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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Cattle and Their Diseases, by Robert Jennings
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Cattle and Their Diseases
+       Embracing Their History and Breeds, Crossing and Breeding,
+       And Feeding and Management; With the Diseases to which
+       They are Subject, And The Remedies Best Adapted to their
+       Cure
+
+Author: Robert Jennings
+
+Release Date: September 26, 2007 [EBook #22771]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Steven Giacomelli, Constanze Hofmann and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+(This file was produced from images produced by Core
+Historical Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell
+University)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note:
+
+The spelling in this text has been preserved as in the original.
+Obvious printer's errors have been corrected. A list of the
+corrections can be found at the end of this e-text.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES
+
+EMBRACING
+
+THEIR HISTORY AND BREEDS, CROSSING AND BREEDING, AND
+FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT; WITH THE DISEASES
+TO WHICH THEY ARE SUBJECT, AND
+THE REMEDIES BEST ADAPTED
+TO THEIR CURE.
+
+TO WHICH IS ADDED A LIST OF THE MEDICINES USED IN TREATING CATTLE.
+
+BY ROBERT JENNINGS, V. S.,
+
+PROFESSOR OF PATHOLOGY AND OPERATIVE SURGERY IN THE VETERINARY COLLEGE OF
+PHILADELPHIA; LATE PROFESSOR OF VETERINARY MEDICINE IN THE AGRICULTURAL
+COLLEGE OF OHIO; SECRETARY OF THE AMERICAN VETERINARY ASSOCIATION
+OF PHILADELPHIA; AUTHOR OF "THE HORSE
+AND HIS DISEASES," ETC., ETC.
+
+[Illustration: With Numerous Illustrations.]
+
+PHILADELPHIA:
+John E. Potter and Company,
+617 Sansom Street.
+
+Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1864, by
+JOHN E. POTTER,
+In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States, in and
+for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+A marked interest has of late years been manifested in our country
+relative to the subject of breeding and rearing domestic cattle. This
+has not been confined to the dairyman alone. The greater portion of
+intelligent agriculturists have perceived the necessity of paying more
+attention than was formerly devoted to the improvement and perfection of
+breeds for the uses of the table as well. In this respect, European
+cattle-raisers have long taken the precedence of our own.
+
+The gratifying favor with which the author's former publication, "The
+Horse and his Diseases," has been received by the public, has induced
+him to believe that a work, similar in spirit and general treatment,
+upon Cattle, would not be without interest for the agricultural
+community.
+
+In this belief, the present treatise has been prepared. The author has
+availed himself of the labors of others in this connection; never,
+however, adopting results and conclusions, no matter how strongly
+endorsed, which have been contradicted by his own observation and
+experience. In a field like the one in question, assuredly, if anywhere,
+some degree of independent judgment will not be censured by those who
+are familiar with the sad consequences resulting from the attempted
+application of theories now universally exploded, but which in the day
+and generation of their originators were sanctioned and advocated by
+those who claimed to be magnates in this department.
+
+To the following works, especially, the author acknowledges himself
+indebted: American Farmer's Encyclopædia; Stephens's Book of the Farm;
+Flint's Milch-Cows and Dairy Farming; Laurence on Cattle; Allen's
+Domestic Animals; Youatt and Martin on Cattle; Thomson's Food of
+Animals; Allen's Rural Architecture; Colman's Practical Agriculture and
+Rural Economy; Goodale's Breeding of Domestic Animals; and Prof.
+Gamgee's valuable contributions to veterinary science.
+
+Particular attention is requested to the division of "Diseases." Under
+this head, as in his former work, the author has endeavored to detail
+the symptoms of the most common ailments of cattle in such a manner that
+every farmer and cattle-owner can at once understand them, and also to
+suggest such procurable remedies as a wide experience has proved to be
+most efficacious.
+
+A generous space has been devoted to the consideration of that fatal
+epidemic, now generally known as "Pleuro-Pneumonia," as it has
+manifested itself in Europe and this country, in the belief that a
+matter of such vital importance to the stock-raiser ought to receive a
+complete exposition in a work like the present. As the author's personal
+experience in connection with the treatment of this peculiar disease has
+been, perhaps, as large and varied as that of any American practitioner,
+he is not without the hope that his views upon the matter may prove
+productive of some benefit to others.
+
+Should the present volume prove as acceptable to those interested as did
+his former work, the author will be abundantly satisfied that he has not
+mistaken in this instance the wants of the public.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+HISTORY AND BREEDS OF CATTLE,                                         13
+
+  THE BRITISH OX,                                                     15
+
+  AMERICAN CATTLE,                                                    21
+    The Ayrshire,                                                     23
+    The Jersey,                                                       30
+    The Short-Horns,                                                  32
+    The Dutch,                                                        36
+    The Hereford,                                                     38
+    The North-Devon,                                                  41
+    Native Cattle,                                                    43
+
+  NATURAL HISTORY OF CATTLE,                                          50
+    Gestation,                                                        51
+    Formation of Teeth,                                               51
+    Points of a Good Cow,                                             57
+
+  THE MILK-MIRROR,                                                    61
+
+
+CROSSING AND BREEDING,                                                77
+
+  PREGNANCY,                                                          92
+
+  TREATMENT BEFORE CALVING,                                           93
+
+
+FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT,                                               97
+
+  SOILING,                                                           118
+
+  CULTURE OF GRASSES FOR FODDER,                                     122
+
+  THE BARN,                                                          146
+
+  MILKING,                                                           155
+
+  RAISING OF CALVES,                                                 168
+
+  POINTS OF FAT CATTLE,                                              183
+
+  DRIVING AND SLAUGHTERING,                                          188
+
+
+DISEASES AND THEIR REMEDIES,                                         205
+
+    Abortion,                                                        206
+    Apoplexy,                                                        215
+
+    Black-Water,                                                     215
+    Bronchitis,                                                      216
+
+    Consumption,                                                     217
+    Coryza,                                                          217
+    Cow-pox,                                                         218
+
+    Diarrhoea,                                                       219
+    Dysentery,                                                       220
+
+    Enteritis,                                                       222
+    Epizoötics,                                                      224
+    Epizoötic Catarrh,                                               234
+
+    Fardel,                                                          236
+    Foul in the Foot,                                                237
+
+    Garget,                                                          237
+    Gastro-enteritis,                                                238
+
+    Hoose,                                                           238
+    Hoove,                                                           239
+    Hydatids,                                                        240
+
+    Inflammation of the Bladder,                                     241
+    Inflammation of the Haw,                                         241
+    Inflammation of the Kidneys,                                     242
+    Inflammation of the Liver,                                       242
+
+    Laryngitis,                                                      243
+    Lice,                                                            244
+
+    Mange,                                                           244
+    Murrain,                                                         246
+
+    Navel-ill,                                                       247
+
+    Obstructions in the Oesophagus,                                  247
+    Open Joints,                                                     248
+    Parturition,                                                     248
+      Free Martins,                                                  251
+      Cleansing,                                                     253
+      Inversion of the Uterus,                                       253
+
+    Phrenitis,                                                       254
+    Pleurisy,                                                        255
+    Pleuro-pneumonia,                                                256
+    Pneumonia,                                                       300
+    Protrusion of the Bladder,                                       302
+    Puerperal Fever,                                                 302
+
+    Quarter Evil,                                                    303
+
+    Rabies,                                                          304
+    Red Water,                                                       305
+    Rheumatism,                                                      307
+
+    Strangulation of the Intestines,                                 308
+
+    Thrush in the Mouth,                                             308
+    Tumors,                                                          308
+
+    Ulcers about the Joints,                                         312
+
+    Warbles,                                                         313
+    Worms,                                                           315
+    Worms in the Bronchial Tubes,                                    316
+
+
+  SURGICAL OPERATIONS,                                               316
+
+    Castration,                                                      316
+    Tracheotomy,                                                     319
+    Spaying,                                                         320
+
+  LIST OF MEDICINES USED IN TREATING CATTLE,                         330
+
+  DOSES OF VARIOUS MEDICINES,                                        336
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+
+                                                                    PAGE
+A Prize Bull,                                                         13
+The Well-fed Beasts,                                                  19
+An Ayrshire Bull,                                                     23
+A Short-horn Bull,                                                    33
+A North Devon Steer,                                                  41
+Draft Oxen,                                                           45
+Skeleton of the Ox,                                                   50
+Teeth at Birth,                                                       52
+Teeth at Second Week,                                                 52
+Teeth at Three Weeks,                                                 53
+Teeth at a Month,                                                     53
+Teeth at Five to Eight Months,                                        53
+Ten Months Teeth,                                                     53
+Twelve Months Teeth,                                                  54
+Fifteen Months Teeth,                                                 54
+Eighteen Months Teeth,                                                55
+Teeth at Two Years Past,                                              55
+Teeth at Three Years Past,                                            56
+Teeth at Four Years Past,                                             56
+Teeth at Five Years Past,                                             56
+Teeth at Ten Years Past,                                              56
+A Good Milch Cow,                                                     58
+Milk-Mirror (A),                                                      62
+Milk-Mirror (B),                                                      63
+Milk-Mirror (C),                                                      63
+Milk-Mirror (D),                                                      64
+Milk-Mirror (E),                                                      65
+Milk-Mirror (F),                                                      66
+Milk-Mirror (G),                                                      69
+Milk-Mirror (H),                                                      70
+Milk-Mirror (K),                                                      72
+Milk-Mirror (L),                                                      74
+Cow and Calf,                                                         77
+Ready for Action,                                                     83
+A Sprightly Youth,                                                    89
+Feeding,                                                              97
+The Family Pets,                                                     102
+Buying Cattle,                                                       107
+Calling in the Cattle,                                               112
+"On the Rampage",                                                    117
+Patiently Waiting,                                                   123
+A Chance for a Selection,                                            129
+A West Highland Ox,                                                  139
+Barn for Thirty-four Cows and Three Yoke of Oxen,                    150
+Transverse Section,                                                  152
+Room over the Cow-Room,                                              153
+The Preferable Method,                                               159
+Maternal Affection,                                                  168
+Frolicksome,                                                         177
+Points of Cattle,                                                    185
+A Frontispiece,                                                      190
+Scotch Mode of Cutting up Beef,                                      195
+English Mode of Cutting up Beef,                                     197
+Diseases and Their Remedies,                                         205
+A Chat on the Road,                                                  218
+The Mad Bull,                                                        230
+An Aberdeenshire Polled Bull,                                        244
+Taking an Observation,                                               256
+The Twins,                                                           268
+A Rural Scene,                                                       285
+Taking it Easily,                                                    299
+Home Again,                                                          313
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+History and Breeds
+
+
+It is quite certain that the ox has been domesticated and in the service
+of man from a very remote period. We are informed in the fourth chapter
+of Genesis, that cattle were kept by the early descendants of Adam;
+Jubal, the son of Lamech--who was probably born during the lifetime of
+Adam--being styled the father of such as have cattle. The ox having been
+preserved by Noah from the flood of waters, the original breed of our
+present cattle must have been in the neighborhood of Mount Ararat. From
+thence, dispersing over the face of the globe--altering by climate, by
+food, and by cultivation--originated the various breeds of modern ages.
+
+That the value of the ox tribe has been in all ages and climates highly
+appreciated, we have ample evidence. The natives of Egypt, India, and
+Hindostan, seem alike to have placed the cow amongst their deities; and,
+judging by her usefulness to all classes, no animal could perhaps have
+been selected whose value to mankind is greater. The traditions, indeed,
+of every Celtic nation enroll the cow among the earliest productions,
+and represent it as a kind of divinity.
+
+In nearly all parts of the earth cattle are employed for their labor,
+for their milk, and for food. In southern Africa they are as much the
+associates of the Caffre as the horse is of the Arab. They share his
+toils, and assist him in tending his herds. They are even trained to
+battle, in which they become fierce and courageous. In central Africa
+the proudest ebony beauties are to be seen upon the backs of cattle. In
+all ages they have drawn the plough. In Spain they still trample out the
+corn; in India they raise the water from the deepest wells to irrigate
+the thirsty soil of Bengal. When Cæsar invaded Britain they constituted
+the chief riches of its inhabitants; and they still form no
+inconsiderable item in the estimate of that country's riches.
+
+The parent race of the ox is said to have been much larger than any of
+the present varieties. The Urus, in his wild state at least, was an
+enormous and fierce animal, and ancient legends have thrown around him
+an air of mystery. In almost every part of the continent of Europe and
+in every district of England, skulls, evidently belonging to cattle,
+have been found, far exceeding in bulk any now known.
+
+As the various breeds of cattle among us were introduced into this
+country from Great Britain, we propose, before going into the details of
+the leading American breeds, to glance somewhat briefly at the history
+of
+
+
+THE BRITISH OX.
+
+In the earliest and most reliable accounts which we possess of the
+British Isles--the Commentaries of Cæsar--we learn that the ancient
+Britons possessed great numbers of cattle. No satisfactory description
+of these cattle occurs in any ancient author; but, with occasional
+exceptions, we know that they possessed no great bulk or beauty. Cæsar
+tells us that the Britons neglected tillage and lived on milk and flesh;
+and this account of the early inhabitants of the British Isle is
+corroborated by other authors. It was such an occupation and mode of
+life as suited their state of society. The island was divided into many
+little sovereignties; no fixed property was secure; and that alone was
+valuable which could be hurried away at the threatened approach of the
+invader. Many centuries after this, when--although one sovereign seemed
+to reign paramount over the whole of the kingdom--there continued to be
+endless contests among the feudal barons, and therefore that property
+alone continued to be valuable which could be secured within the walls
+of the castle, or driven beyond the assailant's reach--an immense stock
+of provisions was always stored up in the various fortresses, both for
+the vassals and the cattle; or it was contrived that the latter should
+be driven to the domains of some friendly baron, or concealed in some
+inland recess.
+
+When the government became more powerful and settled, and property of
+every kind was assured a proportionate degree of protection, as well as
+more equally divided, the plough came into use; agricultural productions
+were oftener cultivated, the reaping of which was sure after the labor
+of sowing. Cattle were then comparatively neglected and for some
+centuries injuriously so. Their numbers diminished, and their size also
+seems to have diminished; and it is only within the last century and a
+half that any serious and successful efforts have been made materially
+to improve them.
+
+In the comparatively roving and uncertain life which the earlier
+inhabitants led, their cattle would sometimes stray and be lost. The
+country was at that time overgrown with forests, and the beasts betook
+themselves to the recesses of these woods, and became wild and sometimes
+ferocious. They, by degrees, grew so numerous as to be dangerous to the
+inhabitants of the neighboring districts. One of the chronicles asserts
+that many of them harbored in the forests in the neighborhood of London.
+Strange stories are told of some of them, and, doubtless, when
+irritated, they were fierce and dangerous enough. As, however,
+civilization advanced, and the forests became thinned and contracted,
+these animals were seen more rarely, and at length almost disappeared. A
+few of them, however, are still to be found in the parks of some of the
+leading English noblemen, who keep them for ornament and as curiosities.
+
+The color of this wild breed is invariably white, the muzzle being
+black; the whole of the inside of the ear, and about one-third of the
+outside, from the tips downward, red; horns white, with black tips, very
+fine, and bent upward; some of the bulls have a thin, upright mane,
+about an inch and a half or two inches long. The beef is finely marbled
+and of excellent flavor.
+
+At the first appearance of any person they set off in full gallop, and
+at the distance of about two hundred yards, make a wheel around and come
+boldly up again in a menacing manner; on a sudden they make a full stop
+at the distance of forty or fifty yards, looking wildly at the object of
+their surprise; but upon the least motion they all again turn round and
+fly off with equal speed, but not to the same distance, forming a
+shorter circle; and, again returning with a more threatening aspect than
+before, they approach probably within thirty yards, when they again make
+another stand, and then fly off; this they do several times, shortening
+their distance and advancing nearer and nearer, till they come within
+such short distance that most persons think it prudent to leave them.
+
+When the cows calve, they hide their calves for a week or ten days in
+some retired situation, and go and suckle them two or three times a day.
+If any persons come near the calves they clap their heads close to the
+ground to hide themselves--a proof of their native wildness. The dams
+allow no one to touch their young without attacking with impetuous
+ferocity. When one of the herd happens to be wounded, or has grown weak
+and feeble through age or sickness, the rest set on it and gore it to
+death.
+
+The breeds of cattle which are now found in Great Britain, are almost as
+various as the soil of the different districts or the fancies of the
+breeders. They have, however, been very conveniently classed according
+to the comparative size of the horns; the _long-horns_, originally from
+Lancashire, and established through most of the midland counties; the
+_short-horns_, generally cultivated in the northern counties and in
+Lincolnshire, and many of them found in every part of the kingdom where
+the farmer pays much attention to his dairy, or where a large supply of
+milk is desired; and the _middle-horns_, a distinct and valuable breed,
+inhabiting, principally, the north of Devon, the east of Sussex,
+Herefordshire, and Gloucestershire; and of diminished bulk and with
+somewhat different character, the cattle of the Scottish and Welsh
+mountains. The Alderney, with its _crumpled horn_, is found on the
+southern coast; while the polled, or _hornless_, cattle prevail in
+Suffolk, Norfolk, and Galloway, whence they were first derived.
+
+These leading breeds, however, have been intermingled in every possible
+way. They are found pure only in their native districts, or on the
+estate of some wealthy and spirited individuals. Each county has its own
+mongrel breed, often difficult to be described, and not always to be
+traced--neglected enough, yet suited to the soil and the climate; and
+among small farmers, maintaining their station, in spite of attempts at
+improvements by the intermixture or the substitution of foreign
+varieties.
+
+Much dispute has arisen as to the original breed of British cattle. The
+battle has been sharply fought between the advocates of the middle and
+of the long-horns. The short-horns and the polls are out of the lists;
+the latter, although it has existed in certain districts from time
+immemorial, being probably an accidental variety. The weight of
+argument appears at present to rest with the middle horns; the
+long-horns being evidently of Irish extraction.
+
+[Illustration: THE WELL-FED BEASTS.]
+
+Great Britain has shared the fate of other nations, and oftener than
+they been overrun and subjugated by invaders. As the natives retreated
+they carried with them some portion of their property, consisting, in
+the remote and early times, principally of cattle. They drove along with
+them as many as they could, when they retired to the fortresses of North
+Devon and Cornwall, or the mountainous region of Wales, or when they
+took refuge in the retirement of East Sussex; and there, retaining all
+their prejudices, manners, and customs, were jealous of the preservation
+of that which reminded them of their native country before it yielded to
+a foreign yoke.
+
+In this way was preserved the ancient breed of British cattle.
+Difference of climate produced some change, particularly in their bulk.
+The rich pasturage of Sussex fattened the ox into its superior size and
+weight. The plentiful, but not so luxuriant, herbage of the north of
+Devon produced a smaller and more active animal; while the privations of
+Wales lessened the bulk and thickened the hide of the Welsh Stock. As
+for Scotland, it set its invaders at defiance; or its inhabitants
+retreated for a while, and soon turned again on their pursuers. They
+were proud of their country, and of their cattle, their choicest
+possession; and there, also, the cattle were preserved, unmixed and
+undegenerated.
+
+Thence it has resulted, that in Devon, in Sussex, in Wales, and in
+Scotland, the cattle have been the same from time immemorial; while in
+all the eastern coasts and through every district of England, the breed
+of cattle degenerated, or lost its original character; it consisted of
+animals brought from all the neighboring, and some remote districts,
+mingled in every possible variety, yet conforming to the soil and the
+climate.
+
+Careful observations will establish the fact, that the cattle in
+Devonshire, Sussex, Wales, and Scotland are essentially the same. They
+are middle horned; not extraordinary milkers, and remarkable for the
+quality rather than the quantity of their milk; active at work, and with
+an unequalled aptitude to fatten. They have all the characters of the
+same breed, changed by soil, climate, and time, yet little changed by
+man. The color, even, may be almost traced, namely: the red of the
+Devon, the Sussex, and the Hereford; and where only the black are now
+found, the recollection of the red prevails.
+
+As this volume is intended especially for the farmers of our own
+country, it is deemed unnecessary in this connection to present any
+thing additional under the present head, except the names of the
+prominent species of British cattle. These are, commencing with the
+middle horns, the North Devon, the Hereford, the Sussex, the Welsh (with
+the varieties of the Pembrokeshire, the Glamorganshire, the Radnor
+black, the Anglesea and some others); and the Scotch with its chief
+varieties, the West Highlanders, the North Highlanders, the North
+Eastern, the Fife, the Ayrshire, and the Galloways.
+
+As to the long horns, which came originally from Craven in Yorkshire, it
+may be remarked that this breed has been rapidly disappearing of late,
+and has everywhere given place to better kinds. Of this species there
+are--or perhaps were--two leading classes, the Lancashire and the
+Leicestershire improved.
+
+Of the short horns, the leading breeds are the Dutch, the Holderness,
+the Teeswater, the Yorkshire, the Durham, the Northumberland, and some
+others.
+
+
+AMERICAN CATTLE.
+
+The breeds of cattle which stock the farms of the United States are all
+derived from Europe, and, with few exceptions, from Great Britain. The
+highest breeds at the present time are of comparatively recent origin,
+since the great improvements in breeding were only commenced at about
+the period of the American Revolution. The old importations made by the
+early settlers, must consequently have been from comparatively inferior
+grades.
+
+In some sections of the Union, and more particularly in New England, the
+primitive stock is thought to have undergone considerable improvement;
+whilst in many parts of the Middle, and especially of the Southern
+States, a greater or less depreciation has ensued. The prevailing stock
+in the Eastern States is believed to be derived from the North Devons,
+most of the excellent marks and qualities of which they possess. For
+this reason they are very highly esteemed, and have been frequently
+called the American Devon. The most valuable working oxen are chiefly of
+this breed, which also contributes so largely to the best displays of
+beef found in the markets of Boston, New York, and Philadelphia. By
+means of this domestic stock, and the importations still extensively
+made of selections from the short horns, and others of the finest
+European breeds, the cattle, not only of New England, but of other
+sections, are rapidly improving, especially in the Middle and Western
+States.
+
+A brief sketch of the principal breeds of American cattle, as well as of
+the grades or common stock of the country, will be of service to the
+farmer in making an intelligent selection with reference to the special
+object of pursuit--whether it be the dairy, the production of beef, or
+the raising of cattle for work.
+
+In selecting any breed, regard should be had to the circumstances of the
+individual farmer and the object to be pursued. The cow most profitable
+for the milk dairy, may be very unprofitable in the butter and cheese
+dairy, as well as for the production of beef; while, for either of the
+latter objects, the cow which gave the largest quantity of milk might be
+very undesirable. A union and harmony of all good qualities must be
+secured, so far as possible. The farmer wants a cow that will milk well
+for some years; and then, when dry, fatten readily and sell to the
+butcher for the highest price. These qualities, often supposed to be
+utterly incompatible, will be found united in some breeds to a greater
+extent than in others; while some peculiarities of form have been
+found, by observation, to be better adapted to the production of milk
+and beef than others.
+
+It is proposed, therefore, to sketch the pure breeds now found in
+America.
+
+
+THE AYRSHIRE.
+
+[Illustration: AN AYRSHIRE BULL.]
+
+This breed is justly celebrated throughout Great Britain and this
+country for its excellent dairy qualities. Though the most recent in
+their origin, they are pretty distinct from the Scotch and English
+races. In color, the pure Ayrshires are generally red and
+white, spotted or mottled, not roan like many of the short horns, but
+often presenting a bright contrast of colors. They are sometimes, though
+rarely, nearly or quite all red, and sometimes black and white; but the
+favorite color is red and white brightly contrasted; and, by some,
+strawberry-color is preferred. The head is small, fine and clean; the
+face long and narrow at the muzzle, with a sprightly, yet generally mild
+expression; eye small, smart and lively; the horns short, fine, and
+slightly twisted upward, set wide apart at the roots; the neck thin;
+body enlarging from fore to hind quarters; the back straight and narrow,
+but broad across the loin; joints rather loose and open; ribs rather
+flat; hind quarters rather thin; bone fine; tail long, fine, and bushy
+at the end; hair generally thin and soft; udder light color and
+capacious, extending well forward under the belly; teats of the cow of
+medium size, generally set regularly and wide apart; milk-veins
+prominent and well developed. The carcass of the pure bred Ayrshire is
+light, particularly the fore quarters, which is considered by good
+judges as an index of great milking qualities; but the pelvis is
+capacious and wide over the hips.
+
+On the whole, the Ayrshire is good looking, but wants some of the
+symmetry and aptitude to fatten which characterize the short horn, which
+is supposed to have contributed to build up this valuable breed on the
+basis of the original stock of the county of Ayr, which extends along
+the eastern shore of the Firth of Clyde, in the southwestern part of
+Scotland.
+
+The original stock of this country are described as of a diminutive
+size, ill fed, ill shaped, and yielding but a scanty return in milk.
+They were mostly of a black color, with large stripes of white along the
+chine and ridge of their backs, about the flanks, and on their faces.
+Their horns were high and crooked, having deep ringlets at the root--the
+surest proof that they were but scantily fed; the chine of their backs
+stood up high and narrow; their sides were lank, short, and thin; their
+hides thick and adhering to the bones; their pile was coarse and open;
+and few of them gave more than six or eight quarts of milk a day when in
+their best condition, or weighed, when fat, more than from a hundred to
+a hundred and sixty pounds avoirdupois, rejecting offal.
+
+A wonderful change has since been made in the condition, aspect, and
+qualities of the Ayrshire dairy stock. They are now almost double the
+size, and yield about four times the quantity of milk that the Ayrshire
+cows formerly yielded. A large part of this improvement is due to better
+feeding and care, but much, no doubt, to judicious crossing. Strange as
+it may seem, considering the modern origin of this breed, all that is
+certainly known touching it is, that about a century and a half ago
+there was no such breed as Ayrshire in Scotland. The question has
+therefore arisen, whether these cattle came entirely from a careful
+selection of the best native breed. If they did, it is a circumstance
+without a parallel in the history of agriculture. The native breed may
+indeed be ameliorated by careful selection; its value may be
+incalculably increased; some good qualities, some of its best qualities,
+may be developed for the first time; but yet there will be some
+resemblance to the original stock, and the more the animal is examined,
+the more clearly can be traced the characteristic points of the
+ancestor, although every one of them is improved.
+
+Youatt estimates the daily yield of an Ayrshire cow, for the first two
+or three months after calving, at five gallons a day, on an average; for
+the next three months, at three gallons; and for the next four months,
+at one gallon and a half. This would give eight hundred and fifty
+gallons as the annual average; but, allowing for some unproductive cows,
+he estimates the average of a dairy at six hundred gallons a year for
+each cow. Three gallons and a half of the Ayrshire cow's milk will yield
+one and a half pounds of butter. Some have estimated the yield still
+higher.
+
+One of the four cows originally imported into this country by John P.
+Cushing, Esq., of Massachusetts, gave in one year three thousand eight
+hundred and sixty-four quarts, beer measure, or about nine hundred and
+sixty-six gallons, at ten pounds the gallon; being an average of over
+ten and a half beer quarts a day for the entire year. The first cow of
+this breed, imported by the Massachusetts Society, for the Promotion of
+Agriculture, in 1837, yielded sixteen pounds of butter a week for
+several successive weeks, on grass feed only. It should be borne in
+mind, in this connection that the climate of New England is less
+favorable to the production of milk than that of England and Scotland,
+and that no cow imported after arriving at maturity can be expected to
+yield as much, under the same circumstances, as one bred on the spot
+where the trial is made, and perfectly acclimated.
+
+On excellent authority, the most approved shape and marks of a good
+dairy cow are as follows: Head small, long, and narrow toward the
+muzzle; horns small, clear, bent, and placed at considerable distance
+from each other; eyes not large, but brisk and lively; neck slender and
+long, tapering toward the head, with a little loose skin below;
+shoulders and fore quarters light and thin; hind quarters large and
+broad; back straight, and joints slack and open; carcass deep in the
+rib; tail small and long, reaching to the heels; legs small and short,
+with firm joints; udder square, but a little oblong, stretching forward,
+thin skinned and capacious, but not low hung; teats or paps small,
+pointing outward, and at a considerable distance from each other;
+milk-veins capacious and prominent; skin loose, thin, and soft like a
+glove; hair short, soft, and woolly; general figure, when in flesh,
+handsome and well proportioned.
+
+If this description of the Ayrshire cow be correct, it will be seen that
+her head and neck are remarkably clean and fine, the latter swelling
+gradually toward the shoulders, both parts being unencumbered with
+superfluous flesh. The same general form extends backward, the fore
+quarters being, light the shoulders thin, and the carcass swelling out
+toward the hind quarters, so that when standing in front of her it has
+the form of a blunted wedge. Such a structure indicates very fully
+developed digestive organs, which exert a powerful influence on all the
+functions of the body, and especially on the secretion of the milky
+glands, accompanied with milk-veins and udder partaking of the same
+character as the stomach and viscera, being large and capacious, while
+the external skin and interior walls of the milk-glands are thin and
+elastic, and all parts arranged in a manner especially adapted for the
+production of milk.
+
+A cow with these marks will generally be of a quiet and docile temper,
+which greatly increases her value. A cow that is of a quiet and
+contented disposition feeds at ease, is milked with ease, and yields
+more than one of an opposite temperament; while, after she is past her
+usefulness as a milker, she will easily take on fat, and make fine beef
+and a good quantity of tallow, because she feeds freely, and when dry
+the food which went to make milk is converted into fat and flesh. But
+there is no breed of cows with which gentle gentleness of treatment is
+so indispensable as with the Ayrshire, on account of her naturally
+nervous temperament. If she receives other than kind and gentle
+treatment, she will often resent it with angry looks and gestures, and
+withhold her milk; and if such treatment is long continued, will dry
+up; but she willingly and easily yields it to the hand that fondles
+her, and all her looks and movements toward her friends are quiet and
+mild.
+
+The Ayrshires in their native country are generally bred for the dairy,
+and for no other object; and the cows have justly obtained a world-wide
+reputation for this quality. The oxen are, however, very fair as working
+cattle, though they cannot be said to excel other breeds in this
+respect. The Ayrshire steer maybe fed and turned at three years old; but
+for feeding purposes the Ayrshires are greatly improved by a cross with
+the short horns, provided regard is had to the size of the animal. It is
+the opinion of good breeders that a high-bred short horn bull and a
+large-sized Ayrshire cow will produce a calf which will come to maturity
+earlier, and attain greater weight, and sell for more money than a
+pure-bred Ayrshire. This cross, with feeding from the start, may be sold
+fat at two or three years old, the improvement being most noticeable in
+the earlier maturity and size.
+
+In the Cross with the short horn, the form ordinarily becomes more
+symmetrical, while there is, perhaps, little risk of lessening the
+milking qualities of the offspring, if sufficient regard is paid to the
+selection of the individual animals to breed from. It is thought by some
+that in the breeding of animals it is the male which gives the external
+form, or the bony and muscular system of the young, while the female
+imparts the respiratory organs, the circulation of the blood, the organs
+of secretion, and the like.
+
+If this principle be true, it follows that the milking qualities come
+chiefly from the mother, and that the bull cannot materially alter the
+conditions which determine the transmission of these qualities,
+especially when they are as strongly marked as they are in this breed.
+
+Until, however, certain mooted questions connected with breeding are
+definitively settled, it is the safest plan, in breeding for the dairy,
+to adhere to the rule of selecting only animals whose progenitors on
+both sides have been distinguished for their milking qualities.
+
+It may be stated, in conclusion, that for purely dairy purposes the
+Ayrshire cow deserves the first place. In consequence of her small,
+symmetrical, and compact body, combined with a well-formed chest and a
+capacious stomach, there is little waste, comparatively speaking,
+through the respiratory system; while at the same time there is very
+complete assimilation of the food, and thus she converts a very large
+proportion of her food into milk. So remarkable is this fact, that all
+dairy farmers who have any experience on the point, agree in stating
+that _an Ayrshire cow generally gives a larger return of milk for the
+food consumed than a cow of any other breed_. The absolute quality may
+not be so great, but it is obtained at a less cost; and this is the
+point upon which the question of profit depends. The best milkers which
+have been known in this country were grade Ayrshires, larger in size
+than the pure bloods, but still sufficiently high grades to give certain
+signs of their origin. This grade would seem to possess the advantage of
+combining, to some extent, the two qualities of milking and adaptation
+to beef; and this is no small recommendation of the stock to farmers
+situated as American farmers are, who wish for milk for some years and
+then to turn over to the butcher.
+
+
+THE JERSEY.
+
+These cattle are now widely known in this country. Many of them have
+been imported from an island of the same name in the British Channel,
+near the coast of France, and they may now be considered, for all
+practical purposes, as fully acclimated. They were first introduced,
+upward of thirty years ago, from the channel islands, Alderney,
+Guernsey, and Jersey.
+
+This race is supposed to have been originally derived from Normandy, in
+the northern part of France. The cows have been long celebrated for the
+production of very rich milk and cream, but till within the last
+twenty-five or thirty years they were comparatively coarse, ugly, and
+ill-shaped. Improvements have been very marked, but the form of the
+animal is still far from satisfying the eye.
+
+The head of the pure Jersey is fine and tapering, the cheek small, the
+throat clean, the muzzle fine and encircled with a light stripe, the
+nostril high and open; the horns smooth, crumpled, but not very thick at
+the base, tapering and tipped with black; ears small and thin, deep
+orange color inside; eyes full and placid; neck straight and fine; chest
+broad and deep; barrel hoofed, broad and deep, well ribbed up; back
+straight from the withers to the hip, and from the top of the hip to the
+setting of the tail; tail fine, at right angles with the back, and
+hanging down to the hocks; skin thin, light color, and mellow, covered
+with fine soft hair; fore legs short, straight and fine below the knee,
+arm swelling and full above; hind quarters long and well filled; hind
+legs short and straight below the hocks, with bones rather fine,
+squarely placed, and not too close together; hoofs small; udder full in
+size, in line with the belly, extending well up behind; teats of medium
+size, squarely placed and wide apart, and milk-veins very prominent. The
+color is generally cream, dun, or yellow, with more or less of white,
+and the fine head and neck give the cows and heifers a fawn-like
+appearance, and make them objects of attraction in the park; but the
+hind quarters are often too narrow to work well, particularly to those
+who judge animals by the amount of fat which they carry.
+
+It should be borne in mind, however, that a good race of animals is not
+always the most beautiful, as that term is generally understood. Beauty
+in stock has no invariable standard. In the estimation of some, it
+results mainly from fine forms, small bones, and close, compact frames;
+while others consider that structure the most perfect, and therefore the
+most beautiful, which is best adapted to the use for which it is
+destined. With such, beauty is relative. It is not the same in an animal
+designed for beef and in one designed for the dairy or for work. The
+beauty of a milch cow is the result of her good qualities. Large milkers
+are very rarely cows that please the eye of any but a skillful judge.
+They are generally poor, since their food goes mainly to the production
+of milk, and because they are selected with less regard to form than to
+good milking qualities. The prevailing opinion as to the beauty of the
+Jersey, is based on the general appearance of the cow when in milk--no
+experiments in feeding exclusively for beef having been made public,
+and no opportunity to form a correct judgment from actual observation
+having been furnished; and it must be confessed that the general
+appearance of the breed would amply justify the hasty conclusion.
+
+The bulls are usually very different in character and disposition from
+the cows, and are much inclined to become restive and cross at the age
+of two or three years, unless their treatment is uniformly gentle and
+firm.
+
+The Jersey is to be regarded as a dairy breed, and that almost
+exclusively. It would not be sought for large dairies kept for the
+supply of milk to cities; for, though the quality would gratify the
+customer, the quantity would not satisfy the owner. The place of the
+Jersey cow is rather in private establishments, where the supply of
+cream and butter is a sufficient object; or, in limited numbers, to add
+richness to the milk of large butter dairies. Even one or two good
+Jersey cows with a herd of fifteen or twenty, will make a great
+difference in the quality of the milk and butter of the whole
+establishment; and they would probably be profitable for this, if for no
+other object.
+
+
+THE SHORT HORNS.
+
+No breed of cattle has commanded more universal admiration during the
+last half century than the improved short horns, whose origin can be
+traced back for nearly a hundred years. According to the best
+authorities, the stock which formed the basis of improvement existed
+equally in Yorkshire, Lincolnshire, Northumberland, and the adjoining
+counties; and the pre-eminence was accorded to Durham, which gave its
+name to the race, from the more correct principles of breeding which
+seem to have obtained there.
+
+There is a dispute among the most eminent breeders as to how far it owes
+its origin to early importations from Holland, whence many superior
+animals were brought for the purpose of improving the old long horned
+breed. A large race of cattle had existed for many years on the western
+shores of the continent of Europe. As early as 1633, they were imported
+from Denmark into New England in considerable numbers, and thus laid the
+foundation of a valuable stock in farming at a very early date in
+Holland, and experience led to the greatest care in the choice and
+breeding of dairy stock. From these cattle many selections were made to
+cross over to the counties of York and Durham. The prevailing color of
+the large Dutch cattle was black and white, beautifully contrasted.
+
+[Illustration: A SHORT HORN BULL.]
+
+The cattle produced by these crosses a century ago were known by the
+name of "Dutch." The cows selected for crossing with the early imported
+Dutch bulls were generally long horned, large boned, coarse animals, a
+fair type of which was found in the old "Holderness" breed of
+Yorkshire--slow feeders, strong in the shoulder, defective in the fore
+quarter, and not very profitable to the butcher, their meat being coarse
+and uninviting. Their milking qualities were good, surpassing those,
+probably, of the improved short horns. Whatever may be the truth with
+regard to these crosses, and however far they proved effective in
+creating or laying the foundation of the modern improved short horns,
+the results of the efforts made in Yorkshire and some of the adjoining
+counties were never so satisfactory to the best judges as those of the
+breeders along the Tees, who selected animals with greater reference to
+fineness of bone and symmetry of form, and the animals they bred soon
+took the lead and excited great emulation in improvement.
+
+Importations of short horns have been frequent and extensive into the
+United States within the last few years, and this famous breed is now
+pretty generally diffused over the country.
+
+The high-bred short horn is easily prepared for a show, and, as fat will
+cover faults, the temptation is often too great to be resisted; and
+hence it is not uncommon to see the finest animals rendered unfit for
+breeding purposes by over-feeding. The race is susceptible of breeding
+for the production of milk, as several families show, and great milkers
+have often been known among pure-bred animals; but it is more common to
+find it bred mainly for the butcher, and kept accordingly. It is,
+however, a well-known fact, that the dairies of London are stocked
+chiefly with short horns and Yorkshires, or high grades between them,
+which, after being milked as long as profitable, feed equal, or nearly
+so, to pure-bred short horns. It has been said, by very good authority,
+that the short horns improve every breed with which they cross.
+
+The desirable characteristics of the short horn bull may be summed up,
+according to the judgment of the best breeders, as follows: He should
+have a short but fine head, very broad across the eyes, tapering to the
+nose, with a nostril full and prominent; the nose itself should be of a
+rich flesh color; eyes bright and mild; ears somewhat large and thin;
+horns slightly covered and rather flat, well set on; a long, broad,
+muscular neck; chest wide, deep, and projecting; shoulders fine,
+oblique, well formed into the chine; fore legs short, with upper arm
+large and powerful; barrel round, deep, well-ribbed horns; hips wide and
+level; back straight from the withers to the setting on of the tail, but
+short from hips to chine; skin soft and velvety to the touch; moderately
+thick hair, plentiful, soft, and mossy. The cow has the same points in
+the main, but her head is finer, longer, and more tapering; neck thinner
+and lighter, and shoulders more narrow across the chine.
+
+The astonishing precocity of the short horns, their remarkable aptitude
+to fatten, the perfection of their forms, and the fineness of their bony
+structure, give them an advantage over most other races when the object
+of breeding is for the shambles. No animal of any other breed can so
+rapidly transform the stock of any section around him as the improved
+short horn bull.
+
+It does not, however, follow that the high-bred short horns are
+unexceptionable, even for beef. The very exaggeration, so to speak, of
+the qualities which make them so valuable for the improvement of other
+and less perfect races, may become a fault when wanted for the table.
+The very rapidity with which they increase in size is thought by some
+to prevent their meat from ripening up sufficiently before being hurried
+off to the butcher. The disproportion of the fatty to the muscular
+flesh, found in this to a greater extent than in races coming more
+slowly to maturity, makes the meat of the thorough-bred short horn, in
+the estimation of some, less agreeable to the taste, and less profitable
+to the consumer; since the nitrogenous compounds, true sources of
+nutriment, are found in less quantity than in the meat of animals not so
+highly bred.
+
+In sections where the climate is moist, and the food abundant and rich,
+some families of the short horns may be valuable for the dairy; but they
+are most frequently bred exclusively for beef in this country, and in
+sections where they have attained the highest perfection of form and
+beauty, so little is thought of their milking qualities that they are
+often not milked at all, the calf being allowed to run with the dam.
+
+
+THE DUTCH.
+
+This short horned race, in the opinion of many--as has been previously
+remarked--contributed largely, about a century ago, to build up the
+Durham or Teeswater stock. It has been bred with special reference to
+dairy qualities, and is eminently adapted to supply the wants of the
+dairy farmer. The cows of North Holland not only give a large quantity,
+but also a very good quality, so that a yield of sixteen to twenty-five
+quarts, wine measure, at every milking, is not rare.
+
+The principles upon which the inhabitants of Holland practise, in
+selecting a cow from which to breed, are as follows: She should have,
+they say, considerable size--not less than four and a half or five feet
+girth, with a length of body corresponding; legs proportionally short; a
+finely formed head, with a forehead or face somewhat concave; clear,
+large, mild and sparkling eyes, yet with no expression of wildness;
+tolerably large and stout ears, standing out from the head; fine, well
+curved horns; a rather short, than long, thick, broad neck, well set
+against the chest and withers; the front part of the breast and
+shoulders must be broad and fleshy; the low-hanging dewlap must be soft
+to the touch; the back and loins must be properly projected, somewhat
+broad, the bones not too sharp, but well covered with flesh; the animal
+should have long curved ribs, which form a broad breast bone; the body
+must be round and deep, but not sunken into a hanging belly; the rump
+must not be uneven, the hip-bones should not stand out too broad and
+spreading, but all the parts should be level and well filled up; a fine
+tail, set moderately high up and tolerably long, but slender, with a
+thick, bushy tuft of hair at the end, hanging down below the hocks; the
+legs must be short and low, but strong in the bony structure; the knees
+broad, with flexible joints; the muscles and sinews must be firm and
+sound, the hoofs broad and flat, and the position of the legs natural,
+not too close and crowded; the hide, covered with fine glossy hair, must
+be soft and mellow to the touch, and set loose upon the body. A large,
+rather long, white and loose udder, extending well back, with four long
+teats, serves also as a characteristic mark of a good milch cow. Large
+and prominent milk-veins must extend from the navel back to the udder;
+the belly of a good milch cow should not be too deep and hanging. The
+color of the North Dutch cattle is mostly variegated. Cows with only one
+color are no favorites. Red or black variegated, gray and blue
+variegated, roan, spotted and white variegated cows, are especially
+liked.
+
+
+THE HEREFORD.
+
+These cattle derive their name from a county in the western part of
+England. Their general characteristics are a white face, sometimes
+mottled; white throat, the white generally extending back on the neck,
+and sometimes, though rarely, still further along on the back. The color
+of the rest of the body is red, generally dark, but sometimes light.
+Eighty years ago the best Hereford cattle were mottled or roan all over;
+and some of the best herds, down to a comparatively recent period, were
+either all mottled, or had the mottled or speckled face.
+
+The expression of the face is mild and lively; the forehead open, broad,
+and large; the eyes bright and full of vivacity; the horns glossy,
+slender and spreading; the head small, though larger than, and not quite
+so clear as, that of the Devons; the lower jaw fine; neck long and
+slender; chest deep; breast-bone large, prominent, and very muscular;
+the shoulder-blade light; shoulder full and soft; brisket and loins
+large; hips well developed, and on a level with the chine; hind quarters
+long and well filled in; buttocks on a level with the back, neither
+falling off nor raised above the hind quarters; tail slender, well set
+on; hair fine and soft; body round and full; carcass deep and well
+formed, or cylindrical; bone small; thigh short and well made; legs
+short and straight, and slender below the knee; as handlers very
+excellent, especially mellow to the touch on the back, the shoulder, and
+along the sides, the skin being soft, flexible, of medium thickness,
+rolling on the neck and the hips; hair bright; face almost bare, which
+is characteristic of pure Herefords.
+
+They belong to the middle horned division of the cattle of Great
+Britain, to which they are indigenous, and have been improved within the
+last century by careful selections.
+
+Hereford oxen are excellent animals, less active but stronger than the
+Devons, and very free and docile. The demand for Herefords for beef
+prevents their being much used for work in their native county, and the
+farmers there generally use horses instead of oxen.
+
+It is generally conceded that the qualities in which Herefords stand
+pre-eminent among the middle-sized breeds are in the production of oxen
+and their superiority of flesh. On these points there is little chance
+of their being excelled. It should, however, be borne in mind that the
+best oxen are not produced from the largest cows; nor is a superior
+quality of flesh, such as is considered very soft to the touch, with
+thin skin. It is the union of these two qualities which often
+characterizes the short horns; but Hereford breeders--as a recent writer
+remarks--should endeavor to maintain a higher standard of
+excellence--that for which the best of the breed have always been
+esteemed--a moderately thick, mellow hide, with a well apportioned
+combination of softness with elasticity. A sufficiency of hair is also
+desirable, and if accompanied with a disposition to curl moderately, it
+is more in esteem; but that which has a harsh and wiry feel is
+objectionable.
+
+In point of symmetry and beauty of form, the well bred Herefords may be
+classed with the improved short horns, though they arrive somewhat more
+slowly at maturity, and never attain such weight. Like the improved
+short horns, they are chiefly bred for beef, and their beef is of the
+best quality in the English markets, commanding the highest price of
+any, except perhaps, the West Highlanders. The short horn produces more
+beef at the same age than the Hereford, but consumes more food in
+proportion.
+
+The Herefords are far less generally spread over England than the
+improved short horns. They have seldom been bred for milk, as some
+families of the latter have; and it is not very unusual to find
+pure-bred cows incapable of supplying milk sufficient to nourish their
+calves. They have been imported to this country to some extent, and
+several fine herds exist in different sections; the earliest
+importations being those of Henry Clay, of Kentucky, in 1817.
+
+The want of care and attention to the udder, soon after calving,
+especially if the cow be on luxuriant grass, often injures her milking
+properties exceedingly. The practice in the county of Hereford has
+generally been to let the calves suckle from four to six months, and
+bull calves often run eight months with the cow. But their dairy
+qualities are perhaps as good as those of any cattle whose fattening
+properties have been so carefully developed; and, though it is probable
+that they could be bred for milk with proper care and attention, yet, as
+this change would be at the expense of other qualities equally valuable,
+it would evidently be wiser to resort to other stock for the dairy.
+
+
+THE NORTH DEVONS.
+
+[Illustration: A NORTH DEVON STEER.]
+
+This beautiful race of middle horned cattle dates further back than any
+well established breed among us. It goes generally under the simple name
+of Devon; but the cattle of the southern part of the country, from which
+the race derives its name, differ somewhat from those of the northern,
+having a larger and coarser frame, and far less tendency to fatten
+though their dairy qualities are superior.
+
+The North Devons are remarkable for hardihood, symmetry and beauty, and
+are generally bred for work and for beef, rather than for the dairy. The
+head is fine and well set on; the horns of medium length, generally
+curved; color usually bright blood-red, but sometimes inclining to
+yellow; skin thin and orange-yellow; hair of medium length, soft and
+silky, making the animals remarkable as handlers; muzzle of the nose
+white; eyes full and mild; ears yellowish, or orange-color inside, of
+moderate size; neck rather long, with little dewlap; shoulders oblique;
+legs small and straight, with feet in proportion; chest of good width;
+ribs round and expanded; loins of first-rate quality, long, wide, and
+fleshy; hips round, of medium width; rump level; tail full near the
+setting on, tapering to the tip; thighs of the bull and ox muscular and
+full, and high in the flank, though in the cow sometimes thought to be
+light; the size medium, generally called small. The proportion of meat
+on the valuable parts is greater, and the offal less, than on most other
+breeds, while it is well settled that they consume less food in its
+production. The Devons are popular with the Smithfield butchers, and
+their beef is well marbled or grained.
+
+As working oxen, the Devons perhaps excel all other races in quickness,
+docility, beauty, and the ease with which they are matched. With a
+reasonable load, they are said to be equal to horses as walkers on the
+road, and when they are no longer wanted for work they fatten easily and
+turn well.
+
+As milkers, they do not excel--perhaps they may be said not to
+equal--the other breeds, and they have a reputation of being decidedly
+below the average. In their native country the general average of the
+dairy is one pound of butter a day during the summer. They are bred for
+beef and for work, and not for the dairy; and their yield of milk is
+small, though of a rich quality. Several animals, however, of the
+celebrated Patterson herd would have been remarkable as milkers even
+among good milking stock.
+
+Still, the faults of the North Devon cow, considered as a dairy animal,
+are too marked to be overlooked. The rotundity of form and compactness
+of frame, though they contribute to her remarkable beauty constitute an
+objection to her for this purpose: since it is generally admitted that
+the peculiarity of form which disposes an animal to take on fat is
+somewhat incompatible with good milking qualities. On this account,
+Youatt--who is standard authority in such matters--says that for the
+dairy the North Devon must be acknowledged to be inferior to several
+other breeds. The milk is good, and yields more than the average
+proportion of cream and butter; but it is deficient in quantity. He also
+maintains that its property as a milker could not be improved without
+producing a certain detriment to its grazing qualities. Distinguished
+Devon breeders themselves have come to the same conclusion upon this
+point. The improved North Devon cow may be classed, in this respect,
+with the Hereford, neither of which has well developed milk-vessels--a
+point of the utmost consequence to the practical dairyman.
+
+
+NATIVE CATTLE.
+
+The foregoing comprise the pure-bred races in America; for, though other
+and well-established breeds--like the Galloways, the long horns, the
+Spanish, and others--have, at times, been imported, and have had some
+influence on our American stock, yet they have not been kept distinct to
+such an extent as to become the prevailing stock of any particular
+section.
+
+A large proportion, however--by far the largest proportion, indeed--of
+the cattle known among us cannot be included under any of the races to
+which allusion has been made; and to the consideration of this class the
+present article is devoted.
+
+The term "breed"--as was set forth in the author's treatise, "The Horse
+and his Diseases"--when properly understood, applies only to animals of
+the same species, possessing, besides the general characteristics of
+that species, other characteristics peculiar to themselves, which they
+owe to the influence of soil, climate, nourishment, and the habits of
+life to which they are subjected, and which they transmit with certainty
+to their progeny. The characteristics of certain breeds or families are
+so well marked, that, if an individual supposed to belong to any one of
+them were to produce an offspring not possessing them, or possessing
+them only in part, with others not belonging to the breed, it would be
+just ground for suspecting a want of purity of bloods.
+
+In this view, no grade animals, and no animals destitute of fixed
+peculiarities or characteristics which they, share in common with all
+other animals of the class of which they are a type, and which they are
+capable of transmitting with certainty to their descendants, can be
+recognized by breeders as belonging to any one distinct race, breed, or
+family.
+
+The term "native" is applied to a vast majority of our American cattle,
+which, though born on the soil, and thus in one sense natives, do not
+constitute a breed, race, or family, as correctly understood by
+breeders. They do not possess characteristics peculiar to them all,
+which they transmit with any certainty to their offspring, either of
+form, size, color, milking or working properties.
+
+But, though an animal may be made up of a mixture of blood almost to
+impurity, it does not follow that, for specific purposes, it may not, as
+an individual animal, be one of the best of the species. Indeed, for
+particular purposes, animals might be selected from among those commonly
+called "natives" in New England, and "scrubs" at the west and south,
+equal, and perhaps superior, to any among the races produced by the most
+skillful breeding.
+
+There can be no objection, therefore, to the use of the term "native,"
+when it is understood as descriptive of no known breed, but only as
+applied to the common stock of a country, which does not constitute a
+breed. But perhaps the entire class of animals commonly called "natives"
+would be more accurately described as grades; since they are well known
+to have sprung from a great variety of cattle procured at different
+times and in different places on the continent of Europe, in England,
+and in the Spanish West Indies, brought together without any regard to
+fixed principles of breeding, but only from individual convenience, and
+by accident.
+
+The first importations to this country were doubtless those taken to
+Virginia previous to 1609, though the exact date of their arrival is not
+known. Several cows were carried there from the West Indies in 1610, and
+in the next year no less than one hundred arrived there from abroad.
+
+[Illustration: DRAFT OXEN.]
+
+The earliest cattle imported into New England arrived in 1624. At the
+division of cattle which took place three years after, one or two are
+distinctly described as black, or black and white, others as brindle,
+showing that there was no uniformity of color. Soon after this, a large
+number of cattle were brought over from England for the settlers at
+Salem. These importations formed the original stock of Massachusetts.
+
+In 1725, the first importation was made into New York from Holland by
+the Dutch West India Company, and the foundation was then laid for an
+exceedingly valuable race of animals, which, subsequent importations
+from the same country, as well as from England, have greatly improved.
+The points and value of this race in its purity have been already
+adverted to under the head of the Dutch cattle.
+
+In 1627, cattle were brought from Sweden to the settlements on the
+Delaware, by the Swedish West India Company. In 1631, 1632, and 1633,
+several importations were made into New Hampshire by Captain John Mason
+who, with Gorges, had procured the patent of large tracts of land in the
+vicinity of the Piscataqua river, and who immediately formed settlements
+there. The object of Mason was to carry on the manufacture of potash.
+For this purpose he employed the Danes; and it was in his voyage to and
+from Denmark that he procured many Danish cattle and horses, which were
+subsequently scattered over that entire region, large numbers being
+driven to the vicinity of Boston and sold. These Danish cattle are
+described as large and coarse, of a yellow color; and it is supposed
+that they were procured by Mason as being best capable of enduring the
+severity of the climate and the hardships to which they would be
+subjected.
+
+However this may have been, they very soon spread among the colonists of
+the Massachusetts Bay, and have undoubtedly left their marks on the
+stock of the New England and the Middle States, which exist to some
+extent even to the present day, mixed in with an infinite multitude of
+crosses with the Devons, the Dutch cattle already alluded to, the black
+cattle of Spain and Wales, and the long horn and the short horn--most of
+which crosses were accidental, or due to local circumstances or
+individual convenience. Many of these cattle, the descendants of such
+crosses, are of a very high order of merit; but to which particular
+cross this is due, it is impossible to say. They generally make hardy,
+strong, and docile oxen, easily broken to the yoke and quick to work,
+with a fair tendency to fatten when well fed; while the cows, though
+often ill-shaped, are sometimes remarkably good milkers, especially as
+regards the quantity which they give.
+
+Indeed, it has been remarked by excellent judges of stock, that if they
+desired to select a dairy of cows for milk for sale, they would make
+their selection from cows commonly called native, in preference to
+pure-bred animals of any of the established breeds, and that they
+believed they should find such a dairy the most profitable.
+
+In color, the natives, made up as already indicated, are exceedingly
+various. The old Denmarks, which to a considerable extent laid the
+foundation of the stock of Maine and New Hampshire, were light yellow.
+The Dutch of New York and the Middle States, were black and white; the
+Spanish and Welsh were generally black; the Devons, which are supposed
+to have laid the foundation of the stock of some of the States, were
+red. Crosses of the Denmark with the Spanish and Welsh naturally made a
+dark brindle; crosses of the Devon often made a lighter or yellowish
+brindle while the more recent importations of Jerseys and short horns
+have generally produced a beautiful spotted progeny. The deep red has
+long been a favorite color in New England; but the prejudice in its
+favor is fast giving way to more variegated colors.
+
+Among the earlier importations into this country were also several
+varieties of hornless cattle, which have been kept measurably distinct
+in some sections; or where they have been crossed with the common stock
+there has been a tendency to produce hornless grades. These are not
+unfrequently known as "buffalo cattle." They were, in many cases,
+supposed to belong to the Galloway breed; or, which is more likely, to
+the Suffolk dun, a variety of the Galloway, and a far better milking
+stock than the Galloways, from which, it sprung. These polled, or
+hornless cattle vary in color and qualities, but they are usually very
+good milkers when well kept, and many of them fatten well, and attain
+good weight.
+
+The Hungarian cattle have also been imported, to some extent, into
+different parts of the country, and have been crossed upon the natives
+with some success. Many other strains of blood from different breeds
+have also contributed to build up the common stock of the country of the
+present day; and there can be no question that its appearance and value
+have been largely improved during the last quarter of a century, nor
+that improvements are still in progress which will lead to satisfactory
+results in the future.
+
+But, though we already have an exceedingly valuable foundation for
+improvement, no one will pretend to deny that our cattle, as a whole,
+are susceptible of it in many respects. They possess neither the size,
+the symmetry, nor the early maturity of the short horns; they do not, as
+a general thing, possess the fineness of bone, the beauty of form and
+color, nor the activity of the Devons or the Herefords; they do not
+possess that uniform richness of milk, united with generous quality, of
+the Ayrshires, nor the surpassing richness of milk of the Jerseys: but,
+above all, they do not possess the power of transmitting the many good
+qualities which they often have to their offspring--which is the
+characteristic of all well established breeds.
+
+It is equally certain, in the opinion of many good judges, that the
+dairy stock of the country has not been materially improved in its
+intrinsic good qualities during the last thirty or forty years. This may
+not be true of certain sections, where the dairy has been made a special
+object of pursuit, and where the custom of raising the best male calves
+of the neighborhood, or those that came from the best dairy cows, and
+then of using only the best formed bulls, has long prevailed. Although
+in this way some progress has, doubtless, been made, there are still
+room and need for more. More attention must be paid to correct
+principles of breeding before the satisfactory results which every
+farmer should strive to reach can be attained.
+
+Having glanced generally at the leading breeds of cattle in Great
+Britain, and examined, more in detail, the various breeds in the United
+States, the next subject demanding attention is,
+
+
+THE NATURAL HISTORY OF CATTLE.
+
+[Illustration: SKELETON OF THE OX AS COVERED BY THE MUSCLES.
+
+1. The upper jaw-bone. 2. The nasal bone, or bone of the nose. 3. The
+lachrymal bone. 4. The malar, or cheek bone. 5. The frontal bone, or
+bone of the forehead. 6. The horns, being processes or continuations of
+the frontal. 7. The temporal bone. 8. The parietal bone, low in the
+temporal fossa. 9. The occipital bone, deeply depressed below the crest
+or ridge of the head. 10. The lower jaw. 11. The grinders. 12. The
+nippers, found on the lower jaw alone. 13. The ligament of the neck, and
+its attachments. 14. The atlas. 16. The dentata. 17. The orbits of the
+eye. 18. The vertebræ, or bones of the neck. 19. The bones of the back.
+20. The bones of the loins. 21. The sacrum. 22. The bones of the tail.
+23. The haunch and pelvis. 24. The eight true ribs. 25. The false ribs,
+with their cartilages. 26. The sternum. 27. The scapula, or
+shoulder-blade. 28. The humerus, or lower bone of the shoulder. 29. The
+radius, or principal bone of the arm. 40. The ulna, its upper part
+forming the elbow. 41. The small bones of the knee. 42. The large
+metacarpal or shank bone. 43. The smaller or splint bone. 44. The
+sessamoid bones. 45. The bifurcation at the pasterns, and the two larger
+pasterns to each foot. 46. The two smaller pasterns to each foot. 47.
+The two coffin bones to each foot. 48. The navicular bones. 49. The
+thigh bone. 50. The patella, or bone of the knee. 51. The tibia, or
+proper leg bone. 52. The point of the hock. 53. The small bones of the
+hock. 54. The metatarsals, or larger bones of the hind leg. 55. The
+pasterns and feet.]
+
+     DIVISION. _Vertebrata_--possessing a back-bone.
+     CLASS. _Mammalia_--such as give suck.
+     ORDER. _Ruminantia_--chewing the cud.
+     FAMILY. With horns.
+     GENUS. _Bovidæ_--the ox tribe.
+
+Of this tribe there are eight species:
+
+     _Bos urus_, the ancient bison.
+     _Bos bison_, the American buffalo.
+     _Bos moschatus_, the musk ox.
+     _Bos frontalis_, the gayal.
+     _Bos grunniens_, the grunting ox.
+     _Bos caffer_, the South African buffalo.
+     _Bos bubalus_, the common buffalo.
+     _Bos taurus_, the common domestic ox.
+
+
+GESTATION.
+
+The usual period of pregnancy in a cow is nine calendar months, and
+something over: at times as much as three weeks. With one thousand and
+thirty one cows, whose gestations were carefully observed in France, the
+average period was about two hundred and eighty-five days.
+
+
+FORMATION OF TEETH.
+
+It is of the utmost importance to be able to judge of the age of a cow.
+Few farmers wish to purchase a cow for the dairy after she has passed
+her prime, which will ordinarily be at the age of nine or ten years,
+varying, of course, according to care, feeding, &c., in the earlier part
+of her life.
+
+The common method of forming an estimate of the age of cattle is by an
+examination of the horn. At three years old, as a general rule, the
+horns are perfectly smooth; after this, a ring appears near the nob, and
+annually afterward a new one is formed, so that, by adding two years to
+the first ring, the age is calculated. This is a very uncertain mode of
+judging. The rings are distinct only in the cow; and it is well known
+that if a heifer goes to bull when she is two years old, or a little
+before or after that time, a change takes place in the horn and the
+first ring appears; so that a real three-year-old would carry the mark
+of a four-year-old.
+
+[Illustration: TEETH AT BIRTH.]
+
+The rings on the horns of a bull are either not seen until five, or they
+cannot be traced at all; while in the ox they do not appear till he is
+five years old, and then are often very indistinct. In addition to this,
+it is by no means an uncommon practice to file the horns, so as to make
+them smooth, and to give the animal the appearance of being much younger
+than it really is. This is, therefore, an exceedingly fallacious guide,
+and cannot be relied upon by any one with the degree of confidence
+desired.
+
+[Illustration: SECOND WEEK.]
+
+The surest indication of the age in cattle, as in the horse, is given by
+the teeth.
+
+The calf, at birth, will usually have two incisor or front teeth--in
+some cases just appearing through the gums; in others, fully set,
+varying as the cow falls short of, or exceeds, her regular time of
+calving. If she overruns several days, the teeth will have set and
+attained considerable size, as appears in the cut representing teeth at
+birth. During the second week, a tooth will usually be added on each
+side, and the mouth will generally appear as in the next cut; and before
+the end of the third week, the animal will generally have six incisor
+teeth, as denoted in the cut representing teeth at the third week; and
+in a week from that time the full number of incisors will have appeared,
+as seen in the next cut.
+
+[Illustration: THREE WEEKS.]
+
+[Illustration: MONTH.]
+
+[Illustration: FIVE TO EIGHT MONTHS.]
+
+[Illustration: TEN MONTHS.]
+
+[Illustration: TWELVE MONTHS.]
+
+[Illustration: FIFTEEN MONTHS.]
+
+These teeth are temporary, and are often called milk-teeth. Their edge
+is very sharp; and as the animal begins to live upon more solid food,
+this edge becomes worn, showing the bony part of the tooth beneath, and
+indicates with considerable precision the length of time they have been
+used. The centre, or oldest teeth show the marks of age first, and often
+become somewhat worn before the corner teeth appear. At eight weeks, the
+four inner teeth are nearly as sharp as before. They appear worn not so
+much on the outer edge or line of the tooth, as inside this line; but,
+after this, the edge begins gradually to lose its sharpness, and to
+present a more flattened surface; while the next outer teeth wear down
+like the four central ones; and at three months this wearing off is very
+apparent, till at four months all the incisor teeth appear worn, but the
+inner ones the most. Now the teeth begin slowly to diminish in size by
+a kind of contraction, as well as wearing down, and the distance apart
+becomes more and more apparent.
+
+[Illustration: EIGHTEEN MONTHS.]
+
+From the fifth to the eighth month, the inner teeth will usually appear
+as in the cut of the teeth at that time; and at ten months, this change
+shows more clearly, as represented in the next cut; and the spaces
+between them begin to show very plainly, till at a year old they
+ordinarily present the appearance of the following cut; and at the age
+of fifteen months, that shown in the next, where the corner teeth are
+not more than half the original size, and the centre ones still smaller.
+
+[Illustration: TWO YEARS PAST.]
+
+The permanent teeth are now rapidly growing, and preparing to take the
+place of the milk-teeth, which are gradually absorbed till they
+disappear, or are pushed out to give place to the two permanent central
+incisors, which at a year and a half will generally present the
+appearance indicated in the cut, which shows the internal structure of
+the lower jaw at this time, with the cells of the teeth, the two central
+ones protruding into the mouth, the next two pushing up, but not quite
+grown to the surface, with the third pair just perceptible. These
+changes require time; and at two years past the jaw will usually appear
+as in the cut, where four of the permanent central incisors are seen.
+After this, the other milk-teeth decrease rapidly, but are slow to
+disappear; and at three years old, the third pair of permanent teeth are
+but formed, as represented in the cut; and at four years the last pair
+of incisors will be up, as in the cut of that age; but the outside ones
+are not yet fully grown, and the beast can hardly be said to be
+full-mouthed till the age of five years. But before this age, or at the
+age of four years, the two inner pairs of permanent teeth are beginning
+to wear at the edges, as shown in the cut; while at five years old the
+whole set becomes somewhat worn down at the top, and on the two centre
+ones a darker line appears in the middle, along a line of harder bone,
+as appears in the appropriate cut.
+
+[Illustration: THREE YEARS PAST.]
+
+[Illustration: FOUR YEARS PAST.]
+
+[Illustration: FIVE YEARS PAST.]
+
+[Illustration: TEN YEARS PAST.]
+
+Now will come a year or two, and sometimes three, when the teeth do not
+so clearly indicate the exact age, and the judgment must be guided by
+the extent to which the dark middle lines are worn. This will depend
+somewhat upon the exposure and feeding of the animal; but at seven years
+these lines extend over all the teeth. At eight years, another change
+begins, which cannot be mistaken. A kind of absorption begins with the
+two central incisors--slow at first, but perceptible--and these two
+teeth become smaller than the rest, while the dark lines are worn into
+one in all but the corner teeth, till, at ten years, four of the central
+incisors have become smaller in size, with a smaller and fainter mark,
+as indicated in the proper cut. At eleven, the six inner teeth are
+smaller than the corner ones; and at twelve, all become smaller than
+they were, while the dark lines are nearly gone, except in the corner
+teeth, and the inner edge is worn to the gum.
+
+
+POINTS OF A GOOD COW.
+
+After satisfaction is afforded touching the age of a cow, she should be
+examined with reference to her soundness of constitution. A good
+constitution is indicated by large lungs, which are found in a deep,
+broad, and prominent chest, broad and well-spread ribs, a respiration
+somewhat slow and regular, a good appetite, and if in milk a strong
+inclination to drink, which a large secretion of milk almost invariably
+stimulates. In such a cow the digestive organs are active and energetic,
+and they make an abundance of good blood, which in turn stimulates the
+activity of the nervous system, and furnishes the milky glands with the
+means of abundant secretion. Such a cow, when dry, readily takes on fat.
+When activity of the milk-glands is found united with close ribs, small
+and feeble lungs, and a slow appetite, often attended by great thirst,
+the cow will generally possess only a weak and feeble constitution; and
+if the milk is plentiful, it will generally be of bad quality, while the
+animal, if she does not die of diseased lungs, will not readily take on
+fat, when dry and fed.
+
+[Illustration: A GOOD MILCH COW.]
+
+In order to have no superfluous flesh, the cow should have a small,
+clean, and rather long head, tapering toward the muzzle. A cow with a
+large, coarse head will seldom fatten readily, or give a large quantity
+of milk. A coarse head increases the proportion of weight of the least
+valuable parts, while it is a sure indication that the whole bony
+structure is too heavy. The mouth should be large and broad; the eye
+bright and sparkling, but of a peculiar placidness of expression, with
+no indication of wildness, but rather a mild and feminine look. These
+points will indicate gentleness of disposition. Such cows seem to like
+to be milked, are fond of being caressed, and often return caresses. The
+horns should be small, short, tapering, yellowish, and glistening. The
+neck should be small, thin, and tapering toward the head, but thickening
+when it approaches the shoulder; the dewlaps small. The fore quarters
+should be rather small when compared with the hind quarters. The form of
+the barrel will be large, and each rib should project further than the
+preceding one, up to the loins. She should be well formed across the
+hips and in the rump.
+
+The spine or back-bone should be straight and long, rather loosely hung,
+or open along the middle part, the result of the distance between the
+dorsal vertebræ, which sometimes causes a slight depression, or sway
+back. By some good judges, this mark is regarded as of great importance,
+especially when the bones of the hind quarters are also rather loosely
+put together, leaving the rump of great width and the pelvis large, and
+the organs and milk-vessels lodged in the cavities largely developed.
+The skin over the rump should be loose and flexible. This point is of
+great importance; and as, when the cow is in low condition or very poor,
+it will appear somewhat harder and closer than it otherwise would, some
+practice and close observation are required to judge well of this mark.
+The skin, indeed, all over the body, should be soft and mellow to the
+touch, with soft and glossy hair. The tail, if thick at the setting on,
+should taper and be fine below.
+
+But the udder is of special importance. It should be large in
+proportion to the size of the animal, and the skin thin, with soft,
+loose folds extending well back, capable of great distension when
+filled, but shrinking to a small compass when entirely empty. It must be
+free from lumps in every part, and provided with four teats set well
+apart, and of medium size. Nor is it less important to observe the
+milk-veins carefully. The principal ones under the belly should be large
+and prominent, and extend forward to the navel, losing themselves,
+apparently, in the very best milkers, in a large cavity in the flesh,
+into which the end of the finger can be inserted; but when the cow is
+not in full milk, the milk-vein, at other times very prominent, is not
+so distinctly traced; and hence, to judge of its size when the cow is
+dry, or nearly so, this vein may be pressed near its end, or at its
+entrance into the body, when it will immediately fill up to its full
+size. This vein does not convey the milk to the udder, as some suppose,
+but is the channel by which the blood returns; and its contents consist
+of the refuse of the secretion, or of what has not been taken up in
+forming milk. There are also veins in the udder, and the perineum, or
+the space above the udder, and between that and the buttocks, which it
+is of special importance to observe. These veins should be largely
+developed, and irregular or knotted, especially those of the udder. They
+are largest in great milkers.
+
+The knotted veins of the perineum, extending from above downwards in a
+winding line, are not readily seen in young heifers, and are very
+difficult to find in poor cows, or those of only a medium quality. They
+are easily found in very good milkers, and if not at first apparent,
+they are made so by pressing upon them at the base of the perineum,
+when they swell up and send the blood back toward the vulva. They form
+a kind of thick network under the skin of the perineum, raising it up
+somewhat, in some cases near the vulva, in others nearer down and closer
+to the udder. It is important to look for these veins, as they often
+form a very important guide, and by some they would be considered as
+furnishing the surest indications of the milking qualities of the cow.
+Full development almost always shows an abundant secretion of milk; but
+they are far better developed after the cow has had two or three calves,
+when two or three years' milking has given full activity to the milky
+glands, and attracted a large flow of blood. The larger and more
+prominent these veins the better. It is needless to say that in
+observing them some regard should be had to the condition of the cow,
+the thickness of skin and fat by which they may be surrounded, and the
+general activity and food of the animal. Food calculated to stimulate
+the greatest flow of milk will naturally increase these veins, and give
+them more than usual prominence.
+
+
+THE MILK-MIRROR.
+
+The discovery of M. Guénon, of Bordeaux, in France--a man of remarkable
+practical sagacity, and a close observer of stock--consisted in the
+connection between the milking qualities of the cow and certain external
+marks on the udder, and on the space above it, called the perineum,
+extending to the buttocks. To these marks he gave the name of
+milk-mirror, or escutcheon, which consists in certain perceptible spots
+rising up from the udder in different directions, forms and sizes, on
+which the hair grows upward, whilst the hair on other parts of the body
+grows downward. The reduction of these marks into a system, explaining
+the value of particular forms and sizes of the milk-mirror, belongs
+exclusively to Guénon.
+
+[Illustration: MILK-MIRROR [A.]]
+
+He divided the milk-mirror into eight classes, and each class into eight
+orders, making in all no less than sixty-four divisions, which he
+afterward increased by subdivisions, thus rendering the whole system
+complicated in the extreme, especially as he professed to be able to
+judge with accuracy, by means of the milk-mirror, not only of the exact
+quantity a cow would give, but also of the quality of the milk, and of
+the length of time it would continue. He endeavored to prove too much,
+and was, as a matter of consequence, frequently at fault himself.
+
+Despite the strictures which have been passed upon Guénon's method of
+judging of cows, the best breeders and judges of stock concur in the
+opinion, as the result of their observations, that cows with the most
+perfectly developed milk-mirrors are, with rare exception, the best
+milkers of their breed; and that cows with small and slightly developed
+milk-mirrors are, in the majority of cases, bad milkers. There are,
+undoubtedly, cows with very small mirrors, which are, nevertheless,
+very fair in the yield of milk; and among those with middling quality of
+mirrors, instances of rather more than ordinary milkers often occur,
+while at the same time it is true that cases now and then are found
+where the very best marked and developed mirrors are found on very poor
+milkers. These apparent exceptions, however, are to be explained, in the
+large majority of cases, by causes outside of those which affect the
+appearance of the milk-mirror. It is, of course, impossible to estimate
+with mathematical accuracy either the quantity, quality, or duration of
+the milk, since it is affected by so many chance circumstances, which
+cannot always be known or estimated by even the most skillful judges;
+such, for example, as the food, the treatment, the temperament,
+accidental diseases, inflammation of the udder, premature calving, the
+climate and season, the manner in which she has been milked, and a
+thousand other things which interrupt or influence the flow of milk,
+without materially changing the size or shape of the milk-mirror. It
+has, indeed, been very justly observed that we often see cows equally
+well formed, with precisely the same milk-mirror, and kept in the same
+circumstances, yet giving neither equal quantities nor similar qualities
+of milk. Nor could it be otherwise; since the action of the organs
+depends, not merely on their size and form, but, to a great extent, on
+the general condition of each individual.
+
+[Illustration: MILK-MIRROR [B.]]
+
+[Illustration: MILK-MIRROR [C.]]
+
+The different forms of milk-mirrors are represented by the shaded parts
+of cuts, lettered A, B, C, D; but it is necessary to premise that upon
+the cows themselves they are always partly concealed by the thighs, the
+udder, and the folds of the skin, which are not shown, and therefore
+they are not always so uniform in nature as they appear in the cuts.
+
+[Illustration: MILK-MIRROR [D.]]
+
+Their size varies as the skin is more or less folded or stretched; while
+the cuts represent the skin as uniform or free from folds, but not
+stretched out. It is usually very easy to distinguish the milk-mirrors
+by the upward direction of the hair which forms them. They are sometimes
+marked by a line of bristly hair growing in the opposite direction,
+which surrounds them, forming a sort of outline by the upward and
+downward growing hair. Yet, when the hair is very fine and short, mixed
+with longer hairs, and the skin much folded, and the udder voluminous
+and pressed by the thighs, it is necessary, in order to distinguish the
+part enclosed between the udder and the legs, and examine the full size
+of the mirrors, to observe them attentively, and to place the legs wide
+apart, and to smooth out the skin, in order to avoid the folds.
+
+The mirrors may also be observed by holding the back of the hand against
+the perineum, and drawing it from above downward, when the nails rubbing
+against the up-growing hair, make the parts covered by it very
+perceptible.
+
+As the hair of the milk-mirror has not the same direction as the hair
+which surrounds it, it may often be distinguished by a difference in the
+shade reflected by it. It is then sufficient to place it properly to the
+light in order to see the difference in shade, and to make out the part
+covered by the upward-growing hair. Most frequently, however, the hair
+of the milk-mirror is thin and fine, and the color of the skin can
+easily be seen. If the eye alone is trusted, we shall often be deceived.
+
+[Illustration: MILK-MIRROR [E.]]
+
+In some countries cattle-dealers shave the back part of the cow. Just
+after this operation the mirrors can neither be seen nor felt; but this
+inconvenience ceases in a few days. It may be added that the
+shaving--designed, as the dealers say, to beautify the cow--is generally
+intended simply to destroy the milk-mirror, and to deprive buyers of one
+means of judging of the milking qualities of the cows. It is unnecessary
+to add that the cows most carefully shaven are those which are badly
+marked, and that it is prudent to take it for granted that cows so shorn
+are bad milkers.
+
+Milk-mirrors vary in position, extent, and the figure which they
+represent. They may be divided according to their position, into mirrors
+or escutcheons, properly so called, or into lower and upper tufts, or
+escutcheons. The latter are very small in comparison with the former,
+and are situated in close proximity to the vulva, as seen at 1, in cut
+E. They are very common on cows of bad milking races, but are very
+rarely seen on the best milch cows. They consist of one or two ovals, or
+small bands of up-growing hair, and serve to indicate the continuance of
+the flow of milk. The period is short, in proportion as the tufts are
+large. They must not be confounded with the escutcheon proper, which is
+often extended up to the vulva. They are separated from it by bands of
+hair, more or less large, as in cut marked F.
+
+[Illustration: MILK-MIRROR [F.]]
+
+Milk-mirrors are sometimes symmetrical, and sometimes without symmetry.
+When there is a great difference in the extent of the two halves, it
+almost always happens that the teats on the side where the mirror is
+best developed give more milk than those of the opposite side. The left
+half of the mirror, it may be remarked, is almost always the largest;
+and so, when the perinean part is folded into a square, it is on this
+side of the body that it unfolds. Of three thousand cows in Denmark,
+but a single one was found, whose escutcheon varied even a little from
+this rule.
+
+The mirrors having a value in proportion to the space which they occupy,
+it is of great importance to attend to all the rows of down-growing
+hairs, which diminish the extent of surface, whether these tufts are in
+the midst of the mirror, or form indentations on its edges.
+
+These indentations, concealed in part by the folds of the skin, are
+sometimes seen with difficulty; but it is important to take them into
+account, since in a great many cows they materially lessen the size of
+the mirror. Cows are often found, whose milk-mirrors at first sight
+appear very large, but which are only medium milkers; and it will
+usually be found that lateral indentations greatly diminish the surface
+of up-growing hair. Many errors are committed in estimating the value of
+such cows, from a want of attention to the real extent of the mirror.
+
+All the interruptions in the surface of the mirror indicate a diminution
+in the quantity of the milk, with the exception, however, of small oval
+or elliptical plates which are found in the mirror, on the back part of
+the udders of the best cows, as represented in the cut already given,
+marked A. These ovals have a peculiar tint, which is occasioned by the
+downward direction of the hair which forms them. In the best cows these
+ovals exist with the lower mirrors very well developed, as represented
+in the cut just named.
+
+In short, it should be stated that, in order to determine the extent and
+significance of a mirror, it is necessary to consider the state of the
+perineum as to fat, and that of the fullness of the udder. In a fat cow,
+with an inflated udder, the mirror would appear larger than it really
+is; whilst in a lean cow, with a loose and wrinkled udder, it appears
+smaller. Fat will cover faults--a fact to be borne in mind when
+selecting a cow.
+
+In bulls, the mirrors present the same peculiarities as in cows; but
+they are less varied in their form, and especially much less in size.
+
+In calves, the mirrors show the shapes which they are afterwards to
+have, only they are more contracted, because the parts which they cover
+are but slightly developed. They are easily seen after birth; but the
+hair which then covers them is long, coarse, and stiff; and when this
+hair falls off, the calf's mirror will resemble that of the cow, but
+will be of less size.
+
+With calves, however, it should be stated, in addition, that the
+milk-mirrors are more distinctly recognized on those from cows that are
+well kept, and that they will generally be fully developed at two years
+old. Some changes take place in the course of years, but the outlines of
+the mirror appear prominent at the time of advanced pregnancy, or, in
+the case of cows giving milk, at the times when the udder is more
+distended with milk than at others.
+
+M. Mayne, who has explained and simplified the method of M. Guénon,
+divides cows, according to the quantity which they give, into four
+classes: first, the very good; second, the good; third, the medium; and
+fourth, the bad.
+
+In the FIRST class he places cows, both parts of whose milk mirror, the
+mammary--the tuft situated on the udder, the legs and the thighs--and
+the perinean--that on the perineum, extending sometimes more or less out
+upon the thighs--are large, continuous, and uniform, covering at least
+a great part of the perineum, the udder, the inner surface of the
+thighs, and extending more or less out upon the legs, as in cut A, with
+no interruptions, or, if any, small ones, oval in form, and situated on
+the posterior face of the udder.
+
+[Illustration: MILK-MIRROR [G.]]
+
+Such mirrors are found on most very good cows, but may also be found on
+cows which can scarcely be called good, and which should be ranked in
+the next class. But cows, whether having very well developed mirrors or
+not, may be reckoned as very good, and as giving as much milk as is to
+be expected from their size, food, and the hygienic circumstances in
+which they are kept, if they present the following characteristics:
+veins of the perineum large, as if swollen, and visible on the
+exterior--as in cut A--or which can easily be made to appear by pressing
+upon the base of the perineum; veins of the udder large and knotted;
+milk-veins large, often double, equal on both sides, and forming
+zig-zags, under the belly.
+
+To the signs furnished by the veins and by the mirror, may be added also
+the following marks: a uniform, very large, and yielding udder,
+shrinking much in milking, and covered with soft skin and fine hair;
+good constitution, full chest, regular appetite, and great propensity to
+drink. Such cows rather incline to be poor than to be fat. The skin is
+soft and yielding; short, fine hair; small head; fine horns; bright,
+sparkling eye; mild expression; feminine look; with a fine neck.
+
+Cows of this first class are very rare. They give, even when small in
+size, from ten to fourteen quarts of milk a day; and the largest sized
+from eighteen to twenty-six quarts a day, and even more. Just after
+calving, if arrived at maturity and fed with good, wholesome, moist food
+in sufficient quantity and quality, adapted to promote the secretion of
+milk, they can give about a pint of milk for every ten ounces of hay, or
+its equivalent, which they eat.
+
+They continue in milk for a long period. The best never go dry, and may
+be milked even up to the time of calving, giving from eight to ten
+quarts of milk a day. But even the best cows often fall short of the
+quantity of milk which they are able to give, from being fed on food
+which is too dry, or not sufficiently varied, or not rich enough in
+nutritive qualities, or deficient in quantity.
+
+[Illustration: MILK-MIRROR [H.]]
+
+The SECOND class is that of _good cows_; and to this belong the best
+commonly found in the market and among the cow-feeders of cities.
+
+They have the mammary part of the milk-mirror well developed, but the
+perinean part contracted, or wholly wanting, as in cut G; or both parts
+of the mirror are moderately developed, or slightly indented, as in cut
+H. Cut E belongs also to this class, in the lower part; but it indicates
+a cow, which--as the upper mirror, 1, indicates--dries up sooner when
+again in calf.
+
+These marks, though often seen in many good cows, should be considered
+as certain only when the veins of the perineum form, under the skin, a
+kind of network, which, without being very apparent, may be felt by a
+pressure on them; when the milk-veins on the belly are well-developed,
+though less knotty and less prominent than in cows of the first class;
+in short, when the udder is well developed, and presents veins which are
+sufficiently numerous, though not very large.
+
+It is necessary here, as in the preceding class, to distrust cows in
+which the mirror is not accompanied by large veins. This remark applies
+especially to cows which have had several calves, and are in full milk.
+They are medium or bad, let the milk-mirror be what it may, if the veins
+of the belly are not large, and those of the udder apparent.
+
+The general characteristics which depend on form and constitution
+combine, less than in cows of the preceding class, the marks of good
+health and excellent constitution with those of a gentle and feminine
+look.
+
+Small cows of this class give from seven to ten or eleven quarts of milk
+a day, and the largest from thirteen to seventeen quarts. They can be
+made to give three-fourths of a pint of milk, just after calving, for
+every ten ounces of hay consumed, if well cared for, and fed in a manner
+favorable to the secretion of milk.
+
+They hold out long in milk, when they have no upper mirrors or tufts. At
+seven or eight months in calf, they may give from five to eight quarts
+of milk a day.
+
+The THIRD class consists of _middling cows_. When the milk-mirror
+really presents only the mammary or lower part slightly indicated or
+developed, and the perinean part contracted, narrow, and irregular--as
+in cut K--the cows are middling. The udder is slightly developed or
+hard, and shrinks very little after milking. The veins of the perineum
+are not apparent, and those which run along the lower side of the
+abdomen are small, straight, and sometimes unequal. In this case the
+mirror is not symmetrical, and the cow gives more milk on the side where
+the vein is the largest.
+
+[Illustration: MILK-MIRROR [K.]]
+
+These cows have large heads, and a thick, hard skin. Being ordinarily in
+good condition, they are beautiful to look at, and seem to be well
+formed. Many of them are nervous and restive, and not easily approached.
+
+Cows of this class give, according to size, from three or four to ten
+quarts of milk. They very rarely give, even in the most favorable
+circumstances, half a pint of milk for every ten ounces of hay which
+they consume. The milk diminishes rapidly, and dries up wholly the
+fourth or fifth month in calf.
+
+The FOURTH class is composed of _bad cows_. As they are commonly in
+good condition, these cows are often the most beautiful of the herd and
+in the markets. They have fleshy thighs, thick and hard skin, a large
+and coarse neck and head, and horns large at the base.
+
+The udder is hard, small and fleshy, with a skin covered with long,
+rough hair. No veins are to be seen either on the perineum or the udder,
+while those of the belly are slightly developed, and the mirrors are
+ordinarily small, as in cut L.
+
+With these characteristics, cows give only a few quarts of milk a day,
+and dry up in a short time after calving. Some of them can scarcely
+nourish their calves, even when they are properly cared for and well
+fed.
+
+Sickly habits, chronic affections of the digestive organs, the chest,
+the womb, and the lacteal system, sometimes greatly affect the milk
+secretion, and cause cows troubled with them to fall from the first or
+second to the third, and sometimes to the fourth class.
+
+Without pushing this method of judging of the good milking qualities of
+cows into the objectionable extreme to which it was carried by its
+originator, it may be safely asserted that the milk-mirror forms an
+important additional mark or point for distinguishing good milkers; and
+it may be laid down as a rule that, in the selection of milch cows, as
+well as in the choice of young animals for breeders, the milk-mirror
+should, by all means, be examined and considered; but that we should not
+limit or confine ourselves exclusively to it, and that other and
+long-known marks should be equally regarded.
+
+There are cases, however, where a knowledge and careful examination of
+the form and size of the mirror become of the highest importance. It is
+well known that certain signs or marks of great milkers are developed,
+only as the capacities of the animal herself are fully and completely
+developed by age. The milk-veins, for instance, are never so large and
+prominent in heifers and young cows as in old ones, and the same may be
+said of the udder, and of the veins of the udder and perineum; all of
+which it is of great importance to observe in the selection of milch
+cows. Those signs, then, which in cows arrived at maturity are almost
+sufficient in themselves to warrant a conclusion as to their merits as
+milkers, are, to a great extent, wanting in younger animals, and
+altogether in calves, as to which there is often doubt whether they
+shall be raised; and here a knowledge of the form of the mirror is of
+immense advantage, since it gives, at the outset and before any expense
+is incurred, a somewhat reliable means of judging of the future milking
+capacities of the animal; or, if a male, of the probability of his
+transmitting milking qualities to his offspring.
+
+[Illustration: MILK-MIRROR [L.]]
+
+It will be seen, from an examination of the points of a good milch cow
+that, though the same marks which indicate the greatest milking
+qualities may not always indicate the greatest aptitude to fatten, yet
+that the signs which denote good fattening qualities are included among
+the signs favorable to the production of milk; such as soundness of
+constitution, marked by good organs of digestion and respiration
+fineness and mellowness of the skin and hair, quietness of
+disposition--which inclines the animal to rest and lie down while
+chewing the cud--and other marks which are relied on by graziers in
+selecting animals to fatten.
+
+In buying dairy stock the farmer generally finds it for his interest to
+select young heifers, as they give the promise of longer usefulness. But
+it is often the case that older cows are selected with the design of
+using them for the dairy for a limited period, and then feeding them for
+the butcher. In either case, it is advisable, as a rule, to choose
+animals in low or medium condition. The farmer cannot commonly afford to
+buy fat; it is more properly his business to make it, and to have it to
+sell. Good and well-marked cows in poor condition will rapidly gain in
+flesh and products when removed to better pastures and higher keeping,
+and they cost less in the original purchase.
+
+It is, perhaps, superfluous to add that regard should be had to the
+quality of the pasturage and keeping which a cow has previously had, as
+compared with that to which she is to be subjected. The size of the
+animal should also be considered with reference to the fertility of the
+pastures into which she is to be put. Small or medium-sized animals
+accommodate themselves to ordinary pastures far better than large ones.
+Where a very large cow will do well, two small ones will usually do
+better; while the large animal might fail entirely where two small ones
+would do well. It is better to have the whole herd, so far as may be,
+uniform in size; for, if they vary greatly, some may get more than they
+need, and others will not have enough. This, however, cannot always be
+brought about.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Crossing and Breeding
+
+
+The raising of cattle has now become a source of profit in many
+sections,--to a greater extent, at least, than formerly--and it becomes
+a matter of great practical importance to our farmers to take the proper
+steps to improve them. Indeed, the questions--what are the best breeds,
+and what are the best crosses, and how shall I improve my stock--are now
+asked almost daily; and their practical solution would add many thousand
+dollars to the aggregate wealth of the farmers of the country, if they
+would all study their own interests.
+
+The time is gradually passing away when the intelligent practical farmer
+will be willing to put his cows to any bull, simply because his services
+may be had for twenty-five cents; for, even if the progeny is to go to
+the butcher, the calf sired by a pure-bred bull--particularly of a race
+distinguished for fineness of bone, symmetry of form, and early
+maturity--will bring a much higher price at the same age than a calf
+sired by a scrub. Blood has a money value, which will, sooner or later,
+be generally appreciated.
+
+The first and most important object of the farmer is to get the greatest
+return in money for his labor and his produce; and it is for his
+interest to obtain an animal--a calf, for example--that will yield the
+largest profit on the outlay. If a calf, for which the original outlay
+was five dollars, will bring at the same age and on the same keep more
+real net profit than another, the original outlay for which was not
+twenty-five cents, it is certainly for the farmer's interest to make the
+heavier original outlay and thus secure the superior animal. Setting all
+fancy aside, it is merely a question of dollars and cents; but one thing
+is certain--and that is, that no farmer can afford to keep poor stock.
+It eats as much, and requires nearly the same amount of care and
+attention, as stock of the best quality; while it is equally certain
+that stock of ever so good a quality, whether grade, native, or
+thorough-bred, will be sure to deteriorate and sink to the level of poor
+stock by neglect and want of proper attention.
+
+How, then, is our stock to be improved? Not, certainly, by that
+indiscriminate crossing, with a total disregard of all well-established
+principles, which has thus far marked our efforts with foreign stock,
+and which is one prominent reason why so little improvement has been
+made in our dairies; nor by leaving all the results to chance, when, by
+a careful and judicious selection, they may be within our own control.
+
+We want cattle for distinct purposes, as for milk, beef, or labor. In a
+large majority of cases--especially in the dairy districts, at least,
+comprising the Eastern and Middle States--the farmer cares more for the
+milking qualities of his cows, especially for the quantity they give,
+than for their fitness for grazing, or aptness to fatten. These latter
+points become more important in the Western and some of the Southern
+States, where much greater attention is paid to breeding and to feeding,
+and where comparatively slight attention is given to the productions of
+the dairy. A stock of cattle which would suit one farmer might be wholly
+unsuited to another, and in such particular case the breeder should have
+some special object in view, and select his animals with reference to
+it.
+
+There are, however, some well-defined general principles that apply to
+breeding everywhere, and which, in many cases, are not thoroughly
+understood. To these attention will now be directed.
+
+The first and most important of the laws to be considered in this
+connection is that of _similarity_. It is by virtue of this law that the
+peculiar characters, properties, and qualities of the parents--whether
+external or internal, good or bad, healthy or diseased--are transmitted
+to their offspring. This is one of the plainest and most certain of the
+laws of nature. The lesson which it teaches may be stated in five
+words:--Breed only from the best.
+
+Judicious selection is indispensable to success in breeding, and this
+should have regard to every particular--general appearance, length of
+limb, shape of carcass, development of chest; in cattle, to the size,
+shape, and position of the udder, thickness of skin, touch, length and
+texture of hair, docility, and all those points which go to make up the
+desirable animal.
+
+Not only should care be exercised to avoid _structural defects_, but
+especially to secure freedom from _hereditary diseases_; as both defects
+and diseases appear to be more easily transmissible than desirable
+qualities. There is, oftentimes, no obvious peculiarity of structure or
+appearance which suggests the possession of diseases or defects which
+are transmissible; and for this reason, special care and continued
+acquaintance are requisite in order to be assured of their absence in
+breeding animals; but such a tendency, although invisible or
+inappreciable to careless observers, must still, judging from its
+effects, have as real and certain an existence as any peculiarity of
+form or color.
+
+In neat cattle, hereditary diseases do not usually show themselves at
+birth; and sometimes the tendency remains latent for many years, perhaps
+through one or two generations, and afterward breaks out with all its
+former severity. The diseases which are found hereditary in cattle are
+scrofula, consumption, dysentery, diarrhoea, rheumatism, and malignant
+tumors. As these animals are less exposed to the exciting causes of
+disease, and less liable to be overtasked or subjected to violent
+changes of temperature, or otherwise put in jeopardy, their diseases are
+not so numerous as those of the horse, and what they have are less
+violent, and generally of a chronic character.
+
+With regard to hereditary diseases, it is eminently true that "an ounce
+of prevention is worth a pound of cure." As a general and almost
+invariable rule, animals possessing either defects or a tendency to
+disease, should not be employed for breeding. If, however, for special
+reasons it seems desirable to breed from one which has some slight
+defect of symmetry, or a faint tendency to disease--although for the
+latter it is doubtful whether the possession of any good qualities can
+fully compensate--it should be mated with one which excels in every
+respect in which it is itself deficient, and on no account with one
+which is near of kin to it.
+
+There is another law, by which that of similarity is greatly
+modified--the law of _Variation_ or divergence.
+
+All animals possess a certain flexibility or pliancy of organization,
+which renders them capable of change to a greater or less extent. When
+in a state of nature, variations are comparatively slow and infrequent;
+but when in a state of domestication they occur much oftener and to a
+much greater extent. The greater variability in the latter case is
+doubtless owing, in some measure, to our domestic productions' being
+reared under conditions of life not so uniform as, and different from,
+those to which the parent species was exposed in a state of nature.
+
+Among what are usually reckoned the more active causes of variation may
+be named _climate_, _food_, and _habit_. Animals in a cold climate are
+provided with a thicker covering of hair than in warmer ones. Indeed, it
+is said that in some of the tropical provinces of South America, there
+are cattle which have an extremely rare and fine fur, in place of the
+ordinary pile of hair. The supply of food, whether abundant or scanty,
+is one of the most efficient causes of variation known to be within the
+control of man. A due consideration of the natural effects of climate
+and food is a point worthy the careful attention of the
+stock-husbandman. If the breeds employed be well adapted to the
+situation, and the capacity of the soil be such as to feed them fully,
+profit may be safely anticipated. Animals are to be regarded as machines
+for converting herbage into money.
+
+The bestowal of food sufficient, both in amount and quality, to enable
+animals to develop all the excellencies inherent in them, and yield all
+the profit of which they are capable, is something quite distinct from
+undue forcing of pampering. The latter process may produce wonderful
+animals to look at, but neither useful nor profitable ones, and there is
+danger of thus producing a most undesirable variation, since in animals
+the process may be carried far enough to produce barrenness. Instances
+are not wanting, particularly among the more recent improved
+short-horns, of impotency among the males and of barrenness among the
+females; and in some cases where the latter have borne calves, they have
+failed to secrete sufficient milk for their nourishment. Impotency in
+bulls of various breeds has, in many instances, occurred from too high
+feeding, especially when connected with a lack of sufficient exercise. A
+working bull, though perhaps not so pleasing to the eye as a fat one, is
+a surer stock-getter; and his progeny is more likely to inherit full
+health and vigor.
+
+_Habit_ has a decided influence toward producing variations. We find in
+domestic animals that use--or the demand created by habit--is met by a
+development or change in the organization adapted to the requirement.
+For instance, with cows in a state of nature, or where required only to
+suckle their young, the supply of milk is barely fitted to the
+requirement. If more is desired, and the milk is drawn completely and
+regularly, the yield is increased and continued longer. By keeping up
+the demand there is induced, in the next generation, a greater
+development of the secreting organs, and more milk is given. By
+continuing the practice, by furnishing the needful conditions of
+suitable food and the like, and by selecting in each generation those
+animals showing the greatest tendency toward milk, a breed specially
+adapted for the dairy may be established. It is just by this mode that
+the Ayrshires have, within the past century, been brought to be what
+they are--a breed giving more good milk upon a certain amount of food
+than any other.
+
+[Illustration: READY FOR ACTION.]
+
+It is a fact too well established to be controverted, that the first
+male produces impressions upon subsequent progeny by other males. To
+what extent this principle holds, it is impossible to say. Although the
+instances in which it is known to be of a very marked and obvious
+character may be comparatively few, yet there is ample reason to
+believe that, although in a majority of cases the effect may be less
+noticeable, it is not less real; and it therefore demands the special
+attention of breeders. The knowledge of this law furnishes a clue to the
+cause of many of the disappointments of which practical breeders often
+complain, and of many variations otherwise unaccountable, and it
+suggests particular caution as to the first male employed in the
+coupling of animals--a matter which has often been deemed of little
+consequence in regard to cattle, inasmuch as fewer heifers' first calves
+are reared, than those are which are borne subsequently.
+
+The phenomenon--or law, as it is sometimes called--of atavism, or
+_ancestral influence_, is one of considerable practical importance, and
+well deserves the careful attention of the breeder of farm stock.
+
+Every one is aware that it is by no means unusual for a child to
+resemble its grandfather, or grandmother, or even some ancestor still
+more remote, more than it does either its own father or mother. The same
+occurrence is found among our domestic animals, and oftener in
+proportion as the breeds are crossed or mixed up. Among our common stock
+of neat cattle, or natives--originating, as they did, from animals
+brought from England, Scotland, Denmark, France, and Spain, each
+possessing different characteristics of form, color, and use, and bred,
+as our common stock has usually been, indiscriminately together, with no
+special object in view, with no attempt to obtain any particular type or
+form, or to secure adaptation for any particular purpose--frequent
+opportunities are afforded of witnessing the results of this law of
+hereditary transmission. So common, indeed, is its occurrence, that the
+remark is often made, that, however good a cow may be, there is no
+telling beforehand what sort of a calf she may have. The fact is
+sufficiently obvious, that certain peculiarities often lie dormant for a
+generation or two and then reappear in subsequent progeny. Stockmen
+often speak of it as "breeding back," or "crying back."
+
+The lesson taught by this law is very plain. It shows the importance of
+seeking thorough-bred or well-bred animals; and by these terms are
+simply meant such as are descended from a line of ancestors in which for
+many generations the desirable forms, qualities, and characteristics
+have been _uniformly shown_. In such a case, even if ancestral influence
+does come in play, no material difference appears in the offspring, the
+ancestors being all essentially alike. From this standpoint we best
+perceive in what consists the money value of a good "pedigree." This is
+valuable, in proportion as it shows an animal to be descended, not only
+from such as are purely of its own race or breed, but also from such
+individuals of that breed as were specially noted for the excellencies
+for which that particular breed is esteemed.
+
+Probably the most distinctly marked evidence of ancestral influence
+among us, is to be found in the ill-begotten, round-headed calves, not
+infrequently dropped by cows of the common mixed kind, which, if killed
+early, make very blue veal, and if allowed to grow up, become
+exceedingly profitless and unsatisfactory beasts; the heifers being
+often barren, the cows poor milkers, the oxen dull, mulish beasts,
+yielding flesh of very dark color, of ill flavor and destitute of fat.
+
+_The relative influence_ of the male and female parents upon the
+characteristics of progeny has long been a fruitful subject of
+discussion among breeders. It is found in experience that progeny
+sometimes resembles one parent more than the other--sometimes there is
+an apparent blending of the characteristics of both--sometimes a
+noticeable dissimilarity to either, though always more or less
+resemblance somewhere--and sometimes the impress of one may be seen upon
+a portion of the organization of the offspring, and that of the other
+parent upon another portion; yet we are not authorized from such
+discrepancies to conclude that it is a matter of chance; for all of
+nature's operations are conducted in accordance with fixed laws, whether
+we be able fully to discover them or not. The same causes always produce
+the same results. In this case, not less than in others, there are,
+beyond all doubt, certain fixed laws; and the varying results which we
+see are easily and sufficiently accounted for by the existence of
+conditions or modifying influences not fully open to our observation.
+
+It may be stated, on the whole--as a result of the varied investigations
+to which this question has given rise--that the evidence, both from
+observation and the testimony of the best practical breeders, goes to
+show that each parent usually contributes certain portions of the
+organization to the offspring, and that each has a modifying influence
+upon the other. Facts also show that the same parent does not always
+contribute the same portions, but that the order is at times, and not
+rarely, reversed. Where animals are of distinct species or breeds,
+transmission is usually found to be in harmony with the principle, that
+the male gives mostly the outward form and locomotive system, and the
+female chiefly the interior system, constitution and the like. Where
+the parents are of the same breed, it appears that the proportions
+contributed by each are governed, in a large measure, by the condition
+of each in regard to age and vigor, or by virtue of individual potency
+or superiority of physical endowment. This potency or power of
+transmission, seems to be legitimately connected with high breeding, or
+the concentration of fixed qualities, obtained by continued descent for
+many generations from such only as possess in the highest degree the
+qualities desired.
+
+Practically, the knowledge obtained dictates in a most emphatic manner
+that every stock-grower use his utmost endeavor to obtain the services
+of the best sires; that is, the best for the ends and purposes in
+view--that he depend chiefly on the sire for outward form and
+symmetry--and that he select dams best calculated to develop the good
+qualities of the male, depending chiefly upon these for freedom, from
+internal disease, for hardihood and constitution, and, generally, for
+all qualities dependent upon the vital or nutritive system. The neglect
+of the qualities of the dam, which is far too common--miserably old and
+inferior animals being often employed--cannot be too strongly censured.
+
+With regard to the laws which regulate the sex of the progeny very
+little is known. Many and extensive observations have been made, without
+reaching any definite conclusion. Nature seems to have provided that the
+number of each sex; produced, shall be nearly equal; but by what means
+this result is attained, has not as yet been discovered.
+
+It has long been a disputed point, whether the system of _breeding
+in-and-in_, or the opposite one of frequent crossing, has the greater
+tendency to improve the character of stock This term, in-and-in, is
+often very loosely used and as variously understood. Some confine the
+phrase to the coupling of those of exactly the same blood, as brothers
+and sisters, while others include in it breeding from parents and
+offsprings; and others still employ it to embrace those of a more
+distant relationship. For the last, the term breeding-in, or close
+breeding, is generally deemed more suitable.
+
+The current opinion is decidedly against the practice of breeding from
+any near relatives; it being usually found that degeneracy follows, and
+often to a serious degree; but it is not proved that this degeneracy,
+although very common and even usual, is yet a necessary consequence.
+That ill effects follow, in a majority of cases, is not to be doubted;
+but this is easily and sufficiently accounted for upon quite other
+grounds. Perhaps, however, the following propositions may be safely
+stated: That in general practice, with the grades and mixed animals
+common in the country, _close-breeding should be scrupulously avoided_
+as highly detrimental. It is better _always_ to avoid breeding from near
+relatives whenever stock-getters of the same breed and of equal merit
+can be obtained which are not related. Yet, where this is not possible,
+or where there is some desirable and clearly defined purpose in view--as
+the fixing and perpetuating of some valuable quality in a particular
+animal not common to the breed--and the breeder possesses the knowledge
+and skill needful to accomplish his purpose, and the animals are perfect
+in health and development, close breeding may be practised with
+advantage.
+
+The practice of _crossing_, like that of close breeding, has its strong
+and its weak side. Judiciously practised, it offers a means of
+providing animals _for the butcher_, often superior to, and more
+profitable than, those of any pure breed. It is also admissible as the
+foundation of a systematic and well-considered attempt to establish a
+new breed. But when crossing is practised injudiciously and
+indiscriminately, and especially when so done for the purpose of
+procuring _breeding animals_, it is scarcely less objectionable than
+careless in-and-in breeding.
+
+[Illustration: A SPRIGHTLY YOUTH.]
+
+The profitable style of breeding for the great majority of farmers to
+adopt, is neither to cross nor to breed from close affinities--except in
+rare instances, and for some specific and clearly understood
+purpose--but to _breed in the line_; that is, to select the breed or
+race best adapted to fulfil the requirement demanded, whether it be for
+the dairy, for labor, or for such combination of these as can be had
+without too great a sacrifice of the principal requisite, and then to
+procure a _pure-bred_ male of the kind determined upon, and breed him to
+the females of the herd; and if these be not such as are calculated to
+develop his qualities, endeavor by purchase or exchange to procure such
+as will. Let the progeny of these be bred to another _pure-bred_ male of
+the same breed, but as distantly related to the first as may be. Let
+this plan be faithfully pursued, and, although we cannot, without the
+intervention of well-bred females, procure stock purely of the kind
+desired, yet in several generations--if proper care be given to the
+selection of males, that each one be such as to retain and improve upon
+the points gained by his predecessor--the stock, for most practical
+purposes, will be as good as if thorough-bred. If this plan were
+generally adopted, and a system of letting or exchanging males
+established, the cost might be brought within the means of most persons,
+and the advantages which would accrue would be almost beyond belief.
+
+A brief summing-up of the foregoing principles may not be inappropriate
+here.
+
+The law of similarity teaches us to select animals for breeding which
+possess the desired forms and qualities in the greatest perfection and
+best combination.
+
+Regard should be had, not only to the more obvious characteristics, but
+also to such hereditary traits and tendencies as may be hidden from
+cursory observation and demand careful and thorough investigation.
+
+From the hereditary nature of all characteristics, whether good or bad,
+we learn the importance of having all desirable qualities _thoroughly
+inbred_; or, in other words, so firmly in each generation that the next
+is warrantably certain to present nothing worse--that no ill results
+follow from breeding back to some inferior ancestor--that all
+undesirable traits or points be, so far as possible, _bred-out_.
+
+So important is this consideration, that, in practice, it is decidedly
+preferable to employ a male of ordinary external appearance--provided
+his ancestry be all which is desired--rather than a grade, or
+cross-bred animal, although the latter be greatly his superior in
+personal beauty.
+
+A knowledge of the law of variation teaches us to avoid, for breeding
+purposes, such animals as exhibit variations unfavorable to the purpose
+in view; to endeavor to perpetuate every real improvement gained; as
+well as to secure, as far as practicable, the conditions necessary to
+induce or continue any improvement, such as general treatment, food,
+climate, habits, and the like.
+
+Where the parents do not possess the perfections desired, selections for
+coupling should be made with critical reference to correcting the faults
+or deficiencies of one by corresponding excellencies in the other.
+
+To correct defects, too much must not be attempted at once. Pairing
+those very unlike oftener results in loss than gain. Avoid all extremes,
+and endeavor by moderate degrees to attain the end desired.
+
+Crossing, between different breeds, for the purpose of obtaining animals
+for the shambles, may be advantageously practised to a considerable
+extent, but not for the production of breeding animals. As a general
+rule, cross-bred males should not be employed for propagation, and
+cross-bred females should be served by thorough-bred males.
+
+In ordinary practice, breeding from near relatives is to be scrupulously
+avoided. For certain purposes, under certain conditions and
+circumstances, and in the hands of a skillful breeder, it may be
+practised with advantage--but not otherwise.
+
+In a large majority of cases--other things being equal--we may expect in
+progeny the outward form and general structure of the sire, together
+with the internal qualities, constitution, and nutritive system of the
+dam; each, however, modified by the other.
+
+Particular care should always be taken that the male by which the dam
+first becomes pregnant is the best which can be obtained; also, that at
+the time of sexual congress both are in vigorous health.
+
+Breeding animals should not be allowed to become fat, but always kept in
+thrifty condition; and such as are intended for the butcher should never
+be fat but once.
+
+In deciding with what breeds to stock a farm, endeavor to select those
+best adapted to its surface, climate, and degree of fertility; also,
+with reference to probable demand and proximity to markets.
+
+No expense incurred in procuring choice animals for propagation, no
+amount of skill in breeding, can supersede, or compensate for, a lack of
+liberal feeding and good treatment. The better the stock, the better
+care they deserve.
+
+
+PREGNANCY
+
+The symptoms of pregnancy in its early stage were formerly deemed
+exceedingly unsatisfactory. The period of being in season--which
+commonly lasts three or four days, and then ceases for a while, and
+returns in about three weeks--might entirely pass over; and, although it
+was then probable that conception had taken place, yet in a great many
+instances the hopes of the breeder were disappointed. It was not until
+between the third and fourth month, when the belly began to enlarge--or,
+in many cases, considerably later--and when the motions of the foetus
+might be seen, or, at all events, felt by pressing on the right flank,
+that the farmer could be assured that his cow was in calf.
+
+That greatest of improvements in veterinary practice, the application of
+the ear to the chest and belly of various animals, in order to detect by
+the different sounds--which after a short time, will be easily
+recognized--the state of the circulation through most of the organs, and
+consequently, the precise seat and degree of inflammation and danger,
+has now enabled the breeder to ascertain the existence of pregnancy at
+as early a stage as six or eight weeks. The beating of the heart of the
+calf may then be distinctly heard, twice, or more than twice, as
+frequent as that of the mother; and each pulsation will betray the
+singular double beating of the foetal heart. This will also be
+accompanied by the audible rushing of the blood through the vessels of
+the placenta. The ear should be applied to the right flank, beginning on
+the higher part of it, and gradually shifting downward and backward.
+These sounds will thus soon be heard, and cannot be mistaken.
+
+
+TREATMENT BEFORE CALVING.
+
+Little alteration needs to be made in the management of the cow for the
+first seven months of pregnancy; except that, as she has not only to
+yield milk for the profit of the farmer, but to nourish the growing
+foetus within, she should be well, yet not too luxuriantly, fed. The
+half-starved cow will not adequately discharge this double duty, nor
+provide sufficient nutriment for the calf when it has dropped; while the
+cow in high condition will be dangerously disposed to inflammation and
+fever, when, at the time of parturition, she is otherwise so
+susceptible of the power of every stimulus. If the season and the
+convenience of the farmer will allow, she will be better at pasture, at
+least for some hours each day than when confined altogether to the
+cow-house.
+
+At a somewhat uncertain period before she calves, there will be a new
+secretion of milk for the expected little one; and under the notion of
+somewhat recruiting her strength, in order better to enable her to
+discharge her new duty--but more from the uniform testimony of
+experience that there is danger of local inflammation, general fever,
+garget in the udder, and puerperal fever, if the new milk descends while
+the old milk continues to flow--it has been usual to let the cow _go
+dry_ for some period before parturition. Farmers and breeders have been
+strangely divided as to the length of this period. It must be decided by
+circumstances. A cow in good condition may be milked for a much longer
+period than a poor one. Her abundance of food renders a period of
+respite almost unnecessary; and all that needs to be taken care of, is
+that the old milk should be fairly gone before the new milk springs. In
+such a cow, while there is danger of inflammation from the sudden rush
+of new milk into a bag already occupied, there is almost always
+considerable danger of indurations and tumors in the teats from the
+habit of secretion being too long suspended. The emaciated and
+over-milked beast, however, must rest a while before she can again
+advantageously discharge the duties of a mother.
+
+If the period of pregnancy were of equal length at all times and in all
+cows, the one that has been well fed might be milked until within a
+fortnight or three weeks of parturition, while a holiday of two months
+should be granted to the poorer beast; but as there is much
+irregularity about the time of gestation, it may be prudent to take a
+month or five Weeks, as the average period.
+
+The process of parturition is necessarily one that is accompanied with a
+great deal of febrile excitement; and, therefore, when it nearly
+approaches, not only should a little care be taken to lessen the
+quantity of food, and to remove that which is of a stimulating action,
+but a mild dose of physic, and a bleeding regulated by the condition of
+the animal, will be very proper precautionary measures.
+
+A moderately open state of the bowels is necessary at the period of
+parturition in the cow. During the whole time of pregnancy her enormous
+stomach sufficiently presses upon and confines the womb; and that
+pressure may be productive of injurious and fatal consequences, if at
+this period the rumen is suffered to be distended by innutritious food,
+or the manyplus takes on that hardened state to which it is occasionally
+subject. Breeders have been sadly negligent in this respect.
+
+The springing of the udder, or the rapid enlargement of it from the
+renewed secretion of milk--the enlargement of the external parts of the
+bearing (the former, as has been said by some, in old cows, and the
+latter in young ones)--the appearance of a glaring discharge from the
+bearing--the evident dropping of the belly, with the appearance of
+leanness and narrowness between the shape and the udder--a degree of
+uneasiness and fidgetiness--moaning occasionally--accelerated
+respiration--all these symptoms will announce that the time of calving
+is not far off. The cow should be brought near home, and put in some
+quiet, sheltered place. In cold or stormy weather she should be housed.
+Her uneasiness will rapidly increase--she will be continually getting up
+and lying down--her tail will begin to be elevated and the commencement
+of the labor-pains will soon be evident.
+
+In most cases the parturition will be natural and easy, and the less the
+cow is disturbed or meddled with, the better. She will do better without
+help than with it; but she should be watched, in order to see that no
+difficulty occurs which may require aid and attention. In cases of
+difficult parturition the aid of a skillful veterinary surgeon may be
+required.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Feeding and Management
+
+
+No branch of dairy farming can compare in importance with the management
+of cows. The highest success will depend upon it, whatever breed be
+selected, and whatever amount of care and attention be given to the
+points of the animals; for experience will show that very little milk
+comes out of the bag, that is not first put into the throat. It is poor
+economy, therefore, to attempt to keep too many cows for the amount of
+feed one has; for it will generally be found that one good cow well-bred
+and well fed will yield as much as two ordinary cows kept in the
+ordinary way; while a saving is effected both in labor and room
+required, and in the risks on the capital invested. If an argument for
+the larger number on poorer feed is urged on the ground of the
+additional manure--which is the only basis upon which it can be put--it
+is enough to say that it is a very expensive way of making manure. It is
+not too strong an assertion, that a proper regard to profit and economy
+would require many an American farmer to sell off nearly half of his
+cows, and to feed the whole of his hay and roots hitherto used into the
+remainder.
+
+An animal, to be fully fed and satisfied, requires a quantity of food in
+proportion to its live weight. No feed is complete that does not contain
+a sufficient amount of nutritive elements; hay, for example, being more
+nutritive than straw, and grains than roots. The food, too, must possess
+a bulk sufficient to fill up to a certain degree the organs of digestion
+of the stomach; and, to receive the full benefit of its food, the animal
+must be wholly satisfied--since, if the stomach is not sufficiently
+distended, the food cannot be properly digested, and of course many of
+the nutritive principles which it contains cannot be perfectly
+assimilated. An animal regularly fed eats till it is satisfied, and no
+more than is requisite. A part of the nutritive elements in hay and
+other forage plants is needed to keep an animal on its feet--that is, to
+keep up its condition--and if the nutrition of its food is insufficient
+for this, the weight decreases, and if it is more than sufficient the
+weight increases, or else this excess is consumed in the production of
+milk or in labor. About one sixtieth of their live weight in hay, or its
+equivalent, will keep horned cattle on their feet; but, in order to be
+completely nourished, they require about one thirtieth in dry
+substances, and four thirtieths in water, or other liquid contained in
+their food. The excess of nutritive food over and above what is
+necessary to sustain life will go, in milch cows, generally to the
+production of milk, or to the growth of the foetus, but not in all
+cows to an equal extent; the tendency to the secretion of milk being
+much more developed in some than in others.
+
+With regard, however, to the consumption of food in proportion to the
+live weight of the animal, it must be taken, in common with all general
+principles, with some qualifications. The proportion is probably not
+uniform as applied to all breeds indiscriminately, though it may be more
+so as applied to animals of the same breed. The idea of some celebrated
+stock-raisers has been that the quantity of food required depends much
+upon the shape of the barrel; and it is well known that an animal of a
+close, compact, well-rounded barrel, will consume less than one of an
+opposite make.
+
+The variations in the yield of milch cows are caused more by the
+variations in the nutritive elements of their food than by a change of
+the form in which it is given. A cow, kept through the winter on mere
+straw, will cease to give milk; and, when fed in spring on green forage,
+will give a fair quantity of milk. But she owes the cessation and
+restoration of the secretion, respectively, to the diminution and
+increase of her nourishment, and not at all to the change of form, or of
+outward substance in which the nutriment is administered. Let cows
+receive through winter nearly as large a proportion of nutritive matter
+as is contained in the clover, lucerne, and fresh grass which they eat
+in summer, and, no matter in what precise substance or mixture that
+matter be contained, they will yield a winter's produce of milk quite as
+rich in caseine and butyraceous ingredients as the summer's produce, and
+far more ample in quantity than almost any dairyman with old-fashioned
+notions would imagine to be possible. The great practical error on this
+subject consists, not in giving wrong kinds of food, but in not so
+proportioning and preparing it as to render an average ration of it
+equally rich in the elements of nutrition, and especially in nitrogenous
+elements, as an average ration of the green and succulent food of
+summer.
+
+We keep too much stock for the quantity of good and nutritious food
+which we have for it; and the consequence is, that cows are, in nine
+cases out of ten, poorly wintered, and come out in the spring weakened,
+if not, indeed, positively diseased, and a long time is required to
+bring them into a condition to yield a generous quantity of milk.
+
+It is a hard struggle for a cow reduced in flesh and in blood to fill up
+the wasted system with the food which would otherwise have gone to the
+secretion of milk; but, if she is well fed, well housed, well littered,
+and well supplied with pure, fresh water, and with roots, or other
+_moist_ food, and properly treated to the luxury of a frequent carding,
+and constant kindness, she comes out ready to commence the manufacture
+of milk under favorable circumstances.
+
+_Keep the cows constantly in good condition_, ought, therefore, to be
+the motto of every dairy farmer, posted up over the barn, and on and
+over the stalls, and over the milk-room, and repeated to the boys
+whenever there is danger of forgetting it. It is the great secret of
+success; and the difference between success and failure turns upon it.
+Cows in milk require more food in proportion to their size and weight
+than either oxen or young cattle.
+
+In order to keep cows in milk well and economically, regularity is next
+in importance to a full supply of wholesome and nutritious food. The
+animal stomach is a very nice chronometer, and it is of the utmost
+importance to observe regular hours in feeding, cleaning, and milking.
+This is a point, also, in which very many farmers are at fault--feeding
+whenever it happens to be convenient. The cattle are thus kept in a
+restless condition, constantly expecting food when the keeper enters the
+barn; while, if regular hours are strictly adhered to, they know exactly
+when they are to be fed, and they rest quietly till the time arrives. If
+one goes into any well-regulated dairy establishment an hour before
+feeding, scarcely an animal will rise to its feet; while; if it happens
+to be the hour of feeding, the whole herd will be likely to rise and
+seize their food with an avidity and relish not to be mistaken.
+
+With respect to the exact nurture to be pursued, no rule could be
+prescribed which would apply to all cases; and each individual must be
+governed much by circumstances, both regarding the particular kinds of
+feed at different seasons of the year, and the system of feeding. It has
+been found--it may be stated--in the practice of the most successful
+dairymen, that, in order to encourage the largest secretion of milk in
+stalled cows, one of the best courses is, to feed in the morning, either
+at the time of milking--which is preferred by many--or immediately
+after, with cut feed, consisting of hay, oats, millet, or cornstalks,
+mixed with shorts, and Indian linseed, or cotton-seed meal, thoroughly
+moistened with water. If in winter, hot or warm water is far better than
+cold. If given at milking-time, the cows will generally give down their
+milk more readily. The stalls and mangers should first be thoroughly
+cleansed.
+
+[Illustration: THE FAMILY PETS.]
+
+Roots and long hay may be given during the day; and at the evening
+milking, or directly after, another generous meal of cut feed, well
+moistened and mixed, as in the morning. No very concentrated food, like
+grains alone, or oil-cakes, should be fed early in the morning on an
+empty stomach, although it is sanctioned by the practice in the London
+milk-dairies. The processes of digestion go on best when the stomach is
+sufficiently distended; and for this purpose the bulk of food is almost
+as important as the nutritive qualities. The flavor of some roots, as
+cabbages and turnips, is more apt to be imparted to the flesh and milk
+when fed on an empty stomach than otherwise. After the cows have been
+milked and have finished their cut feed, they are carded and curried
+down, in well-managed dairies, and then either watered in the
+stall--which, in very cold or stormy weather, is far preferable--or
+turned out to water in the yard. While they are out, if they are let out
+at all, the stables are put in order; and, after tying them up, they are
+fed with long hay, and left to themselves till the next feeding time.
+This may consist of roots--such as cabbages, beets, carrots, or
+turnips sliced--or of potatoes, a peck, or--if the cows are very
+large--a half-bushel each, and cut feed again at the evening milking, as
+in the morning; after which, water in the stall, if possible.
+
+The less cows are exposed to the cold of winter, the better. They eat
+less, thrive better, and give more milk, when kept housed all the time,
+than when exposed to the cold. A case is on record, where a herd of
+cows, which had usually been supplied from troughs and pipes in the
+stalls, were, on account of an obstruction in the pipes, obliged to be
+turned out thrice a day to be watered in the yard. The quantity of milk
+instantly decreased, and in three days the diminution became very
+considerable. After the pipes were mended, and the cows again watered,
+as before, in their stalls, the flow of milk returned. This, however,
+must be governed much by the weather; for in very mild and warm days it
+may be judicious not only to let them out, but to allow them to remain
+out for a short time, for the purpose of exercise.
+
+Any one can arrange the hour for the several processes named above, to
+suit himself; but, when once fixed, it should be rigidly and regularly
+followed. If the regular and full feeding be neglected for even a day,
+the yield of milk will immediately decline, and it will be very
+difficult to restore it. It may be safely asserted, as the result of
+many trials and long practice, that a larger flow of milk follows a
+complete system of regularity in this respect than from a higher feeding
+where this system is not adhered to.
+
+One prime object which the dairyman should keep constantly in view is,
+to maintain the animal in a sound and healthy condition. Without this,
+no profit can be expected from a milch cow for any considerable length
+of time; and with a view to this, there should be an occasional change
+of food. But, in making changes, great care is requisite in order to
+supply the needful amount of nourishment, or the cow will fall off in
+flesh, and eventually in milk. It should, therefore, be remembered that
+the food consumed goes not alone to the secretion of milk, but also to
+the growth and maintenance of the bony structure, the flesh, the blood,
+the fat, the skin, and the hair, and in exhalations from the body. These
+parts of the body consist of different organic constituents. Some are
+rich in nitrogen, as the fibrin of the blood and albumen; others
+destitute of it, as fat; some abound in inorganic salts, phosphate of
+lime, and salts of potash. To explain how the constant waste of these
+substances may be supplied, a celebrated chemist observes that the
+albumen, gluten, caseine, and other nitrogenized principles of food,
+supply the animal with the materials requisite for the formation of
+muscle and cartilage; they are, therefore, called flesh-forming
+principles.
+
+Fats, or oily matters of the food, are used to lay on fat, or for the
+purpose of sustaining respiration.
+
+Starch, sugar, gum, and a few other non-nitrogenized substances,
+consisting of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, supply the carbon given off
+in respiration, or they are used for the production of fat.
+
+Phosphate of lime and magnesia in food principally furnish the animal
+with the materials of which the bony skeleton of its body consists.
+
+Saline substances--chlorides of sodium and potassium, sulphate and
+phosphate of potash and soda, and some other mineral matters occurring
+in food--supply the blood, juice of flesh, and various animal juices,
+with the necessary mineral constituents.
+
+The healthy state of an animal can thus only be preserved by a mixed
+food; that is, food which contains all the proximate principles just
+noticed. Starch or sugar alone cannot sustain the animal body, since
+neither of them furnishes the materials to build up the fleshy parts of
+the animal. When fed on substances in which an insufficient quantity of
+phosphates occurs, the animal will become weak, because it does not find
+any bone-producing principle in its food. Due attention should,
+therefore, be paid by the feeder to the selection of food which contains
+all the kinds of matter required, nitrogenized as well as
+non-nitrogenized, and mineral substances; and these should be mixed
+together in the proportion which experience points out as best for the
+different kinds of animals, or the particular purpose for which they are
+kept.
+
+Relative to the nutrition of cows for dairy purposes, milk may be
+regarded as a material for the manufacture of butter and cheese; and,
+according to the purpose for which the milk is intended to be employed,
+whether for the manufacture of butter or the production of cheese, the
+cow should be differently fed.
+
+Butter contains carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, and no nitrogen. Cheese,
+on the contrary, is rich in nitrogen. Food which contains much fatty
+matter, or substances which in the animal system are readily converted
+into fat, will tend to increase the proportion of cream in milk. On the
+other hand, the proportion of caseine or cheesy matter in milk is
+increased by the use of highly nitrogenized food. Those, then, who
+desire much cream, or who produce cream for the manufacture of butter,
+select food likely to increase the proportion of butter in the milk. On
+the contrary, where the principal object is the production of milk rich
+in curd--that is, where cheese is the object of the farmer--clover,
+peas, bran-meal, and other plants which abound in legumine--a
+nitrogenized organic compound, almost identical in properties and
+composition with caseine, or the substance which forms the curd of
+milk--will be selected.
+
+And so the quality, as well as the quantity, of butter in the milk,
+depends on the kind of food consumed and on the general health of the
+animal. Cows fed on turnips in the stall always produce butter inferior
+to that of cows living upon the fresh and aromatic grasses of the
+pastures.
+
+Succulent food in which water abounds--the green grass of irrigated
+meadows, green clover, brewers' and distillers' refuse, and the
+like--increases the quantity, rather than the quality, of the milk; and
+by feeding these substances the milk-dairyman studies his own interest,
+and makes thin milk without diluting it with water--though, in the
+opinion of some, this may be no more legitimate than watering the milk.
+
+But, though the yield of milk may be increased by succulent or watery
+food, it should be given so as not to interfere with the health of the
+cow.
+
+Food rich in starch, gum, or sugar, which are the respiratory elements,
+an excess of which goes to the production of fatty matters, increases
+the butter in milk. Quietness promotes the secretion of fat in animals
+and increases the butter. Cheese will be increased by food rich in
+albumen, such as the leguminous plants.
+
+[Illustration: BUYING CATTLE.]
+
+The most natural, and of course the healthiest, food for milch cows in
+summer, is the green grass of the pastures; and when these fail from
+drought or over-stocking, the complement of nourishment may be made up
+with green clover, green oats, barley, millet, or corn-fodder and
+cabbage-leaves, or other succulent vegetables; and if these are wanting,
+the deficiency may be partly supplied with shorts, Indian-meal, linseed
+or cotton-seed meal. Green grass is more nutritious than hay, which
+always loses somewhat of its nutritive properties in curing; the amount
+of the loss depending chiefly on the mode of curing, and the length of
+exposure to sun and rain. But, apart from this, grass is more easily and
+completely digested than hay, though the digestion of the latter may be
+greatly aided by cutting and moistening, or steaming; and by this means
+it is rendered more readily available, and hence far better adapted to
+promote a large secretion of milk--a fact too often overlooked even by
+many intelligent farmers.
+
+In autumn, the best feed will be the grasses of the pastures, so far as
+they are available, green-corn fodder, cabbage, carrot, and turnip
+leaves, and an addition of meal or shorts. Toward the middle of autumn,
+the cows fed in the pastures will require to be housed regularly at
+night, especially in the more northern latitudes, and put, in part at
+least, upon hay. But every farmer knows that it is not judicious to feed
+out the best part of his hay when his cattle are first put into the
+barn, and that he should not feed so well in the early part of winter
+that he cannot feed better as the winter advances.
+
+At the same time, it should always be borne in mind that the change from
+grass to a poor quality of hay or straw, for cows in milk, should not be
+too sudden. A poor quality of dry hay is far less palatable in the early
+part of winter, after the cows are taken from grass, than at a later
+period; and, if it is resorted to with milch cows, will invariably lead
+to a falling off in the milk, which no good feed can afterward wholly
+restore.
+
+It is desirable, therefore, for the farmer to know what can be used
+instead of his best English or upland meadow hay, and yet not suffer any
+greater loss in the flow of milk, or in condition, than is absolutely
+necessary. In some sections of the Eastern States, the best quality of
+swale hay will be used; and the composition of that is as variable as
+possible, depending on the varieties of the grasses of which it was
+made, and the manner of curing. But, in other sections, many will find
+it necessary to use straw and other substitutes. Taking good English or
+meadow hay as the standard of comparison, and calling that one, 4.79
+times the weight of rye-straw, or 3.83 times the weight of oat-straw,
+contains the same amount of nutritive matter; that is, it would take
+4.79 times as good rye-straw to produce the same result as good meadow
+hay.
+
+In winter, the best food for cows in milk will be good sweet meadow hay,
+a part of which should be cut and moistened with water--as all inferior
+hay or straw should be--with an addition of root-crops, such as turnips,
+carrots, parsnips, potatoes, mangold-wurtzel, with shorts, oil-cake,
+Indian meal, or bean meal.
+
+It is the opinion of most successful dairymen that the feeding of moist
+food cannot be too highly recommended for cows in milk, especially to
+those who desire to obtain the largest quantity. Hay cut and thoroughly
+moistened becomes more succulent and nutritive, and partakes more of the
+nature of green grass.
+
+As a substitute for the oil-cake, hitherto known as an exceedingly
+valuable article for feeding stock, there is probably nothing better
+than cotton-seed meal. This is an article whose economic value has been
+but recently made known, but which, from practical trials already made,
+has proved eminently successful as food for milch cows. Chemists have
+decided that its composition is not inferior to that of the best
+flaxseed cake, and that in some respects its agricultural value
+surpasses that of any other kind of oil-cake.
+
+It has been remarked by chemists, in this connection, that the great
+value of linseed-cake, as an adjunct to hay, for fat cattle and milch
+cows, has been long recognized; and that it is undeniably traceable, in
+the main, to three ingredients of the seeds of the oil-yielding plants.
+The value of food depends upon the quantities of matters it contains
+which may be appropriated by the animal which consumes the food Now, it
+is proved that the fat of animals is derived from the starch, gum, and
+sugar, and more directly and easily from the oil of the food. These four
+substances, then, are fat-formers. The muscles, nerves, and tendons of
+animals, the brine of their blood and the curd of their milk, are almost
+identical in composition with, and strongly similar in many of their
+properties to, matters found in all vegetables, but chiefly in such as
+form the most concentrated food. These blood (and muscle) formers are
+characterized by containing about fifteen and a half per cent. of
+nitrogen; and hence are called nitrogenous substances. They are, also,
+often designated as the albuminous bodies.
+
+The bony framework of the animal owes its solidity to phosphate of lime,
+and this substance must be furnished by the food. A perfect food must
+supply the animal with these three classes of bodies, and in proper
+proportions. The addition of a small quantity of a food, rich in oil and
+albuminous substances, to the ordinary kinds of feed, which contain a
+large quantity of vegetable fibre or woody matter, more or less
+indigestible, but, nevertheless, indispensable to the herbivorous
+animals, their digestive organs being adapted to a bulky food, has been
+found highly advantageous in practice. Neither hay alone nor
+concentrated food alone gives the best results. A certain combination of
+the two presents the most advantages.
+
+Some who have used cotton-seed cake have found difficulty in inducing
+cattle to eat it. By giving it at first in small doses, mixed with other
+palatable food, they soon learn to eat it with relish. Cotton-seed cake
+is much richer in oils and albuminous matters than the linseed cake. A
+correspondingly less quantity will therefore be required. Three pounds
+of this cotton-seed cake are equivalent to four of linseed cake of
+average quality.
+
+During the winter season, as has been already remarked, a frequent
+change of food is especially necessary, both as contributions to the
+general health of animals, and as a means of stimulating the digestive
+organs, and thus increasing the secretion of milk. A mixture used as cut
+feed and well moistened is now especially beneficial, since concentrated
+food, which would otherwise be given in small quantities, may be united
+with larger quantities of coarser and less nutritive food, and the
+complete assimilation of the whole be better secured. On this subject it
+has been sensibly observed that the most nutritious kinds of food
+produce little or no effect when they are not digested by the stomach,
+or if the digested food is not absorbed by the lymphatic vessels, and
+not assimilated by the various parts of the body. Now, the normal
+functions of the digestive organs not only depend upon the composition
+of the food, but also on its volume. The volume or bulk of the food
+contributes to the healthy action of the digestive organs, by exercising
+a stimulating effect upon the nerves which govern them. Thus the whole
+organization of ruminating animals necessitates the supply of bulky
+food, to keep the animal in good condition.
+
+Feed sweet and nutritious food, therefore, frequently, regularly, and in
+small quantities, and change it often, and the best results may be
+confidently anticipated. If the cows are not in milk, but are to come in
+in the spring, the difference in feeding should be rather in the
+quantity than the quality, if the highest yield is to be expected from
+them during the coming season.
+
+The most common feeding is hay alone, and oftentimes very poor hay at
+that. The main point is to keep the animal in a healthy and thriving
+condition, and not to suffer her to fail in flesh; and with this object,
+some change and variety of food are highly important.
+
+[Illustration: CALLING IN THE CATTLE.]
+
+Toward the close of winter, a herd of cows will begin to come in, or
+approach their time of calving. Care should then be taken not to feed
+too rich or stimulating food for the last week or two before this event,
+as it is often attended with ill consequences. A plenty of hay, a few
+potatoes or shorts, and pure water will suffice.
+
+In spring, the best feeding for dairy cows will be much the same as that
+for winter; the roots in store over winter, such as carrots, mangold
+wurtzel, turnips, and parsnips, furnishing very valuable aid in
+increasing the quantity and improving the quality of milk. Toward the
+close of this season, and before the grass of pastures is sufficiently
+grown to make it judicious to turn out the cows, the best dairymen
+provide a supply of green fodder in the shape of winter rye, which, if
+cut while it is tender and succulent, and before it is half grown, will
+be greatly relished. Unless cut young, however, its stalk soon becomes
+hard and unpalatable.
+
+All practical dairymen agree in saying that a warm and well-ventilated
+barn is indispensable to the promotion of the highest yield of milk in
+winter; and most agree that cows in milk should not be turned out, even
+to drink, in cold weather; all exposure to cold tending to lessen the
+yield of milk.
+
+In the London dairies, in which, of course, the cows are fed so as to
+produce the largest flow of milk, the treatment is as follows: The cows
+are kept at night in stalls. About three A. M. each has a half-bushel of
+grains. When milking is finished, each receives a bushel of turnips (or
+mangolds), and shortly afterward, one tenth of a truss of hay of the
+best quality. This feeding occurs before eight A. M., when the animals
+are turned into the yard. Four hours after, they are again tied up in
+their stalls, and have another feed of grains. When the afternoon
+milking is over (about three P. M.), they are fed with a bushel of
+turnips, and after the lapse of an hour, hay is given them as before.
+This mode of feeding usually continues throughout the cool season, or
+from November to March. During the remaining months they are fed with
+grains, tares, and cabbages, and a proportion of rowen, or second-cut
+hay. They are supplied regularly until they are turned out to grass,
+when they pass the whole of the night in the field. The yield is about
+six hundred and fifty gallons a year for each cow.
+
+Mr. Harley--whose admirable dairy establishment was erected for the
+purpose of supplying the city of Glasgow with a good quality of milk,
+and which has contributed more than any thing else to improve the
+quality of the milk furnished to all the principal cities of Great
+Britain--adopted the following system of feeding with the greatest
+profit: In the early part of the summer, young grass and green barley,
+the first cutting especially, mixed with a large proportion of old hay
+or straw, and a good quantity of salt to prevent swelling, were used. As
+summer advanced, less hay and straw were given, and as the grass
+approached ripeness, they were discontinued altogether; but young and
+wet clover was never given without an admixture of dry provender. When
+grass became scarce, young turnips and turnip leaves were steamed with
+hay, and formed a good substitute. As grass decreased, the turnips were
+increased, and at length became a complete substitute. As the season
+advanced, a large proportion of distillers' grains and wash was given
+with other food, but these were found to have a tendency to make the
+cattle grain-sick; and if this feeding were long-continued, the health
+of the cows became affected. Boiled linseed and short-cut wheat straw
+mixed with the grains, were found to prevent the cows from turning sick.
+As spring approached, Swedish turnips, when cheap, were substituted for
+yellow turnips. These two roots, steamed with hay and other mixtures,
+afforded safe food till grass was again in season. When any of the cows
+were surfeited, the food was withheld till the appetite returned, when a
+small quantity was given, and increased gradually to the full allowance.
+
+But the most elaborate and valuable experiments in the feeding and
+management of milch cows, are those made, not long since, by Mr. T.
+Horsfall, of England, and published in the Journal of the Royal
+Agricultural Society. His practice, though adapted more especially,
+perhaps, to his own section, is nevertheless of such general application
+and importance as to be worthy of attention. By his course of treatment
+he found that he could produce as much and as rich butter in winter as
+in summer.
+
+His first object was to afford a full supply of the elements of food
+adapted to the maintenance, and also to the produce of the animal; and
+this could not be effected by the ordinary food and methods of feeding,
+since it is impossible to induce a cow to consume a quantity of hay
+requisite to supply the waste of the system, and keep up, at the same
+time, a full yield of the best quality of milk. He used, to some extent,
+cabbages, kohl rabi, mangolds, shorts, and other substances, rich in the
+constituents of cheese and butter. "My food for milch cows," says he,
+"after having undergone various modifications, has for two seasons
+consisted of rape cake five pounds, and bran two pounds, for each cow,
+mixed with a sufficient quantity of bean-straw, oat-straw, and shells of
+oats, in equal proportions, to supply them three times a day with as
+much as they will eat. The whole of the materials are moistened and
+blended together, and, after being well steamed, are given to the animal
+in a warm state. The attendant is allowed one pound to one pound and a
+half per cow, according to circumstances, of bean-meal, which he is
+charged to give to each cow in proportion to the yield of milk; those in
+full milk getting each two pounds per day, others but little. It is dry,
+and mixed with the steamed food on its being dealt out separately. When
+this is eaten up, green food is given, consisting of cabbages, from
+October to December, kohl rabi till February, and mangold till grass
+time, with a view to nicety of flavor. I limit the quantity of green
+food to thirty or thirty-five pounds per day for each. After each feed,
+four pounds of meadow hay, or twelve pounds per day, is given to each
+cow. They are allowed water twice a day, to the extent which they will
+drink."
+
+Bean-straw uncooked having been found to be hard and unpalatable, it was
+steamed to make it soft and pulpy, when it possessed an agreeable odor,
+and imparted its flavor to the whole mass. It was cut for this purpose
+just before ripening, but after the bean was fully grown, and in this
+state was found to possess nearly double the amount of albuminous
+matter, so valuable to milch cows, of good meadow or upland hay. Bran or
+shorts is also vastly improved by steaming or soaking with hot water,
+when its nutriment is more readily assimilated. It contains about
+fourteen per cent. of albumen, and is rich in phosphoric acid. Rape-cake
+was found to be exceedingly valuable. Linseed and cotton-seed cake may
+probably be substituted for it in this country.
+
+Mr. Horsfall turned his cows in May into a rich pasture, housing them at
+night, and giving them a mess of the steamed mixture and some hay
+morning and night; and from June to October they had cut grass in the
+stall, besides what they got in the pasture, and two feeds of the
+steamed mixture a day. After the beginning of October the cows were kept
+housed. With such management his cows generally yielded from twelve to
+sixteen quarts of milk (wine measure) a day, for about eight months
+after calving, when they fell off in milk, but gained in flesh, up to
+calving-time. In this course of treatment the manure was far better than
+the average, and his pastures constantly improved. The average amount of
+butter from every sixteen quarts of milk was twenty-five ounces--a
+proportion far larger than the average.
+
+[Illustration: "ON THE RAMPAGE."]
+
+How widely does this course of treatment differ from that of most
+farmers! The object with many seems to be, to see with how little food
+they can keep the cow alive. From a correct point of view, the milch cow
+should be regarded as an instrument of transformation. The question
+should be--with so much hay, so much grain, so many roots, how can the
+most milk, or butter, or cheese, be made? The conduct of a manufacturer
+who owned good machinery, and an abundance of raw material, and had the
+labor at hand, would be considered very senseless, if he hesitated to
+supply the material, and keep the machinery at work, at least so long as
+he could run it with profit.
+
+Stimulate the appetite, then, and induce the cow to eat, by a frequent
+change of diet, not merely enough to supply the constant waste of her
+system, but enough and to spare, of a food adapted to the production of
+milk of the quality desired.
+
+
+SOILING.
+
+Of the advantages of soiling milch cows--that is, feeding exclusively in
+the barn--there are yet many conflicting opinions. As to its economy of
+land and feed there can be no question, it being generally admitted that
+a given number of animals may be abundantly fed on a less space; nor is
+there much question as to the increased quantity of milk yielded in
+stall feeding. Its economy, in this country, turns rather upon the cost
+of labor and time; and the question raised by the dairyman is, whether
+it will pay--whether its advantages are sufficient to balance the extra
+expense of cutting and feeding, over and above cropping on the pasture.
+The importance of this subject has been strongly impressed upon the
+attention of farmers in many sections of the country, by a growing
+conviction that something must be done to improve the pastures, or that
+they must be abandoned altogether.
+
+Thousands of acres of neglected pasture-land in the older States are so
+poor and worn out that from four to eight acres furnish but a miserable
+subsistence for a good-sized cow. No animal can flourish under such
+circumstances. The labor and exertion of feeding are too great, to say
+nothing of the vastly inferior quality of the grasses in such pastures,
+compared with those on more recently seeded lands. True economy would
+dictate that such pastures should either be allowed to run to wood, or
+be devoted to sheep-walks, or ploughed and improved. Cows, to be able to
+yield well, must have plenty of food of a sweet and nutritious quality;
+and, unless they find it, they wander over a large space, if at liberty,
+and thus deprive themselves of rest.
+
+If a farmer or dairyman unfortunately owns such pastures, there can be
+no question that, as a matter of real economy, he had better resort to
+the soiling system for his milch cows; by which means he will largely
+increase his annual supply of good manure, and thus have the means of
+improving, and bringing his land to a higher state of cultivation. A
+very successful instance of this management occurs in the report of the
+visiting committee of an agricultural society in Massachusetts, in which
+they say: "We have now in mind a farmer in this county who keeps seven
+or eight cows in the stable through the summer, and feeds them on green
+fodder, chiefly Indian corn. We asked him his reasons for it. His answer
+was: 1. That he gets more milk than he can by any other method. 2. That
+he gets more manure, especially liquid manure. 3. That he saves it all,
+by keeping a supply of mud or mould under the stable, to be taken out
+and renewed as often as necessary. 4. That it is less troublesome than
+to drive his cows to pasture; that they are less vexed by flies, and
+have equally good health. 5. That his mowing land is every year growing
+more productive, without the expense of artificial manure.--He estimates
+that on an acre of good land twenty tons of green fodder may be raised.
+That which is dried is cut fine, and mixed with meal or shorts, and fed
+with profit. He believes that a reduced and worn-out farm--supposing the
+land to be naturally good--could be brought into prime order in five
+years, without any extra outlay of money for manure, by the use of green
+fodder in connection with the raising and keeping of pigs; not
+fattening them, but selling at the age of four or five months." He
+keeps most of his land in grass, improving its quality and
+productiveness by means of top-dressing, and putting money in his
+pocket--which is, after all, the true test both for theory and practice.
+
+Another practical case on this point is that of a gentleman in the same
+State who had four cows, but not a rod of land on which to pasture them.
+They were, therefore, never out of the barn--or, at least, not out of
+the yard--and were fed with grass, regularly mown for them; with green
+Indian corn and fodder, which had been sown broadcast for the purpose;
+and with about three pints of meal a day. Their produce in butter was
+kept for thirteen weeks. Two of them were but two years old, having
+calved the same spring. All the milk of one of them was taken by her
+calf for six weeks out of the thirteen, and some of the milk of the
+other was taken for family use, the quantity of which was not measured.
+These heifers could not, therefore, be estimated as equal to more than
+one cow in full milk. And yet from these cows no less than three hundred
+and eighty-nine pounds of butter were made in the thirteen weeks.
+Another pound would have made an average of thirty pounds a week for the
+whole time.
+
+It appears from these and other similar instances of soiling, or
+stall-feeding in summer on green crops cut for the purpose, that the
+largely increased quantity of the yield fully compensates for the
+slightly deteriorated quality. And not only is the quantity yielded by
+each cow increased, but the same extent of land, under the same culture,
+will carry double or treble the number of ordinary pastures, and keep
+them in better condition. There is also a saving of manure. But with us
+the economy of soiling is the exception, and not the rule.
+
+In adopting this system of feeding, regularity is required as much as in
+any other, and a proper variety of food. A succession of green crops
+should be provided, as near as convenient to the stable. The first will
+naturally be winter rye, in the Northern States, as that shoots up with
+great luxuriance. Winter rape would probably be an exceedingly valuable
+addition to the plants usually cultivated for soiling in this country,
+in sections where it would withstand the severity of the winter.
+Cabbages, kept in the cellar or pit, and transplanted early, will also
+come in here to advantage, and clover will very soon follow them; oats,
+millet, and green Indian-corn, as the season advances; and, a little
+later still, perhaps, the Chinese sugar-cane, which should not be cut
+till headed out. These plants, in addition to other cultivated grasses,
+will furnish an unfailing succession of succulent and tender fodder;
+while the addition of a little Indian, linseed, or cotton-seed meal will
+be found economical.
+
+In the vicinity of large towns and cities, where the object is too often
+to feed for the largest quantity, without reference to quality, an
+article known as distillers' swill, or still-slop, is extensively used.
+This, if properly fed in limited quantities, in combination with other
+and more bulky food, may be a valuable article for the dairyman; but, if
+given--as it too often is--without the addition of other kinds of food,
+it soon affects the health and constitution of the animals fed on it.
+This swill contains a considerable quantity of water, some nitrogenous
+compounds, and some inorganic matter in the shape of phosphates and
+alkaline salts found in the different kinds of grain of which it is made
+up, as Indian corn, wheat, barley, rye, and the like. Where this forms
+the principal food of milch cows, the milk is of a very poor
+quality--blue in color, and requiring the addition of coloring
+substances to make it saleable. It contains, often, less than one per
+cent. of butter, and seldom over one and three-tenths or one and a half
+per cent.--while good, saleable milk should contain from three to five
+per cent. It will not coagulate, it is said, in less than five or six
+hours; while good milk will invariably coagulate in an hour or less,
+under the same conditions. Its effect on the system of young children
+is, therefore, very destructive, causing diseases of various kinds, and,
+if continued, death.
+
+So pernicious have been the consequences resulting from the use of this
+"swill-milk," as it is called, in the largest city of this country, that
+the Legislature of the State of New York, at a recent session (1861-2),
+interfered in behalf of the community by making the sale of the article
+a penal offence.
+
+
+CULTURE OF GRASSES FOR FODDER.
+
+As has been already stated, the grasses in summer, and hay in winter,
+form the most natural and important food for milch cows; and, whatever
+other crops come in as additional, these will form the basis of all
+systems of feeding.
+
+The nutritive qualities of the grasses differ widely; and their value as
+feed for cows will depend, to a considerable extent, on the management
+of pastures and mowing-lands. Some considerations bearing upon the
+subject of the proper cultivation of these leading articles of food
+are, therefore, proposed in this article.
+
+[Illustration: PATIENTLY WAITING.]
+
+If the turf of an old pasture is carefully examined, it will be found to
+contain a large variety of plants and grasses adapted for forage; some
+of them valuable for one purpose, and some for another. Some of them,
+though possessing a lower percentage of nutritive constituents than
+others, are particularly esteemed for an early and luxuriant growth,
+furnishing sweet feed in early spring, before other grasses appear; some
+of them, for starting more rapidly than others, after having been eaten
+off by cattle, and, consequently, of great value as pasture grasses.
+Most grasses will be found to be of a social character, and do best in a
+large mixture with other varieties.
+
+In forming a mixture for pasture grasses, the peculiar qualities of each
+species should, therefore, be regarded: as the time of flowering, the
+habits of growth, the soil and location on which it grows best, and
+other characteristics.
+
+Among the grasses found on cultivated lands in this country, the
+following are considered as among the most valuable for ordinary farm
+cultivation; some of them being adapted to pastures, and others almost
+exclusively to mowing and the hay-crop: Timothy, Meadow Foxtail, June or
+Kentucky Blue Grass, Fowl Meadow, Rough-stalked Meadow, Orchard Grass,
+Perennial Rye Grass, Italian Rye Grass, Redtop, English Bent, Meadow
+Fescue, Tall Oat Grass, Sweet-scented Vernal, Hungarian Grass, Red
+Clover, White or Dutch Clover, and some others.
+
+Of these, the most valuable, all things considered, is TIMOTHY. It forms
+a large proportion of what is commonly called English, or in some
+sections meadow, hay, though it originated and was first cultivated in
+this country. It contains a large percentage of nutritive matter, in
+comparison with other agricultural grasses. It thrives best on moist,
+peaty, or loamy soils, of medium tenacity, and is not well suited to
+very light, sandy lands. On very moist soils, its root is almost always
+fibrous; while on dry and loamy ones it is bulbous. On soils of the
+former description, which it especially affects, its growth is rapid,
+and its yield of hay large, sometimes amounting to three or four tons
+the acre, depending much, of course, upon cultivation. But, though very
+valuable for hay, it is not adapted for pasture, as it will neither
+endure severe grazing, nor is its aftermath to be compared with that of
+meadow foxtail, and some of the other grasses.
+
+JUNE GRASS, better known in some sections as Kentucky Blue Grass, is
+very common in most sections of the country, especially on limestone
+lands, forming a large part of the turf, wherever it flourishes, and
+being held in universal esteem as a pasture grass. It starts early, but
+varies much in size and appearance, according to the soil; growing in
+some places with the utmost luxuriance, and forming the predominant
+grass; in others, yielding to the other species. If cut at the time of
+flowering, or a few days after, it makes a good and nutritious hay,
+though it is surpassed in nutritive qualities by several of the other
+grasses. It starts slowly after having been cut, especially if not cut
+very early. But its herbage is fine and uniform, and admirably adapted
+to lawns, growing well in almost all soils, though it does not endure
+very severe droughts. It withstands, however, the frosts of winter
+better than most other grasses.
+
+In Kentucky--a section where it attains its highest perfection and
+luxuriance, ripening its seeds about the tenth of June--and in latitudes
+south of that, it sometimes continues green through the mild winters. It
+requires three or four years to become well set, after sowing, and it
+does not attain its highest yield as a pasture grass till the sod is
+even older than that. It is not, therefore, suited to alternate
+husbandry, where land usually remains in grass but two or three years
+before being ploughed up. In Kentucky, it is sown any time in winter
+when the sun is on the ground, three or four quarts of seed being used
+to the acre. In spring the seeds germinate, when the sprouts are
+exceedingly fine and delicate. Stock is not allowed on it the first
+year.
+
+The MEADOW FOXTAIL is also an excellent pasture grass It somewhat
+resembles Timothy, but is earlier, has a softer spike, and thrives on
+all soils except the dryest. Its growth is rapid, and it is greatly
+relished by stock of all kinds. Its stalks and leaves are too few and
+light for a field crop, and it shrinks too much in curing to be valuable
+for hay. It flourishes best in a rich, moist, and rather strong soil,
+sending up a luxuriant aftermath when cut or grazed off, which is much
+more valuable, both in quality and nutritive value, than the first crop.
+In all lands designed for permanent pasture, therefore, it should form a
+considerable part of a mixture. It will endure almost any amount of
+forcing, by liquid manures or irrigation. It requires three or four
+years, after soiling, to gain a firm footing in the soil. The seed is
+covered with the soft and woolly husks of the flower, and is
+consequently light; weighing but five pounds to the bushel, and
+containing seventy-six thousand seeds to the ounce.
+
+The ORCHARD GRASS, or ROUGH COCKSFOOT, for pastures, stands pre-eminent.
+This is a native of this country, and was introduced into England, from
+Virginia, in 1764, since which time its cultivation has extended into
+every country of Europe, where it is universally held in very high
+estimation. The fact of its being very palatable to stock of all kinds,
+its rapid growth, and the luxuriance of its aftermath, with its power of
+enduring the cropping of cattle, have given it a very high reputation,
+especially as a pasture grass. It blossoms earlier than Timothy; when
+green, is equally relished by milch cows; requires to be fed closer, to
+prevent its forming tufts and growing up to seed, when it becomes hard
+and wiry, and loses much of its nutritive quality. As it blossoms about
+the same time, it forms an admirable mixture with red clover, either for
+permanent pasture or mowing. It resists drought, and is less exhausting
+to the soil than either rye grass or Timothy. The seed weighs twelve
+pounds to the bushel, and when sown alone requires about two bushels to
+the acre.
+
+The ROUGH-STALKED MEADOW GRASS is somewhat less common than the June
+grass, but is considered equally valuable. It grows best on moist,
+sheltered meadows, where it flowers in June and July. It is readily
+distinguished from June grass by its having a rough sheath, while the
+latter has a smooth one, and by having a fibrous root, while the root of
+the other is creeping. It possesses very considerable nutritive
+qualities, and comes to perfection at a desirable time, and is
+exceedingly relished by cattle, horses and sheep. For suitable soils it
+should form a portion of a mixture of seeds, producing, in mixture with
+other grasses which serve to shelter it, a large yield of hay, far above
+the average of grass usually sown on a similar soil. It should be cut
+when the seed is formed. Seven pounds of seed to the acre will make a
+good sward. The grass loses about seventy per cent. of its weight in
+drying. The nutritive qualities of its aftermath exceed very
+considerably those of the crop cut in the flower or in the seed.
+
+FOWL MEADOW GRASS is another indigenous species, of great value for low
+and marshy grounds, where it flourishes best; and, if cut and properly
+cured, makes a sweet and nutritious hay, which, from its fineness, is
+eaten by cows without waste. According to Sinclair--who experimented,
+with the aid of Sir Humphrey Davy, to ascertain its comparative
+nutritive properties--it is superior in this respect to either meadow
+foxtail, orchard grass, or tall meadow oat grass; but it is probable
+that he somewhat overrates it. If allowed to stand till nearly ripe, it
+falls down, but sends up innumerable flowering stems from the joints, so
+that it continues green and luxuriant till late in the season. It
+thrives best in mixture with other grasses, and deserves a prominent
+place in all mixtures for rich, moist pastures, and low mowing-lands.
+
+RYE GRASS has a far higher reputation abroad than in this country, and
+probably with reason; for it is better adapted to a wet and uncertain
+climate than to a dry and hot one. It varies exceedingly, depending much
+on soil and culture; but, when cut in the blossom to make into hay, it
+possesses very considerable nutritive power. If allowed to get too ripe,
+it is hard and wiry, and not relished by cows. The change from a juicy
+and nutritious plant to a woody fibre, containing but little soluble
+matter, is very rapid. Properly managed, however, it is a tolerably good
+grass, though not to be compared to Timothy, or orchard grass.
+
+REDTOP is a grass familiar to every farmer in the country. It is the
+Herd's grass of Pennsylvania, while in New York and New England it is
+known by a great variety of names and assumes a great variety of forms,
+according to the soil in which it grows. It is well adapted to almost
+every soil, though it seems to prefer a moist loam. It makes a
+profitable crop for spending, in the form of hay, though its yield is
+less than that of Timothy. It is well suited to our permanent pastures,
+where it should be fed close, otherwise it becomes wiry and
+innutritious, and cattle refuse it. It stands the climate of the country
+as well as any other grass, and so forms a valuable part of any mixture
+for pastures and permanent mowing-lands; but it is, probably, rather
+over rated by us.
+
+ENGLISH BENT, known also by a number of other names, is largely
+cultivated in some sections. It closely resembles redtop, but may be
+distinguished from it by the roughness of the sheaths when the hand is
+drawn from above downward. It possesses about the same qualities as
+redtop.
+
+MEADOW FESCUE is one of the most common of the fescue grasses, and is
+said to be the Randall grass of Virginia. It is an excellent pasture
+grass, forming a very considerable portion of the turf of old pasture
+lands and fields; and is more extensively propagated and diffused from
+the fact that it ripens its seeds before most other grasses are cut, and
+sheds them to spring up and cover the ground. Its long and tender leaves
+are much relished by cattle. It is rarely sown in this country,
+notwithstanding its great and acknowledged value as a pasture grass. If
+sown at all, it should be in mixture with other grasses, as orchard
+grass, and rye grass, or June grass. It is of much greater value at the
+time of flowering than when the seed is ripe.
+
+[Illustration: A CHANCE FOR A SELECTION.]
+
+THE TALL OAT GRASS is the Ray grass of France. It furnishes a luxuriant
+supply of foliage, is valuable either for hay or for pasture, and has
+been especially recommended for soiling purposes, on account of its
+early and luxuriant growth. It is often found on the borders of fields
+and hedges, woods and pastures, and is sometimes very plenty in
+mowing-lands. After having been mown it shoots up a very thick
+aftermath, and, on this account, partly, is regarded of nearly equal
+excellence with the common foxtail.
+
+It grows spontaneously on deep, sandy soils, when once naturalized. It
+has been cultivated to a considerable extent in this country, and is
+esteemed by those who know it mainly for its early, rapid, and late
+growth, making it very well calculated as a permanent pasture grass. It
+will succeed on tenacious clover soil.
+
+The SWEET-SCENTED VERNAL GRASS is one of the earliest in spring and one
+of the latest in autumn; and this habit of growth is one of its chief
+excellencies, as it is neither a nutritious grass, nor very palatable to
+stock of any kind, nor does it yield a very good crop. It is very common
+in New England and all over the Middle States, coming into old worn-out
+fields and moist pastures spontaneously, and along every roadside. It
+derives its name from its sweetness of odor when partially wilted or
+crushed in the hand, and it is this chiefly which gives the delicious
+fragrance to all new-mown bay. It is almost the only grass that
+possesses a strongly-marked aromatic odor, which is imparted to other
+grasses with which it is cured. Its seed weighs eight pounds to the
+bushel. In mixtures for permanent pastures it may be of some value.
+
+HUNGARIAN GRASS, or millet, is an annual forage plant, introduced into
+France in 1815, and more recently into this country. It germinates
+readily, and withstands the drought remarkably, remaining green when
+other grasses are parched and dried up. It has numerous succulent
+leaves which furnish an abundance of sweet fodder, greatly relished by
+stock of all kinds. It attains its greatest luxuriance on soils of
+medium consistency and richness, but does very well on light and dry
+plains.
+
+RED CLOVER is an artificial grass of the leguminous family, and one of
+the most valuable cultivated plants for feeding to dairy cows. It
+flourishes best on tenacious soils and stiff loams. Its growth is rapid,
+and a few months after sowing are sufficient to supply an abundant sweet
+and nutritious food. In the climate of New England, clover should be
+sown in the spring of the year, while most of the natural grasses do far
+better when sown in the fall. It is often sown with perfect success on
+the late snows of March or April, and soon finds its way down into the
+soil and takes a vigorous hold with its root. It is valuable not only as
+a forage plant, but as shading the ground, and thereby increasing its
+fertility.
+
+The introduction of clover among the cultivated plants of the farm has
+done more, perhaps, for modern agriculture than that of any other single
+plant. It is now considered indispensable in all good dairy districts.
+
+WHITE CLOVER, often called Honeysuckle, is also widely diffused over
+this country, to which it is undoubtedly indigenous. As a mixture in all
+pasture grasses it holds a very high rank, as it is exceedingly sweet
+and nutritious, and relished by all kinds of stock. It grows most
+luxuriantly in moist grounds and moist seasons, but easily accommodates
+itself to a great variety of circumstances.
+
+With respect to the mixtures of grass-seeds most profitable for the
+dairy farmer, no universal rule can be given, as they depend very much
+upon the nature of the soil and the locality. The most important point
+to be observed, and the one as to which, probably, the greatest
+deficiency exists, is to use a large number of species, with smaller
+quantities of each than those most commonly used. This is Nature's rule;
+for, in examining the turf of a rich old pasture, a large number of
+different species will be found growing together, while, if the turf of
+a field sown without two or three species is examined, a far less number
+of plants is found to the square foot, even after the sod is fairly set.
+In the opinion of the most competent judges, no improvement in grass
+culture is more important than this.
+
+As an instance of what he would consider an improvement on the ordinary
+mixtures for _permanent pastures_, Mr. Flint, in his "Milch Cows and
+Dairy Farming," suggests the following as likely to give satisfactory
+results, dependent, of course, to a considerable extent, on the nature
+and preparation of the soil:
+
+Meadow Foxtail,   flowering in May  and June,   2  pounds
+Orchard Grass,        "     "   "        "      6    "
+Sweet-scented Vernal, "     "  April and May,   1    "
+Meadow Fescue,        "     "  May  and June,   2    "
+Redtop,               "     "  June and July,   2    "
+June Grass,           "     "  May  and June,   4    "
+Italian Rye Grass,    "     "  June,            4    "
+Perennial do.,        "     "   "        "      6    "
+Timothy,              "     "  June and July,   3    "
+Rough-stalked Meadow Grass,     "        "      2    "
+Perennial Clover, flowering in June,            3    "
+White Clover,         "     "  May to September 5-40 "
+
+For mowing-lands the mixture would, of course, be somewhat changed. The
+meadow foxtail and sweet-scented vernal would be left out entirely, and
+some six or eight pounds added to the Timothy and red clover. The proper
+time to lay down lands to grass in the latitude of New England is August
+or September, and no grain crop should be sown with the seed.
+
+Stiff or clayey pastures should never be overstocked, but when fed
+pretty close the grasses are far sweeter and more nutritious than when
+they are allowed to grow up rank and coarse; and if, by a want of
+sufficient feeding, they get the start of the stock, and grow into rank
+tufts, they should be cut and removed, when a fresh grass will start up,
+similar to the aftermath of mowing-lands, which will be eaten with
+avidity. Grasses for curing into hay should be cut either at the time of
+flowering, or just before, especially if designed for milch cows. They
+are then more succulent and juicy, and, if properly cured, form the
+sweetest food.
+
+Grass cut in the blossom will make more milk than if allowed to stand
+later. Cut a little before the blossoming; it will make more than when
+in blossom, and the cows prefer it, which is by no means an unimportant
+consideration, since their tastes should always be consulted. Grass cut
+somewhat green, and properly cured, is next to fresh, green grass in
+palatable, nutritive qualities. Every farmer knows the milk-producing
+properties of rowen, or second crop, which is generally cut before it
+ripens.
+
+No operation on the farm is of greater importance to the dairyman than
+the cutting of his grass and the manner of curing hay; and in this
+respect the practice over the country generally is susceptible of very
+marked improvement. The chief object is to preserve the sweetness and
+succulence of the grass in its natural state, so far as possible; and
+this object cannot be attained by exposing it too long to the scorching
+suns and drenching rains to which our climate is liable. As a general
+thing, farmers try to make their hay too much.
+
+As to the best modes of curing clover, the following, among others, is
+adopted by many successful farmers: What is mown in the morning is left
+in the swath, to be turned over early in the afternoon. At about four
+o'clock, or while it is still warm, it is put into small cocks with a
+fork, and, if the weather is favorable, it may be housed on the fourth
+or fifth day, the cocks being turned over on the morning of the day in
+which it is to be carted. By this method all the heads and leaves are
+saved, and these are more valuable than the stems. For new milch cows in
+winter scarcely any food is better. It will cause them to give as great
+a flow of milk as any hay, unless it be good rowen.
+
+INDIAN CORN makes an exceedingly valuable fodder, both as a means of
+carrying a herd of milch cows through our severe droughts of summer, and
+as an article for soiling cows kept in the stall. No dairy farmer will
+neglect to sow an extent in proportion to the number of cows which he
+keeps. The most common practice is, to sow in drills from two and a half
+to three feet apart, on land well tilled and thoroughly manured, making
+the drills from six to ten inches wide with the plough, manuring in the
+furrow, dropping the kernels about two inches apart, and covering with
+the hoe. In this mode of culture, the cultivator may be used between
+the rows when the corn is from six to twelve inches high, and, unless
+the ground is very weedy, no other after culture is needed. The first
+sowing usually takes place about the middle of May, and this is
+succeeded by other sowings, at intervals of a week or ten days, till
+July, in order to have a succession of green fodder; but, if it is
+designed to cut it up to cure for winter use, an early sowing is
+generally preferred, in order to be able to cure it in warm weather, in
+August or early in September. Sown in this way, about three or four
+bushels of corn are required for an acre; since, if sown thickly, the
+fodder is better, the stalks smaller, and the waste less.
+
+The chief difficulty in curing corn cultivated for this purpose, and
+after the methods just spoken of, arises from the fact that it comes at
+a season when the weather is often colder, the days shorter, and the
+dews heavier, than when the curing of hay takes place. Nor is the curing
+of corn cut up green so easy and simple as that of the drying of stalks
+of Indian corn cut above the ear, as in the common practice of topping.
+The plant is then riper, less juicy, and cures more readily.
+
+The method sometimes adopted is to cut and tie into small bundles, after
+it is somewhat wilted, and then to stook upon the ground, where it is
+allowed to stand, subject to all the changes of weather, with only the
+protection of the stook itself. The stooks consist of bunches of stalks
+first bound into small bundles, and are made sufficiently large to
+prevent the wind from blowing them over. The arms are thrown around the
+tops to bring them as closely together as possible, when the tops are
+broken over or twisted together, or otherwise fastened, in order to
+make the stook "shed the rain" as well as possible. In this condition
+they remain out until they are sufficiently dried to be put in the barn.
+Corn fodder is very excellent for young dairy stock.
+
+COMMON MILLET is another very valuable crop for fodder in soiling, or to
+cure for winter use, but especially to feed out during the usual season
+of drought. Many varieties of millet are cultivated in this country, the
+ground being prepared and treated as for oats. If designed to cut for
+green fodder, half a bushel of seed to the acre should be used; if to
+ripen seed, twelve quarts, sown broadcast, about the last of May or
+early in June. A moist loam or muck is the best soil adapted to millet;
+but very great crops have been grown on dry upland. It is very palatable
+and nutritious for milch cows, both green and when properly cured. The
+curing should be very much like that of clover, care being taken not to
+over-dry it. For fodder, either green or cured, it is cut before
+ripening. In this state all cattle eat it as readily as green corn, and
+a less extent will feed them. Millet is worthy of a widely-extended
+cultivation, particularly on dairy farms. Indian millet is another
+cultivated variety.
+
+RYE, as a fodder plant, is chiefly valuable for its early growth in
+spring. It is usually sown in September or October--from the middle to
+the end of September being, perhaps, the most desirable time--on land
+previously cultivated and in good condition. If designed to ripen only,
+a bushel of seed is required to the acre, evenly sown; but, if intended
+for early fodder in spring, two or two and a half bushels of seed per
+acre should be used. On warm land the rye can be cut green the last of
+April or the first of May. Care should be taken to cut early; since, if
+it is allowed to advance too far towards maturity, the stalk becomes
+hard and unpalatable to cows.
+
+OATS are also sometimes used for soiling, or for feeding green, to eke
+out a scanty supply of pasture feed; and for this purpose they are
+valuable. They should be sown on well-tilled and well-manured land,
+about four bushels to the acre, towards the last of April or the first
+of May. If the whole crop is to be used as green fodder, five bushels of
+seed will not be too much for good, strong soil. They will be
+sufficiently grown to cut by the first of July, or in some sections
+earlier, depending upon the location.
+
+The CHINESE SUGAR-CANE also may deserve attention as a fodder plant.
+Experiments thus far made would seem to show that when properly
+cultivated, and cut at the right time, it is a palatable and nutritious
+plant, while many of the failures have been the result of too early
+cutting. For a fodder crop the drill culture is preferable, both on
+account of the larger yield obtained and because it is thus prevented
+from becoming too hard and stalky.
+
+Of the root crops the POTATO is the first to be mentioned. This produces
+a large quantity of milk, though the quality is inferior. The market
+value of this root is, at times, too great to allow of feeding
+extensively with it, even in milk dairies, where it is most valuable as
+a food for cows; still, there are locations where it may be judicious to
+cultivate this root for dairy feed, and in all circumstances there is a
+certain portion of the crop of unmarketable size, which will be of value
+fed to milch cows or swine. It should be planted in April or May, but in
+many sections in June, on good mellow soil, first thoroughly plowed and
+harrowed, then furrowed three feet apart, and manured in the furrows
+with a mixture of ashes, plaster of Paris, and salt. The seed may be
+dropped in the furrows, one foot apart, after the drill system--or in
+hills, two and a half or three feet apart--to be covered with the plough
+by simply turning the furrows back, after which the whole should be
+rolled with the field-roller, when it can be done.
+
+If the land is not already in good heart from continued cultivation, a
+few loads of barnyard manure may be spread, and plowed under, by the
+first plowing. Used in this way it is far less liable to cause the rot,
+than when it is put in the hill. If a sufficient quantity of wood-ashes
+is not at hand, sifted coal-ashes will answer the purpose, and these are
+said to be valuable as a preventive of rot. In this way, one man, two
+boys, and a horse can plant from three to four acres a day on mellow
+land.
+
+By another method two acres a day on the sod have been planted. The
+manure is first spread upon the grass, and then a furrow made by a yoke
+of oxen and one man, another following after and dropping, a foot apart,
+along the outer edge of the furrow on the grass. By quick work, one hand
+can nearly keep up with the plow in dropping. When arrived at the end of
+the piece, a back furrow is turned up to the potatoes, and a good
+plowman will cover nearly all without difficulty. On the return furrow,
+the man or boy who dropped follows after, covering up any that may be
+left or displaced, and smoothing off the top of the back-furrows when
+necessary. Potatoes thus planted have come out finely.
+
+The cost of cultivation in this mode, it must be evident, is but
+trifling, compared with the slower method of hand-planting. It requires
+a skillful ploughman, a quick, active lad, and a good yoke of oxen, and
+the extent of the work will depend somewhat upon the state of the turf.
+The nutritive equivalent for potatoes in a hundred pounds of good hay is
+319 pounds; that is, it will take 3.19 pounds of potatoes to afford the
+same amount of nourishment as one pound of hay. The great value of roots
+is as a change or condiment calculated to keep the animal in a healthy
+condition.
+
+[Illustration: A WEST HIGHLAND OX.]
+
+The CARROT is somewhat extensively fed, and is a valuable root for milch
+cows. This, like the potato, has been cultivated and improved from a
+wild plant. Carrots require a deep, warm, mellow soil, thoroughly
+cultivated, but clean, and free from weed-seed. The difference between a
+very good profit and a loss on the crop depends much upon the use of
+land and manures perfectly free from foul seeds of any kind. Ashes,
+guano, seaweed, ground bones, and other similar substances, or
+thoroughly-rotted and fermented compost, will answer the purpose.
+
+After plowing deep, and harrowing carefully, the seed should be planted
+with a seed-sower, in drills about eighteen inches apart, at the rate of
+four pounds to the acre, about the middle of May. The difference
+between sowing on the fifteenth of May and on the tenth of June in New
+England is said to be nearly one-third in the crop on an average of
+years. In weeding, a little wheel hoe is invaluable, as with it a large
+part of the labor of cultivation is saved. A skillful hand can run this
+hoe within a half an inch of the young plants without injury, and go
+over a large space in the course of a day, if the land was properly
+prepared in the first place.
+
+The American farmer should always plan to economize labor, which is the
+great item of expense upon a farm. By this is not meant that he should
+strive to shirk or avoid work, but that he should make the least amount
+of work accomplish the greatest and most profitable results.
+Labor-saving machinery on the farm is applied, not to reduce the number
+of hours of labor, or to make the owner a man of leisure--who is,
+generally, the unhappiest man in the world--but to enable him to
+accomplish the greatest results in the same time that he would be
+compelled to obtain smaller ones.
+
+Carrots will continue to grow and increase in size late into the fall.
+When ready to dig, plow around as near to the outside rows as possible,
+turning away the furrow from the row. Then take out the carrots, pulling
+off the tops, and throw the carrots and tops into separate heaps on the
+plowed furrows. In this way a man and two boys can harvest and put into
+the cellar upwards of a hundred bushels a day.
+
+The TURNIP, and the Swedish turnip, or ruta baga, are also largely
+cultivated as a field crop to feed to stock; and for this purpose almost
+numberless varieties are used, furnishing a great amount of succulent
+and nutritious food, late into winter, and, if well-kept, late into
+spring. The chief objection to the turnip is, that it taints the milk.
+This may be remedied--to a considerable extent, if not wholly--by the
+use of salt, or salt hay, and by feeding at the time of milking, or
+immediately after, or by steaming before feeding, or putting a small
+quantity of the solution of nitre into the pail, and milking upon it.
+
+Turnips may be sown any time in June, in rich land, well mellowed by
+cultivation. Very large crops are obtained, sown as late as the middle
+of July, or the first of August, on an inverted sod. The Michigan, or
+double-mould-board plow leaves the land light, and in admirable
+condition to harrow, and drill in turnips. In one instance, a successful
+root-grower cut two tons of hay to the acre, on the twenty-third of
+June, and after it was removed from the land spread eight cords of
+rotten kelp to the acre, and plowed in; after which about three cords of
+fine old compost manure were used to the acre, which was sown with ruta
+baga seed, in drills, three feet apart, plants thinned to eight or ten
+inches in the drill. No after cultivation was required. On the fifteenth
+of November he harvested three hundred and seventy bushels of splendid
+roots to the acre, carefully measured off.
+
+The nutritive equivalent of Swedish turnips as compared with good meadow
+hay is 676, taking hay as a standard at 100; that is, it would require
+6.76 pounds of turnips to furnish the same nutriment as one pound of
+good hay; but fed in connection with other food--as hay, for
+example--perhaps five pounds of turnips would be about equal to one
+pound of hay.
+
+The English or round turnip is usually sown broadcast after some other
+crop, and large and valuable returns are often obtained. The Swede is
+sown in drills. Both of these varieties are used for the production of
+milk.
+
+The chief objection to the turnip crop is that it leaves many kinds of
+soil unfit for a succession of some other crops, like Indian corn, for
+instance. In some sections, no amount of manuring appears to make corn
+do well after turnips or ruta bagas.
+
+The MANGOLD WURTZEL, a variety of the common beet, is often cultivated
+in this country with great success, and fed to cows with advantage,
+furnishing a succulent and nutritive food in winter and spring. The crop
+is somewhat uncertain. When it does well, an enormous yield is often
+obtained; but, not rarely, it proves a failure, and is not, on the
+whole, quite as reliable as the ruta baga, though a more valuable crop
+when the yield is good. It is cultivated like the common beet in moist,
+rich soils; three pounds of seed to the acre The leaves may be stripped
+off, towards fall, and fed out, without injury to the growth of the
+root. Both mangolds and turnips should be cut with a root-cutter, before
+being fed out.
+
+The PARSNIP is a very sweet and nutritious article of fodder, and adds
+richness and flavor to the milk. It is worthy of extended culture in all
+parts of the country where dairy husbandry is pursued. It is a biennial,
+easily raised on deep, rich, well-cultivated and well-manured soils,
+often yielding enormous crops, and possessing the decided advantage of
+withstanding the severest winters. As an article of spring feeding,
+therefore, it is exceedingly valuable. Sown in April or May, it attains
+a large growth before winter. Then, if desirable, a part of the crop may
+be harvested for winter use, and the remainder left in the ground till
+the frost is out, in March or April, when they can be dug as wanted, and
+are exceedingly relished by milch cows and stock of all kinds. They make
+an admirable feed at the time of milking, and produce the richest cream,
+and the yellowest and finest-flavored butter, of any roots used among
+us. The best dairy farmers on the Island of Jersey often feed to their
+cows from thirty to thirty-five pounds of parsnips a day, in addition to
+hay or grass.
+
+Both practical experiment and scientific analysis prove this root to be
+eminently adapted to dairy stock, where the richness of milk or
+fine-flavored butter is any object. For mere milk-dairies, it is not
+quite so valuable, probably, as the Swedish turnip. The culture is
+similar to that of carrots, a rich, mellow, and deep loam being best;
+while it has a great advantage over the carrot in being more hardy, and
+rather less liable to injury from insects, and more nutritive. For
+feeding and fattening stock it is eminently adapted.
+
+To be sure of a crop, fresh seed must be had, as it cannot be depended
+on for more than one year. For this reason the largest and straightest
+roots should be allowed to stand for seed, which, as soon as nearly
+ripe, should be taken out and spread out to dry, and carefully kept for
+use. For field culture, the hollow-crowned parsnip is the best and most
+profitable; but on thin, shallow soils the turnip-rooted variety should
+be used. Parsnips may be harvested like carrots, by plowing along the
+rows. Let butter or cheese dairymen give this crop a fair and full
+trial, and watch its effect in the quality of the milk and butter.
+
+The KOHL RABI is also cultivated to a considerable extent in this
+country for the purpose of feeding stock. It is supposed to be a hybrid
+between the cabbage and the turnip and is often called the
+cabbage-turnip, having the root of the former, with a turnip-like or
+bulbous stem. The special reason for its more extensive cultivation
+among us is its wonderful indifference to droughts, in which it seems to
+flourish best, and to bring forth the most luxuriant crops. It also
+withstands the frosts remarkably, being a hardy plant. It yields a
+somewhat richer quality of milk than the ordinary turnip, and the crop
+is generally admitted to be as abundant and profitable. Very large crops
+of it have been produced by the ordinary turnip or cabbage cultivation.
+As in cabbage-culture, it is best to sow the seed in March or April, in
+a warm and well-enriched seed-bed; from which it is transplanted in May,
+and set out after the manner of cabbages in garden culture. It bears
+transplanting better than most other roots. Insects injure it less than
+the turnip, dry weather favors it, and it keeps well through winter. For
+these reasons, it must be regarded as a valuable addition to our list of
+forage plants adapted to dairy farming. It grows well on stronger soils
+than the turnip requires.
+
+LINSEED MEAL is the ground cake of flaxseed after the oil is pressed
+out. It is very rich in fat-forming principles, and given to milch cows
+increases the quality of butter, and keeps them in condition. Four or
+five pounds a day are sufficient for cows in milk, and this amount will
+effect a great saving in the cost of other food, and at the same time
+make a very rich milk. It is extensively manufactured in this country,
+and largely exported, but it is worthy of more general use here. It must
+not be fed in too large quantities to milch cows, for it would be liable
+to give too great a tendency to fat, and thus affect the quantity of the
+milk.
+
+COTTON-SEED MEAL is an article of comparatively recent introduction. It
+is obtained by pressing the seed of the cotton-plant, which extracts the
+oil, when the cake is crushed or ground into meal, which has been found
+to be a very valuable article for feeding stock. From analysis it is
+shown to be equal or superior to linseed meal. Practical experiments
+only are needed to establish it. It can be procured in market at a
+reasonable price.
+
+The MANURES used in this country for the culture of the above named
+plants are mostly such as are made on the farm, consisting chiefly of
+barnyard composts of various kinds, with often a large admixture of
+peat-mud. There are few farms that do not contain substances, which, if
+properly husbanded, would add very greatly to the amount of manure
+ordinarily made. The best of the concentrated manures, which it is
+sometimes necessary to use, for want of time and labor to prepare enough
+upon the farm, is, unquestionably, Peruvian guano. The results of this,
+when properly applied, are well known and reliable, which can hardly be
+said of any other artificial manure offered for the farmer's notice. The
+chief objection to depending upon manures made off the farm is, in the
+first place, their great expense; and in the second--which is equally
+important--the fact, that, though they may be made valuable, and produce
+at one time the best results, a want of care in the manufacture, or
+designed fraud, may make them almost worthless, with the impossibility
+of detecting the imposition, without a chemical analysis, till it
+becomes too late, and the crop is lost.
+
+It is, therefore, safest to rely mainly upon the home manufacture of
+manure. The extra expense of soiling cattle, saving and applying the
+liquid manure, and thus bringing the land to a higher state of
+cultivation, when it will be capable of keeping more stock and
+furnishing more manure, would offer a surer road to success than a
+constant outlay for concentrated fertilizers.
+
+
+THE BARN.
+
+The farm barn, next to the farm house, is the most important structure
+of the farm itself, in the Northern and Middle States; and even at the
+South and Southwest, where barns are less used, they are of more
+importance in the economy of farm management than is generally
+understood. Indeed, to the eyes of a person of taste, a farm or
+plantation appears incomplete, without good barn accommodations, as much
+as without good household appointments--and without them, no
+agricultural establishment can be complete in all its proper economy.
+
+The most _thorough_ barn structures, perhaps, to be seen in the United
+States, are those of the State of Pennsylvania, built by the German
+farmers of the lower and central counties. They are large, and expensive
+in their construction; and, in a strictly economical point of view, are,
+perhaps, more costly than is required. Yet, there is a substantial
+durability about them, that is exceedingly satisfactory, and, where the
+pecuniary ability of the farmer will admit, they may well furnish models
+for imitation.
+
+In the structure of the barn, and in its interior accommodation, much
+will depend upon the branches of agriculture to which the farm is
+devoted. A farm cultivated in grain chiefly requires but little room for
+stabling purposes. Storage for grain in the sheaf, and granaries, will
+require its room; while a stock farm requires a barn with extensive hay
+storage, and stables for its cattle, horses, and sheep, in all climates
+which do not admit of such stocks living through the winter in the
+field, as is the case in the great grazing districts west of the
+Alleghanies. Again, there are wide districts of country where a mixed
+husbandry of grain and stock is pursued, which require barns and
+outbuildings accommodating both.
+
+It may be well here to remark that many designers of barns, sheds, and
+other outbuildings for the accommodation of farm stock, have indulged in
+fanciful arrangements for the comfort and convenience of animals, which
+are so complicated that when constructed, as they sometimes are, the
+practical, common-sense farmer will not use them; and by reason of the
+learning which is required for their use, they are altogether unsuitable
+for the treatment and use which they generally receive from those who
+have the daily care of the stock for which they are intended, and for
+the rough usage which they experience from the animals themselves. A
+very pretty and plausible arrangement of stabling, feeding, and all the
+other requirements of a barn establishment may be thus got up by an
+ingenious theorist at the fireside, which will work charmingly as he
+dilates upon its good qualities, untried; but, which, when subjected to
+experiment, will be utterly worthless for practical use. There can be
+no doubt that the simplest plan of construction, consistent with an
+economical expenditure of the material of food for the consumption of
+stock, is by far the most preferable.
+
+Another item to be considered in this connection, is the comparative
+value of the stock, the forage fed to them, and the labor expended in
+feeding and taking care of them. To illustrate: Suppose a farm to lie in
+the vicinity of a large town or city. Its value is, perhaps, a hundred
+dollars an acre. The hay cut upon it is worth fifteen dollars a ton, at
+the barn, and straw and coarse grains in proportion, and hired labor ten
+or twelve dollars a month. Consequently, the manager of this farm should
+use all the economy in his power, by the aid of cutting-boxes and other
+machinery, to make the least amount of forage supply the wants of his
+stock; and the internal economy of his barn should be arranged
+accordingly, since labor is his cheapest item, and food his dearest.
