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+Project Gutenberg's Home Life in Colonial Days, by Alice Morse Earle
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Home Life in Colonial Days
+
+Author: Alice Morse Earle
+
+Release Date: September 19, 2007 [EBook #22675]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOME LIFE IN COLONIAL DAYS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Mark C. Orton, Constanze Hofmann and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note:
+
+This e-text was prepared from the reprint edition published in 1974 by
+Berkshire Traveller Press. Copyrighted materials from that edition,
+including the modern preface and illustrations, are not included.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+Home Life in
+COLONIAL
+DAYS
+
+Written by
+ALICE MORSE EARLE
+in the year 1898
+
+THE BERKSHIRE TRAVELLER PRESS
+Stockbridge, Massachusetts
+
+_THIS BOOK IS BEGUN
+AS IT IS ENDED
+IN MEMORY OF MY MOTHER_
+
+
+
+
+_Foreword_
+
+
+_The illustrations for this book are in every case from real articles
+and scenes, usually from those still in existence--rare relics of past
+days. The pictures are the symbols of years of careful search, patient
+investigation, and constant watchfulness. Many a curious article as
+nameless and incomprehensible as the totem of an extinct Indian tribe
+has been studied, compared, inquired and written about, and finally
+triumphantly named and placed in the list of obsolete domestic
+appurtenances. From the lofts of woodsheds, under attic eaves, in dairy
+cellars, out of old trunks and sea-chests from mouldering warehouses,
+have strangely shaped bits and combinations of wood, stuff, and metal
+been rescued and recognized. The treasure stores of Deerfield Memorial
+Hall, of the Bostonian Society, of the American Antiquarian Society, and
+many State Historical Societies have been freely searched; and to the
+officers of these societies I give cordial thanks for their coöperation
+and assistance in my work._
+
+_The artistic and correct photographic representation of many of these
+objects I owe to Mr. William F. Halliday of Boston, Massachusetts, Mr.
+George F. Cook of Richmond, Virginia, and the Misses Allen of Deerfield,
+Massachusetts. To many friends, and many strangers, who have secured for
+me single articles or single photographs, I here repeat the thanks
+already given for their kindness._
+
+_There were two constant obstacles in the path: An article would be
+found and a name given by old-time country folk, but no dictionary
+contained the word, no printed description of its use or purpose could
+be obtained, though a century ago it was in every household. Again, some
+curiously shaped utensil or tool might be displayed and its use
+indicated; but it was nameless, and it took long inquiry and
+deduction,--the faculty of "taking a hint,"--to christen it. It is plain
+that different vocations and occupations had not only implements but a
+vocabulary of their own, and all have become almost obsolete; to the
+various terms, phrases, and names, once in general application and use
+in spinning, weaving, and kindred occupations, and now half forgotten,
+might be given the descriptive title, a "homespun vocabulary." By
+definite explanation of these terms many a good old English word and
+phrase has been rescued from disuse._
+
+                                        _ALICE MORSE EARLE._
+
+
+
+
+Contents
+
+
+                                                                    Page
+
+   I. Homes of the Colonists                                           1
+
+  II. The Light of Other Days                                         32
+
+ III. The Kitchen Fireside                                            52
+
+  IV. The Serving of Meals                                            76
+
+   V. Food from Forest and Sea                                       108
+
+  VI. Indian Corn                                                    126
+
+ VII. Meat and Drink                                                 142
+
+VIII. Flax Culture and Spinning                                      166
+
+  IX. Wool Culture and Spinning, with a Postscript on Cotton         187
+
+   X. Hand-Weaving                                                   212
+
+  XI. Girls' Occupations                                             252
+
+ XII. Dress of the Colonists                                         281
+
+XIII. Jack-knife Industries                                          300
+
+ XIV. Travel, Transportation, and Taverns                            325
+
+  XV. Sunday in the Colonies                                         364
+
+ XVI. Colonial Neighborliness                                        388
+
+XVII. Old-time Flower Gardens                                        421
+
+
+
+
+Home Life in Colonial Days
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+HOMES OF THE COLONISTS
+
+
+When the first settlers landed on American shores, the difficulties in
+finding or making shelter must have seemed ironical as well as almost
+unbearable. The colonists found a land magnificent with forest trees of
+every size and variety, but they had no sawmills, and few saws to cut
+boards; there was plenty of clay and ample limestone on every side, yet
+they could have no brick and no mortar; grand boulders of granite and
+rock were everywhere, yet there was not a single facility for cutting,
+drawing, or using stone. These homeless men, so sorely in need of
+immediate shelter, were baffled by pioneer conditions, and had to turn
+to many poor expedients, and be satisfied with rude covering. In
+Pennsylvania, New York, Massachusetts, and, possibly, other states, some
+reverted to an ancient form of shelter: they became cave-dwellers; caves
+were dug in the side of a hill, and lived in till the settlers could
+have time to chop down and cut up trees for log houses. Cornelis Van
+Tienhoven, Secretary of the Province of New Netherland, gives a
+description of these cave-dwellings, and says that "the wealthy and
+principal men in New England lived in this fashion for two reasons:
+first, not to waste time building; second, not to discourage poorer
+laboring people." It is to be doubted whether wealthy men ever lived in
+them in New England, but Johnson, in his _Wonder-working Providence_,
+written in 1645, tells of the occasional use of these "smoaky homes."
+They were speedily abandoned, and no records remain of permanent
+cave-homes in New England. In Pennsylvania caves were used by newcomers
+as homes for a long time, certainly half a century. They generally were
+formed by digging into the ground about four feet in depth on the banks
+or low cliffs near the river front. The walls were then built up of sods
+or earth laid on poles or brush; thus half only of the chamber was
+really under ground. If dug into a side hill, the earth formed at least
+two walls. The roofs were layers of tree limbs covered over with sod, or
+bark, or rushes and bark. The chimneys were laid of cobblestone or
+sticks of wood mortared with clay and grass. The settlers were thankful
+even for these poor shelters, and declared that they found them
+comfortable. By 1685 many families were still living in caves in
+Pennsylvania, for the Governor's Council then ordered the caves to be
+destroyed and filled in. Sometimes the settler used the cave for a
+cellar for the wooden house which he built over it.
+
+These cave-dwellings were perhaps the poorest houses ever known by any
+Americans, yet pioneers, or poor, or degraded folk have used them for
+homes in America until far more recent days. In one of these miserable
+habitations of earth and sod in the town of Rutland, Massachusetts, were
+passed some of the early years of the girlhood of Madame Jumel, whose
+beautiful house on Washington Heights, New York, still stands to show
+the contrasts that can come in a single life.
+
+The homes of the Indians were copied by the English, being ready
+adaptations of natural and plentiful resources. Wigwams in the South
+were of plaited rush or grass mats; of deerskins pinned on a frame; of
+tree boughs rudely piled into a cover, and in the far South, of layers
+of palmetto leaves. In the mild climate of the Middle and Southern
+states a "half-faced camp," of the Indian form, with one open side,
+which served for windows and door, and where the fire was built, made a
+good temporary home. In such for a time, in his youth, lived Abraham
+Lincoln. Bark wigwams were the most easily made of all; they could be
+quickly pinned together on a light frame. In 1626 there were thirty
+home-buildings of Europeans on the island of Manhattan, now New York,
+and all but one of them were of bark.
+
+Though the settler had no sawmills, brick kilns, or stone-cutters, he
+had one noble friend,--a firm rock to stand upon,--his broad-axe. With
+his axe, and his own strong and willing arms, he could take a long step
+in advance in architecture; he could build a log cabin. These good,
+comfortable, and substantial houses have ever been built by American
+pioneers, not only in colonial days, but in our Western and Southern
+states to the present time. A typical one like many now standing and
+occupied in the mountains of North Carolina is here shown. Round logs
+were halved together at the corners, and roofed with logs, or with bark
+and thatch on poles; this made a comfortable shelter, especially when
+the cracks between the logs were "chinked" with wedges of wood, and
+"daubed" with clay. Many cabins had at first no chinking or daubing; one
+settler while sleeping was scratched on the head by the sharp teeth of a
+hungry wolf, who thrust his nose into the space between the logs of the
+cabin. Doors were hung on wooden hinges or straps of hide.
+
+A favorite form of a log house for a settler to build in his first "cut
+down" in the virgin forest, was to dig a square trench about two feet
+deep, of dimensions as large as he wished the ground floor of his house,
+then to set upright all around this trench (leaving a space for a
+fireplace, window, and door), a closely placed row of logs all the same
+length, usually fourteen feet long for a single story; if there was a
+loft, eighteen feet long. The earth was filled in solidly around these
+logs, and kept them firmly upright; a horizontal band of puncheons,
+which were split logs smoothed off on the face with the axe, was
+sometimes pinned around within the log walls, to keep them from caving
+in. Over this was placed a bark roof, made of squares of chestnut bark,
+or shingles of overlapping birch-bark. A bark or log shutter was hung at
+the window, and a bark door hung on withe hinges, or, if very luxurious,
+on leather straps, completed the quickly made home. This was called
+rolling-up a house, and the house was called a puncheon and bark house.
+A rough puncheon floor, hewed flat with an axe or adze, was truly a
+luxury. One settler's wife pleaded that the house might be rolled up
+around a splendid flat stump; thus she had a good, firm table. A small
+platform placed about two feet high alongside one wall, and supported at
+the outer edge with strong posts, formed a bedstead. Sometimes hemlock
+boughs were the only bed. The frontier saying was, "A hard day's work
+makes a soft bed." The tired pioneers slept well even on hemlock boughs.
+The chinks of the logs were filled with moss and mud, and in the autumn
+banked up outside with earth for warmth.
+
+These log houses did not satisfy English men and women. They longed to
+have what Roger Williams called English houses, which were, however,
+scarcely different in ground-plan. A single room on the ground, called
+in many old wills the fire-room, had a vast chimney at one end. A
+so-called staircase, usually but a narrow ladder, led to a sleeping-loft
+above. Some of those houses were still made of whole logs, but with
+clapboards nailed over the chinks and cracks. Others were of a lighter
+frame covered with clapboards, or in Delaware with boards pinned on
+perpendicularly. Soon this house was doubled in size and comfort by
+having a room on either side of the chimney.
+
+Each settlement often followed in general outline as well as detail the
+houses to which the owners had become accustomed in Europe, with, of
+course, such variations as were necessary from the new surroundings, new
+climate, and new limitations. New York was settled by the Dutch, and
+therefore naturally the first permanent houses were Dutch in shape, such
+as may be seen in Holland to-day. In the large towns in New Netherland
+the houses were certainly very pretty, as all visitors stated who wrote
+accounts at that day. Madam Knights visited New York in 1704, and wrote
+of the houses,--I will give her own words, in her own spelling and
+grammar, which were not very good, though she was the teacher of
+Benjamin Franklin, and the friend of Cotton Mather:--
+
+     "The Buildings are Brick Generaly very stately and high: the Bricks
+     in some of the houses are of divers Coullers, and laid in Checkers,
+     being glazed, look very agreable. The inside of the houses is neat
+     to admiration, the wooden work; for only the walls are plaster'd;
+     and the Sumers and Gist are planed and kept very white scour'd as
+     so is all the partitions if made of Bords."
+
+The "sumers and gist" were the heavy timbers of the frame, the
+summer-pieces and joists. The summer-piece was the large middle beam in
+the middle from end to end of the ceiling; the joists were cross-beams.
+These were not covered with plaster as nowadays, but showed in every
+ceiling; and in old houses are sometimes set so curiously and fitted so
+ingeniously, that they are always an entertaining study. Another
+traveller says that New York houses had patterns of colored brick set in
+the front, and also bore the date of building. The Governor's house at
+Albany had two black brick-hearts. Dutch houses were set close to the
+sidewalk with the gable-end to the street; and had the roof notched like
+steps,--corbel-roof was the name; and these ends were often of brick,
+while the rest of the walls were of wood. The roofs were high in
+proportion to the side walls, and hence steep; they were surmounted
+usually in Holland fashion with weather-vanes in the shape of horses,
+lions, geese, sloops, or fish; a rooster was a favorite Dutch
+weather-vane. There were metal gutters sticking out from every roof
+almost to the middle of the street; this was most annoying to passers-by
+in rainy weather, who were deluged with water from the roofs. The cellar
+windows had small loop-holes with shutters. The windows were always
+small; some had only sliding shutters, others had but two panes or
+quarels of glass, as they were called, which were only six or eight
+inches square. The front doors were cut across horizontally in the
+middle into two parts, and in early days were hung on leather hinges
+instead of iron.
+
+In the upper half of the door were two round bull's-eyes of heavy
+greenish glass, which let faint rays of light enter the hall. The door
+opened with a latch, and often had also a knocker. Every house had a
+porch or "stoep" flanked with benches, which were constantly occupied in
+the summer time; and every evening, in city and village alike, an
+incessant visiting was kept up from stoop to stoop. The Dutch farmhouses
+were a single straight story, with two more stories in the high,
+in-curving roof. They had doors and stoops like the town houses, and all
+the windows had heavy board shutters. The cellar and the garret were the
+most useful rooms in the house; they were store-rooms for all kinds of
+substantial food. In the cellar were great bins of apples, potatoes,
+turnips, beets, and parsnips. There were hogsheads of corned beef,
+barrels of salt pork, tubs of hams being salted in brine, tonnekens of
+salt shad and mackerel, firkins of butter, kegs of pigs' feet, tubs of
+souse, kilderkins of lard. On a long swing-shelf were tumblers of spiced
+fruits, and "rolliches," head-cheese, and strings of sausages--all Dutch
+delicacies.
+
+In strong racks were barrels of cider and vinegar, and often of beer.
+Many contained barrels of rum and a pipe of Madeira. What a storehouse
+of plenty and thrift! What an emblem of Dutch character! In the attic
+by the chimney was the smoke-house, filled with hams, bacon, smoked
+beef, and sausages.
+
+In Virginia and Maryland, where people did not gather into towns, but
+built their houses farther apart, there were at first few sawmills, and
+the houses were universally built of undressed logs. Nails were costly,
+as were all articles manufactured of iron, hence many houses were built
+without iron; wooden pins and pegs were driven in holes cut to receive
+them; hinges were of leather; the shingles on the roof were sometimes
+pinned, or were held in place by "weight-timbers." The doors had latches
+with strings hanging outside; by pulling in the string within-doors the
+house was securely locked. This form of latch was used in all the
+colonies. When persons were leaving houses, they sometimes set them on
+fire in order to gather up the nails from the ashes. To prevent this
+destruction of buildings, the government of Virginia gave to each
+planter who was leaving his house as many nails as the house was
+estimated to have in its frame, provided the owner would not burn the
+house down.
+
+Some years later, when boards could be readily obtained, the favorite
+dwelling-place in the South was a framed building with a great stone or
+log-and-clay chimney at either end. The house was usually set on sills
+resting on the ground. The partitions were sometimes covered with a
+thick layer of mud which dried into a sort of plaster and was
+whitewashed. The roofs were covered with cypress shingles.
+
+Hammond wrote of these houses in 1656, in his _Leah and Rachel_,
+"Pleasant in their building, and contrived delightfull; the rooms large,
+daubed and whitelimed, glazed and flowered; and if not glazed windows,
+shutters made pretty and convenient."
+
+When prosperity and wealth came through the speedily profitable crops of
+tobacco, the houses improved. The home-lot or yard of the Southern
+planters showed a pleasant group of buildings, which would seem the most
+cheerful home of the colonies, only that all dearly earned homes are
+cheerful to their owners. There was not only the spacious mansion house
+for the planter with its pleasant porch, but separate buildings in which
+were a kitchen, cabins for the negro servants and the overseer, a
+stable, barn, coach-house, hen-house, smoke-house, dove-cote, and
+milk-room. In many yards a tall pole with a toy house at top was
+erected; in this bird-house bee-martins built their nests, and by
+bravely disconcerting the attacks of hawks and crows, and noisily
+notifying the family and servants of the approach of the enemy, thus
+served as a guardian for the domestic poultry, whose home stood close
+under this protection. There was seldom an ice-house. The only means for
+the preservation of meats in hot weather was by water constantly pouring
+into and through a box house erected over the spring that flowed near
+the house. Sometimes a brew-house was also found in the yard, for making
+home-brewed beer, and a tool-house for storing tools and farm
+implements. Some farms had a cider-mill, but this was not in the house
+yard. Often there was a spinning-house where servants could spin flax
+and wool. This usually had one room containing a hand-loom on which
+coarse bagging could be woven, and homespun for the use of the negroes.
+A very beautiful example of a splendid and comfortable Southern mansion
+such as was built by wealthy planters in the middle of the eighteenth
+century has been preserved for us at Mount Vernon, the home of George
+Washington.
+
+Mount Vernon was not so fine nor so costly a house as many others built
+earlier in the century, such as Lower Brandon--two centuries and a half
+old--and Upper Brandon, the homes of the Harrisons; Westover, the home
+of the Byrds; Shirley, built in 1650, the home of the Carters; Sabin
+Hall, another Carter home, is still standing on the Rappahannock with
+its various and many quarters and outbuildings, and is a splendid
+example of colonial architecture.
+
+As the traveller came north from Virginia through Pennsylvania, "the
+Jerseys," and Delaware, the negro cabins and detached kitchen
+disappeared, and many of the houses were of stone and mortar. A clay
+oven stood by each house. In the cities stone and brick were much used,
+and by 1700 nearly all Philadelphia houses had balconies running the
+entire length of the second story. The stoop before the door was
+universal.
