a discriminating duty of one-tenth of a
+cent per pound on sugar imported hither from countries which paid an
+export bounty thereon.
+
+The "Blaine" reciprocity feature of this act proved its most popular
+grace. In 1891 we entered into reciprocity agreements with Brazil, with
+the Dominican Republic, and with Spain for Cuba and Porto Rico. In 1892
+we covenanted similarly with the United Kingdom on behalf of the British
+West Indies and British Guiana, and with Nicaragua, Salvador, Honduras,
+Guatemala and Austria-Hungary. How far our trade was thus benefited is
+matter of controversy. Imports from these countries were certainly much
+enlarged. Our exportation of flour to these lands increased a result
+commonly ascribed to reciprocity, though the simultaneous increase in
+the amounts of flour we sent to other countries was a third more rapid.
+
+The international copyright law, meeting favor with the literary, was
+among the most conspicuous enactments of the Fifty-first Congress. An
+international copyright treaty had been entered into in 1886, but it did
+not include the United States. Two years later a bill to the same end
+failed in Congress. At last, on March 3, 1891, President Harrison signed
+an act which provided for United States copyright for any foreign
+author, designer, artist, or dramatist, albeit the two copies of a book,
+photograph, chromo, or lithograph required to be deposited with the
+Librarian of Congress must be printed from type set within the limits of
+the United States or from plates made therefrom, or from negatives or
+drawings on stone made within the limits of the United States or from
+transfers therefrom. Foreign authors, like native or naturalized, could
+renew their United States copyrights, and penalties were prescribed to
+protect these rights from infringement.
+
+[1891]
+
+Mr. Blaine, the most eminent Republican statesman surviving, was now
+less conspicuous than McKinley, Lodge, and Reed, with whom, by his
+opposition to extreme protection and to the Force Bill, he stood at
+sharp variance. As Secretary of State, however, to which post President
+Harrison had perforce assigned him, he still drew public attention,
+having to deal with several awkward international complications.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+David C. Hennessy.
+
+
+The city of New Orleans, often tempted to appeal from bad law to
+anarchy, was in the spring of 1891 swept off its feet by such a
+temptation. Chief of Police David C. Hennessy was one night ambushed and
+shot to death near his home by members of the Sicilian "Mafia," a
+secret, oath-bound body of murderous blackmailers whom he was hunting to
+earth. When at the trial of the culprits the jury, in face of cogent
+evidence, acquitted six and disagreed as to the rest, red fury succeeded
+white amazement. A huge mob encircled the jail, crushed in its
+barricaded doors, and shot or hung the trembling Italians within.
+
+
+[Illustration: Mob breaking into a prison.]
+An episode of the lynching of the Italians in New Orleans. The citizens
+breaking down the door of the parish prison with the beam brought there
+the night before for that purpose.
+
+
+[Illustration: Three story building.]
+Old Parish Jail, New Orleans, La.
+
+
+[Illustration: Downtown street, three and fours story buildings,
+streetcars.]
+Canal Street.  New Orleans La.
+
+
+Italy forthwith sent her protest to Mr. Blaine, who expressed his horror
+at the deed, and urged Governor Nicholls to see the guilty brought to
+justice. The Italian consul at New Orleans averred that, while the
+victims included bad men, many of the charges against them were without
+foundation; that the violence was foreseen and avoidable; that he had in
+vain besought military protection for the prisoners, and had himself,
+with his secretary, been assaulted and mobbed.
+
+The Marquis di Rudini insisted on indemnity for the murdered men's
+families and on the instant punishment of the assassins. Secretary
+Blaine, not refusing indemnity in this instance, denied the right to
+demand the same, still more the propriety of insisting upon the instant
+punishment of the offenders, since the utmost that could be done at once
+was to institute judicial proceedings, which was the exclusive function
+of the State of Louisiana. The Italian public thought this equivocation,
+mean truckling to the American prejudice against Italians. Baron Fava,
+Italian Minister at Washington, was ordered to "affirm the inutility of
+his presence near a government that had no power to guarantee such
+justice as in Italy is administered equally in favor of citizens of all
+nationalities." "I do not," replied Mr. Blaine, "recognize the right of
+any government to tell the United States what it shall do; we have never
+received orders from any foreign power and shall not begin now. It is to
+me," he said, "a matter of indifference what persons in Italy think of
+our institutions. I cannot change them, still less violate them."
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+A. G. Thurman.
+
+Such judicial proceedings as could be had against the lynchers broke
+down completely. The Italian Minister withdrew, but his government
+finally accepted $25,000 indemnity for the murdered men's families.
+
+Friction with Chile arose from the "Itata incident." Chile was torn by
+civil war between adherents of President Balmaceda and the
+"congressional party." Mr. Egan, American Minister at Santiago, rendered
+himself widely unpopular among Chilians by his espousal of the
+President's cause. The Itata, a cruiser in the congressionalist service,
+was on May 6, 1891, at Egan's request, seized at San Diego, Cal., by the
+federal authorities, on the ground that she was about to carry a cargo
+of arms to the revolutionists. Escaping, she surrendered at her will to
+the United States squadron at Iquique. The congressionalists resented
+our interference; the Balmaceda party were angry that we interfered to
+so little effect. A Valparaiso mob killed two American sailors and hurt
+eighteen more. Chile, however, tendered a satisfactory indemnity.
+
+
+[Illustration: Ship with two masts and one smokestack.]
+Chilian steamer Itata in San Diego Harbor.
+
+
+[1890]
+
+In the so-called "Barrundia incident" occurring in 1890 Americanism
+overshot itself. The Gautemalan refugee, General Barrundia, boarded the
+Pacific Mail steamer Acapulco for Salvador upon assurance that he would
+not be delivered to the authorities of his native land. At San Jose de
+Gautemala the Gautemala authorities sought to arrest him, and United
+States Minister Mizner, Consul-General Hosmer, and Commander Reiter of
+the United States Ship of War Ranger, concurred in advising Captain
+Pitts of the Acapulco that Gautemala had a right to do this. Barrundia
+resisted arrest and was killed. Both Mizner and Reiter were reprimanded
+and removed, Reiter being, however, placed in another command.
+
+Our government's attitude in this matter was untenable. The two
+officials were in fact punished for having acted with admirable judgment
+and done each his exact duty.
+
+One of President Harrison's earliest diplomatic acts was the treaty of
+1889 with Great Britain and Germany, by which, in conjunction with those
+nations, the United States established a joint protectorate over the
+Samoan Islands. On December 2, 1899, the three powers named agreed to a
+new treaty, by which the United States assumed full sovereignty over
+Tutuila and all the other Samoan islands east of longitude 171 degrees
+west from Greenwich, renouncing in favor of the other signatories all
+rights and claims over the remainder of the group.
+
+In the congressional campaign of 1890 issue was squarely joined upon the
+neo-Republican policy. The billion dollars gone, the Force Bill, and,
+to a less extent, the McKinley tariff, especially its sugar bounty, had
+aroused popular resentment. The election, an unprecedented "landslide,"
+precipitated a huge Democratic majority into the House of
+Representatives. Every community east of the Pacific slope felt the
+movement. Pennsylvania elected a Democratic governor.
+
+
+[Illustration: Rowboat with sixteen men leaving a ship.]
+President Harrison being rowed ashore at foot of Wall Street,
+New York, April 29, 1889.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+NON-POLITICAL EVENTS OF PRESIDENT HARRISON'S TERM
+
+[1889]
+
+President Harrison's quadrennium was a milestone between two
+generations. Memorials on every hand to the heroes of the Civil War
+shocked one with the sense that they and the events they molded were
+already of the past. Logan, Arthur, Sheridan, and Hancock had died. In
+1891 General Sherman and Admiral Porter fell within a day of each other.
+General Joseph E. Johnston, who had been a pall-bearer at the funeral of
+each, rejoined them in a month.
+
+This presidential term was pivotal in another way. The centennial
+anniversary of Washington's inauguration as President fell on April 30,
+1889. In observance of the occasion President Harrison followed the
+itinerary of one hundred years before, from the Governor's mansion in
+New Jersey to the foot of Wall Street, in New York City, to old St.
+Paul's Church, on Broadway, and to the site where the first Chief
+Magistrate first took the oath of office. Three days devoted to the
+commemorative exercises were a round of naval, military, and industrial
+parades, with music, oratory, pageantry, and festivities. For this
+Centennial Whittier composed an ode. The venerable Rev. S. F. Smith, who
+had written "America" fifty-seven years before, was also inspired by the
+occasion to pen a Century Hymn, and to add to "America" the stanza:
+
+"Our joyful hearts to-day,
+Their grateful tribute pay,
+  Happy and free,
+After our toils and fears,
+After our blood and tears,
+Strong with our hundred years,
+  O God, to Thee."
+
+
+[Illustration: Parade.]
+Washington Inaugural Celebration, 1889, New York.
+Parade passing Union Square on Broadway.
+
+[1890]
+
+At the opening of this its second century of existence the nation was
+confronted by entirely new issues. Bitterness between North and South,
+spite of its brief recrudescence during the pendency of the Force Bill,
+was fast dying out. At the unveiling of the noble monument to Robert E.
+Lee at Richmond, in May, 1890, while, of course, Confederate leaders
+were warmly cheered and the Confederate flag was displayed, various
+circumstances made it clear that this zeal was not in derogation of the
+restored Union.
+
+The last outbreaks of sectional animosity related to Jefferson Davis, in
+whom, both to the North and to the South, the ghost of the Lost Cause
+had become curiously personified. The question whether or not he was a
+traitor was for years zealously debated in Congress and outside. The
+general amnesty after the war had excepted Davis. When a bill was before
+Congress giving suitable pensions to Mexican War soldiers and sailors,
+an amendment was carried, amid much bitterness, excluding the
+ex-president of the Confederacy from the benefits thereof. Northerners
+naturally glorified their triumph in the war as a victory for the
+Constitution, nor could they wholly withstand the inclination to
+question the motives of the secession leaders. Southerners, however
+loyal now to the Union, were equally bold in asserting that, since in
+1861 the question of the nature of the Union had not been settled, Mr.
+Davis and the rest might attempt secession, not as foes of the
+Constitution, but as, in their own thought, its most loyal friends and
+defenders.
+
+
+[Illustration: Statue about three times life size on a 30 foot pedestal.]
+Unveiling of the Equestrian Statue of Robert E. Lee, May 29. 1890.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Henry W. Grady.
+
+
+By 1890 the days were passed when denunciation of Davis or of the South
+electrified the North, nor did the South on its part longer waste time
+in impotent resentments or regrets. The brilliant and fervid utterances
+on "The New South" by editor Henry W. Grady, of the Atlanta
+Constitution, went home to the hearts of Northerners, doing much to
+allay sectional feeling. Grady died, untimely, in 1889, lamented nowhere
+more sincerely than at the North.
+
+
+When Federal intervention occurred to put down the notorious Louisiana
+Lottery, the South in its gratitude almost forgot that there had been a
+war. This lottery had been incorporated in 1868 for twenty-five years.
+In 1890 it was estimated to receive a full third of the mail matter
+coming to New Orleans, with a business of $30,000 a day in postal notes
+and money orders. As the monster in 1890, approaching its charter-term,
+bestirred itself for a new lease of life, it found itself barred from
+the mails by Congress.
+
+And this was, in effect, its banishment from the State and country. It
+could still ply its business through the express companies, provided
+Louisiana would abrogate the constitutional prohibition of lotteries it
+had enacted to take effect in 1893. For a twenty-five year
+re-enfranchisement the impoverished State was offered the princely sum
+of a million and a quarter dollars a year. This tempting bait was
+supplemented by influences brought to bear upon the venal section of the
+press and of the legislature. A proposal for the necessary
+constitutional change was vetoed by Governor Nicholls. Having pushed
+their bill once more through the House, the lottery lobby contended that
+a proposal for a constitutional amendment did not require the governor's
+signature, but only to be submitted to the people, a position which was
+affirmed by the State Supreme Court. A fierce battle followed in the
+State, the "anti" Democrats of the country parishes, in fusion with
+Farmers' Alliance men, fighting the "pro" Democrats of New Orleans. The
+"Antis" and the Alliance triumphed. Effort for a constitutional
+amendment was given up, and Governor Foster was permitted to sign an act
+prohibiting, after December 31, 1893, all sale of lottery tickets and
+all lottery drawings or schemes throughout the State of Louisiana. In
+January, 1894, the Lottery Company betook itself to exile on the island
+of Cuanaja, in the Bay of Honduras, a seat which the Honduras Government
+had granted it, together with a monopoly of the lottery business for
+fifty years.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Francis T. Nicholls.
+
+
+Matters in the West drew attention. The pressure of white population,
+rude and resistless as a glacier, everywhere forcing the barriers of
+Indian reservations, now concentrated upon the part of Indian territory
+known as Oklahoma. This large tract the Seminole Indians had sold to the
+Government, to be exclusively colonized by Indians and freedmen. In
+1888-89, as it had become clearly impossible to shut out white settlers,
+Congress appropriated $4,000,000 to extinguish the trust upon which the
+land was held. By December the newly opened territory boasted 60,000
+denizens, eleven schools, nine churches, and three daily and five weekly
+newspapers. In a few years it was vying for statehood with Arizona and
+New Mexico.
+
+
+[Illustration: About twenty-five tents.]
+A general view of the town on April 24, 1889,
+the second day after the opening.
+
+
+[Illustration: About 25 one-story buildings.]
+A view along Oklahoma Avenue on May 10, 1889.
+
+
+[Illustration: Several two story buildings on a crowded street.]
+Oklahoma Avenue as it appeared on May 10, 1893,
+during Governor Noble's visit.
+THE BUILDING OF A WESTERN TOWN, GUTHRIE, OKLAHOMA.
+
+
+In addition to the prospect of thus losing all their lands, the Indians
+were, in the winter of 1890, famine-stricken through failure of
+Government rations. With little hope of justice or revenge in their own
+strength, the aggrieved savages sought supernatural solace. The
+so-called "Messiah Craze" seized upon Sioux, Cheyennes, Arapahoes,
+Osages, Missouris, and Seminoles. Ordinarily at feud with one another,
+these tribes all now united in ghost dances, looking for the Great
+Spirit or his Representative to appear with a high hand and an
+outstretched arm to bury the white and their works deep underground,
+when the prairie should once more thunder with the gallop of buffalo and
+wild horses. Southern negroes caught the infection. Even the scattered
+Aztecs of Mexico gathered around the ruins of their ancient temple at
+Cholula and waited a Messiah who should pour floods of lava from
+Popocatapetl, inundating all mortals not of Aztec race.
+
+[1892]
+
+While frontiersmen trembled lest massacres should follow these Indian
+orgies, people in the East were shuddering over the particulars of a
+real catastrophe indescribably awful in nature. On a level some two
+hundred and seventy-five feet lower than a certain massive reservoir,
+lay the city of Johnstown, Pa. The last of May, 1889, heavy rains having
+fallen, the reservoir dam burst, letting a veritable mountain of water
+rush down upon the town, destroying houses, factories, bridges, and
+thousands of lives. Relief work, begun at once and liberally supplied
+with money from nearly every city in the Union and from many foreign
+contributors, repaired as far as might be the immediate consequences of
+the disaster.
+
+Along with the Johnstown Flood will be remembered in the annals of
+Pennsylvania the Homestead strike, in 1892, against the Carnegie Steel
+Company, occasioned by a cut in wages. The Amalgamated Steel and Iron
+Workers sought to intercede against the reduction, but were refused
+recognition. Preparing to supplant the disaffected workmen with
+non-union men, a force of Pinkerton detectives was brought up the river
+in armored barges. Fierce fighting ensued. Bullets and cannon-balls
+rained upon the barges, and receptacles full of burning oil were floated
+down stream. The assailants wished to withdraw, repeatedly raising the
+white flag, but it was each time shot down. Eleven strikers were killed;
+of the attacking party from thirty to forty fell, seven dead. When at
+last the Pinkertons were forced to give up their arms and ammunition and
+retire, a bodyguard of strikers sought to shield them, but so violent
+was the rage which they had provoked that, spite of their escort, the
+mob brutally attacked them. Order was restored only when the militia
+appeared.
+
+
+[Illustration: City street piled with debris several feet thick.]
+Main Street, Johnstown, after the flood.
+
+
+[Illustration: River front, factories in the background, fires in the
+foreground.]
+Burning of Barges during Homestead Strike.
+
+
+[Illustration: Man standing behind a large curved steel plate.]
+The Carnegie Steel Works. Showing the shield used by the strikers when
+firing the cannon and watching the Pinkerton men. Homestead strike.
+
+
+This bloodshed was not wholly in vain. Congress made the private militia
+system, the evil consequences of which were so manifest in these
+tragedies, a subject of investigation, while public sentiment more
+strongly than ever reprobated, on the one hand, violence by strikers or
+strike sympathizers, and, on the other, the employment of armed men, not
+officers of the law, to defend property.
+
+That, however, other causes than these might endanger the peace was
+shown about the same time at certain Tennessee mines where prevailed the
+bad system of farming out convicts to compete with citizen-miners.
+Business being slack, deserving workmen were put on short time.
+Resenting this, miners at Tracy City, Inman, and Oliver Springs
+summarily removed convicts from the mines, several of these escaping. At
+Coal Creek the rioters were resisted by Colonel Anderson and a small
+force. They raised a flag of truce, answering which in person, Colonel
+Anderson was commanded, on threat of death, to order a surrender. He
+refused. A larger force soon arrived, routed the rioters, and rescued
+the colonel.
+
+
+[Illustration: Several hundred men.]
+Inciting miners to attack Fort Anderson.
+The grove between Briceville and Coal Creek.
+
+
+[Illustration: Train.]
+State troops and miners at Briceville, Tenn.
+
+
+[1891]
+
+The year 1891 formed a crisis in the history of Mormonism in America.
+For a long time after their settlement in the "Great American Desert,"
+as it was then called, Mormons repudiated United States authority.
+Gentile pioneers and recreant saints they dealt with summarily, witness
+the Mountain Meadow massacre of 1857, where 120 victims were murdered in
+cold blood after surrendering their arms.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+The Mormon Temple at Salt Lake City.
+
+
+Anti-polygamy bills were introduced in Congress in 1855 and 1859. In
+1862 such a bill was made law. Seven years later the enforcement of it
+became possible by the building of a trans-continental railroad and the
+influx of gentiles drawn by the discovery of precious metals in Utah. In
+1874 the Poland Act, and in 1882 the Edmunds Act, introduced reforms.
+Criminal law was now much more efficiently executed against Mormons. In
+1891 the Mormon officials pledged their church's obedience to the laws
+against plural marriages and unlawful cohabitation.
+
+America was quick and generous in her response to the famine cry that in
+1891 rose from 30,000,000 people in Russia. Over a domain of nearly a
+half million square miles in that land there was no cow or goat for
+milk, nor a horse left strong enough to draw a hearse. Old grain stores
+were exhausted, crops a failure, and land a waste. Typhus, scurvy, and
+smallpox were awfully prevalent. To relieve this misery, our people,
+besides individual gifts, despatched four ship-loads of supplies
+gathered from twenty-five States. In values given New York led,
+Minnesota was a close second, and Nebraska third. America became a
+household word among the Russians even to the remotest interior.
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+THE WORLD'S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION
+
+
+[Illustration: Large parade.]
+Columbian Celebration, New York, April 28, 1893.
+Parade passing Fifth Avenue Hotel.
+
+
+[1892-1893]
+
+The thought of celebrating by a world's fair the third centennial of
+Columbus's immortal deed anticipated the anniversary by several years.
+Congress organized the exposition so early as 1890, fixing Chicago as
+its seat. That city was commodious, central, typically American. A
+National Commission was appointed; also an Executive Committee, a Board
+of Reference and Control, a Chicago Local Board, and a Board of Lady
+Managers.
+
+The task of preparation was herculean. Jackson Park had to be changed
+from a dreary lakeside swamp into a lovely city, with roads, lawns,
+groves and flowers, canals, lagoons and bridges, a dozen palaces, and
+ten score other edifices. An army of workmen, also fire, police,
+ambulance, hospital, and miscellaneous service was organized.
+
+Wednesday, October 21 (Old Style, October 12), 1892, was observed as
+Columbus Day, marking the four hundredth anniversary of Columbus's
+discovery. A reception was held in the Chicago Auditorium, followed by
+dedication of the buildings and grounds at Jackson Park and an award of
+medals to artists and architects. Many cities held corresponding
+observances. New York chose October 12th for the anniversary.  On April
+26-28, 1893, again, the eastern metropolis was enlivened by grand
+parades honoring Columbus. In the naval display, April 22d, thirty-five
+war ships and more than 10,000 men of divers flags, took part.
+
+
+[Illustration: Three small ships.]
+Pinta, Santa Maria, Nina,
+Lying in the North River, New York.
+The caravels which crossed from Spain
+to be present at the World's Fair at Chicago.
+
+
+Between Columbus Day and the opening of the Exposition came the
+presidential election of 1892. Ex-President Cleveland had been nominated
+on the first ballot, in spite of the Hill delegation sent from his home
+State to oppose. Harrison, too, had overcome Platt, Hill's Republican
+counterpart in New York, and in Pennsylvania had preferred John
+Wanamaker to Quay. But Harrison was not "magnetic" like Blaine. With
+what politicians call the "boy" element of a party, he was especially
+weak. Stalwarts complained that he was ready to profit by their
+services, but abandoned them under fire. The circumstances connected
+with the civil service that so told against Cleveland four years before,
+now hurt Harrison equally. Though no doubt sincerely favoring reform, he
+had, like his predecessor, succumbed to the machine in more than one
+instance.
+
+The campaign was conducted in good humor and without personalities.
+Owing to Australian voting and to a more sensitive public opinion, the
+election was much purer than that of 1888. The Republicans defended
+McKinley protection, boasting of it as sure, among other things, to
+transfer the tin industry from Wales to America. Free sugar was also
+made prominent. Some cleavage was now manifest between East and West
+upon the tariff issue. In the West "reciprocity" was the Republican
+slogan; in the East, "protection." Near the Atlantic, Democrats
+contented themselves with advocacy of "freer raw materials "; those by
+the Mississippi denounced "Republican protection" as fraud and robbery.
+If the platform gave color to the charge that Democrats wished "British
+free trade," Mr. Cleveland's letter of acceptance was certainly
+conservative.
+
+Populism, emphasizing State aid to industry, particularly in behalf of
+the agricultural class, made great gains in the election. General Weaver
+was its presidential nominee. In Colorado, Idaho, Kansas, and Wyoming
+most Democrats voted for him. Partial fusion of the sort prevailed also
+in North Dakota, Nevada, Minnesota, and Oregon. Weaver carried all these
+States save the two last named. In Louisiana and Alabama Republicans
+fused with Populists. The Tillman movement in South Carolina, nominally
+Democratic, was akin to Populism, but was complicated with the color
+question, and later with novel liquor legislation. It was a revolt of
+the ordinary whites from the traditional dominance of the aristocracy.
+In Alabama a similar movement, led by Reuben F. Kolb, was defeated, as
+he thought, by vicious manipulation of votes in the Black Belt.
+
+Of the total four hundred and forty-four electoral votes Cleveland
+received two hundred and seventy-seven, a plurality of one hundred and
+thirty-two. The Senate now held forty-four Democrats, thirty-seven
+Republicans, and four Populists; the House two hundred and sixteen
+Democrats, one hundred and twenty-five Republicans, and eleven
+Populists.
+
+
+[Illustration: Tall, ornate building about 300 feet square.]
+The Manufactures and liberal Arts Building, seen from the southwest.
+
+
+Early on the opening day of the Exposition, May 1, 1893, the Chief
+Magistrate of the nation sat beside Columbus's descendant, the Duke of
+Veragua. Patient multitudes were waiting for the gates of Jackson Park
+to swing. "It only remains for you, Mr. President," said the
+Director-General, concluding his address, "if in your opinion the
+Exposition here presented is commensurate in dignity with what the world
+should expect of our great country, to direct that it shall be opened to
+the public. When you touch this magic key the ponderous machinery will
+start in its revolutions and the activity of the Exposition will begin."
+After a brief response Mr. Cleveland laid his finger on the key. A
+tumult of applause mingled with the jubilant melody of Handel's
+"Hallelujah Chorus." Myriad wheels revolved, waters gushed and sparkled,
+bells pealed and artillery thundered, while flags and gonfalons
+fluttered forth.
+
+The Exposition formed a huge quadrilateral upon the westerly shore of
+Lake Michigan, from whose waters one passed by the North Inlet into the
+North Pond, or by the South Inlet into the South Pond. These united with
+the central Grand Basin in the peerless Court of Honor. The grounds and
+buildings were of surpassing magnitude and splendor. Interesting but
+simple features were the village of States, the Nations' tabernacles,
+lying almost under the guns of the facsimile battleship Illinois, and
+the pigmy caravels, Nina, Pinta, and Santa Maria, named and modelled
+after those that bore Columbus to the New World. These, like their
+originals, had fared from Spain across the Atlantic, and then had come
+by the St, Lawrence and the Lakes, without portage, to their moorings at
+Chicago.
+
+
+[Illustration: Several domed buildings reflected in a pool.]
+Horticultural Building, with Illinois Building in the background.
+
+
+Near the centre of the ground stood the Government Building, with a
+ready-made look out of keeping with the other architecture. Critics
+declared it the only discordant note in the symphony, Looking from the
+Illinois Building across the North pond, one saw the Art Palace, of pure
+Ionic style, perfectly proportioned, restful to view, contesting with
+the Administration Building for the architectural laurels of the Fair.
+South of the Illinois Building rose the Woman's Building, and next
+Horticultural Hall, with dome high enough to shelter the tallest palms.
+The Manufactures and Liberal Arts Building, of magnificent proportions,
+did not tyrannize over its neighbors, though thrice the size of St.
+Peter's at Rome, and able easily to have sheltered the Vendome Column.
+It was severely classical, with a long perspective of arches, broken
+only at the corners and in the centre by portals fit to immortalize
+Alexander's triumphs.
+
+The artistic jewel of the Exposition was the "Court of Honor." Down the
+Grand Basin you saw the noble statue of the Republic, in dazzling gold,
+with the peristyle beyond, a forest of columns surmounted by the
+Columbus quadriga. On the right hand stood the Agricultural Building,
+upon whose summit the "Diana" of Augustus St. Gaudens had alighted. To
+the left stood the enormous Hall of Manufactures. Looking from the
+peristyle the eye met the Administration Building, a rare
+exemplification of the French school, the dome resembling that of the
+Hotel des lnvalides in Paris.
+
+
+[Illustration: Several people walking on a promenade, surrounded by tall
+buildings.]
+A view toward the Peristyle from Machinery Hall.
+
+
+A most unique conception was the Cold Storage Building, where a hundred
+tons at ice were made daily. Save for the entrance, flanked by windows,
+and the fifth floor, designed for an ice skating rink, its walls were
+blank. Four corner towers set off the fifth, which rose from the centre
+sheer to a height of 225 feet.