+Therefore, any contrivance by which to work up his forage the
+closest--by way of machinery, or manual labor--so that it shall serve
+the purposes of keeping his stock, is true economy; and the making and
+saving of manures are items of the first importance. His buildings and
+their arrangements throughout should, for these reasons, be constructed
+in accordance with his practice.
+
+If, on the other hand, lands are cheap and productive, and labor
+comparatively dear, a different practice will prevail. The farmer will
+feed his hay from the mow without cutting. The straw will be stacked
+out, and the cattle turned to it, to pick what they like of it, and make
+their beds of the remainder; or, if it is housed, he will throw it into
+racks, and the stock may eat what they choose. To do this requires but
+one-third, or one-half of the labor which is required by the other mode,
+and the saving in this makes up, and perhaps more than makes up, for the
+increased quantity of forage consumed.
+
+Again, climate may equally affect the mode of winter-feeding the stock.
+The winters may be mild. The hay may be stacked in the fields when
+gathered, or put into small barns built for hay storage alone; and the
+manure, scattered over the fields by the cattle, as they are fed from
+either of them, may be knocked to pieces with the dung-beetle, in the
+spring, or harrowed and bushed over the ground; and with the very small
+quantity of labor required in all this, such practice will be more
+economical than any other which can be adopted.
+
+In latitudes, however, in which it becomes necessary to stall-feed
+during several months of the year, barns are indispensable. These should
+be warm, and at the same time well ventilated. The barn should be
+arranged in a manner suitable to keeping hay and other fodder dry and
+sweet, and with reference to the comfort and health of the animals, and
+the economy of labor and manure. The size and finish will, of course,
+depend on the wants and means of the farmer or dairyman; but many little
+conveniences, it should not be forgotten, can be added at comparatively
+trifling cost.
+
+The accompanying cut of a barn is given merely as an illustration of a
+convenient arrangement for a medium-sized dairy, and not as being
+adapted to all circumstances or situations. This barn is supposed to
+stand upon a side-hill or an inclined surface, where it is easy to have
+a cellar, if desired; and the cattle-room, as shown in the cut, is in
+the second story, or directly over the cellar, the bottom of which
+should be somewhat dished, or lower in the middle than around the outer
+sides, and carefully paved, or laid in cement.
+
+[Illustration: BARN FOR THIRTY-FOUR COWS AND THREE YOKE OF OXEN.]
+
+On the outside is represented an open shed, _m_, for carts and wagons to
+remain under cover, thirty feet by fifteen, while _l l l l l l_ are bins
+for vegetables, to be filled through scuttles from the floor of the
+story above, and surrounded by solid walls. The area of this whole floor
+equals one hundred feet by fifty-seven. _k_, is an open space, nearly on
+a level with the cow-chamber, through the door _p_. _s_, stairs to the
+third story and to the cellar, _d d d_, passage next to the walls, five
+feet wide, and nine inches above the dung-pit. _e e e_, dung-pit, two
+feet wide, and seven inches below the floor where the cattle stand. The
+manure drops from this pit into the cellar below, five feet from the
+walls, and quite around the cellar. _c c c_, plank floor for cows, four
+feet six inches long. _b b b_, stalls for three yoke of oxen, on a
+platform five feet six inches long, _n n_, calf-pens, which may also be
+used for cows in calving. _r r_, feeding-troughs for calves. The
+feeding-boxes are made in the form of trays, with partitions between
+them. Water comes in by a pipe, to cistern _a_. This cistern is
+regulated by a cock and ball, and the water flows by dotted lines,
+_o o o_, to the boxes; each box being connected by lead pipes well secured
+from frost, so that, if desired, each animal can be watered without
+leaving the stall, or water can be kept constantly before it. A scuttle,
+through which sweepings and refuse may be put into the cellar, is seen
+at _f_. _g_ is a bin receiving cut hay from the third story, or
+hay-room, _h h h h h h_, bins for grain-feed. _i_ is a tunnel to conduct
+manure or muck from the hay-floor to the cellar. _j j_, sliding-doors on
+wheels. The cows all face toward the open area in the centre.
+
+This cow-room may be furnished with a thermometer, clock, etc., and
+should always be well ventilated by sliding windows, which at the same
+time admit the light.
+
+The next cut is a transverse section of the same cow-room; _a_ being a
+walk behind the cows, five feet wide; _b_, dung-pit; _c_, cattle-stand;
+_d_, feeding-trough, with a bottom on a level with the platform where
+the cattle stand; _k_, open area, forty-three feet, by fifty-six.
+
+[Illustration: TRANSVERSE SECTION.]
+
+The story above the cow-room--as represented in the next cut--is one
+hundred feet by forty-two; the bays for hay, ten on each side, being ten
+feet front and fifteen feet deep; and the open space, _p_, for the
+entrance of wagons, carts, etc., twelve feet wide. _b_, hay-scales. _c_,
+scale beam. _m m m m m m_, ladders reaching almost to the roof. _l l l_,
+etc., scuttle-holes for sending vegetables directly to the bins, _l l l_,
+etc., below. _a a b b_, rooms on the corners for storage. _d_,
+scuttles; four of which are used for straw, one for cut hay, and one for
+muck for the cellar. _n_ and the other small squares are eighteen-feet
+posts. _f_, passage to the tool-house, a room one hundred feet long by
+eighteen wide. _o_, stairs leading to the scaffold in the roof of the
+tool-house. _i i_, benches. _g_, floor. _h_, boxes for hoes, shovels,
+spades, picks, iron bars, old iron, etc. _j j j_, bins for fruit. _k_,
+scuttles to put apples into wagons, etc., in the shed below. One side of
+this tool-house may be used for plows and large implements, hay-rigging,
+harness, etc.
+
+Proper ventilation of the cellar and the cow-room avoids the objection
+that the hay is liable to injury from noxious gases.
+
+[Illustration: ROOM OVER THE COW-ROOM.]
+
+The excellent manure-cellar beneath this barn extends only under the
+cow-room. It has a drive-way through doors on each side. No barn-cellar
+should be kept shut up tight, even in cold weather. The gases are
+constantly escaping from the manure, unless held by absorbents, which
+are liable not only to affect the health of the stock, but also to
+injure the quality of the hay. To prevent this, while securing the
+important advantages of a manure-cellar, the barn may be furnished with
+good-sized ventilators on the top, for every twenty-five feet of its
+length, and with wooden tubes leading from the cellar to the top.
+
+There should also be windows on different sides of the cellar to admit
+the free circulation of air. With these precautions, together with the
+use of absorbents in the shape of loam and muck, there will be no danger
+of rotting the timbers of the barn, or of risking the health of the
+cattle or the quality of the hay.
+
+The temperature at which the cow-room should be kept is somewhere from
+fifty to sixty degrees, Fahrenheit. The practice and the opinions of
+successful dairymen differ somewhat on this point. Too great heat would
+affect the health and appetite of the herd; while too low a temperature
+is equally objectionable, for various reasons.
+
+The most economical plan for room in tying cattle in their stalls, is to
+fasten the rope or chain, whichever is used--the wooden stanchion, or
+stanchel, as it is called, to open and shut, enclosing the animal by the
+neck, being objectionable--into a ring, which is secured by a strong
+staple into a post. This prevents the cattle from interfering with each
+other, while a partition effectually prevents any contact from the
+animals on each side of it, in the separate stalls.
+
+There is no greater benefit for cattle, after coming into
+winter-quarters, than a systematic regularity in every thing pertaining
+to them. Every animal should have its own particular stall in the
+stable, where it should always be kept. The cattle should be fed and
+watered at certain fixed hours of the day, as near as may be. If let out
+of the stables for water, unless the weather is very pleasant--when they
+may be permitted to lie out for a short time--they should be immediately
+put back, and not allowed to range about with the outside cattle. They
+are more quiet and contented in their stables than elsewhere, and waste
+less food than if permitted to run out; besides being in every way more
+comfortable, if properly bedded and attended to, as every one will find
+upon trial. The habit which many farmers have, of turning their cattle
+out of the stables in the morning, in all weathers--letting them range
+about in a cold yard, hooking and annoying each other--is of no possible
+benefit, unless it be to rid them of the trouble of cleaning the
+stables, which pays more than twice its cost in the saving of manure.
+The outside cattle, which occupy the yard--if there are any--are all the
+better that the stabled ones do not interfere with them. They become
+habituated to their own quarters, as do the others, and all are better
+for being, respectively, in their proper places.
+
+
+MILKING.
+
+The manner of milking exerts a more powerful and lasting influence on
+the productiveness of the cow than most farmers are aware. That a slow
+and careless milker soon dries up the best of cows, every practical
+farmer and dairyman knows; but a careful examination of the beautiful
+structure of the udder will serve further to explain the proper mode of
+milking, in order to obtain and keep up the largest yield.
+
+The udder of a cow consists of four glands, disconnected from each
+other, but all contained within one bag or cellular membrane; and these
+glands are uniform in structure. Each gland consists of three parts: the
+_glandular_, or secreting part, _tubular_ or conducting part, and the
+_teats_, or receptacle, or receiving part. The glandular forms by far
+the largest portion of the udder. It appears to the naked eye composed
+of a mass of yellowish grains; but under the microscope these grains are
+found to consist entirely of minute blood-vessels forming a compact
+plexus, or fold. These vessels secrete the milk from the blood. The milk
+is abstracted from the blood in the glandular part; the tubes receive
+and deposit it in the reservoir, or receptacle; and the sphincter at the
+end of the teat retains it there until it is wanted for use.
+
+This must not be understood, however, as asserting that all the milk
+drawn from the udder at one milking is contained in the receptacle. The
+milk, as it is secreted, is conveyed to the receptacle, and when that is
+full, the larger tubes begin to be filled, and next the smaller ones,
+until the whole become gorged. When this takes place, the secretion of
+the milk ceases, and absorption of the thinner or more watery part
+commences. Now, as this absorption takes place more readily in the
+smaller or more distant tubes, it is invariably found that the milk from
+these, which comes last into the receptacle, is much thicker and richer
+than what was first drawn off. This milk has been significantly styled
+afterings, or strippings; and should this gorged state of the tubes be
+permitted to continue beyond a certain time, serious mischief will
+sometimes occur; the milk becomes too thick to flow through the tubes,
+and soon produces, first irritation, then inflammation, and lastly
+suppuration, and the function of the gland is materially impaired or
+altogether destroyed. Hence the great importance of emptying these
+smaller tubes regularly and thoroughly, not merely to prevent the
+occurrence of disease, but actually to increase the quantity of milk;
+for, so long as the smaller tubes are kept free, milk is constantly
+forming; but whenever, as has already been mentioned, they become
+gorged, the secretion of milk ceases until they are emptied. The cow
+herself has no power over the sphincter at the end of her teat, so as to
+open it, and relieve the overcharged udder; neither has she any power of
+retaining the milk collected in the reservoirs when the spasm of the
+sphincter is overcome.
+
+Thus is seen the necessity of drawing away the last drop of milk at
+every milking; and the better milker the cow, the more necessary this
+is. What has been said demonstrates, also, the impropriety of holding
+the milk in cows until the udder is distended much beyond its ordinary
+size, for the sake of showing its capacity for holding milk--a device to
+which many dealers in cows resort.
+
+Thus much of the internal structure of the udder. Its external form
+requires attention, because it indicates different properties. Its form
+should be spheroidal, large, giving an idea of capaciousness; the bag
+should have a soft, fine skin, and the hind part upward toward the tail
+be loose and elastic. There should be fine, long hairs scattered
+plentifully over the surface, to keep it warm. The teats should not seem
+to be contracted, or funnel-shaped, at the inset with the bag. In the
+former state, teats are very apt to become corded, or spindled; and in
+the latter, too much milk will constantly be pressing on the lower
+tubes, or receptacle. They should drop naturally from the lower parts of
+the bag, being neither too short, small, or dumpy, or long, flabby, and
+thick, but, perhaps, about three inches in length, and so thick as just
+to fill the hand. They should hang as if all the quarters of the udder
+were equal in size, the front quarters projecting a little forward, and
+the hind ones a little more dependent. Each quarter should contain about
+equal quantities of milk; though, in the belief of some, the hind
+quarters contain rather the most.
+
+Largely developed milk-veins--as the subcutaneous veins along the under
+part of the abdomen are commonly called--are regarded as a source of
+milk. This is a popular error, for the milk-vein has no connection with
+the udder; yet, although the office of these is to convey the blood from
+the fore part of the chest and sides to the inguinal vein, yet a large
+milk-vein certainly indicates a strongly developed vascular system--one
+favorable to secretions generally, and to that of the milk among the
+rest.
+
+Milking is performed in two ways, stripping and handling. _Stripping_
+consists in seizing the teat firmly near the root between the face of
+the thumb and the side of the fore-finger, the length of the teat
+passing through the other fingers, and in milking the hand passes down
+the entire length of the teat, causing the milk to flow out of its point
+in a forcible stream. The action is renewed by again quickly elevating
+the hand to the root of the teat. Both hands are employed at the
+operation, each having hold of a different teat, and being moved
+alternately. The two nearest teats are commonly first milked, and then
+the two farthest. _Handling_ is done by grasping the teat at its root
+with the fore-finger like a hoop, assisted by the thumb, which lies
+horizontally over the fore-finger, the rest being also seized by the
+other fingers. Milk is drawn by pressing upon the entire length of the
+teat in alternate jerks with the entire palm of the hand. Both hands
+being thus employed, are made to press alternately, but so quickly
+following each other that the alternate streams of milk sound to the ear
+like one forcible, continued stream. This continued stream is also
+produced by stripping. Stripping, then, is performed by pressing and
+passing certain fingers along the teat; handling, by the whole hand
+doubled, or fist, pressing the teat steadily at one place. Hence the
+origin of both names.
+
+[Illustration: THE PREFERABLE METHOD.]
+
+Of these two modes, handling is the preferable, since it is the more
+natural method--imitating, as it does, the suckling of the calf. When a
+calf takes a teat into its mouth, it makes the tongue and palate by
+which it seizes it, play upon the teat by alternate pressures or
+pulsations, while retaining the teat in the same position. It is thus
+obvious that handling is somewhat like sucking, whereas stripping is
+not at all like it. It is said that stripping is good for agitating the
+udder, the agitation of which is conducive to the withdrawal of a large
+quantity of milk; but there is nothing to prevent the agitation of the
+udder as much as the dairymaid pleases, while holding in the other mode.
+Indeed, a more constant vibration could be kept up in that way by the
+vibrations of the arms than by stripping. Stripping, by using an
+unconstrained pressure on two sides of the teat, is much more apt to
+press it unequally, than by grasping the whole teat in the palm of the
+hand; while the friction occasioned by passing the finger and thumb
+firmly over the outside of the teat, is more likely to cause heat and
+irritation in it than a steady and full grasp of the entire hand. To
+show that this friction causes an unpleasant feeling even to the
+dairymaid, she is obliged to lubricate the teat frequently with milk,
+and to wet it at first with water; whereas the other mode requires no
+such expedients. And as a further proof that stripping is a mode of
+milking which may give pain to the cow, it cannot be employed, when the
+teats are chapped, with so much ease to the cow as handling.
+
+The first requisite in the person that milks is, of course, the utmost
+_cleanliness_. Without this, the milk is unendurable. The udder should,
+therefore, be carefully cleaned before the milking commences.
+
+Milking should be done _fast_, to draw away the milk as quickly as
+possible, and it should be continued as long as there is a drop of milk
+to bring away. This is an issue which cannot be attended to in too
+particular a manner. If any milk is left, it is re-absorbed into the
+system, or else becomes caked, and diminishes the tendency to secrete a
+full quantity afterward. Milking as dry as possible is especially
+necessary with young cows with their first calf; as the mode of milking
+and the length of time to which they can be made to hold out, will have
+very much to do with their milking qualities as long as they live. Old
+milk left in the receptacle of the teat soon changes into a curdy state,
+and the caseous matter not being at once removed by the next milking, is
+apt to irritate the lining membrane of the teat during the operation,
+especially when the teat is forcibly rubbed down between the finger and
+thumb in stripping. The consequence of this repeated irritation is the
+thickening of the lining membrane, which at length becomes so hardened
+as to close up the orifice at the end of the teat. The hardened membrane
+may be easily felt from the outside of the teat, when the teat is said
+to be _corded_. After this the teat becomes _deaf_, as it is called, and
+no more milk can afterward be drawn from the quarter of the udder to
+which the corded teat is attached.
+
+The milking-pail is of various forms and of various materials. The Dutch
+use brass ones, which are brilliantly scoured every time they are in
+use. Tin pitchers are used in some places, while pails of wood in
+cooper-work are employed in others. A pail of oak, having thin staves
+bound together by bright iron hoops, with a handle formed by a stave
+projecting upward, is convenient for the purpose, and may be kept clean
+and sweet. One nine inches in diameter at the bottom, eleven inches at
+the top, and ten inches deep, with an upright handle or leg of five
+inches, has a capacious enough mouth to receive the milk as it descends;
+and a sufficient height, when standing on the edge of its bottom on the
+ground, to allow the dairymaid to grasp it firmly with her knees while
+sitting on a small three-legged stool. Of course, such a pail cannot be
+milked full; but it should be large enough to contain all the milk which
+a single cow can give at a milking; because it is undesirable to rise
+from a cow before the milking is finished, or to exchange one dish for
+another while the milking is in progress.
+
+The cow being a sensitive and capricious creature, is, oftentimes so
+easily offended that if the maid rise from her before the milk is all
+withdrawn, the chances are that she will not again stand quietly at that
+milking; or, if the vessel used in milking is taken away and another
+substituted in its place, before the milking is finished, the
+probability is that she will _hold_ her milk--that is, not allow it to
+flow. This is a curious property which cows possess, of holding up or
+keeping back their milk. How it is effected has never been
+satisfactorily ascertained; but there is no doubt of the fact that when
+a cow becomes irritated, or frightened from any cause, she can withhold
+her milk. Of course, all cows are not affected in the same degree; but,
+as a proof how sensitive cows generally are, it may be mentioned that
+very few will be milked so freely by a stranger the first time, as by
+one to whom they have been accustomed.
+
+There is one side of a cow which is usually called the _milking
+side_--that is the cow's left side--because, somehow custom has
+established the practice of milking her from that side. It may have been
+adopted for two reasons: one, because we are accustomed to approach all
+the larger domesticated animals by what we call the _near side_--that
+is, the animal's left side--as being the most convenient one for
+ourselves; and the other reason may have been, that, as most people are
+right-handed, and the common use of the right hand has made it the
+stronger, it is most conveniently employed in milking the hinder teats
+of the cow, which are often most difficult to reach on account of the
+position of the hind legs and the length of the hinder teats, or of the
+breadth of the hinder part of the udder. The near side is most commonly
+used in this country and in Scotland; but in many parts of England the
+other side is preferred. Whichever side is selected, that should
+uniformly be used, as cows are very sensitive to changes.
+
+In Scotland it is a rare thing to see a cow milked by any other person
+than a woman, though men are very commonly employed at it in this
+country and in England. One never sees a man milking a cow without being
+impressed with the idea that he is usurping an office which does not
+become him; and the same thought seems to be conveyed in the terms
+usually applied to the person connected with cows--a dairy-_maid_
+implying one who milks cows, as well as performs the other duties
+connected with the dairy--a dairy-_man_ meaning one who owns a dairy.
+There can be but little question that the charge of this branch of the
+dairy should generally be entrusted to women. They are more gentle and
+winning than men. The same person should milk the same cow regularly,
+and not change from one to another, unless there are special reasons for
+it.
+
+Cows are easily rendered troublesome on being milked; and the kicks and
+knocks which they usually receive for their restlessness, only render
+them more fretful. If they cannot be overcome by kindness, thumps will
+never make them better. The truth is, restless habits are continued in
+them by the treatment which they receive at first, when, most probably,
+they have been dragooned into submission. Their teats are tender at
+first; but an unfeeling, horny hand tugs at them at stripping, as if the
+animal had been accustomed to the operation for years. Can the creature
+be otherwise than uneasy? And how can she escape the wincing but by
+flinging out her heels?--Then hopples are placed on the hind fetlocks,
+to keep her heels down. The tail must then be held by some one, while
+the milking is going on; or the hair of its tuft be converted into a
+double cord, to tie the tail to the animal's leg. Add to this the many
+threats and scoldings uttered by the milker, and one gets a not very
+exaggerated impression of the "breaking-in."
+
+Some cows, no doubt, are very unaccomodating and provoking; but,
+nevertheless, nothing but a rational course toward them, administered
+with gentleness, will ever render them less so. There are cows which are
+troublesome to milk for a few times after calving, that become quite
+quiet for the remainder of the season; others will kick pertinaciously
+at the first milking. In this last case the safest plan--instead of
+hoppling, which only irritates--is for the dairymaid to thrust her head
+against the flank of the cow, and while standing on her feet, stretch
+her hands forward, get hold of the teats the best way she can, and send
+the milk on the ground; and in this position it is out of the power of
+the cow to hurt her. These ebullitions of feeling at the first milking
+after calving, arise either from feeling pain in a tender state of the
+teat, most probably from inflammation in the lining membrane of the
+receptacle; or they may arise from titillation of the skin of the udder
+and teat, which becomes the more sensible to the affection from a heat
+which is wearing off.
+
+At the age of two or three years the milking glands have not become
+fully developed, and their largest development will depend very greatly
+upon the management after the first calf. Cows should have, therefore,
+the most milk-producing food; be treated with constant gentleness; never
+struck, or spoken harshly to, but coaxed and caressed; and in
+ninety-nine cases out of a hundred, they will grow up gentle and quiet.
+The hundredth had better be fatted and sent to the butcher. Harshness is
+worse than useless. Be the cause of irritation what it may, one thing is
+certain, that gentle discipline will overcome the most turbulent temper.
+Nothing does so much to dry a cow up, especially a young cow, as the
+senseless treatment to which she is too often subjected.
+
+The longer the young cow, with her first and second calf, is made to
+hold out, the more surely will this habit be fixed upon her. Stop
+milking her four months before the next calf, and it will be difficult
+to make her hold out to within four or six weeks of the time of calving
+afterward. Induce her, if possible, by moist and succulent food, and by
+careful milking, to hold out even up to the time of calving, if you
+desire to milk her so long, and this habit will be likely to be fixed
+upon her for life. But do not expect to obtain the full yield of a cow
+the first year after calving. Some of the very best cows are slow to
+develop their best qualities; and no cow reaches her prime till the age
+of five or six years.
+
+The extreme importance of care and attention to these points cannot be
+overestimated. The wild cows grazing on the plains of South America, are
+said to give not more than three or four quarts a day at the height of
+the flow; and many an owner of large herds in Texas, it is said, has too
+little milk for family use, and sometimes receives his supply of butter
+from the New York market. There is, therefore, a constant tendency in
+milch cows to dry up; and it must be guarded against with special care,
+till the habit of yielding a large quantity, and yielding it long,
+becomes fixed in the young animal, when, with proper care, it may easily
+be kept up.
+
+Cows, independently of their power to retain their milk in the udder,
+afford different degrees of pleasure in milking them, even in the
+quietest mood. Some yield their milk in a copious flow, with the
+gentlest handling that can be given them; others require great exertion
+to draw the milk from them even in streams no larger than a thread. The
+udder of the former will be found to have a soft skin and short teats;
+that of the latter will have a thick skin, with long rough teats. The
+one feels like velvet; the other is no more pleasant to the touch than
+untanned leather. To induce quiet and persuade the animal to give down
+her milk freely, it is better that she should be fed at milking-time
+with cut feed, or roots, placed within her easy reach.
+
+If gentle and mild treatment is observed and persevered in, the
+operation of milking, as a general thing, appears to be a pleasure to
+the animal, as it undoubtedly is; but, if an opposite course is
+pursued--if at every restless movement, caused, perhaps, by pressing a
+sore teat, the animal is harshly spoken to--she will be likely to learn
+to kick as a habit, and it will be difficult to overcome it ever
+afterward.
+
+Whatever may be the practice on other occasions, there can be no doubt
+that, for some weeks after calving, and in the height of the flow, cows
+ought, if possible, to be milked regularly three times a day--at early
+morning, noon, and night. Every practical dairyman knows that cows thus
+milked give a larger quantity of milk than if milked only twice, though
+it may not be quite so rich; and in young cows, no doubt, it has a
+tendency to promote the development of the udder and milk-veins. A
+frequent milking stimulates an increased secretion, therefore, and ought
+never to be neglected in the milk-dairy, either in the case of young
+cows, or very large milkers, at the height of the flow, which will
+commonly be for two or three months after calving.
+
+There being a great difference in the quality as well as in the quantity
+of the milk of different cows, no dairyman should neglect to test the
+milk of each new addition to his dairy stock, whether it be an animal of
+his own raising or one brought from abroad. A lactometer--or instrument
+for testing the comparative richness of different species of milk--is
+very convenient for this purpose; but any one can set the milk of each
+cow separately at first, and give it a thorough trial, when the
+difference will be found to be great. Economy will dictate that the cows
+least to the purpose should be disposed of, and their places supplied
+with better ones.
+
+
+THE RAISING OF CALVES.
+
+It has been found in practice that calves properly bred and raised on
+the farm have a far greater intrinsic value for that farm, other things
+being equal, than any that can be procured elsewhere; while on the
+manner in which they are raised will depend much of their future
+usefulness and profit. These considerations should have their proper
+weight in deciding whether a promising calf from a good cow and bull
+shall be kept, or sold to the butcher. But, rather than raise a calf at
+hap-hazard, and simply because its dam was celebrated as a milker, the
+judicious farmer will prefer to judge of the peculiar characteristics of
+the animal itself. This will often save the great and useless outlay
+which has sometimes been incurred in raising calves for dairy purposes,
+which a more careful examination would have rejected as unpromising.
+
+[Illustration: MATERNAL AFFECTION.]
+
+The method of judging stock which has been recommended in the previous
+pages is of practical utility here, and it is safer to rely upon it to
+some extent, particularly when other appearances concur, than to go on
+blindly. The milk-mirror on the calf is, indeed, small, but no smaller
+in proportion to its size than that of the cow; while its shape and form
+can generally be distinctly seen, particularly at the end of ten or
+twelve weeks. The development of the udder, and other peculiarities,
+will give some indication of the future capacities of the animal, and
+these should be carefully studied. If we except the manure of young
+stock, the calf is the first product of the cow, and as such demands our
+attention, whether it is to be raised or hurried off to the shambles.
+The practice adopted in raising calves differs widely in different
+sections of the country, being governed very much by local
+circumstances, as the vicinity of a milk-market, the value of milk for
+the dairy, the object of breeding, whether mainly for beef, for work, or
+for the dairy, etc.; but, in general, it may be said, that, within the
+range of thirty or forty miles of good veal-markets, which large towns
+furnish, comparatively few are raised at all. Most of them are fattened
+and sold at ages varying from three to eight or ten weeks; and in
+milk-dairies still nearer large towns and cities they are often hurried
+off at one or two days, or, at most, a week old. In both of these cases,
+as long as the calf is kept it is generally allowed to suck the cow,
+and, as the treatment is very simple, there is nothing which
+particularly calls for remark, unless it be to condemn the practice
+entirely, upon the ground that there is a more profitable way of
+fattening calves for the butcher, and to say that allowing the calf to
+suck the cow at all is objectionable on the score of economy, except in
+cases where it is rendered necessary by the hard and swollen condition
+of the udder.
+
+If the calf is so soon to be taken away, it is better that the cow
+should not be suffered to become attached to it at all: since she is
+inclined to withhold her milk when it is removed, and thus a loss is
+sustained. The farmer will be governed by the question of profit,
+whatever course it is decided to adopt. In raising blood-stock, however,
+or in raising beef cattle, without any regard to economy of milk, the
+system of suckling the calves, or letting them run with the cow, may
+and will be adopted, since it is usually attended with somewhat less
+labor.
+
+The other course, which is regarded as the best where the calf is to be
+raised for the dairy, is to bring it up by hand. This is almost
+universally done in all countries where the raising of dairy cows is
+best understood--in Switzerland, Holland, some parts of Germany, and
+England. It requires rather more care, on the whole; but it is decidedly
+preferable, since the calves cost less, as the food can be easily
+modified, and the growth is not checked, as is usually the case when the
+calf is taken off from the cow. Allusion is here made, of course, to
+sections where the milk of the cow is of some account for the dairy, and
+where it is too valuable to be devoted entirely to nourishing the calf.
+In this case, as soon as the calf is dropped the cow is allowed to lick
+off the slimy moisture till it is dry, which she will generally do from
+instinct, or, if not, a slight sprinkling of salt over the body of the
+calf will immediately tempt her. The calf is left to suck once or twice,
+which it will do as soon as it is able to stand. It should, in all
+cases, be permitted to have the first milk which comes from the cow,
+which is of a turbid, yellowish color, unfit for any of the purposes of
+the dairy, but somewhat purgative and medicinal, and admirably and
+wisely designed by Nature to free the bowels and intestines of the
+new-born animal from the mucous, excrementitious matter always existing
+in it after birth. Too much of this new milk may, however, be hurtful
+even to the new-born calf, while it should never be given at all to
+older calves. The best course would seem to be--and such is in
+accordance with the experience of the most successful stock-raisers--to
+milk the cow dry immediately after the calf has sucked once, especially
+if the udder is painfully distended, which is often the case, and to
+leave the calf with the cow during one day, and after that to feed it by
+putting the fingers into its mouth, and gently bringing its muzzle down
+to the milk in a pail or trough when it will imbibe in sucking the
+fingers. No great difficulty will be experienced in teaching the calf to
+drink when taken so young, though some take to it much more readily than
+others. What the calf does not need should be given to the cow. Some,
+however, prefer to milk immediately after calving; and, if the udder is
+overloaded, this may be the best course, though the better practice
+appears to be, to leave the cow as quietly to herself as possible for a
+few hours. The less she is disturbed, as a general thing, the better.
+The after-birth should be taken from her immediately after it is
+dropped. It is customary to give the cow, as soon as convenient after
+calving, some warm and stimulating drink--a little meal stirred into
+warm water, with a part of the first milk which comes from her, seasoned
+with a little salt.
+
+In many cases the calf is taken from the cow immediately; and before she
+has seen it, to a warm, dry pen out of her sight, and there rubbed till
+it is thoroughly dry; and then, when able to stand, fed with the new
+milk from the cow, which it should have three or four times a day,
+regularly, for the first fortnight, whatever course it is proposed to
+adopt afterwards. It is of the greatest importance to give the young
+calf a thrifty start. The milk, unless coming directly from the cow,
+should be warmed.
+
+Some object to removing the calf from the cow in this way, on the
+ground of its apparent cruelty. But the objection to letting the calf
+suck the cow for several days, as they do, or indeed of leaving it with
+the cow for any length of time, is, that she invariably becomes attached
+to it, and frets and withholds her milk when it is at last taken from
+her. She probably suffers much more, after this attachment is once
+formed, at the removal of the object of it, than she does at its being
+taken at first out of her sight. The cow's memory is far more retentive
+than many suppose; and the loss and injury sustained by removing the
+calf after it has been allowed to suck her for a longer or shorter
+period are never known exactly, because it is not usually known how much
+milk the calf takes; but it is, without doubt, very considerable. If the
+udder is all right, there seems to be no good reason for leaving the
+calf with the cow for two or three days, if it is then to be taken away.
+
+The practice in Holland is to remove the calf from its mother even
+before it has been licked, and to take it into a corner of the barn, or
+into another building, out of the cow's sight and hearing, put it on
+soft, dry straw, and rub it dry with some hay or straw, when its tongue
+and gums are slightly rubbed with salt, and the mucus and saliva removed
+from the nostrils and lips. After this has been done, the calf is made
+to drink the milk first taken as it comes from the mother. It is
+slightly diluted with water, if taken last from the udder; but, if the
+first of the milking, it is given just as it is. The calf is taught to
+drink in the same manner as in this country, by putting the fingers in
+its mouth, and bringing it down to the milk, and it soon gets so as to
+drink unaided. It is fed, at first, from four to six times a day, or
+even oftener; but soon only three times, at regular intervals. Its food
+for two or three weeks is clear milk, as it comes warm and fresh from
+the cow. This is never omitted, as the milk during most of that time
+possesses certain qualities which are necessary to the calf, and which
+cannot be effectually supplied by any other food. In the third or fourth
+week the milk is skimmed, but warmed to the degree of fresh milk;
+though, as the calf grows a little older, the milk is given cold, while
+less care is taken to give it the milk of its own mother, that of other
+cows now answering equally well. In some places, calves are fed on
+buttermilk at the age of two weeks and after; but the change from new
+milk, fresh from the cow, is made gradually, some sweet skimmed milk and
+warm water being first added to it.
+
+At three weeks old, or thereabouts, the calf will begin to eat a little
+sweet, fine hay, and potatoes cut fine, and it very soon becomes
+accustomed to this food. Many now begin to give linseed-meal mixed into
+hot water, to which is added some skim-milk or buttermilk; and others
+use a little bran cooked in hay-tea, made by chopping the hay fine and
+pouring on boiling-hot water, which is allowed to stand awhile on it. An
+egg is frequently broken into such a mixture. Others still take pains at
+this age to have fresh linseed-cake, broken into pieces of the size of a
+pigeon's egg; putting one of these into the mouth after the meal of milk
+has been finished, and when it is eager to suck at any thing in its way.
+It will very soon learn to eat linseed-meal. A little sweet clover is
+put in its way at the age of about three weeks, and it will soon begin
+to eat that also.
+
+In this manner the feeding is continued from the fourth to the seventh
+week, the quantity of solid food being gradually increased. In the sixth
+or seventh week the milk is by degrees withheld, and water or buttermilk
+used instead; and soon after this, green food may be safely given,
+increasing it gradually with the hay to the age of ten or twelve weeks,
+when it will do to put them upon grass alone, if the season is
+favorable. A lot as near the house as possible, where they can be easily
+looked after and frequently visited, is the best. Calves should be
+gradually accustomed to all changes; and even after having been turned
+out to pasture, they ought to be put under shelter if the weather is not
+dry and warm. The want of care and attention relative to these little
+details will be apparent sooner or later; while, if the farmer gives his
+personal attention to these matters, he will be fully paid in the rapid
+growth of his calves. It is especially necessary to see that the troughs
+from which they are fed, if troughs are used, are kept clean and sweet.
+
+But there are some--even among intelligent farmers--who make a practice
+of turning their calves out to pasture at the tender age of two or three
+weeks--and that, too, when they have sucked the cow up to that time--and
+allow them nothing in the shape of milk and tender care. This,
+certainly, is the poorest possible economy, to say nothing of the
+manifest cruelty of such treatment. The growth of the calf is checked,
+and the system receives a shock from so sudden a change, from which it
+cannot soon recover. The careful Dutch breeders bring the calves either
+skimmed milk or buttermilk to drink several times a day after they are
+turned to grass, which is not till the age of ten or twelve weeks; and,
+if the weather is chilly, the milk is warmed for them. They put a
+trough generally under a covering, to which the calves may come and
+drink at regular times. Thus, they are kept tame and docile.
+
+In the raising of calves, through all stages of their growth, great care
+should be taken neither to starve nor to over-feed. A calf should never
+be surfeited, and never be fed so highly that it cannot be fed more
+highly as it advances. The most important part is to keep it growing
+thriftily without getting too fat, if it is to be raised for the dairy.
+
+The calves in the dairy districts of Scotland are fed on the milk, with
+seldom any admixture; and they are not permitted to suck their dams, but
+are taught to drink milk by the hand from a dish. They are generally fed
+on milk only for the first four, five, or six weeks, and are then
+allowed from two to two and a half quarts of new milk each meal, twice
+in the twenty-four hours. Some never give them any other food when young
+except milk, lessening the quantity when the calf begins to eat grass or
+other food, which it generally does when about five weeks old, if grass
+can be had; and withdrawing it entirely about the seventh or eighth week
+of the calf's age. But, if the calf is reared in winter, or early in
+spring, before the grass rises, it must be supplied with at least some
+milk until it is eight or nine weeks old, as a calf will not so soon
+learn to eat hay or straw, nor fare so well on them alone as it will on
+pasture. Some feed their calves reared for stock partly with meal mixed
+in the milk after the third or fourth week. Others introduce gradually
+some new whey into the milk, first mixed with meal; and, when the calf
+gets older, they withdraw the milk, and feed it on whey and porridge.
+Hay-tea, juices of peas and beans, or pea or bean-straw, linseed beaten
+into powder, treacle, etc., have all been sometimes used to advantage in
+feeding calves; but milk, when it can be spared, is, in the judgment of
+the Scotch breeders, by far their most natural food.
+
+In Galloway, and other pastoral districts, where the calves are allowed
+to suck, the people are so much wedded to their own customs as to argue
+that suckling is much more nutritious to the calves than any other mode
+of feeding. That it induces a greater secretion of saliva, which, by
+promoting digestion, accelerates the growth and fattening of the young
+animal, cannot be doubted; but the secretion of that fluid may likewise
+be promoted by placing an artificial teat in the mouth of the calf, and
+giving it the milk slowly, and at the natural temperature. In the dairy
+districts of Scotland, the dairymaid puts one of her fingers into the
+mouth of the calf when it is fed, which serves the purpose of a teat,
+and will have nearly the same effect as the natural teat in inducing the
+secretion of saliva. If that, or an artificial teat of leather, be used,
+and the milk be given slowly before it is cold, the secretion of saliva
+may be promoted to all the extent that can be necessary; besides,
+secretion is not confined to the mere period of eating, but, as in the
+human body, the saliva is formed and part of it swallowed at all times.
+As part of the saliva is sometimes seen dropping from the mouths of the
+calves, it might be advisable not only to give them an artificial teat
+when fed, but to place, as is frequently done, a lump of chalk before
+them to lick, thus leading them to swallow the saliva. The chalk would
+so far supply the want of salt, of which cattle are often so improperly
+deprived, and it would also promote the formation of saliva. Indeed,
+calves are very much disposed to lick and suck every thing which comes
+within their reach, which seems to be the way in which Nature teaches
+them to supply their stomachs with saliva.
+
+[Illustration: FROLICKSOME.]
+
+But though sucking their dams may be most advantageous in that respect,
+yet it has also some disadvantages. The cow is always more injured than
+the calf is benefited by that mode of feeding. She becomes so fond of
+the calf that she does not, for a long time after, yield her milk freely
+to the dairyman. The calf does not when young draw off the milk
+completely, and when it is taken off by the hand, the cow withholds a
+part of her milk, and, whenever a cow's udder is not completely emptied
+every time she is milked, the lactic secretion--as before stated--is
+thereby diminished.
+
+Feeding of calves by hand is also, in various respects, advantageous.
+Instead of depending on the uncertain, or perhaps precarious supply of
+the dam, which may be more at first than the young animal can consume or
+digest, and at other times too little for its supply, its food can, by
+hand-feeding, be regulated to suit the age, appetite, and the purposes
+for which the calf is intended; other admixtures or substitutes can be
+introduced into the milk, and the quantity gradually increased or
+withdrawn at pleasure. This is highly necessary when the calves are
+reared for stock. The milk is in that case diminished, and other food
+introduced so gradually that the stomach of the young animal is not
+injured as it is when the food is too suddenly changed. And, in the case
+of feeding calves for the butcher, the quantity of milk is not limited
+to that of the dam--for no cow will allow a stranger-calf to suck
+her--but it can be increased, or the richest or poorest parts of the
+milk given at pleasure.
+
+Such are, substantially, the views upon this subject which are
+entertained by the most judicious farmers in the first dairy districts
+of Scotland.
+
+In those districts--where, probably, the feeding and management of
+calves are as well and as judiciously conducted as in any other part of
+Great Britain--the farmers' wives and daughters, or the female
+domestics, have the principal charge of young calves; and they are,
+doubtless, much better calculated for this duty than men, since they are
+more inclined to be gentle and patient. The utmost gentleness--as has
+been already remarked, in another connection--should always be observed
+in the treatment of all stock; but especially of milch cows, and calves
+designed for the dairy. Persevering kindness and patience, will, almost
+invariably, overcome the most obstinate natures; while rough and
+ungentle handling will be repaid in a quiet kind of way, perhaps, by
+withholding the milk, which will always have a tendency to dry up the
+cow; or, what is nearly as bad, by kicking and other modes of revenge,
+which often contribute to the personal discomfort of the milker. The
+disposition of the cow is greatly modified, if not, indeed, wholly
+formed, by her treatment while young; and therefore it is best to handle
+calves as much as possible, and make pets of them, lead them with a
+halter, and caress them in various ways. Calves managed in this way will
+always be docile, and suffer themselves to be approached and handled,
+both in the pasture and in the barn.
+
+With respect to the use of hay-tea--often used in this country, but more
+common abroad, where greater care and attention are usually bestowed
+upon the details of breeding--Youatt says: "At the end of three or four
+days, or perhaps a week, or near a fortnight, after a calf has been
+dropped, and the first passages have been cleansed by allowing it to
+drink as much of the cow's milk as it feels inclined for, let the
+quantity usually allotted for a meal be mixed, consisting, for the first
+week, of three parts of milk and one part of hay-tea. _The only
+nourishing infusion of hay is that which is made from the best and
+sweetest hay, cut by a chaff-cutter into pieces about two inches long_,
+and put into an earthen vessel; over this, boiling water should be
+poured, and the whole allowed to stand for two hours, during which time
+it ought to be kept carefully closed. After the first week, the
+proportions of milk and hay-tea may be equal; then composed of
+two-thirds of hay-tea and one of milk; and at length, one-fourth part of
+milk will be sufficient. This food should be given to the calf in a
+lukewarm state _at least three, if not four times a day, in quantities
+averaging three quarts at a meal_, but gradually increasing to four
+quarts as the calf grows older. Toward the end of the second month,
+beside the usual quantity given at each meal--composed of three parts of
+the infusion and one of milk--a small wisp or bundle of hay is to be
+laid before the calf, which will gradually come to eat it; but, if the
+weather is favorable, as in the month of May, the beast may be turned
+out to graze in a fine, sweet pasture, well sheltered from the wind and
+sun. This diet may be continued until toward the latter end of the third
+month, when, if the calf grazes heartily, each meal may be reduced to
+less than a quart of milk, with hay-water; or skimmed milk, or fresh
+buttermilk, may be substituted for new milk. At the expiration of the
+third month, the animal will hardly require to be fed by hand; though,
+if this should still be necessary, one quart of the infusion given
+daily--which, during the summer, need not be warmed--will suffice." The
+hay-tea should be made fresh every two days, as it soon loses its
+nutritious quality.
+
+This and other preparations are given, not because they are better than
+milk,--than which nothing is better adapted to fatten a calf, or promote
+its growth,--but simply to economize by providing the simplest and
+cheapest substitutes. Experience shows that the first two or three
+calves are smaller than those which follow; and hence, unless they are
+pure-bred, and to be kept for the blood, they are not generally thought
+to be so desirable to raise for the dairy as the third or fourth, and
+those that come after, up to the age of nine or ten years. Opinions upon
+this point, however, differ.
+
+According to the comparative experiments of a German agriculturist, cows
+which as calves had been allowed to suck their dams from two to four
+weeks, brought calves which weighed only from thirty-five to forty-eight
+pounds; while others, which as calves had been allowed to suck from five
+to eight weeks, brought calves which weighed from sixty to eighty
+pounds. It is difficult to see how there can be so great a difference,
+if, indeed, there be any; but it may be worthy of careful observation
+and experiment, and as such it is stated here. The increased size of the
+calf would be due to the increased size to which the cow would attain;
+and if as a calf she were allowed to run in the pasture with her dam for
+four or five months, taking all the milk she wanted, she would doubtless
+be kept growing on in a thriving condition. But taking a calf from the
+cow at four or even eight weeks must check its growth to some extent;
+and this may be avoided by feeding liberally, and bringing up by hand.
+
+After the calf is fully weaned, there is nothing very peculiar in the
+general management. A young animal will require for the first few
+months--say up to the age of six months--an average of five or six
+pounds daily of good hay, or its equivalent. At the age of six months,
+it will require from four and a half to five pounds; and at the end of
+the year, from three and a half or four pounds of good hay, or its
+equivalent, for every one hundred pounds of its live weight; or, in
+other words, about three and a half or four per cent. of its live
+weight. At two years old, it will require three and a half, and some
+months later, three per cent. of its live weight daily in good hay, or
+its equivalent. Indian-corn fodder, either green or cured, forms an
+excellent and wholesome food at this age.
+
+The heifer should not be pampered, nor yet poorly fed or half starved,
+so as to receive a check in her growth. An abundant supply of good
+healthy dairy food and milk will do all that is necessary up to the time
+of her having her first calf--which should not ordinarily be till the
+age of three years, though some choose to allow them to come in at two,
+or a little over, on the ground that it early stimulates the secretion
+of milk, and that this will increase the milking propensity through
+life. This is undoubtedly the case, as a general rule; but greater
+injury is at the same time done by checking the growth, unless the
+heifer has been fed up to large size and full development from the
+start--in which case she may perhaps take the bull at fifteen or
+eighteen months without injury. Even if a heifer comes in at two years,
+it is generally deemed desirable to let her run barren for the following
+year, which will promote her growth and more perfect development.
+
+The feeding which young stock often get is not such as is calculated to
+make good-sized or valuable cattle of them. They are often fed on the
+poorest of hay or straw through the winter, not infrequently left
+exposed to cold, unprotected and unhoused, and thus stinted in their
+growth. This is, surely, the very worst economy, or rather it is no
+economy at all. Properly viewed, it is an extravagant wastefulness which
+no farmer can afford. No animal develops its good points under such
+treatment; and if the starving system is to be followed at all, it had
+better be after the age of two or three years, when the animal's
+constitution has attained the strength and vigor which may, possibly,
+enable it to resist ill treatment.
+
+To raise up first-rate milkers, it is absolutely necessary to feed on
+dairy food even when they are young. No matter how fine the breed is, if
+the calf is raised on poor, short feed, it will never be so good a
+milker as if raised on better keeping; and hence, in dairy districts,
+where calves are raised at all, they ought to be allowed the best
+pasture during the summer, and good, sweet and wholesome food during
+the winter.
+
+
+POINTS OF FAT CATTLE.
+
+Whatever theoretical objections may be raised against over-fed cattle,
+and great as may be the attempts to disparage the mountains of fat,--as
+highly-fed cattle are sometimes designated,--there is no doubt of the
+practical fact, that the best butcher cannot sell any thing but the best
+fatted beef; and of whatever age, size, or shape a half-fatted ox may
+be, he is never selected by judges as fit for human food. Hence, a
+well-fatted animal always commands a better price per pound than one
+imperfectly fed, and the parts selected as the primest beef are
+precisely the parts which contain the largest deposits of fat. The rump,
+the crop, and the sirloin, the very favorite cuts,--which always command
+from twenty to twenty-five per cent. more than any other part of the
+ox,--are just those parts on which the largest quantities of fat are
+found; so that, instead of the taste and fashion of the age being
+against the excessive fattening of animals, the fact is, practically,
+exactly the reverse. Where there is the most fat, there is the best
+lean; where there is the greatest amount of muscle, without its share of
+fat, that part is accounted inferior, and is used for a different
+purpose; in fact, so far from fat's being a disease, it is a condition
+of muscle, necessary to its utility as food,--a source of luxury to the
+rich, and of comfort to the poor, furnishing a nourishing and healthy
+diet for their families.
+
+Fattening is a secretive power which grazing animals possess, enabling
+them to lay by a store of the superfluous food which they take for
+seasons of cold or scarcity. It collects round the angular bones of the
+animal, and gives the appearance of rotundity; hence the tendency to
+deposit fat is indicated, as has been stated, by a _roundness_ of form,
+as opposed to the _fatness_ of a milk-secreting animal. But its greatest
+use is, that it is a store of heat-producing aliment, laid up for
+seasons of scarcity and want. The food of animals, for the most part,
+may be said to consist of a saccharine, an oleaginous, and an albuminous
+principle. To the first belong all the starchy, saccharine, and gummy
+parts of the plants, which undergo changes in the digestive organs
+similar to fermentation before they can be assimilated in the system; by
+them also animal heat is sustained. In indolent animals, the oily parts
+of plants are deposited and laid up as fat; and, when vigor and strength
+fail, this is taken up and also used in breathing to supply the place of
+the consumed saccharine matter. The albuminous, or gelatinous principle
+of plants is mainly useful in forming muscle; while the ashes of plants,
+the unconsumable parts, are for the supply, mainly, of bone, hair, and
+horn, but also of muscle and of blood, and to supply the waste which
+continually goes on.
+
+Now, there are several qualities which are essentially characteristic of
+a disposition to fatten. There have not, as yet, been any book-rules
+laid down, as in the case of M. Guénon's indications of milking-cows;
+but there are, nevertheless, marks so definite and well understood, that
+they are comprehended and acted upon by every grazier, although they are
+by no means easy to describe. It is by skillful acumen that the grazier
+acquires his knowledge, and not by theoretical rules; observation,
+judgment, and experience, powerful perceptive faculties, and a keen and
+minute comparison and discrimination, are essential to his success.
+
+[Illustration: POINTS OF CATTLE.]
+
+The first indication upon which he relies, is the _touch_. It is the
+absolute criterion of _quality_, which is supposed to be the keystone of
+perfection in all animals, whether for the pail or the butcher. The skin
+is so intimately connected with the internal organs, in all animals,
+that it is questionable whether even our schools of medicine might not
+make more use of it in a diagnosis of disease. Of physiological
+tendencies in cattle, however, it is of the last and most vital
+importance. It must neither be thick, nor hard, nor adhere firmly to the
+muscles. If it is so, the animal is a hard grazer, a difficult and
+obstinate feeder--no skillful man will purchase it--such a creature must
+go to a novice, and even to him at a price so low as to tempt him to
+become a purchaser. On the other hand, the skin must not be thin, like
+paper, nor flaccid, nor loose in the hand, nor flabby. This is the
+opposite extreme, and is indicative of delicateness, bad, flabby flesh,
+and, possibly, of inaptitude to retain the fat. It must be _elastic_ and
+velvety, soft and pliable, presenting to the touch a gentle resistance,
+but so delicate as to give pleasure to the sensitive hand--a skin, in
+short, which seems at first to give an indentation from the pressure of
+the fingers, but which again rises to its place by a gentle elasticity.
+
+The _hair_ is of nearly as much importance as the skin. A hard skin will
+have straight and stiff hair; it will not have a curl, but be thinly and
+lankly distributed equally over the surface. A proper grazing animal
+will have a _mossy_ coat, not absolutely curled, but having a
+disposition to a graceful curl, a semifold, which presents a waving
+inequality; but as different from a close and straightly-laid coat, as
+it is from one standing off the animal at right angles, a strong symptom
+of disease. It will also, in a thriving animal, be licked here and there
+with its tongue, a proof that the skin is duly performing its functions.
+
+There must be, also, the full and goggle _eye_, bright and pressed
+outward by the fatty bed below; because, as this is a part where Nature
+always provides fat, an animal capable of developing it to any
+considerable extent, will have its indications here, at least, when it
+exists in excess.
+
+So much for feeding qualities in the animal, and their conformations
+indicative of this kindly disposition. Next come such formations of the
+animal itself as are favorable to the growth of fat, other things being
+equal. There must be _size_ where large weights are expected. Christmas
+beef, for instance, is expected to be large as well as fat. The symbol
+of festivity should be capacious, as well as prime in quality. But it is
+so much a matter of choice and circumstance with the grazier, that
+profit alone will be his guide. The axiom will be, however, as a general
+rule, that the better the grazing soil the larger the animal may be; the
+poorer the soil, the smaller the animal. Small animals are,
+unquestionably, much more easily fed, and they are well known by
+experienced men to be best adapted to second-rate feeding pastures.
+
+But, beyond this, there must be _breadth_ of carcass. This is indicative
+of fattening, perhaps, beyond all other qualifications. If rumps are
+favorite joints and produce the best price, it is best to have the
+animal which will grow the longest, the broadest, and the best rump; the
+same of crop, and the same of sirloin; and not only so, but breadth is
+essential to the consumption of that quantity of food which is necessary
+to the development of a large amount of fat in the animal. Thus, a deep,
+wide chest, favorable for the respiratory and circulating functions,
+enables it to consume a large amount of food, to take up the sugary
+matter, and to deposit the fatty matter,--as then useless for
+respiration, but afterwards to be prized. A full level crop will be of
+the same physiological utility; while a broad and open framework at the
+hips will afford scope for the action of the liver and kidneys.
+
+There are other points, also, of much importance; the head must be small
+and fine; its special use is indicative of the quick fattening of the
+animal so constructed, and it is also indicative of the bones being
+small and the legs short. For constitutional powers, the beast should
+have his ribs extended well towards the thigh-bones or hips, so as to
+leave as little unprotected space as possible. There must be no
+angular, or abrupt points; all must be round, and broad, and parallel.
+Any depression in the lean animal will give a deficient deposit of flesh
+and fat at that point, when sold to the butcher, and thus deteriorate
+its value; and hence the animal must be round and full.
+
+But either fancy, or accident, or skill--it is unnecessary to decide
+which--has associated _symmetry_ with quality and conformation, as a
+point of great importance in animals calculated for fattening; and there
+is no doubt that, to a certain extent, this is so. The beast must be a
+system of mathematical lines. To the advocate of symmetry, the
+setting-on of a tail will be a condemning fault; indeed the ridge of the
+back, like a straight line, with the outline of the belly exactly
+parallel, viewed from the side, and a depth and squareness when viewed
+from behind,--which remind us of a geometrical cube, rather than a vital
+economy,--may be said to be the indications of excellence in a fat ox.
+The points of excellence in such an animal are outlined under the
+subsequent head, as developed in the cutting up after slaughter.
+
+Now, these qualities are inherent in some breeds; there may be cases and
+instances in all the superior breeds, and in most there may be failures.
+
+
+DRIVING AND SLAUGHTERING.
+
+It is necessary that cattle which have been disposed of to the dealer or
+butcher, or which are intended to be driven to market, should undergo a
+preparation for the journey. If they were immediately put to the road to
+travel, from feeding on grass or turnips, when their bowels are full of
+undigested vegetable matter, a scouring might ensue which would render
+them unfit to pursue their journey; and this complaint is the more
+likely to be brought on from the strong propensity which cattle have to
+take violent exercise upon feeling themselves at liberty after a long
+confinement. They in fact, become light-headed whenever they leave the
+barn or enclosure, so much so that they actually "frisk and race and
+leap," and their antics would be highly amusing, were it not for the
+apprehension that they may hurt themselves against some opposing object,
+as they seem to regard nothing before them.
+
+On being let out for the first time, cattle should be put for awhile
+into a larger court, or on a road well fenced with enclosures, and
+guarded by men, to romp about. Two or three such allowances of liberty
+will render them quiet; and, in the mean time, to lighten their weight
+of carcass, they should have hay for a large proportion of their food.
+These precautions are absolutely necessary for cattle which have been
+confined in barns; otherwise, accidents may befall them on the road,
+where they will at once break loose. Even at home serious accidents
+sometimes overtake them, such as the breaking down of a horn, casting
+off a hoof, spraining a tendon, bruising ribs, and heating the whole
+body violently; and, of course, when any such ill luck befalls, the
+animal affected must be left behind, and become a drawback upon the
+value of the rest, unless kept for some time longer.
+
+Having the cattle prepared for travel, the drover takes the road very
+slowly for the first two days, not exceeding seven or eight miles a day.
+At night, in winter, they should be put into an open court, and supplied
+with hay, water, and a very few turnips; for, if roots are suddenly
+withdrawn from them,--since it is taken for granted that these have
+formed a staple portion of their food,--their bellies will become
+shrunken up into smaller dimensions--a state very much against favorable
+appearance in market. After the first two days they may proceed faster,
+say twelve or thirteen miles a day, if very fat; and fifteen, if
+moderately so. When the journey is long and the beasts get faint from
+travel, they should have corn to support them. In frosty weather, when
+the roads become very hard, they are apt to become shoulder-shaken, an
+effect of founder; and if sleet falls during the day, and becomes frozen
+upon them at night, they may become so chilled as to refuse food, and
+shrink rapidly away. Cattle should, if possible, arrive the day before
+in the neighborhood of a distant market, and be supplied with a good
+feed of roots and hay, or grass, to make them look fresh and fill them
+up again; but if the market is at but short distance, they can travel to
+it early in the morning.
+
+[Illustration: A FRONTISPIECE.]
+
+In driving cattle the drover should have no dog, which will only annoy
+them. He should walk either before or behind, as he sees them disposed
+to proceed too fast or to loiter upon the road; and in passing
+carriages, the leading ox, after a little experience, will make way for
+the rest to follow. On putting oxen on a ferry-boat the shipping of the
+first one only is attended with much trouble. A man on each side should
+take hold of a horn, or of a halter made of any piece of rope, should
+the beast be hornless, and two other men, one on each side, should push
+him up behind with a piece of rope held between them as a breeching, and
+conduct him along the plank into the boat; if it have low gunwales, a
+man will be required to remain beside him until one or two more of the
+cattle follow their companion, which they will most readily do. From
+neglecting this precaution in small ferry-boats, the first beast
+sometimes leaps into the water, when it becomes a difficult task to
+prevent some of the rest doing the same thing.
+
+Whatever time a lot of cattle may take to go to a market, they should
+never be _overdriven_. There is great difference of management in this
+respect among drovers. Some like to proceed upon the road quietly,
+slowly, but surely, and to reach the market in a placid, cool state.
+Others, again, drive smartly along for some distance, and then rest to
+cool awhile, when the beasts will probably get chilled and have a
+staring coat when they reach their destination; while others like to
+enter the market with their beasts in an excited state, imagining that
+they then look gay; but distended nostrils, loose bowels, and reeking
+bodies are no recommendations to a purchaser. Good judges are shy of
+purchasing cattle in a heated state, because they do not know how long
+they may have been in it; and to cover any risk, will give at least five
+dollars a head below what they would have offered for them in a cool
+state. Some drovers have a habit of thumping at the hindmost beast of
+the lot with a stick while on the road. This is a censurable practice,
+as the flesh, where it is thumped, will bear a red mark after the
+animal has been slaughtered,--the mark receiving the appropriate name of
+_blood-burn_--and the flesh thus affected will not take on salt, and is
+apt to putrefy. A touch up on the shank, or any tendonous part, when
+correction is necessary, is all that is required; but the voice, in most
+cases, will answer as well. The flesh of overdriven cattle, when
+slaughtered, never becomes properly firm, and their tallow has a soft,
+melted appearance.
+
+A few large oxen in one lot look best in a market on a position rather
+above the eye of a spectator. When a large lot is nearly alike in size
+and appearance, they look best and most level on a flat piece of ground.
+Very large fat oxen never look better than on ground on the same level
+with the spectator. An ox, to look well, should hold his head on a line
+with the body, with lively ears, clear eye, dewy nose, a well-licked
+hide, and should stand firmly on the ground on all his feet. These are
+all symptoms of high health and good condition. Whenever an ox shifts
+his standing from one foot to another, he is _foot-sore_, and has been
+driven far. Whenever his head hangs down and his eyes water, he feels
+ill at ease inwardly. When his coat stares, he has been overheated some
+time, and has got a subsequent _chill_. All these latter symptoms will
+be much aggravated in cattle that have been fed in a barn.
+
+Cattle are made to fast before being slaughtered. The time they should
+stand depends upon their state on their arrival at the shambles. If they
+have been driven a considerable distance in a proper manner, the bowels
+will be in a tolerably empty state, so that twelve hours may suffice;
+but if they are full and just off their food, twenty-four hours will be
+required. Beasts that have been overdriven, or much struck with sticks,
+or in any degree infuriated, should not be immediately slaughtered, but
+allowed to stand on dry food, such as hay, until the symptoms disappear.
+These precautions are absolutely necessary that the meat may be
+preserved in the best state.
+
+The mode of slaughtering cattle varies in different countries. In the
+great slaughter-houses at Montmartre, in Paris, they are slaughtered by
+bisecting the spinal cord of the cervical vertebræ; and this is
+accomplished by the driving of a sharp-pointed chisel between the second
+and third vertebræ, with a smart stroke of a mallet, while the animal is
+standing, when it drops, and death or insensibility instantly ensues,
+and the blood is let out immediately by opening the blood-vessels of the
+neck. The plan adopted in England is, first to bring the ox down on his
+knees, and place his under-jaw upon the ground by means of ropes
+fastened to his head and passed through an iron ring in the floor of the
+slaughterhouse. He is then stunned with a few blows from an iron axe
+made for the purpose, on the forehead, the bone of which is usually
+driven into the brain. The animal then falls upon his side, and the
+blood is let out by the neck. Of the two modes, the French is apparently
+the less cruel, for some oxen require many blows to make them fall. Some
+butchers, however, allege that the separation of the spinal cord, by
+producing a general nervous convulsion throughout the body, prevents the
+blood from flowing as rapidly and entirely out of it as when the ox is
+stunned in the forehead. The skin is then taken off to the knees, when
+the legs are disjointed, and also off the head. The carcass is then
+hung up by the tendons of the hough on a stretcher, by a block and
+tackle, worked by a small winch, which retains in place what rope it
+winds up by means of a wheel and ratchet.
+
+After the carcass has hung for twenty-four hours, it should be cut down
+by the back-bone, or chine, into two _sides_. This is done either with
+the saw, or chopper; the saw making the neatest job in the hands of an
+inexperienced butcher, though it is the most laborious; and with the
+chopper is the quickest, but by no means the neatest plan, especially in
+the hands of a careless workman. In London, the chine is equally divided
+between both sides; while in Scotland, one side of a carcass of beef has
+a great deal more bone than the other, all the spinous processes of the
+vertebræ being left upon it. The bony is called the _lying_ side of the
+meat. In London, the divided processes in the fore-quarters are broken
+in the middle when warm, and chopped back with the flat side of the
+chopper, which has the effect of thickening the fore and middle ribs
+considerably when cut up. The London butcher also cuts the joints above
+the hind knee, and, by making some incisions with a sharp knife, cuts
+the tendons there, and drops the flesh of the hind-quarter on the flank
+and loins, which causes it to cut up thicker than in the Scotch mode. In
+opening the hind-quarter he also cuts the aitch bone, or pelvis through
+the centre, which makes the rump look better. Some butchers in the north
+of England score the fat of the _closing_ of the hind-quarter, which has
+the effect of making that part of both heifer and ox look like the udder
+of an old cow. There is far too much of this scoring practised in
+Scotland, which prevents the pieces from retaining--which they should,
+as nearly as possible--their natural appearance.
+
+In cutting up a carcass of beef the London butcher displays great
+expertness; he not only discriminates between the qualities of its
+different parts, but can cut out any piece to gratify the taste of his
+customers. In this way he makes the best use of the carcass and realizes
+the largest value for it, while he gratifies the taste of every grade of
+customers. A figure of the Scotch and English modes of cutting up a
+carcass of beef will at once show the difference; and upon being
+informed where the valuable pieces lie, an opinion can be formed as to
+whether the oxen the farmer is breeding or feeding possess the
+properties which will enable him to demand the highest price for them.
+
+[Illustration: SCOTCH MODE OF CUTTING UP BEEF.]
+
+The sirloin is the principal roasting-piece, making a very handsome
+dish, and is a universal favorite. It consists of two portions, the
+Scotch and English sides; the former is above the lumbar bones, and is
+somewhat hard in ill-fed cattle; the latter consists of the muscles
+under these bones, which are generally covered with fine fat, and are
+exceedingly tender. The better the beast is fed, the larger is the under
+muscle, better covered with fat, and more tender to eat. The hook-bone
+and the buttock are cut up for steaks, beefsteak pie, or minced
+collops, and both these, together with the sirloin, bring the highest
+price. The large round and the small round are both well known as
+excellent pieces for salting and boiling, and are eaten cold with great
+relish. The hough is peculiarly suited for boiling down for soup, having
+a large proportion of gelatinous matter. Brown soup is the principal
+dish made of the hough, but its decoction forms an excellent _stock_ for
+various dishes, and will keep in a state of jelly for a considerable
+time. The thick and the thin flank are both admirable pieces for salting
+and boiling. The tail, insignificant as it may seem, makes a soup of a
+very fine flavor. Hotel-keepers have a trick of seasoning brown soup or
+rather beef-tea, with a few joints of tail, and passing it off for
+genuine ox-tail soup. These are all the pieces which constitute the
+hind-quarter; and it will be seen that they are valuable both for
+roasting and boiling, not containing a single coarse piece.
+
+In the fore-quarter, is the spare rib, the six ribs of the back end of
+which make an excellent roast, and when taken from the side opposite to
+the _lying_ one, being free of the bones of the spine, it makes a large
+one; and it also makes excellent beefsteaks and beefsteak pie. The two
+runners and the nineholes make salting and boiling pieces; but, of
+these, the nineholes is much the best, as it consists of layers of fat
+and lean without any bone; whereas the fore parts of the runners have a
+piece of shoulder-blade in them, and every piece connected with that
+bone is more or less coarse-grained. The brisket eats very well boiled
+fresh in broth, and may be cooked and eaten with boiled greens or
+carrots. The shoulder-lyar is a coarse piece, and fit only for boiling
+fresh to make into broth or beef-tea. The nap, or shin, is analogous to
+the hough of the hind-leg, but not so rich and fine, there being much
+less gelatinous matter in it. The neck makes good broth; and the
+sticking-piece is a great favorite with some epicures, on account of the
+pieces of rich fat in it. It makes an excellent stew, as also sweet
+barley-broth, and the meat eats well when boiled in it.
+
+These are all the pieces of the fore-quarter; and it will be seen that
+they consist chiefly of boiling-pieces, and some of them none of the
+finest--the roasting-piece being confined to the six ribs of the spare
+rib, and the finest boiling-piece, corned, only to be found in the
+nineholes.
+
+[Illustration: ENGLISH MODE OF CUTTING UP BEEF.]
+
+The loin is the principal roasting-piece; the rump is the favorite
+steak-piece; the aitch-bone, the favorite stew; the buttock, the thick
+flank, and the thin flank are all excellent boiling-pieces when corned;
+the hock and the shin make soup and afford stock for the various
+requirements of the culinary art; and the tail furnishes ox-tail soup--a
+favorite English luncheon. These are all the pieces of the hind-quarter,
+and they are valuable of their respective kinds.
+
+In the fore-quarter, the fore-rib, middle-rib, and chuckle-rib are all
+roasting-pieces, not alike good; but in removing the part of the
+shoulder-blade in the middle-rib, the spare-ribs below make a good
+broil or roast; the neck makes soup, being used fresh, boiled; the back
+end of the brisket is boiled, corned, or stewed; the leg-of-mutton piece
+is coarse, but is as frequently stewed as boiled; the shin is put to the
+same use as the shin and hock of the hind-quarter.
+
+On comparing the two modes of cutting-up, it will be observed that in
+the English there are more roasting-pieces than in the Scotch, a large
+proportion of the fore-quarter being used in that way. The plan, too, of
+cutting the loin between the rump and aitch-bone in the hind-quarter,
+lays open the steak-pieces to better advantage than in the Scotch
+bullock. Extending the comparison from one part of the carcass to the
+other, in both methods, it will be seen that the most valuable
+pieces--the roasting--occupy its upper, and the less valuable--the
+boiling--its lower part. Every beast, therefore, that lays on beef more
+upon the upper part of its body is more valuable than one that lays the
+same quantity of flesh on its lower parts.
+
+It is deemed unnecessary to enter into details as to the modes of
+cutting-up most in vogue in this country, as there is a needlessly great
+want of uniformity.
+
+Of the qualities of beef obtained from the different breeds of cattle in
+England, there is no better meat than from the West Highlanders for
+fineness of grain and cutting up into convenient pieces for family use.
+The Galloways and Angus, when fattened in English pastures, are great
+favorites in the London market. The Short Horns afford excellent steaks,
+being thick of flesh, and the slice deep, large and juicy, and their
+covered flanks and nineholes are always thick, juicy, and well-mixed.
+The Herefords are somewhat similar to the Short Horns, and the Devons,
+may, perhaps, be classed among the Galloways and Angus, while the Welsh
+cannot be compared to the West Highlanders. Taking, then, the breeds of
+Scotland as suppliers of good beef, they seem to be more valuable for
+the table than those of England.
+
+There are, perhaps, not sufficient data in existence to determine the
+true proportion of offal of all kinds to the beef of any given fat ox;
+but approximations have been made, which may serve the purpose until the
+matter is investigated by direct experiment, under various
+circumstances. The dead weight bears to the live weight a ratio varying
+between .571 and .605 to 1; and on applying one or the other multiplier
+to the cases of the live weight, a pretty correct approximation is
+reached. The tallow is supposed to be eight one-hundredths of the live
+weight; so that the multiplier is the decimal .08. The hide is supposed
+to be five one-hundredths of the live weight; so to obtain its weight, a
+multiplier, .05, is used. The other offals are supposed to be in a
+proportion of about one-fourth of the live weight; so that the
+multiplier, .28, is as near as can be proposed under existing
+experience.
+
+Beef is the staple animal food of this country, and it is used in
+various states--fresh, salted, smoked, roasted, and boiled. When
+intended to be eaten fresh, the _ribs_ will keep the best, and with care
+will keep five or six days in summer, and in winter ten days. The middle
+of the _loin_ is the next best, and the _rump_ the next. The _round_
+will not keep long, unless it is salted. The _brisket_ is the worst, and
+will not keep more than three days in summer, and in winter a week.
+
+In regard to the power of the stomach to digest beef, that which is
+eaten boiled with salt only, is digested in two hours and forty-five
+minutes. Beef, fresh, lean, and rarely-roasted, and a beefsteak broiled,
+takes three hours to digest; that fresh, and dry-roasted, and boiled,
+eaten with mustard, is digested in three and a half hours. Lean fresh
+beef fried, requires four hours, and old hard salted beef boiled, does
+not digest in less than four and a quarter hours. Fresh beef-suet boiled
+takes five and a half hours.
+
+The usual mode of preserving beef is by salting; and, when intended to
+keep for a long time, such as for the use of shipping, it is always
+salted with brine; but for family use it should be salted only with good
+salt; for brine dispels the juice of meat, and saltpetre only serves to
+make the meat dry, and give it a disagreeable and unnatural red color.
+Various experiments have been made in curing beef with salt otherwise
+than by hand-rubbing, and in a short space of time, and also to preserve
+it from putrefaction by other means than salt. Some packers put meat in
+a copper which is rendered air-tight, and an air-pump then creates a
+vacuum within it, thereby extracting all the air out of the meat; then
+brine is pumped in by pressure, which, entering into every pore of the
+meat formerly occupied by the air, is said to place it in a state of
+preservation in a few minutes. The carcass of an ox was preserved, in
+France, for two years from putrefaction by injecting four pounds of
+saline mixture into the carotid artery. Whether any such contrivance can
+be made available for family purposes, seems doubtful.
+
+Cattle, when slaughtered, are useful to man in various other ways than
+by affording food from their flesh,--their offal of tallow, hides, and
+horns, forming extensive articles of commerce. Of the _hide_, the
+characteristics of a good one for strong purposes are strength in its
+middle, or _butt_, as it called, and lightness in the edges, or _offal_.
+A bad hide is the opposite of this--thick in the edges and thin in the
+middle. A good hide has a firm texture; a bad one, loose and soft. A
+hide improves as the summer advances, and it continues to improve after
+the new coat of hair in autumn until November or December, when the coat
+gets rough from the coldness of the season, and the hide is then in its
+best state. It is surprising how a hide improves in thickness after the
+cold weather has set in. The sort of food does not seem to affect the
+quality of the hide; but the better it is, and the better cattle have
+been fed, and the longer they have been well fed, even from a calf, the
+better the hide. From what has been said of the effect of weather upon
+the hide, it seems a natural conclusion that a hide is better from an ox
+that has been fed in the open air, than from one that has been kept in
+the barn. Dirt adhering to a hide injures it, particularly in stall-fed
+animals; and any thing that punctures a hide, such as warbles arising
+from certain insects, is also injurious. The best hides are obtained
+from the West Highlanders. The Short Horns produce the thinnest hides,
+the Aberdeenshire the next, and then the Angus. Of the same breed, the
+ox affords the strongest hide; but, as hides are applied to various
+uses, the cow's, provided it be large, may be as valuable as that of the
+ox. The bull's hide is the least valuable. Hides are imported from
+Russia and South America.
+
+Hides, when deprived of their hair, are converted into _leather_ by an
+infusion of the astringent property of bark. The old plan of tanning
+used to occupy a long time; but, such was the value of the process, that
+the old tanners used to pride themselves upon producing a substantial
+article--which is more than can be said in many instances under modern
+improved modes, which hasten the process, much to the injury of the
+article produced. Strong infusions of bark make leather brittle; one
+hundred pounds of skin, quickly tanned in a strong infusion, produce one
+hundred and thirty-seven pounds of leather; while a weak infusion
+produces only one hundred and seventeen and a half,--the additional
+nineteen and a half pounds serving only to deteriorate the leather, and
+causing it to contain much less textile animal solid. Leather thus
+highly charged with tanning is so spongy as to allow moisture to pass
+readily through its pores, to the great discomfort and injury of those
+who wear shoes made of it. The proper mode of tanning lasts a year, or a
+year and a half, according to the quality of the leather wanted and the
+nature of the hides. A perfect leather can be recognized by its section,
+which should have a glistening marbled appearance, without any white
+streaks in the middle. The hair which is taken off hides in tanning, is
+employed to mix with plaster, and is often surreptitiously put into
+hair-mattresses.
+
+The principal substances of which _glue_ is made are the
+parings of ox and other thick hides, which form the strongest article
+and the refuse of the leather-dresser. Both afford from forty-five to
+fifty-five per cent. of glue. The tendons, and many other offals of
+slaughter-houses, also afford materials, though of an inferior quality,
+for this purpose. The refuse of tanneries--such as the ears of oxen and
+calves--are better articles. Animal skins also, in any form, uncombined
+with tannin, may be worked into glue.
+
+_Ox-tallow_ is of great importance in the arts. Candles and soap are
+made of it, and it enters largely into the dressing of leather and the
+use of machinery. Large quantities are annually exported from Russia.
+Ox-tallow consists of seventy-six parts of stearine and twenty-four of
+oleine, out of one hundred parts.
+
+The _horns_ of oxen are used for many purposes. The horn consists of two
+parts: an outward horny case, and an inward conical-shaped substance,
+somewhat intermediate between indurated hair and bone, called the
+_fluid_ of the horn. These two parts are separated by means of a blow
+upon a block of wood. The horny exterior is then cut into three portions
+by means of a frame saw. The lowest of these, next the root of the horn,
+after undergoing several processes by which it is rendered flat, is made
+into combs.
+
+The middle of the horn, after having been flattened by heat, and its
+transparency improved by oil, is split into thin layers, and forms a
+substitute for glass in lanterns of the commonest kind. The tip of the
+horns is used by makers of knife-handles and of the tops of whips, and
+for other similar purposes. The interior, or core of the horn, is boiled
+down in water. A large quantity of fat rises to the surface; this is put
+aside, and sold to the makers of yellow soap. The itself is used as a
+kind of glue, and is purchased by the cloth-draper for stiffening. The
+bony substance remaining behind is then sent to the mill, and, after
+having been ground down, is sold to farmers for manure.
+
+Besides these various purposes to which the different parts of the horn
+are applied, the clippings which arise in comb-making are sold to the
+farmer for manure, as well as the shavings which form the refuse of the
+lantern-makers. Horn, as is well known, is easily rendered soft and
+pliant in warm water; and by this peculiarity and its property of
+adhering like glue, large plates of horn can be made by cementing
+together the edges of small pieces rendered flat by a peculiar process,
+as a substitute for glass. Imitation of tortoise-shell can be given to
+horn by means of various metallic solutions. Horn, also, when softened,
+can be imprinted with any pattern, by means of dies.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Diseases and their Remedies
+
+
+Under this head it is proposed to notice such diseases as are most
+common among cattle, together with their symptoms, and to suggest such
+treatment of the same as has been found in the practice of the author,
+in the main, effective. He is aware that much more space might have been
+appropriated to this head, as has been the case in other treatises of
+this class; but he doubts the propriety of multiplying words about
+diseases which are of very rare occurrence, deeming it more fitting to
+leave such instances exclusively to the intelligent consideration of the
+reliable veterinary practitioner.
+
+For convenience of reference, the diseases here noticed have been
+arranged in alphabetical order; the whole concluding with information as
+to two or three operations which cannot be uninteresting to, or
+unprofitable for, the reader.
+
+
+ABORTION.
+
+The cow is, more than any other animal, subject to abortion, or
+slinking, which takes place at different periods of pregnancy, from half
+of the usual time to the seventh, or almost to the eighth month. The
+symptoms of the approach of abortion, unless the breeder is very much
+among his stock, are not often perceived; or, if perceived, they are
+concealed by the person in charge, lest he should be accused of neglect
+or improper treatment.
+
+The cow is somewhat off her feed--rumination ceases--she is listless and
+dull--the milk diminishes or dries up--the motions of the foetus
+become more feeble, and at length cease altogether--there is a slight
+degree of enlargement of the belly--there is a little staggering in her
+walk--when she is down she lies longer than usual, and when she gets up
+she stands for a longer time motionless.
+
+As the abortion approaches, a yellow or red glairy fluid runs from the
+vagina (this is a symptom, which rarely, or never, deceives) her
+breathing becomes laborious and slightly convulsive. The belly has for
+several days lost its natural rotundity, and has been evidently
+falling,--she begins to moan,--the pulse becomes small, wiry, and
+intermittent. At length labor comes on, and is often attended with much
+difficulty and danger.
+
+If the abortion has been caused by blows or violence, whether from
+brutality, or the animal's having been teased by other cows in season,
+or by oxen, the symptoms are more intense. The animal suddenly ceases to
+eat and to ruminate--is uneasy, paws the ground, rests her head on the
+manger while she is standing, and on her flank when she is lying
+down--hemorrhage frequently comes on from the uterus, or when this is
+not the case the mouth of that organ is spasmodically contracted. The
+throes come on, are distressingly violent, and continue until the womb
+is ruptured. If all these circumstances be not observed, still the labor
+is protracted and dangerous.
+
+Abortion is sometimes singularly frequent in particular districts, or on
+particular farms, appearing to assume an epizoötic or epidemic form.
+This has been accounted for in various ways. Some have imagined it to be
+contagious. It is, indeed, destructively propagated among the cows, but
+this is probably to be explained on a different principle from that of
+contagion. The cow is a considerably imaginative animal, and highly
+irritable during the period of pregnancy. In abortion, the foetus is
+often putrid before it is discharged; and the placenta, or after-birth,
+rarely or never follows it, but becomes decomposed, and, as it drops
+away in fragments, emits a peculiar and most noisome smell. This smell
+seems to be peculiarly annoying to the other cows: they sniff at it and
+then run bellowing about. Some sympathetic influence is exercised on
+their uterine organs, and in a few days a greater or less number of
+those that had pastured together likewise abort. Hence arises the
+rapidity with which the foetus is usually taken away and buried
+deeply, and far from the cows; and hence the more effectual preventive
+of smearing the parts of the cow with tar or stinking oils, in order to
+conceal or subdue the smell; and hence, too, the inefficacy, as a
+preventive, of removing her to a far-distant pasture.
+
+The pastures on which the blood or inflammatory fever is most prevalent
+are those on which the cows oftenest slink their calves. Whatever can
+become a source of general excitation and fever is likely, during
+pregnancy, to produce inflammation of the womb; or whatever would, under
+other circumstances, excite inflammation of almost any organ, has at
+that time its injurious effect determined to this particular one.
+
+Every farmer is aware of the injurious effect of the coarse, rank
+herbage of low, marshy, and woody countries, and he regards these
+districts as the chosen residence of red water; it may be added, that
+they are also the chosen residence of abortion. Hard and mineral waters
+are justly considered as laying the foundation of many diseases among
+cattle, and of abortion among the rest.
+
+Some careful observers have occasionally attributed abortion to
+disproportion in size between the male and the female. Farmers were
+formerly too fond of selecting a great overgrown bull to serve their
+dairy or breeding cows, and many a heifer, or little cow, was seriously
+injured; and she either cast her calf, or was lost in parturition. The
+breeders of cattle in later years are beginning to act more wisely in
+this matter.
+
+Cows that are degenerating into consumption are exceedingly subject to
+abortion. They are continually in heat; they rarely become pregnant, or
+if they do, a great proportion of them cast their calves. Abortion,
+also, often follows a sudden change from poor to luxuriant food. Cows
+that have been out, half-starved in the winter, when incautiously turned
+on rich pasture in the spring, are too apt to cast their calves from the
+undue general or local excitation that is set up. Hence it is, that when
+this disposition to abort first appears in a herd, it is naturally in a
+cow that has been lately purchased. Fright, from whatever cause, may
+produce this trouble. There are singular cases on record of whole herds
+of cows slinking their calves after having been terrified by an
+unusually violent thunder-storm. Commerce with the bull soon after
+conception is also a frequent cause, as well as putrid smells--other
+than those already noticed--and the use of a diseased bull. Besides
+these tangible causes of abortion, there is the mysterious agency of the
+atmosphere. There are certain seasons when abortion is strangely
+frequent, and fatal; while at other times it disappears in a manner for
+several successive years.
+
+The consequences of premature calving are frequently of a very serious
+nature; and even when the case is more favorable, the results are,
+nevertheless, very annoying. The animal very soon goes again to heat,
+but in a great many cases she fails to become pregnant; she almost
+invariably does so, if she is put to the bull during the first heat
+after abortion. If she should come in calf again during that season, it
+is very probable that at about the same period of gestation, or a little
+later, she will again abort: or that when she becomes in calf the
+following year, the same fatality will attend her. Some say that this
+disposition to cast her young gradually ceases; that if she does
+miscarry, it is at a later and still later period of pregnancy; and
+that, in about three or four years, she may be depended upon as a
+tolerably safe breeder. He, however, would be sadly inattentive to his
+own interests who keeps a profitless beast so long.
+
+The calf very rarely lives, and in the majority of cases it is born dead
+or putrid. If there should appear to be any chance of saving it, it
+should be washed with warm water, carefully dried, and fed frequently
+with small quantities of new milk, mixed, according to the apparent
+weakness of the animal, either with raw eggs or good gruel; while the
+bowels should, if occasion requires, be opened by means of small doses
+of castor-oil. If any considerable period is to elapse before the
+natural time of pregnancy would have expired, it will usually be
+necessary to bring up the little animal entirely by hand.
+
+The treatment of abortion differs but little from that of parturition.
+If the farmer has once been tormented by this pest in his dairy, he
+should carefully watch the approaching symptoms of casting the calf, and
+as soon as he perceives them, should remove the animal from the pasture
+to a comfortable cow-house or shed. If the discharge be glairy, but not
+offensive, he may hope that the calf is not dead; he will be assured of
+this by the motion of the foetus, and then it is possible that the
+abortion may still be avoided. He should hasten to bleed her, and that
+copiously, in proportion to her age, size, condition, and the state of
+excitation in which he may find her; and he should give a dose of physic
+immediately after the bleeding. When the physic begins to operate, he
+should administer half a drachm of opium and half an ounce of sweet
+spirits of nitre. Unless she is in a state of great debility, he should
+allow nothing but gruel, and she should be kept as quiet as possible.
+By these means he may occasionally allay the general or local irritation
+that precedes or causes the abortion, and the cow may yet go to her full
+time.
+
+Should, however, the discharge be fetid, the conclusion will be that the
+foetus is dead, and must be got rid of, and that as speedily as
+possible. Bleeding may even then be requisite if much fever exists; or,
+perhaps, if there is debility, some stimulating drink may not be out of
+place. In other respects the animal must be treated as if her usual time
+of pregnancy had been accomplished.
+
+Much may be done in the way of preventing this habit of abortion among
+cows. _The foetus must be got rid of immediately._ It should be buried
+deep, and far from the cow-pasture. Proper means should be taken to
+hasten the expulsion of the placenta. A dose of physic should be given;
+ergot of rye administered; the hand should be introduced, and an effort
+made, cautiously and gently, to detach the placenta; all violence,
+however, should be carefully avoided; for considerable and fatal
+hemorrhage may be speedily produced. The parts of the cow should be well
+washed with a solution of the chloride of lime, which should be injected
+up the vagina, and also given internally. In the mean time, and
+especially after the expulsion of the placenta, the cow-house should be
+well washed with the same solution.
+
+The cow, when beginning to recover, should be fattened and sold. This is
+the first and the grand step toward the prevention of abortion, and he
+is unwise who does not immediately adopt it. All other means are
+comparatively inefficient and worthless. Should the owner be reluctant
+to part with her, two months, at least, should pass before she is
+permitted to return to her companions. Prudence would probably dictate
+that she should never return to them, but be kept, if possible, on some
+distant part of the farm.
+
+Abortion having once occurred among the herd, the breeding cows should
+be carefully watched. Although they should be well fed, they should not
+be suffered to get into too high condition. Unless they are decidedly
+poor and weak, they should be bled between the third and fourth months
+of pregnancy, and a mild dose of physic administered to each. If the
+pest continues to reappear, the owner should most carefully examine how
+far any of the causes of abortion that have been detected, may exist on
+his farm, and exert himself to thoroughly remove them.
+
+An interesting paper upon this subject may be found in the Veterinary
+Review, vol. 1., p. 434, communicated by Prof. Henry Tanner, of Queen's
+College, Birmingham, England. As it suggests a theory as to the origin
+of this disease which is, to say the least, quite plausible, we transfer
+the article:--
+
+"I shall not go into any notice of the general subject of abortion, but
+rather restrict my remarks to a cause which is very much overlooked, and
+yet which is probably more influential than all other causes combined. I
+refer to the growth of ergotized grass-seeds in our pastures.
+
+"The action of ergot of rye (_secale cornutum_) upon the womb is well
+known as an excitant to powerful action, which usually terminates in the
+expulsion of the foetus. We have a similar disease appearing on the
+seeds of our grasses, but especially on the rye grass, and thus we have
+an ergot of the seeds of rye grass produced, possessing similar exciting
+powers upon the womb to those produced by the ergot of rye.
+
+"Two conditions are necessary for the production of this ergot upon the
+seed of rye grass. The first is, the grass must be allowed to run to
+seed; and the second is, that the climate must be favorable for
+encouraging the development of the ergot.
+
+"In practice, we find that on land which has been fed on during the
+summer, unless it has been grazed with unusual care, much of the grass
+throws up seed-stalks and produces seed. In districts where the climate
+is humid and rain abundant, as well as in very wet seasons, these seeds
+become liable to the growth of this ergot. Cattle appear to eat it with
+a relish, and the result is that abortion spreads rapidly through the
+herd. Heifers and cows, which, up to the appearance of the ergot, have
+held in calf, are excited to cast their calves by consuming it in their
+food. The abortion having once commenced, we know that the peculiarly
+sensitive condition of the breeding animal will cause its extension,
+even where the original cause may not be in operation; but their
+combined action renders the loss far more serious. If we add to this the
+tendency which an animal receives from her first abortion, to repeat it
+when next in calf, we see how seriously the mischief becomes multiplied.
+
+"A somewhat extended observation, added to my own experience, has led me
+to the conviction that very much of the loss arising from abortion in
+our cows may be traced to the cause I have named. I feel assured the
+influence is even more extended than I have stated; for not only would
+the foetus be thrown off in its advanced stage, but also in its
+earlier growth, thus causing great trouble to breeders of high-bred
+stock, the repeated turning of cows to the bull, and at most irregular
+intervals.
+
+"The remedy differs in no respect from the ordinary mode of treatment,
+except that it compels a removal of the stock from the influence of the
+cause. Much, however, may be done by way of prevention; and this I shall
+briefly notice.
+
+"It simply consists in keeping breeding cows and heifers upon land free
+from these seeds. Grass which has been grazed during the summer, will
+very generally, in a humid climate, have some of this ergotized seed;
+but I have not observed it produced before the end of July, or early in
+August; and I doubt its existence, to any injurious degree, up to this
+time. We may, therefore, consider such ground safe up to this period. If
+the breeding stock are then removed to grass land which, having been
+mown for this operation is a guaranty against any seeds remaining, it
+will seldom, if ever, happen that any injury will result from the
+production of ergotized grass later in the season.
+
+"I will not venture to say that such will not appear in some cases where
+the grass has been cut early and has been followed by a rapid growth;
+but, at any rate, we have grazing land free from this excitant from July
+until September; and in the grass which has been mown late, I do not
+consider that there is the least fear of ergot's being again formed in
+that season. In this manner a farmer may keep grass land for his
+breeding stock entirely free from ergotized grass; and, consequently, so
+far as this cause is concerned, they will be free from abortion. How far
+young heifers may be prejudicially influenced, before they are used for
+breeding, by an excitement of the womb, appears to me to be a subject
+worthy of some attention on the part of the veterinary profession."
+
+
+APOPLEXY.
+
+This is a determination of blood to the head, causing pressure upon the
+brain. Animals attacked with this disease are generally in a plethoric
+condition. The usual symptoms are _coma_ (a sleepy state), eyes
+protruding, respiration accelerated; finally, the animal falls,
+struggles, and dies.
+
+In such cases, bleeding should be resorted to at an early period; give
+in drink one pound of Epsom-salts.
+
+
+BLACK WATER.
+
+This is simply an exaggerated stage of the disease known as Red
+Water,--to which the reader is referred in its appropriate place,--the
+urine being darker in color in consequence of the admixture of venous
+blood.
+
+The symptoms are similar, though more acute. There is constipation at
+first, which is followed by diarrhoea, large quantities of blood
+passing away with the evacuations from the bowels; symptoms of abdominal
+pain are present; the loins become extremely tender; and the animal dies
+in a greatly prostrated condition.
+
+The treatment does not differ from that prescribed in case of Red
+Water.
+
+
+BRONCHITIS.
+
+The trachea and bronchial tubes are frequently the seat of inflammation,
+especially in the spring of the year,--the symptoms of which are often
+confounded with those of other pulmonary diseases. This inflammation is
+frequently preceded by catarrhal affections; cough is often present for
+a long time before the more acute symptoms are observed. Bronchitis
+occasionally makes its appearance in an epizoötic form.
+
+_Symptoms._--A peculiarly anxious expression of the countenance will be
+observed; respiration laborious; a husky, wheezing, painful cough; on
+placing the ear to the windpipe a sonorous _râle_ is heard; symptomatic
+fever also prevails to a greater or less extent.
+
+_Treatment._--Counter-irritation should be early resorted to; strong
+mustard, mixed with equal parts of spirits of hartshorn and water, and
+made into a thin paste, should be applied all along the neck, over the
+windpipe, and to the sides, and should be well rubbed in; or, the
+tincture of cantharides, with ten drops of castor-oil to each ounce,
+applied in the same manner as the former, will be found equally
+effective. Give internally ten drops of Fleming's tincture of aconite
+every four hours, until five or six doses have been given; after which
+give one of the following powders twice a day: nitrate of potash, one
+ounce; Barbadoes aloes, one ounce; Jamaica ginger, half an ounce;
+pulverized-gentian root, one ounce; mix and divide into eight powders.
+If necessary a pound of salts may be given.
+
+
+CONSUMPTION
+
+This affection--technically known as _phthisis pulmonalis_--is the
+termination of chronic disease of the lungs. These organs become filled
+with many little cysts, or sacks, containing a yellowish or
+yellowish-white fluid, which in time is hardened, producing a condition
+of the lungs known as tuberculous. These tubercles in turn undergo
+another change, becoming soft in the centre and gradually involving the
+whole of the hardened parts, which, uniting with adjoining ones, soon
+forms cysts of considerable size. These cysts are known as abscesses.
+
+No treatment will be of much service here. It is, therefore, better, if
+the animal is not too poor in flesh, to have it slaughtered.
+
+
+CORYZA
+
+In the spring, and late in the fall, catarrhal affections are quite
+common, occurring frequently in a epizoötic form. Coryza, or nasal
+catarrh,--commonly called a cold in the head,--is not very common among
+cows. As its name implies, it is a local disease, confined to the lining
+membrane of the nose; and, consequently, the general system is not
+usually disturbed.
+
+_Symptoms._--The animal will be observed to sneeze; the Schneiderian
+membrane (membrane of the nose) is heightened in color; cough sometimes
+accompanies; there is also a muco-purulent discharge from the nose.
+Neglect to attend to these early symptoms frequently occasions disease
+of a more serious nature; in fact, coryza may be regarded as the
+forerunner of all epizoötic pulmonary disorders.
+
+[Illustration: A CHAT ON THE ROAD.]
+
+_Treatment._--The animal should be kept on a low diet for a few days;
+the nostrils occasionally steamed, and one of the following powders
+given night and morning, which, in most cases, will be all the medicine
+required: nitrate of potassa, one ounce; digitalis leaves pulverized and
+tartrate of antimony, of each one drachm; sulphate of copper, two
+drachms; mix, and divide into eight powders. Should the disease prove
+obstinate, give for two or three days two ounces of Epsom-salts at a
+dose, dissolved in water, three times a day.
+
+
+COW-POX.
+
+Two varieties of sore teats occur in the cow, in the form of pustular
+eruptions. They first appear as small vesicles containing a purulent
+matter, and subsequently assume a scabby appearance, or small ulcers
+remain, which often prove troublesome to heal. This latter is the
+cow-pox, from which Jenner derived the vaccine matter.
+
+_Treatment._--Foment the teats well with warm water and Castile-soap;
+after which, wipe the bag dry, and dress with citrine ointment. The
+preparations of iodine have also been recommended, and they are very
+serviceable.
+
+
+DIARRHOEA.
+
+Cattle are frequently subject to this disease, particularly in the
+spring of the year when the grass is young and soft. Occasionally it
+assumes a very obstinate form in consequence of the imperfect secretion
+of gastric juice; the _fæces_ are thin, watery, and fetid, followed by
+very great prostration of the animal.
+
+The symptoms of diarrhoea are too well known to require any detailed
+description.
+
+_Treatment._--If in a mild form, the diet should be low; give two ounces
+of Epsom-salts, twice a day. In a more obstinate form, give two drachms
+of carbonate of soda in the food. Oak-bark tea will be found very useful
+in these cases; or one of the following powders, twice a day, will be
+found very advantageous: pulverized opium and catechu, each one and a
+half ounces; prepared chalk, one drachm; to be given in the feed.
+
+Calves are particularly subject to this disease, and it often proves
+fatal to them. It sometimes assumes an epizoötic form, when it is
+generally of a mild character. So long as the calf is lively and feeds
+well, the farmer should entertain no fear for him; but if he mopes
+about, refuses his food, ceases to ruminate, wastes in flesh, passes
+mucus and blood with the _fæces_, and exhibits symptoms of pain, the
+case is a dangerous one.
+
+In such an emergency, lose no time, but give two or three ounces of
+Castor-oil with flour-gruel, or two ounces of salts at a dose, followed
+with small draughts of oak-bark tea; or give, twice a day, one of the
+following powders: pulverized catechu, opium, and Jamaca ginger, of each
+half an ounce; prepared chalk, one ounce; mix, and divide into twelve
+powders. Bran washes, green food, and flour-gruel should be given, with
+plenty of salt.
+
+
+DYSENTERY
+
+This disease is very frequently confounded with the foregoing. A
+distinction, however, exists,--since inflammation appears in this
+disease, while it is absent in the former. In this affection,
+inflammation of the large intestines takes place, which is attended with
+diarrhoea. The _fæces_ are covered with blood; the animal rapidly
+becomes prostrated, and death frequently comes to his relief.
+
+Youatt says: "It is, however, with dysentery that the practitioner is
+most loth to cope,--a disease that betrays thousands of cattle. This,
+also, may be either acute or chronic. Its causes are too often buried in
+obscurity, and its premonitory symptoms are disregarded or unknown.
+There appears to be a strong predisposition in cattle to take on this
+disease. It seems to be the winding-up of many serious complaints, and
+the foundation of it is sometimes laid by those that appear to be of the
+most trifling nature. It is that in cattle which glanders and farcy are
+in the horse,--the breaking up of the constitution.
+
+"Dysentery may be a symptom and concomitant of other diseases. It is one
+of the most fearful characteristics of murrain; it is the destructive
+accompaniment, or consequence, of phthisis. It is produced by the sudden
+disappearance of a cutaneous eruption; it follows the cessation of
+chronic hoose; it is the consequence of the natural or artificial
+suspension of every secretion. Were any secretion to be particularly
+selected, the repression of which would produce dysentery, it would be
+that of the milk. How often does the farmer observe that no sooner does
+a milch cow cease her usual supply of milk than she begins to purge!
+There may not appear to be any thing else the matter with her; but she
+purges, and, in the majority of cases, that purging is fatal.
+
+"It may, sometimes, however, be traced to sufficient causes, exclusive
+of previous disease. Unwholesome food--exposure to cold--neglect at
+the time of calving--low and marshy situations--the feeding in meadows
+that have been flooded, where it is peculiarly fatal--the grazing
+(according to Mr. Leigh, and our experience confirms his statement) upon
+the clays lying over the blue lias rock--the neighborhood of woods and
+of half-stagnant rivers--the continuation of unusually sultry
+weather--overwork, and all the causes of acute dysentery, may produce
+that of a chronic nature; an acute dysentery--neglected, or badly, or
+even most skillfully treated--may degenerate into an incurable chronic
+affection. Half starve a cow, or over-feed her, milk her to exhaustion,
+or dry her milk too rapidly--and dysentery may follow.
+
+"The following will, probably, be the order of the symptoms, if they are
+carefully observed: There will be a little dullness or anxiety of
+countenance, the muzzle becoming short or contracted; a slight shrinking
+when the loins are pressed upon; the skin a little harsh and dry; the
+hair a little rough; there will be a slight degree of uneasiness and
+shivering that scarcely attracts attention; then--except it be the
+degeneracy of acute into chronic dysentery--constipation may be
+perceived. It will be to a certain extent, obstinate; the excrement will
+voided with pain; it will be dry, hard, and expelled in small
+quantities. In other cases, perhaps, purging will be present from the
+beginning; the animal will be tormented with _tenesmus_, or frequent
+desire to void its excrement, and that act attended by straining and
+pain, by soreness about the _anus_, and protrusion of the _rectum_, and
+sometimes by severe colicky spasms. In many cases, however, and in those
+of a chronic form, few of these distressing symptoms are observed, even
+at the commencement of the disease; but the animal voids her _fæces_
+oftener than it is natural that she should, and they are more fluid than
+in a state of health; while at the same time she loses her appetite and
+spirits and condition, and is evidently wasting away."
+
+_Treatment._--Give one drachm of the extract of belladonna, three times
+a day, dissolved in water; or calomel and powdered opium, of each one
+drachm three times daily. As soon as the inflammatory stage passes by,
+give one of the following three times daily, in their gruel: nitrate of
+potash pulverized, gentian-root pulverized, of each one ounce;
+pulverized Jamaica ginger, one half an ounce; pulverized caraway, or
+anise-seed, six drachms. A bottle of porter given once or twice a day,
+will be found of very great advantage.
+
+
+ENTERITIS.
+
+This is an inflammation of the external or internal coat of the
+intestines, sometimes attended with violent purging, especially when it
+is confined to the internal coats. Oxen in good condition are more
+subject to this disease than are cows. It most frequently occurs in dry,
+hot weather. It is sudden in its attacks, and often fatal in its
+termination.
+
+_Symptoms._--The animal is dull, and not disposed to move about; the
+muzzle is dry, and the coat staring; the animal yields, on pressure of
+the _loins_; a weak, staggering gait, when forced to move; respiration
+hurried; pulse accelerated but small; eyes red, full and fiery; head
+protruding; mouth, ears, and horns hot; appetite bad; rumination ceases;
+the bowels become constipated; the animal moans continually, and froths
+at the mouth. These symptoms violently increase as the disease advances.
+The animal becomes more depressed and feeble, grinds his teeth, and
+appears half unconscious, and dies in convulsions.
+
+Of the causes of this disease, Youatt, who is almost the only authority
+we have upon this subject, says: "It seems occasionally to be epidemic;
+for several instances of it occur, of the same character, and in the
+same district. M. Cruzel gives an illustration of this in his
+description of the disease that destroyed so many cattle, in the years
+1826 to 1827, in the Department _de la Nievre_. Out of two hundred and
+eighteen cattle belonging to three farmers, one hundred and thirteen
+were attacked by this disease, and eighty-three of them died. One farmer
+in a neighboring district had nineteen head of cattle, all of which
+sickened, but only three were lost. These were unusually hot summers.
+The upland pasture was burnt up, or what remained of it was rendered
+unusually stimulating; and the acrid plants of the marshes and low
+grounds acquired additional deleterious agency.
+
+"When isolated cases occur, they may generally be attributed to
+mismanagement. Exposure to cold, or the drinking of cold water when
+overheated with work; too hard work in sultry weather; the use of water
+stagnant, impure, or containing any considerable quantity of metallic
+salts; the sudden revulsion of some cutaneous eruption; the crowding of
+animals into a confined place; too luxuriant and stimulating food
+generally; and the mildewed and unwholesome food on which cattle are too
+often kept, are fruitful sources of this complaint."
+
+_Treatment._--In the early stage of the disease, give an active purge,
+and follow it with ten drops of Fleming's tincture of aconite, four
+times daily, for two days; then give drachm doses of the extract of
+belladonna; give no food for twenty-four or forty-eight hours, according
+to circumstances. Bleeding, if done early, is often beneficial.
+Counter-irritants to the belly are also recommended; the best are
+mustard, hartshorn, and water, mixed together--or tincture of
+cantharides, with one drachm of croton-oil added to every ounce.
+
+
+EPIZOÖTICS.
+
+Diseases of this class have the same relation to the inferior animals
+that epidemic diseases have to man. Of course, they assume a very
+pestilential character. Scarcely a year passes away without diseases of
+this nature making their appearance in some parts of the world. They
+occur at all seasons of the year, but more generally prevail in the
+spring and fall. The period of their duration varies from months to
+years. They are, at times, mild in their attacks, and yield readily to
+proper treatment; at other times, they become painful pestilences,
+destroying every thing in their course.
+
+The causes are generally sought for in some peculiar condition of the
+atmosphere. The use of the milk and flesh of diseased cattle has
+frequently been productive of malignant diseases in the human family.
+
+Silius Italicus describes a fearful epizoötic, which first attacked the
+dog, then the feathered biped, then horses, and cattle, and, last of
+all, the human being.
+
+     "On mules and dogs the infection first began,
+     And, last, the vengeful arrows fixed in man."
+
+Epizoötics, occurring in rats, cats, dogs, horses, and cattle, which
+were followed in the succeeding years by more fearful ones which
+attacked the human family, are numerously recorded. These scourges have
+appeared in all ages of the world; but, as time and space will not allow
+our entering upon an extended consideration of them,--however
+interesting they might be to the general reader,--we shall content
+ourselves by quoting, somewhat in brief, from the lectures of the late
+William Youatt on these fatal maladies:--
+
+"In the year 801, and at the commencement of the reign of Charlemagne,
+an epidemic disease devastated a great portion of his dominions. This
+was attributed to the villainy of the Duke of Benevento, who was said to
+have employed a great many persons in scattering an enchanted powder
+over the fields, which destroyed both the cattle and the food of the
+cattle. M. Paulet seems inclined to give full credence to this, and says
+that history offers many proofs of this destructive and diabolical
+practice. He affirms that many persons were punished in Germany,
+France, and, particularly, at Toulouse, for the commission of this
+crime. Several of the suspected agents of these atrocities were put to
+the torture and made full confession of their crime.
+
+"Of the occurrence of these diseases from the year 800 to 1316,--an
+interval of mental darkness, and of horrors and calamities of every
+kind,--history records twenty cases, more or less destructive, and
+extending, with greater or less devastation, over France and Germany,
+Italy and England. Of these twenty, four date their origin from an
+excessive moisture in the air, accompanied by almost continual rains,
+and flooding the country to a considerable extent. One was supposed to
+be the consequence of long-continued drought and excessive heat; one was
+traced to the influence of an eclipse of the sun; another, to a comet;
+and a fourth, to a most unusually stormy winter. The reader will have
+the kindness to remember that we are here expressing the opinions of the
+writers of the day, and by no means, our own belief of the matter.
+
+"Of the four which trace their origin to extreme wet and its
+consequences, the first occurred in France, in 820, after a long
+continuance of rain; and it was equally fatal to men and cattle. The
+second, which was equally fatal to both, appeared in Lorraine, in 889.
+The third broke out among the cavalry of the army of Arnoul, in its
+passage over the Alps, on its return to Italy. The fourth pervaded the
+whole of England in 1125, and was equally fatal to the biped and the
+quadruped.
+
+"That which followed excessive heat and drought, was generally prevalent
+throughout Europe, but especially so in Germany. It attacked oxen,
+sheep, and pigs. It appeared in 994, and lasted six months.
+
+"The one which was attributed to the comet, and which principally
+attacked cattle, appeared in France in 943 Almost every animal perished.
+
+"Another, that was supposed to be connected with an eclipse of the sun,
+was prevalent throughout the greater part of Germany, among men and
+animals, in 989.
+
+"The disease, which was the consequence of a cold and boisterous winter,
+was principally prevalent in France, in 887, and committed sad ravages
+among the herds of cattle and sheep.
+
+"Of the twelve others, of which, authors do not indicate the cause, the
+first was in France, in 810, and principally among cattle. The second
+was also in France, in 850, and almost depopulated the country of
+cattle. The third, in 868, was common to all animals in France. The
+fourth, in 870, was in the same country, and caused severe loss among
+cattle. The fifth prevailed on the Rhine and in Germany, and destroyed
+an almost incalculable number of cattle. The sixth attacked the horses
+of the army of Arnoul in Lorraine, in 888. The seventh, in 940,
+destroyed a vast number of cattle in France, Italy, and Germany. The
+eighth and ninth were in France, in 941 and 942, and almost all the
+cattle in the country perished. The tenth pestilence broke out in
+England, in the year 1041, and frightful was its devastation among all
+animals, and, particularly, horned cattle. The eleventh also devastated
+our country, in 1103, and the ravages were dreadful. The twelfth was
+chiefly fatal in Germany, and particularly in Gueldres, in 1149.
+
+"These twenty pestilences occurred in the space of 506 years. Five or
+six of them were most prevalent among cattle; two were almost confined
+to horses; twelve included, to a greater or less degree, almost every
+species of quadrupeds; and four extended to the human being. Among these
+the ravages of eight were most destructive in France; as many in
+Germany; and four in Italy and England.
+
+"As far as we have hitherto proceeded, it will also appear that cattle
+are more subject to these diseases than any other species of
+domesticated animals, and that the pestilence is always most fearful
+among them. It is also evident that the maladies which proceed from cold
+or humidity are more frequent in the temperate and southern parts of
+Europe than those which depend upon drought, or almost any other cause.
+
+"The malady lingers in different countries, in proportion to its want of
+power to accomplish at once all its devastation.
+
+"After this time, there are few satisfactory accounts of these diseases
+for more than five centuries. We only know that, occasionally suspending
+their ravages,--or, rather, visiting new districts when they had ceased
+to desolate others--they have continued to be objects of terror and
+instruments of devastation, even unto the present day; and it is only
+within a few years that they have been really understood, and have
+become, to a certain degree, manageable."
+
+In the United States, epizoötic diseases have been of frequent
+occurrence; but, owing to the want of properly qualified veterinary
+surgeons, they have not, until within a very recent period, been
+properly described or understood. The day however, is fast approaching
+when this void will be filled, and when epizoötic and other diseases
+will be correctly noted and recorded. The necessity for this must have
+been forcibly impressed upon the minds of the inhabitants of our country
+from the experience of the last ten or twelve years.
+
+Respecting the late epizoötic among cattle in Portage County, Ohio,
+William Pierce, V.S., of Ravenna, thus describes the symptoms as they
+appeared, in a letter to the author: "A highly-colored appearance of the
+sclerotic coat of the eye, also of the _conjunctiva_ (a lining membrane
+of the eyelid) and the Schneiderian membrane of the nose; a high animal
+heat about the head and horns; a highly inflammatory condition of the
+blood; contraction of all the abdominal viscera; hurried respiration;
+great prostration and nervous debility; lameness; followed by gangrene
+of the extremity of the tail, and the hind-feet; terminating in
+mortification and death."
+
+Mr. Pierce is convinced that these symptoms are produced by the
+continued use of the ergot, or spur of the June grass,--the effects
+being similar to those produced upon the human family by long-continued
+use of ergot of rye. This disease assumes both an acute and chronic
+form.
+
+The same gentleman also says: "Ordinary observers, as well as those who
+claim to be scientific, have entertained very conflicting opinions as to
+its general character; some regarding it as epizoötic, others as
+contagious; some attributing it to atmospheric influence, others to
+foulings in the stable or yard. Others, again, attribute it to freezing
+of the feet in winter. Cattle-doctors in a majority of cases, fail to
+cure it. I have, however, by a simple course of treatment, effected
+many signal cures. Some parties are so confident of the contagious
+character of the disease that they refuse to drive cattle along a road
+where it is known to exist. They even, oftentimes, wash their boots
+previous to entering their barnyards, after walking over the ground
+where such diseased cattle have been running.
+
+"Caution is both proper and commendable. I do not, however, regard it as
+a contagious disease, nor can it be transmitted by inoculation. The calf
+is carried during the progress of the disease, and delivered in
+apparently good health. The milk of the cow appears to be unaffected and
+harmless. I call this disease _sphacial fever_, or _gangrenous fever_.
+
+[Illustration: THE MAD BULL.]
+
+"The ergot, or spur of the hay, is confined to the June grass, as far as
+my observation extends; owing, probably, to its early maturity. Most
+other kinds of grass are cut before the seeds have matured sufficiently
+to produce the spur. I was suspicious of the foulness of the feed before
+I examined any hay, and have found the spur in the hay wherever the
+disease is found.
+
+"Mr. Sanford, of Edinburgh, Ohio, purchased one half of a mow of hay
+from Mr. Bassett, of Randolph, which was removed to his farm in
+Randolph, eight miles distant. Of this hay, Mr. Sanford fed eleven cows
+some six or eight weeks. Mr. Bassett had been feeding the same to four
+cows. At about the same time, both heads began to show lameness. I
+visited Mr. S. after he had lost six cows, and examined the remaining
+five, four of which were lame and the other showed symptoms of the
+disease. He had two other cows, one of which was loaned to a neighbor,
+and the other was fed upon different hay, for convenience. The loaned
+cow was returned about the first of March,--the two then running with
+the ailing ones until the 24th of April, when I saw them sound and in
+good health.
+
+"I then visited Mr. Bassett's stock, which I found infected with the
+same disease,--he having lost one, and the remaining three being lame,
+and much debilitated. The hoofs were sloughing off. Some of the same hay
+remained in the snow, which, upon examination, exhibited an abundance of
+the spur. Upon inquiry, I found that no such disease existed between the
+two farms, or in the neighborhood of either Mr. S. or Mr. B. The
+peculiarity of this circumstance at once swept away the last vestige of
+doubt from my mind. Mr. E. Chapman, of Rootstown, accompanied me, and
+can vouch for the correctness of these statements.
+
+"He hooted at my opinions, asserting that he understood the disease, and
+that it was caused by the freezing of the feet. He has since, however,
+abandoned that idea, and honestly 'acknowledged the corn.' This ergot is
+regarded by some as a parasitic fungus, formed in other grains, an
+abundant vegeto-animal substance, and much disposed to putrefaction. We
+appear to be in the dark regarding its real composition. The little
+which has been written upon the subject, appears to be founded upon
+hypothesis, and that the most obscure. The articles to which I refer may
+differ in quality or property to a considerable extent, and we may
+forever remain in the dark, unless chemical investigation be instituted.
+
+"In this particular disease, there appears to be singularity in the
+symptoms through all its various stages, which is likely to originate in
+the peculiarity of the cause which produces them. The effects and
+symptoms arising from the continued use of the ergot of rye, as
+manifested in the human system, have been but briefly hinted at by
+authors, and, probably, some of them are only reasonable conjectures.
+All they say is, that it produces violent headache, spaculation in the
+extremities, and death. Hitherto, its effects upon the inferior animal
+have been subjected to no investigation, and its peculiarity in the
+symptoms, differing from like phenomena by other causes, may yet be
+demonstrated. I am not alone in my opinion of this disease. I have taken
+counsel of those whose judgment cannot be questioned. Whatever
+difference of opinion exists is attributable to a want of investigation,
+and it will continue to exist until this singular phenomenon is clearly
+accounted for. Every opinion should be thoroughly criticized till facts
+are obtained. Every man's opinion is sacred to himself, but we should
+yield to conviction.
+
+"Two classes of this disease are exhibited: one, of irritation, and the
+other, of debility; one, an acute, the other, a chronic form. The point
+at which it assumes the chronic form is between congestion and
+gangrene. By close observation we can discover these to be different and
+higher degrees of the same disease. All subsequent degrees are dependent
+upon the first.
+
+"The first symptom, or degree, is, probably, an attack upon the
+systematic circulation, produced by a certain medicinal and deleterious
+property existing in the ergot, and communicated to the blood through
+the absorption of the tongue. This is more evident from the fact that
+the digestive organs retain their normal condition till the last stages
+of the chronic form. The blood in the first two stages is healthy, and
+the peculiar influence is only apparent in the subsequent stages; as
+evidenced by the fact that the muscles and general good appearance, as
+well as life itself, last longer than could be possible, if this
+deleterious influence were exhausted upon the digestive organs and the
+blood, in its first stages. And, as we suppose that fever and congestion
+constitute an attack upon the red blood, which is exhibited by hurried
+pulsation, we might rationally infer that the next degree would be
+gangrene of the globule, causing sloughing, the same as if it were
+carried to the muscles, or surface. This sloughing of the globule would
+be the same as if exhibited on any other part of the organization, for
+the fibrin is identical with muscle, as albumen is identical with the
+white of an egg; and since congestion is the forerunner of gangrene at
+the extremities, or on the surface, so fever and quick pulsation are the
+forerunners of congestion of the blood. Gangrene cannot ensue without
+obstruction in the blood-vessels; and congestion cannot take place
+without obstruction in that which sustains the globule. As gangrene,
+then, is the first stage of decomposition of animal matter, so is
+congestion the first stage of decomposition of the globule; and as
+mortification is death in the organized body, so is congestion death in
+the organized globule.
+
+"It appears evident that this disease, in all its forms and degrees of
+intensity, seeks vent or release; in other words, Nature conflicting
+with it, throws it off its track, or balance, and offers means of
+escape, or shows it a door by which it may make its exit. In the first
+stage of the disease, the dermoid (skin) tissues make the effort. In the
+inflammatory, the serous, and the congestive, the mucous gangrene seeks
+vent; if obtained, mortification is prevented; if not, mortification
+directly supervenes, and death terminates the case.
+
+"In the case to which I refer, observation confirms my opinion that
+absolute mortification without vent determines the gangrene of the
+blood, and is hardly curable; but that gangrene's finding vent
+determines it to be curable, and the recovery highly probable."
+
+
+EPIZOÖTIC CATARRH.
+
+Catarrh frequently assumes an epizoötic form of a very virulent
+character, originating spontaneously and extending over a large section
+of country at or about the same time. A cold spring succeeding a mild
+winter, is peculiarly productive of malignant catarrh. This is one of
+the most distressing and fatal diseases to which cattle are subject.
+
+_Symptoms._--The animal appears dull, and unwilling to move about,
+staggering when forced to do so; obstinate costiveness is usually one of
+the earliest symptoms, succeeded by diarrhoea, which is equally
+difficult of management; sometimes, however, diarrhoea is present
+from the first; the animal loses flesh rapidly; the coat is staring;
+appetite is lost; tumors form about the head, neck, back, and joints,
+which appear to be filled with air, and upon pressure cause a
+crepitating sound; saliva flows from the mouth, becoming very fetid as
+the disease progresses. The animal always dies of putrefaction.
+
+_Treatment._--This disease should be treated early, or not at all. Good
+nursing is very essential. When costiveness is present, give Barbadoes
+aloes, one ounce; croton-oil, ten drops; mix together; or give one pint
+of linseed-oil, to which add from ten to twenty drops of castor-oil. If
+the bowels are not open in twenty-four hours, give four ounces of
+sulphate of magnesia every six hours until they are opened. Follow this
+with tincture of aconite, ten drops in water, every four hours, until
+the fever has abated.
+
+Bleeding has been recommended by some writers; but the author has failed
+to experience any benefit from resorting to it, but, on the contrary,
+has seen much injury result from the use--or, rather, the abuse--of the
+lancet. He is, indeed, inclined to attribute much of the fatality
+attending this disease to indiscriminate blood-letting.
+
+When much debility exists, the animal should be sustained by tonics and
+stimulants. One ounce of nitric ether and half an ounce of tincture of
+opium, given in a little water, will be found beneficial. It should be
+given twice a day. Pulverized gentian-root, one ounce; Jamaica ginger,
+half an ounce; pulverized cloves, half an ounce; mixed, and divided into
+four powders, one to be given at night and at morning; will be found
+useful, in place of the opium and ether.
+
+
+FARDEL.
+
+This disease is properly known by the name of clue-bound. The manyplus,
+or omasum (third stomach), frequently becomes so choked up with food
+that it is hard and dry, and the operation of the digestive organs is
+very seriously impaired. The animal eats voraciously, for a time, but
+stops suddenly and trembles; the countenance assumes a peculiarly
+haggard appearance; there is a wild expression of the eye; a foaming at
+the mouth; a tendency to pitch forward, and at times a falling
+head-foremost to the ground. Occasionally, the symptoms are very active,
+speedily terminating in death. There are few diseases of a
+constitutional character in which the stomach is not, more or less,
+sympathetically involved.
+
+"Toward the end of September, 1746, a great number of cows died at
+Osterwich, in the principality of Halberstadt. Lieberkuhn, a celebrated
+physician,--there were no veterinary surgeons at that time,--was sent to
+examine into the nature of the disease, which was supposed to be one of
+the species of murrain that was then committing such ravages among the
+cattle in various parts of the Continent. There were none of the tumors,
+or pestilential buboes, that, in an earlier or later period of the
+malady, usually accompanied and characterized murrain; but upon
+inspection of the dead bodies, considerable peritoneal inflammation was
+found; the first and second stomachs were filled with food, but the
+third stomach was the palpable seat of the disease; its leaves were
+black and gangrened. The mass contained between the leaves was black,
+dry, and so hard that it could scarcely be cut with a scalpel. It
+intercepted the passage of the food from the first two stomachs to the
+fourth; and this latter stomach was empty and much inflamed. Neither the
+heart, nor the lungs, nor the intestines exhibited any trace of disease.
+Twelve cows were opened, and the appearances were nearly the same in all
+of them."
+
+_Treatment._--Give one and a half pounds of Epsom-salts, dissolved in
+three pints of water; or one quart of potash, three times daily,
+dissolved in water, will be found useful in this disease.
+
+
+FOUL IN THE FOOT.
+
+This is caused by hard or irritating substances making their way in
+between the claws of the foot, causing inflammation, and sometimes
+ulceration, in the parts. The pasterns swell, and the animal becomes
+lame.
+
+The foot should be thoroughly washed, and all foreign substances
+removed. A pledget of tow, saturated with tar and sprinkled with
+powdered sulphate of copper, should be inserted between the claws. This
+usually requires but one or two applications.
+
+
+GARGET.
+
+This is a hard, knotty condition of the udder, which sometimes follows
+calving, in consequence of the sudden distention of the bag with milk;
+and the inflammation which supervenes causes a congealed or coagulated
+condition of the milk to take place, of which, if neglected, suppuration
+and abscesses are the result.
+
+_Treatment._--Let the calf suck the dam as speedily as possible, and, if
+the hardness is not then removed, foment the udder with warm water;
+after which, wipe it dry, and apply to the entire surface melted lard as
+hot as the animal will bear. This is, generally, all that is required,
+the most obstinate cases yielding to it. If abscesses form, they should
+be lanced.
+
+
+GASTRO-ENTERITIS.
+
+This disease--otherwise known as wood-evil, or moor-ill--arises from
+eating the buds of oak, young ash, and other trees, which are of a very
+highly stimulating or irritating character. As the intestinal canal is
+liable to inflammatory action from irritant substances admitted into it,
+animals are found to become diseased from eating too freely of these
+vegetable substances.
+
+_Symptoms._--Loss of appetite and suspended rumination; mouth hot; skin
+dry; pulse from sixty to seventy; swelling and pain of the belly;
+obstinate constipation; fæces hard and covered with blood; urine of a
+strong odor, highly colored, and voided with difficulty.
+
+_Treatment._--The animal should be bled, and a strong purgative
+administered, followed by aconite and belladonna, as in enteritis.
+Injections of Castile-soap and water should be freely used; the
+application of the mustard, hartshorn, and water to the belly will also
+be found very beneficial.
+
+
+HOOSE.
+
+This disease--known also as catarrh--is occasionally the sequence of
+coryza, but more frequently it arises from an impure atmosphere;
+consequently, in cow-houses where animals are crowded together in
+numbers, it is most frequently found. Scanty provender, and of an
+inferior quality, is among the exciting causes of hoose, producing, as
+it does, a debilitated state of the system, which, upon exposure of the
+animal to cold, or wet, hastens the disorder. Some breeds of cattle are
+peculiarly liable to this disease, which, if not arrested in its early
+stage, runs on, involving the lungs, and frequently terminating in
+consumption. Of all our domestic animals, neat cattle are most subject
+to pulmonary diseases. This is attributable to the neglect and exposure
+which are far too often their lot. Butchers will testify that a large
+portion of all cattle slaughtered have abscesses and other diseases of
+the lungs.
+
+_Symptoms._--Loss of appetite; muzzle dry; coat rough, or staring;
+respiration quickened; horns hot; ears, nose, and legs cold; husky
+cough; pulse from sixty to seventy, small and thready; bowels frequently
+constipated.
+
+_Treatment._--Give one ounce of the following powders every six hours,
+until the bowels are opened: Barbadoes aloes, one and half ounces;
+nitrate of potassa, half an ounce; ginger, six drachms; mix and divide
+into six powders. Setons in the dewlap are often of great benefit.
+
+
+HOOVE.
+
+Hoove, or blown, so common, and often so speedily fatal in cattle, is
+the result of fermentation in the _rumen_, or paunch, in consequence of
+the animal's having eaten large quantities of wet grass, luxuriant
+clover, turnips, etc. An accumulation of gas is the result of this
+fermentation, which greatly disturbs the haunch and left side of the
+belly, causing much pain to the animal, and frequently threatening
+suffocation.
+
+_Treatment._--Drench the animal with one ounce of spirits of hartshorn
+in one quart of water, the object being to neutralize the gas which is
+present in the rumen; or, two ounces of table salt dissolved in one
+quart of water will be found very effectual. If these do not speedily
+give relief, an active purge should be given. Injections of soap and
+water should be freely used. If the case still proves obstinate, and the
+life of the animal is threatened, the paunch should be punctured. For
+this purpose, the trochar--an instrument specially adapted--should be
+used; but, in the absence of an instrument, an ordinary pocket-knife may
+be employed, taking care not to make a large opening. The proper point
+to operate is midway between the last rib and the prominent point of the
+hip-bone, about twelve inches from the centre of the back or loins. Few
+cases have a fatal termination where this operation has been properly
+performed.
+
+
+HYDATIDS.
+
+Worms in the brain occasionally occur, causing great uneasiness to the
+animal and generally proving fatal.
+
+The symptoms are, loss of appetite; suspended rumination; a fevered
+condition of the system; horns and ears hot; respiration disturbed; coat
+staring, etc. No course of treatment will prove efficacious in this
+disease.
+
+Pressure on the brain may occur from an accumulation of water, tumors,
+bruises, etc., in the cranial case. In either case, the same effects are
+produced as are observed in apoplexy.
+
+
+INFLAMMATION OF THE BLADDER.
+
+Inflammation of the bladder generally accompanies inflammation of the
+kidneys, though it is sometimes found disconnected and alone. It is
+occasionally caused by calculous concretions in the bladder,--which
+should be removed,--causing very acute abdominal pain to the animal. She
+makes frequent efforts to stale, passing but a few drops of urine at a
+time. The pulse is full and rapid; mouth clammy; nose dry; eyes
+bloodshot; appetite lost; moaning, and walking with a staggering gait.
+
+_Treatment._--Inject into the bladder one quart of tepid water, and from
+one to two ounces of tincture of opium mixed together. Give internally
+one of the following powders every hour until relieved; nitrate of
+potassa, one ounce; tartrate of antimony, and pulverized digitalis
+leaves, each one drachm; mix, and divide into six powders. Mucilaginous
+draughts should be freely given.
+
+Rupture of the bladder sometimes occurs, but there are no symptoms by
+which it may be known; and, if there were, no service could be rendered
+in the way of repairing the injury; the animal must die.
+
+
+INFLAMMATION OF THE HAW.
+
+The ox, like the horse, has a membrane of semilunar form in the inner
+corner of the eye, which is capable of being thrown over the entire
+eyeball, for the purpose of cleansing the eye from any foreign substance
+which may get into it. This membrane is commonly called the haw, and is
+susceptible of attacks of inflammation, which cause it to swell,
+frequently even closing up the eye.
+
+_Treatment._--Give a dose of physic, and, if the animal is plethoric,
+extract a little blood from the vein on the same side as the affected
+eye. Apply to the eye either of the following washes: tincture of opium,
+one ounce; rain-water, one pint; or, tincture of aconite, one drachm, to
+one pint of water. Bathe two or three times a day.
+
+
+INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS.
+
+This disease--sometimes called nephritis--occurs occasionally in cattle
+in consequence of their eating bad or unwholesome food, or of the abuse
+of diuretics, etc.
+
+The symptoms are very insidious in their approach. The loins are very
+tender upon pressure; the urine is voided in small quantities. As the
+disease advances, the symptoms become more marked and acute. The animal
+is dull, and feeds daintily; the evacuation of urine is attended with
+increased pain, and the urine is highly colored and bloody; the nose is
+dry; the horns, ears, and extremities are cold; respiration hurried; the
+pulse full, hard, and throbbing.
+
+_Treatment._--Give one pint of linseed-oil and ten drops of castor-oil,
+mixed together; follow this with small doses of salts once a day, for
+three or four days; give injections of water, one half a gallon to two
+ounces of tincture of arnica. Mustard applications to the loins are also
+very useful.
+
+
+INFLAMMATION OF THE LIVER.
+
+Diseases of the liver are of very common occurrence,--a fact with which
+all beef-butchers are familiar. Perhaps no organ in the animal economy
+is so liable to disease. The obscurity of the symptoms and the good
+condition of the animal prevent its discovery, as a general thing,
+during its lifetime. When, however, the disease assumes an active
+form,--known as the yellows, jaundice, or inflammation of the
+liver,--the symptoms are more readily detected.
+
+_Symptoms._--A yellowish color of the eye will be observed; skin, urine,
+etc., highly colored; soreness, on pressure, on the right side; loss of
+appetite; dullness; constipation of the bowels, etc.
+
+_Treatment._--Calomel is the most reliable medicine known to
+practitioners for diseases of the liver. Its abuse, however, has brought
+it into disrepute. Yet, as with ordinary care it may be advantageously
+used, we will prescribe it as that upon which the most dependence is to
+be placed, and in doing so, will endeavor to have it used safely.
+Bleeding has been recommended: but the author has never found any
+benefit resulting. Give Epsom-salts, in doses of four ounces each, every
+night, with one scruple of calomel, until the animal is relieved.
+Mustard and water should be frequently applied to the right side, and
+well rubbed in.
+
+
+LARYNGITIS.
+
+This disease is of rare occurrence in cattle. In it, the mucous membrane
+lining the larynx is in a very irritable condition; the least pressure
+upon the parts affected causes intensely excruciating pain; the
+respiration becomes quick, painful, and laborious; the animal often
+appears to be hungry, yet does not eat much, in consequence of the pain
+occasioned by the act of swallowing.
+
+_Treatment._--Apply to the throat externally strong mustard, mixed, with
+equal parts of aqua ammonia and water, to a thin paste, every hour,
+until it produces an effect upon the skin; sponging the parts each time
+with warm water before applying the mustard. The animal should not be
+bled. Give upon the tongue, or in drink, half-drachm doses of nitrate of
+potassa, every three or four hours, until relief is obtained. If
+suffocation threatens, the operation of tracheotomy is the only resort.
+
+[Illustration: AN ABERDEENSHIRE POLLED BULL.]
+
+Cloths saturated with cold water, wrapped around the neck so as to cover
+the larynx, frequently afford relief. A purgative will also be found
+useful.
+
+
+LICE.
+
+Cattle are very subject to lice, particularly when they are neglected,
+half-starved, and in poor condition. Good care and good feeding--in
+connection with the treatment recommended in mange, to which the reader
+is referred--will comprise all that is requisite.
+
+
+MANGE.
+
+Mange, or leprosy, is one of the most unpleasant and difficult diseases
+to manage of all the ailments to which cattle are subject requiring the
+nicest care and attention to render it easy of cure. An animal badly
+nursed will not, under the most skillful treatment, quickly recover. Its
+causes are in the main, due to poor food, which produces a debilitated
+condition of the system, and in connection with a want of cleanliness,
+causes a development of the _acari_, or minute insects, exciting very
+great irritation upon the skin and causing the cow to rub herself
+against every object with which she comes in contact. The hair falls
+off; a scurfy appearance of the skin is perceptible; and the animal is
+poor in condition and in milk. The great trouble in treating this
+disease springs from its contagious character; for, no sooner is the
+animal, oftentimes, once free from the _acari_ than it comes in contact
+with some object against which it has previously been rubbing, when the
+_acari_ which were left upon that object are again brought in contact
+with the animal, and the disease is reproduced. If, immediately after
+the proper applications are made, the animal is removed to other
+quarters, and not allowed to return to the former ones for six or eight
+weeks, there is, generally speaking, but little trouble in treating the
+disease.
+
+Take the animal upon a warm, sunny day, and with a scrubbing-brush
+cleanse the skin thoroughly with Castile-soap and water; when dry, apply
+in the same manner the following mixture; white hellebore, one ounce;
+sulphur flower, three ounces; gas-water, one quart; mix all well
+together. One or two applications are, generally, all that will be
+required. Give internally one of the following powders in the feed,
+night and morning: flowers of sulphur, two ounces; black antimony, one
+ounce; nitrate of potassa, one ounce; mix, and divide into eight
+powders.
+
+
+MURRAIN.
+
+This is one of the most malignant diseases to which cattle are liable.
+Fortunately, however, true murrain is comparatively rare in this great
+stock-raising country.
+
+The entire system seems to partake of the disease. The first indication
+of its approach is a feverish condition of the system, attended with a
+frequent and painful cough; the pulse is small, hard, and rapid. As the
+disease advances, the respiration becomes disturbed; the flanks heave;
+vesicular eruption is observed upon the teats, mouth, and feet; the
+horns are cold; the animal is sometimes lame; constipation and,
+sometimes, diarrhoea are accompanying symptoms; _fæces_ black and
+fetid; the eyes weep and become much swollen; great tenderness along the
+spine; a brown or bloody discharge from the nose and mouth; the animal
+moans incessantly, grinds his teeth, rarely lies down, but to get up
+again quickly; finally, the breath becomes very offensive; tumors make
+their appearance in various parts of the body, which, in favorable
+cases, suppurate, and discharge a fetid matter.
+
+_Treatment._--Give one fourth of a pound of Epsom-salts, with one drachm
+of Jamaica ginger, twice a day, for two or three days. A bottle of
+porter, twice a day, will be found serviceable. Very little medicine is
+required internally in this disease, but much depends upon good nursing.
+External applications are chiefly to be depended upon. A solution of
+chloride of lime should be applied to the eruptions, or a solution of
+the chloride of zinc, twenty grains to an ounce of water; or, of
+sulphate of zinc, two drachms to a pint of water; or pulverized
+charcoal applied to the parts will be found useful.
+
+
+NAVEL-ILL.
+
+Inflammation of the navel in calves occasionally occurs, causing
+redness, pain, and sudden swelling in the part affected. This disease,
+if not promptly attended to, speedily carries off the creature.
+
+_Treatment._--Foment the part well with warm hop-tea; after which, the
+application of a cloth, well saturated with lead-water and secured by
+bandages, should be applied. Internally, doses of Epsom-salts, of two
+ounces each, dissolved in half a pint of water, should be given until
+the bowels are acted upon. After the inflammation has subsided, to
+counteract the weakness which may follow, give a bottle of porter two or
+three times a day.
+
+
+OBSTRUCTIONS IN THE OESOPHAGUS.
+
+Choking in cattle is of common occurrence, in consequence of turnips,
+potatoes, carrots, or other hard substances, becoming lodged in the
+oesophagus, or gullet.
+
+These obstructions can sometimes be removed by careful manipulations
+with the hand; but, where this can not be accomplished, the flexible
+probang should be employed. This is a long India-rubber tube, with a
+whalebone stillet running through it, so as to stiffen it when in use.
+This instrument is passed down the animal's throat, and the offending
+substance is thus pushed down into the stomach.
+
+
+OPEN JOINTS.
+
+Opening of the joint generally results from accidents, from puncturing
+with sharp substances, from kicks, blows, etc. These injuries cause
+considerable nervous irritation in the system, and sometimes cause
+lock-jaw and death.
+
+_Treatment._--Close up the wound as speedily as possible. The
+firing-iron will sometimes answer the purpose very well. The author
+depends more upon the application of collodion--as recommended in his
+work upon "The Horse and His Diseases" for the same trouble--than upon
+any other remedy. It requires care in its application, in order to make
+it adhere firmly. Shoemakers'-wax, melted and applied, answers a very
+good purpose.
+
+
+PARTURITION.
+
+In natural labor--as has been suggested in a former part of this
+work--the aid of man is rarely required in bringing away the calf. But
+it not infrequently happens that, from malformation or wrong
+presentation, our assistance is required in order to deliver the animal.
+
+The brute force, which has been far too often heretofore resorted to,
+should no longer be tolerated, since the lives of many valuable animals
+have been sacrificed by such treatment. Very often, by gentle
+manipulation with the greased hand, the womb can be so dilated as to
+afford a comparatively easy exit for the _foetus_.
+
+If, however, the calf is presented wrong, it must be pushed back and
+placed in its proper position, if possible. In natural labor, the
+fore-legs, with the head lying between them, are presented; in which
+position--unless deformity, either in the _pelvis_ of the cow, or in the
+_foetus_, exists--the calf is passed with little difficulty, and
+without assistance. It sometimes happens that the head of the foetus
+is turned backward. When this happens, the attendant should at once
+strip himself to the waist, bathe his arms, and hands with a little
+sweet-oil, or lard, and introduce them into the _vagina_, placing a cord
+around both fore-feet, and then, pushing them back, search for the head,
+which is to be brought forward to its proper position. The feet are next
+to be brought up with it. No force should be used, except when the cow
+herself makes the effort to expel the calf; otherwise, more harm than
+good may be done.
+
+A case of this kind recently occurred in the author's practice, being
+the third within a year. The subject was a cow belonging to William
+Hance, Esq., of Bordentown, New Jersey. After she had been in labor for
+some twenty hours, he was called upon to see her. Upon inquiry, he found
+that several persons had been trying, without success, to relieve her.
+She was very much prostrated, and would, doubtless, have died within two
+or three hours, had no relief been afforded. The legs of the _foetus_
+protruded as far as the knees; the head was turned backward, and with
+the body, pressed firmly into the _vagina_, so that it was impossible to
+return it, or to bring the head forward. The operation of embryotomy
+was, therefore, at once performed, by cutting away the right shoulder,
+which enabled the operator, with the aid of his appropriate hooks, to
+bring the head forward, when the calf came away without further
+trouble,--the whole operation not requiring fifteen minutes. The
+_uterus_ was then washed out, and the animal placed in as comfortable a
+position as possible, and a stimulating draught given, composed of two
+ounces of nitric ether, one ounce of tincture of opium, and a half pint
+of water. This was followed with a few doses of Fleming's tincture of
+aconite, ten drops in a little water, every few hours. In a few days the
+animal had entirely recovered.
+
+Occasionally, the head comes first, or the head and one leg. In such
+cases, a cord should be slipped around the jaw and leg, and these then
+pushed back, so as to allow the other leg to be brought up. When this
+cannot be done, the _foetus_ can, in most cases, be removed in the
+original position.
+
+Breech, side, back, and other presentations sometimes occur; in all of
+which instances, the _foetus_ must be turned in such a position that
+it can be brought away with as little trouble as possible. When this
+cannot be accomplished, the only resort is embryotomy, or cutting up of
+the _foetus_, which operation can only be safely performed by the
+qualified veterinary surgeon.
+
+Since writing the above, another case has occurred in the author's
+practice. The cow--belonging to Samuel Barton, Esq., near Bordentown,
+New Jersey--had been in labor some eighteen hours; upon an examination
+of the animal, the calf was found to be very much deformed, presenting
+backwards,--one of the hind-legs having been pulled off by the person or
+persons assisting her previous to the author's arrival. Finding it
+impossible to deliver her in the usual way, embryotomy was in this
+instance employed. By this means, after taking out the intestines,
+lungs, etc., of the _foetus_, and cutting away its hind-quarters, the
+fore-parts were brought away. The head presented a singular appearance;
+the under jaw was so twisted as to bring the front teeth on the side of
+the face; the spinal column or back-bone, was turned twice around,
+resembling a spiral string; the front legs were over the back; the ribs
+were much contorted; the hind-parts were as much deformed; and, taken
+altogether, the deformity was the most singular which has been brought
+under the author's observation.
+
+FREE MARTINS.--It has long been supposed by stockbreeders, that if a cow
+produce twins, one of which is a male and the other a female, the female
+is incapable of producing young, but that the male may be a useful
+animal for breeding purposes. Many instances have occurred when the twin
+sister of a bull has never shown the least desire for the male.
+
+This indifference to sexual commerce arises, doubtless, from the
+animal's being but imperfectly developed in the organs of generation.
+This fact has been established by the investigations of Mr. John Hunter,
+who had three of these animals slaughtered for anatomical examination.
+The result is thus reported: "The external parts were rather smaller
+than is customary in the cow. The _vagina_ passed on, as in the cow, to
+the opening of the _urethra_, and then it began to contract into a small
+canal, which passed on into the division of the _uterus_ into the two
+horns; each horn passed along the edge of the broad ligament laterally
+toward the _ovaria_.
+
+"At the termination of these horns were placed both the ovaries and the
+testicles. Both were nearly of the same size, which was about as large
+as a small nutmeg. To the _ovaria_, I could not find any Fallopian
+tube.
+
+"To the testicles were _vasa deferentia_, but they were imperfect. The
+left one did not come near the testicle; the right one only came close
+to it, but did not terminate in the body called the _epididymis_. They
+were both pervious and opened into the _vagina_, near the opening of the
+_urethra_.
+
+"On the posterior surface of the bladder, or between the _uterus_ and
+the bladder, were the two bags, called _vesiculæ seminales_ in the male,
+but much smaller than they are in the bull. The ducts opened along with
+the _vasa deferentia_. This animal, then, had a mixture of all the
+parts, but all of them were imperfect."
+
+Well-authenticated cases have, however, occurred where the female has
+bred, and the offspring proved to be good milkers. There are several
+instances on record of cows' giving birth to three, four, and even five
+calves at a time. There were on exhibition, in 1862, at Bordentown, New
+Jersey, three free martins, two sisters and a brother, which were
+beautiful animals. These were from a cow belonging to Mr. Joab Mershon,
+residing on Biles Island, situated in the Delaware River, a short
+distance above Bordentown. They were calved November 1st, 1858, and were
+therefore nearly four years of age. They had never shown the least
+desire for copulation. Their aggregate weight was 4300 pounds.
+
+We extract the following from the London Veterinarian, for 1854:--"A
+cow, belonging to Mr. John Marshall, of Repton, on Wednesday last, gave
+birth to _five, live healthy calves_, all of which are, at the time I
+write, alive and vigorous, and have every appearance of continuing so.
+They are all nearly of a size, and are larger and stronger than could be
+supposed. Four of them are bull-calves.
+
+"The dam is by no means a large one, is eleven years old, of a mongrel
+breed, and has never produced more than one offspring at any previous
+gestation. I saw her two days after she had calved, at which time she
+was ruminating, and did not manifest any unusual symptoms of exhaustion.
+I may mention that the first four calves presented naturally; the fifth
+was a breech-presentation."
+
+CLEANSING.--The _placenta_, or after-birth, by which the _foetus_ is
+nourished while in embryo, should be removed soon after calving.
+Generally, it will come away without any assistance. This is what is
+called "cleansing after calving." When, however, it remains for some
+time, its function having been performed, it becomes a foreign body,
+exciting uterine contractions, and therefore injurious. The sooner,
+then, it is removed, the better for the animal as well as the owner. To
+accomplish this, the hand should be introduced, and, by pulling gently
+in various directions, it will soon yield and come away. Should it be
+allowed to remain, it rapidly decomposes, producing a low, feverish
+condition of the system, which greatly interferes with the general
+health of the animal.
+
+INVERSION OF THE UTERUS.--The _uterus_ is sometimes turned inside out
+after calving. This is, generally, the result of debility, or severe
+labor. The _uterus_ should be replaced as carefully as possible with the
+hands, care being taken that no dirt, straw, or other foreign substance
+adheres to it. Should it again be expelled, it would be advisable to
+quiet the system by the use of an anæsthetic, as chloroform, or--which
+is much safer--chloric ether. As soon as the animal is under the
+influence of this, the _uterus_ may be again replaced. The
+hind-quarters should be raised as high as possible, in order to favor
+its retention. The animal should have a little gruel and a bottle of
+porter given to her every five or six hours, and the _vulva_ should be
+bathed frequently with cold water.
+
+
+PHRENITIS.
+
+Inflammation of the brain is one of those dreadful diseases to which all
+animals are liable. It is known to the farmer as frenzy, mad staggers,
+etc.
+
+The active symptoms are preceded by stupor; the animal stubbornly stands
+in one position; the eyes are full, red, and fiery; respiration rapid;
+delirium soon succeeds; the animal, bellowing, dashes wildly about, and
+seems bent on mischief, rushing madly at every object which comes in its
+way.
+
+The causes of this disease are overwork in warm weather, a plethoric
+condition of the system, and too stimulating food. Prof. Gamgee, of the
+Edinburgh Veterinary College, relates a case resulting from the presence
+within the external _meatus_ of a mass of concrete cerumen, or wax,
+which induced inflammation of the ear, extending to the brain.
+
+_Treatment._--As this is attended with considerable risk, unless it is
+taken prior to the frenzied stage, bleeding almost to fainting should be
+resorted to, and followed by a brisk purge. Take one ounce of Barbadoes
+aloes, and ten to fifteen drops of Croton-oil; mix the aloes with one
+pint of water and the oil, using the mixture as a drench. One pound of
+Epsom-salts will answer the purpose very well, in cases where the aloes
+and oil cannot be readily obtained. Application of bags of broken ice to
+the head, is very beneficial. Spirits of turpentine, or mustard,
+together with spirits of hartshorn and water should be well rubbed in
+along the spine, from the neck to the tail.
+
+
+PLEURISY.
+
+This is an inflammation of the _pleura_, or the serous membrane which
+lines the cavity of the chest, and which is deflected over the lungs.
+Inflammation of this membrane rarely occurs in a pure form, but is more
+generally associated with inflammation of the tissue of the lungs. If
+this disease is not attended to at an early period, its usual
+termination is in hydrothorax, or dropsy of the chest. The same causes
+which produce inflammation of the lungs, of the bronchia, and of the
+other respiratory organs, produce also pleurisy.
+
+_Symptoms._--The respiration is quick, short, and painful; pressure
+between the ribs produces much pain; a low, short, painful cough is
+present; the respiratory murmur is much diminished,--in fact, it is
+scarcely audible. This condition is rapidly followed by effusion, which
+may be detected from the dullness of the sounds, on applying the ear to
+the lower part of the lungs. The febrile symptoms disappear; the animal
+for a few days appears to improve, but soon becomes weak, languid, and
+often exhausted from the slightest exertion.
+
+_Treatment._--The same treatment in the early stage is enjoined as in
+inflammatory pneumonia, which the reader will consult--counter-irritation
+and purgatives. Bleeding never should be resorted to. When effusion
+takes place, it is necessary to puncture the sides with a trochar, and
+draw away the fluid, giving internally one of the following purges three
+times a day: rosin, eight ounces; saltpetre, two ounces, mix, and divide
+into eight powders. Half-drachm doses of the iodide of potash,
+dissolved in water, to be given three times daily, will be found useful
+in this disease.
+
+
+PLEURO-PNEUMONIA.
+
+This disease, as its name implies, is an inflammatory condition of the
+lungs and the _pleura_, or the enveloping membrane of the lungs and the
+lining membrane of the chest. It is sometimes called contagious,
+infectious, and epizoötic pleuro-pneumonia,--contagious or infectious,
+from its supposed property of transmission from the diseased to the
+healthy animal.
+
+[Illustration: TAKING AN OBSERVATION.]
+
+A contagious character the author is not ready to assign to
+it,--contagious, as he understands it, being strictly applicable to
+those diseases which depend upon actual contact with the poison that it
+may be communicated from one animal to another. This does not
+necessarily imply the actual touching of the animals themselves; for it
+may be communicated from the poison left in the trough, or other places
+where the diseased animal has been brought in contact with some object,
+as is often the case in glanders in the horse; the matter discharged
+from the nose, and left upon the manger, readily communicating that
+disease to healthy animals coming in contact with it. Contagious
+diseases, therefore, travel very slowly, starting, as they do, at one
+point, and gradually spreading over a large district, or section of
+country.
+
+This disease is, however, regarded by the author as infectious; by which
+term is meant that it is capable of being communicated from the diseased
+to the healthy animal through the medium of the air, which has become
+contaminated by the exhalations of poisonous matter. The ability to
+inoculate other animals in this way is necessarily confined to a limited
+space, sometimes not extending more than a few yards. Infectious
+diseases, accordingly, spread with more rapidity than contagious ones,
+and are, consequently, more to be dreaded; since we can avoid the one
+with comparatively little trouble, while the other often steals upon us
+when we regard ourselves as beyond its influence, carrying death and
+destruction in its course.
+
+The term by which this disease is known, is a misnomer. Pleuro-pneumonia
+proper is neither a contagious, nor an infectious disease; hence, the
+denial of medical men that this so-called pleuro-pneumonia is a
+contagious, or infectious disease, has been the means of unnecessarily
+exposing many animals to its poisonous influence.
+
+In the _Recuéil de Médécine Vétérinaire_, for 1833, will be found a very
+interesting description of this fatal malady. The author, M. Lecoy,
+Assistant Professor at the Veterinary School of Lyons, France, says:
+"There are few districts in the _arrondissement_ of Avesnes where more
+cattle are fattened than in that of Soire-le-Chateau. The farmers being
+unable to obtain a sufficient supply of cattle in the district, are
+obliged to purchase the greater part of them from other provinces; and
+they procure a great number for grazing from Franche Comté. The cattle
+of this country are very handsome; their forms are compact; they fatten
+rapidly; and they are a kind of cattle from which the grazer would
+derive most advantage, were it not that certain diseases absorb, by the
+loss of some of the animals, the profits of the rest of the herd.
+Amongst the diseases which most frequently attack the cattle which are
+brought from the North, there is one very prevalent in some years, and
+which is the more to be dreaded as it is generally incurable; and the
+slaughter of the animal, before he is perceptibly wasted, is the only
+means by which the farmer can avoid losing the whole value of the beast.
+
+"This disease is chronic pleuro-pneumonia. The symptoms are scarcely
+recognizable at first, and often the beast is ill for a long time
+without its being perceived. He fattens well, and when he is slaughtered
+the owner is astonished to find scarcely half of the lungs capable of
+discharging the function of respiration. When, however, the ox has not
+sufficient strength of constitution to resist the ravages of disease,
+the first symptom which is observed is diminution, or irregularity of
+appetite. Soon afterwards, a frequent, dry cough is heard, which becomes
+feeble and painful as the disease proceeds. The dorso-lumbar portion of
+the spine (loins) grows tender; the animal flinches when the part is
+pressed upon, and utters a peculiar groan, or grunt, which the graziers
+regard as decisive of the malady.
+
+"Quickly after this, the movements of the flanks become irregular and
+accelerated, and the act of respiration is accompanied by a kind of
+balancing motion of the whole body. The sides of the chest become as
+tender as the loins, or more so; for the animal immediately throws
+himself down, if pressed upon with any force. The elbows become, in many
+subjects, more and more separated from the sides of the chest. The pulse
+is smaller than natural, and not considerably increased. The muzzle is
+hot and dry, alternately. The animal lies down as in a healthy state,
+but rumination is partially or entirely suspended. The _fæces_ are
+harder than they should be; the urine is of its natural color and
+quantity; the mouth is often dry; and the horns and ears retain their
+natural temperature.
+
+"This first stage of the disease sometimes continues during a month, or
+more, and then, if the animal is to recover, or at least, apparently so,
+the symptoms gradually disappear. First of all, the appetite returns,
+and the beast begins to acquire a little flesh. The proprietor should
+then make haste and get rid of him; for it is very rare that the malady,
+however it may be palliated for a while, does not reappear with greater
+intensity than before.
+
+"In most cases, the disease continues to pursue its course toward its
+termination without any remission,--every symptom gradually increasing
+in intensity. The respiration becomes more painful; the head is more
+extended; the eyes are brilliant; every expiration is accompanied with a
+grunt, and by a kind of puckering of the angles of the lips; the cough
+becomes smaller, more suppressed, and more painful; the tongue protrudes
+from the mouth, and a frothy mucus is abundantly discharged; the breath
+becomes offensive; a purulent fluid of a bloody color escapes from the
+nostrils; diarrhoea, profuse and fetid, succeeds to the constipation;
+the animal becomes rapidly weaker; he is a complete skeleton, and at
+length he dies.
+
+"Examination after death discloses slight traces of inflammation in the
+intestines, discoloration of the liver, and a hard, dry substance
+contained in the manyplus. The lungs adhere to the sides and to the
+diaphragm by numerous bands, evidently old and very firm. The substance
+of the lungs often presents a reddish-gray hepatization throughout
+almost its whole extent. At other times, there are tubercles in almost
+every state of hardness, and in that of suppuration. The portion of the
+lungs that is not hepatized is red, and gorged with blood. Besides the
+old adhesions, there are numerous ones of recent date. The pleura is not
+much reddened, but by its thickness in some points, its adhesion in
+others, and the effusion of a serous fluid, it proves how much and how
+long it has participated in the inflammatory action. The trachea and the
+bronchia are slightly red, and the right side of the head is gorged with
+blood.
+
+"In a subject in which, during life, I could scarcely feel the beating
+of the heart, I found the whole of the left lobe of the lungs adhering
+to the sides, and completely hepatized. In another, that had presented
+no sign of disease of the chest, and that for some days before his death
+vomited the little fodder which he could take, the whole of that portion
+of the oesophagus that passed through the chest was surrounded with
+dense false membranes, of a yellowish hue, ranging from light to dark,
+and being in some parts more than an inch in thickness, and adhering
+closely to the muscular membrane of the tube, without allowing any
+trace to be perceived of that portion of the mediastinal pleura on which
+this unnatural covering was fixed and developed.
+
+"The cattle purchased in Franche Comté are brought to Avesnes at two
+periods of the year--in autumn and in the spring. Those which are
+brought in autumn are much more subject to the disease than those which
+have arrived in the spring; and it almost always happens that the years
+in which it shows itself most generally are those in which the weather
+was most unfavorable while the cattle were on the road. The journey is
+performed by two different routes,--through Lorraine and through
+Champagne,--and the disease frequently appears in cattle that have
+arrived by one of these routes. The manner in which the beasts are
+treated, on their arrival, may contribute not a little to the
+development of the malady. These animals, which have been driven long
+distances in bad weather, and frequently half starved, arrived famished,
+and therefore the more fatigued, and some of them lame. Calculating on
+their ravenous appetite, the graziers, instead of giving them wholesome
+food, make them consume the worst that the farm contains,--musty and
+mouldy fodder; and it is usually by the cough, which the eating of such
+food necessarily produces, that the disease is discovered and first
+developed.
+
+"Is chronic pleuro-pneumonia contagious? The farmers believe that it is,
+and I am partly of their opinion. When an animal falls sick in the
+pasture, the others, after his removal, go and smell at the grass where
+he has lain, and which he has covered with his saliva, and, after that,
+new cases succeed to the first. It is true that this fact is not
+conclusive, since the disease also appears in a great number of animals
+that have been widely separated from each other. But I have myself seen
+three cases in which the cattle of the country, perfectly well before,
+have fallen ill, and died with the same symptoms, excepting that they
+have been more acute, after they have been kept with cattle affected
+with this disease. This circumstance inclines me to think that the
+disease is contagious; or, at least, that, in the progress of it, the
+breath infects the cow-house in which there are other animals already
+predisposed to the same disease. I am induced to believe that most of
+the serious internal diseases are communicated in this manner, and
+particularly those which affect the organs of respiration, when the
+animals are shut up in close, low, and badly-ventilated cow-houses."
+[_Rec. de Méd. Vét. Mai, 1833._]
+
+No malady can be more terrible and ruinous than this among dairy-stock;
+and its spread all over the country, together with its continuance with
+scarcely any abatement, must be attributed to the combination of various
+causes. The chief are: _first_, the very contagious or infectious nature
+of the disorder; _second_, inattention on the part of Government to the
+importation and subsequent sale of diseased animals; and, _third_, the
+recklessness of purchasers of dairy or feeding cattle.
+
+This disease may be defined as an acute inflammation of the organs of
+the chest, with the development of a peculiar and characteristic poison,
+which is the active element of infection or contagion. It is a disease
+peculiar to the cattle tribe, notwithstanding occasional assertions
+regarding observations of the disease among horses, sheep, and other
+animals,--which pretended observations have not been well attested.
+
+The infectious, or contagious nature of this virulent malady is
+incontestibly substantiated by an overwhelming amount of evidence, which
+cannot be adduced at full length here, but which may be classified under
+the following heads: _first_, the constant spreading of the disease from
+countries in which it rages to others which, previously to the
+importation of diseased animals, had been perfectly free from it. This
+may be proved in the case of England, into which country it was carried
+in 1842, by affected animals from Holland. Twelve months after, it
+spread from England to Scotland, by means of some cattle sold at
+All-Hallow Fair, and it was only twelve months afterward that cattle
+imported as far north as Inverness took the disease there. Lately, a cow
+taken from England to Australia was observed to be diseased upon
+landing, and the evil results were limited to her owner's stock, who
+gave the alarm, and ensured an effectual remedy against a wider spread.
+Besides, the recent importation of pleuro-pneumonia into the United
+States from Holland appears to have awakened our agricultural press
+generally, and to have convinced them of the stubborn fact that our
+cattle have been decimated by a fearfully infectious, through probably
+preventable, plague. A letter from this country to an English author
+says: "Its (pleuro-pneumonia's) contagious character seems to be settled
+beyond a doubt, though some of the V.S. practitioners deny it, which is
+almost as reasonable as it would be to deny any other well-authenticated
+historic fact. Every case of the disease is traceable to one of two
+sources; either to Mr. Chenery's stock in Belmont (near Boston,
+Massachusetts), into which the disease was introduced by his importation
+of four Dutch cows from Holland, which arrived here the 23d of last May;
+or else to one of the three calves which he sold to a farmer in North
+Brookfield, Massachusetts, last June."
+
+_2dly._ Apart from the importation into countries, we have this certain
+proof--to which special attention was drawn several years ago--that
+cattle-dealers' farms, and public markets, constitute the busy centres
+of infection. Most anxious and careful inquiries have established the
+proposition that in breeding-districts, where the proprietors of
+extensive dairies--as in Dumfries, Scotland, and other places--abstain
+from buying, except from their neighbors, who have never had diseases of
+the lungs amongst their stock, pleuro-pneumonia has not been seen. There
+is a wide district in the Vicinity of Abington, England, and in the
+parish of Crawford, which has not been visited _by_ this plague, with
+the exception of two farms, into which market-cattle had been imported
+and thus brought the disease.
+
+_3dly._ In 1854 appeared a Report of the Researches on Pleuro-Pneumonia,
+by a scientific commission, instituted by the Minister of Agriculture in
+France. This very able pamphlet was edited by Prof. Bouley, of Alfort,
+France. The members of the commission belonged to the most eminent
+veterinarians and agriculturists in France. Magendie was President;
+Regnal, Secretary; besides Rayer, the renowned comparative pathologist;
+Yvart, the Inspector-General of the Imperial Veterinary Schools;
+Renault, Inspector of the Imperial Veterinary Schools; Delafond,
+Director of Alfort College; Bouley, Lassaigne, Baudemont, Doyére, Manny
+de Morny, and a few others representing the public. If such a
+commission were occasionally appointed in this country for similar
+purposes, how much light would be thrown on subjects of paramount
+importance to the agricultural community!
+
+Conclusions arrived at by the commission are too important to be
+overlooked in this connection. The reader must peruse the Report itself,
+if he needs to satisfy himself as to the care taken in conducting the
+investigations: but the foregoing names sufficiently attest the
+indisputable nature of the facts alluded to.
+
+In instituting its experiments, the commission had in view the solving
+of the following questions:--
+
+_1stly._ Is the epizoötic pleuro-pneumonia of cattle susceptible of
+being transmitted from diseased to healthy animals by cohabitation?
+
+_2dly._ In the event of such contagion's existing, would all the animals
+become affected, or what proportion would resist the disease?
+
+_3dly._ Amongst the animals attacked by the disease, how many recover,
+and under what circumstances? How many succumb?
+
+_4thly._ Are there any animals of the ox species decidedly free from any
+susceptibility of being affected from the contagion of pleuro-pneumonia?
+
+_5thly._ Do the animals, which have been once affected by a mild form of
+the disease, enjoy immunity from subsequent attacks?
+
+_6thly._ Do the animals, which have once been affected by the disease in
+its active form, enjoy such immunity?
+
+To determine these questions, the commission submitted at different
+times to the influence of cohabitation with diseased animals forty-six
+perfectly healthy ones, chosen from districts in which they had never
+been exposed to a similar influence.
+
+Of these forty-six animals, twenty were experimented on at Pomeraye, two
+at Charentonneau, thirteen at Alfort, and eleven, in the fourth
+experiment, at Charentonneau.
+
+Of this number, twenty-one animals resisted the disease when first
+submitted to the influence of cohabitation, ten suffered slightly, and
+fifteen took the disease. Of the fifteen affected, four died, and eleven
+recovered. Consequently, the animals which apparently escaped the
+disease at the first trial amounted to 45.65 per cent., and those
+affected to 21.73 per cent. Of these, 23.91 per cent. recovered, and
+8.69 per cent. died. But the external appearances in some instances
+proved deceptive, and six of the eleven animals of the last experiment,
+which were regarded as having escaped free, were found, on being
+destroyed, to bear distinct evidence of having been affected. This,
+therefore, modifies the foregoing calculations, and the numbers should
+stand thus:--
+
+15 enjoy immunity,  or  32.61 per cent.
+10 indisposed,      "   21.73    "
+17 animals cured,   "   36.95    "
+ 4 dead,            "    8.98    "
+
+Of the forty-two animals which were exposed in the first experiments at
+Pomeraye and Charentonneau, and which escaped either without becoming
+affected, or recovering, eighteen were submitted to a second trial; and
+of these eighteen animals, five had, in the first experiment, suffered
+from the disease and had recovered; five had now become affected; and
+four had been indisposed. The four animals submitted to the influence
+of contagion a third time, had been affected on the occasion of the
+first trial. None of the eighteen animals contracted the disease during
+these renewed exposures to the influence of contagion.
+
+From the results of these experiments, the commission drew the following
+conclusions:--
+
+_1stly._ The epizoötic pleuro-pneumonia is susceptible of being
+transmitted from diseased to healthy animals by cohabitation.
+
+_2dly._ All the animals exposed do not take the disease; some suffer
+slightly, and others not at all.
+
+_3dly._ Of the affected animals, some recover and others die.
+
+_4thly._ The animals, whether slightly or severely affected, possess an
+immunity against subsequent attacks.
+
+These are the general conclusions which the commission deemed themselves
+authorized to draw from their experiments. The absolute proportion of
+animals which become affected, or which escape the disease, or of those
+which die and which recover, as a general rule, cannot be deduced from
+the foregoing experiments, which, for such a purpose, are too limited.
+The commission simply state the numbers resulting from their
+experiments. From these it transpires that forty five of the animals
+became severely affected with pleuro-pneumonia, and twenty-one per cent.
+took the disease slightly, making the whole sixty-six per cent. which
+were more or less severely attacked. Thirty-four per cent. remained free
+from any malady. The proportion of animals which re-acquired their
+wonted appearance of health amounted to eighty-three per cent., whereas
+seventeen per cent. died. Many minor points might be insisted on, but it
+is sufficient here to say, that the most careful analysis of all facts
+has proved to practical veterinarians, as well as to experienced
+agriculturists, and must prove to all who will calmly and
+dispassionately consider the point, that pleuro-pneumonia is
+pre-eminently an infectious, or contagious disease.
+
+[Illustration: THE TWINS.]
+
+_Symptoms._--From the time that an animal is exposed to the contagion to
+the first manifestation of symptoms, a certain period elapses. This is
+the period of incubation. It varies from a fortnight to forty days, or
+even several months. The first signs, proving that the animal has been
+seized, can scarcely be detected by any but a professional man; though,
+if a proprietor of cattle were extremely careful, and had pains-taking
+individuals about his stock, he would invariably notice a slight shiver
+as ushering in the disorder, which for several days, even after the
+shivering fit, would limit itself to slight interference in breathing,
+readily detected on auscultation. Perhaps a cough might be noticed, and
+that the appetite and milk-secretion diminished. The animal becomes
+costive, and the shivering fits recur. The cough becomes more constant
+and oppressive; the pulse full and frequent, usually numbering about
+eighty per minute at first, and rising to upwards of one hundred. The
+temperature of the body rises, and all the symptoms of acute fever set
+in. A moan, or grunt, in the early part of the disease indicates a
+dangerous attack, and the _alae nasi_ (cartilages of the nose) rise
+spasmodically at each inspiration; the air rushes through the inflamed
+windpipe and bronchial tubes, so as to produce a loud, coarse
+respiratory murmur; and the spasmodic action of the abdominal muscles
+indicates the difficulty the animal also experiences in the act of
+expiration. Pressure over the intercostal (between the ribs) spaces, and
+pressing on the spine, induce the pain so characteristic of pleurisy,
+and a deep moan not infrequently follows such an experiment. The eyes
+are bloodshot, mouth clammy, skin dry and tightly bound to the
+subcutaneous textures, and the urine is scanty and high-colored.
+
+Upon auscultation, the characteristic dry, sonorous _râle_ of ordinary
+bronchitis may be detected along the windpipe, and in the bronchial
+tubes. A loud sound of this description is, not infrequently, detected
+at the anterior part of either side of the chest; whilst the respiratory
+murmur is entirely lost, posteriorly, from consolidation of the lungs. A
+decided leathery, frictional sound is detected over a considerable
+portion of the thoracic surface. As the disease advances, and gangrene,
+with the production of cavities in the lungs, ensues, loud, cavernous
+_râles_ are heard, which are more or less circumscribed, occasionally
+attended by a decided metallic noise. When one lobe of the lungs is
+alone affected, the morbid sounds are confined to one side, and on the
+healthy side the respiratory murmur is uniformly louder all over.
+
+By carefully auscultating diseased cows from day to day, interesting
+changes can be discovered during the animal's lifetime. Frequently, the
+abnormal sounds indicate progressive destruction; but, at other times,
+portions of the lungs that have been totally impervious to air, become
+the seat of sibilant _râles_, and gradually, a healthy respiratory
+murmur proves that, by absorption of the materials which have been
+plugging the tissues of the lungs, resolution is fast advancing. Some
+very remarkable cases of this description have been encountered in
+practice.
+
+Unfortunately, we often find a rapid destruction of the tissues of the
+lungs, and speedy dissolution. In other instances, the general symptoms
+of hectic, or consumption, attend lingering cases, in which the
+temperature of the body becomes low, and the animal has a dainty
+appetite, or refuses all nourishment. It has a discharge from the eyes,
+and a fetid, sanious discharge from the nose. Not infrequently, it
+coughs up disorganized lung-tissue and putrid pus. Great prostration,
+and, indeed, typhus symptoms, set in. There is a fetid diarrhoea, and
+the animal sinks in the most emaciated state, often dying from
+suffocation, in consequence of the complete destruction of the
+respiratory structures.
+
+_Post mortem_ appearances.--In acute cases, the cadaverous lesions
+chiefly consist in abundant false membranes in the trachea, or windpipe,
+and closure of the bronchial tubes by plastic lymph. The air-vesicles
+are completely plugged by this material, and very interesting specimens
+may be obtained by careful dissection, in the shape of casts of the
+bronchial tubes and air-vesicles, clustered together like bunches of
+grapes. On slicing the lungs in these cases, hepatization is observed,
+presenting a very peculiar appearance, which is, in a great measure, due
+to the arrangement of the lung-tissue in cattle. The pulmonary lobules
+are of a deep-red or brown color, perfectly consolidated, and
+intersected or separated, one from the other, by lighter streaks of
+yellowish-red lymph, occupying the interlobular, areolar tissue. In the
+more chronic cases, the diseased lobes and lobules are found partly
+separated from the more healthy structures.
+
+This occurs from gangrene, and putrefactive changes, or in some
+instances, from the ulcerative process, so constantly observed in the
+segregation of dead from living tissues. Abscesses are not infrequently
+found in different parts of the lungs. Sometimes circumscribed, at
+others connected with bronchial tubes, and not infrequently
+communicating with the pleural cavity. True empyema is not often seen;
+but, at all times, the adhesions between the costal and visceral pleura
+are extensive, and there is much effusion in the chest. In dressed
+carcasses of cows that have been slaughtered from pleuro-pneumonia, even
+though the disease has not been far advanced, it will be found that the
+butcher has carefully scraped the serous membrane off the inner surface
+of the ribs, as it would otherwise be impossible for him to give the
+pleura its healthy, smooth aspect, from the firm manner in which the
+abundant false membranes adhere to it. The diseased lungs sometimes
+attain inordinate weight. They have been known to weigh as much as sixty
+pounds.
+
+_Treatment._--The veterinary profession is regarded by many who have
+sustained heavy losses from pleuro-pneumonia, as deeply ignorant,
+because its members cannot often cure the disease. Persons forget that
+there are several epidemics which prove equally difficult to manage on
+the part of the physician, such as cholera, yellow fever, etc. The
+poison in these contagious, epizoötic diseases is so virulent that the
+animals may be regarded as dead from the moment they are attacked. Its
+elimination from the system is impossible, and medicine cannot support
+an animal through its tardy, exhausting, and destructive process of
+clearing the system of so potent a virus. All antiphlogistic means have
+failed, such as blood-letting and the free use of evacuants.
+Derivatives, in the form of mustard-poultices, or more active blisters,
+are attended with good results. Stimulants have proved of the greatest
+service; and the late Prof. Tessona, of Turin, strongly recommended,
+from the very onset of the disease, the administration of strong doses
+of quinine. Maffei, of Ferrara, states that he has obtained great
+benefit from the employment of ferruginous tonics and manganese in the
+very acute stage of the malady, supported by alcoholic stimulants.
+Recently, the advantages resulting from the use of sulphate of iron,
+both as a preventive and curative, have been exhibited in France. It
+would appear that the most valuable depurative method of treatment yet
+resorted to is by the careful use of the Roman bath. Acting, like all
+other sudorifics in cases of fever and blood diseases, it carries off by
+the skin much of the poison, without unduly lowering the vital powers.
+
+_Prevention._--The rules laid down in Denmark, and indeed in many other
+places, appear the most natural for the prevention of the disease. If
+they could be carried out, the disease must necessarily be stopped; but
+there are practical and insuperable difficulties in the way of enforcing
+them. Thus, a Dr. Warneke says, prevention consists in "the avoidance of
+contagion; the slaughter of infected beasts; the prohibition of keeping
+cattle by those whose cattle have been slaughtered, for a space of ten
+weeks after the last case occurring; the disinfection of stalls vacated
+by slaughtering; the closing of infected places to all passing of
+cattle; especial attention to the removal of the dung, and of the
+remains of the carcasses of slaughtered beasts; and, finally,
+undeviating severity of the law against violators."
+
+Dr. Williams, of Hasselt, suggested and carried out, in 1851, the
+inoculation of the virus of pleuro-pneumonia, in order to induce a mild
+form of the disease in healthy animals, and prevent their decimation by
+the severe attacks due to contagion. He met with much encouragement, and
+perhaps more opposition. Didot, Corvini, Ercolani, and many more
+accepted Dr. Williams's facts as incontestable, and wrote, advocating
+his method of checking the spread of so destructive a plague.
+
+The first able memoir which contested all that has been said in favor of
+inoculation, appeared in Turin, and was written by Dr. Riviglio, a
+Piedmontese veterinary surgeon. This was supported by the views of many
+others. Prof. Simonds wrote against the plan, and, in 1854, the French
+commission, whose report has been before mentioned, confirmed, in part,
+Riviglio's views, though, from the incompleteness of the experiments,
+further trials were recommended.
+
+Inoculation is performed as follows: A portion of diseased lung is
+chosen, and a bistoury or needle made to pierce it so as to become
+charged with the material consolidating the lung, and this is afterward
+plunged into any part, but, more particularly, toward the point of the
+tail. If operated severely, and higher up, great exudation occurs, which
+spreads upward, invades the areolar tissue round the rectum and other
+pelvic organs, and death soon puts an end to the animal's excruciating
+suffering. If the operation is properly performed with lymph that is not
+putrid, and the incisions are not made too deep, the results are limited
+to local exudation and swelling, general symptoms of fever, and gradual
+recovery. The most common occurrence is sloughing of the tail; and in
+London, at the present time, dairies are to be seen in which all the
+cows have short-tail stumps.
+
+Dr. Williams and others have gone too far in attempting to describe a
+particular corpuscle as existing in the lymph of pleuro-pneumonia. All
+animal poisons can be alone discovered from their effects. In structure
+and chemical constitution, there is no difference, and often the most
+potent poisons are simple fluids. The Belgian Commission, appointed to
+investigate the nature and influence of inoculation for
+pleuro-pneumonia, very justly expressed an opinion that Dr. Williams had
+not proved that a specific product, distinguished by anatomical
+characters, and appreciable by the microscope, existed in this disease.
+
+The all-important question, "Is inoculation of service?" has to the
+satisfaction of most been solved. The Belgian and French commissions,
+the observations of Riviglio, Simond, Herring, and many others, prove
+that a certain degree of preservative influence is derived by the
+process of inoculation. It does not, however, arrest the progress of the
+disease. It certainly diminishes to some extent--though often very
+slightly so--the number of cases, and, particularly, of severe ones.
+This effect has been ascribed to a derivative action, independent of any
+specific influence, and, indeed, similar to that of introducing setons
+in the dewlap.
+
+In London, some dairymen have considerable faith in inoculation, though
+its effect is uncertain, and the manner of its working a mystery. The
+best counsel, in the premises, which can be given to the keeper of dairy
+stock is, to select his own animals from healthy herds, and strictly to
+avoid public markets. In many instances, a faithful observance of these
+injunctions has been sufficient to prevent the invasion of this terrible
+disease. [Gamgee.]
+
+The existence of this disease in the United States was not generally
+known until the year 1859, when Mr. Chenery, of Belmont, near Boston,
+Massachusetts, imported several cows from Holland, which arrived in the
+early part of the spring of that year. Some of the animals were sick
+when they arrived, but the true nature of the disease was not at that
+time suspected. Several of them were so bad that they were carried in
+trucks to Mr. Chenery's barn. Some two months passed away before the
+character of the disease was discovered.
+
+Upon the facts becoming known, the citizens of Massachusetts became
+panic-stricken, as the disease was rapidly spreading over that State. An
+extra session of the Legislature was speedily convened, when a Joint
+Special Committee was appointed, to adopt and carry out such measures as
+in their judgment seemed necessary for the extirpation of this monster,
+pleuro-pneumonia.
+
+The Committee met in the Hall of the House of Representatives, Thursday,
+May, 31, 1860, to receive evidence as to the contagious or infectious
+character of the disease, in order to determine concerning the necessity
+of legislative action.
+
+Mr. Walker, one of the commissioners appointed by the Governor, made the
+following statement: "The disease was introduced into North Brookfield
+from Belmont. Mr. Curtis Stoddard, a young man of North Brookfield, went
+down, the very last of June, last year, and purchased three calves of
+Mr. Chenery, of Belmont. He brought these calves up in the cars to
+Brookfield. On their way from the depôt to his house, about five miles,
+one of the calves was observed to falter, and when he got to his house,
+it seemed to be sick, and in two or three days exhibited very great
+illness; so much so, that his father came along, and, thinking he could
+take better care of it, took the calf home. He took it to his own barn,
+in which there were about forty head of cattle; but it grew no better,
+and his son went up and brought it back again to his own house. In about
+ten days after that, it died. His father, who had had the calf nearly
+four days, in about a fortnight afterward observed that one of his oxen
+was sick, and it grew worse very fast and died. Two weeks after, a
+second also sickened, and died. Then a third was attacked and died, the
+interval growing wider from the attack of one animal to that of another,
+until he had lost eight oxen and cows. Young Stoddard lost no animal by
+the infection,--that is, no one died on his hands. Prior to the
+appointment of this Commission, about the first of November,--for
+reasons independent of this disease, which I don't suppose he then knew
+the nature of,--he sold off his stock. He sold off eleven heifers, or
+young animals, and retained nine of the most valuable himself; which
+shows that he did not then know any thing was the matter with them.
+
+"These nine were four oxen, and five young cattle. The four he took to
+his father's, three of the others to his uncle's, and the remaining two
+to his father-in-law's; distributing them all among his friends,--which
+furnishes another proof that he did not suppose he was doing any
+mischief. He disposed of his herd in that way. From this auction, these
+eleven animals went in different directions, and wherever they went,
+they scattered the infection. Without a single failure the disease has
+followed those cattle; in one case, more than two hundred cattle having
+been infected by one which was sold at Curtis Stoddard's auction, when
+he was entirely ignorant of the disease.
+
+"When the commission was appointed, they went and examined his cattle,
+and were satisfied that they were diseased,--at least, some of them.
+They examined his father's herd, and found that they were very much
+diseased; and when we came to kill Curtis Stoddard's cattle, seven of
+the nine head were diseased. Two were not condemned, because the law
+says, 'Cattle not appearing to be diseased, shall be appraised.'
+Nevertheless, it proved that these animals were diseased; so that his
+whole herd was affected.
+
+"In regard to Leonard Stoddard's cattle, he lost fourteen of his animals
+before the commissioners went to his place. They took eighteen more, all
+of which were diseased,--most of them very bad cases,--indeed, extreme
+cases. That left eight heads, which were not condemned, because not
+appearing to be diseased. Here I remark, that when this disease is under
+the shoulder-blade, it cannot be detected by percussion. The physicians
+did not say that the animal was not diseased, but that they did not see
+sufficient evidence upon which to condemn. Such animals were to be paid
+for, upon the ground of their not appearing to be diseased.
+Nevertheless, it is proper to state that the remaining eight which were
+not condemned, were suspected to be diseased, and we told Mr. Stoddard
+that we had the impression that they were diseased, notwithstanding
+appearances. He said, 'There is a three-year-old animal that has never
+faltered at all. She has never manifested the slightest disease. If you
+will kill her, and she is diseased, I shall make up my mind that I have
+not a well animal in my stalls.' We killed the animal, and found her to
+be badly diseased.
+
+"Thus, the first two herds were all infected by the disease; and in the
+last of Curtis Stoddard's oxen which we killed, we found a cyst in the
+lungs of each. One of these lungs is now in this building, never having
+been cut open, and medical men can see the cyst which it contains. I
+have said in what manner Mr. Curtis Stoddard's cattle spread the
+infection.
+
+"In regard to Mr. Leonard Stoddard's: in the first place, he kept six or
+eight oxen which he employed in teaming. He was drawing some lumber, and
+stopped over night, with his oxen, at Mr. Needham's. Needham lost his
+whole herd. He lost eight or ten of them, and the rest were in a
+terrible condition. Seven or eight more were condemned, and his whole
+herd was destroyed, in consequence of Mr. Stoddard's stopping with him
+over night. Mr. Stoddard sold an animal to Mr. Woodis of New Braintree.
+He had twenty-three fine cows. It ruined his herd utterly. Seven or
+eight animals died before the commissioners got there. Mr. L. Stoddard
+also sold a yoke of cattle to Mr. Olmstead, one of his neighbors, who
+had a very good herd. They stayed only five days in his hands, when
+they passed over to Mr. Doane. In these five days they had so infected
+his herd that it was one of the most severe instances of disease that we
+have had. One third were condemned, and another third were passed over
+as sound, whether they were so, or not. They did not appear to be
+diseased. The cattle that were passed from Mr. Stoddard through Mr.
+Olmstead to Mr. Doane, were loaned by Mr. D. to go to a moving of a
+building from Oakham to New Braintree. They were put in with twenty-two
+yoke of cattle, and employed a day and a half. It has since been proved
+that the whole of these cattle took the contagion. They belonged to
+eleven different herds, and of course, each of these herds formed a
+focus from which the disease spread. Now, in these two ways the disease
+has spread in different directions.
+
+"But, when the commissioners first commenced, they had no idea that the
+disease extended further than those herds in which there were animals
+sick. Hence, their ideas and the ideas of those who petitioned for the
+law, did not extend at all to so large a number of herds as have since
+been proved to be diseased, because they only judged of those who
+manifested disease. As soon as we began in that circle, we found a
+second circle of infection, and another outside of that; and by that
+time it had branched off in various directions to various towns. It
+assumed such proportions that it was very evident that the commissioners
+had not the funds to perform the operations required by the law. The law
+confines the commissioners to one operation,--killing and burying. No
+discretionary power is given at all. The commissioners became entirely
+dissatisfied with that condition of things, because other measures
+besides merely killing and burying, are quite as necessary and
+important. When they arrived at that point and discovered to what extent
+the infection had spread, they stopped killing the herds, and I believe
+there has not been a herd killed for twenty days.
+
+"The policy was then changed to circumscribing the disease, by isolating
+the herds just as fast as possible and as surely as possible. A man's
+herd has been exposed. There is no other way than to go and examine it,
+and take the diseased animals away. Then he knows the animals are
+diseased, and his neighbors know it. That has been the business of the
+commissioners for the last twenty days; and the facts that they have no
+discretionary power whatever, and that they were entirely circumscribed
+in their means, and that it was hard for the farmers to lose their stock
+and not be paid for it,--induced them to petition the Governor, in
+connection with the Board of Agriculture, for the calling of a session
+of the Legislature, to take measures for the extinction of the disease."
+
+In response to a question, "Whether any animals that had once been
+affected, had afterward recovered?"--the same gentleman stated that
+instances had occurred where cattle had been sick twice, and had,
+apparently, fully recovered; they ruminated readily, and were gaining
+flesh. Upon examination, however, they were pronounced diseased, and,
+when killed, both lungs were found in a hopeless case, very badly
+diseased.
+
+Dr. George B. Loring, another of the commissioners, stated that eight
+hundred and forty-two head of cattle had, at that time, been killed, and
+that, from a careful estimate, there still remained one thousand head,
+which should either be killed, or isolated for such a length of time as
+should establish the fact that they had no disease about them. Twenty
+thousand dollars and upwards had already been appraised as the value of
+the cattle then killed.
+
+As to disinfecting measures, the farmers who had lost cattle were
+requested to whitewash their barns thoroughly, and some tons of a
+disinfecting powder were purchased for the advantage of the persons who
+wished to use it. An early application was advised, that the barns might
+be in readiness for hay the then coming season.
+
+The practice adopted by the commissioners was, to appraise the cattle
+whenever a herd was found which had been exposed, and a surgeon was
+appointed to pass judgment upon the number of diseased animals. After
+that judgment, the remaining animals that were pronounced sound were
+killed and passed to the credit of the owner, after an appraisement made
+by these persons. The fair market-prices were paid, averaging about
+thirty-three dollars a head. At the time of the meeting of the
+committee, some seventy cattle had died of the disease.
+
+An examination was made of some of the animals killed, and the following
+facts obtained:--
+
+Case 1.--This cow had been sick for nineteen days; was feeble, without
+much appetite, with diarrhoea, cough, shortness of breathing, hair
+staring, etc. Percussion dull over the whole of the left side of the
+chest; respiration weak. Killed by authority. Several gallons of serum
+were found in the left side of the chest; a thick, furzy deposit of
+lymph over all the _pleura-costalis_. This lymph was an inch in
+thickness, resembling the velvety part of tripe, and quite firm. There
+was a firm deposit of lymph in the whole left lung, but more especially
+at its base, with strong adhesions to the diaphragm and
+_pleura-costalis_ near the spine. The lung was hard and brittle, like
+liver, near its base. No pus. Right lung and right side of chest
+healthy.
+
+Case 2.--This cow was taken very sick, January 30th. In fourteen days,
+she began to get better. April 12th, she is gaining flesh, breathes
+well, hair healthy, gives ten quarts of milk a day, and in all other
+respects bids fair for a healthy animal hereafter, except a slight
+cough. Percussion dull over base of the left lung, near the spine, and
+respiration feeble in the same regions.
+
+Autopsy.--Left lung strongly adherent to diaphragm and costal pleura;
+the long adhesions well smoothed off; _pleura-costalis_ shining and
+healthy. Also, the surface of the lung, when there were no adhesions,
+sound and right; all the lung white, and free for the entrance of air,
+except the base, in which was a cyst containing a pint or two of pus.
+Loose in this pus was a hard mass, as large as a two-quart measure,
+looking like marble; when cut through its centre, it appeared like the
+brittle, hardened lining in case 1. It appeared as though a piece of
+lung had been detached by suppuration and enclosed in an air-tight cyst,
+by which decomposition was prevented. The other lung and the chest were
+sound. It is to be inferred, as there were adhesions, that there had
+been pleurisy and deposit of lymph and serum, as in case 1, and that
+Nature had commenced the cure by absorbing the serum from the chest, and
+the lymph from the free pleural surface, and smoothed off every thing to
+a good working condition. The lump in the cyst was brittle and
+irregular on its surface, as though it was dissolving in the pus. No
+good reason can be given why Nature should not consummate the work which
+she had so wisely begun.
+
+Case 3.--This cow had been sick fourteen days; was coughing and
+breathing badly; percussion dull over both chests and respiration
+feeble. Killed.
+
+Autopsy.--Both chests filled with water; deposits of lymph over all the
+_pleura-costalis_, presenting the same velvety, furzy appearance as in
+Case 1. Both lungs were hardened at the base, and the left throughout
+its whole extent, and firmly adherent to diaphragm and costal pleura,
+near the spine. The right lung had nearly one-third of its substance in
+a condition for the entrance of air; but this portion, even, was so
+compressed with the water, that a few hours longer would have terminated
+the case fatally without State aid. This case had not proceeded far
+enough for the formation of the cyst or pus.
+
+In Mr. Needham's herd, about twenty-eight days intervened between the
+first and second case of disease, instead of about fourteen, as in Mr.
+Olmstead's.
+
+Case 4.--A nice heifer, in fair condition, eating well, only having a
+slight cough. Percussion dull over base of the left lung.
+
+Autopsy.--Base of left lung adherent to diaphragm and costal pleura;
+lung hardened. On cutting into base, found ulceration and a head of
+Timothy grass, four or five inches long. Animal in every other way well.