+
+For half a century nearly all New England houses were cottages. Many had
+thatched roofs. Seaside towns set aside for public use certain reedy
+lots between salt-marsh and low-water mark, where thatch could be freely
+cut. The catted chimneys were of logs plastered with clay, or platted,
+that is, made of reeds and mortar; and as wood and hay were stacked in
+the streets, all the early towns suffered much from fires, and soon laws
+were passed forbidding the building of these unsafe chimneys; as brick
+was imported and made, and stone was quarried, there was certainly no
+need to use such danger-filled materials. Fire-wardens were appointed
+who peered around in all the kitchens, hunting for what they called foul
+chimney hearts, and they ordered flag-roofs and wooden chimneys to be
+removed, and replaced with stone or brick ones. In Boston every
+housekeeper had to own a fire-ladder; and ladders and buckets were kept
+in the church. Salem kept its "fire-buckets and hook'd poles" in the
+town-house. Soon in all towns each family owned fire-buckets made of
+heavy leather and marked with the owner's name or initials. The entire
+town constituted the fire company, and the method of using the
+fire-buckets was this. As soon as an alarm of fire was given by shouts
+or bell-ringing, every one ran at once towards the scene of the fire.
+All who owned buckets carried them, and if any person was delayed even
+for a few minutes, he flung his fire-buckets from the window into the
+street, where some one in the running crowd seized them and carried them
+on. On reaching the fire, a double line called lanes of persons was made
+from the fire to the river or pond, or a well. A very good
+representation of these lanes is given in this fireman's certificate of
+the year 1800.
+
+The buckets, filled with water, were passed from hand to hand, up one
+line of persons to the fire, while the empty ones went down the other
+line. Boys were stationed on the _dry lane_. Thus a constant supply of
+water was carried to the fire. If any person attempted to pass through
+the line, or hinder the work, he promptly got a bucketful or two of
+water poured over him. When the fire was over, the fire-warden took
+charge of the buckets; some hours later the owners appeared, each picked
+out his own buckets from the pile, carried them home, and hung them up
+by the front door, ready to be seized again for use at the next alarm of
+fire.
+
+Many of these old fire-buckets are still preserved, and deservedly are
+cherished heirlooms, for they represent the dignity and importance due
+a house-holding ancestor. They were a valued possession at the time of
+their use, and a costly one, being, made of the best leather. They were
+often painted not only with the name of the owner, but with family
+mottoes, crests, or appropriate inscriptions, sometimes in Latin. The
+leather hand-buckets of the Donnison family of Boston are here shown;
+those of the Quincy family bear the legend _Impavadi Flammarium_; those
+of the Oliver family, _Friend and Public_. In these fire-buckets were
+often kept, tightly rolled, strong canvas bags, in which valuables
+could be thrust and carried from the burning building.
+
+The first fire-engine made in this country was for the town of Boston,
+and was made about 1650 by Joseph Jencks, the famous old iron-worker in
+Lynn. It was doubtless very simple in shape, as were its successors
+until well into this century. The first fire-engine used in Brooklyn,
+New York, is here shown. It was made in 1785 by Jacob Boome. Relays of
+men at both handles worked the clumsy pump. The water supply for this
+engine was still only through the lanes of fire-buckets, except in rare
+cases.
+
+By the year 1670 wooden chimneys and log houses of the Plymouth and Bay
+colonies were replaced by more sightly houses of two stories, which were
+frequently built with the second story jutting out a foot or two over
+the first, and sometimes with the attic story still further extending
+over the second story. A few of these are still standing: The
+White-Ellery House, at Gloucester, Massachusetts, in 1707, is here
+shown. This "overhang" is popularly supposed to have been built for the
+purpose of affording a convenient shooting-place from which to repel the
+Indians. This is, however, an historic fable. The overhanging second
+story was a common form of building in England in the time of Queen
+Elizabeth, and the Massachusetts and Rhode Island settlers simply and
+naturally copied their old homes.
+
+The roofs of many of these new houses were steep, and were shingled with
+hand-riven shingles. The walls between the rooms were of clay mixed with
+chopped straw. Sometimes the walls were whitened with a wash made of
+powdered clam-shells. The ground floors were occasionally of earth, but
+puncheon floors were common in the better houses. The well-smoothed
+timbers were sanded in careful designs with cleanly beach sand.
+
+By 1676 the Royal Commissioners wrote of Boston that the streets were
+crooked, and the houses usually wooden, with a few of brick and stone.
+It is a favorite tradition of brick houses in all the colonies that the
+brick for them was brought from England. As excellent brick was made
+here, I cannot believe all these tales that are told. Occasionally a
+house, such as the splendid Warner Mansion, still standing in
+Portsmouth, New Hampshire, is proved to be of imported brick by the
+bills which are still existing for the purchase and transportation of
+the brick. A later form of many houses was two stories or two stories
+and a half in front, with a peaked roof that sloped down nearly to the
+ground in the back over an ell covering the kitchen, added in the shape
+known as a lean-to, or, as it was called by country folk, the linter.
+This sloping roof gave the one element of unconscious picturesqueness
+which redeemed the prosaic ugliness of these bare-walled houses. Many
+lean-to houses are still standing in New England. The Boardman Hill
+House, built at North Saugus, Massachusetts, two centuries and a half
+ago, and the two houses of lean-to form, the birthplaces of President
+John Adams and of President John Quincy Adams, are typical examples.
+
+The next roof-form, built from early colonial days, and popular a
+century ago, was what was known as the gambrel roof. This resembled, on
+two sides, the mansard roof of France in the seventeenth century, but
+was also gabled at two ends. The gambrel roof had a certain grace of
+outline, especially when joined with lean-tos and other additions. The
+house partly built in 1636 in Dedham, Massachusetts, by my far-away
+grandfather, and known as the Fairbanks House, is the oldest
+gambrel-roofed house now standing. It is still occupied by one of his
+descendants in the eighth generation. The rear view of it, here given,
+shows the picturesqueness of roof outlines and the quaintness which
+comes simply from variety. The front of the main building, with its
+eight windows, all of different sizes and set at different heights,
+shows equal diversity. Within, the boards in the wall-panelling vary
+from two to twenty-five inches in width.
+
+The windows of the first houses had oiled paper to admit light. A
+colonist wrote back to England to a friend who was soon to follow,
+"Bring oiled paper for your windows." The minister, Higginson, sent
+promptly in 1629 for glass for windows. This glass was set in the
+windows with nails; the sashes were often narrow and oblong, of
+diamond-shaped panes set in lead, and opening up and down the middle on
+hinges. Long after the large towns and cities had glass windows,
+frontier settlements still had heavy wooden shutters. They were a safer
+protection against Indian assault, as well as cheaper. It is asserted
+that in the province of Kennebec, which is now the state of Maine, there
+was not, even as late as 1745, a house that had a square of glass in it.
+Oiled paper was used until this century in pioneer houses for windows
+wherever it was difficult to transport glass.
+
+Few of the early houses in New England were painted, or colored, as it
+was called, either without or within. Painters do not appear in any of
+the early lists of workmen. A Salem citizen, just previous to the
+Revolution, had the woodwork of one of the rooms of his house painted.
+One of a group of friends, discussing this extravagance a few days
+later, said: "Well! Archer has set us a fine example of expense,--he has
+laid one of his rooms in oil." This sentence shows both the wording and
+ideas of the times.
+
+There was one external and suggestive adjunct of the earliest pioneer's
+home which was found in nearly all the settlements which were built in
+the midst of threatening Indians. Some strong houses were always
+surrounded by a stockade, or "palisado," of heavy, well-fitted logs,
+which thus formed a garrison, or neighborhood resort, in time of danger.
+In the valley of Virginia each settlement was formed of houses set in a
+square, connected from end to end of the outside walls by stockades
+with gates; thus forming a close front. On the James River, on Manhattan
+Island, were stockades. The whole town plot of Milford, Connecticut, was
+enclosed in 1645, and the Indians taunted the settlers by shouting out,
+"White men all same like pigs." At one time in Massachusetts, twenty
+towns proposed an all-surrounding palisade. The progress and condition
+of our settlements can be traced in our fences. As Indians disappeared
+or succumbed, the solid row of pales gave place to a log-fence, which
+served well to keep out depredatory animals. When dangers from Indians
+or wild animals entirely disappeared, boards were still not over-plenty,
+and the strength of the owner could not be over-spent on unnecessary
+fencing. Then came the double-rail fence; two rails, held in place one
+above the other, at each joining, by four crossed sticks. It was a
+boundary, and would keep in cattle. It was said that every fence should
+be horse-high, bull-proof, and pig-tight. Then came stone walls, showing
+a thorough clearing and taming of the land. The succeeding "half-high"
+stone wall--a foot or two high, with a single rail on top--showed that
+stones were not as plentiful in the fields as in early days. The
+"snake-fence," or "Virginia fence," so common in the Southern states,
+utilized the second growth of forest trees. The split-rail fence, four
+or five rails in height, was set at intervals with posts, pierced with
+holes to hold the ends of the rails. These were used to some extent in
+the East; but our Western states were fenced throughout with rails split
+by sturdy pioneer rail-splitters, among them young Abraham Lincoln.
+Board fences showed the day of the sawmill and its plentiful supply; the
+wire fences of to-day equally prove the decrease of our forests and our
+wood, and the growth of our mineral supplies and manufactures of
+metals. Thus even our fences might be called historical monuments.
+
+A few of the old block-houses, or garrison houses, the "defensible
+houses," which were surrounded by these stockades, are still standing.
+The most interesting are the old Garrison at East Haverhill,
+Massachusetts, built in 1670; it has walls of solid oak, and brick a
+foot and a half thick; the Saltonstall House at Ipswich, built in 1633;
+Cradock Old Fort in Medford, Massachusetts, built in 1634 of brick made
+on the spot; an old fort at York, Maine; and the Whitefield Garrison
+House, built in 1639 at Guilford, Connecticut. The one at Newburyport is
+the most picturesque and beautiful of them all.
+
+As social life in Boston took on a little aspect of court life in the
+circle gathered around the royal governors, the pride of the wealthy
+found expression in handsome and stately houses. These were copied and
+added to by men of wealth and social standing in other towns. The
+Province House, built in 1679, the Frankland House in 1735, and the
+Hancock House, all in Boston; the Shirley House in Roxbury, the
+Wentworth Mansion in New Hampshire, are good examples. They were
+dignified and simple in form, and have borne the test of
+centuries,--they wear well. They never erred in over-ornamentation,
+being scant of interior decoration, save in two or three principal rooms
+and the hall and staircase. The panelled step ends and soffits, the
+graceful newels and balusters, of those old staircases hold sway as
+models to this day.
+
+The same taste which made the staircase the centre of decoration within,
+made the front door the sole point of ornamentation without; and equal
+beauty is there focused. Worthy of study and reproduction, many of the
+old-time front doors are with their fine panels, graceful, leaded side
+windows, elaborate and pretty fan-lights, and slight but appropriate
+carving. The prettiest leaded windows I ever saw in an American home
+were in a thereby glorified hen-house. They had been taken from the
+discarded front door of a remodelled old Falmouth house. The hens and
+their owner were not of antiquarian tastes, and relinquished the windows
+for a machine-made sash more suited to their plebeian tastes and
+occupations. Many colonial doors had door-latches or knobs of heavy
+brass; nearly all had a knocker of wrought iron or polished brass, a
+cheerful ornament that ever seems to resound a welcome to the visitor as
+well as a notification to the visited.
+
+The knocker from the John Hancock House in Boston and that from the
+Winslow House in Marshfield are here shown; both are now in the custody
+of the Bostonian Society, and may be seen at the Old State House in
+Boston. The latter was given to the society by Dr. Oliver Wendell
+Holmes.
+
+The "King-Hooper" House, still standing in Danvers, Massachusetts,
+closely resembled the Hancock House. This house, built by Robert Hooper
+in 1754, was for a time the refuge of the royal governor of
+Massachusetts--Governor Gage; and hence is sometimes called General
+Gage's Headquarters. When the minute-men marched past the house to
+Lexington on April 18, 1775, they stripped the lead from the gate-posts.
+"King Hooper" angrily denounced them, and a minute-man fired at him as
+he entered the house. The bullet passed through the panel of the door,
+and the rent may still be seen. Hence the house has been often called
+The House of the Front Door with the Bullet-Hole. The present owner and
+occupier of the house, Francis Peabody, Esq., has appropriately named it
+The Lindens, from the stately linden trees that grace its gardens and
+lawns.
+
+In riding through those portions of our states that were the early
+settled colonies, it is pleasant to note where any old houses are still
+standing, or where the sites of early colonial houses are known, the
+good taste usually shown by the colonists in the places chosen to build
+their houses. They dearly loved a "sightly location." An old writer
+said: "My consayte is such; I had rather not to builde a mansyon or a
+house than to builde one without a good prospect in it, to it, and from
+it." In Virginia the houses were set on the river slope, where every
+passing boat might see them. The New England colonists painfully climbed
+long, tedious hills, that they might have homes from whence could be had
+a beautiful view, and this was for the double reason, as the old writer
+said, that in their new homes they might both see and be seen.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+THE LIGHT OF OTHER DAYS
+
+
+The first and most natural way of lighting the houses of the American
+colonists, both in the North and South, was by the pine-knots of the fat
+pitch-pine, which, of course, were found everywhere in the greatest
+plenty in the forests. Governor John Winthrop the younger, in his
+communication to the English Royal Society in 1662, said this
+candle-wood was much used for domestic illumination in Virginia, New
+York, and New England. It was doubtless gathered everywhere in new
+settlements, as it has been in pioneer homes till our own day. In Maine,
+New Hampshire, and Vermont it was used till this century. In the
+Southern states the pine-knots are still burned in humble households for
+lighting purposes, and a very good light they furnish.
+
+The historian Wood wrote in 1642, in his _New England's Prospect_:--
+
+     "Out of these Pines is gotten the Candlewood that is much spoke of,
+     which may serve as a shift among poore folks, but I cannot commend
+     it for singular good, because it droppeth a pitchy kind of
+     substance where it stands."
+
+That pitchy kind of substance was tar, which was one of the most
+valuable trade products of the colonists. So much tar was made by
+burning the pines on the banks of the Connecticut, that as early as 1650
+the towns had to prohibit the using of candle-wood for tar-making if
+gathered within six miles of the Connecticut River, though it could be
+gathered by families for illumination and fuel.
+
+Rev. Mr. Higginson, writing in 1633, said of these pine-knots:--
+
+     "They are such candles as the Indians commonly use, having no
+     other, and they are nothing else but the wood of the pine tree,
+     cloven in two little slices, something thin, which are so full of
+     the moysture of turpentine and pitch that they burne as cleere as a
+     torch."
+
+To avoid having smoke in the room, and on account of the pitchy
+droppings, the candle-wood was usually burned in a corner of the
+fireplace, on a flat stone. The knots were sometimes called
+pine-torches. One old Massachusetts minister boasted at the end of his
+life that every sermon of the hundreds he had written, had been copied
+by the light of these torches. Rev. Mr. Newman, of Rehoboth, is said to
+have compiled his vast concordance of the Bible wholly by the dancing
+light of this candle-wood. Lighting was an important item of expense in
+any household of so small an income as that of a Puritan minister; and
+the single candle was often frugally extinguished during the long family
+prayers each evening. Every family laid in a good supply of this light
+wood for winter use, and it was said that a prudent New England farmer
+would as soon start the winter without hay in his barn as without
+candle-wood in his woodshed.
+
+Mr. Higginson wrote in 1630: "Though New England has no tallow to make
+candles of, yet by abundance of fish thereof it can afford oil for
+lamps." This oil was apparently wholly neglected, though there were few,
+or no domestic animals to furnish tallow; but when cattle increased,
+every ounce of tallow was saved as a precious and useful treasure; and
+as they became plentiful it was one of the household riches of New
+England, which was of value to our own day. When Governor Winthrop
+arrived in Massachusetts, he promptly wrote over to his wife to bring
+candles with her from England when she came. And in 1634 he sent over
+for a large quantity of wicks and tallow. Candles cost fourpence apiece,
+which made them costly luxuries for the thrifty colonists.
+
+Wicks were made of loosely spun hemp or tow, or of cotton; from the
+milkweed which grows so plentifully in our fields and roads to-day the
+children gathered in late summer the silver "silk-down" which was "spun
+grossly into candle wicke." Sometimes the wicks were dipped into
+saltpetre.
+
+Thomas Tusser wrote in England in the sixteenth century in his
+_Directions to Housewifes_:--
+
+      "Wife, make thine own candle,
+      Spare penny to handle.
+    Provide for thy tallow ere frost cometh in,
+    And make thine own candle ere winter begin."
+
+Every thrifty housewife in America saved her penny as in England. The
+making of the winter's stock of candles was the special autumnal
+household duty, and a hard one too, for the great kettles were tiresome
+and heavy to handle. An early hour found the work well under way. A good
+fire was started in the kitchen fireplace under two vast kettles, each
+two feet, perhaps, in diameter, which were hung on trammels from the
+lug-pole or crane, and half filled with boiling water and melted tallow,
+which had had two scaldings and skimmings. At the end of the kitchen or
+in an adjoining and cooler room, sometimes in the lean-to, two long
+poles were laid from chair to chair or stool to stool. Across these
+poles were placed at regular intervals, like the rounds of a ladder,
+smaller sticks about fifteen or eighteen inches long, called
+candle-rods. These poles and rods were kept from year to year, either in
+the garret or up on the kitchen beams.
+
+To each candle-rod was attached about six or eight carefully
+straightened candle-wicks. The wicking was twisted strongly one way;
+then doubled; then the loop was slipped over the candle-rod, when the
+two ends, of course, twisted the other way around each other, making a
+firm wick. A rod, with its row of wicks, was dipped in the melted tallow
+in the pot, and returned to its place across the poles. Each row was
+thus dipped in regular turn; each had time to cool and harden between
+the dips, and thus grew steadily in size. If allowed to cool fast, they
+of course grew quickly, but were brittle, and often cracked. Hence a
+good worker dipped slowly, but if the room was fairly cool, could make
+two hundred candles for a day's work. Some could dip two rods at a time.