+
+The cheering coolness of this building was destined not to last. Early
+in the afternoon of July 10th flames burst out from the top of the
+central tower. Delaying his departure until he had provided against
+explosion, the brave engineer barely saved his life. Firemen were soon
+on hand. Sixteen of them forthwith made their way to the balcony near
+the blazing summit. Suddenly their retreat was cut off by a burst of
+fire from the base of the tower. The rope and hose parted and
+precipitated a number who were sliding back to the roof. Others leaped
+from the colossal torch. In an instant, it seemed, the whole pyre was
+swathed in flames. As it toppled, the last wretched form was seen to
+poise and plunge with it into the glowing abyss.
+
+The Fisheries Building received much attention. Its pillars were twined
+with processions of aquatic creatures and surmounted by capitals
+quaintly resembling lobster-pots. Its balustrades were supported by
+small fishy caryatids.
+
+If wonder fatigued the visitor, he reached sequestered shade and quiet
+upon the Wooded Island, where nearly every variety of American tree and
+shrub might be seen.
+
+The Government's displays were of extreme interest. The War Department
+exhibits showed our superiority in heavy ordnance, likewise that of
+Europe in small arms. A first-class post-office was operated on the
+grounds. A combination postal car, manned by the most expert sorters and
+operators, interested vast crowds. Close by was an ancient mail coach
+once actually captured by the Indians, with effigies of the pony express
+formerly so familiar on the Western plains, of a mail sledge drawn by
+dogs, and of a mail carrier mounted on a bicycle. Models of a quaint
+little Mississippi mail steamer and of the ocean steamer Paris stood
+side by side.
+
+[Illustration: Two large domed building with several hundred people
+walking about.]
+The Administration Building,
+seen from the Agricultural Building.
+
+
+Swarms visited the Midway Plaisance, a long avenue out from the fair
+grounds proper, lined with shows. Here were villages transported from
+the ends of the earth, animal shows, theatres, and bazaars. Cairo Street
+boasted 2,250,000 visitors, and the Hagenbeck Circus over 2,000,000. The
+chief feature was the Ferris Wheel, described in engineering terms as a
+cantilever bridge wrought around two enormous bicycle wheels. The axle,
+supported upon steel pyramids, alone weighed more than a locomotive. In
+cars strung upon its periphery passengers were swung from the ground far
+above the highest buildings.
+
+
+[Illustration: Several ornate buildings surrounding a busy street.]
+Midway Plaisance, World's Fair, Chicago.
+
+
+Facilitating passenger transportation to and from the Fair remarkable
+railway achievements were made. One train from New York to Chicago
+covered over 48 miles an hour, including stops. In preparation for the
+event the Illinois Central raised its tracks for two and a half miles
+over thirteen city streets, built 300 special cars, and erected many new
+stations. These improvements cost over $2,000,000. The Fair increased
+Illinois Central traffic over 200 per cent.
+
+Save the Art Building, the structures at the Fair were designed to be
+temporary, and they were superfluous when the occasion which called them
+into being had passed. The question of disposing of them was summarily
+solved. One day some boys playing near the Terminal Station saw a
+sinister leer of flame inside. A high wind soon blew a conflagration,
+which enveloped the structures, leaving next day naught but ashes,
+tortured iron work, and here and there an arch, to tell of the regal
+White City that had been.
+
+
+[Illustration: Several people watching a fire.]
+Electricity Building.   Mines and Mining Building.
+The Burning of the White City.
+
+
+The financial backers of the Fair showed no mercenary temper. The
+architects, too, worked with public spirit and zeal which money never
+could have elicited. Notwithstanding the World's Fair was not
+financially a "success," this was rather to the credit of its unstinted
+magnificence than to the want of public appreciation. The paid
+admissions were over 21,000,000, a daily average of 120,000. The gross
+attendance exceeded by nearly a million the number at the Paris
+Exposition of 1889 for the corresponding period, though rather more than
+half a million below the total at the French capital. The monthly
+average at Chicago increased from 1,000,000 at first to 7,000,000 in
+October. The crowd was typical of the best side of American life;
+orderly, good-natured, intelligent, sober. The grounds were clean, and
+there was no ruffianism. Of the $32,988 worth of property reported
+stolen, $31,875 was recovered and restored.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL MOVEMENT
+
+[1890-1893]
+
+The century from 1790 to 1890 saw our people multiplied sixteen times,
+from 3,929,214 at its beginning, to 62,622,250 at its end. The low
+percentage of increase for the last decade, about 20 per cent.,
+disappointed even conservative estimates. The cities not only absorbed
+this increase, but, except in the West, made heavy draughts upon the
+country population. Of each 1,000 people in 1880, 225 were urban; in
+1890, 290. Chicago's million and a tenth was second only to New York's
+million and a half. Philadelphia, Brooklyn, and St. Louis appeared
+respectively as the third, fourth, and fifth in the list of great
+cities. St. Paul, Omaha, and Denver domiciled three or four times as
+many as ten years before. Among Western States only Nevada lagged. The
+State of Washington had quintupled its numbers. The centre of population
+had travelled fifty miles west and nine miles north, being caught by the
+census about twenty miles east of Columbus, Indiana.
+
+
+[Illustration: Frame of twelve story building.]
+The New York Life Insurance Building in Chicago.
+(Showing the construction of outer walls.)
+
+
+The railroads of the country spanned an aggregate of 163,000 miles,
+twice the mileage of 1880. The national wealth was appraised at
+$65,037,091,197, an increase for the decade of $21,395,091,197 in the
+gross. Our per capita wealth was now $1,039, a per capita increase of
+$169. Production in the mining industry had gone up more than half. The
+improved acreage, on the other hand, had increased less than a third,
+the number of farms a little over an eighth.
+
+School enrollment had advanced from 12 per cent. in 1840 to 23 per cent.
+in 1890. Not far from a third of the people were communicants of the
+various religious bodies. About a tenth were Roman Catholics.
+
+Improvement in iron and steel manufacture revolutionized the
+construction of bridges, vessels, and buildings. The suspension bridge,
+instanced by the stupendous East River bridge between New York and
+Brooklyn, was supplanted by the cantilever type, consisting of trusswork
+beams poised upon piers and meeting each other mid-stream. Iron and
+steel construction also made elevated railways possible. In 1890 the
+elevated roads of New York City alone carried over 500,000 passengers
+daily. Steel lent to the framework of buildings lightness, strength, and
+fire-proof quality, at the same time permitting swift construction.
+Walls came to serve merely as covering, not sustaining the floors, the
+weight of which lay upon iron posts and girders.
+
+At the time of the Centennial, electricity was used almost exclusively
+for telegraphic communication. By 1893 new inventions, as wonderful as
+Morse's own, had overlaid even that invention. A single wire now
+sufficed to carry several messages at once and in different directions.
+Rapidity of transmission was another miracle. During the electrical
+exposition in New York City, May, 1896, Hon. Chauncey M. Depew dictated
+a message which was sent round the world and back in fifty minutes. It
+read:
+
+"God creates, nature treasures, science utilizes electrical power for
+the grandeur of nations and the peace of the world." These words
+travelled from London to Lisbon, thence to Suez, Aden, Bombay, Madras,
+Singapore, Hong-Kong, Shanghai, Nagasaki, and Tokio, returning by the
+same route to New York, a total distance of over 27,500 miles.
+
+
+[Illustration: Three vertical generators about thirty feet in diameter.]
+Interior of the Power House at Niagara Falls.
+
+
+Self-winding and self-regulating clocks came into vogue, being
+automatically adjusted through the Western Union telegraph lines, so
+that at noon each day the correct time was instantly communicated to
+their hands from the national observatory. Another invaluable use of the
+telegraph was its service to the Weather Bureau, established in 1870. By
+means of simultaneous reports from a tract of territory 3,000 miles long
+by 1,500 wide, this bureau was enabled to make its forecasts
+indispensable to every prudent farmer, traveller, or mariner.
+
+The three great latter-day applications of electrical force were the
+telephone, the electric light, and the electric motor. In 1876, almost
+simultaneously with its discovery by other investigators, Alexander
+Graham Bell exhibited an electric transmitter of the human voice. By the
+addition of the Edison carbon transmitter the same year the novelty was
+assured swift success. In 1893 the Bell Telephone Company owned 307,748
+miles of wire, an amount increased by rival companies' property to
+444,750. Estimates gave for that year nearly 14,000 "exchanges," 250,000
+subscribers, and 2,000,000 daily conversations. New York and Chicago
+were placed on speaking terms only three or four days before "Columbus
+Day." All the chief cities were soon connected by telephone.
+
+At the Philadelphia Exposition arc electric lamps were the latest
+wonder, and not till two years later did Edison render the incandescent
+lamp available.
+
+The use of electricity for the development of power as well as of light,
+unknown in the Centennial year, was in the Columbian year neither a
+scientific nor a practical novelty. On the contrary, it was fast
+supplanting horses upon street railways, and making city systems nuclei
+for far-stretching suburban and interurban lines. Street railways
+mounted steep hills inaccessible before save by the clumsy system of
+cables. Even steam locomotives upon great railways gave place in some
+instances to motors. Horseless carriages and pedalless bicycles were
+clearly in prospect.
+
+It was found that by the use of copper wiring electric power could be
+carried great distances. A line twenty-five miles long bore from the
+American River Falls, at Folsom, California, to Sacramento, a current
+which the city found ample for traction, light, and power. Niagara Falls
+was harnessed to colossal generators, whose product was transmitted to
+neighboring cities and manufactories. Loss en route was at first
+considerable, but cunning devices lessened it each year.
+
+Thomas Alva Edison and Nikola Tesla were conspicuously identified with
+these astonishing applications of electric energy. Edison, first a
+newsboy, then (like Andrew Carnegie) a telegraph operator, without
+school or book training in physics, rose step by step to the repute of
+working miracles on notification. Tesla, a native of Servia, who
+happened, upon migrating to the United States, to find employment with
+Edison, was totally unlike his master. He was a highly educated
+scientist, herein at a great advantage. He was, in opposition to Edison,
+peculiarly the champion of high tension alternating current
+distribution. He aimed to dispense so far as possible with the
+generation of heat, pressing the ether waves directly into the service
+of man.
+
+
+[Illustration: Edison working in his laboratory.]
+Thomas Alva Edison.
+Copyright by W. A. Dickson.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Nikola Tesla.
+
+
+The bicycle developed incredible popularity in the '90's. Through all
+the panic of 1893 bicycle makers prospered. It was estimated in 1896
+that no less than $100,000,000 had been spent in the United States upon
+cycling. A clumsy prototype of the "wheel" was known in 1868, but the
+first bicycle proper, a wheel breast-high, with cranks and pedals
+connected with a small trailing wheel by a curved backbone and
+surmounted by a saddle, was exhibited at the Centennial. Two years later
+this kind of wheel began to be manufactured in America, and soon, in
+spite of its perils, or perhaps in part because of them, bicycle riding
+was a favorite sport among experts. In 1889 a new type was introduced,
+known as the "safety." Its two wheels were of the same size, with saddle
+between them, upon a suitable frame, the pedals propelling the rear
+wheel through a chain and sprocket gearing. An old invention, that of
+inflated or pneumatic tires of rubber, coupled with more hygienic
+saddles, gave great impetus to cycling sport. The fad dwindled, but the
+bicycle remained in general use as a convenience and even as a
+necessity.
+
+
+[Illustration: Several people riding bicycles.]
+Bicycle Parade, New York.
+Fancy Costume Division.
+
+
+[Illustration: Hundreds of jars with hoses attached.]
+Hatchery Room of the Fish Commission Building at Washington, D. C.,
+showing the hatchery jars in operation.
+
+
+The Fish Commission, created by the Government in 1870, proved an
+important agency in promoting the great industries of fishing and fish
+culture. At the World's Fair it appeared that the fishing business had
+made progress greater than many others which were much more obtrusively
+displayed, though the fishtrap, the fyke net, and the fishing steamer
+had all been introduced within a generation.
+
+In no realm did invention and the application of science mean more for
+the country's weal than in agriculture. Each State had its agricultural
+college and experiment station, mainly supported by United States funds
+provided under the Morrill Acts. Soils, crops, animal breeds, methods of
+tillage, dairying, and breeding were scientifically examined. Forestry
+became a great interest. Intensive agriculture spread. By early
+ploughing and incessant use of cultivators keeping the surface soil a
+mulch, arid tracts were rendered to a great extent independent of both
+rainfall and irrigation. Improved machinery made possible the farming of
+vast areas with few hands. The gig horse hoe rendered weeding work
+almost a pleasure. A good reaper with binder attachment, changing horses
+once, harvested twenty acres a day. The best threshers bagged from 1,000
+to 2,500 bushels daily. One farmer sowed and reaped 200 acres of wheat
+one season without hiring a day's work.
+
+Woman's position at the Fair was prominent and gratifying. How her touch
+lent refinement and taste was observed both in the Woman's Building, the
+first of its kind, and in other departments of the Exposition. Power of
+organization was noticeably exemplified in the Woman's Christian
+Temperance Union. This body originated in the temperance crusade of 1873
+and the following year, when a State Temperance Association was formed
+in Ohio, leading shortly to the rise of a national union.
+
+Related to this movement in elevated moral aims, as well as in the
+prominent part it assigned to women, was the Salvation Army. In 1861
+William Booth, an English Methodist preacher, resigned his charge and
+devoted himself to the redemption of London's grossest proletariat.
+Deeming themselves not wanted in the churches, his converts set up a
+separate and more militant organization. In 1879 the Army invaded
+America, landing at Philadelphia, where, as in the Old Country and in
+other American cities, pitiable sin and wretchedness grovelled in
+obscurity. In 1894 there were in the United States 539 corps and 1,953
+officers, and in the whole world 3,200 corps and 10,788 officers.
+Without proposing any programme of social or political reform, and
+without announcing any manifesto of human rights, the Salvationists
+uplifted hordes of the fallen, while drawing to the lowliest the notice,
+sympathy, and help of the middle classes and the rich. Army discipline
+was rigidly maintained. The soldiers were sworn to wear the uniform, to
+obey their officers, to abstain from drink, tobacco, and worldly
+amusements, to live in simplicity and economy, to earn their living, and
+of their earnings always to give something to advance the Kingdom.  The
+officers could not marry or become engaged without the consent of the
+Army authorities, for their spouses must be capable of cooperating with
+them. They could receive no presents, not even food, except in cases of
+necessity. An officer must have experienced "full salvation"--that is,
+must endeavor to be living free from every known sin. Except as to pay,
+the Army placed women on an absolute equality with men, a policy which
+greatly furthered its usefulness.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+William Booth.
+From a photograph by Rockwood, New York.
+
+
+The peculiar uniform worn by the Salvation soldiers, always sufficing to
+identify them, called attention to a fact never obvious till about
+1890--the relative uniformity in the costumes of all fairly dressed
+Americans whether men or women. The wide circulation of fashion plates
+and pictorial papers accounted for this. About this time cuts came to be
+a feature even of newspapers, a custom on which the more conservative
+sheets at first frowned, though soon adopting it themselves.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+MR. CLEVELAND AGAIN PRESIDENT
+
+[1893-1895]
+
+In the special session beginning August 7, 1893, a Democratic Congress
+met under a Democratic President for the first time since 1859. The
+results were disappointing. Divided, leaderless, in large part at bitter
+variance with the Administration, the Democrats trooped to their
+overthrow two years later.
+
+During his second Administration Mr. Cleveland considerably extended the
+merit system in the civil service. Candidates for consulships were
+subjected to (non-competitive) examination. Public opinion commended
+these moves, as it did the President's prompt signing of the
+Anti-Lottery Bill, introduced in Congress when it was learned that the
+expatriated Louisiana Lottery from its seat under Honduras jurisdiction
+was operating in the United States through the express companies. The
+bill prohibiting this abuse was passed at three in the morning on the
+last day of the Congressional session, and received the President's
+signature barely five minutes before the Congress expired.
+
+
+[Illustration: Cleveland seated at a cluttered desk.]
+Grover Cleveland.
+From a photograph by Alexander Black.
+
+
+At the opening of the Special Session, in August, 1893, the President
+demanded the repeal of that clause in the Sherman law of 1890 requiring
+the Government to make heavy monthly purchases of silver. The suspension
+in India of the free coinage of silver the preceding June had
+precipitated a disastrous monetary panic in the United States. Gold was
+hoarded and exported, vast sums being drained from the Treasury. Credits
+were refused, values shrivelled, business was palsied, labor idle. It
+was this situation which led the President to convoke Congress in
+special session.
+
+Though achieving the repeal on November 1st, after Congressional
+wrangles especially long and bitter in the Senate, President Cleveland,
+pursuing the policy of paying gold for all greenbacks presented at the
+Treasury, was unable, even by the sale of $50,000,000 in bonds, to keep
+the Treasury gold reserve up to the $100,000,000 figure. Both old
+greenbacks and Sherman law greenbacks, being redeemed in gold, reissued
+and again redeemed, were used by exchangers like an endless chain pump
+to pump the Treasury dry. In February, 1895, the reserve stood at the
+low figure of $41,340,181. None knew when the country might be forced to
+a silver basis. In consequence, business revived but slightly, if at
+all, after the repeal.
+
+In its first regular session the same Congress enacted the Wilson
+Tariff. As it passed the House the bill provided for free sugar, wool,
+coal, lumber, and iron ore, besides reducing duties on many other
+articles.
+
+It also taxed incomes exceeding $4,000 per annum. The Senate, except in
+the case of wool and lumber, abandoned the proposal of free raw
+materials, stiffened the rates named by the House, and preferred
+specific to ad valorem duties. Many believed, without proof, that
+improper influences had helped the Senate to shape its sugar schedule
+favorably to the great refiners. The President pronounced sugar a
+legitimate subject for taxation in spite of the "fear, quite likely
+exaggerated," that carrying out this principle might "indirectly and
+inordinately encourage a combination of sugar refining interests." In a
+letter read in the House, however, he upbraided as guilty of "party
+perfidy and dishonor" Democratic Senators who would abandon the
+principle of free raw materials. But nothing shook the senatorial will.
+What was in substance the Senate bill passed Congress, and the President
+permitted it to become a law without his signature.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+William L. Wilson.
+
+
+The Wilson law pleased no one. It violated the Democrats' plighted word
+apparently at the dictation of parties selfishly interested. The Supreme
+Court declared its income tax unconstitutional. The revenue from it was
+inadequate, and had to be eked out with new bond issues. These were
+alleged to be necessary to meet the greenback debt, but this need not
+have embarrassed the Government had it followed the French policy of
+occasionally paying in silver a small percentage of the demand notes
+presented. Borrowing gold abroad, moreover, tended to inflate prices
+here, stimulating imports, discouraging exports, increasing the
+exportation of gold to settle the unfavorable balance of trade, and so
+on in ceaseless round.
+
+The Democratic management of foreign affairs was severely criticised.
+Our extradition treaty with Russia, a country supposed to pay little or
+no regard to personal rights, and our delay in demanding reparation from
+Spain for firing upon the Allianca, a United States passenger steamer,
+were quite generally condemned. There were those who thought that Cuban
+insurgents against the sovereignty of Spain might have received some
+manifestation of sympathy from our Government, and that we should not
+have permitted Great Britain to endanger the Monroe Doctrine by
+occupying Corinto in Nicaragua to enforce the payment of an indemnity.
+
+The President offended many in dealing as he did with the Hawaiian
+Islands' problem. Most did not consider it the duty of this country to
+champion the cause of the native dynasty there, a course likely to
+subserve no enlightened interest. Whites, chiefly Americans, had come to
+own most of the land in the islands, while imported Asiatics and
+Portuguese competed sharply with the natives as laborers. Political
+power, even, was largely exercised by the whites, through whose
+influence the monarchy had been reduced to a constitutional form.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Princess (afterwards Queen) Liliuokalani.
+
+
+In January, 1893, Queen Liliuokalani sought by a coup d'etat to reinvest
+her royal authority with its old absoluteness and to disfranchise
+non-naturalized whites. The American man-of-war Boston, lying in
+Honolulu harbor, at the request of American residents, landed marines
+for their protection. The American colony now initiated a counter
+revolution, declaring the monarchy abrogated and a provisional
+government established. Minister Stevens at once recognized the
+Provisional Government as de facto sovereign. Under protest the Queen
+yielded.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+James H. Blount.
+
+
+The new government formally placed itself under the protectorate of the
+United States, and the Stars and Stripes were hoisted over the
+Government Building. President Harrison disavowed the protectorate,
+though he did not withdraw the troops from Honolulu, regarding them as
+necessary to assure the lives and property of American citizens. Nor did
+he lower the flag. A treaty for the annexation of the islands was soon
+negotiated and submitted to the Senate.
+
+The Cleveland Administration reversed this whole policy with a jolt. The
+treaty withdrawn, Mr. Cleveland despatched to Honolulu Hon. James H.
+Blount as a special commissioner, with "paramount authority," which he
+exercised by formally ending the protectorate, hauling down the flag,
+and embarking the garrison of marines. Mr. Blount soon superseded Mr.
+Stevens as minister. Meantime the Provisional Government had organized a
+force of twelve hundred soldiers, got control of the arms and ammunition
+in the islands, enacted drastic sedition laws, and suppressed disloyal
+newspapers.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Albert S. Willis.
+
+
+So complete was its sway, and so relentless did the dethroned Queen
+threaten to be toward her enemies in case she recovered power, that
+Minister Albert S. Willis, on succeeding Mr. Blount, lost heart in the
+contemplated enterprise of restoring the monarchy. He found the
+Provisional Government and its supporters men of "high character and
+large commercial interests," while those of the Queen were quite out of
+sympathy with American interests or with good government for the
+islands. A large and influential section of Hawaiian public opinion was
+unanimous for annexation, even Prince Kunniakea, the last of the royal
+line, avowing himself an annexationist with heart, soul, and, if
+necessary, with rifle.
+
+A farcical attempt at insurrection was followed by the arrest of the
+conspirators and of the ex-Queen, who thereupon, for herself and heirs,
+forever renounced the throne, gave allegiance to the Republic,
+counselled her former subjects to do likewise, and besought clemency.
+Her chief confederates were sentenced to death, but this was commuted to
+a heavy fine and long imprisonment. After the retirement of the
+Democracy from power in 1896 the annexation of the islands was promptly
+consummated.
+
+Walter Q. Gresham, Secretary of State in the early part of Cleveland's
+second term, died in May, 1895, being succeeded by Richard Olney,
+transferred from the portfolio of Attorney General. In a day,
+Cleveland's foreign policy, hitherto so inert, became vigorous to the
+verge of rashness. Deeming the Monroe Doctrine endangered by Great
+Britain's apparently arbitrary encroachments on Venezuela in fixing the
+boundary between Venezuela and British Guiana, he insisted that the
+boundary dispute should be settled by arbitration.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Richard Olney.
+
+
+The message in which the President took this ground shook the country
+like a declaration of war against Great Britain. American securities
+fell, the gold reserve dwindled. The President was, however, supported.
+Congress was found ready to aid the Administration by passing any
+measures necessary to preserve the national credit. In December, 1895,
+it unanimously authorized the appointment of a commission to decide upon
+the true boundary line between Venezuela and British Guiana, with the
+purpose of giving its report the full sanction and support of the United
+States. The dispute was finally submitted to a distinguished tribunal at
+Paris, ex-President Harrison, among others, appearing on behalf of the
+Venezuelan Republic. While Great Britain's claim was, in a measure,
+vindicated, this proceeding established a new and potent precedent in
+support both of the Monroe Doctrine and of international arbitration.
+
+In 1894 a ten months' session of the famous Lexow legislative committee
+in New York City uncovered voluminous evidence of corrupt municipal
+government there. The police force habitually levied tribute for
+protection not only upon legitimate trade and industry, but upon illicit
+liquor-selling, gambling, prostitution, and crime. The chief credit for
+the exposures was due to Rev. Charles H. Parkhurst, President of the New
+York City Society for the Prevention of Crime. A fusion of anti-Tammany
+elements carried the autumn elections of 1894 for a reform ticket
+nominated by a committee of seventy citizens and headed by William L.
+Strong as candidate for mayor. At the next election, however, the
+Tammany candidate, Van Wyck, became the first mayor of the new
+municipality known as Greater New York, in which had been merged as
+boroughs the metropolis itself, Brooklyn, and other near cities. As was
+revealed by the Mazet Committee, little change had occurred in Tammany's
+predatory spirit. In 1901, therefore, through an alliance similar to
+that which elected Mayor Strong, Greater New York chose as its mayor to
+succeed Van Wyck, Seth Low, who resigned the Presidency of Columbia
+University to become Fusion candidate for the position.
+
+
+[Illustration: About fifty men standing in a Court room.]
+The Lexow Investigation. The scene in the Court Room after
+Creeden's confession, December 15, 1894.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Charles H. Parkhurst.
+Copyright by C. C. Langill.
+
+
+A recrudescence of the old Know-Nothing spirit in a party known as the
+"A. P. A.," or "American Protective Association," marked these years. So
+early as 1875 politicians had noticed the existence of a secret
+anti-Catholic organization, the United American Mechanics, but it had a
+brief career. The A. P. A., organized soon after 1885, drew inspiration
+partly from the hostility of extreme Protestants to the Roman Catholic
+Church, and partly from the aversion felt by many toward the Irish. In
+1894 the A. P. A., though its actual membership was never large,
+pretended to control 2,000,000 votes. Its subterranean methods estranged
+fair-minded people. Still more turned against it when its secret oath
+was exposed. The A. P. A. member promised (1) never to favor or aid the
+nomination, election, or appointment of a Roman Catholic to any
+political office, and (2) never to employ a Roman Catholic in any
+capacity if the services of a Protestant could be obtained. A. P. A.
+public utterances garbled history and disseminated clumsy falsehoods
+touching Catholics, which reacted against the order. The Association
+declined as swiftly as it rose. Chiefly affiliating with the
+Republicans, it received no substantial countenance from any political
+party.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+William L. Strong.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+LABOR AND THE RAILWAYS
+
+[1887-1902]
+
+In March, 1894, bands of the unemployed in various parts of the West,
+styling themselves "Commonweal," or "Industrial Armies," started for
+Washington to demand government relief for "labor." "General" Coxey, of
+Ohio, led the van. "General" Kelly followed from Trans-Mississippi with
+a force at one time numbering 1,250. Smaller itinerant groups joined the
+above as they marched. For supplies the tattered pilgrims taxed the
+sympathies or the fears of people along their routes. Most of them were
+well-meaning, but their destitution prompted some small thefts. Even
+violence occasionally occurred, as in California, where a town marshal
+killed a Commonweal "general," and in the State of Washington, where two
+deputy marshals were wounded. The Commonwealers captured a few freight
+trains and forced them into service.
+
+
+[Illustration: Hundreds of men marching.]
+Coxey's army on the march to the Capitol steps at Washington.
+
+
+Only Coxey's band reached Washington. On May Day, attempting to present
+their "petition-in-boots" on the steps of the Capitol, the leaders were
+jailed under local laws against treading on the grass and against
+displaying banners on the Capitol Grounds. On June 10th Coxey was
+released, having meantime been nominated for Congress, and in little
+over a month the remnant of his forces was shipped back toward the
+setting sun.
+
+The same year, 1894, marked a far more widespread and formidable
+disorder, the A. R. U. Railway Strike. The American Railway Union
+claimed a membership of 100,000, and aspired to include all the 850,000
+railroad workmen in North America. It had just emerged with prestige
+from a successful grapple with the Great Northern Railway, settled by
+arbitration.