+
+Case 5.--This cow was taken, January 1st, with a cough, difficulty of
+breathing, and the other symptoms of the disease, and continued sick
+till March 1st. On taking her out, April 12th, to be slaughtered, she
+capered, stuck up her tail, snuffed, and snorted, showing all the signs
+of feeling well and vigorous.
+
+Autopsy.--Right lung firmly adherent to diaphragm and costal pleura,
+near the spine. Base of lung hardened, containing a cyst with a large
+lump, of the size of a two-quart measure, floating in pus; outside of
+the lump was of a dirty yellow-white, irregular, brittle, and cheesy;
+the inside mottled, or divided into irregular squares; red like muscle,
+and breaking under the finger, like liver. Costal pleura smooth,
+shining; adhesions where there was motion; card-like and polished; no
+serum; lung apparently performing its functions well, except for a short
+distance above the air-tight cyst, where it was still hardened. It would
+seem as though Nature was intending to dissolve this lump, and carry it
+off by absorption. She knows how, and would have done it, in the opinion
+of the writer, had she been allowed sufficient time.
+
+Case 6.--Was taken December 18th, and was very sick; in three weeks she
+was well, except a cough, quite severe, and so continued till about the
+first of March, when she coughed harder and grew worse till seven days
+before she was killed, April 12th, when she brought forth a calf, and
+then commenced improving again.
+
+Autopsy.--Right lung adherent to diaphragm and costal pleura. At its
+base, was a flabby, fluctuating cyst. In cutting into it, the lump was
+found to be breaking up by decomposition, and scenting badly. Every
+thing else normal. Was not the cyst broken through by some accident,
+thus letting in the air, when she grew worse? Would she not, probably,
+have overcome this disagreeable accident, and recovered, in spite of it?
+This cow's hair did not look well, as did that of those in which the
+cyst was air-tight; but still she was beginning to eat well again, and
+appeared in a tolerable way for recovery.
+
+Case 7.--This heifer had coughed slightly for six weeks, but the owner
+said he thought no one going into his herd would notice that any thing
+was the matter with her.
+
+[Illustration: A RURAL SCENE.]
+
+Autopsy.--Slight adhesions of lung to diaphragm. Near these adhesions
+are small cysts, of the size of a walnut, containing pus and cheesy
+matter; about the cysts a little way the lung was hardened, say for half
+an inch. There were several cysts, and they appeared as though the
+inflammation attacked only the different lobes of the lungs, leaving
+others healthy between,--Nature throwing out coagulable lymph around the
+diseased lobe, and forming thereby an air-tight cyst, cutting around the
+diseased lobe by suppuration, so that it could be carried off by
+absorption.
+
+In the herd to which this animal belonged, nine days after the first cow
+died, the second case occurred. First cow was sick five weeks. The time
+of incubation could not have been over six weeks,--probably not over
+three weeks. Of these cows, one improved in eight weeks, the other in
+three weeks.
+
+Case 8.--This cow had been sick three weeks. Killed.
+
+Autopsy.--Large quantities of serum in left chest; lung adherent, and
+hardened at base. On cutting into the hardened lung, one side of the
+lump was found separated from the lung, with pus between the lines of
+separation, and the forming coat of the cyst outside of the pus; the
+other side of the lump was part and parcel of the hardened lung which
+had not yet had time to commence separation. The costal pleura was
+covered with organized lymph to the thickness of an inch, with the usual
+characteristics. The right chest contained a small quantity of serum,
+and had several small, hardened red spots in that lung, with some
+tender, weak adhesions; but most of the right lung was healthy.
+
+Case 9.--Sick four weeks. Killed.
+
+Autopsy.--Right lung hardened at base; adherent to diaphragm and costal
+pleura; lump separated on one side only. Cyst beginning to form, outside
+of separation; pus between cyst and lump, but in a very small quantity.
+
+These two cases settle the character of the lump, and the manner of the
+formation of the cyst; the lump being lung and lymph, cut out by
+suppuration,--the cyst being organized, smoothed off by suppuration,
+friction, etc.
+
+Case 10.--Killed. Hair looked badly; but the cow, it was said, ate, and
+appeared well. This case, however, occurred in a herd, of which no
+reliable information, in detail, could be procured.
+
+Autopsy.--Base of lung hardened, adherent to diaphragm; containing a
+cyst, in which was a lump, of the size of a quart measure, but little
+pus. This lump had air-tubes running through it, which were not yet cut
+off by suppuration; and in one place, the cyst was perforated by a
+bronchial tube, letting in the external air to the lump, which was
+undergoing disorganization, and swelling badly. When cut into, it did
+not present the red, mottled, organized appearance of those cases with
+air-tight cysts.
+
+Quite a number of other cases were examined, but these ten present all
+the different phases. One or two cases are needed of an early stage of
+the disease, to settle the point, whether, in all cases, the primary
+disease is lung fever, and the pleurisy a continuation, merely, of the
+primary disease; together with some six or eight cases, during five,
+six, seven, eight months from attack, and so on till entire, final
+recovery. Some cases were sick almost a year since, and are now
+apparently quite well; perhaps all the lump and pus are not yet gone.
+Many practitioners think that no severe case will ever recover, and some
+think that none ever get entirely well. Others, however, can see no
+reason why, as a general rule, all single cases should not recover, and
+all double cases die.
+
+The disease was the most fatal in Mr. Chenery's (the original) herd,
+although it was the best-fed and the warmest-stabled. He attributed the
+fatality, in part, to a want of sufficient ventilation. The other herds,
+in which all the fatal cases occurred in two hours, consisted,
+originally, one of forty-eight head, of which thirteen died, or were
+killed, to prevent certain death; of twenty-three head, of which seven
+died; of twenty-two head, of which eight died; of twenty-two head, of
+which eight also died; and of twenty-one head, of which four died. A
+little less than thirty per cent., therefore, of these herds died.
+
+This estimate excludes the calves. Most of the cows which had not calved
+before being attacked, lost their calves prematurely. The probable time
+of incubation, as deduced from those Massachusetts cases, is from two to
+three weeks; of propagation, about the same time; the acute stage of the
+disease lasting about three weeks.
+
+The author's attention was first directed to this disease, upon its
+appearance in Camden and Gloucester counties, New Jersey, in the year
+1859, at about the same time it made its advent in Massachusetts. The
+singularity of this coincidence inclined him for the time to regard the
+disease as an epizoötic--having its origin in some peculiar condition of
+the atmosphere--rather than as a contagious, or infectious disease,
+which position was at that time assumed by him.
+
+This opinion was strengthened by the fact, that no case occurring in New
+Jersey could be traced to a Massachusetts origin, in which State it was
+claimed that the disease never had existed in this country previous to
+its introduction there. It was, therefore, denied by the veterinary
+surgeons in the Eastern States, that the disease in New Jersey was the
+true European pleuro-pneumonia, but it was called by them the swill-milk
+disease of New York City, and it was assigned an origin in the
+distillery cow-houses in Brooklyn and Williamsburg.
+
+In 1860 it found its way across the Delaware River into Philadelphia,
+spreading very rapidly in all directions, particularly in the southern
+section of the county, known as The Neck,--many of the dairymen losing
+from one third to one half of their herds by its devastating influence.
+In order to save themselves--in part, at least--from this heavy loss,
+many of them, upon the first indications of the malady, sent their
+animals to the butcher, to be slaughtered for beef. In 1861 the disease
+found its way into Delaware, where its ravages were severely felt. So
+soon, however, as it became known that the disease was infectious or
+contagious, an effort was made to trace it to its starting-point; but,
+in consequence of the unwillingness of dairymen to communicate the fact
+that their herds were affected with pleuro-pneumonia, all efforts proved
+fruitless. In 1860 the disease found its way up the Delaware to
+Riverton, a short distance above the city of Philadelphia. A
+cattle-dealer, named Ward, turned some cattle into a lot, adjoining
+which several others were grazing. The residents of this place are
+chiefly the families of gentlemen doing business in the city, many of
+whom lost their favorite animals from this destructive malady.
+
+The first case occurring at this place, to which the author's attention
+was called, was a cow belonging to Mr. D. Parrish, which had been
+exposed by coming in contact with Ward's cattle, had sickened, and died.
+An anxiety having been manifested to ascertain the cause of the death,
+the author made an examination of the animal, which, upon dissection,
+proved the disease to be a genuine case of the so-called
+pleuro-pneumonia. This examination was made August 20th, 1860, at the
+time of the Massachusetts excitement. Two cows, belonging to Mr. Rose,
+of the same place, had been exposed, and both had taken the disease.
+His attention having been called to them, he placed them under the
+author's treatment, and by the use of diffusible stimulants and tonics,
+one of these animals recovered, while the other was slaughtered for an
+examination, which revealed all the morbid conditions so characteristic
+of this disease.
+
+The next case was a cow belonging to Mr. G. H. Roach, of the same place,
+which had been grazing in a lot adjoining that of Mr. Parrish. This cow
+was killed in the presence of Charles Wood, V.S., of Boston, Mass., and
+Arthur S. Copeman, of Utica, N. Y., who was one of a committee appointed
+by the New York State Agricultural Society for the purpose of
+investigating the disease. Both of these gentlemen having witnessed the
+disease in-all its forms, as it appeared in Massachusetts, were the
+first to identify this case with those in that State.
+
+Upon opening the cow, the left lung was found to be completely
+consolidated, and adhered to the left side, presenting the appearance
+usual in such cases. As she was with calf, the lungs of the foetus
+were examined, disclosing a beautiful state of red hepatization.
+
+The author's attention was next called to the herd of Mr. Lippincott, a
+farmer in the neighborhood, who had lost several cattle by the disease;
+but as he had been persuaded that treatment was useless, he abandoned
+the idea of attempting to save his stock in that way. From Riverton it
+soon spread to Burlington, some ten miles farther up the river, where it
+carried off large numbers of valuable cattle, and it continued in
+existence in that neighborhood for some time.
+
+The disease was not then confined to these localities alone, but has
+spread over a large extent of country,--and that, too, prior to its
+appearance in Massachusetts, as will be shown by extracts from the
+following letters, published in the _Country Gentleman_:--
+
+"We have a disease among the cattle here, I will class it under these
+names,--congestion of the lungs, terminating with consumption, or dropsy
+of the chest. Now, I have treated two cases; one five years since, as
+congestion,--and the first is still able to eat her allowance, and give
+a couple of pails of milk a day,--and the other, quite recently. The
+great terror of this disease is, that it is not taken in its first
+stages, which are the same in the cow as in the man--a difficulty in
+breathing, which, if not speedily relieved, terminates in consumption or
+dropsy. I have no doubt that consumption is contagious; but is that a
+reason why every one taken with congestion should be killed to check the
+spread of consumption? So I should reason, if I had pleuro-pneumonia in
+my drove of cattle.                                      J. BALDWIN.
+
+     "NEWARK, N. J., June 11, 1860."
+
+"I notice that a good deal of alarm is felt in different parts of the
+country about what is called the cattle-disease.
+
+"From the diagnosis given in the papers, I have no doubt this is
+pleuro-pneumonia, with which I had some acquaintance a few years ago. If
+it is the same, my observation and experience may be of some service to
+those suffering now.
+
+"It was introduced into my stock, in the fall of 1853, by one of my own
+cows, which, in the spring of that year, I had sent down to my brother
+in Brooklyn, to be used during the summer for milk. She was kept
+entirely isolated through out the summer, and in November was sent up
+by the boat. There were no other cattle on the boat at the time, nor
+could I learn that she had come in contact with any in passing through
+the streets on her way to the boat; and she certainly did not, after
+leaving it, until she mingled with her old companions, all of whom were
+then, and long afterward, perfectly well. After she had been home about
+two weeks, we noticed that her appetite failed, and her milk fell off:
+she seemed dull and stupid, stood with her head down, and manifested a
+considerable degree of languor.
+
+"Soon her breathing became somewhat hurried, and with a decided catch in
+it; she ground her teeth; continued standing, or, if she lay down, it
+was only to jump up again instantly. Her cough increased, and so, too, a
+purulent and, bloody discharge from her nostrils and mouth. The
+excrement was fetid, black, and hard.
+
+"In this case, we twice administered half a pound of Epsom-salts, and
+afterward, a bottle of castor-oil. Very little, but a temporary effect
+was produced by these doses.
+
+"The symptoms all increased in intensity; strength diminished; limbs
+drawn together; belly tucked up, etc.; until the eight day, when she
+partly lay, and partly fell down, and never rose again.
+
+"In a _post-mortem_ examination, the lungs were gorged with black, fetid
+blood; the substance of them thickened and pulpy. The pleura and
+diaphragm also showed a good deal of disease and some adhesion. This
+cow, on her arrival here, was put in her usual place in the stable,
+between others. She remained there for two or three days after she was
+taken sick, before we removed her to the hospital.
+
+"In about three weeks from the time she died, one and then the other of
+those standing on either side of her were attacked in the same way, and
+with but two days between. This, certainly, looks very much like
+contagion; but my attention had not before been called to this
+particular disease, and to suppose inflammation or congestion of the
+lungs contagious was so opposed to my preconceived notions, that I did
+not even then admit it; and these animals were suffered to remain with
+the others until their own comfort seemed to require the greater liberty
+of open pens.
+
+"One of them was early and copiously bled twice, while Epsom-salts were
+administered, both by the stomach and with the injective-pump. The other
+we endeavored to keep nauseated with ipecacuanha, and the same time to
+keep her bowels open by cathartic medicine. All proved to be of no
+avail. They both died,--the one in ten, the other in thirteen days.
+Before these died, however, others were taken sick. And thus, later, I
+had eight sick at one time.
+
+"The leading symptoms in all were the same, with minor differences; and
+so, too, was the appearance after death, on examination.
+
+"Of all that were taken sick (sixteen) but two recovered; and they were
+among those we did the least for, after we had become discouraged about
+trying to cure them. In all the last cases we made no effort at all, but
+to keep them as comfortable as we could. In one case, the acute
+character of the disease changed to chronic, and the animal lived six or
+eight weeks, until the whole texture of the lungs had become destroyed.
+She had become much emaciated, and finally died with the ordinary
+consumption.
+
+"At the time the first case appeared, I had a herd of thirty-one
+animals, all valuable Ayrshires, in fine condition and healthy. In all
+the first cases, I had a veterinary surgeon of considerable celebrity
+and experience, and every ordinary approved method of treatment was
+resorted to and persevered in. The last cases--as before intimated--we
+only strove to make comfortable.
+
+"After I had paid the third or fourth forfeit, I began to awake up to
+the idea that the disease was, in a high degree, contagious, whether I
+would have it so or not; and that my future security was in prevention,
+and not in remedy. I therefore separated all the remaining animals; in
+no instance having more than two together, and generally but one in a
+place.
+
+"All were removed from the infected stalls, and put into quarantine.
+Isolated cases continued to occur after this for some weeks, but the
+spread of the disease was stayed; nor did a single case occur after
+this, which we did not think we traced directly to previous contact.
+
+"It is impossible to account for the first case of which I have spoken.
+But, as the cow in that case was put into a sale-stable in New York
+while waiting for the boat,--though there were no cattle then
+present,--yet I have supposed it not unlikely that diseased animals had
+been there, and had left the seeds of the disease.
+
+"But, account for this case as we may,--and I have no doubt it is
+sometimes spontaneous,--I feel convinced it is very highly contagious;
+and that the only safety to a herd into which it has been introduced, is
+in complete isolation,--and in this I feel as convinced that there is
+safety. My cattle were not suffered to return to the barnyard or to any
+part of the cattle-barns, except as invalids were sent to 'the hospital'
+to die, until late the next fall, _i.e._, the fall of 1854. In the mean
+time, the hay and straw had all been removed; the stables, stalls, cribs
+and all thoroughly scrubbed with ashes and water, fumigated, and white
+washed with quicklime. I have had no case since, and am persuaded I
+should have avoided most of those I had before, if I had reasonably
+admitted the evidence of my senses in the second and third cases.
+                                             E. P. PRENTICE.
+     MOUNT HOPE, June 14th, 1860."
+
+The author's experience with the disease, during the last year in New
+Jersey, proves the efficacy of remedial agents when applied in the early
+stages of the disease. Late in the spring of 1861, Mr. J. E. Hancock, of
+Burlington County (residing near Columbus, N. J.), purchased some cattle
+in the Philadelphia market, which, after they were driven home, he
+turned in with his other stock. Soon after this purchase, one of the
+animals sickened and died. This was in August; after which time Mr. H.
+lost eight cows,--having, at the time of the death of the last animal,
+some five others sick with the same disorder.
+
+The author was called in, December 8th, 1861, and the five animals then
+placed under his treatment. On the 12th of December, in the same year,
+one of these cows, at his suggestion, was killed, which, upon the
+_post-mortem_ examination, beautifully illustrated the character of the
+disease. The right lung was comparatively healthy; the left one
+completely hepatized, or consolidated, and so enlarged as to fill up the
+left cavity of the chest to it's utmost capacity. This lung weighed
+thirty pounds. There was no effusion in the chest, but there was
+considerable adhesion of the _pleura-costalis_ and _pleura-pulmonalis_.
+All the other tissues appeared to be healthy.
+
+To the remaining animals, was administered the following: aqua ammonia,
+three drachms; nitric ether, one ounce; pulverized gentian-root, half an
+ounce; mixed with one quart of water, and drenched three times a day.
+The last thing at night was given a teaspoonful of phosphate of lime,
+mixed in a little feed, or in gruel. Setons, or rowels, in the dewlap
+are also very beneficial. Under this treatment they all did well.
+
+Soon after the introduction of the disease into this herd, it found its
+way to the herd of William Hancock, a brother of the former gentleman,
+who had an adjoining farm. In this herd one cow died, and the disease
+was found by the author developed in four more cows and two oxen, all of
+which--with a single exception--did well under the above treatment. The
+disease afterward showed itself in the herd of John Pope, half a mile
+distant, who lost nine animals by it.
+
+Thursday, December 19th, was selected for the purpose of making an
+examination of the Hancock herds; but, after some ten or twelve animals
+had been examined and all pronounced tainted with the disease, the
+owners concluded to stop the investigation, expressing themselves
+dissatisfied with the result, as not one of the animals examined had
+shown any symptoms of disease. In order to convince them of the
+correctness of the diagnosis, a cow was selected and destroyed, which
+the Hancocks believed to be in perfect health. Upon opening the animal,
+several small patches of hepatized lung were brought into view. Upon
+making a longitudinal section of the lump, as both were involved, they
+presented a red, speckled appearance. All the other tissues were
+healthy. The symptoms in these cases were quite different from any which
+had been previously seen in an experience of three years with the
+disease in and about Philadelphia, inasmuch as they were not preceded by
+cough; in fact, cough did not appear in many of the animals at any time
+during the progress of the disease. The animals looked, ate, and milked
+well, previously to the development of the disease, so that the owners
+were thrown completely off their guard by these deceptive symptoms of
+health. Knowing the uncertain character of this disease, and wishing to
+stay its ravages, a suggestion was made by the author as to the
+propriety of having the entire herd killed for beef. This was done the
+more readily, as the sale of the meat is legalized in Europe, it being
+regarded as uninjured, and therefore wholesome meat. This suggestion was
+acted upon, and thus these two farms were rid of this dreadful scourge
+at one blow.
+
+Mr. A. Gaskill, of Mount Holly, N. J., purchased a cow from one of the
+Hancocks, for his own family use, which was sent to Mr. Frank
+Lippincott's to pasture and turned in with Mr. L.'s own herd. Soon
+after, this cow sickened and died. This was soon followed by the loss of
+six of Mr. L.'s own cattle,--three oxen, two cows, and one steer. From
+this herd, it was communicated to the Widow Lippincott's, who occupied a
+neighboring farm; as also to Mr. Cleavenger's, who lost four animals;
+and to Mr. Smith's, who had, at one time, seven animals sick; and from
+Cleavenger's to Noaknuts, who lost two cows. Some two or three cows,
+belonging to Mr. Logan, in the same neighborhood, got upon the road and
+broke into Mr. Lippincott's pasture, mixing with his herd. As soon as
+Mr. Logan was informed of the fact, he isolated these cows by enclosing
+them in a pen at some distance from his other cattle; but they managed
+to break out, and mingled with his other stock. It could scarcely be
+expected that his herd could escape the disease, considering the
+exposure to which they had been subjected. The disease manifested itself
+in the herds of several other farmers in the country, but space will not
+allow a more extended notice of the subject.
+
+The treatment which has been found most successful in this country is as
+follows, all of which has been tested by the author upon various
+occasions: In the acute, inflammatory stage of the disease, give ten
+drops of Flemming's tincture of aconite in water, every four hours,
+until a change takes place; follow this with aqua ammonia, three
+drachms; nitric ether, one ounce; pulverized gentian-root, one half an
+ounce; water, one quart. Drench three times a day, and give, late in the
+evening, a tablespoonful of phosphate of lime, in a little feed, or
+drench with gruel. Put setons, or rowels in the dewlap, so as to have a
+dependent opening.
+
+This course has been found very advantageous. Or, the following will be
+found quite satisfactory; nitrate of potash, two drachms; camphor, half
+a drachm; tartrate of antimony, half a drachm; mix, and give in a little
+gruel, night and morning. Or, the following: Glauber-salts, four ounces;
+water, one pint; give twice a day. A gill of cold-drawn castor-oil,
+added to the above, would be beneficial. Continue until the bowels are
+freely opened. The following has also been found efficacious: sulphate
+of magnesia, eight ounces; nitrate of potash and pulverized Jamaica
+ginger-root, of each one ounce. Repeat as often as may be required.
+Apply externally the following ointment to the sides; biniodide of
+mercury, four drachms; castor-oil, half an ounce; lard, four ounces; mix
+for use.
+
+Preventive measures.--1st. The complete isolation of all herds in which
+the disease has made its appearance. 2d. Such animals as show symptoms
+of the disease should be placed under proper treatment. 3d. In England,
+it is recommended that animals recovering from the disease should be
+fattened and slaughtered for beef, as they are not safe even after their
+apparent recovery. 4th. All animals beyond medical treatment should be
+killed and buried; recompense in part, at least, being made to the
+owners. 5th. No animal, healthy or diseased, should be allowed to run at
+large upon the public highway so long as the disease may exist in its
+neighborhood.
+
+[Illustration: TAKING IT EASILY.]
+
+The united action of all those interested would soon rid the country of
+a disease which has smitten all Europe.
+
+The author takes this occasion to acknowledge the receipt of two very
+ably written articles upon this subject, which, in consequence of their
+length and the comparatively limited space allotted, he is reluctantly
+compelled to omit. One is from the pen of R. McClure, V.S., and the
+other from Isaiah Michener, V.S. For the benefit his readers, however,
+he desires to make a single extract from the last-named communication,
+without being considered as endorsing the opinion advanced therein:--
+
+"I am inclined to favor the hypothesis that pleuro-pneumonia is produced
+by animalculæ, and that these enter the lungs by myriads, and thereby
+set up irritation and inflammation, which lead to all the phenomena and
+pathological conditions which are to be found upon dissection. This is
+my opinion of the cause of the malignant pleuro-pneumonia which has
+existed in the United States for the last seven years."
+
+After writing the foregoing, the author was informed that this disease
+had made its appearance in Mr. Logan's herd, already mentioned as
+exposed. He was called to visit the herd of Mr. G. Satterthwaite, who
+likewise lost two cows, and had two cows and a calf sick at the time of
+sending for him.
+
+
+PNEUMONIA.
+
+There are two conditions of the lungs known as pneumonia,--one, the
+inflammatory, and the other, the congestive stage. The former may follow
+an attack of bronchitis, or it may have a spontaneous origin. The
+congestive is generally the result of cold suddenly applied to an
+overheated animal, causing a determination of blood to the lungs, which
+sometimes causes death by suffocation.
+
+_Symptoms._--The disease is preceded by a shivering fit; dry skin;
+staring coat; clammy mouth; short cough; Schneiderian membrane (of the
+nose) very much reddened; respiration hurried or laborious. In the
+congestive stage, upon applying the ear to the sides, no sound will be
+detected; While in the inflammatory stage, a crackling or crepitating
+sound will be distinctively heard.
+
+_Treatment._--In the congestive stage, plenty of pure air will be
+necessary. Bleed freely; and give in drench one pound of Glauber-salts,
+with two drachms of Jamaica ginger. Nothing more will be required by way
+of treatment.
+
+In the inflammatory stage, bleeding should seldom be resorted to, except
+where the animal is in full condition. Apply the following blister to
+the sides, well rubbed in: oil of turpentine, one ounce; croton-oil,
+twelve drops; aqua ammonia, half an ounce; linseed-oil, four ounces; mix
+all together. Give internally one pound of salts in drench, and follow
+with one of the following powders every four hours: nitrate of potash,
+one ounce; tartrate of antimony and pulverized digitalis leaves, of
+each, one drachm; mix all together, and divide into eight powders. Or
+the following may be given with equal advantage: nitrate of potash, one
+and a half ounces; nitrate of soda, six ounces; mix, and divide into six
+powders; one to be given in wash or gruel every six hours.
+
+
+PROTRUSION OF THE BLADDER.
+
+This sometimes occurs during the throes in difficult cases of
+parturition in cows, and the aid of a skillful veterinary surgeon is
+requisite to replace the inverted bladder.
+
+
+PUERPERAL FEVER.
+
+This disease--milk fever, or dropping after calving--rarely occurs until
+the animal has attained mature age. The first symptoms make their
+appearance in from one to five or six days after parturition. It appears
+to be a total suspension of nervous function, independent of
+inflammatory action, which is suddenly developed, and, in favorable
+cases, as suddenly disappears. It is called dropping after calving, from
+its following the parturient state.
+
+_Symptoms._--Tremor of hind legs; a staggering gait, which soon
+terminates in loss of power in the hind limbs; pulse rises to sixty or
+eighty per minute; milk diminishing in quantity as the disease
+progresses; the animal soon goes down, and is unable to rise, moans
+piteously; eyes set in the head; general stupor; and slow respiration.
+
+_Treatment._--This disease, though generally regarded as a febrile
+disorder, will not yield to the general practice of taking blood, as a
+large majority of the cases so treated die. The bowels must be opened,
+but the veins never. Give Epsom-salts, one pound; Jamaica ginger, two
+ounces; dissolve in warm water, one quart, and drench. The author
+usually gives with good effect, some five or six hours after the salts,
+two ounces of nitric ether and one ounce of tincture of opium, in half a
+pint of water. Rub well in, along the back and loins, the following:
+strong mustard, three ounces; aqua ammonia and water, each one and a
+half ounces. Some modifications in the treatment of this disease, as
+well as of most others, will be necessary under certain circumstances,
+which can only be determined by the veterinary practitioner.
+
+
+QUARTER EVIL.
+
+In some sections of the country, this disease--known by the other names
+of black quarter, and joint murrain--is quite common among young cattle,
+and is generally fatal in its termination. There is little or no warning
+of its approach. The first animals in a herd to be attacked are
+generally those in a full, plethoric condition.
+
+_Symptoms._--The joints suddenly become swollen, and so painful as to
+produce severe lameness, particularly in the hind parts. General
+irritative fever exists in the system, attended with great tenderness of
+the loins; the head is poked out; eyes red and bulging; the roots of the
+horns, as well as the breath, are hot; the muzzle dry, and nostrils
+expanded; pulse rises to seventy or eighty, full and hard; respiration
+is hurried; the animal is constantly moaning, and appears to be
+unconscious of surrounding objects; the swelling of the limbs extends to
+the shoulder and haunch; the animal totters, falls and dies in from
+twelve to twenty-four hours.
+
+_Treatment._--Early bleeding is requisite here, to be followed by active
+purgatives; after which, give one of the following powders every half
+hour: nitrate of potassa, two ounces; tartrate of antimony and
+pulverized digitalis, of each one and a half drachms; mix, and divide
+into eight powders. These should not be renewed. Cold linseed tea should
+be freely given.
+
+
+RABIES.
+
+Hydrophobia in cattle is the result of the bite of a rabid dog, from
+which bite no animal escapes. The effects produced by the wound made by
+the teeth of such an animal, after the virus is once absorbed into the
+circulation of the blood, are so poisonous that all treatment is
+useless. The proper remedies must be instantly applied to prevent this
+absorption, or the case is utterly hopeless. Among men, nine out of
+every ten bitten by rabid dogs escape the terrible effects resulting
+from this dreadful disorder, without resorting to any applications to
+prevent it. It is a well-established fact, that men, when bitten by
+dogs, are generally wounded in some part protected by their clothing,
+which guards them from the deleterious effects of the saliva which
+covers the teeth, and which, at such times, is deadly poison. The teeth,
+in passing through the clothing, are wiped clean, so that the virus is
+not introduced into the blood; hence the comparatively few cases of
+rabies occurring in man. When, however, the wound is made upon an
+exposed surface, as the flesh of the hand, or of the face, this fatal
+disease is developed in spite of every precaution, unless such
+precautions are immediately taken. For this reason, cattle when bitten,
+do not escape the disease.
+
+_Symptoms._--The animal separates itself from the rest of the herd,
+standing in a kind of stupor, with the eyes half-closed; respiration
+natural; pulse quickened; temperature of body and limbs natural; the
+slightest noise agitates, causing the eyes to glare and exciting
+bellowing; the bark of a dog produces the most violent effects; the
+animal foams at the mouth and staggers as it walks; if water is
+offered, the muzzle is plunged into it, but the victim cannot drink; in
+making the effort, the most fearful consequences are produced. The
+animal now seeks to do mischief,--and the quicker it is then destroyed,
+the better.
+
+_Treatment._--This must be applied quickly, or not at all. The moment an
+animal is bitten, that moment the wound should be searched for, and when
+found, should be freely opened with a knife, and lunar caustic, caustic
+potash, or the permanganate of potash at once applied to all parts of
+the wound, care being taken not to suffer a single scratch to escape.
+This, if attended to in time, will save the animal.
+
+
+RED WATER.
+
+This disease derives its name from the color of the urine voided in it.
+It is one of the most common complaints of horned cattle, and one of the
+most troublesome to manage.
+
+_Symptoms._--Respiration hurried; rumination ceases; a high degree of
+fever presented; the animal moans, arches the back, and strains in
+passing the urine, which is tinged with blood, or presents the
+appearance of pure blood. Prof. Gamgee, of the Edinburgh Veterinary
+College, says: "The cause is almost invariably feeding on turnips that
+have grown on damp, ill-drained land; and very often a change of diet
+stops the spread of this disease in the byre. Other succulent food,
+grown under similar circumstances, may produce the same symptoms,
+tending to disturb the digestive organs and the blood-forming process.
+
+"In the course of my investigations as to the cause of various
+cattle-diseases, and of red water in particular. I have found that it
+is unknown on well-drained farms and in dairies where turnips are used
+only in a moderate degree. The lands of poor people furnish the roots
+most likely to induce this disorder; and I can confirm the statement of
+the late Mr. Cumming, of Elton, who, in his very interesting essay upon
+this subject, says, particularly in reference to Aberdeenshire, that it
+is 'a disease essentially attacking the poor man's cow; and to be seen
+and studied, requires a practice extending into the less favorably
+situated parts of the country. On large farms, where good stock is well
+kept, and in town dairies, where artificial food is used to supplement
+the supply of turnips, it is seldom now seen.'
+
+"_Symptoms._--General derangement attracts the dairyman's attention,
+and, upon observing the urine which the animal has voided, it is seen to
+be of a red, or of a reddish brown, or claret color; sometimes
+transparent, at others clear. The color increases in depth; other
+secretions are checked; the animal becomes hide-bound, and the milk goes
+off. Appetite and rumination are suspended; the pulse becomes extremely
+feeble and frequent, though--as in all debilitating, or anæmic,
+disorders--the heart's action is loud and strong, with a decided venous
+pulse, or apparent regurgitation, in the large veins of the neck.
+
+"In some cases, if even a small quantity of blood be withdrawn, the
+animal drops in a fainting state. In red water, the visible mucous
+membranes are blanched, and the extremities cold, indicating the languid
+state of the blood's circulation and the poverty of the blood itself.
+Constipation is one of the most obstinate complications; and many
+veterinary surgeons--aware that, if the bowels can be acted on, the
+animal is cured--have employed purgatives in quantities far too large,
+inducing at times even death. Occasionally, diarrhoea is one of the
+first, and not of the unfavorable, symptoms."
+
+_Treatment._--Give one pint of linseed-oil; clysters of soap and water
+should be freely used; and give plenty of linseed-tea to drink. When the
+urine is abundant, give one ounce of tincture of opium, with one drachm
+of powdered aloes, three times, at intervals of six or eight hours.
+
+
+RHEUMATISM.
+
+This is a constitutional inflammatory affection of the joints, affecting
+the fibrous tissue and serous, or synovial membrane. It is caused by
+exposure to cold and wet; being quite common in low, marshy sections.
+
+_Symptoms._--Loss of appetite; upon forcing the animal to move, every
+joint seems stiffened; nose dry; coat staring; constipation is also an
+attendant symptom; the joints, one or more, become swollen and painful.
+This may be regarded as a metastic, or shifting disease; first one part,
+and then another, seems to be affected.
+
+_Treatment._--Mild purgatives should be used; one-half-ounce doses of
+colchicum-root pulverized will be found useful; one-ounce balls of
+pine-tar may also be given with advantage. As a local application, the
+author has found nothing to equal kerosene oil, one pint, to two ounces
+of aqua ammonia, well rubbed in, two or three times a day.
+
+
+STRANGULATION OF THE INTESTINES.
+
+This disease in cattle,--popularly styled Knot, or Gut-tie,--in
+consequence of the peculiar arrangement of the abdominal viscera, is of
+very rare occurrence. When, however, it does occur, the symptoms
+accompanying are those of inflammation of the intestines.
+
+No kind of treatment will be successful, and the poor brute must suffer
+until death comes to its relief.
+
+
+THRUSH IN THE MOUTH.
+
+Aptha, or thrush in the mouth, is a vesicular disease of the mouth,
+sometimes occurring as an epizoötic. It is often mistaken for
+blain,--inflammation of the tongue, or black tongue,--and usually occurs
+in the winter, or early in the spring. It appears in the form of
+vesicles, or pustules all over the mouth, occasionally extending to the
+outside of the lips. These pustules break, discharging a thin, sanious
+fluid, leaving minute ulcers in their places.
+
+This disease yields readily to treatment, when it is properly applied.
+Three ounces of Epsom-salts, once a day for three or four days, should
+be given in drench; wash the mouth well with a solution of alum,
+tincture of myrrh, or vinegar and honey, and it will disappear in a few
+days.
+
+
+TUMORS.
+
+These enlargements so common in cattle, have been so admirably
+described, in the Veterinarian for 1843, by John Ralph, V.S.,--who has
+been so successful in the treatment of these morbid growths, that the
+benefit of his experience is here given. He says: "Of all the
+accidental productions met with among cattle, with the exception of
+wens, a certain kind of indurated tumor, chiefly situated about the head
+and throat, has abounded most in my practice.
+
+"The affection often commences in one of the thyroid glands, which
+slowly but gradually increases in size, feels firm when grasped, and
+evinces very little tenderness. Generally the attendant is alarmed by a
+snoring or wheezing noise emitted by the animal in respiration, before
+he is aware of the existence of any tumefaction. This continues to
+increase, embracing in its progress the adjacent cellular and muscular
+tissues, and frequently the submaxillary and parotid glands. It becomes
+firmly attached to the skin through which an opening is ultimately
+effected by the pressure of pus from the centre of the tumor.
+
+"The swelling often presents an irregular surface, and various centres
+of maturation exist; but the evacuations only effect a partial and
+temporary reduction of its bulk, in consequence of the continued
+extension of the morbid growth and ulcerative process which often
+proceed towards the pharynx, rendering respiration and deglutition still
+more difficult, until at length the animal sinks from atrophy or
+_phthisis pulmonalis_.
+
+"In the early part of my practice, having been frustrated in my attempts
+to establish healthy action in these ulcers, and referring to the works
+that I had on surgery for information, I concluded that they bore some
+resemblance to cancer in the human being, and determined to attempt
+extirpation. Subsequently, numerous cases have occurred in which I have
+successfully carried that determination into effect. I have had some
+instances of failure, which failure always arose from some portion of
+the morbid growth having been left.
+
+"In the first stage, I have reason to believe that the tumor may be
+dispersed by the general and topical use of the iodurets. After the
+suppuration, I have tried them in vain.
+
+"As soon as the nature of the tumor is clearly developed, I generally
+attempt its removal, and, when most prominent by the side of the larynx,
+I proceed in the following manner:--Having cast the beast, turned the
+occiput toward the ground, and bolstered it up with bundles of straw, I
+proceed to make an incision through it, if the skin is free, parallel
+with, and over, and between the trachea and _sterno-maxillaris_,
+extending it sufficiently forward into the inter-maxillary spaces. If I
+find it firmly attached to the apex of the tumor, I then enclose it in a
+curvilinear incision and proceed to detach the healthy skin to beyond
+the verge of the tumor.
+
+"Its edges being held by an assistant, the knife is directed downwards
+through the subcutaneous parts, and all those that exhibit the slightest
+change from healthy structure are removed.
+
+"By tying any considerable blood-vessel before dividing it, and by using
+the handle of the scalpel and the fingers in detaching the portion of
+the parotid gland towards the ear the hemorrhage was always
+inconsiderable.
+
+"The wound is then treated in the ordinary way; except that detergents
+and even antiseptics are often needed to arouse healthy action, and the
+addition of some preparation of iodine is often made to the digestive.
+In directing the constitutional treatment, our chief aim must be to
+support the animal system with plenty of gruel until rumination is
+restored.
+
+"I need not note that the operation should be performed after the animal
+has fasted some hours.
+
+"As the success of the operation depends on an entire removal of the
+diseased parts, and as the submaxillary and parotid glands, with
+important branches of nerves and blood-vessels, are often enveloped
+therein, we must not hesitate to remove the former, nor to divide the
+latter. It has occasionally happened that a rupture has been made in the
+oesophagus, or pharynx, during the operation. In that case, a portion
+of the gruel with which the animal is drenched escapes for a few days;
+but I always found that the wound healed by granulation, without any
+particular attention.
+
+"The weight of these tumors varies from a few ounces to some pounds. One
+that I removed from a two-year-old Galloway bullock, weighed six pounds
+and a quarter. A considerable portion of the skin that covered it was
+excised and included in the above weight. It comprehended one of the
+parotid glands, and I had to divide the trunk of the carotid artery and
+jugular vein.
+
+"This affection may be distinguished from parotiditis and other
+_phlegmasiæ_ by the action of constitutional disturbance, and heat, and
+tenderness, and by the lingering progress it makes. I was once called to
+a bull laboring under alarming dyspnoea that had gradually increased.
+No external enlargement was perceptible; but on introducing my hand into
+the mouth, a large polypus was found hanging from the _velum palati_
+into the pharynx, greatly obstructing the elevation of the epiglottis
+and the passage of food. After performing tracheotomy, to prevent
+suffocation, I passed a ligature around its pedicle in the way suggested
+by the old anatomist, Cheselden.
+
+"A section of one of these tumors mostly displays several abscesses,
+with matter varying in consistency and often very fetid, enclosed in
+what seems to me to be fibro-cartilaginous cysts, the exterior of which
+sometimes gradually disappears in the surrounding more vascular abnormal
+growth. Osseous matter (I judge from the grating of the scalpel upon it)
+occasionally enters into the composition of the cysts.
+
+"I have treated this affection in cattle of the Long-horned,
+Short-horned, Galloway, and Highland breeds; and from the number of
+bulls in this class of patients, have reason to conclude that they are
+more liable to it than the female.
+
+"About twelve months ago, I examined the head of a cow, on the right
+facial region of which there existed an enormous tumor, extending from
+the eye to the lips, and which I mistook during life for a periosteal
+enlargement. On cutting into it, my mistake was evident. There was
+scarcely a trace of the original bones beneath the mass; even those
+forming the nasal sinuses on that side were replaced by a formation much
+resembling the cysts before alluded to, and full of abscesses. The
+progress of the disease was decisively marked in the inferior rim of the
+orbital cavity, where the osseous matter was being removed, and the
+morbid structure deposited."
+
+
+ULCERS ABOUT THE JOINTS.
+
+Occasionally, the joints assume a tumefied appearance, generally
+ulcerating, and causing painful wounds.
+
+_Treatment._--The application of one part of alum to two parts of
+prepared chalk, powdered and sprinkled upon the parts, is usually all
+that is required.
+
+
+WARBLES.
+
+It has been a prevalent opinion among farmers, that warbles are so many
+evidences of the good condition of their cattle. It must, however, be
+borne in mind that the warbles are the _larvæ_ of the _oestrus bovis_,
+which is said to be the most beautiful variety of gad-fly. This fly,
+judging from the objects of its attack, must be particularly choice in
+its selection of animals upon which to deposit its eggs, as it rarely
+chooses those poor in flesh, or in an unhealthy condition. From this
+circumstance, probably, has arisen the opinion above-mentioned.
+
+[Illustration: HOME AGAIN.]
+
+These warbles--or _larvæ_ of the _oestrus bovis_--so nearly resemble
+bots in the horse--or _larvæ oestrus equi_--that, were it not for
+their increased size, they might readily be mistaken the one for the
+other. There is, however, one other difference, and that is in the rings
+which encircle the body; those of the former being perfectly smooth,
+while those of the latter are prickly, and from one third to one half
+smaller.
+
+The author was called, in the year 1856, to see the prize cow, Pet,
+belonging to James Kelly, of Cleveland, Ohio, whose extraordinary yield
+of butter and milk had been reported in the _Ohio Farmer_, a short time
+previous to his visit. This animal was found by him in rather poor
+condition; the causes of which he could only trace to the existence of
+these worms, comfortably located, as they were, beneath the animal's
+hide, and forming small tumors all along the spinal column, each being
+surrounded by a considerable quantity of pus. A number of these were
+removed by means of a curved bistoury and a pair of forceps, since which
+time--as he has been informed--the animal has rapidly improved,
+regaining her former good condition.
+
+Some may urge that this is an isolated case; but an examination of
+cattle for themselves, will convince them to the contrary. It may be
+added, that two other cows, belonging to the same gentleman, were also
+examined at the same time,--one of them being in good condition, and the
+other, out of condition. From the back of the latter several of these
+insects were removed, since which time she also has much improved. The
+former was entirely free from them. These cows were all kept in the same
+pasture, received the same care, and were fed on the same food, and at
+the same time; and as the removal of these larvæ has been productive of
+such beneficial results, have we not a right to infer that these insects
+are injurious?
+
+If we go further and examine, in the spring of the year, all cattle
+which are subject to them, instead of finding them in the fine
+condition which one would naturally expect,--considering the abundance
+of fresh young grass whose vigorous life they may incorporate into their
+own,--they are out of condition, and out of spirits, with a laggard eye,
+a rough coat, and, in some cases, a staggering gait, as though their
+strength had failed in consequence.
+
+How shall such attacks be prevented? During the months of August and
+September this gad-fly is busily engaged in depositing its eggs. Some
+are of the opinion that they are placed on the hairs of the animal;
+others, that the skin is perforated, and the egg deposited in the
+opening, which would account for the apparent pain manifested by cattle
+at and after the time of such deposit. Be this as it may, it is certain
+that the maggot works its way into the muscular fibre of the back, and
+depends upon the animal's blood for the nourishment which it receives.
+
+The author has been informed, by persons in whom he ought to have
+confidence, that the _free use of the card_, during the above-named
+months, is a specific protection against the attacks of the _oestrus
+bovis_. He repeats this information here, not without diffidence; since
+so large a majority of stock-owners evince, by their lack of familiarity
+with the practical use of this convenient and portable instrument, an
+utter disbelief in its reliability and value.
+
+
+WORMS.
+
+Cattle are not so subject to worms proper as are the other domestic
+animals; nor, when these parasites do exist, is any injurious effect
+apparent, except it be in the case of young calves of a weakly
+constitution. Worms are most commonly located in the small intestines,
+and cause there considerable irritation, and consequently, general
+emaciation, or at least a tendency to it.
+
+The cause, however, is easily removed by administering doses of sulphate
+of iron, one-half drachm each, in molasses once or twice a day.
+
+
+WORMS IN THE BRONCHIAL TUBES.
+
+Inflammation of the bronchial tubes is often caused by worms of the
+_strongylus_ species. Upon examination after death, the bronchial
+passages are completely blocked-up by these hangers-on.
+
+_Symptoms._--A rough, staring coat; hide-bound; painful cough;
+respiration hurried, etc.
+
+_Treatment._--But little can be done by way of treatment in this
+disease. The administration of small doses of spirits of turpentine has,
+in some instances, proved successful.
+
+
+SURGICAL OPERATIONS.
+
+CASTRATION.
+
+The period most commonly selected for this operation is between the
+first and third months. The nearer it is to the expiration of the first
+month, the less danger attends the operation.
+
+Some persons prepare the animal by the administration of a dose of
+physic; but others proceed at once to the operation when it best suits
+their convenience, or that of the farmer. Care, however, should be taken
+that the young animal is in perfect health. The mode formerly practised
+was simple enough:--a piece of whip-cord was tied as tightly as possible
+around the scrotum. The supply of blood being thus completely cut off,
+the bag and its contents soon became livid and dead, and were suffered
+to hang, by some careless operators, until they dropped off, or they
+were cut off on the second or third day.
+
+It is now, however, the general practice to grasp the scrotum in the
+hand, between the testicles and the belly, and to make an incision in
+one side of it, near the bottom, of sufficient depth to penetrate
+through the inner covering of the testicle, and of sufficient length to
+admit of its escape. The testicle immediately bursts from its bag, and
+is seen hanging by its cord.
+
+The careless or brutal operator now firmly ties a piece of small string
+around the cord, and having thus stopped the circulation, cuts through
+the cord, half an inch below the ligature, and removes the testicle. He,
+however, who has any feeling for the poor animal on which he is
+operating, considers that the only use of the ligature is to compress
+the blood-vessels and prevent after-hemorrhage, and, therefore, saves a
+great deal of unnecessary torture by including them alone in the
+ligature, and afterwards dividing the rest of the cord. The other
+testicle is proceeded with in the same way and the operation is
+complete. The length of the cord should be so contrived that it will
+immediately retract, or be drawn back, into the scrotum, but not higher,
+while the ends of the string hang out through the wound. In the course
+of about a week, the strings will usually drop off, and the wounds will
+speedily heal. There will rarely be any occasion to make any
+application to the scrotum, except fomentation of it, if much swelling
+should ensue.
+
+A few, whose practice cannot be justified, seize the testicle as soon as
+it escapes from the bag, and, pulling violently, break the cord and tear
+it out. It is certain that when a blood-vessel is thus ruptured, it
+forcibly contracts, and very little bleeding follows; but if the cord
+breaks high up, and retracts into the belly, considerable inflammation
+has occasionally ensued, and the beast has been lost.
+
+The application of _torsion_--or the twisting of the arteries by a pair
+of forceps which will firmly grasp them--has, in a great degree,
+superseded every other mode of castration, both in the larger and the
+smaller domesticated animals. The spermatic artery is exposed, and
+seized with the forceps, which are then closed by a very simple
+mechanical contrivance; the vessel is drawn a little out from its
+surrounding tissue, the forceps are turned around seven or eight times,
+and the vessel liberated. It will be found to be perfectly closed; a
+small knot will have formed on its extremity; it will retract into the
+surrounding surface, and not a drop more of blood will flow from it; the
+cord may then be divided, and the bleeding from any little vessel
+arrested in the same way. Neither the application of the hot iron, nor
+of the wooden clamps, whether with or without caustic, can be necessary
+in the castration of the calf.
+
+A new instrument was introduced in France, some few years since, for
+this purpose, called the _acraseur_,--so constructed as to throw a chain
+over the cord, which is wound up by means of a screw working upon the
+chain, and at the same time the cord is twisted off. No bleeding
+follows this method of operating.
+
+This instrument is constructed upon the same principle as the _acraseur_
+for use in the human family, for the removal of hemorrhoids, etc., the
+dimensions of the two only varying.
+
+The advantages resulting from the use of this instrument over all other
+methods are, that the parts generally heal within a week,--the operation
+is not so painful to the animal,--it is less troublesome to the
+operator,--also to the owner of the animal,--and lastly, it is a safer
+and more scientific operation. Its success in France soon gave it a
+reputation in England, and recently it has been introduced by the author
+into this country, and with the best results. Contractors, hearing of
+the success attending this new mode of operating, have visited him from
+all parts of the country to witness its performance, and not one has
+returned without leaving an order for this instrument,--so well
+convinced have they been of its decided superiority over all other
+methods.
+
+
+TRACHEOTOMY.
+
+In consequence of the formation of tumors about the throat in cattle,
+from inflammation of the parotid gland, blain, etc., so characteristic
+of this species of animals, it sometimes becomes necessary to perform
+this operation in order to save their lives. It never fails to give
+instant relief.
+
+After the animal has been properly secured,--which is done by an
+assistant's holding the nose with one hand, and one of the horns with
+the other,--the operator draws the skin tight over the windpipe with the
+thumb and fingers of his left hand; then, with the scalpel in his right,
+cuts through the skin, making an incision about three inches long,
+dissecting up the skin on each side, which brings the _trachea_, or
+windpipe, in full view. He then cuts out a piece of the cartilaginous
+rings, about two inches long and about half an inch wide. This simple
+operation has saved the lives of very many valuable animals. The wound
+readily heals, and seldom leaves any perceptible blemish, if the work is
+properly performed.
+
+
+SPAYING.
+
+To secure a more uniform flow and a richer quality of milk, cows are
+sometimes spayed, or castrated. The milk of spayed cows is pretty
+uniform in quality; and this quality will be, on an average, a little
+more than before the operation was performed. In instances where the
+results of this operation have been carefully noted,--and the operation
+is rarely resorted to in this country, in comparison with the custom in
+France and other continental countries,--the quality of the milk has
+been greatly improved, the yield becoming regular for some years, and
+varying only in accordance with the difference in the succulence of the
+food.
+
+The proper time for spaying is about five or six weeks after calving, or
+at the time when the largest quantity of milk is given. There seems to
+be some advantages in spaying for milk and butter dairies, where
+attention is not paid to the raising of stock. The cows are more quiet,
+never being liable to returns of seasons of heat, which always more or
+less affect the milk, both in quantity and quality. They give milk
+nearly uniform in these respects, for several years, provided the food
+is uniformly succulent and nutritious. Their milk is influenced like
+that of other cows, though to a less extent, by the quality and
+quantity of food; so that in winter, unless the animal is properly
+attended to, the yield will decrease somewhat, but will rise again as
+good feed returns. This uniformity for the milk-dairy is of immense
+advantage. Besides, the cow, when old and inclined to dry up, takes on
+fat with greater rapidity, and produces a juicy and tender beef,
+superior, at the same age, to that of the ox.
+
+The following method of performing this operation is sanctioned by the
+practice of eminent veterinary surgeons in France:--
+
+Having covered the eyes of the cow to be operated upon, she is placed
+against a wall, provided with five rings firmly fastened and placed as
+follows: the first corresponds to the top of the withers; the second, to
+the lower anterior part of the breast; the third is placed a little
+distance from the angle of the shoulder; the fourth is opposite to the
+anterior and superior part of the lower region; and the fifth, which is
+behind, answers to the under-part of the buttocks. A strong assistant is
+placed between the wall and the head of the animal, who firmly holds the
+left horn in his left hand, and with his right, the muzzle, which he
+elevates a little. This done, the end of a long and strong-plaited cord
+is passed, through the ring which corresponds to the lower part of the
+breast, and fastened; the free end of the cord is brought along the left
+flank, and through the ring which is below and in front of the withers.
+This is brought down along the breast behind the shoulder and the angle
+of the fore-leg in order to pass it through the third ring; then it must
+be passed around against the outer angle of the left hip, and fastened
+after having been drawn tightly to the posterior ring, by a simple
+bow-knot.
+
+The cow being thus firmly fixed to the wall, a cord is fastened by a
+slip-noose around her hocks, to keep them together in such a manner that
+she cannot kick the operator, the free end of the cord and the tail
+being held by an assistant. The cow thus secured cannot, during the
+operation, move forward, nor lie down, and the operator has all the ease
+desirable, and is protected from accident.
+
+The operator next--placed opposite to the animal's left flank, with his
+back turned a little toward the head of the animal--cuts off the hair
+which covers the hide in the middle of the flanks, at an equal distance
+between the back and hip, for the space of thirteen or fourteen
+centimetres in circumference (the French _centimetre_ is rather more
+than thirty-nine one hundredths of an inch); a convex bistoury is
+placed, opened, between his teeth, the edge out, the joints to the left;
+then, with both hands, he seizes the hide in the middle of the flank,
+and forms of it a wrinkle of the requisite elevation, running lengthwise
+of the body. The assistant seizes with his right hand the right side of
+this wrinkle; the operator takes the bistoury and cuts the wrinkle, at
+one stroke, through the middle; the wrinkle having been suffered to go
+down, a separation of the hide is presented, of sufficient length to
+admit the introduction of the hand; the edges of the hide are separated
+with the thumb and fore-finger of the left hand, and in like manner the
+abdominal muscles are cut through, for the distance of a centimetre from
+the lower extremity of the incision made in the hide,--the _iliac_
+slightly obliquely, and the _lumbar_ across; a puncture of the
+peritoneum, at the upper extremity of the wound, is then made with the
+straight bistoury; the buttoned bistoury is then introduced, and moved
+obliquely from above to the lower part, up to the termination of the
+incision made in the abdominal muscles.
+
+The flank being opened, the right hand is introduced into the abdomen,
+and directed along the right side of the cavity of the pelvis, behind
+the paunch, and underneath the rectum, to the matrix; after the position
+of these viscera is ascertained, the organs of reproduction, or ovaries,
+are searched for, which are at the extremity of the matrix; when found,
+they are seized between the thumb and fore-finger, detached completely
+from the ligaments which keeps them in their place, and by a light pull,
+the cord and the vessels, the uterine or Fallopian tube, are separated
+at their place of union with the ovarium, by means of the nails of the
+thumb and fore-finger, which present themselves at the point of touch,
+thus breaking the cord and bringing away the ovary.
+
+The hand is again introduced into the abdominal cavity, and the
+remaining ovaries brought away in like manner. A suture is then placed
+of three or four double threads, waxed at an equal distance, and at two
+centimetres, or a little less, from the lips of the wound, passing it
+through the divided tissues; a movement is made from the left hand with
+the piece of thread; having reached that point, a fastening is made with
+a double knot, the seam placed in the intervals of the thread from the
+right, and as the lips of the wound are approached, a fastening is
+effected by a simple knot, with a bow, care being taken not to close too
+tightly the lower part of the seam, in order to allow the suppuration,
+which may be established in the wound, to escape. The wound is then
+covered up with a pledget of lint, kept in its place by three or four
+threads passed through the stitches, and the operation is complete.
+
+It happens, sometimes, that in cutting the muscles before mentioned, one
+or two of the arteries are severed. Should much blood escape, a ligature
+must be applied before opening the peritoneal sac; since, if this
+precaution is omitted, blood will escape into the abdomen, which may
+occasion the most serious consequences.
+
+For the first eight days succeeding, the animal should have a light
+diet, and a soothing, lukewarm draught; if the weather should be cold,
+cover with a woollen covering. She must be prevented from licking the
+wound, and from rubbing it against other bodies. The third day after the
+operation, bathe morning and evening about the wound with water of
+mallows lukewarm, or anoint it with a salve of hog's lard, and
+administer an emollient glyster during three or four days.
+
+Eight days after the operation, take away the bandage, the lint, the
+fastenings, and the thread. The wound is at that time, as a general
+thing, completely cicatrized. Should, however, some slight suppuration
+exist, a slight pressure must be used above the part where it is
+located, so as to cause the pus to leave, and if it continues more than
+five or six days, emollients must be supplied by alcolized water, or
+chloridized, especially in summer. The animal is then to be brought back
+gradually to her ordinary nourishment.
+
+In some cows, a swelling of the body is observable a short time after
+having been spayed, attributable to the introduction of cold air into
+the abdomen during the operation; but this derangement generally ceases
+within twenty-four hours. Should the contrary occur, administer one or
+two sudorific draughts, such as wine, warm cider, or a half-glass of
+brandy, in a quart of warm water,--treatment which suffices in a short
+time to restore a healthy state of the belly,--the animal at the same
+time being protected by two coverings of wool.
+
+The only precaution, in the way of management, to be observed as a
+preparative for the operation is, that on the preceding evening not so
+copious a meal should be given. The operation should also be performed
+in the morning before the animal has fed, so that the operator may not
+find any obstacle from the primary digestive organs, especially the
+paunch, which, during its state of ordinary fullness, might prevent
+operating with facility.
+
+The advantages of spaying milch-cows are thus summed up by able French
+writers: First, rendering permanent the secretion of milk, and having a
+much greater quantity within the given time of every year; second, the
+quality of milk being improved; third, the uncertainty of, and the
+dangers incident to, breeding being, to a great extent, avoided; fourth,
+the increased disposition to fatten even when giving milk freely, or
+when, from excess of age or from accidental circumstances, the secretion
+of milk is otherwise checked; fifth, the very short time required to
+produce a marketable condition; and sixth, the meat of spayed cattle
+being of a quality superior to that of ordinary cattle.
+
+This operation would seem to have originated in this country. The London
+Veterinary Journal of 1834 contains the following, taken from the United
+States Southern Agriculturist:--"Some years since, I passed a summer at
+Natchez, and put up at a hotel there, kept by Mr. Thomas Winn. During
+the time that I was there I noticed two remarkably fine cows, which were
+kept constantly in the stable, the servant who had charge of the horses,
+feeding them regularly three times a day with green guinea grass, cut
+with a sickle. These cows had so often attracted my attention, on
+account of the great beauty of their form, and deep red color, the large
+size of their bags, and the high condition in which they were kept, that
+I was at length induced to ask Mr. Winn to what breed of cattle they
+belonged, and his reasons for keeping them constantly in the stable in
+preference to allowing them to run in the pasture, where they could
+enjoy the benefit of air and exercise, and at the same time crop their
+own food, and thereby save the labor and trouble of feeding them? Mr.
+Winn, in reply to these inquiries, stated that the two cows which I so
+much admired were of the common stock of the country, and he believed,
+of Spanish origin; but they were both spayed cows, and that they had
+given milk either two or three years. Considering this a phenomenon (if
+not in nature at least in art), I made further inquiries of Mr. Winn,
+who politely entered into a very interesting detail, communicating facts
+which were as extraordinary as they were novel. Mr. Winn, by way of
+preface, observed that he, in former years, had been in the habit of
+reading English magazines, which contained accounts of the
+plowing-matches which were annually held in some of the southern
+counties of England, performed by cattle, and that he had noticed that
+the prizes were generally adjudged to the plowman who worked with spayed
+heifers; and although there was no connection between that subject and
+the facts which he should state, it was, nevertheless, the cause that
+first directed his mind into the train of thought and reasoning which
+finally induced him to make the experiments, which resulted in the
+discovery of the facts which he detailed, and which I will narrate as
+accurately as my memory will enable me to do it, after the lapse of more
+than twenty years. Mr. Winn's frequent reflections had (he said) led him
+to the belief "that if cows were spayed soon after calving, and while in
+a full flow of milk, they would continue to give milk for many years
+without intermission, or any diminution of quantity, except what would
+be caused by a change from green to dry, or less succulent food." To
+test this hypothesis, Mr. Winn caused a very good cow, then in full
+milk, to be spayed. The operation was performed about one month after
+the cow had produced her third calf; it was not attended with any severe
+pain, or much or long continued fever. The cow was apparently well in a
+few days, and very soon yielded her usual quantity of milk, and
+continued to give freely for several years without any intermission or
+diminution in quantity, except when the food was scarce and dry; but a
+full flow of milk always came back upon the return of a full supply of
+green food. This cow ran in the Mississippi low grounds or swamp near
+Natchez, got cast in deep mire, and was found dead. Upon her death, Mr.
+Winn caused a second cow to be spayed. The operation was entirely
+successful. The cow gave milk constantly for several years, but in
+jumping a fence stuck a stake in her bag, that inflicted a severe wound,
+which obliged Mr. Winn to kill her. Upon this second loss, Mr. Winn had
+two other cows spayed, and, to prevent the recurrence of injuries from
+similar causes with those which had occasioned him the loss of the first
+two spayed cows, he resolved to keep them always in the stable, or some
+safe enclosure, and to supply them regularly with green food, which that
+climate throughout the greater part of, if not all, the year enabled him
+to procure. The result, in regard to the last two spayed cows, was, as
+in the case of the first two, entirely satisfactory, and fully
+established, as Mr. Winn believed, the fact, that the spaying of cows,
+while in full milk, will cause them to continue to give milk during the
+residue of their lives, or until prevented by old age. When I saw the
+last two spayed cows it was, I believe, during the third year that they
+had constantly given milk after they were spayed. The character of Mr.
+Winn (now deceased) was highly respectable, and the most entire
+confidence could be reposed in the fidelity of his statements; and as
+regarded the facts which he communicated in relation to the several cows
+which he had spayed, numerous persons with whom I became acquainted,
+fully confirmed his statements."
+
+In November 1861, the author was called to perform this operation upon
+the short-horn Galloway cow, Josephine the Second, belonging to Henry
+Ingersoll, Esq., of this city. This cow was born May 8th, 1860. The
+morning was cold and cloudy. About ten o'clock the cow was cast, with
+the assistance of R. McClure, V.S., after which she was placed under the
+influence of chloric ether. He then made an incision, about five inches
+in length, through the skin and walls of the abdomen, midway between the
+pelvis bone and the last rib on the left side, passing in his right
+hand, cutting away the ovaries from the Fallopian tubes with the
+thumbnail. The opening on the side was then closed by means of the
+interrupted suture. The animal recovered from the influence of the
+anæsthetic in about fifteen minutes, when she was allowed to rise, and
+walk back to her stall.
+
+Upon the morning of the second day succeeding the operation, the animal
+was visited and found to be in good spirits, apparently suffering very
+little pain or inconvenience from the operation, and the wound healing
+nicely.
+
+Since that time, he has operated upon some twenty cows, all of which,
+with a single exception, have thus far proved satisfactory.
+
+Several of these cows are under the direction of a committee from the
+Philadelphia Society for promoting Agriculture, whose duty it is to have
+a daily record kept of each cow's yield of butter and milk, for one year
+from the time of spaying. Their report will be perused by the
+agricultural community with much interest.
+
+The author's own experience will not justify him in speaking either in
+favor of, or against, this operation; as sufficient time has not as yet
+elapsed to satisfy him as to its relative advantages and disadvantages.
+He, however, regards the operation as comparatively safe. The French
+estimate the loss at about fifteen per cent., and the gain at thirty per
+cent. Of those upon which he has operated, not a single animal died.
+
+
+
+
+A LIST OF MEDICINES USED IN TREATING CATTLE.
+
+
+The medicines used in the treatment of the diseases of cattle, are
+essentially the same as those in vogue for the diseases of the human
+being and the horse,--the only difference being in their combination and
+the quantities administered.
+
+ABSORBENTS.--Medicines which destroy acidities in the stomach and
+bowels; such as chalk, magnesia, etc.
+
+ALTERATIVES.--Medicines which restore the healthy functions of
+secretion, by gradually changing the morbid action in an impaired
+constitution. Those in most common use are Æthiops mineral, antimony,
+rosin, sulphur, etc., which form the principal ingredients in all
+condition-powders, and are chiefly useful in diseases of the skin, such
+as hide-bound, mange, surfeit, etc.
+
+ALTERATIVE POWDER.--Sulphur pulverized, one pound; black antimony, one
+half a pound; nitrate of potassa, four ounces; sulphate of iron, one
+half a pound; linseed meal, one pound; mix well; dose, one half an
+ounce, night and morning.
+
+ANTACIDS.--Agents which neutralize, by their chemical action, acids in
+the stomach; as ammonia, carbonate of potassa, chalk, lime-water,
+magnesia, and soda.
+
+ANTHELMINTICS.--Remedies used for the expulsion of worms from the
+stomach and intestines. These may act chemically or by their cathartic
+operation. The most reliable are Æthiops mineral, nux vomica,
+preparations of mercury, wormwood, etc.
+
+ANTHELMINTIC POWDERS.--Nux vomica, in one half-drachm doses, two or
+three times daily, to an ox or cow; for calves, the dose must be
+diminished, according to age.
+
+ANTIDOTES.--Medicines which neutralize the effects of poisons by a
+chemical union, forming an insoluble compound, or a mild, harmless one.
+Alkaline solutions are antidotes for the mineral acids; as soap in
+solution, a simple remedy, and always at hand. Lard, magnesia, and oil
+are antidotes for poisoning by arsenic; albumen,--in the form of the
+white of an egg,--milk, etc., for corrosive sublimate, and other
+mercurial preparations.
+
+ANTISEPTICS.--Medicines which prevent putridity in animal substances,
+and arrest putrefaction, when already existing. These are used both
+externally and internally. The chief specifics of this class are the
+acids, alcohol, ammonia, asafoetida, camphor, charcoal, chloride of
+lime, cinchona, ether, and opium.
+
+ANTISPASMODICS.--Medicines which exert their power in allaying
+inordinate motions or spasms in the system, arising from various causes,
+such as debility, worms, etc. Those most generally in use are ammonia,
+asafoetida, camphor, cinchona, ether, lactacarium, mercury, and opium.
+
+ANTISPASMODIC DRAUGHT.--Tincture of opium, one ounce; nitric ether, two
+ounces; water, one-half pint. Mix for drench; if repeated, it should be
+followed by a purgative, as soon as the spasms have subsided. Or, use
+the following: sulphuric ether, one to two ounces; water, one-half pint
+Mix for drench; repeat every hour, if necessary.
+
+AROMATICS.--Medicines possessing a grateful, spicy scent, and an
+agreeable, pungent taste; as anise-seed, cardamoms, cinnamon, cloves,
+ginger, etc. They are principally used in combination with purgatives,
+stomachics, and tonics.
+
+ASTRINGENTS.--Medicines which serve to diminish excessive discharges, as
+in diabetes, diarrhoea, etc. The principal agents of this class are
+the acids, alum, chalk, lime-water, opium, and the sulphate of copper,
+lead, iron, or zinc.
+
+ASTRINGENT POWDER.--Opium, one drachm; prepared chalk, half an ounce;
+Jamaica ginger, six drachms. Mix, and divide into four powders; one to
+be given every hour, in a little flour gruel. Or, the following: opium,
+one drachm; catechu, two drachms; prepared chalk, one ounce. Mix, and
+divide into four powders; to be given as before.
+
+CARDIACS.--Cordials--so termed, from their possessing warm and
+stimulating properties--given to invigorate the system.
+
+CATHARTICS.--Medicines--also known as purgatives--which cause free
+evacuations of the bowels. The only purgatives used by the author in his
+cattle practice, as a general rule, are aloes, cream of tartar,
+Epsom-salts, lard and linseed-oil. These answer all the indications,
+where purgatives are useful; indeed, no better purgative for cattle can
+be found than Epsom-salts, combined with a carminative or aromatic drug,
+such as ginger.
+
+CAUSTICS.--Substances which burn or destroy parts, by combining with
+them and causing their disorganization; used to destroy unhealthy
+action, or morbid growths, such as foul ulcers, foul in the foot, warts,
+etc. The most powerful remedial of this class is actual cauterization
+with a red-hot iron; caustic potash, lunar caustic, nitrous and
+sulphuric acids, permanganate of potash, etc., are also used.
+
+CORDIALS.--Best brandy, three ounces; orange peel, one drachm; tepid
+water, one pint. Mix all together, for one dose. Or, this for a single
+dose: ale, one pint; Jamaica ginger, two drachms. Or, the following,
+also a single dose: allspice, three drachms; ginger, one drachm; caraway
+seeds, two drachms.
+
+DEMULCENTS.--Mucilaginous medicaments, which have the power of
+diminishing the effects of stimulating substances upon the animal
+system. Of this class, garden rue, or marsh-mallow, gum-arabic, and
+gum-tragacanth are the most useful.
+
+DETERGENTS.--Agents which remove foulness from ulcers.
+
+DETERGENT POWDER.--Prepared chalk, two ounces; alum, one ounce. Mix; to
+be sprinkled on the part, after washing with Castile-soap and water.
+This powder is also an admirable application for foot-rot in sheep.
+
+DIAPHORETICS.--Agents which increase the natural discharge through the
+pores of the skin, and in some animals induce perspiration.
+
+DIGESTIVES.--Medicines which promote suppuration.
+
+DIGESTIVE OINTMENT.--Mix together equal portions of spirits of
+turpentine and lard. Or, mix together with a gentle heat the following:
+Venetian turpentine, one ounce; lard, one ounce; pulverized sulphate of
+copper, two drachms. Or this, mixed: rosin, two ounces; spirits of
+turpentine, one ounce; red precipitate, one-half an ounce; lard, two
+ounces.
+
+DIURETICS.--Medicines that stimulate the action of the kidneys, and
+augment the secretion of urine. These are very useful in swellings of
+the legs, or body. Take of nitrate of potash and rosin, each six
+drachms; mix, and divide in three powders; one to be given daily. Or,
+the following: spirits of turpentine, half an ounce; Castile-soap, one
+ounce; Jamaica ginger, one drachm; opium, one drachm. Mix: and divide in
+two balls; one to be given each day.
+
+EMOLLIENTS.--Medicines which relax the lining tissues, allay irritation,
+and soften the parts involved,--generally of a mucilaginous, or oily
+character. Lard, linseed meal, and marsh-mallows are chiefly used.
+
+LITHONTRIPTICS.--Medicines possessing the power of dissolving _calculi_,
+or stones in the urinary passages; composed principally, according to
+the researches of modern chemists, of lithic or uric acid. The
+preparation most successfully employed by the author in such cases is
+muriatic acid, in doses of from one to two drachms, in a pail of water,
+once or twice a day.
+
+NARCOTICS.--Medicines that stupefy, and produce sleep. Belladonna,
+camphor, hyoscyamus and opium, are among the narcotics in common use.
+
+NAUSEANTS.--Agents which cause loss of appetite, and produce the
+sensation of vomiting, without affecting it. For this purpose, aloes,
+tartrate of antimony, white hellebore, etc., are used.
+
+PARTURIENTS.--Agents which act upon the uterus. In cases of difficult
+parturition, or calving, resort is occasionally had to them. Ergot of
+rye is the most powerful.
+
+REFRIGERANTS.--Cooling applications, which reduce the temperature of the
+blood and body; as cold water, ether, lead-water, etc.
+
+RUBEFACIENTS.--Medicines which gently irritate the skin, producing
+redness on white surfaces. Of this class, are aqua ammonia, creosote,
+mustard, turpentine, etc.
+
+SEDATIVES.--Agents which depress the vital energies, without destroying
+life; as aconite, digitalis, hellebore, hydrochloric acid, hyoscyamus,
+opium, and tartrate of antimony.
+
+TONICS.--Medicines which increase the action of the muscular system,
+giving strength and vigor to the animal. These are among the most useful
+remedies known to man, and are beneficial in all cases of debility,
+toning up the stomach, and improving the appetite and condition of the
+animal.
+
+TONIC POWDER.--Pulverized gentian-root, one ounce; Jamaica ginger, one
+half an ounce; anise-seed, six drachms. Mix, and divide in eight
+powders; one to be given night and morning.
+
+TRAUMATICS.--Medicines which excite the healing process of wounds; as
+aloes, friar's balsam, myrrh, rosin, sulphate of copper or zinc, tar,
+etc.
+
+TRAUMATIC LOTION.--Mix tincture of aloes, one ounce; tincture of myrrh,
+two ounces. Or, melt together, tar, one ounce; rosin, two ounces; lard,
+four ounces. Or, mix sulphate of zinc, one drachm; rain-water, one half
+pint. Or, use the following, the celebrated friar's balsam; benzoin, in
+powder, four ounces; balsam of Peru, two ounces; Socotrine aloes, one
+half ounce; rectified spirits, one quart. Digest for ten or twelve days;
+then filter for use.
+
+
+
+
+DOSES OF VARIOUS REMEDIES USED IN CATTLE PRACTICE.
+
+
+ACONITE.--[_Monk's hood_; _Wolf's bane_.] An active poison. Used as a
+sedative in tincture; ten to twenty drops in water.
+
+ÆTHIOPS MINERAL.--[_Hydrargyri Sulphuretum._] One to two drachms.
+
+ALCOHOL.--A stimulant; three to six ounces.
+
+ALLSPICE.--[_Pimento berries._] Aromatic; two to four drachms.
+
+ALOES.--Cathartic and tonic; tonic dose, one half to one
+drachm--cathartic, one to two ounces.
+
+ALUM.--[_Alumen._] Irritant, astringent, and sedative; two to four
+drachms.
+
+AMMONIA.--[_Aqua ammonia_; _Liquor ammonia_; _Hartshorn_.] Principally
+used in combination with mustard, as an external irritant, and
+internally, as a diffusible stimulant; two to six drachms. Of carbonate
+of ammonia, three to six drachms.
+
+ANISE-SEED.--[Fruit of the _Pimpinella Anisum_.] One to two drachms.
+
+ANTIMONY.--[_Sulphate of Antimony._] Used in condition-powders; one to
+three drachms. Muriate of antimony. [_Oil, or butter, of antimony._]
+Caustic; very good in foul in the foot. Tartarized antimony. [_Tartar
+emetic._] One to four drachms. The author, in the last instance, varies
+from the dose prescribed by veterinary authors, never giving it in more
+than one-half-drachm doses, believing its action thus more certain and
+satisfactory.
+
+ASAFOETIDA.--Stimulant; two to four drachms.
+
+AXUNGE.--[_Hog's Lard._] Ointment, principally; may be used as purgative
+in doses of from one to one and a half pounds.
+
+BALSAM OF PERU.--Stimulant, and tonic; two to four drachms.
+
+BELLADONNA.--[_Deadly Nightshade._] Narcotic, anti-spasmodic, and
+irritant poison; one to two drachms.
+
+BENZOIN.--[_Gum Benjamin._] Ointment; see Traumatics.
+
+CALOMEL.--[_Hydrargyri Chloridum._] One half to one drachm.
+
+CAMOMILE.--[_Anthemis._] Stomachic, carminative, and tonic; one to two
+ounces.
+
+CAMPHOR.--[_Camphora Officinarum._] Narcotic and irritant; in small
+doses, sedative and stimulant; one to four drachms.
+
+CANTHARIDES.--[_Spanish Flies._] Internally, stimulant and diuretic;
+twenty to thirty grains. Externally, vesicant; used in form of ointment,
+or tincture.
+
+CARAWAY.--[Fruit of the _Carum Carisi_.] Used chiefly for flavoring
+purposes.
+
+CARDAMOMS.--[Fruit of the _Elettaria Cardamomum_.] Used to communicate
+an agreeable flavor to other medicines.
+
+CATECHU.--[_Acacia Catechu._] Astringent, and antiseptic; three to six
+drachms.
+
+CHALK.--[_Carbonate of Lime_; _Calcis Carbonas_.] Two to three ounces.
+
+CHARCOAL.--[_Carbo Ligni._] Antiseptic; one half to one ounce.
+
+CINCHONA.--[_Peruvian Bark._] Astringent and tonic; one to two ounces.
+
+COPPER, SULPHATE OF.--[_Blue Vitriol._] Tonic and astringent; two to
+four drachms.
+
+CREOSOTE.--[_Creosotum._] A sedative, anodyne, astringent, narcotic, and
+irritant poison; fifteen to twenty drops.
+
+CROTON OIL.--[_Crotonis Oleum._] Internally, as a cathartic, six to ten
+drops in linseed-oil; externally, as a counter-irritant.
+
+DIGITALIS.--[_Fox Glove._] Sedative and diuretic; one to two scruples.
+
+EPSOM-SALTS.--[_Sulphate of magnesia._] Cathartic; one pound, combined
+with ginger.
+
+ERGOT.--[_Spurred rye._] Parturient; two to six drachms.
+
+ETHER.--Stimulant, narcotic, and anæsthetic; one to two ounces.
+
+GENTIAN.--[Root of _Gentiana lutea_.] Stomachic and tonic; one to two
+ounces.
+
+GINGER.--[_Zengiber officinale._] Stomachic, carminative, and slightly
+tonic; one to two ounces.
+
+GUM-ARABIC.--[_Gummi Acaciæ._] Demulcent and emollient; one to two
+ounces.
+
+GUM-TRAGACANTH. Same action and same doses as the former.
+
+HELLEBORE.--[_Helleborus._] Irritant poison, and sedative; twenty to
+thirty grains.
+
+HYOSCYAMUS.--[_Henbane._] Narcotic, anodyne, and anti-spasmodic; ten to
+twenty grains.
+
+IODINE.--[_Iodineum._] Internally, as a tonic; two to three scruples;
+also as a tincture, and in ointments for reducing enlargements of the
+soft tissues.
+
+IRON, SULPHATE OF.--[_Ferri Sulphas_; _Green Vitriol_, _Coppera_.]
+Irritant, astringent, and tonic; two to four drachms.
+
+KOOSSO. Anthelmintic; two to four drachms.
+
+LIME, CHLORIDE OF.--Antiseptic; dose internally, one to two drachms.
+
+LINSEED OIL.--Cathartic; one pint.
+
+LUNAR CAUSTIC.--[_Nitrate of Silver._] Used as a caustic.
+
+MAGNESIA.--[See EPSOM-SALTS.]
+
+MARSH-MALLOW.--[_Altheæ Radix._] Demulcent and emollient; principally
+used for poultices and fomentations.
+
+MURIATIC ACID.--[_Hydrochloric Acid_; _Spirit of Salt_.] Tonic,
+irritant, and caustic; dose internally, one to two drachms.
+
+MUSTARD.--[_Sinapis._] Counter-irritant; used principally as an external
+application.
+
+MYRRH.--Stimulating tonic to unhealthy sores; seldom used internally.
+
+NITRIC ACID.--[_Aqua fortis._] Astringent and tonic; one to two drachms
+in water. Used also as a caustic.
+
+NUX VOMICA.--[Seeds of _Strychnos_.] In large doses, a deadly poison; in
+medicinal doses, a powerful tonic and anthelmintic; one half to one
+drachm.
+
+OPIUM.--[_Papaver Somniferum._] Narcotic, sedative, anodyne, stimulant,
+and anti-spasmodic; two to four drachms.
+
+POTASH, CARBONATE OF.--[_Potassæ Carbonas._] Antacid and diuretic; three
+to six drachms.
+
+POTASH, CAUSTIC.--[_Potassa fusa._] Used only as a caustic.
+
+POTASSA, PERMANGANATE OF.--Used externally as a caustic.
+
+ROSIN.--Diuretic; two to three ounces.
+
+SALT, COMMON.--[_Chloride of Sodium._] Irritant, cathartic, stimulant,
+and antiseptic; one to one and a half pounds.
+
+SALTS, GLAUBER.--[_Sulphate of Soda._] Cathartic and diuretic; one to
+one and a half pounds.
+
+SALTPETRE.--[_Nitrate of Potassa._] Diuretic, febrifuge, and
+refrigerant; one half to one ounce.
+
+SUBLIMATE, CORROSIVE.--[_Protochloride of Mercury._] Seldom used
+internally; externally, caustic and stimulant.
+
+SULPHUR.--[_Brimstone._] Stimulant and laxative; three to four ounces.
+
+SULPHURIC ACID.--Irritant, caustic, and astringent; two to three
+drachms.
+
+TARTAR, CREAM OF.--[_Potassæ Tartras._] Cathartic; three to four ounces.
+
+TURPENTINE.--Stimulant, anthelmintic, diuretic, and laxative; one to two
+ounces.
+
+ZINC, SULPHATE OF.--[_White Vitriol._] Astringent and tonic; one to two
+drachms.
+
+
+
+
+NEW AND LATE BOOKS
+
+FURNISHED BY THE
+
+Publishers of this Volume.
+
+
+MAILING NOTICE.--_Any books on the following list will be sent, post
+paid, to any address, on receipt of price._ _Address_ THE PUBLISHERS OF
+THIS VOLUME. See title page.
+
+HISTORICAL AND SECRET MEMOIRS OF THE EMPRESS JOSEPHINE. A secret and
+truthful history of one of the most remarkable of women, uniting all the
+value of absorbing facts with that of the most exciting romance.
+Translated from the French of M'lle Le Normand, by JACOB M. HOWARD, Esq.
+2 vols. in one. Cloth. Price $1 75.
+
+MEMOIRS OF THE COURT OF MARIE ANTOINETTE. An instructive work--one of
+the most intensely interesting ever issued from the American press--the
+events of which should be familiar to all. By MADAME CAMPAN. With
+Biographical Introduction by M. DE LAMARTINE. 2 vols. in one. Cloth.
+Price $1 75.
+
+MEMOIRS OF THE LIFE OF MARY, QUEEN OF SCOTS. Affording a complete and
+authentic history of the unfortunate Mary, with materials and letters
+not used by other authors, making up a volume of rare interest and
+value. By MISS BENGER. With portrait on steel. 2 vols. in one. Cloth.
+Price $1 75.
+
+MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENS OF FRANCE. Written in France, carefully compiled
+from researches made there, commended by the press generally, and
+published from the Tenth London Edition. It is a truly valuable work for
+the reader and student of history. By MRS. FORBES BUSH. 2 vols. in one.
+Cloth. Price $1 75.
+
+MEMOIRS OF THE LIFE OF ANNE BOLEYN, QUEEN OF HENRY VIII. In the records
+of biography there is no character that more forcibly exemplifies the
+vanity of human ambition, or more thoroughly enlists the attention of
+the reader than this--the Seventh American, and from the Third London
+Edition. By MISS BENGER. With portrait on steel. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+HEROIC WOMEN OF HISTORY. Containing the most extraordinary examples of
+female courage of ancient and modern times, and set before the wives,
+sisters, and daughters of the country, in the hope that it may make them
+even more renowned for resolution, fortitude, and self-sacrifice than
+the Spartan females of old. By HENRY C. WATSON. With Illustrations.
+Cloth. $1 75.
+
+PUBLIC AND PRIVATE HISTORY OF LOUIS NAPOLEON, EMPEROR OF THE FRENCH. An
+impartial view of the public and private career of this extraordinary
+man, giving full information in regard to his most distinguished
+ministers, generals, relatives and favorites. By SAMUEL M. SCHMUCKER,
+LL. D. With portraits on Steel. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+LIFE AND REIGN OF NICHOLAS I., EMPEROR OF RUSSIA. The only complete
+history of this great personage that has appeared in the English
+language, and furnishes interesting facts in connection with Russian
+society and government of great practical value to the attentive reader.
+By SAMUEL M. SCHMUCKER, LL. D. With Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+LIFE AND TIMES OF GEORGE WASHINGTON. A concise and condensed narrative
+of Washington's career, especially adapted to the popular reader, and
+presented as the best matter upon this immortal theme--one especially
+worthy the attention and admiration of every American. By SAMUEL M.
+SCHMUCKER, LL. D. With Portrait on steel. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+LIFE AND TIMES OF ALEXANDER HAMILTON. Incidents of a career that will
+never lose its singular power to attract and instruct, while giving
+impressive lessons of the brightest elements of character, surrounded
+and assailed by the basest. By SAMUEL M. SCHMUCKER, LL. D. With Portrait
+on steel. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+LIFE AND TIMES OF THOMAS JEFFERSON. In which the author has presented
+both the merits and defects of this great representative hero in their
+true light, and has studiously avoided indiscriminate praise or
+wholesale censure. By SAMUEL M. SCHMUCKER, LL. D. With Portrait. Cloth.
+$1 75.
+
+LIFE OF BENJAMIN FRANKLIN. Furnishing a superior and comprehensive
+record of this celebrated Statesman and Philosopher--rich beyond
+parallel in lessons of wisdom for every age, calling and condition in
+life, public and private. By O. L. HOLLEY. With Portrait on steel and
+Illustrations on wood. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+PUBLIC AND PRIVATE LIFE OF DANIEL WEBSTER. The most copious and
+attractive collection of personal memorials concerning the great
+Statesman that has hitherto been published, and by one whose intimate
+and confidential relations with him afford a guarantee for their
+authenticity. By Gen. S. P. LYMAN. With Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+LIFE AND TIMES OF HENRY CLAY. An impartial biography, presenting, by
+bold and simple strokes of the historic pencil, a portraiture of the
+illustrious theme which no one should fail to read, and no library be
+without. By SAMUEL M. SCHMUCKER, LL. D. With Portrait on steel. Cloth.
+$1 75.
+
+LIFE AND PUBLIC SERVICES OF STEPHEN A. DOUGLAS. A true and faithful
+exposition of the leading incidents of his brilliant career arranged so
+as to instruct the reader and produce the careful study which the life
+of so great a man deserves. By H. M. FLINT. With Portrait on steel.
+Cloth. $1 75.
+
+LIFE AND PUBLIC SERVICES OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. (In both the English and
+German languages.) As a record of this great man it is a most desirable
+work, admirably arranged for reference, with an index over each page,
+from which the reader can familiarize himself with the contents by
+glancing through it. By FRANK CROSBY, of the Philadelphia Bar. With
+Portrait on steel. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+LIFE OF DANIEL BOONE, THE GREAT WESTERN HUNTER AND PIONEER. Comprising
+graphic and authentic accounts of his daring, thrilling adventures,
+wonderful skill, coolness and sagacity under the most hazardous
+circumstances, with an autobiography dictated by himself. By CECIL B.
+HARTLEY. With Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+LIFE OF COLONEL DAVID CROCKET, THE ORIGINAL HUMORIST AND IRREPRESSIBLE
+BACKWOODSMAN. Showing his strong will and indomitable spirit, his bear
+hunting, his military services, his career in Congress, and his
+triumphal tour through the States--written by himself; to which is added
+the account of his glorious death at the Alamo. With Illustrations.
+Cloth. $1 75.
+
+LIFE OF KIT CARSON, THE GREAT WESTERN HUNTER AND GUIDE. An exciting
+volume of wild and romantic exploits, thrilling adventures, hair-breadth
+escapes, daring coolness, moral and physical courage, and invaluable
+services--such as rarely transpire in the history of the world. By
+CHARLES BURDETT. With Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+LIFE OF CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH, THE FOUNDER OF VIRGINIA. The adventures
+contained herein serve to denote the more noble and daring events of a
+period distinguished by its spirit, its courage, and its passion, and
+challenges the attention of the American people. By W. GILMORE SIMMS.
+With Illustrations. Price $1 75.
+
+LIFE OF GENERAL FRANCIS MARION, THE CELEBRATED PARTISAN HERO OF THE
+REVOLUTION. This was one of the most distinguished men who figured on
+the grand theatre of war during the times that "tried men's souls," and
+his brilliant career has scarcely a parallel in history. By CECIL B.
+HARTLEY. With Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+LIFE OF GENERAL ANDREW JACKSON, THE CELEBRATED PATRIOT AND STATESMAN.
+The character here shown as firm in will, clear in judgment, rapid in
+decision and decidedly pronounced, sprung from comparative obscurity to
+the highest gift within the power of the American people, and is
+prolific in interest. By ALEXANDER WALKER. $1 75.
+
+LIFE AND TIMES OF GENERAL SAM HOUSTON, THE HUNTER, PATRIOT, AND
+STATESMAN. It reminds one of the story of Romulus--who was nurtured by
+the beasts of the forest till he planted the foundations of a mighty
+empire--and stands alone as an authentic memoir. With Maps, Portrait,
+and Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+LIVES OF THE THREE MRS. JUDSONS, THE CELEBRATED FEMALE MISSIONARIES. The
+domestic lives and individual labors of these three bright stars in the
+galaxy of American heroines, who in ministering to the souls of
+heathens, experienced much of persecution. By CECIL B. HARTLEY. With
+steel Portraits. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+LIFE OF ELISHA KENT KANE, AND OF OTHER DISTINGUISHED AMERICAN EXPLORERS.
+A narrative of the discoverers who possess the strongest hold upon
+public interest and attention, and one of the few deeply interesting
+volumes of distinguished Americans of this class. By SAMUEL M.
+SCHMUCKER, LL. D. With Portrait on steel. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+THE LIFE AND ADVENTURES OF PAULINE CUSHMAN, THE CELEBRATED UNION SPY AND
+SCOUT. Stirring details from the lips of the subject herself, whose
+courage, heroism, and devotion to the old flag, endeared her to the Army
+of the Southwest. By F. L. SARMIENTO, Esq., Member of the Philadelphia
+Bar. With Portrait on steel and Illustrations on wood. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+JEFFERSON DAVIS AND STONEWALL JACKSON: THE LIFE AND PUBLIC SERVICES OF
+EACH. Truths from the lives of these men, both of whom served their
+country before the war, and afterwards threw themselves into the cause
+of the South with unbounded zeal--affording valuable historic facts for
+all, North and South. With Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+CORSICA, AND THE EARLY LIFE OF NAPOLEON. Delicately drawn idyllic
+descriptions of the Island, yielding new light to political history,
+exciting much attention in Germany and England, and altogether making a
+book of rare character and value. Translated by Hon. E. JOY MORRIS. With
+Portrait on steel. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+THE HORSE AND HIS DISEASES: EMBRACING HIS HISTORY AND VARIETIES,
+BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT, AND VICES. A splendid complete, and reliable
+book--the work of more than fifteen years' careful study--pointing out
+diseases accurately, and recommending remedies that have stood the test
+of actual trial. To which is added "RAREY'S METHOD OF TRAINING HORSES."
+By ROBERT JENNINGS, V. S. With nearly one hundred Illustrations. Cloth.
+$1 75.
+
+SHEEP, SWINE, AND POULTRY. Enumerating their varieties and histories;
+the best modes of breeding, feeding, and managing; the diseases to which
+they are subject; the best remedies--and offering the best practical
+treatise of its kind now published. By ROBERT JENNINGS, V. S. With
+numerous Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. Giving their history and breeds, crossing and
+breeding, feeding and management; with the diseases to which they are
+subject, and the remedies best adapted to their cure; which is added a
+list of remedies used in treating cattle. By ROBERT JENNINGS, V. S. With
+numerous Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+HORSE TRAINING MADE EASY. A new and practical system of Teaching and
+Educating the Horse, including whip training and thorough instructions
+in regard to shoeing--full of information of a useful and well-tested
+character. By ROBERT JENNINGS, V. S. With numerous Illustrations. Cloth.
+$1 25.
+
+600 RECEIPTS WORTH THEIR WEIGHT IN GOLD. An unequalled variety in kind,
+the collection and testing of which have extended through a period of
+thirty years--a number of them having never before appeared in print,
+while all are simple, plain, and highly meritorious. By JOHN MARQUART,
+of Lebanon, Pa. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+500 EMPLOYMENTS ADAPTED TO WOMEN. Throwing open to womankind productive
+fields of labor everywhere, and affording full opportunity to select
+employments best adapted to their tastes--all the result of over three
+years' constant care and investigation. By Miss VIRGINIA PENNY. Cloth.
+$1 75.
+
+EVERYBODY'S LAWYER AND BOOK OF FORMS. The simplicity of its
+instructions, the comprehensiveness of its subject, and the accuracy of
+its details, together with its perfect arrangement, conciseness,
+attractiveness and cheapness make it the most desirable of all legal
+hand-books. By FRANK CROSBY, Esq. Thoroughly revised to date by S. J.
+VANDERSLOOT, Esq. 608 pp. Law Style. $2 00.
+
+THE FAMILY DOCTOR. Intended to guard against diseases in the family; to
+furnish the proper treatment for the sick; to impart knowledge in regard
+to medicines, herbs, and plants; to show how to preserve a sound body
+and mind, and written in plain language, free from medical terms. By
+Prof. HENRY TAYLOR, M. D. Profusely Illustrated. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+THE AMERICAN PRACTICAL COOKERY BOOK. A faithful and highly useful guide,
+whose directions all can safely follow, making housekeeping easy,
+pleasant, and economical in all its departments, and based upon the
+personal test, throughout, of an intelligent practical housekeeper.
+Illustrated with Fifty Engravings. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+MODERN COOKERY IN ALL ITS BRANCHES. Designed to interest and benefit
+housekeepers everywhere by its plain and simple instructions in regard
+to the judicious preparation of food, and altogether a work of superior
+merit. By Miss ELIZA ACTON. Carefully revised by Mrs. SARAH J. HALE.
+With many Illustrations and a copious Index. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+THIRTY YEARS IN THE ARCTIC REGIONS. The graphic narrative of Sir John
+Franklin, the most celebrated of Arctic Travellers, in which Sir John
+tells his own story--unsurpassed for intense and all-absorbing
+interest--sketching his three expeditions, and that part of the fourth
+now shrouded in mystery to the world. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+EXPLORATIONS AND DISCOVERIES DURING FOUR YEARS' WANDERINGS IN THE WILDS
+OF SOUTHWESTERN AFRICA. Important and exciting experiences, full of wild
+adventure and instructive facts, which seem to possess a mysterious
+charm for every mind, and in which the spirit of intelligent and
+adventurous curiosity is everywhere prominent. By CHARLES JOHN ANDERSON.
+With Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+LIVINGSTONE'S TRAVELS AND RESEARCHES IN SOUTH AFRICA. Given in the
+pleasing language of Dr. Livingstone, and rich in the personal
+adventures and hair-breadth escapes of that most indefatigable
+discoverer and interesting Christian gentleman--making a work of special
+value. By DAVID LIVINGSTONE, LL. D., D. C. S. Profusely Illustrated.
+Cloth. $1 75.
+
+TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIES IN NORTH AND CENTRAL AFRICA. Recounting an
+expedition undertaken under the auspices of H. B. M.'s Government,
+exhibiting the most remarkable courage, perseverance, presence of mind,
+and contempt of danger and death, and immensely important as a work of
+information. By HENRY BARTH, Ph. D., D. C. L., etc. With Illustrations.
+Cloth. $1 75.
+
+ELLIS' THREE VISITS TO MADAGASCAR. Written in Madagascar, while on a
+visit to the queen and people, in which is carefully described the
+singularly beautiful country and the manners and customs of its people,
+and from which an unusual amount of information is obtainable. By Rev.
+WILLIAM ELLIS, F. H. S. Profusely Illustrated. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+ORIENTAL AND WESTERN SIBERIA. A Stirring narrative of seven years'
+explorations in Siberia, Mongolia, the Kirghes Steppes, Chinese Tartary,
+and part of Central Asia, revealing extraordinary facts, showing much of
+hunger, thirst, and perilous adventure, and forming a work of rare
+attractiveness for every reader. By THOMAS WILLIAM ATKINSON. With
+numerous Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+HUNTING SCENES IN THE WILDS OF AFRICA. Thrilling adventures of daring
+hunters--Cummings, Harris, and others--among the Lions, Elephants,
+Giraffes, Buffaloes, and other animals--than which few, if any works,
+are more exciting. With numerous Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+HUNTING ADVENTURES IN THE NORTHERN WILDS. A tramp in the Chateaugay
+Woods, over hills, lakes and forest streams, at a time when millions of
+acres lay in a perfect wilderness, affording incidents, descriptions,
+and adventures of extraordinary interest. By S. H. HAMMOND. With
+Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+WILD NORTHERN SCENES; OR, SPORTING ADVENTURES WITH THE RIFLE AND THE
+ROD. Affording remarkably interesting experiences in a section where the
+howl of the Wolf, the scream of the Panther, and the hoarse bellow of
+the Moose could be heard--presenting a racy book. By S. H. HAMMOND. With
+Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+PERILS AND PLEASURES OF A HUNTER'S LIFE; OR, THE ROMANCE OF HUNTING.
+Replete with thrilling incidents and hair-breadth escapes, and
+fascinating in the extreme, while depicting the romance of hunting. By
+PEREGRINE HERNE. With Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+HUNTING SPORTS IN THE WEST. An amount of novelty and variety, of bold
+enterprise and noble hardihood, of heroic daring and fierce encounters,
+which seem to be much more entertaining by the quiet fireside than they
+would be to the one going through them in the forest or field. By CECIL
+B. HARTLEY. With numerous Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+FANNY HUNTER'S WESTERN ADVENTURES. Vividly portraying the stirring
+scenes enacted in Kansas and Missouri during a sojourn of several years
+on the Western Border, and fully representing social and domestic
+affairs in frontier life--containing curious pictures of character. With
+Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+WONDERFUL ADVENTURES, BY LAND AND SEA, OF THE SEVEN QUEER TRAVELLERS WHO
+MET AT AN INN. Revelations of a singular and unusually entertaining
+character, in which the most terrible circumstances and mysterious
+occurrences are faithfully and forcibly placed before the reader. By
+JOSIAH BARNES. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+NICARAGUA; PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE. Setting forth its history, the
+manners and customs of its inhabitants, its mines, its minerals, and
+other productions, and throwing light upon a subject of very great
+importance to the masses of our people. By PETER F. STOUT, Esq., late U.
+S. Vice-Consul. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+FEMALE LIFE AMONG THE MORMONS; OR, MARIA WARD'S DISCLOSURES. Romantic
+Incidents, bordering on the marvelous, which show the evils, horrors,
+and abominations of the Mormon system--the degradation of its females,
+and the consequent vices of its society. By MARIA WARD, the Wife of a
+Mormon Elder. With Illustrations. 40,000 copies sold. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+MALE LIFE AMONG THE MORMONS. Detailing sights and scenes among the
+Mormons, with important remarks on their moral and social economy; being
+a true transcript of events, viewing Mormonism from a man's standpoint,
+and forming a companion to the preceding volume. By AUSTIN N. WARD.
+Edited by MARIA WARD. With Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+PIONEER LIFE IN THE WEST. Describing the adventures of Boone, Kenton,
+Brady, Clark, the Whetzels, the Johnsons, and others, in their fierce
+encounters with the Indians, and making up a work of the most
+entertaining and instructive character for those who delight in history
+and adventure. With numerous Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+THRILLING STORIES OF THE GREAT REBELLION. Fearful adventures of
+soldiers, scouts, spies, and refugees; daring exploits of smugglers,
+guerillas, desperadoes, and others; tales of loyal and disloyal women;
+stories of the negro, and incidents of fun and merriment in camp and
+field. By Lieut. CHARLES S. GREENE, late of the U. S. Army. With
+Illustrations in Oil. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+HISTORY OF THE WAR IN INDIA. Furnishing the complete history of British
+India, together with interesting and thrilling details which have
+scarcely a parallel in the world's history, to which is added a memoir
+of General Sir HENRY HAVELOCK. By HENRY FREDERICK MALCOLM. Illustrated
+with numerous Engravings. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+OUR BOYS. Personal experiences of the author while in the army,
+presenting the richest and raciest scenes of army and camp life ever
+published, and portraying various events in all their originality. By A.
+F. HILL, of the Eighth Pennsylvania Reserves. With Portrait on Steel,
+and characteristic Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+OUR CAMPAIGNS. The marches, bivouacs, battles, incidents, camp life, and
+history of a regiment during its three years' term of service in the
+war, together with a sketch of the Army of the Potomac under Generals
+McClellan, Burnside, Hooker, Meade, and Grant. By E. M. WOODWARD, Adj't
+Second Penna. Reserves. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+MARGARET MONCRIEFFE, THE BEAUTIFUL SPY. An exciting story of Army and
+high life in New York, in 1776, presenting facts and historic names, and
+showing the mutual attachment between Aaron Burr and Margaret
+Moncrieffe, as well as the influence of the latter upon the former in
+the more important events of his life. By CHARLES BURDETT. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+SIX NIGHTS IN A BLOCK HOUSE; OR, SKETCHES OF BORDER LIFE. Feats of hero
+hunters and thrilling exploits among the Indians; furnishing the names
+of hunters well known in western history, and showing the most exciting
+drama of border warfare, and, as a whole, the most intensely interesting
+and instructive work upon Indian life now offered the public. BY HENRY
+C. WATSON. With 100 Engravings. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+THRILLING ADVENTURES AMONG THE EARLY SETTLERS. A series of desperate
+encounters with Indians, daring exploits of Texan Rangers, incidents of
+guerilla warfare, fearful deeds of desperadoes and regulators of the
+west, and graphic delineations of hunting and trapping well worthy
+universal preservation. By WARREN WILDWOOD, Esq. More than 200
+Engravings. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+THRILLING INCIDENTS IN AMERICAN HISTORY. Events which are among the most
+striking and important in our national annals, covering the Revolution,
+the French War, the Tripolitan War, the Indian Wars, the War of 1812,
+and the Mexican War--all of which are of great usefulness to the student
+and general reader. By the author of "The Army and Navy of the United
+States." With Three Hundred Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+SCOUTING EXPEDITIONS OF THE TEXAN RANGERS. Operations which occurred
+during some of the prominent events of the Mexican war, together with
+sketches of the celebrated partisan chiefs, Hays, McCulloch, and Walker,
+whose courage, sagacity, and remarkable exploits should be familiar to
+all Americans. By SAMUEL C. REID, Jr., late of the Texan Rangers, and
+Member of the Louisiana Bar. With Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+THE BATTLE-FIELDS OF THE REVOLUTION. The most brilliant points in the
+history of the Revolutionary war, recounting the principal battles,
+sieges, and other important events--the whole interspersed with numerous
+characteristic anecdotes. By THOMAS Y. RHOADS. With many Illustrations.
+Cloth. $1 75.
+
+THRILLING ADVENTURES AMONG THE INDIANS. In which are enumerated the most
+remarkable incidents of the early Indian Wars, which abound in dangers,
+vindictiveness, endurance, heroism, gratitude, treachery, stoicism, and
+revenge, and in which there is much to fascinate the reader, and store
+the inquiring mind. By JOHN FROST, LL. D. With more than 300
+Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+THE HERO GIRL, AND HOW SHE BECAME A CAPTAIN IN THE ARMY. The highly
+dramatic story of Molly Pitcher who, having lost her husband at the
+battle of Monmouth, gallantly stepped forward, took his place at the
+cannon, and continued serving it until the battle ended--after which the
+rank of Captain was conferred on her by Gen. Washington. By THRACE
+TALMON. With Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+MRS. PARTINGTON'S KNITTING WORK, AND WHAT WAS DONE BY HER PLAGUY BOY
+IKE. In which all will see the acid and sugar, and spirit and
+water--forming an intellectual punch, of which all can partake without
+headache or heartache. Wrought by the old lady herself. With
+characteristic Illustrations, including a portrait of the old lady in
+specs, surrounded by the Partington family. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+WAY DOWN EAST; OR, PORTRAITURES OF YANKEE LIFE. Embodying some of the
+raciest stories of the "Down Easter" ever published by this humorous
+author--containing much of genuine wit and attractive thought. By SEBA
+SMITH, the original Major Jack Downing. With several rich and original
+Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Transcriber's Note:
+
+Summarized here are the corrections applied to the text.
+
+List of Illustrations:
+    "Frolicksome" was spelled "Frolicsome" as opposed to the illustration
+
+In color, the pure Ayrshires are generally red
+    "Ayrshires" was printed as "Aryshires"
+
+Some packers put
+meat in a copper which is rendered air-tight
+    "meat" was printed as "meal"
+
+The principal substances of which _glue_ is made
+    "substances" was printed as "subtances"
+
+degeneracy of acute into chronic dysentery
+    "disentery" was printed as "dystentery"
+
+It most frequently
+occurs in dry, hot weather.
+    "frequently" was printed as "freqently"
+
+acquired additional deleterious agency
+    "acquired" was printed as "accquired"
+
+and have found the spur in the hay wherever the
+disease is found.
+    "disease" was printed as "diesase"
+
+differing from like phenomena by other causes
+    "phenomena" was printed as "phenonema"
+
+until this singular
+phenomenon is clearly accounted for
+    "phenomenon" was printed as "phenonemon"
+
+embryotomy was
+in this instance employed
+    "embryotomy" was printed as "emrbyotomy"
+
+The diseased lungs
+sometimes attain inordinate weight.
+    "diseased" was printed as "direased"
+
+supported by alcoholic
+stimulants.
+    "alcoholic" was printed as "alcholic"
+
+When cut into, it did
+not present the red, mottled, organized appearance of those
+cases with air-tight cysts.
+    "present" was printed as "prevent"
+
+It comprehended
+one of the parotid glands
+    "comprehended" was printed as "comprehened"
+
+drawn tightly to the posterior ring, by a simple
+bow-knot.
+    "knot" was printed as "not"
+
+must be supplied by alcolized
+water
+    "alcolized" was printed as "alcotized"
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Cattle and Their Diseases, by Robert Jennings
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+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of Cattle And Their Diseases, by Robert Jennings, V. S.
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Cattle and Their Diseases, by Robert Jennings
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Cattle and Their Diseases
+       Embracing Their History and Breeds, Crossing and Breeding,
+              And Feeding and Management; With the Diseases to which
+              They are Subject, And The Remedies Best Adapted to their
+              Cure
+
+Author: Robert Jennings
+
+Release Date: September 26, 2007 [EBook #22771]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Steven Giacomelli, Constanze Hofmann and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+(This file was produced from images produced by Core
+Historical Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell
+University)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<div class="notes">
+<p><b>Transcriber's Note:</b><br />
+A number of typographical errors have been corrected. They are
+shown in the text with <ins class="correction" title="like this">mouse-hover popups</ins>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<h1>CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES</h1>
+
+<p class="titlepage">EMBRACING<br />
+<br />
+THEIR HISTORY AND BREEDS, CROSSING AND BREEDING, AND<br />
+FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT; WITH THE DISEASES<br />
+TO WHICH THEY ARE SUBJECT, AND<br />
+THE REMEDIES BEST ADAPTED<br />
+TO THEIR CURE.</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage">TO WHICH IS ADDED A LIST OF THE MEDICINES USED IN TREATING CATTLE.</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage"><span class="big">BY ROBERT JENNINGS, V. S.,</span><br />
+PROFESSOR OF PATHOLOGY AND OPERATIVE SURGERY IN THE VETERINARY COLLEGE OF<br />
+PHILADELPHIA; LATE PROFESSOR OF VETERINARY MEDICINE IN THE AGRICULTURAL<br />
+COLLEGE OF OHIO; SECRETARY OF THE AMERICAN VETERINARY ASSOCIATION<br />
+OF PHILADELPHIA; AUTHOR OF "THE HORSE<br />
+AND HIS DISEASES," ETC., ETC.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+     <img src="images/illus-003.png" width="562" height="279"
+       alt="With Numerous Illustrations." />
+</div>
+
+<p class="titlepage">PHILADELPHIA:<br />
+<span class="smcap">John E. Potter and Company</span>,<br />
+617 <span class="smcap">Sansom Street.</span>
+</p>
+
+
+
+<p class="titlepage">Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1864, by<br />
+JOHN E. POTTER,<br />
+In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States, in and for the Eastern
+District of Pennsylvania.</p>
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE"></a>PREFACE.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span></h2>
+
+
+<p>A marked interest has of late years been manifested in our country
+relative to the subject of breeding and rearing domestic cattle. This
+has not been confined to the dairyman alone. The greater portion of
+intelligent agriculturists have perceived the necessity of paying more
+attention than was formerly devoted to the improvement and perfection of
+breeds for the uses of the table as well. In this respect, European
+cattle-raisers have long taken the precedence of our own.</p>
+
+<p>The gratifying favor with which the author's former publication, "The
+Horse and his Diseases," has been received by the public, has induced
+him to believe that a work, similar in spirit and general treatment,
+upon Cattle, would not be without interest for the agricultural
+community.</p>
+
+<p>In this belief, the present treatise has been prepared. The author has
+availed himself of the labors of others in this connection; never,
+however, adopting results and conclusions, no matter how strongly
+endorsed, which have been contradicted by his own observation and
+experience. In a field like the one in question, assuredly, if anywhere,
+some degree of independent judgment will not be censured by those who
+are familiar with the sad consequences resulting from the attempted
+application of theories now universally exploded, but which in the day
+and generation of their originators were sanctioned and advocated by
+those who claimed to be magnates in this department.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>To the following works, especially, the author acknowledges himself
+indebted: American Farmer's Encyclop&aelig;dia; Stephens's Book of the Farm;
+Flint's Milch-Cows and Dairy Farming; Laurence on Cattle; Allen's
+Domestic Animals; Youatt and Martin on Cattle; Thomson's Food of
+Animals; Allen's Rural Architecture; Colman's Practical Agriculture and
+Rural Economy; Goodale's Breeding of Domestic Animals; and Prof.
+Gamgee's valuable contributions to veterinary science.</p>
+
+<p>Particular attention is requested to the division of "Diseases." Under
+this head, as in his former work, the author has endeavored to detail
+the symptoms of the most common ailments of cattle in such a manner that
+every farmer and cattle-owner can at once understand them, and also to
+suggest such procurable remedies as a wide experience has proved to be
+most efficacious.</p>
+
+<p>A generous space has been devoted to the consideration of that fatal
+epidemic, now generally known as "Pleuro-Pneumonia," as it has
+manifested itself in Europe and this country, in the belief that a
+matter of such vital importance to the stock-raiser ought to receive a
+complete exposition in a work like the present. As the author's personal
+experience in connection with the treatment of this peculiar disease has
+been, perhaps, as large and varied as that of any American practitioner,
+he is not without the hope that his views upon the matter may prove
+productive of some benefit to others.</p>
+
+<p>Should the present volume prove as acceptable to those interested as did
+his former work, the author will be abundantly satisfied that he has not
+mistaken in this instance the wants of the public.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span></h2>
+
+<div class="toc">
+<ul>
+<li><a href="#History_and_Breeds">HISTORY AND BREEDS OF CATTLE</a>, <span class="ralign">13</span></li>
+<li><ul>
+    <li><span class="smcap"><a href="#THE_BRITISH_OX">The British Ox</a></span>, <span class="ralign">15</span></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap"><a href="#AMERICAN_CATTLE">American Cattle</a></span>, <span class="ralign">21</span></li>
+    <li><ul>
+        <li><a href="#THE_AYRSHIRE">The Ayrshire</a>, <span class="ralign">23</span></li>
+        <li><a href="#THE_JERSEY">The Jersey</a>, <span class="ralign">30</span></li>
+        <li><a href="#THE_SHORT_HORNS">The Short-Horns</a>, <span class="ralign">32</span></li>
+        <li><a href="#THE_DUTCH">The Dutch</a>, <span class="ralign">36</span></li>
+        <li><a href="#THE_HEREFORD">The Hereford</a>, <span class="ralign">38</span></li>
+        <li><a href="#THE_NORTH_DEVONS">The North-Devon</a>, <span class="ralign">41</span></li>
+        <li><a href="#NATIVE_CATTLE">Native Cattle</a>, <span class="ralign">43</span></li>
+   </ul></li>
+   <li><span class="smcap"><a href="#THE_NATURAL_HISTORY_OF_CATTLE">Natural History of Cattle</a></span>, <span class="ralign">50</span></li>
+   <li><ul>
+       <li><a href="#GESTATION">Gestation</a>, <span class="ralign">51</span></li>
+       <li><a href="#FORMATION_OF_TEETH">Formation of Teeth</a>, <span class="ralign">51</span></li>
+       <li><a href="#POINTS_OF_A_GOOD_COW">Points of a Good Cow</a>, <span class="ralign">57</span></li>
+  </ul></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap"><a href="#THE_MILK-MIRROR">The Milk-Mirror</a></span>, <span class="ralign">61</span></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li><a href="#Crossing_and_Breeding">CROSSING AND BREEDING</a>, <span class="ralign">77</span></li>
+<li><ul>
+    <li><span class="smcap"><a href="#PREGNANCY">Pregnancy</a></span>, <span class="ralign">92</span></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap"><a href="#TREATMENT_BEFORE_CALVING">Treatment Before Calving</a></span>, <span class="ralign">93</span></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li><a href="#Feeding_and_Management">FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT</a>, <span class="ralign">97</span></li>
+<li><ul>
+    <li><span class="smcap"><a href="#SOILING">Soiling</a></span>, <span class="ralign">118</span></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap"><a href="#CULTURE_OF_GRASSES_FOR_FODDER">Culture of Grasses for Fodder</a></span>, <span class="ralign">122</span></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap"><a href="#THE_BARN">The Barn</a></span>, <span class="ralign">146</span></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap"><a href="#MILKING">Milking</a></span>, <span class="ralign">155</span></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap"><a href="#THE_RAISING_OF_CALVES">Raising of Calves</a></span>, <span class="ralign">168</span></li>
+    <li><span class="smcap"><a href="#POINTS_OF_FAT_CATTLE">Points of Fat Cattle</a></span>, <span class="ralign">183</span></li>
+    <li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span><span class="smcap"><a href="#DRIVING_AND_SLAUGHTERING">Driving and Slaughtering</a></span>, <span class="ralign">188</span></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li><a href="#Diseases_and_their_Remedies">DISEASES AND THEIR REMEDIES</a>, <span class="ralign">205</span></li>
+<li><ul>
+    <li><ul>
+        <li><a href="#ABORTION">Abortion</a>, <span class="ralign">206</span></li>
+        <li><a href="#APOPLEXY">Apoplexy</a>, <span class="ralign">215</span></li>
+        <li><a href="#BLACK_WATER">Black-Water</a>, <span class="ralign">215</span></li>
+        <li><a href="#BRONCHITIS">Bronchitis</a>, <span class="ralign">216</span></li>
+        <li><a href="#CONSUMPTION">Consumption</a>, <span class="ralign">217</span></li>
+        <li><a href="#CORYZA">Coryza</a>, <span class="ralign">217</span></li>
+        <li><a href="#COW-POX">Cow-pox</a>, <span class="ralign">218</span></li>
+        <li><a href="#DIARRHOEA">Diarrh&oelig;a</a>, <span class="ralign">219</span></li>
+        <li><a href="#DYSENTERY">Dysentery</a>, <span class="ralign">220</span></li>
+        <li><a href="#ENTERITIS">Enteritis</a>, <span class="ralign">222</span></li>
+        <li><a href="#EPIZOOTICS">Epizo&ouml;tics</a>, <span class="ralign">224</span></li>
+        <li><a href="#EPIZOOTIC_CATARRH">Epizo&ouml;tic Catarrh</a>, <span class="ralign">234</span></li>
+        <li><a href="#FARDEL">Fardel</a>, <span class="ralign">236</span></li>
+        <li><a href="#FOUL_IN_THE_FOOT">Foul in the Foot</a>, <span class="ralign">237</span></li>
+        <li><a href="#GARGET">Garget</a>, <span class="ralign">237</span></li>
+        <li><a href="#GASTRO-ENTERITIS">Gastro-enteritis</a>, <span class="ralign">238</span></li>
+        <li><a href="#HOOSE">Hoose</a>, <span class="ralign">238</span></li>
+        <li><a href="#HOOVE">Hoove</a>, <span class="ralign">239</span></li>
+        <li><a href="#HYDATIDS">Hydatids</a>, <span class="ralign">240</span></li>
+        <li><a href="#INFLAMMATION_OF_THE_BLADDER">Inflammation of the Bladder</a>, <span class="ralign">241</span></li>
+        <li><a href="#INFLAMMATION_OF_THE_HAW">Inflammation of the Haw</a>, <span class="ralign">241</span></li>
+        <li><a href="#INFLAMMATION_OF_THE_KIDNEYS">Inflammation of the Kidneys</a>, <span class="ralign">242</span></li>
+        <li><a href="#INFLAMMATION_OF_THE_LIVER">Inflammation of the Liver</a>, <span class="ralign">242</span></li>
+        <li><a href="#LARYNGITIS">Laryngitis</a>, <span class="ralign">243</span></li>
+        <li><a href="#LICE">Lice</a>, <span class="ralign">244</span></li>
+        <li><a href="#MANGE">Mange</a>, <span class="ralign">244</span></li>
+        <li><a href="#MURRAIN">Murrain</a>, <span class="ralign">246</span></li>
+        <li><a href="#NAVEL-ILL">Navel-ill</a>, <span class="ralign">247</span></li>
+        <li><a href="#OBSTRUCTIONS_IN_THE_OESOPHAGUS">Obstructions in the &OElig;sophagus</a>, <span class="ralign">247</span></li>
+        <li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span><a href="#OPEN_JOINTS">Open Joints</a>, <span class="ralign">248</span></li>
+        <li><a href="#PARTURITION">Parturition</a>, <span class="ralign">248</span></li>
+        <li><ul>
+            <li><a href="#Free_Martins">Free Martins</a>, <span class="ralign">251</span></li>
+            <li><a href="#Cleansing">Cleansing</a>, <span class="ralign">253</span></li>
+            <li><a href="#Inversion_of_the_Uterus">Inversion of the Uterus</a>, <span class="ralign">253</span></li>
+        </ul></li>
+        <li><a href="#PHRENITIS">Phrenitis</a>, <span class="ralign">254</span></li>
+        <li><a href="#PLEURISY">Pleurisy</a>, <span class="ralign">255</span></li>
+        <li><a href="#PLEURO-PNEUMONIA">Pleuro-pneumonia</a>, <span class="ralign">256</span></li>
+        <li><a href="#PNEUMONIA">Pneumonia</a>, <span class="ralign">300</span></li>
+        <li><a href="#PROTRUSION_OF_THE_BLADDER">Protrusion of the Bladder</a>, <span class="ralign">302</span></li>
+        <li><a href="#PUERPERAL_FEVER">Puerperal Fever</a>, <span class="ralign">302</span></li>
+        <li><a href="#QUARTER_EVIL">Quarter Evil</a>, <span class="ralign">303</span></li>
+        <li><a href="#RABIES">Rabies</a>, <span class="ralign">304</span></li>
+        <li><a href="#RED_WATER">Red Water</a>, <span class="ralign">305</span></li>
+        <li><a href="#RHEUMATISM">Rheumatism</a>, <span class="ralign">307</span></li>
+        <li><a href="#STRANGULATION_OF_THE_INTESTINES">Strangulation of the Intestines</a>, <span class="ralign">308</span></li>
+        <li><a href="#THRUSH_IN_THE_MOUTH">Thrush in the Mouth</a>, <span class="ralign">308</span></li>
+        <li><a href="#TUMORS">Tumors</a>, <span class="ralign">308</span></li>
+        <li><a href="#ULCERS_ABOUT_THE_JOINTS">Ulcers about the Joints</a>, <span class="ralign">312</span></li>
+        <li><a href="#WARBLES">Warbles</a>, <span class="ralign">313</span></li>
+        <li><a href="#WORMS">Worms</a>, <span class="ralign">315</span></li>
+        <li><a href="#WORMS_IN_THE_BRONCHIAL_TUBES">Worms in the Bronchial Tubes</a>, <span class="ralign">316</span></li>
+   </ul></li>
+   <li><span class="smcap"><a href="#SURGICAL_OPERATIONS">Surgical Operations</a></span>, <span class="ralign">316</span></li>
+   <li><ul>
+       <li><a href="#CASTRATION">Castration</a>, <span class="ralign">316</span></li>
+       <li><a href="#TRACHEOTOMY">Tracheotomy</a>, <span class="ralign">319</span></li>
+       <li><a href="#SPAYING">Spaying</a>, <span class="ralign">320</span></li>
+   </ul></li>
+   <li><span class="smcap"><a href="#A_LIST_OF_MEDICINES_USED_IN_TREATING_CATTLE">List of Medicines used in Treating Cattle</a></span>, <span class="ralign">330</span></li>
+   <li><span class="smcap"><a href="#DOSES_OF_VARIOUS_REMEDIES_USED_IN_CATTLE_PRACTICE">Doses of Various Medicines</a></span>, <span class="ralign">336</span></li>
+</ul></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="ILLUSTRATIONS" id="ILLUSTRATIONS"></a>ILLUSTRATIONS.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span></h2>
+
+
+<ul>
+<li>&nbsp;<span class="ralign">PAGE</span></li>
+<li><span class="smcap"><a href="#illus-013">A Prize Bull</a>,</span><span class="ralign">13</span></li>
+<li><span class="smcap"><a href="#illus-019">The Well-fed Beasts</a>,</span><span class="ralign">19</span></li>
+<li><span class="smcap"><a href="#illus-023">An Ayrshire Bull</a>,</span><span class="ralign">23</span></li>
+<li><span class="smcap"><a href="#illus-033">A Short-horn Bull</a>,</span><span class="ralign">33</span></li>
+<li><span class="smcap"><a href="#illus-041">A North Devon Steer</a>,</span><span class="ralign">41</span></li>
+<li><span class="smcap"><a href="#illus-045">Draft Oxen</a>,</span><span class="ralign">45</span></li>
+<li><span class="smcap"><a href="#illus-050">Skeleton of the Ox</a>,</span><span class="ralign">50</span></li>
+<li><span class="smcap"><a href="#illus-052a">Teeth at Birth</a>,</span><span class="ralign">52</span></li>
+<li><span class="smcap"><a href="#illus-052b">Teeth at Second Week</a>,</span><span class="ralign">52</span></li>
+<li><span class="smcap"><a href="#illus-053a">Teeth at Three Weeks</a>,</span><span class="ralign">53</span></li>
+<li><span class="smcap"><a href="#illus-053b">Teeth at a Month</a>,</span><span class="ralign">53</span></li>
+<li><span class="smcap"><a href="#illus-053c">Teeth at Five to Eight Months</a>,</span><span class="ralign">53</span></li>
+<li><span class="smcap"><a href="#illus-053d">Ten Months Teeth</a>,</span><span class="ralign">53</span></li>
+<li><span class="smcap"><a href="#illus-054a">Twelve Months Teeth</a>,</span><span class="ralign">54</span></li>
+<li><span class="smcap"><a href="#illus-054b">Fifteen Months Teeth</a>,</span><span class="ralign">54</span></li>
+<li><span class="smcap"><a href="#illus-055a">Eighteen Months Teeth</a>,</span><span class="ralign">55</span></li>
+<li><span class="smcap"><a href="#illus-055b">Teeth at Two Years Past</a>,</span><span class="ralign">55</span></li>
+<li><span class="smcap"><a href="#illus-056a">Teeth at Three Years Past</a>,</span><span class="ralign">56</span></li>
+<li><span class="smcap"><a href="#illus-056b">Teeth at Four Years Past</a>,</span><span class="ralign">56</span></li>
+<li><span class="smcap"><a href="#illus-056c">Teeth at Five Years Past</a>,</span><span class="ralign">56</span></li>
+<li><span class="smcap"><a href="#illus-056d">Teeth at Ten Years Past</a>,</span><span class="ralign">56</span></li>
+<li><span class="smcap"><a href="#illus-058">A Good Milch Cow</a>,</span><span class="ralign">58</span></li>
+<li><span class="smcap"><a href="#illus-062">Milk-Mirror (A)</a>,</span><span class="ralign">62</span></li>
+<li><span class="smcap"><a href="#illus-063a">Milk-Mirror (B)</a>,</span><span class="ralign">63</span></li>
+<li><span class="smcap"><a href="#illus-063b">Milk-Mirror (C)</a>,</span><span class="ralign">63</span></li>
+<li><span class="smcap"><a href="#illus-064">Milk-Mirror (D)</a>,</span><span class="ralign">64</span></li>
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span><span class="smcap"><a href="#illus-065">Milk-Mirror (E)</a>,</span><span class="ralign">65</span></li>
+<li><span class="smcap"><a href="#illus-066">Milk-Mirror (F)</a>,</span><span class="ralign">66</span></li>
+<li><span class="smcap"><a href="#illus-069">Milk-Mirror (G)</a>,</span><span class="ralign">69</span></li>
+<li><span class="smcap"><a href="#illus-070">Milk-Mirror (H)</a>,</span><span class="ralign">70</span></li>
+<li><span class="smcap"><a href="#illus-072">Milk-Mirror (K)</a>,</span><span class="ralign">72</span></li>
+<li><span class="smcap"><a href="#illus-074">Milk-Mirror (L)</a>,</span><span class="ralign">74</span></li>
+<li><span class="smcap"><a href="#illus-077">Cow and Calf</a>,</span><span class="ralign">77</span></li>
+<li><span class="smcap"><a href="#illus-083">Ready for Action</a>,</span><span class="ralign">83</span></li>
+<li><span class="smcap"><a href="#illus-089">A Sprightly Youth</a>,</span><span class="ralign">89</span></li>
+<li><span class="smcap"><a href="#illus-097">Feeding</a>,</span><span class="ralign">97</span></li>
+<li><span class="smcap"><a href="#illus-102">The Family Pets</a>,</span><span class="ralign">102</span></li>
+<li><span class="smcap"><a href="#illus-107">Buying Cattle</a>,</span><span class="ralign">107</span></li>
+<li><span class="smcap"><a href="#illus-112">Calling in the Cattle</a>,</span><span class="ralign">112</span></li>
+<li><span class="smcap"><a href="#illus-117">"On the Rampage"</a>,</span><span class="ralign">117</span></li>
+<li><span class="smcap"><a href="#illus-123">Patiently Waiting</a>,</span><span class="ralign">123</span></li>
+<li><span class="smcap"><a href="#illus-129">A Chance for a Selection</a>,</span><span class="ralign">129</span></li>
+<li><span class="smcap"><a href="#illus-139">A West Highland Ox</a>,</span><span class="ralign">139</span></li>
+<li><span class="smcap"><a href="#illus-150">Barn for Thirty-four Cows and Three Yoke of Oxen</a>,</span><span class="ralign">150</span></li>
+<li><span class="smcap"><a href="#illus-152">Transverse Section</a>,</span><span class="ralign">152</span></li>
+<li><span class="smcap"><a href="#illus-153">Room over the Cow-Room</a>,</span><span class="ralign">153</span></li>
+<li><span class="smcap"><a href="#illus-159">The Preferable Method</a>,</span><span class="ralign">159</span></li>
+<li><span class="smcap"><a href="#illus-168">Maternal Affection</a>,</span><span class="ralign">168</span></li>
+<li><span class="smcap"><a href="#illus-177"><ins class="correction" title="Frolicsome">Frolicksome</ins></a>,</span><span class="ralign">177</span></li>
+<li><span class="smcap"><a href="#illus-185">Points of Cattle</a>,</span><span class="ralign">185</span></li>
+<li><span class="smcap"><a href="#illus-190">A Frontispiece</a>,</span><span class="ralign">190</span></li>
+<li><span class="smcap"><a href="#illus-195">Scotch Mode of Cutting up Beef</a>,</span><span class="ralign">195</span></li>
+<li><span class="smcap"><a href="#illus-197">English Mode of Cutting up Beef</a>,</span><span class="ralign">197</span></li>
+<li><span class="smcap"><a href="#illus-205">Diseases and Their Remedies</a>,</span><span class="ralign">205</span></li>
+<li><span class="smcap"><a href="#illus-218">A Chat on the Road</a>,</span><span class="ralign">218</span></li>
+<li><span class="smcap"><a href="#illus-230">The Mad Bull</a>,</span><span class="ralign">230</span></li>
+<li><span class="smcap"><a href="#illus-244">An Aberdeenshire Polled Bull</a>,</span><span class="ralign">244</span></li>
+<li><span class="smcap"><a href="#illus-256">Taking an Observation</a>,</span><span class="ralign">256</span></li>
+<li><span class="smcap"><a href="#illus-268">The Twins</a>,</span><span class="ralign">268</span></li>
+<li><span class="smcap"><a href="#illus-285">A Rural Scene</a>,</span><span class="ralign">285</span></li>
+<li><span class="smcap"><a href="#illus-299">Taking it Easily</a>,</span><span class="ralign">299</span></li>
+<li><span class="smcap"><a href="#illus-313">Home Again</a>,</span><span class="ralign">313</span></li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<h2><a name="History_and_Breeds" id="History_and_Breeds"></a>History and Breeds<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span></h2>
+
+<div class="center">
+   <a id="illus-013" name="illus-013"></a>
+   <img src="images/illus-013.png" width="600" height="518"
+      alt="A Prize Bull" />
+</div>
+
+
+<p>It is quite certain that the ox has been domesticated and in the service
+of man from a very remote period. We are informed in the fourth chapter
+of Genesis, that cattle were kept by the early descendants of Adam;
+Jubal, the son of Lamech&mdash;who was probably born during the lifetime of
+Adam&mdash;being styled the father of such as have cattle. The ox having been
+preserved by Noah from the flood of waters, the original breed of our
+present cattle must have been in the neighborhood of Mount Ararat. From
+thence, dispersing over the face of the globe&mdash;altering by climate, by
+food, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> by cultivation&mdash;originated the various breeds of modern ages.</p>
+
+<p>That the value of the ox tribe has been in all ages and climates highly
+appreciated, we have ample evidence. The natives of Egypt, India, and
+Hindostan, seem alike to have placed the cow amongst their deities; and,
+judging by her usefulness to all classes, no animal could perhaps have
+been selected whose value to mankind is greater. The traditions, indeed,
+of every Celtic nation enroll the cow among the earliest productions,
+and represent it as a kind of divinity.</p>
+
+<p>In nearly all parts of the earth cattle are employed for their labor,
+for their milk, and for food. In southern Africa they are as much the
+associates of the Caffre as the horse is of the Arab. They share his
+toils, and assist him in tending his herds. They are even trained to
+battle, in which they become fierce and courageous. In central Africa
+the proudest ebony beauties are to be seen upon the backs of cattle. In
+all ages they have drawn the plough. In Spain they still trample out the
+corn; in India they raise the water from the deepest wells to irrigate
+the thirsty soil of Bengal. When C&aelig;sar invaded Britain they constituted
+the chief riches of its inhabitants; and they still form no
+inconsiderable item in the estimate of that country's riches.</p>
+
+<p>The parent race of the ox is said to have been much larger than any of
+the present varieties. The Urus, in his wild state at least, was an
+enormous and fierce animal, and ancient legends have thrown around him
+an air of mystery. In almost every part of the continent of Europe and
+in every district of England, skulls, evidently belonging to cattle,
+have been found, far exceeding in bulk any now known.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>As the various breeds of cattle among us were introduced into this
+country from Great Britain, we propose, before going into the details of
+the leading American breeds, to glance somewhat briefly at the history
+of</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="THE_BRITISH_OX" id="THE_BRITISH_OX"></a>THE BRITISH OX.</h3>
+
+<p>In the earliest and most reliable accounts which we possess of the
+British Isles&mdash;the Commentaries of C&aelig;sar&mdash;we learn that the ancient
+Britons possessed great numbers of cattle. No satisfactory description
+of these cattle occurs in any ancient author; but, with occasional
+exceptions, we know that they possessed no great bulk or beauty. C&aelig;sar
+tells us that the Britons neglected tillage and lived on milk and flesh;
+and this account of the early inhabitants of the British Isle is
+corroborated by other authors. It was such an occupation and mode of
+life as suited their state of society. The island was divided into many
+little sovereignties; no fixed property was secure; and that alone was
+valuable which could be hurried away at the threatened approach of the
+invader. Many centuries after this, when&mdash;although one sovereign seemed
+to reign paramount over the whole of the kingdom&mdash;there continued to be
+endless contests among the feudal barons, and therefore that property
+alone continued to be valuable which could be secured within the walls
+of the castle, or driven beyond the assailant's reach&mdash;an immense stock
+of provisions was always stored up in the various fortresses, both for
+the vassals and the cattle; or it was contrived that the latter should
+be driven to the domains of some friendly baron, or concealed in some
+inland recess.</p>
+
+<p>When the government became more powerful and settled,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span> and property of
+every kind was assured a proportionate degree of protection, as well as
+more equally divided, the plough came into use; agricultural productions
+were oftener cultivated, the reaping of which was sure after the labor
+of sowing. Cattle were then comparatively neglected and for some
+centuries injuriously so. Their numbers diminished, and their size also
+seems to have diminished; and it is only within the last century and a
+half that any serious and successful efforts have been made materially
+to improve them.</p>
+
+<p>In the comparatively roving and uncertain life which the earlier
+inhabitants led, their cattle would sometimes stray and be lost. The
+country was at that time overgrown with forests, and the beasts betook
+themselves to the recesses of these woods, and became wild and sometimes
+ferocious. They, by degrees, grew so numerous as to be dangerous to the
+inhabitants of the neighboring districts. One of the chronicles asserts
+that many of them harbored in the forests in the neighborhood of London.
+Strange stories are told of some of them, and, doubtless, when
+irritated, they were fierce and dangerous enough. As, however,
+civilization advanced, and the forests became thinned and contracted,
+these animals were seen more rarely, and at length almost disappeared. A
+few of them, however, are still to be found in the parks of some of the
+leading English noblemen, who keep them for ornament and as curiosities.</p>
+
+<p>The color of this wild breed is invariably white, the muzzle being
+black; the whole of the inside of the ear, and about one-third of the
+outside, from the tips downward, red; horns white, with black tips, very
+fine, and bent upward; some of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span> the bulls have a thin, upright mane,
+about an inch and a half or two inches long. The beef is finely marbled
+and of excellent flavor.</p>
+
+<p>At the first appearance of any person they set off in full gallop, and
+at the distance of about two hundred yards, make a wheel around and come
+boldly up again in a menacing manner; on a sudden they make a full stop
+at the distance of forty or fifty yards, looking wildly at the object of
+their surprise; but upon the least motion they all again turn round and
+fly off with equal speed, but not to the same distance, forming a
+shorter circle; and, again returning with a more threatening aspect than
+before, they approach probably within thirty yards, when they again make
+another stand, and then fly off; this they do several times, shortening
+their distance and advancing nearer and nearer, till they come within
+such short distance that most persons think it prudent to leave them.</p>
+
+<p>When the cows calve, they hide their calves for a week or ten days in
+some retired situation, and go and suckle them two or three times a day.
+If any persons come near the calves they clap their heads close to the
+ground to hide themselves&mdash;a proof of their native wildness. The dams
+allow no one to touch their young without attacking with impetuous
+ferocity. When one of the herd happens to be wounded, or has grown weak
+and feeble through age or sickness, the rest set on it and gore it to
+death.</p>
+
+<p>The breeds of cattle which are now found in Great Britain, are almost as
+various as the soil of the different districts or the fancies of the
+breeders. They have, however, been very conveniently classed according
+to the comparative size of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span> horns; the <i>long-horns</i>, originally from
+Lancashire, and established through most of the midland counties; the
+<i>short-horns</i>, generally cultivated in the northern counties and in
+Lincolnshire, and many of them found in every part of the kingdom where
+the farmer pays much attention to his dairy, or where a large supply of
+milk is desired; and the <i>middle-horns</i>, a distinct and valuable breed,
+inhabiting, principally, the north of Devon, the east of Sussex,
+Herefordshire, and Gloucestershire; and of diminished bulk and with
+somewhat different character, the cattle of the Scottish and Welsh
+mountains. The Alderney, with its <i>crumpled horn</i>, is found on the
+southern coast; while the polled, or <i>hornless</i>, cattle prevail in
+Suffolk, Norfolk, and Galloway, whence they were first derived.</p>
+
+<p>These leading breeds, however, have been intermingled in every possible
+way. They are found pure only in their native districts, or on the
+estate of some wealthy and spirited individuals. Each county has its own
+mongrel breed, often difficult to be described, and not always to be
+traced&mdash;neglected enough, yet suited to the soil and the climate; and
+among small farmers, maintaining their station, in spite of attempts at
+improvements by the intermixture or the substitution of foreign
+varieties.</p>
+
+<p>Much dispute has arisen as to the original breed of British cattle. The
+battle has been sharply fought between the advocates of the middle and
+of the long-horns. The short-horns and the polls are out of the lists;
+the latter, although it has existed in certain districts from time
+immemorial, being probably an accidental variety. The weight of
+argument<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span> appears at present to rest with the middle horns; the
+long-horns being evidently of Irish extraction.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+     <a id="illus-019" name="illus-019"></a>
+     <img src="images/illus-019.png" width="600" height="416"
+       alt="" />
+    <p class="caption">THE WELL-FED BEASTS.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Great Britain has shared the fate of other nations, and oftener than
+they been overrun and subjugated by invaders. As the natives retreated
+they carried with them some portion of their property, consisting, in
+the remote and early times, principally of cattle. They drove along with
+them as many as they could, when they retired to the fortresses of North
+Devon and Cornwall, or the mountainous region of Wales, or when they
+took refuge in the retirement of East Sussex; and there, retaining all
+their prejudices, manners, and customs, were jealous of the preservation
+of that which reminded them of their native country before it yielded to
+a foreign yoke.</p>
+
+<p>In this way was preserved the ancient breed of British cattle.
+Difference of climate produced some change, particularly in their bulk.
+The rich pasturage of Sussex fattened the ox into its superior size and
+weight. The plentiful, but not so luxuriant, herbage of the north of
+Devon produced a smaller and more active animal; while the privations of
+Wales lessened the bulk and thickened the hide of the Welsh<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> Stock. As
+for Scotland, it set its invaders at defiance; or its inhabitants
+retreated for a while, and soon turned again on their pursuers. They
+were proud of their country, and of their cattle, their choicest
+possession; and there, also, the cattle were preserved, unmixed and
+undegenerated.</p>
+
+<p>Thence it has resulted, that in Devon, in Sussex, in Wales, and in
+Scotland, the cattle have been the same from time immemorial; while in
+all the eastern coasts and through every district of England, the breed
+of cattle degenerated, or lost its original character; it consisted of
+animals brought from all the neighboring, and some remote districts,
+mingled in every possible variety, yet conforming to the soil and the
+climate.</p>
+
+<p>Careful observations will establish the fact, that the cattle in
+Devonshire, Sussex, Wales, and Scotland are essentially the same. They
+are middle horned; not extraordinary milkers, and remarkable for the
+quality rather than the quantity of their milk; active at work, and with
+an unequalled aptitude to fatten. They have all the characters of the
+same breed, changed by soil, climate, and time, yet little changed by
+man. The color, even, may be almost traced, namely: the red of the
+Devon, the Sussex, and the Hereford; and where only the black are now
+found, the recollection of the red prevails.</p>
+
+<p>As this volume is intended especially for the farmers of our own
+country, it is deemed unnecessary in this connection to present any
+thing additional under the present head, except the names of the
+prominent species of British cattle. These are, commencing with the
+middle horns, the North Devon, the Hereford, the Sussex, the Welsh (with
+the varieties of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span> the Pembrokeshire, the Glamorganshire, the Radnor
+black, the Anglesea and some others); and the Scotch with its chief
+varieties, the West Highlanders, the North Highlanders, the North
+Eastern, the Fife, the Ayrshire, and the Galloways.</p>
+
+<p>As to the long horns, which came originally from Craven in Yorkshire, it
+may be remarked that this breed has been rapidly disappearing of late,
+and has everywhere given place to better kinds. Of this species there
+are&mdash;or perhaps were&mdash;two leading classes, the Lancashire and the
+Leicestershire improved.</p>
+
+<p>Of the short horns, the leading breeds are the Dutch, the Holderness,
+the Teeswater, the Yorkshire, the Durham, the Northumberland, and some
+others.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="AMERICAN_CATTLE" id="AMERICAN_CATTLE"></a>AMERICAN CATTLE.</h3>
+
+<p>The breeds of cattle which stock the farms of the United States are all
+derived from Europe, and, with few exceptions, from Great Britain. The
+highest breeds at the present time are of comparatively recent origin,
+since the great improvements in breeding were only commenced at about
+the period of the American Revolution. The old importations made by the
+early settlers, must consequently have been from comparatively inferior
+grades.</p>
+
+<p>In some sections of the Union, and more particularly in New England, the
+primitive stock is thought to have undergone considerable improvement;
+whilst in many parts of the Middle, and especially of the Southern
+States, a greater or less depreciation has ensued. The prevailing stock
+in the Eastern States is believed to be derived from the North<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> Devons,
+most of the excellent marks and qualities of which they possess. For
+this reason they are very highly esteemed, and have been frequently
+called the American Devon. The most valuable working oxen are chiefly of
+this breed, which also contributes so largely to the best displays of
+beef found in the markets of Boston, New York, and Philadelphia. By
+means of this domestic stock, and the importations still extensively
+made of selections from the short horns, and others of the finest
+European breeds, the cattle, not only of New England, but of other
+sections, are rapidly improving, especially in the Middle and Western
+States.</p>
+
+<p>A brief sketch of the principal breeds of American cattle, as well as of
+the grades or common stock of the country, will be of service to the
+farmer in making an intelligent selection with reference to the special
+object of pursuit&mdash;whether it be the dairy, the production of beef, or
+the raising of cattle for work.</p>
+
+<p>In selecting any breed, regard should be had to the circumstances of the
+individual farmer and the object to be pursued. The cow most profitable
+for the milk dairy, may be very unprofitable in the butter and cheese
+dairy, as well as for the production of beef; while, for either of the
+latter objects, the cow which gave the largest quantity of milk might be
+very undesirable. A union and harmony of all good qualities must be
+secured, so far as possible. The farmer wants a cow that will milk well
+for some years; and then, when dry, fatten readily and sell to the
+butcher for the highest price. These qualities, often supposed to be
+utterly incompatible, will be found united in some breeds to a greater
+extent than in others; while some peculiarities of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span> form have been
+found, by observation, to be better adapted to the production of milk
+and beef than others.</p>
+
+<p>It is proposed, therefore, to sketch the pure breeds now found in
+America.</p>
+
+
+<h4><a name="THE_AYRSHIRE" id="THE_AYRSHIRE"></a>THE AYRSHIRE.</h4>
+
+<div class="center">
+    <a id="illus-023" name="illus-023"></a>
+    <img src="images/illus-023.png" width="600" height="347"
+       alt="" />
+    <p class="caption">AN AYRSHIRE BULL.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>This breed is justly celebrated throughout Great Britain and this
+country for its excellent dairy qualities. Though the most recent in
+their origin, they are pretty distinct from the Scotch and English
+races. In color, the pure <ins class="correction" title="Aryshires">Ayrshires</ins> are generally red and
+white, spotted or mottled, not roan like many of the short horns, but
+often presenting a bright contrast of colors. They are sometimes, though
+rarely, nearly or quite all red, and sometimes black and white; but the
+favorite color is red and white brightly contrasted; and, by some,
+strawberry-color is preferred. The head is small, fine and clean; the
+face long and narrow at the muzzle, with a sprightly, yet generally mild
+expression; eye small, smart and lively; the horns short, fine, and
+slightly twisted upward, set wide apart at the roots; the neck thin;
+body enlarging from fore to hind quarters; the back straight and narrow,
+but broad across the loin; joints rather loose and open; ribs rather
+flat; hind quarters rather<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span> thin; bone fine; tail long, fine, and bushy
+at the end; hair generally thin and soft; udder light color and
+capacious, extending well forward under the belly; teats of the cow of
+medium size, generally set regularly and wide apart; milk-veins
+prominent and well developed. The carcass of the pure bred Ayrshire is
+light, particularly the fore quarters, which is considered by good
+judges as an index of great milking qualities; but the pelvis is
+capacious and wide over the hips.</p>
+
+<p>On the whole, the Ayrshire is good looking, but wants some of the
+symmetry and aptitude to fatten which characterize the short horn, which
+is supposed to have contributed to build up this valuable breed on the
+basis of the original stock of the county of Ayr, which extends along
+the eastern shore of the Firth of Clyde, in the southwestern part of
+Scotland.</p>
+
+<p>The original stock of this country are described as of a diminutive
+size, ill fed, ill shaped, and yielding but a scanty return in milk.
+They were mostly of a black color, with large stripes of white along the
+chine and ridge of their backs, about the flanks, and on their faces.
+Their horns were high and crooked, having deep ringlets at the root&mdash;the
+surest proof that they were but scantily fed; the chine of their backs
+stood up high and narrow; their sides were lank, short, and thin; their
+hides thick and adhering to the bones; their pile was coarse and open;
+and few of them gave more than six or eight quarts of milk a day when in
+their best condition, or weighed, when fat, more than from a hundred to
+a hundred and sixty pounds avoirdupois, rejecting offal.</p>
+
+<p>A wonderful change has since been made in the condition,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span> aspect, and
+qualities of the Ayrshire dairy stock. They are now almost double the
+size, and yield about four times the quantity of milk that the Ayrshire
+cows formerly yielded. A large part of this improvement is due to better
+feeding and care, but much, no doubt, to judicious crossing. Strange as
+it may seem, considering the modern origin of this breed, all that is
+certainly known touching it is, that about a century and a half ago
+there was no such breed as Ayrshire in Scotland. The question has
+therefore arisen, whether these cattle came entirely from a careful
+selection of the best native breed. If they did, it is a circumstance
+without a parallel in the history of agriculture. The native breed may
+indeed be ameliorated by careful selection; its value may be
+incalculably increased; some good qualities, some of its best qualities,
+may be developed for the first time; but yet there will be some
+resemblance to the original stock, and the more the animal is examined,
+the more clearly can be traced the characteristic points of the
+ancestor, although every one of them is improved.</p>
+
+<p>Youatt estimates the daily yield of an Ayrshire cow, for the first two
+or three months after calving, at five gallons a day, on an average; for
+the next three months, at three gallons; and for the next four months,
+at one gallon and a half. This would give eight hundred and fifty
+gallons as the annual average; but, allowing for some unproductive cows,
+he estimates the average of a dairy at six hundred gallons a year for
+each cow. Three gallons and a half of the Ayrshire cow's milk will yield
+one and a half pounds of butter. Some have estimated the yield still
+higher.</p>
+
+<p>One of the four cows originally imported into this country<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span> by John P.
+Cushing, Esq., of Massachusetts, gave in one year three thousand eight
+hundred and sixty-four quarts, beer measure, or about nine hundred and
+sixty-six gallons, at ten pounds the gallon; being an average of over
+ten and a half beer quarts a day for the entire year. The first cow of
+this breed, imported by the Massachusetts Society, for the Promotion of
+Agriculture, in 1837, yielded sixteen pounds of butter a week for
+several successive weeks, on grass feed only. It should be borne in
+mind, in this connection that the climate of New England is less
+favorable to the production of milk than that of England and Scotland,
+and that no cow imported after arriving at maturity can be expected to
+yield as much, under the same circumstances, as one bred on the spot
+where the trial is made, and perfectly acclimated.</p>
+
+<p>On excellent authority, the most approved shape and marks of a good
+dairy cow are as follows: Head small, long, and narrow toward the
+muzzle; horns small, clear, bent, and placed at considerable distance
+from each other; eyes not large, but brisk and lively; neck slender and
+long, tapering toward the head, with a little loose skin below;
+shoulders and fore quarters light and thin; hind quarters large and
+broad; back straight, and joints slack and open; carcass deep in the
+rib; tail small and long, reaching to the heels; legs small and short,
+with firm joints; udder square, but a little oblong, stretching forward,
+thin skinned and capacious, but not low hung; teats or paps small,
+pointing outward, and at a considerable distance from each other;
+milk-veins capacious and prominent; skin loose, thin, and soft like a
+glove; hair short, soft, and woolly; general figure, when in flesh,
+handsome and well proportioned.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>If this description of the Ayrshire cow be correct, it will be seen that
+her head and neck are remarkably clean and fine, the latter swelling
+gradually toward the shoulders, both parts being unencumbered with
+superfluous flesh. The same general form extends backward, the fore
+quarters being, light the shoulders thin, and the carcass swelling out
+toward the hind quarters, so that when standing in front of her it has
+the form of a blunted wedge. Such a structure indicates very fully
+developed digestive organs, which exert a powerful influence on all the
+functions of the body, and especially on the secretion of the milky
+glands, accompanied with milk-veins and udder partaking of the same
+character as the stomach and viscera, being large and capacious, while
+the external skin and interior walls of the milk-glands are thin and
+elastic, and all parts arranged in a manner especially adapted for the
+production of milk.</p>
+
+<p>A cow with these marks will generally be of a quiet and docile temper,
+which greatly increases her value. A cow that is of a quiet and
+contented disposition feeds at ease, is milked with ease, and yields
+more than one of an opposite temperament; while, after she is past her
+usefulness as a milker, she will easily take on fat, and make fine beef
+and a good quantity of tallow, because she feeds freely, and when dry
+the food which went to make milk is converted into fat and flesh. But
+there is no breed of cows with which gentle gentleness of treatment is
+so indispensable as with the Ayrshire, on account of her naturally
+nervous temperament. If she receives other than kind and gentle
+treatment, she will often resent it with angry looks and gestures, and
+withhold her milk; and if such treatment is long continued, will dry
+up;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span> but she willingly and easily yields it to the hand that fondles
+her, and all her looks and movements toward her friends are quiet and
+mild.</p>
+
+<p>The Ayrshires in their native country are generally bred for the dairy,
+and for no other object; and the cows have justly obtained a world-wide
+reputation for this quality. The oxen are, however, very fair as working
+cattle, though they cannot be said to excel other breeds in this
+respect. The Ayrshire steer maybe fed and turned at three years old; but
+for feeding purposes the Ayrshires are greatly improved by a cross with
+the short horns, provided regard is had to the size of the animal. It is
+the opinion of good breeders that a high-bred short horn bull and a
+large-sized Ayrshire cow will produce a calf which will come to maturity
+earlier, and attain greater weight, and sell for more money than a
+pure-bred Ayrshire. This cross, with feeding from the start, may be sold
+fat at two or three years old, the improvement being most noticeable in
+the earlier maturity and size.</p>
+
+<p>In the Cross with the short horn, the form ordinarily becomes more
+symmetrical, while there is, perhaps, little risk of lessening the
+milking qualities of the offspring, if sufficient regard is paid to the
+selection of the individual animals to breed from. It is thought by some
+that in the breeding of animals it is the male which gives the external
+form, or the bony and muscular system of the young, while the female
+imparts the respiratory organs, the circulation of the blood, the organs
+of secretion, and the like.</p>
+
+<p>If this principle be true, it follows that the milking qualities come
+chiefly from the mother, and that the bull cannot<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span> materially alter the
+conditions which determine the transmission of these qualities,
+especially when they are as strongly marked as they are in this breed.</p>
+
+<p>Until, however, certain mooted questions connected with breeding are
+definitively settled, it is the safest plan, in breeding for the dairy,
+to adhere to the rule of selecting only animals whose progenitors on
+both sides have been distinguished for their milking qualities.</p>
+
+<p>It may be stated, in conclusion, that for purely dairy purposes the
+Ayrshire cow deserves the first place. In consequence of her small,
+symmetrical, and compact body, combined with a well-formed chest and a
+capacious stomach, there is little waste, comparatively speaking,
+through the respiratory system; while at the same time there is very
+complete assimilation of the food, and thus she converts a very large
+proportion of her food into milk. So remarkable is this fact, that all
+dairy farmers who have any experience on the point, agree in stating
+that <i>an Ayrshire cow generally gives a larger return of milk for the
+food consumed than a cow of any other breed</i>. The absolute quality may
+not be so great, but it is obtained at a less cost; and this is the
+point upon which the question of profit depends. The best milkers which
+have been known in this country were grade Ayrshires, larger in size
+than the pure bloods, but still sufficiently high grades to give certain
+signs of their origin. This grade would seem to possess the advantage of
+combining, to some extent, the two qualities of milking and adaptation
+to beef; and this is no small recommendation of the stock to farmers
+situated as American farmers are, who<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span> wish for milk for some years and
+then to turn over to the butcher.</p>
+
+
+<h4><a name="THE_JERSEY" id="THE_JERSEY"></a>THE JERSEY.</h4>
+
+<p>These cattle are now widely known in this country. Many of them have
+been imported from an island of the same name in the British Channel,
+near the coast of France, and they may now be considered, for all
+practical purposes, as fully acclimated. They were first introduced,
+upward of thirty years ago, from the channel islands, Alderney,
+Guernsey, and Jersey.</p>
+
+<p>This race is supposed to have been originally derived from Normandy, in
+the northern part of France. The cows have been long celebrated for the
+production of very rich milk and cream, but till within the last
+twenty-five or thirty years they were comparatively coarse, ugly, and
+ill-shaped. Improvements have been very marked, but the form of the
+animal is still far from satisfying the eye.</p>
+
+<p>The head of the pure Jersey is fine and tapering, the cheek small, the
+throat clean, the muzzle fine and encircled with a light stripe, the
+nostril high and open; the horns smooth, crumpled, but not very thick at
+the base, tapering and tipped with black; ears small and thin, deep
+orange color inside; eyes full and placid; neck straight and fine; chest
+broad and deep; barrel hoofed, broad and deep, well ribbed up; back
+straight from the withers to the hip, and from the top of the hip to the
+setting of the tail; tail fine, at right angles with the back, and
+hanging down to the hocks; skin thin, light color, and mellow, covered
+with fine soft hair; fore legs short, straight and fine below the knee,
+arm swelling and full<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span> above; hind quarters long and well filled; hind
+legs short and straight below the hocks, with bones rather fine,
+squarely placed, and not too close together; hoofs small; udder full in
+size, in line with the belly, extending well up behind; teats of medium
+size, squarely placed and wide apart, and milk-veins very prominent. The
+color is generally cream, dun, or yellow, with more or less of white,
+and the fine head and neck give the cows and heifers a fawn-like
+appearance, and make them objects of attraction in the park; but the
+hind quarters are often too narrow to work well, particularly to those
+who judge animals by the amount of fat which they carry.</p>
+
+<p>It should be borne in mind, however, that a good race of animals is not
+always the most beautiful, as that term is generally understood. Beauty
+in stock has no invariable standard. In the estimation of some, it
+results mainly from fine forms, small bones, and close, compact frames;
+while others consider that structure the most perfect, and therefore the
+most beautiful, which is best adapted to the use for which it is
+destined. With such, beauty is relative. It is not the same in an animal
+designed for beef and in one designed for the dairy or for work. The
+beauty of a milch cow is the result of her good qualities. Large milkers
+are very rarely cows that please the eye of any but a skillful judge.
+They are generally poor, since their food goes mainly to the production
+of milk, and because they are selected with less regard to form than to
+good milking qualities. The prevailing opinion as to the beauty of the
+Jersey, is based on the general appearance of the cow when in milk&mdash;no
+experiments in feeding exclusively for beef having been made public,
+and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span> no opportunity to form a correct judgment from actual observation
+having been furnished; and it must be confessed that the general
+appearance of the breed would amply justify the hasty conclusion.</p>
+
+<p>The bulls are usually very different in character and disposition from
+the cows, and are much inclined to become restive and cross at the age
+of two or three years, unless their treatment is uniformly gentle and
+firm.</p>
+
+<p>The Jersey is to be regarded as a dairy breed, and that almost
+exclusively. It would not be sought for large dairies kept for the
+supply of milk to cities; for, though the quality would gratify the
+customer, the quantity would not satisfy the owner. The place of the
+Jersey cow is rather in private establishments, where the supply of
+cream and butter is a sufficient object; or, in limited numbers, to add
+richness to the milk of large butter dairies. Even one or two good
+Jersey cows with a herd of fifteen or twenty, will make a great
+difference in the quality of the milk and butter of the whole
+establishment; and they would probably be profitable for this, if for no
+other object.</p>
+
+
+<h4><a name="THE_SHORT_HORNS" id="THE_SHORT_HORNS"></a>THE SHORT HORNS.</h4>
+
+<p>No breed of cattle has commanded more universal admiration during the
+last half century than the improved short horns, whose origin can be
+traced back for nearly a hundred years. According to the best
+authorities, the stock which formed the basis of improvement existed
+equally in Yorkshire, Lincolnshire, Northumberland, and the adjoining
+counties; and the pre-eminence was accorded to Durham,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span> which gave its
+name to the race, from the more correct principles of breeding which
+seem to have obtained there.</p>
+
+<p>There is a dispute among the most eminent breeders as to how far it owes
+its origin to early importations from Holland, whence many superior
+animals were brought for the purpose of improving the old long horned
+breed. A large race of cattle had existed for many years on the western
+shores of the continent of Europe. As early as 1633, they were imported
+from Denmark into New England in considerable numbers, and thus laid the
+foundation of a valuable stock in farming at a very early date in
+Holland, and experience led to the greatest care in the choice and
+breeding of dairy stock. From these cattle many selections were made to
+cross over to the counties of York and Durham. The prevailing color of
+the large Dutch cattle was black and white, beautifully contrasted.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+    <a id="illus-033" name="illus-033"></a>
+    <img src="images/illus-033.png" width="600" height="343"
+       alt="" />
+    <p class="caption">A SHORT HORN BULL.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The cattle produced by these crosses a century ago were known by the
+name of "Dutch." The cows selected for crossing with the early imported
+Dutch bulls were generally long horned, large boned, coarse animals, a
+fair type of which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span> was found in the old "Holderness" breed of
+Yorkshire&mdash;slow feeders, strong in the shoulder, defective in the fore
+quarter, and not very profitable to the butcher, their meat being coarse
+and uninviting. Their milking qualities were good, surpassing those,
+probably, of the improved short horns. Whatever may be the truth with
+regard to these crosses, and however far they proved effective in
+creating or laying the foundation of the modern improved short horns,
+the results of the efforts made in Yorkshire and some of the adjoining
+counties were never so satisfactory to the best judges as those of the
+breeders along the Tees, who selected animals with greater reference to
+fineness of bone and symmetry of form, and the animals they bred soon
+took the lead and excited great emulation in improvement.</p>
+
+<p>Importations of short horns have been frequent and extensive into the
+United States within the last few years, and this famous breed is now
+pretty generally diffused over the country.</p>
+
+<p>The high-bred short horn is easily prepared for a show, and, as fat will
+cover faults, the temptation is often too great to be resisted; and
+hence it is not uncommon to see the finest animals rendered unfit for
+breeding purposes by over-feeding. The race is susceptible of breeding
+for the production of milk, as several families show, and great milkers
+have often been known among pure-bred animals; but it is more common to
+find it bred mainly for the butcher, and kept accordingly. It is,
+however, a well-known fact, that the dairies of London are stocked
+chiefly with short horns and Yorkshires, or high grades between them,
+which, after being milked as long as profitable, feed equal, or nearly
+so, to pure-bred short horns.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span> It has been said, by very good authority,
+that the short horns improve every breed with which they cross.</p>
+
+<p>The desirable characteristics of the short horn bull may be summed up,
+according to the judgment of the best breeders, as follows: He should
+have a short but fine head, very broad across the eyes, tapering to the
+nose, with a nostril full and prominent; the nose itself should be of a
+rich flesh color; eyes bright and mild; ears somewhat large and thin;
+horns slightly covered and rather flat, well set on; a long, broad,
+muscular neck; chest wide, deep, and projecting; shoulders fine,
+oblique, well formed into the chine; fore legs short, with upper arm
+large and powerful; barrel round, deep, well-ribbed horns; hips wide and
+level; back straight from the withers to the setting on of the tail, but
+short from hips to chine; skin soft and velvety to the touch; moderately
+thick hair, plentiful, soft, and mossy. The cow has the same points in
+the main, but her head is finer, longer, and more tapering; neck thinner
+and lighter, and shoulders more narrow across the chine.</p>
+
+<p>The astonishing precocity of the short horns, their remarkable aptitude
+to fatten, the perfection of their forms, and the fineness of their bony
+structure, give them an advantage over most other races when the object
+of breeding is for the shambles. No animal of any other breed can so
+rapidly transform the stock of any section around him as the improved
+short horn bull.</p>
+
+<p>It does not, however, follow that the high-bred short horns are
+unexceptionable, even for beef. The very exaggeration, so to speak, of
+the qualities which make them so valuable for the improvement of other
+and less perfect races, may become a fault when wanted for the table.
+The very rapidity with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span> which they increase in size is thought by some
+to prevent their meat from ripening up sufficiently before being hurried
+off to the butcher. The disproportion of the fatty to the muscular
+flesh, found in this to a greater extent than in races coming more
+slowly to maturity, makes the meat of the thorough-bred short horn, in
+the estimation of some, less agreeable to the taste, and less profitable
+to the consumer; since the nitrogenous compounds, true sources of
+nutriment, are found in less quantity than in the meat of animals not so
+highly bred.</p>
+
+<p>In sections where the climate is moist, and the food abundant and rich,
+some families of the short horns may be valuable for the dairy; but they
+are most frequently bred exclusively for beef in this country, and in
+sections where they have attained the highest perfection of form and
+beauty, so little is thought of their milking qualities that they are
+often not milked at all, the calf being allowed to run with the dam.</p>
+
+
+<h4><a name="THE_DUTCH" id="THE_DUTCH"></a>THE DUTCH.</h4>
+
+<p>This short horned race, in the opinion of many&mdash;as has been previously
+remarked&mdash;contributed largely, about a century ago, to build up the
+Durham or Teeswater stock. It has been bred with special reference to
+dairy qualities, and is eminently adapted to supply the wants of the
+dairy farmer. The cows of North Holland not only give a large quantity,
+but also a very good quality, so that a yield of sixteen to twenty-five
+quarts, wine measure, at every milking, is not rare.</p>
+
+<p>The principles upon which the inhabitants of Holland practise, in
+selecting a cow from which to breed, are as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> follows: She should have,
+they say, considerable size&mdash;not less than four and a half or five feet
+girth, with a length of body corresponding; legs proportionally short; a
+finely formed head, with a forehead or face somewhat concave; clear,
+large, mild and sparkling eyes, yet with no expression of wildness;
+tolerably large and stout ears, standing out from the head; fine, well
+curved horns; a rather short, than long, thick, broad neck, well set
+against the chest and withers; the front part of the breast and
+shoulders must be broad and fleshy; the low-hanging dewlap must be soft
+to the touch; the back and loins must be properly projected, somewhat
+broad, the bones not too sharp, but well covered with flesh; the animal
+should have long curved ribs, which form a broad breast bone; the body
+must be round and deep, but not sunken into a hanging belly; the rump
+must not be uneven, the hip-bones should not stand out too broad and
+spreading, but all the parts should be level and well filled up; a fine
+tail, set moderately high up and tolerably long, but slender, with a
+thick, bushy tuft of hair at the end, hanging down below the hocks; the
+legs must be short and low, but strong in the bony structure; the knees
+broad, with flexible joints; the muscles and sinews must be firm and
+sound, the hoofs broad and flat, and the position of the legs natural,
+not too close and crowded; the hide, covered with fine glossy hair, must
+be soft and mellow to the touch, and set loose upon the body. A large,
+rather long, white and loose udder, extending well back, with four long
+teats, serves also as a characteristic mark of a good milch cow. Large
+and prominent milk-veins must extend from the navel back to the udder;
+the belly of a good milch cow should not be too deep and hanging.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span> The
+color of the North Dutch cattle is mostly variegated. Cows with only one
+color are no favorites. Red or black variegated, gray and blue
+variegated, roan, spotted and white variegated cows, are especially
+liked.</p>
+
+
+<h4><a name="THE_HEREFORD" id="THE_HEREFORD"></a>THE HEREFORD.</h4>
+
+<p>These cattle derive their name from a county in the western part of
+England. Their general characteristics are a white face, sometimes
+mottled; white throat, the white generally extending back on the neck,
+and sometimes, though rarely, still further along on the back. The color
+of the rest of the body is red, generally dark, but sometimes light.
+Eighty years ago the best Hereford cattle were mottled or roan all over;
+and some of the best herds, down to a comparatively recent period, were
+either all mottled, or had the mottled or speckled face.</p>
+
+<p>The expression of the face is mild and lively; the forehead open, broad,
+and large; the eyes bright and full of vivacity; the horns glossy,
+slender and spreading; the head small, though larger than, and not quite
+so clear as, that of the Devons; the lower jaw fine; neck long and
+slender; chest deep; breast-bone large, prominent, and very muscular;
+the shoulder-blade light; shoulder full and soft; brisket and loins
+large; hips well developed, and on a level with the chine; hind quarters
+long and well filled in; buttocks on a level with the back, neither
+falling off nor raised above the hind quarters; tail slender, well set
+on; hair fine and soft; body round and full; carcass deep and well
+formed, or cylindrical; bone small; thigh short and well made; legs
+short and straight, and slender below the knee; as handlers very<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span>
+excellent, especially mellow to the touch on the back, the shoulder, and
+along the sides, the skin being soft, flexible, of medium thickness,
+rolling on the neck and the hips; hair bright; face almost bare, which
+is characteristic of pure Herefords.</p>
+
+<p>They belong to the middle horned division of the cattle of Great
+Britain, to which they are indigenous, and have been improved within the
+last century by careful selections.</p>
+
+<p>Hereford oxen are excellent animals, less active but stronger than the
+Devons, and very free and docile. The demand for Herefords for beef
+prevents their being much used for work in their native county, and the
+farmers there generally use horses instead of oxen.</p>
+
+<p>It is generally conceded that the qualities in which Herefords stand
+pre-eminent among the middle-sized breeds are in the production of oxen
+and their superiority of flesh. On these points there is little chance
+of their being excelled. It should, however, be borne in mind that the
+best oxen are not produced from the largest cows; nor is a superior
+quality of flesh, such as is considered very soft to the touch, with
+thin skin. It is the union of these two qualities which often
+characterizes the short horns; but Hereford breeders&mdash;as a recent writer
+remarks&mdash;should endeavor to maintain a higher standard of
+excellence&mdash;that for which the best of the breed have always been
+esteemed&mdash;a moderately thick, mellow hide, with a well apportioned
+combination of softness with elasticity. A sufficiency of hair is also
+desirable, and if accompanied with a disposition to curl moderately, it
+is more in esteem; but that which has a harsh and wiry feel is
+objectionable.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In point of symmetry and beauty of form, the well bred Herefords may be
+classed with the improved short horns, though they arrive somewhat more
+slowly at maturity, and never attain such weight. Like the improved
+short horns, they are chiefly bred for beef, and their beef is of the
+best quality in the English markets, commanding the highest price of
+any, except perhaps, the West Highlanders. The short horn produces more
+beef at the same age than the Hereford, but consumes more food in
+proportion.</p>
+
+<p>The Herefords are far less generally spread over England than the
+improved short horns. They have seldom been bred for milk, as some
+families of the latter have; and it is not very unusual to find
+pure-bred cows incapable of supplying milk sufficient to nourish their
+calves. They have been imported to this country to some extent, and
+several fine herds exist in different sections; the earliest
+importations being those of Henry Clay, of Kentucky, in 1817.</p>
+
+<p>The want of care and attention to the udder, soon after calving,
+especially if the cow be on luxuriant grass, often injures her milking
+properties exceedingly. The practice in the county of Hereford has
+generally been to let the calves suckle from four to six months, and
+bull calves often run eight months with the cow. But their dairy
+qualities are perhaps as good as those of any cattle whose fattening
+properties have been so carefully developed; and, though it is probable
+that they could be bred for milk with proper care and attention, yet, as
+this change would be at the expense of other qualities equally valuable,
+it would evidently be wiser to resort to other stock for the dairy.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4><a name="THE_NORTH_DEVONS" id="THE_NORTH_DEVONS"></a>THE NORTH DEVONS.</h4>
+
+<div class="center">
+    <a id="illus-041" name="illus-041"></a>
+    <img src="images/illus-041.png" width="600" height="327"
+       alt="" />
+    <p class="caption">A NORTH DEVON STEER.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>This beautiful race of middle horned cattle dates further back than any
+well established breed among us. It goes generally under the simple name
+of Devon; but the cattle of the southern part of the country, from which
+the race derives its name, differ somewhat from those of the northern,
+having a larger and coarser frame, and far less tendency to fatten
+though their dairy qualities are superior.</p>
+
+<p>The North Devons are remarkable for hardihood, symmetry and beauty, and
+are generally bred for work and for beef, rather than for the dairy. The
+head is fine and well set on; the horns of medium length, generally
+curved; color usually bright blood-red, but sometimes inclining to
+yellow; skin thin and orange-yellow; hair of medium length, soft and
+silky, making the animals remarkable as handlers; muzzle of the nose
+white; eyes full and mild; ears yellowish, or orange-color inside, of
+moderate size; neck rather long, with little dewlap; shoulders oblique;
+legs small and straight, with feet in proportion; chest of good width;
+ribs round and expanded; loins of first-rate quality, long, wide, and
+fleshy; hips round, of medium width; rump level; tail full near the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span>
+setting on, tapering to the tip; thighs of the bull and ox muscular and
+full, and high in the flank, though in the cow sometimes thought to be
+light; the size medium, generally called small. The proportion of meat
+on the valuable parts is greater, and the offal less, than on most other
+breeds, while it is well settled that they consume less food in its
+production. The Devons are popular with the Smithfield butchers, and
+their beef is well marbled or grained.</p>
+
+<p>As working oxen, the Devons perhaps excel all other races in quickness,
+docility, beauty, and the ease with which they are matched. With a
+reasonable load, they are said to be equal to horses as walkers on the
+road, and when they are no longer wanted for work they fatten easily and
+turn well.</p>
+
+<p>As milkers, they do not excel&mdash;perhaps they may be said not to
+equal&mdash;the other breeds, and they have a reputation of being decidedly
+below the average. In their native country the general average of the
+dairy is one pound of butter a day during the summer. They are bred for
+beef and for work, and not for the dairy; and their yield of milk is
+small, though of a rich quality. Several animals, however, of the
+celebrated Patterson herd would have been remarkable as milkers even
+among good milking stock.</p>
+
+<p>Still, the faults of the North Devon cow, considered as a dairy animal,
+are too marked to be overlooked. The rotundity of form and compactness
+of frame, though they contribute to her remarkable beauty constitute an
+objection to her for this purpose: since it is generally admitted that
+the peculiarity of form which disposes an animal to take on fat is
+somewhat incompatible with good milking qualities. On this account,
+Youatt&mdash;who is standard authority in such<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span> matters&mdash;says that for the
+dairy the North Devon must be acknowledged to be inferior to several
+other breeds. The milk is good, and yields more than the average
+proportion of cream and butter; but it is deficient in quantity. He also
+maintains that its property as a milker could not be improved without
+producing a certain detriment to its grazing qualities. Distinguished
+Devon breeders themselves have come to the same conclusion upon this
+point. The improved North Devon cow may be classed, in this respect,
+with the Hereford, neither of which has well developed milk-vessels&mdash;a
+point of the utmost consequence to the practical dairyman.</p>
+
+
+<h4><a name="NATIVE_CATTLE" id="NATIVE_CATTLE"></a>NATIVE CATTLE.</h4>
+
+<p>The foregoing comprise the pure-bred races in America; for, though other
+and well-established breeds&mdash;like the Galloways, the long horns, the
+Spanish, and others&mdash;have, at times, been imported, and have had some
+influence on our American stock, yet they have not been kept distinct to
+such an extent as to become the prevailing stock of any particular
+section.</p>
+
+<p>A large proportion, however&mdash;by far the largest proportion, indeed&mdash;of
+the cattle known among us cannot be included under any of the races to
+which allusion has been made; and to the consideration of this class the
+present article is devoted.</p>
+
+<p>The term "breed"&mdash;as was set forth in the author's treatise, "The Horse
+and his Diseases"&mdash;when properly understood, applies only to animals of
+the same species, possessing, besides the general characteristics of
+that species, other characteristics peculiar to themselves, which they
+owe<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span> to the influence of soil, climate, nourishment, and the habits of
+life to which they are subjected, and which they transmit with certainty
+to their progeny. The characteristics of certain breeds or families are
+so well marked, that, if an individual supposed to belong to any one of
+them were to produce an offspring not possessing them, or possessing
+them only in part, with others not belonging to the breed, it would be
+just ground for suspecting a want of purity of bloods.</p>
+
+<p>In this view, no grade animals, and no animals destitute of fixed
+peculiarities or characteristics which they, share in common with all
+other animals of the class of which they are a type, and which they are
+capable of transmitting with certainty to their descendants, can be
+recognized by breeders as belonging to any one distinct race, breed, or
+family.</p>
+
+<p>The term "native" is applied to a vast majority of our American cattle,
+which, though born on the soil, and thus in one sense natives, do not
+constitute a breed, race, or family, as correctly understood by
+breeders. They do not possess characteristics peculiar to them all,
+which they transmit with any certainty to their offspring, either of
+form, size, color, milking or working properties.</p>
+
+<p>But, though an animal may be made up of a mixture of blood almost to
+impurity, it does not follow that, for specific purposes, it may not, as
+an individual animal, be one of the best of the species. Indeed, for
+particular purposes, animals might be selected from among those commonly
+called "natives" in New England, and "scrubs" at the west and south,
+equal, and perhaps superior, to any among the races produced by the most
+skillful breeding.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>There can be no objection, therefore, to the use of the term "native,"
+when it is understood as descriptive of no known breed, but only as
+applied to the common stock of a country, which does not constitute a
+breed. But perhaps the entire class of animals commonly called "natives"
+would be more accurately described as grades; since they are well known
+to have sprung from a great variety of cattle procured at different
+times and in different places on the continent of Europe, in England,
+and in the Spanish West Indies, brought together without any regard to
+fixed principles of breeding, but only from individual convenience, and
+by accident.</p>
+
+<p>The first importations to this country were doubtless those taken to
+Virginia previous to 1609, though the exact date of their arrival is not
+known. Several cows were carried there from the West Indies in 1610, and
+in the next year no less than one hundred arrived there from abroad.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+    <a id="illus-045" name="illus-045"></a>
+    <img src="images/illus-045.png" width="600" height="352"
+       alt="" />
+    <p class="caption">DRAFT OXEN.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The earliest cattle imported into New England arrived in 1624. At the
+division of cattle which took place three years<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span> after, one or two are
+distinctly described as black, or black and white, others as brindle,
+showing that there was no uniformity of color. Soon after this, a large
+number of cattle were brought over from England for the settlers at
+Salem. These importations formed the original stock of Massachusetts.</p>
+
+<p>In 1725, the first importation was made into New York from Holland by
+the Dutch West India Company, and the foundation was then laid for an
+exceedingly valuable race of animals, which, subsequent importations
+from the same country, as well as from England, have greatly improved.
+The points and value of this race in its purity have been already
+adverted to under the head of the Dutch cattle.</p>
+
+<p>In 1627, cattle were brought from Sweden to the settlements on the
+Delaware, by the Swedish West India Company. In 1631, 1632, and 1633,
+several importations were made into New Hampshire by Captain John Mason
+who, with Gorges, had procured the patent of large tracts of land in the
+vicinity of the Piscataqua river, and who immediately formed settlements
+there. The object of Mason was to carry on the manufacture of potash.
+For this purpose he employed the Danes; and it was in his voyage to and
+from Denmark that he procured many Danish cattle and horses, which were
+subsequently scattered over that entire region, large numbers being
+driven to the vicinity of Boston and sold. These Danish cattle are
+described as large and coarse, of a yellow color; and it is supposed
+that they were procured by Mason as being best capable of enduring the
+severity of the climate and the hardships to which they would be
+subjected.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>However this may have been, they very soon spread among the colonists of
+the Massachusetts Bay, and have undoubtedly left their marks on the
+stock of the New England and the Middle States, which exist to some
+extent even to the present day, mixed in with an infinite multitude of
+crosses with the Devons, the Dutch cattle already alluded to, the black
+cattle of Spain and Wales, and the long horn and the short horn&mdash;most of
+which crosses were accidental, or due to local circumstances or
+individual convenience. Many of these cattle, the descendants of such
+crosses, are of a very high order of merit; but to which particular
+cross this is due, it is impossible to say. They generally make hardy,
+strong, and docile oxen, easily broken to the yoke and quick to work,
+with a fair tendency to fatten when well fed; while the cows, though
+often ill-shaped, are sometimes remarkably good milkers, especially as
+regards the quantity which they give.</p>
+
+<p>Indeed, it has been remarked by excellent judges of stock, that if they
+desired to select a dairy of cows for milk for sale, they would make
+their selection from cows commonly called native, in preference to
+pure-bred animals of any of the established breeds, and that they
+believed they should find such a dairy the most profitable.</p>
+
+<p>In color, the natives, made up as already indicated, are exceedingly
+various. The old Denmarks, which to a considerable extent laid the
+foundation of the stock of Maine and New Hampshire, were light yellow.
+The Dutch of New York and the Middle States, were black and white; the
+Spanish and Welsh were generally black; the Devons, which are supposed
+to have laid the foundation of the stock of some<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span> of the States, were
+red. Crosses of the Denmark with the Spanish and Welsh naturally made a
+dark brindle; crosses of the Devon often made a lighter or yellowish
+brindle while the more recent importations of Jerseys and short horns
+have generally produced a beautiful spotted progeny. The deep red has
+long been a favorite color in New England; but the prejudice in its
+favor is fast giving way to more variegated colors.</p>
+
+<p>Among the earlier importations into this country were also several
+varieties of hornless cattle, which have been kept measurably distinct
+in some sections; or where they have been crossed with the common stock
+there has been a tendency to produce hornless grades. These are not
+unfrequently known as "buffalo cattle." They were, in many cases,
+supposed to belong to the Galloway breed; or, which is more likely, to
+the Suffolk dun, a variety of the Galloway, and a far better milking
+stock than the Galloways, from which, it sprung. These polled, or
+hornless cattle vary in color and qualities, but they are usually very
+good milkers when well kept, and many of them fatten well, and attain
+good weight.</p>
+
+<p>The Hungarian cattle have also been imported, to some extent, into
+different parts of the country, and have been crossed upon the natives
+with some success. Many other strains of blood from different breeds
+have also contributed to build up the common stock of the country of the
+present day; and there can be no question that its appearance and value
+have been largely improved during the last quarter of a century, nor
+that improvements are still in progress which will lead to satisfactory
+results in the future.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>But, though we already have an exceedingly valuable foundation for
+improvement, no one will pretend to deny that our cattle, as a whole,
+are susceptible of it in many respects. They possess neither the size,
+the symmetry, nor the early maturity of the short horns; they do not, as
+a general thing, possess the fineness of bone, the beauty of form and
+color, nor the activity of the Devons or the Herefords; they do not
+possess that uniform richness of milk, united with generous quality, of
+the Ayrshires, nor the surpassing richness of milk of the Jerseys: but,
+above all, they do not possess the power of transmitting the many good
+qualities which they often have to their offspring&mdash;which is the
+characteristic of all well established breeds.</p>
+
+<p>It is equally certain, in the opinion of many good judges, that the
+dairy stock of the country has not been materially improved in its
+intrinsic good qualities during the last thirty or forty years. This may
+not be true of certain sections, where the dairy has been made a special
+object of pursuit, and where the custom of raising the best male calves
+of the neighborhood, or those that came from the best dairy cows, and
+then of using only the best formed bulls, has long prevailed. Although
+in this way some progress has, doubtless, been made, there are still
+room and need for more. More attention must be paid to correct
+principles of breeding before the satisfactory results which every
+farmer should strive to reach can be attained.</p>
+
+<p>Having glanced generally at the leading breeds of cattle in Great
+Britain, and examined, more in detail, the various breeds in the United
+States, the next subject demanding attention is,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="THE_NATURAL_HISTORY_OF_CATTLE" id="THE_NATURAL_HISTORY_OF_CATTLE"></a>THE NATURAL HISTORY OF CATTLE.</h3>
+
+<p><a id="illus-050" name="illus-050"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px">
+    <img src="images/illus-050.png" width="800" height="482"
+       alt="" />
+    <p class="caption">SKELETON OF THE OX AS COVERED BY THE MUSCLES.</p>
+<p>1. The upper jaw-bone. 2. The nasal bone, or bone of the nose. 3. The
+lachrymal bone. 4. The malar, or cheek bone. 5. The frontal bone, or
+bone of the forehead. 6. The horns, being processes or continuations of
+the frontal. 7. The temporal bone. 8. The parietal bone, low in the
+temporal fossa. 9. The occipital bone, deeply depressed below the crest
+or ridge of the head. 10. The lower jaw. 11. The grinders. 12. The
+nippers, found on the lower jaw alone. 13. The ligament of the neck, and
+its attachments. 14. The atlas. 16. The
+dentata. 17. The orbits of the eye. 18. The vertebr&aelig;, or bones of the
+neck. 19. The bones of the back. 20. The bones of the loins. 21. The
+sacrum. 22. The bones of the tail. 23. The haunch and pelvis. 24. The
+eight true ribs. 25. The false ribs, with their cartilages. 26. The
+sternum. 27. The scapula, or shoulder-blade. 28. The humerus, or lower
+bone of the shoulder. 29. The radius, or principal bone of the arm. 40.
+The ulna, its upper part forming the
+elbow. 41. The small bones of the knee. 42. The large metacarpal or
+shank bone. 43. The smaller or splint bone. 44. The sessamoid bones. 45.
+The bifurcation at the pasterns, and the two larger pasterns to each
+foot. 46. The two smaller pasterns to each foot. 47. The two coffin
+bones to each foot. 48. The navicular bones. 49. The thigh bone. 50. The
+patella, or bone of the knee. 51. The tibia, or proper leg bone. 52. The
+point of the hock. 53. The small bones of the hock. 54. The metatarsals,
+or larger bones of the hind leg. 55. The pasterns and feet.</p>
+</div>
+
+<ul>
+<li><span class="smcap">Division.</span> <i>Vertebrata</i>&mdash;possessing a back-bone.</li>
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span><span class="smcap">Class.</span> <i>Mammalia</i>&mdash;such as give suck.</li>
+<li><span class="smcap">Order.</span> <i>Ruminantia</i>&mdash;chewing the cud.</li>
+<li><span class="smcap">Family.</span> With horns.</li>
+<li><span class="smcap">Genus.</span> <i>Bovid&aelig;</i>&mdash;the ox tribe.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Of this tribe there are eight species:</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li><i>Bos urus</i>, the ancient bison.</li>
+<li><i>Bos bison</i>, the American buffalo.</li>
+<li><i>Bos moschatus</i>, the musk ox.</li>
+<li><i>Bos frontalis</i>, the gayal.</li>
+<li><i>Bos grunniens</i>, the grunting ox.</li>
+<li><i>Bos caffer</i>, the South African buffalo.</li>
+<li><i>Bos bubalus</i>, the common buffalo.</li>
+<li><i>Bos taurus</i>, the common domestic ox.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<h4><a name="GESTATION" id="GESTATION"></a>GESTATION.</h4>
+
+<p>The usual period of pregnancy in a cow is nine calendar months, and
+something over: at times as much as three weeks. With one thousand and
+thirty one cows, whose gestations were carefully observed in France, the
+average period was about two hundred and eighty-five days.</p>
+
+
+<h4><a name="FORMATION_OF_TEETH" id="FORMATION_OF_TEETH"></a>FORMATION OF TEETH.</h4>
+
+<p>It is of the utmost importance to be able to judge of the age of a cow.