+The tallow was constantly replenished, as the heavy kettles were used
+alternately to keep the tallow constantly melted, and were swung off and
+on the fire. Boards or sheets of paper were placed under the rods to
+protect the snowy, scoured floors.
+
+Candles were also run in moulds which were groups of metal cylinders,
+usually made of tin or pewter. Itinerant candle-makers went from house
+to house, taking charge of candle-making in the household, and carrying
+large candle-moulds with them. One of the larger size, making two dozen
+candles, is here shown; but its companion, the smaller mould, making six
+candles, is such as were more commonly seen. Each wick was attached to a
+wire or a nail placed across the open top of the cylinder, and hung down
+in the centre of each individual mould. The melted tallow was poured in
+carefully around the wicks.
+
+Wax candles also were made. They were often shaped by hand, by pressing
+bits of heated wax around a wick. Farmers kept hives of bees as much for
+the wax as for the honey, which was of much demand for sweetening, when
+"loaves" of sugar were so high-priced. Deer suet, moose fat, bear's
+grease, all were saved in frontier settlements, and carefully tried into
+tallow for candles. Every particle of grease rescued from pot liquor, or
+fat from meat, was utilized for candle-making. Rushlights were made by
+stripping part of the outer bark from common rushes, thus leaving the
+pith bare, then dipping them in tallow or grease, and letting them
+harden.
+
+The precious candles thus tediously made were taken good care of. They
+were carefully packed in candle-boxes with compartments; were covered
+over, and set in a dark closet, where they would not discolor and turn
+yellow. A metal candle-box, hung on the edge of the kitchen
+mantel-shelf, always held two or three candles to replenish those which
+burnt out in the candlesticks.
+
+A natural, and apparently inexhaustible, material for candles was found
+in all the colonies in the waxy berries of the bayberry bush, which
+still grows in large quantities on our coasts. In the year 1748 a
+Swedish naturalist, Professor Kalm, came to America, and he wrote an
+account of the bayberry wax which I will quote in full:--
+
+     "There is a plant here from the berries of which they make a kind
+     of wax or tallow, and for that reason the Swedes call it the
+     tallow-shrub. The English call the same tree the candle-berry tree
+     or bayberry bush; it grows abundantly in a wet soil, and seems to
+     thrive particularly well in the neighborhood of the sea. The
+     berries look as if flour had been strewed on them. They are
+     gathered late in Autumn, being ripe about that time, and are thrown
+     into a kettle or pot full of boiling water; by this means their fat
+     melts out, floats at the top of the water, and may be skimmed off
+     into a vessel; with the skimming they go on till there is no tallow
+     left. The tallow, as soon as it is congealed, looks like common
+     tallow or wax, but has a dirty green color. By being melted over
+     and refined it acquires a fine and transparent green color. This
+     tallow is dearer than common tallow, but cheaper than wax. Candles
+     of this do not easily bend, nor melt in summer as common candles
+     do; they burn better and slower, nor do they cause any smoke, but
+     yield rather an agreeable smell when they are extinguished. In
+     Carolina they not only make candles out of the wax of the berries,
+     but likewise sealing-wax."
+
+Beverley, the historian of Virginia, wrote of the smell of burning
+bayberry tallow:--
+
+     "If an accident puts a candle out, it yields a pleasant fragrancy
+     to all that are in the room; insomuch that nice people often put
+     them out on purpose to have the incense of the expiring snuff."
+
+Bayberry wax was not only a useful home-product, but an article of
+traffic till this century, and was constantly advertised in the
+newspapers. In 1712, in a letter written to John Winthrop, F.R.S., I
+find:--
+
+     "I am now to beg one favour of you,--that you secure for me all the
+     bayberry wax you can possibly put your hands on. You must take a
+     care they do not put too much tallow among it, being a custom and
+     cheat they have got."
+
+Bayberries were of enough importance to have some laws made about them.
+Everywhere on Long Island grew the stunted bushes, and everywhere they
+were valued. The town of Brookhaven, in 1687, forbade the gathering of
+the berries before September 15, under penalty of fifteen shillings'
+fine.
+
+The pungent and unique scent of the bayberry, equally strong in leaf
+and berry, is to me one of the elements of the purity and sweetness of
+the air of our New England coast fields in autumn. It grows everywhere,
+green and cheerful, in sun-withered shore pastures, in poor bits of
+earth on our rocky coast, where it has few fellow field-tenants to crowd
+the ground. It is said that the highest efforts of memory are stimulated
+through our sense of smell, by the association of ideas with scents.
+That of bayberry, whenever I pass it, seems to awaken in me an
+hereditary memory, to recall a life of two centuries ago. I recall the
+autumns of trial and of promise in our early history, and the bayberry
+fields are peopled with children in Puritan garb, industriously
+gathering the tiny waxen fruit. Equally full of sentiment is the scent
+of my burning bayberry candles, which were made last autumn in an old
+colony town.
+
+The history of whale-fishing in New England is the history of one of the
+most fascinating commercial industries the world has ever known. It is a
+story with every element of intense interest, showing infinite romance,
+adventure, skill, courage, and fortitude. It brought vast wealth to the
+communities that carried on the fishing, and great independence and
+comfort to the families of the whalers. To the whalemen themselves it
+brought incredible hardships and dangers, yet they loved the life with
+a love which is strange to view and hard to understand. In the oil made
+from these "royal fish" the colonists found a vast and cheap supply for
+their metal and glass lamps; while the toothed whales had stored in
+their blunt heads a valuable material which was at once used for making
+candles; it is termed, in the most ancient reference I have found to it
+in New England records, Sperma-Coeti.
+
+It was asserted that one of these spermaceti candles gave out more light
+than three tallow candles, and had four times as big a flame. Soon their
+manufacture and sale amounted to large numbers, and materially improved
+domestic illumination.
+
+All candles, whatever their material, were carefully used by the
+economical colonists to the last bit by a little wire frame of pins and
+rings called a save-all. Candle-sticks of various metals and shapes were
+found in every house; and often sconces, which were also called
+candle-arms, or prongs. Candle-beams were rude chandeliers, a metal or
+wooden hoop with candle-holders. Snuffers were always seen, with which
+to trim the candles, and snuffers trays. These were sometimes
+exceedingly richly ornamented, and were often of silver: extinguishers
+often accompanied the snuffers.
+
+Though lamps occasionally appear on early inventories and lists of
+sales, and though there was plenty of whale and fish oil to burn, lamps
+were not extensively used in America for many years. "Betty-lamps,"
+shaped much like antique Roman lamps, were the earliest form. They were
+small, shallow receptacles, two or three inches in diameter and about an
+inch in depth; either rectangular, oval, round, or triangular in shape,
+with a projecting nose or spout an inch or two long. They usually had a
+hook and chain by which they could be hung on a nail in the wall, or on
+the round in the back of a chair; sometimes there was also a smaller
+hook for cleaning out the nose of the lamp. They were filled with
+tallow, grease, or oil, while a piece of cotton rag or coarse wick was
+so placed that, when lighted, the end hung out on the nose. From this
+wick, dripping dirty grease, rose a dull, smoky, ill-smelling flame.
+
+Phoebe-lamps were similar in shape; though some had double wicks, that
+is, a nose at either side. Three betty-lamps are shown in the
+illustration: all came from old colonial houses. The iron lamp, solid
+with the accumulated grease of centuries, was found in a Virginia cabin;
+the rectangular brass lamp came from a Dutch farmhouse; and the graceful
+oval brass lamp from a New England homestead.
+
+Pewter was a favorite material for lamps, as it was for all other
+domestic utensils. It was specially in favor for the lamps for whale
+oil and the "Porter's fluid," that preceded our present illuminating
+medium, petroleum. A rare form is the pewter lamp here shown. It is in
+the collection of ancient lamps, lanterns, candlesticks, etc., owned by
+Mrs. Samuel Bowne Duryea, of Brooklyn. It came from a Salem home, where
+it was used as a house-lantern. With its clear bull's-eyes of unusually
+pure glass, it gave what was truly a brilliant light for the century of
+its use. A group of old pewter lamps, of the shapes commonly used in the
+homes of our ancestors a century or so ago, is also given; chosen, not
+because they were unusual or beautiful, but because they were universal
+in their use.
+
+The lamps of Count Rumford's invention were doubtless a great luxury,
+with their clear steady light; but they were too costly to be commonly
+seen in our grandfathers' homes. Nor were Argand burners ever universal.
+Glass lamps of many simple shapes shared popularity for a long time with
+the pewter lamps; and as pewter gradually disappeared from household
+use, these glass lamps monopolized the field. They were rarely of cut or
+colored glass, but were pressed glass of commonplace form and quality. A
+group of them is here given which were all used in old New England
+houses in the early part of this century.
+
+For many years the methods of striking a light were very primitive, just
+as they were in Europe; many families possessed no adequate means, or
+very imperfect ones. If by ill fortune the fire in the fireplace became
+wholly extinguished through carelessness at night, some one, usually a
+small boy, was sent to the house of the nearest neighbor, bearing a
+shovel or covered pan, or perhaps a broad strip of green bark, on which
+to bring back coals for relighting the fire. Nearly all families had
+some form of a flint and steel,--a method of obtaining fire which has
+been used from time immemorial by both civilized and uncivilized
+nations. This always required a flint, a steel, and a tinder of some
+vegetable matter to catch the spark struck by the concussion of flint
+and steel. This spark was then blown into a flame. Among the colonists
+scorched linen was a favorite tinder to catch the spark of fire; and
+till this century all the old cambric handkerchiefs, linen underwear,
+and worn sheets of a household were carefully saved for this purpose.
+The flint, steel, and tinder were usually kept together in a circular
+tinder-box, such as is shown in the accompanying illustration; it was a
+shape universal in England and America. This had an inner flat cover
+with a ring, a flint, a horseshoe-shaped steel, and an upper lid with a
+place to set a candle-end in, to carry the newly acquired light. Though
+I have tried hundreds of times with this tinder-box, I have never yet
+succeeded in striking a light. The sparks fly, but then the operation
+ceases in modern hands. Charles Dickens said if you had good luck, you
+could get a light in half an hour. Soon there was an improvement on this
+tinder-box, by which sparks were obtained by spinning a steel wheel with
+a piece of cord, somewhat like spinning a humming top, and making the
+wheel strike a flint fixed in the side of a little trough full of
+tinder. This was an infinite advance in convenience on tinder-box No. 1.
+This box was called in the South a mill; one is here shown. Then some
+person invented strips of wood dipped in sulphur and called "spunks."
+These readily caught fire, and retained it, and were handy to carry
+light to a candle or pile of chips.
+
+Another way of starting a fire was by flashing a little powder in the
+pan of an old-fashioned gun; sometimes this fired a twist of tow, which
+in turn started a heap of shavings.
+
+Down to the time of our grandfathers, and in some country homes of our
+fathers, lights were started with these crude elements,--flint, steel,
+tinder,--and transferred by the sulphur splint; for fifty years ago
+matches were neither cheap nor common.
+
+Though various processes for lighting in which sulphur was used in a
+match shape, were brought before the public at the beginning of this
+century, they were complicated, expensive, and rarely seen. The first
+practical friction matches were "Congreves," made in England in 1827.
+They were thin strips of wood or cardboard coated with sulphur and
+tipped with a mixture of mucilage, chlorate of potash, and sulphide of
+antimony. Eighty-four of them were sold in a box for twenty-five cents,
+with a piece of "glass-paper" through which the match could be drawn.
+There has been a long step this last fifty years between the tinder-box
+used so patiently for two centuries, and the John Jex Long match-making
+machine of our times, which turns out seventeen million matches a day.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+THE KITCHEN FIRESIDE
+
+
+The kitchen in all the farmhouses of all the colonies was the most
+cheerful, homelike, and picturesque room in the house; indeed, it was in
+town houses as well. The walls were often bare, the rafters dingy; the
+windows were small, the furniture meagre; but the kitchen had a warm,
+glowing heart that spread light and welcome, and made the poor room a
+home. In the houses of the first settlers the chimneys and fireplaces
+were vast in size, sometimes so big that the fore-logs and back-logs for
+the fire had to be dragged in by a horse and a long chain; or a
+hand-sled was kept for the purpose. Often there were seats within the
+chimney on either side. At night children could sit on these seats and
+there watch the sparks fly upward and join the stars which could plainly
+be seen up the great chimney-throat.
+
+But as the forests disappeared under the waste of burning for tar, for
+potash, and through wanton clearing, the fireplaces shrank in size; and
+Benjamin Franklin, even in his day, could write of "the fireplaces of
+our fathers."
+
+The inflammable catted chimney of logs and clay, hurriedly and readily
+built by the first settlers, soon gave place in all houses to vast
+chimneys of stone, built with projecting inner ledges, on which rested a
+bar about six or seven or even eight feet from the floor, called a
+lug-pole (lug meaning to carry) or a back-bar; this was made of green
+wood, and thus charred slowly--but it charred surely in the generous
+flames of the great chimney heart. Many annoying, and some fatal
+accidents came from the collapsing of these wooden back-bars. The
+destruction of a dinner sometimes was attended with the loss of a life.
+Later the back-bars were made of iron. On them were hung iron hooks or
+chains with hooks of various lengths called pothooks, trammels, hakes,
+pot-hangers, pot-claws, pot-clips, pot-brakes, pot-crooks. Mr. Arnold
+Talbot, of Providence, Rhode Island, has folding trammels, nine feet
+long, which were found in an old Narragansett chimney heart. Gibcrokes
+and recons were local and less frequent names, and the folks who in
+their dialect called the lug-pole a gallows-balke called the pothooks
+gallows-crooks. On these hooks pots and kettles could be hung at varying
+heights over the fire. The iron swinging-crane was a Yankee invention of
+a century after the first settlement, and it proved a convenient and
+graceful substitute for the back-bar.
+
+Some Dutch houses had an adaptation of a Southern method of housekeeping
+in the use of a detached house called a slave-kitchen, where the meals
+of the negro house and farm servants were cooked and served. The
+slave-kitchen of the old Bergen homestead stood unaltered till within a
+few years on Third Avenue in Brooklyn. It still exists in a dismantled
+condition. Its picture plainly shows the stone ledges within the
+fireplace, the curved iron lug-pole, and hanging pothooks and trammels.
+With ample fire of hickory logs burning on the hearthstone, and the
+varied array of primitive cooking-vessels steaming with savory fare, a
+circle of laughing, black faces shining with the glowing firelight and
+hungry anticipation, would make a "Dutch interior" of American form and
+shaping as picturesque and artistic as any of Holland. The fireplace
+itself sometimes went by the old English name, clavell-piece, as shown
+by the letters of John Wynter, written from Maine in 1634 to his English
+home. "The Chimney is large, with an oven at each end of him: he is so
+large that wee can place our Cyttle within the Clavell-piece. Wee can
+brew and bake and boyl our Cyttle all at once in him." Often a large
+plate of iron, called the fire-back or fire-plate, was set at the back
+of the chimney, where the constant and fierce fire crumbled brick and
+split stone. These iron backs were often cast in a handsome design.
+
+In New York the chimneys and fireplaces were Dutch in shape; the
+description given by a woman traveller at the end of the seventeenth
+century ran thus:--
+
+     "The chimney-places are very droll-like: they have no jambs nor
+     lintell as we have, but a flat grate, and there projects over it a
+     lum in the form of the cat-and-clay lum, and commonly a muslin or
+     ruffled pawn around it."
+
+The "ruffled pawn" was a calico or linen valance which was hung on the
+edge of the mantel-shelf, a pretty and cheerful fashion seen in some
+English as well as Dutch homes.
+
+Another Dutch furnishing, the alcove bedstead, much like a closet, seen
+in many New York kitchens, was replaced in New England farm-kitchens by
+the "turn-up" bedstead. This was a strong frame filled with a network of
+rope which was fastened at the bed-head by hinges to the wall. By night
+the foot of the bed rested on two heavy legs; by day the frame with its
+bed furnishings was hooked up to the wall, and covered with homespun
+curtains or doors. This was the sleeping-place of the master and
+mistress of the house, chosen because the kitchen was the warmest room
+in the house. One of these "turn-up" bedsteads which was used in the
+Sheldon homestead until this century may be seen in Deerfield Memorial
+Hall.
+
+Over the fireplace and across the top of the room were long poles on
+which hung strings of peppers, dried apples, and rings of dried pumpkin.
+And the favorite resting-place for the old queen's-arm or fowling-piece
+was on hooks over the kitchen fireplace.
+
+On the pothooks and trammels hung what formed in some households the
+costliest house-furnishing,--the pots and kettles. The Indians wished
+their brass kettles buried with them as a precious possession, and the
+settlers equally valued them; often these kettles were worth three
+pounds apiece. In many inventories of the estates of the settlers the
+brass-ware formed an important item. Rev. Thomas Hooker of Hartford had
+brass-ware which, in the equalizing of values to-day, would be worth
+three or four hundred dollars. The great brass and copper kettles often
+held fifteen gallons. The vast iron pot--desired and beloved of every
+colonist--sometimes weighed forty pounds, and lasted in daily use for
+many years. All the vegetables were boiled together in these great pots,
+unless some very particular housewife had a wrought-iron potato-boiler
+to hold potatoes or any single vegetable in place within the vast
+general pot.
+
+Chafing-dishes and skimmers of brass and copper were also cheerful discs
+to reflect the kitchen firelight.