+
+The union's catholic ambitions led it to admit many employees of the
+Pullman Palace Car Company, between whom and their employers acute
+differences were arising. The company's landlordism of the town of
+Pullman and petty shop abuses stirred up irritation, and when Pullman
+workers were laid off or put upon short time and cut wages, the feeling
+deepened. They pointed out that rents for the houses they lived in were
+not reduced, that the company's dividends the preceding year had been
+fat, and that the accumulation of its undivided surplus was enormous.
+The company, on the other hand, was sensible of a slack demand for cars
+after the brisk business done in connection with World's Fair travel.
+
+
+[Illustration: Town in background, lake in foreground.]
+The town of Pullman.
+
+
+The Pullman management refused the men's demand for the restoration of
+the wages schedule of June, 1893, but promised to investigate the abuses
+complained of, and engaged that no one serving on the laborer's
+committee of complaint should be prejudiced thereby. Immediately after
+this, however, three of the committee were laid off, and five-sixths of
+the other employees, apparently against the advice of A. R. U. leaders,
+determined upon a strike.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+George M. Pullman.
+
+
+Unmoved by solicitations from employees, from the Chicago Civic
+Federation, from Mayor Pingree of Detroit, indorsed by the mayors of
+over fifty other cities, the Pullman Company steadfastly refused to
+arbitrate or to entertain any communication from the union. "We have
+nothing to arbitrate" was the company's response to each appeal. A
+national convention of the A. R. U. unanimously voted that unless the
+Pullman Company sooner consented to arbitration the union should, on
+June 26th, everywhere cease handling Pullman cars.
+
+
+[Illustration: About one hundred tents in background, several hundred
+people in the foreground.]
+Camp of the U. S. troops on the lake front, Chicago.
+
+
+[Illustration: Hundreds of railroad cars, some burning.]
+Burned cars in the C., B. & Q. yards at Hawthorne, Chicago.
+
+
+[Illustration: Railroad crossing, houses in the background.]
+Overturned box cars at crossing of railroad tracks at 39th street, Chicago.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Hazen S. Pingree.
+
+
+At this turn of affairs the A. R. U. found itself confronted with a new
+antagonist, the Association of General Managers of the twenty-four
+railroads centering in Chicago, controlling an aggregate mileage of over
+40,000, a capitalization of considerably over $2,000,000,000, and a
+total workingmen force of 220,000 or more. The last-named workers had
+their own grievances arising from wage cuts and black-listing by the
+Managers' Association. Such of them as were union men were the objects
+of peculiar hostility, which they reciprocated. Thus the Pullman
+boycott, sympathetic in its incipience, swiftly became a gigantic trial
+of issues between the associated railroad corporations and the union.
+
+For a week law and order were preserved. On July 2d the Federal Court in
+Chicago issued an injunction forbidding A. R. U. men, among other
+things, to "induce" employees to strike. Next day federal troops
+appeared upon the scene. Thereupon, in contempt of the injunction,
+railroad laborers continued by fair means and foul to be persuaded from
+their work.
+
+Disregarding the union leaders' appeal and defying regular soldiers,
+State troops, deputy marshals, and police, rabble mobs fell to
+destroying cars and tracks, burning and looting. The mobs were in large
+part composed of Chicago's semi-criminal proletariat, a mass quite
+distinct from the body of strikers.
+
+The A. R. U. strike approached its climax about the 10th of July.
+Chicago and the Northwest were paralyzed. President Cleveland deemed it
+necessary to issue a riot proclamation. A week later Debs and his
+fellow-leaders were jailed for contempt of court, and soon after their
+following collapsed.
+
+Governor Altgeld, of Illinois, protested against the presence of federal
+troops, denying federal authority to send force except upon his
+gubernatorial request, inasmuch as maintaining order was a purely State
+province, and declaring his official ignorance of disorder warranting
+federal intervention.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Gov. John P. Altgeld.
+
+
+Mr. Cleveland answered, appealing to the Constitution, federal laws, and
+the grave nature of the situation. United States power, he said, may and
+must whenever necessary, with or without request from State authorities,
+remove obstruction of the mails, execute process of the federal courts,
+and put down conspiracies against commerce between the States.
+
+During the Pullman troubles, the judicial department of the United
+States Government, no less prompt or bold than the Executive, extended
+the equity power of injunction a step farther than precedents went.
+After 1887 United States tribunals construed the Interstate Commerce Law
+as authorizing injunctions against abandonment of trains by engineers.
+Early in 1894 a United States Circuit judge inhibited Northern Pacific
+workmen from striking in a body. For contempt of his injunctions during
+the Pullman strike Judge Woods sentenced Debs to six months'
+imprisonment and other arch-strikers to three months each under the
+so-called Anti-Trust Law.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Eugene V. Debs.
+
+
+As infringing the right of trial by jury this course of adjudication
+aroused protest even in conservative quarters. Later, opposition to
+"government by injunction" became a tenet of the more radical Democracy.
+A bill providing for jury trials in instances of contempt not committed
+in the presence of the court commanded support from members of both
+parties in the Fifty-eighth Congress. Federal decisions upheld
+workingmen's right, in the absence of an express contract, to strike at
+will, although emphatically affirming the legitimacy of enjoining
+violent interference with railroads, and of enforcing the injunction by
+punishing for contempt.
+
+Federal injunctions subsequently went farther still, as in the miners'
+strike of 1902 during which Judge Jackson of the United States District
+Court for Northern West Virginia, enjoined miners' meetings, ordering
+the miners, in effect, to cease agitating or promoting the strike by any
+means whatever, no matter how peaceful. Speech intended to produce
+strikes the judge characterized as the abuse of free speech, properly
+restrainable by courts. Refusing to heed the injunction, several strike
+leaders were sentenced to jail for contempt, periods varying from sixty
+to ninety days.
+
+Late in July, 1894, the President appointed a commission to investigate
+the Pullman strike. The report of this body, alluding to the Managers'
+Association as a usurpation of powers not obtainable directly by the
+corporations concerned, recommended governmental control over
+quasi-public corporations, and even hinted at ultimate government
+ownership. They counselled some measure of compulsory arbitration, urged
+that labor unions should become incorporated, so as to be responsible
+bodies, and suggested the licensing of railway employees. The
+Massachusetts State Board of Conciliation and Arbitration was favorably
+mentioned in this report, and became the model for several like boards
+in various States.
+
+The labor question and other problems excluded from public thought a
+change in our dealings with our Indian wards that should not be
+overlooked. Up to 1887 the Indian village communities could, under the
+law, hold land only in common. Individual Indians could not, without
+abandoning their tribes, become citizens of the United States. Such a
+legal status could not but discourage Indians' emergence from barbarism.
+
+A better method was hinted at in an old Act of the Massachusetts General
+Court, passed so early as October, 1652.
+
+"It is therefore ordered and enacted by this Court and the authority
+thereof, that what landes any of the Indians, within this jurisdiction,
+have by possession or improvement, by subdueing of the same, they have
+just right thereunto accordinge to that Gen: 1: 28, Chap. 9:1, Psa: 115,
+16." This old legislation further provided that any Indians who became
+civilized might acquire land by allotment in the white settlements on
+the same terms as the English.
+
+In 1887, the so-called "General Allotment" or "Dawes" Act, empowered
+the President to allot in severalty a quarter section to each head of an
+Indian family and to each other adult Indian one eighth of a section, as
+well as to provide for orphaned children and minors, the land to be held
+in trust by the United States for twenty-five years. The act further
+constituted any allottee or civilized Indian a citizen of the United
+States, subject to the civil and criminal laws of the place of his
+residence.
+
+The Dawes Act was later so amended as to allot one-eighth of a section
+or more, if the reservation were large enough, to each member of a
+tribe. The amended law also regulated the descent of Indian lands, and
+provided for leases thereof with the approval of the Indian Department.
+This last provision was in instances twisted by white men to their
+advantage and to the Indians' loss; but on the whole the new system gave
+eminent satisfaction and promise.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+NEWEST DIXIE
+
+[1895]
+
+The reader of this history is already aware how forces and events after
+the Civil War gradually evolved a New South, unlike the contemporary
+North, and differing still more, if possible, from ante-bellum Dixie. By
+1900 this interesting situation had become quite pronounced. The picture
+here given is but an enlargement of that presented earlier--few features
+new, but many of them more salient, and the whole effect more
+impressive.
+
+Harmony and good feeling between the capital sections of our country
+continued to manifest itself in striking ways, as by the dedication of a
+Confederate monument at Chicago, the gathering of the Grand Army of the
+Republic at Louisville, Ky., and the cordial fraternizing of Gray and
+Blue at the consecration of the Chickamauga-Chat-tanooga Military Park,
+on the spot where had occurred, perhaps, the fiercest fighting which
+ever shook United States ground.
+
+
+[Illustration: Several stone monuments.]
+The Chickamauga National Military Park.
+Group of monuments on knoll southwest of Snodgrass Hill.
+
+The Atlanta Exposition, opening on September 18, 1895, epitomized the
+Newest South. The touch of an electric button by President Cleveland's
+little daughter, Marian, at his home on Buzzard's Bay, Mass., opened the
+gates and set the machinery awhirl. Atlanta was a city of but 100,000,
+hardly more than 60,000 of them whites, yet her Fair not only excelled
+the Atlanta Exposition of 1881, that at Louisville in 1883, and the New
+Orleans World's Industrial and Cotton Centennial Exposition of 1884-5,
+all which were highly successful, but in many features outdid even the
+Centennial at Philadelphia. The Tennessee Centennial and International
+Exposition at Nashville, in 1897, was another revelation. Its total
+expenditures, fully covered by receipts, were $1,087,227.85; its total
+admissions 1,886,714. On J. W. Thomas Day the attendance was within a
+few of 100,000. The exhibits were ample, and many of them strikingly
+unique. Few, even at the South, believed that the Southern States could
+set forth such displays. The fact that this was possible so soon after a
+devastating war, which had left the section in abject poverty, was a
+speaking compliment to the land and to the energy of those developing
+it.
+
+The progress of most Southern communities was extraordinary.
+Agriculture, still too backward in methods and variety, gradually
+improved, gaining marked impetus and direction from the agricultural
+colleges planted in the several States by the aid of United States funds
+conveyed under the "Morrill" acts. The abominable system of store credit
+kept the majority of farmers, black and white, in servitude, but was
+giving way, partly to regular bank credit--a great improvement--and
+partly to cash transactions.
+
+
+[Illustration: Men tending trees.]
+A grove of oranges and palmettoes near Ormond, Florida.
+
+
+Florida came to the front as a lavish producer of tropical fruits.
+Winter was rarely known there. If it paid a visit now and then the
+State's sugar industry made up for the losses which frost inflicted upon
+her orange crop. The rich South Carolina rice plantations bade fair to
+be left behind by the new rice belt in Louisiana and Texas, a strip
+averaging thirty miles in width and extending from the Mississippi to
+beyond the Brazos, 400 miles. Improved methods of rice farming had
+transformed this region, earlier almost a waste, into one of the most
+productive areas in the country, attracting to it settlers from various
+parts of the North and West, and even from Scandinavia. Dairying, fruit
+and cattle-raising and market-gardening for northern markets, other new
+lines of enterprise, created wealth for multitudes. King Cotton was not
+dethroned to make way for these rivals, but increased his domain each
+decade.
+
+In 1880 the value of farm products at the South exceeded by more than
+$200,000,000 that of the manufactured products there. In 1900 the case
+was nearly reversed: manufactures outvaluing farm products by over
+$190,000,000. During this decade the persons engaged in agriculture at
+the South increased in number 36 per cent., but the wage-earners in
+manufacturing multiplied more than four times as much, viz., 157 per
+cent. Each of these rates at the South was larger than the corresponding
+rate for the country. The same decade the capital which the South had
+invested in manufacturing increased 348 per cent., that of the whole
+United States only 252 per cent. The increase in manufactured products
+value was for the South 220 per cent., for the whole country only 142
+per cent. The increase in farm property value was for the South 92 per
+cent., for the country only 67 per cent. The increase in farm products
+value was for the South 92 per cent.; for the whole United States it was
+greater, viz., 133 per cent.
+
+Land at the South was boundlessly rich in unexploited resources. More
+than half the country's standing timber grew there, much of it hard wood
+and yellow pine. Quantities of phosphate rock, limestone, and gypsum
+were to be dug, also salt, aluminum, mica, topaz, and gold. Especially
+in Texas, petroleum sought release from vast underground reservoirs. The
+farmer did not lack for rain, the manufacturer for water-power, or the
+merchant for water transportation to keep down railroad rates.
+
+The white Southerner, of purest Saxon-Norman blood, had the vigorous and
+comely physique of that race. Nowhere else in the land were the
+generality of white men and women so fine-looking. Easy circumstances
+had enabled them to become gracious as well, with the dignified and
+pleasing manners characterizing Southern society before the Civil War.
+High intelligence was another racial trait. The administration of the
+various Industrial Expositions named in this chapter required and
+evinced business ability of the highest order. During the quarter
+century succeeding reconstruction popular education developed even more
+astonishingly at the South than in the North or the West. Nothing could
+surpass the avidity with which young Southern men and women sought and
+utilized intellectual opportunities.
+
+With few exceptions Southerners had become intensely loyal to the
+national ideal, faithfully abiding the arbitrament of the war, which
+alone, to their mind--but at any rate, finally and forever--overthrew
+the old doctrine that the Union was a compact among States, with liberty
+to each to secede at will.
+
+Straightforwardness and intensity of purpose marked the Southern temper.
+If a county or a city voted "dry," practically all the whites aided to
+see the mandate enforced. The liquor traffic was thus regulated more
+stringently and prohibited more widely and effectively at the South than
+in any other part of the country. Even the lynchings occurring from time
+to time in some quarters, while atrocious and frowned upon by the best
+people, seemed due in most cases less to disregard for the spirit of the
+law than to distrust of legal methods and machinery. Indications
+multiplied, moreover, that this damning blot on Southern civilization
+would ere long disappear.
+
+The most aggravating and insoluble perplexity which tormented the
+Southern people lay in dealing with the colored race. Sections of the
+so-called black belts still weltered in unthrift and decay, as in the
+darkest reconstruction days. These belts were three in number. The
+first, about a hundred miles wide, reached from Virginia and the
+Carolinas through the Gulf States to the watershed of the State of
+Mississippi. The second bordered the Mississippi from Tennessee to just
+above New Orleans, and extended up the Red River into Arkansas and
+Texas. A third region of negro preponderance covered fifteen counties of
+southern Texas.
+
+In these tracts and elsewhere white political supremacy was maintained,
+as it had been regained, by the forms of law when possible; if not, then
+in some other way. The wisest negro leaders dismissed, as for the
+present a dream, all thought of political as of social equality between
+whites and blacks. Swarms of the colored, resigned to political
+impotence, were prolific of defective, pauper, and criminal population.
+Education, book-education at least, did not seem to improve them; many
+believed that it positively injured them, producing cunning and vanity
+rather than seriousness. This was perhaps the rule, though there were
+many noble exceptions. In 1892, while the proportion of vicious negroes
+seemed to be increasing in cities and large towns, it was almost to a
+certainty decreasing in rural districts--improvement due in good part
+to enforced temperance.
+
+A conference on the negro and the South opened at Montgomery May 8,
+1900. Many able and fair-minded men participated, representing various
+attitudes, parties, and sections of the country. Limitation of the
+colored franchise, the proper sort of education for negroes, the evils
+of "social equality" agitation, and the causes and frequency of lynching
+were the main subjects discussed. The consensus of opinion seemed to be
+that for "the negro, on account of his inherent mental and emotional
+instability," acquirement of the franchise should be less easy than for
+whites. It was maintained that the industrially trained colored men
+became leaders among their people, commanding the respect of both races
+and acquiring much property, yet that ex-slaves, rather than the
+younger, educated set, formed the bulk of colored property-holders.
+Figures revealed among the colored population a frightful increase of
+illegitimacy and of flagrant crimes. It seemed that crimes against
+women, almost unknown before the war but now increasing at an alarming
+rate, proceeded not from ex-slaves, but from the smart new generation.
+Lynching for these offences was by some excused in that negroes would
+not assist in bringing colored perpetrators to justice, and in that a
+spectacular mode of punishment affected negroes more deeply than the
+slow process of law, even when this issued in conviction. The severer
+utterances at this conference may have been more or less biased; still,
+if, allowing for this, one considered the data available for forming a
+judgment, one was forced to feel that calm Southerners had apprehended
+the case better than Northern enthusiasts. Colored people as a class
+lacked devotion to principle, also initiative and endurance, whether
+mental or physical. Colored deputies, of whom there were many in various
+parts of the South, so long as they acted under white chiefs, were, like
+most colored soldiers, marvels of bravery, defying revolvers, bowie
+knives, and wounds, and fighting to the last gasp with no sign of
+flinching; but the black men who could be trusted as sheriffs-in-chief
+were extremely rare.
+
+Whether the faults named were strictly hereditary or resulted rather
+from the long-continued ill education and environment of the race, none
+could certainly tell. As a matter of fact, however, few even among
+friendly critics longer regarded these faults as entirely eliminable. A
+well qualified and wholly unbiased judge of negro character gave it as
+emphatically his opinion that any autonomous community of colored
+people, no matter how highly educated or civilized, would relapse into
+barbarism in the course of two generations. This view was not rendered
+absurd by the existence of fairly well administered municipalities here
+and there with negro mayors. Many negroes were extremely bright and apt
+in imitation, also in all memoriter and linguistic work. The New
+Orleans Cotton Centennial and the Nashville Exposition each had its
+negro department. But it was distinctive of the Atlanta Fair that one of
+its buildings was entirely devoted to exhibits of negro handicraft. At
+once in range and in the quality of the objects which it embraced, the
+display was creditable to the race. Here and there, moreover, the race
+had produced a grand character. The most notable of the opening
+addresses at the Atlanta Fair was made by the colored educator, Booker
+T. Washington, President of the Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute
+for negro youth.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Booker T. Washington.
+
+
+His oration on this occasion directed attention to Mr. Washington not
+only as a remarkable negro, but as a remarkable man. Born poor as could
+be and fighting his way to an education against every conceivable
+obstacle, he had at the age of forty distinguished himself as a business
+organizer, as an educator, as a writer, and as, a public speaker. His
+modesty, discretion, and industry were phenomenal, at once constituting
+him a leader of his race and rendering his leadership valuable. He
+eschewed politics, avoided in everything the demagogue's ways, and never
+spoke ill of the whites, not even of Southern whites.
+
+But, unfortunately, a great negro such as Washington stood like a
+mountain in a marsh, sporadic and solitary.
+
+
+[Illustration: People walking in front of a large columned building.]
+The Atlanta Exposition.
+Entrance to the Art Building.
+
+
+Save in West Virginia, Florida, and the black belts the whites at the
+South increased more swiftly than the blacks. Certain of what Malthus
+called the "positive checks" upon population--viz., diseases, mainly
+syphilis, typhoid, and consumption--decimated the negroes everywhere.
+Colored population drifted from the country to cities, which probably
+accounted for the fact that in 1890 more negroes lived in the North than
+ever before.  In the South itself, on the other hand, the movement of
+colored population was southward and westward, from the highlands to the
+lowlands, so that Kentucky, along with western Virginia, northeastern
+Mississippi, and rural parts of Maryland, North Alabama, and eastern
+Virginia, had, in 1890, fewer colored inhabitants than ten years
+previous.
+
+These confusing data explain why few were rash enough to prophesy the
+fate of the American negro. Such predictions as were heard, were, in the
+main, little hopeful. Colonization abroad was no resource. In 1895 the
+International Immigration Society shipped 300 negroes to Liberia, and in
+1897 the Central Labor Union of New York 311 more, but no movement of
+the kind could be set going. In fact, the one certainty touching the
+American negroes' future was that they would remain in the United
+States.
+
+From 1870 to 1880 the percentage of negroes to the total population had
+increased, but a century had reduced this ratio from 19.3 per cent. to
+12 per cent. The climatic area where black men had any advantage over
+white in the struggle for life was less than eight per cent. of the
+country. White laborers competed more and more sharply. The paternal
+affection of the old slave-holding generation toward negroes was not
+inherited by the makers of the New South.
+
+There was one hopeful force at work--Booker Washington at Tuskegee, in
+the very heart of the Alabama black belt. His personality, his example,
+his ideas were inspiring. He bade his race to expect improvement in its
+condition not from any political party nor from Northern benevolence,
+but from its own advance in industry and character. His great and
+successful college at Tuskegee, with an enrolment of 1,231 students in
+1889, gave much impetus to industrial education among the blacks,
+turning in that direction educational interest and energy which had
+previously found vent to too great an extent, relatively, in providing
+negro students with mere literary training. The Slater-Armstrong
+Memorial Trades' Building, dedicated January 10, 1890, was erected and
+finished by the students practically alone. At least three-fourths of
+those receiving instruction at this school pursued, after leaving, the
+industries learned there.
+
+The color line had ceased to be sectional. In 1900 mobs in New York City
+and Akron, Ohio, baited black citizens with barbarity little less than
+that of the worst Southern lynchings. Texas courts the same year
+affirmed negroes' right to serve as jurymen. After 1900 one noticed in
+several Southern States a tendency to oust negroes from official
+connection even with the Republican party, each State organization
+affecting to be "Lily-White." The Administration seemed to favor this
+movement by appointing liberal Democrats at the South to federal
+offices, allying such, in a way, with the Republican cause. This helped
+make President Roosevelt popular at the South, spite of the criticism
+with which the press there greeted his entertainment of Booker T.
+Washington at the White House. When he visited the Exposition at
+Charleston, December, 1901-May, 1902, he was enthusiastically received.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+THE MEN AND THE ISSUE IN 1896
+
+[1890-1896]
+
+Early in 1896 it became clear that the dominant issue of the
+presidential campaign would be the resumption by the United States of
+silver-dollar free coinage. Agitation for this, hushed only for a moment
+by the passage of the Bland Act, had been going on ever since
+demonetization in 1873. The fall in prices, which the new output of gold
+had not yet begun to arrest; the money stringency since 1893; the
+insecure, bond-supplied gold reserve, and the repeal of the
+silver-purchase clause in the Sherman Act combined to produce a wish for
+increase in the nation's hard-money supply. Had the climax of fervor
+synchronized with an election day, a free-coinage President might have
+been elected.
+
+Only the Populists were a unit in favoring free coinage. Recent
+Republican and Democratic platforms had been phrased with Delphic genius
+to suit the East and West at once. The best known statesmen of both
+parties had "wobbled" upon the question. The Republican party contained
+a large element favorable to silver, while the Democratic President, at
+least, had boldly and steadfastly exerted himself to establish the gold
+standard.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Senator Teller of Colorado.
+
+
+Realignment of forces begot queer alliances between party foes, lasting
+bitterness between party fellows. Even the Prohibitionists, who held the
+first convention, were riven into "narrow-gauge" and "broad-gauge," the
+latter in a rump convention incorporating a free-coinage plank into
+their creed. If the Republicans kept their ranks closed better than the
+Democrats, this was largely due to the prominence they gave to
+protection, attacked by the Wilson-Gorman Act.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Senator Cannon.
+
+
+Their convention sat at St. Louis, June 16th. It was an eminently
+business-like body, even its enthusiasm and applause wearing the air of
+discipline. In making the platform, powerful efforts for a
+catch-as-catch-could declaration upon the silver question succumbed to
+New England's and New York's demand for an unequivocal statement. The
+party "opposed the free coinage of silver except by international
+agreement with the leading commercial nations of the world." . . .
+"Until such agreement can be obtained, the existing gold standard must
+be preserved." Senator Teller, of Colorado, moved a substitute favoring
+"the free, unrestricted, and independent coinage of gold and silver at
+our mints at the ratio of 16 parts of silver to 1 of gold." It was at
+once tabled by a vote of 818-1/2 to 105-1/2. The rest of the platform
+having been adopted, Senator Cannon, of Utah, read a protest against the
+money plank, which recited the evils of falling prices as discouraging
+industry and threatening perpetual servitude of American producers to
+consumers in creditor nations.
+
+Then occurred a dramatic scene, the first important bolt from a
+Republican convention since 1872. "Accepting the present fiat of the
+convention as the present purpose of the party," Teller shook hands with
+the chairman, and, tears streaming down his face, left the convention,
+accompanied by Cannon and twenty other delegates, among them two entire
+State delegations. Senators Mantle, of Montana, and Brown, of Utah,
+though remaining, protested against the convention's financial
+utterance.
+
+The Republican platform lauded protection and reciprocity, favored
+annexing the Hawaiian Islands, and the building, ownership, and
+operation of the Nicaragua Canal by the United States. It reasserted the
+Monroe Doctrine "in its full extent," expressed sympathy for Cuban
+patriots, and bespoke United States influence and good offices to give
+Cuba peace and independence.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Garret A. Hobart, Vice-President.
+Copyright,1899, by Pack Bros., N. Y.
+
+The first ballot, by a majority of over two-thirds, nominated for the
+presidency William McKinley, Jr., of Ohio, the nomination being at once
+made unanimous. Garret A. Hobart, of New Jersey, was nominated for
+Vice-President.
+
+William McKinley, Jr., was born at Niles, Ohio, January 29, 1843, of
+Scotch-Irish stock. In 1860 he entered Allegheny College, Meadville,
+Pa., but ill health compelled him to leave. He taught school. For a time
+he was a postal clerk at Poland, Ohio. At the outbreak of the Civil War
+he enlisted as a private in Company E, 23d Ohio Infantry, the regiment
+with which William S. Rosecrans, Rutherford B. Hayes, and Stanley
+Matthews were connected. Successive promotions attended his gallant and
+exemplary services. He shared every engagement in which his regiment
+took part, was never absent on sick leave, and had only one short
+furlough. A month before the assassination of President Lincoln McKinley
+was commissioned a major by brevet.
+
+After the war Major McKinley studied law. He was admitted to the bar in
+1867, settling in Canton, Ohio. In 1876 he made his debut in Congress,
+where he served with credit till 1890, when, owing partly to a
+gerrymander and partly to the unpopular McKinley Bill, he was defeated
+by the narrow margin of 300 votes. As Governor of Ohio and as a public
+speaker visiting every part of the country, McKinley was more and more
+frequently mentioned in connection with the presidency.
+
+The nomination was a happy one. No other could have done so much to
+unite the party. Not only had Mr. McKinley's political career been
+honorable, he had the genius of manly affability, drawing people to him
+instead of antagonizing them. Republicans who could not support the
+platform, in numbers gave fealty to the candidate as a true man, devoted
+to their protective tenets, and a "friend of silver."
+
+The Democratic convention sat at Chicago July 7th to 10th. Though
+Administration and Eastern Democratic leaders had long been working to
+stem free coinage sentiment, this seemed rather to increase. By July
+1st, in thirty-three of the fifty States and Territories, Democratic
+platforms had declared for free coinage. The first test of strength in
+the convention overruled the National Committee's choice of David B.
+Hill for temporary chairman, electing Senator Daniel, of Virginia, by
+nearly a two-thirds vote. The silver side was then added to by unseating
+and seating.