+Few farmers wish to purchase a cow for the dairy after she has passed
+her prime, which will ordinarily be at the age of nine or ten years,
+varying, of course, according to care, feeding, &amp;c., in the earlier part
+of her life.</p>
+
+<p>The common method of forming an estimate of the age of cattle is by an
+examination of the horn. At three years old, as a general rule, the
+horns are perfectly smooth; after this, a ring appears near the nob, and
+annually afterward a new<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span> one is formed, so that, by adding two years to
+the first ring, the age is calculated. This is a very uncertain mode of
+judging. The rings are distinct only in the cow; and it is well known
+that if a heifer goes to bull when she is two years old, or a little
+before or after that time, a change takes place in the horn and the
+first ring appears; so that a real three-year-old would carry the mark
+of a four-year-old.</p>
+
+<p><a id="illus-052a" name="illus-052a"></a>
+   <a id="illus-052b" name="illus-052b"></a>
+</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;">
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 325px;">
+    <img src="images/illus-052a.png" width="300" height="344"
+       alt="" />
+    <p class="caption">TEETH AT BIRTH.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 325px;">
+    <img src="images/illus-052b.png" width="300" height="327"
+       alt="" style="padding-top: 17px;" />
+    <p class="caption">SECOND WEEK.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="clear">The rings on the horns of a bull are either not seen until five, or they
+cannot be traced at all; while in the ox they do not appear till he is
+five years old, and then are often very indistinct. In addition to this,
+it is by no means an uncommon practice to file the horns, so as to make
+them smooth, and to give the animal the appearance of being much younger
+than it really is. This is, therefore, an exceedingly fallacious guide,
+and cannot be relied upon by any one with the degree of confidence
+desired.</p>
+
+<p>The surest indication of the age in cattle, as in the horse, is given by
+the teeth.</p>
+
+<p>The calf, at birth, will usually have two incisor or front teeth&mdash;in
+some cases just appearing through the gums; in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span> others, fully set,
+varying as the cow falls short of, or exceeds, her regular time of
+calving. If she overruns several days, the teeth will have set and
+attained considerable size, as appears in the cut representing teeth at
+birth. During the second week, a tooth will usually be added on each
+side, and the mouth will generally appear as in the next cut; and before
+the end of the third week, the animal will generally have six incisor
+teeth, as denoted in the cut representing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span> teeth at the third week; and
+in a week from that time the full number of incisors will have appeared,
+as seen in the next cut.</p>
+
+<p><a id="illus-053a" name="illus-053a"></a>
+   <a id="illus-053b" name="illus-053b"></a>
+</p>
+   <div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;">
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 325px;">
+    <img src="images/illus-053a.png" width="300" height="299"
+       alt="" />
+    <p class="caption">THREE WEEKS.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 325px;">
+    <img src="images/illus-053b.png" width="300" height="294"
+       alt="" style="padding-top: 5px;" />
+    <p class="caption">MONTH.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="clear"><a id="illus-053c" name="illus-053c"></a>
+   <a id="illus-053d" name="illus-053d"></a>
+</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;">
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 325px;">
+    <img src="images/illus-053c.png" width="300" height="296"
+       alt="" style="padding-top: 9px;" />
+    <p class="caption">FIVE TO EIGHT MONTHS.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 325px;">
+    <img src="images/illus-053d.png" width="300" height="305"
+       alt="" />
+    <p class="caption">TEN MONTHS.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="clear"><a id="illus-054a" name="illus-054a"></a>
+   <a id="illus-054b" name="illus-054b"></a>
+</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;">
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 325px;">
+    <img src="images/illus-054a.png" width="300" height="314"
+       alt="" />
+    <p class="caption">TWELVE MONTHS.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 325px;">
+    <img src="images/illus-054b.png" width="300" height="310"
+       alt="" style="padding-top: 4px;" />
+    <p class="caption">FIFTEEN MONTHS.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="clear">These teeth are temporary, and are often called milk-teeth. Their edge
+is very sharp; and as the animal begins to live upon more solid food,
+this edge becomes worn, showing the bony part of the tooth beneath, and
+indicates with considerable precision the length of time they have been
+used. The centre, or oldest teeth show the marks of age first, and often
+become somewhat worn before the corner teeth appear. At eight weeks, the
+four inner teeth are nearly as sharp as before. They appear worn not so
+much on the outer edge or line of the tooth, as inside this line; but,
+after this, the edge begins gradually to lose its sharpness, and to
+present a more flattened surface; while the next outer teeth wear down
+like the four central ones; and at three months this wearing off is very
+apparent, till at four months all the incisor teeth appear worn, but the
+inner ones the most. Now the teeth begin slowly to diminish in size by
+a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span> kind of contraction, as well as wearing down, and the distance apart
+becomes more and more apparent.</p>
+
+<p>From the fifth to the eighth month, the inner teeth will usually appear
+as in the cut of the teeth at that time; and at ten months, this change
+shows more clearly, as represented in the next cut; and the spaces
+between them begin to show very plainly, till at a year old they
+ordinarily present the appearance of the following cut; and at the age
+of fifteen months, that shown in the next, where the corner teeth are
+not more than half the original size, and the centre ones still smaller.</p>
+
+<p><a id="illus-055a" name="illus-055a"></a>
+   <a id="illus-055b" name="illus-055b"></a>
+</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;">
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 325px;">
+    <img src="images/illus-055a.png" width="300" height="311"
+       alt="" style="padding-top: 1px;" />
+    <p class="caption">EIGHTEEN MONTHS.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 325px;">
+    <img src="images/illus-055b.png" width="300" height="312"
+       alt="" />
+    <p class="caption">TWO YEARS PAST.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="clear">The permanent teeth are now rapidly growing, and preparing to take the
+place of the milk-teeth, which are gradually absorbed till they
+disappear, or are pushed out to give place to the two permanent central
+incisors, which at a year and a half will generally present the
+appearance indicated in the cut, which shows the internal structure of
+the lower jaw at this time, with the cells of the teeth, the two central
+ones protruding into the mouth, the next two pushing up, but not quite
+grown to the surface,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span> with the third pair just perceptible. These
+changes require time; and at two years past the jaw will usually appear
+as in the cut, where four of the permanent central incisors are seen.
+After this, the other milk-teeth decrease rapidly, but are slow to
+disappear; and at three years old, the third pair of permanent teeth are
+but formed, as represented in the cut; and at four years the last pair
+of incisors will be up, as in the cut of that age; but the outside ones
+are not yet fully<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span> grown, and the beast can hardly be said to be
+full-mouthed till the age of five years. But before this age, or at the
+age of four years, the two inner pairs of permanent teeth are beginning
+to wear at the edges, as shown in the cut; while at five years old the
+whole set becomes somewhat worn down at the top, and on the two centre
+ones a darker line appears in the middle, along a line of harder bone,
+as appears in the appropriate cut.</p>
+
+<p class="clear"><a id="illus-056a" name="illus-056a"></a>
+   <a id="illus-056b" name="illus-056b"></a>
+</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;">
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 325px;">
+    <img src="images/illus-056a.png" width="300" height="299"
+       alt="" />
+    <p class="caption">THREE YEARS PAST.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 325px;">
+    <img src="images/illus-056b.png" width="300" height="294"
+       alt="" style="padding-top: 5px;" />
+    <p class="caption">FOUR YEARS PAST.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="clear"><a id="illus-056c" name="illus-056c"></a>
+   <a id="illus-056d" name="illus-056d"></a>
+</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;">
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 325px;">
+    <img src="images/illus-056c.png" width="300" height="287"
+       alt="" style="padding-top: 4px;" />
+    <p class="caption">FIVE YEARS PAST.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 325px;">
+    <img src="images/illus-056d.png" width="300" height="291"
+       alt="" />
+    <p class="caption">TEN YEARS PAST.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="clear">Now will come a year or two, and sometimes three, when the teeth do not
+so clearly indicate the exact age, and the judgment must be guided by
+the extent to which the dark middle lines are worn. This will depend
+somewhat upon the exposure and feeding of the animal; but at seven years
+these lines extend over all the teeth. At eight years, another change
+begins, which cannot be mistaken. A kind of absorption begins with the
+two central incisors&mdash;slow at first, but perceptible&mdash;and these two
+teeth become smaller than the rest, while the dark lines are worn into
+one in all but the corner teeth, till, at ten years, four of the central
+incisors have become smaller in size, with a smaller and fainter mark,
+as indicated in the proper cut. At eleven, the six inner teeth are
+smaller than the corner ones; and at twelve, all become smaller than
+they were, while the dark lines are nearly gone, except in the corner
+teeth, and the inner edge is worn to the gum.</p>
+
+
+<h4><a name="POINTS_OF_A_GOOD_COW" id="POINTS_OF_A_GOOD_COW"></a>POINTS OF A GOOD COW.</h4>
+
+<p>After satisfaction is afforded touching the age of a cow, she should be
+examined with reference to her soundness of constitution. A good
+constitution is indicated by large<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span> lungs, which are found in a deep,
+broad, and prominent chest, broad and well-spread ribs, a respiration
+somewhat slow and regular, a good appetite, and if in milk a strong
+inclination to drink, which a large secretion of milk almost invariably
+stimulates. In such a cow the digestive organs are active and energetic,
+and they make an abundance of good blood, which in turn stimulates the
+activity of the nervous system, and furnishes the milky glands with the
+means of abundant secretion. Such a cow, when dry, readily takes on fat.
+When activity of the milk-glands is found united with close ribs, small
+and feeble lungs, and a slow appetite, often attended by great thirst,
+the cow will generally possess only a weak and feeble constitution; and
+if the milk is plentiful, it will generally be of bad quality, while the
+animal, if she does not die of diseased lungs, will not readily take on
+fat, when dry and fed.</p>
+
+<p><a id="illus-058" name="illus-058"></a></p>
+<div class="figleft">
+    <img src="images/illus-058.png" width="555" height="600"
+       alt="" />
+    <p class="caption">A GOOD MILCH COW.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In order to have no superfluous flesh, the cow should have a small,
+clean, and rather long head, tapering toward the muzzle. A cow with a
+large, coarse head will seldom fatten readily, or give a large quantity
+of milk. A coarse head increases the proportion of weight of the least
+valuable parts, while it is a sure indication that the whole bony
+structure is too heavy. The mouth should be large and broad; the eye
+bright and sparkling, but of a peculiar placidness of expression,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span> with
+no indication of wildness, but rather a mild and feminine look. These
+points will indicate gentleness of disposition. Such cows seem to like
+to be milked, are fond of being caressed, and often return caresses. The
+horns should be small, short, tapering, yellowish, and glistening. The
+neck should be small, thin, and tapering toward the head, but thickening
+when it approaches the shoulder; the dewlaps small. The fore quarters
+should be rather small when compared with the hind quarters. The form of
+the barrel will be large, and each rib should project further than the
+preceding one, up to the loins. She should be well formed across the
+hips and in the rump.</p>
+
+<p>The spine or back-bone should be straight and long, rather loosely hung,
+or open along the middle part, the result of the distance between the
+dorsal vertebr&aelig;, which sometimes causes a slight depression, or sway
+back. By some good judges, this mark is regarded as of great importance,
+especially when the bones of the hind quarters are also rather loosely
+put together, leaving the rump of great width and the pelvis large, and
+the organs and milk-vessels lodged in the cavities largely developed.
+The skin over the rump should be loose and flexible. This point is of
+great importance; and as, when the cow is in low condition or very poor,
+it will appear somewhat harder and closer than it otherwise would, some
+practice and close observation are required to judge well of this mark.
+The skin, indeed, all over the body, should be soft and mellow to the
+touch, with soft and glossy hair. The tail, if thick at the setting on,
+should taper and be fine below.</p>
+
+<p>But the udder is of special importance. It should be large<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span> in
+proportion to the size of the animal, and the skin thin, with soft,
+loose folds extending well back, capable of great distension when
+filled, but shrinking to a small compass when entirely empty. It must be
+free from lumps in every part, and provided with four teats set well
+apart, and of medium size. Nor is it less important to observe the
+milk-veins carefully. The principal ones under the belly should be large
+and prominent, and extend forward to the navel, losing themselves,
+apparently, in the very best milkers, in a large cavity in the flesh,
+into which the end of the finger can be inserted; but when the cow is
+not in full milk, the milk-vein, at other times very prominent, is not
+so distinctly traced; and hence, to judge of its size when the cow is
+dry, or nearly so, this vein may be pressed near its end, or at its
+entrance into the body, when it will immediately fill up to its full
+size. This vein does not convey the milk to the udder, as some suppose,
+but is the channel by which the blood returns; and its contents consist
+of the refuse of the secretion, or of what has not been taken up in
+forming milk. There are also veins in the udder, and the perineum, or
+the space above the udder, and between that and the buttocks, which it
+is of special importance to observe. These veins should be largely
+developed, and irregular or knotted, especially those of the udder. They
+are largest in great milkers.</p>
+
+<p>The knotted veins of the perineum, extending from above downwards in a
+winding line, are not readily seen in young heifers, and are very
+difficult to find in poor cows, or those of only a medium quality. They
+are easily found in very good milkers, and if not at first apparent,
+they are made so by pressing upon them at the base of the perineum,
+when<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span> they swell up and send the blood back toward the vulva. They form
+a kind of thick network under the skin of the perineum, raising it up
+somewhat, in some cases near the vulva, in others nearer down and closer
+to the udder. It is important to look for these veins, as they often
+form a very important guide, and by some they would be considered as
+furnishing the surest indications of the milking qualities of the cow.
+Full development almost always shows an abundant secretion of milk; but
+they are far better developed after the cow has had two or three calves,
+when two or three years' milking has given full activity to the milky
+glands, and attracted a large flow of blood. The larger and more
+prominent these veins the better. It is needless to say that in
+observing them some regard should be had to the condition of the cow,
+the thickness of skin and fat by which they may be surrounded, and the
+general activity and food of the animal. Food calculated to stimulate
+the greatest flow of milk will naturally increase these veins, and give
+them more than usual prominence.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="THE_MILK-MIRROR" id="THE_MILK-MIRROR"></a>THE MILK-MIRROR.</h3>
+
+<p>The discovery of M. Gu&eacute;non, of Bordeaux, in France&mdash;a man of remarkable
+practical sagacity, and a close observer of stock&mdash;consisted in the
+connection between the milking qualities of the cow and certain external
+marks on the udder, and on the space above it, called the perineum,
+extending to the buttocks. To these marks he gave the name of
+milk-mirror, or escutcheon, which consists in certain perceptible spots
+rising up from the udder in different directions, forms and sizes, on
+which the hair grows upward, whilst the hair<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span> on other parts of the body
+grows downward. The reduction of these marks into a system, explaining
+the value of particular forms and sizes of the milk-mirror, belongs
+exclusively to Gu&eacute;non.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+    <a id="illus-062" name="illus-062"></a>
+    <img src="images/illus-062.png" width="400" height="562"
+       alt="" />
+    <p class="caption">MILK-MIRROR [A.]</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>He divided the milk-mirror into eight classes, and each class into eight
+orders, making in all no less than sixty-four divisions, which he
+afterward increased by subdivisions, thus rendering the whole system
+complicated in the extreme, especially as he professed to be able to
+judge with accuracy, by means of the milk-mirror, not only of the exact
+quantity a cow would give, but also of the quality of the milk, and of
+the length of time it would continue. He endeavored to prove too much,
+and was, as a matter of consequence, frequently at fault himself.</p>
+
+<p>Despite the strictures which have been passed upon Gu&eacute;non's method of
+judging of cows, the best breeders and judges of stock concur in the
+opinion, as the result of their observations, that cows with the most
+perfectly developed milk-mirrors are, with rare exception, the best
+milkers of their breed; and that cows with small and slightly developed
+milk-mirrors are, in the majority of cases, bad milkers. There are,
+undoubtedly, cows with very small mirrors, which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span> are, nevertheless,
+very fair in the yield of milk; and among those with middling quality of
+mirrors, instances of rather more than ordinary milkers often occur,
+while at the same time it is true that cases now and then are found
+where the very best marked and developed mirrors are found on very poor
+milkers. These apparent exceptions, however, are to be explained, in the
+large majority of cases, by causes outside of those which affect the
+appearance of the milk-mirror. It is, of course, impossible to estimate
+with mathematical accuracy either the quantity, quality, or duration of
+the milk, since it is affected by so many chance circumstances, which
+cannot always be known or estimated by even the most skillful judges;
+such, for example, as the food, the treatment, the temperament,
+accidental diseases, inflammation of the udder, premature calving, the
+climate and season, the manner in which she has been milked, and a
+thousand other things which interrupt or influence the flow of milk,
+without materially changing the size or shape of the milk-mirror. It
+has, indeed, been very justly observed that we often see cows equally
+well formed, with precisely the same milk-mirror,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span> and kept in the same
+circumstances, yet giving neither equal quantities nor similar qualities
+of milk. Nor could it be otherwise; since the action of the organs
+depends, not merely on their size and form, but, to a great extent, on
+the general condition of each individual.</p>
+
+<p><a id="illus-063a" name="illus-063a"></a>
+   <a id="illus-063b" name="illus-063b"></a>
+</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;">
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 325px;">
+    <img src="images/illus-063a.png" width="250" height="385"
+       alt="" />
+    <p class="caption">MILK-MIRROR [B.]</p>
+</div>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 325px;">
+    <img src="images/illus-063b.png" width="250" height="358"
+       alt="" style="padding-top: 27px;" />
+    <p class="caption">MILK-MIRROR [C.]</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p style="clear: both;">The different forms of milk-mirrors are represented by the shaded parts
+of cuts, lettered A, B, C, D; but it is necessary to premise that upon
+the cows themselves they are always partly concealed by the thighs, the
+udder, and the folds of the skin, which are not shown, and therefore
+they are not always so uniform in nature as they appear in the cuts.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+    <a id="illus-064" name="illus-064"></a>
+    <img src="images/illus-064.png" width="250" height="369"
+       alt="" />
+    <p class="caption">MILK-MIRROR [D.]</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Their size varies as the skin is more or less folded or stretched; while
+the cuts represent the skin as uniform or free from folds, but not
+stretched out. It is usually very easy to distinguish the milk-mirrors
+by the upward direction of the hair which forms them. They are sometimes
+marked by a line of bristly hair growing in the opposite direction,
+which surrounds them, forming a sort of outline by the upward and
+downward growing hair. Yet, when the hair is very fine and short, mixed
+with longer hairs, and the skin much folded, and the udder voluminous
+and pressed by the thighs, it is necessary, in order to distinguish the
+part enclosed between the udder and the legs, and examine the full size
+of the mirrors, to observe them attentively, and to place the legs wide
+apart, and to smooth out the skin, in order to avoid the folds.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The mirrors may also be observed by holding the back of the hand against
+the perineum, and drawing it from above downward, when the nails rubbing
+against the up-growing hair, make the parts covered by it very
+perceptible.</p>
+
+<p>As the hair of the milk-mirror has not the same direction as the hair
+which surrounds it, it may often be distinguished by a difference in the
+shade reflected by it. It is then sufficient to place it properly to the
+light in order to see the difference in shade, and to make out the part
+covered by the upward-growing hair. Most frequently, however, the hair
+of the milk-mirror is thin and fine, and the color of the skin can
+easily be seen. If the eye alone is trusted, we shall often be deceived.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+    <a id="illus-065" name="illus-065"></a>
+    <img src="images/illus-065.png" width="400" height="582"
+       alt="" />
+    <p class="caption">MILK-MIRROR [E.]</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In some countries cattle-dealers shave the back part of the cow. Just
+after this operation the mirrors can neither be seen nor felt; but this
+inconvenience ceases in a few days. It may be added that the
+shaving&mdash;designed, as the dealers say, to beautify the cow&mdash;is generally
+intended simply to destroy the milk-mirror, and to deprive buyers of one
+means of judging of the milking qualities of the cows. It is unnecessary
+to add that the cows most carefully shaven are those which are badly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span>
+marked, and that it is prudent to take it for granted that cows so shorn
+are bad milkers.</p>
+
+<p>Milk-mirrors vary in position, extent, and the figure which they
+represent. They may be divided according to their position, into mirrors
+or escutcheons, properly so called, or into lower and upper tufts, or
+escutcheons. The latter are very small in comparison with the former,
+and are situated in close proximity to the vulva, as seen at 1, in cut
+E. They are very common on cows of bad milking races, but are very
+rarely seen on the best milch cows. They consist of one or two ovals, or
+small bands of up-growing hair, and serve to indicate the continuance of
+the flow of milk. The period is short, in proportion as the tufts are
+large. They must not be confounded with the escutcheon proper, which is
+often extended up to the vulva. They are separated from it by bands of
+hair, more or less large, as in cut marked F.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+    <a id="illus-066" name="illus-066"></a>
+    <img src="images/illus-066.png" width="250" height="361"
+       alt="" />
+    <p class="caption">MILK-MIRROR [F.]</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Milk-mirrors are sometimes symmetrical, and sometimes without symmetry.
+When there is a great difference in the extent of the two halves, it
+almost always happens that the teats on the side where the mirror is
+best developed give more milk than those of the opposite side. The left
+half of the mirror, it may be remarked, is almost always the largest;
+and so, when the perinean part is folded into a square, it is on this
+side of the body that it unfolds. Of three thousand cows in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span> Denmark,
+but a single one was found, whose escutcheon varied even a little from
+this rule.</p>
+
+<p>The mirrors having a value in proportion to the space which they occupy,
+it is of great importance to attend to all the rows of down-growing
+hairs, which diminish the extent of surface, whether these tufts are in
+the midst of the mirror, or form indentations on its edges.</p>
+
+<p>These indentations, concealed in part by the folds of the skin, are
+sometimes seen with difficulty; but it is important to take them into
+account, since in a great many cows they materially lessen the size of
+the mirror. Cows are often found, whose milk-mirrors at first sight
+appear very large, but which are only medium milkers; and it will
+usually be found that lateral indentations greatly diminish the surface
+of up-growing hair. Many errors are committed in estimating the value of
+such cows, from a want of attention to the real extent of the mirror.</p>
+
+<p>All the interruptions in the surface of the mirror indicate a diminution
+in the quantity of the milk, with the exception, however, of small oval
+or elliptical plates which are found in the mirror, on the back part of
+the udders of the best cows, as represented in the cut already given,
+marked A. These ovals have a peculiar tint, which is occasioned by the
+downward direction of the hair which forms them. In the best cows these
+ovals exist with the lower mirrors very well developed, as represented
+in the cut just named.</p>
+
+<p>In short, it should be stated that, in order to determine the extent and
+significance of a mirror, it is necessary to consider the state of the
+perineum as to fat, and that of the fullness of the udder. In a fat cow,
+with an inflated udder, the mirror<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span> would appear larger than it really
+is; whilst in a lean cow, with a loose and wrinkled udder, it appears
+smaller. Fat will cover faults&mdash;a fact to be borne in mind when
+selecting a cow.</p>
+
+<p>In bulls, the mirrors present the same peculiarities as in cows; but
+they are less varied in their form, and especially much less in size.</p>
+
+<p>In calves, the mirrors show the shapes which they are afterwards to
+have, only they are more contracted, because the parts which they cover
+are but slightly developed. They are easily seen after birth; but the
+hair which then covers them is long, coarse, and stiff; and when this
+hair falls off, the calf's mirror will resemble that of the cow, but
+will be of less size.</p>
+
+<p>With calves, however, it should be stated, in addition, that the
+milk-mirrors are more distinctly recognized on those from cows that are
+well kept, and that they will generally be fully developed at two years
+old. Some changes take place in the course of years, but the outlines of
+the mirror appear prominent at the time of advanced pregnancy, or, in
+the case of cows giving milk, at the times when the udder is more
+distended with milk than at others.</p>
+
+<p>M. Mayne, who has explained and simplified the method of M. Gu&eacute;non,
+divides cows, according to the quantity which they give, into four
+classes: first, the very good; second, the good; third, the medium; and
+fourth, the bad.</p>
+
+<p>In the <span class="smcap lowercase">FIRST</span> class he places cows, both parts of whose milk mirror, the
+mammary&mdash;the tuft situated on the udder, the legs and the thighs&mdash;and
+the perinean&mdash;that on the perineum, extending sometimes more or less out
+upon the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span> thighs&mdash;are large, continuous, and uniform, covering at least
+a great part of the perineum, the udder, the inner surface of the
+thighs, and extending more or less out upon the legs, as in cut A, with
+no interruptions, or, if any, small ones, oval in form, and situated on
+the posterior face of the udder.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+    <a id="illus-069" name="illus-069"></a>
+    <img src="images/illus-069.png" width="250" height="388"
+       alt="" />
+    <p class="caption">MILK-MIRROR [G.]</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Such mirrors are found on most very good cows, but may also be found on
+cows which can scarcely be called good, and which should be ranked in
+the next class. But cows, whether having very well developed mirrors or
+not, may be reckoned as very good, and as giving as much milk as is to
+be expected from their size, food, and the hygienic circumstances in
+which they are kept, if they present the following characteristics:
+veins of the perineum large, as if swollen, and visible on the
+exterior&mdash;as in cut A&mdash;or which can easily be made to appear by pressing
+upon the base of the perineum; veins of the udder large and knotted;
+milk-veins large, often double, equal on both sides, and forming
+zig-zags, under the belly.</p>
+
+<p>To the signs furnished by the veins and by the mirror, may be added also
+the following marks: a uniform, very large, and yielding udder,
+shrinking much in milking, and covered with soft skin and fine hair;
+good constitution, full chest, regular appetite, and great propensity to
+drink. Such cows rather incline to be poor than to be fat. The skin is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span>
+soft and yielding; short, fine hair; small head; fine horns; bright,
+sparkling eye; mild expression; feminine look; with a fine neck.</p>
+
+<p>Cows of this first class are very rare. They give, even when small in
+size, from ten to fourteen quarts of milk a day; and the largest sized
+from eighteen to twenty-six quarts a day, and even more. Just after
+calving, if arrived at maturity and fed with good, wholesome, moist food
+in sufficient quantity and quality, adapted to promote the secretion of
+milk, they can give about a pint of milk for every ten ounces of hay, or
+its equivalent, which they eat.</p>
+
+<p>They continue in milk for a long period. The best never go dry, and may
+be milked even up to the time of calving, giving from eight to ten
+quarts of milk a day. But even the best cows often fall short of the
+quantity of milk which they are able to give, from being fed on food
+which is too dry, or not sufficiently varied, or not rich enough in
+nutritive qualities, or deficient in quantity.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+    <a id="illus-070" name="illus-070"></a>
+    <img src="images/illus-070.png" width="250" height="401"
+       alt="" />
+    <p class="caption">MILK-MIRROR [H.]</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap lowercase">SECOND</span> class is that of <i>good cows</i>; and to this belong the best
+commonly found in the market and among the cow-feeders of cities.</p>
+
+<p>They have the mammary part of the milk-mirror well developed, but the
+perinean part contracted, or wholly wanting, as in cut G; or both parts
+of the mirror are moderately developed, or slightly indented, as in cut
+H. Cut E belongs also to this class, in the lower part; but it indicates
+a cow, which&mdash;as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span> the upper mirror, 1, indicates&mdash;dries up sooner when
+again in calf.</p>
+
+<p>These marks, though often seen in many good cows, should be considered
+as certain only when the veins of the perineum form, under the skin, a
+kind of network, which, without being very apparent, may be felt by a
+pressure on them; when the milk-veins on the belly are well-developed,
+though less knotty and less prominent than in cows of the first class;
+in short, when the udder is well developed, and presents veins which are
+sufficiently numerous, though not very large.</p>
+
+<p>It is necessary here, as in the preceding class, to distrust cows in
+which the mirror is not accompanied by large veins. This remark applies
+especially to cows which have had several calves, and are in full milk.
+They are medium or bad, let the milk-mirror be what it may, if the veins
+of the belly are not large, and those of the udder apparent.</p>
+
+<p>The general characteristics which depend on form and constitution
+combine, less than in cows of the preceding class, the marks of good
+health and excellent constitution with those of a gentle and feminine
+look.</p>
+
+<p>Small cows of this class give from seven to ten or eleven quarts of milk
+a day, and the largest from thirteen to seventeen quarts. They can be
+made to give three-fourths of a pint of milk, just after calving, for
+every ten ounces of hay consumed, if well cared for, and fed in a manner
+favorable to the secretion of milk.</p>
+
+<p>They hold out long in milk, when they have no upper mirrors or tufts. At
+seven or eight months in calf, they may give from five to eight quarts
+of milk a day.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap lowercase">THIRD</span> class consists of <i>middling cows</i>. When the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span> milk-mirror
+really presents only the mammary or lower part slightly indicated or
+developed, and the perinean part contracted, narrow, and irregular&mdash;as
+in cut K&mdash;the cows are middling. The udder is slightly developed or
+hard, and shrinks very little after milking. The veins of the perineum
+are not apparent, and those which run along the lower side of the
+abdomen are small, straight, and sometimes unequal. In this case the
+mirror is not symmetrical, and the cow gives more milk on the side where
+the vein is the largest.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+    <a id="illus-072" name="illus-072"></a>
+    <img src="images/illus-072.png" width="400" height="561"
+       alt="" />
+    <p class="caption">MILK-MIRROR [K.]</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>These cows have large heads, and a thick, hard skin. Being ordinarily in
+good condition, they are beautiful to look at, and seem to be well
+formed. Many of them are nervous and restive, and not easily approached.</p>
+
+<p>Cows of this class give, according to size, from three or four to ten
+quarts of milk. They very rarely give, even in the most favorable
+circumstances, half a pint of milk for every ten ounces of hay which
+they consume. The milk diminishes rapidly, and dries up wholly the
+fourth or fifth month in calf.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap lowercase">FOURTH</span> class is composed of <i>bad cows</i>. As they are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span> commonly in
+good condition, these cows are often the most beautiful of the herd and
+in the markets. They have fleshy thighs, thick and hard skin, a large
+and coarse neck and head, and horns large at the base.</p>
+
+<p>The udder is hard, small and fleshy, with a skin covered with long,
+rough hair. No veins are to be seen either on the perineum or the udder,
+while those of the belly are slightly developed, and the mirrors are
+ordinarily small, as in cut L.</p>
+
+<p>With these characteristics, cows give only a few quarts of milk a day,
+and dry up in a short time after calving. Some of them can scarcely
+nourish their calves, even when they are properly cared for and well
+fed.</p>
+
+<p>Sickly habits, chronic affections of the digestive organs, the chest,
+the womb, and the lacteal system, sometimes greatly affect the milk
+secretion, and cause cows troubled with them to fall from the first or
+second to the third, and sometimes to the fourth class.</p>
+
+<p>Without pushing this method of judging of the good milking qualities of
+cows into the objectionable extreme to which it was carried by its
+originator, it may be safely asserted that the milk-mirror forms an
+important additional mark or point for distinguishing good milkers; and
+it may be laid down as a rule that, in the selection of milch cows, as
+well as in the choice of young animals for breeders, the milk-mirror
+should, by all means, be examined and considered; but that we should not
+limit or confine ourselves exclusively to it, and that other and
+long-known marks should be equally regarded.</p>
+
+<p>There are cases, however, where a knowledge and careful<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span> examination of
+the form and size of the mirror become of the highest importance. It is
+well known that certain signs or marks of great milkers are developed,
+only as the capacities of the animal herself are fully and completely
+developed by age. The milk-veins, for instance, are never so large and
+prominent in heifers and young cows as in old ones, and the same may be
+said of the udder, and of the veins of the udder and perineum; all of
+which it is of great importance to observe in the selection of milch
+cows. Those signs, then, which in cows arrived at maturity are almost
+sufficient in themselves to warrant a conclusion as to their merits as
+milkers, are, to a great extent, wanting in younger animals, and
+altogether in calves, as to which there is often doubt whether they
+shall be raised; and here a knowledge of the form of the mirror is of
+immense advantage, since it gives, at the outset and before any expense
+is incurred, a somewhat reliable means of judging of the future milking
+capacities of the animal; or, if a male, of the probability of his
+transmitting milking qualities to his offspring.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+    <a id="illus-074" name="illus-074"></a>
+    <img src="images/illus-074.png" width="400" height="533"
+       alt="" />
+    <p class="caption">MILK-MIRROR [L.]</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>It will be seen, from an examination of the points of a good milch cow
+that, though the same marks which indicate<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span> the greatest milking
+qualities may not always indicate the greatest aptitude to fatten, yet
+that the signs which denote good fattening qualities are included among
+the signs favorable to the production of milk; such as soundness of
+constitution, marked by good organs of digestion and respiration
+fineness and mellowness of the skin and hair, quietness of
+disposition&mdash;which inclines the animal to rest and lie down while
+chewing the cud&mdash;and other marks which are relied on by graziers in
+selecting animals to fatten.</p>
+
+<p>In buying dairy stock the farmer generally finds it for his interest to
+select young heifers, as they give the promise of longer usefulness. But
+it is often the case that older cows are selected with the design of
+using them for the dairy for a limited period, and then feeding them for
+the butcher. In either case, it is advisable, as a rule, to choose
+animals in low or medium condition. The farmer cannot commonly afford to
+buy fat; it is more properly his business to make it, and to have it to
+sell. Good and well-marked cows in poor condition will rapidly gain in
+flesh and products when removed to better pastures and higher keeping,
+and they cost less in the original purchase.</p>
+
+<p>It is, perhaps, superfluous to add that regard should be had to the
+quality of the pasturage and keeping which a cow has previously had, as
+compared with that to which she is to be subjected. The size of the
+animal should also be considered with reference to the fertility of the
+pastures into which she is to be put. Small or medium-sized animals
+accommodate themselves to ordinary pastures far better than large ones.
+Where a very large cow will do well, two small ones will usually do
+better; while the large animal might fail<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span> entirely where two small ones
+would do well. It is better to have the whole herd, so far as may be,
+uniform in size; for, if they vary greatly, some may get more than they
+need, and others will not have enough. This, however, cannot always be
+brought about.</p>
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="Crossing_and_Breeding" id="Crossing_and_Breeding"></a>Crossing and Breeding<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span></h2>
+
+<div class="center">
+   <a id="illus-077" name="illus-077"></a>
+   <img src="images/illus-077.png" width="600" height="479"
+      alt="Cow and Calf" />
+</div>
+
+<p>The raising of cattle has now become a source of profit in many
+sections,&mdash;to a greater extent, at least, than formerly&mdash;and it becomes
+a matter of great practical importance to our farmers to take the proper
+steps to improve them. Indeed, the questions&mdash;what are the best breeds,
+and what are the best crosses, and how shall I improve my stock&mdash;are now
+asked almost daily; and their practical solution would add many thousand
+dollars to the aggregate wealth of the farmers of the country, if they
+would all study their own interests.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The time is gradually passing away when the intelligent practical farmer
+will be willing to put his cows to any bull, simply because his services
+may be had for twenty-five cents; for, even if the progeny is to go to
+the butcher, the calf sired by a pure-bred bull&mdash;particularly of a race
+distinguished for fineness of bone, symmetry of form, and early
+maturity&mdash;will bring a much higher price at the same age than a calf
+sired by a scrub. Blood has a money value, which will, sooner or later,
+be generally appreciated.</p>
+
+<p>The first and most important object of the farmer is to get the greatest
+return in money for his labor and his produce; and it is for his
+interest to obtain an animal&mdash;a calf, for example&mdash;that will yield the
+largest profit on the outlay. If a calf, for which the original outlay
+was five dollars, will bring at the same age and on the same keep more
+real net profit than another, the original outlay for which was not
+twenty-five cents, it is certainly for the farmer's interest to make the
+heavier original outlay and thus secure the superior animal. Setting all
+fancy aside, it is merely a question of dollars and cents; but one thing
+is certain&mdash;and that is, that no farmer can afford to keep poor stock.
+It eats as much, and requires nearly the same amount of care and
+attention, as stock of the best quality; while it is equally certain
+that stock of ever so good a quality, whether grade, native, or
+thorough-bred, will be sure to deteriorate and sink to the level of poor
+stock by neglect and want of proper attention.</p>
+
+<p>How, then, is our stock to be improved? Not, certainly, by that
+indiscriminate crossing, with a total disregard of all well-established
+principles, which has thus far marked our efforts with foreign stock,
+and which is one prominent reason<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span> why so little improvement has been
+made in our dairies; nor by leaving all the results to chance, when, by
+a careful and judicious selection, they may be within our own control.</p>
+
+<p>We want cattle for distinct purposes, as for milk, beef, or labor. In a
+large majority of cases&mdash;especially in the dairy districts, at least,
+comprising the Eastern and Middle States&mdash;the farmer cares more for the
+milking qualities of his cows, especially for the quantity they give,
+than for their fitness for grazing, or aptness to fatten. These latter
+points become more important in the Western and some of the Southern
+States, where much greater attention is paid to breeding and to feeding,
+and where comparatively slight attention is given to the productions of
+the dairy. A stock of cattle which would suit one farmer might be wholly
+unsuited to another, and in such particular case the breeder should have
+some special object in view, and select his animals with reference to
+it.</p>
+
+<p>There are, however, some well-defined general principles that apply to
+breeding everywhere, and which, in many cases, are not thoroughly
+understood. To these attention will now be directed.</p>
+
+<p>The first and most important of the laws to be considered in this
+connection is that of <i>similarity</i>. It is by virtue of this law that the
+peculiar characters, properties, and qualities of the parents&mdash;whether
+external or internal, good or bad, healthy or diseased&mdash;are transmitted
+to their offspring. This is one of the plainest and most certain of the
+laws of nature. The lesson which it teaches may be stated in five
+words:&mdash;Breed only from the best.</p>
+
+<p>Judicious selection is indispensable to success in breeding,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span> and this
+should have regard to every particular&mdash;general appearance, length of
+limb, shape of carcass, development of chest; in cattle, to the size,
+shape, and position of the udder, thickness of skin, touch, length and
+texture of hair, docility, and all those points which go to make up the
+desirable animal.</p>
+
+<p>Not only should care be exercised to avoid <i>structural defects</i>, but
+especially to secure freedom from <i>hereditary diseases</i>; as both defects
+and diseases appear to be more easily transmissible than desirable
+qualities. There is, oftentimes, no obvious peculiarity of structure or
+appearance which suggests the possession of diseases or defects which
+are transmissible; and for this reason, special care and continued
+acquaintance are requisite in order to be assured of their absence in
+breeding animals; but such a tendency, although invisible or
+inappreciable to careless observers, must still, judging from its
+effects, have as real and certain an existence as any peculiarity of
+form or color.</p>
+
+<p>In neat cattle, hereditary diseases do not usually show themselves at
+birth; and sometimes the tendency remains latent for many years, perhaps
+through one or two generations, and afterward breaks out with all its
+former severity. The diseases which are found hereditary in cattle are
+scrofula, consumption, dysentery, diarrh&oelig;a, rheumatism, and malignant
+tumors. As these animals are less exposed to the exciting causes of
+disease, and less liable to be overtasked or subjected to violent
+changes of temperature, or otherwise put in jeopardy, their diseases are
+not so numerous as those of the horse, and what they have are less
+violent, and generally of a chronic character.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>With regard to hereditary diseases, it is eminently true that "an ounce
+of prevention is worth a pound of cure." As a general and almost
+invariable rule, animals possessing either defects or a tendency to
+disease, should not be employed for breeding. If, however, for special
+reasons it seems desirable to breed from one which has some slight
+defect of symmetry, or a faint tendency to disease&mdash;although for the
+latter it is doubtful whether the possession of any good qualities can
+fully compensate&mdash;it should be mated with one which excels in every
+respect in which it is itself deficient, and on no account with one
+which is near of kin to it.</p>
+
+<p>There is another law, by which that of similarity is greatly
+modified&mdash;the law of <i>Variation</i> or divergence.</p>
+
+<p>All animals possess a certain flexibility or pliancy of organization,
+which renders them capable of change to a greater or less extent. When
+in a state of nature, variations are comparatively slow and infrequent;
+but when in a state of domestication they occur much oftener and to a
+much greater extent. The greater variability in the latter case is
+doubtless owing, in some measure, to our domestic productions' being
+reared under conditions of life not so uniform as, and different from,
+those to which the parent species was exposed in a state of nature.</p>
+
+<p>Among what are usually reckoned the more active causes of variation may
+be named <i>climate</i>, <i>food</i>, and <i>habit</i>. Animals in a cold climate are
+provided with a thicker covering of hair than in warmer ones. Indeed, it
+is said that in some of the tropical provinces of South America, there
+are cattle which have an extremely rare and fine fur, in place of the
+ordinary<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span> pile of hair. The supply of food, whether abundant or scanty,
+is one of the most efficient causes of variation known to be within the
+control of man. A due consideration of the natural effects of climate
+and food is a point worthy the careful attention of the
+stock-husbandman. If the breeds employed be well adapted to the
+situation, and the capacity of the soil be such as to feed them fully,
+profit may be safely anticipated. Animals are to be regarded as machines
+for converting herbage into money.</p>
+
+<p>The bestowal of food sufficient, both in amount and quality, to enable
+animals to develop all the excellencies inherent in them, and yield all
+the profit of which they are capable, is something quite distinct from
+undue forcing of pampering. The latter process may produce wonderful
+animals to look at, but neither useful nor profitable ones, and there is
+danger of thus producing a most undesirable variation, since in animals
+the process may be carried far enough to produce barrenness. Instances
+are not wanting, particularly among the more recent improved
+short-horns, of impotency among the males and of barrenness among the
+females; and in some cases where the latter have borne calves, they have
+failed to secrete sufficient milk for their nourishment. Impotency in
+bulls of various breeds has, in many instances, occurred from too high
+feeding, especially when connected with a lack of sufficient exercise. A
+working bull, though perhaps not so pleasing to the eye as a fat one, is
+a surer stock-getter; and his progeny is more likely to inherit full
+health and vigor.</p>
+
+<p><i>Habit</i> has a decided influence toward producing variations. We find in
+domestic animals that use&mdash;or the demand created by habit&mdash;is met by a
+development or change in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span> organization adapted to the requirement.
+For instance, with cows in a state of nature, or where required only to
+suckle their young, the supply of milk is barely fitted to the
+requirement. If more is desired, and the milk is drawn completely and
+regularly, the yield is increased and continued longer. By keeping up
+the demand there is induced, in the next generation, a greater
+development of the secreting organs, and more milk is given. By
+continuing the practice, by furnishing the needful conditions of
+suitable food and the like, and by selecting in each generation those
+animals showing the greatest tendency toward milk, a breed specially
+adapted for the dairy may be established. It is just by this mode that
+the Ayrshires have, within the past century, been brought to be what
+they are&mdash;a breed giving more good milk upon a certain amount of food
+than any other.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+    <a id="illus-083" name="illus-083"></a>
+    <img src="images/illus-083.png" width="600" height="379"
+       alt="" />
+    <p class="caption">READY FOR ACTION.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is a fact too well established to be controverted, that the first
+male produces impressions upon subsequent progeny by other males. To
+what extent this principle holds, it is impossible to say. Although the
+instances in which it is known to be of a very marked and obvious
+character may be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span> comparatively few, yet there is ample reason to
+believe that, although in a majority of cases the effect may be less
+noticeable, it is not less real; and it therefore demands the special
+attention of breeders. The knowledge of this law furnishes a clue to the
+cause of many of the disappointments of which practical breeders often
+complain, and of many variations otherwise unaccountable, and it
+suggests particular caution as to the first male employed in the
+coupling of animals&mdash;a matter which has often been deemed of little
+consequence in regard to cattle, inasmuch as fewer heifers' first calves
+are reared, than those are which are borne subsequently.</p>
+
+<p>The phenomenon&mdash;or law, as it is sometimes called&mdash;of atavism, or
+<i>ancestral influence</i>, is one of considerable practical importance, and
+well deserves the careful attention of the breeder of farm stock.</p>
+
+<p>Every one is aware that it is by no means unusual for a child to
+resemble its grandfather, or grandmother, or even some ancestor still
+more remote, more than it does either its own father or mother. The same
+occurrence is found among our domestic animals, and oftener in
+proportion as the breeds are crossed or mixed up. Among our common stock
+of neat cattle, or natives&mdash;originating, as they did, from animals
+brought from England, Scotland, Denmark, France, and Spain, each
+possessing different characteristics of form, color, and use, and bred,
+as our common stock has usually been, indiscriminately together, with no
+special object in view, with no attempt to obtain any particular type or
+form, or to secure adaptation for any particular purpose&mdash;frequent
+opportunities are afforded of witnessing the results of this law of
+hereditary transmission. So common, indeed, is its occurrence,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span> that the
+remark is often made, that, however good a cow may be, there is no
+telling beforehand what sort of a calf she may have. The fact is
+sufficiently obvious, that certain peculiarities often lie dormant for a
+generation or two and then reappear in subsequent progeny. Stockmen
+often speak of it as "breeding back," or "crying back."</p>
+
+<p>The lesson taught by this law is very plain. It shows the importance of
+seeking thorough-bred or well-bred animals; and by these terms are
+simply meant such as are descended from a line of ancestors in which for
+many generations the desirable forms, qualities, and characteristics
+have been <i>uniformly shown</i>. In such a case, even if ancestral influence
+does come in play, no material difference appears in the offspring, the
+ancestors being all essentially alike. From this standpoint we best
+perceive in what consists the money value of a good "pedigree." This is
+valuable, in proportion as it shows an animal to be descended, not only
+from such as are purely of its own race or breed, but also from such
+individuals of that breed as were specially noted for the excellencies
+for which that particular breed is esteemed.</p>
+
+<p>Probably the most distinctly marked evidence of ancestral influence
+among us, is to be found in the ill-begotten, round-headed calves, not
+infrequently dropped by cows of the common mixed kind, which, if killed
+early, make very blue veal, and if allowed to grow up, become
+exceedingly profitless and unsatisfactory beasts; the heifers being
+often barren, the cows poor milkers, the oxen dull, mulish beasts,
+yielding flesh of very dark color, of ill flavor and destitute of fat.</p>
+
+<p><i>The relative influence</i> of the male and female parents upon the
+characteristics of progeny has long been a fruitful<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span> subject of
+discussion among breeders. It is found in experience that progeny
+sometimes resembles one parent more than the other&mdash;sometimes there is
+an apparent blending of the characteristics of both&mdash;sometimes a
+noticeable dissimilarity to either, though always more or less
+resemblance somewhere&mdash;and sometimes the impress of one may be seen upon
+a portion of the organization of the offspring, and that of the other
+parent upon another portion; yet we are not authorized from such
+discrepancies to conclude that it is a matter of chance; for all of
+nature's operations are conducted in accordance with fixed laws, whether
+we be able fully to discover them or not. The same causes always produce
+the same results. In this case, not less than in others, there are,
+beyond all doubt, certain fixed laws; and the varying results which we
+see are easily and sufficiently accounted for by the existence of
+conditions or modifying influences not fully open to our observation.</p>
+
+<p>It may be stated, on the whole&mdash;as a result of the varied investigations
+to which this question has given rise&mdash;that the evidence, both from
+observation and the testimony of the best practical breeders, goes to
+show that each parent usually contributes certain portions of the
+organization to the offspring, and that each has a modifying influence
+upon the other. Facts also show that the same parent does not always
+contribute the same portions, but that the order is at times, and not
+rarely, reversed. Where animals are of distinct species or breeds,
+transmission is usually found to be in harmony with the principle, that
+the male gives mostly the outward form and locomotive system, and the
+female chiefly the interior system, constitution and the like. Where<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span>
+the parents are of the same breed, it appears that the proportions
+contributed by each are governed, in a large measure, by the condition
+of each in regard to age and vigor, or by virtue of individual potency
+or superiority of physical endowment. This potency or power of
+transmission, seems to be legitimately connected with high breeding, or
+the concentration of fixed qualities, obtained by continued descent for
+many generations from such only as possess in the highest degree the
+qualities desired.</p>
+
+<p>Practically, the knowledge obtained dictates in a most emphatic manner
+that every stock-grower use his utmost endeavor to obtain the services
+of the best sires; that is, the best for the ends and purposes in
+view&mdash;that he depend chiefly on the sire for outward form and
+symmetry&mdash;and that he select dams best calculated to develop the good
+qualities of the male, depending chiefly upon these for freedom, from
+internal disease, for hardihood and constitution, and, generally, for
+all qualities dependent upon the vital or nutritive system. The neglect
+of the qualities of the dam, which is far too common&mdash;miserably old and
+inferior animals being often employed&mdash;cannot be too strongly censured.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to the laws which regulate the sex of the progeny very
+little is known. Many and extensive observations have been made, without
+reaching any definite conclusion. Nature seems to have provided that the
+number of each sex; produced, shall be nearly equal; but by what means
+this result is attained, has not as yet been discovered.</p>
+
+<p>It has long been a disputed point, whether the system of <i>breeding
+in-and-in</i>, or the opposite one of frequent crossing, has the greater
+tendency to improve the character of stock<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span> This term, in-and-in, is
+often very loosely used and as variously understood. Some confine the
+phrase to the coupling of those of exactly the same blood, as brothers
+and sisters, while others include in it breeding from parents and
+offsprings; and others still employ it to embrace those of a more
+distant relationship. For the last, the term breeding-in, or close
+breeding, is generally deemed more suitable.</p>
+
+<p>The current opinion is decidedly against the practice of breeding from
+any near relatives; it being usually found that degeneracy follows, and
+often to a serious degree; but it is not proved that this degeneracy,
+although very common and even usual, is yet a necessary consequence.
+That ill effects follow, in a majority of cases, is not to be doubted;
+but this is easily and sufficiently accounted for upon quite other
+grounds. Perhaps, however, the following propositions may be safely
+stated: That in general practice, with the grades and mixed animals
+common in the country, <i>close-breeding should be scrupulously avoided</i>
+as highly detrimental. It is better <i>always</i> to avoid breeding from near
+relatives whenever stock-getters of the same breed and of equal merit
+can be obtained which are not related. Yet, where this is not possible,
+or where there is some desirable and clearly defined purpose in view&mdash;as
+the fixing and perpetuating of some valuable quality in a particular
+animal not common to the breed&mdash;and the breeder possesses the knowledge
+and skill needful to accomplish his purpose, and the animals are perfect
+in health and development, close breeding may be practised with
+advantage.</p>
+
+<p>The practice of <i>crossing</i>, like that of close breeding, has its strong
+and its weak side. Judiciously practised, it offers<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span> a means of
+providing animals <i>for the butcher</i>, often superior to, and more
+profitable than, those of any pure breed. It is also admissible as the
+foundation of a systematic and well-considered attempt to establish a
+new breed. But when crossing is practised injudiciously and
+indiscriminately, and especially when so done for the purpose of
+procuring <i>breeding animals</i>, it is scarcely less objectionable than
+careless in-and-in breeding.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+    <a id="illus-089" name="illus-089"></a>
+    <img src="images/illus-089.png" width="600" height="403"
+       alt="" />
+    <p class="caption">A SPRIGHTLY YOUTH.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The profitable style of breeding for the great majority of farmers to
+adopt, is neither to cross nor to breed from close affinities&mdash;except in
+rare instances, and for some specific and clearly understood
+purpose&mdash;but to <i>breed in the line</i>; that is, to select the breed or
+race best adapted to fulfil the requirement demanded, whether it be for
+the dairy, for labor, or for such combination of these as can be had
+without too great a sacrifice of the principal requisite, and then to
+procure a <i>pure-bred</i> male of the kind determined upon, and breed him to
+the females of the herd; and if these be not such as are calculated to
+develop his qualities, endeavor by purchase or exchange to procure such
+as will. Let the progeny of these be bred to another <i>pure-bred</i> male of
+the same breed, but as distantly related to the first as may be. Let
+this plan be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span> faithfully pursued, and, although we cannot, without the
+intervention of well-bred females, procure stock purely of the kind
+desired, yet in several generations&mdash;if proper care be given to the
+selection of males, that each one be such as to retain and improve upon
+the points gained by his predecessor&mdash;the stock, for most practical
+purposes, will be as good as if thorough-bred. If this plan were
+generally adopted, and a system of letting or exchanging males
+established, the cost might be brought within the means of most persons,
+and the advantages which would accrue would be almost beyond belief.</p>
+
+<p>A brief summing-up of the foregoing principles may not be inappropriate
+here.</p>
+
+<p>The law of similarity teaches us to select animals for breeding which
+possess the desired forms and qualities in the greatest perfection and
+best combination.</p>
+
+<p>Regard should be had, not only to the more obvious characteristics, but
+also to such hereditary traits and tendencies as may be hidden from
+cursory observation and demand careful and thorough investigation.</p>
+
+<p>From the hereditary nature of all characteristics, whether good or bad,
+we learn the importance of having all desirable qualities <i>thoroughly
+inbred</i>; or, in other words, so firmly in each generation that the next
+is warrantably certain to present nothing worse&mdash;that no ill results
+follow from breeding back to some inferior ancestor&mdash;that all
+undesirable traits or points be, so far as possible, <i>bred-out</i>.</p>
+
+<p>So important is this consideration, that, in practice, it is decidedly
+preferable to employ a male of ordinary external appearance&mdash;provided
+his ancestry be all which is desired&mdash;rather<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span> than a grade, or
+cross-bred animal, although the latter be greatly his superior in
+personal beauty.</p>
+
+<p>A knowledge of the law of variation teaches us to avoid, for breeding
+purposes, such animals as exhibit variations unfavorable to the purpose
+in view; to endeavor to perpetuate every real improvement gained; as
+well as to secure, as far as practicable, the conditions necessary to
+induce or continue any improvement, such as general treatment, food,
+climate, habits, and the like.</p>
+
+<p>Where the parents do not possess the perfections desired, selections for
+coupling should be made with critical reference to correcting the faults
+or deficiencies of one by corresponding excellencies in the other.</p>
+
+<p>To correct defects, too much must not be attempted at once. Pairing
+those very unlike oftener results in loss than gain. Avoid all extremes,
+and endeavor by moderate degrees to attain the end desired.</p>
+
+<p>Crossing, between different breeds, for the purpose of obtaining animals
+for the shambles, may be advantageously practised to a considerable
+extent, but not for the production of breeding animals. As a general
+rule, cross-bred males should not be employed for propagation, and
+cross-bred females should be served by thorough-bred males.</p>
+
+<p>In ordinary practice, breeding from near relatives is to be scrupulously
+avoided. For certain purposes, under certain conditions and
+circumstances, and in the hands of a skillful breeder, it may be
+practised with advantage&mdash;but not otherwise.</p>
+
+<p>In a large majority of cases&mdash;other things being equal&mdash;we may expect in
+progeny the outward form and general<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span> structure of the sire, together
+with the internal qualities, constitution, and nutritive system of the
+dam; each, however, modified by the other.</p>
+
+<p>Particular care should always be taken that the male by which the dam
+first becomes pregnant is the best which can be obtained; also, that at
+the time of sexual congress both are in vigorous health.</p>
+
+<p>Breeding animals should not be allowed to become fat, but always kept in
+thrifty condition; and such as are intended for the butcher should never
+be fat but once.</p>
+
+<p>In deciding with what breeds to stock a farm, endeavor to select those
+best adapted to its surface, climate, and degree of fertility; also,
+with reference to probable demand and proximity to markets.</p>
+
+<p>No expense incurred in procuring choice animals for propagation, no
+amount of skill in breeding, can supersede, or compensate for, a lack of
+liberal feeding and good treatment. The better the stock, the better
+care they deserve.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="PREGNANCY" id="PREGNANCY"></a>PREGNANCY</h3>
+
+<p>The symptoms of pregnancy in its early stage were formerly deemed
+exceedingly unsatisfactory. The period of being in season&mdash;which
+commonly lasts three or four days, and then ceases for a while, and
+returns in about three weeks&mdash;might entirely pass over; and, although it
+was then probable that conception had taken place, yet in a great many
+instances the hopes of the breeder were disappointed. It was not until
+between the third and fourth month, when the belly began to enlarge&mdash;or,
+in many cases, considerably later&mdash;and when the motions of the f&oelig;tus
+might be seen, or,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span> at all events, felt by pressing on the right flank,
+that the farmer could be assured that his cow was in calf.</p>
+
+<p>That greatest of improvements in veterinary practice, the application of
+the ear to the chest and belly of various animals, in order to detect by
+the different sounds&mdash;which after a short time, will be easily
+recognized&mdash;the state of the circulation through most of the organs, and
+consequently, the precise seat and degree of inflammation and danger,
+has now enabled the breeder to ascertain the existence of pregnancy at
+as early a stage as six or eight weeks. The beating of the heart of the
+calf may then be distinctly heard, twice, or more than twice, as
+frequent as that of the mother; and each pulsation will betray the
+singular double beating of the f&oelig;tal heart. This will also be
+accompanied by the audible rushing of the blood through the vessels of
+the placenta. The ear should be applied to the right flank, beginning on
+the higher part of it, and gradually shifting downward and backward.
+These sounds will thus soon be heard, and cannot be mistaken.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="TREATMENT_BEFORE_CALVING" id="TREATMENT_BEFORE_CALVING"></a>TREATMENT BEFORE CALVING.</h3>
+
+<p>Little alteration needs to be made in the management of the cow for the
+first seven months of pregnancy; except that, as she has not only to
+yield milk for the profit of the farmer, but to nourish the growing
+f&oelig;tus within, she should be well, yet not too luxuriantly, fed. The
+half-starved cow will not adequately discharge this double duty, nor
+provide sufficient nutriment for the calf when it has dropped; while the
+cow in high condition will be dangerously disposed to inflammation and
+fever, when, at the time of parturition, she is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span> otherwise so
+susceptible of the power of every stimulus. If the season and the
+convenience of the farmer will allow, she will be better at pasture, at
+least for some hours each day than when confined altogether to the
+cow-house.</p>
+
+<p>At a somewhat uncertain period before she calves, there will be a new
+secretion of milk for the expected little one; and under the notion of
+somewhat recruiting her strength, in order better to enable her to
+discharge her new duty&mdash;but more from the uniform testimony of
+experience that there is danger of local inflammation, general fever,
+garget in the udder, and puerperal fever, if the new milk descends while
+the old milk continues to flow&mdash;it has been usual to let the cow <i>go
+dry</i> for some period before parturition. Farmers and breeders have been
+strangely divided as to the length of this period. It must be decided by
+circumstances. A cow in good condition may be milked for a much longer
+period than a poor one. Her abundance of food renders a period of
+respite almost unnecessary; and all that needs to be taken care of, is
+that the old milk should be fairly gone before the new milk springs. In
+such a cow, while there is danger of inflammation from the sudden rush
+of new milk into a bag already occupied, there is almost always
+considerable danger of indurations and tumors in the teats from the
+habit of secretion being too long suspended. The emaciated and
+over-milked beast, however, must rest a while before she can again
+advantageously discharge the duties of a mother.</p>
+
+<p>If the period of pregnancy were of equal length at all times and in all
+cows, the one that has been well fed might be milked until within a
+fortnight or three weeks of parturition, while a holiday of two months
+should be granted to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span> poorer beast; but as there is much
+irregularity about the time of gestation, it may be prudent to take a
+month or five Weeks, as the average period.</p>
+
+<p>The process of parturition is necessarily one that is accompanied with a
+great deal of febrile excitement; and, therefore, when it nearly
+approaches, not only should a little care be taken to lessen the
+quantity of food, and to remove that which is of a stimulating action,
+but a mild dose of physic, and a bleeding regulated by the condition of
+the animal, will be very proper precautionary measures.</p>
+
+<p>A moderately open state of the bowels is necessary at the period of
+parturition in the cow. During the whole time of pregnancy her enormous
+stomach sufficiently presses upon and confines the womb; and that
+pressure may be productive of injurious and fatal consequences, if at
+this period the rumen is suffered to be distended by innutritious food,
+or the manyplus takes on that hardened state to which it is occasionally
+subject. Breeders have been sadly negligent in this respect.</p>
+
+<p>The springing of the udder, or the rapid enlargement of it from the
+renewed secretion of milk&mdash;the enlargement of the external parts of the
+bearing (the former, as has been said by some, in old cows, and the
+latter in young ones)&mdash;the appearance of a glaring discharge from the
+bearing&mdash;the evident dropping of the belly, with the appearance of
+leanness and narrowness between the shape and the udder&mdash;a degree of
+uneasiness and fidgetiness&mdash;moaning occasionally&mdash;accelerated
+respiration&mdash;all these symptoms will announce that the time of calving
+is not far off. The cow should be brought near home, and put in some
+quiet, sheltered place. In cold or stormy weather she should be housed.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span>
+Her uneasiness will rapidly increase&mdash;she will be continually getting up
+and lying down&mdash;her tail will begin to be elevated and the commencement
+of the labor-pains will soon be evident.</p>
+
+<p>In most cases the parturition will be natural and easy, and the less the
+cow is disturbed or meddled with, the better. She will do better without
+help than with it; but she should be watched, in order to see that no
+difficulty occurs which may require aid and attention. In cases of
+difficult parturition the aid of a skillful veterinary surgeon may be
+required.</p>
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="Feeding_and_Management" id="Feeding_and_Management"></a>Feeding and Management<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span></h2>
+
+<div class="center">
+   <a id="illus-097" name="illus-097"></a>
+   <img src="images/illus-097.png" width="600" height="449"
+      alt="Feeding and Management" />
+</div>
+
+<p>No branch of dairy farming can compare in importance with the management
+of cows. The highest success will depend upon it, whatever breed be
+selected, and whatever amount of care and attention be given to the
+points of the animals; for experience will show that very little milk
+comes out of the bag, that is not first put into the throat. It is poor
+economy, therefore, to attempt to keep too many cows for the amount of
+feed one has; for it will generally be found that one good cow well-bred
+and well fed will yield as much as two ordinary cows<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span> kept in the
+ordinary way; while a saving is effected both in labor and room
+required, and in the risks on the capital invested. If an argument for
+the larger number on poorer feed is urged on the ground of the
+additional manure&mdash;which is the only basis upon which it can be put&mdash;it
+is enough to say that it is a very expensive way of making manure. It is
+not too strong an assertion, that a proper regard to profit and economy
+would require many an American farmer to sell off nearly half of his
+cows, and to feed the whole of his hay and roots hitherto used into the
+remainder.</p>
+
+<p>An animal, to be fully fed and satisfied, requires a quantity of food in
+proportion to its live weight. No feed is complete that does not contain
+a sufficient amount of nutritive elements; hay, for example, being more
+nutritive than straw, and grains than roots. The food, too, must possess
+a bulk sufficient to fill up to a certain degree the organs of digestion
+of the stomach; and, to receive the full benefit of its food, the animal
+must be wholly satisfied&mdash;since, if the stomach is not sufficiently
+distended, the food cannot be properly digested, and of course many of
+the nutritive principles which it contains cannot be perfectly
+assimilated. An animal regularly fed eats till it is satisfied, and no
+more than is requisite. A part of the nutritive elements in hay and
+other forage plants is needed to keep an animal on its feet&mdash;that is, to
+keep up its condition&mdash;and if the nutrition of its food is insufficient
+for this, the weight decreases, and if it is more than sufficient the
+weight increases, or else this excess is consumed in the production of
+milk or in labor. About one sixtieth of their live weight in hay, or its
+equivalent, will keep horned cattle on their feet; but, in order to be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span>
+completely nourished, they require about one thirtieth in dry
+substances, and four thirtieths in water, or other liquid contained in
+their food. The excess of nutritive food over and above what is
+necessary to sustain life will go, in milch cows, generally to the
+production of milk, or to the growth of the f&oelig;tus, but not in all
+cows to an equal extent; the tendency to the secretion of milk being
+much more developed in some than in others.</p>
+
+<p>With regard, however, to the consumption of food in proportion to the
+live weight of the animal, it must be taken, in common with all general
+principles, with some qualifications. The proportion is probably not
+uniform as applied to all breeds indiscriminately, though it may be more
+so as applied to animals of the same breed. The idea of some celebrated
+stock-raisers has been that the quantity of food required depends much
+upon the shape of the barrel; and it is well known that an animal of a
+close, compact, well-rounded barrel, will consume less than one of an
+opposite make.</p>
+
+<p>The variations in the yield of milch cows are caused more by the
+variations in the nutritive elements of their food than by a change of
+the form in which it is given. A cow, kept through the winter on mere
+straw, will cease to give milk; and, when fed in spring on green forage,
+will give a fair quantity of milk. But she owes the cessation and
+restoration of the secretion, respectively, to the diminution and
+increase of her nourishment, and not at all to the change of form, or of
+outward substance in which the nutriment is administered. Let cows
+receive through winter nearly as large a proportion of nutritive matter
+as is contained in the clover, lucerne, and fresh grass which they eat
+in summer,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span> and, no matter in what precise substance or mixture that
+matter be contained, they will yield a winter's produce of milk quite as
+rich in caseine and butyraceous ingredients as the summer's produce, and
+far more ample in quantity than almost any dairyman with old-fashioned
+notions would imagine to be possible. The great practical error on this
+subject consists, not in giving wrong kinds of food, but in not so
+proportioning and preparing it as to render an average ration of it
+equally rich in the elements of nutrition, and especially in nitrogenous
+elements, as an average ration of the green and succulent food of
+summer.</p>
+
+<p>We keep too much stock for the quantity of good and nutritious food
+which we have for it; and the consequence is, that cows are, in nine
+cases out of ten, poorly wintered, and come out in the spring weakened,
+if not, indeed, positively diseased, and a long time is required to
+bring them into a condition to yield a generous quantity of milk.</p>
+
+<p>It is a hard struggle for a cow reduced in flesh and in blood to fill up
+the wasted system with the food which would otherwise have gone to the
+secretion of milk; but, if she is well fed, well housed, well littered,
+and well supplied with pure, fresh water, and with roots, or other
+<i>moist</i> food, and properly treated to the luxury of a frequent carding,
+and constant kindness, she comes out ready to commence the manufacture
+of milk under favorable circumstances.</p>
+
+<p><i>Keep the cows constantly in good condition</i>, ought, therefore, to be
+the motto of every dairy farmer, posted up over the barn, and on and
+over the stalls, and over the milk-room, and repeated to the boys
+whenever there is danger of forgetting it. It is the great secret of
+success; and the difference<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span> between success and failure turns upon it.
+Cows in milk require more food in proportion to their size and weight
+than either oxen or young cattle.</p>
+
+<p>In order to keep cows in milk well and economically, regularity is next
+in importance to a full supply of wholesome and nutritious food. The
+animal stomach is a very nice chronometer, and it is of the utmost
+importance to observe regular hours in feeding, cleaning, and milking.
+This is a point, also, in which very many farmers are at fault&mdash;feeding
+whenever it happens to be convenient. The cattle are thus kept in a
+restless condition, constantly expecting food when the keeper enters the
+barn; while, if regular hours are strictly adhered to, they know exactly
+when they are to be fed, and they rest quietly till the time arrives. If
+one goes into any well-regulated dairy establishment an hour before
+feeding, scarcely an animal will rise to its feet; while; if it happens
+to be the hour of feeding, the whole herd will be likely to rise and
+seize their food with an avidity and relish not to be mistaken.</p>
+
+<p>With respect to the exact nurture to be pursued, no rule could be
+prescribed which would apply to all cases; and each individual must be
+governed much by circumstances, both regarding the particular kinds of
+feed at different seasons of the year, and the system of feeding. It has
+been found&mdash;it may be stated&mdash;in the practice of the most successful
+dairymen, that, in order to encourage the largest secretion of milk in
+stalled cows, one of the best courses is, to feed in the morning, either
+at the time of milking&mdash;which is preferred by many&mdash;or immediately
+after, with cut feed, consisting of hay, oats, millet, or cornstalks,
+mixed with shorts, and Indian<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span> linseed, or cotton-seed meal, thoroughly
+moistened with water. If in winter, hot or warm water is far better than
+cold. If given at milking-time, the cows will generally give down their
+milk more readily. The stalls and mangers should first be thoroughly
+cleansed.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+    <a id="illus-102" name="illus-102"></a>
+    <img src="images/illus-102.png" width="600" height="389"
+       alt="" />
+    <p class="caption">THE FAMILY PETS.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Roots and long hay may be given during the day; and at the evening
+milking, or directly after, another generous meal of cut feed, well
+moistened and mixed, as in the morning. No very concentrated food, like
+grains alone, or oil-cakes, should be fed early in the morning on an
+empty stomach, although it is sanctioned by the practice in the London
+milk-dairies. The processes of digestion go on best when the stomach is
+sufficiently distended; and for this purpose the bulk of food is almost
+as important as the nutritive qualities. The flavor of some roots, as
+cabbages and turnips, is more apt to be imparted to the flesh and milk
+when fed on an empty stomach than otherwise. After the cows have been
+milked and have finished their cut feed, they are carded and curried
+down, in well-managed dairies, and then either watered in the
+stall&mdash;which, in very cold or stormy weather, is far preferable&mdash;or
+turned out to water in the yard. While they are out, if they are let out
+at all, the stables are put in order; and, after tying them up, they are
+fed with long hay, and left to themselves till the next feeding<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span> time.
+This may consist of roots&mdash;such as cabbages, beets, carrots, or
+turnips sliced&mdash;or of potatoes, a peck, or&mdash;if the cows are very
+large&mdash;a half-bushel each, and cut feed again at the evening milking, as
+in the morning; after which, water in the stall, if possible.</p>
+
+<p>The less cows are exposed to the cold of winter, the better. They eat
+less, thrive better, and give more milk, when kept housed all the time,
+than when exposed to the cold. A case is on record, where a herd of
+cows, which had usually been supplied from troughs and pipes in the
+stalls, were, on account of an obstruction in the pipes, obliged to be
+turned out thrice a day to be watered in the yard. The quantity of milk
+instantly decreased, and in three days the diminution became very
+considerable. After the pipes were mended, and the cows again watered,
+as before, in their stalls, the flow of milk returned. This, however,
+must be governed much by the weather; for in very mild and warm days it
+may be judicious not only to let them out, but to allow them to remain
+out for a short time, for the purpose of exercise.</p>
+
+<p>Any one can arrange the hour for the several processes named above, to
+suit himself; but, when once fixed, it should be rigidly and regularly
+followed. If the regular and full feeding be neglected for even a day,
+the yield of milk will immediately decline, and it will be very
+difficult to restore it. It may be safely asserted, as the result of
+many trials and long practice, that a larger flow of milk follows a
+complete system of regularity in this respect than from a higher feeding
+where this system is not adhered to.</p>
+
+<p>One prime object which the dairyman should keep constantly in view is,
+to maintain the animal in a sound and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span> healthy condition. Without this,
+no profit can be expected from a milch cow for any considerable length
+of time; and with a view to this, there should be an occasional change
+of food. But, in making changes, great care is requisite in order to
+supply the needful amount of nourishment, or the cow will fall off in
+flesh, and eventually in milk. It should, therefore, be remembered that
+the food consumed goes not alone to the secretion of milk, but also to
+the growth and maintenance of the bony structure, the flesh, the blood,
+the fat, the skin, and the hair, and in exhalations from the body. These
+parts of the body consist of different organic constituents. Some are
+rich in nitrogen, as the fibrin of the blood and albumen; others
+destitute of it, as fat; some abound in inorganic salts, phosphate of
+lime, and salts of potash. To explain how the constant waste of these
+substances may be supplied, a celebrated chemist observes that the
+albumen, gluten, caseine, and other nitrogenized principles of food,
+supply the animal with the materials requisite for the formation of
+muscle and cartilage; they are, therefore, called flesh-forming
+principles.</p>
+
+<p>Fats, or oily matters of the food, are used to lay on fat, or for the
+purpose of sustaining respiration.</p>
+
+<p>Starch, sugar, gum, and a few other non-nitrogenized substances,
+consisting of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, supply the carbon given off
+in respiration, or they are used for the production of fat.</p>
+
+<p>Phosphate of lime and magnesia in food principally furnish the animal
+with the materials of which the bony skeleton of its body consists.</p>
+
+<p>Saline substances&mdash;chlorides of sodium and potassium,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span> sulphate and
+phosphate of potash and soda, and some other mineral matters occurring
+in food&mdash;supply the blood, juice of flesh, and various animal juices,
+with the necessary mineral constituents.</p>
+
+<p>The healthy state of an animal can thus only be preserved by a mixed
+food; that is, food which contains all the proximate principles just
+noticed. Starch or sugar alone cannot sustain the animal body, since
+neither of them furnishes the materials to build up the fleshy parts of
+the animal. When fed on substances in which an insufficient quantity of
+phosphates occurs, the animal will become weak, because it does not find
+any bone-producing principle in its food. Due attention should,
+therefore, be paid by the feeder to the selection of food which contains
+all the kinds of matter required, nitrogenized as well as
+non-nitrogenized, and mineral substances; and these should be mixed
+together in the proportion which experience points out as best for the
+different kinds of animals, or the particular purpose for which they are
+kept.</p>
+
+<p>Relative to the nutrition of cows for dairy purposes, milk may be
+regarded as a material for the manufacture of butter and cheese; and,
+according to the purpose for which the milk is intended to be employed,
+whether for the manufacture of butter or the production of cheese, the
+cow should be differently fed.</p>
+
+<p>Butter contains carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, and no nitrogen. Cheese,
+on the contrary, is rich in nitrogen. Food which contains much fatty
+matter, or substances which in the animal system are readily converted
+into fat, will tend to increase the proportion of cream in milk. On the
+other<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span> hand, the proportion of caseine or cheesy matter in milk is
+increased by the use of highly nitrogenized food. Those, then, who
+desire much cream, or who produce cream for the manufacture of butter,
+select food likely to increase the proportion of butter in the milk. On
+the contrary, where the principal object is the production of milk rich
+in curd&mdash;that is, where cheese is the object of the farmer&mdash;clover,
+peas, bran-meal, and other plants which abound in legumine&mdash;a
+nitrogenized organic compound, almost identical in properties and
+composition with caseine, or the substance which forms the curd of
+milk&mdash;will be selected.</p>
+
+<p>And so the quality, as well as the quantity, of butter in the milk,
+depends on the kind of food consumed and on the general health of the
+animal. Cows fed on turnips in the stall always produce butter inferior
+to that of cows living upon the fresh and aromatic grasses of the
+pastures.</p>
+
+<p>Succulent food in which water abounds&mdash;the green grass of irrigated
+meadows, green clover, brewers' and distillers' refuse, and the
+like&mdash;increases the quantity, rather than the quality, of the milk; and
+by feeding these substances the milk-dairyman studies his own interest,
+and makes thin milk without diluting it with water&mdash;though, in the
+opinion of some, this may be no more legitimate than watering the milk.</p>
+
+<p>But, though the yield of milk may be increased by succulent or watery
+food, it should be given so as not to interfere with the health of the
+cow.</p>
+
+<p>Food rich in starch, gum, or sugar, which are the respiratory elements,
+an excess of which goes to the production of fatty matters, increases
+the butter in milk. Quietness promotes the secretion of fat in animals
+and increases the butter.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span> Cheese will be increased by food rich in
+albumen, such as the leguminous plants.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+    <a id="illus-107" name="illus-107"></a>
+    <img src="images/illus-107.png" width="600" height="234"
+       alt="" />
+    <p class="caption">BUYING CATTLE.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The most natural, and of course the healthiest, food for milch cows in
+summer, is the green grass of the pastures; and when these fail from
+drought or over-stocking, the complement of nourishment may be made up
+with green clover, green oats, barley, millet, or corn-fodder and
+cabbage-leaves, or other succulent vegetables; and if these are wanting,
+the deficiency may be partly supplied with shorts, Indian-meal, linseed
+or cotton-seed meal. Green grass is more nutritious than hay, which
+always loses somewhat of its nutritive properties in curing; the amount
+of the loss depending chiefly on the mode of curing, and the length of
+exposure to sun and rain. But, apart from this, grass is more easily and
+completely digested than hay, though the digestion of the latter may be
+greatly aided by cutting and moistening, or steaming; and by this means
+it is rendered more readily available, and hence far better adapted to
+promote a large secretion of milk&mdash;a fact too often overlooked even by
+many intelligent farmers.</p>
+
+<p>In autumn, the best feed will be the grasses of the pastures,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span> so far as
+they are available, green-corn fodder, cabbage, carrot, and turnip
+leaves, and an addition of meal or shorts. Toward the middle of autumn,
+the cows fed in the pastures will require to be housed regularly at
+night, especially in the more northern latitudes, and put, in part at
+least, upon hay. But every farmer knows that it is not judicious to feed
+out the best part of his hay when his cattle are first put into the
+barn, and that he should not feed so well in the early part of winter
+that he cannot feed better as the winter advances.</p>
+
+<p>At the same time, it should always be borne in mind that the change from
+grass to a poor quality of hay or straw, for cows in milk, should not be
+too sudden. A poor quality of dry hay is far less palatable in the early
+part of winter, after the cows are taken from grass, than at a later
+period; and, if it is resorted to with milch cows, will invariably lead
+to a falling off in the milk, which no good feed can afterward wholly
+restore.</p>
+
+<p>It is desirable, therefore, for the farmer to know what can be used
+instead of his best English or upland meadow hay, and yet not suffer any
+greater loss in the flow of milk, or in condition, than is absolutely
+necessary. In some sections of the Eastern States, the best quality of
+swale hay will be used; and the composition of that is as variable as
+possible, depending on the varieties of the grasses of which it was
+made, and the manner of curing. But, in other sections, many will find
+it necessary to use straw and other substitutes. Taking good English or
+meadow hay as the standard of comparison, and calling that one, 4.79
+times the weight of rye-straw, or 3.83 times the weight of oat-straw,
+contains the same amount of nutritive matter; that is, it would take<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span>
+4.79 times as good rye-straw to produce the same result as good meadow
+hay.</p>
+
+<p>In winter, the best food for cows in milk will be good sweet meadow hay,
+a part of which should be cut and moistened with water&mdash;as all inferior
+hay or straw should be&mdash;with an addition of root-crops, such as turnips,
+carrots, parsnips, potatoes, mangold-wurtzel, with shorts, oil-cake,
+Indian meal, or bean meal.</p>
+
+<p>It is the opinion of most successful dairymen that the feeding of moist
+food cannot be too highly recommended for cows in milk, especially to
+those who desire to obtain the largest quantity. Hay cut and thoroughly
+moistened becomes more succulent and nutritive, and partakes more of the
+nature of green grass.</p>
+
+<p>As a substitute for the oil-cake, hitherto known as an exceedingly
+valuable article for feeding stock, there is probably nothing better
+than cotton-seed meal. This is an article whose economic value has been
+but recently made known, but which, from practical trials already made,
+has proved eminently successful as food for milch cows. Chemists have
+decided that its composition is not inferior to that of the best
+flaxseed cake, and that in some respects its agricultural value
+surpasses that of any other kind of oil-cake.</p>
+
+<p>It has been remarked by chemists, in this connection, that the great
+value of linseed-cake, as an adjunct to hay, for fat cattle and milch
+cows, has been long recognized; and that it is undeniably traceable, in
+the main, to three ingredients of the seeds of the oil-yielding plants.
+The value of food depends upon the quantities of matters it contains
+which may be appropriated by the animal which consumes the food<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span> Now, it
+is proved that the fat of animals is derived from the starch, gum, and
+sugar, and more directly and easily from the oil of the food. These four
+substances, then, are fat-formers. The muscles, nerves, and tendons of
+animals, the brine of their blood and the curd of their milk, are almost
+identical in composition with, and strongly similar in many of their
+properties to, matters found in all vegetables, but chiefly in such as
+form the most concentrated food. These blood (and muscle) formers are
+characterized by containing about fifteen and a half per cent. of
+nitrogen; and hence are called nitrogenous substances. They are, also,
+often designated as the albuminous bodies.</p>
+
+<p>The bony framework of the animal owes its solidity to phosphate of lime,
+and this substance must be furnished by the food. A perfect food must
+supply the animal with these three classes of bodies, and in proper
+proportions. The addition of a small quantity of a food, rich in oil and
+albuminous substances, to the ordinary kinds of feed, which contain a
+large quantity of vegetable fibre or woody matter, more or less
+indigestible, but, nevertheless, indispensable to the herbivorous
+animals, their digestive organs being adapted to a bulky food, has been
+found highly advantageous in practice. Neither hay alone nor
+concentrated food alone gives the best results. A certain combination of
+the two presents the most advantages.</p>
+
+<p>Some who have used cotton-seed cake have found difficulty in inducing
+cattle to eat it. By giving it at first in small doses, mixed with other
+palatable food, they soon learn to eat it with relish. Cotton-seed cake
+is much richer in oils and albuminous matters than the linseed cake. A
+correspondingly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span> less quantity will therefore be required. Three pounds
+of this cotton-seed cake are equivalent to four of linseed cake of
+average quality.</p>
+
+<p>During the winter season, as has been already remarked, a frequent
+change of food is especially necessary, both as contributions to the
+general health of animals, and as a means of stimulating the digestive
+organs, and thus increasing the secretion of milk. A mixture used as cut
+feed and well moistened is now especially beneficial, since concentrated
+food, which would otherwise be given in small quantities, may be united
+with larger quantities of coarser and less nutritive food, and the
+complete assimilation of the whole be better secured. On this subject it
+has been sensibly observed that the most nutritious kinds of food
+produce little or no effect when they are not digested by the stomach,
+or if the digested food is not absorbed by the lymphatic vessels, and
+not assimilated by the various parts of the body. Now, the normal
+functions of the digestive organs not only depend upon the composition
+of the food, but also on its volume. The volume or bulk of the food
+contributes to the healthy action of the digestive organs, by exercising
+a stimulating effect upon the nerves which govern them. Thus the whole
+organization of ruminating animals necessitates the supply of bulky
+food, to keep the animal in good condition.</p>
+
+<p>Feed sweet and nutritious food, therefore, frequently, regularly, and in
+small quantities, and change it often, and the best results may be
+confidently anticipated. If the cows are not in milk, but are to come in
+in the spring, the difference in feeding should be rather in the
+quantity than the quality,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span> if the highest yield is to be expected from
+them during the coming season.</p>
+
+<p>The most common feeding is hay alone, and oftentimes very poor hay at
+that. The main point is to keep the animal in a healthy and thriving
+condition, and not to suffer her to fail in flesh; and with this object,
+some change and variety of food are highly important.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+    <a id="illus-112" name="illus-112"></a>
+    <img src="images/illus-112.png" width="600" height="490"
+       alt="" />
+    <p class="caption">CALLING IN THE CATTLE.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Toward the close of winter, a herd of cows will begin to come in, or
+approach their time of calving. Care should then be taken not to feed
+too rich or stimulating food for the last week or two before this event,
+as it is often attended with ill consequences. A plenty of hay, a few
+potatoes or shorts, and pure water will suffice.</p>
+
+<p>In spring, the best feeding for dairy cows will be much the same as that
+for winter; the roots in store over winter, such as carrots, mangold
+wurtzel, turnips, and parsnips, furnishing very valuable aid in
+increasing the quantity and improving the quality of milk. Toward the
+close of this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span> season, and before the grass of pastures is sufficiently
+grown to make it judicious to turn out the cows, the best dairymen
+provide a supply of green fodder in the shape of winter rye, which, if
+cut while it is tender and succulent, and before it is half grown, will
+be greatly relished. Unless cut young, however, its stalk soon becomes
+hard and unpalatable.</p>
+
+<p>All practical dairymen agree in saying that a warm and well-ventilated
+barn is indispensable to the promotion of the highest yield of milk in
+winter; and most agree that cows in milk should not be turned out, even
+to drink, in cold weather; all exposure to cold tending to lessen the
+yield of milk.</p>
+
+<p>In the London dairies, in which, of course, the cows are fed so as to
+produce the largest flow of milk, the treatment is as follows: The cows
+are kept at night in stalls. About three A. M. each has a half-bushel of
+grains. When milking is finished, each receives a bushel of turnips (or
+mangolds), and shortly afterward, one tenth of a truss of hay of the
+best quality. This feeding occurs before eight A. M., when the animals
+are turned into the yard. Four hours after, they are again tied up in
+their stalls, and have another feed of grains. When the afternoon
+milking is over (about three P. M.), they are fed with a bushel of
+turnips, and after the lapse of an hour, hay is given them as before.
+This mode of feeding usually continues throughout the cool season, or
+from November to March. During the remaining months they are fed with
+grains, tares, and cabbages, and a proportion of rowen, or second-cut
+hay. They are supplied regularly until they are turned out to grass,
+when they pass the whole of the night in the field. The yield is about
+six hundred and fifty gallons a year for each cow.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Mr. Harley&mdash;whose admirable dairy establishment was erected for the
+purpose of supplying the city of Glasgow with a good quality of milk,
+and which has contributed more than any thing else to improve the
+quality of the milk furnished to all the principal cities of Great
+Britain&mdash;adopted the following system of feeding with the greatest
+profit: In the early part of the summer, young grass and green barley,
+the first cutting especially, mixed with a large proportion of old hay
+or straw, and a good quantity of salt to prevent swelling, were used. As
+summer advanced, less hay and straw were given, and as the grass
+approached ripeness, they were discontinued altogether; but young and
+wet clover was never given without an admixture of dry provender. When
+grass became scarce, young turnips and turnip leaves were steamed with
+hay, and formed a good substitute. As grass decreased, the turnips were
+increased, and at length became a complete substitute. As the season
+advanced, a large proportion of distillers' grains and wash was given
+with other food, but these were found to have a tendency to make the
+cattle grain-sick; and if this feeding were long-continued, the health
+of the cows became affected. Boiled linseed and short-cut wheat straw
+mixed with the grains, were found to prevent the cows from turning sick.
+As spring approached, Swedish turnips, when cheap, were substituted for
+yellow turnips. These two roots, steamed with hay and other mixtures,
+afforded safe food till grass was again in season. When any of the cows
+were surfeited, the food was withheld till the appetite returned, when a
+small quantity was given, and increased gradually to the full allowance.</p>
+
+<p>But the most elaborate and valuable experiments in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span> feeding and
+management of milch cows, are those made, not long since, by Mr. T.
+Horsfall, of England, and published in the Journal of the Royal
+Agricultural Society. His practice, though adapted more especially,
+perhaps, to his own section, is nevertheless of such general application
+and importance as to be worthy of attention. By his course of treatment
+he found that he could produce as much and as rich butter in winter as
+in summer.</p>
+
+<p>His first object was to afford a full supply of the elements of food
+adapted to the maintenance, and also to the produce of the animal; and
+this could not be effected by the ordinary food and methods of feeding,
+since it is impossible to induce a cow to consume a quantity of hay
+requisite to supply the waste of the system, and keep up, at the same
+time, a full yield of the best quality of milk. He used, to some extent,
+cabbages, kohl rabi, mangolds, shorts, and other substances, rich in the
+constituents of cheese and butter. "My food for milch cows," says he,
+"after having undergone various modifications, has for two seasons
+consisted of rape cake five pounds, and bran two pounds, for each cow,
+mixed with a sufficient quantity of bean-straw, oat-straw, and shells of
+oats, in equal proportions, to supply them three times a day with as
+much as they will eat. The whole of the materials are moistened and
+blended together, and, after being well steamed, are given to the animal
+in a warm state. The attendant is allowed one pound to one pound and a
+half per cow, according to circumstances, of bean-meal, which he is
+charged to give to each cow in proportion to the yield of milk; those in
+full milk getting each two pounds per day, others but little. It is dry,
+and mixed with the steamed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span> food on its being dealt out separately. When
+this is eaten up, green food is given, consisting of cabbages, from
+October to December, kohl rabi till February, and mangold till grass
+time, with a view to nicety of flavor. I limit the quantity of green
+food to thirty or thirty-five pounds per day for each. After each feed,
+four pounds of meadow hay, or twelve pounds per day, is given to each
+cow. They are allowed water twice a day, to the extent which they will
+drink."</p>
+
+<p>Bean-straw uncooked having been found to be hard and unpalatable, it was
+steamed to make it soft and pulpy, when it possessed an agreeable odor,
+and imparted its flavor to the whole mass. It was cut for this purpose
+just before ripening, but after the bean was fully grown, and in this
+state was found to possess nearly double the amount of albuminous
+matter, so valuable to milch cows, of good meadow or upland hay. Bran or
+shorts is also vastly improved by steaming or soaking with hot water,
+when its nutriment is more readily assimilated. It contains about
+fourteen per cent. of albumen, and is rich in phosphoric acid. Rape-cake
+was found to be exceedingly valuable. Linseed and cotton-seed cake may
+probably be substituted for it in this country.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Horsfall turned his cows in May into a rich pasture, housing them at
+night, and giving them a mess of the steamed mixture and some hay
+morning and night; and from June to October they had cut grass in the
+stall, besides what they got in the pasture, and two feeds of the
+steamed mixture a day. After the beginning of October the cows were kept
+housed. With such management his cows generally yielded from twelve to
+sixteen quarts of milk (wine measure) a day, for about eight months
+after calving, when they fell off in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span> milk, but gained in flesh, up to
+calving-time. In this course of treatment the manure was far better than
+the average, and his pastures constantly improved. The average amount of
+butter from every sixteen quarts of milk was twenty-five ounces&mdash;a
+proportion far larger than the average.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+    <a id="illus-117" name="illus-117"></a>
+    <img src="images/illus-117.png" width="600" height="366"
+       alt="" />
+    <p class="caption">"ON THE RAMPAGE."</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>How widely does this course of treatment differ from that of most
+farmers! The object with many seems to be, to see with how little food
+they can keep the cow alive. From a correct point of view, the milch cow
+should be regarded as an instrument of transformation. The question
+should be&mdash;with so much hay, so much grain, so many roots, how can the
+most milk, or butter, or cheese, be made? The conduct of a manufacturer
+who owned good machinery, and an abundance of raw material, and had the
+labor at hand, would be considered very senseless, if he hesitated to
+supply the material, and keep the machinery at work, at least so long as
+he could run it with profit.</p>
+
+<p>Stimulate the appetite, then, and induce the cow to eat, by a frequent
+change of diet, not merely enough to supply the constant waste of her
+system, but enough and to spare, of a food adapted to the production of
+milk of the quality desired.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="SOILING" id="SOILING"></a>SOILING.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span></h3>
+
+<p>Of the advantages of soiling milch cows&mdash;that is, feeding exclusively in
+the barn&mdash;there are yet many conflicting opinions. As to its economy of
+land and feed there can be no question, it being generally admitted that
+a given number of animals may be abundantly fed on a less space; nor is
+there much question as to the increased quantity of milk yielded in
+stall feeding. Its economy, in this country, turns rather upon the cost
+of labor and time; and the question raised by the dairyman is, whether
+it will pay&mdash;whether its advantages are sufficient to balance the extra
+expense of cutting and feeding, over and above cropping on the pasture.
+The importance of this subject has been strongly impressed upon the
+attention of farmers in many sections of the country, by a growing
+conviction that something must be done to improve the pastures, or that
+they must be abandoned altogether.</p>
+
+<p>Thousands of acres of neglected pasture-land in the older States are so
+poor and worn out that from four to eight acres furnish but a miserable
+subsistence for a good-sized cow. No animal can flourish under such
+circumstances. The labor and exertion of feeding are too great, to say
+nothing of the vastly inferior quality of the grasses in such pastures,
+compared with those on more recently seeded lands. True economy would
+dictate that such pastures should either be allowed to run to wood, or
+be devoted to sheep-walks, or ploughed and improved. Cows, to be able to
+yield well, must have plenty of food of a sweet and nutritious quality;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span>
+and, unless they find it, they wander over a large space, if at liberty,
+and thus deprive themselves of rest.</p>
+
+<p>If a farmer or dairyman unfortunately owns such pastures, there can be
+no question that, as a matter of real economy, he had better resort to
+the soiling system for his milch cows; by which means he will largely
+increase his annual supply of good manure, and thus have the means of
+improving, and bringing his land to a higher state of cultivation. A
+very successful instance of this management occurs in the report of the
+visiting committee of an agricultural society in Massachusetts, in which
+they say: "We have now in mind a farmer in this county who keeps seven
+or eight cows in the stable through the summer, and feeds them on green
+fodder, chiefly Indian corn. We asked him his reasons for it. His answer
+was: 1. That he gets more milk than he can by any other method. 2. That
+he gets more manure, especially liquid manure. 3. That he saves it all,
+by keeping a supply of mud or mould under the stable, to be taken out
+and renewed as often as necessary. 4. That it is less troublesome than
+to drive his cows to pasture; that they are less vexed by flies, and
+have equally good health. 5. That his mowing land is every year growing
+more productive, without the expense of artificial manure.&mdash;He estimates
+that on an acre of good land twenty tons of green fodder may be raised.
+That which is dried is cut fine, and mixed with meal or shorts, and fed
+with profit. He believes that a reduced and worn-out farm&mdash;supposing the
+land to be naturally good&mdash;could be brought into prime order in five
+years, without any extra outlay of money for manure, by the use of green
+fodder in connection with the raising and keeping of pigs; not
+fattening<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span> them, but selling at the age of four or five months." He
+keeps most of his land in grass, improving its quality and
+productiveness by means of top-dressing, and putting money in his
+pocket&mdash;which is, after all, the true test both for theory and practice.</p>
+
+<p>Another practical case on this point is that of a gentleman in the same
+State who had four cows, but not a rod of land on which to pasture them.
+They were, therefore, never out of the barn&mdash;or, at least, not out of
+the yard&mdash;and were fed with grass, regularly mown for them; with green
+Indian corn and fodder, which had been sown broadcast for the purpose;
+and with about three pints of meal a day. Their produce in butter was
+kept for thirteen weeks. Two of them were but two years old, having
+calved the same spring. All the milk of one of them was taken by her
+calf for six weeks out of the thirteen, and some of the milk of the
+other was taken for family use, the quantity of which was not measured.
+These heifers could not, therefore, be estimated as equal to more than
+one cow in full milk. And yet from these cows no less than three hundred
+and eighty-nine pounds of butter were made in the thirteen weeks.
+Another pound would have made an average of thirty pounds a week for the
+whole time.</p>
+
+<p>It appears from these and other similar instances of soiling, or
+stall-feeding in summer on green crops cut for the purpose, that the
+largely increased quantity of the yield fully compensates for the
+slightly deteriorated quality. And not only is the quantity yielded by
+each cow increased, but the same extent of land, under the same culture,
+will carry double or treble the number of ordinary pastures, and keep<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span>
+them in better condition. There is also a saving of manure. But with us
+the economy of soiling is the exception, and not the rule.</p>
+
+<p>In adopting this system of feeding, regularity is required as much as in
+any other, and a proper variety of food. A succession of green crops
+should be provided, as near as convenient to the stable. The first will
+naturally be winter rye, in the Northern States, as that shoots up with
+great luxuriance. Winter rape would probably be an exceedingly valuable
+addition to the plants usually cultivated for soiling in this country,
+in sections where it would withstand the severity of the winter.
+Cabbages, kept in the cellar or pit, and transplanted early, will also
+come in here to advantage, and clover will very soon follow them; oats,
+millet, and green Indian-corn, as the season advances; and, a little
+later still, perhaps, the Chinese sugar-cane, which should not be cut
+till headed out. These plants, in addition to other cultivated grasses,
+will furnish an unfailing succession of succulent and tender fodder;
+while the addition of a little Indian, linseed, or cotton-seed meal will
+be found economical.</p>
+
+<p>In the vicinity of large towns and cities, where the object is too often
+to feed for the largest quantity, without reference to quality, an
+article known as distillers' swill, or still-slop, is extensively used.
+This, if properly fed in limited quantities, in combination with other
+and more bulky food, may be a valuable article for the dairyman; but, if
+given&mdash;as it too often is&mdash;without the addition of other kinds of food,
+it soon affects the health and constitution of the animals fed on it.
+This swill contains a considerable quantity of water, some nitrogenous
+compounds, and some inorganic matter in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span> shape of phosphates and
+alkaline salts found in the different kinds of grain of which it is made
+up, as Indian corn, wheat, barley, rye, and the like. Where this forms
+the principal food of milch cows, the milk is of a very poor
+quality&mdash;blue in color, and requiring the addition of coloring
+substances to make it saleable. It contains, often, less than one per
+cent. of butter, and seldom over one and three-tenths or one and a half
+per cent.&mdash;while good, saleable milk should contain from three to five
+per cent. It will not coagulate, it is said, in less than five or six
+hours; while good milk will invariably coagulate in an hour or less,
+under the same conditions. Its effect on the system of young children
+is, therefore, very destructive, causing diseases of various kinds, and,
+if continued, death.</p>
+
+<p>So pernicious have been the consequences resulting from the use of this
+"swill-milk," as it is called, in the largest city of this country, that
+the Legislature of the State of New York, at a recent session (1861-2),
+interfered in behalf of the community by making the sale of the article
+a penal offence.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="CULTURE_OF_GRASSES_FOR_FODDER" id="CULTURE_OF_GRASSES_FOR_FODDER"></a>CULTURE OF GRASSES FOR FODDER.</h3>
+
+<p>As has been already stated, the grasses in summer, and hay in winter,
+form the most natural and important food for milch cows; and, whatever
+other crops come in as additional, these will form the basis of all
+systems of feeding.</p>
+
+<p>The nutritive qualities of the grasses differ widely; and their value as
+feed for cows will depend, to a considerable extent, on the management
+of pastures and mowing-lands. Some considerations bearing upon the
+subject of the proper<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span> cultivation of these leading articles of food
+are, therefore, proposed in this article.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+    <a id="illus-123" name="illus-123"></a>
+    <img src="images/illus-123.png" width="600" height="410"
+       alt="" />
+    <p class="caption">PATIENTLY WAITING.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>If the turf of an old pasture is carefully examined, it will be found to
+contain a large variety of plants and grasses adapted for forage; some
+of them valuable for one purpose, and some for another. Some of them,
+though possessing a lower percentage of nutritive constituents than
+others, are particularly esteemed for an early and luxuriant growth,
+furnishing sweet feed in early spring, before other grasses appear; some
+of them, for starting more rapidly than others, after having been eaten
+off by cattle, and, consequently, of great value as pasture grasses.
+Most grasses will be found to be of a social character, and do best in a
+large mixture with other varieties.</p>
+
+<p>In forming a mixture for pasture grasses, the peculiar qualities of each
+species should, therefore, be regarded: as the time of flowering, the
+habits of growth, the soil and location on which it grows best, and
+other characteristics.</p>
+
+<p>Among the grasses found on cultivated lands in this country, the
+following are considered as among the most valuable for ordinary farm
+cultivation; some of them being<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span> adapted to pastures, and others almost
+exclusively to mowing and the hay-crop: Timothy, Meadow Foxtail, June or
+Kentucky Blue Grass, Fowl Meadow, Rough-stalked Meadow, Orchard Grass,
+Perennial Rye Grass, Italian Rye Grass, Redtop, English Bent, Meadow
+Fescue, Tall Oat Grass, Sweet-scented Vernal, Hungarian Grass, Red
+Clover, White or Dutch Clover, and some others.</p>
+
+<p>Of these, the most valuable, all things considered, is <span class="smcap">Timothy</span>. It forms
+a large proportion of what is commonly called English, or in some
+sections meadow, hay, though it originated and was first cultivated in
+this country. It contains a large percentage of nutritive matter, in
+comparison with other agricultural grasses. It thrives best on moist,
+peaty, or loamy soils, of medium tenacity, and is not well suited to
+very light, sandy lands. On very moist soils, its root is almost always
+fibrous; while on dry and loamy ones it is bulbous. On soils of the
+former description, which it especially affects, its growth is rapid,
+and its yield of hay large, sometimes amounting to three or four tons
+the acre, depending much, of course, upon cultivation. But, though very
+valuable for hay, it is not adapted for pasture, as it will neither
+endure severe grazing, nor is its aftermath to be compared with that of
+meadow foxtail, and some of the other grasses.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">June Grass</span>, better known in some sections as Kentucky Blue Grass, is
+very common in most sections of the country, especially on limestone
+lands, forming a large part of the turf, wherever it flourishes, and
+being held in universal esteem as a pasture grass. It starts early, but
+varies much in size and appearance, according to the soil; growing in
+some<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span> places with the utmost luxuriance, and forming the predominant
+grass; in others, yielding to the other species. If cut at the time of
+flowering, or a few days after, it makes a good and nutritious hay,
+though it is surpassed in nutritive qualities by several of the other
+grasses. It starts slowly after having been cut, especially if not cut
+very early. But its herbage is fine and uniform, and admirably adapted
+to lawns, growing well in almost all soils, though it does not endure
+very severe droughts. It withstands, however, the frosts of winter
+better than most other grasses.</p>
+
+<p>In Kentucky&mdash;a section where it attains its highest perfection and
+luxuriance, ripening its seeds about the tenth of June&mdash;and in latitudes
+south of that, it sometimes continues green through the mild winters. It
+requires three or four years to become well set, after sowing, and it
+does not attain its highest yield as a pasture grass till the sod is
+even older than that. It is not, therefore, suited to alternate
+husbandry, where land usually remains in grass but two or three years
+before being ploughed up. In Kentucky, it is sown any time in winter
+when the sun is on the ground, three or four quarts of seed being used
+to the acre. In spring the seeds germinate, when the sprouts are
+exceedingly fine and delicate. Stock is not allowed on it the first
+year.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">Meadow Foxtail</span> is also an excellent pasture grass It somewhat
+resembles Timothy, but is earlier, has a softer spike, and thrives on
+all soils except the dryest. Its growth is rapid, and it is greatly
+relished by stock of all kinds. Its stalks and leaves are too few and
+light for a field crop, and it shrinks too much in curing to be valuable
+for hay. It flourishes best in a rich, moist, and rather strong soil,
+sending<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span> up a luxuriant aftermath when cut or grazed off, which is much
+more valuable, both in quality and nutritive value, than the first crop.
+In all lands designed for permanent pasture, therefore, it should form a
+considerable part of a mixture. It will endure almost any amount of
+forcing, by liquid manures or irrigation. It requires three or four
+years, after soiling, to gain a firm footing in the soil. The seed is
+covered with the soft and woolly husks of the flower, and is
+consequently light; weighing but five pounds to the bushel, and
+containing seventy-six thousand seeds to the ounce.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">Orchard Grass</span>, or <span class="smcap">Rough Cocksfoot</span>, for pastures, stands pre-eminent.
+This is a native of this country, and was introduced into England, from
+Virginia, in 1764, since which time its cultivation has extended into
+every country of Europe, where it is universally held in very high
+estimation. The fact of its being very palatable to stock of all kinds,
+its rapid growth, and the luxuriance of its aftermath, with its power of
+enduring the cropping of cattle, have given it a very high reputation,
+especially as a pasture grass. It blossoms earlier than Timothy; when
+green, is equally relished by milch cows; requires to be fed closer, to
+prevent its forming tufts and growing up to seed, when it becomes hard
+and wiry, and loses much of its nutritive quality. As it blossoms about
+the same time, it forms an admirable mixture with red clover, either for
+permanent pasture or mowing. It resists drought, and is less exhausting
+to the soil than either rye grass or Timothy. The seed weighs twelve
+pounds to the bushel, and when sown alone requires about two bushels to
+the acre.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">Rough-Stalked Meadow Grass</span> is somewhat less<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span> common than the June
+grass, but is considered equally valuable. It grows best on moist,
+sheltered meadows, where it flowers in June and July. It is readily
+distinguished from June grass by its having a rough sheath, while the
+latter has a smooth one, and by having a fibrous root, while the root of
+the other is creeping. It possesses very considerable nutritive
+qualities, and comes to perfection at a desirable time, and is
+exceedingly relished by cattle, horses and sheep. For suitable soils it
+should form a portion of a mixture of seeds, producing, in mixture with
+other grasses which serve to shelter it, a large yield of hay, far above
+the average of grass usually sown on a similar soil. It should be cut
+when the seed is formed. Seven pounds of seed to the acre will make a
+good sward. The grass loses about seventy per cent. of its weight in
+drying. The nutritive qualities of its aftermath exceed very
+considerably those of the crop cut in the flower or in the seed.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Fowl Meadow Grass</span> is another indigenous species, of great value for low
+and marshy grounds, where it flourishes best; and, if cut and properly
+cured, makes a sweet and nutritious hay, which, from its fineness, is
+eaten by cows without waste. According to Sinclair&mdash;who experimented,
+with the aid of Sir Humphrey Davy, to ascertain its comparative
+nutritive properties&mdash;it is superior in this respect to either meadow
+foxtail, orchard grass, or tall meadow oat grass; but it is probable
+that he somewhat overrates it. If allowed to stand till nearly ripe, it
+falls down, but sends up innumerable flowering stems from the joints, so
+that it continues green and luxuriant till late in the season. It
+thrives best in mixture with other grasses, and deserves a prominent<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span>
+place in all mixtures for rich, moist pastures, and low mowing-lands.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Rye Grass</span> has a far higher reputation abroad than in this country, and
+probably with reason; for it is better adapted to a wet and uncertain
+climate than to a dry and hot one. It varies exceedingly, depending much
+on soil and culture; but, when cut in the blossom to make into hay, it
+possesses very considerable nutritive power. If allowed to get too ripe,
+it is hard and wiry, and not relished by cows. The change from a juicy
+and nutritious plant to a woody fibre, containing but little soluble
+matter, is very rapid. Properly managed, however, it is a tolerably good
+grass, though not to be compared to Timothy, or orchard grass.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Redtop</span> is a grass familiar to every farmer in the country. It is the
+Herd's grass of Pennsylvania, while in New York and New England it is
+known by a great variety of names and assumes a great variety of forms,
+according to the soil in which it grows. It is well adapted to almost
+every soil, though it seems to prefer a moist loam. It makes a
+profitable crop for spending, in the form of hay, though its yield is
+less than that of Timothy. It is well suited to our permanent pastures,
+where it should be fed close, otherwise it becomes wiry and
+innutritious, and cattle refuse it. It stands the climate of the country
+as well as any other grass, and so forms a valuable part of any mixture
+for pastures and permanent mowing-lands; but it is, probably, rather
+over rated by us.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">English Bent</span>, known also by a number of other names, is largely
+cultivated in some sections. It closely resembles redtop, but may be
+distinguished from it by the roughness of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span> the sheaths when the hand is
+drawn from above downward. It possesses about the same qualities as
+redtop.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Meadow Fescue</span> is one of the most common of the fescue grasses, and is
+said to be the Randall grass of Virginia. It is an excellent pasture
+grass, forming a very considerable portion of the turf of old pasture
+lands and fields; and is more extensively propagated and diffused from
+the fact that it ripens its seeds before most other grasses are cut, and
+sheds them to spring up and cover the ground. Its long and tender leaves
+are much relished by cattle. It is rarely sown in this country,
+notwithstanding its great and acknowledged value as a pasture grass. If
+sown at all, it should be in mixture with other grasses, as orchard
+grass, and rye grass, or June grass. It is of much greater value at the
+time of flowering than when the seed is ripe.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+    <a id="illus-129" name="illus-129"></a>
+    <img src="images/illus-129.png" width="600" height="274"
+       alt="" />
+    <p class="caption">A CHANCE FOR A SELECTION.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Tall Oat Grass</span> is the Ray grass of France. It furnishes a luxuriant
+supply of foliage, is valuable either for hay or for pasture, and has
+been especially recommended for soiling purposes, on account of its
+early and luxuriant<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span> growth. It is often found on the borders of fields
+and hedges, woods and pastures, and is sometimes very plenty in
+mowing-lands. After having been mown it shoots up a very thick
+aftermath, and, on this account, partly, is regarded of nearly equal
+excellence with the common foxtail.</p>
+
+<p>It grows spontaneously on deep, sandy soils, when once naturalized. It
+has been cultivated to a considerable extent in this country, and is
+esteemed by those who know it mainly for its early, rapid, and late
+growth, making it very well calculated as a permanent pasture grass. It
+will succeed on tenacious clover soil.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">Sweet-Scented Vernal Grass</span> is one of the earliest in spring and one
+of the latest in autumn; and this habit of growth is one of its chief
+excellencies, as it is neither a nutritious grass, nor very palatable to
+stock of any kind, nor does it yield a very good crop. It is very common
+in New England and all over the Middle States, coming into old worn-out
+fields and moist pastures spontaneously, and along every roadside. It
+derives its name from its sweetness of odor when partially wilted or
+crushed in the hand, and it is this chiefly which gives the delicious
+fragrance to all new-mown bay. It is almost the only grass that
+possesses a strongly-marked aromatic odor, which is imparted to other
+grasses with which it is cured. Its seed weighs eight pounds to the
+bushel. In mixtures for permanent pastures it may be of some value.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Hungarian Grass</span>, or millet, is an annual forage plant, introduced into
+France in 1815, and more recently into this country. It germinates
+readily, and withstands the drought remarkably, remaining green when
+other grasses are parched<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span> and dried up. It has numerous succulent
+leaves which furnish an abundance of sweet fodder, greatly relished by
+stock of all kinds. It attains its greatest luxuriance on soils of
+medium consistency and richness, but does very well on light and dry
+plains.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Red Clover</span> is an artificial grass of the leguminous family, and one of
+the most valuable cultivated plants for feeding to dairy cows. It
+flourishes best on tenacious soils and stiff loams. Its growth is rapid,
+and a few months after sowing are sufficient to supply an abundant sweet
+and nutritious food. In the climate of New England, clover should be
+sown in the spring of the year, while most of the natural grasses do far
+better when sown in the fall. It is often sown with perfect success on
+the late snows of March or April, and soon finds its way down into the
+soil and takes a vigorous hold with its root. It is valuable not only as
+a forage plant, but as shading the ground, and thereby increasing its
+fertility.</p>
+
+<p>The introduction of clover among the cultivated plants of the farm has
+done more, perhaps, for modern agriculture than that of any other single
+plant. It is now considered indispensable in all good dairy districts.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">White Clover</span>, often called Honeysuckle, is also widely diffused over
+this country, to which it is undoubtedly indigenous. As a mixture in all
+pasture grasses it holds a very high rank, as it is exceedingly sweet
+and nutritious, and relished by all kinds of stock. It grows most
+luxuriantly in moist grounds and moist seasons, but easily accommodates
+itself to a great variety of circumstances.</p>
+
+<p>With respect to the mixtures of grass-seeds most profitable<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span> for the
+dairy farmer, no universal rule can be given, as they depend very much
+upon the nature of the soil and the locality. The most important point
+to be observed, and the one as to which, probably, the greatest
+deficiency exists, is to use a large number of species, with smaller
+quantities of each than those most commonly used. This is Nature's rule;
+for, in examining the turf of a rich old pasture, a large number of
+different species will be found growing together, while, if the turf of
+a field sown without two or three species is examined, a far less number
+of plants is found to the square foot, even after the sod is fairly set.
+In the opinion of the most competent judges, no improvement in grass
+culture is more important than this.</p>
+
+<p>As an instance of what he would consider an improvement on the ordinary
+mixtures for <i>permanent pastures</i>, Mr. Flint, in his "Milch Cows and
+Dairy Farming," suggests the following as likely to give satisfactory
+results, dependent, of course, to a considerable extent, on the nature
+and preparation of the soil:</p>
+
+<table summary="Mixture of grass seeds for permanent pastures">
+<tr><td>Meadow Foxtail,</td><td class="center">flowering</td><td class="center">in</td><td>May and June,</td><td>2</td><td class="center">pounds</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Orchard Grass,</td><td class="center">"</td><td class="center">"</td><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td><td>6</td><td class="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Sweet-scented Vernal,</td><td class="center">"</td><td class="center">"</td><td>April and May,</td><td>1</td><td class="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Meadow Fescue,</td><td class="center">"</td><td class="center">"</td><td>May and June,</td><td>2</td><td class="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Redtop,</td><td class="center">"</td><td class="center">"</td><td>June and July,</td><td>2</td><td class="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td>June Grass,</td><td class="center">"</td><td class="center">"</td><td>May  and June,</td><td>4</td><td class="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Italian Rye Grass,</td><td class="center">"</td><td class="center">"</td><td>June,</td><td>4</td><td class="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Perennial do.,</td><td class="center">"</td><td class="center">"</td><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td><td>6</td><td class="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Timothy,</td><td class="center">"</td><td class="center">"</td><td>June and July,</td><td>3</td><td class="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3">Rough-stalked Meadow Grass,</td><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td><td>2</td><td class="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Perennial Clover,</td><td class="center">flowering</td><td class="center">in</td><td>June,</td><td>3</td><td class="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td>White Clover,</td><td class="center">"</td><td class="center">"</td><td style="padding-right: 0.5em;">May to September</td><td>5-40</td><td class="center">"</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span>For mowing-lands the mixture would, of course, be somewhat changed. The
+meadow foxtail and sweet-scented vernal would be left out entirely, and
+some six or eight pounds added to the Timothy and red clover. The proper
+time to lay down lands to grass in the latitude of New England is August
+or September, and no grain crop should be sown with the seed.</p>
+
+<p>Stiff or clayey pastures should never be overstocked, but when fed
+pretty close the grasses are far sweeter and more nutritious than when
+they are allowed to grow up rank and coarse; and if, by a want of
+sufficient feeding, they get the start of the stock, and grow into rank
+tufts, they should be cut and removed, when a fresh grass will start up,
+similar to the aftermath of mowing-lands, which will be eaten with
+avidity. Grasses for curing into hay should be cut either at the time of
+flowering, or just before, especially if designed for milch cows. They
+are then more succulent and juicy, and, if properly cured, form the
+sweetest food.</p>
+
+<p>Grass cut in the blossom will make more milk than if allowed to stand
+later. Cut a little before the blossoming; it will make more than when
+in blossom, and the cows prefer it, which is by no means an unimportant
+consideration, since their tastes should always be consulted. Grass cut
+somewhat green, and properly cured, is next to fresh, green grass in
+palatable, nutritive qualities. Every farmer knows the milk-producing
+properties of rowen, or second crop, which is generally cut before it
+ripens.</p>
+
+<p>No operation on the farm is of greater importance to the dairyman than
+the cutting of his grass and the manner of curing hay; and in this
+respect the practice over the country<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span> generally is susceptible of very
+marked improvement. The chief object is to preserve the sweetness and
+succulence of the grass in its natural state, so far as possible; and
+this object cannot be attained by exposing it too long to the scorching
+suns and drenching rains to which our climate is liable. As a general
+thing, farmers try to make their hay too much.</p>
+
+<p>As to the best modes of curing clover, the following, among others, is
+adopted by many successful farmers: What is mown in the morning is left
+in the swath, to be turned over early in the afternoon. At about four
+o'clock, or while it is still warm, it is put into small cocks with a
+fork, and, if the weather is favorable, it may be housed on the fourth
+or fifth day, the cocks being turned over on the morning of the day in
+which it is to be carted. By this method all the heads and leaves are
+saved, and these are more valuable than the stems. For new milch cows in
+winter scarcely any food is better. It will cause them to give as great
+a flow of milk as any hay, unless it be good rowen.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Indian Corn</span> makes an exceedingly valuable fodder, both as a means of
+carrying a herd of milch cows through our severe droughts of summer, and
+as an article for soiling cows kept in the stall. No dairy farmer will
+neglect to sow an extent in proportion to the number of cows which he
+keeps. The most common practice is, to sow in drills from two and a half
+to three feet apart, on land well tilled and thoroughly manured, making
+the drills from six to ten inches wide with the plough, manuring in the
+furrow, dropping the kernels about two inches apart, and covering with
+the hoe. In this mode of culture, the cultivator may be used between
+the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span> rows when the corn is from six to twelve inches high, and, unless
+the ground is very weedy, no other after culture is needed. The first
+sowing usually takes place about the middle of May, and this is
+succeeded by other sowings, at intervals of a week or ten days, till
+July, in order to have a succession of green fodder; but, if it is
+designed to cut it up to cure for winter use, an early sowing is
+generally preferred, in order to be able to cure it in warm weather, in
+August or early in September. Sown in this way, about three or four
+bushels of corn are required for an acre; since, if sown thickly, the
+fodder is better, the stalks smaller, and the waste less.</p>
+
+<p>The chief difficulty in curing corn cultivated for this purpose, and
+after the methods just spoken of, arises from the fact that it comes at
+a season when the weather is often colder, the days shorter, and the
+dews heavier, than when the curing of hay takes place. Nor is the curing
+of corn cut up green so easy and simple as that of the drying of stalks
+of Indian corn cut above the ear, as in the common practice of topping.
+The plant is then riper, less juicy, and cures more readily.</p>
+
+<p>The method sometimes adopted is to cut and tie into small bundles, after
+it is somewhat wilted, and then to stook upon the ground, where it is
+allowed to stand, subject to all the changes of weather, with only the
+protection of the stook itself. The stooks consist of bunches of stalks
+first bound into small bundles, and are made sufficiently large to
+prevent the wind from blowing them over. The arms are thrown around the
+tops to bring them as closely together as possible, when the tops are
+broken over or twisted together, or otherwise<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span> fastened, in order to
+make the stook "shed the rain" as well as possible. In this condition
+they remain out until they are sufficiently dried to be put in the barn.
+Corn fodder is very excellent for young dairy stock.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Common Millet</span> is another very valuable crop for fodder in soiling, or to
+cure for winter use, but especially to feed out during the usual season
+of drought. Many varieties of millet are cultivated in this country, the
+ground being prepared and treated as for oats. If designed to cut for
+green fodder, half a bushel of seed to the acre should be used; if to
+ripen seed, twelve quarts, sown broadcast, about the last of May or
+early in June. A moist loam or muck is the best soil adapted to millet;
+but very great crops have been grown on dry upland. It is very palatable
+and nutritious for milch cows, both green and when properly cured. The
+curing should be very much like that of clover, care being taken not to
+over-dry it. For fodder, either green or cured, it is cut before
+ripening. In this state all cattle eat it as readily as green corn, and
+a less extent will feed them. Millet is worthy of a widely-extended
+cultivation, particularly on dairy farms. Indian millet is another
+cultivated variety.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Rye</span>, as a fodder plant, is chiefly valuable for its early growth in
+spring. It is usually sown in September or October&mdash;from the middle to
+the end of September being, perhaps, the most desirable time&mdash;on land
+previously cultivated and in good condition. If designed to ripen only,
+a bushel of seed is required to the acre, evenly sown; but, if intended
+for early fodder in spring, two or two and a half bushels of seed per
+acre should be used. On warm land the rye can be cut green the last of
+April or the first of May.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span> Care should be taken to cut early; since, if
+it is allowed to advance too far towards maturity, the stalk becomes
+hard and unpalatable to cows.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Oats</span> are also sometimes used for soiling, or for feeding green, to eke
+out a scanty supply of pasture feed; and for this purpose they are
+valuable. They should be sown on well-tilled and well-manured land,
+about four bushels to the acre, towards the last of April or the first
+of May. If the whole crop is to be used as green fodder, five bushels of
+seed will not be too much for good, strong soil. They will be
+sufficiently grown to cut by the first of July, or in some sections
+earlier, depending upon the location.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">Chinese Sugar-Cane</span> also may deserve attention as a fodder plant.
+Experiments thus far made would seem to show that when properly
+cultivated, and cut at the right time, it is a palatable and nutritious
+plant, while many of the failures have been the result of too early
+cutting. For a fodder crop the drill culture is preferable, both on
+account of the larger yield obtained and because it is thus prevented
+from becoming too hard and stalky.</p>
+
+<p>Of the root crops the <span class="smcap">Potato</span> is the first to be mentioned. This produces
+a large quantity of milk, though the quality is inferior. The market
+value of this root is, at times, too great to allow of feeding
+extensively with it, even in milk dairies, where it is most valuable as
+a food for cows; still, there are locations where it may be judicious to
+cultivate this root for dairy feed, and in all circumstances there is a
+certain portion of the crop of unmarketable size, which will be of value
+fed to milch cows or swine. It should be planted in April or May, but in
+many sections in June, on good mellow soil, first<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span> thoroughly plowed and
+harrowed, then furrowed three feet apart, and manured in the furrows
+with a mixture of ashes, plaster of Paris, and salt. The seed may be
+dropped in the furrows, one foot apart, after the drill system&mdash;or in
+hills, two and a half or three feet apart&mdash;to be covered with the plough
+by simply turning the furrows back, after which the whole should be
+rolled with the field-roller, when it can be done.</p>
+
+<p>If the land is not already in good heart from continued cultivation, a
+few loads of barnyard manure may be spread, and plowed under, by the
+first plowing. Used in this way it is far less liable to cause the rot,
+than when it is put in the hill. If a sufficient quantity of wood-ashes
+is not at hand, sifted coal-ashes will answer the purpose, and these are
+said to be valuable as a preventive of rot. In this way, one man, two
+boys, and a horse can plant from three to four acres a day on mellow
+land.</p>
+
+<p>By another method two acres a day on the sod have been planted. The
+manure is first spread upon the grass, and then a furrow made by a yoke
+of oxen and one man, another following after and dropping, a foot apart,
+along the outer edge of the furrow on the grass. By quick work, one hand
+can nearly keep up with the plow in dropping. When arrived at the end of
+the piece, a back furrow is turned up to the potatoes, and a good
+plowman will cover nearly all without difficulty. On the return furrow,
+the man or boy who dropped follows after, covering up any that may be
+left or displaced, and smoothing off the top of the back-furrows when
+necessary. Potatoes thus planted have come out finely.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The cost of cultivation in this mode, it must be evident, is but
+trifling, compared with the slower method of hand-planting. It requires
+a skillful ploughman, a quick, active lad, and a good yoke of oxen, and
+the extent of the work will depend somewhat upon the state of the turf.
+The nutritive equivalent for potatoes in a hundred pounds of good hay is
+319 pounds; that is, it will take 3.19 pounds of potatoes to afford the
+same amount of nourishment as one pound of hay. The great value of roots
+is as a change or condiment calculated to keep the animal in a healthy
+condition.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+    <a id="illus-139" name="illus-139"></a>
+    <img src="images/illus-139.png" width="600" height="313"
+       alt="" />
+    <p class="caption">A WEST HIGHLAND OX.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">Carrot</span> is somewhat extensively fed, and is a valuable root for milch
+cows. This, like the potato, has been cultivated and improved from a
+wild plant. Carrots require a deep, warm, mellow soil, thoroughly
+cultivated, but clean, and free from weed-seed. The difference between a
+very good profit and a loss on the crop depends much upon the use of
+land and manures perfectly free from foul seeds of any kind. Ashes,
+guano, seaweed, ground bones, and other similar substances, or
+thoroughly-rotted and fermented compost, will answer the purpose.</p>
+
+<p>After plowing deep, and harrowing carefully, the seed should be planted
+with a seed-sower, in drills about eighteen inches apart, at the rate of
+four pounds to the acre, about the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span> middle of May. The difference
+between sowing on the fifteenth of May and on the tenth of June in New
+England is said to be nearly one-third in the crop on an average of
+years. In weeding, a little wheel hoe is invaluable, as with it a large
+part of the labor of cultivation is saved. A skillful hand can run this
+hoe within a half an inch of the young plants without injury, and go
+over a large space in the course of a day, if the land was properly
+prepared in the first place.</p>
+
+<p>The American farmer should always plan to economize labor, which is the
+great item of expense upon a farm. By this is not meant that he should
+strive to shirk or avoid work, but that he should make the least amount
+of work accomplish the greatest and most profitable results.
+Labor-saving machinery on the farm is applied, not to reduce the number
+of hours of labor, or to make the owner a man of leisure&mdash;who is,
+generally, the unhappiest man in the world&mdash;but to enable him to
+accomplish the greatest results in the same time that he would be
+compelled to obtain smaller ones.</p>
+
+<p>Carrots will continue to grow and increase in size late into the fall.
+When ready to dig, plow around as near to the outside rows as possible,
+turning away the furrow from the row. Then take out the carrots, pulling
+off the tops, and throw the carrots and tops into separate heaps on the
+plowed furrows. In this way a man and two boys can harvest and put into
+the cellar upwards of a hundred bushels a day.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">Turnip</span>, and the Swedish turnip, or ruta baga, are also largely
+cultivated as a field crop to feed to stock; and for this purpose almost
+numberless varieties are used, furnishing a great amount of succulent
+and nutritious food, late into<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span> winter, and, if well-kept, late into
+spring. The chief objection to the turnip is, that it taints the milk.
+This may be remedied&mdash;to a considerable extent, if not wholly&mdash;by the
+use of salt, or salt hay, and by feeding at the time of milking, or
+immediately after, or by steaming before feeding, or putting a small
+quantity of the solution of nitre into the pail, and milking upon it.</p>
+
+<p>Turnips may be sown any time in June, in rich land, well mellowed by
+cultivation. Very large crops are obtained, sown as late as the middle
+of July, or the first of August, on an inverted sod. The Michigan, or
+double-mould-board plow leaves the land light, and in admirable
+condition to harrow, and drill in turnips. In one instance, a successful
+root-grower cut two tons of hay to the acre, on the twenty-third of
+June, and after it was removed from the land spread eight cords of
+rotten kelp to the acre, and plowed in; after which about three cords of
+fine old compost manure were used to the acre, which was sown with ruta
+baga seed, in drills, three feet apart, plants thinned to eight or ten
+inches in the drill. No after cultivation was required. On the fifteenth
+of November he harvested three hundred and seventy bushels of splendid
+roots to the acre, carefully measured off.</p>
+
+<p>The nutritive equivalent of Swedish turnips as compared with good meadow
+hay is 676, taking hay as a standard at 100; that is, it would require
+6.76 pounds of turnips to furnish the same nutriment as one pound of
+good hay; but fed in connection with other food&mdash;as hay, for
+example&mdash;perhaps five pounds of turnips would be about equal to one
+pound of hay.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The English or round turnip is usually sown broadcast after some other
+crop, and large and valuable returns are often obtained. The Swede is
+sown in drills. Both of these varieties are used for the production of
+milk.</p>
+
+<p>The chief objection to the turnip crop is that it leaves many kinds of
+soil unfit for a succession of some other crops, like Indian corn, for
+instance. In some sections, no amount of manuring appears to make corn
+do well after turnips or ruta bagas.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">Mangold Wurtzel</span>, a variety of the common beet, is often cultivated
+in this country with great success, and fed to cows with advantage,
+furnishing a succulent and nutritive food in winter and spring. The crop
+is somewhat uncertain. When it does well, an enormous yield is often
+obtained; but, not rarely, it proves a failure, and is not, on the
+whole, quite as reliable as the ruta baga, though a more valuable crop
+when the yield is good. It is cultivated like the common beet in moist,
+rich soils; three pounds of seed to the acre The leaves may be stripped
+off, towards fall, and fed out, without injury to the growth of the
+root. Both mangolds and turnips should be cut with a root-cutter, before
+being fed out.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">Parsnip</span> is a very sweet and nutritious article of fodder, and adds
+richness and flavor to the milk. It is worthy of extended culture in all
+parts of the country where dairy husbandry is pursued. It is a biennial,
+easily raised on deep, rich, well-cultivated and well-manured soils,
+often yielding enormous crops, and possessing the decided advantage of
+withstanding the severest winters. As an article of spring feeding,
+therefore, it is exceedingly valuable. Sown<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span> in April or May, it attains
+a large growth before winter. Then, if desirable, a part of the crop may
+be harvested for winter use, and the remainder left in the ground till
+the frost is out, in March or April, when they can be dug as wanted, and
+are exceedingly relished by milch cows and stock of all kinds. They make
+an admirable feed at the time of milking, and produce the richest cream,
+and the yellowest and finest-flavored butter, of any roots used among
+us. The best dairy farmers on the Island of Jersey often feed to their
+cows from thirty to thirty-five pounds of parsnips a day, in addition to
+hay or grass.</p>
+
+<p>Both practical experiment and scientific analysis prove this root to be
+eminently adapted to dairy stock, where the richness of milk or
+fine-flavored butter is any object. For mere milk-dairies, it is not
+quite so valuable, probably, as the Swedish turnip. The culture is
+similar to that of carrots, a rich, mellow, and deep loam being best;
+while it has a great advantage over the carrot in being more hardy, and
+rather less liable to injury from insects, and more nutritive. For
+feeding and fattening stock it is eminently adapted.</p>
+
+<p>To be sure of a crop, fresh seed must be had, as it cannot be depended
+on for more than one year. For this reason the largest and straightest
+roots should be allowed to stand for seed, which, as soon as nearly
+ripe, should be taken out and spread out to dry, and carefully kept for
+use. For field culture, the hollow-crowned parsnip is the best and most
+profitable; but on thin, shallow soils the turnip-rooted variety should
+be used. Parsnips may be harvested like carrots, by plowing along the
+rows. Let butter or cheese dairymen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span> give this crop a fair and full
+trial, and watch its effect in the quality of the milk and butter.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">Kohl Rabi</span> is also cultivated to a considerable extent in this
+country for the purpose of feeding stock. It is supposed to be a hybrid
+between the cabbage and the turnip and is often called the
+cabbage-turnip, having the root of the former, with a turnip-like or
+bulbous stem. The special reason for its more extensive cultivation
+among us is its wonderful indifference to droughts, in which it seems to
+flourish best, and to bring forth the most luxuriant crops. It also
+withstands the frosts remarkably, being a hardy plant. It yields a
+somewhat richer quality of milk than the ordinary turnip, and the crop
+is generally admitted to be as abundant and profitable. Very large crops
+of it have been produced by the ordinary turnip or cabbage cultivation.
+As in cabbage-culture, it is best to sow the seed in March or April, in
+a warm and well-enriched seed-bed; from which it is transplanted in May,
+and set out after the manner of cabbages in garden culture. It bears
+transplanting better than most other roots. Insects injure it less than
+the turnip, dry weather favors it, and it keeps well through winter. For
+these reasons, it must be regarded as a valuable addition to our list of
+forage plants adapted to dairy farming. It grows well on stronger soils
+than the turnip requires.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Linseed Meal</span> is the ground cake of flaxseed after the oil is pressed
+out. It is very rich in fat-forming principles, and given to milch cows
+increases the quality of butter, and keeps them in condition. Four or
+five pounds a day are sufficient for cows in milk, and this amount will
+effect a great saving in the cost of other food, and at the same time<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span>
+make a very rich milk. It is extensively manufactured in this country,
+and largely exported, but it is worthy of more general use here. It must
+not be fed in too large quantities to milch cows, for it would be liable
+to give too great a tendency to fat, and thus affect the quantity of the
+milk.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cotton-seed Meal</span> is an article of comparatively recent introduction. It
+is obtained by pressing the seed of the cotton-plant, which extracts the
+oil, when the cake is crushed or ground into meal, which has been found
+to be a very valuable article for feeding stock. From analysis it is
+shown to be equal or superior to linseed meal. Practical experiments
+only are needed to establish it. It can be procured in market at a
+reasonable price.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">Manures</span> used in this country for the culture of the above named
+plants are mostly such as are made on the farm, consisting chiefly of
+barnyard composts of various kinds, with often a large admixture of
+peat-mud. There are few farms that do not contain substances, which, if
+properly husbanded, would add very greatly to the amount of manure
+ordinarily made. The best of the concentrated manures, which it is
+sometimes necessary to use, for want of time and labor to prepare enough
+upon the farm, is, unquestionably, Peruvian guano. The results of this,
+when properly applied, are well known and reliable, which can hardly be
+said of any other artificial manure offered for the farmer's notice. The
+chief objection to depending upon manures made off the farm is, in the
+first place, their great expense; and in the second&mdash;which is equally
+important&mdash;the fact, that, though they may be made valuable, and produce
+at one time the best results, a want of care in the manufacture, or
+designed fraud, may<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span> make them almost worthless, with the impossibility
+of detecting the imposition, without a chemical analysis, till it
+becomes too late, and the crop is lost.</p>
+
+<p>It is, therefore, safest to rely mainly upon the home manufacture of
+manure. The extra expense of soiling cattle, saving and applying the
+liquid manure, and thus bringing the land to a higher state of
+cultivation, when it will be capable of keeping more stock and
+furnishing more manure, would offer a surer road to success than a
+constant outlay for concentrated fertilizers.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="THE_BARN" id="THE_BARN"></a>THE BARN.</h3>
+
+<p>The farm barn, next to the farm house, is the most important structure
+of the farm itself, in the Northern and Middle States; and even at the
+South and Southwest, where barns are less used, they are of more
+importance in the economy of farm management than is generally
+understood. Indeed, to the eyes of a person of taste, a farm or
+plantation appears incomplete, without good barn accommodations, as much
+as without good household appointments&mdash;and without them, no
+agricultural establishment can be complete in all its proper economy.</p>
+
+<p>The most <i>thorough</i> barn structures, perhaps, to be seen in the United
+States, are those of the State of Pennsylvania, built by the German
+farmers of the lower and central counties. They are large, and expensive
+in their construction; and, in a strictly economical point of view, are,
+perhaps, more costly than is required. Yet, there is a substantial
+durability about them, that is exceedingly satisfactory, and, where the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span>
+pecuniary ability of the farmer will admit, they may well furnish models
+for imitation.</p>
+
+<p>In the structure of the barn, and in its interior accommodation, much
+will depend upon the branches of agriculture to which the farm is
+devoted. A farm cultivated in grain chiefly requires but little room for
+stabling purposes. Storage for grain in the sheaf, and granaries, will
+require its room; while a stock farm requires a barn with extensive hay
+storage, and stables for its cattle, horses, and sheep, in all climates
+which do not admit of such stocks living through the winter in the
+field, as is the case in the great grazing districts west of the
+Alleghanies. Again, there are wide districts of country where a mixed
+husbandry of grain and stock is pursued, which require barns and
+outbuildings accommodating both.</p>
+
+<p>It may be well here to remark that many designers of barns, sheds, and
+other outbuildings for the accommodation of farm stock, have indulged in
+fanciful arrangements for the comfort and convenience of animals, which
+are so complicated that when constructed, as they sometimes are, the
+practical, common-sense farmer will not use them; and by reason of the
+learning which is required for their use, they are altogether unsuitable
+for the treatment and use which they generally receive from those who
+have the daily care of the stock for which they are intended, and for
+the rough usage which they experience from the animals themselves. A
+very pretty and plausible arrangement of stabling, feeding, and all the
+other requirements of a barn establishment may be thus got up by an
+ingenious theorist at the fireside, which will work charmingly as he
+dilates upon its good qualities, untried; but, which, when subjected to
+experiment, will be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span> utterly worthless for practical use. There can be
+no doubt that the simplest plan of construction, consistent with an
+economical expenditure of the material of food for the consumption of
+stock, is by far the most preferable.</p>
+
+<p>Another item to be considered in this connection, is the comparative
+value of the stock, the forage fed to them, and the labor expended in
+feeding and taking care of them. To illustrate: Suppose a farm to lie in
+the vicinity of a large town or city. Its value is, perhaps, a hundred
+dollars an acre. The hay cut upon it is worth fifteen dollars a ton, at
+the barn, and straw and coarse grains in proportion, and hired labor ten
+or twelve dollars a month. Consequently, the manager of this farm should
+use all the economy in his power, by the aid of cutting-boxes and other
+machinery, to make the least amount of forage supply the wants of his
+stock; and the internal economy of his barn should be arranged
+accordingly, since labor is his cheapest item, and food his dearest.
+Therefore, any contrivance by which to work up his forage the
+closest&mdash;by way of machinery, or manual labor&mdash;so that it shall serve
+the purposes of keeping his stock, is true economy; and the making and
+saving of manures are items of the first importance. His buildings and
+their arrangements throughout should, for these reasons, be constructed
+in accordance with his practice.</p>
+
+<p>If, on the other hand, lands are cheap and productive, and labor
+comparatively dear, a different practice will prevail. The farmer will
+feed his hay from the mow without cutting. The straw will be stacked
+out, and the cattle turned to it, to pick what they like of it, and make
+their beds of the remainder; or, if it is housed, he will throw it into
+racks, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span> the stock may eat what they choose. To do this requires but
+one-third, or one-half of the labor which is required by the other mode,
+and the saving in this makes up, and perhaps more than makes up, for the
+increased quantity of forage consumed.</p>
+
+<p>Again, climate may equally affect the mode of winter-feeding the stock.
+The winters may be mild. The hay may be stacked in the fields when
+gathered, or put into small barns built for hay storage alone; and the
+manure, scattered over the fields by the cattle, as they are fed from
+either of them, may be knocked to pieces with the dung-beetle, in the
+spring, or harrowed and bushed over the ground; and with the very small
+quantity of labor required in all this, such practice will be more
+economical than any other which can be adopted.</p>
+
+<p>In latitudes, however, in which it becomes necessary to stall-feed
+during several months of the year, barns are indispensable. These should
+be warm, and at the same time well ventilated. The barn should be
+arranged in a manner suitable to keeping hay and other fodder dry and
+sweet, and with reference to the comfort and health of the animals, and
+the economy of labor and manure. The size and finish will, of course,
+depend on the wants and means of the farmer or dairyman; but many little
+conveniences, it should not be forgotten, can be added at comparatively
+trifling cost.</p>
+
+<p>The accompanying cut of a barn is given merely as an illustration of a
+convenient arrangement for a medium-sized dairy, and not as being
+adapted to all circumstances or situations. This barn is supposed to
+stand upon a side-hill or an inclined surface, where it is easy to have
+a cellar, if desired;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span> and the cattle-room, as shown in the cut, is in
+the second story, or directly over the cellar, the bottom of which
+should be somewhat dished, or lower in the middle than around the outer
+sides, and carefully paved, or laid in cement.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+    <a id="illus-150" name="illus-150"></a>
+    <img src="images/illus-150.png" width="800" height="554"
+       alt="" />
+    <p class="caption">BARN FOR THIRTY-FOUR COWS AND THREE YOKE OF OXEN.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span>On the outside is represented an open shed, <i>m</i>, for carts and wagons to
+remain under cover, thirty feet by fifteen, while <i>l&nbsp;l&nbsp;l&nbsp;l&nbsp;l&nbsp;l</i> are bins
+for vegetables, to be filled through scuttles from the floor of the
+story above, and surrounded by solid walls. The area of this whole floor
+equals one hundred feet by fifty-seven. <i>k</i>, is an open space, nearly on
+a level with the cow-chamber, through the door <i>p</i>. <i>s</i>, stairs to the
+third story and to the cellar, <i>d&nbsp;d&nbsp;d</i>, passage next to the walls, five
+feet wide, and nine inches above the dung-pit. <i>e&nbsp;e&nbsp;e</i>, dung-pit, two
+feet wide, and seven inches below the floor where the cattle stand. The
+manure drops from this pit into the cellar below, five feet from the
+walls, and quite around the cellar. <i>c&nbsp;c&nbsp;c</i>, plank floor for cows, four
+feet six inches long. <i>b&nbsp;b&nbsp;b</i>, stalls for three yoke of oxen, on a
+platform five feet six inches long, <i>n&nbsp;n</i>, calf-pens, which may also be
+used for cows in calving. <i>r&nbsp;r</i>, feeding-troughs for calves. The
+feeding-boxes are made in the form of trays, with partitions between
+them. Water comes in by a pipe, to cistern <i>a</i>. This cistern is
+regulated by a cock and ball, and the water flows by dotted lines, <i>o&nbsp;o&nbsp;o</i>,
+to the boxes; each box being connected by lead pipes well secured
+from frost, so that, if desired, each animal can be watered without
+leaving the stall, or water can be kept constantly before it. A scuttle,
+through which sweepings and refuse may be put into the cellar, is seen
+at <i>f</i>. <i>g</i> is a bin receiving cut hay from the third story, or
+hay-room, <i>h&nbsp;h&nbsp;h&nbsp;h&nbsp;h&nbsp;h</i>, bins for grain-feed. <i>i</i> is a tunnel to conduct
+manure or muck from the hay-floor to the cellar. <i>j&nbsp;j</i>, sliding-doors on
+wheels. The cows all face toward the open area in the centre.</p>
+
+<p>This cow-room may be furnished with a thermometer,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span> clock, etc., and
+should always be well ventilated by sliding windows, which at the same
+time admit the light.</p>
+
+<p>The next cut is a transverse section of the same cow-room; <i>a</i> being a
+walk behind the cows, five feet wide; <i>b</i>, dung-pit; <i>c</i>, cattle-stand;
+<i>d</i>, feeding-trough, with a bottom on a level with the platform where
+the cattle stand; <i>k</i>, open area, forty-three feet, by fifty-six.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+    <a id="illus-152" name="illus-152"></a>
+    <img src="images/illus-152.png" width="600" height="113"
+       alt="" />
+    <p class="caption">TRANSVERSE SECTION.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The story above the cow-room&mdash;as represented in the next cut&mdash;is one
+hundred feet by forty-two; the bays for hay, ten on each side, being ten
+feet front and fifteen feet deep; and the open space, <i>p</i>, for the
+entrance of wagons, carts, etc., twelve feet wide. <i>b</i>, hay-scales. <i>c</i>,
+scale beam. <i>m&nbsp;m&nbsp;m&nbsp;m&nbsp;m&nbsp;m</i>, ladders reaching almost to the roof. <i>l&nbsp;l&nbsp;l</i>,
+etc., scuttle-holes for sending vegetables directly to the bins, <i>l&nbsp;l&nbsp;l</i>,
+etc., below. <i>a&nbsp;a&nbsp;b&nbsp;b</i>, rooms on the corners for storage. <i>d</i>,
+scuttles; four of which are used for straw, one for cut hay, and one for
+muck for the cellar. <i>n</i> and the other small squares are eighteen-feet
+posts. <i>f</i>, passage to the tool-house, a room one hundred feet long by
+eighteen wide. <i>o</i>, stairs leading to the scaffold in the roof of the
+tool-house. <i>i&nbsp;i</i>, benches. <i>g</i>, floor. <i>h</i>, boxes for hoes, shovels,
+spades, picks, iron bars, old iron, etc. <i>j&nbsp;j&nbsp;j</i>, bins for fruit. <i>k</i>,
+scuttles to put apples into wagons, etc., in the shed below. One side of
+this tool-house may be used for plows and large implements, hay-rigging,
+harness, etc.</p>
+
+<p>Proper ventilation of the cellar and the cow-room avoids<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span> the objection
+that the hay is liable to injury from noxious gases.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+    <a id="illus-153" name="illus-153"></a>
+    <img src="images/illus-153.png" width="800" height="538"
+       alt="" />
+    <p class="caption">ROOM OVER THE COW-ROOM.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The excellent manure-cellar beneath this barn extends only<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span> under the
+cow-room. It has a drive-way through doors on each side. No barn-cellar
+should be kept shut up tight, even in cold weather. The gases are
+constantly escaping from the manure, unless held by absorbents, which
+are liable not only to affect the health of the stock, but also to
+injure the quality of the hay. To prevent this, while securing the
+important advantages of a manure-cellar, the barn may be furnished with
+good-sized ventilators on the top, for every twenty-five feet of its
+length, and with wooden tubes leading from the cellar to the top.</p>
+
+<p>There should also be windows on different sides of the cellar to admit
+the free circulation of air. With these precautions, together with the
+use of absorbents in the shape of loam and muck, there will be no danger
+of rotting the timbers of the barn, or of risking the health of the
+cattle or the quality of the hay.</p>
+
+<p>The temperature at which the cow-room should be kept is somewhere from
+fifty to sixty degrees, Fahrenheit. The practice and the opinions of
+successful dairymen differ somewhat on this point. Too great heat would
+affect the health and appetite of the herd; while too low a temperature
+is equally objectionable, for various reasons.</p>
+
+<p>The most economical plan for room in tying cattle in their stalls, is to
+fasten the rope or chain, whichever is used&mdash;the wooden stanchion, or
+stanchel, as it is called, to open and shut, enclosing the animal by the
+neck, being objectionable&mdash;into a ring, which is secured by a strong
+staple into a post. This prevents the cattle from interfering with each
+other, while a partition effectually prevents any contact from the
+animals on each side of it, in the separate stalls.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>There is no greater benefit for cattle, after coming into
+winter-quarters, than a systematic regularity in every thing pertaining
+to them. Every animal should have its own particular stall in the
+stable, where it should always be kept. The cattle should be fed and
+watered at certain fixed hours of the day, as near as may be. If let out
+of the stables for water, unless the weather is very pleasant&mdash;when they
+may be permitted to lie out for a short time&mdash;they should be immediately
+put back, and not allowed to range about with the outside cattle. They
+are more quiet and contented in their stables than elsewhere, and waste
+less food than if permitted to run out; besides being in every way more
+comfortable, if properly bedded and attended to, as every one will find
+upon trial. The habit which many farmers have, of turning their cattle
+out of the stables in the morning, in all weathers&mdash;letting them range
+about in a cold yard, hooking and annoying each other&mdash;is of no possible
+benefit, unless it be to rid them of the trouble of cleaning the
+stables, which pays more than twice its cost in the saving of manure.
+The outside cattle, which occupy the yard&mdash;if there are any&mdash;are all the
+better that the stabled ones do not interfere with them. They become
+habituated to their own quarters, as do the others, and all are better
+for being, respectively, in their proper places.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="MILKING" id="MILKING"></a>MILKING.</h3>
+
+<p>The manner of milking exerts a more powerful and lasting influence on
+the productiveness of the cow than most farmers are aware. That a slow
+and careless milker soon dries up the best of cows, every practical
+farmer and dairyman knows;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span> but a careful examination of the beautiful
+structure of the udder will serve further to explain the proper mode of
+milking, in order to obtain and keep up the largest yield.</p>
+
+<p>The udder of a cow consists of four glands, disconnected from each
+other, but all contained within one bag or cellular membrane; and these
+glands are uniform in structure. Each gland consists of three parts: the
+<i>glandular</i>, or secreting part, <i>tubular</i> or conducting part, and the
+<i>teats</i>, or receptacle, or receiving part. The glandular forms by far
+the largest portion of the udder. It appears to the naked eye composed
+of a mass of yellowish grains; but under the microscope these grains are
+found to consist entirely of minute blood-vessels forming a compact
+plexus, or fold. These vessels secrete the milk from the blood. The milk
+is abstracted from the blood in the glandular part; the tubes receive
+and deposit it in the reservoir, or receptacle; and the sphincter at the
+end of the teat retains it there until it is wanted for use.</p>
+
+<p>This must not be understood, however, as asserting that all the milk
+drawn from the udder at one milking is contained in the receptacle. The
+milk, as it is secreted, is conveyed to the receptacle, and when that is
+full, the larger tubes begin to be filled, and next the smaller ones,
+until the whole become gorged. When this takes place, the secretion of
+the milk ceases, and absorption of the thinner or more watery part
+commences. Now, as this absorption takes place more readily in the
+smaller or more distant tubes, it is invariably found that the milk from
+these, which comes last into the receptacle, is much thicker and richer
+than what was first drawn off. This milk has been significantly styled
+afterings, or strippings; and should this gorged state of the tubes be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span>
+permitted to continue beyond a certain time, serious mischief will
+sometimes occur; the milk becomes too thick to flow through the tubes,
+and soon produces, first irritation, then inflammation, and lastly
+suppuration, and the function of the gland is materially impaired or
+altogether destroyed. Hence the great importance of emptying these
+smaller tubes regularly and thoroughly, not merely to prevent the
+occurrence of disease, but actually to increase the quantity of milk;
+for, so long as the smaller tubes are kept free, milk is constantly
+forming; but whenever, as has already been mentioned, they become
+gorged, the secretion of milk ceases until they are emptied. The cow
+herself has no power over the sphincter at the end of her teat, so as to
+open it, and relieve the overcharged udder; neither has she any power of
+retaining the milk collected in the reservoirs when the spasm of the
+sphincter is overcome.</p>
+
+<p>Thus is seen the necessity of drawing away the last drop of milk at
+every milking; and the better milker the cow, the more necessary this
+is. What has been said demonstrates, also, the impropriety of holding
+the milk in cows until the udder is distended much beyond its ordinary
+size, for the sake of showing its capacity for holding milk&mdash;a device to
+which many dealers in cows resort.</p>
+
+<p>Thus much of the internal structure of the udder. Its external form
+requires attention, because it indicates different properties. Its form
+should be spheroidal, large, giving an idea of capaciousness; the bag
+should have a soft, fine skin, and the hind part upward toward the tail
+be loose and elastic. There should be fine, long hairs scattered
+plentifully over the surface, to keep it warm. The teats should not seem
+to be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span> contracted, or funnel-shaped, at the inset with the bag. In the
+former state, teats are very apt to become corded, or spindled; and in
+the latter, too much milk will constantly be pressing on the lower
+tubes, or receptacle. They should drop naturally from the lower parts of
+the bag, being neither too short, small, or dumpy, or long, flabby, and
+thick, but, perhaps, about three inches in length, and so thick as just
+to fill the hand. They should hang as if all the quarters of the udder
+were equal in size, the front quarters projecting a little forward, and
+the hind ones a little more dependent. Each quarter should contain about
+equal quantities of milk; though, in the belief of some, the hind
+quarters contain rather the most.</p>
+
+<p>Largely developed milk-veins&mdash;as the subcutaneous veins along the under
+part of the abdomen are commonly called&mdash;are regarded as a source of
+milk. This is a popular error, for the milk-vein has no connection with
+the udder; yet, although the office of these is to convey the blood from
+the fore part of the chest and sides to the inguinal vein, yet a large
+milk-vein certainly indicates a strongly developed vascular system&mdash;one
+favorable to secretions generally, and to that of the milk among the
+rest.</p>
+
+<p>Milking is performed in two ways, stripping and handling. <i>Stripping</i>
+consists in seizing the teat firmly near the root between the face of
+the thumb and the side of the fore-finger, the length of the teat
+passing through the other fingers, and in milking the hand passes down
+the entire length of the teat, causing the milk to flow out of its point
+in a forcible stream. The action is renewed by again quickly elevating
+the hand to the root of the teat. Both hands are employed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span> at the
+operation, each having hold of a different teat, and being moved
+alternately. The two nearest teats are commonly first milked, and then
+the two farthest. <i>Handling</i> is done by grasping the teat at its root
+with the fore-finger like a hoop, assisted by the thumb, which lies
+horizontally over the fore-finger, the rest being also seized by the
+other fingers. Milk is drawn by pressing upon the entire length of the
+teat in alternate jerks with the entire palm of the hand. Both hands
+being thus employed, are made to press alternately, but so quickly
+following each other that the alternate streams of milk sound to the ear
+like one forcible, continued stream. This continued stream is also
+produced by stripping. Stripping, then, is performed by pressing and
+passing certain fingers along the teat; handling, by the whole hand
+doubled, or fist, pressing the teat steadily at one place. Hence the
+origin of both names.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+    <a id="illus-159" name="illus-159"></a>
+    <img src="images/illus-159.png" width="600" height="389"
+       alt="" />
+    <p class="caption">THE PREFERABLE METHOD.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Of these two modes, handling is the preferable, since it is the more
+natural method&mdash;imitating, as it does, the suckling of the calf. When a
+calf takes a teat into its mouth, it makes the tongue and palate by
+which it seizes it, play upon the teat by alternate pressures or
+pulsations, while retaining the teat in the same position. It is thus
+obvious that handling is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span> somewhat like sucking, whereas stripping is
+not at all like it. It is said that stripping is good for agitating the
+udder, the agitation of which is conducive to the withdrawal of a large
+quantity of milk; but there is nothing to prevent the agitation of the
+udder as much as the dairymaid pleases, while holding in the other mode.
+Indeed, a more constant vibration could be kept up in that way by the
+vibrations of the arms than by stripping. Stripping, by using an
+unconstrained pressure on two sides of the teat, is much more apt to
+press it unequally, than by grasping the whole teat in the palm of the
+hand; while the friction occasioned by passing the finger and thumb
+firmly over the outside of the teat, is more likely to cause heat and
+irritation in it than a steady and full grasp of the entire hand. To
+show that this friction causes an unpleasant feeling even to the
+dairymaid, she is obliged to lubricate the teat frequently with milk,
+and to wet it at first with water; whereas the other mode requires no
+such expedients. And as a further proof that stripping is a mode of
+milking which may give pain to the cow, it cannot be employed, when the
+teats are chapped, with so much ease to the cow as handling.</p>
+
+<p>The first requisite in the person that milks is, of course, the utmost
+<i>cleanliness</i>. Without this, the milk is unendurable. The udder should,
+therefore, be carefully cleaned before the milking commences.</p>
+
+<p>Milking should be done <i>fast</i>, to draw away the milk as quickly as
+possible, and it should be continued as long as there is a drop of milk
+to bring away. This is an issue which cannot be attended to in too
+particular a manner. If any milk is left, it is re-absorbed into the
+system, or else becomes caked,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span> and diminishes the tendency to secrete a
+full quantity afterward. Milking as dry as possible is especially
+necessary with young cows with their first calf; as the mode of milking
+and the length of time to which they can be made to hold out, will have
+very much to do with their milking qualities as long as they live. Old
+milk left in the receptacle of the teat soon changes into a curdy state,
+and the caseous matter not being at once removed by the next milking, is
+apt to irritate the lining membrane of the teat during the operation,
+especially when the teat is forcibly rubbed down between the finger and
+thumb in stripping. The consequence of this repeated irritation is the
+thickening of the lining membrane, which at length becomes so hardened
+as to close up the orifice at the end of the teat. The hardened membrane
+may be easily felt from the outside of the teat, when the teat is said
+to be <i>corded</i>. After this the teat becomes <i>deaf</i>, as it is called, and
+no more milk can afterward be drawn from the quarter of the udder to
+which the corded teat is attached.</p>
+
+<p>The milking-pail is of various forms and of various materials. The Dutch
+use brass ones, which are brilliantly scoured every time they are in
+use. Tin pitchers are used in some places, while pails of wood in
+cooper-work are employed in others. A pail of oak, having thin staves
+bound together by bright iron hoops, with a handle formed by a stave
+projecting upward, is convenient for the purpose, and may be kept clean
+and sweet. One nine inches in diameter at the bottom, eleven inches at
+the top, and ten inches deep, with an upright handle or leg of five
+inches, has a capacious enough mouth to receive the milk as it descends;
+and a sufficient height, when standing on the edge of its bottom on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span> the
+ground, to allow the dairymaid to grasp it firmly with her knees while
+sitting on a small three-legged stool. Of course, such a pail cannot be
+milked full; but it should be large enough to contain all the milk which
+a single cow can give at a milking; because it is undesirable to rise
+from a cow before the milking is finished, or to exchange one dish for
+another while the milking is in progress.</p>
+
+<p>The cow being a sensitive and capricious creature, is, oftentimes so
+easily offended that if the maid rise from her before the milk is all
+withdrawn, the chances are that she will not again stand quietly at that
+milking; or, if the vessel used in milking is taken away and another
+substituted in its place, before the milking is finished, the
+probability is that she will <i>hold</i> her milk&mdash;that is, not allow it to
+flow. This is a curious property which cows possess, of holding up or
+keeping back their milk. How it is effected has never been
+satisfactorily ascertained; but there is no doubt of the fact that when
+a cow becomes irritated, or frightened from any cause, she can withhold
+her milk. Of course, all cows are not affected in the same degree; but,
+as a proof how sensitive cows generally are, it may be mentioned that
+very few will be milked so freely by a stranger the first time, as by
+one to whom they have been accustomed.</p>
+
+<p>There is one side of a cow which is usually called the <i>milking
+side</i>&mdash;that is the cow's left side&mdash;because, somehow custom has
+established the practice of milking her from that side. It may have been
+adopted for two reasons: one, because we are accustomed to approach all
+the larger domesticated animals by what we call the <i>near side</i>&mdash;that
+is, the animal's left side&mdash;as being the most convenient one for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span>
+ourselves; and the other reason may have been, that, as most people are
+right-handed, and the common use of the right hand has made it the
+stronger, it is most conveniently employed in milking the hinder teats
+of the cow, which are often most difficult to reach on account of the
+position of the hind legs and the length of the hinder teats, or of the
+breadth of the hinder part of the udder. The near side is most commonly
+used in this country and in Scotland; but in many parts of England the
+other side is preferred. Whichever side is selected, that should
+uniformly be used, as cows are very sensitive to changes.</p>
+
+<p>In Scotland it is a rare thing to see a cow milked by any other person
+than a woman, though men are very commonly employed at it in this
+country and in England. One never sees a man milking a cow without being
+impressed with the idea that he is usurping an office which does not
+become him; and the same thought seems to be conveyed in the terms
+usually applied to the person connected with cows&mdash;a dairy-<i>maid</i>
+implying one who milks cows, as well as performs the other duties
+connected with the dairy&mdash;a dairy-<i>man</i> meaning one who owns a dairy.
+There can be but little question that the charge of this branch of the
+dairy should generally be entrusted to women. They are more gentle and
+winning than men. The same person should milk the same cow regularly,
+and not change from one to another, unless there are special reasons for
+it.</p>
+
+<p>Cows are easily rendered troublesome on being milked; and the kicks and
+knocks which they usually receive for their restlessness, only render
+them more fretful. If they cannot be overcome by kindness, thumps will
+never make them<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span> better. The truth is, restless habits are continued in
+them by the treatment which they receive at first, when, most probably,
+they have been dragooned into submission. Their teats are tender at
+first; but an unfeeling, horny hand tugs at them at stripping, as if the
+animal had been accustomed to the operation for years. Can the creature
+be otherwise than uneasy? And how can she escape the wincing but by
+flinging out her heels?&mdash;Then hopples are placed on the hind fetlocks,
+to keep her heels down. The tail must then be held by some one, while
+the milking is going on; or the hair of its tuft be converted into a
+double cord, to tie the tail to the animal's leg. Add to this the many
+threats and scoldings uttered by the milker, and one gets a not very
+exaggerated impression of the "breaking-in."</p>
+
+<p>Some cows, no doubt, are very unaccomodating and provoking; but,
+nevertheless, nothing but a rational course toward them, administered
+with gentleness, will ever render them less so. There are cows which are
+troublesome to milk for a few times after calving, that become quite
+quiet for the remainder of the season; others will kick pertinaciously
+at the first milking. In this last case the safest plan&mdash;instead of
+hoppling, which only irritates&mdash;is for the dairymaid to thrust her head
+against the flank of the cow, and while standing on her feet, stretch
+her hands forward, get hold of the teats the best way she can, and send
+the milk on the ground; and in this position it is out of the power of
+the cow to hurt her. These ebullitions of feeling at the first milking
+after calving, arise either from feeling pain in a tender state of the
+teat, most probably from inflammation in the lining membrane of the
+receptacle; or they may arise from titillation of the skin<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span> of the udder
+and teat, which becomes the more sensible to the affection from a heat
+which is wearing off.</p>
+
+<p>At the age of two or three years the milking glands have not become
+fully developed, and their largest development will depend very greatly
+upon the management after the first calf. Cows should have, therefore,
+the most milk-producing food; be treated with constant gentleness; never
+struck, or spoken harshly to, but coaxed and caressed; and in
+ninety-nine cases out of a hundred, they will grow up gentle and quiet.
+The hundredth had better be fatted and sent to the butcher. Harshness is
+worse than useless. Be the cause of irritation what it may, one thing is
+certain, that gentle discipline will overcome the most turbulent temper.
+Nothing does so much to dry a cow up, especially a young cow, as the
+senseless treatment to which she is too often subjected.</p>
+
+<p>The longer the young cow, with her first and second calf, is made to
+hold out, the more surely will this habit be fixed upon her. Stop
+milking her four months before the next calf, and it will be difficult
+to make her hold out to within four or six weeks of the time of calving
+afterward. Induce her, if possible, by moist and succulent food, and by
+careful milking, to hold out even up to the time of calving, if you
+desire to milk her so long, and this habit will be likely to be fixed
+upon her for life. But do not expect to obtain the full yield of a cow
+the first year after calving. Some of the very best cows are slow to
+develop their best qualities; and no cow reaches her prime till the age
+of five or six years.</p>
+
+<p>The extreme importance of care and attention to these points cannot be
+overestimated. The wild cows grazing on the plains of South America, are
+said to give not more than<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span> three or four quarts a day at the height of
+the flow; and many an owner of large herds in Texas, it is said, has too
+little milk for family use, and sometimes receives his supply of butter
+from the New York market. There is, therefore, a constant tendency in
+milch cows to dry up; and it must be guarded against with special care,
+till the habit of yielding a large quantity, and yielding it long,
+becomes fixed in the young animal, when, with proper care, it may easily
+be kept up.</p>
+
+<p>Cows, independently of their power to retain their milk in the udder,
+afford different degrees of pleasure in milking them, even in the
+quietest mood. Some yield their milk in a copious flow, with the
+gentlest handling that can be given them; others require great exertion
+to draw the milk from them even in streams no larger than a thread. The
+udder of the former will be found to have a soft skin and short teats;
+that of the latter will have a thick skin, with long rough teats. The
+one feels like velvet; the other is no more pleasant to the touch than
+untanned leather. To induce quiet and persuade the animal to give down
+her milk freely, it is better that she should be fed at milking-time
+with cut feed, or roots, placed within her easy reach.</p>
+
+<p>If gentle and mild treatment is observed and persevered in, the
+operation of milking, as a general thing, appears to be a pleasure to
+the animal, as it undoubtedly is; but, if an opposite course is
+pursued&mdash;if at every restless movement, caused, perhaps, by pressing a
+sore teat, the animal is harshly spoken to&mdash;she will be likely to learn
+to kick as a habit, and it will be difficult to overcome it ever
+afterward.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever may be the practice on other occasions, there can<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span> be no doubt
+that, for some weeks after calving, and in the height of the flow, cows
+ought, if possible, to be milked regularly three times a day&mdash;at early
+morning, noon, and night. Every practical dairyman knows that cows thus
+milked give a larger quantity of milk than if milked only twice, though
+it may not be quite so rich; and in young cows, no doubt, it has a
+tendency to promote the development of the udder and milk-veins. A
+frequent milking stimulates an increased secretion, therefore, and ought
+never to be neglected in the milk-dairy, either in the case of young
+cows, or very large milkers, at the height of the flow, which will
+commonly be for two or three months after calving.</p>
+
+<p>There being a great difference in the quality as well as in the quantity
+of the milk of different cows, no dairyman should neglect to test the
+milk of each new addition to his dairy stock, whether it be an animal of
+his own raising or one brought from abroad. A lactometer&mdash;or instrument
+for testing the comparative richness of different species of milk&mdash;is
+very convenient for this purpose; but any one can set the milk of each
+cow separately at first, and give it a thorough trial, when the
+difference will be found to be great. Economy will dictate that the cows
+least to the purpose should be disposed of, and their places supplied
+with better ones.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="THE_RAISING_OF_CALVES" id="THE_RAISING_OF_CALVES"></a>THE RAISING OF CALVES.</h3>
+
+<p>It has been found in practice that calves properly bred and raised on
+the farm have a far greater intrinsic value for that farm, other things
+being equal, than any that can be procured elsewhere; while on the
+manner in which they are raised will depend much of their future
+usefulness and profit.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span> These considerations should have their proper
+weight in deciding whether a promising calf from a good cow and bull
+shall be kept, or sold to the butcher. But, rather than raise a calf at
+hap-hazard, and simply because its dam was celebrated as a milker, the
+judicious farmer will prefer to judge of the peculiar characteristics of
+the animal itself. This will often save the great and useless outlay
+which has sometimes been incurred in raising calves for dairy purposes,
+which a more careful examination would have rejected as unpromising.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+    <a id="illus-168" name="illus-168"></a>
+    <img src="images/illus-168.png" width="600" height="411"
+       alt="" />
+    <p class="caption">MATERNAL AFFECTION.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The method of judging stock which has been recommended in the previous
+pages is of practical utility here, and it is safer to rely upon it to
+some extent, particularly when other appearances concur, than to go on
+blindly. The milk-mirror on the calf is, indeed, small, but no smaller
+in proportion to its size than that of the cow; while its shape and form
+can generally be distinctly seen, particularly at the end of ten or
+twelve weeks. The development of the udder, and other peculiarities,
+will give some indication of the future capacities of the animal, and
+these should be carefully studied. If we except the manure of young
+stock, the calf is the first product of the cow, and as such demands our
+attention, whether it is to be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span> raised or hurried off to the shambles.
+The practice adopted in raising calves differs widely in different
+sections of the country, being governed very much by local
+circumstances, as the vicinity of a milk-market, the value of milk for
+the dairy, the object of breeding, whether mainly for beef, for work, or
+for the dairy, etc.; but, in general, it may be said, that, within the
+range of thirty or forty miles of good veal-markets, which large towns
+furnish, comparatively few are raised at all. Most of them are fattened
+and sold at ages varying from three to eight or ten weeks; and in
+milk-dairies still nearer large towns and cities they are often hurried
+off at one or two days, or, at most, a week old. In both of these cases,
+as long as the calf is kept it is generally allowed to suck the cow,
+and, as the treatment is very simple, there is nothing which
+particularly calls for remark, unless it be to condemn the practice
+entirely, upon the ground that there is a more profitable way of
+fattening calves for the butcher, and to say that allowing the calf to
+suck the cow at all is objectionable on the score of economy, except in
+cases where it is rendered necessary by the hard and swollen condition
+of the udder.</p>
+
+<p>If the calf is so soon to be taken away, it is better that the cow
+should not be suffered to become attached to it at all: since she is
+inclined to withhold her milk when it is removed, and thus a loss is
+sustained. The farmer will be governed by the question of profit,
+whatever course it is decided to adopt. In raising blood-stock, however,
+or in raising beef cattle, without any regard to economy of milk, the
+system of suckling the calves, or letting them run with the cow, may<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span>
+and will be adopted, since it is usually attended with somewhat less
+labor.</p>
+
+<p>The other course, which is regarded as the best where the calf is to be
+raised for the dairy, is to bring it up by hand. This is almost
+universally done in all countries where the raising of dairy cows is
+best understood&mdash;in Switzerland, Holland, some parts of Germany, and
+England. It requires rather more care, on the whole; but it is decidedly
+preferable, since the calves cost less, as the food can be easily
+modified, and the growth is not checked, as is usually the case when the
+calf is taken off from the cow. Allusion is here made, of course, to
+sections where the milk of the cow is of some account for the dairy, and
+where it is too valuable to be devoted entirely to nourishing the calf.
+In this case, as soon as the calf is dropped the cow is allowed to lick
+off the slimy moisture till it is dry, which she will generally do from
+instinct, or, if not, a slight sprinkling of salt over the body of the
+calf will immediately tempt her. The calf is left to suck once or twice,
+which it will do as soon as it is able to stand. It should, in all
+cases, be permitted to have the first milk which comes from the cow,
+which is of a turbid, yellowish color, unfit for any of the purposes of
+the dairy, but somewhat purgative and medicinal, and admirably and
+wisely designed by Nature to free the bowels and intestines of the
+new-born animal from the mucous, excrementitious matter always existing
+in it after birth. Too much of this new milk may, however, be hurtful
+even to the new-born calf, while it should never be given at all to
+older calves. The best course would seem to be&mdash;and such is in
+accordance with the experience of the most successful stock-raisers&mdash;to
+milk the cow<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span> dry immediately after the calf has sucked once, especially
+if the udder is painfully distended, which is often the case, and to
+leave the calf with the cow during one day, and after that to feed it by
+putting the fingers into its mouth, and gently bringing its muzzle down
+to the milk in a pail or trough when it will imbibe in sucking the
+fingers. No great difficulty will be experienced in teaching the calf to
+drink when taken so young, though some take to it much more readily than
+others. What the calf does not need should be given to the cow. Some,
+however, prefer to milk immediately after calving; and, if the udder is
+overloaded, this may be the best course, though the better practice
+appears to be, to leave the cow as quietly to herself as possible for a
+few hours. The less she is disturbed, as a general thing, the better.
+The after-birth should be taken from her immediately after it is
+dropped. It is customary to give the cow, as soon as convenient after
+calving, some warm and stimulating drink&mdash;a little meal stirred into
+warm water, with a part of the first milk which comes from her, seasoned
+with a little salt.</p>
+
+<p>In many cases the calf is taken from the cow immediately; and before she
+has seen it, to a warm, dry pen out of her sight, and there rubbed till
+it is thoroughly dry; and then, when able to stand, fed with the new
+milk from the cow, which it should have three or four times a day,
+regularly, for the first fortnight, whatever course it is proposed to
+adopt afterwards. It is of the greatest importance to give the young
+calf a thrifty start. The milk, unless coming directly from the cow,
+should be warmed.</p>
+
+<p>Some object to removing the calf from the cow in this way,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span> on the
+ground of its apparent cruelty. But the objection to letting the calf
+suck the cow for several days, as they do, or indeed of leaving it with
+the cow for any length of time, is, that she invariably becomes attached
+to it, and frets and withholds her milk when it is at last taken from
+her. She probably suffers much more, after this attachment is once
+formed, at the removal of the object of it, than she does at its being
+taken at first out of her sight. The cow's memory is far more retentive
+than many suppose; and the loss and injury sustained by removing the
+calf after it has been allowed to suck her for a longer or shorter
+period are never known exactly, because it is not usually known how much
+milk the calf takes; but it is, without doubt, very considerable. If the
+udder is all right, there seems to be no good reason for leaving the
+calf with the cow for two or three days, if it is then to be taken away.</p>
+
+<p>The practice in Holland is to remove the calf from its mother even
+before it has been licked, and to take it into a corner of the barn, or
+into another building, out of the cow's sight and hearing, put it on
+soft, dry straw, and rub it dry with some hay or straw, when its tongue
+and gums are slightly rubbed with salt, and the mucus and saliva removed
+from the nostrils and lips. After this has been done, the calf is made
+to drink the milk first taken as it comes from the mother. It is
+slightly diluted with water, if taken last from the udder; but, if the
+first of the milking, it is given just as it is. The calf is taught to
+drink in the same manner as in this country, by putting the fingers in
+its mouth, and bringing it down to the milk, and it soon gets so as to
+drink unaided. It is fed, at first, from four to six times a day, or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span>
+even oftener; but soon only three times, at regular intervals. Its food
+for two or three weeks is clear milk, as it comes warm and fresh from
+the cow. This is never omitted, as the milk during most of that time
+possesses certain qualities which are necessary to the calf, and which
+cannot be effectually supplied by any other food. In the third or fourth
+week the milk is skimmed, but warmed to the degree of fresh milk;
+though, as the calf grows a little older, the milk is given cold, while
+less care is taken to give it the milk of its own mother, that of other
+cows now answering equally well. In some places, calves are fed on
+buttermilk at the age of two weeks and after; but the change from new
+milk, fresh from the cow, is made gradually, some sweet skimmed milk and
+warm water being first added to it.</p>
+
+<p>At three weeks old, or thereabouts, the calf will begin to eat a little
+sweet, fine hay, and potatoes cut fine, and it very soon becomes
+accustomed to this food. Many now begin to give linseed-meal mixed into
+hot water, to which is added some skim-milk or buttermilk; and others
+use a little bran cooked in hay-tea, made by chopping the hay fine and
+pouring on boiling-hot water, which is allowed to stand awhile on it. An
+egg is frequently broken into such a mixture. Others still take pains at
+this age to have fresh linseed-cake, broken into pieces of the size of a
+pigeon's egg; putting one of these into the mouth after the meal of milk
+has been finished, and when it is eager to suck at any thing in its way.
+It will very soon learn to eat linseed-meal. A little sweet clover is
+put in its way at the age of about three weeks, and it will soon begin
+to eat that also.</p>
+
+<p>In this manner the feeding is continued from the fourth to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span> the seventh
+week, the quantity of solid food being gradually increased. In the sixth
+or seventh week the milk is by degrees withheld, and water or buttermilk
+used instead; and soon after this, green food may be safely given,
+increasing it gradually with the hay to the age of ten or twelve weeks,
+when it will do to put them upon grass alone, if the season is
+favorable. A lot as near the house as possible, where they can be easily
+looked after and frequently visited, is the best. Calves should be
+gradually accustomed to all changes; and even after having been turned
+out to pasture, they ought to be put under shelter if the weather is not
+dry and warm. The want of care and attention relative to these little
+details will be apparent sooner or later; while, if the farmer gives his
+personal attention to these matters, he will be fully paid in the rapid
+growth of his calves. It is especially necessary to see that the troughs
+from which they are fed, if troughs are used, are kept clean and sweet.</p>
+
+<p>But there are some&mdash;even among intelligent farmers&mdash;who make a practice
+of turning their calves out to pasture at the tender age of two or three
+weeks&mdash;and that, too, when they have sucked the cow up to that time&mdash;and
+allow them nothing in the shape of milk and tender care. This,
+certainly, is the poorest possible economy, to say nothing of the
+manifest cruelty of such treatment. The growth of the calf is checked,
+and the system receives a shock from so sudden a change, from which it
+cannot soon recover. The careful Dutch breeders bring the calves either
+skimmed milk or buttermilk to drink several times a day after they are
+turned to grass, which is not till the age of ten or twelve weeks; and,
+if the weather is chilly, the milk is warmed for them.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span> They put a
+trough generally under a covering, to which the calves may come and
+drink at regular times. Thus, they are kept tame and docile.</p>
+
+<p>In the raising of calves, through all stages of their growth, great care
+should be taken neither to starve nor to over-feed. A calf should never
+be surfeited, and never be fed so highly that it cannot be fed more
+highly as it advances. The most important part is to keep it growing
+thriftily without getting too fat, if it is to be raised for the dairy.</p>
+
+<p>The calves in the dairy districts of Scotland are fed on the milk, with
+seldom any admixture; and they are not permitted to suck their dams, but
+are taught to drink milk by the hand from a dish. They are generally fed
+on milk only for the first four, five, or six weeks, and are then
+allowed from two to two and a half quarts of new milk each meal, twice
+in the twenty-four hours. Some never give them any other food when young
+except milk, lessening the quantity when the calf begins to eat grass or
+other food, which it generally does when about five weeks old, if grass
+can be had; and withdrawing it entirely about the seventh or eighth week
+of the calf's age. But, if the calf is reared in winter, or early in
+spring, before the grass rises, it must be supplied with at least some
+milk until it is eight or nine weeks old, as a calf will not so soon
+learn to eat hay or straw, nor fare so well on them alone as it will on
+pasture. Some feed their calves reared for stock partly with meal mixed
+in the milk after the third or fourth week. Others introduce gradually
+some new whey into the milk, first mixed with meal; and, when the calf
+gets older, they withdraw the milk, and feed it on whey and porridge.
+Hay-tea, juices of peas and beans, or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span> pea or bean-straw, linseed beaten
+into powder, treacle, etc., have all been sometimes used to advantage in
+feeding calves; but milk, when it can be spared, is, in the judgment of
+the Scotch breeders, by far their most natural food.</p>
+
+<p>In Galloway, and other pastoral districts, where the calves are allowed
+to suck, the people are so much wedded to their own customs as to argue
+that suckling is much more nutritious to the calves than any other mode
+of feeding. That it induces a greater secretion of saliva, which, by
+promoting digestion, accelerates the growth and fattening of the young
+animal, cannot be doubted; but the secretion of that fluid may likewise
+be promoted by placing an artificial teat in the mouth of the calf, and
+giving it the milk slowly, and at the natural temperature. In the dairy
+districts of Scotland, the dairymaid puts one of her fingers into the
+mouth of the calf when it is fed, which serves the purpose of a teat,
+and will have nearly the same effect as the natural teat in inducing the
+secretion of saliva. If that, or an artificial teat of leather, be used,
+and the milk be given slowly before it is cold, the secretion of saliva
+may be promoted to all the extent that can be necessary; besides,
+secretion is not confined to the mere period of eating, but, as in the
+human body, the saliva is formed and part of it swallowed at all times.
+As part of the saliva is sometimes seen dropping from the mouths of the
+calves, it might be advisable not only to give them an artificial teat
+when fed, but to place, as is frequently done, a lump of chalk before
+them to lick, thus leading them to swallow the saliva. The chalk would
+so far supply the want of salt, of which cattle are often so improperly
+deprived, and it would also promote the formation of saliva. Indeed,
+calves are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span> very much disposed to lick and suck every thing which comes
+within their reach, which seems to be the way in which Nature teaches
+them to supply their stomachs with saliva.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+    <a id="illus-177" name="illus-177"></a>
+    <img src="images/illus-177.png" width="600" height="308"
+       alt="" />
+    <p class="caption">FROLICKSOME.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>But though sucking their dams may be most advantageous in that respect,
+yet it has also some disadvantages. The cow is always more injured than
+the calf is benefited by that mode of feeding. She becomes so fond of
+the calf that she does not, for a long time after, yield her milk freely
+to the dairyman. The calf does not when young draw off the milk
+completely, and when it is taken off by the hand, the cow withholds a
+part of her milk, and, whenever a cow's udder is not completely emptied
+every time she is milked, the lactic secretion&mdash;as before stated&mdash;is
+thereby diminished.</p>
+
+<p>Feeding of calves by hand is also, in various respects, advantageous.
+Instead of depending on the uncertain, or perhaps precarious supply of
+the dam, which may be more at first than the young animal can consume or
+digest, and at other times too little for its supply, its food can, by
+hand-feeding, be regulated to suit the age, appetite, and the purposes
+for which the calf is intended; other admixtures or substitutes can be
+introduced into the milk, and the quantity gradually increased or
+withdrawn at pleasure. This is highly necessary when the calves are
+reared for stock. The milk is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span> in that case diminished, and other food
+introduced so gradually that the stomach of the young animal is not
+injured as it is when the food is too suddenly changed. And, in the case
+of feeding calves for the butcher, the quantity of milk is not limited
+to that of the dam&mdash;for no cow will allow a stranger-calf to suck
+her&mdash;but it can be increased, or the richest or poorest parts of the
+milk given at pleasure.</p>
+
+<p>Such are, substantially, the views upon this subject which are
+entertained by the most judicious farmers in the first dairy districts
+of Scotland.</p>
+
+<p>In those districts&mdash;where, probably, the feeding and management of
+calves are as well and as judiciously conducted as in any other part of
+Great Britain&mdash;the farmers' wives and daughters, or the female
+domestics, have the principal charge of young calves; and they are,
+doubtless, much better calculated for this duty than men, since they are
+more inclined to be gentle and patient. The utmost gentleness&mdash;as has
+been already remarked, in another connection&mdash;should always be observed
+in the treatment of all stock; but especially of milch cows, and calves
+designed for the dairy. Persevering kindness and patience, will, almost
+invariably, overcome the most obstinate natures; while rough and
+ungentle handling will be repaid in a quiet kind of way, perhaps, by
+withholding the milk, which will always have a tendency to dry up the
+cow; or, what is nearly as bad, by kicking and other modes of revenge,
+which often contribute to the personal discomfort of the milker. The
+disposition of the cow is greatly modified, if not, indeed, wholly
+formed, by her treatment while young; and therefore it is best to handle
+calves as much as possible, and make pets of them, lead them<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span> with a
+halter, and caress them in various ways. Calves managed in this way will
+always be docile, and suffer themselves to be approached and handled,
+both in the pasture and in the barn.</p>
+
+<p>With respect to the use of hay-tea&mdash;often used in this country, but more
+common abroad, where greater care and attention are usually bestowed
+upon the details of breeding&mdash;Youatt says: "At the end of three or four
+days, or perhaps a week, or near a fortnight, after a calf has been
+dropped, and the first passages have been cleansed by allowing it to
+drink as much of the cow's milk as it feels inclined for, let the
+quantity usually allotted for a meal be mixed, consisting, for the first
+week, of three parts of milk and one part of hay-tea. <i>The only
+nourishing infusion of hay is that which is made from the best and
+sweetest hay, cut by a chaff-cutter into pieces about two inches long</i>,
+and put into an earthen vessel; over this, boiling water should be
+poured, and the whole allowed to stand for two hours, during which time
+it ought to be kept carefully closed. After the first week, the
+proportions of milk and hay-tea may be equal; then composed of
+two-thirds of hay-tea and one of milk; and at length, one-fourth part of
+milk will be sufficient. This food should be given to the calf in a
+lukewarm state <i>at least three, if not four times a day, in quantities
+averaging three quarts at a meal</i>, but gradually increasing to four
+quarts as the calf grows older. Toward the end of the second month,
+beside the usual quantity given at each meal&mdash;composed of three parts of
+the infusion and one of milk&mdash;a small wisp or bundle of hay is to be
+laid before the calf, which will gradually come to eat it; but, if the
+weather is favorable, as in the month of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span> May, the beast may be turned
+out to graze in a fine, sweet pasture, well sheltered from the wind and
+sun. This diet may be continued until toward the latter end of the third
+month, when, if the calf grazes heartily, each meal may be reduced to
+less than a quart of milk, with hay-water; or skimmed milk, or fresh
+buttermilk, may be substituted for new milk. At the expiration of the
+third month, the animal will hardly require to be fed by hand; though,
+if this should still be necessary, one quart of the infusion given
+daily&mdash;which, during the summer, need not be warmed&mdash;will suffice." The
+hay-tea should be made fresh every two days, as it soon loses its
+nutritious quality.</p>
+
+<p>This and other preparations are given, not because they are better than
+milk,&mdash;than which nothing is better adapted to fatten a calf, or promote
+its growth,&mdash;but simply to economize by providing the simplest and
+cheapest substitutes. Experience shows that the first two or three
+calves are smaller than those which follow; and hence, unless they are
+pure-bred, and to be kept for the blood, they are not generally thought
+to be so desirable to raise for the dairy as the third or fourth, and
+those that come after, up to the age of nine or ten years. Opinions upon
+this point, however, differ.</p>
+
+<p>According to the comparative experiments of a German agriculturist, cows
+which as calves had been allowed to suck their dams from two to four
+weeks, brought calves which weighed only from thirty-five to forty-eight
+pounds; while others, which as calves had been allowed to suck from five
+to eight weeks, brought calves which weighed from sixty to eighty
+pounds. It is difficult to see how there can be so<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span> great a difference,
+if, indeed, there be any; but it may be worthy of careful observation
+and experiment, and as such it is stated here. The increased size of the
+calf would be due to the increased size to which the cow would attain;
+and if as a calf she were allowed to run in the pasture with her dam for
+four or five months, taking all the milk she wanted, she would doubtless
+be kept growing on in a thriving condition. But taking a calf from the
+cow at four or even eight weeks must check its growth to some extent;
+and this may be avoided by feeding liberally, and bringing up by hand.</p>
+
+<p>After the calf is fully weaned, there is nothing very peculiar in the
+general management. A young animal will require for the first few
+months&mdash;say up to the age of six months&mdash;an average of five or six
+pounds daily of good hay, or its equivalent. At the age of six months,
+it will require from four and a half to five pounds; and at the end of
+the year, from three and a half or four pounds of good hay, or its
+equivalent, for every one hundred pounds of its live weight; or, in
+other words, about three and a half or four per cent. of its live
+weight. At two years old, it will require three and a half, and some
+months later, three per cent. of its live weight daily in good hay, or
+its equivalent. Indian-corn fodder, either green or cured, forms an
+excellent and wholesome food at this age.</p>
+
+<p>The heifer should not be pampered, nor yet poorly fed or half starved,
+so as to receive a check in her growth. An abundant supply of good
+healthy dairy food and milk will do all that is necessary up to the time
+of her having her first calf&mdash;which should not ordinarily be till the
+age of three years, though some choose to allow them to come in at two,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span>
+or a little over, on the ground that it early stimulates the secretion
+of milk, and that this will increase the milking propensity through
+life. This is undoubtedly the case, as a general rule; but greater
+injury is at the same time done by checking the growth, unless the
+heifer has been fed up to large size and full development from the
+start&mdash;in which case she may perhaps take the bull at fifteen or
+eighteen months without injury. Even if a heifer comes in at two years,
+it is generally deemed desirable to let her run barren for the following
+year, which will promote her growth and more perfect development.</p>
+
+<p>The feeding which young stock often get is not such as is calculated to
+make good-sized or valuable cattle of them. They are often fed on the
+poorest of hay or straw through the winter, not infrequently left
+exposed to cold, unprotected and unhoused, and thus stinted in their
+growth. This is, surely, the very worst economy, or rather it is no
+economy at all. Properly viewed, it is an extravagant wastefulness which
+no farmer can afford. No animal develops its good points under such
+treatment; and if the starving system is to be followed at all, it had
+better be after the age of two or three years, when the animal's
+constitution has attained the strength and vigor which may, possibly,
+enable it to resist ill treatment.</p>
+
+<p>To raise up first-rate milkers, it is absolutely necessary to feed on
+dairy food even when they are young. No matter how fine the breed is, if
+the calf is raised on poor, short feed, it will never be so good a
+milker as if raised on better keeping; and hence, in dairy districts,
+where calves are raised at all, they ought to be allowed the best
+pasture during the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span> summer, and good, sweet and wholesome food during
+the winter.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="POINTS_OF_FAT_CATTLE" id="POINTS_OF_FAT_CATTLE"></a>POINTS OF FAT CATTLE.</h3>
+
+<p>Whatever theoretical objections may be raised against over-fed cattle,
+and great as may be the attempts to disparage the mountains of fat,&mdash;as
+highly-fed cattle are sometimes designated,&mdash;there is no doubt of the
+practical fact, that the best butcher cannot sell any thing but the best
+fatted beef; and of whatever age, size, or shape a half-fatted ox may
+be, he is never selected by judges as fit for human food. Hence, a
+well-fatted animal always commands a better price per pound than one
+imperfectly fed, and the parts selected as the primest beef are
+precisely the parts which contain the largest deposits of fat. The rump,
+the crop, and the sirloin, the very favorite cuts,&mdash;which always command
+from twenty to twenty-five per cent. more than any other part of the
+ox,&mdash;are just those parts on which the largest quantities of fat are
+found; so that, instead of the taste and fashion of the age being
+against the excessive fattening of animals, the fact is, practically,
+exactly the reverse. Where there is the most fat, there is the best
+lean; where there is the greatest amount of muscle, without its share of
+fat, that part is accounted inferior, and is used for a different
+purpose; in fact, so far from fat's being a disease, it is a condition
+of muscle, necessary to its utility as food,&mdash;a source of luxury to the
+rich, and of comfort to the poor, furnishing a nourishing and healthy
+diet for their families.</p>
+
+<p>Fattening is a secretive power which grazing animals possess, enabling
+them to lay by a store of the superfluous<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span> food which they take for
+seasons of cold or scarcity. It collects round the angular bones of the
+animal, and gives the appearance of rotundity; hence the tendency to
+deposit fat is indicated, as has been stated, by a <i>roundness</i> of form,
+as opposed to the <i>fatness</i> of a milk-secreting animal. But its greatest
+use is, that it is a store of heat-producing aliment, laid up for
+seasons of scarcity and want. The food of animals, for the most part,
+may be said to consist of a saccharine, an oleaginous, and an albuminous
+principle. To the first belong all the starchy, saccharine, and gummy
+parts of the plants, which undergo changes in the digestive organs
+similar to fermentation before they can be assimilated in the system; by
+them also animal heat is sustained. In indolent animals, the oily parts
+of plants are deposited and laid up as fat; and, when vigor and strength
+fail, this is taken up and also used in breathing to supply the place of
+the consumed saccharine matter. The albuminous, or gelatinous principle
+of plants is mainly useful in forming muscle; while the ashes of plants,
+the unconsumable parts, are for the supply, mainly, of bone, hair, and
+horn, but also of muscle and of blood, and to supply the waste which
+continually goes on.</p>
+
+<p>Now, there are several qualities which are essentially characteristic of
+a disposition to fatten. There have not, as yet, been any book-rules
+laid down, as in the case of M. Gu&eacute;non's indications of milking-cows;
+but there are, nevertheless, marks so definite and well understood, that
+they are comprehended and acted upon by every grazier, although they are
+by no means easy to describe. It is by skillful acumen that the grazier
+acquires his knowledge, and not by theoretical rules; observation,
+judgment, and experience,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span> powerful perceptive faculties, and a keen and
+minute comparison and discrimination, are essential to his success.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+    <a id="illus-185" name="illus-185"></a>
+    <img src="images/illus-185.png" width="800" height="455"
+       alt="" />
+    <p class="caption">POINTS OF CATTLE.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The first indication upon which he relies, is the <i>touch</i>. It is the
+absolute criterion of <i>quality</i>, which is supposed to be the keystone of
+perfection in all animals, whether for the pail or the butcher. The skin
+is so intimately connected with the internal organs, in all animals,
+that it is questionable whether even our schools of medicine might not
+make more use of it in a diagnosis of disease. Of physiological
+tendencies in cattle, however, it is of the last and most vital
+importance. It must neither be thick, nor hard, nor adhere firmly to the
+muscles. If it is so, the animal is a hard grazer, a difficult and
+obstinate feeder&mdash;no skillful man will purchase it&mdash;such a creature must
+go to a novice, and even to him at a price so low as to tempt him to
+become a purchaser. On the other hand, the skin must not be thin, like
+paper, nor flaccid, nor loose in the hand, nor flabby.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span> This is the
+opposite extreme, and is indicative of delicateness, bad, flabby flesh,
+and, possibly, of inaptitude to retain the fat. It must be <i>elastic</i> and
+velvety, soft and pliable, presenting to the touch a gentle resistance,
+but so delicate as to give pleasure to the sensitive hand&mdash;a skin, in
+short, which seems at first to give an indentation from the pressure of
+the fingers, but which again rises to its place by a gentle elasticity.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>hair</i> is of nearly as much importance as the skin. A hard skin will
+have straight and stiff hair; it will not have a curl, but be thinly and
+lankly distributed equally over the surface. A proper grazing animal
+will have a <i>mossy</i> coat, not absolutely curled, but having a
+disposition to a graceful curl, a semifold, which presents a waving
+inequality; but as different from a close and straightly-laid coat, as
+it is from one standing off the animal at right angles, a strong symptom
+of disease. It will also, in a thriving animal, be licked here and there
+with its tongue, a proof that the skin is duly performing its functions.</p>
+
+<p>There must be, also, the full and goggle <i>eye</i>, bright and pressed
+outward by the fatty bed below; because, as this is a part where Nature
+always provides fat, an animal capable of developing it to any
+considerable extent, will have its indications here, at least, when it
+exists in excess.</p>
+
+<p>So much for feeding qualities in the animal, and their conformations
+indicative of this kindly disposition. Next come such formations of the
+animal itself as are favorable to the growth of fat, other things being
+equal. There must be <i>size</i> where large weights are expected. Christmas
+beef, for instance, is expected to be large as well as fat. The symbol<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span>
+of festivity should be capacious, as well as prime in quality. But it is
+so much a matter of choice and circumstance with the grazier, that
+profit alone will be his guide. The axiom will be, however, as a general
+rule, that the better the grazing soil the larger the animal may be; the
+poorer the soil, the smaller the animal. Small animals are,
+unquestionably, much more easily fed, and they are well known by
+experienced men to be best adapted to second-rate feeding pastures.</p>
+
+<p>But, beyond this, there must be <i>breadth</i> of carcass. This is indicative
+of fattening, perhaps, beyond all other qualifications. If rumps are
+favorite joints and produce the best price, it is best to have the
+animal which will grow the longest, the broadest, and the best rump; the
+same of crop, and the same of sirloin; and not only so, but breadth is
+essential to the consumption of that quantity of food which is necessary
+to the development of a large amount of fat in the animal. Thus, a deep,
+wide chest, favorable for the respiratory and circulating functions,
+enables it to consume a large amount of food, to take up the sugary
+matter, and to deposit the fatty matter,&mdash;as then useless for
+respiration, but afterwards to be prized. A full level crop will be of
+the same physiological utility; while a broad and open framework at the
+hips will afford scope for the action of the liver and kidneys.</p>
+
+<p>There are other points, also, of much importance; the head must be small
+and fine; its special use is indicative of the quick fattening of the
+animal so constructed, and it is also indicative of the bones being
+small and the legs short. For constitutional powers, the beast should
+have his ribs extended well towards the thigh-bones or hips, so as to
+leave<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span> as little unprotected space as possible. There must be no
+angular, or abrupt points; all must be round, and broad, and parallel.