+
+Very little tin was seen, either for kitchen or table utensils. Governor
+Winthrop had a few tin plates, and some Southern planters had tin pans,
+others "tynnen covers." Tin pails were unknown; and the pails they did
+own, either of wood, brass, or other sheet metal, had no bails, but were
+carried by thrusting a stick through little ears on either side of the
+pail. Latten ware was used instead of tin; it was a kind of brass. A
+very good collection of century-old tinware is shown in the
+illustration. By a curious chance this tinware lay unpacked for over
+ninety years in the attic loft of a country warehouse, in the
+packing-box, just as it was delivered from an English ship at the close
+of the Revolution. The pulling down of the warehouse disclosed the box,
+with its dated labels. The tin utensils are more gayly lacquered than
+modern ones, otherwise they differ little from the tinware of to-day.
+
+There was one distinct characteristic in the house-furnishing of olden
+times which is lacking to-day. It was a tendency for the main body of
+everything to set well up, on legs which were strong enough for adequate
+support of the weight, yet were slender in appearance. To-day bureaus,
+bedsteads, cabinets, desks, sideboards, come close to the floor;
+formerly chests of drawers, Chippendale sideboards, four-post bedsteads,
+dressing-cases, were set, often a foot high, in a tidy, cleanly fashion;
+thus they could all be thoroughly swept under. This same peculiarity of
+form extended to cooking-utensils. Pots and kettles had legs, as shown
+in those hanging in the slave-kitchen fireplace; gridirons had legs,
+skillets had legs; and further appliances in the shape of trivets,
+which were movable frames, took the place of legs. The necessity for the
+stilting up of cooking-utensils was a very evident one; it was necessary
+to raise the body of the utensil above the ashes and coals of the open
+fireplace. If the bed of coals and burning logs were too deep for the
+skillet or pot-legs, then the utensil must be hung from above by the
+ever-ready trammel.
+
+Often in the corner of the fireplace there stood a group of trivets, or
+three-legged stands, of varying heights, through which the exactly
+desired proximity to the coals could be obtained.
+
+Even toasting-forks, and similar frail utensils of wire or wrought iron,
+stood on tall, spindling legs, or were carefully shaped to be set up on
+trivets. They usually had, also, long, adjustable handles, which helped
+to make endurable the blazing heat of the great logs. All such irons as
+waffle-irons had far longer handles than are seen on any
+cooking-utensils in these days of stoves and ranges, where the flames
+are covered and the housewife shielded. Gridirons had long handles of
+wood or iron, which could be fastened to the shorter stationary handles.
+The two gridirons in the accompanying illustration are a century old.
+The circular one was the oldest form. The oblong ones, with groove to
+collect the gravy, did not vary in shape till our own day. Both have
+indications of fittings for long handles, but the handles have vanished.
+A long-handled frying-pan is seen hanging by the side of the
+slave-kitchen fireplace.
+
+An accompaniment of the kitchen fireplace, found, not in farmhouses, but
+among luxury-loving town-folk, was the plate-warmer. They are seldom
+named in inventories, and I know of but one of Revolutionary days, and
+it is here shown. Similar ones are manufactured to-day; the legs,
+perhaps, are shorter, but the general outline is the same.
+
+An important furnishing of every fireplace was the andirons. In kitchen
+fireplaces these were usually of iron, and the shape known as goose-neck
+were common. Cob irons were the simplest form, and merely supported the
+spit; sometimes they had hooks to hold a dripping-pan. A common name for
+the kitchen andirons was fire-dogs; and creepers were low, small
+andirons, usually used with the tall fire-dogs. The kitchen andirons
+were simply for use to help hold the logs and cooking-utensils. But
+other fireplaces had handsome fire-dogs of copper, brass, or cut steel,
+cast or wrought in handsome devices. These were a pride and delight to
+the housewife.
+
+A primitive method of roasting a joint of meat or a fowl was by
+suspending it in front of the fire by a strong hempen string tied to a
+peg in the ceiling, while some one--usually an unwilling
+child--occasionally turned the roast around. Sometimes the sole
+turnspit was the housewife, who, every time she basted the roast, gave
+the string a good twist, and thereafter it would untwist, and then twist
+a little again, and so on until the vibration ceased, when she again
+basted and started it. As the juices sometimes ran down in the roast and
+left the upper part too dry, a "double string-roaster" was invented, by
+which the equilibrium of the joint could be shifted. A jack was a
+convenient and magnified edition of the primitive string, being a metal
+suspensory machine. A still further glorification was the addition of a
+revolving power which ran by clockwork and turned the roast with
+regularity; this was known as a clock-jack. The one here shown hangs in
+the fireplace in Deerfield Memorial Hall. A smoke-jack was run somewhat
+irregularly by the pressure of smoke and the current of hot air in the
+chimney. These were noisy and creaking and not regarded with favor by
+old-fashioned cooks.
+
+We are apt to think of the turnspit dog as a creature of European life,
+but we had them here in America--little low, bow-legged, patient souls,
+trained to run in a revolving cylinder and keep the roasting joint
+a-turn before the fire. Mine host Clark of the State House Inn in
+Philadelphia in the first half of the eighteenth century advertised in
+Benjamin Franklin's _Pennsylvania Gazette_ that he had for sale "several
+dogs and wheels, much preferable to any jacks for roasting any joints of
+meat." I hope neither he nor any one else had many of these little
+canine slaves.
+
+A frequent accompaniment of the kitchen fireplace in the eighteenth
+century, and a domestic luxury seen in well-to-do homes, was the various
+forms of the "roasting-kitchen," or Dutch oven. These succeeded the
+jacks; they were a box-like arrangement open on one side which when in
+use was turned to the fire. Like other utensils of the day, they often
+stood up on legs, to bring the open side before the blaze. A little door
+at the back could be opened for convenience in basting the roast. These
+kitchens came in various sizes for roasting birds or joints, and in them
+bread was occasionally baked. The bake-kettle, which in some communities
+was also called a Dutch oven, was preferred for baking bread. It was a
+strong kettle, standing, of course, on stout, stumpy legs, and when in
+use was placed among the hot coals and closely covered with a strong
+metal, convex cover, on which coals were also closely heaped. Such
+perfect rolls, such biscuit, such shortcake, as issued from the
+heaped-up bake-kettle can never be equalled by other methods of cooking.
+
+When the great stone chimney was built, there was usually placed on one
+side of the kitchen fireplace a brick oven which had a smoke uptake into
+the chimney--and-an ash-pit below. The great door was of iron. This oven
+was usually heated once a week. A great fire of dry wood, called oven
+wood, was kindled within it and kept burning fiercely for some hours.
+This thoroughly heated all the bricks. The coals and ashes were then
+swept out, the chimney draught closed, and the oven filled with brown
+bread, pies, pots of beans, etc. Sometimes the bread was baked in pans,
+sometimes it was baked in a great mass set on cabbage leaves or oak
+leaves. In some towns an autumn harvest of oak leaves was gathered by
+children to use throughout the winter. The leaves were strung on sticks.
+This gathering was called going a-leafing.
+
+By the oven side was always a long-handled shovel known as a peel or
+slice, which sometimes had a rack or rest to hold it; this implement was
+a necessity in order to place the food well within the glowing oven. The
+peel was sprinkled with meal, great heaps of dough were placed thereon,
+and by a dexterous twist they were thrown on the cabbage or oak leaves.
+A bread peel was a universal gift to a bride; it was significant of
+domestic utility and plenty, and was held to be luck-bearing. On
+Thanksgiving week the great oven had a fire built in it every morning,
+and every night it was well filled and closed till morning.
+
+On one side of the kitchen often stood a dresser, on which was placed in
+orderly rows the cheerful pewter and scant earthenware of the
+household:--
+
+      "----the room was bright
+    With glimpses of reflected light,
+    From plates that on the dresser shone."
+
+In Dutch households plate-racks, spoon-racks, knife-racks,--all hanging
+on the wall,--took the place of the New England dresser.
+
+In the old Phillips farmhouse at Wickford, Rhode Island, is a splendid
+chimney over twenty feet square. So much room does it occupy that there
+is no central staircase, but little winding stairs ascend at three
+corners of the house. In the vast fireplace an ox could literally have
+been roasted. On each chimney-piece are hooks to hang firearms, and at
+one side curious little drawers are set for pipes and tobacco. In some
+Dutch houses in New York these tobacco shelves are in the entry, over
+the front door, and a narrow flight of three or four steps leads up to
+them. Hanging on a nail alongside the tobacco drawer, or shelf, would
+usually be seen a pipe-tongs, or smoking-tongs. They were slender
+little tongs, usually of iron or steel; with them the smoker lifted a
+coal from the fireplace to light his pipe. The tongs owned and used by
+Captain Joshua Wingate, of Hampton, New Hampshire, who lived from 1679
+to 1769, are here shown. The handle is unlike any other I have seen,
+having one end elongated, knobbed, and ingeniously bent S-shaped into
+convenient form to press down the tobacco into the bowl of the pipe.
+Other old-time pipe-tongs were in the form of lazy-tongs. A companion of
+the pipe-tongs on the kitchen mantel was what was known as a
+comfortier--a little brazier of metal in which small coals could be
+handed about for pipe-lighting. An unusual luxury was a comfortier of
+silver. These were found among the Dutch settlers.
+
+The Pennsylvania Germans were the first to use stoves. These were of
+various shapes. A curious one, seen in houses and churches, was of
+sheet-metal, box-shaped; three sides were within the house, and the
+fourth, with the stove door, outside the house. Thus what was really
+the back of the stove projected into the room, and when the fire was fed
+it was necessary for the tender to go out of doors. These German stoves
+and hot-air drums, which heated the second story of the house, were ever
+a fresh wonder to travellers of English birth and descent in
+Pennsylvania. There is no doubt that their evident economy and comfort
+suggested to Benjamin Franklin the "New Pennsylvania Fireplace," which
+he invented in 1742, in which both wood and coal could be used, and
+which was somewhat like the heating apparatus which we now call a
+Franklin stove, or heater.
+
+Thus German settlers had, in respect to heating, the most comfortable
+homes of all the colonies. Among the English settlers the kitchen was,
+too often, the only comfortable room in the house in winter weather.
+Indeed, the discomforts and inconveniences of a colonial home could
+scarcely be endured to-day; of course these culminated in the winter
+time, when icy blasts blew fiercely down the great chimneys, and rattled
+the loosely fitting windows. Children suffered bitterly in these cold
+houses. The rooms were not warm three feet away from the blaze of the
+fire. Cotton Mather and Judge Samuel Sewall both tell, in their diaries,
+of the ink freezing in their pens as they wrote within the
+chimney-side. One noted that, when a great fire was built on the hearth,
+the sap forced out of the wood by the flames froze into ice at the end
+of the logs. The bedrooms were seldom warmed, and had it not been for
+the deep feather beds and heavy bed-curtains, would have been
+unendurable. In Dutch and some German houses, with alcove bedsteads, and
+sleeping on one feather bed, with another for cover, the Dutch settlers
+could be far warmer than any English settlers, even in four-post
+bedsteads curtained with woollen.
+
+Water froze immediately if left standing in bedrooms. One diary, written
+in Marshfield, Massachusetts, tells of a basin of water standing on the
+bedroom hearth, in front of a blazing fire, in which the water froze
+solid. President John Adams so dreaded the bleak New England winter and
+the ill-warmed houses that he longed to sleep like a dormouse every
+year, from autumn to spring. In the Southern colonies, during the fewer
+cold days of the winter months, the temperature was not so low, but the
+houses were more open and lightly built than in the North, and were
+without cellars, and had fewer fireplaces; hence the discomfort from the
+cold was as great, if not the positive suffering.
+
+The first chilling entrance into the ice-cold bed of a winter bedroom
+was sometimes mitigated by heating the inner sheets with a warming-pan.
+This usually hung by the side of the kitchen fireplace, and when used
+was filled with hot coals, and thrust within the bed, and constantly and
+rapidly moved back and forth to keep from scorching the bed-linen. The
+warming-pan was a circular metal pan about a foot in diameter, four or
+five inches deep, with a long wooden handle and a perforated metal
+cover, usually of copper or brass, which was kept highly polished, and
+formed, as it hung on the wall, one of the cheerful kitchen discs to
+reflect the light of the glowing fire. The warming-pan has been deemed
+of sufficient decorative capacity to make it eagerly sought after by
+collectors, and a great room of one of these collectors is hung entirely
+around the four walls with a frieze of warming-pans.
+
+Many of our New England poets have given us glimpses in rhyme of the
+old-time kitchen. Lowell's well-known lines are vivid enough to bear
+never-dying quotation:--
+
+    "A fireplace filled the rooms one side
+      With half a cord of wood in--
+    There warn't no stoves (tell comfort died)
+      To bake ye to a puddin'.
+
+    "The wa'nut log shot sparkles out
+      Towards the pootiest--bless her!
+    An' little flames danced all about
+      The chiny on the dresser.
+
+    "Agin the crumbly crooknecks hung,
+      An' in amongst 'em rusted
+    The old queen's-arm that granther Young
+      Fetched back from Concord busted."
+
+To me the true essence of the old-time fireside is found in Whittier's
+_Snow-Bound_. The very chimney, fireplace, and hearthstone of which his
+beautiful lines were written, the kitchen of Whittier's boyhood's home,
+at East Haverhill, Massachusetts, is shown in the accompanying
+illustration. It shows a swinging crane. His description of the "laying
+the fire" can never be equalled by any prose:--
+
+    "We piled with care our nightly stack
+    Of wood against the chimney back--
+    The oaken log, green, huge, and thick,
+    And on its top the stout back-stick;
+    The knotty fore-stick laid apart,
+    And filled between with curious art
+    The ragged brush; then hovering near,
+    We watched the first red blaze appear,
+    Heard the sharp crackle, caught the gleam
+    On whitewashed wall and sagging beam,
+    Until the old, rude-furnished room
+    Burst, flower-like, into rosy bloom."
+
+No greater picture of homely contentment could be shown than the
+following lines:--
+
+    "Shut in from all the world without,
+    We sat the clean-winged hearth about,
+    Content to let the north wind roar
+    In baffled rage at pane and door,
+    While the red logs before us beat
+    The frost-line back with tropic heat;
+    And ever, when a louder blast
+    Shook beam and rafter as it passed,
+    The merrier up its roaring draught
+    The great throat of the chimney laughed.
+    The house dog on his paws outspread
+    Laid to the fire his drowsy head,
+    The cat's dark silhouette on the wall
+    A couchant tiger's seemed to fall;
+    And, for the winter fireside meet,
+    Between the andirons' straddling feet
+    The mug of cider simmered slow,
+    And apples sputtered in a row.
+    And, close at hand, the basket stood
+    With nuts from brown October's woods.
+    What matter how the night behaved!
+    What matter how the north wind raved!
+    Blow high, blow low, not all its snow
+    Could quench our hearth-fire's ruddy glow."
+
+Nor can the passing of years dim the ruddy glow of that hearth-fire, nor
+the charm of the poem. The simplicity of metre, the purity of wording,
+the gentle sadness of some of its expressions, make us read between the
+lines the deep and affectionate reminiscence with which it was written.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+THE SERVING OF MEALS
+
+
+Perhaps no greater difference exists between any mode of the olden times
+and that of to-day, than can be seen in the manner of serving the meals
+of the family. In the first place, the very dining-table of the
+colonists was not like our present ones; it was a long and narrow board,
+sometimes but three feet wide, with no legs attached to it. It was laid
+on supports or trestles, shaped usually something like a saw-horse. Thus
+it was literally a board, and was called a table-board, and the linen
+cover used at meals was not called a tablecloth, but a board-cloth or
+board-clothes.
+
+As smoothly sawed and finished boards were not so plentiful at first in
+the colonies as might naturally be thought when we remember the vast
+encircling forests, all such boards were carefully treasured, and used
+many times to avoid sawing others by the tedious and wearying process of
+pit-sawing. Hence portions of packing-boxes, or chests which had carried
+stores from England to the colonies, were made into table-boards. One
+such oaken table-board, still in existence, has on the under side in
+quaint lettering the name and address of the Boston settler to whom the
+original packing-box was sent in 1638.
+
+The old-time board-cloth was in no way inferior in quality or whiteness
+to our present table-linen; for we know how proud colonial wives and
+daughters were of the linen of their own spinning, weaving, and
+bleaching. The linen tablecloth was either of holland, huckaback,
+dowlas, osnaburg, or lockram--all heavy and comparatively coarse
+materials--or of fine damask, just as to-day; some of the handsome
+board-cloths were even trimmed with lace.
+
+The colonists had plenty of napkins; more, as a rule, than families of
+corresponding means and station own to-day. They had need of them, for
+when America was first settled forks were almost unknown to English
+people--being used for eating in luxurious Italy alone, where travellers
+having seen and found them useful and cleanly, afterwards introduced
+them into England. So hands had to be constantly employed for holding
+food, instead of the forks we now use, and napkins were therefore as
+constantly necessary. The first fork brought to America was for Governor
+John Winthrop, in Boston, in 1633, and it was in a leather case with a
+knife and a bodkin. If the governor ate with a fork at the table, he
+was doubtless the only person in the colony who did so. Thirty or forty
+years later a few two-tined iron and silver forks were brought across
+the water, and used in New York and Virginia, as well as Massachusetts;
+and by the end of the century they had come into scant use at the tables
+of persons of wealth and fashion. The first mention of a fork in
+Virginia is in an inventory dated 1677; this was of a single fork. The
+salt-cellar, or saler, as it was first called, was the centrepiece of
+the table--"Sett in the myddys of the tabull," says an old treatise on
+laying the table. It was often large and high, of curious device in
+silver, and was then called a standing salt. Guests of honor were seated
+"above the salt," that is, near the end of the table where sat the host
+and hostess side by side; while children and persons who were not of
+much dignity or account as guests were placed "below the salt," that is,
+below the middle of the table.