+
+Hot fights took place over planks which the minority thought unjust to
+the Administration or revolutionary. The income-tax plank drew the
+heaviest fire, but was nailed to the platform in spite of this. It
+attacked the Supreme Court for reversing precedents in order to declare
+that tax unconstitutional, and suggested the possibility of another
+reversal by the same court "as it may hereafter be constituted."
+
+The platform assailed "government by injunction as a new and highly
+dangerous form of oppression, by which federal judges in contempt of the
+laws of the States and the rights of citizens become at once
+legislators, judges, and executioners."
+
+Attention having been called to the demonetization of silver in 1873 and
+to the consequent fall of prices and the growing onerousness of debts
+and fixed charges, gold monometallism was indicted as the cause "which
+had locked fast the prosperity of an industrial people in the paralysis
+of hard times" and brought the United States into financial servitude to
+London. Demand was therefore made for "the free and unlimited coinage of
+silver at the present legal ratio of 16 to 1 without waiting for the aid
+or consent of any other nation." Practically the entire management of
+the Treasury under Mr. Cleveland was condemned.
+
+
+[Illustration: Parade.]
+The McKinley-Hobart Parade Passing the Reviewing Stand,
+New York, October 31, 1896.
+
+
+The platform being read, Hill, of New York, Vilas, of Wisconsin, and
+ex-Governor Russell, of Massachusetts, spoke. William J. Bryan, of
+Nebraska, was called upon to reply. In doing so he made the memorable
+"cross of gold" speech, which more than aught else determined his
+nomination. In a musical but penetrating voice, that chained the
+attention of all listeners, he sketched the growth of the free-silver
+belief and prophesied its triumph. While, shortly before, the Democratic
+cause was desperate, now McKinley, famed for his resemblance to
+Napoleon, and nominated on the anniversary of Waterloo, seemed already
+to hear the waves lashing the lonely shores of St. Helena. The gold
+standard, he said, not any "threat" of silver, disturbed business. The
+wage-worker, the farmer, and the miner were as truly business men as
+"the few financial magnates who in a dark room corner the money of the
+world." "We answer the demand for the gold standard by saying, 'You
+shall not press down upon the brow of labor this crown of thorns. You
+shall not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold!'"
+
+
+[Illustration]
+Bryan Speaking from the Rear End of a Train.
+
+
+Sixteen members of the Resolutions Committee presented a minority report
+criticising majority declarations. As a substitute for the silver plank
+they offered a declaration similar to that of the Republican convention.
+In a further plank they commended the Administration. The substitute
+money plank was lost 301 to 628, and the resolution of endorsement 357
+to 564. No delegates withdrew, but a more formidable bolt than shook the
+Republican convention here expressed itself silently. In the subsequent
+proceedings 162 delegates, including all of New York's 72, 45 of New
+England's 77, 18 of New Jersey's 20, and 19 of Wisconsin's 24 took no
+part whatever.
+
+Before Bryan spoke, a majority of the silver delegates probably favored
+Hon. Richard P. Bland, of Missouri, father of the Bland Act, as the
+presidential candidate, but the first balloting showed a change. Upon
+the fifth ballot Bryan received 500 votes, a number which changes before
+the result was announced increased to the required two-thirds. Arthur
+Sewall, of Maine, was the nominee for Vice-President.
+
+Mr. Bryan, then barely thirty-six, was the youngest man ever nominated
+for the presidency. He was born in Salem, Ill., March 19, 1860. His
+father was a man of note, having served eight years in the Illinois
+Senate, and afterwards upon the circuit bench. Young Bryan passed his
+youth on his father's farm, near Salem, and at Illinois College,
+Jacksonville, where he graduated in 1881 with oratorical honors. Having
+read law in Chicago, and in 1887 been admitted to the bar, he removed to
+Lincoln, Neb., and began practising law.
+
+Mr. Bryan was inclined to politics, and his singular power on the
+platform drew attention to him as an available candidate. In 1890 he was
+elected to Congress as a Democrat. He served two terms, declining a
+third nomination. In 1894 he became editor of the Omaha World-Herald,
+but later resumed the practice of law.
+
+In Nebraska, as in some other Western States, Republicans so outnumbered
+Democrats that Populist aid was indispensable in any State or
+congressional contest. In 1892 it had been eagerly courted on
+Cleveland's behalf. Bryan had helped in consummating fusion between
+Populism and Democracy in Nebraska. This occasioned the unjust charge
+that he was no Democrat. The allegation gained credence when the
+Populist national convention at St. Louis placed him at the head of its
+ticket, refusing at the same time to accept Sewall, choosing instead a
+typical Southern Populist, Thomas Watson, of Georgia.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Arthur Sewall.
+
+
+To Southern Populists Democrats were more execrable than Republicans.
+Westerners of that faith were jealous of Sewall as an Eastern man and
+rich. Too close union with Democracy threatened Populism with
+extinction. Rightly divining that their leaders wished such a "merger,"
+the Populist rank and file insisted on nominating their candidate for
+the vice-presidency first. Bryan was made head of the ticket next day.
+The silver Republicans acclaimed the whole Democratic ticket, Sewall as
+well as Bryan.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Ex-Senator Palmer.
+
+
+The Democratic opponents of the "Chicago Democracy" determined to place
+in the field a "National" or "Gold" Democratic ticket. A convention for
+this purpose met in Indianapolis, September 3d. The Indianapolis
+Democrats lauded the gold standard and a non-governmental currency as
+historic Democratic doctrines, endorsed the Administration, and assailed
+the Chicago income-tax plank. Ex-Senator Palmer, of Illinois, and Simon
+E. Buckner, of Kentucky, were nominated to run upon this platform, Gold
+Democrats who could not in conscience vote for a Republican here found
+their refuge.
+
+Parties were now seriously mixed. Thousands of Western Republicans
+declared for Bryan; as many or more Eastern Democrats for McKinley.
+Party newspapers bolted. In Detroit the Republican Journal supported
+Bryan, the Democratic Free Press came out against him. Not a few from
+both sides "took to the woods"; while many, to be "regular," laid
+inconvenient convictions on the table.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Simon E. Buckner.
+
+
+The campaign was fierce beyond parallel. Neither candidate's character
+could be assailed, but the motives governing many of their followers
+were. Catchwords like "gold bug" and "popocrat" flew back and forth. The
+question-begging phrase "sound money"--both parties professed to wish
+"sound money"--did effective partisan service. Neither party's deepest
+principles were much discussed. Many gold people assumed as beyond
+controversy that free coinage would drive gold from the country and
+wreck public credit. Advocates of silver too little heeded the
+consequences which the mere fear of those evils must entail, impatiently
+classing such as mentioned them among bond-servants to the money power.
+
+So great was the fear of free silver in financial circles, corporations
+voted money to the huge Republican campaign fund. The opposition could
+tap no such mine. Never before had a national campaign seen the
+Democratic party so abandoned by Democrats of wealth, or with so slender
+a purse.
+
+Nor was this the worst. Had Mr. Bryan been able through the campaign to
+maintain the passionate eloquence of his Chicago speech, or the lucid
+logic of that with which at Madison Square Garden he opened the
+campaign, he would still not have succeeded in sustaining "more hard
+money" ardor at its mid-summer pitch. His eloquence, indeed, in good
+degree continued, but the level of his argument sank. Instead of
+championing the cause of producers, whether rich or poor, against mere
+money-changers, which he might have done with telling effect, he more
+and more fell to the tone of one speaking simply against all the rich,
+an attitude which repelled multitudes who possessed neither wealth nor
+much sympathy for the wealthy.
+
+Save for one short trip to Cleveland the Republican candidate did not,
+during the campaign, leave Canton, though from his doorstep he spoke to
+visiting hordes. His opponent, in the course of the most remarkable
+campaigning tour ever made by a candidate, preached free coinage to
+millions. The immense number of his addresses; their effectiveness,
+notwithstanding the slender preparation possible for most of them
+severally; the abstract nature of his subject when argued on its merits,
+as it usually was by him; and the strain of his incessant journeys
+evinced a power in the man which was the amazement of everyone.
+
+Spite of all this, as election day drew near, the feeling rose that it
+post-dated by at least two months all possibility of a Democratic
+victory. Republicans' limitless resources, steady discipline, and
+ceaseless work told day by day. They polled, of the popular vote,
+7,104,244; the combined Bryan forces, 6,506,853; the Gold Democracy,
+134,652; the Prohibitionists, 144,606; and the Socialists, 36,416.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+MR. McKINLEY'S ADMINISTRATION
+
+[1897-1899]
+
+The Nestor of the original McKinley Cabinet was John Sherman, who left
+his Senate seat to the swiftly rising Hanna that he himself might devote
+his eminent but failing powers to the Secretaryship of State. Upon the
+outbreak of the Spanish War he was succeeded by William R. Day, who had
+been Assistant Secretary. In 1898 Day in turn resigned, when Ambassador
+John Hay was called to the place from the Court of St. James. The
+Treasury went to Lyman J. Gage, a distinguished Illinois banker. Mr.
+Gage was a Democrat, and this appointment was doubtless meant as a
+recognition of the Gold Democracy's aid in the campaign. General Russell
+A. Alger, of Michigan, took charge of the War Department, holding it
+till July 19, 1899, after which Elihu Root was installed.
+Postmaster-General James A. Gary, of Maryland, resigned the same month
+with Sherman, giving place to Charles Emory Smith, of the Philadelphia
+Press. The Navy portfolio fell to John D. Long, of Massachusetts; that
+of the Interior to Cornelius N. Bliss, of New York; that of Agriculture
+to James Wilson, of Iowa. In December, 1898, Ethan Allen Hitchcock, of
+Missouri, succeeded Bliss.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+John Sherman.
+
+
+[Illustration: Working at desk.]
+Lyman J. Gage, Secretary of the Treasury.
+
+
+[Illustration: Working at desk.]
+John D. Long, Secretary of the Navy.
+
+
+[Illustration: Working at desk.]
+Cornelius N. Bliss,
+Secretary of the Interior.
+
+
+[Illustration: Working at desk.]
+Russell A. Alger,
+Secretary of War.
+
+
+Fortunately for the new Chief Magistrate, who had been announced as the
+"advance agent of prosperity," the year 1897 brought a revival of
+business. This was due in part to the end, at least for the time, of
+political suspense and agitation, in part to the confidence which
+capitalists felt in the new Administration.
+
+The money stringency, too, now began to abate. The annual output of the
+world's gold mines, which had for some years been increasing, appeared
+to have terminated the fall of general prices, prevalent almost
+incessantly since 1873. Moreover, continued increase seemed assured, not
+only by the invention of new processes, which made it lucrative to work
+tailings and worn-out mines, but also by the discovery of several rich
+auriferous tracts hitherto unknown.
+
+
+[Illustration: Working at desk.]
+James Wilson,
+Secretary of Agriculture.
+
+
+[Illustration: Working at desk.]
+Postmaster-General Gary.
+From a copyrighted photo by Clinedinst.
+
+
+The valley of the Yukon, in Alaska and the adjacent British territory,
+had long been known to contain gold, but none suspected there a bonanza
+like the South African Rand. In the six months' night of 1896-1897 an
+old squaw-man made an unprecedented strike upon the Klondike
+(Thron-Duick or Tondak) River, 2,000 miles up the Yukon. By spring all
+his neighbors had staked rich claims. Next July $2,000,000 worth of gold
+came south by one shipment, precipitating a rush to the inhospitable
+mining regions hardly second to the California migration of 1849.
+
+Latter-day Argonauts, not dismayed by the untold dangers and hardships
+in store, toiled up the Yukon, or, swarming over the precipitous
+Chilcoot Pass, braved, too often at cost of life, the boiling rapids to
+be passed in descending the Upper Yukon to the gold fields. Later the
+easier and well-wooded White Pass was found, traversed, at length, by a
+railroad. In October, 1898, the Cape Nome coast, north of the Yukon
+mouth, uncovered its riches, whereupon treasure-seekers turned thither
+their attention, even from the Yukon.
+
+Little lawlessness pestered the gold settlements. The Dominion promptly
+despatched to Dawson a body of her famous mounted police. Our
+Government, more tardily, made its authority felt from St. Michaels,
+near the Yukon mouth, all the way to the Canadian border. On June 6,
+1900, Alaska was constituted a civil and judicial district, with a
+governor, whose functions were those of a territorial governor. When
+necessary the miners themselves formed tribunals and meted out a
+rough-and-ready justice.
+
+
+[Illustration: Men with huge piles of supplies.]
+Rush of Miners to the Yukon.
+The City of Caches at the Summit of Chilcoot Pass.
+
+
+The rush of miners to the middle Yukon gold region, which, together with
+certain ports and waters on the way thither, were claimed by both the
+United States and Great Britain, made acute the question of the true
+boundary between Alaskan and British territory.
+
+In 1825 Great Britain and Russia, the latter then owning Alaska, agreed
+by treaty to separate their respective possessions by a line commencing
+at the southernmost point of Prince of Wales Island and running along
+Portland Channel to the continental coast at 56 degrees north latitude.
+North of that degree the boundary was to run along mountain summits
+parallel to the coast until it intersected the 141st meridian west
+longitude, which was then to be followed to the frozen ocean. In case
+any of the summits mentioned should be more than ten marine leagues from
+the ocean, the line was to parallel the coast, and be never more than
+ten marine leagues therefrom.
+
+When it became important to determine and mark the boundary in a more
+exact manner, Great Britain advanced two new claims; first, that the
+"Portland Channel" mentioned in the Russo-British treaty was not the
+channel now known by that name, but rather Behm Channel, next west, or
+Clarence Straits; and, secondly, that the ten-league limit should be
+measured from the outer rim of the archipelago skirting Alaska, and not
+from the mainland coast. If conceded, these claims would add to the
+Canadian Dominion about 29,000 square miles, including 100 miles of
+sea-coast, with harbors like Lynn Channel and Tahko Inlet, several
+islands, vast mining, fishery, and timber resources, as well as Juneau
+City, Revilla, and Fort Tongass, theretofore undisputably American.
+
+In September, 1898, a joint high commission sat at Quebec and canvassed
+all moot matters between the two countries, among them that of the
+Alaska boundary. It adjourned, however, without settling the question,
+though a temporary and provisional understanding was reached and signed
+October 20, 1899.
+
+The commissioners gave earnest attention to the sealing question, which
+had been plaguing the United States ever since the Paris arbitration
+tribunal upset Secretary Blaine's contention that Bering Sea was mare
+clausum. Upon that tribunal's decision the modus vivendi touching seals
+lapsed, and Canadians, with renewed and ruthless zeal, plied
+seal-killing upon the high seas. Dr. David S. Jordan, American delegate
+to the 1896-1897 Conference of Fur-Seal Experts, estimated that the
+American seal herd had shrunken 15 per cent. in 1896, and that a full
+third of that year's pups, orphaned by pelagic sealing, had starved.
+Reckoning from the beginning of the industry and in round numbers, he
+estimated that 400,000 breeding females had been slaughtered, that
+300,000 pups had perished for want of nourishment, and that 400,000
+unborn pups had died with their dams. This estimate disregarded the
+multitude of females lost after being speared or shot. Dr. Jordan
+predicted the not distant extinction of the fur-seal trade unless
+protective measures should be forthwith devised. British experts
+questioned some of his conclusions, but admitted the need of restriction
+upon pelagic sealing.
+
+The McKinley Administration besought Great Britain for a suspension of
+seal-killing during 1897. After a delay of four months the Foreign
+Office replied that it was too late to stop the sealers that year. In a
+rather undiplomatic note, dated May 10, 1897, Secretary Sherman charged
+dilatory and evasive conduct upon this question. The retort was that the
+American Government was seeking to embarrass British subjects in
+pursuing lawful vocations.
+
+Moved by Canada, Great Britain recanted her offer to join the United
+States, Russia, and Japan in a complete system of sealing regulations.
+The three countries last named thereupon agreed with each other to
+suspend pelagic sealing so long as expert opinion declared it necessary
+to the continued existence of the seals. The Canadians declined to
+consider suspension save on the condition that the owners of sealing
+vessels should receive compensation. In December, the same year (1897),
+our Government ordered confiscated and destroyed all sealskins brought
+to our ports not accompanied with invoices signed by the United States
+Consul at the place of exportation, certifying that they were not taken
+at sea. This cut off the Canadians' best market and so far diminished
+their activity; but pelagic sealing still continued, under the
+inefficient Paris regulations, and the herd went on diminishing.
+
+That these Canadian controversies left so little sting, but were
+followed by closer and closer rapprochement between the United States
+and Great Britain, was fortunate in view of the failure of the
+Anglo-American Arbitration Treaty. This had been negotiated by Mr.
+Cleveland's able Secretary of State, Hon. Richard Olney, and represented
+the best ethical thought of both nations. President McKinley endorsed
+it, but it fell short of a two-thirds Senatorial vote.
+
+On June 16, 1897, a treaty was signed annexing the Hawaiian Republic to
+the United States. The Government of Hawaii speedily ratified this, but
+it encountered in the United States Senate such buffets that after a
+year it was withdrawn, and a resolution to the same end introduced in
+both Houses. A majority in each chamber would annex, while the treaty
+method would require a two-thirds vote in the Senate. The resolution
+provided for the assumption by the United States of the Hawaiian debt up
+to $4,000,000. Our Chinese Exclusion Law was extended to the islands,
+and Chinese immigration thence to the continental republic prohibited.
+The joint resolution passed July 6, 1898, a majority of the Democrats
+and several Republicans, among these Speaker Reed, opposing. Shelby M.
+Cullom, John T. Morgan, Robert R. Hitt, Sanford B. Dole, and Walter F.
+Frear, made commissioners by its authority, drafted a territorial form
+of government, which became law April 30, 1900.
+
+Pursuant to the platform pledge of his party President McKinley early in
+his term appointed Edward O. Wolcott, Adlai E. Stevenson, and Charles J.
+Paine special envoys to the Powers in the interest of international
+bi-metallism. The mission was mentioned with smiles by gold men and with
+sneers by silver men, yet the cordial cooperation of France made it for
+a time seem hopeful. The British Cabinet, too, were not ill-disposed,
+pointing out that while Great Britain herself must retain the gold
+standard, they earnestly wished a stable ratio between silver and gold
+on British India's account. Sir Michael Hicks-Beach, Chancellor of the
+Exchequer, had little doubt that if a solid international agreement
+could be reached India would reopen her mints to silver. But the Indian
+Council unanimously declined to do this. The Bank of England was at
+first disposed to accept silver as part of its reserve, a course which
+the law permitted; but a storm of protests from the "city banks"
+dismayed the directors into withdrawal. Lacking England's cooperation
+the mission, like its numerous predecessors, came to naught.
+
+In Civil Service administration Mr. McKinley took one long and
+unfortunate step backward. The Republican platform, adopted after Mr.
+Cleveland's extension of the merit system, emphatically endorsed this,
+as did Mr. McKinley himself.  Against extreme pressure, particularly in
+the War Department, the President bravely stood out till May 29, 1899.
+His order of that date withdrew from the classified service 4,000 or
+more positions, removed 3,500 from the class theretofore filled through
+competitive examination or an orderly practice of promotion, and placed
+6,416 more under a system drafted by the Secretary of War. The order
+declared regular a large number of temporary appointments made without
+examination, besides rendering eligible, as emergency appointees,
+without examination, thousands who had served during the Spanish War.
+
+Republicans pointed to the deficit under the Wilson Law with much the
+same concern manifested by President Cleveland in 1888 over the surplus.
+A new tariff law must be passed, and, if possible, before a new
+Congressional election. An extra session of Congress was therefore
+summoned for March 15, 1897. The Ways and Means Committee, which had
+been at work for three months, forthwith reported through Chairman
+Nelson Dingley the bill which bore his name. With equal promptness the
+Committee on Rules brought in a rule, at once adopted by the House,
+whereby the new bill, spite of Democratic pleas for time to examine,
+discuss, and propose amendments, reached the Senate the last day of
+March. More deliberation marked procedure in the Senate. This body
+passed the bill after toning up its schedules with some 870 amendments,
+most of which pleased the Conference Committee and became law. The Act
+was signed by the President July 24, 1897.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Nelson Dingley.
+
+
+The Dingley Act was estimated by its author to advance the average rate
+from the 40 per cent. of the Wilson Bill to approximately 50 per cent.,
+or a shade higher than the McKinley rate. As proportioned to consumption
+the tax imposed by it was probably heavier than that under either of its
+predecessors.
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+Warships in the Hudson River Celebrating
+the Dedication of Grant's Tomb, April 27, 1897.
+
+Reciprocity, a feature of the McKinley Tariff Act, was suspended by the
+Wilson Act. The Republican platform of 1896 declared protection and
+reciprocity twin measures of Republican policy. Clauses graced the
+Dingley Act allowing reciprocity treaties to be made, "duly ratified" by
+the Senate and "approved" by Congress; yet, of the twins, protection
+proved stout and lusty, while the weaker sister languished. Under the
+third section of the Act some concessions were given and received, but
+the treaties negotiated under the fourth section, which involved
+lowering of strictly protective duties, met summary defeat when
+submitted to the Senate.
+
+
+[Illustration: Cone shaped dome, atop a cylinder of columns, atop a
+rectangular base.]
+Grant's Tomb, Riverside Drive, New York.
+Copyright, 1901, by Detroit Photographic Co.
+
+
+The granite mausoleum in Riverside Park, New York City, designed to
+receive the remains of General Grant, was completed in 1897, and upon
+the 27th of April, that year, formally presented to the city. Ten days
+previously the body had been removed thither from the brick tomb where
+it had reposed since August 8, 1885. Four massive granite piers, with
+rows of Doric columns between, supported the roof and the obtuse cone of
+the cupola, which rested upon a great circle of Ionic pillars. The
+interior was cruciform. In the centre was the crypt, where, upon a
+square platform, rested the red porphyry sarcophagus. From the mausoleum
+summit, 150 feet above, the eye swept the Hudson for miles up and down.
+
+The presentation day procession was headed by the presidential party.
+The Governor of New York State, the Mayor of the city, and the United
+States diplomatic corps were prominent. Other distinguished guests
+attended, including Union and Confederate Veterans. The entire
+procession reached six miles.  There were 53,500 participants, military
+and civil, and 160 bands of music. At the same time, in majestic column
+upon the Hudson, Great Britain, France, Italy, and Spain joined, with
+men-of-war, our North Atlantic squadron, saluting the President as he
+passed.
+
+The exercises at the tomb were simple. Bishop Newman offered prayer.
+"America" was sung. President McKinley delivered an address of eulogy.
+General Horace Porter gave the mausoleum into the city's keeping, a
+trust which Mayor Strong in a few words accepted.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+THE WAR WITH SPAIN
+
+[1895-1898]
+
+How early Cuban discontent with Spain's rule became vocal is not known.
+An incipient revolt in 1766 was ruthlessly put down. Though the "Ever
+Faithful Isle" did not rebel with the South American colonies under
+Bolivar, it was never at rest, as attested by the servile revolts of
+1794 and 1844, the "Black Eagle" rebellion of 1829, and the ten-years'
+insurrection beginning in 1868. In 1894-1895, just as "Home Rule for
+Cuba" had become a burning issue in Spain, martial law was proclaimed in
+Havana, precipitating the last and successful revolution.
+
+American interest in the island, material and otherwise, was great. The
+barbarity and devastation marking the wars made a strong appeal to our
+humane instincts; nor could Americans be indifferent to a neighboring
+people struggling to be free. The suppression of filibustering
+expeditions taxed our Treasury and our patience. Equally embarrassing
+were the operations of Cuban juntas from our ports. To solve the complex
+difficulty Presidents Polk, Buchanan, and Grant had each in his time
+vainly sought to purchase the island. The Virginius outrage during
+Grant's incumbency brought us to the very verge of war, prevented only
+by the almost desperate resistance of Secretary Hamilton Fish.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Governor-General Weyler.
+
+
+When the final rebellion was under way the humane Governor-General
+Martinez Campos was succeeded by General Weyler, ordered to down the
+rebellion at all costs. Numberless buildings were burnt and plantations
+destroyed, the insurgents retaliating in kind. Non-combatants were
+huddled in concentration camps, where half their number perished.
+American citizens were imprisoned without trial. One, Dr. Ruiz, died
+under circumstances occasioning strong suspicions of foul play.
+
+President Cleveland, while willing to mediate between Spain and the
+Cubans, preserved a neutral attitude, refusing to recognize the
+insurgents even as belligerents, though they possessed all rural Cuba
+save one province. Only when about to quit office did Mr. Cleveland hint
+at intervention.
+
+Soon after McKinley's accession an anarchist shot Premier Canovas,
+when Sagasta, his Liberal successor, promised Cuba reform and home rule.
+Weyler was succeeded by Blanco, who revoked concentration, proclaimed
+amnesty, and set on foot an autonomist government. Americans were loosed
+from prison. Clara Barton, of the American Red Cross Society, hastened
+with supplies to the relief of the wretched reconcentrados, turned loose
+upon a waste. Spain, too, appropriated a large sum for reconcentrado
+relief, promising implements, seed, and other means for restoring ruined
+homes and plantations.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+Copyright. 1898, by F. C. Hemment.
+U. S. Battleship Maine Entering the Harbor of Havana, January, 1898.
+
+
+But the iron had entered the Cuban's soul. The belligerents rejected
+absolutely the offers of autonomy, demanding independence. The
+"pacificos" were no better off than before, and relations between the
+United States and Spain grew steadily more strained. Two incidents
+precipitated a crisis.
+
+A letter by the Spanish Minister at Washington, Senor de Lome, was
+intercepted and published, holding President McKinley up as a
+time-serving politician. De Lome forestalled recall by resigning; yet
+his successor, Polo y Bernabe, could not fail to note on arriving in
+Washington a chill diplomatic atmosphere.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+Wreck of U. S. Battleship Maine.
+Photograph by F. C. Hemment.
+
+
+In January, 1898, the United States battleship Maine was on a friendly
+visit at Havana, where she was received with the greatest courtesy,
+being taken to her harbor berth by the Spanish government pilot.  At
+9.40 on the evening of February 15th, the harbor air was rent by a
+tremendous explosion. Where the Maine had been, only a low shapeless
+hump was distinguishable. The splendid vessel, with officers and crew on
+board to the number of 355, had sunk, a wreck. Of the 355, 253 never saw
+day.
+
+Strong suspicions gained prevalence that this was a deed of Spanish
+treachery, or attributable, at the very least, to criminal indifference
+on the part of the authorities. Some alleged positive connivance by
+Spanish officials. War fever ran high. When, five days later, the
+Spanish cruiser Vizcaya visited New York City, it was thought well to
+accord her special protection. March, 9th, Congress placed in the
+President's hands $50,000,000 to be used for national defence. The 21st,
+a naval court of inquiry confirmed the view that the Maine disaster was
+due to the explosion of a submarine mine. War fever became a fire.
+"Remember the Maine" echoed up and down and across the land, the words
+uttered with deep earnestness.