+Any depression in the lean animal will give a deficient deposit of flesh
+and fat at that point, when sold to the butcher, and thus deteriorate
+its value; and hence the animal must be round and full.</p>
+
+<p>But either fancy, or accident, or skill&mdash;it is unnecessary to decide
+which&mdash;has associated <i>symmetry</i> with quality and conformation, as a
+point of great importance in animals calculated for fattening; and there
+is no doubt that, to a certain extent, this is so. The beast must be a
+system of mathematical lines. To the advocate of symmetry, the
+setting-on of a tail will be a condemning fault; indeed the ridge of the
+back, like a straight line, with the outline of the belly exactly
+parallel, viewed from the side, and a depth and squareness when viewed
+from behind,&mdash;which remind us of a geometrical cube, rather than a vital
+economy,&mdash;may be said to be the indications of excellence in a fat ox.
+The points of excellence in such an animal are outlined under the
+subsequent head, as developed in the cutting up after slaughter.</p>
+
+<p>Now, these qualities are inherent in some breeds; there may be cases and
+instances in all the superior breeds, and in most there may be failures.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="DRIVING_AND_SLAUGHTERING" id="DRIVING_AND_SLAUGHTERING"></a>DRIVING AND SLAUGHTERING.</h3>
+
+<p>It is necessary that cattle which have been disposed of to the dealer or
+butcher, or which are intended to be driven to market, should undergo a
+preparation for the journey. If they were immediately put to the road to
+travel, from feeding on grass or turnips, when their bowels are full of
+undigested<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span> vegetable matter, a scouring might ensue which would render
+them unfit to pursue their journey; and this complaint is the more
+likely to be brought on from the strong propensity which cattle have to
+take violent exercise upon feeling themselves at liberty after a long
+confinement. They in fact, become light-headed whenever they leave the
+barn or enclosure, so much so that they actually "frisk and race and
+leap," and their antics would be highly amusing, were it not for the
+apprehension that they may hurt themselves against some opposing object,
+as they seem to regard nothing before them.</p>
+
+<p>On being let out for the first time, cattle should be put for awhile
+into a larger court, or on a road well fenced with enclosures, and
+guarded by men, to romp about. Two or three such allowances of liberty
+will render them quiet; and, in the mean time, to lighten their weight
+of carcass, they should have hay for a large proportion of their food.
+These precautions are absolutely necessary for cattle which have been
+confined in barns; otherwise, accidents may befall them on the road,
+where they will at once break loose. Even at home serious accidents
+sometimes overtake them, such as the breaking down of a horn, casting
+off a hoof, spraining a tendon, bruising ribs, and heating the whole
+body violently; and, of course, when any such ill luck befalls, the
+animal affected must be left behind, and become a drawback upon the
+value of the rest, unless kept for some time longer.</p>
+
+<p>Having the cattle prepared for travel, the drover takes the road very
+slowly for the first two days, not exceeding seven or eight miles a day.
+At night, in winter, they should be put into an open court, and supplied
+with hay, water, and a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span> very few turnips; for, if roots are suddenly
+withdrawn from them,&mdash;since it is taken for granted that these have
+formed a staple portion of their food,&mdash;their bellies will become
+shrunken up into smaller dimensions&mdash;a state very much against favorable
+appearance in market. After the first two days they may proceed faster,
+say twelve or thirteen miles a day, if very fat; and fifteen, if
+moderately so. When the journey is long and the beasts get faint from
+travel, they should have corn to support them. In frosty weather, when
+the roads become very hard, they are apt to become shoulder-shaken, an
+effect of founder; and if sleet falls during the day, and becomes frozen
+upon them at night, they may become so chilled as to refuse food, and
+shrink rapidly away. Cattle should, if possible, arrive the day before
+in the neighborhood of a distant market, and be supplied with a good
+feed of roots and hay, or grass, to make them look fresh and fill them
+up again; but if the market is at but short distance, they can travel to
+it early in the morning.</p>
+
+<p><a id="illus-190" name="illus-190"></a></p>
+<div class="figleft">
+    <img src="images/illus-190.png" width="400" height="380"
+       alt="" />
+    <p class="caption">A FRONTISPIECE.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In driving cattle the drover should have no dog, which will only annoy
+them. He should walk either before or behind, as he sees them disposed
+to proceed too fast or to loiter upon the road; and in passing
+carriages, the leading ox, after a little experience, will make way for
+the rest to follow. On putting oxen on a ferry-boat the shipping of the
+first one<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span> only is attended with much trouble. A man on each side should
+take hold of a horn, or of a halter made of any piece of rope, should
+the beast be hornless, and two other men, one on each side, should push
+him up behind with a piece of rope held between them as a breeching, and
+conduct him along the plank into the boat; if it have low gunwales, a
+man will be required to remain beside him until one or two more of the
+cattle follow their companion, which they will most readily do. From
+neglecting this precaution in small ferry-boats, the first beast
+sometimes leaps into the water, when it becomes a difficult task to
+prevent some of the rest doing the same thing.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever time a lot of cattle may take to go to a market, they should
+never be <i>overdriven</i>. There is great difference of management in this
+respect among drovers. Some like to proceed upon the road quietly,
+slowly, but surely, and to reach the market in a placid, cool state.
+Others, again, drive smartly along for some distance, and then rest to
+cool awhile, when the beasts will probably get chilled and have a
+staring coat when they reach their destination; while others like to
+enter the market with their beasts in an excited state, imagining that
+they then look gay; but distended nostrils, loose bowels, and reeking
+bodies are no recommendations to a purchaser. Good judges are shy of
+purchasing cattle in a heated state, because they do not know how long
+they may have been in it; and to cover any risk, will give at least five
+dollars a head below what they would have offered for them in a cool
+state. Some drovers have a habit of thumping at the hindmost beast of
+the lot with a stick while on the road. This is a censurable practice,
+as the flesh, where it is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span> thumped, will bear a red mark after the
+animal has been slaughtered,&mdash;the mark receiving the appropriate name of
+<i>blood-burn</i>&mdash;and the flesh thus affected will not take on salt, and is
+apt to putrefy. A touch up on the shank, or any tendonous part, when
+correction is necessary, is all that is required; but the voice, in most
+cases, will answer as well. The flesh of overdriven cattle, when
+slaughtered, never becomes properly firm, and their tallow has a soft,
+melted appearance.</p>
+
+<p>A few large oxen in one lot look best in a market on a position rather
+above the eye of a spectator. When a large lot is nearly alike in size
+and appearance, they look best and most level on a flat piece of ground.
+Very large fat oxen never look better than on ground on the same level
+with the spectator. An ox, to look well, should hold his head on a line
+with the body, with lively ears, clear eye, dewy nose, a well-licked
+hide, and should stand firmly on the ground on all his feet. These are
+all symptoms of high health and good condition. Whenever an ox shifts
+his standing from one foot to another, he is <i>foot-sore</i>, and has been
+driven far. Whenever his head hangs down and his eyes water, he feels
+ill at ease inwardly. When his coat stares, he has been overheated some
+time, and has got a subsequent <i>chill</i>. All these latter symptoms will
+be much aggravated in cattle that have been fed in a barn.</p>
+
+<p>Cattle are made to fast before being slaughtered. The time they should
+stand depends upon their state on their arrival at the shambles. If they
+have been driven a considerable distance in a proper manner, the bowels
+will be in a tolerably empty state, so that twelve hours may suffice;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span>
+but if they are full and just off their food, twenty-four hours will be
+required. Beasts that have been overdriven, or much struck with sticks,
+or in any degree infuriated, should not be immediately slaughtered, but
+allowed to stand on dry food, such as hay, until the symptoms disappear.
+These precautions are absolutely necessary that the meat may be
+preserved in the best state.</p>
+
+<p>The mode of slaughtering cattle varies in different countries. In the
+great slaughter-houses at Montmartre, in Paris, they are slaughtered by
+bisecting the spinal cord of the cervical vertebr&aelig;; and this is
+accomplished by the driving of a sharp-pointed chisel between the second
+and third vertebr&aelig;, with a smart stroke of a mallet, while the animal is
+standing, when it drops, and death or insensibility instantly ensues,
+and the blood is let out immediately by opening the blood-vessels of the
+neck. The plan adopted in England is, first to bring the ox down on his
+knees, and place his under-jaw upon the ground by means of ropes
+fastened to his head and passed through an iron ring in the floor of the
+slaughterhouse. He is then stunned with a few blows from an iron axe
+made for the purpose, on the forehead, the bone of which is usually
+driven into the brain. The animal then falls upon his side, and the
+blood is let out by the neck. Of the two modes, the French is apparently
+the less cruel, for some oxen require many blows to make them fall. Some
+butchers, however, allege that the separation of the spinal cord, by
+producing a general nervous convulsion throughout the body, prevents the
+blood from flowing as rapidly and entirely out of it as when the ox is
+stunned in the forehead. The skin is then taken off to the knees, when
+the legs are disjointed, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span> also off the head. The carcass is then
+hung up by the tendons of the hough on a stretcher, by a block and
+tackle, worked by a small winch, which retains in place what rope it
+winds up by means of a wheel and ratchet.</p>
+
+<p>After the carcass has hung for twenty-four hours, it should be cut down
+by the back-bone, or chine, into two <i>sides</i>. This is done either with
+the saw, or chopper; the saw making the neatest job in the hands of an
+inexperienced butcher, though it is the most laborious; and with the
+chopper is the quickest, but by no means the neatest plan, especially in
+the hands of a careless workman. In London, the chine is equally divided
+between both sides; while in Scotland, one side of a carcass of beef has
+a great deal more bone than the other, all the spinous processes of the
+vertebr&aelig; being left upon it. The bony is called the <i>lying</i> side of the
+meat. In London, the divided processes in the fore-quarters are broken
+in the middle when warm, and chopped back with the flat side of the
+chopper, which has the effect of thickening the fore and middle ribs
+considerably when cut up. The London butcher also cuts the joints above
+the hind knee, and, by making some incisions with a sharp knife, cuts
+the tendons there, and drops the flesh of the hind-quarter on the flank
+and loins, which causes it to cut up thicker than in the Scotch mode. In
+opening the hind-quarter he also cuts the aitch bone, or pelvis through
+the centre, which makes the rump look better. Some butchers in the north
+of England score the fat of the <i>closing</i> of the hind-quarter, which has
+the effect of making that part of both heifer and ox look like the udder
+of an old cow. There is far too much of this scoring practised in
+Scotland, which prevents the pieces from retaining&mdash;which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span> they should,
+as nearly as possible&mdash;their natural appearance.</p>
+
+<p>In cutting up a carcass of beef the London butcher displays great
+expertness; he not only discriminates between the qualities of its
+different parts, but can cut out any piece to gratify the taste of his
+customers. In this way he makes the best use of the carcass and realizes
+the largest value for it, while he gratifies the taste of every grade of
+customers. A figure of the Scotch and English modes of cutting up a
+carcass of beef will at once show the difference; and upon being
+informed where the valuable pieces lie, an opinion can be formed as to
+whether the oxen the farmer is breeding or feeding possess the
+properties which will enable him to demand the highest price for them.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+    <a id="illus-195" name="illus-195"></a>
+    <img src="images/illus-195.png" width="600" height="311"
+       alt="" />
+    <p class="caption">SCOTCH MODE OF CUTTING UP BEEF.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The sirloin is the principal roasting-piece, making a very handsome
+dish, and is a universal favorite. It consists of two portions, the
+Scotch and English sides; the former is above the lumbar bones, and is
+somewhat hard in ill-fed cattle; the latter consists of the muscles
+under these bones, which are generally covered with fine fat, and are
+exceedingly tender. The better the beast is fed, the larger is the under
+muscle, better covered with fat, and more tender to eat. The hook-bone
+and the buttock are cut up for steaks, beefsteak pie, or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span> minced
+collops, and both these, together with the sirloin, bring the highest
+price. The large round and the small round are both well known as
+excellent pieces for salting and boiling, and are eaten cold with great
+relish. The hough is peculiarly suited for boiling down for soup, having
+a large proportion of gelatinous matter. Brown soup is the principal
+dish made of the hough, but its decoction forms an excellent <i>stock</i> for
+various dishes, and will keep in a state of jelly for a considerable
+time. The thick and the thin flank are both admirable pieces for salting
+and boiling. The tail, insignificant as it may seem, makes a soup of a
+very fine flavor. Hotel-keepers have a trick of seasoning brown soup or
+rather beef-tea, with a few joints of tail, and passing it off for
+genuine ox-tail soup. These are all the pieces which constitute the
+hind-quarter; and it will be seen that they are valuable both for
+roasting and boiling, not containing a single coarse piece.</p>
+
+<p>In the fore-quarter, is the spare rib, the six ribs of the back end of
+which make an excellent roast, and when taken from the side opposite to
+the <i>lying</i> one, being free of the bones of the spine, it makes a large
+one; and it also makes excellent beefsteaks and beefsteak pie. The two
+runners and the nineholes make salting and boiling pieces; but, of
+these, the nineholes is much the best, as it consists of layers of fat
+and lean without any bone; whereas the fore parts of the runners have a
+piece of shoulder-blade in them, and every piece connected with that
+bone is more or less coarse-grained. The brisket eats very well boiled
+fresh in broth, and may be cooked and eaten with boiled greens or
+carrots. The shoulder-lyar is a coarse piece, and fit only for boiling
+fresh<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span> to make into broth or beef-tea. The nap, or shin, is analogous to
+the hough of the hind-leg, but not so rich and fine, there being much
+less gelatinous matter in it. The neck makes good broth; and the
+sticking-piece is a great favorite with some epicures, on account of the
+pieces of rich fat in it. It makes an excellent stew, as also sweet
+barley-broth, and the meat eats well when boiled in it.</p>
+
+<p>These are all the pieces of the fore-quarter; and it will be seen that
+they consist chiefly of boiling-pieces, and some of them none of the
+finest&mdash;the roasting-piece being confined to the six ribs of the spare
+rib, and the finest boiling-piece, corned, only to be found in the
+nineholes.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+    <a id="illus-197" name="illus-197"></a>
+    <img src="images/illus-197.png" width="600" height="304"
+       alt="" />
+    <p class="caption">ENGLISH MODE OF CUTTING UP BEEF.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The loin is the principal roasting-piece; the rump is the favorite
+steak-piece; the aitch-bone, the favorite stew; the buttock, the thick
+flank, and the thin flank are all excellent boiling-pieces when corned;
+the hock and the shin make soup and afford stock for the various
+requirements of the culinary art; and the tail furnishes ox-tail soup&mdash;a
+favorite English luncheon. These are all the pieces of the hind-quarter,
+and they are valuable of their respective kinds.</p>
+
+<p>In the fore-quarter, the fore-rib, middle-rib, and chuckle-rib are all
+roasting-pieces, not alike good; but in removing the part of the
+shoulder-blade in the middle-rib, the spare-ribs<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span> below make a good
+broil or roast; the neck makes soup, being used fresh, boiled; the back
+end of the brisket is boiled, corned, or stewed; the leg-of-mutton piece
+is coarse, but is as frequently stewed as boiled; the shin is put to the
+same use as the shin and hock of the hind-quarter.</p>
+
+<p>On comparing the two modes of cutting-up, it will be observed that in
+the English there are more roasting-pieces than in the Scotch, a large
+proportion of the fore-quarter being used in that way. The plan, too, of
+cutting the loin between the rump and aitch-bone in the hind-quarter,
+lays open the steak-pieces to better advantage than in the Scotch
+bullock. Extending the comparison from one part of the carcass to the
+other, in both methods, it will be seen that the most valuable
+pieces&mdash;the roasting&mdash;occupy its upper, and the less valuable&mdash;the
+boiling&mdash;its lower part. Every beast, therefore, that lays on beef more
+upon the upper part of its body is more valuable than one that lays the
+same quantity of flesh on its lower parts.</p>
+
+<p>It is deemed unnecessary to enter into details as to the modes of
+cutting-up most in vogue in this country, as there is a needlessly great
+want of uniformity.</p>
+
+<p>Of the qualities of beef obtained from the different breeds of cattle in
+England, there is no better meat than from the West Highlanders for
+fineness of grain and cutting up into convenient pieces for family use.
+The Galloways and Angus, when fattened in English pastures, are great
+favorites in the London market. The Short Horns afford excellent steaks,
+being thick of flesh, and the slice deep, large and juicy, and their
+covered flanks and nineholes are always thick, juicy, and well-mixed.
+The Herefords are somewhat similar to the Short<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span> Horns, and the Devons,
+may, perhaps, be classed among the Galloways and Angus, while the Welsh
+cannot be compared to the West Highlanders. Taking, then, the breeds of
+Scotland as suppliers of good beef, they seem to be more valuable for
+the table than those of England.</p>
+
+<p>There are, perhaps, not sufficient data in existence to determine the
+true proportion of offal of all kinds to the beef of any given fat ox;
+but approximations have been made, which may serve the purpose until the
+matter is investigated by direct experiment, under various
+circumstances. The dead weight bears to the live weight a ratio varying
+between .571 and .605 to 1; and on applying one or the other multiplier
+to the cases of the live weight, a pretty correct approximation is
+reached. The tallow is supposed to be eight one-hundredths of the live
+weight; so that the multiplier is the decimal .08. The hide is supposed
+to be five one-hundredths of the live weight; so to obtain its weight, a
+multiplier, .05, is used. The other offals are supposed to be in a
+proportion of about one-fourth of the live weight; so that the
+multiplier, .28, is as near as can be proposed under existing
+experience.</p>
+
+<p>Beef is the staple animal food of this country, and it is used in
+various states&mdash;fresh, salted, smoked, roasted, and boiled. When
+intended to be eaten fresh, the <i>ribs</i> will keep the best, and with care
+will keep five or six days in summer, and in winter ten days. The middle
+of the <i>loin</i> is the next best, and the <i>rump</i> the next. The <i>round</i>
+will not keep long, unless it is salted. The <i>brisket</i> is the worst, and
+will not keep more than three days in summer, and in winter a week.</p>
+
+<p>In regard to the power of the stomach to digest beef, that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span> which is
+eaten boiled with salt only, is digested in two hours and forty-five
+minutes. Beef, fresh, lean, and rarely-roasted, and a beefsteak broiled,
+takes three hours to digest; that fresh, and dry-roasted, and boiled,
+eaten with mustard, is digested in three and a half hours. Lean fresh
+beef fried, requires four hours, and old hard salted beef boiled, does
+not digest in less than four and a quarter hours. Fresh beef-suet boiled
+takes five and a half hours.</p>
+
+<p>The usual mode of preserving beef is by salting; and, when intended to
+keep for a long time, such as for the use of shipping, it is always
+salted with brine; but for family use it should be salted only with good
+salt; for brine dispels the juice of meat, and saltpetre only serves to
+make the meat dry, and give it a disagreeable and unnatural red color.
+Various experiments have been made in curing beef with salt otherwise
+than by hand-rubbing, and in a short space of time, and also to preserve
+it from putrefaction by other means than salt. Some packers put
+<ins class="correction" title="meal">meat</ins> in a copper which is rendered air-tight, and an air-pump
+then creates a vacuum within it, thereby extracting all the air out of
+the meat; then brine is pumped in by pressure, which, entering into
+every pore of the meat formerly occupied by the air, is said to place it
+in a state of preservation in a few minutes. The carcass of an ox was
+preserved, in France, for two years from putrefaction by injecting four
+pounds of saline mixture into the carotid artery. Whether any such
+contrivance can be made available for family purposes, seems doubtful.</p>
+
+<p>Cattle, when slaughtered, are useful to man in various other ways than
+by affording food from their flesh,&mdash;their offal of tallow, hides, and
+horns, forming extensive articles<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span> of commerce. Of the <i>hide</i>, the
+characteristics of a good one for strong purposes are strength in its
+middle, or <i>butt</i>, as it called, and lightness in the edges, or <i>offal</i>.
+A bad hide is the opposite of this&mdash;thick in the edges and thin in the
+middle. A good hide has a firm texture; a bad one, loose and soft. A
+hide improves as the summer advances, and it continues to improve after
+the new coat of hair in autumn until November or December, when the coat
+gets rough from the coldness of the season, and the hide is then in its
+best state. It is surprising how a hide improves in thickness after the
+cold weather has set in. The sort of food does not seem to affect the
+quality of the hide; but the better it is, and the better cattle have
+been fed, and the longer they have been well fed, even from a calf, the
+better the hide. From what has been said of the effect of weather upon
+the hide, it seems a natural conclusion that a hide is better from an ox
+that has been fed in the open air, than from one that has been kept in
+the barn. Dirt adhering to a hide injures it, particularly in stall-fed
+animals; and any thing that punctures a hide, such as warbles arising
+from certain insects, is also injurious. The best hides are obtained
+from the West Highlanders. The Short Horns produce the thinnest hides,
+the Aberdeenshire the next, and then the Angus. Of the same breed, the
+ox affords the strongest hide; but, as hides are applied to various
+uses, the cow's, provided it be large, may be as valuable as that of the
+ox. The bull's hide is the least valuable. Hides are imported from
+Russia and South America.</p>
+
+<p>Hides, when deprived of their hair, are converted into <i>leather</i> by an
+infusion of the astringent property of bark.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span> The old plan of tanning
+used to occupy a long time; but, such was the value of the process, that
+the old tanners used to pride themselves upon producing a substantial
+article&mdash;which is more than can be said in many instances under modern
+improved modes, which hasten the process, much to the injury of the
+article produced. Strong infusions of bark make leather brittle; one
+hundred pounds of skin, quickly tanned in a strong infusion, produce one
+hundred and thirty-seven pounds of leather; while a weak infusion
+produces only one hundred and seventeen and a half,&mdash;the additional
+nineteen and a half pounds serving only to deteriorate the leather, and
+causing it to contain much less textile animal solid. Leather thus
+highly charged with tanning is so spongy as to allow moisture to pass
+readily through its pores, to the great discomfort and injury of those
+who wear shoes made of it. The proper mode of tanning lasts a year, or a
+year and a half, according to the quality of the leather wanted and the
+nature of the hides. A perfect leather can be recognized by its section,
+which should have a glistening marbled appearance, without any white
+streaks in the middle. The hair which is taken off hides in tanning, is
+employed to mix with plaster, and is often surreptitiously put into
+hair-mattresses.</p>
+
+<p>The principal <ins class="correction" title="subtances">substances</ins> of which <i>glue</i> is made are the
+parings of ox and other thick hides, which form the strongest article
+and the refuse of the leather-dresser. Both afford from forty-five to
+fifty-five per cent. of glue. The tendons, and many other offals of
+slaughter-houses, also afford materials, though of an inferior quality,
+for this purpose. The refuse of tanneries&mdash;such as the ears of oxen and
+calves&mdash;are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span> better articles. Animal skins also, in any form, uncombined
+with tannin, may be worked into glue.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ox-tallow</i> is of great importance in the arts. Candles and soap are
+made of it, and it enters largely into the dressing of leather and the
+use of machinery. Large quantities are annually exported from Russia.
+Ox-tallow consists of seventy-six parts of stearine and twenty-four of
+oleine, out of one hundred parts.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>horns</i> of oxen are used for many purposes. The horn consists of two
+parts: an outward horny case, and an inward conical-shaped substance,
+somewhat intermediate between indurated hair and bone, called the
+<i>fluid</i> of the horn. These two parts are separated by means of a blow
+upon a block of wood. The horny exterior is then cut into three portions
+by means of a frame saw. The lowest of these, next the root of the horn,
+after undergoing several processes by which it is rendered flat, is made
+into combs.</p>
+
+<p>The middle of the horn, after having been flattened by heat, and its
+transparency improved by oil, is split into thin layers, and forms a
+substitute for glass in lanterns of the commonest kind. The tip of the
+horns is used by makers of knife-handles and of the tops of whips, and
+for other similar purposes. The interior, or core of the horn, is boiled
+down in water. A large quantity of fat rises to the surface; this is put
+aside, and sold to the makers of yellow soap. The itself is used as a
+kind of glue, and is purchased by the cloth-draper for stiffening. The
+bony substance remaining behind is then sent to the mill, and, after
+having been ground down, is sold to farmers for manure.</p>
+
+<p>Besides these various purposes to which the different parts<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span> of the horn
+are applied, the clippings which arise in comb-making are sold to the
+farmer for manure, as well as the shavings which form the refuse of the
+lantern-makers. Horn, as is well known, is easily rendered soft and
+pliant in warm water; and by this peculiarity and its property of
+adhering like glue, large plates of horn can be made by cementing
+together the edges of small pieces rendered flat by a peculiar process,
+as a substitute for glass. Imitation of tortoise-shell can be given to
+horn by means of various metallic solutions. Horn, also, when softened,
+can be imprinted with any pattern, by means of dies.</p>
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="Diseases_and_their_Remedies" id="Diseases_and_their_Remedies"></a>Diseases and their Remedies<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span></h2>
+
+<div class="center">
+   <a id="illus-205" name="illus-205"></a>
+   <img src="images/illus-205.png" width="600" height="430"
+      alt="Diseases and their Remedies" />
+</div>
+
+<p>Under this head it is proposed to notice such diseases as are most
+common among cattle, together with their symptoms, and to suggest such
+treatment of the same as has been found in the practice of the author,
+in the main, effective. He is aware that much more space might have been
+appropriated to this head, as has been the case in other treatises of
+this class; but he doubts the propriety of multiplying words about
+diseases which are of very rare occurrence, deeming it more fitting to
+leave such instances exclusively to the intelligent consideration of the
+reliable veterinary practitioner.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>For convenience of reference, the diseases here noticed have been
+arranged in alphabetical order; the whole concluding with information as
+to two or three operations which cannot be uninteresting to, or
+unprofitable for, the reader.</p>
+
+
+<h4><a name="ABORTION" id="ABORTION"></a>ABORTION.</h4>
+
+<p>The cow is, more than any other animal, subject to abortion, or
+slinking, which takes place at different periods of pregnancy, from half
+of the usual time to the seventh, or almost to the eighth month. The
+symptoms of the approach of abortion, unless the breeder is very much
+among his stock, are not often perceived; or, if perceived, they are
+concealed by the person in charge, lest he should be accused of neglect
+or improper treatment.</p>
+
+<p>The cow is somewhat off her feed&mdash;rumination ceases&mdash;she is listless and
+dull&mdash;the milk diminishes or dries up&mdash;the motions of the f&oelig;tus
+become more feeble, and at length cease altogether&mdash;there is a slight
+degree of enlargement of the belly&mdash;there is a little staggering in her
+walk&mdash;when she is down she lies longer than usual, and when she gets up
+she stands for a longer time motionless.</p>
+
+<p>As the abortion approaches, a yellow or red glairy fluid runs from the
+vagina (this is a symptom, which rarely, or never, deceives) her
+breathing becomes laborious and slightly convulsive. The belly has for
+several days lost its natural rotundity, and has been evidently
+falling,&mdash;she begins to moan,&mdash;the pulse becomes small, wiry, and
+intermittent. At length labor comes on, and is often attended with much
+difficulty and danger.</p>
+
+<p>If the abortion has been caused by blows or violence,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span> whether from
+brutality, or the animal's having been teased by other cows in season,
+or by oxen, the symptoms are more intense. The animal suddenly ceases to
+eat and to ruminate&mdash;is uneasy, paws the ground, rests her head on the
+manger while she is standing, and on her flank when she is lying
+down&mdash;hemorrhage frequently comes on from the uterus, or when this is
+not the case the mouth of that organ is spasmodically contracted. The
+throes come on, are distressingly violent, and continue until the womb
+is ruptured. If all these circumstances be not observed, still the labor
+is protracted and dangerous.</p>
+
+<p>Abortion is sometimes singularly frequent in particular districts, or on
+particular farms, appearing to assume an epizo&ouml;tic or epidemic form.
+This has been accounted for in various ways. Some have imagined it to be
+contagious. It is, indeed, destructively propagated among the cows, but
+this is probably to be explained on a different principle from that of
+contagion. The cow is a considerably imaginative animal, and highly
+irritable during the period of pregnancy. In abortion, the f&oelig;tus is
+often putrid before it is discharged; and the placenta, or after-birth,
+rarely or never follows it, but becomes decomposed, and, as it drops
+away in fragments, emits a peculiar and most noisome smell. This smell
+seems to be peculiarly annoying to the other cows: they sniff at it and
+then run bellowing about. Some sympathetic influence is exercised on
+their uterine organs, and in a few days a greater or less number of
+those that had pastured together likewise abort. Hence arises the
+rapidity with which the f&oelig;tus is usually taken away and buried
+deeply, and far from the cows; and hence the more effectual preventive
+of smearing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span> the parts of the cow with tar or stinking oils, in order to
+conceal or subdue the smell; and hence, too, the inefficacy, as a
+preventive, of removing her to a far-distant pasture.</p>
+
+<p>The pastures on which the blood or inflammatory fever is most prevalent
+are those on which the cows oftenest slink their calves. Whatever can
+become a source of general excitation and fever is likely, during
+pregnancy, to produce inflammation of the womb; or whatever would, under
+other circumstances, excite inflammation of almost any organ, has at
+that time its injurious effect determined to this particular one.</p>
+
+<p>Every farmer is aware of the injurious effect of the coarse, rank
+herbage of low, marshy, and woody countries, and he regards these
+districts as the chosen residence of red water; it may be added, that
+they are also the chosen residence of abortion. Hard and mineral waters
+are justly considered as laying the foundation of many diseases among
+cattle, and of abortion among the rest.</p>
+
+<p>Some careful observers have occasionally attributed abortion to
+disproportion in size between the male and the female. Farmers were
+formerly too fond of selecting a great overgrown bull to serve their
+dairy or breeding cows, and many a heifer, or little cow, was seriously
+injured; and she either cast her calf, or was lost in parturition. The
+breeders of cattle in later years are beginning to act more wisely in
+this matter.</p>
+
+<p>Cows that are degenerating into consumption are exceedingly subject to
+abortion. They are continually in heat; they rarely become pregnant, or
+if they do, a great proportion of them cast their calves. Abortion,
+also, often follows a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span> sudden change from poor to luxuriant food. Cows
+that have been out, half-starved in the winter, when incautiously turned
+on rich pasture in the spring, are too apt to cast their calves from the
+undue general or local excitation that is set up. Hence it is, that when
+this disposition to abort first appears in a herd, it is naturally in a
+cow that has been lately purchased. Fright, from whatever cause, may
+produce this trouble. There are singular cases on record of whole herds
+of cows slinking their calves after having been terrified by an
+unusually violent thunder-storm. Commerce with the bull soon after
+conception is also a frequent cause, as well as putrid smells&mdash;other
+than those already noticed&mdash;and the use of a diseased bull. Besides
+these tangible causes of abortion, there is the mysterious agency of the
+atmosphere. There are certain seasons when abortion is strangely
+frequent, and fatal; while at other times it disappears in a manner for
+several successive years.</p>
+
+<p>The consequences of premature calving are frequently of a very serious
+nature; and even when the case is more favorable, the results are,
+nevertheless, very annoying. The animal very soon goes again to heat,
+but in a great many cases she fails to become pregnant; she almost
+invariably does so, if she is put to the bull during the first heat
+after abortion. If she should come in calf again during that season, it
+is very probable that at about the same period of gestation, or a little
+later, she will again abort: or that when she becomes in calf the
+following year, the same fatality will attend her. Some say that this
+disposition to cast her young gradually ceases; that if she does
+miscarry, it is at a later and still later period of pregnancy; and
+that, in about three<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span> or four years, she may be depended upon as a
+tolerably safe breeder. He, however, would be sadly inattentive to his
+own interests who keeps a profitless beast so long.</p>
+
+<p>The calf very rarely lives, and in the majority of cases it is born dead
+or putrid. If there should appear to be any chance of saving it, it
+should be washed with warm water, carefully dried, and fed frequently
+with small quantities of new milk, mixed, according to the apparent
+weakness of the animal, either with raw eggs or good gruel; while the
+bowels should, if occasion requires, be opened by means of small doses
+of castor-oil. If any considerable period is to elapse before the
+natural time of pregnancy would have expired, it will usually be
+necessary to bring up the little animal entirely by hand.</p>
+
+<p>The treatment of abortion differs but little from that of parturition.
+If the farmer has once been tormented by this pest in his dairy, he
+should carefully watch the approaching symptoms of casting the calf, and
+as soon as he perceives them, should remove the animal from the pasture
+to a comfortable cow-house or shed. If the discharge be glairy, but not
+offensive, he may hope that the calf is not dead; he will be assured of
+this by the motion of the f&oelig;tus, and then it is possible that the
+abortion may still be avoided. He should hasten to bleed her, and that
+copiously, in proportion to her age, size, condition, and the state of
+excitation in which he may find her; and he should give a dose of physic
+immediately after the bleeding. When the physic begins to operate, he
+should administer half a drachm of opium and half an ounce of sweet
+spirits of nitre. Unless she is in a state of great debility, he should
+allow nothing but gruel,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span> and she should be kept as quiet as possible.
+By these means he may occasionally allay the general or local irritation
+that precedes or causes the abortion, and the cow may yet go to her full
+time.</p>
+
+<p>Should, however, the discharge be fetid, the conclusion will be that the
+f&oelig;tus is dead, and must be got rid of, and that as speedily as
+possible. Bleeding may even then be requisite if much fever exists; or,
+perhaps, if there is debility, some stimulating drink may not be out of
+place. In other respects the animal must be treated as if her usual time
+of pregnancy had been accomplished.</p>
+
+<p>Much may be done in the way of preventing this habit of abortion among
+cows. <i>The f&oelig;tus must be got rid of immediately.</i> It should be buried
+deep, and far from the cow-pasture. Proper means should be taken to
+hasten the expulsion of the placenta. A dose of physic should be given;
+ergot of rye administered; the hand should be introduced, and an effort
+made, cautiously and gently, to detach the placenta; all violence,
+however, should be carefully avoided; for considerable and fatal
+hemorrhage may be speedily produced. The parts of the cow should be well
+washed with a solution of the chloride of lime, which should be injected
+up the vagina, and also given internally. In the mean time, and
+especially after the expulsion of the placenta, the cow-house should be
+well washed with the same solution.</p>
+
+<p>The cow, when beginning to recover, should be fattened and sold. This is
+the first and the grand step toward the prevention of abortion, and he
+is unwise who does not immediately adopt it. All other means are
+comparatively<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span> inefficient and worthless. Should the owner be reluctant
+to part with her, two months, at least, should pass before she is
+permitted to return to her companions. Prudence would probably dictate
+that she should never return to them, but be kept, if possible, on some
+distant part of the farm.</p>
+
+<p>Abortion having once occurred among the herd, the breeding cows should
+be carefully watched. Although they should be well fed, they should not
+be suffered to get into too high condition. Unless they are decidedly
+poor and weak, they should be bled between the third and fourth months
+of pregnancy, and a mild dose of physic administered to each. If the
+pest continues to reappear, the owner should most carefully examine how
+far any of the causes of abortion that have been detected, may exist on
+his farm, and exert himself to thoroughly remove them.</p>
+
+<p>An interesting paper upon this subject may be found in the Veterinary
+Review, vol. 1., p. 434, communicated by Prof. Henry Tanner, of Queen's
+College, Birmingham, England. As it suggests a theory as to the origin
+of this disease which is, to say the least, quite plausible, we transfer
+the article:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"I shall not go into any notice of the general subject of abortion, but
+rather restrict my remarks to a cause which is very much overlooked, and
+yet which is probably more influential than all other causes combined. I
+refer to the growth of ergotized grass-seeds in our pastures.</p>
+
+<p>"The action of ergot of rye (<i>secale cornutum</i>) upon the womb is well
+known as an excitant to powerful action, which usually terminates in the
+expulsion of the f&oelig;tus. We have a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span> similar disease appearing on the
+seeds of our grasses, but especially on the rye grass, and thus we have
+an ergot of the seeds of rye grass produced, possessing similar exciting
+powers upon the womb to those produced by the ergot of rye.</p>
+
+<p>"Two conditions are necessary for the production of this ergot upon the
+seed of rye grass. The first is, the grass must be allowed to run to
+seed; and the second is, that the climate must be favorable for
+encouraging the development of the ergot.</p>
+
+<p>"In practice, we find that on land which has been fed on during the
+summer, unless it has been grazed with unusual care, much of the grass
+throws up seed-stalks and produces seed. In districts where the climate
+is humid and rain abundant, as well as in very wet seasons, these seeds
+become liable to the growth of this ergot. Cattle appear to eat it with
+a relish, and the result is that abortion spreads rapidly through the
+herd. Heifers and cows, which, up to the appearance of the ergot, have
+held in calf, are excited to cast their calves by consuming it in their
+food. The abortion having once commenced, we know that the peculiarly
+sensitive condition of the breeding animal will cause its extension,
+even where the original cause may not be in operation; but their
+combined action renders the loss far more serious. If we add to this the
+tendency which an animal receives from her first abortion, to repeat it
+when next in calf, we see how seriously the mischief becomes multiplied.</p>
+
+<p>"A somewhat extended observation, added to my own experience, has led me
+to the conviction that very much of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span> loss arising from abortion in
+our cows may be traced to the cause I have named. I feel assured the
+influence is even more extended than I have stated; for not only would
+the f&oelig;tus be thrown off in its advanced stage, but also in its
+earlier growth, thus causing great trouble to breeders of high-bred
+stock, the repeated turning of cows to the bull, and at most irregular
+intervals.</p>
+
+<p>"The remedy differs in no respect from the ordinary mode of treatment,
+except that it compels a removal of the stock from the influence of the
+cause. Much, however, may be done by way of prevention; and this I shall
+briefly notice.</p>
+
+<p>"It simply consists in keeping breeding cows and heifers upon land free
+from these seeds. Grass which has been grazed during the summer, will
+very generally, in a humid climate, have some of this ergotized seed;
+but I have not observed it produced before the end of July, or early in
+August; and I doubt its existence, to any injurious degree, up to this
+time. We may, therefore, consider such ground safe up to this period. If
+the breeding stock are then removed to grass land which, having been
+mown for this operation is a guaranty against any seeds remaining, it
+will seldom, if ever, happen that any injury will result from the
+production of ergotized grass later in the season.</p>
+
+<p>"I will not venture to say that such will not appear in some cases where
+the grass has been cut early and has been followed by a rapid growth;
+but, at any rate, we have grazing land free from this excitant from July
+until September; and in the grass which has been mown late, I do not
+consider that there is the least fear of ergot's being again formed in
+that season. In this manner a farmer may keep<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span> grass land for his
+breeding stock entirely free from ergotized grass; and, consequently, so
+far as this cause is concerned, they will be free from abortion. How far
+young heifers may be prejudicially influenced, before they are used for
+breeding, by an excitement of the womb, appears to me to be a subject
+worthy of some attention on the part of the veterinary profession."</p>
+
+
+<h4><a name="APOPLEXY" id="APOPLEXY"></a>APOPLEXY.</h4>
+
+<p>This is a determination of blood to the head, causing pressure upon the
+brain. Animals attacked with this disease are generally in a plethoric
+condition. The usual symptoms are <i>coma</i> (a sleepy state), eyes
+protruding, respiration accelerated; finally, the animal falls,
+struggles, and dies.</p>
+
+<p>In such cases, bleeding should be resorted to at an early period; give
+in drink one pound of Epsom-salts.</p>
+
+
+<h4><a name="BLACK_WATER" id="BLACK_WATER"></a>BLACK WATER.</h4>
+
+<p>This is simply an exaggerated stage of the disease known as Red
+Water,&mdash;to which the reader is referred in its appropriate place,&mdash;the
+urine being darker in color in consequence of the admixture of venous
+blood.</p>
+
+<p>The symptoms are similar, though more acute. There is constipation at
+first, which is followed by diarrh&oelig;a, large quantities of blood
+passing away with the evacuations from the bowels; symptoms of abdominal
+pain are present; the loins become extremely tender; and the animal dies
+in a greatly prostrated condition.</p>
+
+<p>The treatment does not differ from that prescribed in case of Red
+Water.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4><a name="BRONCHITIS" id="BRONCHITIS"></a>BRONCHITIS.</h4>
+
+<p>The trachea and bronchial tubes are frequently the seat of inflammation,
+especially in the spring of the year,&mdash;the symptoms of which are often
+confounded with those of other pulmonary diseases. This inflammation is
+frequently preceded by catarrhal affections; cough is often present for
+a long time before the more acute symptoms are observed. Bronchitis
+occasionally makes its appearance in an epizo&ouml;tic form.</p>
+
+<p><i>Symptoms.</i>&mdash;A peculiarly anxious expression of the countenance will be
+observed; respiration laborious; a husky, wheezing, painful cough; on
+placing the ear to the windpipe a sonorous <i>r&acirc;le</i> is heard; symptomatic
+fever also prevails to a greater or less extent.</p>
+
+<p><i>Treatment.</i>&mdash;Counter-irritation should be early resorted to; strong
+mustard, mixed with equal parts of spirits of hartshorn and water, and
+made into a thin paste, should be applied all along the neck, over the
+windpipe, and to the sides, and should be well rubbed in; or, the
+tincture of cantharides, with ten drops of castor-oil to each ounce,
+applied in the same manner as the former, will be found equally
+effective. Give internally ten drops of Fleming's tincture of aconite
+every four hours, until five or six doses have been given; after which
+give one of the following powders twice a day: nitrate of potash, one
+ounce; Barbadoes aloes, one ounce; Jamaica ginger, half an ounce;
+pulverized-gentian root, one ounce; mix and divide into eight powders.
+If necessary a pound of salts may be given.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4><a name="CONSUMPTION" id="CONSUMPTION"></a>CONSUMPTION.</h4>
+
+<p>This affection&mdash;technically known as <i>phthisis pulmonalis</i>&mdash;is the
+termination of chronic disease of the lungs. These organs become filled
+with many little cysts, or sacks, containing a yellowish or
+yellowish-white fluid, which in time is hardened, producing a condition
+of the lungs known as tuberculous. These tubercles in turn undergo
+another change, becoming soft in the centre and gradually involving the
+whole of the hardened parts, which, uniting with adjoining ones, soon
+forms cysts of considerable size. These cysts are known as abscesses.</p>
+
+<p>No treatment will be of much service here. It is, therefore, better, if
+the animal is not too poor in flesh, to have it slaughtered.</p>
+
+
+<h4><a name="CORYZA" id="CORYZA"></a>CORYZA.</h4>
+
+<p>In the spring, and late in the fall, catarrhal affections are quite
+common, occurring frequently in a epizo&ouml;tic form. Coryza, or nasal
+catarrh,&mdash;commonly called a cold in the head,&mdash;is not very common among
+cows. As its name implies, it is a local disease, confined to the lining
+membrane of the nose; and, consequently, the general system is not
+usually disturbed.</p>
+
+<p><i>Symptoms.</i>&mdash;The animal will be observed to sneeze; the Schneiderian
+membrane (membrane of the nose) is heightened in color; cough sometimes
+accompanies; there is also a muco-purulent discharge from the nose.
+Neglect to attend to these early symptoms frequently occasions disease
+of a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span> more serious nature; in fact, coryza may be regarded as the
+forerunner of all epizo&ouml;tic pulmonary disorders.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+    <a id="illus-218" name="illus-218"></a>
+    <img src="images/illus-218.png" width="600" height="344"
+       alt="" />
+    <p class="caption">A CHAT ON THE ROAD.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Treatment.</i>&mdash;The animal should be kept on a low diet for a few days;
+the nostrils occasionally steamed, and one of the following powders
+given night and morning, which, in most cases, will be all the medicine
+required: nitrate of potassa, one ounce; digitalis leaves pulverized and
+tartrate of antimony, of each one drachm; sulphate of copper, two
+drachms; mix, and divide into eight powders. Should the disease prove
+obstinate, give for two or three days two ounces of Epsom-salts at a
+dose, dissolved in water, three times a day.</p>
+
+
+<h4><a name="COW-POX" id="COW-POX"></a>COW-POX.</h4>
+
+<p>Two varieties of sore teats occur in the cow, in the form of pustular
+eruptions. They first appear as small vesicles containing a purulent
+matter, and subsequently assume a scabby appearance, or small ulcers
+remain, which often prove troublesome to heal. This latter is the
+cow-pox, from which Jenner derived the vaccine matter.</p>
+
+<p><i>Treatment.</i>&mdash;Foment the teats well with warm water and Castile-soap;
+after which, wipe the bag dry, and dress with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span> citrine ointment. The
+preparations of iodine have also been recommended, and they are very
+serviceable.</p>
+
+
+<h4><a name="DIARRHOEA" id="DIARRHOEA"></a>DIARRH&OElig;A.</h4>
+
+<p>Cattle are frequently subject to this disease, particularly in the
+spring of the year when the grass is young and soft. Occasionally it
+assumes a very obstinate form in consequence of the imperfect secretion
+of gastric juice; the <i>f&aelig;ces</i> are thin, watery, and fetid, followed by
+very great prostration of the animal.</p>
+
+<p>The symptoms of diarrh&oelig;a are too well known to require any detailed
+description.</p>
+
+<p><i>Treatment.</i>&mdash;If in a mild form, the diet should be low; give two ounces
+of Epsom-salts, twice a day. In a more obstinate form, give two drachms
+of carbonate of soda in the food. Oak-bark tea will be found very useful
+in these cases; or one of the following powders, twice a day, will be
+found very advantageous: pulverized opium and catechu, each one and a
+half ounces; prepared chalk, one drachm; to be given in the feed.</p>
+
+<p>Calves are particularly subject to this disease, and it often proves
+fatal to them. It sometimes assumes an epizo&ouml;tic form, when it is
+generally of a mild character. So long as the calf is lively and feeds
+well, the farmer should entertain no fear for him; but if he mopes
+about, refuses his food, ceases to ruminate, wastes in flesh, passes
+mucus and blood with the <i>f&aelig;ces</i>, and exhibits symptoms of pain, the
+case is a dangerous one.</p>
+
+<p>In such an emergency, lose no time, but give two or three ounces of
+Castor-oil with flour-gruel, or two ounces of salts<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span> at a dose, followed
+with small draughts of oak-bark tea; or give, twice a day, one of the
+following powders: pulverized catechu, opium, and Jamaca ginger, of each
+half an ounce; prepared chalk, one ounce; mix, and divide into twelve
+powders. Bran washes, green food, and flour-gruel should be given, with
+plenty of salt.</p>
+
+
+<h4><a name="DYSENTERY" id="DYSENTERY"></a>DYSENTERY.</h4>
+
+<p>This disease is very frequently confounded with the foregoing. A
+distinction, however, exists,&mdash;since inflammation appears in this
+disease, while it is absent in the former. In this affection,
+inflammation of the large intestines takes place, which is attended with
+diarrh&oelig;a. The <i>f&aelig;ces</i> are covered with blood; the animal rapidly
+becomes prostrated, and death frequently comes to his relief.</p>
+
+<p>Youatt says: "It is, however, with dysentery that the practitioner is
+most loth to cope,&mdash;a disease that betrays thousands of cattle. This,
+also, may be either acute or chronic. Its causes are too often buried in
+obscurity, and its premonitory symptoms are disregarded or unknown.
+There appears to be a strong predisposition in cattle to take on this
+disease. It seems to be the winding-up of many serious complaints, and
+the foundation of it is sometimes laid by those that appear to be of the
+most trifling nature. It is that in cattle which glanders and farcy are
+in the horse,&mdash;the breaking up of the constitution.</p>
+
+<p>"Dysentery may be a symptom and concomitant of other diseases. It is one
+of the most fearful characteristics of murrain; it is the destructive
+accompaniment, or consequence, of phthisis. It is produced by the sudden
+disappearance of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span> a cutaneous eruption; it follows the cessation of
+chronic hoose; it is the consequence of the natural or artificial
+suspension of every secretion. Were any secretion to be particularly
+selected, the repression of which would produce dysentery, it would be
+that of the milk. How often does the farmer observe that no sooner does
+a milch cow cease her usual supply of milk than she begins to purge!
+There may not appear to be any thing else the matter with her; but she
+purges, and, in the majority of cases, that purging is fatal.</p>
+
+<p>"It may, sometimes, however, be traced to sufficient causes, exclusive
+of previous disease. Unwholesome food&mdash;exposure to cold&mdash;neglect at
+the time of calving&mdash;low and marshy situations&mdash;the feeding in meadows
+that have been flooded, where it is peculiarly fatal&mdash;the grazing
+(according to Mr. Leigh, and our experience confirms his statement) upon
+the clays lying over the blue lias rock&mdash;the neighborhood of woods and
+of half-stagnant rivers&mdash;the continuation of unusually sultry
+weather&mdash;overwork, and all the causes of acute dysentery, may produce
+that of a chronic nature; an acute dysentery&mdash;neglected, or badly, or
+even most skillfully treated&mdash;may degenerate into an incurable chronic
+affection. Half starve a cow, or over-feed her, milk her to exhaustion,
+or dry her milk too rapidly&mdash;and dysentery may follow.</p>
+
+<p>"The following will, probably, be the order of the symptoms, if they are
+carefully observed: There will be a little dullness or anxiety of
+countenance, the muzzle becoming short or contracted; a slight shrinking
+when the loins are pressed upon; the skin a little harsh and dry; the
+hair a little rough; there will be a slight degree of uneasiness and
+shivering that scarcely attracts attention; then&mdash;except it be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span> the
+degeneracy of acute into chronic <ins class="correction" title="dystentery">dysentery</ins>&mdash;constipation
+may be perceived. It will be to a certain extent, obstinate; the
+excrement will voided with pain; it will be dry, hard, and expelled in
+small quantities. In other cases, perhaps, purging will be present from
+the beginning; the animal will be tormented with <i>tenesmus</i>, or frequent
+desire to void its excrement, and that act attended by straining and
+pain, by soreness about the <i>anus</i>, and protrusion of the <i>rectum</i>, and
+sometimes by severe colicky spasms. In many cases, however, and in those
+of a chronic form, few of these distressing symptoms are observed, even
+at the commencement of the disease; but the animal voids her <i>f&aelig;ces</i>
+oftener than it is natural that she should, and they are more fluid than
+in a state of health; while at the same time she loses her appetite and
+spirits and condition, and is evidently wasting away."</p>
+
+<p><i>Treatment.</i>&mdash;Give one drachm of the extract of belladonna, three times
+a day, dissolved in water; or calomel and powdered opium, of each one
+drachm three times daily. As soon as the inflammatory stage passes by,
+give one of the following three times daily, in their gruel: nitrate of
+potash pulverized, gentian-root pulverized, of each one ounce;
+pulverized Jamaica ginger, one half an ounce; pulverized caraway, or
+anise-seed, six drachms. A bottle of porter given once or twice a day,
+will be found of very great advantage.</p>
+
+
+<h4><a name="ENTERITIS" id="ENTERITIS"></a>ENTERITIS.</h4>
+
+<p>This is an inflammation of the external or internal coat of the
+intestines, sometimes attended with violent purging, especially when it
+is confined to the internal coats. Oxen in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span> good condition are more
+subject to this disease than are cows. It most <ins class="correction" title="freqently">frequently</ins>
+occurs in dry, hot weather. It is sudden in its attacks, and often fatal
+in its termination.</p>
+
+<p><i>Symptoms.</i>&mdash;The animal is dull, and not disposed to move about; the
+muzzle is dry, and the coat staring; the animal yields, on pressure of
+the <i>loins</i>; a weak, staggering gait, when forced to move; respiration
+hurried; pulse accelerated but small; eyes red, full and fiery; head
+protruding; mouth, ears, and horns hot; appetite bad; rumination ceases;
+the bowels become constipated; the animal moans continually, and froths
+at the mouth. These symptoms violently increase as the disease advances.
+The animal becomes more depressed and feeble, grinds his teeth, and
+appears half unconscious, and dies in convulsions.</p>
+
+<p>Of the causes of this disease, Youatt, who is almost the only authority
+we have upon this subject, says: "It seems occasionally to be epidemic;
+for several instances of it occur, of the same character, and in the
+same district. M. Cruzel gives an illustration of this in his
+description of the disease that destroyed so many cattle, in the years
+1826 to 1827, in the Department <i>de la Nievre</i>. Out of two hundred and
+eighteen cattle belonging to three farmers, one hundred and thirteen
+were attacked by this disease, and eighty-three of them died. One farmer
+in a neighboring district had nineteen head of cattle, all of which
+sickened, but only three were lost. These were unusually hot summers.
+The upland pasture was burnt up, or what remained of it was rendered
+unusually stimulating; and the acrid plants of the marshes and low
+grounds <ins class="correction" title="accquired">acquired</ins> additional deleterious agency.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>"When isolated cases occur, they may generally be attributed to
+mismanagement. Exposure to cold, or the drinking of cold water when
+overheated with work; too hard work in sultry weather; the use of water
+stagnant, impure, or containing any considerable quantity of metallic
+salts; the sudden revulsion of some cutaneous eruption; the crowding of
+animals into a confined place; too luxuriant and stimulating food
+generally; and the mildewed and unwholesome food on which cattle are too
+often kept, are fruitful sources of this complaint."</p>
+
+<p><i>Treatment.</i>&mdash;In the early stage of the disease, give an active purge,
+and follow it with ten drops of Fleming's tincture of aconite, four
+times daily, for two days; then give drachm doses of the extract of
+belladonna; give no food for twenty-four or forty-eight hours, according
+to circumstances. Bleeding, if done early, is often beneficial.
+Counter-irritants to the belly are also recommended; the best are
+mustard, hartshorn, and water, mixed together&mdash;or tincture of
+cantharides, with one drachm of croton-oil added to every ounce.</p>
+
+
+<h4><a name="EPIZOOTICS" id="EPIZOOTICS"></a>EPIZO&Ouml;TICS.</h4>
+
+<p>Diseases of this class have the same relation to the inferior animals
+that epidemic diseases have to man. Of course, they assume a very
+pestilential character. Scarcely a year passes away without diseases of
+this nature making their appearance in some parts of the world. They
+occur at all seasons of the year, but more generally prevail in the
+spring and fall. The period of their duration varies from months to
+years. They are, at times, mild in their attacks, and yield readily to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span>
+proper treatment; at other times, they become painful pestilences,
+destroying every thing in their course.</p>
+
+<p>The causes are generally sought for in some peculiar condition of the
+atmosphere. The use of the milk and flesh of diseased cattle has
+frequently been productive of malignant diseases in the human family.</p>
+
+<p>Silius Italicus describes a fearful epizo&ouml;tic, which first attacked the
+dog, then the feathered biped, then horses, and cattle, and, last of
+all, the human being.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">"On mules and dogs the infection first began,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">And, last, the vengeful arrows fixed in man."</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>Epizo&ouml;tics, occurring in rats, cats, dogs, horses, and cattle, which
+were followed in the succeeding years by more fearful ones which
+attacked the human family, are numerously recorded. These scourges have
+appeared in all ages of the world; but, as time and space will not allow
+our entering upon an extended consideration of them,&mdash;however
+interesting they might be to the general reader,&mdash;we shall content
+ourselves by quoting, somewhat in brief, from the lectures of the late
+William Youatt on these fatal maladies:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"In the year 801, and at the commencement of the reign of Charlemagne,
+an epidemic disease devastated a great portion of his dominions. This
+was attributed to the villainy of the Duke of Benevento, who was said to
+have employed a great many persons in scattering an enchanted powder
+over the fields, which destroyed both the cattle and the food of the
+cattle. M. Paulet seems inclined to give full credence to this, and says
+that history offers many proofs of this destructive and diabolical
+practice. He affirms that many persons<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span> were punished in Germany,
+France, and, particularly, at Toulouse, for the commission of this
+crime. Several of the suspected agents of these atrocities were put to
+the torture and made full confession of their crime.</p>
+
+<p>"Of the occurrence of these diseases from the year 800 to 1316,&mdash;an
+interval of mental darkness, and of horrors and calamities of every
+kind,&mdash;history records twenty cases, more or less destructive, and
+extending, with greater or less devastation, over France and Germany,
+Italy and England. Of these twenty, four date their origin from an
+excessive moisture in the air, accompanied by almost continual rains,
+and flooding the country to a considerable extent. One was supposed to
+be the consequence of long-continued drought and excessive heat; one was
+traced to the influence of an eclipse of the sun; another, to a comet;
+and a fourth, to a most unusually stormy winter. The reader will have
+the kindness to remember that we are here expressing the opinions of the
+writers of the day, and by no means, our own belief of the matter.</p>
+
+<p>"Of the four which trace their origin to extreme wet and its
+consequences, the first occurred in France, in 820, after a long
+continuance of rain; and it was equally fatal to men and cattle. The
+second, which was equally fatal to both, appeared in Lorraine, in 889.
+The third broke out among the cavalry of the army of Arnoul, in its
+passage over the Alps, on its return to Italy. The fourth pervaded the
+whole of England in 1125, and was equally fatal to the biped and the
+quadruped.</p>
+
+<p>"That which followed excessive heat and drought, was generally prevalent
+throughout Europe, but especially so in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span> Germany. It attacked oxen,
+sheep, and pigs. It appeared in 994, and lasted six months.</p>
+
+<p>"The one which was attributed to the comet, and which principally
+attacked cattle, appeared in France in 943 Almost every animal perished.</p>
+
+<p>"Another, that was supposed to be connected with an eclipse of the sun,
+was prevalent throughout the greater part of Germany, among men and
+animals, in 989.</p>
+
+<p>"The disease, which was the consequence of a cold and boisterous winter,
+was principally prevalent in France, in 887, and committed sad ravages
+among the herds of cattle and sheep.</p>
+
+<p>"Of the twelve others, of which, authors do not indicate the cause, the
+first was in France, in 810, and principally among cattle. The second
+was also in France, in 850, and almost depopulated the country of
+cattle. The third, in 868, was common to all animals in France. The
+fourth, in 870, was in the same country, and caused severe loss among
+cattle. The fifth prevailed on the Rhine and in Germany, and destroyed
+an almost incalculable number of cattle. The sixth attacked the horses
+of the army of Arnoul in Lorraine, in 888. The seventh, in 940,
+destroyed a vast number of cattle in France, Italy, and Germany. The
+eighth and ninth were in France, in 941 and 942, and almost all the
+cattle in the country perished. The tenth pestilence broke out in
+England, in the year 1041, and frightful was its devastation among all
+animals, and, particularly, horned cattle. The eleventh also devastated
+our country, in 1103, and the ravages were dreadful. The twelfth was
+chiefly fatal in Germany, and particularly in Gueldres, in 1149.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>"These twenty pestilences occurred in the space of 506 years. Five or
+six of them were most prevalent among cattle; two were almost confined
+to horses; twelve included, to a greater or less degree, almost every
+species of quadrupeds; and four extended to the human being. Among these
+the ravages of eight were most destructive in France; as many in
+Germany; and four in Italy and England.</p>
+
+<p>"As far as we have hitherto proceeded, it will also appear that cattle
+are more subject to these diseases than any other species of
+domesticated animals, and that the pestilence is always most fearful
+among them. It is also evident that the maladies which proceed from cold
+or humidity are more frequent in the temperate and southern parts of
+Europe than those which depend upon drought, or almost any other cause.</p>
+
+<p>"The malady lingers in different countries, in proportion to its want of
+power to accomplish at once all its devastation.</p>
+
+<p>"After this time, there are few satisfactory accounts of these diseases
+for more than five centuries. We only know that, occasionally suspending
+their ravages,&mdash;or, rather, visiting new districts when they had ceased
+to desolate others&mdash;they have continued to be objects of terror and
+instruments of devastation, even unto the present day; and it is only
+within a few years that they have been really understood, and have
+become, to a certain degree, manageable."</p>
+
+<p>In the United States, epizo&ouml;tic diseases have been of frequent
+occurrence; but, owing to the want of properly qualified veterinary
+surgeons, they have not, until within a very recent period, been
+properly described or understood.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span> The day however, is fast approaching
+when this void will be filled, and when epizo&ouml;tic and other diseases
+will be correctly noted and recorded. The necessity for this must have
+been forcibly impressed upon the minds of the inhabitants of our country
+from the experience of the last ten or twelve years.</p>
+
+<p>Respecting the late epizo&ouml;tic among cattle in Portage County, Ohio,
+William Pierce, V.S., of Ravenna, thus describes the symptoms as they
+appeared, in a letter to the author: "A highly-colored appearance of the
+sclerotic coat of the eye, also of the <i>conjunctiva</i> (a lining membrane
+of the eyelid) and the Schneiderian membrane of the nose; a high animal
+heat about the head and horns; a highly inflammatory condition of the
+blood; contraction of all the abdominal viscera; hurried respiration;
+great prostration and nervous debility; lameness; followed by gangrene
+of the extremity of the tail, and the hind-feet; terminating in
+mortification and death."</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Pierce is convinced that these symptoms are produced by the
+continued use of the ergot, or spur of the June grass,&mdash;the effects
+being similar to those produced upon the human family by long-continued
+use of ergot of rye. This disease assumes both an acute and chronic
+form.</p>
+
+<p>The same gentleman also says: "Ordinary observers, as well as those who
+claim to be scientific, have entertained very conflicting opinions as to
+its general character; some regarding it as epizo&ouml;tic, others as
+contagious; some attributing it to atmospheric influence, others to
+foulings in the stable or yard. Others, again, attribute it to freezing
+of the feet in winter. Cattle-doctors in a majority of cases, fail to
+cure it. I have, however, by a simple course of treatment, effected<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span>
+many signal cures. Some parties are so confident of the contagious
+character of the disease that they refuse to drive cattle along a road
+where it is known to exist. They even, oftentimes, wash their boots
+previous to entering their barnyards, after walking over the ground
+where such diseased cattle have been running.</p>
+
+<p>"Caution is both proper and commendable. I do not, however, regard it as
+a contagious disease, nor can it be transmitted by inoculation. The calf
+is carried during the progress of the disease, and delivered in
+apparently good health. The milk of the cow appears to be unaffected and
+harmless. I call this disease <i>sphacial fever</i>, or <i>gangrenous fever</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+    <a id="illus-230" name="illus-230"></a>
+    <img src="images/illus-230.png" width="600" height="313"
+       alt="" />
+    <p class="caption">THE MAD BULL.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>"The ergot, or spur of the hay, is confined to the June grass, as far as
+my observation extends; owing, probably, to its early maturity. Most
+other kinds of grass are cut before the seeds have matured sufficiently
+to produce the spur. I was suspicious of the foulness of the feed before
+I examined any hay, and have found the spur in the hay wherever the
+<ins class="correction" title="diesase">disease</ins> is found.</p>
+
+<p>"Mr. Sanford, of Edinburgh, Ohio, purchased one half of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span> a mow of hay
+from Mr. Bassett, of Randolph, which was removed to his farm in
+Randolph, eight miles distant. Of this hay, Mr. Sanford fed eleven cows
+some six or eight weeks. Mr. Bassett had been feeding the same to four
+cows. At about the same time, both heads began to show lameness. I
+visited Mr. S. after he had lost six cows, and examined the remaining
+five, four of which were lame and the other showed symptoms of the
+disease. He had two other cows, one of which was loaned to a neighbor,
+and the other was fed upon different hay, for convenience. The loaned
+cow was returned about the first of March,&mdash;the two then running with
+the ailing ones until the 24th of April, when I saw them sound and in
+good health.</p>
+
+<p>"I then visited Mr. Bassett's stock, which I found infected with the
+same disease,&mdash;he having lost one, and the remaining three being lame,
+and much debilitated. The hoofs were sloughing off. Some of the same hay
+remained in the snow, which, upon examination, exhibited an abundance of
+the spur. Upon inquiry, I found that no such disease existed between the
+two farms, or in the neighborhood of either Mr. S. or Mr. B. The
+peculiarity of this circumstance at once swept away the last vestige of
+doubt from my mind. Mr. E. Chapman, of Rootstown, accompanied me, and
+can vouch for the correctness of these statements.</p>
+
+<p>"He hooted at my opinions, asserting that he understood the disease, and
+that it was caused by the freezing of the feet. He has since, however,
+abandoned that idea, and honestly 'acknowledged the corn.' This ergot is
+regarded by some as a parasitic fungus, formed in other grains, an
+abundant vegeto-animal substance, and much disposed to putrefaction.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span> We
+appear to be in the dark regarding its real composition. The little
+which has been written upon the subject, appears to be founded upon
+hypothesis, and that the most obscure. The articles to which I refer may
+differ in quality or property to a considerable extent, and we may
+forever remain in the dark, unless chemical investigation be instituted.</p>
+
+<p>"In this particular disease, there appears to be singularity in the
+symptoms through all its various stages, which is likely to originate in
+the peculiarity of the cause which produces them. The effects and
+symptoms arising from the continued use of the ergot of rye, as
+manifested in the human system, have been but briefly hinted at by
+authors, and, probably, some of them are only reasonable conjectures.
+All they say is, that it produces violent headache, spaculation in the
+extremities, and death. Hitherto, its effects upon the inferior animal
+have been subjected to no investigation, and its peculiarity in the
+symptoms, differing from like <ins class="correction" title="phenonema">phenomena</ins> by other causes,
+may yet be demonstrated. I am not alone in my opinion of this disease. I
+have taken counsel of those whose judgment cannot be questioned.
+Whatever difference of opinion exists is attributable to a want of
+investigation, and it will continue to exist until this singular
+<ins class="correction" title="phenonemon">phenomenon</ins> is clearly accounted for. Every opinion should
+be thoroughly criticized till facts are obtained. Every man's opinion is
+sacred to himself, but we should yield to conviction.</p>
+
+<p>"Two classes of this disease are exhibited: one, of irritation, and the
+other, of debility; one, an acute, the other, a chronic form. The point
+at which it assumes the chronic<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span> form is between congestion and
+gangrene. By close observation we can discover these to be different and
+higher degrees of the same disease. All subsequent degrees are dependent
+upon the first.</p>
+
+<p>"The first symptom, or degree, is, probably, an attack upon the
+systematic circulation, produced by a certain medicinal and deleterious
+property existing in the ergot, and communicated to the blood through
+the absorption of the tongue. This is more evident from the fact that
+the digestive organs retain their normal condition till the last stages
+of the chronic form. The blood in the first two stages is healthy, and
+the peculiar influence is only apparent in the subsequent stages; as
+evidenced by the fact that the muscles and general good appearance, as
+well as life itself, last longer than could be possible, if this
+deleterious influence were exhausted upon the digestive organs and the
+blood, in its first stages. And, as we suppose that fever and congestion
+constitute an attack upon the red blood, which is exhibited by hurried
+pulsation, we might rationally infer that the next degree would be
+gangrene of the globule, causing sloughing, the same as if it were
+carried to the muscles, or surface. This sloughing of the globule would
+be the same as if exhibited on any other part of the organization, for
+the fibrin is identical with muscle, as albumen is identical with the
+white of an egg; and since congestion is the forerunner of gangrene at
+the extremities, or on the surface, so fever and quick pulsation are the
+forerunners of congestion of the blood. Gangrene cannot ensue without
+obstruction in the blood-vessels; and congestion cannot take place
+without obstruction in that which sustains the globule. As gangrene,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span>
+then, is the first stage of decomposition of animal matter, so is
+congestion the first stage of decomposition of the globule; and as
+mortification is death in the organized body, so is congestion death in
+the organized globule.</p>
+
+<p>"It appears evident that this disease, in all its forms and degrees of
+intensity, seeks vent or release; in other words, Nature conflicting
+with it, throws it off its track, or balance, and offers means of
+escape, or shows it a door by which it may make its exit. In the first
+stage of the disease, the dermoid (skin) tissues make the effort. In the
+inflammatory, the serous, and the congestive, the mucous gangrene seeks
+vent; if obtained, mortification is prevented; if not, mortification
+directly supervenes, and death terminates the case.</p>
+
+<p>"In the case to which I refer, observation confirms my opinion that
+absolute mortification without vent determines the gangrene of the
+blood, and is hardly curable; but that gangrene's finding vent
+determines it to be curable, and the recovery highly probable."</p>
+
+
+<h4><a name="EPIZOOTIC_CATARRH" id="EPIZOOTIC_CATARRH"></a>EPIZO&Ouml;TIC CATARRH.</h4>
+
+<p>Catarrh frequently assumes an epizo&ouml;tic form of a very virulent
+character, originating spontaneously and extending over a large section
+of country at or about the same time. A cold spring succeeding a mild
+winter, is peculiarly productive of malignant catarrh. This is one of
+the most distressing and fatal diseases to which cattle are subject.</p>
+
+<p><i>Symptoms.</i>&mdash;The animal appears dull, and unwilling to move about,
+staggering when forced to do so; obstinate costiveness is usually one of
+the earliest symptoms, succeeded by diarrh&oelig;a, which is equally
+difficult of management; sometimes,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span> however, diarrh&oelig;a is present
+from the first; the animal loses flesh rapidly; the coat is staring;
+appetite is lost; tumors form about the head, neck, back, and joints,
+which appear to be filled with air, and upon pressure cause a
+crepitating sound; saliva flows from the mouth, becoming very fetid as
+the disease progresses. The animal always dies of putrefaction.</p>
+
+<p><i>Treatment.</i>&mdash;This disease should be treated early, or not at all. Good
+nursing is very essential. When costiveness is present, give Barbadoes
+aloes, one ounce; croton-oil, ten drops; mix together; or give one pint
+of linseed-oil, to which add from ten to twenty drops of castor-oil. If
+the bowels are not open in twenty-four hours, give four ounces of
+sulphate of magnesia every six hours until they are opened. Follow this
+with tincture of aconite, ten drops in water, every four hours, until
+the fever has abated.</p>
+
+<p>Bleeding has been recommended by some writers; but the author has failed
+to experience any benefit from resorting to it, but, on the contrary,
+has seen much injury result from the use&mdash;or, rather, the abuse&mdash;of the
+lancet. He is, indeed, inclined to attribute much of the fatality
+attending this disease to indiscriminate blood-letting.</p>
+
+<p>When much debility exists, the animal should be sustained by tonics and
+stimulants. One ounce of nitric ether and half an ounce of tincture of
+opium, given in a little water, will be found beneficial. It should be
+given twice a day. Pulverized gentian-root, one ounce; Jamaica ginger,
+half an ounce; pulverized cloves, half an ounce; mixed, and divided into
+four powders, one to be given at night and at morning; will be found
+useful, in place of the opium and ether.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4><a name="FARDEL" id="FARDEL"></a>FARDEL.</h4>
+
+<p>This disease is properly known by the name of clue-bound. The manyplus,
+or omasum (third stomach), frequently becomes so choked up with food
+that it is hard and dry, and the operation of the digestive organs is
+very seriously impaired. The animal eats voraciously, for a time, but
+stops suddenly and trembles; the countenance assumes a peculiarly
+haggard appearance; there is a wild expression of the eye; a foaming at
+the mouth; a tendency to pitch forward, and at times a falling
+head-foremost to the ground. Occasionally, the symptoms are very active,
+speedily terminating in death. There are few diseases of a
+constitutional character in which the stomach is not, more or less,
+sympathetically involved.</p>
+
+<p>"Toward the end of September, 1746, a great number of cows died at
+Osterwich, in the principality of Halberstadt. Lieberkuhn, a celebrated
+physician,&mdash;there were no veterinary surgeons at that time,&mdash;was sent to
+examine into the nature of the disease, which was supposed to be one of
+the species of murrain that was then committing such ravages among the
+cattle in various parts of the Continent. There were none of the tumors,
+or pestilential buboes, that, in an earlier or later period of the
+malady, usually accompanied and characterized murrain; but upon
+inspection of the dead bodies, considerable peritoneal inflammation was
+found; the first and second stomachs were filled with food, but the
+third stomach was the palpable seat of the disease; its leaves were
+black and gangrened. The mass contained between the leaves was black,
+dry, and so hard that it could scarcely be cut with a scalpel. It
+intercepted the passage of the food<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span> from the first two stomachs to the
+fourth; and this latter stomach was empty and much inflamed. Neither the
+heart, nor the lungs, nor the intestines exhibited any trace of disease.
+Twelve cows were opened, and the appearances were nearly the same in all
+of them."</p>
+
+<p><i>Treatment.</i>&mdash;Give one and a half pounds of Epsom-salts, dissolved in
+three pints of water; or one quart of potash, three times daily,
+dissolved in water, will be found useful in this disease.</p>
+
+
+<h4><a name="FOUL_IN_THE_FOOT" id="FOUL_IN_THE_FOOT"></a>FOUL IN THE FOOT.</h4>
+
+<p>This is caused by hard or irritating substances making their way in
+between the claws of the foot, causing inflammation, and sometimes
+ulceration, in the parts. The pasterns swell, and the animal becomes
+lame.</p>
+
+<p>The foot should be thoroughly washed, and all foreign substances
+removed. A pledget of tow, saturated with tar and sprinkled with
+powdered sulphate of copper, should be inserted between the claws. This
+usually requires but one or two applications.</p>
+
+
+<h4><a name="GARGET" id="GARGET"></a>GARGET.</h4>
+
+<p>This is a hard, knotty condition of the udder, which sometimes follows
+calving, in consequence of the sudden distention of the bag with milk;
+and the inflammation which supervenes causes a congealed or coagulated
+condition of the milk to take place, of which, if neglected, suppuration
+and abscesses are the result.</p>
+
+<p><i>Treatment.</i>&mdash;Let the calf suck the dam as speedily as possible, and, if
+the hardness is not then removed, foment<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span> the udder with warm water;
+after which, wipe it dry, and apply to the entire surface melted lard as
+hot as the animal will bear. This is, generally, all that is required,
+the most obstinate cases yielding to it. If abscesses form, they should
+be lanced.</p>
+
+
+<h4><a name="GASTRO-ENTERITIS" id="GASTRO-ENTERITIS"></a>GASTRO-ENTERITIS.</h4>
+
+<p>This disease&mdash;otherwise known as wood-evil, or moor-ill&mdash;arises from
+eating the buds of oak, young ash, and other trees, which are of a very
+highly stimulating or irritating character. As the intestinal canal is
+liable to inflammatory action from irritant substances admitted into it,
+animals are found to become diseased from eating too freely of these
+vegetable substances.</p>
+
+<p><i>Symptoms.</i>&mdash;Loss of appetite and suspended rumination; mouth hot; skin
+dry; pulse from sixty to seventy; swelling and pain of the belly;
+obstinate constipation; f&aelig;ces hard and covered with blood; urine of a
+strong odor, highly colored, and voided with difficulty.</p>
+
+<p><i>Treatment.</i>&mdash;The animal should be bled, and a strong purgative
+administered, followed by aconite and belladonna, as in enteritis.
+Injections of Castile-soap and water should be freely used; the
+application of the mustard, hartshorn, and water to the belly will also
+be found very beneficial.</p>
+
+
+<h4><a name="HOOSE" id="HOOSE"></a>HOOSE.</h4>
+
+<p>This disease&mdash;known also as catarrh&mdash;is occasionally the sequence of
+coryza, but more frequently it arises from an impure atmosphere;
+consequently, in cow-houses where animals are crowded together in
+numbers, it is most frequently<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span> found. Scanty provender, and of an
+inferior quality, is among the exciting causes of hoose, producing, as
+it does, a debilitated state of the system, which, upon exposure of the
+animal to cold, or wet, hastens the disorder. Some breeds of cattle are
+peculiarly liable to this disease, which, if not arrested in its early
+stage, runs on, involving the lungs, and frequently terminating in
+consumption. Of all our domestic animals, neat cattle are most subject
+to pulmonary diseases. This is attributable to the neglect and exposure
+which are far too often their lot. Butchers will testify that a large
+portion of all cattle slaughtered have abscesses and other diseases of
+the lungs.</p>
+
+<p><i>Symptoms.</i>&mdash;Loss of appetite; muzzle dry; coat rough, or staring;
+respiration quickened; horns hot; ears, nose, and legs cold; husky
+cough; pulse from sixty to seventy, small and thready; bowels frequently
+constipated.</p>
+
+<p><i>Treatment.</i>&mdash;Give one ounce of the following powders every six hours,
+until the bowels are opened: Barbadoes aloes, one and half ounces;
+nitrate of potassa, half an ounce; ginger, six drachms; mix and divide
+into six powders. Setons in the dewlap are often of great benefit.</p>
+
+
+<h4><a name="HOOVE" id="HOOVE"></a>HOOVE.</h4>
+
+<p>Hoove, or blown, so common, and often so speedily fatal in cattle, is
+the result of fermentation in the <i>rumen</i>, or paunch, in consequence of
+the animal's having eaten large quantities of wet grass, luxuriant
+clover, turnips, etc. An accumulation of gas is the result of this
+fermentation, which greatly disturbs the haunch and left side of the
+belly, causing much pain to the animal, and frequently threatening
+suffocation.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Treatment.</i>&mdash;Drench the animal with one ounce of spirits of hartshorn
+in one quart of water, the object being to neutralize the gas which is
+present in the rumen; or, two ounces of table salt dissolved in one
+quart of water will be found very effectual. If these do not speedily
+give relief, an active purge should be given. Injections of soap and
+water should be freely used. If the case still proves obstinate, and the
+life of the animal is threatened, the paunch should be punctured. For
+this purpose, the trochar&mdash;an instrument specially adapted&mdash;should be
+used; but, in the absence of an instrument, an ordinary pocket-knife may
+be employed, taking care not to make a large opening. The proper point
+to operate is midway between the last rib and the prominent point of the
+hip-bone, about twelve inches from the centre of the back or loins. Few
+cases have a fatal termination where this operation has been properly
+performed.</p>
+
+
+<h4><a name="HYDATIDS" id="HYDATIDS"></a>HYDATIDS.</h4>
+
+<p>Worms in the brain occasionally occur, causing great uneasiness to the
+animal and generally proving fatal.</p>
+
+<p>The symptoms are, loss of appetite; suspended rumination; a fevered
+condition of the system; horns and ears hot; respiration disturbed; coat
+staring, etc. No course of treatment will prove efficacious in this
+disease.</p>
+
+<p>Pressure on the brain may occur from an accumulation of water, tumors,
+bruises, etc., in the cranial case. In either case, the same effects are
+produced as are observed in apoplexy.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4><a name="INFLAMMATION_OF_THE_BLADDER" id="INFLAMMATION_OF_THE_BLADDER"></a>INFLAMMATION OF THE BLADDER.</h4>
+
+<p>Inflammation of the bladder generally accompanies inflammation of the
+kidneys, though it is sometimes found disconnected and alone. It is
+occasionally caused by calculous concretions in the bladder,&mdash;which
+should be removed,&mdash;causing very acute abdominal pain to the animal. She
+makes frequent efforts to stale, passing but a few drops of urine at a
+time. The pulse is full and rapid; mouth clammy; nose dry; eyes
+bloodshot; appetite lost; moaning, and walking with a staggering gait.</p>
+
+<p><i>Treatment.</i>&mdash;Inject into the bladder one quart of tepid water, and from
+one to two ounces of tincture of opium mixed together. Give internally
+one of the following powders every hour until relieved; nitrate of
+potassa, one ounce; tartrate of antimony, and pulverized digitalis
+leaves, each one drachm; mix, and divide into six powders. Mucilaginous
+draughts should be freely given.</p>
+
+<p>Rupture of the bladder sometimes occurs, but there are no symptoms by
+which it may be known; and, if there were, no service could be rendered
+in the way of repairing the injury; the animal must die.</p>
+
+
+<h4><a name="INFLAMMATION_OF_THE_HAW" id="INFLAMMATION_OF_THE_HAW"></a>INFLAMMATION OF THE HAW.</h4>
+
+<p>The ox, like the horse, has a membrane of semilunar form in the inner
+corner of the eye, which is capable of being thrown over the entire
+eyeball, for the purpose of cleansing the eye from any foreign substance
+which may get into it. This membrane is commonly called the haw, and is
+susceptible<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span> of attacks of inflammation, which cause it to swell,
+frequently even closing up the eye.</p>
+
+<p><i>Treatment.</i>&mdash;Give a dose of physic, and, if the animal is plethoric,
+extract a little blood from the vein on the same side as the affected
+eye. Apply to the eye either of the following washes: tincture of opium,
+one ounce; rain-water, one pint; or, tincture of aconite, one drachm, to
+one pint of water. Bathe two or three times a day.</p>
+
+
+<h4><a name="INFLAMMATION_OF_THE_KIDNEYS" id="INFLAMMATION_OF_THE_KIDNEYS"></a>INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS.</h4>
+
+<p>This disease&mdash;sometimes called nephritis&mdash;occurs occasionally in cattle
+in consequence of their eating bad or unwholesome food, or of the abuse
+of diuretics, etc.</p>
+
+<p>The symptoms are very insidious in their approach. The loins are very
+tender upon pressure; the urine is voided in small quantities. As the
+disease advances, the symptoms become more marked and acute. The animal
+is dull, and feeds daintily; the evacuation of urine is attended with
+increased pain, and the urine is highly colored and bloody; the nose is
+dry; the horns, ears, and extremities are cold; respiration hurried; the
+pulse full, hard, and throbbing.</p>
+
+<p><i>Treatment.</i>&mdash;Give one pint of linseed-oil and ten drops of castor-oil,
+mixed together; follow this with small doses of salts once a day, for
+three or four days; give injections of water, one half a gallon to two
+ounces of tincture of arnica. Mustard applications to the loins are also
+very useful.</p>
+
+
+<h4><a name="INFLAMMATION_OF_THE_LIVER" id="INFLAMMATION_OF_THE_LIVER"></a>INFLAMMATION OF THE LIVER.</h4>
+
+<p>Diseases of the liver are of very common occurrence,&mdash;a fact with which
+all beef-butchers are familiar. Perhaps no<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span> organ in the animal economy
+is so liable to disease. The obscurity of the symptoms and the good
+condition of the animal prevent its discovery, as a general thing,
+during its lifetime. When, however, the disease assumes an active
+form,&mdash;known as the yellows, jaundice, or inflammation of the
+liver,&mdash;the symptoms are more readily detected.</p>
+
+<p><i>Symptoms.</i>&mdash;A yellowish color of the eye will be observed; skin, urine,
+etc., highly colored; soreness, on pressure, on the right side; loss of
+appetite; dullness; constipation of the bowels, etc.</p>
+
+<p><i>Treatment.</i>&mdash;Calomel is the most reliable medicine known to
+practitioners for diseases of the liver. Its abuse, however, has brought
+it into disrepute. Yet, as with ordinary care it may be advantageously
+used, we will prescribe it as that upon which the most dependence is to
+be placed, and in doing so, will endeavor to have it used safely.
+Bleeding has been recommended: but the author has never found any
+benefit resulting. Give Epsom-salts, in doses of four ounces each, every
+night, with one scruple of calomel, until the animal is relieved.
+Mustard and water should be frequently applied to the right side, and
+well rubbed in.</p>
+
+
+<h4><a name="LARYNGITIS" id="LARYNGITIS"></a>LARYNGITIS.</h4>
+
+<p>This disease is of rare occurrence in cattle. In it, the mucous membrane
+lining the larynx is in a very irritable condition; the least pressure
+upon the parts affected causes intensely excruciating pain; the
+respiration becomes quick, painful, and laborious; the animal often
+appears to be hungry, yet does not eat much, in consequence of the pain
+occasioned by the act of swallowing.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Treatment.</i>&mdash;Apply to the throat externally strong mustard, mixed, with
+equal parts of aqua ammonia and water, to a thin paste, every hour,
+until it produces an effect upon the skin; sponging the parts each time
+with warm water before applying the mustard. The animal should not be
+bled. Give upon the tongue, or in drink, half-drachm doses of nitrate of
+potassa, every three or four hours, until relief is obtained. If
+suffocation threatens, the operation of tracheotomy is the only resort.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+    <a id="illus-244" name="illus-244"></a>
+    <img src="images/illus-244.png" width="600" height="296"
+       alt="" />
+    <p class="caption">AN ABERDEENSHIRE POLLED BULL.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Cloths saturated with cold water, wrapped around the neck so as to cover
+the larynx, frequently afford relief. A purgative will also be found
+useful.</p>
+
+
+<h4><a name="LICE" id="LICE"></a>LICE.</h4>
+
+<p>Cattle are very subject to lice, particularly when they are neglected,
+half-starved, and in poor condition. Good care and good feeding&mdash;in
+connection with the treatment recommended in mange, to which the reader
+is referred&mdash;will comprise all that is requisite.</p>
+
+
+<h4><a name="MANGE" id="MANGE"></a>MANGE.</h4>
+
+<p>Mange, or leprosy, is one of the most unpleasant and difficult diseases
+to manage of all the ailments to which cattle are subject requiring the
+nicest care and attention to render<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span> it easy of cure. An animal badly
+nursed will not, under the most skillful treatment, quickly recover. Its
+causes are in the main, due to poor food, which produces a debilitated
+condition of the system, and in connection with a want of cleanliness,
+causes a development of the <i>acari</i>, or minute insects, exciting very
+great irritation upon the skin and causing the cow to rub herself
+against every object with which she comes in contact. The hair falls
+off; a scurfy appearance of the skin is perceptible; and the animal is
+poor in condition and in milk. The great trouble in treating this
+disease springs from its contagious character; for, no sooner is the
+animal, oftentimes, once free from the <i>acari</i> than it comes in contact
+with some object against which it has previously been rubbing, when the
+<i>acari</i> which were left upon that object are again brought in contact
+with the animal, and the disease is reproduced. If, immediately after
+the proper applications are made, the animal is removed to other
+quarters, and not allowed to return to the former ones for six or eight
+weeks, there is, generally speaking, but little trouble in treating the
+disease.</p>
+
+<p>Take the animal upon a warm, sunny day, and with a scrubbing-brush
+cleanse the skin thoroughly with Castile-soap and water; when dry, apply
+in the same manner the following mixture; white hellebore, one ounce;
+sulphur flower, three ounces; gas-water, one quart; mix all well
+together. One or two applications are, generally, all that will be
+required. Give internally one of the following powders in the feed,
+night and morning: flowers of sulphur, two ounces; black antimony, one
+ounce; nitrate of potassa, one ounce; mix, and divide into eight
+powders.</p>
+
+
+<h4><a name="MURRAIN" id="MURRAIN"></a>MURRAIN.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span></h4>
+
+<p>This is one of the most malignant diseases to which cattle are liable.
+Fortunately, however, true murrain is comparatively rare in this great
+stock-raising country.</p>
+
+<p>The entire system seems to partake of the disease. The first indication
+of its approach is a feverish condition of the system, attended with a
+frequent and painful cough; the pulse is small, hard, and rapid. As the
+disease advances, the respiration becomes disturbed; the flanks heave;
+vesicular eruption is observed upon the teats, mouth, and feet; the
+horns are cold; the animal is sometimes lame; constipation and,
+sometimes, diarrh&oelig;a are accompanying symptoms; <i>f&aelig;ces</i> black and
+fetid; the eyes weep and become much swollen; great tenderness along the
+spine; a brown or bloody discharge from the nose and mouth; the animal
+moans incessantly, grinds his teeth, rarely lies down, but to get up
+again quickly; finally, the breath becomes very offensive; tumors make
+their appearance in various parts of the body, which, in favorable
+cases, suppurate, and discharge a fetid matter.</p>
+
+<p><i>Treatment.</i>&mdash;Give one fourth of a pound of Epsom-salts, with one drachm
+of Jamaica ginger, twice a day, for two or three days. A bottle of
+porter, twice a day, will be found serviceable. Very little medicine is
+required internally in this disease, but much depends upon good nursing.
+External applications are chiefly to be depended upon. A solution of
+chloride of lime should be applied to the eruptions, or a solution of
+the chloride of zinc, twenty grains to an ounce of water; or, of
+sulphate of zinc, two drachms to a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span> pint of water; or pulverized
+charcoal applied to the parts will be found useful.</p>
+
+
+<h4><a name="NAVEL-ILL" id="NAVEL-ILL"></a>NAVEL-ILL.</h4>
+
+<p>Inflammation of the navel in calves occasionally occurs, causing
+redness, pain, and sudden swelling in the part affected. This disease,
+if not promptly attended to, speedily carries off the creature.</p>
+
+<p><i>Treatment.</i>&mdash;Foment the part well with warm hop-tea; after which, the
+application of a cloth, well saturated with lead-water and secured by
+bandages, should be applied. Internally, doses of Epsom-salts, of two
+ounces each, dissolved in half a pint of water, should be given until
+the bowels are acted upon. After the inflammation has subsided, to
+counteract the weakness which may follow, give a bottle of porter two or
+three times a day.</p>
+
+
+<h4><a name="OBSTRUCTIONS_IN_THE_OESOPHAGUS" id="OBSTRUCTIONS_IN_THE_OESOPHAGUS"></a>OBSTRUCTIONS IN THE &OElig;SOPHAGUS.</h4>
+
+<p>Choking in cattle is of common occurrence, in consequence of turnips,
+potatoes, carrots, or other hard substances, becoming lodged in the
+&oelig;sophagus, or gullet.</p>
+
+<p>These obstructions can sometimes be removed by careful manipulations
+with the hand; but, where this can not be accomplished, the flexible
+probang should be employed. This is a long India-rubber tube, with a
+whalebone stillet running through it, so as to stiffen it when in use.
+This instrument is passed down the animal's throat, and the offending
+substance is thus pushed down into the stomach.</p>
+
+
+<h4><a name="OPEN_JOINTS" id="OPEN_JOINTS"></a>OPEN JOINTS.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span></h4>
+
+<p>Opening of the joint generally results from accidents, from puncturing
+with sharp substances, from kicks, blows, etc. These injuries cause
+considerable nervous irritation in the system, and sometimes cause
+lock-jaw and death.</p>
+
+<p><i>Treatment.</i>&mdash;Close up the wound as speedily as possible. The
+firing-iron will sometimes answer the purpose very well. The author
+depends more upon the application of collodion&mdash;as recommended in his
+work upon "The Horse and His Diseases" for the same trouble&mdash;than upon
+any other remedy. It requires care in its application, in order to make
+it adhere firmly. Shoemakers'-wax, melted and applied, answers a very
+good purpose.</p>
+
+
+<h4><a name="PARTURITION" id="PARTURITION"></a>PARTURITION.</h4>
+
+<p>In natural labor&mdash;as has been suggested in a former part of this
+work&mdash;the aid of man is rarely required in bringing away the calf. But
+it not infrequently happens that, from malformation or wrong
+presentation, our assistance is required in order to deliver the animal.</p>
+
+<p>The brute force, which has been far too often heretofore resorted to,
+should no longer be tolerated, since the lives of many valuable animals
+have been sacrificed by such treatment. Very often, by gentle
+manipulation with the greased hand, the womb can be so dilated as to
+afford a comparatively easy exit for the <i>f&oelig;tus</i>.</p>
+
+<p>If, however, the calf is presented wrong, it must be pushed back and
+placed in its proper position, if possible. In natural labor, the
+fore-legs, with the head lying between<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span> them, are presented; in which
+position&mdash;unless deformity, either in the <i>pelvis</i> of the cow, or in the
+<i>f&oelig;tus</i>, exists&mdash;the calf is passed with little difficulty, and
+without assistance. It sometimes happens that the head of the f&oelig;tus
+is turned backward. When this happens, the attendant should at once
+strip himself to the waist, bathe his arms, and hands with a little
+sweet-oil, or lard, and introduce them into the <i>vagina</i>, placing a cord
+around both fore-feet, and then, pushing them back, search for the head,
+which is to be brought forward to its proper position. The feet are next
+to be brought up with it. No force should be used, except when the cow
+herself makes the effort to expel the calf; otherwise, more harm than
+good may be done.</p>
+
+<p>A case of this kind recently occurred in the author's practice, being
+the third within a year. The subject was a cow belonging to William
+Hance, Esq., of Bordentown, New Jersey. After she had been in labor for
+some twenty hours, he was called upon to see her. Upon inquiry, he found
+that several persons had been trying, without success, to relieve her.
+She was very much prostrated, and would, doubtless, have died within two
+or three hours, had no relief been afforded. The legs of the <i>f&oelig;tus</i>
+protruded as far as the knees; the head was turned backward, and with
+the body, pressed firmly into the <i>vagina</i>, so that it was impossible to
+return it, or to bring the head forward. The operation of embryotomy
+was, therefore, at once performed, by cutting away the right shoulder,
+which enabled the operator, with the aid of his appropriate hooks, to
+bring the head forward, when the calf came away without further
+trouble,&mdash;the whole operation not requiring fifteen minutes. The
+<i>uterus</i> was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span> then washed out, and the animal placed in as comfortable a
+position as possible, and a stimulating draught given, composed of two
+ounces of nitric ether, one ounce of tincture of opium, and a half pint
+of water. This was followed with a few doses of Fleming's tincture of
+aconite, ten drops in a little water, every few hours. In a few days the
+animal had entirely recovered.</p>
+
+<p>Occasionally, the head comes first, or the head and one leg. In such
+cases, a cord should be slipped around the jaw and leg, and these then
+pushed back, so as to allow the other leg to be brought up. When this
+cannot be done, the <i>f&oelig;tus</i> can, in most cases, be removed in the
+original position.</p>
+
+<p>Breech, side, back, and other presentations sometimes occur; in all of
+which instances, the <i>f&oelig;tus</i> must be turned in such a position that
+it can be brought away with as little trouble as possible. When this
+cannot be accomplished, the only resort is embryotomy, or cutting up of
+the <i>f&oelig;tus</i>, which operation can only be safely performed by the
+qualified veterinary surgeon.</p>
+
+<p>Since writing the above, another case has occurred in the author's
+practice. The cow&mdash;belonging to Samuel Barton, Esq., near Bordentown,
+New Jersey&mdash;had been in labor some eighteen hours; upon an examination
+of the animal, the calf was found to be very much deformed, presenting
+backwards,&mdash;one of the hind-legs having been pulled off by the person or
+persons assisting her previous to the author's arrival. Finding it
+impossible to deliver her in the usual way, <ins class="correction" title="emrbyotomy">embryotomy</ins> was
+in this instance employed. By this means, after taking out the
+intestines, lungs, etc., of the <i>f&oelig;tus</i>, and cutting away its
+hind-quarters, the fore-parts<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span> were brought away. The head presented a
+singular appearance; the under jaw was so twisted as to bring the front
+teeth on the side of the face; the spinal column or back-bone, was
+turned twice around, resembling a spiral string; the front legs were
+over the back; the ribs were much contorted; the hind-parts were as much
+deformed; and, taken altogether, the deformity was the most singular
+which has been brought under the author's observation.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Free_Martins" id="Free_Martins"></a>Free Martins</span>.&mdash;It has long been supposed by stockbreeders, that if a cow
+produce twins, one of which is a male and the other a female, the female
+is incapable of producing young, but that the male may be a useful
+animal for breeding purposes. Many instances have occurred when the twin
+sister of a bull has never shown the least desire for the male.</p>
+
+<p>This indifference to sexual commerce arises, doubtless, from the
+animal's being but imperfectly developed in the organs of generation.
+This fact has been established by the investigations of Mr. John Hunter,
+who had three of these animals slaughtered for anatomical examination.
+The result is thus reported: "The external parts were rather smaller
+than is customary in the cow. The <i>vagina</i> passed on, as in the cow, to
+the opening of the <i>urethra</i>, and then it began to contract into a small
+canal, which passed on into the division of the <i>uterus</i> into the two
+horns; each horn passed along the edge of the broad ligament laterally
+toward the <i>ovaria</i>.</p>
+
+<p>"At the termination of these horns were placed both the ovaries and the
+testicles. Both were nearly of the same size, which was about as large
+as a small nutmeg. To the <i>ovaria</i>, I could not find any Fallopian
+tube.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>"To the testicles were <i>vasa deferentia</i>, but they were imperfect. The
+left one did not come near the testicle; the right one only came close
+to it, but did not terminate in the body called the <i>epididymis</i>. They
+were both pervious and opened into the <i>vagina</i>, near the opening of the
+<i>urethra</i>.</p>
+
+<p>"On the posterior surface of the bladder, or between the <i>uterus</i> and
+the bladder, were the two bags, called <i>vesicul&aelig; seminales</i> in the male,
+but much smaller than they are in the bull. The ducts opened along with
+the <i>vasa deferentia</i>. This animal, then, had a mixture of all the
+parts, but all of them were imperfect."</p>
+
+<p>Well-authenticated cases have, however, occurred where the female has
+bred, and the offspring proved to be good milkers. There are several
+instances on record of cows' giving birth to three, four, and even five
+calves at a time. There were on exhibition, in 1862, at Bordentown, New
+Jersey, three free martins, two sisters and a brother, which were
+beautiful animals. These were from a cow belonging to Mr. Joab Mershon,
+residing on Biles Island, situated in the Delaware River, a short
+distance above Bordentown. They were calved November 1st, 1858, and were
+therefore nearly four years of age. They had never shown the least
+desire for copulation. Their aggregate weight was 4300 pounds.</p>
+
+<p>We extract the following from the London Veterinarian, for 1854:&mdash;"A
+cow, belonging to Mr. John Marshall, of Repton, on Wednesday last, gave
+birth to <i>five, live healthy calves</i>, all of which are, at the time I
+write, alive and vigorous, and have every appearance of continuing so.
+They are all nearly of a size, and are larger and stronger than could be
+supposed. Four of them are bull-calves.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>"The dam is by no means a large one, is eleven years old, of a mongrel
+breed, and has never produced more than one offspring at any previous
+gestation. I saw her two days after she had calved, at which time she
+was ruminating, and did not manifest any unusual symptoms of exhaustion.
+I may mention that the first four calves presented naturally; the fifth
+was a breech-presentation."</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Cleansing" id="Cleansing"></a>Cleansing</span>.&mdash;The <i>placenta</i>, or after-birth, by which the <i>f&oelig;tus</i> is
+nourished while in embryo, should be removed soon after calving.
+Generally, it will come away without any assistance. This is what is
+called "cleansing after calving." When, however, it remains for some
+time, its function having been performed, it becomes a foreign body,
+exciting uterine contractions, and therefore injurious. The sooner,
+then, it is removed, the better for the animal as well as the owner. To
+accomplish this, the hand should be introduced, and, by pulling gently
+in various directions, it will soon yield and come away. Should it be
+allowed to remain, it rapidly decomposes, producing a low, feverish
+condition of the system, which greatly interferes with the general
+health of the animal.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Inversion_of_the_Uterus" id="Inversion_of_the_Uterus"></a>Inversion of the Uterus</span>.&mdash;The <i>uterus</i> is sometimes turned inside out
+after calving. This is, generally, the result of debility, or severe
+labor. The <i>uterus</i> should be replaced as carefully as possible with the
+hands, care being taken that no dirt, straw, or other foreign substance
+adheres to it. Should it again be expelled, it would be advisable to
+quiet the system by the use of an an&aelig;sthetic, as chloroform, or&mdash;which
+is much safer&mdash;chloric ether. As soon as the animal is under the
+influence of this, the <i>uterus</i> may be again replaced. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span>
+hind-quarters should be raised as high as possible, in order to favor
+its retention. The animal should have a little gruel and a bottle of
+porter given to her every five or six hours, and the <i>vulva</i> should be
+bathed frequently with cold water.</p>
+
+
+<h4><a name="PHRENITIS" id="PHRENITIS"></a>PHRENITIS.</h4>
+
+<p>Inflammation of the brain is one of those dreadful diseases to which all
+animals are liable. It is known to the farmer as frenzy, mad staggers,
+etc.</p>
+
+<p>The active symptoms are preceded by stupor; the animal stubbornly stands
+in one position; the eyes are full, red, and fiery; respiration rapid;
+delirium soon succeeds; the animal, bellowing, dashes wildly about, and
+seems bent on mischief, rushing madly at every object which comes in its
+way.</p>
+
+<p>The causes of this disease are overwork in warm weather, a plethoric
+condition of the system, and too stimulating food. Prof. Gamgee, of the
+Edinburgh Veterinary College, relates a case resulting from the presence
+within the external <i>meatus</i> of a mass of concrete cerumen, or wax,
+which induced inflammation of the ear, extending to the brain.</p>
+
+<p><i>Treatment.</i>&mdash;As this is attended with considerable risk, unless it is
+taken prior to the frenzied stage, bleeding almost to fainting should be
+resorted to, and followed by a brisk purge. Take one ounce of Barbadoes
+aloes, and ten to fifteen drops of Croton-oil; mix the aloes with one
+pint of water and the oil, using the mixture as a drench. One pound of
+Epsom-salts will answer the purpose very well, in cases where the aloes
+and oil cannot be readily obtained. Application of bags of broken ice to
+the head, is very beneficial. Spirits of turpentine, or mustard,
+together with spirits of hartshorn and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span> water should be well rubbed in
+along the spine, from the neck to the tail.</p>
+
+
+<h4><a name="PLEURISY" id="PLEURISY"></a>PLEURISY.</h4>
+
+<p>This is an inflammation of the <i>pleura</i>, or the serous membrane which
+lines the cavity of the chest, and which is deflected over the lungs.
+Inflammation of this membrane rarely occurs in a pure form, but is more
+generally associated with inflammation of the tissue of the lungs. If
+this disease is not attended to at an early period, its usual
+termination is in hydrothorax, or dropsy of the chest. The same causes
+which produce inflammation of the lungs, of the bronchia, and of the
+other respiratory organs, produce also pleurisy.</p>
+
+<p><i>Symptoms.</i>&mdash;The respiration is quick, short, and painful; pressure
+between the ribs produces much pain; a low, short, painful cough is
+present; the respiratory murmur is much diminished,&mdash;in fact, it is
+scarcely audible. This condition is rapidly followed by effusion, which
+may be detected from the dullness of the sounds, on applying the ear to
+the lower part of the lungs. The febrile symptoms disappear; the animal
+for a few days appears to improve, but soon becomes weak, languid, and
+often exhausted from the slightest exertion.</p>
+
+<p><i>Treatment.</i>&mdash;The same treatment in the early stage is enjoined as in
+inflammatory pneumonia, which the reader will
+consult&mdash;counter-irritation and purgatives. Bleeding never should be
+resorted to. When effusion takes place, it is necessary to puncture the
+sides with a trochar, and draw away the fluid, giving internally one of
+the following purges three times a day: rosin, eight ounces; saltpetre,
+two ounces, mix, and divide into eight powders. Half-drachm doses of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span>
+the iodide of potash, dissolved in water, to be given three times daily,
+will be found useful in this disease.</p>
+
+
+<h4><a name="PLEURO-PNEUMONIA" id="PLEURO-PNEUMONIA"></a>PLEURO-PNEUMONIA.</h4>
+
+<p>This disease, as its name implies, is an inflammatory condition of the
+lungs and the <i>pleura</i>, or the enveloping membrane of the lungs and the
+lining membrane of the chest. It is sometimes called contagious,
+infectious, and epizo&ouml;tic pleuro-pneumonia,&mdash;contagious or infectious,
+from its supposed property of transmission from the diseased to the
+healthy animal.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+    <a id="illus-256" name="illus-256"></a>
+    <img src="images/illus-256.png" width="600" height="357"
+       alt="" />
+    <p class="caption">TAKING AN OBSERVATION.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>A contagious character the author is not ready to assign to
+it,&mdash;contagious, as he understands it, being strictly applicable to
+those diseases which depend upon actual contact with the poison that it
+may be communicated from one animal to another. This does not
+necessarily imply the actual touching of the animals themselves; for it
+may be communicated from the poison left in the trough, or other places
+where the diseased animal has been brought in contact with some object,
+as is often the case in glanders in the horse; the matter discharged
+from the nose, and left upon the manger, readily communicating<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span> that
+disease to healthy animals coming in contact with it. Contagious
+diseases, therefore, travel very slowly, starting, as they do, at one
+point, and gradually spreading over a large district, or section of
+country.</p>
+
+<p>This disease is, however, regarded by the author as infectious; by which
+term is meant that it is capable of being communicated from the diseased
+to the healthy animal through the medium of the air, which has become
+contaminated by the exhalations of poisonous matter. The ability to
+inoculate other animals in this way is necessarily confined to a limited
+space, sometimes not extending more than a few yards. Infectious
+diseases, accordingly, spread with more rapidity than contagious ones,
+and are, consequently, more to be dreaded; since we can avoid the one
+with comparatively little trouble, while the other often steals upon us
+when we regard ourselves as beyond its influence, carrying death and
+destruction in its course.</p>
+
+<p>The term by which this disease is known, is a misnomer. Pleuro-pneumonia
+proper is neither a contagious, nor an infectious disease; hence, the
+denial of medical men that this so-called pleuro-pneumonia is a
+contagious, or infectious disease, has been the means of unnecessarily
+exposing many animals to its poisonous influence.</p>
+
+<p>In the <i>Recu&eacute;il de M&eacute;d&eacute;cine V&eacute;t&eacute;rinaire</i>, for 1833, will be found a very
+interesting description of this fatal malady. The author, M. Lecoy,
+Assistant Professor at the Veterinary School of Lyons, France, says:
+"There are few districts in the <i>arrondissement</i> of Avesnes where more
+cattle are fattened than in that of Soire-le-Chateau. The farmers being
+unable to obtain a sufficient supply of cattle in the district, are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span>
+obliged to purchase the greater part of them from other provinces; and
+they procure a great number for grazing from Franche Comt&eacute;. The cattle
+of this country are very handsome; their forms are compact; they fatten
+rapidly; and they are a kind of cattle from which the grazer would
+derive most advantage, were it not that certain diseases absorb, by the
+loss of some of the animals, the profits of the rest of the herd.
+Amongst the diseases which most frequently attack the cattle which are
+brought from the North, there is one very prevalent in some years, and
+which is the more to be dreaded as it is generally incurable; and the
+slaughter of the animal, before he is perceptibly wasted, is the only
+means by which the farmer can avoid losing the whole value of the beast.</p>
+
+<p>"This disease is chronic pleuro-pneumonia. The symptoms are scarcely
+recognizable at first, and often the beast is ill for a long time
+without its being perceived. He fattens well, and when he is slaughtered
+the owner is astonished to find scarcely half of the lungs capable of
+discharging the function of respiration. When, however, the ox has not
+sufficient strength of constitution to resist the ravages of disease,
+the first symptom which is observed is diminution, or irregularity of
+appetite. Soon afterwards, a frequent, dry cough is heard, which becomes
+feeble and painful as the disease proceeds. The dorso-lumbar portion of
+the spine (loins) grows tender; the animal flinches when the part is
+pressed upon, and utters a peculiar groan, or grunt, which the graziers
+regard as decisive of the malady.</p>
+
+<p>"Quickly after this, the movements of the flanks become irregular and
+accelerated, and the act of respiration is accompanied<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259]</a></span> by a kind of
+balancing motion of the whole body. The sides of the chest become as
+tender as the loins, or more so; for the animal immediately throws
+himself down, if pressed upon with any force. The elbows become, in many
+subjects, more and more separated from the sides of the chest. The pulse
+is smaller than natural, and not considerably increased. The muzzle is
+hot and dry, alternately. The animal lies down as in a healthy state,
+but rumination is partially or entirely suspended. The <i>f&aelig;ces</i> are
+harder than they should be; the urine is of its natural color and
+quantity; the mouth is often dry; and the horns and ears retain their
+natural temperature.</p>
+
+<p>"This first stage of the disease sometimes continues during a month, or
+more, and then, if the animal is to recover, or at least, apparently so,
+the symptoms gradually disappear. First of all, the appetite returns,
+and the beast begins to acquire a little flesh. The proprietor should
+then make haste and get rid of him; for it is very rare that the malady,
+however it may be palliated for a while, does not reappear with greater
+intensity than before.</p>
+
+<p>"In most cases, the disease continues to pursue its course toward its
+termination without any remission,&mdash;every symptom gradually increasing
+in intensity. The respiration becomes more painful; the head is more
+extended; the eyes are brilliant; every expiration is accompanied with a
+grunt, and by a kind of puckering of the angles of the lips; the cough
+becomes smaller, more suppressed, and more painful; the tongue protrudes
+from the mouth, and a frothy mucus is abundantly discharged; the breath
+becomes offensive; a purulent fluid of a bloody color escapes from the
+nostrils;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[260]</a></span> diarrh&oelig;a, profuse and fetid, succeeds to the constipation;
+the animal becomes rapidly weaker; he is a complete skeleton, and at
+length he dies.</p>
+
+<p>"Examination after death discloses slight traces of inflammation in the
+intestines, discoloration of the liver, and a hard, dry substance
+contained in the manyplus. The lungs adhere to the sides and to the
+diaphragm by numerous bands, evidently old and very firm. The substance
+of the lungs often presents a reddish-gray hepatization throughout
+almost its whole extent. At other times, there are tubercles in almost
+every state of hardness, and in that of suppuration. The portion of the
+lungs that is not hepatized is red, and gorged with blood. Besides the
+old adhesions, there are numerous ones of recent date. The pleura is not
+much reddened, but by its thickness in some points, its adhesion in
+others, and the effusion of a serous fluid, it proves how much and how
+long it has participated in the inflammatory action. The trachea and the
+bronchia are slightly red, and the right side of the head is gorged with
+blood.</p>
+
+<p>"In a subject in which, during life, I could scarcely feel the beating
+of the heart, I found the whole of the left lobe of the lungs adhering
+to the sides, and completely hepatized. In another, that had presented
+no sign of disease of the chest, and that for some days before his death
+vomited the little fodder which he could take, the whole of that portion
+of the &oelig;sophagus that passed through the chest was surrounded with
+dense false membranes, of a yellowish hue, ranging from light to dark,
+and being in some parts more than an inch in thickness, and adhering
+closely to the muscular<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></span> membrane of the tube, without allowing any
+trace to be perceived of that portion of the mediastinal pleura on which
+this unnatural covering was fixed and developed.</p>
+
+<p>"The cattle purchased in Franche Comt&eacute; are brought to Avesnes at two
+periods of the year&mdash;in autumn and in the spring. Those which are
+brought in autumn are much more subject to the disease than those which
+have arrived in the spring; and it almost always happens that the years
+in which it shows itself most generally are those in which the weather
+was most unfavorable while the cattle were on the road. The journey is
+performed by two different routes,&mdash;through Lorraine and through
+Champagne,&mdash;and the disease frequently appears in cattle that have
+arrived by one of these routes. The manner in which the beasts are
+treated, on their arrival, may contribute not a little to the
+development of the malady. These animals, which have been driven long
+distances in bad weather, and frequently half starved, arrived famished,
+and therefore the more fatigued, and some of them lame. Calculating on
+their ravenous appetite, the graziers, instead of giving them wholesome
+food, make them consume the worst that the farm contains,&mdash;musty and
+mouldy fodder; and it is usually by the cough, which the eating of such
+food necessarily produces, that the disease is discovered and first
+developed.</p>
+
+<p>"Is chronic pleuro-pneumonia contagious? The farmers believe that it is,
+and I am partly of their opinion. When an animal falls sick in the
+pasture, the others, after his removal, go and smell at the grass where
+he has lain, and which he has covered with his saliva, and, after that,
+new cases succeed to the first. It is true that this fact is not<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[262]</a></span>
+conclusive, since the disease also appears in a great number of animals
+that have been widely separated from each other. But I have myself seen
+three cases in which the cattle of the country, perfectly well before,
+have fallen ill, and died with the same symptoms, excepting that they
+have been more acute, after they have been kept with cattle affected
+with this disease. This circumstance inclines me to think that the
+disease is contagious; or, at least, that, in the progress of it, the
+breath infects the cow-house in which there are other animals already
+predisposed to the same disease. I am induced to believe that most of
+the serious internal diseases are communicated in this manner, and
+particularly those which affect the organs of respiration, when the
+animals are shut up in close, low, and badly-ventilated cow-houses."
+[<i>Rec. de M&eacute;d. V&eacute;t. Mai, 1833.</i>]</p>
+
+<p>No malady can be more terrible and ruinous than this among dairy-stock;
+and its spread all over the country, together with its continuance with
+scarcely any abatement, must be attributed to the combination of various
+causes. The chief are: <i>first</i>, the very contagious or infectious nature
+of the disorder; <i>second</i>, inattention on the part of Government to the
+importation and subsequent sale of diseased animals; and, <i>third</i>, the
+recklessness of purchasers of dairy or feeding cattle.</p>
+
+<p>This disease may be defined as an acute inflammation of the organs of
+the chest, with the development of a peculiar and characteristic poison,
+which is the active element of infection or contagion. It is a disease
+peculiar to the cattle tribe, notwithstanding occasional assertions
+regarding observations of the disease among horses, sheep, and other<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span>
+animals,&mdash;which pretended observations have not been well attested.</p>
+
+<p>The infectious, or contagious nature of this virulent malady is
+incontestibly substantiated by an overwhelming amount of evidence, which
+cannot be adduced at full length here, but which may be classified under
+the following heads: <i>first</i>, the constant spreading of the disease from
+countries in which it rages to others which, previously to the
+importation of diseased animals, had been perfectly free from it. This
+may be proved in the case of England, into which country it was carried
+in 1842, by affected animals from Holland. Twelve months after, it
+spread from England to Scotland, by means of some cattle sold at
+All-Hallow Fair, and it was only twelve months afterward that cattle
+imported as far north as Inverness took the disease there. Lately, a cow
+taken from England to Australia was observed to be diseased upon
+landing, and the evil results were limited to her owner's stock, who
+gave the alarm, and ensured an effectual remedy against a wider spread.
+Besides, the recent importation of pleuro-pneumonia into the United
+States from Holland appears to have awakened our agricultural press
+generally, and to have convinced them of the stubborn fact that our
+cattle have been decimated by a fearfully infectious, through probably
+preventable, plague. A letter from this country to an English author
+says: "Its (pleuro-pneumonia's) contagious character seems to be settled
+beyond a doubt, though some of the V.S. practitioners deny it, which is
+almost as reasonable as it would be to deny any other well-authenticated
+historic fact. Every case of the disease is traceable to one of two
+sources; either to Mr. Chenery's stock in Belmont (near<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[264]</a></span> Boston,
+Massachusetts), into which the disease was introduced by his importation
+of four Dutch cows from Holland, which arrived here the 23d of last May;
+or else to one of the three calves which he sold to a farmer in North
+Brookfield, Massachusetts, last June."</p>
+
+<p><i>2dly.</i> Apart from the importation into countries, we have this certain
+proof&mdash;to which special attention was drawn several years ago&mdash;that
+cattle-dealers' farms, and public markets, constitute the busy centres
+of infection. Most anxious and careful inquiries have established the
+proposition that in breeding-districts, where the proprietors of
+extensive dairies&mdash;as in Dumfries, Scotland, and other places&mdash;abstain
+from buying, except from their neighbors, who have never had diseases of
+the lungs amongst their stock, pleuro-pneumonia has not been seen. There
+is a wide district in the Vicinity of Abington, England, and in the
+parish of Crawford, which has not been visited <i>by</i> this plague, with
+the exception of two farms, into which market-cattle had been imported
+and thus brought the disease.</p>
+
+<p><i>3dly.</i> In 1854 appeared a Report of the Researches on Pleuro-Pneumonia,
+by a scientific commission, instituted by the Minister of Agriculture in
+France. This very able pamphlet was edited by Prof. Bouley, of Alfort,
+France. The members of the commission belonged to the most eminent
+veterinarians and agriculturists in France. Magendie was President;
+Regnal, Secretary; besides Rayer, the renowned comparative pathologist;
+Yvart, the Inspector-General of the Imperial Veterinary Schools;
+Renault, Inspector of the Imperial Veterinary Schools; Delafond,
+Director of Alfort College; Bouley, Lassaigne, Baudemont, Doy&eacute;re, Manny
+de<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[265]</a></span> Morny, and a few others representing the public. If such a
+commission were occasionally appointed in this country for similar
+purposes, how much light would be thrown on subjects of paramount
+importance to the agricultural community!</p>
+
+<p>Conclusions arrived at by the commission are too important to be
+overlooked in this connection. The reader must peruse the Report itself,
+if he needs to satisfy himself as to the care taken in conducting the
+investigations: but the foregoing names sufficiently attest the
+indisputable nature of the facts alluded to.</p>
+
+<p>In instituting its experiments, the commission had in view the solving
+of the following questions:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>1stly.</i> Is the epizo&ouml;tic pleuro-pneumonia of cattle susceptible of
+being transmitted from diseased to healthy animals by cohabitation?</p>
+
+<p><i>2dly.</i> In the event of such contagion's existing, would all the animals
+become affected, or what proportion would resist the disease?</p>
+
+<p><i>3dly.</i> Amongst the animals attacked by the disease, how many recover,
+and under what circumstances? How many succumb?</p>
+
+<p><i>4thly.</i> Are there any animals of the ox species decidedly free from any
+susceptibility of being affected from the contagion of pleuro-pneumonia?</p>
+
+<p><i>5thly.</i> Do the animals, which have been once affected by a mild form of
+the disease, enjoy immunity from subsequent attacks?</p>
+
+<p><i>6thly.</i> Do the animals, which have once been affected by the disease in
+its active form, enjoy such immunity?</p>
+
+<p>To determine these questions, the commission submitted<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[266]</a></span> at different
+times to the influence of cohabitation with diseased animals forty-six
+perfectly healthy ones, chosen from districts in which they had never
+been exposed to a similar influence.</p>
+
+<p>Of these forty-six animals, twenty were experimented on at Pomeraye, two
+at Charentonneau, thirteen at Alfort, and eleven, in the fourth
+experiment, at Charentonneau.</p>
+
+<p>Of this number, twenty-one animals resisted the disease when first
+submitted to the influence of cohabitation, ten suffered slightly, and
+fifteen took the disease. Of the fifteen affected, four died, and eleven
+recovered. Consequently, the animals which apparently escaped the
+disease at the first trial amounted to 45.65 per cent., and those
+affected to 21.73 per cent. Of these, 23.91 per cent. recovered, and
+8.69 per cent. died. But the external appearances in some instances
+proved deceptive, and six of the eleven animals of the last experiment,
+which were regarded as having escaped free, were found, on being
+destroyed, to bear distinct evidence of having been affected. This,
+therefore, modifies the foregoing calculations, and the numbers should
+stand thus:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table summary="revised results of observations of cattle exposed to pleuro-pneumonia">
+<tr><td class="right">15</td><td>enjoy immunity,</td><td class="center">or</td><td class="right">32.61</td><td class="center">per cent.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="right">10</td><td>indisposed,</td><td class="center">"</td><td class="right">21.73</td><td class="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="right">17</td><td>animals cured,</td><td class="center">"</td><td class="right">36.95</td><td class="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="right">4</td><td>dead,</td><td class="center">"</td><td class="right">8.98</td><td class="center">"</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Of the forty-two animals which were exposed in the first experiments at
+Pomeraye and Charentonneau, and which escaped either without becoming
+affected, or recovering, eighteen were submitted to a second trial; and
+of these eighteen animals, five had, in the first experiment, suffered
+from the disease and had recovered; five had now become affected; and
+four had been indisposed. The four animals<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[267]</a></span> submitted to the influence
+of contagion a third time, had been affected on the occasion of the
+first trial. None of the eighteen animals contracted the disease during
+these renewed exposures to the influence of contagion.</p>
+
+<p>From the results of these experiments, the commission drew the following
+conclusions:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>1stly.</i> The epizo&ouml;tic pleuro-pneumonia is susceptible of being
+transmitted from diseased to healthy animals by cohabitation.</p>
+
+<p><i>2dly.</i> All the animals exposed do not take the disease; some suffer
+slightly, and others not at all.</p>
+
+<p><i>3dly.</i> Of the affected animals, some recover and others die.</p>
+
+<p><i>4thly.</i> The animals, whether slightly or severely affected, possess an
+immunity against subsequent attacks.</p>
+
+<p>These are the general conclusions which the commission deemed themselves
+authorized to draw from their experiments. The absolute proportion of
+animals which become affected, or which escape the disease, or of those
+which die and which recover, as a general rule, cannot be deduced from
+the foregoing experiments, which, for such a purpose, are too limited.
+The commission simply state the numbers resulting from their
+experiments. From these it transpires that forty five of the animals
+became severely affected with pleuro-pneumonia, and twenty-one per cent.
+took the disease slightly, making the whole sixty-six per cent. which
+were more or less severely attacked. Thirty-four per cent. remained free
+from any malady. The proportion of animals which re-acquired their
+wonted appearance of health amounted to eighty-three per cent., whereas
+seventeen per cent. died. Many minor points might be insisted on, but it
+is sufficient<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[268]</a></span> here to say, that the most careful analysis of all facts
+has proved to practical veterinarians, as well as to experienced
+agriculturists, and must prove to all who will calmly and
+dispassionately consider the point, that pleuro-pneumonia is
+pre-eminently an infectious, or contagious disease.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+    <a id="illus-268" name="illus-268"></a>
+    <img src="images/illus-268.png" width="600" height="332"
+       alt="" />
+    <p class="caption">THE TWINS.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Symptoms.</i>&mdash;From the time that an animal is exposed to the contagion to
+the first manifestation of symptoms, a certain period elapses. This is
+the period of incubation. It varies from a fortnight to forty days, or
+even several months. The first signs, proving that the animal has been
+seized, can scarcely be detected by any but a professional man; though,
+if a proprietor of cattle were extremely careful, and had pains-taking
+individuals about his stock, he would invariably notice a slight shiver
+as ushering in the disorder, which for several days, even after the
+shivering fit, would limit itself to slight interference in breathing,
+readily detected on auscultation. Perhaps a cough might be noticed, and
+that the appetite and milk-secretion diminished. The animal becomes
+costive, and the shivering fits recur. The cough becomes more constant
+and oppressive; the pulse full and frequent, usually numbering about
+eighty per minute at first, and rising to upwards of one hundred. The
+temperature of the body rises, and all the symptoms of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[269]</a></span> acute fever set
+in. A moan, or grunt, in the early part of the disease indicates a
+dangerous attack, and the <i>alae nasi</i> (cartilages of the nose) rise
+spasmodically at each inspiration; the air rushes through the inflamed
+windpipe and bronchial tubes, so as to produce a loud, coarse
+respiratory murmur; and the spasmodic action of the abdominal muscles
+indicates the difficulty the animal also experiences in the act of
+expiration. Pressure over the intercostal (between the ribs) spaces, and
+pressing on the spine, induce the pain so characteristic of pleurisy,
+and a deep moan not infrequently follows such an experiment. The eyes
+are bloodshot, mouth clammy, skin dry and tightly bound to the
+subcutaneous textures, and the urine is scanty and high-colored.</p>
+
+<p>Upon auscultation, the characteristic dry, sonorous <i>r&acirc;le</i> of ordinary
+bronchitis may be detected along the windpipe, and in the bronchial
+tubes. A loud sound of this description is, not infrequently, detected
+at the anterior part of either side of the chest; whilst the respiratory
+murmur is entirely lost, posteriorly, from consolidation of the lungs. A
+decided leathery, frictional sound is detected over a considerable
+portion of the thoracic surface. As the disease advances, and gangrene,
+with the production of cavities in the lungs, ensues, loud, cavernous
+<i>r&acirc;les</i> are heard, which are more or less circumscribed, occasionally
+attended by a decided metallic noise. When one lobe of the lungs is
+alone affected, the morbid sounds are confined to one side, and on the
+healthy side the respiratory murmur is uniformly louder all over.</p>
+
+<p>By carefully auscultating diseased cows from day to day, interesting
+changes can be discovered during the animal's lifetime. Frequently, the
+abnormal sounds indicate progressive<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[270]</a></span> destruction; but, at other times,
+portions of the lungs that have been totally impervious to air, become
+the seat of sibilant <i>r&acirc;les</i>, and gradually, a healthy respiratory
+murmur proves that, by absorption of the materials which have been
+plugging the tissues of the lungs, resolution is fast advancing. Some
+very remarkable cases of this description have been encountered in
+practice.</p>
+
+<p>Unfortunately, we often find a rapid destruction of the tissues of the
+lungs, and speedy dissolution. In other instances, the general symptoms
+of hectic, or consumption, attend lingering cases, in which the
+temperature of the body becomes low, and the animal has a dainty
+appetite, or refuses all nourishment. It has a discharge from the eyes,
+and a fetid, sanious discharge from the nose. Not infrequently, it
+coughs up disorganized lung-tissue and putrid pus. Great prostration,
+and, indeed, typhus symptoms, set in. There is a fetid diarrh&oelig;a, and
+the animal sinks in the most emaciated state, often dying from
+suffocation, in consequence of the complete destruction of the
+respiratory structures.</p>
+
+<p><i>Post mortem</i> appearances.&mdash;In acute cases, the cadaverous lesions
+chiefly consist in abundant false membranes in the trachea, or windpipe,
+and closure of the bronchial tubes by plastic lymph. The air-vesicles
+are completely plugged by this material, and very interesting specimens
+may be obtained by careful dissection, in the shape of casts of the
+bronchial tubes and air-vesicles, clustered together like bunches of
+grapes. On slicing the lungs in these cases, hepatization is observed,
+presenting a very peculiar appearance, which is, in a great measure, due
+to the arrangement of the lung-tissue in cattle. The pulmonary lobules
+are of a deep-red or brown<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[271]</a></span> color, perfectly consolidated, and
+intersected or separated, one from the other, by lighter streaks of
+yellowish-red lymph, occupying the interlobular, areolar tissue. In the
+more chronic cases, the diseased lobes and lobules are found partly
+separated from the more healthy structures.</p>
+
+<p>This occurs from gangrene, and putrefactive changes, or in some
+instances, from the ulcerative process, so constantly observed in the
+segregation of dead from living tissues. Abscesses are not infrequently
+found in different parts of the lungs. Sometimes circumscribed, at
+others connected with bronchial tubes, and not infrequently
+communicating with the pleural cavity. True empyema is not often seen;
+but, at all times, the adhesions between the costal and visceral pleura
+are extensive, and there is much effusion in the chest. In dressed
+carcasses of cows that have been slaughtered from pleuro-pneumonia, even
+though the disease has not been far advanced, it will be found that the
+butcher has carefully scraped the serous membrane off the inner surface
+of the ribs, as it would otherwise be impossible for him to give the
+pleura its healthy, smooth aspect, from the firm manner in which the
+abundant false membranes adhere to it. The <ins class="correction" title="direased">diseased</ins> lungs
+sometimes attain inordinate weight. They have been known to weigh as
+much as sixty pounds.</p>
+
+<p><i>Treatment.</i>&mdash;The veterinary profession is regarded by many who have
+sustained heavy losses from pleuro-pneumonia, as deeply ignorant,
+because its members cannot often cure the disease. Persons forget that
+there are several epidemics which prove equally difficult to manage on
+the part of the physician, such as cholera, yellow fever, etc. The
+poison in these contagious, epizo&ouml;tic diseases is so virulent that the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[272]</a></span>
+animals may be regarded as dead from the moment they are attacked. Its
+elimination from the system is impossible, and medicine cannot support
+an animal through its tardy, exhausting, and destructive process of
+clearing the system of so potent a virus. All antiphlogistic means have
+failed, such as blood-letting and the free use of evacuants.
+Derivatives, in the form of mustard-poultices, or more active blisters,
+are attended with good results. Stimulants have proved of the greatest
+service; and the late Prof. Tessona, of Turin, strongly recommended,
+from the very onset of the disease, the administration of strong doses
+of quinine. Maffei, of Ferrara, states that he has obtained great
+benefit from the employment of ferruginous tonics and manganese in the
+very acute stage of the malady, supported by <ins class="correction" title="alcholic">alcoholic</ins>
+stimulants. Recently, the advantages resulting from the use of sulphate
+of iron, both as a preventive and curative, have been exhibited in
+France. It would appear that the most valuable depurative method of
+treatment yet resorted to is by the careful use of the Roman bath.
+Acting, like all other sudorifics in cases of fever and blood diseases,
+it carries off by the skin much of the poison, without unduly lowering
+the vital powers.</p>
+
+<p><i>Prevention.</i>&mdash;The rules laid down in Denmark, and indeed in many other
+places, appear the most natural for the prevention of the disease. If
+they could be carried out, the disease must necessarily be stopped; but
+there are practical and insuperable difficulties in the way of enforcing
+them. Thus, a Dr. Warneke says, prevention consists in "the avoidance of
+contagion; the slaughter of infected beasts; the prohibition of keeping
+cattle by those whose cattle have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[273]</a></span> been slaughtered, for a space of ten
+weeks after the last case occurring; the disinfection of stalls vacated
+by slaughtering; the closing of infected places to all passing of
+cattle; especial attention to the removal of the dung, and of the
+remains of the carcasses of slaughtered beasts; and, finally,
+undeviating severity of the law against violators."</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Williams, of Hasselt, suggested and carried out, in 1851, the
+inoculation of the virus of pleuro-pneumonia, in order to induce a mild
+form of the disease in healthy animals, and prevent their decimation by
+the severe attacks due to contagion. He met with much encouragement, and
+perhaps more opposition. Didot, Corvini, Ercolani, and many more
+accepted Dr. Williams's facts as incontestable, and wrote, advocating
+his method of checking the spread of so destructive a plague.</p>
+
+<p>The first able memoir which contested all that has been said in favor of
+inoculation, appeared in Turin, and was written by Dr. Riviglio, a
+Piedmontese veterinary surgeon. This was supported by the views of many
+others. Prof. Simonds wrote against the plan, and, in 1854, the French
+commission, whose report has been before mentioned, confirmed, in part,
+Riviglio's views, though, from the incompleteness of the experiments,
+further trials were recommended.</p>
+
+<p>Inoculation is performed as follows: A portion of diseased lung is
+chosen, and a bistoury or needle made to pierce it so as to become
+charged with the material consolidating the lung, and this is afterward
+plunged into any part, but, more particularly, toward the point of the
+tail. If operated severely, and higher up, great exudation occurs, which
+spreads upward, invades the areolar tissue round the rectum and other
+pelvic<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[274]</a></span> organs, and death soon puts an end to the animal's excruciating
+suffering. If the operation is properly performed with lymph that is not
+putrid, and the incisions are not made too deep, the results are limited
+to local exudation and swelling, general symptoms of fever, and gradual
+recovery. The most common occurrence is sloughing of the tail; and in
+London, at the present time, dairies are to be seen in which all the
+cows have short-tail stumps.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Williams and others have gone too far in attempting to describe a
+particular corpuscle as existing in the lymph of pleuro-pneumonia. All
+animal poisons can be alone discovered from their effects. In structure
+and chemical constitution, there is no difference, and often the most
+potent poisons are simple fluids. The Belgian Commission, appointed to
+investigate the nature and influence of inoculation for
+pleuro-pneumonia, very justly expressed an opinion that Dr. Williams had
+not proved that a specific product, distinguished by anatomical
+characters, and appreciable by the microscope, existed in this disease.</p>
+
+<p>The all-important question, "Is inoculation of service?" has to the
+satisfaction of most been solved. The Belgian and French commissions,
+the observations of Riviglio, Simond, Herring, and many others, prove
+that a certain degree of preservative influence is derived by the
+process of inoculation. It does not, however, arrest the progress of the
+disease. It certainly diminishes to some extent&mdash;though often very
+slightly so&mdash;the number of cases, and, particularly, of severe ones.
+This effect has been ascribed to a derivative action, independent of any
+specific influence, and, indeed, similar to that of introducing setons
+in the dewlap.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[275]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In London, some dairymen have considerable faith in inoculation, though
+its effect is uncertain, and the manner of its working a mystery. The
+best counsel, in the premises, which can be given to the keeper of dairy
+stock is, to select his own animals from healthy herds, and strictly to
+avoid public markets. In many instances, a faithful observance of these
+injunctions has been sufficient to prevent the invasion of this terrible
+disease. [Gamgee.]</p>
+
+<p>The existence of this disease in the United States was not generally
+known until the year 1859, when Mr. Chenery, of Belmont, near Boston,
+Massachusetts, imported several cows from Holland, which arrived in the
+early part of the spring of that year. Some of the animals were sick
+when they arrived, but the true nature of the disease was not at that
+time suspected. Several of them were so bad that they were carried in
+trucks to Mr. Chenery's barn. Some two months passed away before the
+character of the disease was discovered.</p>
+
+<p>Upon the facts becoming known, the citizens of Massachusetts became
+panic-stricken, as the disease was rapidly spreading over that State. An
+extra session of the Legislature was speedily convened, when a Joint
+Special Committee was appointed, to adopt and carry out such measures as
+in their judgment seemed necessary for the extirpation of this monster,
+pleuro-pneumonia.</p>
+
+<p>The Committee met in the Hall of the House of Representatives, Thursday,
+May, 31, 1860, to receive evidence as to the contagious or infectious
+character of the disease, in order to determine concerning the necessity
+of legislative action.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[276]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Mr. Walker, one of the commissioners appointed by the Governor, made the
+following statement: "The disease was introduced into North Brookfield
+from Belmont. Mr. Curtis Stoddard, a young man of North Brookfield, went
+down, the very last of June, last year, and purchased three calves of
+Mr. Chenery, of Belmont. He brought these calves up in the cars to
+Brookfield. On their way from the dep&ocirc;t to his house, about five miles,
+one of the calves was observed to falter, and when he got to his house,
+it seemed to be sick, and in two or three days exhibited very great
+illness; so much so, that his father came along, and, thinking he could
+take better care of it, took the calf home. He took it to his own barn,
+in which there were about forty head of cattle; but it grew no better,
+and his son went up and brought it back again to his own house. In about
+ten days after that, it died. His father, who had had the calf nearly
+four days, in about a fortnight afterward observed that one of his oxen
+was sick, and it grew worse very fast and died. Two weeks after, a
+second also sickened, and died. Then a third was attacked and died, the
+interval growing wider from the attack of one animal to that of another,
+until he had lost eight oxen and cows. Young Stoddard lost no animal by
+the infection,&mdash;that is, no one died on his hands. Prior to the
+appointment of this Commission, about the first of November,&mdash;for
+reasons independent of this disease, which I don't suppose he then knew
+the nature of,&mdash;he sold off his stock. He sold off eleven heifers, or
+young animals, and retained nine of the most valuable himself; which
+shows that he did not then know any thing was the matter with them.</p>
+
+<p>"These nine were four oxen, and five young cattle. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[277]</a></span> four he took to
+his father's, three of the others to his uncle's, and the remaining two
+to his father-in-law's; distributing them all among his friends,&mdash;which
+furnishes another proof that he did not suppose he was doing any
+mischief. He disposed of his herd in that way. From this auction, these
+eleven animals went in different directions, and wherever they went,
+they scattered the infection. Without a single failure the disease has
+followed those cattle; in one case, more than two hundred cattle having
+been infected by one which was sold at Curtis Stoddard's auction, when
+he was entirely ignorant of the disease.</p>
+
+<p>"When the commission was appointed, they went and examined his cattle,
+and were satisfied that they were diseased,&mdash;at least, some of them.
+They examined his father's herd, and found that they were very much
+diseased; and when we came to kill Curtis Stoddard's cattle, seven of
+the nine head were diseased. Two were not condemned, because the law
+says, 'Cattle not appearing to be diseased, shall be appraised.'
+Nevertheless, it proved that these animals were diseased; so that his
+whole herd was affected.</p>
+
+<p>"In regard to Leonard Stoddard's cattle, he lost fourteen of his animals
+before the commissioners went to his place. They took eighteen more, all
+of which were diseased,&mdash;most of them very bad cases,&mdash;indeed, extreme
+cases. That left eight heads, which were not condemned, because not
+appearing to be diseased. Here I remark, that when this disease is under
+the shoulder-blade, it cannot be detected by percussion. The physicians
+did not say that the animal was not diseased, but that they did not see
+sufficient evidence upon which to condemn. Such animals were to be paid
+for, upon the ground<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[278]</a></span> of their not appearing to be diseased.
+Nevertheless, it is proper to state that the remaining eight which were
+not condemned, were suspected to be diseased, and we told Mr. Stoddard
+that we had the impression that they were diseased, notwithstanding
+appearances. He said, 'There is a three-year-old animal that has never
+faltered at all. She has never manifested the slightest disease. If you
+will kill her, and she is diseased, I shall make up my mind that I have
+not a well animal in my stalls.' We killed the animal, and found her to
+be badly diseased.</p>
+
+<p>"Thus, the first two herds were all infected by the disease; and in the
+last of Curtis Stoddard's oxen which we killed, we found a cyst in the
+lungs of each. One of these lungs is now in this building, never having
+been cut open, and medical men can see the cyst which it contains. I
+have said in what manner Mr. Curtis Stoddard's cattle spread the
+infection.</p>
+
+<p>"In regard to Mr. Leonard Stoddard's: in the first place, he kept six or
+eight oxen which he employed in teaming. He was drawing some lumber, and
+stopped over night, with his oxen, at Mr. Needham's. Needham lost his
+whole herd. He lost eight or ten of them, and the rest were in a
+terrible condition. Seven or eight more were condemned, and his whole
+herd was destroyed, in consequence of Mr. Stoddard's stopping with him
+over night. Mr. Stoddard sold an animal to Mr. Woodis of New Braintree.
+He had twenty-three fine cows. It ruined his herd utterly. Seven or
+eight animals died before the commissioners got there. Mr. L. Stoddard
+also sold a yoke of cattle to Mr. Olmstead, one of his neighbors, who
+had a very good herd. They stayed only<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[279]</a></span> five days in his hands, when
+they passed over to Mr. Doane. In these five days they had so infected
+his herd that it was one of the most severe instances of disease that we
+have had. One third were condemned, and another third were passed over
+as sound, whether they were so, or not. They did not appear to be
+diseased. The cattle that were passed from Mr. Stoddard through Mr.
+Olmstead to Mr. Doane, were loaned by Mr. D. to go to a moving of a
+building from Oakham to New Braintree. They were put in with twenty-two
+yoke of cattle, and employed a day and a half. It has since been proved
+that the whole of these cattle took the contagion. They belonged to
+eleven different herds, and of course, each of these herds formed a
+focus from which the disease spread. Now, in these two ways the disease
+has spread in different directions.</p>
+
+<p>"But, when the commissioners first commenced, they had no idea that the
+disease extended further than those herds in which there were animals
+sick. Hence, their ideas and the ideas of those who petitioned for the
+law, did not extend at all to so large a number of herds as have since
+been proved to be diseased, because they only judged of those who
+manifested disease. As soon as we began in that circle, we found a
+second circle of infection, and another outside of that; and by that
+time it had branched off in various directions to various towns. It
+assumed such proportions that it was very evident that the commissioners
+had not the funds to perform the operations required by the law. The law
+confines the commissioners to one operation,&mdash;killing and burying. No
+discretionary power is given at all. The commissioners became entirely
+dissatisfied with that condition of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[280]</a></span> things, because other measures
+besides merely killing and burying, are quite as necessary and
+important. When they arrived at that point and discovered to what extent
+the infection had spread, they stopped killing the herds, and I believe
+there has not been a herd killed for twenty days.</p>
+
+<p>"The policy was then changed to circumscribing the disease, by isolating
+the herds just as fast as possible and as surely as possible. A man's
+herd has been exposed. There is no other way than to go and examine it,
+and take the diseased animals away. Then he knows the animals are
+diseased, and his neighbors know it. That has been the business of the
+commissioners for the last twenty days; and the facts that they have no
+discretionary power whatever, and that they were entirely circumscribed
+in their means, and that it was hard for the farmers to lose their stock
+and not be paid for it,&mdash;induced them to petition the Governor, in
+connection with the Board of Agriculture, for the calling of a session
+of the Legislature, to take measures for the extinction of the disease."</p>
+
+<p>In response to a question, "Whether any animals that had once been
+affected, had afterward recovered?"&mdash;the same gentleman stated that
+instances had occurred where cattle had been sick twice, and had,
+apparently, fully recovered; they ruminated readily, and were gaining
+flesh. Upon examination, however, they were pronounced diseased, and,
+when killed, both lungs were found in a hopeless case, very badly
+diseased.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. George B. Loring, another of the commissioners, stated that eight
+hundred and forty-two head of cattle had, at that time, been killed, and
+that, from a careful estimate,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[281]</a></span> there still remained one thousand head,
+which should either be killed, or isolated for such a length of time as
+should establish the fact that they had no disease about them. Twenty
+thousand dollars and upwards had already been appraised as the value of
+the cattle then killed.</p>
+
+<p>As to disinfecting measures, the farmers who had lost cattle were
+requested to whitewash their barns thoroughly, and some tons of a
+disinfecting powder were purchased for the advantage of the persons who
+wished to use it. An early application was advised, that the barns might
+be in readiness for hay the then coming season.</p>
+
+<p>The practice adopted by the commissioners was, to appraise the cattle
+whenever a herd was found which had been exposed, and a surgeon was
+appointed to pass judgment upon the number of diseased animals. After
+that judgment, the remaining animals that were pronounced sound were
+killed and passed to the credit of the owner, after an appraisement made
+by these persons. The fair market-prices were paid, averaging about
+thirty-three dollars a head. At the time of the meeting of the
+committee, some seventy cattle had died of the disease.</p>
+
+<p>An examination was made of some of the animals killed, and the following
+facts obtained:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>Case 1.&mdash;This cow had been sick for nineteen days; was feeble, without
+much appetite, with diarrh&oelig;a, cough, shortness of breathing, hair
+staring, etc. Percussion dull over the whole of the left side of the
+chest; respiration weak. Killed by authority. Several gallons of serum
+were found in the left side of the chest; a thick, furzy deposit of
+lymph over all the <i>pleura-costalis</i>. This lymph was an inch in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[282]</a></span>
+thickness, resembling the velvety part of tripe, and quite firm. There
+was a firm deposit of lymph in the whole left lung, but more especially
+at its base, with strong adhesions to the diaphragm and
+<i>pleura-costalis</i> near the spine. The lung was hard and brittle, like
+liver, near its base. No pus. Right lung and right side of chest
+healthy.</p>
+
+<p>Case 2.&mdash;This cow was taken very sick, January 30th. In fourteen days,
+she began to get better. April 12th, she is gaining flesh, breathes
+well, hair healthy, gives ten quarts of milk a day, and in all other
+respects bids fair for a healthy animal hereafter, except a slight
+cough. Percussion dull over base of the left lung, near the spine, and
+respiration feeble in the same regions.</p>
+
+<p>Autopsy.&mdash;Left lung strongly adherent to diaphragm and costal pleura;
+the long adhesions well smoothed off; <i>pleura-costalis</i> shining and
+healthy. Also, the surface of the lung, when there were no adhesions,
+sound and right; all the lung white, and free for the entrance of air,
+except the base, in which was a cyst containing a pint or two of pus.
+Loose in this pus was a hard mass, as large as a two-quart measure,
+looking like marble; when cut through its centre, it appeared like the
+brittle, hardened lining in case 1. It appeared as though a piece of
+lung had been detached by suppuration and enclosed in an air-tight cyst,
+by which decomposition was prevented. The other lung and the chest were
+sound. It is to be inferred, as there were adhesions, that there had
+been pleurisy and deposit of lymph and serum, as in case 1, and that
+Nature had commenced the cure by absorbing the serum from the chest, and
+the lymph from the free pleural surface, and smoothed off every thing to
+a good working condition.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[283]</a></span> The lump in the cyst was brittle and
+irregular on its surface, as though it was dissolving in the pus. No
+good reason can be given why Nature should not consummate the work which
+she had so wisely begun.</p>
+
+<p>Case 3.&mdash;This cow had been sick fourteen days; was coughing and
+breathing badly; percussion dull over both chests and respiration
+feeble. Killed.</p>
+
+<p>Autopsy.&mdash;Both chests filled with water; deposits of lymph over all the
+<i>pleura-costalis</i>, presenting the same velvety, furzy appearance as in
+Case 1. Both lungs were hardened at the base, and the left throughout
+its whole extent, and firmly adherent to diaphragm and costal pleura,
+near the spine. The right lung had nearly one-third of its substance in
+a condition for the entrance of air; but this portion, even, was so
+compressed with the water, that a few hours longer would have terminated
+the case fatally without State aid. This case had not proceeded far
+enough for the formation of the cyst or pus.</p>
+
+<p>In Mr. Needham's herd, about twenty-eight days intervened between the
+first and second case of disease, instead of about fourteen, as in Mr.
+Olmstead's.</p>
+
+<p>Case 4.&mdash;A nice heifer, in fair condition, eating well, only having a
+slight cough. Percussion dull over base of the left lung.</p>
+
+<p>Autopsy.&mdash;Base of left lung adherent to diaphragm and costal pleura;
+lung hardened. On cutting into base, found ulceration and a head of
+Timothy grass, four or five inches long. Animal in every other way well.</p>
+
+<p>Case 5.&mdash;This cow was taken, January 1st, with a cough, difficulty of
+breathing, and the other symptoms of the disease,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[284]</a></span> and continued sick
+till March 1st. On taking her out, April 12th, to be slaughtered, she
+capered, stuck up her tail, snuffed, and snorted, showing all the signs
+of feeling well and vigorous.</p>
+
+<p>Autopsy.&mdash;Right lung firmly adherent to diaphragm and costal pleura,
+near the spine. Base of lung hardened, containing a cyst with a large
+lump, of the size of a two-quart measure, floating in pus; outside of
+the lump was of a dirty yellow-white, irregular, brittle, and cheesy;
+the inside mottled, or divided into irregular squares; red like muscle,
+and breaking under the finger, like liver. Costal pleura smooth,
+shining; adhesions where there was motion; card-like and polished; no
+serum; lung apparently performing its functions well, except for a short
+distance above the air-tight cyst, where it was still hardened. It would
+seem as though Nature was intending to dissolve this lump, and carry it
+off by absorption. She knows how, and would have done it, in the opinion
+of the writer, had she been allowed sufficient time.</p>
+
+<p>Case 6.&mdash;Was taken December 18th, and was very sick; in three weeks she
+was well, except a cough, quite severe, and so continued till about the
+first of March, when she coughed harder and grew worse till seven days
+before she was killed, April 12th, when she brought forth a calf, and
+then commenced improving again.</p>
+
+<p>Autopsy.&mdash;Right lung adherent to diaphragm and costal pleura. At its
+base, was a flabby, fluctuating cyst. In cutting into it, the lump was
+found to be breaking up by decomposition, and scenting badly. Every
+thing else normal. Was not the cyst broken through by some accident,
+thus<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[285]</a></span> letting in the air, when she grew worse? Would she not, probably,
+have overcome this disagreeable accident, and recovered, in spite of it?
+This cow's hair did not look well, as did that of those in which the
+cyst was air-tight; but still she was beginning to eat well again, and
+appeared in a tolerable way for recovery.</p>
+
+<p>Case 7.&mdash;This heifer had coughed slightly for six weeks, but the owner
+said he thought no one going into his herd would notice that any thing
+was the matter with her.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+    <a id="illus-285" name="illus-285"></a>
+    <img src="images/illus-285.png" width="600" height="425"
+       alt="" />
+    <p class="caption">A RURAL SCENE.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Autopsy.&mdash;Slight adhesions of lung to diaphragm. Near these adhesions
+are small cysts, of the size of a walnut, containing pus and cheesy
+matter; about the cysts a little way the lung was hardened, say for half
+an inch. There were several cysts, and they appeared as though the
+inflammation attacked only the different lobes of the lungs, leaving
+others healthy between,&mdash;Nature throwing out coagulable lymph around the
+diseased lobe, and forming thereby an air-tight cyst, cutting around the
+diseased lobe by suppuration, so that it could be carried off by
+absorption.</p>
+
+<p>In the herd to which this animal belonged, nine days after the first cow
+died, the second case occurred. First cow was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[286]</a></span> sick five weeks. The time
+of incubation could not have been over six weeks,&mdash;probably not over
+three weeks. Of these cows, one improved in eight weeks, the other in
+three weeks.</p>
+
+<p>Case 8.&mdash;This cow had been sick three weeks. Killed.</p>
+
+<p>Autopsy.&mdash;Large quantities of serum in left chest; lung adherent, and
+hardened at base. On cutting into the hardened lung, one side of the
+lump was found separated from the lung, with pus between the lines of
+separation, and the forming coat of the cyst outside of the pus; the
+other side of the lump was part and parcel of the hardened lung which
+had not yet had time to commence separation. The costal pleura was
+covered with organized lymph to the thickness of an inch, with the usual
+characteristics. The right chest contained a small quantity of serum,
+and had several small, hardened red spots in that lung, with some
+tender, weak adhesions; but most of the right lung was healthy.</p>
+
+<p>Case 9.&mdash;Sick four weeks. Killed.</p>
+
+<p>Autopsy.&mdash;Right lung hardened at base; adherent to diaphragm and costal
+pleura; lump separated on one side only. Cyst beginning to form, outside
+of separation; pus between cyst and lump, but in a very small quantity.</p>
+
+<p>These two cases settle the character of the lump, and the manner of the
+formation of the cyst; the lump being lung and lymph, cut out by
+suppuration,&mdash;the cyst being organized, smoothed off by suppuration,
+friction, etc.</p>
+
+<p>Case 10.&mdash;Killed. Hair looked badly; but the cow, it was said, ate, and
+appeared well. This case, however, occurred<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[287]</a></span> in a herd, of which no
+reliable information, in detail, could be procured.</p>
+
+<p>Autopsy.&mdash;Base of lung hardened, adherent to diaphragm; containing a
+cyst, in which was a lump, of the size of a quart measure, but little
+pus. This lump had air-tubes running through it, which were not yet cut
+off by suppuration; and in one place, the cyst was perforated by a
+bronchial tube, letting in the external air to the lump, which was
+undergoing disorganization, and swelling badly. When cut into, it did
+not <ins class="correction" title="prevent">present</ins> the red, mottled, organized appearance of those
+cases with air-tight cysts.</p>
+
+<p>Quite a number of other cases were examined, but these ten present all
+the different phases. One or two cases are needed of an early stage of
+the disease, to settle the point, whether, in all cases, the primary
+disease is lung fever, and the pleurisy a continuation, merely, of the
+primary disease; together with some six or eight cases, during five,
+six, seven, eight months from attack, and so on till entire, final
+recovery. Some cases were sick almost a year since, and are now
+apparently quite well; perhaps all the lump and pus are not yet gone.
+Many practitioners think that no severe case will ever recover, and some
+think that none ever get entirely well. Others, however, can see no
+reason why, as a general rule, all single cases should not recover, and
+all double cases die.</p>
+
+<p>The disease was the most fatal in Mr. Chenery's (the original) herd,
+although it was the best-fed and the warmest-stabled. He attributed the
+fatality, in part, to a want of sufficient ventilation. The other herds,
+in which all the fatal cases occurred in two hours, consisted,
+originally, one of forty-eight head, of which thirteen died, or were
+killed, to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[288]</a></span> prevent certain death; of twenty-three head, of which seven
+died; of twenty-two head, of which eight died; of twenty-two head, of
+which eight also died; and of twenty-one head, of which four died. A
+little less than thirty per cent., therefore, of these herds died.</p>
+
+<p>This estimate excludes the calves. Most of the cows which had not calved
+before being attacked, lost their calves prematurely. The probable time
+of incubation, as deduced from those Massachusetts cases, is from two to
+three weeks; of propagation, about the same time; the acute stage of the
+disease lasting about three weeks.</p>
+
+<p>The author's attention was first directed to this disease, upon its
+appearance in Camden and Gloucester counties, New Jersey, in the year
+1859, at about the same time it made its advent in Massachusetts. The
+singularity of this coincidence inclined him for the time to regard the
+disease as an epizo&ouml;tic&mdash;having its origin in some peculiar condition of
+the atmosphere&mdash;rather than as a contagious, or infectious disease,
+which position was at that time assumed by him.</p>
+
+<p>This opinion was strengthened by the fact, that no case occurring in New
+Jersey could be traced to a Massachusetts origin, in which State it was
+claimed that the disease never had existed in this country previous to
+its introduction there. It was, therefore, denied by the veterinary
+surgeons in the Eastern States, that the disease in New Jersey was the
+true European pleuro-pneumonia, but it was called by them the swill-milk
+disease of New York City, and it was assigned an origin in the
+distillery cow-houses in Brooklyn and Williamsburg.</p>
+
+<p>In 1860 it found its way across the Delaware River into<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[289]</a></span> Philadelphia,
+spreading very rapidly in all directions, particularly in the southern
+section of the county, known as The Neck,&mdash;many of the dairymen losing
+from one third to one half of their herds by its devastating influence.
+In order to save themselves&mdash;in part, at least&mdash;from this heavy loss,
+many of them, upon the first indications of the malady, sent their
+animals to the butcher, to be slaughtered for beef. In 1861 the disease
+found its way into Delaware, where its ravages were severely felt. So
+soon, however, as it became known that the disease was infectious or
+contagious, an effort was made to trace it to its starting-point; but,
+in consequence of the unwillingness of dairymen to communicate the fact
+that their herds were affected with pleuro-pneumonia, all efforts proved
+fruitless. In 1860 the disease found its way up the Delaware to
+Riverton, a short distance above the city of Philadelphia. A
+cattle-dealer, named Ward, turned some cattle into a lot, adjoining
+which several others were grazing. The residents of this place are
+chiefly the families of gentlemen doing business in the city, many of
+whom lost their favorite animals from this destructive malady.</p>
+
+<p>The first case occurring at this place, to which the author's attention
+was called, was a cow belonging to Mr. D. Parrish, which had been
+exposed by coming in contact with Ward's cattle, had sickened, and died.
+An anxiety having been manifested to ascertain the cause of the death,
+the author made an examination of the animal, which, upon dissection,
+proved the disease to be a genuine case of the so-called
+pleuro-pneumonia. This examination was made August 20th, 1860, at the
+time of the Massachusetts excitement. Two cows, belonging to Mr. Rose,
+of the same place,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[290]</a></span> had been exposed, and both had taken the disease.
+His attention having been called to them, he placed them under the
+author's treatment, and by the use of diffusible stimulants and tonics,
+one of these animals recovered, while the other was slaughtered for an
+examination, which revealed all the morbid conditions so characteristic
+of this disease.</p>
+
+<p>The next case was a cow belonging to Mr. G. H. Roach, of the same place,
+which had been grazing in a lot adjoining that of Mr. Parrish. This cow
+was killed in the presence of Charles Wood, V.S., of Boston, Mass., and
+Arthur S. Copeman, of Utica, N. Y., who was one of a committee appointed
+by the New York State Agricultural Society for the purpose of
+investigating the disease. Both of these gentlemen having witnessed the
+disease in-all its forms, as it appeared in Massachusetts, were the
+first to identify this case with those in that State.</p>
+
+<p>Upon opening the cow, the left lung was found to be completely
+consolidated, and adhered to the left side, presenting the appearance
+usual in such cases. As she was with calf, the lungs of the f&oelig;tus
+were examined, disclosing a beautiful state of red hepatization.</p>
+
+<p>The author's attention was next called to the herd of Mr. Lippincott, a
+farmer in the neighborhood, who had lost several cattle by the disease;
+but as he had been persuaded that treatment was useless, he abandoned
+the idea of attempting to save his stock in that way. From Riverton it
+soon spread to Burlington, some ten miles farther up the river, where it
+carried off large numbers of valuable cattle, and it continued in
+existence in that neighborhood for some time.</p>
+
+<p>The disease was not then confined to these localities alone,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[291]</a></span> but has
+spread over a large extent of country,&mdash;and that, too, prior to its
+appearance in Massachusetts, as will be shown by extracts from the
+following letters, published in the <i>Country Gentleman</i>:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"We have a disease among the cattle here, I will class it under these
+names,&mdash;congestion of the lungs, terminating with consumption, or dropsy
+of the chest. Now, I have treated two cases; one five years since, as
+congestion,&mdash;and the first is still able to eat her allowance, and give
+a couple of pails of milk a day,&mdash;and the other, quite recently. The
+great terror of this disease is, that it is not taken in its first
+stages, which are the same in the cow as in the man&mdash;a difficulty in
+breathing, which, if not speedily relieved, terminates in consumption or
+dropsy. I have no doubt that consumption is contagious; but is that a
+reason why every one taken with congestion should be killed to check the
+spread of consumption? So I should reason, if I had pleuro-pneumonia in
+my drove of cattle.</p>
+<p class="right smcap">J. Baldwin.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap"  style="margin-left: 2.5em;">"Newark</span>, N. J., June 11, 1860."</p>
+
+<p>"I notice that a good deal of alarm is felt in different parts of the
+country about what is called the cattle-disease.</p>
+
+<p>"From the diagnosis given in the papers, I have no doubt this is
+pleuro-pneumonia, with which I had some acquaintance a few years ago. If
+it is the same, my observation and experience may be of some service to
+those suffering now.</p>
+
+<p>"It was introduced into my stock, in the fall of 1853, by one of my own
+cows, which, in the spring of that year, I had sent down to my brother
+in Brooklyn, to be used during the summer for milk. She was kept
+entirely isolated through<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[292]</a></span> out the summer, and in November was sent up
+by the boat. There were no other cattle on the boat at the time, nor
+could I learn that she had come in contact with any in passing through
+the streets on her way to the boat; and she certainly did not, after
+leaving it, until she mingled with her old companions, all of whom were
+then, and long afterward, perfectly well. After she had been home about
+two weeks, we noticed that her appetite failed, and her milk fell off:
+she seemed dull and stupid, stood with her head down, and manifested a
+considerable degree of languor.</p>
+
+<p>"Soon her breathing became somewhat hurried, and with a decided catch in
+it; she ground her teeth; continued standing, or, if she lay down, it
+was only to jump up again instantly. Her cough increased, and so, too, a
+purulent and, bloody discharge from her nostrils and mouth. The
+excrement was fetid, black, and hard.</p>
+
+<p>"In this case, we twice administered half a pound of Epsom-salts, and
+afterward, a bottle of castor-oil. Very little, but a temporary effect
+was produced by these doses.</p>
+
+<p>"The symptoms all increased in intensity; strength diminished; limbs
+drawn together; belly tucked up, etc.; until the eight day, when she
+partly lay, and partly fell down, and never rose again.</p>
+
+<p>"In a <i>post-mortem</i> examination, the lungs were gorged with black, fetid
+blood; the substance of them thickened and pulpy. The pleura and
+diaphragm also showed a good deal of disease and some adhesion. This
+cow, on her arrival here, was put in her usual place in the stable,
+between others. She remained there for two or three days after she was
+taken sick, before we removed her to the hospital.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[293]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>"In about three weeks from the time she died, one and then the other of
+those standing on either side of her were attacked in the same way, and
+with but two days between. This, certainly, looks very much like
+contagion; but my attention had not before been called to this
+particular disease, and to suppose inflammation or congestion of the
+lungs contagious was so opposed to my preconceived notions, that I did
+not even then admit it; and these animals were suffered to remain with
+the others until their own comfort seemed to require the greater liberty
+of open pens.</p>
+
+<p>"One of them was early and copiously bled twice, while Epsom-salts were
+administered, both by the stomach and with the injective-pump. The other
+we endeavored to keep nauseated with ipecacuanha, and the same time to
+keep her bowels open by cathartic medicine. All proved to be of no
+avail. They both died,&mdash;the one in ten, the other in thirteen days.
+Before these died, however, others were taken sick. And thus, later, I
+had eight sick at one time.</p>
+
+<p>"The leading symptoms in all were the same, with minor differences; and
+so, too, was the appearance after death, on examination.</p>
+
+<p>"Of all that were taken sick (sixteen) but two recovered; and they were
+among those we did the least for, after we had become discouraged about
+trying to cure them. In all the last cases we made no effort at all, but
+to keep them as comfortable as we could. In one case, the acute
+character of the disease changed to chronic, and the animal lived six or
+eight weeks, until the whole texture of the lungs had become destroyed.
+She had become much emaciated, and finally died with the ordinary
+consumption.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[294]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>"At the time the first case appeared, I had a herd of thirty-one
+animals, all valuable Ayrshires, in fine condition and healthy. In all
+the first cases, I had a veterinary surgeon of considerable celebrity
+and experience, and every ordinary approved method of treatment was
+resorted to and persevered in. The last cases&mdash;as before intimated&mdash;we
+only strove to make comfortable.</p>
+
+<p>"After I had paid the third or fourth forfeit, I began to awake up to
+the idea that the disease was, in a high degree, contagious, whether I
+would have it so or not; and that my future security was in prevention,
+and not in remedy. I therefore separated all the remaining animals; in
+no instance having more than two together, and generally but one in a
+place.</p>
+
+<p>"All were removed from the infected stalls, and put into quarantine.
+Isolated cases continued to occur after this for some weeks, but the
+spread of the disease was stayed; nor did a single case occur after
+this, which we did not think we traced directly to previous contact.</p>
+
+<p>"It is impossible to account for the first case of which I have spoken.
+But, as the cow in that case was put into a sale-stable in New York
+while waiting for the boat,&mdash;though there were no cattle then
+present,&mdash;yet I have supposed it not unlikely that diseased animals had
+been there, and had left the seeds of the disease.</p>
+
+<p>"But, account for this case as we may,&mdash;and I have no doubt it is
+sometimes spontaneous,&mdash;I feel convinced it is very highly contagious;
+and that the only safety to a herd into which it has been introduced, is
+in complete isolation,&mdash;and in this I feel as convinced that there is
+safety. My<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[295]</a></span> cattle were not suffered to return to the barnyard or to any
+part of the cattle-barns, except as invalids were sent to 'the hospital'
+to die, until late the next fall, <i>i.e.</i>, the fall of 1854. In the mean
+time, the hay and straw had all been removed; the stables, stalls, cribs
+and all thoroughly scrubbed with ashes and water, fumigated, and white
+washed with quicklime. I have had no case since, and am persuaded I
+should have avoided most of those I had before, if I had reasonably
+admitted the evidence of my senses in the second and third cases.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="smcap ralign">E. P. Prentice.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;"><span class="smcap">Mount Hope</span>, June 14th, 1860."</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>The author's experience with the disease, during the last year in New
+Jersey, proves the efficacy of remedial agents when applied in the early
+stages of the disease. Late in the spring of 1861, Mr. J. E. Hancock, of
+Burlington County (residing near Columbus, N. J.), purchased some cattle
+in the Philadelphia market, which, after they were driven home, he
+turned in with his other stock. Soon after this purchase, one of the
+animals sickened and died. This was in August; after which time Mr. H.
+lost eight cows,&mdash;having, at the time of the death of the last animal,
+some five others sick with the same disorder.</p>
+
+<p>The author was called in, December 8th, 1861, and the five animals then
+placed under his treatment. On the 12th of December, in the same year,
+one of these cows, at his suggestion, was killed, which, upon the
+<i>post-mortem</i> examination, beautifully illustrated the character of the
+disease. The right lung was comparatively healthy; the left one
+completely hepatized, or consolidated, and so enlarged as to fill up the
+left cavity of the chest to it's utmost capacity. This<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[296]</a></span> lung weighed
+thirty pounds. There was no effusion in the chest, but there was
+considerable adhesion of the <i>pleura-costalis</i> and <i>pleura-pulmonalis</i>.
+All the other tissues appeared to be healthy.</p>
+
+<p>To the remaining animals, was administered the following: aqua ammonia,
+three drachms; nitric ether, one ounce; pulverized gentian-root, half an
+ounce; mixed with one quart of water, and drenched three times a day.
+The last thing at night was given a teaspoonful of phosphate of lime,
+mixed in a little feed, or in gruel. Setons, or rowels, in the dewlap
+are also very beneficial. Under this treatment they all did well.</p>
+
+<p>Soon after the introduction of the disease into this herd, it found its
+way to the herd of William Hancock, a brother of the former gentleman,
+who had an adjoining farm. In this herd one cow died, and the disease
+was found by the author developed in four more cows and two oxen, all of
+which&mdash;with a single exception&mdash;did well under the above treatment. The
+disease afterward showed itself in the herd of John Pope, half a mile
+distant, who lost nine animals by it.</p>
+
+<p>Thursday, December 19th, was selected for the purpose of making an
+examination of the Hancock herds; but, after some ten or twelve animals
+had been examined and all pronounced tainted with the disease, the
+owners concluded to stop the investigation, expressing themselves
+dissatisfied with the result, as not one of the animals examined had
+shown any symptoms of disease. In order to convince them of the
+correctness of the diagnosis, a cow was selected and destroyed, which
+the Hancocks believed to be in perfect health. Upon opening the animal,
+several small patches of hepatized<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[297]</a></span> lung were brought into view. Upon
+making a longitudinal section of the lump, as both were involved, they
+presented a red, speckled appearance. All the other tissues were
+healthy. The symptoms in these cases were quite different from any which
+had been previously seen in an experience of three years with the
+disease in and about Philadelphia, inasmuch as they were not preceded by
+cough; in fact, cough did not appear in many of the animals at any time
+during the progress of the disease. The animals looked, ate, and milked
+well, previously to the development of the disease, so that the owners
+were thrown completely off their guard by these deceptive symptoms of
+health. Knowing the uncertain character of this disease, and wishing to
+stay its ravages, a suggestion was made by the author as to the
+propriety of having the entire herd killed for beef. This was done the
+more readily, as the sale of the meat is legalized in Europe, it being
+regarded as uninjured, and therefore wholesome meat. This suggestion was
+acted upon, and thus these two farms were rid of this dreadful scourge
+at one blow.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. A. Gaskill, of Mount Holly, N. J., purchased a cow from one of the
+Hancocks, for his own family use, which was sent to Mr. Frank
+Lippincott's to pasture and turned in with Mr. L.'s own herd. Soon
+after, this cow sickened and died. This was soon followed by the loss of
+six of Mr. L.'s own cattle,&mdash;three oxen, two cows, and one steer. From
+this herd, it was communicated to the Widow Lippincott's, who occupied a
+neighboring farm; as also to Mr. Cleavenger's, who lost four animals;
+and to Mr. Smith's, who had, at one time, seven animals sick; and from
+Cleavenger's to Noaknuts, who lost two cows. Some two or three cows,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[298]</a></span>
+belonging to Mr. Logan, in the same neighborhood, got upon the road and
+broke into Mr. Lippincott's pasture, mixing with his herd. As soon as
+Mr. Logan was informed of the fact, he isolated these cows by enclosing
+them in a pen at some distance from his other cattle; but they managed
+to break out, and mingled with his other stock. It could scarcely be
+expected that his herd could escape the disease, considering the
+exposure to which they had been subjected. The disease manifested itself
+in the herds of several other farmers in the country, but space will not
+allow a more extended notice of the subject.</p>
+
+<p>The treatment which has been found most successful in this country is as
+follows, all of which has been tested by the author upon various
+occasions: In the acute, inflammatory stage of the disease, give ten
+drops of Flemming's tincture of aconite in water, every four hours,
+until a change takes place; follow this with aqua ammonia, three
+drachms; nitric ether, one ounce; pulverized gentian-root, one half an
+ounce; water, one quart. Drench three times a day, and give, late in the
+evening, a tablespoonful of phosphate of lime, in a little feed, or
+drench with gruel. Put setons, or rowels in the dewlap, so as to have a
+dependent opening.</p>
+
+<p><a id="illus-299" name="illus-299"></a></p>
+<div class="figleft">
+    <img src="images/illus-299.png" width="464" height="600"
+       alt="" />
+    <p class="caption">TAKING IT EASILY.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>This course has been found very advantageous. Or, the following will be
+found quite satisfactory; nitrate of potash, two drachms; camphor, half
+a drachm; tartrate of antimony, half a drachm; mix, and give in a little
+gruel, night and morning. Or, the following: Glauber-salts, four ounces;
+water, one pint; give twice a day. A gill of cold-drawn castor-oil,
+added to the above, would be beneficial. Continue until the bowels are
+freely opened. The following has<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[299]</a></span> also been found efficacious: sulphate
+of magnesia, eight ounces; nitrate of potash and pulverized Jamaica
+ginger-root, of each one ounce. Repeat as often as may be required.
+Apply externally the following ointment to the sides; biniodide of
+mercury, four drachms; castor-oil, half an ounce; lard, four ounces; mix
+for use.</p>
+
+<p>Preventive measures.&mdash;1st. The complete isolation of all herds in which
+the disease has made its appearance. 2d. Such animals as show symptoms
+of the disease should be placed under proper treatment. 3d. In England,
+it is recommended that animals recovering from the disease should be
+fattened and slaughtered for beef, as they are not safe even after their
+apparent recovery. 4th. All animals beyond medical treatment should be
+killed and buried; recompense in part, at least, being made to the
+owners. 5th. No animal, healthy or diseased, should be allowed to run at
+large upon the public highway so long as the disease may exist in its
+neighborhood.</p>
+
+<p>The united action of all those interested would soon rid the country of
+a disease which has smitten all Europe.</p>
+
+<p>The author takes this occasion to acknowledge the receipt<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[300]</a></span> of two very
+ably written articles upon this subject, which, in consequence of their
+length and the comparatively limited space allotted, he is reluctantly
+compelled to omit. One is from the pen of R. McClure, V.S., and the
+other from Isaiah Michener, V.S. For the benefit his readers, however,
+he desires to make a single extract from the last-named communication,
+without being considered as endorsing the opinion advanced therein:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"I am inclined to favor the hypothesis that pleuro-pneumonia is produced
+by animalcul&aelig;, and that these enter the lungs by myriads, and thereby
+set up irritation and inflammation, which lead to all the phenomena and
+pathological conditions which are to be found upon dissection. This is
+my opinion of the cause of the malignant pleuro-pneumonia which has
+existed in the United States for the last seven years."</p>
+
+<p>After writing the foregoing, the author was informed that this disease
+had made its appearance in Mr. Logan's herd, already mentioned as
+exposed. He was called to visit the herd of Mr. G. Satterthwaite, who
+likewise lost two cows, and had two cows and a calf sick at the time of
+sending for him.</p>
+
+
+<h4><a name="PNEUMONIA" id="PNEUMONIA"></a>PNEUMONIA.</h4>
+
+<p>There are two conditions of the lungs known as pneumonia,&mdash;one, the
+inflammatory, and the other, the congestive stage. The former may follow
+an attack of bronchitis, or it may have a spontaneous origin. The
+congestive is generally the result of cold suddenly applied to an
+overheated animal,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[301]</a></span> causing a determination of blood to the lungs, which
+sometimes causes death by suffocation.</p>
+
+<p><i>Symptoms.</i>&mdash;The disease is preceded by a shivering fit; dry skin;
+staring coat; clammy mouth; short cough; Schneiderian membrane (of the
+nose) very much reddened; respiration hurried or laborious. In the
+congestive stage, upon applying the ear to the sides, no sound will be
+detected; While in the inflammatory stage, a crackling or crepitating
+sound will be distinctively heard.</p>
+
+<p><i>Treatment.</i>&mdash;In the congestive stage, plenty of pure air will be
+necessary. Bleed freely; and give in drench one pound of Glauber-salts,
+with two drachms of Jamaica ginger. Nothing more will be required by way
+of treatment.</p>
+
+<p>In the inflammatory stage, bleeding should seldom be resorted to, except
+where the animal is in full condition. Apply the following blister to
+the sides, well rubbed in: oil of turpentine, one ounce; croton-oil,
+twelve drops; aqua ammonia, half an ounce; linseed-oil, four ounces; mix
+all together. Give internally one pound of salts in drench, and follow
+with one of the following powders every four hours: nitrate of potash,
+one ounce; tartrate of antimony and pulverized digitalis leaves, of
+each, one drachm; mix all together, and divide into eight powders. Or
+the following may be given with equal advantage: nitrate of potash, one
+and a half ounces; nitrate of soda, six ounces; mix, and divide into six
+powders; one to be given in wash or gruel every six hours.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[302]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4><a name="PROTRUSION_OF_THE_BLADDER" id="PROTRUSION_OF_THE_BLADDER"></a>PROTRUSION OF THE BLADDER.</h4>
+
+<p>This sometimes occurs during the throes in difficult cases of
+parturition in cows, and the aid of a skillful veterinary surgeon is
+requisite to replace the inverted bladder.</p>
+
+
+<h4><a name="PUERPERAL_FEVER" id="PUERPERAL_FEVER"></a>PUERPERAL FEVER.</h4>
+
+<p>This disease&mdash;milk fever, or dropping after calving&mdash;rarely occurs until
+the animal has attained mature age. The first symptoms make their
+appearance in from one to five or six days after parturition. It appears
+to be a total suspension of nervous function, independent of
+inflammatory action, which is suddenly developed, and, in favorable
+cases, as suddenly disappears. It is called dropping after calving, from
+its following the parturient state.</p>
+
+<p><i>Symptoms.</i>&mdash;Tremor of hind legs; a staggering gait, which soon
+terminates in loss of power in the hind limbs; pulse rises to sixty or
+eighty per minute; milk diminishing in quantity as the disease
+progresses; the animal soon goes down, and is unable to rise, moans
+piteously; eyes set in the head; general stupor; and slow respiration.</p>
+
+<p><i>Treatment.</i>&mdash;This disease, though generally regarded as a febrile
+disorder, will not yield to the general practice of taking blood, as a
+large majority of the cases so treated die. The bowels must be opened,
+but the veins never. Give Epsom-salts, one pound; Jamaica ginger, two
+ounces; dissolve in warm water, one quart, and drench. The author
+usually gives with good effect, some five or six hours after the salts,
+two ounces of nitric ether and one ounce of tincture of opium, in half a
+pint of water. Rub well in, along the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[303]</a></span> back and loins, the following:
+strong mustard, three ounces; aqua ammonia and water, each one and a
+half ounces. Some modifications in the treatment of this disease, as
+well as of most others, will be necessary under certain circumstances,
+which can only be determined by the veterinary practitioner.</p>
+
+
+<h4><a name="QUARTER_EVIL" id="QUARTER_EVIL"></a>QUARTER EVIL.</h4>
+
+<p>In some sections of the country, this disease&mdash;known by the other names
+of black quarter, and joint murrain&mdash;is quite common among young cattle,
+and is generally fatal in its termination. There is little or no warning
+of its approach. The first animals in a herd to be attacked are
+generally those in a full, plethoric condition.</p>
+
+<p><i>Symptoms.</i>&mdash;The joints suddenly become swollen, and so painful as to
+produce severe lameness, particularly in the hind parts. General
+irritative fever exists in the system, attended with great tenderness of
+the loins; the head is poked out; eyes red and bulging; the roots of the
+horns, as well as the breath, are hot; the muzzle dry, and nostrils
+expanded; pulse rises to seventy or eighty, full and hard; respiration
+is hurried; the animal is constantly moaning, and appears to be
+unconscious of surrounding objects; the swelling of the limbs extends to
+the shoulder and haunch; the animal totters, falls and dies in from
+twelve to twenty-four hours.</p>
+
+<p><i>Treatment.</i>&mdash;Early bleeding is requisite here, to be followed by active
+purgatives; after which, give one of the following powders every half
+hour: nitrate of potassa, two ounces; tartrate of antimony and
+pulverized digitalis, of each one and a half drachms; mix, and divide
+into eight powders. These should not be renewed. Cold linseed tea should
+be freely given.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[304]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4><a name="RABIES" id="RABIES"></a>RABIES.</h4>
+
+<p>Hydrophobia in cattle is the result of the bite of a rabid dog, from
+which bite no animal escapes. The effects produced by the wound made by
+the teeth of such an animal, after the virus is once absorbed into the
+circulation of the blood, are so poisonous that all treatment is
+useless. The proper remedies must be instantly applied to prevent this
+absorption, or the case is utterly hopeless. Among men, nine out of
+every ten bitten by rabid dogs escape the terrible effects resulting
+from this dreadful disorder, without resorting to any applications to
+prevent it. It is a well-established fact, that men, when bitten by
+dogs, are generally wounded in some part protected by their clothing,
+which guards them from the deleterious effects of the saliva which
+covers the teeth, and which, at such times, is deadly poison. The teeth,
+in passing through the clothing, are wiped clean, so that the virus is
+not introduced into the blood; hence the comparatively few cases of
+rabies occurring in man. When, however, the wound is made upon an
+exposed surface, as the flesh of the hand, or of the face, this fatal
+disease is developed in spite of every precaution, unless such
+precautions are immediately taken. For this reason, cattle when bitten,
+do not escape the disease.</p>
+
+<p><i>Symptoms.</i>&mdash;The animal separates itself from the rest of the herd,
+standing in a kind of stupor, with the eyes half-closed; respiration
+natural; pulse quickened; temperature of body and limbs natural; the
+slightest noise agitates, causing the eyes to glare and exciting
+bellowing; the bark of a dog produces the most violent effects; the
+animal foams at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[305]</a></span> the mouth and staggers as it walks; if water is
+offered, the muzzle is plunged into it, but the victim cannot drink; in
+making the effort, the most fearful consequences are produced. The
+animal now seeks to do mischief,&mdash;and the quicker it is then destroyed,
+the better.</p>
+
+<p><i>Treatment.</i>&mdash;This must be applied quickly, or not at all. The moment an
+animal is bitten, that moment the wound should be searched for, and when
+found, should be freely opened with a knife, and lunar caustic, caustic
+potash, or the permanganate of potash at once applied to all parts of
+the wound, care being taken not to suffer a single scratch to escape.
+This, if attended to in time, will save the animal.</p>
+
+
+<h4><a name="RED_WATER" id="RED_WATER"></a>RED WATER.</h4>
+
+<p>This disease derives its name from the color of the urine voided in it.