+
+There is owned by Harvard University, and here shown in an
+illustration, "a great silver salt" given to the college in 1644, when
+the new seat of learning was but eight years old. At the table it
+divided graduates, the faculty, and such, from the undergraduates. It
+was valued at £5 1s. 3d., at five shillings an ounce, which was
+equal to a hundred dollars to-day; a rich gift, which shows to me the
+profound affection of the settlers for the new college. It is inscribed
+with the name of the giver, Mr. Richard Harris. It is of simple English
+design well known during that century, and made in various sizes. There
+is no doubt that many of similar pattern, though not so heavy or so
+rich, were seen on the tables of substantial colonists. They are named
+in many wills. Often a small projecting arm was attached to one side,
+over which a folded napkin could be thrown to be used as a cover; for
+the salt-cellar was usually kept covered, not only to preserve
+cleanliness, but in earlier days to prevent the ready introduction of
+poison.
+
+There are some very entertaining and curious old English books which
+were written in the sixteenth century to teach children and young
+rustics correct and elegant manners at the table, and also helpful ways
+in which to serve others. These books are called _The Babees Boke_, _The
+Boke of Nurture_, _The Boke of Curteseye_, etc., and with the exception
+of variations in the way of serving a dinner, and a few obsolete
+customs, and in the names and shapes and materials of the different
+dishes, plates, etc., used at the table, these books are just as
+instructive and sensible to-day as then. From them we learn that the
+only kind of table furnishings used at that time were cups to drink out
+of; spoons and knives to eat with; chafing-dishes to serve hot food;
+chargers for display and for serving large quantities of food;
+salt-cellars, and trenchers for use as plates. There were very few other
+table appointments used on any English table, either humble or great,
+when the Pilgrims landed at Plymouth.
+
+One of the most important articles for setting the table was the
+trencher. These were made of wood, and often were only a block of wood,
+about ten or twelve inches square and three or four deep, hollowed down
+into a sort of bowl in the middle. In this the food was
+placed,--porridge, meat, vegetables, etc. Each person did not have even
+one of these simple dishes; usually two children, or a man and his wife,
+ate out of one trencher. This was a custom in England for many years;
+and some very great people, a duke and his wife, not more than a century
+and a half ago, sat side by side at the table and ate out of one plate
+to show their unity and affection. It is told of an old Connecticut
+settler, a deacon, that as he had a wood-turning mill, he thought he
+would have a trencher apiece for his children. So he turned a sufficient
+number of round trenchers in his mill. For this his neighbors deemed him
+deeply extravagant and putting on too many airs, both as to quantity and
+quality, since square trenchers, one for use by two persons, were good
+enough for any one, even a deacon. So great a warrior and so prominent a
+man in the colony as Miles Standish used wooden trenchers at the table,
+as also did all the early governors. Nor did they disdain to name them
+in their wills, as valued household possessions. For many years college
+boys at Harvard ate out of wooden trenchers at the college mess-table.
+
+I have seen a curious old table top, or table-board, which permitted
+diners seated at it to dispense with trenchers or plates. It was of
+heavy oak about six inches thick, and at intervals of about eighteen
+inches around its edge were scooped out deep, bowl-shaped holes about
+ten inches in diameter, in which each individual's share of the dinner
+was placed. After each meal the top was lifted off the trestles,
+thoroughly washed and dried, and was ready for the next meal.
+
+Poplar-wood is an even, white, and shining wood. Until the middle of
+this century poplar-wood trenchers and plates were used on the table in
+Vermont, and were really attractive dishes. From earliest days the
+Indians made and sold many bowls and trenchers of maple-wood knots. One
+of these bowls, owned by King Philip, is at the rooms of the
+Massachusetts Historical Society in Boston. Old wooden trenchers and
+"Indian bowls" can be seen at the Memorial Hall in Deerfield. Bottles
+were made also of wood, and drinking-cups and "noggins," which were a
+sort of mug with a handle. Wood furnished many articles for the table to
+the colonist, just as it did in later days on our Western frontiers,
+where trenchers of wood and plates of birch-bark were seen in every
+log-cabin.
+
+The word tankard was originally applied to a heavy and large vessel of
+wood banded with metal, in which to carry water. Smaller wooden drinking
+tankards were subsequently made and used throughout Europe, and were
+occasionally brought here by the colonists. The plainly shaped wooden
+tankard, made of staves and hoops and here shown, is from the collection
+at Deerfield Memorial Hall. It was found in the house of Rev. Eli Moody.
+These commonplace tankards of staves were not so rare as the beautiful
+carved and hooped tankard which is here pictured, and which is in the
+collection of Mrs. Samuel Bowne Duryea, of Brooklyn. I have seen a few
+other quaintly carved ones, black with age, in American families of
+Huguenot descent; these were apparently Swiss carvings.
+
+The chargers, or large round platters found on every dining-table, were
+of pewter. Some were so big and heavy that they weighed five or six
+pounds apiece. Pewter is a metal never seen for modern table
+furnishing, or domestic use in any form to-day; but in colonial times
+what was called a garnish of pewter, that is, a full set of pewter
+platters, plates, and dishes, was the pride of every good housekeeper,
+and also a favorite wedding gift. It was kept as bright and shining as
+silver. One of the duties of children was to gather a kind of horse-tail
+rush which grew in the marshes, and because it was used to scour pewter,
+was called scouring-rush.
+
+Pewter bottles of various sizes were sent to the Massachusetts Bay
+Colony, in 1629. Governor Endicott had one, but they were certainly far
+from common. Dram cups, wine mugs, and funnels of pewter were also
+occasionally seen, but scarcely formed part of ordinary table
+furnishings. Metheglin cans and drinking-mugs of pewter were found on
+nearly every table. Pewter was used until this century in the wealthiest
+homes, both in the North and South, and was preferred by many who owned
+rich china. Among the pewter-lovers was the Revolutionary patriot, John
+Hancock, who hated the clatter of the porcelain plates.
+
+Porringers of pewter, and occasionally of silver, were much used at the
+table, chiefly for children to eat from. These were a pretty little
+shallow circular dish with a flat-pierced handle. Some had a "fish-tail"
+handle; these are said to be Dutch. These porringers were in many
+sizes, from tiny little ones two inches in diameter to those eight or
+nine inches across. When not in use many housekeepers kept them hanging
+on hooks on the edge of a shelf, where they formed a pretty and cheerful
+decoration. The poet Swift says:--
+
+    "The porringers that in a row
+    Hung high and made a glittering show."
+
+It should be stated that the word porringer, as used by English
+collectors, usually refers to a deep cup with a cover and two handles,
+while what we call porringers are known to these collectors as
+bleeding-basins or tasters. Here we apply the term taster, or
+wine-taster, to a small, shallow silver cup with bosses in the bottom to
+reflect the light and show the color and quality of wine. I have often
+seen the item wine-taster in colonial inventories and wills, but never
+bleeding-basin; while porringers were almost universal on such lists.
+Some families had a dozen. I have found fifteen in one old New England
+farmhouse. The small porringers are sometimes called posnets, which is
+an old-time word that may originally have referred to a posset-cup.
+
+"Spoons," says the learned archæologist, Laborde, "if not as old as the
+world, are as old as soup." All the colonists had spoons, and certainly
+all needed them, for at that time much of their food was in the form of
+soup and "spoon-meat," such as had to be eaten with spoons when there
+were no forks. Meat was usually made into hashes or ragouts; thick stews
+and soups with chopped vegetables and meats were common, as were
+hotch-pots. The cereal foods, which formed so large a part of English
+fare in the New World, were more frequently boiled in porridge than
+baked in loaves. Many of the spoons were of pewter. Worn-out pewter
+plates and dishes could be recast into new pewter spoons. The moulds
+were of wood or iron. The spoon mould of one of the first settlers of
+Greenfield, Massachusetts, named Martindale, is here shown with a
+pewter spoon. In this mould all his spoons and those of his neighbors
+were cast. It is now in the Deerfield Memorial Hall.
+
+A still more universal spoon material was alchymy, also called occamy,
+alcamy, arkamy, etc., a metal never used now, which was made of a
+mixture of pan-brass and arsenicum. Wooden spoons, too, were always
+seen. In Pennsylvania and New York laurel was called spoonwood, because
+the Indians made pretty white spoons from that wood to sell to the
+colonists. Horn was an appropriate and available material for spoons.
+Many Indian tribes excelled as they do to-day in the making of horn
+spoons. The vulgar affirmation, "By the great horn spoon," has
+perpetuated their familiar use.
+
+Every family of any considerable possessions or owning good household
+furnishings had a few silver spoons; nearly every person owned at least
+one. At the time America was settled the common form of silver spoon in
+England had what was known as a baluster stem and a seal head; the assay
+mark was in the inner part of the bowl. But the fashion was just
+changing, and a new and much altered form was introduced which was made
+in large numbers until the opening reign of George I. This shape was the
+very one without doubt in which many of the spoons of the first
+colonists were made; and wherever such spoons are found, if they are
+genuine antiques, they may safely be assigned a date earlier than 1714.
+The handle was flat and broad at the end, where it was cleft in three
+points which were turned up, that is, not toward the back of the spoon.
+This was known as the "hind's-foot handle." The bowl was a perfectly
+regular ellipse and was strengthened by continuing the handle in a
+narrow tongue or rat-tail, which ran down the back of the bowl. The
+succeeding fashion, in the early part of the eighteenth century, had a
+longer elliptical bowl. The end of the handle was rounded and turned up
+at the end, and it had a high sharp ridge down the middle. This was
+known as the old English shape, and was in common use for half a
+century. About the period of our Revolutionary War a shape nearly like
+the one in ordinary present use became the mode; the bowl became
+egg-shaped, and the end of the handle was turned down instead of up. The
+rat-tail, which extended down the back of the bowl, was shortened into a
+drop. Apostle spoons, and monkey spoons for extraordinary use were
+occasionally made, and a few are still preserved; examples of five types
+of spoons are shown from the collection of Edward Holbrook, Esq., of New
+York.
+
+Families of consequence had usually a few pieces of silver besides their
+spoons and the silver salt. Some kind of a drinking-cup was the usual
+form. Persons of moderate means often owned a silver cup. I have seen in
+early inventories and lists the names of a large variety of silver
+vessels: tankards, beer-bowls, beakers, flagons, wine cups, wine bowls,
+wine cans, tasters, caudle-cups, posset-cups, dram-cups, punch-bowls,
+tumblers, mugs, dram bottles, two-eared cups, and flasks. Virginians and
+Marylanders in the seventeenth century had much more silver than New
+Englanders. Some Dutch merchants had ample amounts. It was deemed a
+good and safe investment for spare money. Bread-baskets, salvers,
+muffineers, chafing-dishes, casters, milk pitchers, sugar boxes,
+candlesticks, appear in inventories at the end of the century. A tankard
+or flagon, even if heavy and handsome, would be placed on the table for
+every-day use; the other pieces were usually set on the cupboard's head
+for ornament.
+
+The handsome silver tankard owned by Sarah Jansen de Rapelje is here
+shown. She was the first child of European parents born in New
+Netherland. The tankard was a wedding gift from her husband, and a Dutch
+wedding scene is graven on the lid.
+
+There was a great desire for glass, a rare novelty to many persons at
+the date of colonization. The English were less familiar with its use
+than settlers who came from Continental Europe. The establishment of
+glass factories was attempted in early days in several places, chiefly
+to manufacture sheet-glass, but with slight success. Little glass was
+owned in the shape of drinking-vessels, none used generally on the
+table, I think, during the first few years. Glass bottles were certainly
+a great rarity, and were bequeathed with special mention in wills, and
+they are the only form of glass vessel named. The earliest glass for
+table use was greenish in color, like coarse bottle glass, and poor in
+quality, sometimes decorated in crude designs in a few colors. Bristol
+glass, in the shape of mugs and plates, was next seen. It was opaque, a
+milky white color, and was coarsely decorated with vitrifiable colors in
+a few lines of red, green, yellow, or black, occasionally with initials,
+dates, or Scriptural references.
+
+Though shapes were varied, and the number was generally plentiful, there
+was no attempt made to give separate drinking-cups of any kind to each
+individual at the table. Blissfully ignorant of the existence or
+presence of microbes, germs, and bacteria, our sturdy and unsqueamish
+forbears drank contentedly in succession from a single vessel, which
+was passed from hand to hand, and lip to lip, around the board. Even
+when tumbler-shaped glasses were seen in many houses,--flip-glasses,
+they were called,--they were of communal size,--some held a gallon,--and
+all drank from the same glass. The great punch-bowl, not a very handy
+vessel to handle when filled with punch, was passed up and down as
+freely as though it were a loving-cup, and all drank from its brim. At
+college tables, and even at tavern boards, where table neighbors might
+be strangers, the flowing bowl and foaming tankard was passed serenely
+from one to another, and replenished to pass again.
+
+Leather was perhaps the most curious material used. Pitchers, bottles,
+and drinking-cups were made of it. Great jugs of heavy black leather,
+waxed and bound, and tipped with silver, were used to hold metheglin,
+ale, and beer, and were a very substantial, and at times a very handsome
+vessel. The finest examples I have ever seen are here represented. The
+stitches and waxed thread at the base and on the handles can plainly be
+perceived. They are bound with a rich silver band, and have a silver
+shield bearing a date of gift to Samuel Brenton in 1778; but they are
+probably a century older than that date. They are the property by
+inheritance of Miss Rebecca Shaw, aged ninety-six years, of Wickford,
+Rhode Island.
+
+The use of these great leather jacks, in a clumsier form than here
+shown, led to the amusing mistake of a French traveller, that the
+English drank their ale out of their boots. These leather jugs were
+commonly called black jacks, and the larger ones were bombards. Giskin
+was still another and rarer name.
+
+Drinking-cups were sometimes made of horn. A handsome one has been used
+since colonial days on Long Island for "quince drink," a potent mixture
+of hot rum, sugar, and quince marmalade, or preserves. It has a base of
+silver, a rim of silver, and a cover of horn tipped with silver. A
+stirrup-cup of horn, tipped with silver, was used to "speed the parting
+guest." Occasionally the whole horn, in true mediæval fashion, was used
+as a drinking-cup. Often they were carved with considerable skill, as
+the beautiful ones in the collection of Mr. A. G. Richmond, of
+Canajoharie, New York.
+
+Gourds were plentiful on the farm, and gathered with care, that the
+hard-shelled fruit might be shaped into simple drinking-cups. In
+Elizabeth's time silver cups were made in the shape of these gourds. The
+ships that brought "lemmons and raysins of the sun" from the tropics to
+the colonists, also brought cocoanuts. Since the thirteenth century the
+shells of cocoanuts have been mounted with silver feet and "covercles"
+in a goblet shape, and been much sought after by Englishmen. Mounted in
+pewter, and sometimes in silver, or simply shaped with a wooden handle
+attached, the shell of the cocoanut was a favorite among the English
+settlers. To this day one of the cocoanut-shell cups, or dippers, is a
+favorite drinking-cup of many. A handsome cocoanut goblet, richly
+mounted in silver, is shown in the accompanying illustration. It was
+once the property of the Revolutionary patriot, John Hancock, and is now
+in the custody of the Bostonian Society, at the Old State House, in
+Boston, Massachusetts.
+
+Popular drinking-mugs of the English, from which specially they drank
+their mead, metheglin, and ale, were the stoneware jugs which were made
+in Germany and England, in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, in
+great numbers. An English writer in 1579, spoke of the English custom of
+drinking from "pots of earth, of sundry colors and moulds, whereof many
+are garnished with silver, or leastwise with pewter." Such a piece of
+stoneware is the oldest authenticated drinking-jug in this country,
+which was brought here and used by English colonists. It was the
+property of Governor John Winthrop, who came to Boston in 1630, and now
+belongs to the American Antiquarian Society, in Worcester,
+Massachusetts. It stands eight inches in height, is apparently of German
+Gresware, and is heavily mounted in silver. The lid is engraved with a
+quaint design of Adam and Eve and the tempting serpent in the
+apple-tree. It was a gift to John Winthrop's father from his sister,
+Lady Mildmay, in 1607, and was then, and is still now, labelled, "a
+stone Pot tipped and covered with a Silver Lydd." Many other Boston
+colonists had similar "stone juggs," "fflanders juggs," "tipt juggs."
+What were known as "Fulham juggs" were also much prized. The most
+interesting ones are the Georgius Rex jugs, those marked with a crown,
+the initials G. R., or a medallion head of the first of the English
+Georges. I know one of these jugs which has a Revolutionary bullet
+imbedded in its tough old side, and is not even cracked. Many of them
+had pewter or silver lids, which are now missing. Some have the curious
+hound handle which was so popular with English potters.
+
+There was no china in common use on the table, and little owned even by
+persons of wealth throughout the seventeenth century, either in England
+or America. Delft ware was made in several factories in Holland at the
+time the Dutch settled in New Netherland; but even in the towns of its
+manufacture it was not used for table ware. The pieces were usually of
+large size, what were called state pieces, for cabinet and decorative
+purposes. The Dutch settlers, however, had "purslin cupps" and earthen
+dishes in considerable quantities toward the end of the century. The
+earthen was possibly Delft ware, and the "Purslin" India china, which by
+that time was largely imported to Holland. Some Portuguese and Spanish
+pottery was imported, but was not much desired, as it was ill fired and
+perishable. It was not until Revolutionary times that china was a common
+table furnishing; then it began to crowd out pewter. The sudden and
+enormous growth of East India commerce, and the vast cargoes of Chinese
+pottery and porcelain wares brought to American ports soon gave ample
+china to every housewife. In the Southern colonies beautiful isolated
+pieces of porcelain, such as vast punch-bowls, often were found in the
+homes of opulent planters; but there, as in the North, the first china
+for general table use was the handleless tea-cups, usually of some
+Canton ware, which crept with the fragrant herb into every woman's
+heart--both welcome Oriental waifs.