+
+The war spirit welded North and South, permeating the Democracy even
+more than the party in power. Democrats would have at once recognized
+the Cuban Republic. This was at first the attitude of the Senate, which,
+upon deliberation, wisely forbore. It, however, on April 20th, joined
+the House in declaring the people of Cuba free and independent, adding
+that Spain must forthwith relinquish her authority there. The President
+was authorized to use the nation's entire army, navy, and militia to
+enforce withdrawal. This was in effect a declaration of war. Minister
+Woodford, at Madrid, received his passports; as promptly Bernabe
+withdrew to Montreal. April 23d, 125,000 volunteers were called out.
+April 26th an increase of the regular army to some 62,000 was
+authorized. Soon came a call for 75,000 more volunteers. Responses from
+all the States flooded the War Department.
+
+[Illustration]
+Bow of the Spanish Cruiser Almirante Oquendo.
+From a Photograph by F. C. Hemment.
+Copyright, 1898, by W. R. Hearst.
+
+
+[Illustration: Hundreds of soldiers on transport and dock.]
+The Landing at Daiquiri. Transports in the Offing.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Captain Charles E. Clark.
+
+
+Spain, ruled by a clique of privileged Catalonians, groaned under all
+the oppressiveness of militarism, with none of its power. Plagued by
+Carlism and anarchy at home, she was grappling, at tremendous outlay,
+with two rebellions abroad. Yet all her many parties cried for war.
+Popular subscriptions were taken to aid the impoverished treasury;
+reserves were called out; in Cuba, Blanco summoned all able-bodied men.
+The navy was supplemented by ships purchased wherever hands could be
+laid upon them.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+After Deck on the Oregon, Showing Two 13-inch,
+Four 8-inch, and Two 6-inch Guns.
+Copyright. 1899. by Strohmeyer & Wyman.
+
+
+Owing to the parsimony of Congress, our equipment for a large army, or
+even for our 25,000 regulars, if they were to go on a tropical campaign,
+was totally inadequate. Our artillery had no smokeless powder. Many
+infantry regiments came to camp armed with nothing but enthusiasm. No
+khaki cloth for uniforms was to be had in the country. Canvas had to be
+taken from that provided by the Post-Office Department for repairing
+mail bags. While the utmost possible at short notice was done with the
+just voted $50,000,000 defence fund, the comprehensive system of
+fortifications long before designed had hardly been begun. The navy had
+been treated least illiberally; still the construction budget had been
+so cut that only a few of the proposed vessels had been transferred from
+paper to the sea.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+Blockhouse on San Juan Hill.
+
+
+The United States navy which did exist was a noble one. Both its ships
+and their crews were as fine as any afloat. Had the Spanish navy been
+manned like ours the two would have been of about equal strength. Ours
+boasted the more battleships, but Spain had several new and first-rate
+armored cruisers, besides a flotilla of swift torpedo boats. The
+Spaniards were, however, poor gunners, clumsy sailors, awkward and
+careless mechanics; while American gunners had a deadly aim, and spared
+no skill or pains in the care or handling of their ships.
+
+American superiority in these points was tellingly proved by the
+Oregon's unprecedented run from ocean to ocean. Before hostilities she
+was ordered from San Francisco, via Cape Horn to join the Atlantic
+squadron. The long, hard, swift trip was made without the break of a bar
+or the loosening of a bolt, a result which attracted expert notice
+abroad as attesting the very highest order of seamanship. Meantime war
+had commenced. It was feared that off Brazil Admiral Cervera would
+endeavor to intercept and destroy her; yet, with well-grounded
+confidence, Captain Clark expected in that event not only to save
+himself but to punish his assailants. He met no interference, however,
+and at the end of her unparalleled voyage his noble ship was without
+overhauling ready to join in the Santiago blockade and in destroying the
+Spanish fleet.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Admiral Cervera, Commander of the Spanish Squadron.
+
+
+Admiral Cervera's departure westward from the Cape Verde Islands, and
+the subsequent discovery of his squadron in the harbor of Santiago,
+determined the Government to invest that city. The navy acted with
+promptitude. Commodore Schley first, then, in conjunction with him, his
+superior, Rear-Admiral Sampson, drew a tight line of war-vessels across
+the channel entrance.
+
+
+[Illustration: Working at desk.]
+Major-General William R. Shafter.
+
+
+Unfortunately delayed by inadequate shipping facilities and the
+unsystematic consignment of supplies, also by the unfounded rumor of a
+Spanish cruiser and destroyer lying in wait, the army of 17,000, under
+Major-General William R. Shafter, landed with little opposition a short
+distance east of Santiago. The sickly season had begun. Moreover, it was
+as good as certain that, spite of all the miserable Cuban army could do,
+Santiago's 8,000 defenders would soon be increased from neighboring
+Spanish garrisons. So, notwithstanding his inadequate provision for
+sound, sick, or wounded and his weakness in artillery, Shafter pushed
+forward. His gallant little army brushed the enemy's intercepting
+outpost from Las Guasimas, tore him, amid red carnage, from his stubborn
+holds at El Caney and San Juan Ridge, and by July 3d had the city
+invested, save on the west. From this quarter, however, General Escario,
+with 3,600 men, had forced his way past our Cuban allies and joined his
+besieged compatriots in Santiago.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+Troops in the Trenches, Facing Santiago.
+
+
+The third of July opened, for the Americans, the darkest day of the war.
+Drenched by night, roasted by day, haversacks which had been cast aside
+for battle lost or purloined, supply trains stalled in the rear,
+fighting by day, by night digging trenches and rifle-pits--little
+wonder that many lost heart and urged withdrawal to some position nearer
+the American base. Shafter himself for a moment considered such a step.
+But General Wheeler, on the fighting line, set his face against it, as,
+upon reflection, did Shafter. A bold demand for surrender was sent to
+General Toral, commanding the city, while Admiral Sampson came to confer
+with Shafter for a naval assault.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+General Joseph Wheeler.
+
+
+The squadron had not been idle. By day their vigilance detected the
+smallest movement at the harbor mouth. Upon that point each night two
+battleships bent their dazzling search-lights like cyclopean eyes.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+View of San Juan Hill and Blockhouse,
+Showing the Camp of the United States Forces.
+
+
+It was decided to block the narrow channel by sinking the collier
+Merrimac across its neck. Just before dawn on June 3d the young naval
+constructor, Hobson, with six volunteers chosen from scores of eager
+competitors, and one stowaway who joined them against orders, pushed the
+hulk between the headland forts into a roaring hell of projectiles.
+
+
+[Illustration: Only the masts and stack above surface.]
+The Collier Merrimac Sunk by Hobson at the Mouth of Santiago Harbor.
+
+
+ An explosion from within rent the Merrimac's hull, and she sank; but,
+ the rudder being shot away, went down lengthwise of the channel. When
+ the firing ceased, the little crew, exhausted, but not one of the eight
+ missing, clustered, only heads out of water, around their raft. A
+ launch drew near. In charge was the Spanish admiral, who took them
+ aboard with admiring kindness, and despatched a boat to notify the
+ American fleet of their safety.
+
+It was well that "Hobson's choice" as to the way his tub should sink
+failed. On July 3d, just after Sampson steamed away to see Shafter, the
+Maria Teresa was seen poking her nose from the Santiago harbor, followed
+by the Almirante Oquendo, the Vizcaya, and the Christobal Colon. Under
+peremptory orders from his Government, Admiral Cervera had begun a mad
+race to destruction. "It is better," said he, "to die fighting than to
+blow up the ships in the harbor." These had become the grim
+alternatives.
+
+The Brooklyn gave chase, the other vessels in suit, the Texas and the
+Oregon leading. As the admiral predicted, it was "a dreadful holocaust."
+One by one his vessels had to head for the beach, silenced, crippled,
+flames bursting from decks, portholes, and the rents torn by our
+cannonade. Two destroyers, Furor and Pluton, met their fate near the
+harbor. Only the Colon remained any time afloat, but her doom was
+sealed. Outdoing the other pursuers and her own contract speed the grand
+Oregon, pride of the navy, poured explosives upon the Spaniard, until,
+within three hours and forty minutes of the enemy's appearance, his last
+vessel was reduced to junk. Cervera was captured with 76 officers and
+1,600 men. 350 Spaniards were killed, 160 wounded. The American losses
+were inconsiderable. The ships' injuries also were hardly more than
+trifling.
+
+So closed the third of July, so opened the glorious Fourth! To Shafter
+and his men the navy's victory was worth a reenforcement of 100,000.
+Bands played, tired soldiers danced, shouted, and hugged each other.
+Correspondingly depressed were the Spaniards. They endeavored, as Hobson
+had, to choke the harbor throat with the Reina Mercedes; but she, like
+the Merrimac, had her steering apparatus shot away and sank lengthwise
+of the channel. Still, it was not deemed wise to attempt forcing a way
+in, nor did this prove necessary. Toral saw reenforcements extending the
+American right to surround him, and out at sea over fifty transports
+loaded with fresh soldiers. Spanish honor had been signalized not only
+by the devoted heroism of Cervera's men but by the gallantry of his own.
+The Americans offered to convey his command back to Spain free of
+charge. He therefore sought from Madrid, and after some days obtained,
+authority to surrender. He surrendered July 16th. Besides the Santiago
+garrison, Toral's entire command in eastern Cuba, about 24,000 men,
+became our prisoners of war.
+
+
+[Illustration: Ship on its side on the beach.]
+From a Photograph by F. C. Hemment. Copyright, 1898, by W. R. Hearst.
+The Spanish Cruiser Christobal Colon.
+
+
+[Illustration: Warship.]
+Copyright, 1898. by C C. Langill. N. Y.
+The U. S. S. Brooklyn.
+
+
+The Santiago surrender left the United States free to execute what
+proved the last important expedition of the war, that of General Miles
+to Porto Rico. It was a complete success. Miles proclaiming the
+beneficent purposes of our Government, numbers of volunteers in the
+Spanish army deserted, the regulars were swept back by four simultaneous
+movements, and our conquest was as good as complete when the peace
+protocol put an end to all hostilities.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+General Nelson A. Miles
+
+
+Meantime an independent campaign was under way in the far Orient. At
+once after war was declared Commodore George Dewey, commanding the
+United States naval forces in Asiatic waters, was ordered to capture or
+sink the Spanish Philippine fleet. Obliged at once to leave the neutral
+port of Hong-Kong, and on April 27th to quit Mirs Bay as well, he
+steamed for Manila.
+
+A little before midnight, on April 30th, Dewey's flagship Olympia
+entered the Boca Grande channel to Manila Bay, the Baltimore, Petrel,
+Raleigh, Concord, and Boston following. By daybreak Cavite stood
+disclosed and, ready and waiting, huddled under its batteries, Admiral
+Montojo's fleet: Reina Christina, Castilla, Don Antonio de Ulloa, Don
+Juan de Austria, Isla de Luzon, Isla de Cuba, General Lezo, Marquis del
+Duero, El Curreo and Velasco--ten vessels to Dewey's six. Counting those
+of the batteries, the Spaniards' guns outnumbered and outcalibred
+Dewey's. All the Spanish guns, from ships and from batteries alike,
+played on our fleet--a thunder of hostile welcome, harmless as a salute.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Admiral George Dewey.
+
+
+The commodore delayed his fire till every shot would tell, when,
+circling around in closer and closer quarters, he concentrated an
+annihilating cyclone of shot and shell upon the Spanish craft. Two
+torpedo boats ventured from shore. One was sunk, one beached. The Reina
+Christina, the Amazon of the fleet, steamed out to duel with the
+Olympia, but "overwhelmed with deadly attentions" could barely stagger
+back. One hundred and fifty men were killed and ninety wounded on the
+Christina alone. In a little less than two hours, having sunk the
+Christina, Castilla, and Ulloa and set afire the other warships, the
+American ceased firing to assure and arrange his ammunition supply and
+to breakfast and rest his brave crews. He reopened at 11.16 A.M. to
+finish. By half-past twelve every Spanish warship had been sunk or
+burned and the forts silenced. The Spanish reported their loss at 381
+killed and wounded. Seven Americans were wounded, not one killed.
+
+
+[Illustration: Warship.]
+Protected Cruiser Olympia.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+General A. R. Chaftee.
+
+
+As the Filipino insurgents encircled Manila on the land side the
+Spaniards could not escape, and, to spare life, Dewey deemed it best to
+await the arrival of land forces before completing the reduction.
+
+Waiting tried the admiral's discretion more than the battle had his
+valor. It was necessary to encourage the insurgents, at the same time to
+prevent excesses on their part, and to avoid recognizing them even as
+allies in such manner as to involve our Government. Another
+embarrassment, threatening for a time, was the German admiral's
+impertinence. One of his warships was about to steam into harbor
+contrary to Dewey's instructions, but was halted by a shot across her
+bows. Dewey's firmness in this affair was exemplary.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+General Merritt and General Greene taking a
+look at a Spanish field-gun on the Malate Fort.
+
+
+On June 30th the advance portion of General Merritt's troops arrived and
+supplanted the insurgents in beleaguering Manila. The war was now
+closing. Manila capitulated August 13th. The peace protocol was signed
+August 12th. The Treaty of Paris was signed December 10th. Spain
+evacuated Cuba and ceded to the United States Porto Rico, at the same
+time selling us the Philippine Archipelago for $20,000,000.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+"CUBA LIBRE"
+
+[1898-1902]
+
+As if Santiago had not afforded "glory enough for all," some disparaged
+Admiral Sampson's part in the battle, others Admiral Schley's. As
+commander of the fleet, whose routine and emergency procedure he had
+sagaciously prescribed, Sampson, though on duty out of sight of the
+action at its beginning, was entitled to utmost credit for the brilliant
+outcome. The day added his name to the list of history's great sea
+captains.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Admiral William T. Sampson.
+
+
+Schley had the fortune to be senior officer during his chief's temporary
+absence. He fought his ship, the Brooklyn, to perfection, and, while it
+was not of record that he issued any orders to other commanders, his
+prestige and well-known battle frenzy inspired all, contributing much to
+the victory. The early accounts deeply impressed the public, and they
+made Schley the central figure of the battle. Unfortunately Sampson's
+first report did not even mention him. Personal and political partisans
+took up the strife, giving each phase the angriest possible look.
+Admiral Schley at length sought and obtained a court of inquiry.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Admiral W. S. Schley
+
+
+The court found Schley's conduct in the part of the campaign prior to
+June 1, 1898 (which our last chapter had not space to detail),
+vacillating, dilatory, and lacking enterprise. It maintained, however,
+that during the battle itself, despite the Brooklyn's famous "loop,"
+which it seemed to condemn, his conduct was self-possessed, and that he
+inspired his officers and men to courageous fighting. Admiral Dewey,
+president of the court, held in part a dissenting opinion, which carried
+great weight with the country. He considered Schley the actual fleet
+commander in the battle, thus giving him the main credit for the
+victory.
+
+Legally, it turned out, Sampson, not Schley, commanded during the hot
+hours. Moreover, the evidence seemed to reveal that the court's
+strictures upon Schley, like many criticisms of General Grant at Shiloh
+and in his Wilderness campaign, were probably just. In both cases the
+public was slow to accept the critics' view.
+
+Both before and after his resignation, July 19, 1899, Secretary of War
+Alger was subjected to great obloquy. Shafter's corps undoubtedly
+suffered much that proper system and prevision would have prevented. The
+delay in embarking at Tampa; the crowding of transports, the use of
+heavy uniforms in Cuba and of light clothing afterward at Montauk Point,
+the deficiency in tents, transportation, ambulances, medicines, and
+surgeons, ought not to have occurred. Indignation swept the country when
+it was charged that Commissary-General Eagan had furnished soldiers
+quantities of beef treated with chemicals and of canned roast beef unfit
+for use. A commission appointed to investigate found that "embalmed
+beef" had not been given out to any extent. Canned roast beef had been,
+and the commission declared it improper food.
+
+The commission made it clear that the Quartermaster's Department had
+been physically and financially unequal to the task of suddenly
+equipping and transporting the enlarged army--over ten times the size of
+our regular army--for which it had to provide. If wanting at times in
+system the department had been zealous and tireless. At the worst it was
+far less to blame than recent Congresses, which had stinted both army
+and navy to lavish money upon objects far less important to the country.
+The army system needed radical reform. There was no general staff, and
+the titular head of the army had less real authority than the
+adjutant-general with his bureau.
+
+These imbroglios had little significance compared with the problems
+connected with our new dependencies. The Senate ratified the peace
+treaty February 6, 1899, by the narrow margin of two votes--forty-two
+Republicans and fifteen others in favor, twenty-four Democrats and
+three others opposing. But for the advocacy of the Democratic leader,
+William J. Bryan, who thought that the pending problems could be dealt
+with by Congress better than in the way of diplomacy, ratification would
+have failed.
+
+The ratification of the Treaty of Paris marked a momentous epoch in our
+national life and policy. In a way, the very fact of a war with Spain
+did this. A century and a quarter before a Spanish monarch had furnished
+money and men to help the American colonies become free from England.
+"The people of America can never forget the immense benefit they have
+received from King Carlos III.," wrote George Washington. At that time a
+Spaniard predicted that the American States, born a pigmy, would become
+a mighty giant, forgetful of gratitude, and absorbed in selfish
+aggression at Spain's expense. Our change to quasi-alliance with Great
+Britain against Spain seemed to not a few the fulfilment of that
+prophecy. Europe declared that we had hopelessly broken with our ideals.
+Cynics there applied to the United States the Scriptures: "Hell from
+beneath is moved for thee to meet thee at thy coming: it stirreth up the
+dead for thee, even all the chief ones of the earth; it hath raised up
+from their thrones all the kings of the nations. All they shall speak
+and say unto thee, Art thou also become weak as we? art thou become like
+one of us? . . . How art thou fallen from heaven, O Lucifer, son of the
+morning!"
+
+
+[Illustration: Uniformed officers on parade.]
+The New Cuban Police as organized by
+ex-Chief of New York Police, McCullagh.
+
+
+The United States did not heed these sneers. Hawaii had been annexed.
+Sale tenure of the Samoan Islands west of 171 degrees west longitude,
+including Tutuila and Pago-Pago harbor, the only good haven in the
+group, was ours. These measures, which a few years earlier all would
+have deemed radical, did not stir perceptible opposition. Nearly all
+felt that they were justified, by considerations of national security,
+to obtain naval bases or strategic points. Such motives also excused the
+acquisition of Guam in the Pacific, ceded by Spain in Article II of the
+Paris Treaty, and that of Porto Rico.
+
+Civil government was established in Porto Rico with the happiest
+results. The Insular Treasury credit balance trebled in a year,
+standing, July 1, 1902, at $314,000. The exports for 1902 increased over
+50 per cent., most of the advance being consigned to the United States.
+The principal exports were sugar, tobacco, the superior coffee grown in
+the island, and straw hats. Of the coffee, the year named, Europe took
+$5,000,000 worth, America only $29,000 worth. Porto Rico imported from
+Spain over $95,000 worth of rice, $500,000 worth of potatoes. The first
+year under our government there were 13,000 fewer deaths than the year
+before, improvement due to better sanitation and a higher standard of
+living. Mutual respect between natives and Americans grew daily.
+
+Touching Cuba, too, the course of the Administration evoked no serious
+opposition. We were in the island simply as trustees for the Cubans. The
+fourth congressional resolution of April 20, 1898, gave pledge as
+follows: "The United States hereby disclaims any disposition or
+intention to exercise sovereignty, jurisdiction, or control over said
+island (Cuba) except for the pacification thereof, and asserts its
+determination when that is completed to leave the government and control
+of the island to its people." This "self-denying ordinance," than which
+few official utterances in all our history ever did more to shape the
+nation's behavior, was moved and urged, at first against strong
+opposition, by Senator Teller, of Colorado. Senator Spooner thought it
+likely that but for the pledge just recited European States would have
+formed a league against the United States in favor of Spain.
+
+December 13, 1898, a military government was established for "the
+division of Cuba," including Porto Rico. The New Year saw the last
+military relic of Spanish dominion trail out of Cuba and Cuban waters.
+The Cuban army gradually disbanded. The work of distributing supplies
+and medicines was followed by the vigorous prosecution of railroad,
+highway and bridge repairing and other public works, upon which many of
+the destitute found employment. Courts and schools were resumed.
+Hundreds of new schools opened--in Santiago city 60, in Santiago
+province over 300. Brigandage was stamped out. Cities were thoroughly
+cleaned and sewer systems constructed. The death rate fell steadily to a
+lower mark than ever before. In 1896 there were in Havana 1,262 deaths
+from yellow fever, and during the eleven years prior to American
+occupation an average of 440 annually. In 1901 there were only four.
+Under the "pax Americana" industry awoke. New huts and houses hid the
+ashes of former ones. Miles of desert smiled again with unwonted
+tillage.
+
+
+[Illustration: Slum with sewage running through the dirt street.]
+Showing Condition of Streets in Santiago
+before Street Cleaning Department was organized.
+
+
+[Illustration: Street cleaners working on dry roadway.]
+Santiago Street Cleaning Department.
+
+
+A census of Cuba taken by the War Department, October 16, 1899, showed a
+population of 1,572,797, a falling off of nearly 60,000 in the twelve
+years since the last Spanish census, indicating the loss due to the
+civil war. The average density of population was about that of Iowa,
+varying, however, from Havana province, as thickly peopled as
+Connecticut, to Puerto Principe, with denizens scattered like those of
+Texas. Seventy per cent. of the island's inhabitants were Cuban
+citizens, two per cent. were Spanish, eighteen per cent. had not
+determined their allegiance, while about ten per cent. were aliens.
+Eighty per cent. of the people in the rural districts could neither read
+nor write.
+
+In December, 1899, Governor Brooke retired in favor of General Leonard
+Wood. A splendid object-lesson in good government having been placed
+before the people, they were, in June, 1900, given control of their
+municipal governments and the powers of these somewhat enlarged.
+
+In July Governor Wood issued a call for a constitutional convention,
+which met in November. The fruit of its deliberations was an instrument
+modelled largely upon the United States Constitution. The bill of rights
+was more specific, containing a guarantee of freedom in "learning and
+teaching" any business or profession, and another calculated to prevent
+"reconcentration." The Government was more centralized than ours. The
+President, elected by an electoral college, held office four years, and
+was not re-eligible twice consecutively. The Senate consisted of six
+senators from each of the six departments, the term being six years.
+One-third were elected biennially. The House of Representatives
+consisted of one representative to every 25,000 people. One-half were
+elected biennially. Four years was the term of office. The judicial
+power vested in a Supreme Court and such other courts as might be
+established by law. Suffrage was universal.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+Governor-General Leonard A Wood
+in the Uniform of Colonel of Rough Riders.
+
+
+In his call for the convention, also in his opening address before it,
+Governor Wood mentioned its duty to determine the relations between Cuba
+and the United States. Jealous and suspicious, the convention, believing
+the United States bound by its pledge to leave the island to the
+unconditional control of its inhabitants, slighted these hints.
+Meantime, at President McKinley's instance, Congress adopted, March 2,
+1901, as a rider to the pending army appropriation bill, what was known
+as "the Platt amendment," so called from its author, Senator Platt, of
+Connecticut.
+
+This enacted that in fulfilment of the congressional joint resolution of
+April 20, 1898, which led to the freeing of Cuba, the President was to
+leave the government and Control of the island to its people only when a
+Government should be established there under a constitution defining the
+future relations of the United States with Cuba. The points to be
+safe-guarded were that Cuba should permit no foreign lodgment or
+control, contract no excessive debt, ratify the acts of the military
+government, and protect rights acquired thereunder, continue to improve
+the sanitation of cities, give the United States certain coaling and
+naval stations, and allow it to intervene if necessary to preserve Cuban
+independence, maintain adequate government, or discharge international
+obligations created by the Paris Treaty.
+
+
+[Illustration: Large group on men.]
+Judge Cruz Perez   Gov. Gen. Wood.
+  General Maximo Gomez.   T. E. Palma.
+Governor-General Leonard A. Wood transferring the Island of Cuba to
+President Tomaso Estrada Palma, as a Cuban Republic, May, 1902.
+From copyrighted stereoscopic photograph. By Underwood & Underwood. N. Y.
+
+
+A week before the Platt amendment passed, the Cuban convention adopted a
+declaration of relations, "provided the future government of Cuba thinks
+them advisable," not mentioning coaling stations or a right of
+intervention, but declaring that "the governments of the United States
+and Cuba ought to regulate their commercial relations by means of a
+treaty based on reciprocity."
+
+When the convention heard that the Platt amendment must be complied
+with, a commission was sent to Washington to have this explained. Upon
+its return the convention, June 12, 1901, not without much opposition,
+adopted the amendment.
+
+The first President of the Cuban Republic was Tomaso Estrada Palma. He
+had been years an exile in the United States, and was much in sympathy
+with our country. His home-coming was an ovation. In May, 1902, the
+Stars and Stripes were hauled down, and the Cuban tricolor raised. The
+military governor and all but a few of his soldiers left the island, as
+the Spaniards had done less than three years before; yet with a record
+of dazzling achievement that had in a few months done much to repair the
+mischiefs of Spain's chronic misrule.
+
+Cut off from her former free commercial intercourse with Spain, Cuba
+looked to the United States as the main market for her raw sugar.
+Advocates of reciprocity urged considerations of honor and fair dealing
+with Cuba, where, it was said, ruin stared planters in the face. The
+Administration and a majority of the Republicans favored the cause. Not
+so senators and representatives from beet-sugar sections. The
+"insurgents," as the opponents of reciprocity were called, urged that
+raising sugar beets was a distinctively American industry, and that to
+sacrifice it was to relinquish the principle of protection altogether.
+The so-called "Sugar Trust" favored reciprocity, being accused of
+expending large sums in that interest. Against it was pitted the "Sugar
+Beet Trust," a new figure among combinations.
+
+During the long session of the Fifty-seventh Congress, a Cuban
+reciprocity bill being before the House, the sugar-beet interest
+demonstrated its power. The House "insurgents," joining the Democratic
+members, overrode the Speaker and the Ways and Means chairman, and
+attached to the bill an amendment cutting off the existing differential
+duty in favor of refined sugar. A locking of horns thus arose, which
+outlasted the session, neither side being able to convince or outvote
+the other. Sanguine Democrats thought that they espied here a hopeful
+Republican schism like that of 1872.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+THE UNITED STATES IN THE ORIENT
+
+PHILIPPINES AND FILIPINOS
+
+[1899]
+
+The Philippine Archipelago lies between 4 degrees 45 minutes and 21
+degrees north latitude and 118 and 127 degrees east longitude. It
+consists of nineteen considerable and perhaps fifteen hundred lesser
+islands, an area nearly equal that of New Jersey, New York, and New
+England combined. The island of Luzon comprises a third of this, that of
+Mindanao a fifth or a sixth. The archipelago is rich in natural
+resources, but mining and manufactures had not at the American
+occupation been developed. Agriculture was the main occupation, though
+only a ninth of the land surface was under cultivation. The islands were
+believed capable of sustaining a population like Japan's 42,000,000.
+Luzon boasted a glorious and varied landscape and a climate salubrious
+and inviting, considering the low latitude. Manila hemp, sugar, tobaco,
+coffee, and indigo were raised and exported in large amounts.
+
+
+[Illustration: Sixteen men seated in a small room.]
+General Bates. The Sultan.
+The Jolo Treaty Commission.