+It is one of the most common complaints of horned cattle, and one of the
+most troublesome to manage.</p>
+
+<p><i>Symptoms.</i>&mdash;Respiration hurried; rumination ceases; a high degree of
+fever presented; the animal moans, arches the back, and strains in
+passing the urine, which is tinged with blood, or presents the
+appearance of pure blood. Prof. Gamgee, of the Edinburgh Veterinary
+College, says: "The cause is almost invariably feeding on turnips that
+have grown on damp, ill-drained land; and very often a change of diet
+stops the spread of this disease in the byre. Other succulent food,
+grown under similar circumstances, may produce the same symptoms,
+tending to disturb the digestive organs and the blood-forming process.</p>
+
+<p>"In the course of my investigations as to the cause of various
+cattle-diseases, and of red water in particular. I have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[306]</a></span> found that it
+is unknown on well-drained farms and in dairies where turnips are used
+only in a moderate degree. The lands of poor people furnish the roots
+most likely to induce this disorder; and I can confirm the statement of
+the late Mr. Cumming, of Elton, who, in his very interesting essay upon
+this subject, says, particularly in reference to Aberdeenshire, that it
+is 'a disease essentially attacking the poor man's cow; and to be seen
+and studied, requires a practice extending into the less favorably
+situated parts of the country. On large farms, where good stock is well
+kept, and in town dairies, where artificial food is used to supplement
+the supply of turnips, it is seldom now seen.'</p>
+
+<p>"<i>Symptoms.</i>&mdash;General derangement attracts the dairyman's attention,
+and, upon observing the urine which the animal has voided, it is seen to
+be of a red, or of a reddish brown, or claret color; sometimes
+transparent, at others clear. The color increases in depth; other
+secretions are checked; the animal becomes hide-bound, and the milk goes
+off. Appetite and rumination are suspended; the pulse becomes extremely
+feeble and frequent, though&mdash;as in all debilitating, or an&aelig;mic,
+disorders&mdash;the heart's action is loud and strong, with a decided venous
+pulse, or apparent regurgitation, in the large veins of the neck.</p>
+
+<p>"In some cases, if even a small quantity of blood be withdrawn, the
+animal drops in a fainting state. In red water, the visible mucous
+membranes are blanched, and the extremities cold, indicating the languid
+state of the blood's circulation and the poverty of the blood itself.
+Constipation is one of the most obstinate complications; and many
+veterinary surgeons&mdash;aware that, if the bowels can be acted on, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[307]</a></span>
+animal is cured&mdash;have employed purgatives in quantities far too large,
+inducing at times even death. Occasionally, diarrh&oelig;a is one of the
+first, and not of the unfavorable, symptoms."</p>
+
+<p><i>Treatment.</i>&mdash;Give one pint of linseed-oil; clysters of soap and water
+should be freely used; and give plenty of linseed-tea to drink. When the
+urine is abundant, give one ounce of tincture of opium, with one drachm
+of powdered aloes, three times, at intervals of six or eight hours.</p>
+
+
+<h4><a name="RHEUMATISM" id="RHEUMATISM"></a>RHEUMATISM.</h4>
+
+<p>This is a constitutional inflammatory affection of the joints, affecting
+the fibrous tissue and serous, or synovial membrane. It is caused by
+exposure to cold and wet; being quite common in low, marshy sections.</p>
+
+<p><i>Symptoms.</i>&mdash;Loss of appetite; upon forcing the animal to move, every
+joint seems stiffened; nose dry; coat staring; constipation is also an
+attendant symptom; the joints, one or more, become swollen and painful.
+This may be regarded as a metastic, or shifting disease; first one part,
+and then another, seems to be affected.</p>
+
+<p><i>Treatment.</i>&mdash;Mild purgatives should be used; one-half-ounce doses of
+colchicum-root pulverized will be found useful; one-ounce balls of
+pine-tar may also be given with advantage. As a local application, the
+author has found nothing to equal kerosene oil, one pint, to two ounces
+of aqua ammonia, well rubbed in, two or three times a day.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[308]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4><a name="STRANGULATION_OF_THE_INTESTINES" id="STRANGULATION_OF_THE_INTESTINES"></a>STRANGULATION OF THE INTESTINES.</h4>
+
+<p>This disease in cattle,&mdash;popularly styled Knot, or Gut-tie,&mdash;in
+consequence of the peculiar arrangement of the abdominal viscera, is of
+very rare occurrence. When, however, it does occur, the symptoms
+accompanying are those of inflammation of the intestines.</p>
+
+<p>No kind of treatment will be successful, and the poor brute must suffer
+until death comes to its relief.</p>
+
+
+<h4><a name="THRUSH_IN_THE_MOUTH" id="THRUSH_IN_THE_MOUTH"></a>THRUSH IN THE MOUTH.</h4>
+
+<p>Aptha, or thrush in the mouth, is a vesicular disease of the mouth,
+sometimes occurring as an epizo&ouml;tic. It is often mistaken for
+blain,&mdash;inflammation of the tongue, or black tongue,&mdash;and usually occurs
+in the winter, or early in the spring. It appears in the form of
+vesicles, or pustules all over the mouth, occasionally extending to the
+outside of the lips. These pustules break, discharging a thin, sanious
+fluid, leaving minute ulcers in their places.</p>
+
+<p>This disease yields readily to treatment, when it is properly applied.
+Three ounces of Epsom-salts, once a day for three or four days, should
+be given in drench; wash the mouth well with a solution of alum,
+tincture of myrrh, or vinegar and honey, and it will disappear in a few
+days.</p>
+
+
+<h4><a name="TUMORS" id="TUMORS"></a>TUMORS.</h4>
+
+<p>These enlargements so common in cattle, have been so admirably
+described, in the Veterinarian for 1843, by John Ralph, V.S.,&mdash;who has
+been so successful in the treatment of these morbid growths, that the
+benefit of his experience is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[309]</a></span> here given. He says: "Of all the
+accidental productions met with among cattle, with the exception of
+wens, a certain kind of indurated tumor, chiefly situated about the head
+and throat, has abounded most in my practice.</p>
+
+<p>"The affection often commences in one of the thyroid glands, which
+slowly but gradually increases in size, feels firm when grasped, and
+evinces very little tenderness. Generally the attendant is alarmed by a
+snoring or wheezing noise emitted by the animal in respiration, before
+he is aware of the existence of any tumefaction. This continues to
+increase, embracing in its progress the adjacent cellular and muscular
+tissues, and frequently the submaxillary and parotid glands. It becomes
+firmly attached to the skin through which an opening is ultimately
+effected by the pressure of pus from the centre of the tumor.</p>
+
+<p>"The swelling often presents an irregular surface, and various centres
+of maturation exist; but the evacuations only effect a partial and
+temporary reduction of its bulk, in consequence of the continued
+extension of the morbid growth and ulcerative process which often
+proceed towards the pharynx, rendering respiration and deglutition still
+more difficult, until at length the animal sinks from atrophy or
+<i>phthisis pulmonalis</i>.</p>
+
+<p>"In the early part of my practice, having been frustrated in my attempts
+to establish healthy action in these ulcers, and referring to the works
+that I had on surgery for information, I concluded that they bore some
+resemblance to cancer in the human being, and determined to attempt
+extirpation. Subsequently, numerous cases have occurred in which I have
+successfully carried that determination into effect. I have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[310]</a></span> had some
+instances of failure, which failure always arose from some portion of
+the morbid growth having been left.</p>
+
+<p>"In the first stage, I have reason to believe that the tumor may be
+dispersed by the general and topical use of the iodurets. After the
+suppuration, I have tried them in vain.</p>
+
+<p>"As soon as the nature of the tumor is clearly developed, I generally
+attempt its removal, and, when most prominent by the side of the larynx,
+I proceed in the following manner:&mdash;Having cast the beast, turned the
+occiput toward the ground, and bolstered it up with bundles of straw, I
+proceed to make an incision through it, if the skin is free, parallel
+with, and over, and between the trachea and <i>sterno-maxillaris</i>,
+extending it sufficiently forward into the inter-maxillary spaces. If I
+find it firmly attached to the apex of the tumor, I then enclose it in a
+curvilinear incision and proceed to detach the healthy skin to beyond
+the verge of the tumor.</p>
+
+<p>"Its edges being held by an assistant, the knife is directed downwards
+through the subcutaneous parts, and all those that exhibit the slightest
+change from healthy structure are removed.</p>
+
+<p>"By tying any considerable blood-vessel before dividing it, and by using
+the handle of the scalpel and the fingers in detaching the portion of
+the parotid gland towards the ear the hemorrhage was always
+inconsiderable.</p>
+
+<p>"The wound is then treated in the ordinary way; except that detergents
+and even antiseptics are often needed to arouse healthy action, and the
+addition of some preparation of iodine is often made to the digestive.
+In directing the constitutional treatment, our chief aim must be to
+support<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[311]</a></span> the animal system with plenty of gruel until rumination is
+restored.</p>
+
+<p>"I need not note that the operation should be performed after the animal
+has fasted some hours.</p>
+
+<p>"As the success of the operation depends on an entire removal of the
+diseased parts, and as the submaxillary and parotid glands, with
+important branches of nerves and blood-vessels, are often enveloped
+therein, we must not hesitate to remove the former, nor to divide the
+latter. It has occasionally happened that a rupture has been made in the
+&oelig;sophagus, or pharynx, during the operation. In that case, a portion
+of the gruel with which the animal is drenched escapes for a few days;
+but I always found that the wound healed by granulation, without any
+particular attention.</p>
+
+<p>"The weight of these tumors varies from a few ounces to some pounds. One
+that I removed from a two-year-old Galloway bullock, weighed six pounds
+and a quarter. A considerable portion of the skin that covered it was
+excised and included in the above weight. It <ins class="correction" title="comprehened">comprehended</ins>
+one of the parotid glands, and I had to divide the trunk of the carotid
+artery and jugular vein.</p>
+
+<p>"This affection may be distinguished from parotiditis and other
+<i>phlegmasi&aelig;</i> by the action of constitutional disturbance, and heat, and
+tenderness, and by the lingering progress it makes. I was once called to
+a bull laboring under alarming dyspn&oelig;a that had gradually increased.
+No external enlargement was perceptible; but on introducing my hand into
+the mouth, a large polypus was found hanging from the <i>velum palati</i>
+into the pharynx, greatly obstructing the elevation of the epiglottis
+and the passage of food. After<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[312]</a></span> performing tracheotomy, to prevent
+suffocation, I passed a ligature around its pedicle in the way suggested
+by the old anatomist, Cheselden.</p>
+
+<p>"A section of one of these tumors mostly displays several abscesses,
+with matter varying in consistency and often very fetid, enclosed in
+what seems to me to be fibro-cartilaginous cysts, the exterior of which
+sometimes gradually disappears in the surrounding more vascular abnormal
+growth. Osseous matter (I judge from the grating of the scalpel upon it)
+occasionally enters into the composition of the cysts.</p>
+
+<p>"I have treated this affection in cattle of the Long-horned,
+Short-horned, Galloway, and Highland breeds; and from the number of
+bulls in this class of patients, have reason to conclude that they are
+more liable to it than the female.</p>
+
+<p>"About twelve months ago, I examined the head of a cow, on the right
+facial region of which there existed an enormous tumor, extending from
+the eye to the lips, and which I mistook during life for a periosteal
+enlargement. On cutting into it, my mistake was evident. There was
+scarcely a trace of the original bones beneath the mass; even those
+forming the nasal sinuses on that side were replaced by a formation much
+resembling the cysts before alluded to, and full of abscesses. The
+progress of the disease was decisively marked in the inferior rim of the
+orbital cavity, where the osseous matter was being removed, and the
+morbid structure deposited."</p>
+
+
+<h4><a name="ULCERS_ABOUT_THE_JOINTS" id="ULCERS_ABOUT_THE_JOINTS"></a>ULCERS ABOUT THE JOINTS.</h4>
+
+<p>Occasionally, the joints assume a tumefied appearance, generally
+ulcerating, and causing painful wounds.</p>
+
+<p><i>Treatment.</i>&mdash;The application of one part of alum to two<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[313]</a></span> parts of
+prepared chalk, powdered and sprinkled upon the parts, is usually all
+that is required.</p>
+
+
+<h4><a name="WARBLES" id="WARBLES"></a>WARBLES.</h4>
+
+<p>It has been a prevalent opinion among farmers, that warbles are so many
+evidences of the good condition of their cattle. It must, however, be
+borne in mind that the warbles are the <i>larv&aelig;</i> of the <i>&oelig;strus bovis</i>,
+which is said to be the most beautiful variety of gad-fly. This fly,
+judging from the objects of its attack, must be particularly choice in
+its selection of animals upon which to deposit its eggs, as it rarely
+chooses those poor in flesh, or in an unhealthy condition. From this
+circumstance, probably, has arisen the opinion above-mentioned.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+    <a id="illus-313" name="illus-313"></a>
+    <img src="images/illus-313.png" width="525" height="600"
+       alt="" />
+    <p class="caption">HOME AGAIN.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>These warbles&mdash;or <i>larv&aelig;</i> of the <i>&oelig;strus bovis</i>&mdash;so nearly resemble
+bots in the horse&mdash;or <i>larv&aelig; &oelig;strus equi</i>&mdash;that, were it not for
+their increased size, they might readily be mistaken the one for the
+other. There is, however, one other difference, and that is in the rings
+which encircle the body; those<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[314]</a></span> of the former being perfectly smooth,
+while those of the latter are prickly, and from one third to one half
+smaller.</p>
+
+<p>The author was called, in the year 1856, to see the prize cow, Pet,
+belonging to James Kelly, of Cleveland, Ohio, whose extraordinary yield
+of butter and milk had been reported in the <i>Ohio Farmer</i>, a short time
+previous to his visit. This animal was found by him in rather poor
+condition; the causes of which he could only trace to the existence of
+these worms, comfortably located, as they were, beneath the animal's
+hide, and forming small tumors all along the spinal column, each being
+surrounded by a considerable quantity of pus. A number of these were
+removed by means of a curved bistoury and a pair of forceps, since which
+time&mdash;as he has been informed&mdash;the animal has rapidly improved,
+regaining her former good condition.</p>
+
+<p>Some may urge that this is an isolated case; but an examination of
+cattle for themselves, will convince them to the contrary. It may be
+added, that two other cows, belonging to the same gentleman, were also
+examined at the same time,&mdash;one of them being in good condition, and the
+other, out of condition. From the back of the latter several of these
+insects were removed, since which time she also has much improved. The
+former was entirely free from them. These cows were all kept in the same
+pasture, received the same care, and were fed on the same food, and at
+the same time; and as the removal of these larv&aelig; has been productive of
+such beneficial results, have we not a right to infer that these insects
+are injurious?</p>
+
+<p>If we go further and examine, in the spring of the year, all cattle
+which are subject to them, instead of finding them in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[315]</a></span> the fine
+condition which one would naturally expect,&mdash;considering the abundance
+of fresh young grass whose vigorous life they may incorporate into their
+own,&mdash;they are out of condition, and out of spirits, with a laggard eye,
+a rough coat, and, in some cases, a staggering gait, as though their
+strength had failed in consequence.</p>
+
+<p>How shall such attacks be prevented? During the months of August and
+September this gad-fly is busily engaged in depositing its eggs. Some
+are of the opinion that they are placed on the hairs of the animal;
+others, that the skin is perforated, and the egg deposited in the
+opening, which would account for the apparent pain manifested by cattle
+at and after the time of such deposit. Be this as it may, it is certain
+that the maggot works its way into the muscular fibre of the back, and
+depends upon the animal's blood for the nourishment which it receives.</p>
+
+<p>The author has been informed, by persons in whom he ought to have
+confidence, that the <i>free use of the card</i>, during the above-named
+months, is a specific protection against the attacks of the <i>&oelig;strus
+bovis</i>. He repeats this information here, not without diffidence; since
+so large a majority of stock-owners evince, by their lack of familiarity
+with the practical use of this convenient and portable instrument, an
+utter disbelief in its reliability and value.</p>
+
+
+<h4><a name="WORMS" id="WORMS"></a>WORMS.</h4>
+
+<p>Cattle are not so subject to worms proper as are the other domestic
+animals; nor, when these parasites do exist, is any injurious effect
+apparent, except it be in the case of young calves of a weakly
+constitution. Worms are most commonly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[316]</a></span> located in the small intestines,
+and cause there considerable irritation, and consequently, general
+emaciation, or at least a tendency to it.</p>
+
+<p>The cause, however, is easily removed by administering doses of sulphate
+of iron, one-half drachm each, in molasses once or twice a day.</p>
+
+
+<h4><a name="WORMS_IN_THE_BRONCHIAL_TUBES" id="WORMS_IN_THE_BRONCHIAL_TUBES"></a>WORMS IN THE BRONCHIAL TUBES.</h4>
+
+<p>Inflammation of the bronchial tubes is often caused by worms of the
+<i>strongylus</i> species. Upon examination after death, the bronchial
+passages are completely blocked-up by these hangers-on.</p>
+
+<p><i>Symptoms.</i>&mdash;A rough, staring coat; hide-bound; painful cough;
+respiration hurried, etc.</p>
+
+<p><i>Treatment.</i>&mdash;But little can be done by way of treatment in this
+disease. The administration of small doses of spirits of turpentine has,
+in some instances, proved successful.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="SURGICAL_OPERATIONS" id="SURGICAL_OPERATIONS"></a>SURGICAL OPERATIONS.</h3>
+
+<h4><a name="CASTRATION" id="CASTRATION"></a>CASTRATION.</h4>
+
+<p>The period most commonly selected for this operation is between the
+first and third months. The nearer it is to the expiration of the first
+month, the less danger attends the operation.</p>
+
+<p>Some persons prepare the animal by the administration of a dose of
+physic; but others proceed at once to the operation when it best suits
+their convenience, or that of the farmer. Care, however, should be taken
+that the young<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[317]</a></span> animal is in perfect health. The mode formerly practised
+was simple enough:&mdash;a piece of whip-cord was tied as tightly as possible
+around the scrotum. The supply of blood being thus completely cut off,
+the bag and its contents soon became livid and dead, and were suffered
+to hang, by some careless operators, until they dropped off, or they
+were cut off on the second or third day.</p>
+
+<p>It is now, however, the general practice to grasp the scrotum in the
+hand, between the testicles and the belly, and to make an incision in
+one side of it, near the bottom, of sufficient depth to penetrate
+through the inner covering of the testicle, and of sufficient length to
+admit of its escape. The testicle immediately bursts from its bag, and
+is seen hanging by its cord.</p>
+
+<p>The careless or brutal operator now firmly ties a piece of small string
+around the cord, and having thus stopped the circulation, cuts through
+the cord, half an inch below the ligature, and removes the testicle. He,
+however, who has any feeling for the poor animal on which he is
+operating, considers that the only use of the ligature is to compress
+the blood-vessels and prevent after-hemorrhage, and, therefore, saves a
+great deal of unnecessary torture by including them alone in the
+ligature, and afterwards dividing the rest of the cord. The other
+testicle is proceeded with in the same way and the operation is
+complete. The length of the cord should be so contrived that it will
+immediately retract, or be drawn back, into the scrotum, but not higher,
+while the ends of the string hang out through the wound. In the course
+of about a week, the strings will usually drop off, and the wounds will
+speedily heal. There will rarely be any occasion to make<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[318]</a></span> any
+application to the scrotum, except fomentation of it, if much swelling
+should ensue.</p>
+
+<p>A few, whose practice cannot be justified, seize the testicle as soon as
+it escapes from the bag, and, pulling violently, break the cord and tear
+it out. It is certain that when a blood-vessel is thus ruptured, it
+forcibly contracts, and very little bleeding follows; but if the cord
+breaks high up, and retracts into the belly, considerable inflammation
+has occasionally ensued, and the beast has been lost.</p>
+
+<p>The application of <i>torsion</i>&mdash;or the twisting of the arteries by a pair
+of forceps which will firmly grasp them&mdash;has, in a great degree,
+superseded every other mode of castration, both in the larger and the
+smaller domesticated animals. The spermatic artery is exposed, and
+seized with the forceps, which are then closed by a very simple
+mechanical contrivance; the vessel is drawn a little out from its
+surrounding tissue, the forceps are turned around seven or eight times,
+and the vessel liberated. It will be found to be perfectly closed; a
+small knot will have formed on its extremity; it will retract into the
+surrounding surface, and not a drop more of blood will flow from it; the
+cord may then be divided, and the bleeding from any little vessel
+arrested in the same way. Neither the application of the hot iron, nor
+of the wooden clamps, whether with or without caustic, can be necessary
+in the castration of the calf.</p>
+
+<p>A new instrument was introduced in France, some few years since, for
+this purpose, called the <i>acraseur</i>,&mdash;so constructed as to throw a chain
+over the cord, which is wound up by means of a screw working upon the
+chain, and at the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[319]</a></span> same time the cord is twisted off. No bleeding
+follows this method of operating.</p>
+
+<p>This instrument is constructed upon the same principle as the <i>acraseur</i>
+for use in the human family, for the removal of hemorrhoids, etc., the
+dimensions of the two only varying.</p>
+
+<p>The advantages resulting from the use of this instrument over all other
+methods are, that the parts generally heal within a week,&mdash;the operation
+is not so painful to the animal,&mdash;it is less troublesome to the
+operator,&mdash;also to the owner of the animal,&mdash;and lastly, it is a safer
+and more scientific operation. Its success in France soon gave it a
+reputation in England, and recently it has been introduced by the author
+into this country, and with the best results. Contractors, hearing of
+the success attending this new mode of operating, have visited him from
+all parts of the country to witness its performance, and not one has
+returned without leaving an order for this instrument,&mdash;so well
+convinced have they been of its decided superiority over all other
+methods.</p>
+
+
+<h4><a name="TRACHEOTOMY" id="TRACHEOTOMY"></a>TRACHEOTOMY.</h4>
+
+<p>In consequence of the formation of tumors about the throat in cattle,
+from inflammation of the parotid gland, blain, etc., so characteristic
+of this species of animals, it sometimes becomes necessary to perform
+this operation in order to save their lives. It never fails to give
+instant relief.</p>
+
+<p>After the animal has been properly secured,&mdash;which is done by an
+assistant's holding the nose with one hand, and one of the horns with
+the other,&mdash;the operator draws the skin tight over the windpipe with the
+thumb and fingers of his left hand; then, with the scalpel in his right,
+cuts through the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[320]</a></span> skin, making an incision about three inches long,
+dissecting up the skin on each side, which brings the <i>trachea</i>, or
+windpipe, in full view. He then cuts out a piece of the cartilaginous
+rings, about two inches long and about half an inch wide. This simple
+operation has saved the lives of very many valuable animals. The wound
+readily heals, and seldom leaves any perceptible blemish, if the work is
+properly performed.</p>
+
+
+<h4><a name="SPAYING" id="SPAYING"></a>SPAYING.</h4>
+
+<p>To secure a more uniform flow and a richer quality of milk, cows are
+sometimes spayed, or castrated. The milk of spayed cows is pretty
+uniform in quality; and this quality will be, on an average, a little
+more than before the operation was performed. In instances where the
+results of this operation have been carefully noted,&mdash;and the operation
+is rarely resorted to in this country, in comparison with the custom in
+France and other continental countries,&mdash;the quality of the milk has
+been greatly improved, the yield becoming regular for some years, and
+varying only in accordance with the difference in the succulence of the
+food.</p>
+
+<p>The proper time for spaying is about five or six weeks after calving, or
+at the time when the largest quantity of milk is given. There seems to
+be some advantages in spaying for milk and butter dairies, where
+attention is not paid to the raising of stock. The cows are more quiet,
+never being liable to returns of seasons of heat, which always more or
+less affect the milk, both in quantity and quality. They give milk
+nearly uniform in these respects, for several years, provided the food
+is uniformly succulent and nutritious. Their milk is influenced like
+that of other cows, though to a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[321]</a></span> less extent, by the quality and
+quantity of food; so that in winter, unless the animal is properly
+attended to, the yield will decrease somewhat, but will rise again as
+good feed returns. This uniformity for the milk-dairy is of immense
+advantage. Besides, the cow, when old and inclined to dry up, takes on
+fat with greater rapidity, and produces a juicy and tender beef,
+superior, at the same age, to that of the ox.</p>
+
+<p>The following method of performing this operation is sanctioned by the
+practice of eminent veterinary surgeons in France:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>Having covered the eyes of the cow to be operated upon, she is placed
+against a wall, provided with five rings firmly fastened and placed as
+follows: the first corresponds to the top of the withers; the second, to
+the lower anterior part of the breast; the third is placed a little
+distance from the angle of the shoulder; the fourth is opposite to the
+anterior and superior part of the lower region; and the fifth, which is
+behind, answers to the under-part of the buttocks. A strong assistant is
+placed between the wall and the head of the animal, who firmly holds the
+left horn in his left hand, and with his right, the muzzle, which he
+elevates a little. This done, the end of a long and strong-plaited cord
+is passed, through the ring which corresponds to the lower part of the
+breast, and fastened; the free end of the cord is brought along the left
+flank, and through the ring which is below and in front of the withers.
+This is brought down along the breast behind the shoulder and the angle
+of the fore-leg in order to pass it through the third ring; then it must
+be passed around against the outer angle of the left hip, and fastened<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[322]</a></span>
+after having been drawn tightly to the posterior ring, by a simple
+bow-<ins class="correction" title="knot">not</ins>.</p>
+
+<p>The cow being thus firmly fixed to the wall, a cord is fastened by a
+slip-noose around her hocks, to keep them together in such a manner that
+she cannot kick the operator, the free end of the cord and the tail
+being held by an assistant. The cow thus secured cannot, during the
+operation, move forward, nor lie down, and the operator has all the ease
+desirable, and is protected from accident.</p>
+
+<p>The operator next&mdash;placed opposite to the animal's left flank, with his
+back turned a little toward the head of the animal&mdash;cuts off the hair
+which covers the hide in the middle of the flanks, at an equal distance
+between the back and hip, for the space of thirteen or fourteen
+centimetres in circumference (the French <i>centimetre</i> is rather more
+than thirty-nine one hundredths of an inch); a convex bistoury is
+placed, opened, between his teeth, the edge out, the joints to the left;
+then, with both hands, he seizes the hide in the middle of the flank,
+and forms of it a wrinkle of the requisite elevation, running lengthwise
+of the body. The assistant seizes with his right hand the right side of
+this wrinkle; the operator takes the bistoury and cuts the wrinkle, at
+one stroke, through the middle; the wrinkle having been suffered to go
+down, a separation of the hide is presented, of sufficient length to
+admit the introduction of the hand; the edges of the hide are separated
+with the thumb and fore-finger of the left hand, and in like manner the
+abdominal muscles are cut through, for the distance of a centimetre from
+the lower extremity of the incision made in the hide,&mdash;the <i>iliac</i>
+slightly obliquely, and the <i>lumbar</i> across; a puncture of the
+peritoneum, at the upper<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[323]</a></span> extremity of the wound, is then made with the
+straight bistoury; the buttoned bistoury is then introduced, and moved
+obliquely from above to the lower part, up to the termination of the
+incision made in the abdominal muscles.</p>
+
+<p>The flank being opened, the right hand is introduced into the abdomen,
+and directed along the right side of the cavity of the pelvis, behind
+the paunch, and underneath the rectum, to the matrix; after the position
+of these viscera is ascertained, the organs of reproduction, or ovaries,
+are searched for, which are at the extremity of the matrix; when found,
+they are seized between the thumb and fore-finger, detached completely
+from the ligaments which keeps them in their place, and by a light pull,
+the cord and the vessels, the uterine or Fallopian tube, are separated
+at their place of union with the ovarium, by means of the nails of the
+thumb and fore-finger, which present themselves at the point of touch,
+thus breaking the cord and bringing away the ovary.</p>
+
+<p>The hand is again introduced into the abdominal cavity, and the
+remaining ovaries brought away in like manner. A suture is then placed
+of three or four double threads, waxed at an equal distance, and at two
+centimetres, or a little less, from the lips of the wound, passing it
+through the divided tissues; a movement is made from the left hand with
+the piece of thread; having reached that point, a fastening is made with
+a double knot, the seam placed in the intervals of the thread from the
+right, and as the lips of the wound are approached, a fastening is
+effected by a simple knot, with a bow, care being taken not to close too
+tightly the lower part of the seam, in order to allow the suppuration,
+which may be established in the wound, to escape. The wound is then<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[324]</a></span>
+covered up with a pledget of lint, kept in its place by three or four
+threads passed through the stitches, and the operation is complete.</p>
+
+<p>It happens, sometimes, that in cutting the muscles before mentioned, one
+or two of the arteries are severed. Should much blood escape, a ligature
+must be applied before opening the peritoneal sac; since, if this
+precaution is omitted, blood will escape into the abdomen, which may
+occasion the most serious consequences.</p>
+
+<p>For the first eight days succeeding, the animal should have a light
+diet, and a soothing, lukewarm draught; if the weather should be cold,
+cover with a woollen covering. She must be prevented from licking the
+wound, and from rubbing it against other bodies. The third day after the
+operation, bathe morning and evening about the wound with water of
+mallows lukewarm, or anoint it with a salve of hog's lard, and
+administer an emollient glyster during three or four days.</p>
+
+<p>Eight days after the operation, take away the bandage, the lint, the
+fastenings, and the thread. The wound is at that time, as a general
+thing, completely cicatrized. Should, however, some slight suppuration
+exist, a slight pressure must be used above the part where it is
+located, so as to cause the pus to leave, and if it continues more than
+five or six days, emollients must be supplied by <ins class="correction" title="alcotized">alcolized</ins>
+water, or chloridized, especially in summer. The animal is then to be
+brought back gradually to her ordinary nourishment.</p>
+
+<p>In some cows, a swelling of the body is observable a short time after
+having been spayed, attributable to the introduction of cold air into
+the abdomen during the operation; but this derangement generally ceases
+within twenty-four hours.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[325]</a></span> Should the contrary occur, administer one or
+two sudorific draughts, such as wine, warm cider, or a half-glass of
+brandy, in a quart of warm water,&mdash;treatment which suffices in a short
+time to restore a healthy state of the belly,&mdash;the animal at the same
+time being protected by two coverings of wool.</p>
+
+<p>The only precaution, in the way of management, to be observed as a
+preparative for the operation is, that on the preceding evening not so
+copious a meal should be given. The operation should also be performed
+in the morning before the animal has fed, so that the operator may not
+find any obstacle from the primary digestive organs, especially the
+paunch, which, during its state of ordinary fullness, might prevent
+operating with facility.</p>
+
+<p>The advantages of spaying milch-cows are thus summed up by able French
+writers: First, rendering permanent the secretion of milk, and having a
+much greater quantity within the given time of every year; second, the
+quality of milk being improved; third, the uncertainty of, and the
+dangers incident to, breeding being, to a great extent, avoided; fourth,
+the increased disposition to fatten even when giving milk freely, or
+when, from excess of age or from accidental circumstances, the secretion
+of milk is otherwise checked; fifth, the very short time required to
+produce a marketable condition; and sixth, the meat of spayed cattle
+being of a quality superior to that of ordinary cattle.</p>
+
+<p>This operation would seem to have originated in this country. The London
+Veterinary Journal of 1834 contains the following, taken from the United
+States Southern Agriculturist:&mdash;"Some years since, I passed a summer at
+Natchez, and put up at a hotel there, kept by Mr. Thomas<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[326]</a></span> Winn. During
+the time that I was there I noticed two remarkably fine cows, which were
+kept constantly in the stable, the servant who had charge of the horses,
+feeding them regularly three times a day with green guinea grass, cut
+with a sickle. These cows had so often attracted my attention, on
+account of the great beauty of their form, and deep red color, the large
+size of their bags, and the high condition in which they were kept, that
+I was at length induced to ask Mr. Winn to what breed of cattle they
+belonged, and his reasons for keeping them constantly in the stable in
+preference to allowing them to run in the pasture, where they could
+enjoy the benefit of air and exercise, and at the same time crop their
+own food, and thereby save the labor and trouble of feeding them? Mr.
+Winn, in reply to these inquiries, stated that the two cows which I so
+much admired were of the common stock of the country, and he believed,
+of Spanish origin; but they were both spayed cows, and that they had
+given milk either two or three years. Considering this a phenomenon (if
+not in nature at least in art), I made further inquiries of Mr. Winn,
+who politely entered into a very interesting detail, communicating facts
+which were as extraordinary as they were novel. Mr. Winn, by way of
+preface, observed that he, in former years, had been in the habit of
+reading English magazines, which contained accounts of the
+plowing-matches which were annually held in some of the southern
+counties of England, performed by cattle, and that he had noticed that
+the prizes were generally adjudged to the plowman who worked with spayed
+heifers; and although there was no connection between that subject and
+the facts which he should state, it was, nevertheless, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[327]</a></span> cause that
+first directed his mind into the train of thought and reasoning which
+finally induced him to make the experiments, which resulted in the
+discovery of the facts which he detailed, and which I will narrate as
+accurately as my memory will enable me to do it, after the lapse of more
+than twenty years. Mr. Winn's frequent reflections had (he said) led him
+to the belief "that if cows were spayed soon after calving, and while in
+a full flow of milk, they would continue to give milk for many years
+without intermission, or any diminution of quantity, except what would
+be caused by a change from green to dry, or less succulent food." To
+test this hypothesis, Mr. Winn caused a very good cow, then in full
+milk, to be spayed. The operation was performed about one month after
+the cow had produced her third calf; it was not attended with any severe
+pain, or much or long continued fever. The cow was apparently well in a
+few days, and very soon yielded her usual quantity of milk, and
+continued to give freely for several years without any intermission or
+diminution in quantity, except when the food was scarce and dry; but a
+full flow of milk always came back upon the return of a full supply of
+green food. This cow ran in the Mississippi low grounds or swamp near
+Natchez, got cast in deep mire, and was found dead. Upon her death, Mr.
+Winn caused a second cow to be spayed. The operation was entirely
+successful. The cow gave milk constantly for several years, but in
+jumping a fence stuck a stake in her bag, that inflicted a severe wound,
+which obliged Mr. Winn to kill her. Upon this second loss, Mr. Winn had
+two other cows spayed, and, to prevent the recurrence of injuries from
+similar causes with those which had occasioned him the loss of the first
+two<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[328]</a></span> spayed cows, he resolved to keep them always in the stable, or some
+safe enclosure, and to supply them regularly with green food, which that
+climate throughout the greater part of, if not all, the year enabled him
+to procure. The result, in regard to the last two spayed cows, was, as
+in the case of the first two, entirely satisfactory, and fully
+established, as Mr. Winn believed, the fact, that the spaying of cows,
+while in full milk, will cause them to continue to give milk during the
+residue of their lives, or until prevented by old age. When I saw the
+last two spayed cows it was, I believe, during the third year that they
+had constantly given milk after they were spayed. The character of Mr.
+Winn (now deceased) was highly respectable, and the most entire
+confidence could be reposed in the fidelity of his statements; and as
+regarded the facts which he communicated in relation to the several cows
+which he had spayed, numerous persons with whom I became acquainted,
+fully confirmed his statements."</p>
+
+<p>In November 1861, the author was called to perform this operation upon
+the short-horn Galloway cow, Josephine the Second, belonging to Henry
+Ingersoll, Esq., of this city. This cow was born May 8th, 1860. The
+morning was cold and cloudy. About ten o'clock the cow was cast, with
+the assistance of R. McClure, V.S., after which she was placed under the
+influence of chloric ether. He then made an incision, about five inches
+in length, through the skin and walls of the abdomen, midway between the
+pelvis bone and the last rib on the left side, passing in his right
+hand, cutting away the ovaries from the Fallopian tubes with the
+thumbnail. The opening on the side was then closed by means of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[329]</a></span> the
+interrupted suture. The animal recovered from the influence of the
+an&aelig;sthetic in about fifteen minutes, when she was allowed to rise, and
+walk back to her stall.</p>
+
+<p>Upon the morning of the second day succeeding the operation, the animal
+was visited and found to be in good spirits, apparently suffering very
+little pain or inconvenience from the operation, and the wound healing
+nicely.</p>
+
+<p>Since that time, he has operated upon some twenty cows, all of which,
+with a single exception, have thus far proved satisfactory.</p>
+
+<p>Several of these cows are under the direction of a committee from the
+Philadelphia Society for promoting Agriculture, whose duty it is to have
+a daily record kept of each cow's yield of butter and milk, for one year
+from the time of spaying. Their report will be perused by the
+agricultural community with much interest.</p>
+
+<p>The author's own experience will not justify him in speaking either in
+favor of, or against, this operation; as sufficient time has not as yet
+elapsed to satisfy him as to its relative advantages and disadvantages.
+He, however, regards the operation as comparatively safe. The French
+estimate the loss at about fifteen per cent., and the gain at thirty per
+cent. Of those upon which he has operated, not a single animal died.</p>
+
+
+
+<h3><a name="A_LIST_OF_MEDICINES_USED_IN_TREATING_CATTLE" id="A_LIST_OF_MEDICINES_USED_IN_TREATING_CATTLE"></a>A LIST OF MEDICINES USED IN TREATING CATTLE.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[330]</a></span></h3>
+
+
+<p>The medicines used in the treatment of the diseases of cattle, are
+essentially the same as those in vogue for the diseases of the human
+being and the horse,&mdash;the only difference being in their combination and
+the quantities administered.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Absorbents</span>.&mdash;Medicines which destroy acidities in the stomach and
+bowels; such as chalk, magnesia, etc.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Alteratives</span>.&mdash;Medicines which restore the healthy functions of
+secretion, by gradually changing the morbid action in an impaired
+constitution. Those in most common use are &AElig;thiops mineral, antimony,
+rosin, sulphur, etc., which form the principal ingredients in all
+condition-powders, and are chiefly useful in diseases of the skin, such
+as hide-bound, mange, surfeit, etc.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Alterative Powder</span>.&mdash;Sulphur pulverized, one pound; black antimony, one
+half a pound; nitrate of potassa, four ounces; sulphate of iron, one
+half a pound; linseed meal, one pound; mix well; dose, one half an
+ounce, night and morning.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Antacids</span>.&mdash;Agents which neutralize, by their chemical action, acids in
+the stomach; as ammonia, carbonate of potassa, chalk, lime-water,
+magnesia, and soda.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Anthelmintics</span>.&mdash;Remedies used for the expulsion of worms from the
+stomach and intestines. These may act chemically or by their cathartic
+operation. The most<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[331]</a></span> reliable are &AElig;thiops mineral, nux vomica,
+preparations of mercury, wormwood, etc.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Anthelmintic Powders</span>.&mdash;Nux vomica, in one half-drachm doses, two or
+three times daily, to an ox or cow; for calves, the dose must be
+diminished, according to age.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Antidotes</span>.&mdash;Medicines which neutralize the effects of poisons by a
+chemical union, forming an insoluble compound, or a mild, harmless one.
+Alkaline solutions are antidotes for the mineral acids; as soap in
+solution, a simple remedy, and always at hand. Lard, magnesia, and oil
+are antidotes for poisoning by arsenic; albumen,&mdash;in the form of the
+white of an egg,&mdash;milk, etc., for corrosive sublimate, and other
+mercurial preparations.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Antiseptics</span>.&mdash;Medicines which prevent putridity in animal substances,
+and arrest putrefaction, when already existing. These are used both
+externally and internally. The chief specifics of this class are the
+acids, alcohol, ammonia, asaf&oelig;tida, camphor, charcoal, chloride of
+lime, cinchona, ether, and opium.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Antispasmodics</span>.&mdash;Medicines which exert their power in allaying
+inordinate motions or spasms in the system, arising from various causes,
+such as debility, worms, etc. Those most generally in use are ammonia,
+asaf&oelig;tida, camphor, cinchona, ether, lactacarium, mercury, and opium.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Antispasmodic draught</span>.&mdash;Tincture of opium, one ounce; nitric ether, two
+ounces; water, one-half pint. Mix for drench; if repeated, it should be
+followed by a purgative, as soon as the spasms have subsided. Or, use
+the following: sulphuric ether, one to two ounces; water, one-half pint
+Mix for drench; repeat every hour, if necessary.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[332]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Aromatics</span>.&mdash;Medicines possessing a grateful, spicy scent, and an
+agreeable, pungent taste; as anise-seed, cardamoms, cinnamon, cloves,
+ginger, etc. They are principally used in combination with purgatives,
+stomachics, and tonics.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Astringents</span>.&mdash;Medicines which serve to diminish excessive discharges, as
+in diabetes, diarrh&oelig;a, etc. The principal agents of this class are
+the acids, alum, chalk, lime-water, opium, and the sulphate of copper,
+lead, iron, or zinc.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Astringent powder</span>.&mdash;Opium, one drachm; prepared chalk, half an ounce;
+Jamaica ginger, six drachms. Mix, and divide into four powders; one to
+be given every hour, in a little flour gruel. Or, the following: opium,
+one drachm; catechu, two drachms; prepared chalk, one ounce. Mix, and
+divide into four powders; to be given as before.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cardiacs</span>.&mdash;Cordials&mdash;so termed, from their possessing warm and
+stimulating properties&mdash;given to invigorate the system.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cathartics</span>.&mdash;Medicines&mdash;also known as purgatives&mdash;which cause free
+evacuations of the bowels. The only purgatives used by the author in his
+cattle practice, as a general rule, are aloes, cream of tartar,
+Epsom-salts, lard and linseed-oil. These answer all the indications,
+where purgatives are useful; indeed, no better purgative for cattle can
+be found than Epsom-salts, combined with a carminative or aromatic drug,
+such as ginger.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Caustics</span>.&mdash;Substances which burn or destroy parts, by combining with
+them and causing their disorganization; used to destroy unhealthy
+action, or morbid growths, such as foul ulcers, foul in the foot, warts,
+etc. The most powerful remedial of this class is actual cauterization
+with a red-hot<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[333]</a></span> iron; caustic potash, lunar caustic, nitrous and
+sulphuric acids, permanganate of potash, etc., are also used.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cordials</span>.&mdash;Best brandy, three ounces; orange peel, one drachm; tepid
+water, one pint. Mix all together, for one dose. Or, this for a single
+dose: ale, one pint; Jamaica ginger, two drachms. Or, the following,
+also a single dose: allspice, three drachms; ginger, one drachm; caraway
+seeds, two drachms.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Demulcents</span>.&mdash;Mucilaginous medicaments, which have the power of
+diminishing the effects of stimulating substances upon the animal
+system. Of this class, garden rue, or marsh-mallow, gum-arabic, and
+gum-tragacanth are the most useful.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Detergents</span>.&mdash;Agents which remove foulness from ulcers.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Detergent Powder</span>.&mdash;Prepared chalk, two ounces; alum, one ounce. Mix; to
+be sprinkled on the part, after washing with Castile-soap and water.
+This powder is also an admirable application for foot-rot in sheep.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Diaphoretics</span>.&mdash;Agents which increase the natural discharge through the
+pores of the skin, and in some animals induce perspiration.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Digestives.</span>&mdash;Medicines which promote suppuration.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Digestive Ointment</span>.&mdash;Mix together equal portions of spirits of
+turpentine and lard. Or, mix together with a gentle heat the following:
+Venetian turpentine, one ounce; lard, one ounce; pulverized sulphate of
+copper, two drachms. Or this, mixed: rosin, two ounces; spirits of
+turpentine, one ounce; red precipitate, one-half an ounce; lard, two
+ounces.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Diuretics</span>.&mdash;Medicines that stimulate the action of the kidneys, and
+augment the secretion of urine. These are very<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[334]</a></span> useful in swellings of
+the legs, or body. Take of nitrate of potash and rosin, each six
+drachms; mix, and divide in three powders; one to be given daily. Or,
+the following: spirits of turpentine, half an ounce; Castile-soap, one
+ounce; Jamaica ginger, one drachm; opium, one drachm. Mix: and divide in
+two balls; one to be given each day.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Emollients</span>.&mdash;Medicines which relax the lining tissues, allay irritation,
+and soften the parts involved,&mdash;generally of a mucilaginous, or oily
+character. Lard, linseed meal, and marsh-mallows are chiefly used.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Lithontriptics</span>.&mdash;Medicines possessing the power of dissolving <i>calculi</i>,
+or stones in the urinary passages; composed principally, according to
+the researches of modern chemists, of lithic or uric acid. The
+preparation most successfully employed by the author in such cases is
+muriatic acid, in doses of from one to two drachms, in a pail of water,
+once or twice a day.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Narcotics</span>.&mdash;Medicines that stupefy, and produce sleep. Belladonna,
+camphor, hyoscyamus and opium, are among the narcotics in common use.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Nauseants</span>.&mdash;Agents which cause loss of appetite, and produce the
+sensation of vomiting, without affecting it. For this purpose, aloes,
+tartrate of antimony, white hellebore, etc., are used.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Parturients</span>.&mdash;Agents which act upon the uterus. In cases of difficult
+parturition, or calving, resort is occasionally had to them. Ergot of
+rye is the most powerful.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Refrigerants</span>.&mdash;Cooling applications, which reduce the temperature of the
+blood and body; as cold water, ether, lead-water, etc.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[335]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Rubefacients</span>.&mdash;Medicines which gently irritate the skin, producing
+redness on white surfaces. Of this class, are aqua ammonia, creosote,
+mustard, turpentine, etc.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Sedatives</span>.&mdash;Agents which depress the vital energies, without destroying
+life; as aconite, digitalis, hellebore, hydrochloric acid, hyoscyamus,
+opium, and tartrate of antimony.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Tonics</span>.&mdash;Medicines which increase the action of the muscular system,
+giving strength and vigor to the animal. These are among the most useful
+remedies known to man, and are beneficial in all cases of debility,
+toning up the stomach, and improving the appetite and condition of the
+animal.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Tonic Powder</span>.&mdash;Pulverized gentian-root, one ounce; Jamaica ginger, one
+half an ounce; anise-seed, six drachms. Mix, and divide in eight
+powders; one to be given night and morning.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Traumatics" id="Traumatics"></a>Traumatics</span>.&mdash;Medicines which excite the healing process of wounds; as
+aloes, friar's balsam, myrrh, rosin, sulphate of copper or zinc, tar,
+etc.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Traumatic lotion</span>.&mdash;Mix tincture of aloes, one ounce; tincture of myrrh,
+two ounces. Or, melt together, tar, one ounce; rosin, two ounces; lard,
+four ounces. Or, mix sulphate of zinc, one drachm; rain-water, one half
+pint. Or, use the following, the celebrated friar's balsam; benzoin, in
+powder, four ounces; balsam of Peru, two ounces; Socotrine aloes, one
+half ounce; rectified spirits, one quart. Digest for ten or twelve days;
+then filter for use.</p>
+
+
+
+<h3><a name="DOSES_OF_VARIOUS_REMEDIES_USED_IN_CATTLE_PRACTICE" id="DOSES_OF_VARIOUS_REMEDIES_USED_IN_CATTLE_PRACTICE"></a>DOSES OF VARIOUS REMEDIES USED IN CATTLE PRACTICE.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[336]</a></span></h3>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Aconite</span>.&mdash;[<i>Monk's hood</i>; <i>Wolf's bane</i>.] An active poison. Used as a
+sedative in tincture; ten to twenty drops in water.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">&AElig;thiops Mineral</span>.&mdash;[<i>Hydrargyri Sulphuretum.</i>] One to two drachms.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Alcohol</span>.&mdash;A stimulant; three to six ounces.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Allspice</span>.&mdash;[<i>Pimento berries.</i>] Aromatic; two to four drachms.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Aloes</span>.&mdash;Cathartic and tonic; tonic dose, one half to one
+drachm&mdash;cathartic, one to two ounces.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Alum</span>.&mdash;[<i>Alumen.</i>] Irritant, astringent, and sedative; two to four
+drachms.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ammonia</span>.&mdash;[<i>Aqua ammonia</i>; <i>Liquor ammonia</i>; <i>Hartshorn</i>.] Principally
+used in combination with mustard, as an external irritant, and
+internally, as a diffusible stimulant; two to six drachms. Of carbonate
+of ammonia, three to six drachms.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Anise-seed</span>.&mdash;[Fruit of the <i>Pimpinella Anisum</i>.] One to two drachms.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Antimony</span>.&mdash;[<i>Sulphate of Antimony.</i>] Used in condition-powders; one to
+three drachms. Muriate of antimony. [<i>Oil, or butter, of antimony.</i>]
+Caustic; very good in foul in the foot. Tartarized antimony. [<i>Tartar
+emetic.</i>] One to four drachms. The author, in the last instance, varies
+from the dose prescribed by veterinary authors, never giving it in more<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[337]</a></span>
+than one-half-drachm doses, believing its action thus more certain and
+satisfactory.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Asaf&oelig;tida</span>.&mdash;Stimulant; two to four drachms.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Axunge</span>.&mdash;[<i>Hog's Lard.</i>] Ointment, principally; may be used as purgative
+in doses of from one to one and a half pounds.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Balsam of Peru</span>.&mdash;Stimulant, and tonic; two to four drachms.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Belladonna</span>.&mdash;[<i>Deadly Nightshade.</i>] Narcotic, anti-spasmodic, and
+irritant poison; one to two drachms.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Benzoin</span>.&mdash;[<i>Gum Benjamin.</i>] Ointment; see <a href="#Traumatics">Traumatics</a>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Calomel</span>.&mdash;[<i>Hydrargyri Chloridum.</i>] One half to one drachm.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Camomile</span>.&mdash;[<i>Anthemis.</i>] Stomachic, carminative, and tonic; one to two
+ounces.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Camphor</span>.&mdash;[<i>Camphora Officinarum.</i>] Narcotic and irritant; in small
+doses, sedative and stimulant; one to four drachms.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cantharides</span>.&mdash;[<i>Spanish Flies.</i>] Internally, stimulant and diuretic;
+twenty to thirty grains. Externally, vesicant; used in form of ointment,
+or tincture.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Caraway</span>.&mdash;[Fruit of the <i>Carum Carisi</i>.] Used chiefly for flavoring
+purposes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cardamoms</span>.&mdash;[Fruit of the <i>Elettaria Cardamomum</i>.] Used to communicate
+an agreeable flavor to other medicines.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Catechu</span>.&mdash;[<i>Acacia Catechu.</i>] Astringent, and antiseptic; three to six
+drachms.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Chalk</span>.&mdash;[<i>Carbonate of Lime</i>; <i>Calcis Carbonas</i>.] Two to three ounces.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[338]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Charcoal</span>.&mdash;[<i>Carbo Ligni.</i>] Antiseptic; one half to one ounce.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cinchona</span>.&mdash;[<i>Peruvian Bark.</i>] Astringent and tonic; one to two ounces.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Copper, Sulphate of</span>.&mdash;[<i>Blue Vitriol.</i>] Tonic and astringent; two to
+four drachms.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Creosote</span>.&mdash;[<i>Creosotum.</i>] A sedative, anodyne, astringent, narcotic, and
+irritant poison; fifteen to twenty drops.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Croton Oil</span>.&mdash;[<i>Crotonis Oleum.</i>] Internally, as a cathartic, six to ten
+drops in linseed-oil; externally, as a counter-irritant.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Digitalis</span>.&mdash;[<i>Fox Glove.</i>] Sedative and diuretic; one to two scruples.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Epsom-Salts" id="Epsom-Salts"></a>Epsom-Salts</span>.&mdash;[<i>Sulphate of magnesia.</i>] Cathartic; one pound, combined
+with ginger.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ergot</span>.&mdash;[<i>Spurred rye.</i>] Parturient; two to six drachms.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ether</span>.&mdash;Stimulant, narcotic, and an&aelig;sthetic; one to two ounces.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gentian</span>.&mdash;[Root of <i>Gentiana lutea</i>.] Stomachic and tonic; one to two
+ounces.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ginger</span>.&mdash;[<i>Zengiber officinale.</i>] Stomachic, carminative, and slightly
+tonic; one to two ounces.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gum-arabic</span>.&mdash;[<i>Gummi Acaci&aelig;.</i>] Demulcent and emollient; one to two
+ounces.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gum-tragacanth</span>. Same action and same doses as the former.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Hellebore</span>.&mdash;[<i>Helleborus.</i>] Irritant poison, and sedative; twenty to
+thirty grains.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Hyoscyamus</span>.&mdash;[<i>Henbane.</i>] Narcotic, anodyne, and anti-spasmodic; ten to
+twenty grains.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[339]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Iodine</span>.&mdash;[<i>Iodineum.</i>] Internally, as a tonic; two to three scruples;
+also as a tincture, and in ointments for reducing enlargements of the
+soft tissues.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Iron, Sulphate of</span>.&mdash;[<i>Ferri Sulphas</i>; <i>Green Vitriol</i>, <i>Coppera</i>.]
+Irritant, astringent, and tonic; two to four drachms.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Koosso</span>. Anthelmintic; two to four drachms.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Lime, Chloride of</span>.&mdash;Antiseptic; dose internally, one to two drachms.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Linseed oil</span>.&mdash;Cathartic; one pint.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Lunar Caustic</span>.&mdash;[<i>Nitrate of Silver.</i>] Used as a caustic.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Magnesia</span>.&mdash;[See <span class="smcap"><a href="#Epsom-Salts">Epsom-Salts</a></span>.]</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Marsh-mallow</span>.&mdash;[<i>Althe&aelig; Radix.</i>] Demulcent and emollient; principally
+used for poultices and fomentations.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Muriatic Acid</span>.&mdash;[<i>Hydrochloric Acid</i>; <i>Spirit of Salt</i>.] Tonic,
+irritant, and caustic; dose internally, one to two drachms.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Mustard</span>.&mdash;[<i>Sinapis.</i>] Counter-irritant; used principally as an external
+application.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Myrrh</span>.&mdash;Stimulating tonic to unhealthy sores; seldom used internally.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Nitric Acid</span>.&mdash;[<i>Aqua fortis.</i>] Astringent and tonic; one to two drachms
+in water. Used also as a caustic.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Nux Vomica</span>.&mdash;[Seeds of <i>Strychnos</i>.] In large doses, a deadly poison; in
+medicinal doses, a powerful tonic and anthelmintic; one half to one
+drachm.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Opium</span>.&mdash;[<i>Papaver Somniferum.</i>] Narcotic, sedative, anodyne, stimulant,
+and anti-spasmodic; two to four drachms.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Potash, Carbonate of</span>.&mdash;[<i>Potass&aelig; Carbonas.</i>] Antacid and diuretic; three
+to six drachms.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[340]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Potash, Caustic</span>.&mdash;[<i>Potassa fusa.</i>] Used only as a caustic.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Potassa, Permanganate of</span>.&mdash;Used externally as a caustic.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Rosin</span>.&mdash;Diuretic; two to three ounces.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Salt, Common</span>.&mdash;[<i>Chloride of Sodium.</i>] Irritant, cathartic, stimulant,
+and antiseptic; one to one and a half pounds.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Salts, Glauber</span>.&mdash;[<i>Sulphate of Soda.</i>] Cathartic and diuretic; one to
+one and a half pounds.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Saltpetre</span>.&mdash;[<i>Nitrate of Potassa.</i>] Diuretic, febrifuge, and
+refrigerant; one half to one ounce.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Sublimate, Corrosive</span>.&mdash;[<i>Protochloride of Mercury.</i>] Seldom used
+internally; externally, caustic and stimulant.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Sulphur</span>.&mdash;[<i>Brimstone.</i>] Stimulant and laxative; three to four ounces.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Sulphuric Acid</span>.&mdash;Irritant, caustic, and astringent; two to three
+drachms.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Tartar, Cream of</span>.&mdash;[<i>Potass&aelig; Tartras.</i>] Cathartic; three to four ounces.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Turpentine</span>.&mdash;Stimulant, anthelmintic, diuretic, and laxative; one to two
+ounces.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Zinc, Sulphate of</span>.&mdash;[<i>White Vitriol.</i>] Astringent and tonic; one to two
+drachms.</p>
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="NEW_AND_LATE_BOOKS" id="NEW_AND_LATE_BOOKS"></a>NEW AND LATE BOOKS<span class='pagenum'><a name="Ad_1" id="Ad_1">[1]</a></span></h2>
+
+<div class="ads">
+<p class="center">FURNISHED BY THE<br />
+Publishers of this Volume.</p>
+
+
+<p>MAILING NOTICE.&mdash;<i>Any books on the following list will be sent, post
+paid, to any address, on receipt of price.</i> <i>Address</i> THE PUBLISHERS OF
+THIS VOLUME. See title page.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Historical and Secret Memoirs of the Empress Josephine</span>. A secret and
+truthful history of one of the most remarkable of women, uniting all the
+value of absorbing facts with that of the most exciting romance.
+Translated from the French of M'lle Le Normand, by <span class="smcap">Jacob M. Howard,</span> Esq.
+2 vols. in one. Cloth. Price $1 75.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Memoirs of the Court of Marie Antoinette</span>. An instructive work&mdash;one of
+the most intensely interesting ever issued from the American press&mdash;the
+events of which should be familiar to all. By <span class="smcap">Madame Campan</span>. With
+Biographical Introduction by <span class="smcap">M. De Lamartine</span>. 2 vols. in one. Cloth.
+Price $1 75.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Memoirs of the Life of Mary, Queen of Scots</span>. Affording a complete and
+authentic history of the unfortunate Mary, with materials and letters
+not used by other authors, making up a volume of rare interest and
+value. By <span class="smcap">Miss Benger</span>. With portrait on steel. 2 vols. in one. Cloth.
+Price $1 75.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Ad_2" id="Ad_2">[2]</a></span><span class="smcap">Memoirs of the Queens of France</span>. Written in France, carefully compiled
+from researches made there, commended by the press generally, and
+published from the Tenth London Edition. It is a truly valuable work for
+the reader and student of history. By <span class="smcap">Mrs. Forbes Bush</span>. 2 vols. in one.
+Cloth. Price $1 75.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Memoirs of the Life of Anne Boleyn, Queen of Henry VIII.</span> In the records
+of biography there is no character that more forcibly exemplifies the
+vanity of human ambition, or more thoroughly enlists the attention of
+the reader than this&mdash;the Seventh American, and from the Third London
+Edition. By <span class="smcap">Miss Benger</span>. With portrait on steel. Cloth. $1 75.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Heroic Women of History</span>. Containing the most extraordinary examples of
+female courage of ancient and modern times, and set before the wives,
+sisters, and daughters of the country, in the hope that it may make them
+even more renowned for resolution, fortitude, and self-sacrifice than
+the Spartan females of old. By <span class="smcap">Henry C. Watson</span>. With Illustrations.
+Cloth. $1 75.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Public and Private History of Louis Napoleon, Emperor of the French</span>. An
+impartial view of the public and private career of this extraordinary
+man, giving full information in regard to his most distinguished
+ministers, generals, relatives and favorites. By <span class="smcap">Samuel M. Schmucker</span>,
+LL. D. With portraits on Steel. Cloth. $1 75.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Life and Reign of Nicholas I., Emperor of Russia</span>. The only complete
+history of this great personage that has appeared in the English
+language, and furnishes interesting facts in connection with Russian
+society and government of great practical value to the attentive reader.
+By <span class="smcap">Samuel M. Schmucker</span>, LL. D. With Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Life and Times of George Washington.</span> A concise and condensed narrative
+of Washington's career, especially adapted to the popular reader, and
+presented as the best matter upon this immortal theme&mdash;one especially
+worthy the attention and admiration of every American. By <span class="smcap">Samuel M.
+Schmucker</span>, LL. D. With Portrait on steel. Cloth. $1 75.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Ad_3" id="Ad_3">[3]</a></span><span class="smcap">Life and Times of Alexander Hamilton.</span> Incidents of a career that will
+never lose its singular power to attract and instruct, while giving
+impressive lessons of the brightest elements of character, surrounded
+and assailed by the basest. By <span class="smcap">Samuel M. Schmucker</span>, LL. D. With Portrait
+on steel. Cloth. $1 75.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Life and Times of Thomas Jefferson.</span> In which the author has presented
+both the merits and defects of this great representative hero in their
+true light, and has studiously avoided indiscriminate praise or
+wholesale censure. By <span class="smcap">Samuel M. Schmucker</span>, LL. D. With Portrait. Cloth.
+$1 75.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Life of Benjamin Franklin.</span> Furnishing a superior and comprehensive
+record of this celebrated Statesman and Philosopher&mdash;rich beyond
+parallel in lessons of wisdom for every age, calling and condition in
+life, public and private. By <span class="smcap">O. L. Holley</span>. With Portrait on steel and
+Illustrations on wood. Cloth. $1 75.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Public and Private Life of Daniel Webster.</span> The most copious and
+attractive collection of personal memorials concerning the great
+Statesman that has hitherto been published, and by one whose intimate
+and confidential relations with him afford a guarantee for their
+authenticity. By Gen. <span class="smcap">S. P. Lyman</span>. With Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Life and Times of Henry Clay.</span> An impartial biography, presenting, by
+bold and simple strokes of the historic pencil, a portraiture of the
+illustrious theme which no one should fail to read, and no library be
+without. By <span class="smcap">Samuel M. Schmucker</span>, LL. D. With Portrait on steel. Cloth.
+$1 75.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Life and Public Services of Stephen A. Douglas.</span> A true and faithful
+exposition of the leading incidents of his brilliant career arranged so
+as to instruct the reader and produce the careful study which the life
+of so great a man deserves. By <span class="smcap">H. M. Flint</span>. With Portrait on steel.
+Cloth. $1 75.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Ad_4" id="Ad_4">[4]</a></span><span class="smcap">Life and Public Services of Abraham Lincoln.</span> (In both the English and
+German languages.) As a record of this great man it is a most desirable
+work, admirably arranged for reference, with an index over each page,
+from which the reader can familiarize himself with the contents by
+glancing through it. By <span class="smcap">Frank Crosby</span>, of the Philadelphia Bar. With
+Portrait on steel. Cloth. $1 75.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Life of Daniel Boone, the Great Western Hunter and Pioneer.</span> Comprising
+graphic and authentic accounts of his daring, thrilling adventures,
+wonderful skill, coolness and sagacity under the most hazardous
+circumstances, with an autobiography dictated by himself. By <span class="smcap">Cecil B.
+Hartley</span>. With Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Life of Colonel David Crocket, the Original Humorist and Irrepressible
+Backwoodsman.</span> Showing his strong will and indomitable spirit, his bear
+hunting, his military services, his career in Congress, and his
+triumphal tour through the States&mdash;written by himself; to which is added
+the account of his glorious death at the Alamo. With Illustrations.
+Cloth. $1 75.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Life of Kit Carson, the Great Western Hunter and Guide.</span> An exciting
+volume of wild and romantic exploits, thrilling adventures, hair-breadth
+escapes, daring coolness, moral and physical courage, and invaluable
+services&mdash;such as rarely transpire in the history of the world. By
+<span class="smcap">Charles Burdett</span>. With Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Life of Captain John Smith, the Founder of Virginia.</span> The adventures
+contained herein serve to denote the more noble and daring events of a
+period distinguished by its spirit, its courage, and its passion, and
+challenges the attention of the American people. By <span class="smcap">W. Gilmore Simms</span>.
+With Illustrations. Price $1 75.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Life of General Francis Marion, the Celebrated Partisan Hero of the
+Revolution.</span> This was one of the most distinguished men who figured on
+the grand theatre of war during the times that "tried men's souls," and
+his brilliant career has scarcely a parallel in history. By <span class="smcap">Cecil B.
+Hartley</span>. With Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Ad_5" id="Ad_5">[5]</a></span><span class="smcap">Life of General Andrew Jackson, the Celebrated Patriot and Statesman.</span>
+The character here shown as firm in will, clear in judgment, rapid in
+decision and decidedly pronounced, sprung from comparative obscurity to
+the highest gift within the power of the American people, and is
+prolific in interest. By <span class="smcap">Alexander Walker</span>. $1 75.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Life and Times of General Sam Houston, the Hunter, Patriot, and
+Statesman.</span> It reminds one of the story of Romulus&mdash;who was nurtured by
+the beasts of the forest till he planted the foundations of a mighty
+empire&mdash;and stands alone as an authentic memoir. With Maps, Portrait,
+and Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Lives of the Three Mrs. Judsons, the Celebrated Female Missionaries.</span> The
+domestic lives and individual labors of these three bright stars in the
+galaxy of American heroines, who in ministering to the souls of
+heathens, experienced much of persecution. By <span class="smcap">Cecil B. Hartley</span>. With
+steel Portraits. Cloth. $1 75.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Life of Elisha Kent Kane, and of Other Distinguished American Explorers.</span>
+A narrative of the discoverers who possess the strongest hold upon
+public interest and attention, and one of the few deeply interesting
+volumes of distinguished Americans of this class. By <span class="smcap">Samuel M.
+Schmucker</span>, LL. D. With Portrait on steel. Cloth. $1 75.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Life and Adventures of Pauline Cushman, the Celebrated Union Spy and
+Scout.</span> Stirring details from the lips of the subject herself, whose
+courage, heroism, and devotion to the old flag, endeared her to the Army
+of the Southwest. By <span class="smcap">F. L. Sarmiento</span>, Esq., Member of the Philadelphia
+Bar. With Portrait on steel and Illustrations on wood. Cloth. $1 75.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Jefferson Davis and Stonewall Jackson: The Life and Public Services of
+Each.</span> Truths from the lives of these men, both of whom served their
+country before the war, and afterwards threw themselves into the cause
+of the South with unbounded zeal&mdash;affording valuable historic facts for
+all, North and South. With Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Ad_6" id="Ad_6">[6]</a></span><span class="smcap">Corsica, and the Early Life of Napoleon.</span> Delicately drawn idyllic
+descriptions of the Island, yielding new light to political history,
+exciting much attention in Germany and England, and altogether making a
+book of rare character and value. Translated by Hon. <span class="smcap">E. Joy Morris</span>. With
+Portrait on steel. Cloth. $1 75.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Horse and his Diseases: Embracing his History and Varieties,
+Breeding and Management, and Vices.</span> A splendid complete, and reliable
+book&mdash;the work of more than fifteen years' careful study&mdash;pointing out
+diseases accurately, and recommending remedies that have stood the test
+of actual trial. To which is added "<span class="smcap">Rarey's Method of Training Horses</span>."
+By <span class="smcap">Robert Jennings</span>, V. S. With nearly one hundred Illustrations. Cloth.
+$1 75.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Sheep, Swine, and Poultry.</span> Enumerating their varieties and histories;
+the best modes of breeding, feeding, and managing; the diseases to which
+they are subject; the best remedies&mdash;and offering the best practical
+treatise of its kind now published. By <span class="smcap">Robert Jennings</span>, V. S. With
+numerous Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cattle and their Diseases.</span> Giving their history and breeds, crossing and
+breeding, feeding and management; with the diseases to which they are
+subject, and the remedies best adapted to their cure; which is added a
+list of remedies used in treating cattle. By <span class="smcap">Robert Jennings</span>, V. S. With
+numerous Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Horse Training Made Easy.</span> A new and practical system of Teaching and
+Educating the Horse, including whip training and thorough instructions
+in regard to shoeing&mdash;full of information of a useful and well-tested
+character. By <span class="smcap">Robert Jennings</span>, V. S. With numerous Illustrations. Cloth.
+$1 25.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">600 Receipts Worth their Weight in Gold.</span> An unequalled variety in kind,
+the collection and testing of which have extended through a period of
+thirty years&mdash;a number of them having never before appeared in print,
+while all are simple, plain, and highly meritorious. By <span class="smcap">John Marquart</span>,
+of Lebanon, Pa. Cloth. $1 75.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Ad_7" id="Ad_7">[7]</a></span><span class="smcap">500 Employments Adapted to Women.</span> Throwing open to womankind productive
+fields of labor everywhere, and affording full opportunity to select
+employments best adapted to their tastes&mdash;all the result of over three
+years' constant care and investigation. By Miss <span class="smcap">Virginia Penny</span>. Cloth.
+$1 75.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Everybody's Lawyer and Book of Forms.</span> The simplicity of its
+instructions, the comprehensiveness of its subject, and the accuracy of
+its details, together with its perfect arrangement, conciseness,
+attractiveness and cheapness make it the most desirable of all legal
+hand-books. By <span class="smcap">Frank Crosby</span>, Esq. Thoroughly revised to date by <span class="smcap">S. J.
+Vandersloot</span>, Esq. 608 pp. Law Style. $2 00.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Family Doctor.</span> Intended to guard against diseases in the family; to
+furnish the proper treatment for the sick; to impart knowledge in regard
+to medicines, herbs, and plants; to show how to preserve a sound body
+and mind, and written in plain language, free from medical terms. By
+Prof. <span class="smcap">Henry Taylor</span>, M. D. Profusely Illustrated. Cloth. $1 75.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The American Practical Cookery Book.</span> A faithful and highly useful guide,
+whose directions all can safely follow, making housekeeping easy,
+pleasant, and economical in all its departments, and based upon the
+personal test, throughout, of an intelligent practical housekeeper.
+Illustrated with Fifty Engravings. Cloth. $1 75.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Modern Cookery in all its Branches.</span> Designed to interest and benefit
+housekeepers everywhere by its plain and simple instructions in regard
+to the judicious preparation of food, and altogether a work of superior
+merit. By Miss <span class="smcap">Eliza Acton</span>. Carefully revised by Mrs. <span class="smcap">Sarah J. Hale</span>.
+With many Illustrations and a copious Index. Cloth. $1 75.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Thirty Years in the Arctic Regions.</span> The graphic narrative of Sir John
+Franklin, the most celebrated of Arctic Travellers, in which Sir John
+tells his own story&mdash;unsurpassed for intense and all-absorbing
+interest&mdash;sketching his three expeditions, and that part of the fourth
+now shrouded in mystery to the world. Cloth. $1 75.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Ad_8" id="Ad_8">[8]</a></span><span class="smcap">Explorations and Discoveries during Four Years' Wanderings in the Wilds
+of Southwestern Africa.</span> Important and exciting experiences, full of wild
+adventure and instructive facts, which seem to possess a mysterious
+charm for every mind, and in which the spirit of intelligent and
+adventurous curiosity is everywhere prominent. By <span class="smcap">Charles John Anderson</span>.
+With Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Livingstone's Travels and Researches in South Africa.</span> Given in the
+pleasing language of Dr. Livingstone, and rich in the personal
+adventures and hair-breadth escapes of that most indefatigable
+discoverer and interesting Christian gentleman&mdash;making a work of special
+value. By <span class="smcap">David Livingstone</span>, LL. D., D. C. S. Profusely Illustrated.
+Cloth. $1 75.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Travels and Discoveries in North and Central Africa.</span> Recounting an
+expedition undertaken under the auspices of H. B. M.'s Government,
+exhibiting the most remarkable courage, perseverance, presence of mind,
+and contempt of danger and death, and immensely important as a work of
+information. By <span class="smcap">Henry Barth</span>, Ph. D., D. C. L., etc. With Illustrations.
+Cloth. $1 75.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ellis' Three Visits to Madagascar.</span> Written in Madagascar, while on a
+visit to the queen and people, in which is carefully described the
+singularly beautiful country and the manners and customs of its people,
+and from which an unusual amount of information is obtainable. By Rev.
+<span class="smcap">William Ellis</span>, F. H. S. Profusely Illustrated. Cloth. $1 75.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Oriental and Western Siberia.</span> A Stirring narrative of seven years'
+explorations in Siberia, Mongolia, the Kirghes Steppes, Chinese Tartary,
+and part of Central Asia, revealing extraordinary facts, showing much of
+hunger, thirst, and perilous adventure, and forming a work of rare
+attractiveness for every reader. By <span class="smcap">Thomas William Atkinson</span>. With
+numerous Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Hunting Scenes in the Wilds of Africa.</span> Thrilling adventures of daring
+hunters&mdash;Cummings, Harris, and others&mdash;among the Lions, Elephants,
+Giraffes, Buffaloes, and other animals&mdash;than which few, if any works,
+are more exciting. With numerous Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Ad_9" id="Ad_9">[9]</a></span><span class="smcap">Hunting Adventures in the Northern Wilds.</span> A tramp in the Chateaugay
+Woods, over hills, lakes and forest streams, at a time when millions of
+acres lay in a perfect wilderness, affording incidents, descriptions,
+and adventures of extraordinary interest. By <span class="smcap">S. H. Hammond</span>. With
+Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Wild Northern Scenes; or, Sporting Adventures with the Rifle and the
+Rod.</span> Affording remarkably interesting experiences in a section where the
+howl of the Wolf, the scream of the Panther, and the hoarse bellow of
+the Moose could be heard&mdash;presenting a racy book. By <span class="smcap">S. H. Hammond</span>. With
+Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Perils and Pleasures of a Hunter's Life; or, The Romance of Hunting.</span>
+Replete with thrilling incidents and hair-breadth escapes, and
+fascinating in the extreme, while depicting the romance of hunting. By
+<span class="smcap">Peregrine Herne</span>. With Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Hunting Sports in the West.</span> An amount of novelty and variety, of bold
+enterprise and noble hardihood, of heroic daring and fierce encounters,
+which seem to be much more entertaining by the quiet fireside than they
+would be to the one going through them in the forest or field. By <span class="smcap">Cecil
+B. Hartley</span>. With numerous Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Fanny Hunter's Western Adventures.</span> Vividly portraying the stirring
+scenes enacted in Kansas and Missouri during a sojourn of several years
+on the Western Border, and fully representing social and domestic
+affairs in frontier life&mdash;containing curious pictures of character. With
+Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Wonderful Adventures, by Land and Sea, of the Seven Queer Travellers who
+Met at an Inn.</span> Revelations of a singular and unusually entertaining
+character, in which the most terrible circumstances and mysterious
+occurrences are faithfully and forcibly placed before the reader. By
+<span class="smcap">Josiah Barnes</span>. Cloth. $1 75.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Ad_10" id="Ad_10">[10]</a></span><span class="smcap">Nicaragua; Past, Present, and Future.</span> Setting forth its history, the
+manners and customs of its inhabitants, its mines, its minerals, and
+other productions, and throwing light upon a subject of very great
+importance to the masses of our people. By <span class="smcap">Peter F. Stout</span>, Esq., late U.
+S. Vice-Consul. Cloth. $1 75.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Female Life Among the Mormons; or, Maria Ward's Disclosures.</span> Romantic
+Incidents, bordering on the marvelous, which show the evils, horrors,
+and abominations of the Mormon system&mdash;the degradation of its females,
+and the consequent vices of its society. By <span class="smcap">Maria Ward</span>, the Wife of a
+Mormon Elder. With Illustrations. 40,000 copies sold. Cloth. $1 75.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Male Life Among the Mormons.</span> Detailing sights and scenes among the
+Mormons, with important remarks on their moral and social economy; being
+a true transcript of events, viewing Mormonism from a man's standpoint,
+and forming a companion to the preceding volume. By <span class="smcap">Austin N. Ward</span>.
+Edited by <span class="smcap">Maria Ward</span>. With Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Pioneer Life in the West.</span> Describing the adventures of Boone, Kenton,
+Brady, Clark, the Whetzels, the Johnsons, and others, in their fierce
+encounters with the Indians, and making up a work of the most
+entertaining and instructive character for those who delight in history
+and adventure. With numerous Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Thrilling Stories of the Great Rebellion.</span> Fearful adventures of
+soldiers, scouts, spies, and refugees; daring exploits of smugglers,
+guerillas, desperadoes, and others; tales of loyal and disloyal women;
+stories of the negro, and incidents of fun and merriment in camp and
+field. By Lieut. <span class="smcap">Charles S. Greene</span>, late of the U. S. Army. With
+Illustrations in Oil. Cloth. $1 75.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">History of the War in India.</span> Furnishing the complete history of British
+India, together with interesting and thrilling details which have
+scarcely a parallel in the world's history, to which is added a memoir
+of General Sir <span class="smcap">Henry Havelock</span>. By <span class="smcap">Henry Frederick Malcolm</span>. Illustrated
+with numerous Engravings. Cloth. $1 75.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Ad_11" id="Ad_11">[11]</a></span><span class="smcap">Our Boys.</span> Personal experiences of the author while in the army,
+presenting the richest and raciest scenes of army and camp life ever
+published, and portraying various events in all their originality. By <span class="smcap">A.
+F. Hill</span>, of the Eighth Pennsylvania Reserves. With Portrait on Steel,
+and characteristic Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Our Campaigns.</span> The marches, bivouacs, battles, incidents, camp life, and
+history of a regiment during its three years' term of service in the
+war, together with a sketch of the Army of the Potomac under Generals
+McClellan, Burnside, Hooker, Meade, and Grant. By <span class="smcap">E. M. Woodward</span>, Adj't
+Second Penna. Reserves. Cloth. $1 75.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Margaret Moncrieffe, the Beautiful Spy.</span> An exciting story of Army and
+high life in New York, in 1776, presenting facts and historic names, and
+showing the mutual attachment between Aaron Burr and Margaret
+Moncrieffe, as well as the influence of the latter upon the former in
+the more important events of his life. By <span class="smcap">Charles Burdett</span>. Cloth. $1 75.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Six Nights in a Block House; or, Sketches of Border Life.</span> Feats of hero
+hunters and thrilling exploits among the Indians; furnishing the names
+of hunters well known in western history, and showing the most exciting
+drama of border warfare, and, as a whole, the most intensely interesting
+and instructive work upon Indian life now offered the public. <span class="smcap">By Henry
+C. Watson</span>. With 100 Engravings. Cloth. $1 75.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Thrilling Adventures Among the Early Settlers.</span> A series of desperate
+encounters with Indians, daring exploits of Texan Rangers, incidents of
+guerilla warfare, fearful deeds of desperadoes and regulators of the
+west, and graphic delineations of hunting and trapping well worthy
+universal preservation. By <span class="smcap">Warren Wildwood</span>, Esq. More than 200
+Engravings. Cloth. $1 75.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Thrilling Incidents in American History.</span> Events which are among the most
+striking and important in our national annals, covering the Revolution,
+the French War, the Tripolitan War, the Indian Wars, the War of 1812,
+and the Mexican War&mdash;all of which are of great usefulness to the student
+and general reader. By the author of "The Army and Navy of the United
+States." With Three Hundred Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Ad_12" id="Ad_12">[12]</a></span><span class="smcap">Scouting Expeditions of the Texan Rangers.</span> Operations which occurred
+during some of the prominent events of the Mexican war, together with
+sketches of the celebrated partisan chiefs, Hays, McCulloch, and Walker,
+whose courage, sagacity, and remarkable exploits should be familiar to
+all Americans. By <span class="smcap">Samuel C. Reid</span>, Jr., late of the Texan Rangers, and
+Member of the Louisiana Bar. With Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Battle-Fields of the Revolution.</span> The most brilliant points in the
+history of the Revolutionary war, recounting the principal battles,
+sieges, and other important events&mdash;the whole interspersed with numerous
+characteristic anecdotes. By <span class="smcap">Thomas Y. Rhoads</span>. With many Illustrations.
+Cloth. $1 75.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Thrilling Adventures Among the Indians.</span> In which are enumerated the most
+remarkable incidents of the early Indian Wars, which abound in dangers,
+vindictiveness, endurance, heroism, gratitude, treachery, stoicism, and
+revenge, and in which there is much to fascinate the reader, and store
+the inquiring mind. By <span class="smcap">John Frost</span>, LL. D. With more than 300
+Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Hero Girl, and How She Became a Captain in the Army.</span> The highly
+dramatic story of Molly Pitcher who, having lost her husband at the
+battle of Monmouth, gallantly stepped forward, took his place at the
+cannon, and continued serving it until the battle ended&mdash;after which the
+rank of Captain was conferred on her by Gen. Washington. By <span class="smcap">Thrace
+Talmon</span>. With Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Mrs. Partington's Knitting Work, and What was Done by her Plaguy Boy
+Ike.</span> In which all will see the acid and sugar, and spirit and
+water&mdash;forming an intellectual punch, of which all can partake without
+headache or heartache. Wrought by the old lady herself. With
+characteristic Illustrations, including a portrait of the old lady in
+specs, surrounded by the Partington family. Cloth. $1 75.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Way Down East; or, Portraitures of Yankee Life.</span> Embodying some of the
+raciest stories of the "Down Easter" ever published by this humorous
+author&mdash;containing much of genuine wit and attractive thought. By <span class="smcap">Seba
+Smith</span>, the original Major Jack Downing. With several rich and original
+Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Cattle and Their Diseases, by Robert Jennings
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES ***
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+</body>
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Cattle and Their Diseases, by Robert Jennings
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Cattle and Their Diseases
+       Embracing Their History and Breeds, Crossing and Breeding,
+       And Feeding and Management; With the Diseases to which
+       They are Subject, And The Remedies Best Adapted to their
+       Cure
+
+Author: Robert Jennings
+
+Release Date: September 26, 2007 [EBook #22771]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Steven Giacomelli, Constanze Hofmann and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+(This file was produced from images produced by Core
+Historical Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell
+University)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note:
+
+The spelling in this text has been preserved as in the original.
+Obvious printer's errors have been corrected. A list of the
+corrections can be found at the end of this e-text.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES
+
+EMBRACING
+
+THEIR HISTORY AND BREEDS, CROSSING AND BREEDING, AND
+FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT; WITH THE DISEASES
+TO WHICH THEY ARE SUBJECT, AND
+THE REMEDIES BEST ADAPTED
+TO THEIR CURE.
+
+TO WHICH IS ADDED A LIST OF THE MEDICINES USED IN TREATING CATTLE.
+
+BY ROBERT JENNINGS, V. S.,
+
+PROFESSOR OF PATHOLOGY AND OPERATIVE SURGERY IN THE VETERINARY COLLEGE OF
+PHILADELPHIA; LATE PROFESSOR OF VETERINARY MEDICINE IN THE AGRICULTURAL
+COLLEGE OF OHIO; SECRETARY OF THE AMERICAN VETERINARY ASSOCIATION
+OF PHILADELPHIA; AUTHOR OF "THE HORSE
+AND HIS DISEASES," ETC., ETC.
+
+[Illustration: With Numerous Illustrations.]
+
+PHILADELPHIA:
+John E. Potter and Company,
+617 Sansom Street.
+
+Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1864, by
+JOHN E. POTTER,
+In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States, in and
+for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+A marked interest has of late years been manifested in our country
+relative to the subject of breeding and rearing domestic cattle. This
+has not been confined to the dairyman alone. The greater portion of
+intelligent agriculturists have perceived the necessity of paying more
+attention than was formerly devoted to the improvement and perfection of
+breeds for the uses of the table as well. In this respect, European
+cattle-raisers have long taken the precedence of our own.
+
+The gratifying favor with which the author's former publication, "The
+Horse and his Diseases," has been received by the public, has induced
+him to believe that a work, similar in spirit and general treatment,
+upon Cattle, would not be without interest for the agricultural
+community.
+
+In this belief, the present treatise has been prepared. The author has
+availed himself of the labors of others in this connection; never,
+however, adopting results and conclusions, no matter how strongly
+endorsed, which have been contradicted by his own observation and
+experience. In a field like the one in question, assuredly, if anywhere,
+some degree of independent judgment will not be censured by those who
+are familiar with the sad consequences resulting from the attempted
+application of theories now universally exploded, but which in the day
+and generation of their originators were sanctioned and advocated by
+those who claimed to be magnates in this department.
+
+To the following works, especially, the author acknowledges himself
+indebted: American Farmer's Encyclopaedia; Stephens's Book of the Farm;
+Flint's Milch-Cows and Dairy Farming; Laurence on Cattle; Allen's
+Domestic Animals; Youatt and Martin on Cattle; Thomson's Food of
+Animals; Allen's Rural Architecture; Colman's Practical Agriculture and
+Rural Economy; Goodale's Breeding of Domestic Animals; and Prof.
+Gamgee's valuable contributions to veterinary science.
+
+Particular attention is requested to the division of "Diseases." Under
+this head, as in his former work, the author has endeavored to detail
+the symptoms of the most common ailments of cattle in such a manner that
+every farmer and cattle-owner can at once understand them, and also to
+suggest such procurable remedies as a wide experience has proved to be
+most efficacious.
+
+A generous space has been devoted to the consideration of that fatal
+epidemic, now generally known as "Pleuro-Pneumonia," as it has
+manifested itself in Europe and this country, in the belief that a
+matter of such vital importance to the stock-raiser ought to receive a
+complete exposition in a work like the present. As the author's personal
+experience in connection with the treatment of this peculiar disease has
+been, perhaps, as large and varied as that of any American practitioner,
+he is not without the hope that his views upon the matter may prove
+productive of some benefit to others.
+
+Should the present volume prove as acceptable to those interested as did
+his former work, the author will be abundantly satisfied that he has not
+mistaken in this instance the wants of the public.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+HISTORY AND BREEDS OF CATTLE,                                         13
+
+  THE BRITISH OX,                                                     15
+
+  AMERICAN CATTLE,                                                    21
+    The Ayrshire,                                                     23
+    The Jersey,                                                       30
+    The Short-Horns,                                                  32
+    The Dutch,                                                        36
+    The Hereford,                                                     38
+    The North-Devon,                                                  41
+    Native Cattle,                                                    43
+
+  NATURAL HISTORY OF CATTLE,                                          50
+    Gestation,                                                        51
+    Formation of Teeth,                                               51
+    Points of a Good Cow,                                             57
+
+  THE MILK-MIRROR,                                                    61
+
+
+CROSSING AND BREEDING,                                                77
+
+  PREGNANCY,                                                          92
+
+  TREATMENT BEFORE CALVING,                                           93
+
+
+FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT,                                               97
+
+  SOILING,                                                           118
+
+  CULTURE OF GRASSES FOR FODDER,                                     122
+
+  THE BARN,                                                          146
+
+  MILKING,                                                           155
+
+  RAISING OF CALVES,                                                 168
+
+  POINTS OF FAT CATTLE,                                              183
+
+  DRIVING AND SLAUGHTERING,                                          188
+
+
+DISEASES AND THEIR REMEDIES,                                         205
+
+    Abortion,                                                        206
+    Apoplexy,                                                        215
+
+    Black-Water,                                                     215
+    Bronchitis,                                                      216
+
+    Consumption,                                                     217
+    Coryza,                                                          217
+    Cow-pox,                                                         218
+
+    Diarrhoea,                                                       219
+    Dysentery,                                                       220
+
+    Enteritis,                                                       222
+    Epizooetics,                                                      224
+    Epizooetic Catarrh,                                               234
+
+    Fardel,                                                          236
+    Foul in the Foot,                                                237
+
+    Garget,                                                          237
+    Gastro-enteritis,                                                238
+
+    Hoose,                                                           238
+    Hoove,                                                           239
+    Hydatids,                                                        240
+
+    Inflammation of the Bladder,                                     241
+    Inflammation of the Haw,                                         241
+    Inflammation of the Kidneys,                                     242
+    Inflammation of the Liver,                                       242
+
+    Laryngitis,                                                      243
+    Lice,                                                            244
+
+    Mange,                                                           244
+    Murrain,                                                         246
+
+    Navel-ill,                                                       247
+
+    Obstructions in the Oesophagus,                                  247
+    Open Joints,                                                     248
+    Parturition,                                                     248
+      Free Martins,                                                  251
+      Cleansing,                                                     253
+      Inversion of the Uterus,                                       253
+
+    Phrenitis,                                                       254
+    Pleurisy,                                                        255
+    Pleuro-pneumonia,                                                256
+    Pneumonia,                                                       300
+    Protrusion of the Bladder,                                       302
+    Puerperal Fever,                                                 302
+
+    Quarter Evil,                                                    303
+
+    Rabies,                                                          304
+    Red Water,                                                       305
+    Rheumatism,                                                      307
+
+    Strangulation of the Intestines,                                 308
+
+    Thrush in the Mouth,                                             308
+    Tumors,                                                          308
+
+    Ulcers about the Joints,                                         312
+
+    Warbles,                                                         313
+    Worms,                                                           315
+    Worms in the Bronchial Tubes,                                    316
+
+
+  SURGICAL OPERATIONS,                                               316
+
+    Castration,                                                      316
+    Tracheotomy,                                                     319
+    Spaying,                                                         320
+
+  LIST OF MEDICINES USED IN TREATING CATTLE,                         330
+
+  DOSES OF VARIOUS MEDICINES,                                        336
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+
+                                                                    PAGE
+A Prize Bull,                                                         13
+The Well-fed Beasts,                                                  19
+An Ayrshire Bull,                                                     23
+A Short-horn Bull,                                                    33
+A North Devon Steer,                                                  41
+Draft Oxen,                                                           45
+Skeleton of the Ox,                                                   50
+Teeth at Birth,                                                       52
+Teeth at Second Week,                                                 52
+Teeth at Three Weeks,                                                 53
+Teeth at a Month,                                                     53
+Teeth at Five to Eight Months,                                        53
+Ten Months Teeth,                                                     53
+Twelve Months Teeth,                                                  54
+Fifteen Months Teeth,                                                 54
+Eighteen Months Teeth,                                                55
+Teeth at Two Years Past,                                              55
+Teeth at Three Years Past,                                            56
+Teeth at Four Years Past,                                             56
+Teeth at Five Years Past,                                             56
+Teeth at Ten Years Past,                                              56
+A Good Milch Cow,                                                     58
+Milk-Mirror (A),                                                      62
+Milk-Mirror (B),                                                      63
+Milk-Mirror (C),                                                      63
+Milk-Mirror (D),                                                      64
+Milk-Mirror (E),                                                      65
+Milk-Mirror (F),                                                      66
+Milk-Mirror (G),                                                      69
+Milk-Mirror (H),                                                      70
+Milk-Mirror (K),                                                      72
+Milk-Mirror (L),                                                      74
+Cow and Calf,                                                         77
+Ready for Action,                                                     83
+A Sprightly Youth,                                                    89
+Feeding,                                                              97
+The Family Pets,                                                     102
+Buying Cattle,                                                       107
+Calling in the Cattle,                                               112
+"On the Rampage",                                                    117
+Patiently Waiting,                                                   123
+A Chance for a Selection,                                            129
+A West Highland Ox,                                                  139
+Barn for Thirty-four Cows and Three Yoke of Oxen,                    150
+Transverse Section,                                                  152
+Room over the Cow-Room,                                              153
+The Preferable Method,                                               159
+Maternal Affection,                                                  168
+Frolicksome,                                                         177
+Points of Cattle,                                                    185
+A Frontispiece,                                                      190
+Scotch Mode of Cutting up Beef,                                      195
+English Mode of Cutting up Beef,                                     197
+Diseases and Their Remedies,                                         205
+A Chat on the Road,                                                  218
+The Mad Bull,                                                        230
+An Aberdeenshire Polled Bull,                                        244
+Taking an Observation,                                               256
+The Twins,                                                           268
+A Rural Scene,                                                       285
+Taking it Easily,                                                    299
+Home Again,                                                          313
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+History and Breeds
+
+
+It is quite certain that the ox has been domesticated and in the service
+of man from a very remote period. We are informed in the fourth chapter
+of Genesis, that cattle were kept by the early descendants of Adam;
+Jubal, the son of Lamech--who was probably born during the lifetime of
+Adam--being styled the father of such as have cattle. The ox having been
+preserved by Noah from the flood of waters, the original breed of our
+present cattle must have been in the neighborhood of Mount Ararat. From
+thence, dispersing over the face of the globe--altering by climate, by
+food, and by cultivation--originated the various breeds of modern ages.
+
+That the value of the ox tribe has been in all ages and climates highly
+appreciated, we have ample evidence. The natives of Egypt, India, and
+Hindostan, seem alike to have placed the cow amongst their deities; and,
+judging by her usefulness to all classes, no animal could perhaps have
+been selected whose value to mankind is greater. The traditions, indeed,
+of every Celtic nation enroll the cow among the earliest productions,
+and represent it as a kind of divinity.
+
+In nearly all parts of the earth cattle are employed for their labor,
+for their milk, and for food. In southern Africa they are as much the
+associates of the Caffre as the horse is of the Arab. They share his
+toils, and assist him in tending his herds. They are even trained to
+battle, in which they become fierce and courageous. In central Africa
+the proudest ebony beauties are to be seen upon the backs of cattle. In
+all ages they have drawn the plough. In Spain they still trample out the
+corn; in India they raise the water from the deepest wells to irrigate
+the thirsty soil of Bengal. When Caesar invaded Britain they constituted
+the chief riches of its inhabitants; and they still form no
+inconsiderable item in the estimate of that country's riches.
+
+The parent race of the ox is said to have been much larger than any of
+the present varieties. The Urus, in his wild state at least, was an
+enormous and fierce animal, and ancient legends have thrown around him
+an air of mystery. In almost every part of the continent of Europe and
+in every district of England, skulls, evidently belonging to cattle,
+have been found, far exceeding in bulk any now known.
+
+As the various breeds of cattle among us were introduced into this
+country from Great Britain, we propose, before going into the details of
+the leading American breeds, to glance somewhat briefly at the history
+of
+
+
+THE BRITISH OX.
+
+In the earliest and most reliable accounts which we possess of the
+British Isles--the Commentaries of Caesar--we learn that the ancient
+Britons possessed great numbers of cattle. No satisfactory description
+of these cattle occurs in any ancient author; but, with occasional
+exceptions, we know that they possessed no great bulk or beauty. Caesar
+tells us that the Britons neglected tillage and lived on milk and flesh;
+and this account of the early inhabitants of the British Isle is
+corroborated by other authors. It was such an occupation and mode of
+life as suited their state of society. The island was divided into many
+little sovereignties; no fixed property was secure; and that alone was
+valuable which could be hurried away at the threatened approach of the
+invader. Many centuries after this, when--although one sovereign seemed
+to reign paramount over the whole of the kingdom--there continued to be
+endless contests among the feudal barons, and therefore that property
+alone continued to be valuable which could be secured within the walls
+of the castle, or driven beyond the assailant's reach--an immense stock
+of provisions was always stored up in the various fortresses, both for
+the vassals and the cattle; or it was contrived that the latter should
+be driven to the domains of some friendly baron, or concealed in some
+inland recess.
+
+When the government became more powerful and settled, and property of
+every kind was assured a proportionate degree of protection, as well as
+more equally divided, the plough came into use; agricultural productions
+were oftener cultivated, the reaping of which was sure after the labor
+of sowing. Cattle were then comparatively neglected and for some
+centuries injuriously so. Their numbers diminished, and their size also
+seems to have diminished; and it is only within the last century and a
+half that any serious and successful efforts have been made materially
+to improve them.
+
+In the comparatively roving and uncertain life which the earlier
+inhabitants led, their cattle would sometimes stray and be lost. The
+country was at that time overgrown with forests, and the beasts betook
+themselves to the recesses of these woods, and became wild and sometimes
+ferocious. They, by degrees, grew so numerous as to be dangerous to the
+inhabitants of the neighboring districts. One of the chronicles asserts
+that many of them harbored in the forests in the neighborhood of London.
+Strange stories are told of some of them, and, doubtless, when
+irritated, they were fierce and dangerous enough. As, however,
+civilization advanced, and the forests became thinned and contracted,
+these animals were seen more rarely, and at length almost disappeared. A
+few of them, however, are still to be found in the parks of some of the
+leading English noblemen, who keep them for ornament and as curiosities.
+
+The color of this wild breed is invariably white, the muzzle being
+black; the whole of the inside of the ear, and about one-third of the
+outside, from the tips downward, red; horns white, with black tips, very
+fine, and bent upward; some of the bulls have a thin, upright mane,
+about an inch and a half or two inches long. The beef is finely marbled
+and of excellent flavor.
+
+At the first appearance of any person they set off in full gallop, and
+at the distance of about two hundred yards, make a wheel around and come
+boldly up again in a menacing manner; on a sudden they make a full stop
+at the distance of forty or fifty yards, looking wildly at the object of
+their surprise; but upon the least motion they all again turn round and
+fly off with equal speed, but not to the same distance, forming a
+shorter circle; and, again returning with a more threatening aspect than
+before, they approach probably within thirty yards, when they again make
+another stand, and then fly off; this they do several times, shortening
+their distance and advancing nearer and nearer, till they come within
+such short distance that most persons think it prudent to leave them.
+
+When the cows calve, they hide their calves for a week or ten days in
+some retired situation, and go and suckle them two or three times a day.
+If any persons come near the calves they clap their heads close to the
+ground to hide themselves--a proof of their native wildness. The dams
+allow no one to touch their young without attacking with impetuous
+ferocity. When one of the herd happens to be wounded, or has grown weak
+and feeble through age or sickness, the rest set on it and gore it to
+death.
+
+The breeds of cattle which are now found in Great Britain, are almost as
+various as the soil of the different districts or the fancies of the
+breeders. They have, however, been very conveniently classed according
+to the comparative size of the horns; the _long-horns_, originally from
+Lancashire, and established through most of the midland counties; the
+_short-horns_, generally cultivated in the northern counties and in
+Lincolnshire, and many of them found in every part of the kingdom where
+the farmer pays much attention to his dairy, or where a large supply of
+milk is desired; and the _middle-horns_, a distinct and valuable breed,
+inhabiting, principally, the north of Devon, the east of Sussex,
+Herefordshire, and Gloucestershire; and of diminished bulk and with
+somewhat different character, the cattle of the Scottish and Welsh
+mountains. The Alderney, with its _crumpled horn_, is found on the
+southern coast; while the polled, or _hornless_, cattle prevail in
+Suffolk, Norfolk, and Galloway, whence they were first derived.
+
+These leading breeds, however, have been intermingled in every possible
+way. They are found pure only in their native districts, or on the
+estate of some wealthy and spirited individuals. Each county has its own
+mongrel breed, often difficult to be described, and not always to be
+traced--neglected enough, yet suited to the soil and the climate; and
+among small farmers, maintaining their station, in spite of attempts at
+improvements by the intermixture or the substitution of foreign
+varieties.
+
+Much dispute has arisen as to the original breed of British cattle. The
+battle has been sharply fought between the advocates of the middle and
+of the long-horns. The short-horns and the polls are out of the lists;
+the latter, although it has existed in certain districts from time
+immemorial, being probably an accidental variety. The weight of
+argument appears at present to rest with the middle horns; the
+long-horns being evidently of Irish extraction.
+
+[Illustration: THE WELL-FED BEASTS.]
+
+Great Britain has shared the fate of other nations, and oftener than
+they been overrun and subjugated by invaders. As the natives retreated
+they carried with them some portion of their property, consisting, in
+the remote and early times, principally of cattle. They drove along with
+them as many as they could, when they retired to the fortresses of North
+Devon and Cornwall, or the mountainous region of Wales, or when they
+took refuge in the retirement of East Sussex; and there, retaining all
+their prejudices, manners, and customs, were jealous of the preservation
+of that which reminded them of their native country before it yielded to
+a foreign yoke.
+
+In this way was preserved the ancient breed of British cattle.
+Difference of climate produced some change, particularly in their bulk.
+The rich pasturage of Sussex fattened the ox into its superior size and
+weight. The plentiful, but not so luxuriant, herbage of the north of
+Devon produced a smaller and more active animal; while the privations of
+Wales lessened the bulk and thickened the hide of the Welsh Stock. As
+for Scotland, it set its invaders at defiance; or its inhabitants
+retreated for a while, and soon turned again on their pursuers. They
+were proud of their country, and of their cattle, their choicest
+possession; and there, also, the cattle were preserved, unmixed and
+undegenerated.
+
+Thence it has resulted, that in Devon, in Sussex, in Wales, and in
+Scotland, the cattle have been the same from time immemorial; while in
+all the eastern coasts and through every district of England, the breed
+of cattle degenerated, or lost its original character; it consisted of
+animals brought from all the neighboring, and some remote districts,
+mingled in every possible variety, yet conforming to the soil and the
+climate.
+
+Careful observations will establish the fact, that the cattle in
+Devonshire, Sussex, Wales, and Scotland are essentially the same. They
+are middle horned; not extraordinary milkers, and remarkable for the
+quality rather than the quantity of their milk; active at work, and with
+an unequalled aptitude to fatten. They have all the characters of the
+same breed, changed by soil, climate, and time, yet little changed by
+man. The color, even, may be almost traced, namely: the red of the
+Devon, the Sussex, and the Hereford; and where only the black are now
+found, the recollection of the red prevails.
+
+As this volume is intended especially for the farmers of our own
+country, it is deemed unnecessary in this connection to present any
+thing additional under the present head, except the names of the
+prominent species of British cattle. These are, commencing with the
+middle horns, the North Devon, the Hereford, the Sussex, the Welsh (with
+the varieties of the Pembrokeshire, the Glamorganshire, the Radnor
+black, the Anglesea and some others); and the Scotch with its chief
+varieties, the West Highlanders, the North Highlanders, the North
+Eastern, the Fife, the Ayrshire, and the Galloways.
+
+As to the long horns, which came originally from Craven in Yorkshire, it
+may be remarked that this breed has been rapidly disappearing of late,
+and has everywhere given place to better kinds. Of this species there
+are--or perhaps were--two leading classes, the Lancashire and the
+Leicestershire improved.
+
+Of the short horns, the leading breeds are the Dutch, the Holderness,
+the Teeswater, the Yorkshire, the Durham, the Northumberland, and some
+others.
+
+
+AMERICAN CATTLE.
+
+The breeds of cattle which stock the farms of the United States are all
+derived from Europe, and, with few exceptions, from Great Britain. The
+highest breeds at the present time are of comparatively recent origin,
+since the great improvements in breeding were only commenced at about
+the period of the American Revolution. The old importations made by the
+early settlers, must consequently have been from comparatively inferior
+grades.
+
+In some sections of the Union, and more particularly in New England, the
+primitive stock is thought to have undergone considerable improvement;
+whilst in many parts of the Middle, and especially of the Southern
+States, a greater or less depreciation has ensued. The prevailing stock
+in the Eastern States is believed to be derived from the North Devons,
+most of the excellent marks and qualities of which they possess. For
+this reason they are very highly esteemed, and have been frequently
+called the American Devon. The most valuable working oxen are chiefly of
+this breed, which also contributes so largely to the best displays of
+beef found in the markets of Boston, New York, and Philadelphia. By
+means of this domestic stock, and the importations still extensively
+made of selections from the short horns, and others of the finest
+European breeds, the cattle, not only of New England, but of other
+sections, are rapidly improving, especially in the Middle and Western
+States.
+
+A brief sketch of the principal breeds of American cattle, as well as of
+the grades or common stock of the country, will be of service to the
+farmer in making an intelligent selection with reference to the special
+object of pursuit--whether it be the dairy, the production of beef, or
+the raising of cattle for work.
+
+In selecting any breed, regard should be had to the circumstances of the
+individual farmer and the object to be pursued. The cow most profitable
+for the milk dairy, may be very unprofitable in the butter and cheese
+dairy, as well as for the production of beef; while, for either of the
+latter objects, the cow which gave the largest quantity of milk might be
+very undesirable. A union and harmony of all good qualities must be
+secured, so far as possible. The farmer wants a cow that will milk well
+for some years; and then, when dry, fatten readily and sell to the
+butcher for the highest price. These qualities, often supposed to be
+utterly incompatible, will be found united in some breeds to a greater
+extent than in others; while some peculiarities of form have been
+found, by observation, to be better adapted to the production of milk
+and beef than others.
+
+It is proposed, therefore, to sketch the pure breeds now found in
+America.
+
+
+THE AYRSHIRE.
+
+[Illustration: AN AYRSHIRE BULL.]
+
+This breed is justly celebrated throughout Great Britain and this
+country for its excellent dairy qualities. Though the most recent in
+their origin, they are pretty distinct from the Scotch and English
+races. In color, the pure Ayrshires are generally red and
+white, spotted or mottled, not roan like many of the short horns, but
+often presenting a bright contrast of colors. They are sometimes, though
+rarely, nearly or quite all red, and sometimes black and white; but the
+favorite color is red and white brightly contrasted; and, by some,
+strawberry-color is preferred. The head is small, fine and clean; the
+face long and narrow at the muzzle, with a sprightly, yet generally mild
+expression; eye small, smart and lively; the horns short, fine, and
+slightly twisted upward, set wide apart at the roots; the neck thin;
+body enlarging from fore to hind quarters; the back straight and narrow,
+but broad across the loin; joints rather loose and open; ribs rather
+flat; hind quarters rather thin; bone fine; tail long, fine, and bushy
+at the end; hair generally thin and soft; udder light color and
+capacious, extending well forward under the belly; teats of the cow of
+medium size, generally set regularly and wide apart; milk-veins
+prominent and well developed. The carcass of the pure bred Ayrshire is
+light, particularly the fore quarters, which is considered by good
+judges as an index of great milking qualities; but the pelvis is
+capacious and wide over the hips.
+
+On the whole, the Ayrshire is good looking, but wants some of the
+symmetry and aptitude to fatten which characterize the short horn, which
+is supposed to have contributed to build up this valuable breed on the
+basis of the original stock of the county of Ayr, which extends along
+the eastern shore of the Firth of Clyde, in the southwestern part of
+Scotland.
+
+The original stock of this country are described as of a diminutive
+size, ill fed, ill shaped, and yielding but a scanty return in milk.
+They were mostly of a black color, with large stripes of white along the
+chine and ridge of their backs, about the flanks, and on their faces.
+Their horns were high and crooked, having deep ringlets at the root--the
+surest proof that they were but scantily fed; the chine of their backs
+stood up high and narrow; their sides were lank, short, and thin; their
+hides thick and adhering to the bones; their pile was coarse and open;
+and few of them gave more than six or eight quarts of milk a day when in
+their best condition, or weighed, when fat, more than from a hundred to
+a hundred and sixty pounds avoirdupois, rejecting offal.
+
+A wonderful change has since been made in the condition, aspect, and
+qualities of the Ayrshire dairy stock. They are now almost double the
+size, and yield about four times the quantity of milk that the Ayrshire
+cows formerly yielded. A large part of this improvement is due to better
+feeding and care, but much, no doubt, to judicious crossing. Strange as
+it may seem, considering the modern origin of this breed, all that is
+certainly known touching it is, that about a century and a half ago
+there was no such breed as Ayrshire in Scotland. The question has
+therefore arisen, whether these cattle came entirely from a careful
+selection of the best native breed. If they did, it is a circumstance
+without a parallel in the history of agriculture. The native breed may
+indeed be ameliorated by careful selection; its value may be
+incalculably increased; some good qualities, some of its best qualities,
+may be developed for the first time; but yet there will be some
+resemblance to the original stock, and the more the animal is examined,
+the more clearly can be traced the characteristic points of the
+ancestor, although every one of them is improved.
+
+Youatt estimates the daily yield of an Ayrshire cow, for the first two
+or three months after calving, at five gallons a day, on an average; for
+the next three months, at three gallons; and for the next four months,
+at one gallon and a half. This would give eight hundred and fifty
+gallons as the annual average; but, allowing for some unproductive cows,
+he estimates the average of a dairy at six hundred gallons a year for
+each cow. Three gallons and a half of the Ayrshire cow's milk will yield
+one and a half pounds of butter. Some have estimated the yield still
+higher.
+
+One of the four cows originally imported into this country by John P.
+Cushing, Esq., of Massachusetts, gave in one year three thousand eight
+hundred and sixty-four quarts, beer measure, or about nine hundred and
+sixty-six gallons, at ten pounds the gallon; being an average of over
+ten and a half beer quarts a day for the entire year. The first cow of
+this breed, imported by the Massachusetts Society, for the Promotion of
+Agriculture, in 1837, yielded sixteen pounds of butter a week for
+several successive weeks, on grass feed only. It should be borne in
+mind, in this connection that the climate of New England is less
+favorable to the production of milk than that of England and Scotland,
+and that no cow imported after arriving at maturity can be expected to
+yield as much, under the same circumstances, as one bred on the spot
+where the trial is made, and perfectly acclimated.
+
+On excellent authority, the most approved shape and marks of a good
+dairy cow are as follows: Head small, long, and narrow toward the
+muzzle; horns small, clear, bent, and placed at considerable distance
+from each other; eyes not large, but brisk and lively; neck slender and
+long, tapering toward the head, with a little loose skin below;
+shoulders and fore quarters light and thin; hind quarters large and
+broad; back straight, and joints slack and open; carcass deep in the
+rib; tail small and long, reaching to the heels; legs small and short,
+with firm joints; udder square, but a little oblong, stretching forward,
+thin skinned and capacious, but not low hung; teats or paps small,
+pointing outward, and at a considerable distance from each other;
+milk-veins capacious and prominent; skin loose, thin, and soft like a
+glove; hair short, soft, and woolly; general figure, when in flesh,
+handsome and well proportioned.
+
+If this description of the Ayrshire cow be correct, it will be seen that
+her head and neck are remarkably clean and fine, the latter swelling
+gradually toward the shoulders, both parts being unencumbered with
+superfluous flesh. The same general form extends backward, the fore
+quarters being, light the shoulders thin, and the carcass swelling out
+toward the hind quarters, so that when standing in front of her it has
+the form of a blunted wedge. Such a structure indicates very fully
+developed digestive organs, which exert a powerful influence on all the
+functions of the body, and especially on the secretion of the milky
+glands, accompanied with milk-veins and udder partaking of the same
+character as the stomach and viscera, being large and capacious, while
+the external skin and interior walls of the milk-glands are thin and
+elastic, and all parts arranged in a manner especially adapted for the
+production of milk.
+
+A cow with these marks will generally be of a quiet and docile temper,
+which greatly increases her value. A cow that is of a quiet and
+contented disposition feeds at ease, is milked with ease, and yields
+more than one of an opposite temperament; while, after she is past her
+usefulness as a milker, she will easily take on fat, and make fine beef
+and a good quantity of tallow, because she feeds freely, and when dry
+the food which went to make milk is converted into fat and flesh. But
+there is no breed of cows with which gentle gentleness of treatment is
+so indispensable as with the Ayrshire, on account of her naturally
+nervous temperament. If she receives other than kind and gentle
+treatment, she will often resent it with angry looks and gestures, and
+withhold her milk; and if such treatment is long continued, will dry
+up; but she willingly and easily yields it to the hand that fondles
+her, and all her looks and movements toward her friends are quiet and
+mild.
+
+The Ayrshires in their native country are generally bred for the dairy,
+and for no other object; and the cows have justly obtained a world-wide
+reputation for this quality. The oxen are, however, very fair as working
+cattle, though they cannot be said to excel other breeds in this
+respect. The Ayrshire steer maybe fed and turned at three years old; but
+for feeding purposes the Ayrshires are greatly improved by a cross with
+the short horns, provided regard is had to the size of the animal. It is
+the opinion of good breeders that a high-bred short horn bull and a
+large-sized Ayrshire cow will produce a calf which will come to maturity
+earlier, and attain greater weight, and sell for more money than a
+pure-bred Ayrshire. This cross, with feeding from the start, may be sold
+fat at two or three years old, the improvement being most noticeable in
+the earlier maturity and size.
+
+In the Cross with the short horn, the form ordinarily becomes more
+symmetrical, while there is, perhaps, little risk of lessening the
+milking qualities of the offspring, if sufficient regard is paid to the
+selection of the individual animals to breed from. It is thought by some
+that in the breeding of animals it is the male which gives the external
+form, or the bony and muscular system of the young, while the female
+imparts the respiratory organs, the circulation of the blood, the organs
+of secretion, and the like.
+
+If this principle be true, it follows that the milking qualities come
+chiefly from the mother, and that the bull cannot materially alter the
+conditions which determine the transmission of these qualities,
+especially when they are as strongly marked as they are in this breed.
+
+Until, however, certain mooted questions connected with breeding are
+definitively settled, it is the safest plan, in breeding for the dairy,
+to adhere to the rule of selecting only animals whose progenitors on
+both sides have been distinguished for their milking qualities.
+
+It may be stated, in conclusion, that for purely dairy purposes the
+Ayrshire cow deserves the first place. In consequence of her small,
+symmetrical, and compact body, combined with a well-formed chest and a
+capacious stomach, there is little waste, comparatively speaking,
+through the respiratory system; while at the same time there is very
+complete assimilation of the food, and thus she converts a very large
+proportion of her food into milk. So remarkable is this fact, that all
+dairy farmers who have any experience on the point, agree in stating
+that _an Ayrshire cow generally gives a larger return of milk for the
+food consumed than a cow of any other breed_. The absolute quality may
+not be so great, but it is obtained at a less cost; and this is the
+point upon which the question of profit depends. The best milkers which
+have been known in this country were grade Ayrshires, larger in size
+than the pure bloods, but still sufficiently high grades to give certain
+signs of their origin. This grade would seem to possess the advantage of
+combining, to some extent, the two qualities of milking and adaptation
+to beef; and this is no small recommendation of the stock to farmers
+situated as American farmers are, who wish for milk for some years and
+then to turn over to the butcher.
+
+
+THE JERSEY.
+
+These cattle are now widely known in this country. Many of them have
+been imported from an island of the same name in the British Channel,
+near the coast of France, and they may now be considered, for all
+practical purposes, as fully acclimated. They were first introduced,
+upward of thirty years ago, from the channel islands, Alderney,
+Guernsey, and Jersey.
+
+This race is supposed to have been originally derived from Normandy, in
+the northern part of France. The cows have been long celebrated for the
+production of very rich milk and cream, but till within the last
+twenty-five or thirty years they were comparatively coarse, ugly, and
+ill-shaped. Improvements have been very marked, but the form of the
+animal is still far from satisfying the eye.
+
+The head of the pure Jersey is fine and tapering, the cheek small, the
+throat clean, the muzzle fine and encircled with a light stripe, the
+nostril high and open; the horns smooth, crumpled, but not very thick at
+the base, tapering and tipped with black; ears small and thin, deep
+orange color inside; eyes full and placid; neck straight and fine; chest
+broad and deep; barrel hoofed, broad and deep, well ribbed up; back
+straight from the withers to the hip, and from the top of the hip to the
+setting of the tail; tail fine, at right angles with the back, and
+hanging down to the hocks; skin thin, light color, and mellow, covered
+with fine soft hair; fore legs short, straight and fine below the knee,
+arm swelling and full above; hind quarters long and well filled; hind
+legs short and straight below the hocks, with bones rather fine,
+squarely placed, and not too close together; hoofs small; udder full in
+size, in line with the belly, extending well up behind; teats of medium
+size, squarely placed and wide apart, and milk-veins very prominent. The
+color is generally cream, dun, or yellow, with more or less of white,
+and the fine head and neck give the cows and heifers a fawn-like
+appearance, and make them objects of attraction in the park; but the
+hind quarters are often too narrow to work well, particularly to those
+who judge animals by the amount of fat which they carry.
+
+It should be borne in mind, however, that a good race of animals is not
+always the most beautiful, as that term is generally understood. Beauty
+in stock has no invariable standard. In the estimation of some, it
+results mainly from fine forms, small bones, and close, compact frames;
+while others consider that structure the most perfect, and therefore the
+most beautiful, which is best adapted to the use for which it is
+destined. With such, beauty is relative. It is not the same in an animal
+designed for beef and in one designed for the dairy or for work. The
+beauty of a milch cow is the result of her good qualities. Large milkers
+are very rarely cows that please the eye of any but a skillful judge.
+They are generally poor, since their food goes mainly to the production
+of milk, and because they are selected with less regard to form than to
+good milking qualities. The prevailing opinion as to the beauty of the
+Jersey, is based on the general appearance of the cow when in milk--no
+experiments in feeding exclusively for beef having been made public,
+and no opportunity to form a correct judgment from actual observation
+having been furnished; and it must be confessed that the general
+appearance of the breed would amply justify the hasty conclusion.
+
+The bulls are usually very different in character and disposition from
+the cows, and are much inclined to become restive and cross at the age
+of two or three years, unless their treatment is uniformly gentle and
+firm.
+
+The Jersey is to be regarded as a dairy breed, and that almost
+exclusively. It would not be sought for large dairies kept for the
+supply of milk to cities; for, though the quality would gratify the
+customer, the quantity would not satisfy the owner. The place of the
+Jersey cow is rather in private establishments, where the supply of
+cream and butter is a sufficient object; or, in limited numbers, to add
+richness to the milk of large butter dairies. Even one or two good
+Jersey cows with a herd of fifteen or twenty, will make a great
+difference in the quality of the milk and butter of the whole
+establishment; and they would probably be profitable for this, if for no
+other object.
+
+
+THE SHORT HORNS.
+
+No breed of cattle has commanded more universal admiration during the
+last half century than the improved short horns, whose origin can be
+traced back for nearly a hundred years. According to the best
+authorities, the stock which formed the basis of improvement existed
+equally in Yorkshire, Lincolnshire, Northumberland, and the adjoining
+counties; and the pre-eminence was accorded to Durham, which gave its
+name to the race, from the more correct principles of breeding which
+seem to have obtained there.
+
+There is a dispute among the most eminent breeders as to how far it owes
+its origin to early importations from Holland, whence many superior
+animals were brought for the purpose of improving the old long horned
+breed. A large race of cattle had existed for many years on the western
+shores of the continent of Europe. As early as 1633, they were imported
+from Denmark into New England in considerable numbers, and thus laid the
+foundation of a valuable stock in farming at a very early date in
+Holland, and experience led to the greatest care in the choice and
+breeding of dairy stock. From these cattle many selections were made to
+cross over to the counties of York and Durham. The prevailing color of
+the large Dutch cattle was black and white, beautifully contrasted.
+
+[Illustration: A SHORT HORN BULL.]
+
+The cattle produced by these crosses a century ago were known by the
+name of "Dutch." The cows selected for crossing with the early imported
+Dutch bulls were generally long horned, large boned, coarse animals, a
+fair type of which was found in the old "Holderness" breed of
+Yorkshire--slow feeders, strong in the shoulder, defective in the fore
+quarter, and not very profitable to the butcher, their meat being coarse
+and uninviting. Their milking qualities were good, surpassing those,
+probably, of the improved short horns. Whatever may be the truth with
+regard to these crosses, and however far they proved effective in
+creating or laying the foundation of the modern improved short horns,
+the results of the efforts made in Yorkshire and some of the adjoining
+counties were never so satisfactory to the best judges as those of the
+breeders along the Tees, who selected animals with greater reference to
+fineness of bone and symmetry of form, and the animals they bred soon
+took the lead and excited great emulation in improvement.
+
+Importations of short horns have been frequent and extensive into the
+United States within the last few years, and this famous breed is now
+pretty generally diffused over the country.
+
+The high-bred short horn is easily prepared for a show, and, as fat will
+cover faults, the temptation is often too great to be resisted; and
+hence it is not uncommon to see the finest animals rendered unfit for
+breeding purposes by over-feeding. The race is susceptible of breeding
+for the production of milk, as several families show, and great milkers
+have often been known among pure-bred animals; but it is more common to
+find it bred mainly for the butcher, and kept accordingly. It is,
+however, a well-known fact, that the dairies of London are stocked
+chiefly with short horns and Yorkshires, or high grades between them,
+which, after being milked as long as profitable, feed equal, or nearly
+so, to pure-bred short horns. It has been said, by very good authority,
+that the short horns improve every breed with which they cross.
+
+The desirable characteristics of the short horn bull may be summed up,
+according to the judgment of the best breeders, as follows: He should
+have a short but fine head, very broad across the eyes, tapering to the
+nose, with a nostril full and prominent; the nose itself should be of a
+rich flesh color; eyes bright and mild; ears somewhat large and thin;
+horns slightly covered and rather flat, well set on; a long, broad,
+muscular neck; chest wide, deep, and projecting; shoulders fine,
+oblique, well formed into the chine; fore legs short, with upper arm
+large and powerful; barrel round, deep, well-ribbed horns; hips wide and
+level; back straight from the withers to the setting on of the tail, but
+short from hips to chine; skin soft and velvety to the touch; moderately
+thick hair, plentiful, soft, and mossy. The cow has the same points in
+the main, but her head is finer, longer, and more tapering; neck thinner
+and lighter, and shoulders more narrow across the chine.
+
+The astonishing precocity of the short horns, their remarkable aptitude
+to fatten, the perfection of their forms, and the fineness of their bony
+structure, give them an advantage over most other races when the object
+of breeding is for the shambles. No animal of any other breed can so
+rapidly transform the stock of any section around him as the improved
+short horn bull.
+
+It does not, however, follow that the high-bred short horns are
+unexceptionable, even for beef. The very exaggeration, so to speak, of
+the qualities which make them so valuable for the improvement of other
+and less perfect races, may become a fault when wanted for the table.
+The very rapidity with which they increase in size is thought by some
+to prevent their meat from ripening up sufficiently before being hurried
+off to the butcher. The disproportion of the fatty to the muscular
+flesh, found in this to a greater extent than in races coming more
+slowly to maturity, makes the meat of the thorough-bred short horn, in
+the estimation of some, less agreeable to the taste, and less profitable
+to the consumer; since the nitrogenous compounds, true sources of
+nutriment, are found in less quantity than in the meat of animals not so
+highly bred.
+
+In sections where the climate is moist, and the food abundant and rich,
+some families of the short horns may be valuable for the dairy; but they
+are most frequently bred exclusively for beef in this country, and in
+sections where they have attained the highest perfection of form and
+beauty, so little is thought of their milking qualities that they are
+often not milked at all, the calf being allowed to run with the dam.
+
+
+THE DUTCH.
+
+This short horned race, in the opinion of many--as has been previously
+remarked--contributed largely, about a century ago, to build up the
+Durham or Teeswater stock. It has been bred with special reference to
+dairy qualities, and is eminently adapted to supply the wants of the
+dairy farmer. The cows of North Holland not only give a large quantity,
+but also a very good quality, so that a yield of sixteen to twenty-five
+quarts, wine measure, at every milking, is not rare.
+
+The principles upon which the inhabitants of Holland practise, in
+selecting a cow from which to breed, are as follows: She should have,
+they say, considerable size--not less than four and a half or five feet
+girth, with a length of body corresponding; legs proportionally short; a
+finely formed head, with a forehead or face somewhat concave; clear,
+large, mild and sparkling eyes, yet with no expression of wildness;
+tolerably large and stout ears, standing out from the head; fine, well
+curved horns; a rather short, than long, thick, broad neck, well set
+against the chest and withers; the front part of the breast and
+shoulders must be broad and fleshy; the low-hanging dewlap must be soft
+to the touch; the back and loins must be properly projected, somewhat
+broad, the bones not too sharp, but well covered with flesh; the animal
+should have long curved ribs, which form a broad breast bone; the body
+must be round and deep, but not sunken into a hanging belly; the rump
+must not be uneven, the hip-bones should not stand out too broad and
+spreading, but all the parts should be level and well filled up; a fine
+tail, set moderately high up and tolerably long, but slender, with a
+thick, bushy tuft of hair at the end, hanging down below the hocks; the
+legs must be short and low, but strong in the bony structure; the knees
+broad, with flexible joints; the muscles and sinews must be firm and
+sound, the hoofs broad and flat, and the position of the legs natural,
+not too close and crowded; the hide, covered with fine glossy hair, must
+be soft and mellow to the touch, and set loose upon the body. A large,
+rather long, white and loose udder, extending well back, with four long
+teats, serves also as a characteristic mark of a good milch cow. Large
+and prominent milk-veins must extend from the navel back to the udder;
+the belly of a good milch cow should not be too deep and hanging. The
+color of the North Dutch cattle is mostly variegated. Cows with only one
+color are no favorites. Red or black variegated, gray and blue
+variegated, roan, spotted and white variegated cows, are especially
+liked.
+
+
+THE HEREFORD.
+
+These cattle derive their name from a county in the western part of
+England. Their general characteristics are a white face, sometimes
+mottled; white throat, the white generally extending back on the neck,
+and sometimes, though rarely, still further along on the back. The color
+of the rest of the body is red, generally dark, but sometimes light.
+Eighty years ago the best Hereford cattle were mottled or roan all over;
+and some of the best herds, down to a comparatively recent period, were
+either all mottled, or had the mottled or speckled face.
+
+The expression of the face is mild and lively; the forehead open, broad,
+and large; the eyes bright and full of vivacity; the horns glossy,
+slender and spreading; the head small, though larger than, and not quite
+so clear as, that of the Devons; the lower jaw fine; neck long and
+slender; chest deep; breast-bone large, prominent, and very muscular;
+the shoulder-blade light; shoulder full and soft; brisket and loins
+large; hips well developed, and on a level with the chine; hind quarters
+long and well filled in; buttocks on a level with the back, neither
+falling off nor raised above the hind quarters; tail slender, well set
+on; hair fine and soft; body round and full; carcass deep and well
+formed, or cylindrical; bone small; thigh short and well made; legs
+short and straight, and slender below the knee; as handlers very
+excellent, especially mellow to the touch on the back, the shoulder, and
+along the sides, the skin being soft, flexible, of medium thickness,
+rolling on the neck and the hips; hair bright; face almost bare, which
+is characteristic of pure Herefords.
+
+They belong to the middle horned division of the cattle of Great
+Britain, to which they are indigenous, and have been improved within the
+last century by careful selections.
+
+Hereford oxen are excellent animals, less active but stronger than the
+Devons, and very free and docile. The demand for Herefords for beef
+prevents their being much used for work in their native county, and the
+farmers there generally use horses instead of oxen.
+
+It is generally conceded that the qualities in which Herefords stand
+pre-eminent among the middle-sized breeds are in the production of oxen
+and their superiority of flesh. On these points there is little chance
+of their being excelled. It should, however, be borne in mind that the
+best oxen are not produced from the largest cows; nor is a superior
+quality of flesh, such as is considered very soft to the touch, with
+thin skin. It is the union of these two qualities which often
+characterizes the short horns; but Hereford breeders--as a recent writer
+remarks--should endeavor to maintain a higher standard of
+excellence--that for which the best of the breed have always been
+esteemed--a moderately thick, mellow hide, with a well apportioned
+combination of softness with elasticity. A sufficiency of hair is also
+desirable, and if accompanied with a disposition to curl moderately, it
+is more in esteem; but that which has a harsh and wiry feel is
+objectionable.
+
+In point of symmetry and beauty of form, the well bred Herefords may be
+classed with the improved short horns, though they arrive somewhat more
+slowly at maturity, and never attain such weight. Like the improved
+short horns, they are chiefly bred for beef, and their beef is of the
+best quality in the English markets, commanding the highest price of
+any, except perhaps, the West Highlanders. The short horn produces more
+beef at the same age than the Hereford, but consumes more food in
+proportion.
+
+The Herefords are far less generally spread over England than the
+improved short horns. They have seldom been bred for milk, as some
+families of the latter have; and it is not very unusual to find
+pure-bred cows incapable of supplying milk sufficient to nourish their
+calves. They have been imported to this country to some extent, and
+several fine herds exist in different sections; the earliest
+importations being those of Henry Clay, of Kentucky, in 1817.
+
+The want of care and attention to the udder, soon after calving,
+especially if the cow be on luxuriant grass, often injures her milking
+properties exceedingly. The practice in the county of Hereford has
+generally been to let the calves suckle from four to six months, and
+bull calves often run eight months with the cow. But their dairy
+qualities are perhaps as good as those of any cattle whose fattening
+properties have been so carefully developed; and, though it is probable
+that they could be bred for milk with proper care and attention, yet, as
+this change would be at the expense of other qualities equally valuable,
+it would evidently be wiser to resort to other stock for the dairy.
+
+
+THE NORTH DEVONS.
+
+[Illustration: A NORTH DEVON STEER.]
+
+This beautiful race of middle horned cattle dates further back than any
+well established breed among us. It goes generally under the simple name
+of Devon; but the cattle of the southern part of the country, from which
+the race derives its name, differ somewhat from those of the northern,
+having a larger and coarser frame, and far less tendency to fatten
+though their dairy qualities are superior.
+
+The North Devons are remarkable for hardihood, symmetry and beauty, and
+are generally bred for work and for beef, rather than for the dairy. The
+head is fine and well set on; the horns of medium length, generally
+curved; color usually bright blood-red, but sometimes inclining to
+yellow; skin thin and orange-yellow; hair of medium length, soft and
+silky, making the animals remarkable as handlers; muzzle of the nose
+white; eyes full and mild; ears yellowish, or orange-color inside, of
+moderate size; neck rather long, with little dewlap; shoulders oblique;
+legs small and straight, with feet in proportion; chest of good width;
+ribs round and expanded; loins of first-rate quality, long, wide, and
+fleshy; hips round, of medium width; rump level; tail full near the
+setting on, tapering to the tip; thighs of the bull and ox muscular and
+full, and high in the flank, though in the cow sometimes thought to be
+light; the size medium, generally called small. The proportion of meat
+on the valuable parts is greater, and the offal less, than on most other
+breeds, while it is well settled that they consume less food in its
+production. The Devons are popular with the Smithfield butchers, and
+their beef is well marbled or grained.
+
+As working oxen, the Devons perhaps excel all other races in quickness,
+docility, beauty, and the ease with which they are matched. With a
+reasonable load, they are said to be equal to horses as walkers on the
+road, and when they are no longer wanted for work they fatten easily and
+turn well.
+
+As milkers, they do not excel--perhaps they may be said not to
+equal--the other breeds, and they have a reputation of being decidedly
+below the average. In their native country the general average of the
+dairy is one pound of butter a day during the summer. They are bred for
+beef and for work, and not for the dairy; and their yield of milk is
+small, though of a rich quality. Several animals, however, of the
+celebrated Patterson herd would have been remarkable as milkers even
+among good milking stock.
+
+Still, the faults of the North Devon cow, considered as a dairy animal,
+are too marked to be overlooked. The rotundity of form and compactness
+of frame, though they contribute to her remarkable beauty constitute an
+objection to her for this purpose: since it is generally admitted that
+the peculiarity of form which disposes an animal to take on fat is
+somewhat incompatible with good milking qualities. On this account,
+Youatt--who is standard authority in such matters--says that for the
+dairy the North Devon must be acknowledged to be inferior to several
+other breeds. The milk is good, and yields more than the average
+proportion of cream and butter; but it is deficient in quantity. He also
+maintains that its property as a milker could not be improved without
+producing a certain detriment to its grazing qualities. Distinguished
+Devon breeders themselves have come to the same conclusion upon this
+point. The improved North Devon cow may be classed, in this respect,
+with the Hereford, neither of which has well developed milk-vessels--a
+point of the utmost consequence to the practical dairyman.
+
+
+NATIVE CATTLE.
+
+The foregoing comprise the pure-bred races in America; for, though other
+and well-established breeds--like the Galloways, the long horns, the
+Spanish, and others--have, at times, been imported, and have had some
+influence on our American stock, yet they have not been kept distinct to
+such an extent as to become the prevailing stock of any particular
+section.
+
+A large proportion, however--by far the largest proportion, indeed--of
+the cattle known among us cannot be included under any of the races to
+which allusion has been made; and to the consideration of this class the
+present article is devoted.
+
+The term "breed"--as was set forth in the author's treatise, "The Horse
+and his Diseases"--when properly understood, applies only to animals of
+the same species, possessing, besides the general characteristics of
+that species, other characteristics peculiar to themselves, which they
+owe to the influence of soil, climate, nourishment, and the habits of
+life to which they are subjected, and which they transmit with certainty
+to their progeny. The characteristics of certain breeds or families are
+so well marked, that, if an individual supposed to belong to any one of
+them were to produce an offspring not possessing them, or possessing
+them only in part, with others not belonging to the breed, it would be
+just ground for suspecting a want of purity of bloods.
+
+In this view, no grade animals, and no animals destitute of fixed
+peculiarities or characteristics which they, share in common with all
+other animals of the class of which they are a type, and which they are
+capable of transmitting with certainty to their descendants, can be
+recognized by breeders as belonging to any one distinct race, breed, or
+family.
+
+The term "native" is applied to a vast majority of our American cattle,
+which, though born on the soil, and thus in one sense natives, do not
+constitute a breed, race, or family, as correctly understood by
+breeders. They do not possess characteristics peculiar to them all,
+which they transmit with any certainty to their offspring, either of
+form, size, color, milking or working properties.
+
+But, though an animal may be made up of a mixture of blood almost to
+impurity, it does not follow that, for specific purposes, it may not, as
+an individual animal, be one of the best of the species. Indeed, for
+particular purposes, animals might be selected from among those commonly
+called "natives" in New England, and "scrubs" at the west and south,
+equal, and perhaps superior, to any among the races produced by the most
+skillful breeding.
+
+There can be no objection, therefore, to the use of the term "native,"
+when it is understood as descriptive of no known breed, but only as
+applied to the common stock of a country, which does not constitute a
+breed. But perhaps the entire class of animals commonly called "natives"
+would be more accurately described as grades; since they are well known
+to have sprung from a great variety of cattle procured at different
+times and in different places on the continent of Europe, in England,
+and in the Spanish West Indies, brought together without any regard to
+fixed principles of breeding, but only from individual convenience, and
+by accident.
+
+The first importations to this country were doubtless those taken to
+Virginia previous to 1609, though the exact date of their arrival is not
+known. Several cows were carried there from the West Indies in 1610, and
+in the next year no less than one hundred arrived there from abroad.
+
+[Illustration: DRAFT OXEN.]
+
+The earliest cattle imported into New England arrived in 1624. At the
+division of cattle which took place three years after, one or two are
+distinctly described as black, or black and white, others as brindle,
+showing that there was no uniformity of color. Soon after this, a large
+number of cattle were brought over from England for the settlers at
+Salem. These importations formed the original stock of Massachusetts.
+
+In 1725, the first importation was made into New York from Holland by
+the Dutch West India Company, and the foundation was then laid for an
+exceedingly valuable race of animals, which, subsequent importations
+from the same country, as well as from England, have greatly improved.
+The points and value of this race in its purity have been already
+adverted to under the head of the Dutch cattle.
+
+In 1627, cattle were brought from Sweden to the settlements on the
+Delaware, by the Swedish West India Company. In 1631, 1632, and 1633,
+several importations were made into New Hampshire by Captain John Mason
+who, with Gorges, had procured the patent of large tracts of land in the
+vicinity of the Piscataqua river, and who immediately formed settlements
+there. The object of Mason was to carry on the manufacture of potash.
+For this purpose he employed the Danes; and it was in his voyage to and
+from Denmark that he procured many Danish cattle and horses, which were
+subsequently scattered over that entire region, large numbers being
+driven to the vicinity of Boston and sold. These Danish cattle are
+described as large and coarse, of a yellow color; and it is supposed
+that they were procured by Mason as being best capable of enduring the
+severity of the climate and the hardships to which they would be
+subjected.
+
+However this may have been, they very soon spread among the colonists of
+the Massachusetts Bay, and have undoubtedly left their marks on the
+stock of the New England and the Middle States, which exist to some
+extent even to the present day, mixed in with an infinite multitude of
+crosses with the Devons, the Dutch cattle already alluded to, the black
+cattle of Spain and Wales, and the long horn and the short horn--most of
+which crosses were accidental, or due to local circumstances or
+individual convenience. Many of these cattle, the descendants of such
+crosses, are of a very high order of merit; but to which particular
+cross this is due, it is impossible to say. They generally make hardy,
+strong, and docile oxen, easily broken to the yoke and quick to work,
+with a fair tendency to fatten when well fed; while the cows, though
+often ill-shaped, are sometimes remarkably good milkers, especially as
+regards the quantity which they give.
+
+Indeed, it has been remarked by excellent judges of stock, that if they
+desired to select a dairy of cows for milk for sale, they would make
+their selection from cows commonly called native, in preference to
+pure-bred animals of any of the established breeds, and that they
+believed they should find such a dairy the most profitable.
+
+In color, the natives, made up as already indicated, are exceedingly
+various. The old Denmarks, which to a considerable extent laid the
+foundation of the stock of Maine and New Hampshire, were light yellow.
+The Dutch of New York and the Middle States, were black and white; the
+Spanish and Welsh were generally black; the Devons, which are supposed
+to have laid the foundation of the stock of some of the States, were
+red. Crosses of the Denmark with the Spanish and Welsh naturally made a
+dark brindle; crosses of the Devon often made a lighter or yellowish
+brindle while the more recent importations of Jerseys and short horns
+have generally produced a beautiful spotted progeny. The deep red has
+long been a favorite color in New England; but the prejudice in its
+favor is fast giving way to more variegated colors.
+
+Among the earlier importations into this country were also several
+varieties of hornless cattle, which have been kept measurably distinct
+in some sections; or where they have been crossed with the common stock
+there has been a tendency to produce hornless grades. These are not
+unfrequently known as "buffalo cattle." They were, in many cases,
+supposed to belong to the Galloway breed; or, which is more likely, to
+the Suffolk dun, a variety of the Galloway, and a far better milking
+stock than the Galloways, from which, it sprung. These polled, or
+hornless cattle vary in color and qualities, but they are usually very
+good milkers when well kept, and many of them fatten well, and attain
+good weight.
+
+The Hungarian cattle have also been imported, to some extent, into
+different parts of the country, and have been crossed upon the natives
+with some success. Many other strains of blood from different breeds
+have also contributed to build up the common stock of the country of the
+present day; and there can be no question that its appearance and value
+have been largely improved during the last quarter of a century, nor
+that improvements are still in progress which will lead to satisfactory
+results in the future.
+
+But, though we already have an exceedingly valuable foundation for
+improvement, no one will pretend to deny that our cattle, as a whole,
+are susceptible of it in many respects. They possess neither the size,
+the symmetry, nor the early maturity of the short horns; they do not, as
+a general thing, possess the fineness of bone, the beauty of form and
+color, nor the activity of the Devons or the Herefords; they do not
+possess that uniform richness of milk, united with generous quality, of
+the Ayrshires, nor the surpassing richness of milk of the Jerseys: but,
+above all, they do not possess the power of transmitting the many good
+qualities which they often have to their offspring--which is the
+characteristic of all well established breeds.
+
+It is equally certain, in the opinion of many good judges, that the
+dairy stock of the country has not been materially improved in its
+intrinsic good qualities during the last thirty or forty years. This may
+not be true of certain sections, where the dairy has been made a special
+object of pursuit, and where the custom of raising the best male calves
+of the neighborhood, or those that came from the best dairy cows, and
+then of using only the best formed bulls, has long prevailed. Although
+in this way some progress has, doubtless, been made, there are still
+room and need for more. More attention must be paid to correct
+principles of breeding before the satisfactory results which every
+farmer should strive to reach can be attained.
+
+Having glanced generally at the leading breeds of cattle in Great
+Britain, and examined, more in detail, the various breeds in the United
+States, the next subject demanding attention is,
+
+
+THE NATURAL HISTORY OF CATTLE.
+
+[Illustration: SKELETON OF THE OX AS COVERED BY THE MUSCLES.
+
+1. The upper jaw-bone. 2. The nasal bone, or bone of the nose. 3. The
+lachrymal bone. 4. The malar, or cheek bone. 5. The frontal bone, or
+bone of the forehead. 6. The horns, being processes or continuations of
+the frontal. 7. The temporal bone. 8. The parietal bone, low in the
+temporal fossa. 9. The occipital bone, deeply depressed below the crest
+or ridge of the head. 10. The lower jaw. 11. The grinders. 12. The
+nippers, found on the lower jaw alone. 13. The ligament of the neck, and
+its attachments. 14. The atlas. 16. The dentata. 17. The orbits of the
+eye. 18. The vertebrae, or bones of the neck. 19. The bones of the back.
+20. The bones of the loins. 21. The sacrum. 22. The bones of the tail.
+23. The haunch and pelvis. 24. The eight true ribs. 25. The false ribs,
+with their cartilages. 26. The sternum. 27. The scapula, or
+shoulder-blade. 28. The humerus, or lower bone of the shoulder. 29. The
+radius, or principal bone of the arm. 40. The ulna, its upper part
+forming the elbow. 41. The small bones of the knee. 42. The large
+metacarpal or shank bone. 43. The smaller or splint bone. 44. The
+sessamoid bones. 45. The bifurcation at the pasterns, and the two larger
+pasterns to each foot. 46. The two smaller pasterns to each foot. 47.
+The two coffin bones to each foot. 48. The navicular bones. 49. The
+thigh bone. 50. The patella, or bone of the knee. 51. The tibia, or
+proper leg bone. 52. The point of the hock. 53. The small bones of the
+hock. 54. The metatarsals, or larger bones of the hind leg. 55. The
+pasterns and feet.]
+
+     DIVISION. _Vertebrata_--possessing a back-bone.
+     CLASS. _Mammalia_--such as give suck.
+     ORDER. _Ruminantia_--chewing the cud.
+     FAMILY. With horns.
+     GENUS. _Bovidae_--the ox tribe.
+
+Of this tribe there are eight species:
+
+     _Bos urus_, the ancient bison.
+     _Bos bison_, the American buffalo.
+     _Bos moschatus_, the musk ox.
+     _Bos frontalis_, the gayal.
+     _Bos grunniens_, the grunting ox.
+     _Bos caffer_, the South African buffalo.
+     _Bos bubalus_, the common buffalo.
+     _Bos taurus_, the common domestic ox.
+
+
+GESTATION.
+
+The usual period of pregnancy in a cow is nine calendar months, and
+something over: at times as much as three weeks. With one thousand and
+thirty one cows, whose gestations were carefully observed in France, the
+average period was about two hundred and eighty-five days.
+
+
+FORMATION OF TEETH.
+
+It is of the utmost importance to be able to judge of the age of a cow.
+Few farmers wish to purchase a cow for the dairy after she has passed
+her prime, which will ordinarily be at the age of nine or ten years,
+varying, of course, according to care, feeding, &c., in the earlier part
+of her life.
+
+The common method of forming an estimate of the age of cattle is by an
+examination of the horn. At three years old, as a general rule, the
+horns are perfectly smooth; after this, a ring appears near the nob, and
+annually afterward a new one is formed, so that, by adding two years to
+the first ring, the age is calculated. This is a very uncertain mode of
+judging. The rings are distinct only in the cow; and it is well known
+that if a heifer goes to bull when she is two years old, or a little
+before or after that time, a change takes place in the horn and the
+first ring appears; so that a real three-year-old would carry the mark
+of a four-year-old.
+
+[Illustration: TEETH AT BIRTH.]
+
+The rings on the horns of a bull are either not seen until five, or they
+cannot be traced at all; while in the ox they do not appear till he is
+five years old, and then are often very indistinct. In addition to this,
+it is by no means an uncommon practice to file the horns, so as to make
+them smooth, and to give the animal the appearance of being much younger
+than it really is. This is, therefore, an exceedingly fallacious guide,
+and cannot be relied upon by any one with the degree of confidence
+desired.
+
+[Illustration: SECOND WEEK.]
+
+The surest indication of the age in cattle, as in the horse, is given by
+the teeth.
+
+The calf, at birth, will usually have two incisor or front teeth--in
+some cases just appearing through the gums; in others, fully set,
+varying as the cow falls short of, or exceeds, her regular time of
+calving. If she overruns several days, the teeth will have set and
+attained considerable size, as appears in the cut representing teeth at
+birth. During the second week, a tooth will usually be added on each
+side, and the mouth will generally appear as in the next cut; and before
+the end of the third week, the animal will generally have six incisor
+teeth, as denoted in the cut representing teeth at the third week; and
+in a week from that time the full number of incisors will have appeared,
+as seen in the next cut.
+
+[Illustration: THREE WEEKS.]
+
+[Illustration: MONTH.]
+
+[Illustration: FIVE TO EIGHT MONTHS.]
+
+[Illustration: TEN MONTHS.]
+
+[Illustration: TWELVE MONTHS.]
+
+[Illustration: FIFTEEN MONTHS.]
+
+These teeth are temporary, and are often called milk-teeth. Their edge
+is very sharp; and as the animal begins to live upon more solid food,
+this edge becomes worn, showing the bony part of the tooth beneath, and
+indicates with considerable precision the length of time they have been
+used. The centre, or oldest teeth show the marks of age first, and often
+become somewhat worn before the corner teeth appear. At eight weeks, the
+four inner teeth are nearly as sharp as before. They appear worn not so
+much on the outer edge or line of the tooth, as inside this line; but,
+after this, the edge begins gradually to lose its sharpness, and to
+present a more flattened surface; while the next outer teeth wear down
+like the four central ones; and at three months this wearing off is very
+apparent, till at four months all the incisor teeth appear worn, but the
+inner ones the most. Now the teeth begin slowly to diminish in size by
+a kind of contraction, as well as wearing down, and the distance apart
+becomes more and more apparent.
+
+[Illustration: EIGHTEEN MONTHS.]
+
+From the fifth to the eighth month, the inner teeth will usually appear
+as in the cut of the teeth at that time; and at ten months, this change
+shows more clearly, as represented in the next cut; and the spaces
+between them begin to show very plainly, till at a year old they
+ordinarily present the appearance of the following cut; and at the age
+of fifteen months, that shown in the next, where the corner teeth are
+not more than half the original size, and the centre ones still smaller.
+
+[Illustration: TWO YEARS PAST.]
+
+The permanent teeth are now rapidly growing, and preparing to take the
+place of the milk-teeth, which are gradually absorbed till they
+disappear, or are pushed out to give place to the two permanent central
+incisors, which at a year and a half will generally present the
+appearance indicated in the cut, which shows the internal structure of
+the lower jaw at this time, with the cells of the teeth, the two central
+ones protruding into the mouth, the next two pushing up, but not quite
+grown to the surface, with the third pair just perceptible. These
+changes require time; and at two years past the jaw will usually appear
+as in the cut, where four of the permanent central incisors are seen.
+After this, the other milk-teeth decrease rapidly, but are slow to
+disappear; and at three years old, the third pair of permanent teeth are
+but formed, as represented in the cut; and at four years the last pair
+of incisors will be up, as in the cut of that age; but the outside ones
+are not yet fully grown, and the beast can hardly be said to be
+full-mouthed till the age of five years. But before this age, or at the
+age of four years, the two inner pairs of permanent teeth are beginning
+to wear at the edges, as shown in the cut; while at five years old the
+whole set becomes somewhat worn down at the top, and on the two centre
+ones a darker line appears in the middle, along a line of harder bone,
+as appears in the appropriate cut.
+
+[Illustration: THREE YEARS PAST.]
+
+[Illustration: FOUR YEARS PAST.]
+
+[Illustration: FIVE YEARS PAST.]
+
+[Illustration: TEN YEARS PAST.]
+
+Now will come a year or two, and sometimes three, when the teeth do not
+so clearly indicate the exact age, and the judgment must be guided by
+the extent to which the dark middle lines are worn. This will depend
+somewhat upon the exposure and feeding of the animal; but at seven years
+these lines extend over all the teeth. At eight years, another change
+begins, which cannot be mistaken. A kind of absorption begins with the
+two central incisors--slow at first, but perceptible--and these two
+teeth become smaller than the rest, while the dark lines are worn into
+one in all but the corner teeth, till, at ten years, four of the central
+incisors have become smaller in size, with a smaller and fainter mark,
+as indicated in the proper cut. At eleven, the six inner teeth are
+smaller than the corner ones; and at twelve, all become smaller than
+they were, while the dark lines are nearly gone, except in the corner
+teeth, and the inner edge is worn to the gum.
+
+
+POINTS OF A GOOD COW.
+
+After satisfaction is afforded touching the age of a cow, she should be
+examined with reference to her soundness of constitution. A good
+constitution is indicated by large lungs, which are found in a deep,
+broad, and prominent chest, broad and well-spread ribs, a respiration
+somewhat slow and regular, a good appetite, and if in milk a strong
+inclination to drink, which a large secretion of milk almost invariably
+stimulates. In such a cow the digestive organs are active and energetic,
+and they make an abundance of good blood, which in turn stimulates the
+activity of the nervous system, and furnishes the milky glands with the
+means of abundant secretion. Such a cow, when dry, readily takes on fat.
+When activity of the milk-glands is found united with close ribs, small
+and feeble lungs, and a slow appetite, often attended by great thirst,
+the cow will generally possess only a weak and feeble constitution; and
+if the milk is plentiful, it will generally be of bad quality, while the
+animal, if she does not die of diseased lungs, will not readily take on
+fat, when dry and fed.
+
+[Illustration: A GOOD MILCH COW.]
+
+In order to have no superfluous flesh, the cow should have a small,
+clean, and rather long head, tapering toward the muzzle. A cow with a
+large, coarse head will seldom fatten readily, or give a large quantity
+of milk. A coarse head increases the proportion of weight of the least
+valuable parts, while it is a sure indication that the whole bony
+structure is too heavy. The mouth should be large and broad; the eye
+bright and sparkling, but of a peculiar placidness of expression, with
+no indication of wildness, but rather a mild and feminine look. These
+points will indicate gentleness of disposition. Such cows seem to like
+to be milked, are fond of being caressed, and often return caresses. The
+horns should be small, short, tapering, yellowish, and glistening. The
+neck should be small, thin, and tapering toward the head, but thickening
+when it approaches the shoulder; the dewlaps small. The fore quarters
+should be rather small when compared with the hind quarters. The form of
+the barrel will be large, and each rib should project further than the
+preceding one, up to the loins. She should be well formed across the
+hips and in the rump.
+
+The spine or back-bone should be straight and long, rather loosely hung,
+or open along the middle part, the result of the distance between the
+dorsal vertebrae, which sometimes causes a slight depression, or sway
+back. By some good judges, this mark is regarded as of great importance,
+especially when the bones of the hind quarters are also rather loosely
+put together, leaving the rump of great width and the pelvis large, and
+the organs and milk-vessels lodged in the cavities largely developed.
+The skin over the rump should be loose and flexible. This point is of
+great importance; and as, when the cow is in low condition or very poor,
+it will appear somewhat harder and closer than it otherwise would, some
+practice and close observation are required to judge well of this mark.
+The skin, indeed, all over the body, should be soft and mellow to the
+touch, with soft and glossy hair. The tail, if thick at the setting on,
+should taper and be fine below.
+
+But the udder is of special importance. It should be large in
+proportion to the size of the animal, and the skin thin, with soft,
+loose folds extending well back, capable of great distension when
+filled, but shrinking to a small compass when entirely empty. It must be
+free from lumps in every part, and provided with four teats set well
+apart, and of medium size. Nor is it less important to observe the
+milk-veins carefully. The principal ones under the belly should be large
+and prominent, and extend forward to the navel, losing themselves,
+apparently, in the very best milkers, in a large cavity in the flesh,
+into which the end of the finger can be inserted; but when the cow is
+not in full milk, the milk-vein, at other times very prominent, is not
+so distinctly traced; and hence, to judge of its size when the cow is
+dry, or nearly so, this vein may be pressed near its end, or at its
+entrance into the body, when it will immediately fill up to its full
+size. This vein does not convey the milk to the udder, as some suppose,
+but is the channel by which the blood returns; and its contents consist
+of the refuse of the secretion, or of what has not been taken up in
+forming milk. There are also veins in the udder, and the perineum, or
+the space above the udder, and between that and the buttocks, which it
+is of special importance to observe. These veins should be largely
+developed, and irregular or knotted, especially those of the udder. They
+are largest in great milkers.
+
+The knotted veins of the perineum, extending from above downwards in a
+winding line, are not readily seen in young heifers, and are very
+difficult to find in poor cows, or those of only a medium quality. They
+are easily found in very good milkers, and if not at first apparent,
+they are made so by pressing upon them at the base of the perineum,
+when they swell up and send the blood back toward the vulva. They form
+a kind of thick network under the skin of the perineum, raising it up
+somewhat, in some cases near the vulva, in others nearer down and closer
+to the udder. It is important to look for these veins, as they often
+form a very important guide, and by some they would be considered as
+furnishing the surest indications of the milking qualities of the cow.
+Full development almost always shows an abundant secretion of milk; but
+they are far better developed after the cow has had two or three calves,
+when two or three years' milking has given full activity to the milky
+glands, and attracted a large flow of blood. The larger and more
+prominent these veins the better. It is needless to say that in
+observing them some regard should be had to the condition of the cow,
+the thickness of skin and fat by which they may be surrounded, and the
+general activity and food of the animal. Food calculated to stimulate
+the greatest flow of milk will naturally increase these veins, and give
+them more than usual prominence.
+
+
+THE MILK-MIRROR.
+
+The discovery of M. Guenon, of Bordeaux, in France--a man of remarkable
+practical sagacity, and a close observer of stock--consisted in the
+connection between the milking qualities of the cow and certain external
+marks on the udder, and on the space above it, called the perineum,
+extending to the buttocks. To these marks he gave the name of
+milk-mirror, or escutcheon, which consists in certain perceptible spots
+rising up from the udder in different directions, forms and sizes, on
+which the hair grows upward, whilst the hair on other parts of the body
+grows downward. The reduction of these marks into a system, explaining
+the value of particular forms and sizes of the milk-mirror, belongs
+exclusively to Guenon.
+
+[Illustration: MILK-MIRROR [A.]]
+
+He divided the milk-mirror into eight classes, and each class into eight
+orders, making in all no less than sixty-four divisions, which he
+afterward increased by subdivisions, thus rendering the whole system
+complicated in the extreme, especially as he professed to be able to
+judge with accuracy, by means of the milk-mirror, not only of the exact
+quantity a cow would give, but also of the quality of the milk, and of
+the length of time it would continue. He endeavored to prove too much,
+and was, as a matter of consequence, frequently at fault himself.
+
+Despite the strictures which have been passed upon Guenon's method of
+judging of cows, the best breeders and judges of stock concur in the
+opinion, as the result of their observations, that cows with the most
+perfectly developed milk-mirrors are, with rare exception, the best
+milkers of their breed; and that cows with small and slightly developed
+milk-mirrors are, in the majority of cases, bad milkers. There are,
+undoubtedly, cows with very small mirrors, which are, nevertheless,
+very fair in the yield of milk; and among those with middling quality of
+mirrors, instances of rather more than ordinary milkers often occur,
+while at the same time it is true that cases now and then are found
+where the very best marked and developed mirrors are found on very poor
+milkers. These apparent exceptions, however, are to be explained, in the
+large majority of cases, by causes outside of those which affect the
+appearance of the milk-mirror. It is, of course, impossible to estimate
+with mathematical accuracy either the quantity, quality, or duration of
+the milk, since it is affected by so many chance circumstances, which
+cannot always be known or estimated by even the most skillful judges;
+such, for example, as the food, the treatment, the temperament,
+accidental diseases, inflammation of the udder, premature calving, the
+climate and season, the manner in which she has been milked, and a
+thousand other things which interrupt or influence the flow of milk,
+without materially changing the size or shape of the milk-mirror. It
+has, indeed, been very justly observed that we often see cows equally
+well formed, with precisely the same milk-mirror, and kept in the same
+circumstances, yet giving neither equal quantities nor similar qualities
+of milk. Nor could it be otherwise; since the action of the organs
+depends, not merely on their size and form, but, to a great extent, on
+the general condition of each individual.
+
+[Illustration: MILK-MIRROR [B.]]
+
+[Illustration: MILK-MIRROR [C.]]
+
+The different forms of milk-mirrors are represented by the shaded parts
+of cuts, lettered A, B, C, D; but it is necessary to premise that upon
+the cows themselves they are always partly concealed by the thighs, the
+udder, and the folds of the skin, which are not shown, and therefore
+they are not always so uniform in nature as they appear in the cuts.
+
+[Illustration: MILK-MIRROR [D.]]
+
+Their size varies as the skin is more or less folded or stretched; while
+the cuts represent the skin as uniform or free from folds, but not
+stretched out. It is usually very easy to distinguish the milk-mirrors
+by the upward direction of the hair which forms them. They are sometimes
+marked by a line of bristly hair growing in the opposite direction,
+which surrounds them, forming a sort of outline by the upward and
+downward growing hair. Yet, when the hair is very fine and short, mixed
+with longer hairs, and the skin much folded, and the udder voluminous
+and pressed by the thighs, it is necessary, in order to distinguish the
+part enclosed between the udder and the legs, and examine the full size
+of the mirrors, to observe them attentively, and to place the legs wide
+apart, and to smooth out the skin, in order to avoid the folds.
+
+The mirrors may also be observed by holding the back of the hand against
+the perineum, and drawing it from above downward, when the nails rubbing
+against the up-growing hair, make the parts covered by it very
+perceptible.
+
+As the hair of the milk-mirror has not the same direction as the hair
+which surrounds it, it may often be distinguished by a difference in the
+shade reflected by it. It is then sufficient to place it properly to the
+light in order to see the difference in shade, and to make out the part
+covered by the upward-growing hair. Most frequently, however, the hair
+of the milk-mirror is thin and fine, and the color of the skin can
+easily be seen. If the eye alone is trusted, we shall often be deceived.
+
+[Illustration: MILK-MIRROR [E.]]
+
+In some countries cattle-dealers shave the back part of the cow. Just
+after this operation the mirrors can neither be seen nor felt; but this
+inconvenience ceases in a few days. It may be added that the
+shaving--designed, as the dealers say, to beautify the cow--is generally
+intended simply to destroy the milk-mirror, and to deprive buyers of one
+means of judging of the milking qualities of the cows. It is unnecessary
+to add that the cows most carefully shaven are those which are badly
+marked, and that it is prudent to take it for granted that cows so shorn
+are bad milkers.
+
+Milk-mirrors vary in position, extent, and the figure which they
+represent. They may be divided according to their position, into mirrors
+or escutcheons, properly so called, or into lower and upper tufts, or
+escutcheons. The latter are very small in comparison with the former,
+and are situated in close proximity to the vulva, as seen at 1, in cut
+E. They are very common on cows of bad milking races, but are very
+rarely seen on the best milch cows. They consist of one or two ovals, or
+small bands of up-growing hair, and serve to indicate the continuance of
+the flow of milk. The period is short, in proportion as the tufts are
+large. They must not be confounded with the escutcheon proper, which is
+often extended up to the vulva. They are separated from it by bands of
+hair, more or less large, as in cut marked F.
+
+[Illustration: MILK-MIRROR [F.]]
+
+Milk-mirrors are sometimes symmetrical, and sometimes without symmetry.
+When there is a great difference in the extent of the two halves, it
+almost always happens that the teats on the side where the mirror is
+best developed give more milk than those of the opposite side. The left
+half of the mirror, it may be remarked, is almost always the largest;
+and so, when the perinean part is folded into a square, it is on this
+side of the body that it unfolds. Of three thousand cows in Denmark,
+but a single one was found, whose escutcheon varied even a little from
+this rule.
+
+The mirrors having a value in proportion to the space which they occupy,
+it is of great importance to attend to all the rows of down-growing
+hairs, which diminish the extent of surface, whether these tufts are in
+the midst of the mirror, or form indentations on its edges.
+
+These indentations, concealed in part by the folds of the skin, are
+sometimes seen with difficulty; but it is important to take them into
+account, since in a great many cows they materially lessen the size of
+the mirror. Cows are often found, whose milk-mirrors at first sight
+appear very large, but which are only medium milkers; and it will
+usually be found that lateral indentations greatly diminish the surface
+of up-growing hair. Many errors are committed in estimating the value of
+such cows, from a want of attention to the real extent of the mirror.
+
+All the interruptions in the surface of the mirror indicate a diminution
+in the quantity of the milk, with the exception, however, of small oval
+or elliptical plates which are found in the mirror, on the back part of
+the udders of the best cows, as represented in the cut already given,
+marked A. These ovals have a peculiar tint, which is occasioned by the
+downward direction of the hair which forms them. In the best cows these
+ovals exist with the lower mirrors very well developed, as represented
+in the cut just named.
+
+In short, it should be stated that, in order to determine the extent and
+significance of a mirror, it is necessary to consider the state of the
+perineum as to fat, and that of the fullness of the udder. In a fat cow,
+with an inflated udder, the mirror would appear larger than it really
+is; whilst in a lean cow, with a loose and wrinkled udder, it appears
+smaller. Fat will cover faults--a fact to be borne in mind when
+selecting a cow.
+
+In bulls, the mirrors present the same peculiarities as in cows; but
+they are less varied in their form, and especially much less in size.
+
+In calves, the mirrors show the shapes which they are afterwards to
+have, only they are more contracted, because the parts which they cover
+are but slightly developed. They are easily seen after birth; but the
+hair which then covers them is long, coarse, and stiff; and when this
+hair falls off, the calf's mirror will resemble that of the cow, but
+will be of less size.
+
+With calves, however, it should be stated, in addition, that the
+milk-mirrors are more distinctly recognized on those from cows that are
+well kept, and that they will generally be fully developed at two years
+old. Some changes take place in the course of years, but the outlines of
+the mirror appear prominent at the time of advanced pregnancy, or, in
+the case of cows giving milk, at the times when the udder is more
+distended with milk than at others.
+
+M. Mayne, who has explained and simplified the method of M. Guenon,
+divides cows, according to the quantity which they give, into four
+classes: first, the very good; second, the good; third, the medium; and
+fourth, the bad.
+
+In the FIRST class he places cows, both parts of whose milk mirror, the
+mammary--the tuft situated on the udder, the legs and the thighs--and
+the perinean--that on the perineum, extending sometimes more or less out
+upon the thighs--are large, continuous, and uniform, covering at least
+a great part of the perineum, the udder, the inner surface of the
+thighs, and extending more or less out upon the legs, as in cut A, with
+no interruptions, or, if any, small ones, oval in form, and situated on
+the posterior face of the udder.
+
+[Illustration: MILK-MIRROR [G.]]
+
+Such mirrors are found on most very good cows, but may also be found on
+cows which can scarcely be called good, and which should be ranked in
+the next class. But cows, whether having very well developed mirrors or
+not, may be reckoned as very good, and as giving as much milk as is to
+be expected from their size, food, and the hygienic circumstances in
+which they are kept, if they present the following characteristics:
+veins of the perineum large, as if swollen, and visible on the
+exterior--as in cut A--or which can easily be made to appear by pressing
+upon the base of the perineum; veins of the udder large and knotted;
+milk-veins large, often double, equal on both sides, and forming
+zig-zags, under the belly.
+
+To the signs furnished by the veins and by the mirror, may be added also
+the following marks: a uniform, very large, and yielding udder,
+shrinking much in milking, and covered with soft skin and fine hair;
+good constitution, full chest, regular appetite, and great propensity to
+drink. Such cows rather incline to be poor than to be fat. The skin is
+soft and yielding; short, fine hair; small head; fine horns; bright,
+sparkling eye; mild expression; feminine look; with a fine neck.
+
+Cows of this first class are very rare. They give, even when small in
+size, from ten to fourteen quarts of milk a day; and the largest sized
+from eighteen to twenty-six quarts a day, and even more. Just after
+calving, if arrived at maturity and fed with good, wholesome, moist food
+in sufficient quantity and quality, adapted to promote the secretion of
+milk, they can give about a pint of milk for every ten ounces of hay, or
+its equivalent, which they eat.
+
+They continue in milk for a long period. The best never go dry, and may
+be milked even up to the time of calving, giving from eight to ten
+quarts of milk a day. But even the best cows often fall short of the
+quantity of milk which they are able to give, from being fed on food
+which is too dry, or not sufficiently varied, or not rich enough in
+nutritive qualities, or deficient in quantity.
+
+[Illustration: MILK-MIRROR [H.]]
+
+The SECOND class is that of _good cows_; and to this belong the best
+commonly found in the market and among the cow-feeders of cities.
+
+They have the mammary part of the milk-mirror well developed, but the
+perinean part contracted, or wholly wanting, as in cut G; or both parts
+of the mirror are moderately developed, or slightly indented, as in cut
+H. Cut E belongs also to this class, in the lower part; but it indicates
+a cow, which--as the upper mirror, 1, indicates--dries up sooner when
+again in calf.
+
+These marks, though often seen in many good cows, should be considered
+as certain only when the veins of the perineum form, under the skin, a
+kind of network, which, without being very apparent, may be felt by a
+pressure on them; when the milk-veins on the belly are well-developed,
+though less knotty and less prominent than in cows of the first class;
+in short, when the udder is well developed, and presents veins which are
+sufficiently numerous, though not very large.
+
+It is necessary here, as in the preceding class, to distrust cows in
+which the mirror is not accompanied by large veins. This remark applies
+especially to cows which have had several calves, and are in full milk.
+They are medium or bad, let the milk-mirror be what it may, if the veins
+of the belly are not large, and those of the udder apparent.
+
+The general characteristics which depend on form and constitution
+combine, less than in cows of the preceding class, the marks of good
+health and excellent constitution with those of a gentle and feminine
+look.
+
+Small cows of this class give from seven to ten or eleven quarts of milk
+a day, and the largest from thirteen to seventeen quarts. They can be
+made to give three-fourths of a pint of milk, just after calving, for
+every ten ounces of hay consumed, if well cared for, and fed in a manner
+favorable to the secretion of milk.
+
+They hold out long in milk, when they have no upper mirrors or tufts. At
+seven or eight months in calf, they may give from five to eight quarts
+of milk a day.
+
+The THIRD class consists of _middling cows_. When the milk-mirror
+really presents only the mammary or lower part slightly indicated or
+developed, and the perinean part contracted, narrow, and irregular--as
+in cut K--the cows are middling. The udder is slightly developed or
+hard, and shrinks very little after milking. The veins of the perineum
+are not apparent, and those which run along the lower side of the
+abdomen are small, straight, and sometimes unequal. In this case the
+mirror is not symmetrical, and the cow gives more milk on the side where
+the vein is the largest.
+
+[Illustration: MILK-MIRROR [K.]]
+
+These cows have large heads, and a thick, hard skin. Being ordinarily in
+good condition, they are beautiful to look at, and seem to be well
+formed. Many of them are nervous and restive, and not easily approached.
+
+Cows of this class give, according to size, from three or four to ten
+quarts of milk. They very rarely give, even in the most favorable
+circumstances, half a pint of milk for every ten ounces of hay which
+they consume. The milk diminishes rapidly, and dries up wholly the
+fourth or fifth month in calf.
+
+The FOURTH class is composed of _bad cows_. As they are commonly in
+good condition, these cows are often the most beautiful of the herd and
+in the markets. They have fleshy thighs, thick and hard skin, a large
+and coarse neck and head, and horns large at the base.
+
+The udder is hard, small and fleshy, with a skin covered with long,
+rough hair. No veins are to be seen either on the perineum or the udder,
+while those of the belly are slightly developed, and the mirrors are
+ordinarily small, as in cut L.
+
+With these characteristics, cows give only a few quarts of milk a day,
+and dry up in a short time after calving. Some of them can scarcely
+nourish their calves, even when they are properly cared for and well
+fed.
+
+Sickly habits, chronic affections of the digestive organs, the chest,
+the womb, and the lacteal system, sometimes greatly affect the milk
+secretion, and cause cows troubled with them to fall from the first or
+second to the third, and sometimes to the fourth class.
+
+Without pushing this method of judging of the good milking qualities of
+cows into the objectionable extreme to which it was carried by its
+originator, it may be safely asserted that the milk-mirror forms an
+important additional mark or point for distinguishing good milkers; and
+it may be laid down as a rule that, in the selection of milch cows, as
+well as in the choice of young animals for breeders, the milk-mirror
+should, by all means, be examined and considered; but that we should not
+limit or confine ourselves exclusively to it, and that other and
+long-known marks should be equally regarded.
+
+There are cases, however, where a knowledge and careful examination of
+the form and size of the mirror become of the highest importance. It is
+well known that certain signs or marks of great milkers are developed,
+only as the capacities of the animal herself are fully and completely
+developed by age. The milk-veins, for instance, are never so large and
+prominent in heifers and young cows as in old ones, and the same may be
+said of the udder, and of the veins of the udder and perineum; all of
+which it is of great importance to observe in the selection of milch
+cows. Those signs, then, which in cows arrived at maturity are almost
+sufficient in themselves to warrant a conclusion as to their merits as
+milkers, are, to a great extent, wanting in younger animals, and
+altogether in calves, as to which there is often doubt whether they
+shall be raised; and here a knowledge of the form of the mirror is of
+immense advantage, since it gives, at the outset and before any expense
+is incurred, a somewhat reliable means of judging of the future milking
+capacities of the animal; or, if a male, of the probability of his
+transmitting milking qualities to his offspring.
+
+[Illustration: MILK-MIRROR [L.]]
+
+It will be seen, from an examination of the points of a good milch cow
+that, though the same marks which indicate the greatest milking
+qualities may not always indicate the greatest aptitude to fatten, yet
+that the signs which denote good fattening qualities are included among
+the signs favorable to the production of milk; such as soundness of
+constitution, marked by good organs of digestion and respiration
+fineness and mellowness of the skin and hair, quietness of
+disposition--which inclines the animal to rest and lie down while
+chewing the cud--and other marks which are relied on by graziers in
+selecting animals to fatten.
+
+In buying dairy stock the farmer generally finds it for his interest to
+select young heifers, as they give the promise of longer usefulness. But
+it is often the case that older cows are selected with the design of
+using them for the dairy for a limited period, and then feeding them for
+the butcher. In either case, it is advisable, as a rule, to choose
+animals in low or medium condition. The farmer cannot commonly afford to
+buy fat; it is more properly his business to make it, and to have it to
+sell. Good and well-marked cows in poor condition will rapidly gain in
+flesh and products when removed to better pastures and higher keeping,
+and they cost less in the original purchase.
+
+It is, perhaps, superfluous to add that regard should be had to the
+quality of the pasturage and keeping which a cow has previously had, as
+compared with that to which she is to be subjected. The size of the
+animal should also be considered with reference to the fertility of the
+pastures into which she is to be put. Small or medium-sized animals
+accommodate themselves to ordinary pastures far better than large ones.
+Where a very large cow will do well, two small ones will usually do
+better; while the large animal might fail entirely where two small ones
+would do well. It is better to have the whole herd, so far as may be,
+uniform in size; for, if they vary greatly, some may get more than they
+need, and others will not have enough. This, however, cannot always be
+brought about.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Crossing and Breeding
+
+
+The raising of cattle has now become a source of profit in many
+sections,--to a greater extent, at least, than formerly--and it becomes
+a matter of great practical importance to our farmers to take the proper
+steps to improve them. Indeed, the questions--what are the best breeds,
+and what are the best crosses, and how shall I improve my stock--are now
+asked almost daily; and their practical solution would add many thousand
+dollars to the aggregate wealth of the farmers of the country, if they
+would all study their own interests.
+
+The time is gradually passing away when the intelligent practical farmer
+will be willing to put his cows to any bull, simply because his services
+may be had for twenty-five cents; for, even if the progeny is to go to
+the butcher, the calf sired by a pure-bred bull--particularly of a race
+distinguished for fineness of bone, symmetry of form, and early
+maturity--will bring a much higher price at the same age than a calf
+sired by a scrub. Blood has a money value, which will, sooner or later,
+be generally appreciated.
+
+The first and most important object of the farmer is to get the greatest
+return in money for his labor and his produce; and it is for his
+interest to obtain an animal--a calf, for example--that will yield the
+largest profit on the outlay. If a calf, for which the original outlay
+was five dollars, will bring at the same age and on the same keep more
+real net profit than another, the original outlay for which was not
+twenty-five cents, it is certainly for the farmer's interest to make the
+heavier original outlay and thus secure the superior animal. Setting all
+fancy aside, it is merely a question of dollars and cents; but one thing
+is certain--and that is, that no farmer can afford to keep poor stock.
+It eats as much, and requires nearly the same amount of care and
+attention, as stock of the best quality; while it is equally certain
+that stock of ever so good a quality, whether grade, native, or
+thorough-bred, will be sure to deteriorate and sink to the level of poor
+stock by neglect and want of proper attention.
+
+How, then, is our stock to be improved? Not, certainly, by that
+indiscriminate crossing, with a total disregard of all well-established
+principles, which has thus far marked our efforts with foreign stock,
+and which is one prominent reason why so little improvement has been
+made in our dairies; nor by leaving all the results to chance, when, by
+a careful and judicious selection, they may be within our own control.
+
+We want cattle for distinct purposes, as for milk, beef, or labor. In a
+large majority of cases--especially in the dairy districts, at least,
+comprising the Eastern and Middle States--the farmer cares more for the
+milking qualities of his cows, especially for the quantity they give,
+than for their fitness for grazing, or aptness to fatten. These latter
+points become more important in the Western and some of the Southern
+States, where much greater attention is paid to breeding and to feeding,
+and where comparatively slight attention is given to the productions of
+the dairy. A stock of cattle which would suit one farmer might be wholly
+unsuited to another, and in such particular case the breeder should have
+some special object in view, and select his animals with reference to
+it.
+
+There are, however, some well-defined general principles that apply to
+breeding everywhere, and which, in many cases, are not thoroughly
+understood. To these attention will now be directed.
+
+The first and most important of the laws to be considered in this
+connection is that of _similarity_. It is by virtue of this law that the
+peculiar characters, properties, and qualities of the parents--whether
+external or internal, good or bad, healthy or diseased--are transmitted
+to their offspring. This is one of the plainest and most certain of the
+laws of nature. The lesson which it teaches may be stated in five
+words:--Breed only from the best.
+
+Judicious selection is indispensable to success in breeding, and this
+should have regard to every particular--general appearance, length of
+limb, shape of carcass, development of chest; in cattle, to the size,
+shape, and position of the udder, thickness of skin, touch, length and
+texture of hair, docility, and all those points which go to make up the
+desirable animal.
+
+Not only should care be exercised to avoid _structural defects_, but
+especially to secure freedom from _hereditary diseases_; as both defects
+and diseases appear to be more easily transmissible than desirable
+qualities. There is, oftentimes, no obvious peculiarity of structure or
+appearance which suggests the possession of diseases or defects which
+are transmissible; and for this reason, special care and continued
+acquaintance are requisite in order to be assured of their absence in
+breeding animals; but such a tendency, although invisible or
+inappreciable to careless observers, must still, judging from its
+effects, have as real and certain an existence as any peculiarity of
+form or color.
+
+In neat cattle, hereditary diseases do not usually show themselves at
+birth; and sometimes the tendency remains latent for many years, perhaps
+through one or two generations, and afterward breaks out with all its
+former severity. The diseases which are found hereditary in cattle are
+scrofula, consumption, dysentery, diarrhoea, rheumatism, and malignant
+tumors. As these animals are less exposed to the exciting causes of
+disease, and less liable to be overtasked or subjected to violent
+changes of temperature, or otherwise put in jeopardy, their diseases are
+not so numerous as those of the horse, and what they have are less
+violent, and generally of a chronic character.
+
+With regard to hereditary diseases, it is eminently true that "an ounce
+of prevention is worth a pound of cure." As a general and almost
+invariable rule, animals possessing either defects or a tendency to
+disease, should not be employed for breeding. If, however, for special
+reasons it seems desirable to breed from one which has some slight
+defect of symmetry, or a faint tendency to disease--although for the
+latter it is doubtful whether the possession of any good qualities can
+fully compensate--it should be mated with one which excels in every
+respect in which it is itself deficient, and on no account with one
+which is near of kin to it.
+
+There is another law, by which that of similarity is greatly
+modified--the law of _Variation_ or divergence.
+
+All animals possess a certain flexibility or pliancy of organization,
+which renders them capable of change to a greater or less extent. When
+in a state of nature, variations are comparatively slow and infrequent;
+but when in a state of domestication they occur much oftener and to a
+much greater extent. The greater variability in the latter case is
+doubtless owing, in some measure, to our domestic productions' being
+reared under conditions of life not so uniform as, and different from,
+those to which the parent species was exposed in a state of nature.
+
+Among what are usually reckoned the more active causes of variation may
+be named _climate_, _food_, and _habit_. Animals in a cold climate are
+provided with a thicker covering of hair than in warmer ones. Indeed, it
+is said that in some of the tropical provinces of South America, there
+are cattle which have an extremely rare and fine fur, in place of the
+ordinary pile of hair. The supply of food, whether abundant or scanty,
+is one of the most efficient causes of variation known to be within the
+control of man. A due consideration of the natural effects of climate
+and food is a point worthy the careful attention of the
+stock-husbandman. If the breeds employed be well adapted to the
+situation, and the capacity of the soil be such as to feed them fully,
+profit may be safely anticipated. Animals are to be regarded as machines
+for converting herbage into money.
+
+The bestowal of food sufficient, both in amount and quality, to enable
+animals to develop all the excellencies inherent in them, and yield all
+the profit of which they are capable, is something quite distinct from
+undue forcing of pampering. The latter process may produce wonderful
+animals to look at, but neither useful nor profitable ones, and there is
+danger of thus producing a most undesirable variation, since in animals
+the process may be carried far enough to produce barrenness. Instances
+are not wanting, particularly among the more recent improved
+short-horns, of impotency among the males and of barrenness among the
+females; and in some cases where the latter have borne calves, they have
+failed to secrete sufficient milk for their nourishment. Impotency in
+bulls of various breeds has, in many instances, occurred from too high
+feeding, especially when connected with a lack of sufficient exercise. A
+working bull, though perhaps not so pleasing to the eye as a fat one, is
+a surer stock-getter; and his progeny is more likely to inherit full
+health and vigor.
+
+_Habit_ has a decided influence toward producing variations. We find in
+domestic animals that use--or the demand created by habit--is met by a
+development or change in the organization adapted to the requirement.
+For instance, with cows in a state of nature, or where required only to
+suckle their young, the supply of milk is barely fitted to the
+requirement. If more is desired, and the milk is drawn completely and
+regularly, the yield is increased and continued longer. By keeping up
+the demand there is induced, in the next generation, a greater
+development of the secreting organs, and more milk is given. By
+continuing the practice, by furnishing the needful conditions of
+suitable food and the like, and by selecting in each generation those
+animals showing the greatest tendency toward milk, a breed specially
+adapted for the dairy may be established. It is just by this mode that
+the Ayrshires have, within the past century, been brought to be what
+they are--a breed giving more good milk upon a certain amount of food
+than any other.
+
+[Illustration: READY FOR ACTION.]
+
+It is a fact too well established to be controverted, that the first
+male produces impressions upon subsequent progeny by other males. To
+what extent this principle holds, it is impossible to say. Although the
+instances in which it is known to be of a very marked and obvious
+character may be comparatively few, yet there is ample reason to
+believe that, although in a majority of cases the effect may be less
+noticeable, it is not less real; and it therefore demands the special
+attention of breeders. The knowledge of this law furnishes a clue to the
+cause of many of the disappointments of which practical breeders often
+complain, and of many variations otherwise unaccountable, and it
+suggests particular caution as to the first male employed in the
+coupling of animals--a matter which has often been deemed of little
+consequence in regard to cattle, inasmuch as fewer heifers' first calves
+are reared, than those are which are borne subsequently.
+
+The phenomenon--or law, as it is sometimes called--of atavism, or
+_ancestral influence_, is one of considerable practical importance, and
+well deserves the careful attention of the breeder of farm stock.
+
+Every one is aware that it is by no means unusual for a child to
+resemble its grandfather, or grandmother, or even some ancestor still
+more remote, more than it does either its own father or mother. The same
+occurrence is found among our domestic animals, and oftener in
+proportion as the breeds are crossed or mixed up. Among our common stock
+of neat cattle, or natives--originating, as they did, from animals
+brought from England, Scotland, Denmark, France, and Spain, each
+possessing different characteristics of form, color, and use, and bred,
+as our common stock has usually been, indiscriminately together, with no
+special object in view, with no attempt to obtain any particular type or
+form, or to secure adaptation for any particular purpose--frequent
+opportunities are afforded of witnessing the results of this law of
+hereditary transmission. So common, indeed, is its occurrence, that the
+remark is often made, that, however good a cow may be, there is no
+telling beforehand what sort of a calf she may have. The fact is
+sufficiently obvious, that certain peculiarities often lie dormant for a
+generation or two and then reappear in subsequent progeny. Stockmen
+often speak of it as "breeding back," or "crying back."
+
+The lesson taught by this law is very plain. It shows the importance of
+seeking thorough-bred or well-bred animals; and by these terms are
+simply meant such as are descended from a line of ancestors in which for
+many generations the desirable forms, qualities, and characteristics
+have been _uniformly shown_. In such a case, even if ancestral influence
+does come in play, no material difference appears in the offspring, the
+ancestors being all essentially alike. From this standpoint we best
+perceive in what consists the money value of a good "pedigree." This is
+valuable, in proportion as it shows an animal to be descended, not only
+from such as are purely of its own race or breed, but also from such
+individuals of that breed as were specially noted for the excellencies
+for which that particular breed is esteemed.
+
+Probably the most distinctly marked evidence of ancestral influence
+among us, is to be found in the ill-begotten, round-headed calves, not
+infrequently dropped by cows of the common mixed kind, which, if killed
+early, make very blue veal, and if allowed to grow up, become
+exceedingly profitless and unsatisfactory beasts; the heifers being
+often barren, the cows poor milkers, the oxen dull, mulish beasts,
+yielding flesh of very dark color, of ill flavor and destitute of fat.
+
+_The relative influence_ of the male and female parents upon the
+characteristics of progeny has long been a fruitful subject of
+discussion among breeders. It is found in experience that progeny
+sometimes resembles one parent more than the other--sometimes there is
+an apparent blending of the characteristics of both--sometimes a
+noticeable dissimilarity to either, though always more or less
+resemblance somewhere--and sometimes the impress of one may be seen upon
+a portion of the organization of the offspring, and that of the other
+parent upon another portion; yet we are not authorized from such
+discrepancies to conclude that it is a matter of chance; for all of
+nature's operations are conducted in accordance with fixed laws, whether
+we be able fully to discover them or not. The same causes always produce
+the same results. In this case, not less than in others, there are,
+beyond all doubt, certain fixed laws; and the varying results which we
+see are easily and sufficiently accounted for by the existence of
+conditions or modifying influences not fully open to our observation.
+
+It may be stated, on the whole--as a result of the varied investigations
+to which this question has given rise--that the evidence, both from
+observation and the testimony of the best practical breeders, goes to
+show that each parent usually contributes certain portions of the
+organization to the offspring, and that each has a modifying influence
+upon the other. Facts also show that the same parent does not always
+contribute the same portions, but that the order is at times, and not
+rarely, reversed. Where animals are of distinct species or breeds,
+transmission is usually found to be in harmony with the principle, that
+the male gives mostly the outward form and locomotive system, and the
+female chiefly the interior system, constitution and the like. Where
+the parents are of the same breed, it appears that the proportions
+contributed by each are governed, in a large measure, by the condition
+of each in regard to age and vigor, or by virtue of individual potency
+or superiority of physical endowment. This potency or power of
+transmission, seems to be legitimately connected with high breeding, or
+the concentration of fixed qualities, obtained by continued descent for
+many generations from such only as possess in the highest degree the
+qualities desired.
+
+Practically, the knowledge obtained dictates in a most emphatic manner
+that every stock-grower use his utmost endeavor to obtain the services
+of the best sires; that is, the best for the ends and purposes in
+view--that he depend chiefly on the sire for outward form and
+symmetry--and that he select dams best calculated to develop the good
+qualities of the male, depending chiefly upon these for freedom, from
+internal disease, for hardihood and constitution, and, generally, for
+all qualities dependent upon the vital or nutritive system. The neglect
+of the qualities of the dam, which is far too common--miserably old and
+inferior animals being often employed--cannot be too strongly censured.
+
+With regard to the laws which regulate the sex of the progeny very
+little is known. Many and extensive observations have been made, without
+reaching any definite conclusion. Nature seems to have provided that the
+number of each sex; produced, shall be nearly equal; but by what means
+this result is attained, has not as yet been discovered.
+
+It has long been a disputed point, whether the system of _breeding
+in-and-in_, or the opposite one of frequent crossing, has the greater
+tendency to improve the character of stock This term, in-and-in, is
+often very loosely used and as variously understood. Some confine the
+phrase to the coupling of those of exactly the same blood, as brothers
+and sisters, while others include in it breeding from parents and
+offsprings; and others still employ it to embrace those of a more
+distant relationship. For the last, the term breeding-in, or close
+breeding, is generally deemed more suitable.
+
+The current opinion is decidedly against the practice of breeding from
+any near relatives; it being usually found that degeneracy follows, and
+often to a serious degree; but it is not proved that this degeneracy,
+although very common and even usual, is yet a necessary consequence.
+That ill effects follow, in a majority of cases, is not to be doubted;
+but this is easily and sufficiently accounted for upon quite other
+grounds. Perhaps, however, the following propositions may be safely
+stated: That in general practice, with the grades and mixed animals
+common in the country, _close-breeding should be scrupulously avoided_
+as highly detrimental. It is better _always_ to avoid breeding from near
+relatives whenever stock-getters of the same breed and of equal merit
+can be obtained which are not related. Yet, where this is not possible,
+or where there is some desirable and clearly defined purpose in view--as
+the fixing and perpetuating of some valuable quality in a particular
+animal not common to the breed--and the breeder possesses the knowledge
+and skill needful to accomplish his purpose, and the animals are perfect
+in health and development, close breeding may be practised with
+advantage.