+
+It may well be imagined that this long narrow table--with a high
+salt-cellar in the middle, with clumsy wooden trenchers for plates, with
+round pewter platters heaped high with the stew of meat and vegetables,
+with a great noggin or two of wood, a can of pewter, or a silver tankard
+to drink from, with leather jacks to hold beer or milk, with many wooden
+or pewter and some silver spoons, but no forks, no glass, no china, no
+covered dishes, no saucers--did not look much like our dinner tables
+to-day.
+
+Even the seats were different; there were seldom chairs or stools for
+each person. A long narrow bench without a back, called a form, was
+placed on each side of the table. Children in many households were not
+allowed to sit, even on these uncomfortable forms, while eating. Many
+times they had to stand by the side of the table during the entire meal;
+in old-fashioned families that uncomfortable and ungracious custom
+lasted till this century. I know of children not fifty years ago
+standing thus at all meals at the table of one of the Judges of the
+Supreme Court. He had a bountiful table, was a hospitable entertainer
+and well-known epicure; but children sat not at his board. Each stood at
+his own place and had to behave with decorum and eat in entire silence.
+In some families children stood behind their parents and other grown
+persons, and food was handed back to them from the table--so we are
+told. This seems closely akin to throwing food to an animal, and must
+have been among people of very low station and social manners.
+
+In other houses they stood at a side-table; and, trencher in hand, ran
+over to the great table to be helped to more food when their first
+supply was eaten.
+
+The chief thought on the behavior of children at the table, which must
+be inferred from all the accounts we have of those times is that they
+were to eat in silence, as fast as possible (regardless of indigestion),
+and leave the table as speedily as might be. In a little book called _A
+Pretty Little Pocket Book_, printed in America about the time of the
+Revolution, I found a list of rules for the behavior of children at the
+table at that date. They were ordered never to seat themselves at the
+table until after the blessing had been asked, and their parents told
+them to be seated. They were never to ask for anything on the table;
+never to speak unless spoken to; always to break the bread, not to bite
+into a whole slice; never to take salt except with a clean knife; not to
+throw bones under the table. One rule read: "Hold not thy knife upright,
+but sloping; lay it down at right hand of the plate, with end of blade
+on the plate." Another, "Look not earnestly at any other person that is
+eating." When children had eaten all that had been given them, if they
+were "moderately satisfied," they were told to leave at once the table
+and room.
+
+When the table-board described herein was set with snowy linen cloth and
+napkins, and ample fare, it had some compensations for what modern
+luxuries it lacked, some qualifications for inducing contentment
+superior even to our beautiful table-settings. There was nothing
+perishable in its entire furnishing: no frail and costly china or glass,
+whose injury and destruction by clumsy or heedless servants would make
+the heart of the housekeeper ache, and her anger nourish the germs of
+ptomaines within her. There was little of intrinsic value to watch and
+guard and worry about. There was little to make extra and difficult
+work,--no glass to wash with anxious care, no elaborate silver to
+clean,--only a few pieces of pewter to polish occasionally. It was all
+so easy and so simple when compared with the complex and varied
+paraphernalia and accompaniments of serving of meals to-day, that it was
+like Arcadian simplicity.
+
+In Virginia the table furnishings were similar to those in New England;
+but there were greater contrasts in table appointments. There was more
+silver, and richer food; but the negro servants were so squalid, clumsy,
+and uncouth that the incongruity made the meals very surprising and, at
+times, repellent.
+
+When dinners of some state were given in the larger towns, the table was
+not set or served like the formal dinner of to-day, for all the sweets,
+pastry, vegetables, and meats were placed on the table together, with a
+grand "conceit" for the ornament in the centre. At one period, when
+pudding was part of the dinner, it was served first. Thus an old-time
+saying is explained, which always seemed rather meaningless, "I came
+early--in pudding-time." There was considerable formality in portioning
+out the food, especially in carving, which was regarded as much more
+than a polite accomplishment, even as an art. I have seen a list of
+sixty or seventy different terms in carving to be applied with exactness
+to different fish, fowl, and meats. An old author says:--
+
+     "How all must regret to hear some Persons, even of quality say,
+     'pray cut up that Chicken or Hen,' or 'Halve that Plover'; not
+     considering how indiscreetly they talk, when the proper Terms are,
+     'break that Goose,' 'thrust that Chicken,' 'spoil that Hen,'
+     'pierce that Plover.' If they are so much out in common Things, how
+     much more would they be with Herons, Cranes, and Peacocks."
+
+It must have required good judgment and constant watchfulness never to
+say "spoil that Hen," when it was a chicken; or else be thought
+hopelessly ill-bred.
+
+There were few state dinners, however, served in the American colonies,
+even in the large cities; there were few dinners, even, of many courses;
+not always were there many dishes. There were still seen in many homes
+more primitive forms of serving and eating meals, than were indicated by
+the lack of individual drinking-cups, the mutual use of a trencher, or
+even the utilization of the table top as a plate. In some homes an
+abundant dish, such as a vast bowl of suppawn and milk, a pumpkin stewed
+whole in its shell, or a savory and mammoth hotchpot was set, often
+smoking hot, on the table-board; and from this well-filled receptacle
+each hungry soul, armed with a long-handled pewter or wooden spoon,
+helped himself, sometimes ladling his great spoonfuls into a trencher
+or bowl, for more moderate and reserved after-consumption,--just as
+frequently eating directly from the bountiful dish with a spoon that
+came and went from dish to mouth without reproach, or thought of
+ill-manners. The accounts of travellers in all the colonies frequently
+tell of such repasts; some termed it eating in the fashion of the Dutch.
+The reports of old settlers often recall the general dish; and some very
+distinguished persons joined in the circle around it, and were glad to
+get it. Variety was of little account, compared to quantity and quality.
+A cheerful hospitality and grateful hearts filled the hollow place of
+formality and elegance.
+
+By the time that newspapers began to have advertisements in them--about
+1750--we find many more articles for use at the table; but often the
+names were different from those used to-day. Our sugar bowls were called
+sugar boxes and sugar pots; milk pitchers were milk jugs, milk ewers,
+and milk pots. Vegetable dishes were called basins, pudding dishes
+twifflers, small cups were called sneak cups.
+
+We have still to-day a custom much like one of olden times, when we have
+the crumbs removed from our tables after a course at dinner. Then a
+voider was passed around the table near the close of the dinner, and
+into it the persons at the table placed their trenchers, napkins, and
+the crumbs from the table. The voider was a deep wicker, wooden, or
+metal basket. In the _Boke of Nurture_, written in 1577, are these
+lines:--
+
+    "When meate is taken quyte awaye
+      And Voyders in presence,
+    Put you your trenchour in the same
+      and all your resydence.
+    Take you with your napkin & knyfe
+      the croms that are fore the,
+    In the Voyder your Napkin leave
+      for it is a curtesye."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+FOOD FROM FOREST AND SEA
+
+
+Though all the early explorers and travellers came to America eager to
+find precious and useful metals, they did not discover wealth and
+prosperity underground in mines, but on the top of the earth, in the
+woods and fields. To the forests they turned for food, and they did not
+turn in vain. Deer were plentiful everywhere, and venison was offered by
+the Indians to the first who landed from the ships. Some families lived
+wholly on venison for nine months of the year. In Virginia were vast
+numbers of red and fallow deer, the latter like those of England, except
+in the smaller number of branches of the antlers. They were so devoid of
+fear as to remain undisturbed by the approach of men; a writer of that
+day says: "Hard by the Fort two hundred in one herd have been usually
+observed." They were destroyed ruthlessly by a system of fire-hunting,
+in which tracts of forests were burned over, by starting a continuous
+circle of fire miles around, which burnt in toward the centre of the
+circle; thus the deer were driven into the middle, and hundreds were
+killed. This miserable, wholesale slaughter was not for venison, but for
+the sake of the hides, which were very valuable. They were used to make
+the durable and suitable buckskin breeches and jackets so much worn by
+the settlers; and they were also exported to Europe in large numbers. A
+tax was placed on hides for the support of the beloved William and Mary
+College.
+
+In Georgia, in 1735, the Indians sold a deer for sixpence. Deer were
+just as abundant in the more Northern colonies. At Albany a stag was
+sold readily by the Indians for a jack-knife or a few iron nails. The
+deer in winter came and fed from the hog-pens of Albany swine. Even in
+1695, a quarter of venison could be bought in New York City for
+ninepence. At the first Massachusetts Thanksgiving, in 1621, the Indians
+brought in five deer to the colonists for their feast. That year there
+was also "great store of wild turkies." These beautiful birds of gold
+and purple bronze were at first plentiful everywhere, and were of great
+weight, far larger than our domestic turkeys to-day. They came in flocks
+of a hundred, Evelyn says of three hundred on the Chesapeake, and they
+weighed thirty or forty pounds each: Josselyn says he saw one weighing
+sixty pounds. William Penn wrote that turkeys weighing thirty pounds
+apiece sold in his day and colony for a shilling only. They were shy
+creatures and fled inland from the white man, and by 1690 were rarely
+shot near the coast of New England, though in Georgia, in 1733, they
+were plentiful enough and cheap enough to sell for fourpence apiece.
+Flights of pigeons darkened the sky, and broke down the limbs of trees
+on which they lighted. From Maine to Virginia these vast flocks were
+seen. Some years pigeons were so plentiful that they were sold for a
+penny a dozen in Boston. Pheasant, partridge, woodcock, and quail
+abounded, plover, snipe, and curlew were in the marsh-woods; in fact, in
+Virginia every bird familiar to Englishmen at home was found save
+peacock and domestic fowl.
+
+Wild hare and squirrels were so many that they became pests, and so much
+grain was eaten by them that bounties were paid in many towns for the
+heads of squirrels. County treasuries were exhausted by these premiums.
+The Swedish traveller, Kalm, said that in Pennsylvania in one year,
+1749, £8000 was paid out for heads of black and gray squirrels, at
+threepence a head, which would show that over six hundred thousand were
+killed.
+
+From the woods came a sweet food-store, one specially grateful when
+sugar was so scarce and so high-priced,--wild honey, which the colonists
+eagerly gathered everywhere from hollow tree-trunks. Curiously enough,
+the traveller, Kalm, insisted that bees were not native in America, but
+were brought over by the English; that the Indians had no name for them
+and called them English flies.
+
+Governor Berkeley of Virginia, writing in 1706, called the maple the
+sugar-tree; he said:--
+
+     "The Sugar-Tree yields a kind of Sap or Juice which by boiling is
+     made into Sugar. This Juice is drawn out, by wounding the Trunk of
+     the Tree, and placing a Receiver under the Wound. It is said that
+     the Indians make one Pound of Sugar out of eight Pounds of the
+     Liquor. It is bright and moist with a full large Grain, the
+     Sweetness of it being like that of good Muscovada."
+
+The sugar-making season was ever hailed with delight by the boys of the
+household in colonial days, who found in this work in the woods a
+wonderful outlet for the love of wild life which was strong in them. It
+had in truth a touch of going a-gypsying, if any work as hard as
+sugaring-off could have anything common with gypsy life. The maple-trees
+were tapped as soon as the sap began to run in the trunk and showed at
+the end of the twigs; this was in late winter if mild, or in the
+earliest spring. A notch was cut in the trunk of the tree at a
+convenient height from the ground, usually four or five feet, and the
+running sap was guided by setting in the notch a semicircular basswood
+spout cut and set with a special tool called a tapping-gauge. In earlier
+days the trees were "boxed," that is, a great gash cut across the side
+and scooped out and down to gather the sap. This often proved fatal to
+the trees, and was abandoned. A trough, usually made of a butternut log
+about three feet long, was dug out, Indian fashion, and placed under the
+end of the spout. These troughs were made deep enough to hold about ten
+quarts. In later years a hole was bored in the tree with an augur; and
+sap-buckets were used instead of troughs.
+
+Sometimes these troughs were left in distant sugar-camps from year to
+year, turned bottom side up, through the summer and winter. It was more
+thrifty and tidy, however, to carry them home and store them. When this
+was done, the men and boys began work by drawing the troughs and spouts
+and provisions to the woods on hand-sleds. Sometimes a mighty man took
+in a load on his back. It is told of John Alexander of Brattleboro,
+Vermont, that he once went into camp _upon snowshoes_ carrying for three
+miles one five-pail iron kettle, two sap-buckets, an axe and trappings,
+a knapsack, four days' provisions, and a gun and ammunition.
+
+The master of ceremonies--the owner of the camp--selected the trees and
+drove the spouts, while the boys placed the troughs. Then the snow had
+to be shovelled away on a level spot about eighteen or twenty feet
+square, in which strong forked sticks were set twelve feet apart. Or the
+ground was chosen so that two small low-spreading and strong trees could
+be trimmed and used as forks. A heavy green stick was placed across from
+fork to fork, and the sugaring-off kettles, sometimes five in number,
+hung on it. Then dry wood had to be gathered for the fires; hard work it
+was to keep them constantly supplied. It was often cut a year in
+advance. As the sap collected in the troughs it was gathered in pails or
+buckets which, hung on a sap-yoke across the neck, were brought to the
+kettles and the sap set a-boiling down. When there was a "good run of
+sap," it was usually necessary to stay in the camp over night. Many
+times the campers stayed several nights. As the "good run" meant milder
+weather, a night or two was not a bitter experience; indeed, I have
+never heard any one speak nor seen any account of a night spent in a
+sugar-camp except with keen expressions of delight. If possible, the
+time was chosen during a term of moonlight; the snow still covered the
+fields and its pure shining white light could be seen through the trees.
+
+    "God makes sech nights, so white and still
+      Fer's you can look and listen.
+    Moonlight an' snow, on field and hill,
+      All silence and all glisten."
+
+The great silence, broken only by steady dropping of the sap, the
+crackle of blazing brush, and the occasional hooting of startled owls;
+the stars seen singly overhead through the openings of the trees,
+shining down the dark tunnel as bright as though there were no moon;
+above all, the clearness and sweetness of the first atmosphere of
+spring,--gave an exaltation of the senses and spirit which the country
+boy felt without understanding, and indeed without any formulated
+consciousness.
+
+If the camp were near enough to any group of farmhouses to have
+visitors, the last afternoon and evening in camp was made a country
+frolic. Great sled-loads of girls came out to taste the new sugar, to
+drop it into the snow to candy, and to have an evening of fun.
+
+Long ere the full riches of the forests were tested the colonists turned
+to another food-supply,--the treasures of the sea.
+
+The early voyagers and colonists came to the coasts of the New World to
+find gold and furs. The gold was not found by them nor their children's
+children in the land which is now the United States, till over two
+centuries had passed from the time of the settlement, and the gold-mines
+of California were opened. The furs were at first found and profitably
+gathered, but the timid fur-bearing animals were soon exterminated near
+the settlements. There was, however, a vast wealth ready for the
+colonists on the coast of the New World which was greater than gold,
+greater than furs; a wealth ever-obtainable, ever-replenished,
+ever-useful, ever-salable; it was _fish_. The sea, the rivers, the
+lakes, teemed with fish. Not only was there food for the settlers, but
+for the whole world, and all Europe desired fish to eat. The ships of
+the early discoverer, Gosnold, in 1602, were "pestered with cod."
+Captain John Smith, the acute explorer, famous in history as befriended
+by Pocahontas, went to New England, in 1614, to seek for whale, and
+instead he fished for cod. He secured sixty thousand in one month; and
+he wrote to his countrymen, "Let not the meanness of the word _fish_
+distaste you, for it will afford as good gold as the mines of Guiana or
+Potosi, with less hazard and charge, and more certainty and facility."
+This promise of wealth has proved true a thousandfold. Smith wrote home
+to England full accounts of the fisheries, of the proper equipment of a
+fishing-vessel, of the methods of fishing, the profits, all in a most
+enticing and familiar style. He said in his _Description of New
+England_:--
+
+     "What pleasure can be more than to recreate themselves before their
+     owne doores in their owne boates, upon the Sea, where man, woman,
+     and childe, with a small hooke and line by angling, may take
+     diverse sorts of excellent fish, at their pleasure? And is it not
+     pretty sport to pull up twopence, sixpence, or twelvepence, as fast
+     as you can hale and veare a line? If a man worke but three days in
+     seaven hee may get more than hee can spend unless hee will be
+     excessive.
+
+     "Young boyes and girles, salvages, or any other, be they never such
+     idlers may turne, carry, and returne fish without shame or either
+     great pain: hee is very idle that is past twelve years of age and
+     cannot doe so much: and shee is very old that cannot spin a thread
+     to catch them."
+
+His accounts and similar ones were so much read in England that when the
+Puritans asked King James of England for permission to come to America,
+and the king asked what profit would be found by their emigration, he
+was at once answered, "Fishing." Whereupon he said in turn, "In truth
+'tis an honest trade; 'twas the apostles' own calling." Yet in spite of
+their intent to fish, the first English ships came but poorly provided
+for fishing, and the settlers had little success at first even in
+getting fish for their own food. Elder Brewster of Plymouth, who had
+been a courtier in Queen Elizabeth's time, and had seen and eaten many
+rich feasts, had nothing to eat at one time but clams. Yet he could give
+thanks to God that he was "permitted to suck of the abundance of the
+seas and the treasures hid in the sand." The Indian Squanto showed the
+Pilgrims many practical methods of fishing, among them one of treading
+out eels from the brook with his feet and catching them with his hands.
+And every ship brought in either cod-hooks and lines, mackerel-hooks and
+lines, herring-nets, seines, shark-hooks, bass-nets, squid-lines,
+eel-pots, coils of rope and cable, "drails, barbels, pens, gaffs," or
+mussel-hooks.