+
+
+The islands lay in three groups, the Luzon, the Visaya (Negros, Panay,
+Cebu, Bohol, Leyte, Samar, and islets), and the Mindanao, including
+Palawan and the Sulu Islands. Some of these islands were in parts
+unexplored. The Tagals and the Visayas, Christian and more or less
+civilized Malay tribes, dominated respectively the first and the second
+group. The Mindanao coasts held here and there a few Christian
+Filipinos, but the chief denizens of the southern islands were the
+fierce Arab-Malay Mohammedans known as Moros, most important and
+dangerous of whose tribes were the Illanos.
+
+In all, there were thirty or more races, with an even greater number of
+different dialects. Northern Luzon housed the advanced Ilocoans,
+Pampangos, Pangasinanes, and Cagayanes, with their hardy bronze heathen
+neighbors, the Igorrotes. The Visayas had many degraded aborigines, the
+Negritos among them. Over against the Moros in the Mindanao group one
+could not ignore the warlike Visayan variation, or the swarming savages
+of the interior, hostile alike to Moro and Visaya.
+
+
+[Illustration: Parade.]
+Three Hundred Boys in the Parade of July 4, 1902, Vigan, Ilocos.
+
+
+The population of the islands numbered 8,000,000 or 10,000,000, 25,000
+being Europeans. Half the islanders were Christians, eight or ten per
+cent. Mohammedan, perhaps ten per cent. heathen. One considerable
+fraction were Chinese, another of mixed extraction. Probably none of the
+races were of pure Malay blood, though Malay blood predominated.
+Mercantile pursuits were largely in Chinese hands. The Moros disdained
+tillage and commerce alike, living on slave labor and captures in war.
+
+Spain had done in the islands much more educational work than the
+Americans at first recognized, though none of an advanced kind. Schools
+were numerous but not general. Many Filipinos had studied in Europe.
+There was a select class possessing information and manners which would
+have admitted them to cultivated circles in Paris or London, and
+thousands of Filipinos were intellectually the peers of average
+middle-class Europeans. The University of St. Thomas graced Manila. Some
+seventy colleges and academies at various centres professed to prepare
+pupils for it.
+
+Filipinos of aught like cosmopolitan intelligence numbered less than
+100,000. Below them were the half-breeds, perhaps 500,000 strong, white,
+yellow, or brown, according to the special blend of blood. They were
+"intelligent but uneducated, active but not over industrious. They loved
+excitement, military display, and the bustle and pomp of government."
+Farther down still were the vast toiling masses neither knowing nor
+caring much who governed them. Only in suffering were they experts,
+having learned of this under the iron heel of Spain all there was to be
+known.
+
+
+[Illustration: About fifty girls.]
+Girls' Normal Institute, Vigan, Ilocos, April, 1902.
+
+
+In the Philippines one had incessantly before him social and economic
+problems in their rudimentary form--populations the debris of centuries,
+and the reactions upon them of their first contact with real
+civilization. In case of any but the most advanced tribes the immediate
+suggestion was despair, a feeling that they could never appropriate the
+culture offered them. But the heartiness of the response which even such
+communities made to our advances brought hope. Our methods were better
+than the Spanish, and our progress correspondingly rapid; yet the task
+we undertook bade fair to last centuries. Nor were its initial steps
+undefaced by errors.
+
+A Blue Book would not suffice to describe this motley material. We can
+only illustrate.
+
+The Iocoros were in a forward state, if not of civilization, of
+preparation therefor. On all hands their youth were anxiously waiting to
+be taught. Compared with Teutonic races they were superficial and
+emotional, but they had great ambition and perseverance.
+
+
+[Illustration: Several men.]
+Igarrote Religious Dance, Lepanto.
+
+
+A sharp contrast were the Igorrotes. These appeared to be at bottom
+Malays, though Mongolian features marked many a face. They had withstood
+all attempts to christianize them, and stubbornly clung to their
+primitive mode of life as tillers of the soil. Mentally they were near
+savagery, entirely without ambition or moral outlook. Nevertheless they
+adhered to the American arms and rendered valuable porter service.
+
+Their religion had elements of sun and ancestor worship. The one
+tangible feature in it was the "kanyan," a drunken feast held on such
+occasions--fifteen in all--as marriage, birth, death, and serious
+illness. The feast began with an invocation to Kafunion, the sun god,
+and a dance much like that of the American Indians. Then came the
+drinking of tapi, a strong beer made from rice, and gorging with
+buffalo, horse, or dog meat, the last being the greatest delicacy. Till
+the Americans vetoed the practice, the Igorrotes were "head hunters."
+The theory was that the brains of the captured head became the captor's.
+
+
+The Igorrotes had magnificent chests and legs, and were extensively used
+as burden-bearers. Sustained by only a few bowlfuls of rice and some
+sweet potatoes, a man would carry fifty or even seventy-five pounds on
+his head or back all day over the most difficult mountain trails. The
+Igorrotes had a mild form of slavery, and, though good-natured and at
+times industrious, appeared utterly without spirit of progress. It was
+interesting to mark whether or not contact with a superior race would be
+a stimulus to them.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+Igarrote Head Hunters with Head Axes and Spears.
+
+
+A contrast, again, to the Igorrotes was presented by the Ilocoans, an
+intelligent, industrious, Christian people, eager for education, yet
+promising to cherish independent  ideals the more dearly the more
+prosperous and advanced they became.
+
+
+[Illustration: Six men on horseback.]
+Native Moros-Interior of Jolo.
+
+
+Most implacable of all the races were the Moros of the Sulu Islands.
+Warlike, and despising labor, their terrible piracies had been curbed
+only within fifty years, and their depredations and slave raiding by
+land were never wholly prevented. They were suspiciously eager to
+"assist" our forces in subduing the insurgents. The American authorities
+negotiated a treaty with the Sultan and his dattos, involving their
+submission to the United States.  A provision of this treaty excited
+reprobation, that permitting a slave to buy his freedom, a recognition
+of slavery in derogation of the Thirteenth Amendment to the
+Constitution. The provision was excused as an absolutely necessary
+makeshift to put off hostilities till the United States had a freer
+hand.
+
+Spain never governed a colony well. Her whole record outre-mer was of a
+piece with the enslavement and extermination of the gentle Caribs, with
+which it began. In slavery and the slave trade Anglo-Saxon conquistadors
+shared Spain's dishonor, but in sheer ugliness of despotism, in
+wholesale, systematic, selfish exploiting, and in corrupt and clumsy
+administration the Iberian monarchy surpassed all other powers ever
+called to deal with colonies. The truth of this indictment was, if
+possible, more manifest in the Philippines than anywhere else in the
+Spanish world.
+
+The religious orders, which early achieved the conversion of Tagals,
+Visayas, and some other tribes, after generations of evangelical
+devotion, ceased to be aggressive religiously, growing opulent and
+oppressive instead. They were the pedestal of the civil government.
+Their word could, and often did, cause natives to be deported, or even
+put to death. One of their victims was that beautiful spirit, Dr. Rizal,
+author of Noli me Tangere, the most learned and distinguished Malay ever
+known. He had taken no part whatever in rebellion or sedition, yet,
+because he was known to abominate clerical misrule, he was, without a
+scintilla of evidence that he had broken any law, first expatriated,
+then shot. This murder occurring December 30, 1896, did much to further
+the rebellion then spreading.
+
+"Once settled in his position, the friar, bishop, or curate usually
+remained till superannuated, being therefore a fixed political factor
+for a generation, while a Spanish civil or military officer never held
+post over four years. The stay of any officer attempting a course at
+variance with the order's wishes was invariably shortened by monastic
+influence. Every abuse leading to the revolutions of 1896 and 1898 the
+people charged to the friars; and the autocratic power which each friar
+exercised over the civil officials of his parish gave them a most
+plausible ground for belief that nothing of injustice, of cruelty, of
+oppression, of narrowing liberty was imposed on them for which the friar
+was not entirely responsible. The revolutions against Spain began as
+movements against the friars." [footnote: Abridged from Report of Taft
+Commission.]
+
+Senator Hoar wrote: "I should as soon give back a redeemed soul to Satan
+as give back the people of the Philippine Islands to the cruelty and
+tyranny of Spain."
+
+Freemasonry in the Philippines was a redoubtable antagonist to the
+orders. There were other secret leagues, like the Liga Filipina, with
+the same aim, most of them peaceful. Not so the "Katipunan," which
+adopted as its symbol the well-known initials, "K. K. K.,"
+"Kataas-Tassan, Kagalang-Galang, Katipunan," "sovereign worshipful
+association." If the Ku-Klux Klan did not give the hint for the
+society's symbol the programmes of the two organizations were alike. The
+Katipunan was probably the most potent factor in the insurrection of
+1896. Its cause was felt to be that of the whole Filipino people. In
+December, 1897, the conflict, as in Cuba, had degenerated into a
+"stalemate." The Spaniard could not be ousted, the Filipino could not be
+subdued. Spain ended the trouble for the time by promising reform, and
+hiring the insurgent leaders to leave the country. Only a small part,
+400,000 Mexican dollars, of the promised sum was ever paid. This was
+held in Hong-Kong as a trust fund against a future uprising.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+Emilio Aguinaldo.
+
+
+Chief among the leaders shipped to Hong-Kong was Emilio Aguinaldo. He
+was born March 22, 1869, at Cavite, of which town he subsequently became
+mayor. His blood probably contained Spanish, Tagal, and Chinese strains.
+He had supplemented a limited school education by extensive and eager
+contact with books and men. To a surprising wealth of information the
+young Filipino added inspiring eloquence and much genius for leadership.
+He had the "remarkable gift of surrounding himself with able coadjutors
+and administrators." The insurrection of 1896 early revealed him as the
+incarnation of Filipino hostility to Spain. Judging by appearances--his
+zeal in 1896, bargain with Spain in 1897, fighting again in Luzon in
+1898, acquiescence in peace with the United States, reappearance in
+arms, capture, and instant allegiance to our flag--he was a shifty
+character, little worthy the great honor he received where he was known
+and, for a long time, here. But if he lacked in constancy, he excelled
+in enterprise. Spaniards never missed their reckoning more completely
+than in thinking they had quieted Aguinaldo by sending him to China with
+a bag of money.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+Gen. Frederick Funston, Gen. A. McArthur.
+
+
+It being already obvious that Spain had not redressed, and had no
+intention of redressing, abuses in the Philippines, Aguinaldo and his
+aides planned to return. The American war was their opportunity.
+Conferences were had with Consul Wildman at Hong-Kong and with Commodore
+Dewey. Aguinaldo and those about him declared that Wildman, alleging
+authority from Washington, promised the Filipinos independence; and
+other Hong-Kong consuls and several press representatives received the
+impression that this was the case. Wildman absolutely denied having
+given any assurance of the kind. Admiral Dewey also denied in the most
+positive manner that he had done so.
+
+Whatever the understanding or misunderstanding at Hong-Kong, Aguinaldo
+came home with Dewey in the evident belief that the American forces and
+his own were to work for Filipino independence. He easily resumed his
+leadership and began planning for an independent Filipino State. Dewey
+furnished him arms and ammunition. The insurrection was reorganized on a
+grander scale than ever, with extraordinary ability, tact, energy, and
+success. Nearly every one of the Luzon provinces had its rebel
+organization. In each Aguinaldo picked the leader and outlined the plan
+of campaign. His scheme had unity; his followers were aggressive and
+fearless. Everywhere save in a few strongholds Spain was vanquished. At
+last only Manila remained. The insurgents must have captured 10,000
+prisoners, though part of those they had at the Spanish evacuation were
+from the Americans. They hemmed in Manila by a line reaching from water
+to water. We could not have taken Manila as we did, by little more than
+a show of force, had it not been for the fact that Spain's soldiers,
+thus, hemmed in by Aguinaldo's, could not retreat beyond the range of
+our naval guns. January 21, 1899, a Philippine Republic was set up, its
+capital being Malolos, which effectively controlled at least the Tagal
+provinces of Luzon. Its methods were irregular and arbitrary--natural in
+view of the prevalence of war. Aguinaldo, its soul from the first
+moment, became president.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+A Company of Insurrectos near Bongued, Abra Province,
+just previous to surrendering early in 1901.
+
+
+[Illustration: About twenty soldier landing on the beach in a small boat.]
+11th Cavalry Landing at Vigan, Ilocos, April, 1902.
+
+
+The Philippine Republic wished and assumed to act for the archipelago,
+taking the place of Spain. It, of course, had neither in law nor in fact
+the power to do this, nor, under the circumstances, could the
+Administration at Washington, however desirable such a course from
+certain points of view, consent that it should at present even try. The
+Philippine question divided the country, raising numerous problems of
+fact, law, policy, and ethics, on which neither Congress nor the people
+could know its mind without time for reflection.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+Copyright, 1899, by Frances B. Johnston.
+Jules Cambon, the French Ambassador, acting for Spain,
+receiving from the Honorable John Hay, the U. S. Secretary of State,
+drafts to the amount of $20,000,000, in payment for the Philippines.
+
+
+When our commissioners met at Paris to draft the Treaty of Peace, one
+wished our demands in the Orient confined to Manila, with a few harbors
+and coaling stations. Two thought it well to take Luzon, or some such
+goodly portion of the archipelago. That the treaty at last called for
+the entire Philippine domain, allowing $20,000,000 therefor, was
+supposed due to insistence from Washington. Only the Vice-President's
+casting vote defeated a resolution introduced in the Senate by Senator
+Bacon, of Georgia, declaring our intention to treat the Filipinos as we
+were pledged to treat the Cubans. After ratification the Senate passed a
+resolution, introduced by Senator McEnery, of Louisiana, avowing the
+purpose not to make the Filipinos United States citizens or their land
+American territory, but to establish for them a government suited to
+their needs, in due time disposing of the archipelago according to the
+interests of our people and of the inhabitants.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.
+
+THE UNITED STATES IN THE ORIENT
+
+WAR, CONTROVERSY, PEACE
+
+[1899-1901]
+
+It was wholly problematical how long Aguinaldo unaided could dominate
+Luzon, still more so whether he would rule tolerably, and more uncertain
+yet whether centre or south would ever yield to him. The insurgents had
+foothold in four or five Visayan islands, but were never admitted to
+Negros, which of its own accord raised our flag. In Mindanao, the Sulu
+Islands, and Palawan they practically had no influence. Governor Taft
+was of opinion that they could never, unaided, have set up their sway in
+these southern regions. But should they succeed in establishing good
+government over the entire archipelago, clearly they must be for an
+indefinite period incompetent to take over the international
+responsibilities connected with the islands. To have at once conceded
+their sovereignty could have subserved no end that would have been from
+any point of view rational or humane.
+
+The American situation was delicate. We were present as friends, but
+could be really so only by, for the time, seeming not to be so. At
+points we failed in tact. We too little recognized distinctions among
+classes of Filipinos, tending to treat all alike as savages. When our
+thought ceased to be that of ousting Spain, and attacked the more
+serious question what to do next, our manner toward the Filipinos
+abruptly changed. Our purposes were left unnecessarily equivocal. Our
+troops viewed the Filipinos with ill-concealed contempt. "Filipinos"
+and "niggers" were often used as synonyms.
+
+Suspicion and estrangement reached a high pitch after the capture of
+Manila, when Aguinaldo, instead of being admitted to the capital, was
+required to fall still farther back, the American lines lying between
+him and the prize. December 21, 1898, the President ordered our
+Government extended with despatch over the archipelago. That the Treaty
+of Paris summarily gave not only the islands but their inhabitants to
+the United States, entirely ignoring their wishes in the matter, was a
+snub. Still worse, it seemed to guarantee perpetuation of the friar
+abuses under which the Filipinos had groaned so long. Outside Manila
+threat of American rule awakened bitter hostility. In Manila itself
+thousands of Tagals, lip-servants of the new masters, were in secret
+communion with their kinsmen in arms.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+Native Tagals at Angeles, fifty-one miles from Manila.
+
+
+No blood flowed till February 4, 1898, when a skirmish, set off by the
+shot of a bullyragged American sentry, led to war. February 22, 1899,
+the insurgents vainly attempted to fire Manila, but were pushed back
+with slaughter, their forces scattered.
+
+March 20, 1899, the first Philippine Commission--Jacob G. Schurman, of
+New York; Admiral Dewey; General Otis; Charles Denby, ex-minister to
+China; and Dean C. Worcester, of Michigan-began their labors at Manila.
+They set to work with great zeal and discretion to win to the cause of
+peace not only the Filipinos but the government of the Philippine
+Republic itself. In this latter they succeeded. Their proclamation that
+United States sway in the archipelago would be made "as free, liberal,
+and democratic as the most intelligent Filipino desired," "a firmer and
+surer self-government than their own Philippine Republic could ever
+guarantee," operated as a powerful agent of pacification.
+
+May 1, 1899, the Philippine Congress almost unanimously voted for peace
+with the United States. Aguinaldo consented. Mabini's cabinet, opposing
+this, was overturned, and a new one formed, pledged to peace. A
+commission of cabinet members was ready to set out for Manila to
+effectuate the new order.
+
+A revolution prevented this. General Luna, inspired by Mabini, arrested
+the peace delegates and charged them with treason, sentencing some to
+prison, some to death. This occurred in May, 1899.  After that time not
+so much as the skeleton of any Philippine public authority--president,
+cabinet, or other official--existed. Later opposition to the American
+arms seemed to proceed in the main not from real Filipino patriotism,
+but from selfishness, lust of power, and the spirit of robbery.
+
+Everywhere and always Americans had to guard against treachery. In Samar
+false guides led an expedition of our Marine Corps into a wilderness and
+abandoned the men to die, cruelty which was deemed to justify
+retaliation in kind. Eleven prisoners subsequently captured were shot
+without trial as implicated in the barbarity. For this Major Waller was
+court-martialed, being acquitted in that he acted under superior orders
+and military necessity. A sensational feature of his trial was the
+production of General Smith's command to Major Waller "to kill and
+burn"; "make Samar a howling wilderness"; "kill everything over ten"
+(every native over ten years old). General Smith was in turn
+court-martialed and reprimanded. President Roosevelt thought this not
+severe enough and summarily retired him from active service.
+
+
+[Illustration: Soldier on a train.]
+Bringing ammunition to the front for
+Gen. Otis's Brigade, north of Manila.
+
+Despite vigilant censorship by the War Department, rumors of other
+cruelties on the part of our troops gained credence. It appeared that in
+not a few instances American soldiers had tortured prisoners by the
+"water cure," the victim being held open-mouthed under a stream of
+water, the process sometimes supplemented by pounding on the abdomen
+with rifle-butts.
+
+These disgraces were sporadic, not general, and occurred, when they did
+occur, under terrible provocation. Devotion to duty, however trying the
+circumstances, was the characteristic behavior of our officers and men.
+Deeds of daring occurred daily. On November 14, 1900, Major John A.
+Logan, son of the distinguished Civil War general, lost his life in
+battle near San Jacinto. December 19th the brave General Lawton was
+killed in attacking San Mateo. Systematic opposition to our arms was at
+last ended by an enterprise involving both nerve and cleverness in high
+degree.
+
+Our forces captured a message from Aguinaldo asking reenforcements. This
+suggested to General Frederick Funston, who had served with Cuban
+insurgents, a plan for seizing Aguinaldo. Picking some trustworthy
+native troops and scouts, Funston, Captain Hazzard, Captain Newton, and
+Lieutenant Mitchell, passed themselves off as prisoners and their forces
+as the reenforcements expected. When the party approached Aguinaldo's
+headquarters word was forwarded that reenforcements were coming, with
+some captured Americans. Aguinaldo sent provisions, and directed that
+the prisoners be treated with humanity. March 23, 1901, he received the
+officers at his house. After brief conversation they excused themselves.
+Next instant a volley was poured into Aguinaldo's body-guard, and the
+American officers rushed upon Aguinaldo, seized him, his chief of staff,
+and his treasurer. April 2, 1901, Aguinaldo swore allegiance to the
+United States, and, in a proclamation, advised his followers to do the
+same. Great and daily increasing numbers of them obeyed.
+
+
+[Illustration: Stone fort with many large shell holes.]
+Fort Malate, Cavite.
+
+
+To the Philippines, though Spain's de facto sovereignty there was hardly
+more than nominal, our title, whether or not good as based on conquest,
+was unimpeachable considered as a cession by way of war indemnity or
+sale. Nor, according to the weight of authority, could the right of the
+federal power to acquire these islands be denied. But did "the
+Constitution follow the flag" wherever American jurisdiction went? If
+not, what were the relations of those outlands and their peoples to the
+United States proper? Could inhabitants of the new possessions emigrate
+to the United States proper? Did our domestic tariff laws apply there as
+well as here? Must free trade exist between the nation and its
+dependencies? Were rights such as that of peaceable assemblage and that
+to jury trial guaranteed to Filipinos, or could only Americans to the
+manner born plead them?
+
+On the fundamental question whether the dependencies formed part of the
+United States the Supreme Court passed in certain so-called "insular
+cases" which were early brought before it. Four of the justices held
+that at all times after the Paris Treaty the islands were part and
+parcel of United States soil. Four held that they at no time became
+such, but were rather "territories appurtenant" to the country.
+
+
+[Illustration: River crowded with small boats.]
+The Pasig River, Manila.
+
+
+Mr. Justice Brown gave the "casting" opinion. Though reasoning in a
+fashion wholly his own, he sided, on the main issue, with the latter
+four of his colleagues, making it the decision of the court that Porto
+Rico and the Philippines did not belong to the United States proper,
+yet, on the other hand, were not foreign. The revenue clauses of the
+Constitution did not, therefore, forbid tariffing goods from or going to
+the islands. In the absence of express legislation, the general tariff
+did not obtain as against imports from the dependencies. This reasoning,
+it was observed, was equally applicable to mainland territories and to
+Alaska. The court intimated that, so far as applicable, the
+Constitution's provisions in favor of personal rights and human liberty
+accompanied the Stars and Stripes beyond sea as well as between our old
+shores.
+
+Unsatisfactory to nearly all as was this utterance of a badly divided
+court, it sanctioned the Administration policy and opened the way for
+necessary legislation. It did nothing, however, to hush the
+anti-imperialist's appeal, based more upon the Declaration of
+Independence and the spirit of our national ideals.
+
+It was said that having delivered the Filipinos from Spain "we were
+bound in all honor to protect their newly acquired liberty against the
+ambition and greed of any other nation on earth, and we were equally
+bound to protect them against our own. We were bound to stand by them, a
+defender and protector, until their new government was established in
+freedom and in honor; until they had made treaties with the powers of
+the earth and were as secure in their national independence as
+Switzerland, Denmark, Belgium, Santo Domingo, or Venezuela." But we
+ought to bind ourselves and promise the world that so soon as these ends
+could be realized or assured we would leave the Filipinos to themselves,
+Such was the view of eminent and respected Americans like George F.
+Hoar, George S. Boutwell, Carl Schurz, and William J. Bryan.
+
+These and others urged that the Filipinos had inalienable right to life
+and to liberty; that our policy in the Philippines was in derogation of
+those rights; that Japan, left to herself, had stridden farther in a
+generation than England's crown colony of India in a century; that the
+Filipinos could be trusted to do likewise; that our increments of
+territory hitherto had been adapted to complete incorporation in the
+American empire while the new were not; and that growth of any other
+character would mean weakness, not strength. The mistakes, expense, and
+difficulties incident to expansion, and the misbehavior and crimes of
+some of our soldiers were exhibited in their worst light.
+
+Rejoinder usually proceeded by denying the capacity of the Filipinos for
+self-government without long training. Even waiving this consideration,
+men found in international law no such mid-status between sovereignty
+and non-sovereignty as anti-imperialists wished to have the United
+States assume while the Filipinos were getting upon their feet. Many
+made great point of minimizing the abuses of our military government and
+of dilating upon native atrocities. The material wealth of the
+archipelago was described in glowing terms. Only American capital and
+enterprise were needed to develop it into a mine of national riches. The
+military and commercial advantages of our position at the doorway of the
+East, our duty to protect lives and property imperilled by the
+insurgents, and our manifest destiny to lift up the Filipino races, were
+dwelt upon. The argument having chief weight with most was that there
+seemed no clear avenue by which we could escape the policy of American
+occupation save the dishonorable and humiliating one of leaving the
+islands to their fate--anarchy and intestine feuds at once, conquest by
+Japan, Germany, or Spain herself a little later.
+
+All demanded that abuses in connection with our rule should be punished
+and the repetition of such made impossible, and that whatever power we
+exercised should be lodged, without regard to party, in the hands of men
+of approved fitness and high and humane character. American tutelage, if
+it were to exist, must present to our wards the best and not the worst
+side of our civilization, and do so with tact and sympathy.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+The Inauguration of Governor Taft, Manila, July 4. 1901.
+
+
+On April 17, 1900, William H. Taft, of Ohio; Dean C. Worcester, of
+Michigan; Luke E. Wright, of Tennessee; Henry C. Ide, of Vermont; and
+Bernard Moses, of California, were commissioned to organize civil
+government in the archipelago. Three native members were subsequently
+added to the commission. Municipal governments were to receive attention
+first, then governments over larger units. Local self-government was to
+prevail as far as possible. Pending the erection of a central
+legislature, the commission was invested with extensive legislative
+powers. Civil government was actually inaugurated July 4, 1901. Judge
+Taft was the first civil governor, General Adna R. Chaffee military
+governor under him.
+
+Educational work in the Philippines was pressed from the very beginning
+of American control. Our military authorities reopened the Manila
+schools, making attendance compulsory. In a short time the number of
+schools in the archipelago doubled. By September, 1901, the commission
+had passed a general school law, and had placed the schools throughout
+the archipelago under systematic organization and able headship. About
+1,000 earnest and capable men and women went out from the States to
+teach Filipino youth. Five hundred towns received one or more American
+teachers each. Associated with them there were in the islands some 2,500
+Filipino teachers, mostly doing primary work.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+Group of American Teachers on the steps
+of the Escuela Municipal, Manila.
+
+
+American teachers advanced into the interior to the neediest tribes.
+Nine teachers early settled among the Igorrotes, scattered in towns
+along the Agno River, and an industrial and agricultural school was soon
+planned for Igorrote boys. Normal schools and manual training schools
+were organized. Colonial history, whether ancient or modern, had never
+witnessed an educational mission like this.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI.
+
+POLITICS AT THE TURNING OF THE CENTURY
+
+[1900]
+
+McKinley and Bryan were presidential candidates again in 1900. It was
+certain long beforehand that they would be, even when Admiral Dewey
+announced that he was available. The admiral seemed to offer himself
+reluctantly, and to be relieved when assured that all were sorry he had
+done so.
+
+McKinley was unanimously renominated. Unanimously also, yet against his
+will, Governor Theodore Roosevelt, of New York, was named with him on
+the ticket. The Democratic convention chose Bryan by acclamation; his
+mate, ex-Vice-President Adlai E. Stevenson, by ballot.
+
+The 1900 campaign called out rather more than the usual crop of one-idea
+parties. The Prohibitionists, a unit now, took the field on the "army
+canteen" issue, making much of the fact that our increased export to the
+Philippines consisted largely of beer and liquors to curse our soldiers.
+The anti-fusion or "Middle-of-the-road" Populists, the Socialist Labor
+Party, the Socialist-Democrats, and the United Christian Party all made
+nominations.