+
+The practice of _crossing_, like that of close breeding, has its strong
+and its weak side. Judiciously practised, it offers a means of
+providing animals _for the butcher_, often superior to, and more
+profitable than, those of any pure breed. It is also admissible as the
+foundation of a systematic and well-considered attempt to establish a
+new breed. But when crossing is practised injudiciously and
+indiscriminately, and especially when so done for the purpose of
+procuring _breeding animals_, it is scarcely less objectionable than
+careless in-and-in breeding.
+
+[Illustration: A SPRIGHTLY YOUTH.]
+
+The profitable style of breeding for the great majority of farmers to
+adopt, is neither to cross nor to breed from close affinities--except in
+rare instances, and for some specific and clearly understood
+purpose--but to _breed in the line_; that is, to select the breed or
+race best adapted to fulfil the requirement demanded, whether it be for
+the dairy, for labor, or for such combination of these as can be had
+without too great a sacrifice of the principal requisite, and then to
+procure a _pure-bred_ male of the kind determined upon, and breed him to
+the females of the herd; and if these be not such as are calculated to
+develop his qualities, endeavor by purchase or exchange to procure such
+as will. Let the progeny of these be bred to another _pure-bred_ male of
+the same breed, but as distantly related to the first as may be. Let
+this plan be faithfully pursued, and, although we cannot, without the
+intervention of well-bred females, procure stock purely of the kind
+desired, yet in several generations--if proper care be given to the
+selection of males, that each one be such as to retain and improve upon
+the points gained by his predecessor--the stock, for most practical
+purposes, will be as good as if thorough-bred. If this plan were
+generally adopted, and a system of letting or exchanging males
+established, the cost might be brought within the means of most persons,
+and the advantages which would accrue would be almost beyond belief.
+
+A brief summing-up of the foregoing principles may not be inappropriate
+here.
+
+The law of similarity teaches us to select animals for breeding which
+possess the desired forms and qualities in the greatest perfection and
+best combination.
+
+Regard should be had, not only to the more obvious characteristics, but
+also to such hereditary traits and tendencies as may be hidden from
+cursory observation and demand careful and thorough investigation.
+
+From the hereditary nature of all characteristics, whether good or bad,
+we learn the importance of having all desirable qualities _thoroughly
+inbred_; or, in other words, so firmly in each generation that the next
+is warrantably certain to present nothing worse--that no ill results
+follow from breeding back to some inferior ancestor--that all
+undesirable traits or points be, so far as possible, _bred-out_.
+
+So important is this consideration, that, in practice, it is decidedly
+preferable to employ a male of ordinary external appearance--provided
+his ancestry be all which is desired--rather than a grade, or
+cross-bred animal, although the latter be greatly his superior in
+personal beauty.
+
+A knowledge of the law of variation teaches us to avoid, for breeding
+purposes, such animals as exhibit variations unfavorable to the purpose
+in view; to endeavor to perpetuate every real improvement gained; as
+well as to secure, as far as practicable, the conditions necessary to
+induce or continue any improvement, such as general treatment, food,
+climate, habits, and the like.
+
+Where the parents do not possess the perfections desired, selections for
+coupling should be made with critical reference to correcting the faults
+or deficiencies of one by corresponding excellencies in the other.
+
+To correct defects, too much must not be attempted at once. Pairing
+those very unlike oftener results in loss than gain. Avoid all extremes,
+and endeavor by moderate degrees to attain the end desired.
+
+Crossing, between different breeds, for the purpose of obtaining animals
+for the shambles, may be advantageously practised to a considerable
+extent, but not for the production of breeding animals. As a general
+rule, cross-bred males should not be employed for propagation, and
+cross-bred females should be served by thorough-bred males.
+
+In ordinary practice, breeding from near relatives is to be scrupulously
+avoided. For certain purposes, under certain conditions and
+circumstances, and in the hands of a skillful breeder, it may be
+practised with advantage--but not otherwise.
+
+In a large majority of cases--other things being equal--we may expect in
+progeny the outward form and general structure of the sire, together
+with the internal qualities, constitution, and nutritive system of the
+dam; each, however, modified by the other.
+
+Particular care should always be taken that the male by which the dam
+first becomes pregnant is the best which can be obtained; also, that at
+the time of sexual congress both are in vigorous health.
+
+Breeding animals should not be allowed to become fat, but always kept in
+thrifty condition; and such as are intended for the butcher should never
+be fat but once.
+
+In deciding with what breeds to stock a farm, endeavor to select those
+best adapted to its surface, climate, and degree of fertility; also,
+with reference to probable demand and proximity to markets.
+
+No expense incurred in procuring choice animals for propagation, no
+amount of skill in breeding, can supersede, or compensate for, a lack of
+liberal feeding and good treatment. The better the stock, the better
+care they deserve.
+
+
+PREGNANCY
+
+The symptoms of pregnancy in its early stage were formerly deemed
+exceedingly unsatisfactory. The period of being in season--which
+commonly lasts three or four days, and then ceases for a while, and
+returns in about three weeks--might entirely pass over; and, although it
+was then probable that conception had taken place, yet in a great many
+instances the hopes of the breeder were disappointed. It was not until
+between the third and fourth month, when the belly began to enlarge--or,
+in many cases, considerably later--and when the motions of the foetus
+might be seen, or, at all events, felt by pressing on the right flank,
+that the farmer could be assured that his cow was in calf.
+
+That greatest of improvements in veterinary practice, the application of
+the ear to the chest and belly of various animals, in order to detect by
+the different sounds--which after a short time, will be easily
+recognized--the state of the circulation through most of the organs, and
+consequently, the precise seat and degree of inflammation and danger,
+has now enabled the breeder to ascertain the existence of pregnancy at
+as early a stage as six or eight weeks. The beating of the heart of the
+calf may then be distinctly heard, twice, or more than twice, as
+frequent as that of the mother; and each pulsation will betray the
+singular double beating of the foetal heart. This will also be
+accompanied by the audible rushing of the blood through the vessels of
+the placenta. The ear should be applied to the right flank, beginning on
+the higher part of it, and gradually shifting downward and backward.
+These sounds will thus soon be heard, and cannot be mistaken.
+
+
+TREATMENT BEFORE CALVING.
+
+Little alteration needs to be made in the management of the cow for the
+first seven months of pregnancy; except that, as she has not only to
+yield milk for the profit of the farmer, but to nourish the growing
+foetus within, she should be well, yet not too luxuriantly, fed. The
+half-starved cow will not adequately discharge this double duty, nor
+provide sufficient nutriment for the calf when it has dropped; while the
+cow in high condition will be dangerously disposed to inflammation and
+fever, when, at the time of parturition, she is otherwise so
+susceptible of the power of every stimulus. If the season and the
+convenience of the farmer will allow, she will be better at pasture, at
+least for some hours each day than when confined altogether to the
+cow-house.
+
+At a somewhat uncertain period before she calves, there will be a new
+secretion of milk for the expected little one; and under the notion of
+somewhat recruiting her strength, in order better to enable her to
+discharge her new duty--but more from the uniform testimony of
+experience that there is danger of local inflammation, general fever,
+garget in the udder, and puerperal fever, if the new milk descends while
+the old milk continues to flow--it has been usual to let the cow _go
+dry_ for some period before parturition. Farmers and breeders have been
+strangely divided as to the length of this period. It must be decided by
+circumstances. A cow in good condition may be milked for a much longer
+period than a poor one. Her abundance of food renders a period of
+respite almost unnecessary; and all that needs to be taken care of, is
+that the old milk should be fairly gone before the new milk springs. In
+such a cow, while there is danger of inflammation from the sudden rush
+of new milk into a bag already occupied, there is almost always
+considerable danger of indurations and tumors in the teats from the
+habit of secretion being too long suspended. The emaciated and
+over-milked beast, however, must rest a while before she can again
+advantageously discharge the duties of a mother.
+
+If the period of pregnancy were of equal length at all times and in all
+cows, the one that has been well fed might be milked until within a
+fortnight or three weeks of parturition, while a holiday of two months
+should be granted to the poorer beast; but as there is much
+irregularity about the time of gestation, it may be prudent to take a
+month or five Weeks, as the average period.
+
+The process of parturition is necessarily one that is accompanied with a
+great deal of febrile excitement; and, therefore, when it nearly
+approaches, not only should a little care be taken to lessen the
+quantity of food, and to remove that which is of a stimulating action,
+but a mild dose of physic, and a bleeding regulated by the condition of
+the animal, will be very proper precautionary measures.
+
+A moderately open state of the bowels is necessary at the period of
+parturition in the cow. During the whole time of pregnancy her enormous
+stomach sufficiently presses upon and confines the womb; and that
+pressure may be productive of injurious and fatal consequences, if at
+this period the rumen is suffered to be distended by innutritious food,
+or the manyplus takes on that hardened state to which it is occasionally
+subject. Breeders have been sadly negligent in this respect.
+
+The springing of the udder, or the rapid enlargement of it from the
+renewed secretion of milk--the enlargement of the external parts of the
+bearing (the former, as has been said by some, in old cows, and the
+latter in young ones)--the appearance of a glaring discharge from the
+bearing--the evident dropping of the belly, with the appearance of
+leanness and narrowness between the shape and the udder--a degree of
+uneasiness and fidgetiness--moaning occasionally--accelerated
+respiration--all these symptoms will announce that the time of calving
+is not far off. The cow should be brought near home, and put in some
+quiet, sheltered place. In cold or stormy weather she should be housed.
+Her uneasiness will rapidly increase--she will be continually getting up
+and lying down--her tail will begin to be elevated and the commencement
+of the labor-pains will soon be evident.
+
+In most cases the parturition will be natural and easy, and the less the
+cow is disturbed or meddled with, the better. She will do better without
+help than with it; but she should be watched, in order to see that no
+difficulty occurs which may require aid and attention. In cases of
+difficult parturition the aid of a skillful veterinary surgeon may be
+required.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Feeding and Management
+
+
+No branch of dairy farming can compare in importance with the management
+of cows. The highest success will depend upon it, whatever breed be
+selected, and whatever amount of care and attention be given to the
+points of the animals; for experience will show that very little milk
+comes out of the bag, that is not first put into the throat. It is poor
+economy, therefore, to attempt to keep too many cows for the amount of
+feed one has; for it will generally be found that one good cow well-bred
+and well fed will yield as much as two ordinary cows kept in the
+ordinary way; while a saving is effected both in labor and room
+required, and in the risks on the capital invested. If an argument for
+the larger number on poorer feed is urged on the ground of the
+additional manure--which is the only basis upon which it can be put--it
+is enough to say that it is a very expensive way of making manure. It is
+not too strong an assertion, that a proper regard to profit and economy
+would require many an American farmer to sell off nearly half of his
+cows, and to feed the whole of his hay and roots hitherto used into the
+remainder.
+
+An animal, to be fully fed and satisfied, requires a quantity of food in
+proportion to its live weight. No feed is complete that does not contain
+a sufficient amount of nutritive elements; hay, for example, being more
+nutritive than straw, and grains than roots. The food, too, must possess
+a bulk sufficient to fill up to a certain degree the organs of digestion
+of the stomach; and, to receive the full benefit of its food, the animal
+must be wholly satisfied--since, if the stomach is not sufficiently
+distended, the food cannot be properly digested, and of course many of
+the nutritive principles which it contains cannot be perfectly
+assimilated. An animal regularly fed eats till it is satisfied, and no
+more than is requisite. A part of the nutritive elements in hay and
+other forage plants is needed to keep an animal on its feet--that is, to
+keep up its condition--and if the nutrition of its food is insufficient
+for this, the weight decreases, and if it is more than sufficient the
+weight increases, or else this excess is consumed in the production of
+milk or in labor. About one sixtieth of their live weight in hay, or its
+equivalent, will keep horned cattle on their feet; but, in order to be
+completely nourished, they require about one thirtieth in dry
+substances, and four thirtieths in water, or other liquid contained in
+their food. The excess of nutritive food over and above what is
+necessary to sustain life will go, in milch cows, generally to the
+production of milk, or to the growth of the foetus, but not in all
+cows to an equal extent; the tendency to the secretion of milk being
+much more developed in some than in others.
+
+With regard, however, to the consumption of food in proportion to the
+live weight of the animal, it must be taken, in common with all general
+principles, with some qualifications. The proportion is probably not
+uniform as applied to all breeds indiscriminately, though it may be more
+so as applied to animals of the same breed. The idea of some celebrated
+stock-raisers has been that the quantity of food required depends much
+upon the shape of the barrel; and it is well known that an animal of a
+close, compact, well-rounded barrel, will consume less than one of an
+opposite make.
+
+The variations in the yield of milch cows are caused more by the
+variations in the nutritive elements of their food than by a change of
+the form in which it is given. A cow, kept through the winter on mere
+straw, will cease to give milk; and, when fed in spring on green forage,
+will give a fair quantity of milk. But she owes the cessation and
+restoration of the secretion, respectively, to the diminution and
+increase of her nourishment, and not at all to the change of form, or of
+outward substance in which the nutriment is administered. Let cows
+receive through winter nearly as large a proportion of nutritive matter
+as is contained in the clover, lucerne, and fresh grass which they eat
+in summer, and, no matter in what precise substance or mixture that
+matter be contained, they will yield a winter's produce of milk quite as
+rich in caseine and butyraceous ingredients as the summer's produce, and
+far more ample in quantity than almost any dairyman with old-fashioned
+notions would imagine to be possible. The great practical error on this
+subject consists, not in giving wrong kinds of food, but in not so
+proportioning and preparing it as to render an average ration of it
+equally rich in the elements of nutrition, and especially in nitrogenous
+elements, as an average ration of the green and succulent food of
+summer.
+
+We keep too much stock for the quantity of good and nutritious food
+which we have for it; and the consequence is, that cows are, in nine
+cases out of ten, poorly wintered, and come out in the spring weakened,
+if not, indeed, positively diseased, and a long time is required to
+bring them into a condition to yield a generous quantity of milk.
+
+It is a hard struggle for a cow reduced in flesh and in blood to fill up
+the wasted system with the food which would otherwise have gone to the
+secretion of milk; but, if she is well fed, well housed, well littered,
+and well supplied with pure, fresh water, and with roots, or other
+_moist_ food, and properly treated to the luxury of a frequent carding,
+and constant kindness, she comes out ready to commence the manufacture
+of milk under favorable circumstances.
+
+_Keep the cows constantly in good condition_, ought, therefore, to be
+the motto of every dairy farmer, posted up over the barn, and on and
+over the stalls, and over the milk-room, and repeated to the boys
+whenever there is danger of forgetting it. It is the great secret of
+success; and the difference between success and failure turns upon it.
+Cows in milk require more food in proportion to their size and weight
+than either oxen or young cattle.
+
+In order to keep cows in milk well and economically, regularity is next
+in importance to a full supply of wholesome and nutritious food. The
+animal stomach is a very nice chronometer, and it is of the utmost
+importance to observe regular hours in feeding, cleaning, and milking.
+This is a point, also, in which very many farmers are at fault--feeding
+whenever it happens to be convenient. The cattle are thus kept in a
+restless condition, constantly expecting food when the keeper enters the
+barn; while, if regular hours are strictly adhered to, they know exactly
+when they are to be fed, and they rest quietly till the time arrives. If
+one goes into any well-regulated dairy establishment an hour before
+feeding, scarcely an animal will rise to its feet; while; if it happens
+to be the hour of feeding, the whole herd will be likely to rise and
+seize their food with an avidity and relish not to be mistaken.
+
+With respect to the exact nurture to be pursued, no rule could be
+prescribed which would apply to all cases; and each individual must be
+governed much by circumstances, both regarding the particular kinds of
+feed at different seasons of the year, and the system of feeding. It has
+been found--it may be stated--in the practice of the most successful
+dairymen, that, in order to encourage the largest secretion of milk in
+stalled cows, one of the best courses is, to feed in the morning, either
+at the time of milking--which is preferred by many--or immediately
+after, with cut feed, consisting of hay, oats, millet, or cornstalks,
+mixed with shorts, and Indian linseed, or cotton-seed meal, thoroughly
+moistened with water. If in winter, hot or warm water is far better than
+cold. If given at milking-time, the cows will generally give down their
+milk more readily. The stalls and mangers should first be thoroughly
+cleansed.
+
+[Illustration: THE FAMILY PETS.]
+
+Roots and long hay may be given during the day; and at the evening
+milking, or directly after, another generous meal of cut feed, well
+moistened and mixed, as in the morning. No very concentrated food, like
+grains alone, or oil-cakes, should be fed early in the morning on an
+empty stomach, although it is sanctioned by the practice in the London
+milk-dairies. The processes of digestion go on best when the stomach is
+sufficiently distended; and for this purpose the bulk of food is almost
+as important as the nutritive qualities. The flavor of some roots, as
+cabbages and turnips, is more apt to be imparted to the flesh and milk
+when fed on an empty stomach than otherwise. After the cows have been
+milked and have finished their cut feed, they are carded and curried
+down, in well-managed dairies, and then either watered in the
+stall--which, in very cold or stormy weather, is far preferable--or
+turned out to water in the yard. While they are out, if they are let out
+at all, the stables are put in order; and, after tying them up, they are
+fed with long hay, and left to themselves till the next feeding time.
+This may consist of roots--such as cabbages, beets, carrots, or
+turnips sliced--or of potatoes, a peck, or--if the cows are very
+large--a half-bushel each, and cut feed again at the evening milking, as
+in the morning; after which, water in the stall, if possible.
+
+The less cows are exposed to the cold of winter, the better. They eat
+less, thrive better, and give more milk, when kept housed all the time,
+than when exposed to the cold. A case is on record, where a herd of
+cows, which had usually been supplied from troughs and pipes in the
+stalls, were, on account of an obstruction in the pipes, obliged to be
+turned out thrice a day to be watered in the yard. The quantity of milk
+instantly decreased, and in three days the diminution became very
+considerable. After the pipes were mended, and the cows again watered,
+as before, in their stalls, the flow of milk returned. This, however,
+must be governed much by the weather; for in very mild and warm days it
+may be judicious not only to let them out, but to allow them to remain
+out for a short time, for the purpose of exercise.
+
+Any one can arrange the hour for the several processes named above, to
+suit himself; but, when once fixed, it should be rigidly and regularly
+followed. If the regular and full feeding be neglected for even a day,
+the yield of milk will immediately decline, and it will be very
+difficult to restore it. It may be safely asserted, as the result of
+many trials and long practice, that a larger flow of milk follows a
+complete system of regularity in this respect than from a higher feeding
+where this system is not adhered to.
+
+One prime object which the dairyman should keep constantly in view is,
+to maintain the animal in a sound and healthy condition. Without this,
+no profit can be expected from a milch cow for any considerable length
+of time; and with a view to this, there should be an occasional change
+of food. But, in making changes, great care is requisite in order to
+supply the needful amount of nourishment, or the cow will fall off in
+flesh, and eventually in milk. It should, therefore, be remembered that
+the food consumed goes not alone to the secretion of milk, but also to
+the growth and maintenance of the bony structure, the flesh, the blood,
+the fat, the skin, and the hair, and in exhalations from the body. These
+parts of the body consist of different organic constituents. Some are
+rich in nitrogen, as the fibrin of the blood and albumen; others
+destitute of it, as fat; some abound in inorganic salts, phosphate of
+lime, and salts of potash. To explain how the constant waste of these
+substances may be supplied, a celebrated chemist observes that the
+albumen, gluten, caseine, and other nitrogenized principles of food,
+supply the animal with the materials requisite for the formation of
+muscle and cartilage; they are, therefore, called flesh-forming
+principles.
+
+Fats, or oily matters of the food, are used to lay on fat, or for the
+purpose of sustaining respiration.
+
+Starch, sugar, gum, and a few other non-nitrogenized substances,
+consisting of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, supply the carbon given off
+in respiration, or they are used for the production of fat.
+
+Phosphate of lime and magnesia in food principally furnish the animal
+with the materials of which the bony skeleton of its body consists.
+
+Saline substances--chlorides of sodium and potassium, sulphate and
+phosphate of potash and soda, and some other mineral matters occurring
+in food--supply the blood, juice of flesh, and various animal juices,
+with the necessary mineral constituents.
+
+The healthy state of an animal can thus only be preserved by a mixed
+food; that is, food which contains all the proximate principles just
+noticed. Starch or sugar alone cannot sustain the animal body, since
+neither of them furnishes the materials to build up the fleshy parts of
+the animal. When fed on substances in which an insufficient quantity of
+phosphates occurs, the animal will become weak, because it does not find
+any bone-producing principle in its food. Due attention should,
+therefore, be paid by the feeder to the selection of food which contains
+all the kinds of matter required, nitrogenized as well as
+non-nitrogenized, and mineral substances; and these should be mixed
+together in the proportion which experience points out as best for the
+different kinds of animals, or the particular purpose for which they are
+kept.
+
+Relative to the nutrition of cows for dairy purposes, milk may be
+regarded as a material for the manufacture of butter and cheese; and,
+according to the purpose for which the milk is intended to be employed,
+whether for the manufacture of butter or the production of cheese, the
+cow should be differently fed.
+
+Butter contains carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, and no nitrogen. Cheese,
+on the contrary, is rich in nitrogen. Food which contains much fatty
+matter, or substances which in the animal system are readily converted
+into fat, will tend to increase the proportion of cream in milk. On the
+other hand, the proportion of caseine or cheesy matter in milk is
+increased by the use of highly nitrogenized food. Those, then, who
+desire much cream, or who produce cream for the manufacture of butter,
+select food likely to increase the proportion of butter in the milk. On
+the contrary, where the principal object is the production of milk rich
+in curd--that is, where cheese is the object of the farmer--clover,
+peas, bran-meal, and other plants which abound in legumine--a
+nitrogenized organic compound, almost identical in properties and
+composition with caseine, or the substance which forms the curd of
+milk--will be selected.
+
+And so the quality, as well as the quantity, of butter in the milk,
+depends on the kind of food consumed and on the general health of the
+animal. Cows fed on turnips in the stall always produce butter inferior
+to that of cows living upon the fresh and aromatic grasses of the
+pastures.
+
+Succulent food in which water abounds--the green grass of irrigated
+meadows, green clover, brewers' and distillers' refuse, and the
+like--increases the quantity, rather than the quality, of the milk; and
+by feeding these substances the milk-dairyman studies his own interest,
+and makes thin milk without diluting it with water--though, in the
+opinion of some, this may be no more legitimate than watering the milk.
+
+But, though the yield of milk may be increased by succulent or watery
+food, it should be given so as not to interfere with the health of the
+cow.
+
+Food rich in starch, gum, or sugar, which are the respiratory elements,
+an excess of which goes to the production of fatty matters, increases
+the butter in milk. Quietness promotes the secretion of fat in animals
+and increases the butter. Cheese will be increased by food rich in
+albumen, such as the leguminous plants.
+
+[Illustration: BUYING CATTLE.]
+
+The most natural, and of course the healthiest, food for milch cows in
+summer, is the green grass of the pastures; and when these fail from
+drought or over-stocking, the complement of nourishment may be made up
+with green clover, green oats, barley, millet, or corn-fodder and
+cabbage-leaves, or other succulent vegetables; and if these are wanting,
+the deficiency may be partly supplied with shorts, Indian-meal, linseed
+or cotton-seed meal. Green grass is more nutritious than hay, which
+always loses somewhat of its nutritive properties in curing; the amount
+of the loss depending chiefly on the mode of curing, and the length of
+exposure to sun and rain. But, apart from this, grass is more easily and
+completely digested than hay, though the digestion of the latter may be
+greatly aided by cutting and moistening, or steaming; and by this means
+it is rendered more readily available, and hence far better adapted to
+promote a large secretion of milk--a fact too often overlooked even by
+many intelligent farmers.
+
+In autumn, the best feed will be the grasses of the pastures, so far as
+they are available, green-corn fodder, cabbage, carrot, and turnip
+leaves, and an addition of meal or shorts. Toward the middle of autumn,
+the cows fed in the pastures will require to be housed regularly at
+night, especially in the more northern latitudes, and put, in part at
+least, upon hay. But every farmer knows that it is not judicious to feed
+out the best part of his hay when his cattle are first put into the
+barn, and that he should not feed so well in the early part of winter
+that he cannot feed better as the winter advances.
+
+At the same time, it should always be borne in mind that the change from
+grass to a poor quality of hay or straw, for cows in milk, should not be
+too sudden. A poor quality of dry hay is far less palatable in the early
+part of winter, after the cows are taken from grass, than at a later
+period; and, if it is resorted to with milch cows, will invariably lead
+to a falling off in the milk, which no good feed can afterward wholly
+restore.
+
+It is desirable, therefore, for the farmer to know what can be used
+instead of his best English or upland meadow hay, and yet not suffer any
+greater loss in the flow of milk, or in condition, than is absolutely
+necessary. In some sections of the Eastern States, the best quality of
+swale hay will be used; and the composition of that is as variable as
+possible, depending on the varieties of the grasses of which it was
+made, and the manner of curing. But, in other sections, many will find
+it necessary to use straw and other substitutes. Taking good English or
+meadow hay as the standard of comparison, and calling that one, 4.79
+times the weight of rye-straw, or 3.83 times the weight of oat-straw,
+contains the same amount of nutritive matter; that is, it would take
+4.79 times as good rye-straw to produce the same result as good meadow
+hay.
+
+In winter, the best food for cows in milk will be good sweet meadow hay,
+a part of which should be cut and moistened with water--as all inferior
+hay or straw should be--with an addition of root-crops, such as turnips,
+carrots, parsnips, potatoes, mangold-wurtzel, with shorts, oil-cake,
+Indian meal, or bean meal.
+
+It is the opinion of most successful dairymen that the feeding of moist
+food cannot be too highly recommended for cows in milk, especially to
+those who desire to obtain the largest quantity. Hay cut and thoroughly
+moistened becomes more succulent and nutritive, and partakes more of the
+nature of green grass.
+
+As a substitute for the oil-cake, hitherto known as an exceedingly
+valuable article for feeding stock, there is probably nothing better
+than cotton-seed meal. This is an article whose economic value has been
+but recently made known, but which, from practical trials already made,
+has proved eminently successful as food for milch cows. Chemists have
+decided that its composition is not inferior to that of the best
+flaxseed cake, and that in some respects its agricultural value
+surpasses that of any other kind of oil-cake.
+
+It has been remarked by chemists, in this connection, that the great
+value of linseed-cake, as an adjunct to hay, for fat cattle and milch
+cows, has been long recognized; and that it is undeniably traceable, in
+the main, to three ingredients of the seeds of the oil-yielding plants.
+The value of food depends upon the quantities of matters it contains
+which may be appropriated by the animal which consumes the food Now, it
+is proved that the fat of animals is derived from the starch, gum, and
+sugar, and more directly and easily from the oil of the food. These four
+substances, then, are fat-formers. The muscles, nerves, and tendons of
+animals, the brine of their blood and the curd of their milk, are almost
+identical in composition with, and strongly similar in many of their
+properties to, matters found in all vegetables, but chiefly in such as
+form the most concentrated food. These blood (and muscle) formers are
+characterized by containing about fifteen and a half per cent. of
+nitrogen; and hence are called nitrogenous substances. They are, also,
+often designated as the albuminous bodies.
+
+The bony framework of the animal owes its solidity to phosphate of lime,
+and this substance must be furnished by the food. A perfect food must
+supply the animal with these three classes of bodies, and in proper
+proportions. The addition of a small quantity of a food, rich in oil and
+albuminous substances, to the ordinary kinds of feed, which contain a
+large quantity of vegetable fibre or woody matter, more or less
+indigestible, but, nevertheless, indispensable to the herbivorous
+animals, their digestive organs being adapted to a bulky food, has been
+found highly advantageous in practice. Neither hay alone nor
+concentrated food alone gives the best results. A certain combination of
+the two presents the most advantages.
+
+Some who have used cotton-seed cake have found difficulty in inducing
+cattle to eat it. By giving it at first in small doses, mixed with other
+palatable food, they soon learn to eat it with relish. Cotton-seed cake
+is much richer in oils and albuminous matters than the linseed cake. A
+correspondingly less quantity will therefore be required. Three pounds
+of this cotton-seed cake are equivalent to four of linseed cake of
+average quality.
+
+During the winter season, as has been already remarked, a frequent
+change of food is especially necessary, both as contributions to the
+general health of animals, and as a means of stimulating the digestive
+organs, and thus increasing the secretion of milk. A mixture used as cut
+feed and well moistened is now especially beneficial, since concentrated
+food, which would otherwise be given in small quantities, may be united
+with larger quantities of coarser and less nutritive food, and the
+complete assimilation of the whole be better secured. On this subject it
+has been sensibly observed that the most nutritious kinds of food
+produce little or no effect when they are not digested by the stomach,
+or if the digested food is not absorbed by the lymphatic vessels, and
+not assimilated by the various parts of the body. Now, the normal
+functions of the digestive organs not only depend upon the composition
+of the food, but also on its volume. The volume or bulk of the food
+contributes to the healthy action of the digestive organs, by exercising
+a stimulating effect upon the nerves which govern them. Thus the whole
+organization of ruminating animals necessitates the supply of bulky
+food, to keep the animal in good condition.
+
+Feed sweet and nutritious food, therefore, frequently, regularly, and in
+small quantities, and change it often, and the best results may be
+confidently anticipated. If the cows are not in milk, but are to come in
+in the spring, the difference in feeding should be rather in the
+quantity than the quality, if the highest yield is to be expected from
+them during the coming season.
+
+The most common feeding is hay alone, and oftentimes very poor hay at
+that. The main point is to keep the animal in a healthy and thriving
+condition, and not to suffer her to fail in flesh; and with this object,
+some change and variety of food are highly important.
+
+[Illustration: CALLING IN THE CATTLE.]
+
+Toward the close of winter, a herd of cows will begin to come in, or
+approach their time of calving. Care should then be taken not to feed
+too rich or stimulating food for the last week or two before this event,
+as it is often attended with ill consequences. A plenty of hay, a few
+potatoes or shorts, and pure water will suffice.
+
+In spring, the best feeding for dairy cows will be much the same as that
+for winter; the roots in store over winter, such as carrots, mangold
+wurtzel, turnips, and parsnips, furnishing very valuable aid in
+increasing the quantity and improving the quality of milk. Toward the
+close of this season, and before the grass of pastures is sufficiently
+grown to make it judicious to turn out the cows, the best dairymen
+provide a supply of green fodder in the shape of winter rye, which, if
+cut while it is tender and succulent, and before it is half grown, will
+be greatly relished. Unless cut young, however, its stalk soon becomes
+hard and unpalatable.
+
+All practical dairymen agree in saying that a warm and well-ventilated
+barn is indispensable to the promotion of the highest yield of milk in
+winter; and most agree that cows in milk should not be turned out, even
+to drink, in cold weather; all exposure to cold tending to lessen the
+yield of milk.
+
+In the London dairies, in which, of course, the cows are fed so as to
+produce the largest flow of milk, the treatment is as follows: The cows
+are kept at night in stalls. About three A. M. each has a half-bushel of
+grains. When milking is finished, each receives a bushel of turnips (or
+mangolds), and shortly afterward, one tenth of a truss of hay of the
+best quality. This feeding occurs before eight A. M., when the animals
+are turned into the yard. Four hours after, they are again tied up in
+their stalls, and have another feed of grains. When the afternoon
+milking is over (about three P. M.), they are fed with a bushel of
+turnips, and after the lapse of an hour, hay is given them as before.
+This mode of feeding usually continues throughout the cool season, or
+from November to March. During the remaining months they are fed with
+grains, tares, and cabbages, and a proportion of rowen, or second-cut
+hay. They are supplied regularly until they are turned out to grass,
+when they pass the whole of the night in the field. The yield is about
+six hundred and fifty gallons a year for each cow.
+
+Mr. Harley--whose admirable dairy establishment was erected for the
+purpose of supplying the city of Glasgow with a good quality of milk,
+and which has contributed more than any thing else to improve the
+quality of the milk furnished to all the principal cities of Great
+Britain--adopted the following system of feeding with the greatest
+profit: In the early part of the summer, young grass and green barley,
+the first cutting especially, mixed with a large proportion of old hay
+or straw, and a good quantity of salt to prevent swelling, were used. As
+summer advanced, less hay and straw were given, and as the grass
+approached ripeness, they were discontinued altogether; but young and
+wet clover was never given without an admixture of dry provender. When
+grass became scarce, young turnips and turnip leaves were steamed with
+hay, and formed a good substitute. As grass decreased, the turnips were
+increased, and at length became a complete substitute. As the season
+advanced, a large proportion of distillers' grains and wash was given
+with other food, but these were found to have a tendency to make the
+cattle grain-sick; and if this feeding were long-continued, the health
+of the cows became affected. Boiled linseed and short-cut wheat straw
+mixed with the grains, were found to prevent the cows from turning sick.
+As spring approached, Swedish turnips, when cheap, were substituted for
+yellow turnips. These two roots, steamed with hay and other mixtures,
+afforded safe food till grass was again in season. When any of the cows
+were surfeited, the food was withheld till the appetite returned, when a
+small quantity was given, and increased gradually to the full allowance.
+
+But the most elaborate and valuable experiments in the feeding and
+management of milch cows, are those made, not long since, by Mr. T.
+Horsfall, of England, and published in the Journal of the Royal
+Agricultural Society. His practice, though adapted more especially,
+perhaps, to his own section, is nevertheless of such general application
+and importance as to be worthy of attention. By his course of treatment
+he found that he could produce as much and as rich butter in winter as
+in summer.
+
+His first object was to afford a full supply of the elements of food
+adapted to the maintenance, and also to the produce of the animal; and
+this could not be effected by the ordinary food and methods of feeding,
+since it is impossible to induce a cow to consume a quantity of hay
+requisite to supply the waste of the system, and keep up, at the same
+time, a full yield of the best quality of milk. He used, to some extent,
+cabbages, kohl rabi, mangolds, shorts, and other substances, rich in the
+constituents of cheese and butter. "My food for milch cows," says he,
+"after having undergone various modifications, has for two seasons
+consisted of rape cake five pounds, and bran two pounds, for each cow,
+mixed with a sufficient quantity of bean-straw, oat-straw, and shells of
+oats, in equal proportions, to supply them three times a day with as
+much as they will eat. The whole of the materials are moistened and
+blended together, and, after being well steamed, are given to the animal
+in a warm state. The attendant is allowed one pound to one pound and a
+half per cow, according to circumstances, of bean-meal, which he is
+charged to give to each cow in proportion to the yield of milk; those in
+full milk getting each two pounds per day, others but little. It is dry,
+and mixed with the steamed food on its being dealt out separately. When
+this is eaten up, green food is given, consisting of cabbages, from
+October to December, kohl rabi till February, and mangold till grass
+time, with a view to nicety of flavor. I limit the quantity of green
+food to thirty or thirty-five pounds per day for each. After each feed,
+four pounds of meadow hay, or twelve pounds per day, is given to each
+cow. They are allowed water twice a day, to the extent which they will
+drink."
+
+Bean-straw uncooked having been found to be hard and unpalatable, it was
+steamed to make it soft and pulpy, when it possessed an agreeable odor,
+and imparted its flavor to the whole mass. It was cut for this purpose
+just before ripening, but after the bean was fully grown, and in this
+state was found to possess nearly double the amount of albuminous
+matter, so valuable to milch cows, of good meadow or upland hay. Bran or
+shorts is also vastly improved by steaming or soaking with hot water,
+when its nutriment is more readily assimilated. It contains about
+fourteen per cent. of albumen, and is rich in phosphoric acid. Rape-cake
+was found to be exceedingly valuable. Linseed and cotton-seed cake may
+probably be substituted for it in this country.
+
+Mr. Horsfall turned his cows in May into a rich pasture, housing them at
+night, and giving them a mess of the steamed mixture and some hay
+morning and night; and from June to October they had cut grass in the
+stall, besides what they got in the pasture, and two feeds of the
+steamed mixture a day. After the beginning of October the cows were kept
+housed. With such management his cows generally yielded from twelve to
+sixteen quarts of milk (wine measure) a day, for about eight months
+after calving, when they fell off in milk, but gained in flesh, up to
+calving-time. In this course of treatment the manure was far better than
+the average, and his pastures constantly improved. The average amount of
+butter from every sixteen quarts of milk was twenty-five ounces--a
+proportion far larger than the average.
+
+[Illustration: "ON THE RAMPAGE."]
+
+How widely does this course of treatment differ from that of most
+farmers! The object with many seems to be, to see with how little food
+they can keep the cow alive. From a correct point of view, the milch cow
+should be regarded as an instrument of transformation. The question
+should be--with so much hay, so much grain, so many roots, how can the
+most milk, or butter, or cheese, be made? The conduct of a manufacturer
+who owned good machinery, and an abundance of raw material, and had the
+labor at hand, would be considered very senseless, if he hesitated to
+supply the material, and keep the machinery at work, at least so long as
+he could run it with profit.
+
+Stimulate the appetite, then, and induce the cow to eat, by a frequent
+change of diet, not merely enough to supply the constant waste of her
+system, but enough and to spare, of a food adapted to the production of
+milk of the quality desired.
+
+
+SOILING.
+
+Of the advantages of soiling milch cows--that is, feeding exclusively in
+the barn--there are yet many conflicting opinions. As to its economy of
+land and feed there can be no question, it being generally admitted that
+a given number of animals may be abundantly fed on a less space; nor is
+there much question as to the increased quantity of milk yielded in
+stall feeding. Its economy, in this country, turns rather upon the cost
+of labor and time; and the question raised by the dairyman is, whether
+it will pay--whether its advantages are sufficient to balance the extra
+expense of cutting and feeding, over and above cropping on the pasture.
+The importance of this subject has been strongly impressed upon the
+attention of farmers in many sections of the country, by a growing
+conviction that something must be done to improve the pastures, or that
+they must be abandoned altogether.
+
+Thousands of acres of neglected pasture-land in the older States are so
+poor and worn out that from four to eight acres furnish but a miserable
+subsistence for a good-sized cow. No animal can flourish under such
+circumstances. The labor and exertion of feeding are too great, to say
+nothing of the vastly inferior quality of the grasses in such pastures,
+compared with those on more recently seeded lands. True economy would
+dictate that such pastures should either be allowed to run to wood, or
+be devoted to sheep-walks, or ploughed and improved. Cows, to be able to
+yield well, must have plenty of food of a sweet and nutritious quality;
+and, unless they find it, they wander over a large space, if at liberty,
+and thus deprive themselves of rest.
+
+If a farmer or dairyman unfortunately owns such pastures, there can be
+no question that, as a matter of real economy, he had better resort to
+the soiling system for his milch cows; by which means he will largely
+increase his annual supply of good manure, and thus have the means of
+improving, and bringing his land to a higher state of cultivation. A
+very successful instance of this management occurs in the report of the
+visiting committee of an agricultural society in Massachusetts, in which
+they say: "We have now in mind a farmer in this county who keeps seven
+or eight cows in the stable through the summer, and feeds them on green
+fodder, chiefly Indian corn. We asked him his reasons for it. His answer
+was: 1. That he gets more milk than he can by any other method. 2. That
+he gets more manure, especially liquid manure. 3. That he saves it all,
+by keeping a supply of mud or mould under the stable, to be taken out
+and renewed as often as necessary. 4. That it is less troublesome than
+to drive his cows to pasture; that they are less vexed by flies, and
+have equally good health. 5. That his mowing land is every year growing
+more productive, without the expense of artificial manure.--He estimates
+that on an acre of good land twenty tons of green fodder may be raised.
+That which is dried is cut fine, and mixed with meal or shorts, and fed
+with profit. He believes that a reduced and worn-out farm--supposing the
+land to be naturally good--could be brought into prime order in five
+years, without any extra outlay of money for manure, by the use of green
+fodder in connection with the raising and keeping of pigs; not
+fattening them, but selling at the age of four or five months." He
+keeps most of his land in grass, improving its quality and
+productiveness by means of top-dressing, and putting money in his
+pocket--which is, after all, the true test both for theory and practice.
+
+Another practical case on this point is that of a gentleman in the same
+State who had four cows, but not a rod of land on which to pasture them.
+They were, therefore, never out of the barn--or, at least, not out of
+the yard--and were fed with grass, regularly mown for them; with green
+Indian corn and fodder, which had been sown broadcast for the purpose;
+and with about three pints of meal a day. Their produce in butter was
+kept for thirteen weeks. Two of them were but two years old, having
+calved the same spring. All the milk of one of them was taken by her
+calf for six weeks out of the thirteen, and some of the milk of the
+other was taken for family use, the quantity of which was not measured.
+These heifers could not, therefore, be estimated as equal to more than
+one cow in full milk. And yet from these cows no less than three hundred
+and eighty-nine pounds of butter were made in the thirteen weeks.
+Another pound would have made an average of thirty pounds a week for the
+whole time.
+
+It appears from these and other similar instances of soiling, or
+stall-feeding in summer on green crops cut for the purpose, that the
+largely increased quantity of the yield fully compensates for the
+slightly deteriorated quality. And not only is the quantity yielded by
+each cow increased, but the same extent of land, under the same culture,
+will carry double or treble the number of ordinary pastures, and keep
+them in better condition. There is also a saving of manure. But with us
+the economy of soiling is the exception, and not the rule.
+
+In adopting this system of feeding, regularity is required as much as in
+any other, and a proper variety of food. A succession of green crops
+should be provided, as near as convenient to the stable. The first will
+naturally be winter rye, in the Northern States, as that shoots up with
+great luxuriance. Winter rape would probably be an exceedingly valuable
+addition to the plants usually cultivated for soiling in this country,
+in sections where it would withstand the severity of the winter.
+Cabbages, kept in the cellar or pit, and transplanted early, will also
+come in here to advantage, and clover will very soon follow them; oats,
+millet, and green Indian-corn, as the season advances; and, a little
+later still, perhaps, the Chinese sugar-cane, which should not be cut
+till headed out. These plants, in addition to other cultivated grasses,
+will furnish an unfailing succession of succulent and tender fodder;
+while the addition of a little Indian, linseed, or cotton-seed meal will
+be found economical.
+
+In the vicinity of large towns and cities, where the object is too often
+to feed for the largest quantity, without reference to quality, an
+article known as distillers' swill, or still-slop, is extensively used.
+This, if properly fed in limited quantities, in combination with other
+and more bulky food, may be a valuable article for the dairyman; but, if
+given--as it too often is--without the addition of other kinds of food,
+it soon affects the health and constitution of the animals fed on it.
+This swill contains a considerable quantity of water, some nitrogenous
+compounds, and some inorganic matter in the shape of phosphates and
+alkaline salts found in the different kinds of grain of which it is made
+up, as Indian corn, wheat, barley, rye, and the like. Where this forms
+the principal food of milch cows, the milk is of a very poor
+quality--blue in color, and requiring the addition of coloring
+substances to make it saleable. It contains, often, less than one per
+cent. of butter, and seldom over one and three-tenths or one and a half
+per cent.--while good, saleable milk should contain from three to five
+per cent. It will not coagulate, it is said, in less than five or six
+hours; while good milk will invariably coagulate in an hour or less,
+under the same conditions. Its effect on the system of young children
+is, therefore, very destructive, causing diseases of various kinds, and,
+if continued, death.
+
+So pernicious have been the consequences resulting from the use of this
+"swill-milk," as it is called, in the largest city of this country, that
+the Legislature of the State of New York, at a recent session (1861-2),
+interfered in behalf of the community by making the sale of the article
+a penal offence.
+
+
+CULTURE OF GRASSES FOR FODDER.
+
+As has been already stated, the grasses in summer, and hay in winter,
+form the most natural and important food for milch cows; and, whatever
+other crops come in as additional, these will form the basis of all
+systems of feeding.
+
+The nutritive qualities of the grasses differ widely; and their value as
+feed for cows will depend, to a considerable extent, on the management
+of pastures and mowing-lands. Some considerations bearing upon the
+subject of the proper cultivation of these leading articles of food
+are, therefore, proposed in this article.
+
+[Illustration: PATIENTLY WAITING.]
+
+If the turf of an old pasture is carefully examined, it will be found to
+contain a large variety of plants and grasses adapted for forage; some
+of them valuable for one purpose, and some for another. Some of them,
+though possessing a lower percentage of nutritive constituents than
+others, are particularly esteemed for an early and luxuriant growth,
+furnishing sweet feed in early spring, before other grasses appear; some
+of them, for starting more rapidly than others, after having been eaten
+off by cattle, and, consequently, of great value as pasture grasses.
+Most grasses will be found to be of a social character, and do best in a
+large mixture with other varieties.
+
+In forming a mixture for pasture grasses, the peculiar qualities of each
+species should, therefore, be regarded: as the time of flowering, the
+habits of growth, the soil and location on which it grows best, and
+other characteristics.
+
+Among the grasses found on cultivated lands in this country, the
+following are considered as among the most valuable for ordinary farm
+cultivation; some of them being adapted to pastures, and others almost
+exclusively to mowing and the hay-crop: Timothy, Meadow Foxtail, June or
+Kentucky Blue Grass, Fowl Meadow, Rough-stalked Meadow, Orchard Grass,
+Perennial Rye Grass, Italian Rye Grass, Redtop, English Bent, Meadow
+Fescue, Tall Oat Grass, Sweet-scented Vernal, Hungarian Grass, Red
+Clover, White or Dutch Clover, and some others.
+
+Of these, the most valuable, all things considered, is TIMOTHY. It forms
+a large proportion of what is commonly called English, or in some
+sections meadow, hay, though it originated and was first cultivated in
+this country. It contains a large percentage of nutritive matter, in
+comparison with other agricultural grasses. It thrives best on moist,
+peaty, or loamy soils, of medium tenacity, and is not well suited to
+very light, sandy lands. On very moist soils, its root is almost always
+fibrous; while on dry and loamy ones it is bulbous. On soils of the
+former description, which it especially affects, its growth is rapid,
+and its yield of hay large, sometimes amounting to three or four tons
+the acre, depending much, of course, upon cultivation. But, though very
+valuable for hay, it is not adapted for pasture, as it will neither
+endure severe grazing, nor is its aftermath to be compared with that of
+meadow foxtail, and some of the other grasses.
+
+JUNE GRASS, better known in some sections as Kentucky Blue Grass, is
+very common in most sections of the country, especially on limestone
+lands, forming a large part of the turf, wherever it flourishes, and
+being held in universal esteem as a pasture grass. It starts early, but
+varies much in size and appearance, according to the soil; growing in
+some places with the utmost luxuriance, and forming the predominant
+grass; in others, yielding to the other species. If cut at the time of
+flowering, or a few days after, it makes a good and nutritious hay,
+though it is surpassed in nutritive qualities by several of the other
+grasses. It starts slowly after having been cut, especially if not cut
+very early. But its herbage is fine and uniform, and admirably adapted
+to lawns, growing well in almost all soils, though it does not endure
+very severe droughts. It withstands, however, the frosts of winter
+better than most other grasses.
+
+In Kentucky--a section where it attains its highest perfection and
+luxuriance, ripening its seeds about the tenth of June--and in latitudes
+south of that, it sometimes continues green through the mild winters. It
+requires three or four years to become well set, after sowing, and it
+does not attain its highest yield as a pasture grass till the sod is
+even older than that. It is not, therefore, suited to alternate
+husbandry, where land usually remains in grass but two or three years
+before being ploughed up. In Kentucky, it is sown any time in winter
+when the sun is on the ground, three or four quarts of seed being used
+to the acre. In spring the seeds germinate, when the sprouts are
+exceedingly fine and delicate. Stock is not allowed on it the first
+year.
+
+The MEADOW FOXTAIL is also an excellent pasture grass It somewhat
+resembles Timothy, but is earlier, has a softer spike, and thrives on
+all soils except the dryest. Its growth is rapid, and it is greatly
+relished by stock of all kinds. Its stalks and leaves are too few and
+light for a field crop, and it shrinks too much in curing to be valuable
+for hay. It flourishes best in a rich, moist, and rather strong soil,
+sending up a luxuriant aftermath when cut or grazed off, which is much
+more valuable, both in quality and nutritive value, than the first crop.
+In all lands designed for permanent pasture, therefore, it should form a
+considerable part of a mixture. It will endure almost any amount of
+forcing, by liquid manures or irrigation. It requires three or four
+years, after soiling, to gain a firm footing in the soil. The seed is
+covered with the soft and woolly husks of the flower, and is
+consequently light; weighing but five pounds to the bushel, and
+containing seventy-six thousand seeds to the ounce.
+
+The ORCHARD GRASS, or ROUGH COCKSFOOT, for pastures, stands pre-eminent.
+This is a native of this country, and was introduced into England, from
+Virginia, in 1764, since which time its cultivation has extended into
+every country of Europe, where it is universally held in very high
+estimation. The fact of its being very palatable to stock of all kinds,
+its rapid growth, and the luxuriance of its aftermath, with its power of
+enduring the cropping of cattle, have given it a very high reputation,
+especially as a pasture grass. It blossoms earlier than Timothy; when
+green, is equally relished by milch cows; requires to be fed closer, to
+prevent its forming tufts and growing up to seed, when it becomes hard
+and wiry, and loses much of its nutritive quality. As it blossoms about
+the same time, it forms an admirable mixture with red clover, either for
+permanent pasture or mowing. It resists drought, and is less exhausting
+to the soil than either rye grass or Timothy. The seed weighs twelve
+pounds to the bushel, and when sown alone requires about two bushels to
+the acre.
+
+The ROUGH-STALKED MEADOW GRASS is somewhat less common than the June
+grass, but is considered equally valuable. It grows best on moist,
+sheltered meadows, where it flowers in June and July. It is readily
+distinguished from June grass by its having a rough sheath, while the
+latter has a smooth one, and by having a fibrous root, while the root of
+the other is creeping. It possesses very considerable nutritive
+qualities, and comes to perfection at a desirable time, and is
+exceedingly relished by cattle, horses and sheep. For suitable soils it
+should form a portion of a mixture of seeds, producing, in mixture with
+other grasses which serve to shelter it, a large yield of hay, far above
+the average of grass usually sown on a similar soil. It should be cut
+when the seed is formed. Seven pounds of seed to the acre will make a
+good sward. The grass loses about seventy per cent. of its weight in
+drying. The nutritive qualities of its aftermath exceed very
+considerably those of the crop cut in the flower or in the seed.
+
+FOWL MEADOW GRASS is another indigenous species, of great value for low
+and marshy grounds, where it flourishes best; and, if cut and properly
+cured, makes a sweet and nutritious hay, which, from its fineness, is
+eaten by cows without waste. According to Sinclair--who experimented,
+with the aid of Sir Humphrey Davy, to ascertain its comparative
+nutritive properties--it is superior in this respect to either meadow
+foxtail, orchard grass, or tall meadow oat grass; but it is probable
+that he somewhat overrates it. If allowed to stand till nearly ripe, it
+falls down, but sends up innumerable flowering stems from the joints, so
+that it continues green and luxuriant till late in the season. It
+thrives best in mixture with other grasses, and deserves a prominent
+place in all mixtures for rich, moist pastures, and low mowing-lands.
+
+RYE GRASS has a far higher reputation abroad than in this country, and
+probably with reason; for it is better adapted to a wet and uncertain
+climate than to a dry and hot one. It varies exceedingly, depending much
+on soil and culture; but, when cut in the blossom to make into hay, it
+possesses very considerable nutritive power. If allowed to get too ripe,
+it is hard and wiry, and not relished by cows. The change from a juicy
+and nutritious plant to a woody fibre, containing but little soluble
+matter, is very rapid. Properly managed, however, it is a tolerably good
+grass, though not to be compared to Timothy, or orchard grass.
+
+REDTOP is a grass familiar to every farmer in the country. It is the
+Herd's grass of Pennsylvania, while in New York and New England it is
+known by a great variety of names and assumes a great variety of forms,
+according to the soil in which it grows. It is well adapted to almost
+every soil, though it seems to prefer a moist loam. It makes a
+profitable crop for spending, in the form of hay, though its yield is
+less than that of Timothy. It is well suited to our permanent pastures,
+where it should be fed close, otherwise it becomes wiry and
+innutritious, and cattle refuse it. It stands the climate of the country
+as well as any other grass, and so forms a valuable part of any mixture
+for pastures and permanent mowing-lands; but it is, probably, rather
+over rated by us.
+
+ENGLISH BENT, known also by a number of other names, is largely
+cultivated in some sections. It closely resembles redtop, but may be
+distinguished from it by the roughness of the sheaths when the hand is
+drawn from above downward. It possesses about the same qualities as
+redtop.
+
+MEADOW FESCUE is one of the most common of the fescue grasses, and is
+said to be the Randall grass of Virginia. It is an excellent pasture
+grass, forming a very considerable portion of the turf of old pasture
+lands and fields; and is more extensively propagated and diffused from
+the fact that it ripens its seeds before most other grasses are cut, and
+sheds them to spring up and cover the ground. Its long and tender leaves
+are much relished by cattle. It is rarely sown in this country,
+notwithstanding its great and acknowledged value as a pasture grass. If
+sown at all, it should be in mixture with other grasses, as orchard
+grass, and rye grass, or June grass. It is of much greater value at the
+time of flowering than when the seed is ripe.
+
+[Illustration: A CHANCE FOR A SELECTION.]
+
+THE TALL OAT GRASS is the Ray grass of France. It furnishes a luxuriant
+supply of foliage, is valuable either for hay or for pasture, and has
+been especially recommended for soiling purposes, on account of its
+early and luxuriant growth. It is often found on the borders of fields
+and hedges, woods and pastures, and is sometimes very plenty in
+mowing-lands. After having been mown it shoots up a very thick
+aftermath, and, on this account, partly, is regarded of nearly equal
+excellence with the common foxtail.
+
+It grows spontaneously on deep, sandy soils, when once naturalized. It
+has been cultivated to a considerable extent in this country, and is
+esteemed by those who know it mainly for its early, rapid, and late
+growth, making it very well calculated as a permanent pasture grass. It
+will succeed on tenacious clover soil.
+
+The SWEET-SCENTED VERNAL GRASS is one of the earliest in spring and one
+of the latest in autumn; and this habit of growth is one of its chief
+excellencies, as it is neither a nutritious grass, nor very palatable to
+stock of any kind, nor does it yield a very good crop. It is very common
+in New England and all over the Middle States, coming into old worn-out
+fields and moist pastures spontaneously, and along every roadside. It
+derives its name from its sweetness of odor when partially wilted or
+crushed in the hand, and it is this chiefly which gives the delicious
+fragrance to all new-mown bay. It is almost the only grass that
+possesses a strongly-marked aromatic odor, which is imparted to other
+grasses with which it is cured. Its seed weighs eight pounds to the
+bushel. In mixtures for permanent pastures it may be of some value.
+
+HUNGARIAN GRASS, or millet, is an annual forage plant, introduced into
+France in 1815, and more recently into this country. It germinates
+readily, and withstands the drought remarkably, remaining green when
+other grasses are parched and dried up. It has numerous succulent
+leaves which furnish an abundance of sweet fodder, greatly relished by
+stock of all kinds. It attains its greatest luxuriance on soils of
+medium consistency and richness, but does very well on light and dry
+plains.
+
+RED CLOVER is an artificial grass of the leguminous family, and one of
+the most valuable cultivated plants for feeding to dairy cows. It
+flourishes best on tenacious soils and stiff loams. Its growth is rapid,
+and a few months after sowing are sufficient to supply an abundant sweet
+and nutritious food. In the climate of New England, clover should be
+sown in the spring of the year, while most of the natural grasses do far
+better when sown in the fall. It is often sown with perfect success on
+the late snows of March or April, and soon finds its way down into the
+soil and takes a vigorous hold with its root. It is valuable not only as
+a forage plant, but as shading the ground, and thereby increasing its
+fertility.
+
+The introduction of clover among the cultivated plants of the farm has
+done more, perhaps, for modern agriculture than that of any other single
+plant. It is now considered indispensable in all good dairy districts.
+
+WHITE CLOVER, often called Honeysuckle, is also widely diffused over
+this country, to which it is undoubtedly indigenous. As a mixture in all
+pasture grasses it holds a very high rank, as it is exceedingly sweet
+and nutritious, and relished by all kinds of stock. It grows most
+luxuriantly in moist grounds and moist seasons, but easily accommodates
+itself to a great variety of circumstances.
+
+With respect to the mixtures of grass-seeds most profitable for the
+dairy farmer, no universal rule can be given, as they depend very much
+upon the nature of the soil and the locality. The most important point
+to be observed, and the one as to which, probably, the greatest
+deficiency exists, is to use a large number of species, with smaller
+quantities of each than those most commonly used. This is Nature's rule;
+for, in examining the turf of a rich old pasture, a large number of
+different species will be found growing together, while, if the turf of
+a field sown without two or three species is examined, a far less number
+of plants is found to the square foot, even after the sod is fairly set.
+In the opinion of the most competent judges, no improvement in grass
+culture is more important than this.
+
+As an instance of what he would consider an improvement on the ordinary
+mixtures for _permanent pastures_, Mr. Flint, in his "Milch Cows and
+Dairy Farming," suggests the following as likely to give satisfactory
+results, dependent, of course, to a considerable extent, on the nature
+and preparation of the soil:
+
+Meadow Foxtail,   flowering in May  and June,   2  pounds
+Orchard Grass,        "     "   "        "      6    "
+Sweet-scented Vernal, "     "  April and May,   1    "
+Meadow Fescue,        "     "  May  and June,   2    "
+Redtop,               "     "  June and July,   2    "
+June Grass,           "     "  May  and June,   4    "
+Italian Rye Grass,    "     "  June,            4    "
+Perennial do.,        "     "   "        "      6    "
+Timothy,              "     "  June and July,   3    "
+Rough-stalked Meadow Grass,     "        "      2    "
+Perennial Clover, flowering in June,            3    "
+White Clover,         "     "  May to September 5-40 "
+
+For mowing-lands the mixture would, of course, be somewhat changed. The
+meadow foxtail and sweet-scented vernal would be left out entirely, and
+some six or eight pounds added to the Timothy and red clover. The proper
+time to lay down lands to grass in the latitude of New England is August
+or September, and no grain crop should be sown with the seed.
+
+Stiff or clayey pastures should never be overstocked, but when fed
+pretty close the grasses are far sweeter and more nutritious than when
+they are allowed to grow up rank and coarse; and if, by a want of
+sufficient feeding, they get the start of the stock, and grow into rank
+tufts, they should be cut and removed, when a fresh grass will start up,
+similar to the aftermath of mowing-lands, which will be eaten with
+avidity. Grasses for curing into hay should be cut either at the time of
+flowering, or just before, especially if designed for milch cows. They
+are then more succulent and juicy, and, if properly cured, form the
+sweetest food.
+
+Grass cut in the blossom will make more milk than if allowed to stand
+later. Cut a little before the blossoming; it will make more than when
+in blossom, and the cows prefer it, which is by no means an unimportant
+consideration, since their tastes should always be consulted. Grass cut
+somewhat green, and properly cured, is next to fresh, green grass in
+palatable, nutritive qualities. Every farmer knows the milk-producing
+properties of rowen, or second crop, which is generally cut before it
+ripens.
+
+No operation on the farm is of greater importance to the dairyman than
+the cutting of his grass and the manner of curing hay; and in this
+respect the practice over the country generally is susceptible of very
+marked improvement. The chief object is to preserve the sweetness and
+succulence of the grass in its natural state, so far as possible; and
+this object cannot be attained by exposing it too long to the scorching
+suns and drenching rains to which our climate is liable. As a general
+thing, farmers try to make their hay too much.
+
+As to the best modes of curing clover, the following, among others, is
+adopted by many successful farmers: What is mown in the morning is left
+in the swath, to be turned over early in the afternoon. At about four
+o'clock, or while it is still warm, it is put into small cocks with a
+fork, and, if the weather is favorable, it may be housed on the fourth
+or fifth day, the cocks being turned over on the morning of the day in
+which it is to be carted. By this method all the heads and leaves are
+saved, and these are more valuable than the stems. For new milch cows in
+winter scarcely any food is better. It will cause them to give as great
+a flow of milk as any hay, unless it be good rowen.
+
+INDIAN CORN makes an exceedingly valuable fodder, both as a means of
+carrying a herd of milch cows through our severe droughts of summer, and
+as an article for soiling cows kept in the stall. No dairy farmer will
+neglect to sow an extent in proportion to the number of cows which he
+keeps. The most common practice is, to sow in drills from two and a half
+to three feet apart, on land well tilled and thoroughly manured, making
+the drills from six to ten inches wide with the plough, manuring in the
+furrow, dropping the kernels about two inches apart, and covering with
+the hoe. In this mode of culture, the cultivator may be used between
+the rows when the corn is from six to twelve inches high, and, unless
+the ground is very weedy, no other after culture is needed. The first
+sowing usually takes place about the middle of May, and this is
+succeeded by other sowings, at intervals of a week or ten days, till
+July, in order to have a succession of green fodder; but, if it is
+designed to cut it up to cure for winter use, an early sowing is
+generally preferred, in order to be able to cure it in warm weather, in
+August or early in September. Sown in this way, about three or four
+bushels of corn are required for an acre; since, if sown thickly, the
+fodder is better, the stalks smaller, and the waste less.
+
+The chief difficulty in curing corn cultivated for this purpose, and
+after the methods just spoken of, arises from the fact that it comes at
+a season when the weather is often colder, the days shorter, and the
+dews heavier, than when the curing of hay takes place. Nor is the curing
+of corn cut up green so easy and simple as that of the drying of stalks
+of Indian corn cut above the ear, as in the common practice of topping.
+The plant is then riper, less juicy, and cures more readily.
+
+The method sometimes adopted is to cut and tie into small bundles, after
+it is somewhat wilted, and then to stook upon the ground, where it is
+allowed to stand, subject to all the changes of weather, with only the
+protection of the stook itself. The stooks consist of bunches of stalks
+first bound into small bundles, and are made sufficiently large to
+prevent the wind from blowing them over. The arms are thrown around the
+tops to bring them as closely together as possible, when the tops are
+broken over or twisted together, or otherwise fastened, in order to
+make the stook "shed the rain" as well as possible. In this condition
+they remain out until they are sufficiently dried to be put in the barn.
+Corn fodder is very excellent for young dairy stock.
+
+COMMON MILLET is another very valuable crop for fodder in soiling, or to
+cure for winter use, but especially to feed out during the usual season
+of drought. Many varieties of millet are cultivated in this country, the
+ground being prepared and treated as for oats. If designed to cut for
+green fodder, half a bushel of seed to the acre should be used; if to
+ripen seed, twelve quarts, sown broadcast, about the last of May or
+early in June. A moist loam or muck is the best soil adapted to millet;
+but very great crops have been grown on dry upland. It is very palatable
+and nutritious for milch cows, both green and when properly cured. The
+curing should be very much like that of clover, care being taken not to
+over-dry it. For fodder, either green or cured, it is cut before
+ripening. In this state all cattle eat it as readily as green corn, and
+a less extent will feed them. Millet is worthy of a widely-extended
+cultivation, particularly on dairy farms. Indian millet is another
+cultivated variety.
+
+RYE, as a fodder plant, is chiefly valuable for its early growth in
+spring. It is usually sown in September or October--from the middle to
+the end of September being, perhaps, the most desirable time--on land
+previously cultivated and in good condition. If designed to ripen only,
+a bushel of seed is required to the acre, evenly sown; but, if intended
+for early fodder in spring, two or two and a half bushels of seed per
+acre should be used. On warm land the rye can be cut green the last of
+April or the first of May. Care should be taken to cut early; since, if
+it is allowed to advance too far towards maturity, the stalk becomes
+hard and unpalatable to cows.
+
+OATS are also sometimes used for soiling, or for feeding green, to eke
+out a scanty supply of pasture feed; and for this purpose they are
+valuable. They should be sown on well-tilled and well-manured land,
+about four bushels to the acre, towards the last of April or the first
+of May. If the whole crop is to be used as green fodder, five bushels of
+seed will not be too much for good, strong soil. They will be
+sufficiently grown to cut by the first of July, or in some sections
+earlier, depending upon the location.
+
+The CHINESE SUGAR-CANE also may deserve attention as a fodder plant.
+Experiments thus far made would seem to show that when properly
+cultivated, and cut at the right time, it is a palatable and nutritious
+plant, while many of the failures have been the result of too early
+cutting. For a fodder crop the drill culture is preferable, both on
+account of the larger yield obtained and because it is thus prevented
+from becoming too hard and stalky.
+
+Of the root crops the POTATO is the first to be mentioned. This produces
+a large quantity of milk, though the quality is inferior. The market
+value of this root is, at times, too great to allow of feeding
+extensively with it, even in milk dairies, where it is most valuable as
+a food for cows; still, there are locations where it may be judicious to
+cultivate this root for dairy feed, and in all circumstances there is a
+certain portion of the crop of unmarketable size, which will be of value
+fed to milch cows or swine. It should be planted in April or May, but in
+many sections in June, on good mellow soil, first thoroughly plowed and
+harrowed, then furrowed three feet apart, and manured in the furrows
+with a mixture of ashes, plaster of Paris, and salt. The seed may be
+dropped in the furrows, one foot apart, after the drill system--or in
+hills, two and a half or three feet apart--to be covered with the plough
+by simply turning the furrows back, after which the whole should be
+rolled with the field-roller, when it can be done.
+
+If the land is not already in good heart from continued cultivation, a
+few loads of barnyard manure may be spread, and plowed under, by the
+first plowing. Used in this way it is far less liable to cause the rot,
+than when it is put in the hill. If a sufficient quantity of wood-ashes
+is not at hand, sifted coal-ashes will answer the purpose, and these are
+said to be valuable as a preventive of rot. In this way, one man, two
+boys, and a horse can plant from three to four acres a day on mellow
+land.
+
+By another method two acres a day on the sod have been planted. The
+manure is first spread upon the grass, and then a furrow made by a yoke
+of oxen and one man, another following after and dropping, a foot apart,
+along the outer edge of the furrow on the grass. By quick work, one hand
+can nearly keep up with the plow in dropping. When arrived at the end of
+the piece, a back furrow is turned up to the potatoes, and a good
+plowman will cover nearly all without difficulty. On the return furrow,
+the man or boy who dropped follows after, covering up any that may be
+left or displaced, and smoothing off the top of the back-furrows when
+necessary. Potatoes thus planted have come out finely.
+
+The cost of cultivation in this mode, it must be evident, is but
+trifling, compared with the slower method of hand-planting. It requires
+a skillful ploughman, a quick, active lad, and a good yoke of oxen, and
+the extent of the work will depend somewhat upon the state of the turf.
+The nutritive equivalent for potatoes in a hundred pounds of good hay is
+319 pounds; that is, it will take 3.19 pounds of potatoes to afford the
+same amount of nourishment as one pound of hay. The great value of roots
+is as a change or condiment calculated to keep the animal in a healthy
+condition.
+
+[Illustration: A WEST HIGHLAND OX.]
+
+The CARROT is somewhat extensively fed, and is a valuable root for milch
+cows. This, like the potato, has been cultivated and improved from a
+wild plant. Carrots require a deep, warm, mellow soil, thoroughly
+cultivated, but clean, and free from weed-seed. The difference between a
+very good profit and a loss on the crop depends much upon the use of
+land and manures perfectly free from foul seeds of any kind. Ashes,
+guano, seaweed, ground bones, and other similar substances, or
+thoroughly-rotted and fermented compost, will answer the purpose.
+
+After plowing deep, and harrowing carefully, the seed should be planted
+with a seed-sower, in drills about eighteen inches apart, at the rate of
+four pounds to the acre, about the middle of May. The difference
+between sowing on the fifteenth of May and on the tenth of June in New
+England is said to be nearly one-third in the crop on an average of
+years. In weeding, a little wheel hoe is invaluable, as with it a large
+part of the labor of cultivation is saved. A skillful hand can run this
+hoe within a half an inch of the young plants without injury, and go
+over a large space in the course of a day, if the land was properly
+prepared in the first place.
+
+The American farmer should always plan to economize labor, which is the
+great item of expense upon a farm. By this is not meant that he should
+strive to shirk or avoid work, but that he should make the least amount
+of work accomplish the greatest and most profitable results.
+Labor-saving machinery on the farm is applied, not to reduce the number
+of hours of labor, or to make the owner a man of leisure--who is,
+generally, the unhappiest man in the world--but to enable him to
+accomplish the greatest results in the same time that he would be
+compelled to obtain smaller ones.
+
+Carrots will continue to grow and increase in size late into the fall.
+When ready to dig, plow around as near to the outside rows as possible,
+turning away the furrow from the row. Then take out the carrots, pulling
+off the tops, and throw the carrots and tops into separate heaps on the
+plowed furrows. In this way a man and two boys can harvest and put into
+the cellar upwards of a hundred bushels a day.
+
+The TURNIP, and the Swedish turnip, or ruta baga, are also largely
+cultivated as a field crop to feed to stock; and for this purpose almost
+numberless varieties are used, furnishing a great amount of succulent
+and nutritious food, late into winter, and, if well-kept, late into
+spring. The chief objection to the turnip is, that it taints the milk.
+This may be remedied--to a considerable extent, if not wholly--by the
+use of salt, or salt hay, and by feeding at the time of milking, or
+immediately after, or by steaming before feeding, or putting a small
+quantity of the solution of nitre into the pail, and milking upon it.
+
+Turnips may be sown any time in June, in rich land, well mellowed by
+cultivation. Very large crops are obtained, sown as late as the middle
+of July, or the first of August, on an inverted sod. The Michigan, or
+double-mould-board plow leaves the land light, and in admirable
+condition to harrow, and drill in turnips. In one instance, a successful
+root-grower cut two tons of hay to the acre, on the twenty-third of
+June, and after it was removed from the land spread eight cords of
+rotten kelp to the acre, and plowed in; after which about three cords of
+fine old compost manure were used to the acre, which was sown with ruta
+baga seed, in drills, three feet apart, plants thinned to eight or ten
+inches in the drill. No after cultivation was required. On the fifteenth
+of November he harvested three hundred and seventy bushels of splendid
+roots to the acre, carefully measured off.
+
+The nutritive equivalent of Swedish turnips as compared with good meadow
+hay is 676, taking hay as a standard at 100; that is, it would require
+6.76 pounds of turnips to furnish the same nutriment as one pound of
+good hay; but fed in connection with other food--as hay, for
+example--perhaps five pounds of turnips would be about equal to one
+pound of hay.
+
+The English or round turnip is usually sown broadcast after some other
+crop, and large and valuable returns are often obtained. The Swede is
+sown in drills. Both of these varieties are used for the production of
+milk.
+
+The chief objection to the turnip crop is that it leaves many kinds of
+soil unfit for a succession of some other crops, like Indian corn, for
+instance. In some sections, no amount of manuring appears to make corn
+do well after turnips or ruta bagas.
+
+The MANGOLD WURTZEL, a variety of the common beet, is often cultivated
+in this country with great success, and fed to cows with advantage,
+furnishing a succulent and nutritive food in winter and spring. The crop
+is somewhat uncertain. When it does well, an enormous yield is often
+obtained; but, not rarely, it proves a failure, and is not, on the
+whole, quite as reliable as the ruta baga, though a more valuable crop
+when the yield is good. It is cultivated like the common beet in moist,
+rich soils; three pounds of seed to the acre The leaves may be stripped
+off, towards fall, and fed out, without injury to the growth of the
+root. Both mangolds and turnips should be cut with a root-cutter, before
+being fed out.
+
+The PARSNIP is a very sweet and nutritious article of fodder, and adds
+richness and flavor to the milk. It is worthy of extended culture in all
+parts of the country where dairy husbandry is pursued. It is a biennial,
+easily raised on deep, rich, well-cultivated and well-manured soils,
+often yielding enormous crops, and possessing the decided advantage of
+withstanding the severest winters. As an article of spring feeding,
+therefore, it is exceedingly valuable. Sown in April or May, it attains
+a large growth before winter. Then, if desirable, a part of the crop may
+be harvested for winter use, and the remainder left in the ground till
+the frost is out, in March or April, when they can be dug as wanted, and
+are exceedingly relished by milch cows and stock of all kinds. They make
+an admirable feed at the time of milking, and produce the richest cream,
+and the yellowest and finest-flavored butter, of any roots used among
+us. The best dairy farmers on the Island of Jersey often feed to their
+cows from thirty to thirty-five pounds of parsnips a day, in addition to
+hay or grass.
+
+Both practical experiment and scientific analysis prove this root to be
+eminently adapted to dairy stock, where the richness of milk or
+fine-flavored butter is any object. For mere milk-dairies, it is not
+quite so valuable, probably, as the Swedish turnip. The culture is
+similar to that of carrots, a rich, mellow, and deep loam being best;
+while it has a great advantage over the carrot in being more hardy, and
+rather less liable to injury from insects, and more nutritive. For
+feeding and fattening stock it is eminently adapted.
+
+To be sure of a crop, fresh seed must be had, as it cannot be depended
+on for more than one year. For this reason the largest and straightest
+roots should be allowed to stand for seed, which, as soon as nearly
+ripe, should be taken out and spread out to dry, and carefully kept for
+use. For field culture, the hollow-crowned parsnip is the best and most
+profitable; but on thin, shallow soils the turnip-rooted variety should
+be used. Parsnips may be harvested like carrots, by plowing along the
+rows. Let butter or cheese dairymen give this crop a fair and full
+trial, and watch its effect in the quality of the milk and butter.
+
+The KOHL RABI is also cultivated to a considerable extent in this
+country for the purpose of feeding stock. It is supposed to be a hybrid
+between the cabbage and the turnip and is often called the
+cabbage-turnip, having the root of the former, with a turnip-like or
+bulbous stem. The special reason for its more extensive cultivation
+among us is its wonderful indifference to droughts, in which it seems to
+flourish best, and to bring forth the most luxuriant crops. It also
+withstands the frosts remarkably, being a hardy plant. It yields a
+somewhat richer quality of milk than the ordinary turnip, and the crop
+is generally admitted to be as abundant and profitable. Very large crops
+of it have been produced by the ordinary turnip or cabbage cultivation.
+As in cabbage-culture, it is best to sow the seed in March or April, in
+a warm and well-enriched seed-bed; from which it is transplanted in May,
+and set out after the manner of cabbages in garden culture. It bears
+transplanting better than most other roots. Insects injure it less than
+the turnip, dry weather favors it, and it keeps well through winter. For
+these reasons, it must be regarded as a valuable addition to our list of
+forage plants adapted to dairy farming. It grows well on stronger soils
+than the turnip requires.
+
+LINSEED MEAL is the ground cake of flaxseed after the oil is pressed
+out. It is very rich in fat-forming principles, and given to milch cows
+increases the quality of butter, and keeps them in condition. Four or
+five pounds a day are sufficient for cows in milk, and this amount will
+effect a great saving in the cost of other food, and at the same time
+make a very rich milk. It is extensively manufactured in this country,
+and largely exported, but it is worthy of more general use here. It must
+not be fed in too large quantities to milch cows, for it would be liable
+to give too great a tendency to fat, and thus affect the quantity of the
+milk.
+
+COTTON-SEED MEAL is an article of comparatively recent introduction. It
+is obtained by pressing the seed of the cotton-plant, which extracts the
+oil, when the cake is crushed or ground into meal, which has been found
+to be a very valuable article for feeding stock. From analysis it is
+shown to be equal or superior to linseed meal. Practical experiments
+only are needed to establish it. It can be procured in market at a
+reasonable price.
+
+The MANURES used in this country for the culture of the above named
+plants are mostly such as are made on the farm, consisting chiefly of
+barnyard composts of various kinds, with often a large admixture of
+peat-mud. There are few farms that do not contain substances, which, if
+properly husbanded, would add very greatly to the amount of manure
+ordinarily made. The best of the concentrated manures, which it is
+sometimes necessary to use, for want of time and labor to prepare enough
+upon the farm, is, unquestionably, Peruvian guano. The results of this,
+when properly applied, are well known and reliable, which can hardly be
+said of any other artificial manure offered for the farmer's notice. The
+chief objection to depending upon manures made off the farm is, in the
+first place, their great expense; and in the second--which is equally
+important--the fact, that, though they may be made valuable, and produce
+at one time the best results, a want of care in the manufacture, or
+designed fraud, may make them almost worthless, with the impossibility
+of detecting the imposition, without a chemical analysis, till it
+becomes too late, and the crop is lost.
+
+It is, therefore, safest to rely mainly upon the home manufacture of
+manure. The extra expense of soiling cattle, saving and applying the
+liquid manure, and thus bringing the land to a higher state of
+cultivation, when it will be capable of keeping more stock and
+furnishing more manure, would offer a surer road to success than a
+constant outlay for concentrated fertilizers.
+
+
+THE BARN.
+
+The farm barn, next to the farm house, is the most important structure
+of the farm itself, in the Northern and Middle States; and even at the
+South and Southwest, where barns are less used, they are of more
+importance in the economy of farm management than is generally
+understood. Indeed, to the eyes of a person of taste, a farm or
+plantation appears incomplete, without good barn accommodations, as much
+as without good household appointments--and without them, no
+agricultural establishment can be complete in all its proper economy.
+
+The most _thorough_ barn structures, perhaps, to be seen in the United
+States, are those of the State of Pennsylvania, built by the German
+farmers of the lower and central counties. They are large, and expensive
+in their construction; and, in a strictly economical point of view, are,
+perhaps, more costly than is required. Yet, there is a substantial
+durability about them, that is exceedingly satisfactory, and, where the
+pecuniary ability of the farmer will admit, they may well furnish models
+for imitation.
+
+In the structure of the barn, and in its interior accommodation, much
+will depend upon the branches of agriculture to which the farm is
+devoted. A farm cultivated in grain chiefly requires but little room for
+stabling purposes. Storage for grain in the sheaf, and granaries, will
+require its room; while a stock farm requires a barn with extensive hay
+storage, and stables for its cattle, horses, and sheep, in all climates
+which do not admit of such stocks living through the winter in the
+field, as is the case in the great grazing districts west of the
+Alleghanies. Again, there are wide districts of country where a mixed
+husbandry of grain and stock is pursued, which require barns and
+outbuildings accommodating both.
+
+It may be well here to remark that many designers of barns, sheds, and
+other outbuildings for the accommodation of farm stock, have indulged in
+fanciful arrangements for the comfort and convenience of animals, which
+are so complicated that when constructed, as they sometimes are, the
+practical, common-sense farmer will not use them; and by reason of the
+learning which is required for their use, they are altogether unsuitable
+for the treatment and use which they generally receive from those who
+have the daily care of the stock for which they are intended, and for
+the rough usage which they experience from the animals themselves. A
+very pretty and plausible arrangement of stabling, feeding, and all the
+other requirements of a barn establishment may be thus got up by an
+ingenious theorist at the fireside, which will work charmingly as he
+dilates upon its good qualities, untried; but, which, when subjected to
+experiment, will be utterly worthless for practical use. There can be
+no doubt that the simplest plan of construction, consistent with an
+economical expenditure of the material of food for the consumption of
+stock, is by far the most preferable.
+
+Another item to be considered in this connection, is the comparative
+value of the stock, the forage fed to them, and the labor expended in
+feeding and taking care of them. To illustrate: Suppose a farm to lie in
+the vicinity of a large town or city. Its value is, perhaps, a hundred
+dollars an acre. The hay cut upon it is worth fifteen dollars a ton, at
+the barn, and straw and coarse grains in proportion, and hired labor ten
+or twelve dollars a month. Consequently, the manager of this farm should
+use all the economy in his power, by the aid of cutting-boxes and other
+machinery, to make the least amount of forage supply the wants of his
+stock; and the internal economy of his barn should be arranged
+accordingly, since labor is his cheapest item, and food his dearest.
+Therefore, any contrivance by which to work up his forage the
+closest--by way of machinery, or manual labor--so that it shall serve
+the purposes of keeping his stock, is true economy; and the making and
+saving of manures are items of the first importance. His buildings and
+their arrangements throughout should, for these reasons, be constructed
+in accordance with his practice.
+
+If, on the other hand, lands are cheap and productive, and labor
+comparatively dear, a different practice will prevail. The farmer will
+feed his hay from the mow without cutting. The straw will be stacked
+out, and the cattle turned to it, to pick what they like of it, and make
+their beds of the remainder; or, if it is housed, he will throw it into
+racks, and the stock may eat what they choose. To do this requires but
+one-third, or one-half of the labor which is required by the other mode,
+and the saving in this makes up, and perhaps more than makes up, for the
+increased quantity of forage consumed.
+
+Again, climate may equally affect the mode of winter-feeding the stock.
+The winters may be mild. The hay may be stacked in the fields when
+gathered, or put into small barns built for hay storage alone; and the
+manure, scattered over the fields by the cattle, as they are fed from
+either of them, may be knocked to pieces with the dung-beetle, in the
+spring, or harrowed and bushed over the ground; and with the very small
+quantity of labor required in all this, such practice will be more
+economical than any other which can be adopted.
+
+In latitudes, however, in which it becomes necessary to stall-feed
+during several months of the year, barns are indispensable. These should
+be warm, and at the same time well ventilated. The barn should be
+arranged in a manner suitable to keeping hay and other fodder dry and
+sweet, and with reference to the comfort and health of the animals, and
+the economy of labor and manure. The size and finish will, of course,
+depend on the wants and means of the farmer or dairyman; but many little
+conveniences, it should not be forgotten, can be added at comparatively
+trifling cost.
+
+The accompanying cut of a barn is given merely as an illustration of a
+convenient arrangement for a medium-sized dairy, and not as being
+adapted to all circumstances or situations. This barn is supposed to
+stand upon a side-hill or an inclined surface, where it is easy to have
+a cellar, if desired; and the cattle-room, as shown in the cut, is in
+the second story, or directly over the cellar, the bottom of which
+should be somewhat dished, or lower in the middle than around the outer
+sides, and carefully paved, or laid in cement.
+
+[Illustration: BARN FOR THIRTY-FOUR COWS AND THREE YOKE OF OXEN.]
+
+On the outside is represented an open shed, _m_, for carts and wagons to
+remain under cover, thirty feet by fifteen, while _l l l l l l_ are bins
+for vegetables, to be filled through scuttles from the floor of the
+story above, and surrounded by solid walls. The area of this whole floor
+equals one hundred feet by fifty-seven. _k_, is an open space, nearly on
+a level with the cow-chamber, through the door _p_. _s_, stairs to the
+third story and to the cellar, _d d d_, passage next to the walls, five
+feet wide, and nine inches above the dung-pit. _e e e_, dung-pit, two
+feet wide, and seven inches below the floor where the cattle stand. The
+manure drops from this pit into the cellar below, five feet from the
+walls, and quite around the cellar. _c c c_, plank floor for cows, four
+feet six inches long. _b b b_, stalls for three yoke of oxen, on a
+platform five feet six inches long, _n n_, calf-pens, which may also be
+used for cows in calving. _r r_, feeding-troughs for calves. The
+feeding-boxes are made in the form of trays, with partitions between
+them. Water comes in by a pipe, to cistern _a_. This cistern is
+regulated by a cock and ball, and the water flows by dotted lines,
+_o o o_, to the boxes; each box being connected by lead pipes well secured
+from frost, so that, if desired, each animal can be watered without
+leaving the stall, or water can be kept constantly before it. A scuttle,
+through which sweepings and refuse may be put into the cellar, is seen
+at _f_. _g_ is a bin receiving cut hay from the third story, or
+hay-room, _h h h h h h_, bins for grain-feed. _i_ is a tunnel to conduct
+manure or muck from the hay-floor to the cellar. _j j_, sliding-doors on
+wheels. The cows all face toward the open area in the centre.
+
+This cow-room may be furnished with a thermometer, clock, etc., and
+should always be well ventilated by sliding windows, which at the same
+time admit the light.
+
+The next cut is a transverse section of the same cow-room; _a_ being a
+walk behind the cows, five feet wide; _b_, dung-pit; _c_, cattle-stand;
+_d_, feeding-trough, with a bottom on a level with the platform where
+the cattle stand; _k_, open area, forty-three feet, by fifty-six.
+
+[Illustration: TRANSVERSE SECTION.]
+
+The story above the cow-room--as represented in the next cut--is one
+hundred feet by forty-two; the bays for hay, ten on each side, being ten
+feet front and fifteen feet deep; and the open space, _p_, for the
+entrance of wagons, carts, etc., twelve feet wide. _b_, hay-scales. _c_,
+scale beam. _m m m m m m_, ladders reaching almost to the roof. _l l l_,
+etc., scuttle-holes for sending vegetables directly to the bins, _l l l_,
+etc., below. _a a b b_, rooms on the corners for storage. _d_,
+scuttles; four of which are used for straw, one for cut hay, and one for
+muck for the cellar. _n_ and the other small squares are eighteen-feet
+posts. _f_, passage to the tool-house, a room one hundred feet long by
+eighteen wide. _o_, stairs leading to the scaffold in the roof of the
+tool-house. _i i_, benches. _g_, floor. _h_, boxes for hoes, shovels,
+spades, picks, iron bars, old iron, etc. _j j j_, bins for fruit. _k_,
+scuttles to put apples into wagons, etc., in the shed below. One side of
+this tool-house may be used for plows and large implements, hay-rigging,
+harness, etc.
+
+Proper ventilation of the cellar and the cow-room avoids the objection
+that the hay is liable to injury from noxious gases.
+
+[Illustration: ROOM OVER THE COW-ROOM.]
+
+The excellent manure-cellar beneath this barn extends only under the
+cow-room. It has a drive-way through doors on each side. No barn-cellar
+should be kept shut up tight, even in cold weather. The gases are
+constantly escaping from the manure, unless held by absorbents, which
+are liable not only to affect the health of the stock, but also to
+injure the quality of the hay. To prevent this, while securing the
+important advantages of a manure-cellar, the barn may be furnished with
+good-sized ventilators on the top, for every twenty-five feet of its
+length, and with wooden tubes leading from the cellar to the top.
+
+There should also be windows on different sides of the cellar to admit
+the free circulation of air. With these precautions, together with the
+use of absorbents in the shape of loam and muck, there will be no danger
+of rotting the timbers of the barn, or of risking the health of the
+cattle or the quality of the hay.
+
+The temperature at which the cow-room should be kept is somewhere from
+fifty to sixty degrees, Fahrenheit. The practice and the opinions of
+successful dairymen differ somewhat on this point. Too great heat would
+affect the health and appetite of the herd; while too low a temperature
+is equally objectionable, for various reasons.
+
+The most economical plan for room in tying cattle in their stalls, is to
+fasten the rope or chain, whichever is used--the wooden stanchion, or
+stanchel, as it is called, to open and shut, enclosing the animal by the
+neck, being objectionable--into a ring, which is secured by a strong
+staple into a post. This prevents the cattle from interfering with each
+other, while a partition effectually prevents any contact from the
+animals on each side of it, in the separate stalls.
+
+There is no greater benefit for cattle, after coming into
+winter-quarters, than a systematic regularity in every thing pertaining
+to them. Every animal should have its own particular stall in the
+stable, where it should always be kept. The cattle should be fed and
+watered at certain fixed hours of the day, as near as may be. If let out
+of the stables for water, unless the weather is very pleasant--when they
+may be permitted to lie out for a short time--they should be immediately
+put back, and not allowed to range about with the outside cattle. They
+are more quiet and contented in their stables than elsewhere, and waste
+less food than if permitted to run out; besides being in every way more
+comfortable, if properly bedded and attended to, as every one will find
+upon trial. The habit which many farmers have, of turning their cattle
+out of the stables in the morning, in all weathers--letting them range
+about in a cold yard, hooking and annoying each other--is of no possible
+benefit, unless it be to rid them of the trouble of cleaning the
+stables, which pays more than twice its cost in the saving of manure.
+The outside cattle, which occupy the yard--if there are any--are all the
+better that the stabled ones do not interfere with them. They become
+habituated to their own quarters, as do the others, and all are better
+for being, respectively, in their proper places.
+
+
+MILKING.
+
+The manner of milking exerts a more powerful and lasting influence on
+the productiveness of the cow than most farmers are aware. That a slow
+and careless milker soon dries up the best of cows, every practical
+farmer and dairyman knows; but a careful examination of the beautiful
+structure of the udder will serve further to explain the proper mode of
+milking, in order to obtain and keep up the largest yield.
+
+The udder of a cow consists of four glands, disconnected from each
+other, but all contained within one bag or cellular membrane; and these
+glands are uniform in structure. Each gland consists of three parts: the
+_glandular_, or secreting part, _tubular_ or conducting part, and the
+_teats_, or receptacle, or receiving part. The glandular forms by far
+the largest portion of the udder. It appears to the naked eye composed
+of a mass of yellowish grains; but under the microscope these grains are
+found to consist entirely of minute blood-vessels forming a compact
+plexus, or fold. These vessels secrete the milk from the blood. The milk
+is abstracted from the blood in the glandular part; the tubes receive
+and deposit it in the reservoir, or receptacle; and the sphincter at the
+end of the teat retains it there until it is wanted for use.
+
+This must not be understood, however, as asserting that all the milk
+drawn from the udder at one milking is contained in the receptacle. The
+milk, as it is secreted, is conveyed to the receptacle, and when that is
+full, the larger tubes begin to be filled, and next the smaller ones,
+until the whole become gorged. When this takes place, the secretion of
+the milk ceases, and absorption of the thinner or more watery part
+commences. Now, as this absorption takes place more readily in the
+smaller or more distant tubes, it is invariably found that the milk from
+these, which comes last into the receptacle, is much thicker and richer
+than what was first drawn off. This milk has been significantly styled
+afterings, or strippings; and should this gorged state of the tubes be
+permitted to continue beyond a certain time, serious mischief will
+sometimes occur; the milk becomes too thick to flow through the tubes,
+and soon produces, first irritation, then inflammation, and lastly
+suppuration, and the function of the gland is materially impaired or
+altogether destroyed. Hence the great importance of emptying these
+smaller tubes regularly and thoroughly, not merely to prevent the
+occurrence of disease, but actually to increase the quantity of milk;
+for, so long as the smaller tubes are kept free, milk is constantly
+forming; but whenever, as has already been mentioned, they become
+gorged, the secretion of milk ceases until they are emptied. The cow
+herself has no power over the sphincter at the end of her teat, so as to
+open it, and relieve the overcharged udder; neither has she any power of
+retaining the milk collected in the reservoirs when the spasm of the
+sphincter is overcome.
+
+Thus is seen the necessity of drawing away the last drop of milk at
+every milking; and the better milker the cow, the more necessary this
+is. What has been said demonstrates, also, the impropriety of holding
+the milk in cows until the udder is distended much beyond its ordinary
+size, for the sake of showing its capacity for holding milk--a device to
+which many dealers in cows resort.
+
+Thus much of the internal structure of the udder. Its external form
+requires attention, because it indicates different properties. Its form
+should be spheroidal, large, giving an idea of capaciousness; the bag
+should have a soft, fine skin, and the hind part upward toward the tail
+be loose and elastic. There should be fine, long hairs scattered
+plentifully over the surface, to keep it warm. The teats should not seem
+to be contracted, or funnel-shaped, at the inset with the bag. In the
+former state, teats are very apt to become corded, or spindled; and in
+the latter, too much milk will constantly be pressing on the lower
+tubes, or receptacle. They should drop naturally from the lower parts of
+the bag, being neither too short, small, or dumpy, or long, flabby, and
+thick, but, perhaps, about three inches in length, and so thick as just
+to fill the hand. They should hang as if all the quarters of the udder
+were equal in size, the front quarters projecting a little forward, and
+the hind ones a little more dependent. Each quarter should contain about
+equal quantities of milk; though, in the belief of some, the hind
+quarters contain rather the most.
+
+Largely developed milk-veins--as the subcutaneous veins along the under
+part of the abdomen are commonly called--are regarded as a source of
+milk. This is a popular error, for the milk-vein has no connection with
+the udder; yet, although the office of these is to convey the blood from
+the fore part of the chest and sides to the inguinal vein, yet a large
+milk-vein certainly indicates a strongly developed vascular system--one
+favorable to secretions generally, and to that of the milk among the
+rest.
+
+Milking is performed in two ways, stripping and handling. _Stripping_
+consists in seizing the teat firmly near the root between the face of
+the thumb and the side of the fore-finger, the length of the teat
+passing through the other fingers, and in milking the hand passes down
+the entire length of the teat, causing the milk to flow out of its point
+in a forcible stream. The action is renewed by again quickly elevating
+the hand to the root of the teat. Both hands are employed at the
+operation, each having hold of a different teat, and being moved
+alternately. The two nearest teats are commonly first milked, and then
+the two farthest. _Handling_ is done by grasping the teat at its root
+with the fore-finger like a hoop, assisted by the thumb, which lies
+horizontally over the fore-finger, the rest being also seized by the
+other fingers. Milk is drawn by pressing upon the entire length of the
+teat in alternate jerks with the entire palm of the hand. Both hands
+being thus employed, are made to press alternately, but so quickly
+following each other that the alternate streams of milk sound to the ear
+like one forcible, continued stream. This continued stream is also
+produced by stripping. Stripping, then, is performed by pressing and
+passing certain fingers along the teat; handling, by the whole hand
+doubled, or fist, pressing the teat steadily at one place. Hence the
+origin of both names.
+
+[Illustration: THE PREFERABLE METHOD.]
+
+Of these two modes, handling is the preferable, since it is the more
+natural method--imitating, as it does, the suckling of the calf. When a
+calf takes a teat into its mouth, it makes the tongue and palate by
+which it seizes it, play upon the teat by alternate pressures or
+pulsations, while retaining the teat in the same position. It is thus
+obvious that handling is somewhat like sucking, whereas stripping is
+not at all like it. It is said that stripping is good for agitating the
+udder, the agitation of which is conducive to the withdrawal of a large
+quantity of milk; but there is nothing to prevent the agitation of the
+udder as much as the dairymaid pleases, while holding in the other mode.
+Indeed, a more constant vibration could be kept up in that way by the
+vibrations of the arms than by stripping. Stripping, by using an
+unconstrained pressure on two sides of the teat, is much more apt to
+press it unequally, than by grasping the whole teat in the palm of the
+hand; while the friction occasioned by passing the finger and thumb
+firmly over the outside of the teat, is more likely to cause heat and
+irritation in it than a steady and full grasp of the entire hand. To
+show that this friction causes an unpleasant feeling even to the
+dairymaid, she is obliged to lubricate the teat frequently with milk,
+and to wet it at first with water; whereas the other mode requires no
+such expedients. And as a further proof that stripping is a mode of
+milking which may give pain to the cow, it cannot be employed, when the
+teats are chapped, with so much ease to the cow as handling.
+
+The first requisite in the person that milks is, of course, the utmost
+_cleanliness_. Without this, the milk is unendurable. The udder should,
+therefore, be carefully cleaned before the milking commences.
+
+Milking should be done _fast_, to draw away the milk as quickly as
+possible, and it should be continued as long as there is a drop of milk
+to bring away. This is an issue which cannot be attended to in too
+particular a manner. If any milk is left, it is re-absorbed into the
+system, or else becomes caked, and diminishes the tendency to secrete a
+full quantity afterward. Milking as dry as possible is especially
+necessary with young cows with their first calf; as the mode of milking
+and the length of time to which they can be made to hold out, will have
+very much to do with their milking qualities as long as they live. Old
+milk left in the receptacle of the teat soon changes into a curdy state,
+and the caseous matter not being at once removed by the next milking, is
+apt to irritate the lining membrane of the teat during the operation,
+especially when the teat is forcibly rubbed down between the finger and
+thumb in stripping. The consequence of this repeated irritation is the
+thickening of the lining membrane, which at length becomes so hardened
+as to close up the orifice at the end of the teat. The hardened membrane
+may be easily felt from the outside of the teat, when the teat is said
+to be _corded_. After this the teat becomes _deaf_, as it is called, and
+no more milk can afterward be drawn from the quarter of the udder to
+which the corded teat is attached.
+
+The milking-pail is of various forms and of various materials. The Dutch
+use brass ones, which are brilliantly scoured every time they are in
+use. Tin pitchers are used in some places, while pails of wood in
+cooper-work are employed in others. A pail of oak, having thin staves
+bound together by bright iron hoops, with a handle formed by a stave
+projecting upward, is convenient for the purpose, and may be kept clean
+and sweet. One nine inches in diameter at the bottom, eleven inches at
+the top, and ten inches deep, with an upright handle or leg of five
+inches, has a capacious enough mouth to receive the milk as it descends;
+and a sufficient height, when standing on the edge of its bottom on the
+ground, to allow the dairymaid to grasp it firmly with her knees while
+sitting on a small three-legged stool. Of course, such a pail cannot be
+milked full; but it should be large enough to contain all the milk which
+a single cow can give at a milking; because it is undesirable to rise
+from a cow before the milking is finished, or to exchange one dish for
+another while the milking is in progress.
+
+The cow being a sensitive and capricious creature, is, oftentimes so
+easily offended that if the maid rise from her before the milk is all
+withdrawn, the chances are that she will not again stand quietly at that
+milking; or, if the vessel used in milking is taken away and another
+substituted in its place, before the milking is finished, the
+probability is that she will _hold_ her milk--that is, not allow it to
+flow. This is a curious property which cows possess, of holding up or
+keeping back their milk. How it is effected has never been
+satisfactorily ascertained; but there is no doubt of the fact that when
+a cow becomes irritated, or frightened from any cause, she can withhold
+her milk. Of course, all cows are not affected in the same degree; but,
+as a proof how sensitive cows generally are, it may be mentioned that
+very few will be milked so freely by a stranger the first time, as by
+one to whom they have been accustomed.
+
+There is one side of a cow which is usually called the _milking
+side_--that is the cow's left side--because, somehow custom has
+established the practice of milking her from that side. It may have been
+adopted for two reasons: one, because we are accustomed to approach all
+the larger domesticated animals by what we call the _near side_--that
+is, the animal's left side--as being the most convenient one for
+ourselves; and the other reason may have been, that, as most people are
+right-handed, and the common use of the right hand has made it the
+stronger, it is most conveniently employed in milking the hinder teats
+of the cow, which are often most difficult to reach on account of the
+position of the hind legs and the length of the hinder teats, or of the
+breadth of the hinder part of the udder. The near side is most commonly
+used in this country and in Scotland; but in many parts of England the
+other side is preferred. Whichever side is selected, that should
+uniformly be used, as cows are very sensitive to changes.
+
+In Scotland it is a rare thing to see a cow milked by any other person
+than a woman, though men are very commonly employed at it in this
+country and in England. One never sees a man milking a cow without being
+impressed with the idea that he is usurping an office which does not
+become him; and the same thought seems to be conveyed in the terms
+usually applied to the person connected with cows--a dairy-_maid_
+implying one who milks cows, as well as performs the other duties
+connected with the dairy--a dairy-_man_ meaning one who owns a dairy.
+There can be but little question that the charge of this branch of the
+dairy should generally be entrusted to women. They are more gentle and
+winning than men. The same person should milk the same cow regularly,
+and not change from one to another, unless there are special reasons for
+it.
+
+Cows are easily rendered troublesome on being milked; and the kicks and
+knocks which they usually receive for their restlessness, only render
+them more fretful. If they cannot be overcome by kindness, thumps will
+never make them better. The truth is, restless habits are continued in
+them by the treatment which they receive at first, when, most probably,
+they have been dragooned into submission. Their teats are tender at
+first; but an unfeeling, horny hand tugs at them at stripping, as if the
+animal had been accustomed to the operation for years. Can the creature
+be otherwise than uneasy? And how can she escape the wincing but by
+flinging out her heels?--Then hopples are placed on the hind fetlocks,
+to keep her heels down. The tail must then be held by some one, while
+the milking is going on; or the hair of its tuft be converted into a
+double cord, to tie the tail to the animal's leg. Add to this the many
+threats and scoldings uttered by the milker, and one gets a not very
+exaggerated impression of the "breaking-in."
+
+Some cows, no doubt, are very unaccomodating and provoking; but,
+nevertheless, nothing but a rational course toward them, administered
+with gentleness, will ever render them less so. There are cows which are
+troublesome to milk for a few times after calving, that become quite
+quiet for the remainder of the season; others will kick pertinaciously
+at the first milking. In this last case the safest plan--instead of
+hoppling, which only irritates--is for the dairymaid to thrust her head
+against the flank of the cow, and while standing on her feet, stretch
+her hands forward, get hold of the teats the best way she can, and send
+the milk on the ground; and in this position it is out of the power of
+the cow to hurt her. These ebullitions of feeling at the first milking
+after calving, arise either from feeling pain in a tender state of the
+teat, most probably from inflammation in the lining membrane of the
+receptacle; or they may arise from titillation of the skin of the udder
+and teat, which becomes the more sensible to the affection from a heat
+which is wearing off.
+
+At the age of two or three years the milking glands have not become
+fully developed, and their largest development will depend very greatly
+upon the management after the first calf. Cows should have, therefore,
+the most milk-producing food; be treated with constant gentleness; never
+struck, or spoken harshly to, but coaxed and caressed; and in
+ninety-nine cases out of a hundred, they will grow up gentle and quiet.
+The hundredth had better be fatted and sent to the butcher. Harshness is
+worse than useless. Be the cause of irritation what it may, one thing is
+certain, that gentle discipline will overcome the most turbulent temper.
+Nothing does so much to dry a cow up, especially a young cow, as the
+senseless treatment to which she is too often subjected.
+
+The longer the young cow, with her first and second calf, is made to
+hold out, the more surely will this habit be fixed upon her. Stop
+milking her four months before the next calf, and it will be difficult
+to make her hold out to within four or six weeks of the time of calving
+afterward. Induce her, if possible, by moist and succulent food, and by
+careful milking, to hold out even up to the time of calving, if you
+desire to milk her so long, and this habit will be likely to be fixed
+upon her for life. But do not expect to obtain the full yield of a cow
+the first year after calving. Some of the very best cows are slow to
+develop their best qualities; and no cow reaches her prime till the age
+of five or six years.
+
+The extreme importance of care and attention to these points cannot be
+overestimated. The wild cows grazing on the plains of South America, are
+said to give not more than three or four quarts a day at the height of
+the flow; and many an owner of large herds in Texas, it is said, has too
+little milk for family use, and sometimes receives his supply of butter
+from the New York market. There is, therefore, a constant tendency in
+milch cows to dry up; and it must be guarded against with special care,
+till the habit of yielding a large quantity, and yielding it long,
+becomes fixed in the young animal, when, with proper care, it may easily
+be kept up.
+
+Cows, independently of their power to retain their milk in the udder,
+afford different degrees of pleasure in milking them, even in the
+quietest mood. Some yield their milk in a copious flow, with the
+gentlest handling that can be given them; others require great exertion
+to draw the milk from them even in streams no larger than a thread. The
+udder of the former will be found to have a soft skin and short teats;
+that of the latter will have a thick skin, with long rough teats. The
+one feels like velvet; the other is no more pleasant to the touch than
+untanned leather. To induce quiet and persuade the animal to give down
+her milk freely, it is better that she should be fed at milking-time
+with cut feed, or roots, placed within her easy reach.
+
+If gentle and mild treatment is observed and persevered in, the
+operation of milking, as a general thing, appears to be a pleasure to
+the animal, as it undoubtedly is; but, if an opposite course is
+pursued--if at every restless movement, caused, perhaps, by pressing a
+sore teat, the animal is harshly spoken to--she will be likely to learn
+to kick as a habit, and it will be difficult to overcome it ever
+afterward.
+
+Whatever may be the practice on other occasions, there can be no doubt
+that, for some weeks after calving, and in the height of the flow, cows
+ought, if possible, to be milked regularly three times a day--at early
+morning, noon, and night. Every practical dairyman knows that cows thus
+milked give a larger quantity of milk than if milked only twice, though
+it may not be quite so rich; and in young cows, no doubt, it has a
+tendency to promote the development of the udder and milk-veins. A
+frequent milking stimulates an increased secretion, therefore, and ought
+never to be neglected in the milk-dairy, either in the case of young
+cows, or very large milkers, at the height of the flow, which will
+commonly be for two or three months after calving.
+
+There being a great difference in the quality as well as in the quantity
+of the milk of different cows, no dairyman should neglect to test the
+milk of each new addition to his dairy stock, whether it be an animal of
+his own raising or one brought from abroad. A lactometer--or instrument
+for testing the comparative richness of different species of milk--is
+very convenient for this purpose; but any one can set the milk of each
+cow separately at first, and give it a thorough trial, when the
+difference will be found to be great. Economy will dictate that the cows
+least to the purpose should be disposed of, and their places supplied
+with better ones.
+
+
+THE RAISING OF CALVES.
+
+It has been found in practice that calves properly bred and raised on
+the farm have a far greater intrinsic value for that farm, other things
+being equal, than any that can be procured elsewhere; while on the
+manner in which they are raised will depend much of their future
+usefulness and profit. These considerations should have their proper
+weight in deciding whether a promising calf from a good cow and bull
+shall be kept, or sold to the butcher. But, rather than raise a calf at
+hap-hazard, and simply because its dam was celebrated as a milker, the
+judicious farmer will prefer to judge of the peculiar characteristics of
+the animal itself. This will often save the great and useless outlay
+which has sometimes been incurred in raising calves for dairy purposes,
+which a more careful examination would have rejected as unpromising.
+
+[Illustration: MATERNAL AFFECTION.]
+
+The method of judging stock which has been recommended in the previous
+pages is of practical utility here, and it is safer to rely upon it to
+some extent, particularly when other appearances concur, than to go on
+blindly. The milk-mirror on the calf is, indeed, small, but no smaller
+in proportion to its size than that of the cow; while its shape and form
+can generally be distinctly seen, particularly at the end of ten or
+twelve weeks. The development of the udder, and other peculiarities,
+will give some indication of the future capacities of the animal, and
+these should be carefully studied. If we except the manure of young
+stock, the calf is the first product of the cow, and as such demands our
+attention, whether it is to be raised or hurried off to the shambles.
+The practice adopted in raising calves differs widely in different
+sections of the country, being governed very much by local
+circumstances, as the vicinity of a milk-market, the value of milk for
+the dairy, the object of breeding, whether mainly for beef, for work, or
+for the dairy, etc.; but, in general, it may be said, that, within the
+range of thirty or forty miles of good veal-markets, which large towns
+furnish, comparatively few are raised at all. Most of them are fattened
+and sold at ages varying from three to eight or ten weeks; and in
+milk-dairies still nearer large towns and cities they are often hurried
+off at one or two days, or, at most, a week old. In both of these cases,
+as long as the calf is kept it is generally allowed to suck the cow,
+and, as the treatment is very simple, there is nothing which
+particularly calls for remark, unless it be to condemn the practice
+entirely, upon the ground that there is a more profitable way of
+fattening calves for the butcher, and to say that allowing the calf to
+suck the cow at all is objectionable on the score of economy, except in
+cases where it is rendered necessary by the hard and swollen condition
+of the udder.
+
+If the calf is so soon to be taken away, it is better that the cow
+should not be suffered to become attached to it at all: since she is
+inclined to withhold her milk when it is removed, and thus a loss is
+sustained. The farmer will be governed by the question of profit,
+whatever course it is decided to adopt. In raising blood-stock, however,
+or in raising beef cattle, without any regard to economy of milk, the
+system of suckling the calves, or letting them run with the cow, may
+and will be adopted, since it is usually attended with somewhat less
+labor.
+
+The other course, which is regarded as the best where the calf is to be
+raised for the dairy, is to bring it up by hand. This is almost
+universally done in all countries where the raising of dairy cows is
+best understood--in Switzerland, Holland, some parts of Germany, and
+England. It requires rather more care, on the whole; but it is decidedly
+preferable, since the calves cost less, as the food can be easily
+modified, and the growth is not checked, as is usually the case when the
+calf is taken off from the cow. Allusion is here made, of course, to
+sections where the milk of the cow is of some account for the dairy, and
+where it is too valuable to be devoted entirely to nourishing the calf.
+In this case, as soon as the calf is dropped the cow is allowed to lick
+off the slimy moisture till it is dry, which she will generally do from
+instinct, or, if not, a slight sprinkling of salt over the body of the
+calf will immediately tempt her. The calf is left to suck once or twice,
+which it will do as soon as it is able to stand. It should, in all
+cases, be permitted to have the first milk which comes from the cow,
+which is of a turbid, yellowish color, unfit for any of the purposes of
+the dairy, but somewhat purgative and medicinal, and admirably and
+wisely designed by Nature to free the bowels and intestines of the
+new-born animal from the mucous, excrementitious matter always existing
+in it after birth. Too much of this new milk may, however, be hurtful
+even to the new-born calf, while it should never be given at all to
+older calves. The best course would seem to be--and such is in
+accordance with the experience of the most successful stock-raisers--to
+milk the cow dry immediately after the calf has sucked once, especially
+if the udder is painfully distended, which is often the case, and to
+leave the calf with the cow during one day, and after that to feed it by
+putting the fingers into its mouth, and gently bringing its muzzle down
+to the milk in a pail or trough when it will imbibe in sucking the
+fingers. No great difficulty will be experienced in teaching the calf to
+drink when taken so young, though some take to it much more readily than
+others. What the calf does not need should be given to the cow. Some,
+however, prefer to milk immediately after calving; and, if the udder is
+overloaded, this may be the best course, though the better practice
+appears to be, to leave the cow as quietly to herself as possible for a
+few hours. The less she is disturbed, as a general thing, the better.
+The after-birth should be taken from her immediately after it is
+dropped. It is customary to give the cow, as soon as convenient after
+calving, some warm and stimulating drink--a little meal stirred into
+warm water, with a part of the first milk which comes from her, seasoned
+with a little salt.
+
+In many cases the calf is taken from the cow immediately; and before she
+has seen it, to a warm, dry pen out of her sight, and there rubbed till
+it is thoroughly dry; and then, when able to stand, fed with the new
+milk from the cow, which it should have three or four times a day,
+regularly, for the first fortnight, whatever course it is proposed to
+adopt afterwards. It is of the greatest importance to give the young
+calf a thrifty start. The milk, unless coming directly from the cow,
+should be warmed.
+
+Some object to removing the calf from the cow in this way, on the
+ground of its apparent cruelty. But the objection to letting the calf
+suck the cow for several days, as they do, or indeed of leaving it with
+the cow for any length of time, is, that she invariably becomes attached
+to it, and frets and withholds her milk when it is at last taken from
+her. She probably suffers much more, after this attachment is once
+formed, at the removal of the object of it, than she does at its being
+taken at first out of her sight. The cow's memory is far more retentive
+than many suppose; and the loss and injury sustained by removing the
+calf after it has been allowed to suck her for a longer or shorter
+period are never known exactly, because it is not usually known how much
+milk the calf takes; but it is, without doubt, very considerable. If the
+udder is all right, there seems to be no good reason for leaving the
+calf with the cow for two or three days, if it is then to be taken away.
+
+The practice in Holland is to remove the calf from its mother even
+before it has been licked, and to take it into a corner of the barn, or
+into another building, out of the cow's sight and hearing, put it on
+soft, dry straw, and rub it dry with some hay or straw, when its tongue
+and gums are slightly rubbed with salt, and the mucus and saliva removed
+from the nostrils and lips. After this has been done, the calf is made
+to drink the milk first taken as it comes from the mother. It is
+slightly diluted with water, if taken last from the udder; but, if the
+first of the milking, it is given just as it is. The calf is taught to
+drink in the same manner as in this country, by putting the fingers in
+its mouth, and bringing it down to the milk, and it soon gets so as to
+drink unaided. It is fed, at first, from four to six times a day, or
+even oftener; but soon only three times, at regular intervals. Its food
+for two or three weeks is clear milk, as it comes warm and fresh from
+the cow. This is never omitted, as the milk during most of that time
+possesses certain qualities which are necessary to the calf, and which
+cannot be effectually supplied by any other food. In the third or fourth
+week the milk is skimmed, but warmed to the degree of fresh milk;
+though, as the calf grows a little older, the milk is given cold, while
+less care is taken to give it the milk of its own mother, that of other
+cows now answering equally well. In some places, calves are fed on
+buttermilk at the age of two weeks and after; but the change from new
+milk, fresh from the cow, is made gradually, some sweet skimmed milk and
+warm water being first added to it.
+
+At three weeks old, or thereabouts, the calf will begin to eat a little
+sweet, fine hay, and potatoes cut fine, and it very soon becomes
+accustomed to this food. Many now begin to give linseed-meal mixed into
+hot water, to which is added some skim-milk or buttermilk; and others
+use a little bran cooked in hay-tea, made by chopping the hay fine and
+pouring on boiling-hot water, which is allowed to stand awhile on it. An
+egg is frequently broken into such a mixture. Others still take pains at
+this age to have fresh linseed-cake, broken into pieces of the size of a
+pigeon's egg; putting one of these into the mouth after the meal of milk
+has been finished, and when it is eager to suck at any thing in its way.
+It will very soon learn to eat linseed-meal. A little sweet clover is
+put in its way at the age of about three weeks, and it will soon begin
+to eat that also.
+
+In this manner the feeding is continued from the fourth to the seventh
+week, the quantity of solid food being gradually increased. In the sixth
+or seventh week the milk is by degrees withheld, and water or buttermilk
+used instead; and soon after this, green food may be safely given,
+increasing it gradually with the hay to the age of ten or twelve weeks,
+when it will do to put them upon grass alone, if the season is
+favorable. A lot as near the house as possible, where they can be easily
+looked after and frequently visited, is the best. Calves should be
+gradually accustomed to all changes; and even after having been turned
+out to pasture, they ought to be put under shelter if the weather is not
+dry and warm. The want of care and attention relative to these little
+details will be apparent sooner or later; while, if the farmer gives his
+personal attention to these matters, he will be fully paid in the rapid
+growth of his calves. It is especially necessary to see that the troughs
+from which they are fed, if troughs are used, are kept clean and sweet.
+
+But there are some--even among intelligent farmers--who make a practice
+of turning their calves out to pasture at the tender age of two or three
+weeks--and that, too, when they have sucked the cow up to that time--and
+allow them nothing in the shape of milk and tender care. This,
+certainly, is the poorest possible economy, to say nothing of the
+manifest cruelty of such treatment. The growth of the calf is checked,
+and the system receives a shock from so sudden a change, from which it
+cannot soon recover. The careful Dutch breeders bring the calves either
+skimmed milk or buttermilk to drink several times a day after they are
+turned to grass, which is not till the age of ten or twelve weeks; and,
+if the weather is chilly, the milk is warmed for them. They put a
+trough generally under a covering, to which the calves may come and
+drink at regular times. Thus, they are kept tame and docile.
+
+In the raising of calves, through all stages of their growth, great care
+should be taken neither to starve nor to over-feed. A calf should never
+be surfeited, and never be fed so highly that it cannot be fed more
+highly as it advances. The most important part is to keep it growing
+thriftily without getting too fat, if it is to be raised for the dairy.
+
+The calves in the dairy districts of Scotland are fed on the milk, with
+seldom any admixture; and they are not permitted to suck their dams, but
+are taught to drink milk by the hand from a dish. They are generally fed
+on milk only for the first four, five, or six weeks, and are then
+allowed from two to two and a half quarts of new milk each meal, twice
+in the twenty-four hours. Some never give them any other food when young
+except milk, lessening the quantity when the calf begins to eat grass or
+other food, which it generally does when about five weeks old, if grass
+can be had; and withdrawing it entirely about the seventh or eighth week
+of the calf's age. But, if the calf is reared in winter, or early in
+spring, before the grass rises, it must be supplied with at least some
+milk until it is eight or nine weeks old, as a calf will not so soon
+learn to eat hay or straw, nor fare so well on them alone as it will on
+pasture. Some feed their calves reared for stock partly with meal mixed
+in the milk after the third or fourth week. Others introduce gradually
+some new whey into the milk, first mixed with meal; and, when the calf
+gets older, they withdraw the milk, and feed it on whey and porridge.
+Hay-tea, juices of peas and beans, or pea or bean-straw, linseed beaten
+into powder, treacle, etc., have all been sometimes used to advantage in
+feeding calves; but milk, when it can be spared, is, in the judgment of
+the Scotch breeders, by far their most natural food.
+
+In Galloway, and other pastoral districts, where the calves are allowed
+to suck, the people are so much wedded to their own customs as to argue
+that suckling is much more nutritious to the calves than any other mode
+of feeding. That it induces a greater secretion of saliva, which, by
+promoting digestion, accelerates the growth and fattening of the young
+animal, cannot be doubted; but the secretion of that fluid may likewise
+be promoted by placing an artificial teat in the mouth of the calf, and
+giving it the milk slowly, and at the natural temperature. In the dairy
+districts of Scotland, the dairymaid puts one of her fingers into the
+mouth of the calf when it is fed, which serves the purpose of a teat,
+and will have nearly the same effect as the natural teat in inducing the
+secretion of saliva. If that, or an artificial teat of leather, be used,
+and the milk be given slowly before it is cold, the secretion of saliva
+may be promoted to all the extent that can be necessary; besides,
+secretion is not confined to the mere period of eating, but, as in the
+human body, the saliva is formed and part of it swallowed at all times.
+As part of the saliva is sometimes seen dropping from the mouths of the
+calves, it might be advisable not only to give them an artificial teat
+when fed, but to place, as is frequently done, a lump of chalk before
+them to lick, thus leading them to swallow the saliva. The chalk would
+so far supply the want of salt, of which cattle are often so improperly
+deprived, and it would also promote the formation of saliva. Indeed,
+calves are very much disposed to lick and suck every thing which comes
+within their reach, which seems to be the way in which Nature teaches
+them to supply their stomachs with saliva.
+
+[Illustration: FROLICKSOME.]
+
+But though sucking their dams may be most advantageous in that respect,
+yet it has also some disadvantages. The cow is always more injured than
+the calf is benefited by that mode of feeding. She becomes so fond of
+the calf that she does not, for a long time after, yield her milk freely
+to the dairyman. The calf does not when young draw off the milk
+completely, and when it is taken off by the hand, the cow withholds a
+part of her milk, and, whenever a cow's udder is not completely emptied
+every time she is milked, the lactic secretion--as before stated--is
+thereby diminished.
+
+Feeding of calves by hand is also, in various respects, advantageous.
+Instead of depending on the uncertain, or perhaps precarious supply of
+the dam, which may be more at first than the young animal can consume or
+digest, and at other times too little for its supply, its food can, by
+hand-feeding, be regulated to suit the age, appetite, and the purposes
+for which the calf is intended; other admixtures or substitutes can be
+introduced into the milk, and the quantity gradually increased or
+withdrawn at pleasure. This is highly necessary when the calves are
+reared for stock. The milk is in that case diminished, and other food
+introduced so gradually that the stomach of the young animal is not
+injured as it is when the food is too suddenly changed. And, in the case
+of feeding calves for the butcher, the quantity of milk is not limited
+to that of the dam--for no cow will allow a stranger-calf to suck
+her--but it can be increased, or the richest or poorest parts of the
+milk given at pleasure.
+
+Such are, substantially, the views upon this subject which are
+entertained by the most judicious farmers in the first dairy districts
+of Scotland.
+
+In those districts--where, probably, the feeding and management of
+calves are as well and as judiciously conducted as in any other part of
+Great Britain--the farmers' wives and daughters, or the female
+domestics, have the principal charge of young calves; and they are,
+doubtless, much better calculated for this duty than men, since they are
+more inclined to be gentle and patient. The utmost gentleness--as has
+been already remarked, in another connection--should always be observed
+in the treatment of all stock; but especially of milch cows, and calves
+designed for the dairy. Persevering kindness and patience, will, almost
+invariably, overcome the most obstinate natures; while rough and
+ungentle handling will be repaid in a quiet kind of way, perhaps, by
+withholding the milk, which will always have a tendency to dry up the
+cow; or, what is nearly as bad, by kicking and other modes of revenge,
+which often contribute to the personal discomfort of the milker. The
+disposition of the cow is greatly modified, if not, indeed, wholly
+formed, by her treatment while young; and therefore it is best to handle
+calves as much as possible, and make pets of them, lead them with a
+halter, and caress them in various ways. Calves managed in this way will
+always be docile, and suffer themselves to be approached and handled,
+both in the pasture and in the barn.
+
+With respect to the use of hay-tea--often used in this country, but more
+common abroad, where greater care and attention are usually bestowed
+upon the details of breeding--Youatt says: "At the end of three or four
+days, or perhaps a week, or near a fortnight, after a calf has been
+dropped, and the first passages have been cleansed by allowing it to
+drink as much of the cow's milk as it feels inclined for, let the
+quantity usually allotted for a meal be mixed, consisting, for the first
+week, of three parts of milk and one part of hay-tea. _The only
+nourishing infusion of hay is that which is made from the best and
+sweetest hay, cut by a chaff-cutter into pieces about two inches long_,
+and put into an earthen vessel; over this, boiling water should be
+poured, and the whole allowed to stand for two hours, during which time
+it ought to be kept carefully closed. After the first week, the
+proportions of milk and hay-tea may be equal; then composed of
+two-thirds of hay-tea and one of milk; and at length, one-fourth part of
+milk will be sufficient. This food should be given to the calf in a
+lukewarm state _at least three, if not four times a day, in quantities
+averaging three quarts at a meal_, but gradually increasing to four
+quarts as the calf grows older. Toward the end of the second month,
+beside the usual quantity given at each meal--composed of three parts of
+the infusion and one of milk--a small wisp or bundle of hay is to be
+laid before the calf, which will gradually come to eat it; but, if the
+weather is favorable, as in the month of May, the beast may be turned
+out to graze in a fine, sweet pasture, well sheltered from the wind and
+sun. This diet may be continued until toward the latter end of the third
+month, when, if the calf grazes heartily, each meal may be reduced to
+less than a quart of milk, with hay-water; or skimmed milk, or fresh
+buttermilk, may be substituted for new milk. At the expiration of the
+third month, the animal will hardly require to be fed by hand; though,
+if this should still be necessary, one quart of the infusion given
+daily--which, during the summer, need not be warmed--will suffice." The
+hay-tea should be made fresh every two days, as it soon loses its
+nutritious quality.
+
+This and other preparations are given, not because they are better than
+milk,--than which nothing is better adapted to fatten a calf, or promote
+its growth,--but simply to economize by providing the simplest and
+cheapest substitutes. Experience shows that the first two or three
+calves are smaller than those which follow; and hence, unless they are
+pure-bred, and to be kept for the blood, they are not generally thought
+to be so desirable to raise for the dairy as the third or fourth, and
+those that come after, up to the age of nine or ten years. Opinions upon
+this point, however, differ.
+
+According to the comparative experiments of a German agriculturist, cows
+which as calves had been allowed to suck their dams from two to four
+weeks, brought calves which weighed only from thirty-five to forty-eight
+pounds; while others, which as calves had been allowed to suck from five
+to eight weeks, brought calves which weighed from sixty to eighty
+pounds. It is difficult to see how there can be so great a difference,
+if, indeed, there be any; but it may be worthy of careful observation
+and experiment, and as such it is stated here. The increased size of the
+calf would be due to the increased size to which the cow would attain;
+and if as a calf she were allowed to run in the pasture with her dam for
+four or five months, taking all the milk she wanted, she would doubtless
+be kept growing on in a thriving condition. But taking a calf from the
+cow at four or even eight weeks must check its growth to some extent;
+and this may be avoided by feeding liberally, and bringing up by hand.
+
+After the calf is fully weaned, there is nothing very peculiar in the
+general management. A young animal will require for the first few
+months--say up to the age of six months--an average of five or six
+pounds daily of good hay, or its equivalent. At the age of six months,
+it will require from four and a half to five pounds; and at the end of
+the year, from three and a half or four pounds of good hay, or its
+equivalent, for every one hundred pounds of its live weight; or, in
+other words, about three and a half or four per cent. of its live
+weight. At two years old, it will require three and a half, and some
+months later, three per cent. of its live weight daily in good hay, or
+its equivalent. Indian-corn fodder, either green or cured, forms an
+excellent and wholesome food at this age.
+
+The heifer should not be pampered, nor yet poorly fed or half starved,
+so as to receive a check in her growth. An abundant supply of good
+healthy dairy food and milk will do all that is necessary up to the time
+of her having her first calf--which should not ordinarily be till the
+age of three years, though some choose to allow them to come in at two,
+or a little over, on the ground that it early stimulates the secretion
+of milk, and that this will increase the milking propensity through
+life. This is undoubtedly the case, as a general rule; but greater
+injury is at the same time done by checking the growth, unless the
+heifer has been fed up to large size and full development from the
+start--in which case she may perhaps take the bull at fifteen or
+eighteen months without injury. Even if a heifer comes in at two years,
+it is generally deemed desirable to let her run barren for the following
+year, which will promote her growth and more perfect development.
+
+The feeding which young stock often get is not such as is calculated to
+make good-sized or valuable cattle of them. They are often fed on the
+poorest of hay or straw through the winter, not infrequently left
+exposed to cold, unprotected and unhoused, and thus stinted in their
+growth. This is, surely, the very worst economy, or rather it is no
+economy at all. Properly viewed, it is an extravagant wastefulness which
+no farmer can afford. No animal develops its good points under such
+treatment; and if the starving system is to be followed at all, it had
+better be after the age of two or three years, when the animal's
+constitution has attained the strength and vigor which may, possibly,
+enable it to resist ill treatment.
+
+To raise up first-rate milkers, it is absolutely necessary to feed on
+dairy food even when they are young. No matter how fine the breed is, if
+the calf is raised on poor, short feed, it will never be so good a
+milker as if raised on better keeping; and hence, in dairy districts,
+where calves are raised at all, they ought to be allowed the best
+pasture during the summer, and good, sweet and wholesome food during
+the winter.
+
+
+POINTS OF FAT CATTLE.
+
+Whatever theoretical objections may be raised against over-fed cattle,
+and great as may be the attempts to disparage the mountains of fat,--as
+highly-fed cattle are sometimes designated,--there is no doubt of the
+practical fact, that the best butcher cannot sell any thing but the best
+fatted beef; and of whatever age, size, or shape a half-fatted ox may
+be, he is never selected by judges as fit for human food. Hence, a
+well-fatted animal always commands a better price per pound than one
+imperfectly fed, and the parts selected as the primest beef are
+precisely the parts which contain the largest deposits of fat. The rump,
+the crop, and the sirloin, the very favorite cuts,--which always command
+from twenty to twenty-five per cent. more than any other part of the
+ox,--are just those parts on which the largest quantities of fat are
+found; so that, instead of the taste and fashion of the age being
+against the excessive fattening of animals, the fact is, practically,
+exactly the reverse. Where there is the most fat, there is the best
+lean; where there is the greatest amount of muscle, without its share of
+fat, that part is accounted inferior, and is used for a different
+purpose; in fact, so far from fat's being a disease, it is a condition
+of muscle, necessary to its utility as food,--a source of luxury to the
+rich, and of comfort to the poor, furnishing a nourishing and healthy
+diet for their families.
+
+Fattening is a secretive power which grazing animals possess, enabling
+them to lay by a store of the superfluous food which they take for
+seasons of cold or scarcity. It collects round the angular bones of the
+animal, and gives the appearance of rotundity; hence the tendency to
+deposit fat is indicated, as has been stated, by a _roundness_ of form,
+as opposed to the _fatness_ of a milk-secreting animal. But its greatest
+use is, that it is a store of heat-producing aliment, laid up for
+seasons of scarcity and want. The food of animals, for the most part,
+may be said to consist of a saccharine, an oleaginous, and an albuminous
+principle. To the first belong all the starchy, saccharine, and gummy
+parts of the plants, which undergo changes in the digestive organs
+similar to fermentation before they can be assimilated in the system; by
+them also animal heat is sustained. In indolent animals, the oily parts
+of plants are deposited and laid up as fat; and, when vigor and strength
+fail, this is taken up and also used in breathing to supply the place of
+the consumed saccharine matter. The albuminous, or gelatinous principle
+of plants is mainly useful in forming muscle; while the ashes of plants,
+the unconsumable parts, are for the supply, mainly, of bone, hair, and
+horn, but also of muscle and of blood, and to supply the waste which
+continually goes on.
+
+Now, there are several qualities which are essentially characteristic of
+a disposition to fatten. There have not, as yet, been any book-rules
+laid down, as in the case of M. Guenon's indications of milking-cows;
+but there are, nevertheless, marks so definite and well understood, that
+they are comprehended and acted upon by every grazier, although they are
+by no means easy to describe. It is by skillful acumen that the grazier
+acquires his knowledge, and not by theoretical rules; observation,
+judgment, and experience, powerful perceptive faculties, and a keen and
+minute comparison and discrimination, are essential to his success.
+
+[Illustration: POINTS OF CATTLE.]
+
+The first indication upon which he relies, is the _touch_. It is the
+absolute criterion of _quality_, which is supposed to be the keystone of
+perfection in all animals, whether for the pail or the butcher. The skin
+is so intimately connected with the internal organs, in all animals,
+that it is questionable whether even our schools of medicine might not
+make more use of it in a diagnosis of disease. Of physiological
+tendencies in cattle, however, it is of the last and most vital
+importance. It must neither be thick, nor hard, nor adhere firmly to the
+muscles. If it is so, the animal is a hard grazer, a difficult and
+obstinate feeder--no skillful man will purchase it--such a creature must
+go to a novice, and even to him at a price so low as to tempt him to
+become a purchaser. On the other hand, the skin must not be thin, like
+paper, nor flaccid, nor loose in the hand, nor flabby. This is the
+opposite extreme, and is indicative of delicateness, bad, flabby flesh,
+and, possibly, of inaptitude to retain the fat. It must be _elastic_ and
+velvety, soft and pliable, presenting to the touch a gentle resistance,
+but so delicate as to give pleasure to the sensitive hand--a skin, in
+short, which seems at first to give an indentation from the pressure of
+the fingers, but which again rises to its place by a gentle elasticity.
+
+The _hair_ is of nearly as much importance as the skin. A hard skin will
+have straight and stiff hair; it will not have a curl, but be thinly and
+lankly distributed equally over the surface. A proper grazing animal
+will have a _mossy_ coat, not absolutely curled, but having a
+disposition to a graceful curl, a semifold, which presents a waving
+inequality; but as different from a close and straightly-laid coat, as
+it is from one standing off the animal at right angles, a strong symptom
+of disease. It will also, in a thriving animal, be licked here and there
+with its tongue, a proof that the skin is duly performing its functions.
+
+There must be, also, the full and goggle _eye_, bright and pressed
+outward by the fatty bed below; because, as this is a part where Nature
+always provides fat, an animal capable of developing it to any
+considerable extent, will have its indications here, at least, when it
+exists in excess.
+
+So much for feeding qualities in the animal, and their conformations
+indicative of this kindly disposition. Next come such formations of the
+animal itself as are favorable to the growth of fat, other things being
+equal. There must be _size_ where large weights are expected. Christmas
+beef, for instance, is expected to be large as well as fat. The symbol
+of festivity should be capacious, as well as prime in quality. But it is
+so much a matter of choice and circumstance with the grazier, that
+profit alone will be his guide. The axiom will be, however, as a general
+rule, that the better the grazing soil the larger the animal may be; the
+poorer the soil, the smaller the animal. Small animals are,
+unquestionably, much more easily fed, and they are well known by
+experienced men to be best adapted to second-rate feeding pastures.
+
+But, beyond this, there must be _breadth_ of carcass. This is indicative
+of fattening, perhaps, beyond all other qualifications. If rumps are
+favorite joints and produce the best price, it is best to have the
+animal which will grow the longest, the broadest, and the best rump; the
+same of crop, and the same of sirloin; and not only so, but breadth is
+essential to the consumption of that quantity of food which is necessary
+to the development of a large amount of fat in the animal. Thus, a deep,
+wide chest, favorable for the respiratory and circulating functions,
+enables it to consume a large amount of food, to take up the sugary
+matter, and to deposit the fatty matter,--as then useless for
+respiration, but afterwards to be prized. A full level crop will be of
+the same physiological utility; while a broad and open framework at the
+hips will afford scope for the action of the liver and kidneys.
+
+There are other points, also, of much importance; the head must be small
+and fine; its special use is indicative of the quick fattening of the
+animal so constructed, and it is also indicative of the bones being
+small and the legs short. For constitutional powers, the beast should
+have his ribs extended well towards the thigh-bones or hips, so as to
+leave as little unprotected space as possible. There must be no
+angular, or abrupt points; all must be round, and broad, and parallel.
+Any depression in the lean animal will give a deficient deposit of flesh
+and fat at that point, when sold to the butcher, and thus deteriorate
+its value; and hence the animal must be round and full.
+
+But either fancy, or accident, or skill--it is unnecessary to decide
+which--has associated _symmetry_ with quality and conformation, as a
+point of great importance in animals calculated for fattening; and there
+is no doubt that, to a certain extent, this is so. The beast must be a
+system of mathematical lines. To the advocate of symmetry, the
+setting-on of a tail will be a condemning fault; indeed the ridge of the
+back, like a straight line, with the outline of the belly exactly
+parallel, viewed from the side, and a depth and squareness when viewed
+from behind,--which remind us of a geometrical cube, rather than a vital
+economy,--may be said to be the indications of excellence in a fat ox.
+The points of excellence in such an animal are outlined under the
+subsequent head, as developed in the cutting up after slaughter.
+
+Now, these qualities are inherent in some breeds; there may be cases and
+instances in all the superior breeds, and in most there may be failures.
+
+
+DRIVING AND SLAUGHTERING.
+
+It is necessary that cattle which have been disposed of to the dealer or
+butcher, or which are intended to be driven to market, should undergo a
+preparation for the journey. If they were immediately put to the road to
+travel, from feeding on grass or turnips, when their bowels are full of
+undigested vegetable matter, a scouring might ensue which would render
+them unfit to pursue their journey; and this complaint is the more
+likely to be brought on from the strong propensity which cattle have to
+take violent exercise upon feeling themselves at liberty after a long
+confinement. They in fact, become light-headed whenever they leave the
+barn or enclosure, so much so that they actually "frisk and race and
+leap," and their antics would be highly amusing, were it not for the
+apprehension that they may hurt themselves against some opposing object,
+as they seem to regard nothing before them.
+
+On being let out for the first time, cattle should be put for awhile
+into a larger court, or on a road well fenced with enclosures, and
+guarded by men, to romp about. Two or three such allowances of liberty
+will render them quiet; and, in the mean time, to lighten their weight
+of carcass, they should have hay for a large proportion of their food.
+These precautions are absolutely necessary for cattle which have been
+confined in barns; otherwise, accidents may befall them on the road,
+where they will at once break loose. Even at home serious accidents
+sometimes overtake them, such as the breaking down of a horn, casting
+off a hoof, spraining a tendon, bruising ribs, and heating the whole
+body violently; and, of course, when any such ill luck befalls, the
+animal affected must be left behind, and become a drawback upon the
+value of the rest, unless kept for some time longer.
+
+Having the cattle prepared for travel, the drover takes the road very
+slowly for the first two days, not exceeding seven or eight miles a day.
+At night, in winter, they should be put into an open court, and supplied
+with hay, water, and a very few turnips; for, if roots are suddenly
+withdrawn from them,--since it is taken for granted that these have
+formed a staple portion of their food,--their bellies will become
+shrunken up into smaller dimensions--a state very much against favorable
+appearance in market. After the first two days they may proceed faster,
+say twelve or thirteen miles a day, if very fat; and fifteen, if
+moderately so. When the journey is long and the beasts get faint from
+travel, they should have corn to support them. In frosty weather, when
+the roads become very hard, they are apt to become shoulder-shaken, an
+effect of founder; and if sleet falls during the day, and becomes frozen
+upon them at night, they may become so chilled as to refuse food, and
+shrink rapidly away. Cattle should, if possible, arrive the day before
+in the neighborhood of a distant market, and be supplied with a good
+feed of roots and hay, or grass, to make them look fresh and fill them
+up again; but if the market is at but short distance, they can travel to
+it early in the morning.
+
+[Illustration: A FRONTISPIECE.]
+
+In driving cattle the drover should have no dog, which will only annoy
+them. He should walk either before or behind, as he sees them disposed
+to proceed too fast or to loiter upon the road; and in passing
+carriages, the leading ox, after a little experience, will make way for
+the rest to follow. On putting oxen on a ferry-boat the shipping of the
+first one only is attended with much trouble. A man on each side should
+take hold of a horn, or of a halter made of any piece of rope, should
+the beast be hornless, and two other men, one on each side, should push
+him up behind with a piece of rope held between them as a breeching, and
+conduct him along the plank into the boat; if it have low gunwales, a
+man will be required to remain beside him until one or two more of the
+cattle follow their companion, which they will most readily do. From
+neglecting this precaution in small ferry-boats, the first beast
+sometimes leaps into the water, when it becomes a difficult task to
+prevent some of the rest doing the same thing.
+
+Whatever time a lot of cattle may take to go to a market, they should
+never be _overdriven_. There is great difference of management in this
+respect among drovers. Some like to proceed upon the road quietly,
+slowly, but surely, and to reach the market in a placid, cool state.
+Others, again, drive smartly along for some distance, and then rest to
+cool awhile, when the beasts will probably get chilled and have a
+staring coat when they reach their destination; while others like to
+enter the market with their beasts in an excited state, imagining that
+they then look gay; but distended nostrils, loose bowels, and reeking
+bodies are no recommendations to a purchaser. Good judges are shy of
+purchasing cattle in a heated state, because they do not know how long
+they may have been in it; and to cover any risk, will give at least five
+dollars a head below what they would have offered for them in a cool
+state. Some drovers have a habit of thumping at the hindmost beast of
+the lot with a stick while on the road. This is a censurable practice,
+as the flesh, where it is thumped, will bear a red mark after the
+animal has been slaughtered,--the mark receiving the appropriate name of
+_blood-burn_--and the flesh thus affected will not take on salt, and is
+apt to putrefy. A touch up on the shank, or any tendonous part, when
+correction is necessary, is all that is required; but the voice, in most
+cases, will answer as well. The flesh of overdriven cattle, when
+slaughtered, never becomes properly firm, and their tallow has a soft,
+melted appearance.
+
+A few large oxen in one lot look best in a market on a position rather
+above the eye of a spectator. When a large lot is nearly alike in size
+and appearance, they look best and most level on a flat piece of ground.
+Very large fat oxen never look better than on ground on the same level
+with the spectator. An ox, to look well, should hold his head on a line
+with the body, with lively ears, clear eye, dewy nose, a well-licked
+hide, and should stand firmly on the ground on all his feet. These are
+all symptoms of high health and good condition. Whenever an ox shifts
+his standing from one foot to another, he is _foot-sore_, and has been
+driven far. Whenever his head hangs down and his eyes water, he feels
+ill at ease inwardly. When his coat stares, he has been overheated some
+time, and has got a subsequent _chill_. All these latter symptoms will
+be much aggravated in cattle that have been fed in a barn.
+
+Cattle are made to fast before being slaughtered. The time they should
+stand depends upon their state on their arrival at the shambles. If they
+have been driven a considerable distance in a proper manner, the bowels
+will be in a tolerably empty state, so that twelve hours may suffice;
+but if they are full and just off their food, twenty-four hours will be
+required. Beasts that have been overdriven, or much struck with sticks,
+or in any degree infuriated, should not be immediately slaughtered, but
+allowed to stand on dry food, such as hay, until the symptoms disappear.
+These precautions are absolutely necessary that the meat may be
+preserved in the best state.
+
+The mode of slaughtering cattle varies in different countries. In the
+great slaughter-houses at Montmartre, in Paris, they are slaughtered by
+bisecting the spinal cord of the cervical vertebrae; and this is
+accomplished by the driving of a sharp-pointed chisel between the second
+and third vertebrae, with a smart stroke of a mallet, while the animal is
+standing, when it drops, and death or insensibility instantly ensues,
+and the blood is let out immediately by opening the blood-vessels of the
+neck. The plan adopted in England is, first to bring the ox down on his
+knees, and place his under-jaw upon the ground by means of ropes
+fastened to his head and passed through an iron ring in the floor of the
+slaughterhouse. He is then stunned with a few blows from an iron axe
+made for the purpose, on the forehead, the bone of which is usually
+driven into the brain. The animal then falls upon his side, and the
+blood is let out by the neck. Of the two modes, the French is apparently
+the less cruel, for some oxen require many blows to make them fall. Some
+butchers, however, allege that the separation of the spinal cord, by
+producing a general nervous convulsion throughout the body, prevents the
+blood from flowing as rapidly and entirely out of it as when the ox is
+stunned in the forehead. The skin is then taken off to the knees, when
+the legs are disjointed, and also off the head. The carcass is then
+hung up by the tendons of the hough on a stretcher, by a block and
+tackle, worked by a small winch, which retains in place what rope it
+winds up by means of a wheel and ratchet.
+
+After the carcass has hung for twenty-four hours, it should be cut down
+by the back-bone, or chine, into two _sides_. This is done either with
+the saw, or chopper; the saw making the neatest job in the hands of an
+inexperienced butcher, though it is the most laborious; and with the
+chopper is the quickest, but by no means the neatest plan, especially in
+the hands of a careless workman. In London, the chine is equally divided
+between both sides; while in Scotland, one side of a carcass of beef has
+a great deal more bone than the other, all the spinous processes of the
+vertebrae being left upon it. The bony is called the _lying_ side of the
+meat. In London, the divided processes in the fore-quarters are broken
+in the middle when warm, and chopped back with the flat side of the
+chopper, which has the effect of thickening the fore and middle ribs
+considerably when cut up. The London butcher also cuts the joints above
+the hind knee, and, by making some incisions with a sharp knife, cuts
+the tendons there, and drops the flesh of the hind-quarter on the flank
+and loins, which causes it to cut up thicker than in the Scotch mode. In
+opening the hind-quarter he also cuts the aitch bone, or pelvis through
+the centre, which makes the rump look better. Some butchers in the north
+of England score the fat of the _closing_ of the hind-quarter, which has
+the effect of making that part of both heifer and ox look like the udder
+of an old cow. There is far too much of this scoring practised in
+Scotland, which prevents the pieces from retaining--which they should,
+as nearly as possible--their natural appearance.
+
+In cutting up a carcass of beef the London butcher displays great
+expertness; he not only discriminates between the qualities of its
+different parts, but can cut out any piece to gratify the taste of his
+customers. In this way he makes the best use of the carcass and realizes
+the largest value for it, while he gratifies the taste of every grade of
+customers. A figure of the Scotch and English modes of cutting up a
+carcass of beef will at once show the difference; and upon being
+informed where the valuable pieces lie, an opinion can be formed as to
+whether the oxen the farmer is breeding or feeding possess the
+properties which will enable him to demand the highest price for them.
+
+[Illustration: SCOTCH MODE OF CUTTING UP BEEF.]
+
+The sirloin is the principal roasting-piece, making a very handsome
+dish, and is a universal favorite. It consists of two portions, the
+Scotch and English sides; the former is above the lumbar bones, and is
+somewhat hard in ill-fed cattle; the latter consists of the muscles
+under these bones, which are generally covered with fine fat, and are
+exceedingly tender. The better the beast is fed, the larger is the under
+muscle, better covered with fat, and more tender to eat. The hook-bone
+and the buttock are cut up for steaks, beefsteak pie, or minced
+collops, and both these, together with the sirloin, bring the highest
+price. The large round and the small round are both well known as
+excellent pieces for salting and boiling, and are eaten cold with great
+relish. The hough is peculiarly suited for boiling down for soup, having
+a large proportion of gelatinous matter. Brown soup is the principal
+dish made of the hough, but its decoction forms an excellent _stock_ for
+various dishes, and will keep in a state of jelly for a considerable
+time. The thick and the thin flank are both admirable pieces for salting
+and boiling. The tail, insignificant as it may seem, makes a soup of a
+very fine flavor. Hotel-keepers have a trick of seasoning brown soup or
+rather beef-tea, with a few joints of tail, and passing it off for
+genuine ox-tail soup. These are all the pieces which constitute the
+hind-quarter; and it will be seen that they are valuable both for
+roasting and boiling, not containing a single coarse piece.
+
+In the fore-quarter, is the spare rib, the six ribs of the back end of
+which make an excellent roast, and when taken from the side opposite to
+the _lying_ one, being free of the bones of the spine, it makes a large
+one; and it also makes excellent beefsteaks and beefsteak pie. The two
+runners and the nineholes make salting and boiling pieces; but, of
+these, the nineholes is much the best, as it consists of layers of fat
+and lean without any bone; whereas the fore parts of the runners have a
+piece of shoulder-blade in them, and every piece connected with that
+bone is more or less coarse-grained. The brisket eats very well boiled
+fresh in broth, and may be cooked and eaten with boiled greens or
+carrots. The shoulder-lyar is a coarse piece, and fit only for boiling
+fresh to make into broth or beef-tea. The nap, or shin, is analogous to
+the hough of the hind-leg, but not so rich and fine, there being much
+less gelatinous matter in it. The neck makes good broth; and the
+sticking-piece is a great favorite with some epicures, on account of the
+pieces of rich fat in it. It makes an excellent stew, as also sweet
+barley-broth, and the meat eats well when boiled in it.
+
+These are all the pieces of the fore-quarter; and it will be seen that
+they consist chiefly of boiling-pieces, and some of them none of the
+finest--the roasting-piece being confined to the six ribs of the spare
+rib, and the finest boiling-piece, corned, only to be found in the
+nineholes.
+
+[Illustration: ENGLISH MODE OF CUTTING UP BEEF.]
+
+The loin is the principal roasting-piece; the rump is the favorite
+steak-piece; the aitch-bone, the favorite stew; the buttock, the thick
+flank, and the thin flank are all excellent boiling-pieces when corned;
+the hock and the shin make soup and afford stock for the various
+requirements of the culinary art; and the tail furnishes ox-tail soup--a
+favorite English luncheon. These are all the pieces of the hind-quarter,
+and they are valuable of their respective kinds.
+
+In the fore-quarter, the fore-rib, middle-rib, and chuckle-rib are all
+roasting-pieces, not alike good; but in removing the part of the
+shoulder-blade in the middle-rib, the spare-ribs below make a good
+broil or roast; the neck makes soup, being used fresh, boiled; the back
+end of the brisket is boiled, corned, or stewed; the leg-of-mutton piece
+is coarse, but is as frequently stewed as boiled; the shin is put to the
+same use as the shin and hock of the hind-quarter.
+
+On comparing the two modes of cutting-up, it will be observed that in
+the English there are more roasting-pieces than in the Scotch, a large
+proportion of the fore-quarter being used in that way. The plan, too, of
+cutting the loin between the rump and aitch-bone in the hind-quarter,
+lays open the steak-pieces to better advantage than in the Scotch
+bullock. Extending the comparison from one part of the carcass to the
+other, in both methods, it will be seen that the most valuable
+pieces--the roasting--occupy its upper, and the less valuable--the
+boiling--its lower part. Every beast, therefore, that lays on beef more
+upon the upper part of its body is more valuable than one that lays the
+same quantity of flesh on its lower parts.
+
+It is deemed unnecessary to enter into details as to the modes of
+cutting-up most in vogue in this country, as there is a needlessly great
+want of uniformity.
+
+Of the qualities of beef obtained from the different breeds of cattle in
+England, there is no better meat than from the West Highlanders for
+fineness of grain and cutting up into convenient pieces for family use.
+The Galloways and Angus, when fattened in English pastures, are great
+favorites in the London market. The Short Horns afford excellent steaks,
+being thick of flesh, and the slice deep, large and juicy, and their
+covered flanks and nineholes are always thick, juicy, and well-mixed.
+The Herefords are somewhat similar to the Short Horns, and the Devons,
+may, perhaps, be classed among the Galloways and Angus, while the Welsh
+cannot be compared to the West Highlanders. Taking, then, the breeds of
+Scotland as suppliers of good beef, they seem to be more valuable for
+the table than those of England.
+
+There are, perhaps, not sufficient data in existence to determine the
+true proportion of offal of all kinds to the beef of any given fat ox;
+but approximations have been made, which may serve the purpose until the
+matter is investigated by direct experiment, under various
+circumstances. The dead weight bears to the live weight a ratio varying
+between .571 and .605 to 1; and on applying one or the other multiplier
+to the cases of the live weight, a pretty correct approximation is
+reached. The tallow is supposed to be eight one-hundredths of the live
+weight; so that the multiplier is the decimal .08. The hide is supposed
+to be five one-hundredths of the live weight; so to obtain its weight, a
+multiplier, .05, is used. The other offals are supposed to be in a
+proportion of about one-fourth of the live weight; so that the
+multiplier, .28, is as near as can be proposed under existing
+experience.
+
+Beef is the staple animal food of this country, and it is used in
+various states--fresh, salted, smoked, roasted, and boiled. When
+intended to be eaten fresh, the _ribs_ will keep the best, and with care
+will keep five or six days in summer, and in winter ten days. The middle
+of the _loin_ is the next best, and the _rump_ the next. The _round_
+will not keep long, unless it is salted. The _brisket_ is the worst, and
+will not keep more than three days in summer, and in winter a week.
+
+In regard to the power of the stomach to digest beef, that which is
+eaten boiled with salt only, is digested in two hours and forty-five
+minutes. Beef, fresh, lean, and rarely-roasted, and a beefsteak broiled,
+takes three hours to digest; that fresh, and dry-roasted, and boiled,
+eaten with mustard, is digested in three and a half hours. Lean fresh
+beef fried, requires four hours, and old hard salted beef boiled, does
+not digest in less than four and a quarter hours. Fresh beef-suet boiled
+takes five and a half hours.
+
+The usual mode of preserving beef is by salting; and, when intended to
+keep for a long time, such as for the use of shipping, it is always
+salted with brine; but for family use it should be salted only with good
+salt; for brine dispels the juice of meat, and saltpetre only serves to
+make the meat dry, and give it a disagreeable and unnatural red color.
+Various experiments have been made in curing beef with salt otherwise
+than by hand-rubbing, and in a short space of time, and also to preserve
+it from putrefaction by other means than salt. Some packers put meat in
+a copper which is rendered air-tight, and an air-pump then creates a
+vacuum within it, thereby extracting all the air out of the meat; then
+brine is pumped in by pressure, which, entering into every pore of the
+meat formerly occupied by the air, is said to place it in a state of
+preservation in a few minutes. The carcass of an ox was preserved, in
+France, for two years from putrefaction by injecting four pounds of
+saline mixture into the carotid artery. Whether any such contrivance can
+be made available for family purposes, seems doubtful.
+
+Cattle, when slaughtered, are useful to man in various other ways than
+by affording food from their flesh,--their offal of tallow, hides, and
+horns, forming extensive articles of commerce. Of the _hide_, the
+characteristics of a good one for strong purposes are strength in its
+middle, or _butt_, as it called, and lightness in the edges, or _offal_.
+A bad hide is the opposite of this--thick in the edges and thin in the
+middle. A good hide has a firm texture; a bad one, loose and soft. A
+hide improves as the summer advances, and it continues to improve after
+the new coat of hair in autumn until November or December, when the coat
+gets rough from the coldness of the season, and the hide is then in its
+best state. It is surprising how a hide improves in thickness after the
+cold weather has set in. The sort of food does not seem to affect the
+quality of the hide; but the better it is, and the better cattle have
+been fed, and the longer they have been well fed, even from a calf, the
+better the hide. From what has been said of the effect of weather upon
+the hide, it seems a natural conclusion that a hide is better from an ox
+that has been fed in the open air, than from one that has been kept in
+the barn. Dirt adhering to a hide injures it, particularly in stall-fed
+animals; and any thing that punctures a hide, such as warbles arising
+from certain insects, is also injurious. The best hides are obtained
+from the West Highlanders. The Short Horns produce the thinnest hides,
+the Aberdeenshire the next, and then the Angus. Of the same breed, the
+ox affords the strongest hide; but, as hides are applied to various
+uses, the cow's, provided it be large, may be as valuable as that of the
+ox. The bull's hide is the least valuable. Hides are imported from
+Russia and South America.
+
+Hides, when deprived of their hair, are converted into _leather_ by an
+infusion of the astringent property of bark. The old plan of tanning
+used to occupy a long time; but, such was the value of the process, that
+the old tanners used to pride themselves upon producing a substantial
+article--which is more than can be said in many instances under modern
+improved modes, which hasten the process, much to the injury of the
+article produced. Strong infusions of bark make leather brittle; one
+hundred pounds of skin, quickly tanned in a strong infusion, produce one
+hundred and thirty-seven pounds of leather; while a weak infusion
+produces only one hundred and seventeen and a half,--the additional
+nineteen and a half pounds serving only to deteriorate the leather, and
+causing it to contain much less textile animal solid. Leather thus
+highly charged with tanning is so spongy as to allow moisture to pass
+readily through its pores, to the great discomfort and injury of those
+who wear shoes made of it. The proper mode of tanning lasts a year, or a
+year and a half, according to the quality of the leather wanted and the
+nature of the hides. A perfect leather can be recognized by its section,
+which should have a glistening marbled appearance, without any white
+streaks in the middle. The hair which is taken off hides in tanning, is
+employed to mix with plaster, and is often surreptitiously put into
+hair-mattresses.
+
+The principal substances of which _glue_ is made are the
+parings of ox and other thick hides, which form the strongest article
+and the refuse of the leather-dresser. Both afford from forty-five to
+fifty-five per cent. of glue. The tendons, and many other offals of
+slaughter-houses, also afford materials, though of an inferior quality,
+for this purpose. The refuse of tanneries--such as the ears of oxen and
+calves--are better articles. Animal skins also, in any form, uncombined
+with tannin, may be worked into glue.
+
+_Ox-tallow_ is of great importance in the arts. Candles and soap are
+made of it, and it enters largely into the dressing of leather and the
+use of machinery. Large quantities are annually exported from Russia.
+Ox-tallow consists of seventy-six parts of stearine and twenty-four of
+oleine, out of one hundred parts.
+
+The _horns_ of oxen are used for many purposes. The horn consists of two
+parts: an outward horny case, and an inward conical-shaped substance,
+somewhat intermediate between indurated hair and bone, called the
+_fluid_ of the horn. These two parts are separated by means of a blow
+upon a block of wood. The horny exterior is then cut into three portions
+by means of a frame saw. The lowest of these, next the root of the horn,
+after undergoing several processes by which it is rendered flat, is made
+into combs.
+
+The middle of the horn, after having been flattened by heat, and its
+transparency improved by oil, is split into thin layers, and forms a
+substitute for glass in lanterns of the commonest kind. The tip of the
+horns is used by makers of knife-handles and of the tops of whips, and
+for other similar purposes. The interior, or core of the horn, is boiled
+down in water. A large quantity of fat rises to the surface; this is put
+aside, and sold to the makers of yellow soap. The itself is used as a
+kind of glue, and is purchased by the cloth-draper for stiffening. The
+bony substance remaining behind is then sent to the mill, and, after
+having been ground down, is sold to farmers for manure.
+
+Besides these various purposes to which the different parts of the horn
+are applied, the clippings which arise in comb-making are sold to the
+farmer for manure, as well as the shavings which form the refuse of the
+lantern-makers. Horn, as is well known, is easily rendered soft and
+pliant in warm water; and by this peculiarity and its property of
+adhering like glue, large plates of horn can be made by cementing
+together the edges of small pieces rendered flat by a peculiar process,
+as a substitute for glass. Imitation of tortoise-shell can be given to
+horn by means of various metallic solutions. Horn, also, when softened,
+can be imprinted with any pattern, by means of dies.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Diseases and their Remedies
+
+
+Under this head it is proposed to notice such diseases as are most
+common among cattle, together with their symptoms, and to suggest such
+treatment of the same as has been found in the practice of the author,
+in the main, effective. He is aware that much more space might have been
+appropriated to this head, as has been the case in other treatises of
+this class; but he doubts the propriety of multiplying words about
+diseases which are of very rare occurrence, deeming it more fitting to
+leave such instances exclusively to the intelligent consideration of the
+reliable veterinary practitioner.
+
+For convenience of reference, the diseases here noticed have been
+arranged in alphabetical order; the whole concluding with information as
+to two or three operations which cannot be uninteresting to, or
+unprofitable for, the reader.
+
+
+ABORTION.
+
+The cow is, more than any other animal, subject to abortion, or
+slinking, which takes place at different periods of pregnancy, from half
+of the usual time to the seventh, or almost to the eighth month. The
+symptoms of the approach of abortion, unless the breeder is very much
+among his stock, are not often perceived; or, if perceived, they are
+concealed by the person in charge, lest he should be accused of neglect
+or improper treatment.
+
+The cow is somewhat off her feed--rumination ceases--she is listless and
+dull--the milk diminishes or dries up--the motions of the foetus
+become more feeble, and at length cease altogether--there is a slight
+degree of enlargement of the belly--there is a little staggering in her
+walk--when she is down she lies longer than usual, and when she gets up
+she stands for a longer time motionless.
+
+As the abortion approaches, a yellow or red glairy fluid runs from the
+vagina (this is a symptom, which rarely, or never, deceives) her
+breathing becomes laborious and slightly convulsive. The belly has for
+several days lost its natural rotundity, and has been evidently
+falling,--she begins to moan,--the pulse becomes small, wiry, and
+intermittent. At length labor comes on, and is often attended with much
+difficulty and danger.
+
+If the abortion has been caused by blows or violence, whether from
+brutality, or the animal's having been teased by other cows in season,
+or by oxen, the symptoms are more intense. The animal suddenly ceases to
+eat and to ruminate--is uneasy, paws the ground, rests her head on the
+manger while she is standing, and on her flank when she is lying
+down--hemorrhage frequently comes on from the uterus, or when this is
+not the case the mouth of that organ is spasmodically contracted. The
+throes come on, are distressingly violent, and continue until the womb
+is ruptured. If all these circumstances be not observed, still the labor
+is protracted and dangerous.
+
+Abortion is sometimes singularly frequent in particular districts, or on
+particular farms, appearing to assume an epizooetic or epidemic form.
+This has been accounted for in various ways. Some have imagined it to be
+contagious. It is, indeed, destructively propagated among the cows, but
+this is probably to be explained on a different principle from that of
+contagion. The cow is a considerably imaginative animal, and highly
+irritable during the period of pregnancy. In abortion, the foetus is
+often putrid before it is discharged; and the placenta, or after-birth,
+rarely or never follows it, but becomes decomposed, and, as it drops
+away in fragments, emits a peculiar and most noisome smell. This smell
+seems to be peculiarly annoying to the other cows: they sniff at it and
+then run bellowing about. Some sympathetic influence is exercised on
+their uterine organs, and in a few days a greater or less number of
+those that had pastured together likewise abort. Hence arises the
+rapidity with which the foetus is usually taken away and buried
+deeply, and far from the cows; and hence the more effectual preventive
+of smearing the parts of the cow with tar or stinking oils, in order to
+conceal or subdue the smell; and hence, too, the inefficacy, as a
+preventive, of removing her to a far-distant pasture.
+
+The pastures on which the blood or inflammatory fever is most prevalent
+are those on which the cows oftenest slink their calves. Whatever can
+become a source of general excitation and fever is likely, during
+pregnancy, to produce inflammation of the womb; or whatever would, under
+other circumstances, excite inflammation of almost any organ, has at
+that time its injurious effect determined to this particular one.
+
+Every farmer is aware of the injurious effect of the coarse, rank
+herbage of low, marshy, and woody countries, and he regards these
+districts as the chosen residence of red water; it may be added, that
+they are also the chosen residence of abortion. Hard and mineral waters
+are justly considered as laying the foundation of many diseases among
+cattle, and of abortion among the rest.
+
+Some careful observers have occasionally attributed abortion to
+disproportion in size between the male and the female. Farmers were
+formerly too fond of selecting a great overgrown bull to serve their
+dairy or breeding cows, and many a heifer, or little cow, was seriously
+injured; and she either cast her calf, or was lost in parturition. The
+breeders of cattle in later years are beginning to act more wisely in
+this matter.
+
+Cows that are degenerating into consumption are exceedingly subject to
+abortion. They are continually in heat; they rarely become pregnant, or
+if they do, a great proportion of them cast their calves. Abortion,
+also, often follows a sudden change from poor to luxuriant food. Cows
+that have been out, half-starved in the winter, when incautiously turned
+on rich pasture in the spring, are too apt to cast their calves from the
+undue general or local excitation that is set up. Hence it is, that when
+this disposition to abort first appears in a herd, it is naturally in a
+cow that has been lately purchased. Fright, from whatever cause, may
+produce this trouble. There are singular cases on record of whole herds
+of cows slinking their calves after having been terrified by an
+unusually violent thunder-storm. Commerce with the bull soon after
+conception is also a frequent cause, as well as putrid smells--other
+than those already noticed--and the use of a diseased bull. Besides
+these tangible causes of abortion, there is the mysterious agency of the
+atmosphere. There are certain seasons when abortion is strangely
+frequent, and fatal; while at other times it disappears in a manner for
+several successive years.
+
+The consequences of premature calving are frequently of a very serious
+nature; and even when the case is more favorable, the results are,
+nevertheless, very annoying. The animal very soon goes again to heat,
+but in a great many cases she fails to become pregnant; she almost
+invariably does so, if she is put to the bull during the first heat
+after abortion. If she should come in calf again during that season, it
+is very probable that at about the same period of gestation, or a little
+later, she will again abort: or that when she becomes in calf the
+following year, the same fatality will attend her. Some say that this
+disposition to cast her young gradually ceases; that if she does
+miscarry, it is at a later and still later period of pregnancy; and
+that, in about three or four years, she may be depended upon as a
+tolerably safe breeder. He, however, would be sadly inattentive to his
+own interests who keeps a profitless beast so long.
+
+The calf very rarely lives, and in the majority of cases it is born dead
+or putrid. If there should appear to be any chance of saving it, it
+should be washed with warm water, carefully dried, and fed frequently
+with small quantities of new milk, mixed, according to the apparent
+weakness of the animal, either with raw eggs or good gruel; while the
+bowels should, if occasion requires, be opened by means of small doses
+of castor-oil. If any considerable period is to elapse before the
+natural time of pregnancy would have expired, it will usually be
+necessary to bring up the little animal entirely by hand.
+
+The treatment of abortion differs but little from that of parturition.
+If the farmer has once been tormented by this pest in his dairy, he
+should carefully watch the approaching symptoms of casting the calf, and
+as soon as he perceives them, should remove the animal from the pasture
+to a comfortable cow-house or shed. If the discharge be glairy, but not
+offensive, he may hope that the calf is not dead; he will be assured of
+this by the motion of the foetus, and then it is possible that the
+abortion may still be avoided. He should hasten to bleed her, and that
+copiously, in proportion to her age, size, condition, and the state of
+excitation in which he may find her; and he should give a dose of physic
+immediately after the bleeding. When the physic begins to operate, he
+should administer half a drachm of opium and half an ounce of sweet
+spirits of nitre. Unless she is in a state of great debility, he should
+allow nothing but gruel, and she should be kept as quiet as possible.
+By these means he may occasionally allay the general or local irritation
+that precedes or causes the abortion, and the cow may yet go to her full
+time.
+
+Should, however, the discharge be fetid, the conclusion will be that the
+foetus is dead, and must be got rid of, and that as speedily as
+possible. Bleeding may even then be requisite if much fever exists; or,
+perhaps, if there is debility, some stimulating drink may not be out of
+place. In other respects the animal must be treated as if her usual time
+of pregnancy had been accomplished.
+
+Much may be done in the way of preventing this habit of abortion among
+cows. _The foetus must be got rid of immediately._ It should be buried
+deep, and far from the cow-pasture. Proper means should be taken to
+hasten the expulsion of the placenta. A dose of physic should be given;
+ergot of rye administered; the hand should be introduced, and an effort
+made, cautiously and gently, to detach the placenta; all violence,
+however, should be carefully avoided; for considerable and fatal
+hemorrhage may be speedily produced. The parts of the cow should be well
+washed with a solution of the chloride of lime, which should be injected
+up the vagina, and also given internally. In the mean time, and
+especially after the expulsion of the placenta, the cow-house should be
+well washed with the same solution.
+
+The cow, when beginning to recover, should be fattened and sold. This is
+the first and the grand step toward the prevention of abortion, and he
+is unwise who does not immediately adopt it. All other means are
+comparatively inefficient and worthless. Should the owner be reluctant
+to part with her, two months, at least, should pass before she is
+permitted to return to her companions. Prudence would probably dictate
+that she should never return to them, but be kept, if possible, on some
+distant part of the farm.
+
+Abortion having once occurred among the herd, the breeding cows should
+be carefully watched. Although they should be well fed, they should not
+be suffered to get into too high condition. Unless they are decidedly
+poor and weak, they should be bled between the third and fourth months
+of pregnancy, and a mild dose of physic administered to each. If the
+pest continues to reappear, the owner should most carefully examine how
+far any of the causes of abortion that have been detected, may exist on
+his farm, and exert himself to thoroughly remove them.
+
+An interesting paper upon this subject may be found in the Veterinary
+Review, vol. 1., p. 434, communicated by Prof. Henry Tanner, of Queen's
+College, Birmingham, England. As it suggests a theory as to the origin
+of this disease which is, to say the least, quite plausible, we transfer
+the article:--
+
+"I shall not go into any notice of the general subject of abortion, but
+rather restrict my remarks to a cause which is very much overlooked, and
+yet which is probably more influential than all other causes combined. I
+refer to the growth of ergotized grass-seeds in our pastures.
+
+"The action of ergot of rye (_secale cornutum_) upon the womb is well
+known as an excitant to powerful action, which usually terminates in the
+expulsion of the foetus. We have a similar disease appearing on the
+seeds of our grasses, but especially on the rye grass, and thus we have
+an ergot of the seeds of rye grass produced, possessing similar exciting
+powers upon the womb to those produced by the ergot of rye.
+
+"Two conditions are necessary for the production of this ergot upon the
+seed of rye grass. The first is, the grass must be allowed to run to
+seed; and the second is, that the climate must be favorable for
+encouraging the development of the ergot.
+
+"In practice, we find that on land which has been fed on during the
+summer, unless it has been grazed with unusual care, much of the grass
+throws up seed-stalks and produces seed. In districts where the climate
+is humid and rain abundant, as well as in very wet seasons, these seeds
+become liable to the growth of this ergot. Cattle appear to eat it with
+a relish, and the result is that abortion spreads rapidly through the
+herd. Heifers and cows, which, up to the appearance of the ergot, have
+held in calf, are excited to cast their calves by consuming it in their
+food. The abortion having once commenced, we know that the peculiarly
+sensitive condition of the breeding animal will cause its extension,
+even where the original cause may not be in operation; but their
+combined action renders the loss far more serious. If we add to this the
+tendency which an animal receives from her first abortion, to repeat it
+when next in calf, we see how seriously the mischief becomes multiplied.
+
+"A somewhat extended observation, added to my own experience, has led me
+to the conviction that very much of the loss arising from abortion in
+our cows may be traced to the cause I have named. I feel assured the
+influence is even more extended than I have stated; for not only would
+the foetus be thrown off in its advanced stage, but also in its
+earlier growth, thus causing great trouble to breeders of high-bred
+stock, the repeated turning of cows to the bull, and at most irregular
+intervals.
+
+"The remedy differs in no respect from the ordinary mode of treatment,
+except that it compels a removal of the stock from the influence of the
+cause. Much, however, may be done by way of prevention; and this I shall
+briefly notice.
+
+"It simply consists in keeping breeding cows and heifers upon land free
+from these seeds. Grass which has been grazed during the summer, will
+very generally, in a humid climate, have some of this ergotized seed;
+but I have not observed it produced before the end of July, or early in
+August; and I doubt its existence, to any injurious degree, up to this
+time. We may, therefore, consider such ground safe up to this period. If
+the breeding stock are then removed to grass land which, having been
+mown for this operation is a guaranty against any seeds remaining, it
+will seldom, if ever, happen that any injury will result from the
+production of ergotized grass later in the season.
+
+"I will not venture to say that such will not appear in some cases where
+the grass has been cut early and has been followed by a rapid growth;
+but, at any rate, we have grazing land free from this excitant from July
+until September; and in the grass which has been mown late, I do not
+consider that there is the least fear of ergot's being again formed in
+that season. In this manner a farmer may keep grass land for his
+breeding stock entirely free from ergotized grass; and, consequently, so
+far as this cause is concerned, they will be free from abortion. How far
+young heifers may be prejudicially influenced, before they are used for
+breeding, by an excitement of the womb, appears to me to be a subject
+worthy of some attention on the part of the veterinary profession."
+
+
+APOPLEXY.
+
+This is a determination of blood to the head, causing pressure upon the
+brain. Animals attacked with this disease are generally in a plethoric
+condition. The usual symptoms are _coma_ (a sleepy state), eyes
+protruding, respiration accelerated; finally, the animal falls,
+struggles, and dies.
+
+In such cases, bleeding should be resorted to at an early period; give
+in drink one pound of Epsom-salts.
+
+
+BLACK WATER.
+
+This is simply an exaggerated stage of the disease known as Red
+Water,--to which the reader is referred in its appropriate place,--the
+urine being darker in color in consequence of the admixture of venous
+blood.
+
+The symptoms are similar, though more acute. There is constipation at
+first, which is followed by diarrhoea, large quantities of blood
+passing away with the evacuations from the bowels; symptoms of abdominal
+pain are present; the loins become extremely tender; and the animal dies
+in a greatly prostrated condition.
+
+The treatment does not differ from that prescribed in case of Red
+Water.
+
+
+BRONCHITIS.
+
+The trachea and bronchial tubes are frequently the seat of inflammation,
+especially in the spring of the year,--the symptoms of which are often
+confounded with those of other pulmonary diseases. This inflammation is
+frequently preceded by catarrhal affections; cough is often present for
+a long time before the more acute symptoms are observed. Bronchitis
+occasionally makes its appearance in an epizooetic form.
+
+_Symptoms._--A peculiarly anxious expression of the countenance will be
+observed; respiration laborious; a husky, wheezing, painful cough; on
+placing the ear to the windpipe a sonorous _rale_ is heard; symptomatic
+fever also prevails to a greater or less extent.
+
+_Treatment._--Counter-irritation should be early resorted to; strong
+mustard, mixed with equal parts of spirits of hartshorn and water, and
+made into a thin paste, should be applied all along the neck, over the
+windpipe, and to the sides, and should be well rubbed in; or, the
+tincture of cantharides, with ten drops of castor-oil to each ounce,
+applied in the same manner as the former, will be found equally
+effective. Give internally ten drops of Fleming's tincture of aconite
+every four hours, until five or six doses have been given; after which
+give one of the following powders twice a day: nitrate of potash, one
+ounce; Barbadoes aloes, one ounce; Jamaica ginger, half an ounce;
+pulverized-gentian root, one ounce; mix and divide into eight powders.
+If necessary a pound of salts may be given.
+
+
+CONSUMPTION
+
+This affection--technically known as _phthisis pulmonalis_--is the
+termination of chronic disease of the lungs. These organs become filled
+with many little cysts, or sacks, containing a yellowish or
+yellowish-white fluid, which in time is hardened, producing a condition
+of the lungs known as tuberculous. These tubercles in turn undergo
+another change, becoming soft in the centre and gradually involving the
+whole of the hardened parts, which, uniting with adjoining ones, soon
+forms cysts of considerable size. These cysts are known as abscesses.
+
+No treatment will be of much service here. It is, therefore, better, if
+the animal is not too poor in flesh, to have it slaughtered.
+
+
+CORYZA
+
+In the spring, and late in the fall, catarrhal affections are quite
+common, occurring frequently in a epizooetic form. Coryza, or nasal
+catarrh,--commonly called a cold in the head,--is not very common among
+cows. As its name implies, it is a local disease, confined to the lining
+membrane of the nose; and, consequently, the general system is not
+usually disturbed.
+
+_Symptoms._--The animal will be observed to sneeze; the Schneiderian
+membrane (membrane of the nose) is heightened in color; cough sometimes
+accompanies; there is also a muco-purulent discharge from the nose.
+Neglect to attend to these early symptoms frequently occasions disease
+of a more serious nature; in fact, coryza may be regarded as the
+forerunner of all epizooetic pulmonary disorders.
+
+[Illustration: A CHAT ON THE ROAD.]
+
+_Treatment._--The animal should be kept on a low diet for a few days;
+the nostrils occasionally steamed, and one of the following powders
+given night and morning, which, in most cases, will be all the medicine
+required: nitrate of potassa, one ounce; digitalis leaves pulverized and
+tartrate of antimony, of each one drachm; sulphate of copper, two
+drachms; mix, and divide into eight powders. Should the disease prove
+obstinate, give for two or three days two ounces of Epsom-salts at a
+dose, dissolved in water, three times a day.
+
+
+COW-POX.
+
+Two varieties of sore teats occur in the cow, in the form of pustular
+eruptions. They first appear as small vesicles containing a purulent
+matter, and subsequently assume a scabby appearance, or small ulcers
+remain, which often prove troublesome to heal. This latter is the
+cow-pox, from which Jenner derived the vaccine matter.
+
+_Treatment._--Foment the teats well with warm water and Castile-soap;
+after which, wipe the bag dry, and dress with citrine ointment. The
+preparations of iodine have also been recommended, and they are very
+serviceable.
+
+
+DIARRHOEA.
+
+Cattle are frequently subject to this disease, particularly in the
+spring of the year when the grass is young and soft. Occasionally it
+assumes a very obstinate form in consequence of the imperfect secretion
+of gastric juice; the _faeces_ are thin, watery, and fetid, followed by
+very great prostration of the animal.
+
+The symptoms of diarrhoea are too well known to require any detailed
+description.
+
+_Treatment._--If in a mild form, the diet should be low; give two ounces
+of Epsom-salts, twice a day. In a more obstinate form, give two drachms
+of carbonate of soda in the food. Oak-bark tea will be found very useful
+in these cases; or one of the following powders, twice a day, will be
+found very advantageous: pulverized opium and catechu, each one and a
+half ounces; prepared chalk, one drachm; to be given in the feed.
+
+Calves are particularly subject to this disease, and it often proves
+fatal to them. It sometimes assumes an epizooetic form, when it is
+generally of a mild character. So long as the calf is lively and feeds
+well, the farmer should entertain no fear for him; but if he mopes
+about, refuses his food, ceases to ruminate, wastes in flesh, passes
+mucus and blood with the _faeces_, and exhibits symptoms of pain, the
+case is a dangerous one.
+
+In such an emergency, lose no time, but give two or three ounces of
+Castor-oil with flour-gruel, or two ounces of salts at a dose, followed
+with small draughts of oak-bark tea; or give, twice a day, one of the
+following powders: pulverized catechu, opium, and Jamaca ginger, of each
+half an ounce; prepared chalk, one ounce; mix, and divide into twelve
+powders. Bran washes, green food, and flour-gruel should be given, with
+plenty of salt.
+
+
+DYSENTERY
+
+This disease is very frequently confounded with the foregoing. A
+distinction, however, exists,--since inflammation appears in this
+disease, while it is absent in the former. In this affection,
+inflammation of the large intestines takes place, which is attended with
+diarrhoea. The _faeces_ are covered with blood; the animal rapidly
+becomes prostrated, and death frequently comes to his relief.
+
+Youatt says: "It is, however, with dysentery that the practitioner is
+most loth to cope,--a disease that betrays thousands of cattle. This,
+also, may be either acute or chronic. Its causes are too often buried in
+obscurity, and its premonitory symptoms are disregarded or unknown.
+There appears to be a strong predisposition in cattle to take on this
+disease. It seems to be the winding-up of many serious complaints, and
+the foundation of it is sometimes laid by those that appear to be of the
+most trifling nature. It is that in cattle which glanders and farcy are
+in the horse,--the breaking up of the constitution.
+
+"Dysentery may be a symptom and concomitant of other diseases. It is one
+of the most fearful characteristics of murrain; it is the destructive
+accompaniment, or consequence, of phthisis. It is produced by the sudden
+disappearance of a cutaneous eruption; it follows the cessation of
+chronic hoose; it is the consequence of the natural or artificial
+suspension of every secretion. Were any secretion to be particularly
+selected, the repression of which would produce dysentery, it would be
+that of the milk. How often does the farmer observe that no sooner does
+a milch cow cease her usual supply of milk than she begins to purge!
+There may not appear to be any thing else the matter with her; but she
+purges, and, in the majority of cases, that purging is fatal.
+
+"It may, sometimes, however, be traced to sufficient causes, exclusive
+of previous disease. Unwholesome food--exposure to cold--neglect at
+the time of calving--low and marshy situations--the feeding in meadows
+that have been flooded, where it is peculiarly fatal--the grazing
+(according to Mr. Leigh, and our experience confirms his statement) upon
+the clays lying over the blue lias rock--the neighborhood of woods and
+of half-stagnant rivers--the continuation of unusually sultry
+weather--overwork, and all the causes of acute dysentery, may produce
+that of a chronic nature; an acute dysentery--neglected, or badly, or
+even most skillfully treated--may degenerate into an incurable chronic
+affection. Half starve a cow, or over-feed her, milk her to exhaustion,
+or dry her milk too rapidly--and dysentery may follow.
+
+"The following will, probably, be the order of the symptoms, if they are
+carefully observed: There will be a little dullness or anxiety of
+countenance, the muzzle becoming short or contracted; a slight shrinking
+when the loins are pressed upon; the skin a little harsh and dry; the
+hair a little rough; there will be a slight degree of uneasiness and
+shivering that scarcely attracts attention; then--except it be the
+degeneracy of acute into chronic dysentery--constipation may be
+perceived. It will be to a certain extent, obstinate; the excrement will
+voided with pain; it will be dry, hard, and expelled in small
+quantities. In other cases, perhaps, purging will be present from the
+beginning; the animal will be tormented with _tenesmus_, or frequent
+desire to void its excrement, and that act attended by straining and
+pain, by soreness about the _anus_, and protrusion of the _rectum_, and
+sometimes by severe colicky spasms. In many cases, however, and in those
+of a chronic form, few of these distressing symptoms are observed, even
+at the commencement of the disease; but the animal voids her _faeces_
+oftener than it is natural that she should, and they are more fluid than
+in a state of health; while at the same time she loses her appetite and
+spirits and condition, and is evidently wasting away."
+
+_Treatment._--Give one drachm of the extract of belladonna, three times
+a day, dissolved in water; or calomel and powdered opium, of each one
+drachm three times daily. As soon as the inflammatory stage passes by,
+give one of the following three times daily, in their gruel: nitrate of
+potash pulverized, gentian-root pulverized, of each one ounce;
+pulverized Jamaica ginger, one half an ounce; pulverized caraway, or
+anise-seed, six drachms. A bottle of porter given once or twice a day,
+will be found of very great advantage.
+
+
+ENTERITIS.
+
+This is an inflammation of the external or internal coat of the
+intestines, sometimes attended with violent purging, especially when it
+is confined to the internal coats. Oxen in good condition are more
+subject to this disease than are cows. It most frequently occurs in dry,
+hot weather. It is sudden in its attacks, and often fatal in its
+termination.
+
+_Symptoms._--The animal is dull, and not disposed to move about; the
+muzzle is dry, and the coat staring; the animal yields, on pressure of
+the _loins_; a weak, staggering gait, when forced to move; respiration
+hurried; pulse accelerated but small; eyes red, full and fiery; head
+protruding; mouth, ears, and horns hot; appetite bad; rumination ceases;
+the bowels become constipated; the animal moans continually, and froths
+at the mouth. These symptoms violently increase as the disease advances.
+The animal becomes more depressed and feeble, grinds his teeth, and
+appears half unconscious, and dies in convulsions.
+
+Of the causes of this disease, Youatt, who is almost the only authority
+we have upon this subject, says: "It seems occasionally to be epidemic;
+for several instances of it occur, of the same character, and in the
+same district. M. Cruzel gives an illustration of this in his
+description of the disease that destroyed so many cattle, in the years
+1826 to 1827, in the Department _de la Nievre_. Out of two hundred and
+eighteen cattle belonging to three farmers, one hundred and thirteen
+were attacked by this disease, and eighty-three of them died. One farmer
+in a neighboring district had nineteen head of cattle, all of which
+sickened, but only three were lost. These were unusually hot summers.
+The upland pasture was burnt up, or what remained of it was rendered
+unusually stimulating; and the acrid plants of the marshes and low
+grounds acquired additional deleterious agency.
+
+"When isolated cases occur, they may generally be attributed to
+mismanagement. Exposure to cold, or the drinking of cold water when
+overheated with work; too hard work in sultry weather; the use of water
+stagnant, impure, or containing any considerable quantity of metallic
+salts; the sudden revulsion of some cutaneous eruption; the crowding of
+animals into a confined place; too luxuriant and stimulating food
+generally; and the mildewed and unwholesome food on which cattle are too
+often kept, are fruitful sources of this complaint."
+
+_Treatment._--In the early stage of the disease, give an active purge,
+and follow it with ten drops of Fleming's tincture of aconite, four
+times daily, for two days; then give drachm doses of the extract of
+belladonna; give no food for twenty-four or forty-eight hours, according
+to circumstances. Bleeding, if done early, is often beneficial.
+Counter-irritants to the belly are also recommended; the best are
+mustard, hartshorn, and water, mixed together--or tincture of
+cantharides, with one drachm of croton-oil added to every ounce.
+
+
+EPIZOOeTICS.
+
+Diseases of this class have the same relation to the inferior animals
+that epidemic diseases have to man. Of course, they assume a very
+pestilential character. Scarcely a year passes away without diseases of
+this nature making their appearance in some parts of the world. They
+occur at all seasons of the year, but more generally prevail in the
+spring and fall. The period of their duration varies from months to
+years. They are, at times, mild in their attacks, and yield readily to
+proper treatment; at other times, they become painful pestilences,
+destroying every thing in their course.
+
+The causes are generally sought for in some peculiar condition of the
+atmosphere. The use of the milk and flesh of diseased cattle has
+frequently been productive of malignant diseases in the human family.
+
+Silius Italicus describes a fearful epizooetic, which first attacked the
+dog, then the feathered biped, then horses, and cattle, and, last of
+all, the human being.
+
+     "On mules and dogs the infection first began,
+     And, last, the vengeful arrows fixed in man."
+
+Epizooetics, occurring in rats, cats, dogs, horses, and cattle, which
+were followed in the succeeding years by more fearful ones which
+attacked the human family, are numerously recorded. These scourges have
+appeared in all ages of the world; but, as time and space will not allow
+our entering upon an extended consideration of them,--however
+interesting they might be to the general reader,--we shall content
+ourselves by quoting, somewhat in brief, from the lectures of the late
+William Youatt on these fatal maladies:--
+
+"In the year 801, and at the commencement of the reign of Charlemagne,
+an epidemic disease devastated a great portion of his dominions. This
+was attributed to the villainy of the Duke of Benevento, who was said to
+have employed a great many persons in scattering an enchanted powder
+over the fields, which destroyed both the cattle and the food of the
+cattle. M. Paulet seems inclined to give full credence to this, and says
+that history offers many proofs of this destructive and diabolical
+practice. He affirms that many persons were punished in Germany,
+France, and, particularly, at Toulouse, for the commission of this
+crime. Several of the suspected agents of these atrocities were put to
+the torture and made full confession of their crime.
+
+"Of the occurrence of these diseases from the year 800 to 1316,--an
+interval of mental darkness, and of horrors and calamities of every
+kind,--history records twenty cases, more or less destructive, and
+extending, with greater or less devastation, over France and Germany,
+Italy and England. Of these twenty, four date their origin from an
+excessive moisture in the air, accompanied by almost continual rains,
+and flooding the country to a considerable extent. One was supposed to
+be the consequence of long-continued drought and excessive heat; one was
+traced to the influence of an eclipse of the sun; another, to a comet;
+and a fourth, to a most unusually stormy winter. The reader will have
+the kindness to remember that we are here expressing the opinions of the
+writers of the day, and by no means, our own belief of the matter.
+
+"Of the four which trace their origin to extreme wet and its
+consequences, the first occurred in France, in 820, after a long
+continuance of rain; and it was equally fatal to men and cattle. The
+second, which was equally fatal to both, appeared in Lorraine, in 889.