+
+Josselyn, in his _New England's Rarities_, written in 1672, enumerated
+over two hundred kinds of fish that were caught in New England waters.
+
+Lobsters certainly were plentiful enough to prevent starvation. The
+minister Higginson, writing of lobsters at Salem, said that many of them
+weighed twenty-five pounds apiece, and that "the least boy in the
+plantation may catch and eat what he will of them." In 1623, when the
+ship _Anne_ arrived from England, bringing many of the wives and
+children of the Pilgrims who had come in the first ships, the only
+feast of welcome that the poor husbands had to offer the newcomers was
+"a lobster or a piece of fish without bread or anything else but a cup
+of spring water."
+
+Patriarchal lobsters five and six feet long were caught in New York Bay.
+The traveller, Van der Donck, says "those a foot long are better for
+serving at table." Truly a lobster six feet long would seem a little
+awkward to serve on a dinner table. Eddis, in his _Letters from
+America_, written in 1792, says these vast lobsters were caught in New
+York waters until Revolutionary days, when "since the incessant
+cannonading, they have entirely forsaken the coast; not one having been
+taken or seen since the commencement of hostilities." Beside these great
+shell-fish the giant lobster confined in our New York Aquarium in 1897
+seems but a dwarf. In Virginia waters lobsters were caught, and vast
+crabs, often a foot in length and six inches broad, with a long tail and
+many legs. One of these crabs furnished a sufficient meal for four men.
+
+From the gossiping pages of the Labadist missionaries who came to
+America in 1697 we find hints of good fare in oysters in Brooklyn.
+
+     "Then was thrown upon the fire, to be roasted, a pail full of
+     Gowanes oysters which are the best in the country. They are fully
+     as good as those of England, better than those we eat at Falmouth.
+     I had to try some of them raw. They are large and full, some of
+     them not less than a foot long. Others are young and small. In
+     consequence of the great quantities of them everybody keeps the
+     shells for the burning of lime. They pickle the oysters in small
+     casks and send them to Barbados."
+
+Van der Donck corroborates the foot-long oysters seen by the Labadist
+travellers. He says the "large oysters roasted or stewed make a good
+bite,"--a very good bite, it would seem to us.
+
+Strachey, in his _Historie of Travaile into Virginia_, says he saw
+oysters in Virginia that were thirteen inches long. Fortunately for the
+starving Virginians, oyster banks rose above the surface at ebb-tide at
+the mouth of the Elizabeth River, and in 1609 a large number of these
+famished Virginia colonists found in these oyster banks a means of
+preservation of life.
+
+As might be expected of any country so intersected with arms of the sea
+and fresh-water streams, Virginia at the time of settlement teemed with
+fish. The Indians killed them in the brooks by striking them with
+sticks, and it is said the colonists scooped them up in frying-pans.
+Horses ridden into the rivers stepped on the fish and killed them. In
+one cast of a seine the governor, Sir Thomas Dale, caught five thousand
+sturgeon as large as cod. Some sturgeon were twelve feet long. The works
+of Captain John Smith, Rolfe's _Relation_, and other books of early
+travellers, all tell of the enormous amount of fish in Virginia.
+
+The New York rivers were also full of fish, and the bays; their plenty
+in New Netherland inspired the first poet of that colony to rhyming
+enumeration of the various kinds of fish found there; among them were
+sturgeon--beloved of the Indians and despised of Christians; and
+terrapin--not despised by any one. "Some persons," wrote the Dutch
+traveller, Van der Donck, in 1656, "prepare delicious dishes from the
+water terrapin, which is luscious food." The Middle and Southern states
+paid equally warm but more tardy tribute to the terrapin's reputation as
+luscious food.
+
+While other fish were used everywhere for food, cod was the great staple
+of the fishing industry. By the year 1633 Dorchester and Marblehead had
+started in the fisheries for trading purposes. Sturgeon also was caught
+at a little later date, and bass and alewives.
+
+Morton, in his _New England Canaan_, written in 1636, says, "I myself at
+the turning of the tyde have seen such multitudes of sea bass that it
+seemed to me that one might goe over their backs dri-shod."
+
+The regulation of fish-weirs soon became an important matter in all
+towns where streams let alewives up from the sea. The New England
+ministers took a hand in promoting and encouraging the fisheries, as
+they did all positive social movements and commercial benefits. Rev.
+Hugh Peter in Salem gave the fisheries a specially good turn. Fishermen
+were excused from military training, and portions of the common stock of
+corn were assigned to them. The General Court of Massachusetts exempted
+"vessels and stock" from "country charges" (which were taxes) for seven
+years. Seashore towns assigned free lands to each boat to be used for
+stays and flakes for drying. As early as 1640 three hundred thousand
+dried codfish were sent to market from New England.
+
+Codfish consisted of three sorts, "marchantable, middling, and refuse."
+The first grade was sold chiefly to Roman Catholic Europe, to supply the
+constant demands of the fast-days of that religion, and also those of
+the Church of England; the second was consumed at home or in the
+merchant vessels of New England; the third went to the negroes of the
+West Indies, and was often called Jamaica fish. The dun-fish or
+dumb-fish, as the word was sometimes written, were the best; so called
+from the dun-color. Fish was always eaten in New England for a Saturday
+dinner; and Mr. Palfrey, the historian, says that until this century no
+New England dinner on Saturday, even a formal dinner party, was complete
+without dun-fish being served.
+
+Of course the first fishing-vessels had to be built and sent from
+England. Some carried fifty men. They arrived on the coast in early
+spring, and by midsummer sailed home. The crew had for wages one-third
+share of the fish and oil; another third paid for the men's food, the
+salt, nets, hooks, lines, etc.; the other third went to the ship's
+owners for profit.
+
+This system was not carried out in New England. There, each fisherman
+worked on "his own hook"--and it was literally his own hook; for a tally
+was kept of the fish caught by each man, and the proceeds of the trip
+were divided in proportion to the number of fish each caught. When there
+was a big run of fish, the men never stopped to eat or sleep, but when
+food was held to them gnawed it off while their hands were employed with
+the fish-lines. With every fishing-vessel that left Gloucester and
+Marblehead, the chief centres of the fishing industries, went a boy of
+ten or twelve to learn to be a skilled fisherman. He was called a
+"cut-tail," for he cut a wedge-shaped bit from the tail of every fish he
+caught, and when the fish were sorted out the cut-tails showed the boy's
+share of the profit.
+
+For centuries, fish was plentiful and cheap in New England. The
+traveller Bennet wrote of Boston, in 1740:--
+
+     "Fish is exceedingly cheap. They sell a fine cod, will weigh a
+     dozen pounds or more, just taken out of the sea for about twopence
+     sterling. They have smelts, too, which they sell as cheap as sprats
+     in London. Salmon, too, they have in great plenty, and these they
+     sell for about a shilling apiece which will weigh fourteen or
+     fifteen pounds."
+
+Two kinds of delicious fish, beloved, perhaps, above all others
+to-day,--salmon and shad,--seem to have been lightly regarded in
+colonial days. The price of salmon--less than a penny a pound--shows the
+low estimation in which it was held in the early years of the eighteenth
+century. It is told that farm-laborers in the vicinity of the
+Connecticut River when engaged to work stipulated that they should have
+salmon for dinner but once a week.
+
+Shad were profoundly despised; it was even held to be somewhat
+disreputable to eat them; and the story is told of a family in Hadley,
+Massachusetts, who were about to dine on shad, that, hearing a knock at
+the door, they would not open it till the platter holding the obnoxious
+shad had been hidden. At first they were fed chiefly to hogs. Two shad
+for a penny was the ignoble price in 1733, and it was never much higher
+until after the Revolution. After shad and salmon acquired a better
+reputation as food, the falls of various rivers became great resorts for
+American fishermen as they had been for the Indians. Both kinds of fish
+were caught in scoop-nets and seines below the falls. Men came from a
+distance and loaded horses and carts with the fish to carry home. Every
+farmhouse near was filled with visitors. It was estimated that at the
+falls at South Hadley there were fifteen hundred horses in one day.
+
+Salted fish was as carefully prepared and amiably regarded for home use
+in New England and New York as in England and Holland at the same date.
+The ling and herring of the old countries of Europe gave place in
+America to cod, shad, and mackerel. The greatest pains was taken in
+preparing, drying, and salting the plentiful fish. It is said that in
+New York towns, such as New York and Brooklyn, after shad became a
+popular fish, great heaps were left when purchased at each door, and
+that the necessary cleaning and preparation of the shad was done on the
+street. As all housewives purchased shad and salted and packed at about
+the same time, those public scavengers, the domestic hogs who roamed
+the town streets unchecked (and ever welcomed), must have been specially
+useful at shad-time.
+
+Not in the waters, but of it, were the magnificent tribes of marine fowl
+that, undiminished by the feeble weapons and few numbers of the Indians,
+had peopled for centuries the waters of the New World. The Chesapeake
+and its tributaries furnished each autumn vast feeding-grounds of wild
+celery and other aquatic plants to millions of those creatures. The
+firearms of Captain John Smith and his two companions were poor things
+compared with the fowling-pieces of to-day, but with their three shots
+they killed a hundred and forty-eight ducks at one firing. The splendid
+wild swan wheeled and trumpeted in the clear autumn air; the wild geese
+flew there in their beautiful V-shaped flight; duck in all the varieties
+known to modern sportsmen--canvas-back, mallard, widgeon, redhead,
+oxeye, dottrel--rested on the Chesapeake waters in vast flocks a mile
+wide and seven miles long. Governor Berkeley named also brant, shell
+drake, teal, and blewings. The sound of their wings was said to be "like
+a great storm coming over the water." For centuries these ducks have
+been killed by the white man, and still they return each autumn to their
+old feeding-places.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+INDIAN CORN
+
+
+A great field of tall Indian corn waving its stately and luxuriant green
+blades, its graceful spindles, and glossy silk under the hot August sun,
+should be not only a beautiful sight to every American, but a suggestive
+one; one to set us thinking of all that Indian corn means to us in our
+history. It was a native of American soil at the settlement of this
+country, and under full and thoroughly intelligent cultivation by the
+Indians, who were also native sons of the New World. Its abundance,
+adaptability, and nourishing qualities not only saved the colonists'
+lives, but altered many of their methods of living, especially their
+manner of cooking and their tastes in food.
+
+One of the first things that every settler in a new land has to learn is
+that he must find food in that land; that he cannot trust long to any
+supplies of food which he has brought with him, or to any fresh supplies
+which he has ordered to be sent after him. He must turn at once to
+hunting, fishing, planting, to furnish him with food grown and found in
+the very place where he is.
+
+This was quickly learned by the colonists in America, except in
+Virginia, where they had sad starving-times before all were convinced
+that corn was a better crop for settlers than silk or any of the many
+hoped-for productions which might be valuable in one sense but which
+could not be eaten. Powhatan, the father of the Indian princess
+Pocahontas, was one of the first to "send some of his People that they
+may teach the English how to sow the Grain of his Country." Captain John
+Smith, ever quick to learn of every one and ever practical, got two
+Indians, in the year 1608, to show him how to break up and plant forty
+acres of corn, which yielded him a good crop. A succeeding governor of
+Virginia, Sir Thomas Dale, equally practical, intelligent, and
+determined, assigned small farms to each colonist, and encouraged and
+enforced the growing of corn. Soon many thousand bushels were raised.
+There was a terrible Indian massacre in 1622, for the careless
+colonists, in order to be free to give their time to the raising of that
+new and exceedingly alluring and high-priced crop, tobacco, had given
+the Indians firearms to go hunting game for them; and the lesson of easy
+killing with powder and shot, when once learned, was turned with havoc
+upon the white men. The following year comparatively little corn was
+planted, as the luxuriant foliage made a perfect ambush for the close
+approach of the savages to the settlements. There was, of course,
+scarcity and famine as the result; and a bushel of corn-meal became
+worth twenty to thirty shillings, which sum had a value equal to twenty
+to thirty dollars to-day. The planters were each compelled by the
+magistrates the following year to raise an ample amount of corn to
+supply all the families; and to save a certain amount for seed as well.
+There has been no lack of corn since that time in Virginia.
+
+The French colonists in Louisiana, perhaps because they were accustomed
+to more dainty food than the English, fiercely hated corn, as have the
+Irish in our own day. A band of French women settlers fairly raised a
+"petticoat rebellion" in revolt against its daily use. A despatch of the
+governor of Louisiana says of these rebels:--
+
+     "The men in the colony begin through habit to use corn as an
+     article of food; but the women, who are mostly Parisians, have for
+     this food a dogged aversion, which has not been subdued. They
+     inveigh bitterly against His Grace, the Bishop of Quebec, who, they
+     say, has enticed them away from home under pretext of sending them
+     to enjoy the milk and honey of the land of promise."
+
+This hatred of corn was shared by other races. An old writer says:--
+
+     "Peter Martyr could magnifie the Spaniards, of whom he reports they
+     led a miserable life for three days together, with parched grain of
+     maize onlie"--
+
+which, when compared with the diet of New England settlers for weeks at
+a time, seems such a bagatelle as to be scarce worth the mention of
+Peter Martyr. By tradition, still commemorated at Forefathers' Dinners,
+the ration of Indian corn supplied to each person in the colony in time
+of famine was but five kernels.
+
+The stores brought over by the Pilgrims were poor and inadequate enough;
+the beef and pork were tainted, the fish rotten, the butter and cheese
+corrupted. European wheat and seeds did not mature well. Soon, as
+Bradford says in his now famous _Log-Book_, in his picturesque and
+forcible English, "the grim and grizzled face of starvation stared" at
+them. The readiest supply to replenish the scanty larder was fish, but
+the English made surprisingly bungling work over fishing, and soon the
+most unfailing and valuable supply was the native Indian corn, or
+"Guinny wheat," or "Turkie wheat," as it was called by the colonists.
+
+Famine and pestilence had left eastern Massachusetts comparatively bare
+of inhabitants at the time of the settlement of Plymouth; and the vacant
+cornfields of the dead Indian cultivators were taken and planted by the
+weak and emaciated Plymouth men, who never could have cleared new
+fields. From the teeming sea, in the April run of fish, was found the
+needed fertilizer. Says Governor Bradford:--
+
+     "In April of the first year they began to plant their corne, in
+     which service Squanto stood them in great stead, showing them both
+     ye manner how to set it, and after, how to dress and tend it."
+
+From this planting sprang not only the most useful food, but the first
+and most pregnant industry of the colonists.
+
+The first fields and crops were communal, and the result was disastrous.
+The third year, at the sight of the paralyzed settlement, Governor
+Bradford wisely decided, as did Governor Dale of Virginia, that "they
+should set corne every man for his owne particuler, furnishing a portion
+for public officers, fishermen, etc., who could not work, and in that
+regard trust to themselves." Thus personal energy succeeded to communal
+inertia; Bradford wrote that women and children cheerfully worked in the
+fields to raise corn which should be their very own.
+
+A field of corn on the coast of Massachusetts or Narragansett or by the
+rivers of Virginia, growing long before any white man had ever been seen
+on these shores, was precisely like the same field planted three hundred
+years later by our American farmers. There was the same planting in
+hills, the same number of stalks in the hill, with pumpkin-vines running
+among the hills, and beans climbing the stalks. The hills of the Indians
+were a trifle nearer together than those of our own day are usually set,
+for the native soil was more fertile.
+
+The Indians taught the colonists much more than the planting and raising
+of corn; they showed also how to grind the corn and cook it in many
+palatable ways. The various foods which we use to-day made from Indian
+corn are all cooked just as the Indians cooked them at the time of the
+settlement of the country; and they are still called with Indian names,
+such as hominy, pone, suppawn, samp, succotash.
+
+The Indian method of preparing maize or corn was to steep or parboil it
+in hot water for twelve hours, then to pound the grain in a mortar or a
+hollowed stone in the field, till it was a coarse meal. It was then
+sifted in a rather closely woven basket, and the large grains which did
+not pass through the sieve were again pounded and sifted.
+
+Samp was often pounded in olden times in a primitive and picturesque
+Indian mortar made of a hollowed block of wood or a stump of a tree,
+which had been cut off about three feet from the ground. The pestle was
+a heavy block of wood shaped like the inside of the mortar, and fitted
+with a handle attached to one side. This block was fastened to the top
+of a young and slender tree, a growing sapling, which was bent over and
+thus gave a sort of spring which pulled the pestle up after being
+pounded down on the corn. This was called a sweep and mortar mill.
+
+They could be heard at a long distance. Two New Hampshire pioneers made
+clearings about a quarter of a mile apart and built houses. There was an
+impenetrable gully and thick woods between the cabins; and the blazed
+path was a long distance around, so the wives of the settlers seldom saw
+each other or any other woman. It was a source of great comfort and
+companionship to them both that they could signal to each other every
+day by pounding on their mortars. And they had an ingenious system of
+communication which one spring morning summoned one to the home of the
+other, where she arrived in time to be the first to welcome fine twin
+babies.
+
+After these simple stump and sapling mortars were abandoned elsewhere
+they were used on Long Island, and it was jestingly told that sailors
+in a fog could always know on what shore they were, when they could hear
+the pounding of the samp-mortars on Long Island.
+
+Rude hand-mills next were used, which were called quernes, or quarnes.
+Some are still in existence and known as samp-mills. Windmills followed,
+of which the Indians were much afraid, dreading "their long arms and
+great teeth biting the corn in pieces"; and thinking some evil spirit
+turned the arms. As soon as maize was plentiful, English mills for
+grinding meal were started in many towns. There was a windmill at
+Watertown, Massachusetts, in 1631. In 1633 the first water-mill, at
+Dorchester, was built, and in Ipswich a grist-mill was built in 1635.