+
+The Gold Democratic National Committee, while recommending State
+committees to keep up their organizations, regarded it inexpedient to
+name a ticket. They reaffirmed the Indianapolis platform of 1896, and
+again recorded their antagonism to the Bryan Democracy. Certain
+volunteer delegates who met in September found themselves unable to
+tolerate either the commercialism which they said actuated the
+Philippine war, or "demagogic appeals to factional and class passions."
+They nominated Senator Caffery, of Louisiana, and Archibald M. Howe, of
+Massachusetts. These gentlemen declined, whereupon it was decided to
+have no ticket.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+W. J. Bryan accepting the nomination for President at
+a Jubilee Meeting held at Indianapolis, August 8, 1900.
+
+
+A number of loosely cohering bodies accorded the Democratic ticket their
+support while making each its own declaration of doctrine. The Farmers'
+Alliance and Industrial Union, through its Supreme Council, gave
+anticipatory endorsement to the Democratic candidate so early as
+February. May 10th the Fusion Populists nominated Bryan, naming,
+however, Charles A. Towne instead of Stevenson for the vice-presidency.
+Towne withdrew in Stevenson's favor. The Silver Republicans likewise
+nominated Bryan, making no vice-presidential nomination. The
+Anti-imperialist League, meeting in Indianapolis after the Democratic
+convention, approved its candidates, its view as to the "paramount
+issue," and its position thereon.
+
+For a time after his able Indianapolis speech accepting the various
+nominations, Mr. Bryan's election seemed rather probable spite of
+incessant Republican efforts to break him down. He had personally gained
+much strength since 1896. There was not a State in the Union whose
+Democratic organization was not to all appearance solid for him, an
+astounding change in four years. An organization of Civil War Veterans
+was electioneering for him among old soldiers. Powerful Democratic and
+independent sheets which had once vilified now extolled him. He was
+sincere, straightforward, and fearless. His demand at Kansas City that
+the platform read so and so or he would not run, while probably unwise,
+showed him no trimmer.
+
+Many Gold Democrats had returned to the party. The gold standard law,
+approved March 14, 1900, made it impossible for a President, even if he
+desired to do so, to place the country's money on an insecure basis
+without the aid of a Congress friendly in both its branches to such a
+design. There was, to be sure, effort to make this law appear imperfect;
+to show that Mr. Bryan, if elected, could, without aid from Congress,
+debauch the monetary system. But these assertions had little basis or
+effect. Silver dollars could be legally paid by the Government for a
+variety of purposes; but outside holders of silver could not get it
+coined, and the Treasury could not buy more.
+
+New issues--imperialism and the trusts--seemed certain to be
+vote-winners for the Democracy. The cause of anti-imperialism had taken
+deep hold of the public mind, drawing to its support a host of eminent
+and respected Republicans. The Democratic platform expressly named this
+the "paramount issue" of the campaign. The party in power defended its
+Philippine policy in the manner sketched at the end of the last chapter,
+ever asserting, of course, that so far as consistent with their welfare
+and our duties the Filipinos must be accorded the largest possible
+measure of self-government. In this tone was perceived some
+sensitiveness to the anti-imperialist cry. Though Republican campaign
+writers and speakers affected to ignore this issue, some of them denying
+its existence, imperialism was more and more discussed.
+
+After the Spanish War the question whether the United States should, the
+inhabitants agreeing, keep any of the territory obtained from Spain,
+divided the Democratic as well as the Republican ranks. So long as
+expansion meant merely addition to United States territory and
+population after the time-honored fashion, and this was at first all
+that anyone meant by expansion, no end of prominent Democrats were
+expansionists. But for their devotion to the policy of protection and
+their determination to continue high protection at all costs, the
+Republicans might have kept in existence this Democratic schism over
+expansion.
+
+According to the Constitution as almost unanimously interpreted (the
+"insular cases" referred to in the last chapter had not yet been
+decided), customs duties must be uniform at all United States ports. If
+Luzon was part of the United States in the usual sense of the words,
+rates of duty on given articles must be the same at Manila as at New
+York. If the Philippine Islands and Porto Rico were parts of the United
+States in the full sense, tariff rates at their ports could not be low
+unless low in New York, New Orleans, San Francisco, and elsewhere.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+The Republican National Convention, held in Philadelphia, June 1, 1900.
+
+
+No considerable or general tariff reduction for the United States proper
+was to be thought of by the Republicans. But it would not do to maintain
+in the ports of the new possessions the high duties established by law
+in the United States proper. Were this done, the United States would in
+effect be forcing its colonies to buy and sell in the suzerain country
+alone, as was done by George III. through those Navigation Acts which
+occasioned the Revolutionary War. Such a system was certain to be
+condemned. If the expansion policy was to succeed in pleasing our people
+a plan had to be devised by which duties at the new ports could be
+reduced to approximate a revenue level while remaining rigidly
+protective in the old ports.
+
+Out of this dilemma was gradually excogitated the theory, which had been
+rejected by nearly all interpreters of the Constitution, that the United
+States can possess "appurtenant" territory, subject to, but not part of
+itself, to which the Constitution does not apply save so far as Congress
+votes that it shall apply. So construed, the Constitution does not ex
+proprio vigore follow the flag. Under that construction, inhabitants of
+the acquired islands could not plead a single one of its guaranties
+unless Congress voted them such a right. If Congress failed to do this,
+then, so far as concerned the newly acquired populations, the
+Constitution might as well never have been penned. They were subjects of
+the United States, not citizens.
+
+The Republican party's first avowal of this "imperialist" theory and
+policy was the Porto Rico tariff bill, approved April 12, 1900,
+establishing for Porto Rico a line of customs duties differing from that
+of the United States. This bill was at first disapproved by President
+McKinley. "It is our plain duty," he said, "to abolish all customs
+tariffs between the United States and Porto Rico, and give her products
+free access to our markets." Until after its passage the bill was
+earnestly opposed both by a number of eminent Republican statesmen
+besides the President and by nearly all the leading Republican party
+organs. Every possible plea--constitutional, humanitarian, prudential--
+was urged against it. The bill passed, nevertheless.
+
+The result was a momentous improvement in Democratic prospects. The
+schism on expansion which had divided the Democratic party was closed at
+once, while many Republicans who had deemed the taking over of the
+Philippines simply a step in the nation's growth similar in nature to
+all the preceding ones, and had laughed at imperialism as a Democratic
+"bogy," changed their minds and sidled toward the Democratic lines.
+
+In their long and able arguments against the Porto Rico tariff,
+Republican editors and members of Congress provided the opposite party
+with a great amount of campaign material. Often as a Republican on the
+hustings or in the press declared imperialism not an issue, or at any
+rate not an important one, he was drowned in a flood of recent
+quotations from the most authoritative Republican sources proving that
+it was not only an issue, but one of the most important ones which ever
+agitated the Republic. As Democrats put it, Balaam prophesied in favor
+of Israel.
+
+Several minor matters were much dwelt upon by campaigners, with a net
+result favorable to the Democrats. A great many in his own party
+believed, no doubt wrongly, that the President's policy had in main
+features been influenced by consideration for powerful financial
+interests, or that at points these had in effect coerced him to courses
+contrary to what he considered best. The commissariat scandal in the
+Spanish War incensed many, as did the growth of army, navy, and
+"militarism" incident to the new colonial policy.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+Parade of the Sound Money League,
+New York, 1900. Passing the Reviewing Stand.
+
+
+Then there was the awkwardness with which the Administration had treated
+the Filipinos. In 1900 it seemed clear that these people could never be
+brought under the flag otherwise than by coercion. Anti-imperialists
+were not alone in the conviction that Aguinaldo's followers had been
+needlessly contemned, harassed, and exasperated, and that had greater
+frankness, tact, and forbearance been used toward them they would, of
+their own accord, have sought the shelter of the Stars and Stripes.
+Moreover, our measures toward the Filipinos had alienated Cuba, so that
+the voluntary adhesion of this island to the United States, so desirable
+and once so easily within reach, was no longer a possibility; while the
+coercion of Cuba, in view of our profession when we took up arms for
+her, would be condemned by all mankind as national perfidy.
+
+The sympathy of official Republicanism with the British in the Boer War
+tended to solidify the Irish vote as Democratic, but--and it was among
+the novelties of the campaign--Republicans no longer feared to alienate
+the Irish. The Government's apparent apathy toward the Boers also drove
+into the Democratic ranks for the time a great number of Dutch and
+German Republicans. Colored voters were in this hegira, believing that
+the adoption of the "subject-races" notion into American public law and
+policy would be the negro's despair. The championing of this movement by
+the Republican party they regarded as a renunciation of all its
+friendship for human liberty.
+
+The Republican campaign watchword was "Protection." Press and platform
+dilated on the fat years of McKinley's administration as amply
+vindicating the Dingley Act. "The full dinner pail," said they, "is the
+paramount issue." Trusts and monopolies they denounced, as their
+opponents did, but they declared that these "had nothing to do with the
+tariff." There was wide and intense hostility toward monopolistic
+organizations. They were decried on all hands as depressing wages,
+crushing small producers, raising the prices of their own products and
+lowering those of what they bought, depriving business officials and
+business travellers of positions, and working a world of other mischief
+politically, economically, and socially. They had rapidly multiplied
+since the Republicans last came into power, and nothing had been done to
+check the formation of them or to control them.
+
+Why, then, was not Democracy triumphant in the campaign of 1900? When
+the lines were first drawn a majority of the people probably disapproved
+the Administration's departure into fields of conquest, colonialism, and
+empire. Republicans themselves denied that a "full dinner pail" was the
+most fundamental of considerations. Few Republican anti-imperialists
+were saved to the party by the venerable Senator Hoar's faith that after
+a while it would surely retrieve the one mistake marring its record. Nor
+was it that men like Andrew Carnegie could never stomach the Kansas City
+and Chicago heresies, or that the Republicans had ample money, or yet
+that votes were attracted to the Administration because of its war
+record and its martial face. Agriculture had, to be sure, been
+remunerative. Also, before election, the strike in the Pennsylvania hard
+coal regions had, at the earnest instance of Republican leaders, been
+settled favorably to the miners, thus enlisting extensive labor forces
+in support of the status quo; but these causes also, whether by
+themselves or in conjunction with the others named, were wholly
+insufficient to explain why the election went as it did.
+
+A partial cause of Mr. Bryan's defeat in 1900 was the incipient waning
+of anti-imperialism, the conviction growing, even among such as had
+doubted this long and seriously, that the Administration painfully
+faulty as were some of its measures in the new lands, was pursuing there
+absolutely the only honorable or benevolent course open to it under the
+wholly novel and very peculiar circumstances.
+
+A deeper cause--the decisive one, if any single cause may be pronounced
+such--was the fact that Mr. Bryan primarily, and then, mainly owing to
+his strong influence, also his party, misjudged the fundamental meaning
+of the country's demand for monetary reform. The conjunction of good
+times with increase in the volume of hard money made possible by the
+world's huge new output of gold, might have been justly taken as
+vindicating the quantity theory of money value, prosperity being
+precisely the result which the silver people of 1896 prophesied as
+certain in case the stock of hard money were amplified. Bimetallists
+could solace themselves that if they had, with all other people, erred
+touching the geology of the money question, in not believing there would
+ever be gold enough to stay the fall of prices, their main and essential
+reasonings on the question had proved perfectly correct. Good fortune,
+it might have been held, had removed the silver question from politics
+and remanded it back to academic political economy.
+
+Probably a majority of the Democrats in 1900 felt this. At any rate the
+Kansas City convention would have been quite satisfied with a formal
+reaffirmation of the Chicago platform had not Mr. Bryan flatly refused
+to run without an explicit platform restatement of the 1896 position.
+His hope, no doubt, was to hold Western Democrats, Populists, and Silver
+Republicans, his anti-imperialism meanwhile attracting Gold Democrats
+and Republicans, especially at the East, who emphatically agreed with
+him on that paramount issue. But it appeared as if most of this,
+besides much else that was quite as well worth while, could have been
+accomplished by frankly acknowledging and carefully explaining that gold
+alone had done or bade fair to do substantially the service for which
+silver had been supposed necessary; for which, besides, it would really
+have been required but for the unexpected and immense increase in the
+world's gold crop through a long succession of years.
+
+The Republican leaders gauged the situation better. Mr. McKinley, to a
+superficial view inconsistent on the silver question, was on this point
+fundamentally consistent throughout. With all the more conservative
+monetary reformers he merely wished the fall of prices stopped, and such
+increment to the hard money supply as would effect that result. The
+metal, the kind of money producing the needed increase was of no
+consequence. When it became practically certain that gold alone, at
+least for an indefinite time, would answer the end, he was willing to
+relinquish silver except for subsidiary coinage.
+
+The law of March 14, 1900, put our paper currency, save the silver
+certificates, and also all national bonds, upon a gold basis, providing
+an ample gold reserve. Silver certificates were to replace the treasury
+notes, and gold certificates to be issued so long as the reserve was not
+under the legal minimum. If it ever fell below that the Secretary of the
+Treasury had discretion.
+
+Other notable features of this law were its provision for refunding the
+national debt in two per cent. gold bonds--a bold, but, as it proved,
+safe assumption that the national credit was the best in the world--and
+the clause allowing national banks to issue circulating notes to the par
+value of their bonds.
+
+Our money volume now expanded as rapidly as in 1896 advocates of free
+coinage could have expected even with the aid of free silver. July 1,
+1900. the circulation was $2,055,150,998. as against $1,650.223,0400
+four years before. Nearly $163,000,000 in gold certificates had been
+uttered. The gold coin in circulation had increased twenty per cent. for
+the four years; silver about one-eighth; silver certificates one-ninth.
+The Treasury held $222,844,953 of gold coin and bullion, besides some
+millions of silver, paper, and fractional currency.
+
+The Republican victory was the most sweeping since 1872. The total
+popular vote was 13,970,300, out of which President McKinley scored a
+clear majority of 443,054, and a plurality over Bryan of 832,280. Of the
+Northern States Bryan carried only Colorado, Idaho, and Nevada. He lost
+his own State and was shaken even in the traditionally "solid South."
+Unnecessarily ample Republican supremacy was maintained in the
+legislative branch of the Government.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII.
+
+THE TWELFTH CENSUS
+
+[1900-1902]
+
+The plan for a permanent census bureau was not realized in time for the
+1900 enumeration, but the act authorizing this provided important
+modifications in prior census procedure. Among several great
+improvements it made the census director practically supreme in his
+methods and over appointments and removals in his force.
+
+Initial inquiries were restricted to (1) population, (2) mortality, (3)
+agriculture, and (4) manufactures. Work on these topics was to be
+completed not later than July 1, 1902. During the year after, special
+reports were to be prepared on defective, criminal and pauper classes,
+deaths and births, social data in cities, public indebtedness, taxation
+and expenditures, religious bodies, electric light and power, telephone
+and telegraph, water transportation, express business, street railways,
+mines and mining. A few titles mentioned in the eleventh census were now
+omitted.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+Mr. Merriam, Director of the Census.
+
+
+The enumeration extended to Alaska. Two men had charge of it there.
+Enumerators went out afoot, by dog-teams, canoes, steamboats--up rivers,
+over mountains, through forests. The Indian Territory was for the first
+time canvassed like other portions of the Union, and so was the new
+territory of Hawaii.
+
+The United States were divided into 207 supervisor districts and 53,000
+enumeration districts. Enumeration began June 1, 1900, continuing two
+weeks in cities, elsewhere thirty days. Persons in the navy, army, and
+on Indian reservations were numbered. For those in institutions there
+were special enumerators. Each enumerator used a "street-book" or daily
+record, individual slips for returns of persons absent when the
+enumerator called, and an "absent family" schedule.
+
+The returns were tabulated by an electrical device first employed ten
+years before. Its work was automatic and so fine that it would even
+obviate errors. For instance, age, sex, etc., being denoted by
+punch-holes in cards, the machine would refuse to pass a card punched to
+indicate that the person was three years old and married.
+
+Nearly 2,000 employees toiled upon the census during the latter part of
+1900, and nearly a thousand during the entire year, 1901. From July 14,
+1900, piecemeal results were announced almost daily. By October the
+population of the principal cities was out. A preliminary statement of
+total population was given to the press, October 30, 1900, followed by a
+verified one a month later. The first official report on population was
+made December 6, 1901, within eighteen months from the completion of the
+enumerators' work. Results were first issued in sixty bulletins, all
+subsequently included in the first half of the first volume. Two volumes
+were devoted to population, three to manufactures, two to agriculture,
+and two to vital statistics. One contained an abstract of the whole.
+Following these came volumes on special lines of inquiry.
+
+
+[Illustration: Several people reviewing records.]
+Census Examination.
+
+The population of the United States, not including Porto Rico or the
+Philippines, was found to be 76,303,387, an increase of not quite 21 per
+cent. in the decade, or less than during any previous similar period of
+our history. All the States and territories save Nevada were better
+peopled than ever before. Nevada lost 10.6 per cent. of her inhabitants,
+as against two and a half times that percentage between 1880 and 1890,
+occupying in 1900 about the same tracks as in 1870. Oklahoma people
+increased 518.2 per cent. Indian Territory, Idaho, and Montana came next
+in rapidity of growth. Kansas, with 2.9 per cent. increase, and
+Nebraska, with only 0.7 per cent., showed the slowest progress, the
+figures resulting in considerable part from padded returns in 1890.
+Vermont, Delaware, and Maine crawled on at a snail's pace. In numerical
+advance New York, Pennsylvania, and Illinois led. Texas marched close to
+them, overhauling Massachusetts. In percentage of increase the southern,
+central, and western divisions were in the van.
+
+Almost a third of our people were now urban, ten times the proportion of
+1790. The rate of urban increase (36.8 per cent.) was, however, smaller
+than during any preceding decade, except 1810-1820, and was notably less
+than the 61.4 per cent. urban increase from 1880 to 1890. Numerically
+also city growth was less than at the preceding census.
+
+There were 545 places of 8,000 or more inhabitants, with an average
+population of 45,857. Of the larger cities fully half adjoined the
+Atlantic. Greater New York, a monster composite of nearly three and a
+half millions, ranked first among American cities, and second only to
+London among those of the world. Chicago, Philadelphia, St. Louis,
+Boston, and Baltimore followed in the same order as a decade before. The
+enterprising lake rivals, Cleveland and Buffalo, had raced past San
+Francisco and Cincinnati. Pittsburgh, instead of New Orleans, now came
+next after the ten just named.
+
+There were, as in 1890, three cities of more than a million inhabitants
+each. There were six of more than 500,000, as against four in 1890. Of
+cities having between 400,000 and 500,000 people none appeared in 1900;
+three in 1890. Five cities now had over 300,000 and less than 400,000, a
+class not represented at all in 1890. Thirty-eight cities used in
+numbering their people six figures or more each, a privilege enjoyed in
+1890 by only twenty-eight. The cities of the Pacific coast showed
+noteworthy increase.
+
+Ohio, Indiana, Delaware, Kansas, and Nebraska and all the North Atlantic
+States except Rhode Island, Connecticut, and Pennsylvania, lost in rural
+population. Rhode Island, with 407 inhabitants to the square mile, was
+the most densely peopled State. Massachusetts came next. Idaho, Montana,
+New Mexico, Arizona, Wyoming, and Nevada could not show two souls to the
+square mile. Alaska, doubled in population, had one in about ten square
+miles. No western State had ten to the mile.
+
+The Twelfth Census revealed slight change in the centre of population.
+This now stood six miles southeast of Columbus, Ind., having moved west
+only fourteen miles since 1890. In computing its position neither Hawaii
+nor Alaska were considered. Never before had its occidental shunt been
+less than thirty-six miles in a decade. For three score years it had not
+fallen under forty per decade. What sent it southward two and a half
+miles was the doubling of population in the Indian Territory and the
+filling of Oklahoma. The trifling shift of fourteen miles westward
+pointed significantly to the exhaustion of free land in the West and to
+the immense growth of manufactures, mining, and commerce in eastern and
+central States, retaining there the bulk of our immigrants and even
+recalling people from the newer States and territories.
+
+Males still bore about the same proportion to females as in 1890,
+although females had increased at a rate 0.2 per cent. greater than
+males. In the North Atlantic and South Atlantic groups the sexes were
+equal in numbers.
+
+At the South alone did the negro continue a considerable element.
+Eighty-nine per cent. of the negroes lived there. At the North only
+Pennsylvania had any large numbers. The country held 8,840,789, an
+increase of 18.1 per cent. in ten years, the percentage of white
+increase being 21.4 per cent. In West Virginia and Florida, also in the
+black belts, especially that of Alabama, blacks multiplied faster than
+whites. In Delaware and Georgia the pace was even. In Alabama as a
+whole, however, the negro element had not relatively increased since
+1850. Blacks outnumbered Caucasians in South Carolina and Mississippi,
+no longer in Louisiana. In Mississippi the black majority shot up
+phenomenally. Of the total population the negroes were now only 11.6 per
+cent., barely one-ninth, as against one-fifth in 1790. Between 1890 and
+1900 the proportion of the colored increased both at the North and at
+the far South, diminishing in the border southern States. This indicated
+migration both northward and southward from the belt of States just
+south of Mason and Dixon's line.
+
+
+[Illustration: Large office building.]
+The Census Office, Washingtonl D. C.
+
+
+The foreign-born fraction of our population, which had alternately risen
+and fallen since 1860, now fell again, from 14.8 per cent. to 13.7 per
+cent. The South retained its distinction as the most thoroughly American
+section of the land, having a foreign nativity population varying from
+7.9 per cent. in Maryland to only 0.2 per cent. in North Carolina.
+
+The foreign born, conspicuous in the Northwest and the North Atlantic
+States, were mostly confined to cities. They had augmented only 12.4 per
+cent. as against 38.5 per cent. from 1880 to 1890. Nearly a third of the
+recorded immigration from 1890 to 1900 was missing in the enumeration,
+due only in part to census errors. Many foreigners had returned to their
+native lands, most numerous among these being Canadians. The
+preponderance of immigrants was no longer from Ireland, Canada, Great
+Britain, and Germany, but from Austria-Hungary, Bohemia, Italy, Russia,
+and Poland.
+
+In 1900 the United States proper had 89,863 Chinese against 107,488 in
+1890. Of Japanese there were 24,326 against only 2,039 in 1890. In the
+Hawaiian Islands alone the Chinese numbered 25,767 and the Japanese
+61,111. Natives of Germany still constituted the largest body of our
+foreign born, being 25.8 per cent. of the whole foreign element compared
+with 30.1 percent. in 1890. The proportion was about the same in 1900 as
+in 1850.
+
+The Irish were 15.6 per cent. of the foreign born. The figures had been
+20.2 per cent. in 1890, and 42.8 per cent. in 1850. The proportion of
+native Scandinavians and Danes had slightly increased. Poles. Bohemians,
+Austrians, Huns, and Russians comprised 13.4 per cent. of the foreign
+born as against 6.9 per cent. in 1890, and less than one-third per cent.
+in 1850.
+
+The congressional apportionment act based on the twelfth census, and
+approved January 16, 1902, avoided the disagreeable necessity of cutting
+down the representation of laggard States by increasing the House
+membership from 357 to 386, a gain of twenty-nine members. Twelve of
+these (reckoning Louisiana) came from west of the Mississippi, two from
+New England, three each from Illinois and New York, four from the
+southern States east of the Mississippi, two each from Pennsylvania and
+New Jersey, and one from Wisconsin.
+
+The number of farms shown by the twelfth census was over five and
+one-half million, four times the number reported in 1850, and more than
+a million above the number reported in 1890. This wonderful increase,
+greater for the last decade than for any other except that between 1870
+and 1880, denoted a vast augmentation of cultivated area in the South
+and in the middle West. Oklahoma, Indian Territory, and Texas alone
+added over two hundred thousand to the number of their farms. The
+increase in value of farm resources exceeded the total value of
+agricultural investments fifty years before.
+
+In the abundant year of 1899 our cereal crops exceeded $1,484,000,000 in
+value, more than half this being in corn. The hay crop was worth over
+$445,000,000, that of potatoes $98,387,000, that of tobacco $56,993,000.
+Next to corn stood cotton, the crop for this year reaching a value of
+$323,758,000. The total value of farm and range animals in 1900 was
+$2,981,722,945.
+
+
+[Illustration: Man interviewing a family on their doorstep.]
+A Census-taker at work.
+
+
+The census of 1850 reported 123,000 manufacturing establishments, with a
+capital of $533,000,000. In 1900 there were 512,000 manufacturing
+establishments, capitalized at $9,800,000,000, employing 5,321,000 wage
+earners, and evolving $13,004,400,000 worth of product.
+
+In ten years the number of manufacturing plants and the value of
+products appeared to have increased some 30 per cent. The capital
+invested had multiplied slightly more, about a third. The number of
+hands employed had risen but a fifth, betokening the greater efficiency
+of the individual laborer, and the substitution of machine work for that
+of men's hands.
+
+Of seventy-three selected industries in 209 principal cities, the most
+money, $464,000,000, was invested in foundries and machine shops; the
+next most, $363,000,000, in breweries. $289,000,000 are employed in iron
+and steel manufacturing.
+
+Our foreign commerce for the fiscal year 1899-1900 reached the
+astounding total of $2,244,424,266, exceeding that of the preceding year
+by $320,000,000. Our imports were $849,941,184, an amount surpassed only
+in 1893. Our total exports were $1,394,483,082. The favorable balance of
+trade had continued for some time, amounting for three years to $
+1,689,849,387, much of which meant the lessening of United States
+indebtedness abroad. The chief commodities for which we now looked to
+foreign lands were first of all sugar, then hides, coffee, rubber, silk,
+and fine cottons. In return we parted with cotton from the South and
+bread-stuffs from the North, each exceeding $260,000,000 in value. Next
+in volumes exported were provisions, meat, and dairy products, worth
+$184,453,055. Iron and steel exports, including $55,000,000 and more in
+machinery, were valued at about $122,000,000. The live-stock shipped
+abroad was appraised at about $181,820,000. About 3-1/2 per cent. of our
+imports came from Cuba, about 20 per cent. from Hawaii, and about 1 per
+cent. from Porto Rico, Samoa, and the Philippines.
+
+In 1902 the tables were turned somewhat. American exports fell off and
+the home market was again invaded. Imported steel billets were sold at
+the very doors of the Steel Corporation factories.
+
+So abundant were the revenues the year named, exceeding expenditures by
+$79,500,000, that war taxes were shortly repealed. "A billion dollar
+Congress" would now have seemed economical. Our gross expenditures the
+preceding year had been $1,041,243,523. For 1900 they were $988,797,697.
+Our national debt, lessened during the year by some $28,000,000 or
+$30,000,000, stood at $1,07 1,214,444.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII.
+
+THE PAN-AMERICAN EXPOSITION, 1901
+
+The time had come for North and South America to unite in a noble
+enterprise illustrating their community of interests. United States
+people were deplorably ignorant of their southern neighbors, this
+accounting in part for the paucity of our trade with them. They knew as
+little of us. Our war with Spain had caused them some doubts touching
+our intentions toward the Spanish-Americans. An exposition was a hopeful
+means of bringing about mutual knowledge and friendliness. But the fair
+could not be ecumenical. At Chicago and Paris World's Fairs had reached
+perhaps almost their final development. To compete in interest, so soon,
+with such vast displays, an exposition must specialize and condense.