+The third broke out among the cavalry of the army of Arnoul, in its
+passage over the Alps, on its return to Italy. The fourth pervaded the
+whole of England in 1125, and was equally fatal to the biped and the
+quadruped.
+
+"That which followed excessive heat and drought, was generally prevalent
+throughout Europe, but especially so in Germany. It attacked oxen,
+sheep, and pigs. It appeared in 994, and lasted six months.
+
+"The one which was attributed to the comet, and which principally
+attacked cattle, appeared in France in 943 Almost every animal perished.
+
+"Another, that was supposed to be connected with an eclipse of the sun,
+was prevalent throughout the greater part of Germany, among men and
+animals, in 989.
+
+"The disease, which was the consequence of a cold and boisterous winter,
+was principally prevalent in France, in 887, and committed sad ravages
+among the herds of cattle and sheep.
+
+"Of the twelve others, of which, authors do not indicate the cause, the
+first was in France, in 810, and principally among cattle. The second
+was also in France, in 850, and almost depopulated the country of
+cattle. The third, in 868, was common to all animals in France. The
+fourth, in 870, was in the same country, and caused severe loss among
+cattle. The fifth prevailed on the Rhine and in Germany, and destroyed
+an almost incalculable number of cattle. The sixth attacked the horses
+of the army of Arnoul in Lorraine, in 888. The seventh, in 940,
+destroyed a vast number of cattle in France, Italy, and Germany. The
+eighth and ninth were in France, in 941 and 942, and almost all the
+cattle in the country perished. The tenth pestilence broke out in
+England, in the year 1041, and frightful was its devastation among all
+animals, and, particularly, horned cattle. The eleventh also devastated
+our country, in 1103, and the ravages were dreadful. The twelfth was
+chiefly fatal in Germany, and particularly in Gueldres, in 1149.
+
+"These twenty pestilences occurred in the space of 506 years. Five or
+six of them were most prevalent among cattle; two were almost confined
+to horses; twelve included, to a greater or less degree, almost every
+species of quadrupeds; and four extended to the human being. Among these
+the ravages of eight were most destructive in France; as many in
+Germany; and four in Italy and England.
+
+"As far as we have hitherto proceeded, it will also appear that cattle
+are more subject to these diseases than any other species of
+domesticated animals, and that the pestilence is always most fearful
+among them. It is also evident that the maladies which proceed from cold
+or humidity are more frequent in the temperate and southern parts of
+Europe than those which depend upon drought, or almost any other cause.
+
+"The malady lingers in different countries, in proportion to its want of
+power to accomplish at once all its devastation.
+
+"After this time, there are few satisfactory accounts of these diseases
+for more than five centuries. We only know that, occasionally suspending
+their ravages,--or, rather, visiting new districts when they had ceased
+to desolate others--they have continued to be objects of terror and
+instruments of devastation, even unto the present day; and it is only
+within a few years that they have been really understood, and have
+become, to a certain degree, manageable."
+
+In the United States, epizooetic diseases have been of frequent
+occurrence; but, owing to the want of properly qualified veterinary
+surgeons, they have not, until within a very recent period, been
+properly described or understood. The day however, is fast approaching
+when this void will be filled, and when epizooetic and other diseases
+will be correctly noted and recorded. The necessity for this must have
+been forcibly impressed upon the minds of the inhabitants of our country
+from the experience of the last ten or twelve years.
+
+Respecting the late epizooetic among cattle in Portage County, Ohio,
+William Pierce, V.S., of Ravenna, thus describes the symptoms as they
+appeared, in a letter to the author: "A highly-colored appearance of the
+sclerotic coat of the eye, also of the _conjunctiva_ (a lining membrane
+of the eyelid) and the Schneiderian membrane of the nose; a high animal
+heat about the head and horns; a highly inflammatory condition of the
+blood; contraction of all the abdominal viscera; hurried respiration;
+great prostration and nervous debility; lameness; followed by gangrene
+of the extremity of the tail, and the hind-feet; terminating in
+mortification and death."
+
+Mr. Pierce is convinced that these symptoms are produced by the
+continued use of the ergot, or spur of the June grass,--the effects
+being similar to those produced upon the human family by long-continued
+use of ergot of rye. This disease assumes both an acute and chronic
+form.
+
+The same gentleman also says: "Ordinary observers, as well as those who
+claim to be scientific, have entertained very conflicting opinions as to
+its general character; some regarding it as epizooetic, others as
+contagious; some attributing it to atmospheric influence, others to
+foulings in the stable or yard. Others, again, attribute it to freezing
+of the feet in winter. Cattle-doctors in a majority of cases, fail to
+cure it. I have, however, by a simple course of treatment, effected
+many signal cures. Some parties are so confident of the contagious
+character of the disease that they refuse to drive cattle along a road
+where it is known to exist. They even, oftentimes, wash their boots
+previous to entering their barnyards, after walking over the ground
+where such diseased cattle have been running.
+
+"Caution is both proper and commendable. I do not, however, regard it as
+a contagious disease, nor can it be transmitted by inoculation. The calf
+is carried during the progress of the disease, and delivered in
+apparently good health. The milk of the cow appears to be unaffected and
+harmless. I call this disease _sphacial fever_, or _gangrenous fever_.
+
+[Illustration: THE MAD BULL.]
+
+"The ergot, or spur of the hay, is confined to the June grass, as far as
+my observation extends; owing, probably, to its early maturity. Most
+other kinds of grass are cut before the seeds have matured sufficiently
+to produce the spur. I was suspicious of the foulness of the feed before
+I examined any hay, and have found the spur in the hay wherever the
+disease is found.
+
+"Mr. Sanford, of Edinburgh, Ohio, purchased one half of a mow of hay
+from Mr. Bassett, of Randolph, which was removed to his farm in
+Randolph, eight miles distant. Of this hay, Mr. Sanford fed eleven cows
+some six or eight weeks. Mr. Bassett had been feeding the same to four
+cows. At about the same time, both heads began to show lameness. I
+visited Mr. S. after he had lost six cows, and examined the remaining
+five, four of which were lame and the other showed symptoms of the
+disease. He had two other cows, one of which was loaned to a neighbor,
+and the other was fed upon different hay, for convenience. The loaned
+cow was returned about the first of March,--the two then running with
+the ailing ones until the 24th of April, when I saw them sound and in
+good health.
+
+"I then visited Mr. Bassett's stock, which I found infected with the
+same disease,--he having lost one, and the remaining three being lame,
+and much debilitated. The hoofs were sloughing off. Some of the same hay
+remained in the snow, which, upon examination, exhibited an abundance of
+the spur. Upon inquiry, I found that no such disease existed between the
+two farms, or in the neighborhood of either Mr. S. or Mr. B. The
+peculiarity of this circumstance at once swept away the last vestige of
+doubt from my mind. Mr. E. Chapman, of Rootstown, accompanied me, and
+can vouch for the correctness of these statements.
+
+"He hooted at my opinions, asserting that he understood the disease, and
+that it was caused by the freezing of the feet. He has since, however,
+abandoned that idea, and honestly 'acknowledged the corn.' This ergot is
+regarded by some as a parasitic fungus, formed in other grains, an
+abundant vegeto-animal substance, and much disposed to putrefaction. We
+appear to be in the dark regarding its real composition. The little
+which has been written upon the subject, appears to be founded upon
+hypothesis, and that the most obscure. The articles to which I refer may
+differ in quality or property to a considerable extent, and we may
+forever remain in the dark, unless chemical investigation be instituted.
+
+"In this particular disease, there appears to be singularity in the
+symptoms through all its various stages, which is likely to originate in
+the peculiarity of the cause which produces them. The effects and
+symptoms arising from the continued use of the ergot of rye, as
+manifested in the human system, have been but briefly hinted at by
+authors, and, probably, some of them are only reasonable conjectures.
+All they say is, that it produces violent headache, spaculation in the
+extremities, and death. Hitherto, its effects upon the inferior animal
+have been subjected to no investigation, and its peculiarity in the
+symptoms, differing from like phenomena by other causes, may yet be
+demonstrated. I am not alone in my opinion of this disease. I have taken
+counsel of those whose judgment cannot be questioned. Whatever
+difference of opinion exists is attributable to a want of investigation,
+and it will continue to exist until this singular phenomenon is clearly
+accounted for. Every opinion should be thoroughly criticized till facts
+are obtained. Every man's opinion is sacred to himself, but we should
+yield to conviction.
+
+"Two classes of this disease are exhibited: one, of irritation, and the
+other, of debility; one, an acute, the other, a chronic form. The point
+at which it assumes the chronic form is between congestion and
+gangrene. By close observation we can discover these to be different and
+higher degrees of the same disease. All subsequent degrees are dependent
+upon the first.
+
+"The first symptom, or degree, is, probably, an attack upon the
+systematic circulation, produced by a certain medicinal and deleterious
+property existing in the ergot, and communicated to the blood through
+the absorption of the tongue. This is more evident from the fact that
+the digestive organs retain their normal condition till the last stages
+of the chronic form. The blood in the first two stages is healthy, and
+the peculiar influence is only apparent in the subsequent stages; as
+evidenced by the fact that the muscles and general good appearance, as
+well as life itself, last longer than could be possible, if this
+deleterious influence were exhausted upon the digestive organs and the
+blood, in its first stages. And, as we suppose that fever and congestion
+constitute an attack upon the red blood, which is exhibited by hurried
+pulsation, we might rationally infer that the next degree would be
+gangrene of the globule, causing sloughing, the same as if it were
+carried to the muscles, or surface. This sloughing of the globule would
+be the same as if exhibited on any other part of the organization, for
+the fibrin is identical with muscle, as albumen is identical with the
+white of an egg; and since congestion is the forerunner of gangrene at
+the extremities, or on the surface, so fever and quick pulsation are the
+forerunners of congestion of the blood. Gangrene cannot ensue without
+obstruction in the blood-vessels; and congestion cannot take place
+without obstruction in that which sustains the globule. As gangrene,
+then, is the first stage of decomposition of animal matter, so is
+congestion the first stage of decomposition of the globule; and as
+mortification is death in the organized body, so is congestion death in
+the organized globule.
+
+"It appears evident that this disease, in all its forms and degrees of
+intensity, seeks vent or release; in other words, Nature conflicting
+with it, throws it off its track, or balance, and offers means of
+escape, or shows it a door by which it may make its exit. In the first
+stage of the disease, the dermoid (skin) tissues make the effort. In the
+inflammatory, the serous, and the congestive, the mucous gangrene seeks
+vent; if obtained, mortification is prevented; if not, mortification
+directly supervenes, and death terminates the case.
+
+"In the case to which I refer, observation confirms my opinion that
+absolute mortification without vent determines the gangrene of the
+blood, and is hardly curable; but that gangrene's finding vent
+determines it to be curable, and the recovery highly probable."
+
+
+EPIZOOeTIC CATARRH.
+
+Catarrh frequently assumes an epizooetic form of a very virulent
+character, originating spontaneously and extending over a large section
+of country at or about the same time. A cold spring succeeding a mild
+winter, is peculiarly productive of malignant catarrh. This is one of
+the most distressing and fatal diseases to which cattle are subject.
+
+_Symptoms._--The animal appears dull, and unwilling to move about,
+staggering when forced to do so; obstinate costiveness is usually one of
+the earliest symptoms, succeeded by diarrhoea, which is equally
+difficult of management; sometimes, however, diarrhoea is present
+from the first; the animal loses flesh rapidly; the coat is staring;
+appetite is lost; tumors form about the head, neck, back, and joints,
+which appear to be filled with air, and upon pressure cause a
+crepitating sound; saliva flows from the mouth, becoming very fetid as
+the disease progresses. The animal always dies of putrefaction.
+
+_Treatment._--This disease should be treated early, or not at all. Good
+nursing is very essential. When costiveness is present, give Barbadoes
+aloes, one ounce; croton-oil, ten drops; mix together; or give one pint
+of linseed-oil, to which add from ten to twenty drops of castor-oil. If
+the bowels are not open in twenty-four hours, give four ounces of
+sulphate of magnesia every six hours until they are opened. Follow this
+with tincture of aconite, ten drops in water, every four hours, until
+the fever has abated.
+
+Bleeding has been recommended by some writers; but the author has failed
+to experience any benefit from resorting to it, but, on the contrary,
+has seen much injury result from the use--or, rather, the abuse--of the
+lancet. He is, indeed, inclined to attribute much of the fatality
+attending this disease to indiscriminate blood-letting.
+
+When much debility exists, the animal should be sustained by tonics and
+stimulants. One ounce of nitric ether and half an ounce of tincture of
+opium, given in a little water, will be found beneficial. It should be
+given twice a day. Pulverized gentian-root, one ounce; Jamaica ginger,
+half an ounce; pulverized cloves, half an ounce; mixed, and divided into
+four powders, one to be given at night and at morning; will be found
+useful, in place of the opium and ether.
+
+
+FARDEL.
+
+This disease is properly known by the name of clue-bound. The manyplus,
+or omasum (third stomach), frequently becomes so choked up with food
+that it is hard and dry, and the operation of the digestive organs is
+very seriously impaired. The animal eats voraciously, for a time, but
+stops suddenly and trembles; the countenance assumes a peculiarly
+haggard appearance; there is a wild expression of the eye; a foaming at
+the mouth; a tendency to pitch forward, and at times a falling
+head-foremost to the ground. Occasionally, the symptoms are very active,
+speedily terminating in death. There are few diseases of a
+constitutional character in which the stomach is not, more or less,
+sympathetically involved.
+
+"Toward the end of September, 1746, a great number of cows died at
+Osterwich, in the principality of Halberstadt. Lieberkuhn, a celebrated
+physician,--there were no veterinary surgeons at that time,--was sent to
+examine into the nature of the disease, which was supposed to be one of
+the species of murrain that was then committing such ravages among the
+cattle in various parts of the Continent. There were none of the tumors,
+or pestilential buboes, that, in an earlier or later period of the
+malady, usually accompanied and characterized murrain; but upon
+inspection of the dead bodies, considerable peritoneal inflammation was
+found; the first and second stomachs were filled with food, but the
+third stomach was the palpable seat of the disease; its leaves were
+black and gangrened. The mass contained between the leaves was black,
+dry, and so hard that it could scarcely be cut with a scalpel. It
+intercepted the passage of the food from the first two stomachs to the
+fourth; and this latter stomach was empty and much inflamed. Neither the
+heart, nor the lungs, nor the intestines exhibited any trace of disease.
+Twelve cows were opened, and the appearances were nearly the same in all
+of them."
+
+_Treatment._--Give one and a half pounds of Epsom-salts, dissolved in
+three pints of water; or one quart of potash, three times daily,
+dissolved in water, will be found useful in this disease.
+
+
+FOUL IN THE FOOT.
+
+This is caused by hard or irritating substances making their way in
+between the claws of the foot, causing inflammation, and sometimes
+ulceration, in the parts. The pasterns swell, and the animal becomes
+lame.
+
+The foot should be thoroughly washed, and all foreign substances
+removed. A pledget of tow, saturated with tar and sprinkled with
+powdered sulphate of copper, should be inserted between the claws. This
+usually requires but one or two applications.
+
+
+GARGET.
+
+This is a hard, knotty condition of the udder, which sometimes follows
+calving, in consequence of the sudden distention of the bag with milk;
+and the inflammation which supervenes causes a congealed or coagulated
+condition of the milk to take place, of which, if neglected, suppuration
+and abscesses are the result.
+
+_Treatment._--Let the calf suck the dam as speedily as possible, and, if
+the hardness is not then removed, foment the udder with warm water;
+after which, wipe it dry, and apply to the entire surface melted lard as
+hot as the animal will bear. This is, generally, all that is required,
+the most obstinate cases yielding to it. If abscesses form, they should
+be lanced.
+
+
+GASTRO-ENTERITIS.
+
+This disease--otherwise known as wood-evil, or moor-ill--arises from
+eating the buds of oak, young ash, and other trees, which are of a very
+highly stimulating or irritating character. As the intestinal canal is
+liable to inflammatory action from irritant substances admitted into it,
+animals are found to become diseased from eating too freely of these
+vegetable substances.
+
+_Symptoms._--Loss of appetite and suspended rumination; mouth hot; skin
+dry; pulse from sixty to seventy; swelling and pain of the belly;
+obstinate constipation; faeces hard and covered with blood; urine of a
+strong odor, highly colored, and voided with difficulty.
+
+_Treatment._--The animal should be bled, and a strong purgative
+administered, followed by aconite and belladonna, as in enteritis.
+Injections of Castile-soap and water should be freely used; the
+application of the mustard, hartshorn, and water to the belly will also
+be found very beneficial.
+
+
+HOOSE.
+
+This disease--known also as catarrh--is occasionally the sequence of
+coryza, but more frequently it arises from an impure atmosphere;
+consequently, in cow-houses where animals are crowded together in
+numbers, it is most frequently found. Scanty provender, and of an
+inferior quality, is among the exciting causes of hoose, producing, as
+it does, a debilitated state of the system, which, upon exposure of the
+animal to cold, or wet, hastens the disorder. Some breeds of cattle are
+peculiarly liable to this disease, which, if not arrested in its early
+stage, runs on, involving the lungs, and frequently terminating in
+consumption. Of all our domestic animals, neat cattle are most subject
+to pulmonary diseases. This is attributable to the neglect and exposure
+which are far too often their lot. Butchers will testify that a large
+portion of all cattle slaughtered have abscesses and other diseases of
+the lungs.
+
+_Symptoms._--Loss of appetite; muzzle dry; coat rough, or staring;
+respiration quickened; horns hot; ears, nose, and legs cold; husky
+cough; pulse from sixty to seventy, small and thready; bowels frequently
+constipated.
+
+_Treatment._--Give one ounce of the following powders every six hours,
+until the bowels are opened: Barbadoes aloes, one and half ounces;
+nitrate of potassa, half an ounce; ginger, six drachms; mix and divide
+into six powders. Setons in the dewlap are often of great benefit.
+
+
+HOOVE.
+
+Hoove, or blown, so common, and often so speedily fatal in cattle, is
+the result of fermentation in the _rumen_, or paunch, in consequence of
+the animal's having eaten large quantities of wet grass, luxuriant
+clover, turnips, etc. An accumulation of gas is the result of this
+fermentation, which greatly disturbs the haunch and left side of the
+belly, causing much pain to the animal, and frequently threatening
+suffocation.
+
+_Treatment._--Drench the animal with one ounce of spirits of hartshorn
+in one quart of water, the object being to neutralize the gas which is
+present in the rumen; or, two ounces of table salt dissolved in one
+quart of water will be found very effectual. If these do not speedily
+give relief, an active purge should be given. Injections of soap and
+water should be freely used. If the case still proves obstinate, and the
+life of the animal is threatened, the paunch should be punctured. For
+this purpose, the trochar--an instrument specially adapted--should be
+used; but, in the absence of an instrument, an ordinary pocket-knife may
+be employed, taking care not to make a large opening. The proper point
+to operate is midway between the last rib and the prominent point of the
+hip-bone, about twelve inches from the centre of the back or loins. Few
+cases have a fatal termination where this operation has been properly
+performed.
+
+
+HYDATIDS.
+
+Worms in the brain occasionally occur, causing great uneasiness to the
+animal and generally proving fatal.
+
+The symptoms are, loss of appetite; suspended rumination; a fevered
+condition of the system; horns and ears hot; respiration disturbed; coat
+staring, etc. No course of treatment will prove efficacious in this
+disease.
+
+Pressure on the brain may occur from an accumulation of water, tumors,
+bruises, etc., in the cranial case. In either case, the same effects are
+produced as are observed in apoplexy.
+
+
+INFLAMMATION OF THE BLADDER.
+
+Inflammation of the bladder generally accompanies inflammation of the
+kidneys, though it is sometimes found disconnected and alone. It is
+occasionally caused by calculous concretions in the bladder,--which
+should be removed,--causing very acute abdominal pain to the animal. She
+makes frequent efforts to stale, passing but a few drops of urine at a
+time. The pulse is full and rapid; mouth clammy; nose dry; eyes
+bloodshot; appetite lost; moaning, and walking with a staggering gait.
+
+_Treatment._--Inject into the bladder one quart of tepid water, and from
+one to two ounces of tincture of opium mixed together. Give internally
+one of the following powders every hour until relieved; nitrate of
+potassa, one ounce; tartrate of antimony, and pulverized digitalis
+leaves, each one drachm; mix, and divide into six powders. Mucilaginous
+draughts should be freely given.
+
+Rupture of the bladder sometimes occurs, but there are no symptoms by
+which it may be known; and, if there were, no service could be rendered
+in the way of repairing the injury; the animal must die.
+
+
+INFLAMMATION OF THE HAW.
+
+The ox, like the horse, has a membrane of semilunar form in the inner
+corner of the eye, which is capable of being thrown over the entire
+eyeball, for the purpose of cleansing the eye from any foreign substance
+which may get into it. This membrane is commonly called the haw, and is
+susceptible of attacks of inflammation, which cause it to swell,
+frequently even closing up the eye.
+
+_Treatment._--Give a dose of physic, and, if the animal is plethoric,
+extract a little blood from the vein on the same side as the affected
+eye. Apply to the eye either of the following washes: tincture of opium,
+one ounce; rain-water, one pint; or, tincture of aconite, one drachm, to
+one pint of water. Bathe two or three times a day.
+
+
+INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS.
+
+This disease--sometimes called nephritis--occurs occasionally in cattle
+in consequence of their eating bad or unwholesome food, or of the abuse
+of diuretics, etc.
+
+The symptoms are very insidious in their approach. The loins are very
+tender upon pressure; the urine is voided in small quantities. As the
+disease advances, the symptoms become more marked and acute. The animal
+is dull, and feeds daintily; the evacuation of urine is attended with
+increased pain, and the urine is highly colored and bloody; the nose is
+dry; the horns, ears, and extremities are cold; respiration hurried; the
+pulse full, hard, and throbbing.
+
+_Treatment._--Give one pint of linseed-oil and ten drops of castor-oil,
+mixed together; follow this with small doses of salts once a day, for
+three or four days; give injections of water, one half a gallon to two
+ounces of tincture of arnica. Mustard applications to the loins are also
+very useful.
+
+
+INFLAMMATION OF THE LIVER.
+
+Diseases of the liver are of very common occurrence,--a fact with which
+all beef-butchers are familiar. Perhaps no organ in the animal economy
+is so liable to disease. The obscurity of the symptoms and the good
+condition of the animal prevent its discovery, as a general thing,
+during its lifetime. When, however, the disease assumes an active
+form,--known as the yellows, jaundice, or inflammation of the
+liver,--the symptoms are more readily detected.
+
+_Symptoms._--A yellowish color of the eye will be observed; skin, urine,
+etc., highly colored; soreness, on pressure, on the right side; loss of
+appetite; dullness; constipation of the bowels, etc.
+
+_Treatment._--Calomel is the most reliable medicine known to
+practitioners for diseases of the liver. Its abuse, however, has brought
+it into disrepute. Yet, as with ordinary care it may be advantageously
+used, we will prescribe it as that upon which the most dependence is to
+be placed, and in doing so, will endeavor to have it used safely.
+Bleeding has been recommended: but the author has never found any
+benefit resulting. Give Epsom-salts, in doses of four ounces each, every
+night, with one scruple of calomel, until the animal is relieved.
+Mustard and water should be frequently applied to the right side, and
+well rubbed in.
+
+
+LARYNGITIS.
+
+This disease is of rare occurrence in cattle. In it, the mucous membrane
+lining the larynx is in a very irritable condition; the least pressure
+upon the parts affected causes intensely excruciating pain; the
+respiration becomes quick, painful, and laborious; the animal often
+appears to be hungry, yet does not eat much, in consequence of the pain
+occasioned by the act of swallowing.
+
+_Treatment._--Apply to the throat externally strong mustard, mixed, with
+equal parts of aqua ammonia and water, to a thin paste, every hour,
+until it produces an effect upon the skin; sponging the parts each time
+with warm water before applying the mustard. The animal should not be
+bled. Give upon the tongue, or in drink, half-drachm doses of nitrate of
+potassa, every three or four hours, until relief is obtained. If
+suffocation threatens, the operation of tracheotomy is the only resort.
+
+[Illustration: AN ABERDEENSHIRE POLLED BULL.]
+
+Cloths saturated with cold water, wrapped around the neck so as to cover
+the larynx, frequently afford relief. A purgative will also be found
+useful.
+
+
+LICE.
+
+Cattle are very subject to lice, particularly when they are neglected,
+half-starved, and in poor condition. Good care and good feeding--in
+connection with the treatment recommended in mange, to which the reader
+is referred--will comprise all that is requisite.
+
+
+MANGE.
+
+Mange, or leprosy, is one of the most unpleasant and difficult diseases
+to manage of all the ailments to which cattle are subject requiring the
+nicest care and attention to render it easy of cure. An animal badly
+nursed will not, under the most skillful treatment, quickly recover. Its
+causes are in the main, due to poor food, which produces a debilitated
+condition of the system, and in connection with a want of cleanliness,
+causes a development of the _acari_, or minute insects, exciting very
+great irritation upon the skin and causing the cow to rub herself
+against every object with which she comes in contact. The hair falls
+off; a scurfy appearance of the skin is perceptible; and the animal is
+poor in condition and in milk. The great trouble in treating this
+disease springs from its contagious character; for, no sooner is the
+animal, oftentimes, once free from the _acari_ than it comes in contact
+with some object against which it has previously been rubbing, when the
+_acari_ which were left upon that object are again brought in contact
+with the animal, and the disease is reproduced. If, immediately after
+the proper applications are made, the animal is removed to other
+quarters, and not allowed to return to the former ones for six or eight
+weeks, there is, generally speaking, but little trouble in treating the
+disease.
+
+Take the animal upon a warm, sunny day, and with a scrubbing-brush
+cleanse the skin thoroughly with Castile-soap and water; when dry, apply
+in the same manner the following mixture; white hellebore, one ounce;
+sulphur flower, three ounces; gas-water, one quart; mix all well
+together. One or two applications are, generally, all that will be
+required. Give internally one of the following powders in the feed,
+night and morning: flowers of sulphur, two ounces; black antimony, one
+ounce; nitrate of potassa, one ounce; mix, and divide into eight
+powders.
+
+
+MURRAIN.
+
+This is one of the most malignant diseases to which cattle are liable.
+Fortunately, however, true murrain is comparatively rare in this great
+stock-raising country.
+
+The entire system seems to partake of the disease. The first indication
+of its approach is a feverish condition of the system, attended with a
+frequent and painful cough; the pulse is small, hard, and rapid. As the
+disease advances, the respiration becomes disturbed; the flanks heave;
+vesicular eruption is observed upon the teats, mouth, and feet; the
+horns are cold; the animal is sometimes lame; constipation and,
+sometimes, diarrhoea are accompanying symptoms; _faeces_ black and
+fetid; the eyes weep and become much swollen; great tenderness along the
+spine; a brown or bloody discharge from the nose and mouth; the animal
+moans incessantly, grinds his teeth, rarely lies down, but to get up
+again quickly; finally, the breath becomes very offensive; tumors make
+their appearance in various parts of the body, which, in favorable
+cases, suppurate, and discharge a fetid matter.
+
+_Treatment._--Give one fourth of a pound of Epsom-salts, with one drachm
+of Jamaica ginger, twice a day, for two or three days. A bottle of
+porter, twice a day, will be found serviceable. Very little medicine is
+required internally in this disease, but much depends upon good nursing.
+External applications are chiefly to be depended upon. A solution of
+chloride of lime should be applied to the eruptions, or a solution of
+the chloride of zinc, twenty grains to an ounce of water; or, of
+sulphate of zinc, two drachms to a pint of water; or pulverized
+charcoal applied to the parts will be found useful.
+
+
+NAVEL-ILL.
+
+Inflammation of the navel in calves occasionally occurs, causing
+redness, pain, and sudden swelling in the part affected. This disease,
+if not promptly attended to, speedily carries off the creature.
+
+_Treatment._--Foment the part well with warm hop-tea; after which, the
+application of a cloth, well saturated with lead-water and secured by
+bandages, should be applied. Internally, doses of Epsom-salts, of two
+ounces each, dissolved in half a pint of water, should be given until
+the bowels are acted upon. After the inflammation has subsided, to
+counteract the weakness which may follow, give a bottle of porter two or
+three times a day.
+
+
+OBSTRUCTIONS IN THE OESOPHAGUS.
+
+Choking in cattle is of common occurrence, in consequence of turnips,
+potatoes, carrots, or other hard substances, becoming lodged in the
+oesophagus, or gullet.
+
+These obstructions can sometimes be removed by careful manipulations
+with the hand; but, where this can not be accomplished, the flexible
+probang should be employed. This is a long India-rubber tube, with a
+whalebone stillet running through it, so as to stiffen it when in use.
+This instrument is passed down the animal's throat, and the offending
+substance is thus pushed down into the stomach.
+
+
+OPEN JOINTS.
+
+Opening of the joint generally results from accidents, from puncturing
+with sharp substances, from kicks, blows, etc. These injuries cause
+considerable nervous irritation in the system, and sometimes cause
+lock-jaw and death.
+
+_Treatment._--Close up the wound as speedily as possible. The
+firing-iron will sometimes answer the purpose very well. The author
+depends more upon the application of collodion--as recommended in his
+work upon "The Horse and His Diseases" for the same trouble--than upon
+any other remedy. It requires care in its application, in order to make
+it adhere firmly. Shoemakers'-wax, melted and applied, answers a very
+good purpose.
+
+
+PARTURITION.
+
+In natural labor--as has been suggested in a former part of this
+work--the aid of man is rarely required in bringing away the calf. But
+it not infrequently happens that, from malformation or wrong
+presentation, our assistance is required in order to deliver the animal.
+
+The brute force, which has been far too often heretofore resorted to,
+should no longer be tolerated, since the lives of many valuable animals
+have been sacrificed by such treatment. Very often, by gentle
+manipulation with the greased hand, the womb can be so dilated as to
+afford a comparatively easy exit for the _foetus_.
+
+If, however, the calf is presented wrong, it must be pushed back and
+placed in its proper position, if possible. In natural labor, the
+fore-legs, with the head lying between them, are presented; in which
+position--unless deformity, either in the _pelvis_ of the cow, or in the
+_foetus_, exists--the calf is passed with little difficulty, and
+without assistance. It sometimes happens that the head of the foetus
+is turned backward. When this happens, the attendant should at once
+strip himself to the waist, bathe his arms, and hands with a little
+sweet-oil, or lard, and introduce them into the _vagina_, placing a cord
+around both fore-feet, and then, pushing them back, search for the head,
+which is to be brought forward to its proper position. The feet are next
+to be brought up with it. No force should be used, except when the cow
+herself makes the effort to expel the calf; otherwise, more harm than
+good may be done.
+
+A case of this kind recently occurred in the author's practice, being
+the third within a year. The subject was a cow belonging to William
+Hance, Esq., of Bordentown, New Jersey. After she had been in labor for
+some twenty hours, he was called upon to see her. Upon inquiry, he found
+that several persons had been trying, without success, to relieve her.
+She was very much prostrated, and would, doubtless, have died within two
+or three hours, had no relief been afforded. The legs of the _foetus_
+protruded as far as the knees; the head was turned backward, and with
+the body, pressed firmly into the _vagina_, so that it was impossible to
+return it, or to bring the head forward. The operation of embryotomy
+was, therefore, at once performed, by cutting away the right shoulder,
+which enabled the operator, with the aid of his appropriate hooks, to
+bring the head forward, when the calf came away without further
+trouble,--the whole operation not requiring fifteen minutes. The
+_uterus_ was then washed out, and the animal placed in as comfortable a
+position as possible, and a stimulating draught given, composed of two
+ounces of nitric ether, one ounce of tincture of opium, and a half pint
+of water. This was followed with a few doses of Fleming's tincture of
+aconite, ten drops in a little water, every few hours. In a few days the
+animal had entirely recovered.
+
+Occasionally, the head comes first, or the head and one leg. In such
+cases, a cord should be slipped around the jaw and leg, and these then
+pushed back, so as to allow the other leg to be brought up. When this
+cannot be done, the _foetus_ can, in most cases, be removed in the
+original position.
+
+Breech, side, back, and other presentations sometimes occur; in all of
+which instances, the _foetus_ must be turned in such a position that
+it can be brought away with as little trouble as possible. When this
+cannot be accomplished, the only resort is embryotomy, or cutting up of
+the _foetus_, which operation can only be safely performed by the
+qualified veterinary surgeon.
+
+Since writing the above, another case has occurred in the author's
+practice. The cow--belonging to Samuel Barton, Esq., near Bordentown,
+New Jersey--had been in labor some eighteen hours; upon an examination
+of the animal, the calf was found to be very much deformed, presenting
+backwards,--one of the hind-legs having been pulled off by the person or
+persons assisting her previous to the author's arrival. Finding it
+impossible to deliver her in the usual way, embryotomy was in this
+instance employed. By this means, after taking out the intestines,
+lungs, etc., of the _foetus_, and cutting away its hind-quarters, the
+fore-parts were brought away. The head presented a singular appearance;
+the under jaw was so twisted as to bring the front teeth on the side of
+the face; the spinal column or back-bone, was turned twice around,
+resembling a spiral string; the front legs were over the back; the ribs
+were much contorted; the hind-parts were as much deformed; and, taken
+altogether, the deformity was the most singular which has been brought
+under the author's observation.
+
+FREE MARTINS.--It has long been supposed by stockbreeders, that if a cow
+produce twins, one of which is a male and the other a female, the female
+is incapable of producing young, but that the male may be a useful
+animal for breeding purposes. Many instances have occurred when the twin
+sister of a bull has never shown the least desire for the male.
+
+This indifference to sexual commerce arises, doubtless, from the
+animal's being but imperfectly developed in the organs of generation.
+This fact has been established by the investigations of Mr. John Hunter,
+who had three of these animals slaughtered for anatomical examination.
+The result is thus reported: "The external parts were rather smaller
+than is customary in the cow. The _vagina_ passed on, as in the cow, to
+the opening of the _urethra_, and then it began to contract into a small
+canal, which passed on into the division of the _uterus_ into the two
+horns; each horn passed along the edge of the broad ligament laterally
+toward the _ovaria_.
+
+"At the termination of these horns were placed both the ovaries and the
+testicles. Both were nearly of the same size, which was about as large
+as a small nutmeg. To the _ovaria_, I could not find any Fallopian
+tube.
+
+"To the testicles were _vasa deferentia_, but they were imperfect. The
+left one did not come near the testicle; the right one only came close
+to it, but did not terminate in the body called the _epididymis_. They
+were both pervious and opened into the _vagina_, near the opening of the
+_urethra_.
+
+"On the posterior surface of the bladder, or between the _uterus_ and
+the bladder, were the two bags, called _vesiculae seminales_ in the male,
+but much smaller than they are in the bull. The ducts opened along with
+the _vasa deferentia_. This animal, then, had a mixture of all the
+parts, but all of them were imperfect."
+
+Well-authenticated cases have, however, occurred where the female has
+bred, and the offspring proved to be good milkers. There are several
+instances on record of cows' giving birth to three, four, and even five
+calves at a time. There were on exhibition, in 1862, at Bordentown, New
+Jersey, three free martins, two sisters and a brother, which were
+beautiful animals. These were from a cow belonging to Mr. Joab Mershon,
+residing on Biles Island, situated in the Delaware River, a short
+distance above Bordentown. They were calved November 1st, 1858, and were
+therefore nearly four years of age. They had never shown the least
+desire for copulation. Their aggregate weight was 4300 pounds.
+
+We extract the following from the London Veterinarian, for 1854:--"A
+cow, belonging to Mr. John Marshall, of Repton, on Wednesday last, gave
+birth to _five, live healthy calves_, all of which are, at the time I
+write, alive and vigorous, and have every appearance of continuing so.
+They are all nearly of a size, and are larger and stronger than could be
+supposed. Four of them are bull-calves.
+
+"The dam is by no means a large one, is eleven years old, of a mongrel
+breed, and has never produced more than one offspring at any previous
+gestation. I saw her two days after she had calved, at which time she
+was ruminating, and did not manifest any unusual symptoms of exhaustion.
+I may mention that the first four calves presented naturally; the fifth
+was a breech-presentation."
+
+CLEANSING.--The _placenta_, or after-birth, by which the _foetus_ is
+nourished while in embryo, should be removed soon after calving.
+Generally, it will come away without any assistance. This is what is
+called "cleansing after calving." When, however, it remains for some
+time, its function having been performed, it becomes a foreign body,
+exciting uterine contractions, and therefore injurious. The sooner,
+then, it is removed, the better for the animal as well as the owner. To
+accomplish this, the hand should be introduced, and, by pulling gently
+in various directions, it will soon yield and come away. Should it be
+allowed to remain, it rapidly decomposes, producing a low, feverish
+condition of the system, which greatly interferes with the general
+health of the animal.
+
+INVERSION OF THE UTERUS.--The _uterus_ is sometimes turned inside out
+after calving. This is, generally, the result of debility, or severe
+labor. The _uterus_ should be replaced as carefully as possible with the
+hands, care being taken that no dirt, straw, or other foreign substance
+adheres to it. Should it again be expelled, it would be advisable to
+quiet the system by the use of an anaesthetic, as chloroform, or--which
+is much safer--chloric ether. As soon as the animal is under the
+influence of this, the _uterus_ may be again replaced. The
+hind-quarters should be raised as high as possible, in order to favor
+its retention. The animal should have a little gruel and a bottle of
+porter given to her every five or six hours, and the _vulva_ should be
+bathed frequently with cold water.
+
+
+PHRENITIS.
+
+Inflammation of the brain is one of those dreadful diseases to which all
+animals are liable. It is known to the farmer as frenzy, mad staggers,
+etc.
+
+The active symptoms are preceded by stupor; the animal stubbornly stands
+in one position; the eyes are full, red, and fiery; respiration rapid;
+delirium soon succeeds; the animal, bellowing, dashes wildly about, and
+seems bent on mischief, rushing madly at every object which comes in its
+way.
+
+The causes of this disease are overwork in warm weather, a plethoric
+condition of the system, and too stimulating food. Prof. Gamgee, of the
+Edinburgh Veterinary College, relates a case resulting from the presence
+within the external _meatus_ of a mass of concrete cerumen, or wax,
+which induced inflammation of the ear, extending to the brain.
+
+_Treatment._--As this is attended with considerable risk, unless it is
+taken prior to the frenzied stage, bleeding almost to fainting should be
+resorted to, and followed by a brisk purge. Take one ounce of Barbadoes
+aloes, and ten to fifteen drops of Croton-oil; mix the aloes with one
+pint of water and the oil, using the mixture as a drench. One pound of
+Epsom-salts will answer the purpose very well, in cases where the aloes
+and oil cannot be readily obtained. Application of bags of broken ice to
+the head, is very beneficial. Spirits of turpentine, or mustard,
+together with spirits of hartshorn and water should be well rubbed in
+along the spine, from the neck to the tail.
+
+
+PLEURISY.
+
+This is an inflammation of the _pleura_, or the serous membrane which
+lines the cavity of the chest, and which is deflected over the lungs.
+Inflammation of this membrane rarely occurs in a pure form, but is more
+generally associated with inflammation of the tissue of the lungs. If
+this disease is not attended to at an early period, its usual
+termination is in hydrothorax, or dropsy of the chest. The same causes
+which produce inflammation of the lungs, of the bronchia, and of the
+other respiratory organs, produce also pleurisy.
+
+_Symptoms._--The respiration is quick, short, and painful; pressure
+between the ribs produces much pain; a low, short, painful cough is
+present; the respiratory murmur is much diminished,--in fact, it is
+scarcely audible. This condition is rapidly followed by effusion, which
+may be detected from the dullness of the sounds, on applying the ear to
+the lower part of the lungs. The febrile symptoms disappear; the animal
+for a few days appears to improve, but soon becomes weak, languid, and
+often exhausted from the slightest exertion.
+
+_Treatment._--The same treatment in the early stage is enjoined as in
+inflammatory pneumonia, which the reader will consult--counter-irritation
+and purgatives. Bleeding never should be resorted to. When effusion
+takes place, it is necessary to puncture the sides with a trochar, and
+draw away the fluid, giving internally one of the following purges three
+times a day: rosin, eight ounces; saltpetre, two ounces, mix, and divide
+into eight powders. Half-drachm doses of the iodide of potash,
+dissolved in water, to be given three times daily, will be found useful
+in this disease.
+
+
+PLEURO-PNEUMONIA.
+
+This disease, as its name implies, is an inflammatory condition of the
+lungs and the _pleura_, or the enveloping membrane of the lungs and the
+lining membrane of the chest. It is sometimes called contagious,
+infectious, and epizooetic pleuro-pneumonia,--contagious or infectious,
+from its supposed property of transmission from the diseased to the
+healthy animal.
+
+[Illustration: TAKING AN OBSERVATION.]
+
+A contagious character the author is not ready to assign to
+it,--contagious, as he understands it, being strictly applicable to
+those diseases which depend upon actual contact with the poison that it
+may be communicated from one animal to another. This does not
+necessarily imply the actual touching of the animals themselves; for it
+may be communicated from the poison left in the trough, or other places
+where the diseased animal has been brought in contact with some object,
+as is often the case in glanders in the horse; the matter discharged
+from the nose, and left upon the manger, readily communicating that
+disease to healthy animals coming in contact with it. Contagious
+diseases, therefore, travel very slowly, starting, as they do, at one
+point, and gradually spreading over a large district, or section of
+country.
+
+This disease is, however, regarded by the author as infectious; by which
+term is meant that it is capable of being communicated from the diseased
+to the healthy animal through the medium of the air, which has become
+contaminated by the exhalations of poisonous matter. The ability to
+inoculate other animals in this way is necessarily confined to a limited
+space, sometimes not extending more than a few yards. Infectious
+diseases, accordingly, spread with more rapidity than contagious ones,
+and are, consequently, more to be dreaded; since we can avoid the one
+with comparatively little trouble, while the other often steals upon us
+when we regard ourselves as beyond its influence, carrying death and
+destruction in its course.
+
+The term by which this disease is known, is a misnomer. Pleuro-pneumonia
+proper is neither a contagious, nor an infectious disease; hence, the
+denial of medical men that this so-called pleuro-pneumonia is a
+contagious, or infectious disease, has been the means of unnecessarily
+exposing many animals to its poisonous influence.
+
+In the _Recueil de Medecine Veterinaire_, for 1833, will be found a very
+interesting description of this fatal malady. The author, M. Lecoy,
+Assistant Professor at the Veterinary School of Lyons, France, says:
+"There are few districts in the _arrondissement_ of Avesnes where more
+cattle are fattened than in that of Soire-le-Chateau. The farmers being
+unable to obtain a sufficient supply of cattle in the district, are
+obliged to purchase the greater part of them from other provinces; and
+they procure a great number for grazing from Franche Comte. The cattle
+of this country are very handsome; their forms are compact; they fatten
+rapidly; and they are a kind of cattle from which the grazer would
+derive most advantage, were it not that certain diseases absorb, by the
+loss of some of the animals, the profits of the rest of the herd.
+Amongst the diseases which most frequently attack the cattle which are
+brought from the North, there is one very prevalent in some years, and
+which is the more to be dreaded as it is generally incurable; and the
+slaughter of the animal, before he is perceptibly wasted, is the only
+means by which the farmer can avoid losing the whole value of the beast.
+
+"This disease is chronic pleuro-pneumonia. The symptoms are scarcely
+recognizable at first, and often the beast is ill for a long time
+without its being perceived. He fattens well, and when he is slaughtered
+the owner is astonished to find scarcely half of the lungs capable of
+discharging the function of respiration. When, however, the ox has not
+sufficient strength of constitution to resist the ravages of disease,
+the first symptom which is observed is diminution, or irregularity of
+appetite. Soon afterwards, a frequent, dry cough is heard, which becomes
+feeble and painful as the disease proceeds. The dorso-lumbar portion of
+the spine (loins) grows tender; the animal flinches when the part is
+pressed upon, and utters a peculiar groan, or grunt, which the graziers
+regard as decisive of the malady.
+
+"Quickly after this, the movements of the flanks become irregular and
+accelerated, and the act of respiration is accompanied by a kind of
+balancing motion of the whole body. The sides of the chest become as
+tender as the loins, or more so; for the animal immediately throws
+himself down, if pressed upon with any force. The elbows become, in many
+subjects, more and more separated from the sides of the chest. The pulse
+is smaller than natural, and not considerably increased. The muzzle is
+hot and dry, alternately. The animal lies down as in a healthy state,
+but rumination is partially or entirely suspended. The _faeces_ are
+harder than they should be; the urine is of its natural color and
+quantity; the mouth is often dry; and the horns and ears retain their
+natural temperature.
+
+"This first stage of the disease sometimes continues during a month, or
+more, and then, if the animal is to recover, or at least, apparently so,
+the symptoms gradually disappear. First of all, the appetite returns,
+and the beast begins to acquire a little flesh. The proprietor should
+then make haste and get rid of him; for it is very rare that the malady,
+however it may be palliated for a while, does not reappear with greater
+intensity than before.
+
+"In most cases, the disease continues to pursue its course toward its
+termination without any remission,--every symptom gradually increasing
+in intensity. The respiration becomes more painful; the head is more
+extended; the eyes are brilliant; every expiration is accompanied with a
+grunt, and by a kind of puckering of the angles of the lips; the cough
+becomes smaller, more suppressed, and more painful; the tongue protrudes
+from the mouth, and a frothy mucus is abundantly discharged; the breath
+becomes offensive; a purulent fluid of a bloody color escapes from the
+nostrils; diarrhoea, profuse and fetid, succeeds to the constipation;
+the animal becomes rapidly weaker; he is a complete skeleton, and at
+length he dies.
+
+"Examination after death discloses slight traces of inflammation in the
+intestines, discoloration of the liver, and a hard, dry substance
+contained in the manyplus. The lungs adhere to the sides and to the
+diaphragm by numerous bands, evidently old and very firm. The substance
+of the lungs often presents a reddish-gray hepatization throughout
+almost its whole extent. At other times, there are tubercles in almost
+every state of hardness, and in that of suppuration. The portion of the
+lungs that is not hepatized is red, and gorged with blood. Besides the
+old adhesions, there are numerous ones of recent date. The pleura is not
+much reddened, but by its thickness in some points, its adhesion in
+others, and the effusion of a serous fluid, it proves how much and how
+long it has participated in the inflammatory action. The trachea and the
+bronchia are slightly red, and the right side of the head is gorged with
+blood.
+
+"In a subject in which, during life, I could scarcely feel the beating
+of the heart, I found the whole of the left lobe of the lungs adhering
+to the sides, and completely hepatized. In another, that had presented
+no sign of disease of the chest, and that for some days before his death
+vomited the little fodder which he could take, the whole of that portion
+of the oesophagus that passed through the chest was surrounded with
+dense false membranes, of a yellowish hue, ranging from light to dark,
+and being in some parts more than an inch in thickness, and adhering
+closely to the muscular membrane of the tube, without allowing any
+trace to be perceived of that portion of the mediastinal pleura on which
+this unnatural covering was fixed and developed.
+
+"The cattle purchased in Franche Comte are brought to Avesnes at two
+periods of the year--in autumn and in the spring. Those which are
+brought in autumn are much more subject to the disease than those which
+have arrived in the spring; and it almost always happens that the years
+in which it shows itself most generally are those in which the weather
+was most unfavorable while the cattle were on the road. The journey is
+performed by two different routes,--through Lorraine and through
+Champagne,--and the disease frequently appears in cattle that have
+arrived by one of these routes. The manner in which the beasts are
+treated, on their arrival, may contribute not a little to the
+development of the malady. These animals, which have been driven long
+distances in bad weather, and frequently half starved, arrived famished,
+and therefore the more fatigued, and some of them lame. Calculating on
+their ravenous appetite, the graziers, instead of giving them wholesome
+food, make them consume the worst that the farm contains,--musty and
+mouldy fodder; and it is usually by the cough, which the eating of such
+food necessarily produces, that the disease is discovered and first
+developed.
+
+"Is chronic pleuro-pneumonia contagious? The farmers believe that it is,
+and I am partly of their opinion. When an animal falls sick in the
+pasture, the others, after his removal, go and smell at the grass where
+he has lain, and which he has covered with his saliva, and, after that,
+new cases succeed to the first. It is true that this fact is not
+conclusive, since the disease also appears in a great number of animals
+that have been widely separated from each other. But I have myself seen
+three cases in which the cattle of the country, perfectly well before,
+have fallen ill, and died with the same symptoms, excepting that they
+have been more acute, after they have been kept with cattle affected
+with this disease. This circumstance inclines me to think that the
+disease is contagious; or, at least, that, in the progress of it, the
+breath infects the cow-house in which there are other animals already
+predisposed to the same disease. I am induced to believe that most of
+the serious internal diseases are communicated in this manner, and
+particularly those which affect the organs of respiration, when the
+animals are shut up in close, low, and badly-ventilated cow-houses."
+[_Rec. de Med. Vet. Mai, 1833._]
+
+No malady can be more terrible and ruinous than this among dairy-stock;
+and its spread all over the country, together with its continuance with
+scarcely any abatement, must be attributed to the combination of various
+causes. The chief are: _first_, the very contagious or infectious nature
+of the disorder; _second_, inattention on the part of Government to the
+importation and subsequent sale of diseased animals; and, _third_, the
+recklessness of purchasers of dairy or feeding cattle.
+
+This disease may be defined as an acute inflammation of the organs of
+the chest, with the development of a peculiar and characteristic poison,
+which is the active element of infection or contagion. It is a disease
+peculiar to the cattle tribe, notwithstanding occasional assertions
+regarding observations of the disease among horses, sheep, and other
+animals,--which pretended observations have not been well attested.
+
+The infectious, or contagious nature of this virulent malady is
+incontestibly substantiated by an overwhelming amount of evidence, which
+cannot be adduced at full length here, but which may be classified under
+the following heads: _first_, the constant spreading of the disease from
+countries in which it rages to others which, previously to the
+importation of diseased animals, had been perfectly free from it. This
+may be proved in the case of England, into which country it was carried
+in 1842, by affected animals from Holland. Twelve months after, it
+spread from England to Scotland, by means of some cattle sold at
+All-Hallow Fair, and it was only twelve months afterward that cattle
+imported as far north as Inverness took the disease there. Lately, a cow
+taken from England to Australia was observed to be diseased upon
+landing, and the evil results were limited to her owner's stock, who
+gave the alarm, and ensured an effectual remedy against a wider spread.
+Besides, the recent importation of pleuro-pneumonia into the United
+States from Holland appears to have awakened our agricultural press
+generally, and to have convinced them of the stubborn fact that our
+cattle have been decimated by a fearfully infectious, through probably
+preventable, plague. A letter from this country to an English author
+says: "Its (pleuro-pneumonia's) contagious character seems to be settled
+beyond a doubt, though some of the V.S. practitioners deny it, which is
+almost as reasonable as it would be to deny any other well-authenticated
+historic fact. Every case of the disease is traceable to one of two
+sources; either to Mr. Chenery's stock in Belmont (near Boston,
+Massachusetts), into which the disease was introduced by his importation
+of four Dutch cows from Holland, which arrived here the 23d of last May;
+or else to one of the three calves which he sold to a farmer in North
+Brookfield, Massachusetts, last June."
+
+_2dly._ Apart from the importation into countries, we have this certain
+proof--to which special attention was drawn several years ago--that
+cattle-dealers' farms, and public markets, constitute the busy centres
+of infection. Most anxious and careful inquiries have established the
+proposition that in breeding-districts, where the proprietors of
+extensive dairies--as in Dumfries, Scotland, and other places--abstain
+from buying, except from their neighbors, who have never had diseases of
+the lungs amongst their stock, pleuro-pneumonia has not been seen. There
+is a wide district in the Vicinity of Abington, England, and in the
+parish of Crawford, which has not been visited _by_ this plague, with
+the exception of two farms, into which market-cattle had been imported
+and thus brought the disease.
+
+_3dly._ In 1854 appeared a Report of the Researches on Pleuro-Pneumonia,
+by a scientific commission, instituted by the Minister of Agriculture in
+France. This very able pamphlet was edited by Prof. Bouley, of Alfort,
+France. The members of the commission belonged to the most eminent
+veterinarians and agriculturists in France. Magendie was President;
+Regnal, Secretary; besides Rayer, the renowned comparative pathologist;
+Yvart, the Inspector-General of the Imperial Veterinary Schools;
+Renault, Inspector of the Imperial Veterinary Schools; Delafond,
+Director of Alfort College; Bouley, Lassaigne, Baudemont, Doyere, Manny
+de Morny, and a few others representing the public. If such a
+commission were occasionally appointed in this country for similar
+purposes, how much light would be thrown on subjects of paramount
+importance to the agricultural community!
+
+Conclusions arrived at by the commission are too important to be
+overlooked in this connection. The reader must peruse the Report itself,
+if he needs to satisfy himself as to the care taken in conducting the
+investigations: but the foregoing names sufficiently attest the
+indisputable nature of the facts alluded to.
+
+In instituting its experiments, the commission had in view the solving
+of the following questions:--
+
+_1stly._ Is the epizooetic pleuro-pneumonia of cattle susceptible of
+being transmitted from diseased to healthy animals by cohabitation?
+
+_2dly._ In the event of such contagion's existing, would all the animals
+become affected, or what proportion would resist the disease?
+
+_3dly._ Amongst the animals attacked by the disease, how many recover,
+and under what circumstances? How many succumb?
+
+_4thly._ Are there any animals of the ox species decidedly free from any
+susceptibility of being affected from the contagion of pleuro-pneumonia?
+
+_5thly._ Do the animals, which have been once affected by a mild form of
+the disease, enjoy immunity from subsequent attacks?
+
+_6thly._ Do the animals, which have once been affected by the disease in
+its active form, enjoy such immunity?
+
+To determine these questions, the commission submitted at different
+times to the influence of cohabitation with diseased animals forty-six
+perfectly healthy ones, chosen from districts in which they had never
+been exposed to a similar influence.
+
+Of these forty-six animals, twenty were experimented on at Pomeraye, two
+at Charentonneau, thirteen at Alfort, and eleven, in the fourth
+experiment, at Charentonneau.
+
+Of this number, twenty-one animals resisted the disease when first
+submitted to the influence of cohabitation, ten suffered slightly, and
+fifteen took the disease. Of the fifteen affected, four died, and eleven
+recovered. Consequently, the animals which apparently escaped the
+disease at the first trial amounted to 45.65 per cent., and those
+affected to 21.73 per cent. Of these, 23.91 per cent. recovered, and
+8.69 per cent. died. But the external appearances in some instances
+proved deceptive, and six of the eleven animals of the last experiment,
+which were regarded as having escaped free, were found, on being
+destroyed, to bear distinct evidence of having been affected. This,
+therefore, modifies the foregoing calculations, and the numbers should
+stand thus:--
+
+15 enjoy immunity,  or  32.61 per cent.
+10 indisposed,      "   21.73    "
+17 animals cured,   "   36.95    "
+ 4 dead,            "    8.98    "
+
+Of the forty-two animals which were exposed in the first experiments at
+Pomeraye and Charentonneau, and which escaped either without becoming
+affected, or recovering, eighteen were submitted to a second trial; and
+of these eighteen animals, five had, in the first experiment, suffered
+from the disease and had recovered; five had now become affected; and
+four had been indisposed. The four animals submitted to the influence
+of contagion a third time, had been affected on the occasion of the
+first trial. None of the eighteen animals contracted the disease during
+these renewed exposures to the influence of contagion.
+
+From the results of these experiments, the commission drew the following
+conclusions:--
+
+_1stly._ The epizooetic pleuro-pneumonia is susceptible of being
+transmitted from diseased to healthy animals by cohabitation.
+
+_2dly._ All the animals exposed do not take the disease; some suffer
+slightly, and others not at all.
+
+_3dly._ Of the affected animals, some recover and others die.
+
+_4thly._ The animals, whether slightly or severely affected, possess an
+immunity against subsequent attacks.
+
+These are the general conclusions which the commission deemed themselves
+authorized to draw from their experiments. The absolute proportion of
+animals which become affected, or which escape the disease, or of those
+which die and which recover, as a general rule, cannot be deduced from
+the foregoing experiments, which, for such a purpose, are too limited.
+The commission simply state the numbers resulting from their
+experiments. From these it transpires that forty five of the animals
+became severely affected with pleuro-pneumonia, and twenty-one per cent.
+took the disease slightly, making the whole sixty-six per cent. which
+were more or less severely attacked. Thirty-four per cent. remained free
+from any malady. The proportion of animals which re-acquired their
+wonted appearance of health amounted to eighty-three per cent., whereas
+seventeen per cent. died. Many minor points might be insisted on, but it
+is sufficient here to say, that the most careful analysis of all facts
+has proved to practical veterinarians, as well as to experienced
+agriculturists, and must prove to all who will calmly and
+dispassionately consider the point, that pleuro-pneumonia is
+pre-eminently an infectious, or contagious disease.
+
+[Illustration: THE TWINS.]
+
+_Symptoms._--From the time that an animal is exposed to the contagion to
+the first manifestation of symptoms, a certain period elapses. This is
+the period of incubation. It varies from a fortnight to forty days, or
+even several months. The first signs, proving that the animal has been
+seized, can scarcely be detected by any but a professional man; though,
+if a proprietor of cattle were extremely careful, and had pains-taking
+individuals about his stock, he would invariably notice a slight shiver
+as ushering in the disorder, which for several days, even after the
+shivering fit, would limit itself to slight interference in breathing,
+readily detected on auscultation. Perhaps a cough might be noticed, and
+that the appetite and milk-secretion diminished. The animal becomes
+costive, and the shivering fits recur. The cough becomes more constant
+and oppressive; the pulse full and frequent, usually numbering about
+eighty per minute at first, and rising to upwards of one hundred. The
+temperature of the body rises, and all the symptoms of acute fever set
+in. A moan, or grunt, in the early part of the disease indicates a
+dangerous attack, and the _alae nasi_ (cartilages of the nose) rise
+spasmodically at each inspiration; the air rushes through the inflamed
+windpipe and bronchial tubes, so as to produce a loud, coarse
+respiratory murmur; and the spasmodic action of the abdominal muscles
+indicates the difficulty the animal also experiences in the act of
+expiration. Pressure over the intercostal (between the ribs) spaces, and
+pressing on the spine, induce the pain so characteristic of pleurisy,
+and a deep moan not infrequently follows such an experiment. The eyes
+are bloodshot, mouth clammy, skin dry and tightly bound to the
+subcutaneous textures, and the urine is scanty and high-colored.
+
+Upon auscultation, the characteristic dry, sonorous _rale_ of ordinary
+bronchitis may be detected along the windpipe, and in the bronchial
+tubes. A loud sound of this description is, not infrequently, detected
+at the anterior part of either side of the chest; whilst the respiratory
+murmur is entirely lost, posteriorly, from consolidation of the lungs. A
+decided leathery, frictional sound is detected over a considerable
+portion of the thoracic surface. As the disease advances, and gangrene,
+with the production of cavities in the lungs, ensues, loud, cavernous
+_rales_ are heard, which are more or less circumscribed, occasionally
+attended by a decided metallic noise. When one lobe of the lungs is
+alone affected, the morbid sounds are confined to one side, and on the
+healthy side the respiratory murmur is uniformly louder all over.
+
+By carefully auscultating diseased cows from day to day, interesting
+changes can be discovered during the animal's lifetime. Frequently, the
+abnormal sounds indicate progressive destruction; but, at other times,
+portions of the lungs that have been totally impervious to air, become
+the seat of sibilant _rales_, and gradually, a healthy respiratory
+murmur proves that, by absorption of the materials which have been
+plugging the tissues of the lungs, resolution is fast advancing. Some
+very remarkable cases of this description have been encountered in
+practice.
+
+Unfortunately, we often find a rapid destruction of the tissues of the
+lungs, and speedy dissolution. In other instances, the general symptoms
+of hectic, or consumption, attend lingering cases, in which the
+temperature of the body becomes low, and the animal has a dainty
+appetite, or refuses all nourishment. It has a discharge from the eyes,
+and a fetid, sanious discharge from the nose. Not infrequently, it
+coughs up disorganized lung-tissue and putrid pus. Great prostration,
+and, indeed, typhus symptoms, set in. There is a fetid diarrhoea, and
+the animal sinks in the most emaciated state, often dying from
+suffocation, in consequence of the complete destruction of the
+respiratory structures.
+
+_Post mortem_ appearances.--In acute cases, the cadaverous lesions
+chiefly consist in abundant false membranes in the trachea, or windpipe,
+and closure of the bronchial tubes by plastic lymph. The air-vesicles
+are completely plugged by this material, and very interesting specimens
+may be obtained by careful dissection, in the shape of casts of the
+bronchial tubes and air-vesicles, clustered together like bunches of
+grapes. On slicing the lungs in these cases, hepatization is observed,
+presenting a very peculiar appearance, which is, in a great measure, due
+to the arrangement of the lung-tissue in cattle. The pulmonary lobules
+are of a deep-red or brown color, perfectly consolidated, and
+intersected or separated, one from the other, by lighter streaks of
+yellowish-red lymph, occupying the interlobular, areolar tissue. In the
+more chronic cases, the diseased lobes and lobules are found partly
+separated from the more healthy structures.
+
+This occurs from gangrene, and putrefactive changes, or in some
+instances, from the ulcerative process, so constantly observed in the
+segregation of dead from living tissues. Abscesses are not infrequently
+found in different parts of the lungs. Sometimes circumscribed, at
+others connected with bronchial tubes, and not infrequently
+communicating with the pleural cavity. True empyema is not often seen;
+but, at all times, the adhesions between the costal and visceral pleura
+are extensive, and there is much effusion in the chest. In dressed
+carcasses of cows that have been slaughtered from pleuro-pneumonia, even
+though the disease has not been far advanced, it will be found that the
+butcher has carefully scraped the serous membrane off the inner surface
+of the ribs, as it would otherwise be impossible for him to give the
+pleura its healthy, smooth aspect, from the firm manner in which the
+abundant false membranes adhere to it. The diseased lungs sometimes
+attain inordinate weight. They have been known to weigh as much as sixty
+pounds.
+
+_Treatment._--The veterinary profession is regarded by many who have
+sustained heavy losses from pleuro-pneumonia, as deeply ignorant,
+because its members cannot often cure the disease. Persons forget that
+there are several epidemics which prove equally difficult to manage on
+the part of the physician, such as cholera, yellow fever, etc. The
+poison in these contagious, epizooetic diseases is so virulent that the
+animals may be regarded as dead from the moment they are attacked. Its
+elimination from the system is impossible, and medicine cannot support
+an animal through its tardy, exhausting, and destructive process of
+clearing the system of so potent a virus. All antiphlogistic means have
+failed, such as blood-letting and the free use of evacuants.
+Derivatives, in the form of mustard-poultices, or more active blisters,
+are attended with good results. Stimulants have proved of the greatest
+service; and the late Prof. Tessona, of Turin, strongly recommended,
+from the very onset of the disease, the administration of strong doses
+of quinine. Maffei, of Ferrara, states that he has obtained great
+benefit from the employment of ferruginous tonics and manganese in the
+very acute stage of the malady, supported by alcoholic stimulants.
+Recently, the advantages resulting from the use of sulphate of iron,
+both as a preventive and curative, have been exhibited in France. It
+would appear that the most valuable depurative method of treatment yet
+resorted to is by the careful use of the Roman bath. Acting, like all
+other sudorifics in cases of fever and blood diseases, it carries off by
+the skin much of the poison, without unduly lowering the vital powers.
+
+_Prevention._--The rules laid down in Denmark, and indeed in many other
+places, appear the most natural for the prevention of the disease. If
+they could be carried out, the disease must necessarily be stopped; but
+there are practical and insuperable difficulties in the way of enforcing
+them. Thus, a Dr. Warneke says, prevention consists in "the avoidance of
+contagion; the slaughter of infected beasts; the prohibition of keeping
+cattle by those whose cattle have been slaughtered, for a space of ten
+weeks after the last case occurring; the disinfection of stalls vacated
+by slaughtering; the closing of infected places to all passing of
+cattle; especial attention to the removal of the dung, and of the
+remains of the carcasses of slaughtered beasts; and, finally,
+undeviating severity of the law against violators."
+
+Dr. Williams, of Hasselt, suggested and carried out, in 1851, the
+inoculation of the virus of pleuro-pneumonia, in order to induce a mild
+form of the disease in healthy animals, and prevent their decimation by
+the severe attacks due to contagion. He met with much encouragement, and
+perhaps more opposition. Didot, Corvini, Ercolani, and many more
+accepted Dr. Williams's facts as incontestable, and wrote, advocating
+his method of checking the spread of so destructive a plague.
+
+The first able memoir which contested all that has been said in favor of
+inoculation, appeared in Turin, and was written by Dr. Riviglio, a
+Piedmontese veterinary surgeon. This was supported by the views of many
+others. Prof. Simonds wrote against the plan, and, in 1854, the French
+commission, whose report has been before mentioned, confirmed, in part,
+Riviglio's views, though, from the incompleteness of the experiments,
+further trials were recommended.
+
+Inoculation is performed as follows: A portion of diseased lung is
+chosen, and a bistoury or needle made to pierce it so as to become
+charged with the material consolidating the lung, and this is afterward
+plunged into any part, but, more particularly, toward the point of the
+tail. If operated severely, and higher up, great exudation occurs, which
+spreads upward, invades the areolar tissue round the rectum and other
+pelvic organs, and death soon puts an end to the animal's excruciating
+suffering. If the operation is properly performed with lymph that is not
+putrid, and the incisions are not made too deep, the results are limited
+to local exudation and swelling, general symptoms of fever, and gradual
+recovery. The most common occurrence is sloughing of the tail; and in
+London, at the present time, dairies are to be seen in which all the
+cows have short-tail stumps.
+
+Dr. Williams and others have gone too far in attempting to describe a
+particular corpuscle as existing in the lymph of pleuro-pneumonia. All
+animal poisons can be alone discovered from their effects. In structure
+and chemical constitution, there is no difference, and often the most
+potent poisons are simple fluids. The Belgian Commission, appointed to
+investigate the nature and influence of inoculation for
+pleuro-pneumonia, very justly expressed an opinion that Dr. Williams had
+not proved that a specific product, distinguished by anatomical
+characters, and appreciable by the microscope, existed in this disease.
+
+The all-important question, "Is inoculation of service?" has to the
+satisfaction of most been solved. The Belgian and French commissions,
+the observations of Riviglio, Simond, Herring, and many others, prove
+that a certain degree of preservative influence is derived by the
+process of inoculation. It does not, however, arrest the progress of the
+disease. It certainly diminishes to some extent--though often very
+slightly so--the number of cases, and, particularly, of severe ones.
+This effect has been ascribed to a derivative action, independent of any
+specific influence, and, indeed, similar to that of introducing setons
+in the dewlap.
+
+In London, some dairymen have considerable faith in inoculation, though
+its effect is uncertain, and the manner of its working a mystery. The
+best counsel, in the premises, which can be given to the keeper of dairy
+stock is, to select his own animals from healthy herds, and strictly to
+avoid public markets. In many instances, a faithful observance of these
+injunctions has been sufficient to prevent the invasion of this terrible
+disease. [Gamgee.]
+
+The existence of this disease in the United States was not generally
+known until the year 1859, when Mr. Chenery, of Belmont, near Boston,
+Massachusetts, imported several cows from Holland, which arrived in the
+early part of the spring of that year. Some of the animals were sick
+when they arrived, but the true nature of the disease was not at that
+time suspected. Several of them were so bad that they were carried in
+trucks to Mr. Chenery's barn. Some two months passed away before the
+character of the disease was discovered.
+
+Upon the facts becoming known, the citizens of Massachusetts became
+panic-stricken, as the disease was rapidly spreading over that State. An
+extra session of the Legislature was speedily convened, when a Joint
+Special Committee was appointed, to adopt and carry out such measures as
+in their judgment seemed necessary for the extirpation of this monster,
+pleuro-pneumonia.
+
+The Committee met in the Hall of the House of Representatives, Thursday,
+May, 31, 1860, to receive evidence as to the contagious or infectious
+character of the disease, in order to determine concerning the necessity
+of legislative action.
+
+Mr. Walker, one of the commissioners appointed by the Governor, made the
+following statement: "The disease was introduced into North Brookfield
+from Belmont. Mr. Curtis Stoddard, a young man of North Brookfield, went
+down, the very last of June, last year, and purchased three calves of
+Mr. Chenery, of Belmont. He brought these calves up in the cars to
+Brookfield. On their way from the depot to his house, about five miles,
+one of the calves was observed to falter, and when he got to his house,
+it seemed to be sick, and in two or three days exhibited very great
+illness; so much so, that his father came along, and, thinking he could
+take better care of it, took the calf home. He took it to his own barn,
+in which there were about forty head of cattle; but it grew no better,
+and his son went up and brought it back again to his own house. In about
+ten days after that, it died. His father, who had had the calf nearly
+four days, in about a fortnight afterward observed that one of his oxen
+was sick, and it grew worse very fast and died. Two weeks after, a
+second also sickened, and died. Then a third was attacked and died, the
+interval growing wider from the attack of one animal to that of another,
+until he had lost eight oxen and cows. Young Stoddard lost no animal by
+the infection,--that is, no one died on his hands. Prior to the
+appointment of this Commission, about the first of November,--for
+reasons independent of this disease, which I don't suppose he then knew
+the nature of,--he sold off his stock. He sold off eleven heifers, or
+young animals, and retained nine of the most valuable himself; which
+shows that he did not then know any thing was the matter with them.
+
+"These nine were four oxen, and five young cattle. The four he took to
+his father's, three of the others to his uncle's, and the remaining two
+to his father-in-law's; distributing them all among his friends,--which
+furnishes another proof that he did not suppose he was doing any
+mischief. He disposed of his herd in that way. From this auction, these
+eleven animals went in different directions, and wherever they went,
+they scattered the infection. Without a single failure the disease has
+followed those cattle; in one case, more than two hundred cattle having
+been infected by one which was sold at Curtis Stoddard's auction, when
+he was entirely ignorant of the disease.
+
+"When the commission was appointed, they went and examined his cattle,
+and were satisfied that they were diseased,--at least, some of them.
+They examined his father's herd, and found that they were very much
+diseased; and when we came to kill Curtis Stoddard's cattle, seven of
+the nine head were diseased. Two were not condemned, because the law
+says, 'Cattle not appearing to be diseased, shall be appraised.'
+Nevertheless, it proved that these animals were diseased; so that his
+whole herd was affected.
+
+"In regard to Leonard Stoddard's cattle, he lost fourteen of his animals
+before the commissioners went to his place. They took eighteen more, all
+of which were diseased,--most of them very bad cases,--indeed, extreme
+cases. That left eight heads, which were not condemned, because not
+appearing to be diseased. Here I remark, that when this disease is under
+the shoulder-blade, it cannot be detected by percussion. The physicians
+did not say that the animal was not diseased, but that they did not see
+sufficient evidence upon which to condemn. Such animals were to be paid
+for, upon the ground of their not appearing to be diseased.
+Nevertheless, it is proper to state that the remaining eight which were
+not condemned, were suspected to be diseased, and we told Mr. Stoddard
+that we had the impression that they were diseased, notwithstanding
+appearances. He said, 'There is a three-year-old animal that has never
+faltered at all. She has never manifested the slightest disease. If you
+will kill her, and she is diseased, I shall make up my mind that I have
+not a well animal in my stalls.' We killed the animal, and found her to
+be badly diseased.
+
+"Thus, the first two herds were all infected by the disease; and in the
+last of Curtis Stoddard's oxen which we killed, we found a cyst in the
+lungs of each. One of these lungs is now in this building, never having
+been cut open, and medical men can see the cyst which it contains. I
+have said in what manner Mr. Curtis Stoddard's cattle spread the
+infection.
+
+"In regard to Mr. Leonard Stoddard's: in the first place, he kept six or
+eight oxen which he employed in teaming. He was drawing some lumber, and
+stopped over night, with his oxen, at Mr. Needham's. Needham lost his
+whole herd. He lost eight or ten of them, and the rest were in a
+terrible condition. Seven or eight more were condemned, and his whole
+herd was destroyed, in consequence of Mr. Stoddard's stopping with him
+over night. Mr. Stoddard sold an animal to Mr. Woodis of New Braintree.
+He had twenty-three fine cows. It ruined his herd utterly. Seven or
+eight animals died before the commissioners got there. Mr. L. Stoddard
+also sold a yoke of cattle to Mr. Olmstead, one of his neighbors, who
+had a very good herd. They stayed only five days in his hands, when
+they passed over to Mr. Doane. In these five days they had so infected
+his herd that it was one of the most severe instances of disease that we
+have had. One third were condemned, and another third were passed over
+as sound, whether they were so, or not. They did not appear to be
+diseased. The cattle that were passed from Mr. Stoddard through Mr.
+Olmstead to Mr. Doane, were loaned by Mr. D. to go to a moving of a
+building from Oakham to New Braintree. They were put in with twenty-two
+yoke of cattle, and employed a day and a half. It has since been proved
+that the whole of these cattle took the contagion. They belonged to
+eleven different herds, and of course, each of these herds formed a
+focus from which the disease spread. Now, in these two ways the disease
+has spread in different directions.
+
+"But, when the commissioners first commenced, they had no idea that the
+disease extended further than those herds in which there were animals
+sick. Hence, their ideas and the ideas of those who petitioned for the
+law, did not extend at all to so large a number of herds as have since
+been proved to be diseased, because they only judged of those who
+manifested disease. As soon as we began in that circle, we found a
+second circle of infection, and another outside of that; and by that
+time it had branched off in various directions to various towns. It
+assumed such proportions that it was very evident that the commissioners
+had not the funds to perform the operations required by the law. The law
+confines the commissioners to one operation,--killing and burying. No
+discretionary power is given at all. The commissioners became entirely
+dissatisfied with that condition of things, because other measures
+besides merely killing and burying, are quite as necessary and
+important. When they arrived at that point and discovered to what extent
+the infection had spread, they stopped killing the herds, and I believe
+there has not been a herd killed for twenty days.
+
+"The policy was then changed to circumscribing the disease, by isolating
+the herds just as fast as possible and as surely as possible. A man's
+herd has been exposed. There is no other way than to go and examine it,
+and take the diseased animals away. Then he knows the animals are
+diseased, and his neighbors know it. That has been the business of the
+commissioners for the last twenty days; and the facts that they have no
+discretionary power whatever, and that they were entirely circumscribed
+in their means, and that it was hard for the farmers to lose their stock
+and not be paid for it,--induced them to petition the Governor, in
+connection with the Board of Agriculture, for the calling of a session
+of the Legislature, to take measures for the extinction of the disease."
+
+In response to a question, "Whether any animals that had once been
+affected, had afterward recovered?"--the same gentleman stated that
+instances had occurred where cattle had been sick twice, and had,
+apparently, fully recovered; they ruminated readily, and were gaining
+flesh. Upon examination, however, they were pronounced diseased, and,
+when killed, both lungs were found in a hopeless case, very badly
+diseased.
+
+Dr. George B. Loring, another of the commissioners, stated that eight
+hundred and forty-two head of cattle had, at that time, been killed, and
+that, from a careful estimate, there still remained one thousand head,
+which should either be killed, or isolated for such a length of time as
+should establish the fact that they had no disease about them. Twenty
+thousand dollars and upwards had already been appraised as the value of
+the cattle then killed.
+
+As to disinfecting measures, the farmers who had lost cattle were
+requested to whitewash their barns thoroughly, and some tons of a
+disinfecting powder were purchased for the advantage of the persons who
+wished to use it. An early application was advised, that the barns might
+be in readiness for hay the then coming season.
+
+The practice adopted by the commissioners was, to appraise the cattle
+whenever a herd was found which had been exposed, and a surgeon was
+appointed to pass judgment upon the number of diseased animals. After
+that judgment, the remaining animals that were pronounced sound were
+killed and passed to the credit of the owner, after an appraisement made
+by these persons. The fair market-prices were paid, averaging about
+thirty-three dollars a head. At the time of the meeting of the
+committee, some seventy cattle had died of the disease.
+
+An examination was made of some of the animals killed, and the following
+facts obtained:--
+
+Case 1.--This cow had been sick for nineteen days; was feeble, without
+much appetite, with diarrhoea, cough, shortness of breathing, hair
+staring, etc. Percussion dull over the whole of the left side of the
+chest; respiration weak. Killed by authority. Several gallons of serum
+were found in the left side of the chest; a thick, furzy deposit of
+lymph over all the _pleura-costalis_. This lymph was an inch in
+thickness, resembling the velvety part of tripe, and quite firm. There
+was a firm deposit of lymph in the whole left lung, but more especially
+at its base, with strong adhesions to the diaphragm and
+_pleura-costalis_ near the spine. The lung was hard and brittle, like
+liver, near its base. No pus. Right lung and right side of chest
+healthy.
+
+Case 2.--This cow was taken very sick, January 30th. In fourteen days,
+she began to get better. April 12th, she is gaining flesh, breathes
+well, hair healthy, gives ten quarts of milk a day, and in all other
+respects bids fair for a healthy animal hereafter, except a slight
+cough. Percussion dull over base of the left lung, near the spine, and
+respiration feeble in the same regions.
+
+Autopsy.--Left lung strongly adherent to diaphragm and costal pleura;
+the long adhesions well smoothed off; _pleura-costalis_ shining and
+healthy. Also, the surface of the lung, when there were no adhesions,
+sound and right; all the lung white, and free for the entrance of air,
+except the base, in which was a cyst containing a pint or two of pus.
+Loose in this pus was a hard mass, as large as a two-quart measure,
+looking like marble; when cut through its centre, it appeared like the
+brittle, hardened lining in case 1. It appeared as though a piece of
+lung had been detached by suppuration and enclosed in an air-tight cyst,
+by which decomposition was prevented. The other lung and the chest were
+sound. It is to be inferred, as there were adhesions, that there had
+been pleurisy and deposit of lymph and serum, as in case 1, and that
+Nature had commenced the cure by absorbing the serum from the chest, and
+the lymph from the free pleural surface, and smoothed off every thing to
+a good working condition. The lump in the cyst was brittle and
+irregular on its surface, as though it was dissolving in the pus. No
+good reason can be given why Nature should not consummate the work which
+she had so wisely begun.
+
+Case 3.--This cow had been sick fourteen days; was coughing and
+breathing badly; percussion dull over both chests and respiration
+feeble. Killed.
+
+Autopsy.--Both chests filled with water; deposits of lymph over all the
+_pleura-costalis_, presenting the same velvety, furzy appearance as in
+Case 1. Both lungs were hardened at the base, and the left throughout
+its whole extent, and firmly adherent to diaphragm and costal pleura,
+near the spine. The right lung had nearly one-third of its substance in
+a condition for the entrance of air; but this portion, even, was so
+compressed with the water, that a few hours longer would have terminated
+the case fatally without State aid. This case had not proceeded far
+enough for the formation of the cyst or pus.
+
+In Mr. Needham's herd, about twenty-eight days intervened between the
+first and second case of disease, instead of about fourteen, as in Mr.
+Olmstead's.
+
+Case 4.--A nice heifer, in fair condition, eating well, only having a
+slight cough. Percussion dull over base of the left lung.
+
+Autopsy.--Base of left lung adherent to diaphragm and costal pleura;
+lung hardened. On cutting into base, found ulceration and a head of
+Timothy grass, four or five inches long. Animal in every other way well.
+
+Case 5.--This cow was taken, January 1st, with a cough, difficulty of
+breathing, and the other symptoms of the disease, and continued sick
+till March 1st. On taking her out, April 12th, to be slaughtered, she
+capered, stuck up her tail, snuffed, and snorted, showing all the signs
+of feeling well and vigorous.
+
+Autopsy.--Right lung firmly adherent to diaphragm and costal pleura,
+near the spine. Base of lung hardened, containing a cyst with a large
+lump, of the size of a two-quart measure, floating in pus; outside of
+the lump was of a dirty yellow-white, irregular, brittle, and cheesy;
+the inside mottled, or divided into irregular squares; red like muscle,
+and breaking under the finger, like liver. Costal pleura smooth,
+shining; adhesions where there was motion; card-like and polished; no
+serum; lung apparently performing its functions well, except for a short
+distance above the air-tight cyst, where it was still hardened. It would
+seem as though Nature was intending to dissolve this lump, and carry it
+off by absorption. She knows how, and would have done it, in the opinion
+of the writer, had she been allowed sufficient time.
+
+Case 6.--Was taken December 18th, and was very sick; in three weeks she
+was well, except a cough, quite severe, and so continued till about the
+first of March, when she coughed harder and grew worse till seven days
+before she was killed, April 12th, when she brought forth a calf, and
+then commenced improving again.
+
+Autopsy.--Right lung adherent to diaphragm and costal pleura. At its
+base, was a flabby, fluctuating cyst. In cutting into it, the lump was
+found to be breaking up by decomposition, and scenting badly. Every
+thing else normal. Was not the cyst broken through by some accident,
+thus letting in the air, when she grew worse? Would she not, probably,
+have overcome this disagreeable accident, and recovered, in spite of it?
+This cow's hair did not look well, as did that of those in which the
+cyst was air-tight; but still she was beginning to eat well again, and
+appeared in a tolerable way for recovery.
+
+Case 7.--This heifer had coughed slightly for six weeks, but the owner
+said he thought no one going into his herd would notice that any thing
+was the matter with her.
+
+[Illustration: A RURAL SCENE.]
+
+Autopsy.--Slight adhesions of lung to diaphragm. Near these adhesions
+are small cysts, of the size of a walnut, containing pus and cheesy
+matter; about the cysts a little way the lung was hardened, say for half
+an inch. There were several cysts, and they appeared as though the
+inflammation attacked only the different lobes of the lungs, leaving
+others healthy between,--Nature throwing out coagulable lymph around the
+diseased lobe, and forming thereby an air-tight cyst, cutting around the
+diseased lobe by suppuration, so that it could be carried off by
+absorption.
+
+In the herd to which this animal belonged, nine days after the first cow
+died, the second case occurred. First cow was sick five weeks. The time
+of incubation could not have been over six weeks,--probably not over
+three weeks. Of these cows, one improved in eight weeks, the other in
+three weeks.
+
+Case 8.--This cow had been sick three weeks. Killed.
+
+Autopsy.--Large quantities of serum in left chest; lung adherent, and
+hardened at base. On cutting into the hardened lung, one side of the
+lump was found separated from the lung, with pus between the lines of
+separation, and the forming coat of the cyst outside of the pus; the
+other side of the lump was part and parcel of the hardened lung which
+had not yet had time to commence separation. The costal pleura was
+covered with organized lymph to the thickness of an inch, with the usual
+characteristics. The right chest contained a small quantity of serum,
+and had several small, hardened red spots in that lung, with some
+tender, weak adhesions; but most of the right lung was healthy.
+
+Case 9.--Sick four weeks. Killed.
+
+Autopsy.--Right lung hardened at base; adherent to diaphragm and costal
+pleura; lump separated on one side only. Cyst beginning to form, outside
+of separation; pus between cyst and lump, but in a very small quantity.
+
+These two cases settle the character of the lump, and the manner of the
+formation of the cyst; the lump being lung and lymph, cut out by
+suppuration,--the cyst being organized, smoothed off by suppuration,
+friction, etc.
+
+Case 10.--Killed. Hair looked badly; but the cow, it was said, ate, and
+appeared well. This case, however, occurred in a herd, of which no
+reliable information, in detail, could be procured.
+
+Autopsy.--Base of lung hardened, adherent to diaphragm; containing a
+cyst, in which was a lump, of the size of a quart measure, but little
+pus. This lump had air-tubes running through it, which were not yet cut
+off by suppuration; and in one place, the cyst was perforated by a
+bronchial tube, letting in the external air to the lump, which was
+undergoing disorganization, and swelling badly. When cut into, it did
+not present the red, mottled, organized appearance of those cases with
+air-tight cysts.
+
+Quite a number of other cases were examined, but these ten present all
+the different phases. One or two cases are needed of an early stage of
+the disease, to settle the point, whether, in all cases, the primary
+disease is lung fever, and the pleurisy a continuation, merely, of the
+primary disease; together with some six or eight cases, during five,
+six, seven, eight months from attack, and so on till entire, final
+recovery. Some cases were sick almost a year since, and are now
+apparently quite well; perhaps all the lump and pus are not yet gone.
+Many practitioners think that no severe case will ever recover, and some
+think that none ever get entirely well. Others, however, can see no
+reason why, as a general rule, all single cases should not recover, and
+all double cases die.
+
+The disease was the most fatal in Mr. Chenery's (the original) herd,
+although it was the best-fed and the warmest-stabled. He attributed the
+fatality, in part, to a want of sufficient ventilation. The other herds,
+in which all the fatal cases occurred in two hours, consisted,
+originally, one of forty-eight head, of which thirteen died, or were
+killed, to prevent certain death; of twenty-three head, of which seven
+died; of twenty-two head, of which eight died; of twenty-two head, of
+which eight also died; and of twenty-one head, of which four died. A
+little less than thirty per cent., therefore, of these herds died.
+
+This estimate excludes the calves. Most of the cows which had not calved
+before being attacked, lost their calves prematurely. The probable time
+of incubation, as deduced from those Massachusetts cases, is from two to
+three weeks; of propagation, about the same time; the acute stage of the
+disease lasting about three weeks.
+
+The author's attention was first directed to this disease, upon its
+appearance in Camden and Gloucester counties, New Jersey, in the year
+1859, at about the same time it made its advent in Massachusetts. The
+singularity of this coincidence inclined him for the time to regard the
+disease as an epizooetic--having its origin in some peculiar condition of
+the atmosphere--rather than as a contagious, or infectious disease,
+which position was at that time assumed by him.
+
+This opinion was strengthened by the fact, that no case occurring in New
+Jersey could be traced to a Massachusetts origin, in which State it was
+claimed that the disease never had existed in this country previous to
+its introduction there. It was, therefore, denied by the veterinary
+surgeons in the Eastern States, that the disease in New Jersey was the
+true European pleuro-pneumonia, but it was called by them the swill-milk
+disease of New York City, and it was assigned an origin in the
+distillery cow-houses in Brooklyn and Williamsburg.
+
+In 1860 it found its way across the Delaware River into Philadelphia,
+spreading very rapidly in all directions, particularly in the southern
+section of the county, known as The Neck,--many of the dairymen losing
+from one third to one half of their herds by its devastating influence.
+In order to save themselves--in part, at least--from this heavy loss,
+many of them, upon the first indications of the malady, sent their
+animals to the butcher, to be slaughtered for beef. In 1861 the disease
+found its way into Delaware, where its ravages were severely felt. So
+soon, however, as it became known that the disease was infectious or
+contagious, an effort was made to trace it to its starting-point; but,
+in consequence of the unwillingness of dairymen to communicate the fact
+that their herds were affected with pleuro-pneumonia, all efforts proved
+fruitless. In 1860 the disease found its way up the Delaware to
+Riverton, a short distance above the city of Philadelphia. A
+cattle-dealer, named Ward, turned some cattle into a lot, adjoining
+which several others were grazing. The residents of this place are
+chiefly the families of gentlemen doing business in the city, many of
+whom lost their favorite animals from this destructive malady.
+
+The first case occurring at this place, to which the author's attention
+was called, was a cow belonging to Mr. D. Parrish, which had been
+exposed by coming in contact with Ward's cattle, had sickened, and died.
+An anxiety having been manifested to ascertain the cause of the death,
+the author made an examination of the animal, which, upon dissection,
+proved the disease to be a genuine case of the so-called
+pleuro-pneumonia. This examination was made August 20th, 1860, at the
+time of the Massachusetts excitement. Two cows, belonging to Mr. Rose,
+of the same place, had been exposed, and both had taken the disease.
+His attention having been called to them, he placed them under the
+author's treatment, and by the use of diffusible stimulants and tonics,
+one of these animals recovered, while the other was slaughtered for an
+examination, which revealed all the morbid conditions so characteristic
+of this disease.
+
+The next case was a cow belonging to Mr. G. H. Roach, of the same place,
+which had been grazing in a lot adjoining that of Mr. Parrish. This cow
+was killed in the presence of Charles Wood, V.S., of Boston, Mass., and
+Arthur S. Copeman, of Utica, N. Y., who was one of a committee appointed
+by the New York State Agricultural Society for the purpose of
+investigating the disease. Both of these gentlemen having witnessed the
+disease in-all its forms, as it appeared in Massachusetts, were the
+first to identify this case with those in that State.
+
+Upon opening the cow, the left lung was found to be completely
+consolidated, and adhered to the left side, presenting the appearance
+usual in such cases. As she was with calf, the lungs of the foetus
+were examined, disclosing a beautiful state of red hepatization.
+
+The author's attention was next called to the herd of Mr. Lippincott, a
+farmer in the neighborhood, who had lost several cattle by the disease;
+but as he had been persuaded that treatment was useless, he abandoned
+the idea of attempting to save his stock in that way. From Riverton it
+soon spread to Burlington, some ten miles farther up the river, where it
+carried off large numbers of valuable cattle, and it continued in
+existence in that neighborhood for some time.
+
+The disease was not then confined to these localities alone, but has
+spread over a large extent of country,--and that, too, prior to its
+appearance in Massachusetts, as will be shown by extracts from the
+following letters, published in the _Country Gentleman_:--
+
+"We have a disease among the cattle here, I will class it under these
+names,--congestion of the lungs, terminating with consumption, or dropsy
+of the chest. Now, I have treated two cases; one five years since, as
+congestion,--and the first is still able to eat her allowance, and give
+a couple of pails of milk a day,--and the other, quite recently. The
+great terror of this disease is, that it is not taken in its first
+stages, which are the same in the cow as in the man--a difficulty in
+breathing, which, if not speedily relieved, terminates in consumption or
+dropsy. I have no doubt that consumption is contagious; but is that a
+reason why every one taken with congestion should be killed to check the
+spread of consumption? So I should reason, if I had pleuro-pneumonia in
+my drove of cattle.                                      J. BALDWIN.
+
+     "NEWARK, N. J., June 11, 1860."
+
+"I notice that a good deal of alarm is felt in different parts of the
+country about what is called the cattle-disease.
+
+"From the diagnosis given in the papers, I have no doubt this is
+pleuro-pneumonia, with which I had some acquaintance a few years ago. If
+it is the same, my observation and experience may be of some service to
+those suffering now.
+
+"It was introduced into my stock, in the fall of 1853, by one of my own
+cows, which, in the spring of that year, I had sent down to my brother
+in Brooklyn, to be used during the summer for milk. She was kept
+entirely isolated through out the summer, and in November was sent up
+by the boat. There were no other cattle on the boat at the time, nor
+could I learn that she had come in contact with any in passing through
+the streets on her way to the boat; and she certainly did not, after
+leaving it, until she mingled with her old companions, all of whom were
+then, and long afterward, perfectly well. After she had been home about
+two weeks, we noticed that her appetite failed, and her milk fell off:
+she seemed dull and stupid, stood with her head down, and manifested a
+considerable degree of languor.
+
+"Soon her breathing became somewhat hurried, and with a decided catch in
+it; she ground her teeth; continued standing, or, if she lay down, it
+was only to jump up again instantly. Her cough increased, and so, too, a
+purulent and, bloody discharge from her nostrils and mouth. The
+excrement was fetid, black, and hard.
+
+"In this case, we twice administered half a pound of Epsom-salts, and
+afterward, a bottle of castor-oil. Very little, but a temporary effect
+was produced by these doses.
+
+"The symptoms all increased in intensity; strength diminished; limbs
+drawn together; belly tucked up, etc.; until the eight day, when she
+partly lay, and partly fell down, and never rose again.
+
+"In a _post-mortem_ examination, the lungs were gorged with black, fetid
+blood; the substance of them thickened and pulpy. The pleura and
+diaphragm also showed a good deal of disease and some adhesion. This
+cow, on her arrival here, was put in her usual place in the stable,
+between others. She remained there for two or three days after she was
+taken sick, before we removed her to the hospital.
+
+"In about three weeks from the time she died, one and then the other of
+those standing on either side of her were attacked in the same way, and
+with but two days between. This, certainly, looks very much like
+contagion; but my attention had not before been called to this
+particular disease, and to suppose inflammation or congestion of the
+lungs contagious was so opposed to my preconceived notions, that I did
+not even then admit it; and these animals were suffered to remain with
+the others until their own comfort seemed to require the greater liberty
+of open pens.
+
+"One of them was early and copiously bled twice, while Epsom-salts were
+administered, both by the stomach and with the injective-pump. The other
+we endeavored to keep nauseated with ipecacuanha, and the same time to
+keep her bowels open by cathartic medicine. All proved to be of no
+avail. They both died,--the one in ten, the other in thirteen days.
+Before these died, however, others were taken sick. And thus, later, I
+had eight sick at one time.
+
+"The leading symptoms in all were the same, with minor differences; and
+so, too, was the appearance after death, on examination.
+
+"Of all that were taken sick (sixteen) but two recovered; and they were
+among those we did the least for, after we had become discouraged about
+trying to cure them. In all the last cases we made no effort at all, but
+to keep them as comfortable as we could. In one case, the acute
+character of the disease changed to chronic, and the animal lived six or
+eight weeks, until the whole texture of the lungs had become destroyed.
+She had become much emaciated, and finally died with the ordinary
+consumption.
+
+"At the time the first case appeared, I had a herd of thirty-one
+animals, all valuable Ayrshires, in fine condition and healthy. In all
+the first cases, I had a veterinary surgeon of considerable celebrity
+and experience, and every ordinary approved method of treatment was
+resorted to and persevered in. The last cases--as before intimated--we
+only strove to make comfortable.
+
+"After I had paid the third or fourth forfeit, I began to awake up to
+the idea that the disease was, in a high degree, contagious, whether I
+would have it so or not; and that my future security was in prevention,
+and not in remedy. I therefore separated all the remaining animals; in
+no instance having more than two together, and generally but one in a
+place.
+
+"All were removed from the infected stalls, and put into quarantine.
+Isolated cases continued to occur after this for some weeks, but the
+spread of the disease was stayed; nor did a single case occur after
+this, which we did not think we traced directly to previous contact.
+
+"It is impossible to account for the first case of which I have spoken.
+But, as the cow in that case was put into a sale-stable in New York
+while waiting for the boat,--though there were no cattle then
+present,--yet I have supposed it not unlikely that diseased animals had
+been there, and had left the seeds of the disease.
+
+"But, account for this case as we may,--and I have no doubt it is
+sometimes spontaneous,--I feel convinced it is very highly contagious;
+and that the only safety to a herd into which it has been introduced, is
+in complete isolation,--and in this I feel as convinced that there is
+safety. My cattle were not suffered to return to the barnyard or to any
+part of the cattle-barns, except as invalids were sent to 'the hospital'
+to die, until late the next fall, _i.e._, the fall of 1854. In the mean
+time, the hay and straw had all been removed; the stables, stalls, cribs
+and all thoroughly scrubbed with ashes and water, fumigated, and white
+washed with quicklime. I have had no case since, and am persuaded I
+should have avoided most of those I had before, if I had reasonably
+admitted the evidence of my senses in the second and third cases.
+                                             E. P. PRENTICE.
+     MOUNT HOPE, June 14th, 1860."
+
+The author's experience with the disease, during the last year in New
+Jersey, proves the efficacy of remedial agents when applied in the early
+stages of the disease. Late in the spring of 1861, Mr. J. E. Hancock, of
+Burlington County (residing near Columbus, N. J.), purchased some cattle
+in the Philadelphia market, which, after they were driven home, he
+turned in with his other stock. Soon after this purchase, one of the
+animals sickened and died. This was in August; after which time Mr. H.
+lost eight cows,--having, at the time of the death of the last animal,
+some five others sick with the same disorder.
+
+The author was called in, December 8th, 1861, and the five animals then
+placed under his treatment. On the 12th of December, in the same year,
+one of these cows, at his suggestion, was killed, which, upon the
+_post-mortem_ examination, beautifully illustrated the character of the
+disease. The right lung was comparatively healthy; the left one
+completely hepatized, or consolidated, and so enlarged as to fill up the
+left cavity of the chest to it's utmost capacity. This lung weighed
+thirty pounds. There was no effusion in the chest, but there was
+considerable adhesion of the _pleura-costalis_ and _pleura-pulmonalis_.
+All the other tissues appeared to be healthy.
+
+To the remaining animals, was administered the following: aqua ammonia,
+three drachms; nitric ether, one ounce; pulverized gentian-root, half an
+ounce; mixed with one quart of water, and drenched three times a day.
+The last thing at night was given a teaspoonful of phosphate of lime,
+mixed in a little feed, or in gruel. Setons, or rowels, in the dewlap
+are also very beneficial. Under this treatment they all did well.
+
+Soon after the introduction of the disease into this herd, it found its
+way to the herd of William Hancock, a brother of the former gentleman,
+who had an adjoining farm. In this herd one cow died, and the disease
+was found by the author developed in four more cows and two oxen, all of
+which--with a single exception--did well under the above treatment. The
+disease afterward showed itself in the herd of John Pope, half a mile
+distant, who lost nine animals by it.
+
+Thursday, December 19th, was selected for the purpose of making an
+examination of the Hancock herds; but, after some ten or twelve animals
+had been examined and all pronounced tainted with the disease, the
+owners concluded to stop the investigation, expressing themselves
+dissatisfied with the result, as not one of the animals examined had
+shown any symptoms of disease. In order to convince them of the
+correctness of the diagnosis, a cow was selected and destroyed, which
+the Hancocks believed to be in perfect health. Upon opening the animal,
+several small patches of hepatized lung were brought into view. Upon
+making a longitudinal section of the lump, as both were involved, they
+presented a red, speckled appearance. All the other tissues were
+healthy. The symptoms in these cases were quite different from any which
+had been previously seen in an experience of three years with the
+disease in and about Philadelphia, inasmuch as they were not preceded by
+cough; in fact, cough did not appear in many of the animals at any time
+during the progress of the disease. The animals looked, ate, and milked
+well, previously to the development of the disease, so that the owners
+were thrown completely off their guard by these deceptive symptoms of
+health. Knowing the uncertain character of this disease, and wishing to
+stay its ravages, a suggestion was made by the author as to the
+propriety of having the entire herd killed for beef. This was done the
+more readily, as the sale of the meat is legalized in Europe, it being
+regarded as uninjured, and therefore wholesome meat. This suggestion was
+acted upon, and thus these two farms were rid of this dreadful scourge
+at one blow.
+
+Mr. A. Gaskill, of Mount Holly, N. J., purchased a cow from one of the
+Hancocks, for his own family use, which was sent to Mr. Frank
+Lippincott's to pasture and turned in with Mr. L.'s own herd. Soon
+after, this cow sickened and died. This was soon followed by the loss of
+six of Mr. L.'s own cattle,--three oxen, two cows, and one steer. From
+this herd, it was communicated to the Widow Lippincott's, who occupied a
+neighboring farm; as also to Mr. Cleavenger's, who lost four animals;
+and to Mr. Smith's, who had, at one time, seven animals sick; and from
+Cleavenger's to Noaknuts, who lost two cows. Some two or three cows,
+belonging to Mr. Logan, in the same neighborhood, got upon the road and
+broke into Mr. Lippincott's pasture, mixing with his herd. As soon as
+Mr. Logan was informed of the fact, he isolated these cows by enclosing
+them in a pen at some distance from his other cattle; but they managed
+to break out, and mingled with his other stock. It could scarcely be
+expected that his herd could escape the disease, considering the
+exposure to which they had been subjected. The disease manifested itself
+in the herds of several other farmers in the country, but space will not
+allow a more extended notice of the subject.
+
+The treatment which has been found most successful in this country is as
+follows, all of which has been tested by the author upon various
+occasions: In the acute, inflammatory stage of the disease, give ten
+drops of Flemming's tincture of aconite in water, every four hours,
+until a change takes place; follow this with aqua ammonia, three
+drachms; nitric ether, one ounce; pulverized gentian-root, one half an
+ounce; water, one quart. Drench three times a day, and give, late in the
+evening, a tablespoonful of phosphate of lime, in a little feed, or
+drench with gruel. Put setons, or rowels in the dewlap, so as to have a
+dependent opening.
+
+This course has been found very advantageous. Or, the following will be
+found quite satisfactory; nitrate of potash, two drachms; camphor, half
+a drachm; tartrate of antimony, half a drachm; mix, and give in a little
+gruel, night and morning. Or, the following: Glauber-salts, four ounces;
+water, one pint; give twice a day. A gill of cold-drawn castor-oil,
+added to the above, would be beneficial. Continue until the bowels are
+freely opened. The following has also been found efficacious: sulphate
+of magnesia, eight ounces; nitrate of potash and pulverized Jamaica
+ginger-root, of each one ounce. Repeat as often as may be required.
+Apply externally the following ointment to the sides; biniodide of
+mercury, four drachms; castor-oil, half an ounce; lard, four ounces; mix
+for use.
+
+Preventive measures.--1st. The complete isolation of all herds in which
+the disease has made its appearance. 2d. Such animals as show symptoms
+of the disease should be placed under proper treatment. 3d. In England,
+it is recommended that animals recovering from the disease should be
+fattened and slaughtered for beef, as they are not safe even after their
+apparent recovery. 4th. All animals beyond medical treatment should be
+killed and buried; recompense in part, at least, being made to the
+owners. 5th. No animal, healthy or diseased, should be allowed to run at
+large upon the public highway so long as the disease may exist in its
+neighborhood.
+
+[Illustration: TAKING IT EASILY.]
+
+The united action of all those interested would soon rid the country of
+a disease which has smitten all Europe.
+
+The author takes this occasion to acknowledge the receipt of two very
+ably written articles upon this subject, which, in consequence of their
+length and the comparatively limited space allotted, he is reluctantly
+compelled to omit. One is from the pen of R. McClure, V.S., and the
+other from Isaiah Michener, V.S. For the benefit his readers, however,
+he desires to make a single extract from the last-named communication,
+without being considered as endorsing the opinion advanced therein:--
+
+"I am inclined to favor the hypothesis that pleuro-pneumonia is produced
+by animalculae, and that these enter the lungs by myriads, and thereby
+set up irritation and inflammation, which lead to all the phenomena and
+pathological conditions which are to be found upon dissection. This is
+my opinion of the cause of the malignant pleuro-pneumonia which has
+existed in the United States for the last seven years."
+
+After writing the foregoing, the author was informed that this disease
+had made its appearance in Mr. Logan's herd, already mentioned as
+exposed. He was called to visit the herd of Mr. G. Satterthwaite, who
+likewise lost two cows, and had two cows and a calf sick at the time of
+sending for him.
+
+
+PNEUMONIA.
+
+There are two conditions of the lungs known as pneumonia,--one, the
+inflammatory, and the other, the congestive stage. The former may follow
+an attack of bronchitis, or it may have a spontaneous origin. The
+congestive is generally the result of cold suddenly applied to an
+overheated animal, causing a determination of blood to the lungs, which
+sometimes causes death by suffocation.
+
+_Symptoms._--The disease is preceded by a shivering fit; dry skin;
+staring coat; clammy mouth; short cough; Schneiderian membrane (of the
+nose) very much reddened; respiration hurried or laborious. In the
+congestive stage, upon applying the ear to the sides, no sound will be
+detected; While in the inflammatory stage, a crackling or crepitating
+sound will be distinctively heard.
+
+_Treatment._--In the congestive stage, plenty of pure air will be
+necessary. Bleed freely; and give in drench one pound of Glauber-salts,
+with two drachms of Jamaica ginger. Nothing more will be required by way
+of treatment.
+
+In the inflammatory stage, bleeding should seldom be resorted to, except
+where the animal is in full condition. Apply the following blister to
+the sides, well rubbed in: oil of turpentine, one ounce; croton-oil,
+twelve drops; aqua ammonia, half an ounce; linseed-oil, four ounces; mix
+all together. Give internally one pound of salts in drench, and follow
+with one of the following powders every four hours: nitrate of potash,
+one ounce; tartrate of antimony and pulverized digitalis leaves, of
+each, one drachm; mix all together, and divide into eight powders. Or
+the following may be given with equal advantage: nitrate of potash, one
+and a half ounces; nitrate of soda, six ounces; mix, and divide into six
+powders; one to be given in wash or gruel every six hours.
+
+
+PROTRUSION OF THE BLADDER.
+
+This sometimes occurs during the throes in difficult cases of
+parturition in cows, and the aid of a skillful veterinary surgeon is
+requisite to replace the inverted bladder.
+
+
+PUERPERAL FEVER.
+
+This disease--milk fever, or dropping after calving--rarely occurs until
+the animal has attained mature age. The first symptoms make their
+appearance in from one to five or six days after parturition. It appears
+to be a total suspension of nervous function, independent of
+inflammatory action, which is suddenly developed, and, in favorable
+cases, as suddenly disappears. It is called dropping after calving, from
+its following the parturient state.
+
+_Symptoms._--Tremor of hind legs; a staggering gait, which soon
+terminates in loss of power in the hind limbs; pulse rises to sixty or
+eighty per minute; milk diminishing in quantity as the disease
+progresses; the animal soon goes down, and is unable to rise, moans
+piteously; eyes set in the head; general stupor; and slow respiration.
+
+_Treatment._--This disease, though generally regarded as a febrile
+disorder, will not yield to the general practice of taking blood, as a
+large majority of the cases so treated die. The bowels must be opened,
+but the veins never. Give Epsom-salts, one pound; Jamaica ginger, two
+ounces; dissolve in warm water, one quart, and drench. The author
+usually gives with good effect, some five or six hours after the salts,
+two ounces of nitric ether and one ounce of tincture of opium, in half a
+pint of water. Rub well in, along the back and loins, the following:
+strong mustard, three ounces; aqua ammonia and water, each one and a
+half ounces. Some modifications in the treatment of this disease, as
+well as of most others, will be necessary under certain circumstances,
+which can only be determined by the veterinary practitioner.
+
+
+QUARTER EVIL.
+
+In some sections of the country, this disease--known by the other names
+of black quarter, and joint murrain--is quite common among young cattle,
+and is generally fatal in its termination. There is little or no warning
+of its approach. The first animals in a herd to be attacked are
+generally those in a full, plethoric condition.
+
+_Symptoms._--The joints suddenly become swollen, and so painful as to
+produce severe lameness, particularly in the hind parts. General
+irritative fever exists in the system, attended with great tenderness of
+the loins; the head is poked out; eyes red and bulging; the roots of the
+horns, as well as the breath, are hot; the muzzle dry, and nostrils
+expanded; pulse rises to seventy or eighty, full and hard; respiration
+is hurried; the animal is constantly moaning, and appears to be
+unconscious of surrounding objects; the swelling of the limbs extends to
+the shoulder and haunch; the animal totters, falls and dies in from
+twelve to twenty-four hours.
+
+_Treatment._--Early bleeding is requisite here, to be followed by active
+purgatives; after which, give one of the following powders every half
+hour: nitrate of potassa, two ounces; tartrate of antimony and
+pulverized digitalis, of each one and a half drachms; mix, and divide
+into eight powders. These should not be renewed. Cold linseed tea should
+be freely given.
+
+
+RABIES.
+
+Hydrophobia in cattle is the result of the bite of a rabid dog, from
+which bite no animal escapes. The effects produced by the wound made by
+the teeth of such an animal, after the virus is once absorbed into the
+circulation of the blood, are so poisonous that all treatment is
+useless. The proper remedies must be instantly applied to prevent this
+absorption, or the case is utterly hopeless. Among men, nine out of
+every ten bitten by rabid dogs escape the terrible effects resulting
+from this dreadful disorder, without resorting to any applications to
+prevent it. It is a well-established fact, that men, when bitten by
+dogs, are generally wounded in some part protected by their clothing,
+which guards them from the deleterious effects of the saliva which
+covers the teeth, and which, at such times, is deadly poison. The teeth,
+in passing through the clothing, are wiped clean, so that the virus is
+not introduced into the blood; hence the comparatively few cases of
+rabies occurring in man. When, however, the wound is made upon an
+exposed surface, as the flesh of the hand, or of the face, this fatal
+disease is developed in spite of every precaution, unless such
+precautions are immediately taken. For this reason, cattle when bitten,
+do not escape the disease.
+
+_Symptoms._--The animal separates itself from the rest of the herd,
+standing in a kind of stupor, with the eyes half-closed; respiration
+natural; pulse quickened; temperature of body and limbs natural; the
+slightest noise agitates, causing the eyes to glare and exciting
+bellowing; the bark of a dog produces the most violent effects; the
+animal foams at the mouth and staggers as it walks; if water is
+offered, the muzzle is plunged into it, but the victim cannot drink; in
+making the effort, the most fearful consequences are produced. The
+animal now seeks to do mischief,--and the quicker it is then destroyed,
+the better.
+
+_Treatment._--This must be applied quickly, or not at all. The moment an
+animal is bitten, that moment the wound should be searched for, and when
+found, should be freely opened with a knife, and lunar caustic, caustic
+potash, or the permanganate of potash at once applied to all parts of
+the wound, care being taken not to suffer a single scratch to escape.
+This, if attended to in time, will save the animal.
+
+
+RED WATER.
+
+This disease derives its name from the color of the urine voided in it.
+It is one of the most common complaints of horned cattle, and one of the
+most troublesome to manage.
+
+_Symptoms._--Respiration hurried; rumination ceases; a high degree of
+fever presented; the animal moans, arches the back, and strains in
+passing the urine, which is tinged with blood, or presents the
+appearance of pure blood. Prof. Gamgee, of the Edinburgh Veterinary
+College, says: "The cause is almost invariably feeding on turnips that
+have grown on damp, ill-drained land; and very often a change of diet
+stops the spread of this disease in the byre. Other succulent food,
+grown under similar circumstances, may produce the same symptoms,
+tending to disturb the digestive organs and the blood-forming process.
+
+"In the course of my investigations as to the cause of various
+cattle-diseases, and of red water in particular. I have found that it
+is unknown on well-drained farms and in dairies where turnips are used
+only in a moderate degree. The lands of poor people furnish the roots
+most likely to induce this disorder; and I can confirm the statement of
+the late Mr. Cumming, of Elton, who, in his very interesting essay upon
+this subject, says, particularly in reference to Aberdeenshire, that it
+is 'a disease essentially attacking the poor man's cow; and to be seen
+and studied, requires a practice extending into the less favorably
+situated parts of the country. On large farms, where good stock is well
+kept, and in town dairies, where artificial food is used to supplement
+the supply of turnips, it is seldom now seen.'
+
+"_Symptoms._--General derangement attracts the dairyman's attention,
+and, upon observing the urine which the animal has voided, it is seen to
+be of a red, or of a reddish brown, or claret color; sometimes
+transparent, at others clear. The color increases in depth; other
+secretions are checked; the animal becomes hide-bound, and the milk goes
+off. Appetite and rumination are suspended; the pulse becomes extremely
+feeble and frequent, though--as in all debilitating, or anaemic,
+disorders--the heart's action is loud and strong, with a decided venous
+pulse, or apparent regurgitation, in the large veins of the neck.
+
+"In some cases, if even a small quantity of blood be withdrawn, the
+animal drops in a fainting state. In red water, the visible mucous
+membranes are blanched, and the extremities cold, indicating the languid
+state of the blood's circulation and the poverty of the blood itself.
+Constipation is one of the most obstinate complications; and many
+veterinary surgeons--aware that, if the bowels can be acted on, the
+animal is cured--have employed purgatives in quantities far too large,
+inducing at times even death. Occasionally, diarrhoea is one of the
+first, and not of the unfavorable, symptoms."
+
+_Treatment._--Give one pint of linseed-oil; clysters of soap and water
+should be freely used; and give plenty of linseed-tea to drink. When the
+urine is abundant, give one ounce of tincture of opium, with one drachm
+of powdered aloes, three times, at intervals of six or eight hours.
+
+
+RHEUMATISM.
+
+This is a constitutional inflammatory affection of the joints, affecting
+the fibrous tissue and serous, or synovial membrane. It is caused by
+exposure to cold and wet; being quite common in low, marshy sections.
+
+_Symptoms._--Loss of appetite; upon forcing the animal to move, every
+joint seems stiffened; nose dry; coat staring; constipation is also an
+attendant symptom; the joints, one or more, become swollen and painful.
+This may be regarded as a metastic, or shifting disease; first one part,
+and then another, seems to be affected.
+
+_Treatment._--Mild purgatives should be used; one-half-ounce doses of
+colchicum-root pulverized will be found useful; one-ounce balls of
+pine-tar may also be given with advantage. As a local application, the
+author has found nothing to equal kerosene oil, one pint, to two ounces
+of aqua ammonia, well rubbed in, two or three times a day.
+
+
+STRANGULATION OF THE INTESTINES.
+
+This disease in cattle,--popularly styled Knot, or Gut-tie,--in
+consequence of the peculiar arrangement of the abdominal viscera, is of
+very rare occurrence. When, however, it does occur, the symptoms
+accompanying are those of inflammation of the intestines.
+
+No kind of treatment will be successful, and the poor brute must suffer
+until death comes to its relief.
+
+
+THRUSH IN THE MOUTH.
+
+Aptha, or thrush in the mouth, is a vesicular disease of the mouth,
+sometimes occurring as an epizooetic. It is often mistaken for
+blain,--inflammation of the tongue, or black tongue,--and usually occurs
+in the winter, or early in the spring. It appears in the form of
+vesicles, or pustules all over the mouth, occasionally extending to the
+outside of the lips. These pustules break, discharging a thin, sanious
+fluid, leaving minute ulcers in their places.
+
+This disease yields readily to treatment, when it is properly applied.
+Three ounces of Epsom-salts, once a day for three or four days, should
+be given in drench; wash the mouth well with a solution of alum,
+tincture of myrrh, or vinegar and honey, and it will disappear in a few
+days.
+
+
+TUMORS.
+
+These enlargements so common in cattle, have been so admirably
+described, in the Veterinarian for 1843, by John Ralph, V.S.,--who has
+been so successful in the treatment of these morbid growths, that the
+benefit of his experience is here given. He says: "Of all the
+accidental productions met with among cattle, with the exception of
+wens, a certain kind of indurated tumor, chiefly situated about the head
+and throat, has abounded most in my practice.
+
+"The affection often commences in one of the thyroid glands, which
+slowly but gradually increases in size, feels firm when grasped, and
+evinces very little tenderness. Generally the attendant is alarmed by a
+snoring or wheezing noise emitted by the animal in respiration, before
+he is aware of the existence of any tumefaction. This continues to
+increase, embracing in its progress the adjacent cellular and muscular
+tissues, and frequently the submaxillary and parotid glands. It becomes
+firmly attached to the skin through which an opening is ultimately
+effected by the pressure of pus from the centre of the tumor.
+
+"The swelling often presents an irregular surface, and various centres
+of maturation exist; but the evacuations only effect a partial and
+temporary reduction of its bulk, in consequence of the continued
+extension of the morbid growth and ulcerative process which often
+proceed towards the pharynx, rendering respiration and deglutition still
+more difficult, until at length the animal sinks from atrophy or
+_phthisis pulmonalis_.
+
+"In the early part of my practice, having been frustrated in my attempts
+to establish healthy action in these ulcers, and referring to the works
+that I had on surgery for information, I concluded that they bore some
+resemblance to cancer in the human being, and determined to attempt
+extirpation. Subsequently, numerous cases have occurred in which I have
+successfully carried that determination into effect. I have had some
+instances of failure, which failure always arose from some portion of
+the morbid growth having been left.
+
+"In the first stage, I have reason to believe that the tumor may be
+dispersed by the general and topical use of the iodurets. After the
+suppuration, I have tried them in vain.
+
+"As soon as the nature of the tumor is clearly developed, I generally
+attempt its removal, and, when most prominent by the side of the larynx,
+I proceed in the following manner:--Having cast the beast, turned the
+occiput toward the ground, and bolstered it up with bundles of straw, I
+proceed to make an incision through it, if the skin is free, parallel
+with, and over, and between the trachea and _sterno-maxillaris_,
+extending it sufficiently forward into the inter-maxillary spaces. If I
+find it firmly attached to the apex of the tumor, I then enclose it in a
+curvilinear incision and proceed to detach the healthy skin to beyond
+the verge of the tumor.
+
+"Its edges being held by an assistant, the knife is directed downwards
+through the subcutaneous parts, and all those that exhibit the slightest
+change from healthy structure are removed.
+
+"By tying any considerable blood-vessel before dividing it, and by using
+the handle of the scalpel and the fingers in detaching the portion of
+the parotid gland towards the ear the hemorrhage was always
+inconsiderable.
+
+"The wound is then treated in the ordinary way; except that detergents
+and even antiseptics are often needed to arouse healthy action, and the
+addition of some preparation of iodine is often made to the digestive.
+In directing the constitutional treatment, our chief aim must be to
+support the animal system with plenty of gruel until rumination is
+restored.
+
+"I need not note that the operation should be performed after the animal
+has fasted some hours.
+
+"As the success of the operation depends on an entire removal of the
+diseased parts, and as the submaxillary and parotid glands, with
+important branches of nerves and blood-vessels, are often enveloped
+therein, we must not hesitate to remove the former, nor to divide the
+latter. It has occasionally happened that a rupture has been made in the
+oesophagus, or pharynx, during the operation. In that case, a portion
+of the gruel with which the animal is drenched escapes for a few days;
+but I always found that the wound healed by granulation, without any
+particular attention.
+
+"The weight of these tumors varies from a few ounces to some pounds. One
+that I removed from a two-year-old Galloway bullock, weighed six pounds
+and a quarter. A considerable portion of the skin that covered it was
+excised and included in the above weight. It comprehended one of the
+parotid glands, and I had to divide the trunk of the carotid artery and
+jugular vein.
+
+"This affection may be distinguished from parotiditis and other
+_phlegmasiae_ by the action of constitutional disturbance, and heat, and
+tenderness, and by the lingering progress it makes. I was once called to
+a bull laboring under alarming dyspnoea that had gradually increased.
+No external enlargement was perceptible; but on introducing my hand into
+the mouth, a large polypus was found hanging from the _velum palati_
+into the pharynx, greatly obstructing the elevation of the epiglottis
+and the passage of food. After performing tracheotomy, to prevent
+suffocation, I passed a ligature around its pedicle in the way suggested
+by the old anatomist, Cheselden.
+
+"A section of one of these tumors mostly displays several abscesses,
+with matter varying in consistency and often very fetid, enclosed in
+what seems to me to be fibro-cartilaginous cysts, the exterior of which
+sometimes gradually disappears in the surrounding more vascular abnormal
+growth. Osseous matter (I judge from the grating of the scalpel upon it)
+occasionally enters into the composition of the cysts.
+
+"I have treated this affection in cattle of the Long-horned,
+Short-horned, Galloway, and Highland breeds; and from the number of
+bulls in this class of patients, have reason to conclude that they are
+more liable to it than the female.
+
+"About twelve months ago, I examined the head of a cow, on the right
+facial region of which there existed an enormous tumor, extending from
+the eye to the lips, and which I mistook during life for a periosteal
+enlargement. On cutting into it, my mistake was evident. There was
+scarcely a trace of the original bones beneath the mass; even those
+forming the nasal sinuses on that side were replaced by a formation much
+resembling the cysts before alluded to, and full of abscesses. The
+progress of the disease was decisively marked in the inferior rim of the
+orbital cavity, where the osseous matter was being removed, and the
+morbid structure deposited."
+
+
+ULCERS ABOUT THE JOINTS.
+
+Occasionally, the joints assume a tumefied appearance, generally
+ulcerating, and causing painful wounds.
+
+_Treatment._--The application of one part of alum to two parts of
+prepared chalk, powdered and sprinkled upon the parts, is usually all
+that is required.
+
+
+WARBLES.
+
+It has been a prevalent opinion among farmers, that warbles are so many
+evidences of the good condition of their cattle. It must, however, be
+borne in mind that the warbles are the _larvae_ of the _oestrus bovis_,
+which is said to be the most beautiful variety of gad-fly. This fly,
+judging from the objects of its attack, must be particularly choice in
+its selection of animals upon which to deposit its eggs, as it rarely
+chooses those poor in flesh, or in an unhealthy condition. From this
+circumstance, probably, has arisen the opinion above-mentioned.
+
+[Illustration: HOME AGAIN.]
+
+These warbles--or _larvae_ of the _oestrus bovis_--so nearly resemble
+bots in the horse--or _larvae oestrus equi_--that, were it not for
+their increased size, they might readily be mistaken the one for the
+other. There is, however, one other difference, and that is in the rings
+which encircle the body; those of the former being perfectly smooth,
+while those of the latter are prickly, and from one third to one half
+smaller.
+
+The author was called, in the year 1856, to see the prize cow, Pet,
+belonging to James Kelly, of Cleveland, Ohio, whose extraordinary yield
+of butter and milk had been reported in the _Ohio Farmer_, a short time
+previous to his visit. This animal was found by him in rather poor
+condition; the causes of which he could only trace to the existence of
+these worms, comfortably located, as they were, beneath the animal's
+hide, and forming small tumors all along the spinal column, each being
+surrounded by a considerable quantity of pus. A number of these were
+removed by means of a curved bistoury and a pair of forceps, since which
+time--as he has been informed--the animal has rapidly improved,
+regaining her former good condition.
+
+Some may urge that this is an isolated case; but an examination of
+cattle for themselves, will convince them to the contrary. It may be
+added, that two other cows, belonging to the same gentleman, were also
+examined at the same time,--one of them being in good condition, and the
+other, out of condition. From the back of the latter several of these
+insects were removed, since which time she also has much improved. The
+former was entirely free from them. These cows were all kept in the same
+pasture, received the same care, and were fed on the same food, and at
+the same time; and as the removal of these larvae has been productive of
+such beneficial results, have we not a right to infer that these insects
+are injurious?
+
+If we go further and examine, in the spring of the year, all cattle
+which are subject to them, instead of finding them in the fine
+condition which one would naturally expect,--considering the abundance
+of fresh young grass whose vigorous life they may incorporate into their
+own,--they are out of condition, and out of spirits, with a laggard eye,
+a rough coat, and, in some cases, a staggering gait, as though their
+strength had failed in consequence.
+
+How shall such attacks be prevented? During the months of August and
+September this gad-fly is busily engaged in depositing its eggs. Some
+are of the opinion that they are placed on the hairs of the animal;
+others, that the skin is perforated, and the egg deposited in the
+opening, which would account for the apparent pain manifested by cattle
+at and after the time of such deposit. Be this as it may, it is certain
+that the maggot works its way into the muscular fibre of the back, and
+depends upon the animal's blood for the nourishment which it receives.
+
+The author has been informed, by persons in whom he ought to have
+confidence, that the _free use of the card_, during the above-named
+months, is a specific protection against the attacks of the _oestrus
+bovis_. He repeats this information here, not without diffidence; since
+so large a majority of stock-owners evince, by their lack of familiarity
+with the practical use of this convenient and portable instrument, an
+utter disbelief in its reliability and value.
+
+
+WORMS.
+
+Cattle are not so subject to worms proper as are the other domestic
+animals; nor, when these parasites do exist, is any injurious effect
+apparent, except it be in the case of young calves of a weakly
+constitution. Worms are most commonly located in the small intestines,
+and cause there considerable irritation, and consequently, general
+emaciation, or at least a tendency to it.
+
+The cause, however, is easily removed by administering doses of sulphate
+of iron, one-half drachm each, in molasses once or twice a day.
+
+
+WORMS IN THE BRONCHIAL TUBES.
+
+Inflammation of the bronchial tubes is often caused by worms of the
+_strongylus_ species. Upon examination after death, the bronchial
+passages are completely blocked-up by these hangers-on.
+
+_Symptoms._--A rough, staring coat; hide-bound; painful cough;
+respiration hurried, etc.
+
+_Treatment._--But little can be done by way of treatment in this
+disease. The administration of small doses of spirits of turpentine has,
+in some instances, proved successful.
+
+
+SURGICAL OPERATIONS.
+
+CASTRATION.
+
+The period most commonly selected for this operation is between the
+first and third months. The nearer it is to the expiration of the first
+month, the less danger attends the operation.
+
+Some persons prepare the animal by the administration of a dose of
+physic; but others proceed at once to the operation when it best suits
+their convenience, or that of the farmer. Care, however, should be taken
+that the young animal is in perfect health. The mode formerly practised
+was simple enough:--a piece of whip-cord was tied as tightly as possible
+around the scrotum. The supply of blood being thus completely cut off,
+the bag and its contents soon became livid and dead, and were suffered
+to hang, by some careless operators, until they dropped off, or they
+were cut off on the second or third day.
+
+It is now, however, the general practice to grasp the scrotum in the
+hand, between the testicles and the belly, and to make an incision in
+one side of it, near the bottom, of sufficient depth to penetrate
+through the inner covering of the testicle, and of sufficient length to
+admit of its escape. The testicle immediately bursts from its bag, and
+is seen hanging by its cord.
+
+The careless or brutal operator now firmly ties a piece of small string
+around the cord, and having thus stopped the circulation, cuts through
+the cord, half an inch below the ligature, and removes the testicle. He,
+however, who has any feeling for the poor animal on which he is
+operating, considers that the only use of the ligature is to compress
+the blood-vessels and prevent after-hemorrhage, and, therefore, saves a
+great deal of unnecessary torture by including them alone in the
+ligature, and afterwards dividing the rest of the cord. The other
+testicle is proceeded with in the same way and the operation is
+complete. The length of the cord should be so contrived that it will
+immediately retract, or be drawn back, into the scrotum, but not higher,
+while the ends of the string hang out through the wound. In the course
+of about a week, the strings will usually drop off, and the wounds will
+speedily heal. There will rarely be any occasion to make any
+application to the scrotum, except fomentation of it, if much swelling
+should ensue.
+
+A few, whose practice cannot be justified, seize the testicle as soon as
+it escapes from the bag, and, pulling violently, break the cord and tear
+it out. It is certain that when a blood-vessel is thus ruptured, it
+forcibly contracts, and very little bleeding follows; but if the cord
+breaks high up, and retracts into the belly, considerable inflammation
+has occasionally ensued, and the beast has been lost.
+
+The application of _torsion_--or the twisting of the arteries by a pair
+of forceps which will firmly grasp them--has, in a great degree,
+superseded every other mode of castration, both in the larger and the
+smaller domesticated animals. The spermatic artery is exposed, and
+seized with the forceps, which are then closed by a very simple
+mechanical contrivance; the vessel is drawn a little out from its
+surrounding tissue, the forceps are turned around seven or eight times,
+and the vessel liberated. It will be found to be perfectly closed; a
+small knot will have formed on its extremity; it will retract into the
+surrounding surface, and not a drop more of blood will flow from it; the
+cord may then be divided, and the bleeding from any little vessel
+arrested in the same way. Neither the application of the hot iron, nor
+of the wooden clamps, whether with or without caustic, can be necessary
+in the castration of the calf.
+
+A new instrument was introduced in France, some few years since, for
+this purpose, called the _acraseur_,--so constructed as to throw a chain
+over the cord, which is wound up by means of a screw working upon the
+chain, and at the same time the cord is twisted off. No bleeding
+follows this method of operating.
+
+This instrument is constructed upon the same principle as the _acraseur_
+for use in the human family, for the removal of hemorrhoids, etc., the
+dimensions of the two only varying.
+
+The advantages resulting from the use of this instrument over all other
+methods are, that the parts generally heal within a week,--the operation
+is not so painful to the animal,--it is less troublesome to the
+operator,--also to the owner of the animal,--and lastly, it is a safer
+and more scientific operation. Its success in France soon gave it a
+reputation in England, and recently it has been introduced by the author
+into this country, and with the best results. Contractors, hearing of
+the success attending this new mode of operating, have visited him from
+all parts of the country to witness its performance, and not one has
+returned without leaving an order for this instrument,--so well
+convinced have they been of its decided superiority over all other
+methods.
+
+
+TRACHEOTOMY.
+
+In consequence of the formation of tumors about the throat in cattle,
+from inflammation of the parotid gland, blain, etc., so characteristic
+of this species of animals, it sometimes becomes necessary to perform
+this operation in order to save their lives. It never fails to give
+instant relief.
+
+After the animal has been properly secured,--which is done by an
+assistant's holding the nose with one hand, and one of the horns with
+the other,--the operator draws the skin tight over the windpipe with the
+thumb and fingers of his left hand; then, with the scalpel in his right,
+cuts through the skin, making an incision about three inches long,
+dissecting up the skin on each side, which brings the _trachea_, or
+windpipe, in full view. He then cuts out a piece of the cartilaginous
+rings, about two inches long and about half an inch wide. This simple
+operation has saved the lives of very many valuable animals. The wound
+readily heals, and seldom leaves any perceptible blemish, if the work is
+properly performed.
+
+
+SPAYING.
+
+To secure a more uniform flow and a richer quality of milk, cows are
+sometimes spayed, or castrated. The milk of spayed cows is pretty
+uniform in quality; and this quality will be, on an average, a little
+more than before the operation was performed. In instances where the
+results of this operation have been carefully noted,--and the operation
+is rarely resorted to in this country, in comparison with the custom in
+France and other continental countries,--the quality of the milk has
+been greatly improved, the yield becoming regular for some years, and
+varying only in accordance with the difference in the succulence of the
+food.
+
+The proper time for spaying is about five or six weeks after calving, or
+at the time when the largest quantity of milk is given. There seems to
+be some advantages in spaying for milk and butter dairies, where
+attention is not paid to the raising of stock. The cows are more quiet,
+never being liable to returns of seasons of heat, which always more or
+less affect the milk, both in quantity and quality. They give milk
+nearly uniform in these respects, for several years, provided the food
+is uniformly succulent and nutritious. Their milk is influenced like
+that of other cows, though to a less extent, by the quality and
+quantity of food; so that in winter, unless the animal is properly
+attended to, the yield will decrease somewhat, but will rise again as
+good feed returns. This uniformity for the milk-dairy is of immense
+advantage. Besides, the cow, when old and inclined to dry up, takes on
+fat with greater rapidity, and produces a juicy and tender beef,
+superior, at the same age, to that of the ox.
+
+The following method of performing this operation is sanctioned by the
+practice of eminent veterinary surgeons in France:--
+
+Having covered the eyes of the cow to be operated upon, she is placed
+against a wall, provided with five rings firmly fastened and placed as
+follows: the first corresponds to the top of the withers; the second, to
+the lower anterior part of the breast; the third is placed a little
+distance from the angle of the shoulder; the fourth is opposite to the
+anterior and superior part of the lower region; and the fifth, which is
+behind, answers to the under-part of the buttocks. A strong assistant is
+placed between the wall and the head of the animal, who firmly holds the
+left horn in his left hand, and with his right, the muzzle, which he
+elevates a little. This done, the end of a long and strong-plaited cord
+is passed, through the ring which corresponds to the lower part of the
+breast, and fastened; the free end of the cord is brought along the left
+flank, and through the ring which is below and in front of the withers.
+This is brought down along the breast behind the shoulder and the angle
+of the fore-leg in order to pass it through the third ring; then it must
+be passed around against the outer angle of the left hip, and fastened
+after having been drawn tightly to the posterior ring, by a simple
+bow-knot.
+
+The cow being thus firmly fixed to the wall, a cord is fastened by a
+slip-noose around her hocks, to keep them together in such a manner that
+she cannot kick the operator, the free end of the cord and the tail
+being held by an assistant. The cow thus secured cannot, during the
+operation, move forward, nor lie down, and the operator has all the ease
+desirable, and is protected from accident.
+
+The operator next--placed opposite to the animal's left flank, with his
+back turned a little toward the head of the animal--cuts off the hair
+which covers the hide in the middle of the flanks, at an equal distance
+between the back and hip, for the space of thirteen or fourteen
+centimetres in circumference (the French _centimetre_ is rather more
+than thirty-nine one hundredths of an inch); a convex bistoury is
+placed, opened, between his teeth, the edge out, the joints to the left;
+then, with both hands, he seizes the hide in the middle of the flank,
+and forms of it a wrinkle of the requisite elevation, running lengthwise
+of the body. The assistant seizes with his right hand the right side of
+this wrinkle; the operator takes the bistoury and cuts the wrinkle, at
+one stroke, through the middle; the wrinkle having been suffered to go
+down, a separation of the hide is presented, of sufficient length to
+admit the introduction of the hand; the edges of the hide are separated
+with the thumb and fore-finger of the left hand, and in like manner the
+abdominal muscles are cut through, for the distance of a centimetre from
+the lower extremity of the incision made in the hide,--the _iliac_
+slightly obliquely, and the _lumbar_ across; a puncture of the
+peritoneum, at the upper extremity of the wound, is then made with the
+straight bistoury; the buttoned bistoury is then introduced, and moved
+obliquely from above to the lower part, up to the termination of the
+incision made in the abdominal muscles.
+
+The flank being opened, the right hand is introduced into the abdomen,
+and directed along the right side of the cavity of the pelvis, behind
+the paunch, and underneath the rectum, to the matrix; after the position
+of these viscera is ascertained, the organs of reproduction, or ovaries,
+are searched for, which are at the extremity of the matrix; when found,
+they are seized between the thumb and fore-finger, detached completely
+from the ligaments which keeps them in their place, and by a light pull,
+the cord and the vessels, the uterine or Fallopian tube, are separated
+at their place of union with the ovarium, by means of the nails of the
+thumb and fore-finger, which present themselves at the point of touch,
+thus breaking the cord and bringing away the ovary.
+
+The hand is again introduced into the abdominal cavity, and the
+remaining ovaries brought away in like manner. A suture is then placed
+of three or four double threads, waxed at an equal distance, and at two
+centimetres, or a little less, from the lips of the wound, passing it
+through the divided tissues; a movement is made from the left hand with
+the piece of thread; having reached that point, a fastening is made with
+a double knot, the seam placed in the intervals of the thread from the
+right, and as the lips of the wound are approached, a fastening is
+effected by a simple knot, with a bow, care being taken not to close too
+tightly the lower part of the seam, in order to allow the suppuration,
+which may be established in the wound, to escape. The wound is then
+covered up with a pledget of lint, kept in its place by three or four
+threads passed through the stitches, and the operation is complete.
+
+It happens, sometimes, that in cutting the muscles before mentioned, one
+or two of the arteries are severed. Should much blood escape, a ligature
+must be applied before opening the peritoneal sac; since, if this
+precaution is omitted, blood will escape into the abdomen, which may
+occasion the most serious consequences.
+
+For the first eight days succeeding, the animal should have a light
+diet, and a soothing, lukewarm draught; if the weather should be cold,
+cover with a woollen covering. She must be prevented from licking the
+wound, and from rubbing it against other bodies. The third day after the
+operation, bathe morning and evening about the wound with water of
+mallows lukewarm, or anoint it with a salve of hog's lard, and
+administer an emollient glyster during three or four days.
+
+Eight days after the operation, take away the bandage, the lint, the
+fastenings, and the thread. The wound is at that time, as a general
+thing, completely cicatrized. Should, however, some slight suppuration
+exist, a slight pressure must be used above the part where it is
+located, so as to cause the pus to leave, and if it continues more than
+five or six days, emollients must be supplied by alcolized water, or
+chloridized, especially in summer. The animal is then to be brought back
+gradually to her ordinary nourishment.
+
+In some cows, a swelling of the body is observable a short time after
+having been spayed, attributable to the introduction of cold air into
+the abdomen during the operation; but this derangement generally ceases
+within twenty-four hours. Should the contrary occur, administer one or
+two sudorific draughts, such as wine, warm cider, or a half-glass of
+brandy, in a quart of warm water,--treatment which suffices in a short
+time to restore a healthy state of the belly,--the animal at the same
+time being protected by two coverings of wool.
+
+The only precaution, in the way of management, to be observed as a
+preparative for the operation is, that on the preceding evening not so
+copious a meal should be given. The operation should also be performed
+in the morning before the animal has fed, so that the operator may not
+find any obstacle from the primary digestive organs, especially the
+paunch, which, during its state of ordinary fullness, might prevent
+operating with facility.
+
+The advantages of spaying milch-cows are thus summed up by able French
+writers: First, rendering permanent the secretion of milk, and having a
+much greater quantity within the given time of every year; second, the
+quality of milk being improved; third, the uncertainty of, and the
+dangers incident to, breeding being, to a great extent, avoided; fourth,
+the increased disposition to fatten even when giving milk freely, or
+when, from excess of age or from accidental circumstances, the secretion
+of milk is otherwise checked; fifth, the very short time required to
+produce a marketable condition; and sixth, the meat of spayed cattle
+being of a quality superior to that of ordinary cattle.
+
+This operation would seem to have originated in this country. The London
+Veterinary Journal of 1834 contains the following, taken from the United
+States Southern Agriculturist:--"Some years since, I passed a summer at
+Natchez, and put up at a hotel there, kept by Mr. Thomas Winn. During
+the time that I was there I noticed two remarkably fine cows, which were
+kept constantly in the stable, the servant who had charge of the horses,
+feeding them regularly three times a day with green guinea grass, cut
+with a sickle. These cows had so often attracted my attention, on
+account of the great beauty of their form, and deep red color, the large
+size of their bags, and the high condition in which they were kept, that
+I was at length induced to ask Mr. Winn to what breed of cattle they
+belonged, and his reasons for keeping them constantly in the stable in
+preference to allowing them to run in the pasture, where they could
+enjoy the benefit of air and exercise, and at the same time crop their
+own food, and thereby save the labor and trouble of feeding them? Mr.
+Winn, in reply to these inquiries, stated that the two cows which I so
+much admired were of the common stock of the country, and he believed,
+of Spanish origin; but they were both spayed cows, and that they had
+given milk either two or three years. Considering this a phenomenon (if
+not in nature at least in art), I made further inquiries of Mr. Winn,
+who politely entered into a very interesting detail, communicating facts
+which were as extraordinary as they were novel. Mr. Winn, by way of
+preface, observed that he, in former years, had been in the habit of
+reading English magazines, which contained accounts of the
+plowing-matches which were annually held in some of the southern
+counties of England, performed by cattle, and that he had noticed that
+the prizes were generally adjudged to the plowman who worked with spayed
+heifers; and although there was no connection between that subject and
+the facts which he should state, it was, nevertheless, the cause that
+first directed his mind into the train of thought and reasoning which
+finally induced him to make the experiments, which resulted in the
+discovery of the facts which he detailed, and which I will narrate as
+accurately as my memory will enable me to do it, after the lapse of more
+than twenty years. Mr. Winn's frequent reflections had (he said) led him
+to the belief "that if cows were spayed soon after calving, and while in
+a full flow of milk, they would continue to give milk for many years
+without intermission, or any diminution of quantity, except what would
+be caused by a change from green to dry, or less succulent food." To
+test this hypothesis, Mr. Winn caused a very good cow, then in full
+milk, to be spayed. The operation was performed about one month after
+the cow had produced her third calf; it was not attended with any severe
+pain, or much or long continued fever. The cow was apparently well in a
+few days, and very soon yielded her usual quantity of milk, and
+continued to give freely for several years without any intermission or
+diminution in quantity, except when the food was scarce and dry; but a
+full flow of milk always came back upon the return of a full supply of
+green food. This cow ran in the Mississippi low grounds or swamp near
+Natchez, got cast in deep mire, and was found dead. Upon her death, Mr.
+Winn caused a second cow to be spayed. The operation was entirely
+successful. The cow gave milk constantly for several years, but in
+jumping a fence stuck a stake in her bag, that inflicted a severe wound,
+which obliged Mr. Winn to kill her. Upon this second loss, Mr. Winn had
+two other cows spayed, and, to prevent the recurrence of injuries from
+similar causes with those which had occasioned him the loss of the first
+two spayed cows, he resolved to keep them always in the stable, or some
+safe enclosure, and to supply them regularly with green food, which that
+climate throughout the greater part of, if not all, the year enabled him
+to procure. The result, in regard to the last two spayed cows, was, as
+in the case of the first two, entirely satisfactory, and fully
+established, as Mr. Winn believed, the fact, that the spaying of cows,
+while in full milk, will cause them to continue to give milk during the
+residue of their lives, or until prevented by old age. When I saw the
+last two spayed cows it was, I believe, during the third year that they
+had constantly given milk after they were spayed. The character of Mr.
+Winn (now deceased) was highly respectable, and the most entire
+confidence could be reposed in the fidelity of his statements; and as
+regarded the facts which he communicated in relation to the several cows
+which he had spayed, numerous persons with whom I became acquainted,
+fully confirmed his statements."
+
+In November 1861, the author was called to perform this operation upon
+the short-horn Galloway cow, Josephine the Second, belonging to Henry
+Ingersoll, Esq., of this city. This cow was born May 8th, 1860. The
+morning was cold and cloudy. About ten o'clock the cow was cast, with
+the assistance of R. McClure, V.S., after which she was placed under the
+influence of chloric ether. He then made an incision, about five inches
+in length, through the skin and walls of the abdomen, midway between the
+pelvis bone and the last rib on the left side, passing in his right
+hand, cutting away the ovaries from the Fallopian tubes with the
+thumbnail. The opening on the side was then closed by means of the
+interrupted suture. The animal recovered from the influence of the
+anaesthetic in about fifteen minutes, when she was allowed to rise, and
+walk back to her stall.
+
+Upon the morning of the second day succeeding the operation, the animal
+was visited and found to be in good spirits, apparently suffering very
+little pain or inconvenience from the operation, and the wound healing
+nicely.
+
+Since that time, he has operated upon some twenty cows, all of which,
+with a single exception, have thus far proved satisfactory.
+
+Several of these cows are under the direction of a committee from the
+Philadelphia Society for promoting Agriculture, whose duty it is to have
+a daily record kept of each cow's yield of butter and milk, for one year
+from the time of spaying. Their report will be perused by the
+agricultural community with much interest.
+
+The author's own experience will not justify him in speaking either in
+favor of, or against, this operation; as sufficient time has not as yet
+elapsed to satisfy him as to its relative advantages and disadvantages.
+He, however, regards the operation as comparatively safe. The French
+estimate the loss at about fifteen per cent., and the gain at thirty per
+cent. Of those upon which he has operated, not a single animal died.
+
+
+
+
+A LIST OF MEDICINES USED IN TREATING CATTLE.
+
+
+The medicines used in the treatment of the diseases of cattle, are
+essentially the same as those in vogue for the diseases of the human
+being and the horse,--the only difference being in their combination and
+the quantities administered.
+
+ABSORBENTS.--Medicines which destroy acidities in the stomach and
+bowels; such as chalk, magnesia, etc.
+
+ALTERATIVES.--Medicines which restore the healthy functions of
+secretion, by gradually changing the morbid action in an impaired
+constitution. Those in most common use are AEthiops mineral, antimony,
+rosin, sulphur, etc., which form the principal ingredients in all
+condition-powders, and are chiefly useful in diseases of the skin, such
+as hide-bound, mange, surfeit, etc.
+
+ALTERATIVE POWDER.--Sulphur pulverized, one pound; black antimony, one
+half a pound; nitrate of potassa, four ounces; sulphate of iron, one
+half a pound; linseed meal, one pound; mix well; dose, one half an
+ounce, night and morning.
+
+ANTACIDS.--Agents which neutralize, by their chemical action, acids in
+the stomach; as ammonia, carbonate of potassa, chalk, lime-water,
+magnesia, and soda.
+
+ANTHELMINTICS.--Remedies used for the expulsion of worms from the
+stomach and intestines. These may act chemically or by their cathartic
+operation. The most reliable are AEthiops mineral, nux vomica,
+preparations of mercury, wormwood, etc.
+
+ANTHELMINTIC POWDERS.--Nux vomica, in one half-drachm doses, two or
+three times daily, to an ox or cow; for calves, the dose must be
+diminished, according to age.
+
+ANTIDOTES.--Medicines which neutralize the effects of poisons by a
+chemical union, forming an insoluble compound, or a mild, harmless one.
+Alkaline solutions are antidotes for the mineral acids; as soap in
+solution, a simple remedy, and always at hand. Lard, magnesia, and oil
+are antidotes for poisoning by arsenic; albumen,--in the form of the
+white of an egg,--milk, etc., for corrosive sublimate, and other
+mercurial preparations.
+
+ANTISEPTICS.--Medicines which prevent putridity in animal substances,
+and arrest putrefaction, when already existing. These are used both
+externally and internally. The chief specifics of this class are the
+acids, alcohol, ammonia, asafoetida, camphor, charcoal, chloride of
+lime, cinchona, ether, and opium.
+
+ANTISPASMODICS.--Medicines which exert their power in allaying
+inordinate motions or spasms in the system, arising from various causes,
+such as debility, worms, etc. Those most generally in use are ammonia,
+asafoetida, camphor, cinchona, ether, lactacarium, mercury, and opium.
+
+ANTISPASMODIC DRAUGHT.--Tincture of opium, one ounce; nitric ether, two
+ounces; water, one-half pint. Mix for drench; if repeated, it should be
+followed by a purgative, as soon as the spasms have subsided. Or, use
+the following: sulphuric ether, one to two ounces; water, one-half pint
+Mix for drench; repeat every hour, if necessary.
+
+AROMATICS.--Medicines possessing a grateful, spicy scent, and an
+agreeable, pungent taste; as anise-seed, cardamoms, cinnamon, cloves,
+ginger, etc. They are principally used in combination with purgatives,
+stomachics, and tonics.
+
+ASTRINGENTS.--Medicines which serve to diminish excessive discharges, as
+in diabetes, diarrhoea, etc. The principal agents of this class are
+the acids, alum, chalk, lime-water, opium, and the sulphate of copper,
+lead, iron, or zinc.
+
+ASTRINGENT POWDER.--Opium, one drachm; prepared chalk, half an ounce;
+Jamaica ginger, six drachms. Mix, and divide into four powders; one to
+be given every hour, in a little flour gruel. Or, the following: opium,
+one drachm; catechu, two drachms; prepared chalk, one ounce. Mix, and
+divide into four powders; to be given as before.
+
+CARDIACS.--Cordials--so termed, from their possessing warm and
+stimulating properties--given to invigorate the system.
+
+CATHARTICS.--Medicines--also known as purgatives--which cause free
+evacuations of the bowels. The only purgatives used by the author in his
+cattle practice, as a general rule, are aloes, cream of tartar,
+Epsom-salts, lard and linseed-oil. These answer all the indications,
+where purgatives are useful; indeed, no better purgative for cattle can
+be found than Epsom-salts, combined with a carminative or aromatic drug,
+such as ginger.
+
+CAUSTICS.--Substances which burn or destroy parts, by combining with
+them and causing their disorganization; used to destroy unhealthy
+action, or morbid growths, such as foul ulcers, foul in the foot, warts,
+etc. The most powerful remedial of this class is actual cauterization
+with a red-hot iron; caustic potash, lunar caustic, nitrous and
+sulphuric acids, permanganate of potash, etc., are also used.
+
+CORDIALS.--Best brandy, three ounces; orange peel, one drachm; tepid
+water, one pint. Mix all together, for one dose. Or, this for a single
+dose: ale, one pint; Jamaica ginger, two drachms. Or, the following,
+also a single dose: allspice, three drachms; ginger, one drachm; caraway
+seeds, two drachms.
+
+DEMULCENTS.--Mucilaginous medicaments, which have the power of
+diminishing the effects of stimulating substances upon the animal
+system. Of this class, garden rue, or marsh-mallow, gum-arabic, and
+gum-tragacanth are the most useful.
+
+DETERGENTS.--Agents which remove foulness from ulcers.
+
+DETERGENT POWDER.--Prepared chalk, two ounces; alum, one ounce. Mix; to
+be sprinkled on the part, after washing with Castile-soap and water.
+This powder is also an admirable application for foot-rot in sheep.
+
+DIAPHORETICS.--Agents which increase the natural discharge through the
+pores of the skin, and in some animals induce perspiration.
+
+DIGESTIVES.--Medicines which promote suppuration.
+
+DIGESTIVE OINTMENT.--Mix together equal portions of spirits of
+turpentine and lard. Or, mix together with a gentle heat the following:
+Venetian turpentine, one ounce; lard, one ounce; pulverized sulphate of
+copper, two drachms. Or this, mixed: rosin, two ounces; spirits of
+turpentine, one ounce; red precipitate, one-half an ounce; lard, two
+ounces.
+
+DIURETICS.--Medicines that stimulate the action of the kidneys, and
+augment the secretion of urine. These are very useful in swellings of
+the legs, or body. Take of nitrate of potash and rosin, each six
+drachms; mix, and divide in three powders; one to be given daily. Or,
+the following: spirits of turpentine, half an ounce; Castile-soap, one
+ounce; Jamaica ginger, one drachm; opium, one drachm. Mix: and divide in
+two balls; one to be given each day.
+
+EMOLLIENTS.--Medicines which relax the lining tissues, allay irritation,
+and soften the parts involved,--generally of a mucilaginous, or oily
+character. Lard, linseed meal, and marsh-mallows are chiefly used.
+
+LITHONTRIPTICS.--Medicines possessing the power of dissolving _calculi_,
+or stones in the urinary passages; composed principally, according to
+the researches of modern chemists, of lithic or uric acid. The
+preparation most successfully employed by the author in such cases is
+muriatic acid, in doses of from one to two drachms, in a pail of water,
+once or twice a day.
+
+NARCOTICS.--Medicines that stupefy, and produce sleep. Belladonna,
+camphor, hyoscyamus and opium, are among the narcotics in common use.
+
+NAUSEANTS.--Agents which cause loss of appetite, and produce the
+sensation of vomiting, without affecting it. For this purpose, aloes,
+tartrate of antimony, white hellebore, etc., are used.
+
+PARTURIENTS.--Agents which act upon the uterus. In cases of difficult
+parturition, or calving, resort is occasionally had to them. Ergot of
+rye is the most powerful.
+
+REFRIGERANTS.--Cooling applications, which reduce the temperature of the
+blood and body; as cold water, ether, lead-water, etc.
+
+RUBEFACIENTS.--Medicines which gently irritate the skin, producing
+redness on white surfaces. Of this class, are aqua ammonia, creosote,
+mustard, turpentine, etc.
+
+SEDATIVES.--Agents which depress the vital energies, without destroying
+life; as aconite, digitalis, hellebore, hydrochloric acid, hyoscyamus,
+opium, and tartrate of antimony.
+
+TONICS.--Medicines which increase the action of the muscular system,
+giving strength and vigor to the animal. These are among the most useful
+remedies known to man, and are beneficial in all cases of debility,
+toning up the stomach, and improving the appetite and condition of the
+animal.
+
+TONIC POWDER.--Pulverized gentian-root, one ounce; Jamaica ginger, one
+half an ounce; anise-seed, six drachms. Mix, and divide in eight
+powders; one to be given night and morning.
+
+TRAUMATICS.--Medicines which excite the healing process of wounds; as
+aloes, friar's balsam, myrrh, rosin, sulphate of copper or zinc, tar,
+etc.
+
+TRAUMATIC LOTION.--Mix tincture of aloes, one ounce; tincture of myrrh,
+two ounces. Or, melt together, tar, one ounce; rosin, two ounces; lard,
+four ounces. Or, mix sulphate of zinc, one drachm; rain-water, one half
+pint. Or, use the following, the celebrated friar's balsam; benzoin, in
+powder, four ounces; balsam of Peru, two ounces; Socotrine aloes, one
+half ounce; rectified spirits, one quart. Digest for ten or twelve days;
+then filter for use.
+
+
+
+
+DOSES OF VARIOUS REMEDIES USED IN CATTLE PRACTICE.
+
+
+ACONITE.--[_Monk's hood_; _Wolf's bane_.] An active poison. Used as a
+sedative in tincture; ten to twenty drops in water.
+
+AETHIOPS MINERAL.--[_Hydrargyri Sulphuretum._] One to two drachms.
+
+ALCOHOL.--A stimulant; three to six ounces.
+
+ALLSPICE.--[_Pimento berries._] Aromatic; two to four drachms.
+
+ALOES.--Cathartic and tonic; tonic dose, one half to one
+drachm--cathartic, one to two ounces.
+
+ALUM.--[_Alumen._] Irritant, astringent, and sedative; two to four
+drachms.
+
+AMMONIA.--[_Aqua ammonia_; _Liquor ammonia_; _Hartshorn_.] Principally
+used in combination with mustard, as an external irritant, and
+internally, as a diffusible stimulant; two to six drachms. Of carbonate
+of ammonia, three to six drachms.
+
+ANISE-SEED.--[Fruit of the _Pimpinella Anisum_.] One to two drachms.
+
+ANTIMONY.--[_Sulphate of Antimony._] Used in condition-powders; one to
+three drachms. Muriate of antimony. [_Oil, or butter, of antimony._]
+Caustic; very good in foul in the foot. Tartarized antimony. [_Tartar
+emetic._] One to four drachms. The author, in the last instance, varies
+from the dose prescribed by veterinary authors, never giving it in more
+than one-half-drachm doses, believing its action thus more certain and
+satisfactory.
+
+ASAFOETIDA.--Stimulant; two to four drachms.
+
+AXUNGE.--[_Hog's Lard._] Ointment, principally; may be used as purgative
+in doses of from one to one and a half pounds.
+
+BALSAM OF PERU.--Stimulant, and tonic; two to four drachms.
+
+BELLADONNA.--[_Deadly Nightshade._] Narcotic, anti-spasmodic, and
+irritant poison; one to two drachms.
+
+BENZOIN.--[_Gum Benjamin._] Ointment; see Traumatics.
+
+CALOMEL.--[_Hydrargyri Chloridum._] One half to one drachm.
+
+CAMOMILE.--[_Anthemis._] Stomachic, carminative, and tonic; one to two
+ounces.
+
+CAMPHOR.--[_Camphora Officinarum._] Narcotic and irritant; in small
+doses, sedative and stimulant; one to four drachms.
+
+CANTHARIDES.--[_Spanish Flies._] Internally, stimulant and diuretic;
+twenty to thirty grains. Externally, vesicant; used in form of ointment,
+or tincture.
+
+CARAWAY.--[Fruit of the _Carum Carisi_.] Used chiefly for flavoring
+purposes.
+
+CARDAMOMS.--[Fruit of the _Elettaria Cardamomum_.] Used to communicate
+an agreeable flavor to other medicines.
+
+CATECHU.--[_Acacia Catechu._] Astringent, and antiseptic; three to six
+drachms.
+
+CHALK.--[_Carbonate of Lime_; _Calcis Carbonas_.] Two to three ounces.
+
+CHARCOAL.--[_Carbo Ligni._] Antiseptic; one half to one ounce.
+
+CINCHONA.--[_Peruvian Bark._] Astringent and tonic; one to two ounces.
+
+COPPER, SULPHATE OF.--[_Blue Vitriol._] Tonic and astringent; two to
+four drachms.
+
+CREOSOTE.--[_Creosotum._] A sedative, anodyne, astringent, narcotic, and
+irritant poison; fifteen to twenty drops.
+
+CROTON OIL.--[_Crotonis Oleum._] Internally, as a cathartic, six to ten
+drops in linseed-oil; externally, as a counter-irritant.
+
+DIGITALIS.--[_Fox Glove._] Sedative and diuretic; one to two scruples.
+
+EPSOM-SALTS.--[_Sulphate of magnesia._] Cathartic; one pound, combined
+with ginger.
+
+ERGOT.--[_Spurred rye._] Parturient; two to six drachms.
+
+ETHER.--Stimulant, narcotic, and anaesthetic; one to two ounces.
+
+GENTIAN.--[Root of _Gentiana lutea_.] Stomachic and tonic; one to two
+ounces.
+
+GINGER.--[_Zengiber officinale._] Stomachic, carminative, and slightly
+tonic; one to two ounces.
+
+GUM-ARABIC.--[_Gummi Acaciae._] Demulcent and emollient; one to two
+ounces.
+
+GUM-TRAGACANTH. Same action and same doses as the former.
+
+HELLEBORE.--[_Helleborus._] Irritant poison, and sedative; twenty to
+thirty grains.
+
+HYOSCYAMUS.--[_Henbane._] Narcotic, anodyne, and anti-spasmodic; ten to
+twenty grains.
+
+IODINE.--[_Iodineum._] Internally, as a tonic; two to three scruples;
+also as a tincture, and in ointments for reducing enlargements of the
+soft tissues.
+
+IRON, SULPHATE OF.--[_Ferri Sulphas_; _Green Vitriol_, _Coppera_.]
+Irritant, astringent, and tonic; two to four drachms.
+
+KOOSSO. Anthelmintic; two to four drachms.
+
+LIME, CHLORIDE OF.--Antiseptic; dose internally, one to two drachms.
+
+LINSEED OIL.--Cathartic; one pint.
+
+LUNAR CAUSTIC.--[_Nitrate of Silver._] Used as a caustic.
+
+MAGNESIA.--[See EPSOM-SALTS.]
+
+MARSH-MALLOW.--[_Altheae Radix._] Demulcent and emollient; principally
+used for poultices and fomentations.
+
+MURIATIC ACID.--[_Hydrochloric Acid_; _Spirit of Salt_.] Tonic,
+irritant, and caustic; dose internally, one to two drachms.
+
+MUSTARD.--[_Sinapis._] Counter-irritant; used principally as an external
+application.
+
+MYRRH.--Stimulating tonic to unhealthy sores; seldom used internally.
+
+NITRIC ACID.--[_Aqua fortis._] Astringent and tonic; one to two drachms
+in water. Used also as a caustic.
+
+NUX VOMICA.--[Seeds of _Strychnos_.] In large doses, a deadly poison; in
+medicinal doses, a powerful tonic and anthelmintic; one half to one
+drachm.
+
+OPIUM.--[_Papaver Somniferum._] Narcotic, sedative, anodyne, stimulant,
+and anti-spasmodic; two to four drachms.
+
+POTASH, CARBONATE OF.--[_Potassae Carbonas._] Antacid and diuretic; three
+to six drachms.
+
+POTASH, CAUSTIC.--[_Potassa fusa._] Used only as a caustic.
+
+POTASSA, PERMANGANATE OF.--Used externally as a caustic.
+
+ROSIN.--Diuretic; two to three ounces.
+
+SALT, COMMON.--[_Chloride of Sodium._] Irritant, cathartic, stimulant,
+and antiseptic; one to one and a half pounds.
+
+SALTS, GLAUBER.--[_Sulphate of Soda._] Cathartic and diuretic; one to
+one and a half pounds.
+
+SALTPETRE.--[_Nitrate of Potassa._] Diuretic, febrifuge, and
+refrigerant; one half to one ounce.
+
+SUBLIMATE, CORROSIVE.--[_Protochloride of Mercury._] Seldom used
+internally; externally, caustic and stimulant.
+
+SULPHUR.--[_Brimstone._] Stimulant and laxative; three to four ounces.
+
+SULPHURIC ACID.--Irritant, caustic, and astringent; two to three
+drachms.
+
+TARTAR, CREAM OF.--[_Potassae Tartras._] Cathartic; three to four ounces.
+
+TURPENTINE.--Stimulant, anthelmintic, diuretic, and laxative; one to two
+ounces.
+
+ZINC, SULPHATE OF.--[_White Vitriol._] Astringent and tonic; one to two
+drachms.
+
+
+
+
+NEW AND LATE BOOKS
+
+FURNISHED BY THE
+
+Publishers of this Volume.
+
+
+MAILING NOTICE.--_Any books on the following list will be sent, post
+paid, to any address, on receipt of price._ _Address_ THE PUBLISHERS OF
+THIS VOLUME. See title page.
+
+HISTORICAL AND SECRET MEMOIRS OF THE EMPRESS JOSEPHINE. A secret and
+truthful history of one of the most remarkable of women, uniting all the
+value of absorbing facts with that of the most exciting romance.
+Translated from the French of M'lle Le Normand, by JACOB M. HOWARD, Esq.
+2 vols. in one. Cloth. Price $1 75.
+
+MEMOIRS OF THE COURT OF MARIE ANTOINETTE. An instructive work--one of
+the most intensely interesting ever issued from the American press--the
+events of which should be familiar to all. By MADAME CAMPAN. With
+Biographical Introduction by M. DE LAMARTINE. 2 vols. in one. Cloth.
+Price $1 75.
+
+MEMOIRS OF THE LIFE OF MARY, QUEEN OF SCOTS. Affording a complete and
+authentic history of the unfortunate Mary, with materials and letters
+not used by other authors, making up a volume of rare interest and
+value. By MISS BENGER. With portrait on steel. 2 vols. in one. Cloth.
+Price $1 75.
+
+MEMOIRS OF THE QUEENS OF FRANCE. Written in France, carefully compiled
+from researches made there, commended by the press generally, and
+published from the Tenth London Edition. It is a truly valuable work for
+the reader and student of history. By MRS. FORBES BUSH. 2 vols. in one.
+Cloth. Price $1 75.
+
+MEMOIRS OF THE LIFE OF ANNE BOLEYN, QUEEN OF HENRY VIII. In the records
+of biography there is no character that more forcibly exemplifies the
+vanity of human ambition, or more thoroughly enlists the attention of
+the reader than this--the Seventh American, and from the Third London
+Edition. By MISS BENGER. With portrait on steel. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+HEROIC WOMEN OF HISTORY. Containing the most extraordinary examples of
+female courage of ancient and modern times, and set before the wives,
+sisters, and daughters of the country, in the hope that it may make them
+even more renowned for resolution, fortitude, and self-sacrifice than
+the Spartan females of old. By HENRY C. WATSON. With Illustrations.
+Cloth. $1 75.
+
+PUBLIC AND PRIVATE HISTORY OF LOUIS NAPOLEON, EMPEROR OF THE FRENCH. An
+impartial view of the public and private career of this extraordinary
+man, giving full information in regard to his most distinguished
+ministers, generals, relatives and favorites. By SAMUEL M. SCHMUCKER,
+LL. D. With portraits on Steel. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+LIFE AND REIGN OF NICHOLAS I., EMPEROR OF RUSSIA. The only complete
+history of this great personage that has appeared in the English
+language, and furnishes interesting facts in connection with Russian
+society and government of great practical value to the attentive reader.
+By SAMUEL M. SCHMUCKER, LL. D. With Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+LIFE AND TIMES OF GEORGE WASHINGTON. A concise and condensed narrative
+of Washington's career, especially adapted to the popular reader, and
+presented as the best matter upon this immortal theme--one especially
+worthy the attention and admiration of every American. By SAMUEL M.
+SCHMUCKER, LL. D. With Portrait on steel. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+LIFE AND TIMES OF ALEXANDER HAMILTON. Incidents of a career that will
+never lose its singular power to attract and instruct, while giving
+impressive lessons of the brightest elements of character, surrounded
+and assailed by the basest. By SAMUEL M. SCHMUCKER, LL. D. With Portrait
+on steel. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+LIFE AND TIMES OF THOMAS JEFFERSON. In which the author has presented
+both the merits and defects of this great representative hero in their
+true light, and has studiously avoided indiscriminate praise or
+wholesale censure. By SAMUEL M. SCHMUCKER, LL. D. With Portrait. Cloth.
+$1 75.
+
+LIFE OF BENJAMIN FRANKLIN. Furnishing a superior and comprehensive
+record of this celebrated Statesman and Philosopher--rich beyond
+parallel in lessons of wisdom for every age, calling and condition in
+life, public and private. By O. L. HOLLEY. With Portrait on steel and
+Illustrations on wood. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+PUBLIC AND PRIVATE LIFE OF DANIEL WEBSTER. The most copious and
+attractive collection of personal memorials concerning the great
+Statesman that has hitherto been published, and by one whose intimate
+and confidential relations with him afford a guarantee for their
+authenticity. By Gen. S. P. LYMAN. With Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+LIFE AND TIMES OF HENRY CLAY. An impartial biography, presenting, by
+bold and simple strokes of the historic pencil, a portraiture of the
+illustrious theme which no one should fail to read, and no library be
+without. By SAMUEL M. SCHMUCKER, LL. D. With Portrait on steel. Cloth.
+$1 75.
+
+LIFE AND PUBLIC SERVICES OF STEPHEN A. DOUGLAS. A true and faithful
+exposition of the leading incidents of his brilliant career arranged so
+as to instruct the reader and produce the careful study which the life
+of so great a man deserves. By H. M. FLINT. With Portrait on steel.
+Cloth. $1 75.
+
+LIFE AND PUBLIC SERVICES OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. (In both the English and
+German languages.) As a record of this great man it is a most desirable
+work, admirably arranged for reference, with an index over each page,
+from which the reader can familiarize himself with the contents by
+glancing through it. By FRANK CROSBY, of the Philadelphia Bar. With
+Portrait on steel. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+LIFE OF DANIEL BOONE, THE GREAT WESTERN HUNTER AND PIONEER. Comprising
+graphic and authentic accounts of his daring, thrilling adventures,
+wonderful skill, coolness and sagacity under the most hazardous
+circumstances, with an autobiography dictated by himself. By CECIL B.
+HARTLEY. With Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+LIFE OF COLONEL DAVID CROCKET, THE ORIGINAL HUMORIST AND IRREPRESSIBLE
+BACKWOODSMAN. Showing his strong will and indomitable spirit, his bear
+hunting, his military services, his career in Congress, and his
+triumphal tour through the States--written by himself; to which is added
+the account of his glorious death at the Alamo. With Illustrations.
+Cloth. $1 75.
+
+LIFE OF KIT CARSON, THE GREAT WESTERN HUNTER AND GUIDE. An exciting
+volume of wild and romantic exploits, thrilling adventures, hair-breadth
+escapes, daring coolness, moral and physical courage, and invaluable
+services--such as rarely transpire in the history of the world. By
+CHARLES BURDETT. With Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+LIFE OF CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH, THE FOUNDER OF VIRGINIA. The adventures
+contained herein serve to denote the more noble and daring events of a
+period distinguished by its spirit, its courage, and its passion, and
+challenges the attention of the American people. By W. GILMORE SIMMS.
+With Illustrations. Price $1 75.
+
+LIFE OF GENERAL FRANCIS MARION, THE CELEBRATED PARTISAN HERO OF THE
+REVOLUTION. This was one of the most distinguished men who figured on
+the grand theatre of war during the times that "tried men's souls," and
+his brilliant career has scarcely a parallel in history. By CECIL B.
+HARTLEY. With Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+LIFE OF GENERAL ANDREW JACKSON, THE CELEBRATED PATRIOT AND STATESMAN.
+The character here shown as firm in will, clear in judgment, rapid in
+decision and decidedly pronounced, sprung from comparative obscurity to
+the highest gift within the power of the American people, and is
+prolific in interest. By ALEXANDER WALKER. $1 75.
+
+LIFE AND TIMES OF GENERAL SAM HOUSTON, THE HUNTER, PATRIOT, AND
+STATESMAN. It reminds one of the story of Romulus--who was nurtured by
+the beasts of the forest till he planted the foundations of a mighty
+empire--and stands alone as an authentic memoir. With Maps, Portrait,
+and Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+LIVES OF THE THREE MRS. JUDSONS, THE CELEBRATED FEMALE MISSIONARIES. The
+domestic lives and individual labors of these three bright stars in the
+galaxy of American heroines, who in ministering to the souls of
+heathens, experienced much of persecution. By CECIL B. HARTLEY. With
+steel Portraits. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+LIFE OF ELISHA KENT KANE, AND OF OTHER DISTINGUISHED AMERICAN EXPLORERS.
+A narrative of the discoverers who possess the strongest hold upon
+public interest and attention, and one of the few deeply interesting
+volumes of distinguished Americans of this class. By SAMUEL M.
+SCHMUCKER, LL. D. With Portrait on steel. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+THE LIFE AND ADVENTURES OF PAULINE CUSHMAN, THE CELEBRATED UNION SPY AND
+SCOUT. Stirring details from the lips of the subject herself, whose
+courage, heroism, and devotion to the old flag, endeared her to the Army
+of the Southwest. By F. L. SARMIENTO, Esq., Member of the Philadelphia
+Bar. With Portrait on steel and Illustrations on wood. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+JEFFERSON DAVIS AND STONEWALL JACKSON: THE LIFE AND PUBLIC SERVICES OF
+EACH. Truths from the lives of these men, both of whom served their
+country before the war, and afterwards threw themselves into the cause
+of the South with unbounded zeal--affording valuable historic facts for
+all, North and South. With Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+CORSICA, AND THE EARLY LIFE OF NAPOLEON. Delicately drawn idyllic
+descriptions of the Island, yielding new light to political history,
+exciting much attention in Germany and England, and altogether making a
+book of rare character and value. Translated by Hon. E. JOY MORRIS. With
+Portrait on steel. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+THE HORSE AND HIS DISEASES: EMBRACING HIS HISTORY AND VARIETIES,
+BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT, AND VICES. A splendid complete, and reliable
+book--the work of more than fifteen years' careful study--pointing out
+diseases accurately, and recommending remedies that have stood the test
+of actual trial. To which is added "RAREY'S METHOD OF TRAINING HORSES."
+By ROBERT JENNINGS, V. S. With nearly one hundred Illustrations. Cloth.
+$1 75.
+
+SHEEP, SWINE, AND POULTRY. Enumerating their varieties and histories;
+the best modes of breeding, feeding, and managing; the diseases to which
+they are subject; the best remedies--and offering the best practical
+treatise of its kind now published. By ROBERT JENNINGS, V. S. With
+numerous Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. Giving their history and breeds, crossing and
+breeding, feeding and management; with the diseases to which they are
+subject, and the remedies best adapted to their cure; which is added a
+list of remedies used in treating cattle. By ROBERT JENNINGS, V. S. With
+numerous Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+HORSE TRAINING MADE EASY. A new and practical system of Teaching and
+Educating the Horse, including whip training and thorough instructions
+in regard to shoeing--full of information of a useful and well-tested
+character. By ROBERT JENNINGS, V. S. With numerous Illustrations. Cloth.
+$1 25.
+
+600 RECEIPTS WORTH THEIR WEIGHT IN GOLD. An unequalled variety in kind,
+the collection and testing of which have extended through a period of
+thirty years--a number of them having never before appeared in print,
+while all are simple, plain, and highly meritorious. By JOHN MARQUART,
+of Lebanon, Pa. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+500 EMPLOYMENTS ADAPTED TO WOMEN. Throwing open to womankind productive
+fields of labor everywhere, and affording full opportunity to select
+employments best adapted to their tastes--all the result of over three
+years' constant care and investigation. By Miss VIRGINIA PENNY. Cloth.
+$1 75.
+
+EVERYBODY'S LAWYER AND BOOK OF FORMS. The simplicity of its
+instructions, the comprehensiveness of its subject, and the accuracy of
+its details, together with its perfect arrangement, conciseness,
+attractiveness and cheapness make it the most desirable of all legal
+hand-books. By FRANK CROSBY, Esq. Thoroughly revised to date by S. J.
+VANDERSLOOT, Esq. 608 pp. Law Style. $2 00.
+
+THE FAMILY DOCTOR. Intended to guard against diseases in the family; to
+furnish the proper treatment for the sick; to impart knowledge in regard
+to medicines, herbs, and plants; to show how to preserve a sound body
+and mind, and written in plain language, free from medical terms. By
+Prof. HENRY TAYLOR, M. D. Profusely Illustrated. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+THE AMERICAN PRACTICAL COOKERY BOOK. A faithful and highly useful guide,
+whose directions all can safely follow, making housekeeping easy,
+pleasant, and economical in all its departments, and based upon the
+personal test, throughout, of an intelligent practical housekeeper.
+Illustrated with Fifty Engravings. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+MODERN COOKERY IN ALL ITS BRANCHES. Designed to interest and benefit
+housekeepers everywhere by its plain and simple instructions in regard
+to the judicious preparation of food, and altogether a work of superior
+merit. By Miss ELIZA ACTON. Carefully revised by Mrs. SARAH J. HALE.
+With many Illustrations and a copious Index. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+THIRTY YEARS IN THE ARCTIC REGIONS. The graphic narrative of Sir John
+Franklin, the most celebrated of Arctic Travellers, in which Sir John
+tells his own story--unsurpassed for intense and all-absorbing
+interest--sketching his three expeditions, and that part of the fourth
+now shrouded in mystery to the world. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+EXPLORATIONS AND DISCOVERIES DURING FOUR YEARS' WANDERINGS IN THE WILDS
+OF SOUTHWESTERN AFRICA. Important and exciting experiences, full of wild
+adventure and instructive facts, which seem to possess a mysterious
+charm for every mind, and in which the spirit of intelligent and
+adventurous curiosity is everywhere prominent. By CHARLES JOHN ANDERSON.
+With Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+LIVINGSTONE'S TRAVELS AND RESEARCHES IN SOUTH AFRICA. Given in the
+pleasing language of Dr. Livingstone, and rich in the personal
+adventures and hair-breadth escapes of that most indefatigable
+discoverer and interesting Christian gentleman--making a work of special
+value. By DAVID LIVINGSTONE, LL. D., D. C. S. Profusely Illustrated.
+Cloth. $1 75.
+
+TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIES IN NORTH AND CENTRAL AFRICA. Recounting an
+expedition undertaken under the auspices of H. B. M.'s Government,
+exhibiting the most remarkable courage, perseverance, presence of mind,
+and contempt of danger and death, and immensely important as a work of
+information. By HENRY BARTH, Ph. D., D. C. L., etc. With Illustrations.
+Cloth. $1 75.
+
+ELLIS' THREE VISITS TO MADAGASCAR. Written in Madagascar, while on a
+visit to the queen and people, in which is carefully described the
+singularly beautiful country and the manners and customs of its people,
+and from which an unusual amount of information is obtainable. By Rev.
+WILLIAM ELLIS, F. H. S. Profusely Illustrated. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+ORIENTAL AND WESTERN SIBERIA. A Stirring narrative of seven years'
+explorations in Siberia, Mongolia, the Kirghes Steppes, Chinese Tartary,
+and part of Central Asia, revealing extraordinary facts, showing much of
+hunger, thirst, and perilous adventure, and forming a work of rare
+attractiveness for every reader. By THOMAS WILLIAM ATKINSON. With
+numerous Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+HUNTING SCENES IN THE WILDS OF AFRICA. Thrilling adventures of daring
+hunters--Cummings, Harris, and others--among the Lions, Elephants,
+Giraffes, Buffaloes, and other animals--than which few, if any works,
+are more exciting. With numerous Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+HUNTING ADVENTURES IN THE NORTHERN WILDS. A tramp in the Chateaugay
+Woods, over hills, lakes and forest streams, at a time when millions of
+acres lay in a perfect wilderness, affording incidents, descriptions,
+and adventures of extraordinary interest. By S. H. HAMMOND. With
+Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+WILD NORTHERN SCENES; OR, SPORTING ADVENTURES WITH THE RIFLE AND THE
+ROD. Affording remarkably interesting experiences in a section where the
+howl of the Wolf, the scream of the Panther, and the hoarse bellow of
+the Moose could be heard--presenting a racy book. By S. H. HAMMOND. With
+Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+PERILS AND PLEASURES OF A HUNTER'S LIFE; OR, THE ROMANCE OF HUNTING.
+Replete with thrilling incidents and hair-breadth escapes, and
+fascinating in the extreme, while depicting the romance of hunting. By
+PEREGRINE HERNE. With Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+HUNTING SPORTS IN THE WEST. An amount of novelty and variety, of bold
+enterprise and noble hardihood, of heroic daring and fierce encounters,
+which seem to be much more entertaining by the quiet fireside than they
+would be to the one going through them in the forest or field. By CECIL
+B. HARTLEY. With numerous Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+FANNY HUNTER'S WESTERN ADVENTURES. Vividly portraying the stirring
+scenes enacted in Kansas and Missouri during a sojourn of several years
+on the Western Border, and fully representing social and domestic
+affairs in frontier life--containing curious pictures of character. With
+Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+WONDERFUL ADVENTURES, BY LAND AND SEA, OF THE SEVEN QUEER TRAVELLERS WHO
+MET AT AN INN. Revelations of a singular and unusually entertaining
+character, in which the most terrible circumstances and mysterious
+occurrences are faithfully and forcibly placed before the reader. By
+JOSIAH BARNES. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+NICARAGUA; PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE. Setting forth its history, the
+manners and customs of its inhabitants, its mines, its minerals, and
+other productions, and throwing light upon a subject of very great
+importance to the masses of our people. By PETER F. STOUT, Esq., late U.
+S. Vice-Consul. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+FEMALE LIFE AMONG THE MORMONS; OR, MARIA WARD'S DISCLOSURES. Romantic
+Incidents, bordering on the marvelous, which show the evils, horrors,
+and abominations of the Mormon system--the degradation of its females,
+and the consequent vices of its society. By MARIA WARD, the Wife of a
+Mormon Elder. With Illustrations. 40,000 copies sold. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+MALE LIFE AMONG THE MORMONS. Detailing sights and scenes among the
+Mormons, with important remarks on their moral and social economy; being
+a true transcript of events, viewing Mormonism from a man's standpoint,
+and forming a companion to the preceding volume. By AUSTIN N. WARD.
+Edited by MARIA WARD. With Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+PIONEER LIFE IN THE WEST. Describing the adventures of Boone, Kenton,
+Brady, Clark, the Whetzels, the Johnsons, and others, in their fierce
+encounters with the Indians, and making up a work of the most
+entertaining and instructive character for those who delight in history
+and adventure. With numerous Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+THRILLING STORIES OF THE GREAT REBELLION. Fearful adventures of
+soldiers, scouts, spies, and refugees; daring exploits of smugglers,
+guerillas, desperadoes, and others; tales of loyal and disloyal women;
+stories of the negro, and incidents of fun and merriment in camp and
+field. By Lieut. CHARLES S. GREENE, late of the U. S. Army. With
+Illustrations in Oil. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+HISTORY OF THE WAR IN INDIA. Furnishing the complete history of British
+India, together with interesting and thrilling details which have
+scarcely a parallel in the world's history, to which is added a memoir
+of General Sir HENRY HAVELOCK. By HENRY FREDERICK MALCOLM. Illustrated
+with numerous Engravings. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+OUR BOYS. Personal experiences of the author while in the army,
+presenting the richest and raciest scenes of army and camp life ever
+published, and portraying various events in all their originality. By A.
+F. HILL, of the Eighth Pennsylvania Reserves. With Portrait on Steel,
+and characteristic Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+OUR CAMPAIGNS. The marches, bivouacs, battles, incidents, camp life, and
+history of a regiment during its three years' term of service in the
+war, together with a sketch of the Army of the Potomac under Generals
+McClellan, Burnside, Hooker, Meade, and Grant. By E. M. WOODWARD, Adj't
+Second Penna. Reserves. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+MARGARET MONCRIEFFE, THE BEAUTIFUL SPY. An exciting story of Army and
+high life in New York, in 1776, presenting facts and historic names, and
+showing the mutual attachment between Aaron Burr and Margaret
+Moncrieffe, as well as the influence of the latter upon the former in
+the more important events of his life. By CHARLES BURDETT. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+SIX NIGHTS IN A BLOCK HOUSE; OR, SKETCHES OF BORDER LIFE. Feats of hero
+hunters and thrilling exploits among the Indians; furnishing the names
+of hunters well known in western history, and showing the most exciting
+drama of border warfare, and, as a whole, the most intensely interesting
+and instructive work upon Indian life now offered the public. BY HENRY
+C. WATSON. With 100 Engravings. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+THRILLING ADVENTURES AMONG THE EARLY SETTLERS. A series of desperate
+encounters with Indians, daring exploits of Texan Rangers, incidents of
+guerilla warfare, fearful deeds of desperadoes and regulators of the
+west, and graphic delineations of hunting and trapping well worthy
+universal preservation. By WARREN WILDWOOD, Esq. More than 200
+Engravings. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+THRILLING INCIDENTS IN AMERICAN HISTORY. Events which are among the most
+striking and important in our national annals, covering the Revolution,
+the French War, the Tripolitan War, the Indian Wars, the War of 1812,
+and the Mexican War--all of which are of great usefulness to the student
+and general reader. By the author of "The Army and Navy of the United
+States." With Three Hundred Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+SCOUTING EXPEDITIONS OF THE TEXAN RANGERS. Operations which occurred
+during some of the prominent events of the Mexican war, together with
+sketches of the celebrated partisan chiefs, Hays, McCulloch, and Walker,
+whose courage, sagacity, and remarkable exploits should be familiar to
+all Americans. By SAMUEL C. REID, Jr., late of the Texan Rangers, and
+Member of the Louisiana Bar. With Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+THE BATTLE-FIELDS OF THE REVOLUTION. The most brilliant points in the
+history of the Revolutionary war, recounting the principal battles,
+sieges, and other important events--the whole interspersed with numerous
+characteristic anecdotes. By THOMAS Y. RHOADS. With many Illustrations.
+Cloth. $1 75.
+
+THRILLING ADVENTURES AMONG THE INDIANS. In which are enumerated the most
+remarkable incidents of the early Indian Wars, which abound in dangers,
+vindictiveness, endurance, heroism, gratitude, treachery, stoicism, and
+revenge, and in which there is much to fascinate the reader, and store
+the inquiring mind. By JOHN FROST, LL. D. With more than 300
+Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+THE HERO GIRL, AND HOW SHE BECAME A CAPTAIN IN THE ARMY. The highly
+dramatic story of Molly Pitcher who, having lost her husband at the
+battle of Monmouth, gallantly stepped forward, took his place at the
+cannon, and continued serving it until the battle ended--after which the
+rank of Captain was conferred on her by Gen. Washington. By THRACE
+TALMON. With Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+MRS. PARTINGTON'S KNITTING WORK, AND WHAT WAS DONE BY HER PLAGUY BOY
+IKE. In which all will see the acid and sugar, and spirit and
+water--forming an intellectual punch, of which all can partake without
+headache or heartache. Wrought by the old lady herself. With
+characteristic Illustrations, including a portrait of the old lady in
+specs, surrounded by the Partington family. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+WAY DOWN EAST; OR, PORTRAITURES OF YANKEE LIFE. Embodying some of the
+raciest stories of the "Down Easter" ever published by this humorous
+author--containing much of genuine wit and attractive thought. By SEBA
+SMITH, the original Major Jack Downing. With several rich and original
+Illustrations. Cloth. $1 75.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Transcriber's Note:
+
+Summarized here are the corrections applied to the text.
+
+List of Illustrations:
+    "Frolicksome" was spelled "Frolicsome" as opposed to the illustration
+
+In color, the pure Ayrshires are generally red
+    "Ayrshires" was printed as "Aryshires"
+
+Some packers put
+meat in a copper which is rendered air-tight
+    "meat" was printed as "meal"
+
+The principal substances of which _glue_ is made
+    "substances" was printed as "subtances"
+
+degeneracy of acute into chronic dysentery
+    "disentery" was printed as "dystentery"
+
+It most frequently
+occurs in dry, hot weather.
+    "frequently" was printed as "freqently"
+
+acquired additional deleterious agency
+    "acquired" was printed as "accquired"
+
+and have found the spur in the hay wherever the
+disease is found.
+    "disease" was printed as "diesase"
+
+differing from like phenomena by other causes
+    "phenomena" was printed as "phenonema"
+
+until this singular
+phenomenon is clearly accounted for
+    "phenomenon" was printed as "phenonemon"
+
+embryotomy was
+in this instance employed
+    "embryotomy" was printed as "emrbyotomy"
+
+The diseased lungs
+sometimes attain inordinate weight.
+    "diseased" was printed as "direased"
+
+supported by alcoholic
+stimulants.
+    "alcoholic" was printed as "alcholic"
+
+When cut into, it did
+not present the red, mottled, organized appearance of those
+cases with air-tight cysts.
+    "present" was printed as "prevent"
+
+It comprehended
+one of the parotid glands
+    "comprehended" was printed as "comprehened"
+
+drawn tightly to the posterior ring, by a simple
+bow-knot.
+    "knot" was printed as "not"
+
+must be supplied by alcolized
+water
+    "alcolized" was printed as "alcotized"
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Cattle and Their Diseases, by Robert Jennings
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES ***
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