+
+On May 20th, the day of opening, a grand procession marched from Buffalo
+to the Exposition grounds. Inspired by the music of twenty bands
+representing various nations, the parade wound through the park gate up
+over the Triumphal Bridge into the Esplanade. As the doors of the Temple
+of Music were thrown open, ten thousand pigeons were released, which,
+wheeling round and round, soared away to carry in all directions their
+messages announcing that the Exposition had begun. The Hallelujah Chorus
+was rendered, when Vice-President Roosevelt delivered the dedicatory
+address.
+
+The authors of the Pan-American, architects, landscape-gardeners,
+sculptors, painters, and electricians, aimed first of all to create a
+beautiful spectacle. Entering by the Park Gateway you passed from the
+Forecourt, attractive by its terraces and colonnades, to the Triumphal
+Bridge, a noble portal, with four monumental piers surmounted by
+equestrian figures, "The Standard-bearers." This dignified entrance was
+in striking contrast with the gaudy and barbarous opening to the Paris
+Exposition. From the gate the whole panorama spread out before the eye.
+Down the long court with its fountains, gardens, and encircling
+buildings, you saw the Electric Tower soaring heavenward, fit expression
+of the mighty power from Niagara, which at night made it so glorious.
+The central court bore the form of a cross. At either side of the gate
+lay transverse courts, each adorned with a lake, fountains, and sunken
+gardens, and ending in curved groups of buildings. On the east was the
+Government Group; on the west that devoted to horticulture, mines, and
+the graphic arts. The intersection of the two arms formed the Esplanade,
+spacious enough for a quarter of a million people, and commanding a
+superb view. Connected by pergolas with the building in the transverse
+ends two structures, the Temple of Music and the Ethnology Building,
+stood like sentinels at the entrance to the Court of Fountains. A group
+of buildings enclosed this court, terminating in the Electric Tower at
+the north. From the Electric Tower round to the Gateway again all the
+buildings were joined by cool colonnades. Beyond the Tower was the
+Plaza, a charming little court, its sunken garden and band-stand
+surrounded by colonnades holding statuary.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+The Electric Tower and Fountains.
+
+
+The broad and spacious gardens with their wealth of verdure, their
+lakes, fountains, and statuary, formed a picture of indescribable charm.
+Nothing here suggested exhibits. Instead, spectators yielded to the
+spell of the beautiful scene. Chicago was serious and classic; Buffalo
+romantic, picturesque, even frivolous. The thought seemed to have been
+that, life in America being so intense, a rare holiday ought to bring
+diversion and amusement. No style of architecture could have contributed
+better to such gayety than the Spanish-Renaissance, light, ornate, and
+infinitely varied, lending itself to endless decoration in color and
+relief, and no more delicate compliment could have been paid our
+southern neighbors than this choice of their graceful and attractive
+designs. Each building was unique and original in plan. Domes,
+pinnacles, colonnades, balconies, towers, and low-tiled roofs afforded
+endless variety. The Electric Tower, designed by Mr. Howard, the central
+point in the scheme of architecture, its background of columns and its
+airy perforated walls and circular cupola with the Goddess of Light
+above, combined massiveness with lightness. Other buildings were
+strikingly quaint and pleasing, especially those suggesting the old
+Southern Missions. All blended into the general scheme with scarcely a
+discord. This harmony was not accidental, but resulted from combined
+effort, each architect working at a general plan, yet not sacrificing
+his individual taste. It was an object lesson in massive architecture,
+showing how easily public edifices may be made beautiful each in itself,
+and to increase each other's beauty by artistic grouping.
+
+
+[Illustration: Large domed building.]
+The Ethnology Building and United States Government Building.
+
+
+Perhaps the most novel feature of the Fair was the coloring. Charles Y.
+Turner's colors-scheme, original and daring, called forth much
+criticism. With the Chicago White City the Rainbow City at Buffalo was a
+startling contrast. But the artist knew what he was doing when he boldly
+applied the gayest and brightest colors to buildings and columns, and
+added to the quaint architecture that bizarre and oriental touch in
+keeping with the festal purposes of the occasion. The rich, warm tones
+formed a perfect background for the white statuary, the green foliage,
+and the silvery fountains. The Temple of Music was a Pompeian red,
+Horticultural Hall orange, with details of blue, green, and yellow. The
+whole effect was fascinating, and at night, when the electric lights
+illumined and softened the tones, fairy-like.
+
+
+[Illustration: Building outlined in lights and reflected in the water.]
+The Temple of Music by Electric Light.
+
+
+But the coloring had a deeper meaning than this. Mr. Turner tried to
+depict, in his gradations of tone, the struggle of Man to overcome the
+elements, and his progress from barbarism to civilization. Thus, at the
+Gate, the strongest primary colors were used in barbaric warmth, yet in
+their warmth suggestive of welcome. As you advanced down the court the
+tones became milder and lighter, until they culminated in the soft ivory
+and gold of the Electric Tower, symbol of Man's crowning achievements.
+Everywhere you found the note of Niagara, green, symbolizing the great
+power of the falls.
+
+Many forgot that in all this Mr. Turner was working from Greek models.
+Color was lavishly used on the Athenian temples, rich backgrounds of red
+or blue serving to throw the sculptural adornments into vivid relief.
+Buffalo was in this a commentary on classic art, revealing what fine
+effects may be produced by out-of-door coloring when suited to
+surroundings. We saw that in our timid, conventional avoidance of
+exterior colors we had missed something; that cheerful colors might well
+supplant on our houses the eternal sombre of gray and brown, as they so
+often and so gloriously do in nature.
+
+The power sculpture may have in exterior decoration was also taught. At
+Buffalo statues were not set up in long rows as in museums. Instead you
+beheld noble and beautiful groups in natural environments of bright
+green foliage with temples and blue sky above, or forming pediments and
+friezes upon buildings. White nymphs and goddesses bent over fountains
+or peeped from beneath trees or the ornate columns of pergolas. One was
+greeted at every turn by these gleaming figures, a vital and integral
+part of the landscape.
+
+Carl Bitter, director of sculpture, aimed to make sculpture teach while
+it decorated. He sought to tell in sculpture the story of man and
+nature. In the lake fronting the Government Building stood a fountain of
+Man. A half-veiled form, mysterious Man, occupied a pedestal composed of
+figures of the five senses. Underneath the basin the Virtues struggled
+with the Vices. Minor groups depicted the different ages. The most
+remarkable was Mr. Konti's Despotic Age. The grim tyrant sat in his
+chariot, driven by Ambition, who goaded on the four slaves in the
+traces, while Justice and Mercy cowered in chains behind. In the
+opposite court was told the story of Nature. Most striking there was Mr.
+Elwell's figure of Kronos, standing, with winged arms, on a turtle. From
+the Fountain of Abundance on the Esplanade, Flora was represented as
+tossing garlands of flowers to the chubby cherubs at her feet. The main
+court, dedicated to the achievements of man, had groups representing the
+Human Intellect and Emotions. The sculptures about the Electric Tower
+naturally related to the Falls. There were primeval Niagara and the
+Niagara of today, as well as figures symbolic of the Lakes and the
+Rivers.
+
+
+[Illustration: Statue of buffalo.]
+Group of Buffalos--Pan-American Exposition.
+
+
+Copies of the most famous marbles, like the Playful Faun and the Venus
+of Melos, embellished the Plaza. Many fine modern pieces adorned the
+grounds, as Roth's stirring "Chariot Race" and St. Gaudens's equestrian
+statue of General Sherman. Sculpture was profusely used to beautify
+buildings. Wholly original and charming were the four groups for the
+Temple of Music: Heroic Music, Sacred Music, Dance Music, and Lyric
+Music. Perched in every corner were figures of children playing
+different instruments.
+
+Much of the sculpture, was careless in execution--not surprising when we
+consider that over 500 pieces were set up in less than five months, and
+that the artists' models had to be enlarged by machinery. But in vigor
+and originality of thought and as a testimony to the progress which art
+had made in this country, the exhibit was truly wonderful. All the arts
+were employed. To many it was mainly an Art Exhibition, the artistic
+feature making a stronger impression than any other. As a work of art
+the Exposition could not but effect permanent good, demonstrating what
+may be done to beautify our cities and dwellings and cultivating our
+love for the beautiful in art and nature.
+
+The supreme glory of the Exposition lay in its electrical illumination.
+Niagara was used to create a city of light more dazzling than any dream.
+"As the moment for the illumination approached, the band hushed and a
+stillness fell upon the multitude. Suddenly dull reddish threads
+appeared on the globes of the near-by lamp-pillars. A murmur of
+expectation ran through the crowd. For an instant the great tower seemed
+to pulse with a thread of life before the eye became sensible to what
+had taken place. Then its surfaces gleamed with a faint flush like the
+flush which church spires catch from the dawn. This deepened slowly to
+pink and then to red. . . . In a moment the architectural skeletons of
+the great buildings had been picked out in lines of red light. Then the
+whole effect mellowed into luminous yellow. The material exposition had
+been transfigured, and its glorified ghost was in its place. . . . Every
+night this modern miracle was worked by the rheostat housed in a humble
+shed somewhere in the inner recesses of the exposition."
+
+
+[Illustration: Lighted buildings reflected in the water.]
+The Electric Tower at Night.
+
+
+The centre of light was the Tower. It was suffused with the loveliest
+glow of gold, ivory, and delicate green, all blending. The lights
+revealed and interpreted the architecture softening the colors and
+adding the subtle charm of mystery. A hundred beautiful hues were
+reflected in the waters of the fountains. The floral effects made by
+submerged lights in the basin were exquisite, and the witchery of the
+scene was indescribable.
+
+The chaining of Niagara for electric purposes was of course a prominent
+feature of the fair. Electricity was almost, or quite, the sole motor
+used on the grounds; 5,000 horsepower being directly from Niagara's
+total of 50,000. Niagara circulated the salt water in the fisheries and
+kept their water at the right temperature. It operated telephones,
+phonographs, soda fountains, the big search-lights, the elevators, the
+machines in the Machinery Building, the shows and illusions in the
+Midway.
+
+At Chicago we were ashamed of the Midway. We had since learned to play.
+Buffalo used utmost ingenuity to provide sensations and novelties. The
+Midway was made fascinating. You saw in it every variety of buildings,
+representing all countries from Eskimodom to Darkest Africa. Cairo had
+eight streets with 600 natives. The Hawaiian and Philippine villages
+were centres of interest, revealing the every-day life of our new-won
+lands. In Alt-Nurnberg you dined to the strains of a German orchestra.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+Triumphal Bridge and entrance to the Exposition,
+showing electric display at night.
+
+
+The magnificent amphitheatre, covering ten acres, a monument to American
+athletics, was built after the marble Stadium of Lycurgus at Athens. An
+Athletic Congress celebrated American supremacy in athletic sports. The
+programme included basket-ball tournaments, automobile, bicycle, and
+track and field championship races, lacrosse matches, and canoe "meets."
+
+The exhibits at Buffalo, though less ample, naturally showed advance
+over the corresponding ones at Chicago. The guns and ammunition of the
+United States ordnance department excited interest, for we were now
+making our own war supplies. A picturesque log building was devoted to
+forestry. The Graphic Arts Building showed the great strides made in
+printing and engraving. A model dairy was operated in a quaint little
+cottage on the grounds. Fifty cows of the best breeds were tested and
+the tests recorded.
+
+A conservatory contained a very fine collection of food plants, alive
+and growing, sent from South and Central America; also eight different
+kinds of tea plants from South Carolina. A small coffee plantation and
+some vanilla vines had been transplanted from Mexico. Nearly every
+country in Spanish America was represented. Cuba, San Domingo, Ecuador,
+Chile, Honduras, Mexico, and Canada had buildings. Sections in the
+Government Building were devoted to exhibits from Porto Rico, the
+Hawaiian Islands, and the Philippines.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+The Electricity Building.
+
+
+The United States Government Building was most interesting. New
+inventions made its exhibits live. In place of reading reports and
+statistics, you saw scenes and heard sounds. Class-room songs and
+recitations were reproduced by the graphophone. The biograph showed
+naval cadets marching while at the same time you heard the band music.
+Labor-saving machines were represented in full operation. Pictures by
+wire, the mutoscope, and type-setting by electricity were among the
+wonders shown. Every day a crew of the life-saving service gave a
+demonstration, launching a life-boat and rescuing a sailor. Near by was
+a field hospital, where wounded soldiers were cared for. Many of the
+newest uses for electricity were displayed. Never before had lighting
+been so brilliant or covered such large areas, or such speed in
+telegraphy been attained, or telephoning reached such distances. The
+akouphone, a blessing to the deaf, was exhibited, as were also the
+powerful search-lights now a necessity at sea.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX.
+
+MR. MCKINLEY'S END
+
+[1901]
+
+Upon invitation President and Mrs. McKinley visited the Pan-American
+Exposition at Buffalo. September 5, 1901, the first day of his presence,
+the Chief Magistrate delivered an address, memorable both as a sagacious
+survey of public affairs and as indicating a modification of his
+well-known tariff opinions in the direction of freer commercial
+intercourse with foreign nations.
+
+"We must not," he said, "repose in fancied security that we can forever
+sell everything and buy little or nothing." ... "The period of
+exclusiveness is past." "Reciprocity treaties are in harmony with the
+spirit of the times; measures of retaliation are not." ... "If perchance
+some of our tariffs are no longer needed for revenue or to encourage and
+protect our industries at home, why should they not be employed to
+extend and promote our markets abroad?" In connection with this thought
+the President expressed his conviction that we must encourage our
+merchant marine and, in the same commercial interest, construct a
+Pacific cable and an Isthmian canal.
+
+The projects of Mr. McKinley's statesmanship thus announced were
+approved by nearly the entire public, but they were destined to be
+carried out by other hands. On his second day at Buffalo, Friday,
+September 6th, about four in the afternoon, the President stood in the
+beautiful Temple of Music receiving the hundreds who filed past to shake
+hands with him. A sinister fellow, resembling an Italian, tarried
+suspiciously, and was pushed forward by the Secret Service attendants.
+Next behind him followed a boyish-looking workman, his right hand
+swathed in a handkerchief. As the first made way Mr. McKinley extended
+his hand to the young man's unencumbered left. The next instant the
+bandaged right arm raised itself and two shots rang on the air. The
+President staggered back into the arms of a bystander, while his
+treacherous assailant was borne to the floor.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+President McKinley at Niagara
+Ascending the stairs from Luna Island, to Goat Island.
+Copyright, 1901, by C. E. Dunlap.
+
+
+
+[Illustration: McKinley and several other men ascending steps.]
+The last photograph of the late President McKinley.
+Taken as he was ascending the steps of the Temple of Music,
+September 6. 1901.
+
+
+Grievously wounded as he was in breast and in stomach, the President's
+first thoughts were for others. He requested that the news be broken
+gently to Mrs. McKinley, and, it was said, expressed regret that the
+occurrence would be an injury to the exposition. As cries of "Lynch him"
+arose from the maddened crowd, the stricken chief urged those about him
+to see that no hurt befel the assassin. The latter was speedily secured
+in prison to await the result of his black deed, while President
+McKinley was without delay conveyed to the Emergency Hospital, where his
+wounds were dressed.
+
+Except for continued weakness and rapid heart action, the symptoms
+during the early days of the succeeding week gave strong hopes of the
+patient's recovery. At the home of Mr. Milburn, President of the
+exposition, whose guest he was, President McKinley received the
+tenderest care and most skilful treatment. So far allayed was anxiety
+that the Cabinet officers left Buffalo, while Vice President Roosevelt
+betook himself to a sequestered part of the Adirondacks. The President
+himself, vigorous and naturally sanguine, did not give up till Friday, a
+week from the date of his injury.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+The Milburn Residence, where President McKinley died--Buffalo, N. Y.
+Copyright, 1902, by Underwood & Underwood.
+
+
+Upon that day his condition became alarming. The digestive organs
+abdicated their functions, nourishment even by injection became
+impossible, traces of septic poison were manifest. By night the world
+knew that McKinley was a dying man. In the evening he regained
+consciousness and bade farewell to those about him. "Good-by, good-by,
+all; it is God's way; His will be done." The murmured words came from
+his lips, "Nearer, my God, to Thee; e'en tho' it be a cross that raiseth
+me."
+
+At the early morning hour of 2.45, Saturday, September 14th, the rest
+which is deeper than any sleep came to the sufferer. The autopsy showed
+that death was due to gangrene of the tissues in the path of the wound,
+the system having failed to repair the ravages of the bullet that had
+entered the abdomen.
+
+The next Monday morning, after a simple funeral ceremony at the Milburn
+mansion, the remains were reverently borne to the Buffalo City Hall,
+where, till midnight, mourning columns filed past the catafalque. The
+body lay in state under the Capitol rotunda at Washington for a day, and
+was borne thence, hardly a moment out of hearing of solemn bells or out
+of sight of half-masted flags and dumb, mourning multitudes, to the old
+home at Canton, Ohio. Here the late Chief Magistrate's fellow-townsmen,
+his old army comrades, and other thousands joined the procession to the
+cemetery or tearfully lined the streets as it passed.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+Ascending the Capitol steps at Washington, D, C.,
+where the casket lay in state in the Rotunda.
+
+
+On the day of the interment, September 19th, appropriate exercises,
+attended by enormous concourses of people, occurred all over the
+country, and even in foreign parts. In hardly an American town of size
+could a single building contain the crowd, overflow meetings being
+necessary, filling several churches or halls. Special commemorative
+services were held in Westminster Cathedral by King Edward's orders.
+
+No king was ever honored by obsequies so widespread or more sincere.
+Messages of condolence poured in upon the widow from the four quarters
+of the globe. Business was suspended. For five minutes telegraph clicks
+and cable flashes ceased, and for ten minutes, upon many lines of
+railway and street railway, every wheel stood still.
+
+None but the rash undertook, at once after his lamented decease, to
+assign President McKinley's name to its exact altitude on the roll of
+America's illustrious men. Ardent eulogists spoke of him as beside the
+nation's greatest statesman, Lincoln, while his most pronounced
+opponents in life accorded him very high honor. During his career he had
+been accused of opportunism, of inconsistency, of partiality to the
+moneyed interests of the country. His views of great public questions
+underwent change. One of his altered attitudes, much remarked upon, that
+concerning silver, involved, as pointed out in the last chapter, no
+change of essential principle. In regard to protection he at last swung
+to Blaine's position favoring reciprocity, which, as author of the
+McKinley Bill, he had been understood to oppose; but it should be
+remembered that his final utterances on the subject contemplated an
+industrial situation very different from that prevalent during his early
+years in politics. The United States had become a mighty exporter of
+manufactured products, competing effectively with England, Germany, and
+France in the sale of such everywhere in the world.
+
+American material supplied in large part the Russian Trans-Siberian
+Railroad. American food-stuffs and meats wakened agrarian frenzy in
+Germany. The island-hive of England buzzed loudly with jealous
+foreboding lest America capture her world-markets. From an average of
+close to $163,000,000 annually from 1887 to 1897 United States exports
+of manufactured products reached in 1898 over $290.000,000, in 1899 over
+$339,000,000, in 1900 nearly $434,000,000, and in 1901, $412,000,000. As
+coal-producer the United States at last led Britain, American tin-plate
+reached Wales itself, American locomotives the English colonies and even
+the mother-country, while boots and shoes from our factories ruled the
+markets of West Australia and South Africa. For bridge and viaduct
+construction in British domains American bids heavily undercut British
+bids both in price and in time limit.
+
+His progressive insight into the tariff question betrayed Mr. McKinley's
+mental activity and hospitality, as his final deliverances thereupon
+exhibited fearlessness. None knew better than he that what he said at
+Buffalo would be challenged by many in the name of party orthodoxy. Even
+greater firmness was manifest when, at an earlier date, speaking at
+Savannah, he ranked Robert E. Lee and Stonewall Jackson as among
+America's "great" sons. With this brave tribute should be mentioned his
+commendable nomination of the ex-Confederate Generals Fitz-Hugh Lee and
+Joseph Wheeler as Major-Generals in the United States Army. Such words
+and deeds showed skilled leadership also. Each was fittingly timed so as
+best to escape or fend criticism and so as to impress the public deeply.
+
+
+[Illustration: Funeral parade.]
+President McKinley's Remains Passing the United States Treasury,
+Washington, D.C.
+Copyright, 1901, by Underwood & Underwood.
+
+
+Not a little of Mr. McKinley's apparent vacillation and of his
+complaisance toward men and interests representing wealth was due to an
+endowment of exquisite finesse which stooped to conquer, which led by
+seeming to follow, or by yielding an inch took an ell. In him was rooted
+by inheritance a quick sense of the manufacturer's point of view, for
+his father and grandfather had been iron-furnace men, and a certain
+conservative instinct, characteristic of his party, which deemed the
+counsel of broadcloth wiser than the clamor of rags, and equally
+patriotic withal. Notwithstanding this, history cannot but pronounce
+McKinley's love of country, his whole Americanism, in fact, as sincere,
+sturdy, and democratic as Abraham Lincoln's.
+
+Mr. McKinley's power and breadth as a statesman were greatly augmented
+by the responsibilities of the presidency. Before his accession to that
+exalted office he had helped devise but one great public measure, the
+McKinley Bill, and his speeches upon his chosen theme, protection, were
+more earnest than varied or profound. But witness the largeness of view
+marking the directions of April 7, 1900, to the Taft Philippine
+Commission: "The Commission should bear in mind that the government
+which they are establishing is designed not for our satisfaction or for
+the expression of our theoretical views, but for the happiness, peace,
+and prosperity of the people of the Philippine Islands, and the measures
+adopted should be made to conform to their customs, their habits, and
+even their prejudices, to the fullest extent consistent with the
+accomplishment of the indispensable requisites of just and effective
+government."
+
+Most of President McKinley's appointments were wise; several of the most
+important ones quite remarkably so. He managed discreetly in crises. He
+saw the whole of a situation as few statesmen have done, penetrating to
+details and obscure aspects, which others, even experts, had overlooked.
+During the Spanish War his advice was always wise and helpful, and at
+points vital. Courteous to all foreign powers, and falling into no
+spectacular jangles with any, he was obsequious to none. No other ruler,
+party to intervention in China during the Boxer rebellion in 1900, acted
+there so sanely, or withdrew with so creditable a record.
+
+What made it certain that Mr. McKinley's name would be forever
+remembered with honor was not merely or mainly the fact that his
+administration marked a great climacteric in our national career. His
+intimates in office and in public life unanimously testified that in
+shaping the nation's new destiny he played an active and not a passive
+role. He dominated his cabinet, diligently attending to the advice each
+member offered, but by no means always following it. Party bosses
+seeking to lead him were themselves led, oftenest without being aware of
+it, to accomplish his wishes.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+The Home of William McKinley, at Canton, Ohio.
+Copyright, 1901, by Underwood & Underwood.
+
+
+As a practical politician in the better sense of the word McKinley was a
+master. Repeatedly, at critical junctures, he saved his following from
+rupture, while the opposition became an impotent rout. Hardly a contrast
+in American political warfare has been more striking than the pitiful
+demoralization of the Democracy in the campaign of 1900 compared with
+the closed ranks and solid front of the Republican array.
+Anti-imperialists like Carnegie and Hoar, silver men like Senator
+Stewart, and the low-tariff Republicans of the West united to hold aloft
+the McKinley banner.
+
+The result was not due, as some fancied, to Mr. Hanna. Nor did it mean
+that there was no discord among Republicans, for there was much. The
+discipline proceeded from the candidate's influence, from his
+harmonizing personal leadership. This he exercised not through oratory,
+for he had none of the tricks of speech, not even the knack of
+story-telling, but by the mere force of his will and his wisdom.
+
+Mr. McKinley's private character was pure, exemplary, and noble. His
+life-long devotion to an invalid wife; his fidelity to his friends; the
+charm, consideration, and tact of his demeanor toward everyone; and,
+above all, the Christian sublimity of his last days created at once a
+foundation and a crown for his fame.
+
+Ex-President Cleveland said: "You will constantly hear as accounting for
+Mr. McKinley's great success that he was obedient and affectionate as a
+son, patriotic and faithful as a soldier, honest and upright as a
+citizen, tender and devoted as a husband, and truthful, generous,
+unselfish, moral, and clean in every relation of life. He never thought
+of those things as too weak for his manliness."
+
+A special grand jury forthwith indicted the assassin, who, talking
+freely enough with his guards, refused all intercourse with the
+attorneys assigned to defend him, and with the expert sent to test his
+sanity. He was promptly placed upon trial, convicted, sentenced, and
+executed, all without any of the unseemly incidents attending the trial
+of Guiteau after Garfield's assassination. No heed was given to those
+who, some of them from pulpits, fulminated anarchy as bad as that of the
+anarchists by demanding that Czolgosz be lynched. These prompt but
+perfectly orderly and dispassionate proceedings were a great credit to
+the State of New York.
+
+Leon Czolgosz, the murderer of President McKinley, was born in this
+country, of Russian-Polish parentage, in 1875. He received some
+education, was apprenticed to a blacksmith in Detroit, and later
+employed in Cleveland and in Chicago. At the time of his crime he had
+been working in a Cleveland wire mill. It was said that at Cleveland he
+had heard Emma Goldman deliver an anarchist address, and that this
+inspired his fell purpose. It was suspected that he was the tool of an
+anarchist plot, and that the man preceding him in the line when he shot
+the President was an accomplice, but there was no evidence that either
+was true. There were indications that Czolgosz had made overtures to the
+anarchists and been rejected as a spy. No accessories were found. Nor
+did the dreadful act betoken that anarchism was increasing in our
+country, or that any special propagandism in its favor was on. To all
+appearance, it stood unrelated, so far as America was concerned.
+
+Leon Czolgosz's heart had caught fire from the malignant passion of red
+anarchy abroad, which had within seven years struck down the President
+of France, the Empress of Austria, the King of Italy, and the Prime
+Minister of Spain. In their fanatic diabolism its devotees impartially
+hated government, whether despotic or free, and would, no doubt, gladly
+have made America, the freest of the great commonwealths, for that
+reason a hatching ground for their dark conspiracies.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+Interior of room in Wilcox House where
+Theodore Roosevelt took the oath of Presidency.
+
+
+They were no less hostile to one than to the other of our political
+parties. The murder had no political significance, though certainly
+calculated to rebuke virulent editorials and cartoons in political
+papers, wont to season political debate with too hot personal condiment,
+printed and pictorial. President McKinley had suffered from this and so
+had his predecessor.
+
+Upon such an occasion orderly government, both in the States and in the
+nation, reasonably sought muniment against any possible new danger from
+anarchy. McKinley's own State leading, States enacted statutes
+denouncing penalties upon such as assailed, by either speech or act, the
+life or the bodily safety of anyone in authority. The Federal Government
+followed with a similar anti-anarchist law of wide scope.
+
+Deeply as the country prized McKinley--and the sense of loss by his
+death increased with the days--Vice-President Theodore Roosevelt took
+over the presidency with as little jar as a military post suffers from
+changing guard.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of History of the United States, Volume 5, by 
+E. Benjamin Andrews
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY UNITED STATES ***
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