+The mill built by Governor John Winthrop in New London is still
+standing.
+
+The first windmill erected in America was one built and set up by
+Governor Yeardley in Virginia in 1621. By 1649 there were five
+water-mills, four windmills, and a great number of horse and hand mills
+in Virginia. Millers had one-sixth of the meal they ground for toll.
+
+Suppawn was another favorite of the settlers, and was an Indian dish
+made from Indian corn; it was a thick corn-meal and milk porridge. It
+was soon seen on every Dutch table, for the Dutch were very fond of all
+foods made from all kinds of grain; and it is spoken of by all
+travellers in early New York, and in the Southern colonies.
+
+Samp and samp porridge were soon abundant dishes. Samp is Indian corn
+pounded to a coarsely ground powder. Roger Williams wrote of it:--
+
+     "Nawsamp is a kind of meal pottage unparched. From this the English
+     call their samp, which is the Indian corn beaten and boiled and
+     eaten hot or cold with milk and butter, and is a diet exceedingly
+     wholesome for English bodies."
+
+The Swedish scientist, Professor Kalm, told that the Indians gave him
+"fresh maize-bread, baked in an oblong shape, mixed with dried
+huckleberries, which lay as close in it as raisins in a plum pudding."
+
+Roger Williams said that sukquttahhash was "corn seethed like beans."
+Our word "succotash" we now apply to corn cooked with beans. Pones were
+the red men's appones.
+
+The love of the Indians for "roasting ears" was quickly shared by the
+white man. In Virginia a series of plantings of corn were made from the
+first of April to the last of June, to afford a three months' succession
+of roasting ears.
+
+The traveller, Strachey, writing of the Indians in 1618, said: "They
+lap their corn in rowles within the leaves of the come and so boyle yt
+for a dayntie." This method of cooking we have also retained to the
+present day.
+
+It seemed to me very curious to read in Governor Winthrop's journal,
+written in Boston about 1630, that when corn was "parched," as he called
+it, it turned inside out and was "white and floury within"; and to think
+that then little English children were at that time learning what
+pop-corn was, and how it looked when it was parched, or popped.
+
+Hasty pudding had been made in England of wheat-flour or oatmeal and
+milk, and the name was given to boiled puddings of corn-meal and water.
+It was not a very suitable name, for corn-meal should never be cooked
+hastily, but requires long boiling or baking. The hard Indian pudding
+slightly sweetened and boiled in a bag was everywhere made. It was told
+that many New England families had three hundred and sixty-five such
+puddings in a year.
+
+The virtues of "jonny-cake" have been loudly sung in the interesting
+pages of _Shepherd Tom_. The way the corn should be carried to the mill,
+the manner in which it should be ground, the way in which the stones
+should revolve, and the kind of stones, receive minute description, as
+does the mixing and the baking, to the latter of which the middle board
+of red oak from the head of a flour-barrel is indispensable as a
+bakeboard, while the fire to bake with must be of walnut logs. Hasty
+pudding, corn dumplings, and corn-meal porridge, so eminently good that
+it was ever mentioned with respect in the plural, as "them porridge,"
+all are described with the exuberant joyousness of a happy, healthful
+old age in remembrance of a happy, high-spirited, and healthful youth.
+
+The harvesting of the corn afforded one of the few scenes of gayety in
+the lives of the colonists. A diary of one Ames, of Dedham,
+Massachusetts, in the year 1767, thus describes a corn-husking, and most
+ungallantly says naught of the red ear and attendant osculation:--
+
+     "Made a husking Entertainm't. Possibly this leafe may last a
+     Century and fall into the hands of some inquisitive Person for
+     whose Entertainm't I will inform him that now there is a Custom
+     amongst us of making an Entertainm't at husking of Indian Corn
+     whereto all the neighboring Swains are invited and after the Corn
+     is finished they like the Hottentots give three Cheers or huzza's
+     but cannot carry in the husks without a Rhum bottle; they feign
+     great Exertion but do nothing till Rhum enlivens them, when all is
+     done in a trice, then after a hearty Meal about 10 at Night they go
+     to their pastimes."
+
+There was one way of eating corn which was spoken of by all the early
+writers and travellers which we should not be very well satisfied with
+now, but it shows us how useful and necessary corn was at that time, and
+how much all depended on it. This preparation of corn was called nocake
+or nookick. An old writer named Wood thus defined it:--
+
+     "It is Indian corn parched in the hot ashes, the ashes being sifted
+     from it; it is afterwards beaten to powder and put into a long
+     leatherne bag trussed at the Indian's backe like a knapsacke, out
+     of which they take three spoonsful a day."
+
+It was held to be the most nourishing food known, and in the smallest
+and most condensed form. Both Indians and white men usually carried it
+in a pouch when they went on long journeys, and mixed it with snow in
+the winter and water in summer. Gookin says it was sweet, toothsome, and
+hearty. With only this nourishment the Indians could carry loads "fitter
+for elephants than men." Roger Williams says a spoonful of this meal and
+water made him many a good meal. When we read this we are not surprised
+that the Pilgrims could keep alive on what is said was at one time of
+famine their food for a day,--five kernels of corn apiece. The apostle
+Eliot, in his Indian Bible, always used the word nookick for the English
+words flour or meal.
+
+We ought to think of the value of food in those days; and we may be sure
+the governor and his council thought corn of value when they took it for
+taxes and made it a legal currency just like gold and silver, and
+forbade any one to feed it to pigs. If you happen to see the price of
+corn during those years down to Revolutionary times, you will, perhaps,
+be surprised to see how much the price varied. From ten shillings a
+bushel in 1631, to two shillings in 1672, to twenty in 1747, to two in
+1751, and one hundred shillings at the opening of the Revolution. In
+these prices of corn, as in the price of all other articles at this
+time, the difference was in the money, which had a constantly changing
+value, not in the article itself or its usefulness. The corn had a
+steady value, it always furnished just so much food; and really was a
+standard itself rather than measured and valued by the poor and shifting
+money.
+
+There are many other interesting facts connected with the early culture
+of corn: of the finding hidden in caves or "caches" in the ground the
+Indian's corn which he had stored for seed; of the sacred "corn-dances"
+of the Indians; that the first patent granted in England to an American
+was to a Philadelphia woman for a mill to grind a kind of hominy; of
+the great profit to the colonists in corn-raising, for the careless and
+greedy Indians always ate up all their corn as soon as possible, then
+had to go out and trap beavers in the woods to sell the skins to the
+colonists for corn to keep them from starving. One colonist planted
+about eight bushels of seed-corn. He raised from this eight hundred and
+sixty-four bushels of corn, which he sold to the Indians for beaver
+skins which gave him a profit of £327.
+
+Many games were played with the aid of kernels of corn: fox and geese,
+checkers, "hull gull, how many," and games in which the corn served as
+counters.
+
+The ears of corn were often piled into the attic until the floor was a
+foot deep with them. I once entered an ell bedroom in a Massachusetts
+farmhouse where the walls, rafters, and four-post bedstead were hung
+solid with ears of yellow corn, which truly "made a sunshine in a shady
+place."
+
+Some of the preparation of corn fell upon the boys; it was their regular
+work all winter in the evening firelight to shell corn from the ears by
+scraping them on the iron edge of the wooden shovel or on the fire-peel.
+My father told me that even in his childhood in the first quarter of
+this century many families of moderate means fastened the long-handled
+frying-pan across a tub and drew the corn ears across the sharp edge of
+the handle of the pan. I note in Peter Parley's reminiscences of his
+childhood a similar use of a frying-pan handle in his home. Other
+farmers set the edge of a knife blade in a piece of wood and scraped on
+the back of the blade. In some households the corn was pounded into
+hominy in wooden mortars. An old corn-sheller used in western
+Massachusetts is here shown.
+
+When the corn was shelled, the cobs were not carelessly discarded or
+disregarded. They were stored often in a lean-to or loft in the kitchen
+ell; from thence they were brought down in skepes or boxes about a
+bushel at a time; and after being used by the children as playthings to
+build "cob-houses," were employed as light wood for the fire. They had a
+special use in many households for smoking hams; and their smoke was
+deemed to impart a specially delightful flavor to hams and bacon.
+
+One special use of corn should be noted. By order of the government of
+Massachusetts Bay in 1623, it was used as ballots in public voting. At
+annual elections of the governors' assistants in each town, a kernel of
+corn was deposited to signify a favorable vote upon the nominee, while a
+bean signified a negative vote; "and if any free-man shall put in more
+than one Indian corn or bean he shall forfeit for every such offence Ten
+Pounds."
+
+The choice of a national flower or plant is much talked about to-day.
+Aside from the beauty of maize when growing and its wonderful
+adaptability in every part for decoration, would not the noble and
+useful part played by Indian corn in our early history entitle it to be
+our first choice?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+MEAT AND DRINK
+
+
+The food brought in ships from Europe to the colonists was naturally
+limited by the imperfect methods of transportation which then existed.
+Nothing like refrigerators were known; no tinned foods were even thought
+of; ways of packing were very crude and careless; so the kinds of
+provisions which would stand the long voyage on a slow sailing-vessel
+were very few. The settlers turned at once, as all settlers in a new
+land should, to the food-supplies found in the new home; of these the
+three most important ones were corn, fish, and game. I have told of
+their plenty, their value, and their use. There were many other
+bountiful and good foods, among them pumpkins or pompions, as they were
+at first called.
+
+The pumpkin has sturdily kept its own place on the New England farm,
+varying in popularity and use, but always of value as easy of growth,
+easy of cooking, and easy to keep in a dried form. Yet the colonists did
+not welcome the pumpkin with eagerness, even in times of great want.
+They were justly rebuked for their indifference and dislike by Johnson
+in his _Wonder-working Providence_, who called the pumpkin "a fruit
+which the Lord fed his people with till corn and cattle increased"; and
+another pumpkin-lover referred to "the times wherein old Pompion was a
+saint." One colonial poet gives the golden vegetable this tribute:--
+
+    "We have pumpkins at morning and pumpkins at noon,
+    If it were not for pumpkins we should be undone."
+
+I am very sure were I living on dried corn and scant shell-fish, as the
+Pilgrims were forced to do, I should have turned with delight to
+"pompion-sause" as a change of diet. Stewed pumpkins and pumpkin bread
+were coarse ways of using the fruit for food. Pumpkin bread--made of
+half Indian meal--was not very pleasing in appearance. A traveller in
+1704 called it an "awkward food." It is eaten in Connecticut to this
+day. The Indians dried pumpkins and strung them for winter use, and the
+colonists followed the Indian custom.
+
+In Virginia pumpkins were equally plentiful and useful. Ralph Hamor, in
+his _True Discourse_, says they grew in such abundance that a hundred
+were often observed to spring from one seed. The Virginia Indians boiled
+beans, peas, corn, and pumpkins together, and the colonists liked the
+dish. In the trying times at "James-Citty," the plentiful pumpkins
+played a great part in providing food-supplies for the starving
+Virginians.
+
+Squashes were also native vegetables. The name is Indian. To show the
+wonderful and varied way in which the English spelt Indian names let me
+tell you that Roger Williams called them askutasquashes; the Puritan
+minister Higginson, squantersquashes; the traveller Josselyn,
+squontorsquashes, and the historian Wood, isquoukersquashes.
+
+Potatoes were known to New Englanders, but were rare and when referred
+to were probably sweet potatoes. It was a long time before they were
+much liked. A farmer at Hadley, Massachusetts, had what he thought a
+very large crop in 1763--it was eight bushels. It was believed by many
+persons that if a man ate them every day, he could not live seven years.
+In the spring all that were left on hand were carefully burned, for many
+believed that if cattle or horses ate these potatoes they would die.
+They were first called, when carried to England, Virginia potatoes; then
+they became much liked and grown in Ireland; then the Irish settlers in
+New Hampshire brought them back to this continent, and now they are
+called, very senselessly, Irish potatoes. Many persons fancied the balls
+were what should be eaten, and said they "did not much desire them." A
+fashionable way of cooking them was with butter, sugar, and grape-juice;
+this was mixed with dates, lemons, and mace; seasoned with cinnamon,
+nutmeg, and pepper; then covered with a frosting of sugar--and you had
+to hunt well to find the potato among all these other things.
+
+In the Carolinas the change in English diet was effected by the sweet
+potato. This root was cooked in various ways: it was roasted in the
+ashes, boiled, made into puddings, used as a substitute for bread, made
+into pancakes which a foreigner said tasted as though composed of sweet
+almonds; and in every way it was liked and was so plentiful that even
+the slaves fed upon it.
+
+Beans were abundant, and were baked by the Indians in earthen pots just
+as we bake them to-day. The settlers planted peas, parsnips, turnips,
+and carrots, which grew and thrived. Huckleberries, blackberries,
+strawberries, and grapes grew wild. Apple-trees were planted at once,
+and grew well in New England and the Middle states. Twenty years after
+the Roman Catholic settlement of Maryland the fruitful orchards were
+conspicuously flourishing.
+
+Johnson, writing in 1634, said that all then in New England could have
+apple, pear, and quince tarts instead of pumpkin-pies. They made
+apple-slump, apple-mose, apple-crowdy, apple-tarts, mess apple-pies, and
+puff apple-pies. The Swedish parson, Dr. Acrelius, writing home in 1758
+an account of the settlement of Delaware, said:--
+
+     "Apple-pie is used through the whole year, and when fresh apples
+     are no longer to be had, dried ones are used. It is the evening
+     meal of children. House-pie, in country places, is made of apples
+     neither peeled nor freed from their cores, and its crust is not
+     broken if a wagon wheel goes over it."
+
+The making of a portion of the autumn's crop of apples into dried
+apples, apple-sauce, and apple-butter for winter was preceded in many
+country homes by an apple-paring. The cheerful kitchen of a farmhouse
+was set with an array of empty pans, tubs, and baskets; of sharp knives
+and heaped-up barrels of apples. A circle of laughing faces completed
+the scene, and the barrels of apples were quickly emptied by the many
+skilful hands. The apples intended for drying were strung on linen
+thread and hung on the kitchen and attic rafters. The following day the
+stout crane in the open fireplace was hung with brass kettles which were
+filled with the pared apples, sweet and sour in proper proportions, the
+sour at the bottom since they required more time to cook. If quinces
+could be had, they were added to give flavor, and molasses, or
+boiled-down pungent "apple-molasses," was added for sweetening. As there
+was danger that the sauce would burn over the roaring logs, many
+housewives placed clean straw at the bottom of the kettle to keep the
+apples from the fiercest heat. Days were spent in preparing the winter's
+stock of apple-sauce, but when done and placed in barrels in the cellar,
+it was always ready for use, and when slightly frozen was a keen relish.
+Apple-butter was made of the pared apples boiled down with cider.
+
+Wheat did not at first ripen well, so white bread was for a time rarely
+eaten. Rye grew better, so bread made of "rye-an'-injun," which was half
+rye-meal, half corn-meal, was used instead. Bake-shops were so many in
+number in all the towns that it is evident that housewives in towns and
+villages did not make bread in every home as to-day, but bought it at
+the baker's.
+
+At the time when America was settled, no European peoples drank water as
+we do to-day, for a constant beverage. The English drank ale, the Dutch
+beer, the French and Spanish light wines, for every-day use. Hence it
+seemed to the colonists a great trial and even a very dangerous
+experiment to drink water in the New World. They were forced to do it,
+however, in many cases; and to their surprise found that it agreed with
+them very well, and that their health improved. Governor Winthrop of
+Massachusetts, who was a most sensible and thoughtful man, soon had
+water used as a constant drink by all in his household.
+
+As cows increased in number and were cared for, milk of course was added
+to the every-day fare. Rev. Mr. Higginson wrote in 1630 that milk cost
+in Salem but a penny a quart; while another minister, John Cotton, said
+that milk and ministers were the only things cheap in New England. At
+that time milk cost but a penny and a quarter a quart in old England.
+
+Milk became a very important part of the food of families in the
+eighteenth century. In 1728 a discussion took place in the Boston
+newspapers as to the expense of keeping a family "of middling figure."
+These writers all named only bread and milk for breakfast and supper.
+Ten years later a minister, calculating the expenses of his family, set
+down bread and milk for both breakfast and supper. Milk and hasty
+pudding, milk and stewed pumpkin, milk and baked apples, milk and
+berries, were variations. In winter, when milk was scarce, sweetened
+cider diluted with water was used instead. Sometimes bread was soaked
+with this mixture. It is said that children were usually very fond of
+it.
+
+As comparatively few New England families in the seventeenth century
+owned churns, I cannot think that many made butter; of course families
+of wealth ate it, but it was not common as to-day. In the inventories of
+the property of the early settlers of Maine there is but one churn
+named. Butter was worth from threepence to sixpence a pound. As cattle
+increased the duties of the dairy grew, and soon were never-ceasing and
+ever-tiring. The care of cream and making of butter was in the
+eighteenth century the duty of every good wife and dame in the country,
+and usually in the town.
+
+Though the shape and ease of action of churns varied, still
+butter-making itself varied little from the same work to-day. Several
+old-time churns are shown, the revolving one being the most unusual.
+
+Cheese was plentiful and good in all the Northern colonies. It was also
+an unending care from the time the milk was set over the fire to warm
+and then to curdle; through the breaking of the curds in the
+cheese-basket; through shaping into cheeses and pressing in the
+cheese-press, placing them on the cheese-ladders, and constantly turning
+and rubbing them. An old cheese-press, cheese-ladder, and cheese-basket
+from Deerfield Memorial Hall are shown in the illustration.
+
+In all households, even in those of great wealth and many servants,
+assistance was given in all housewifery by the daughters of the
+household. In the South it was chiefly by superintendence and teaching
+through actual exposition the negro slaves; in the North it was by the
+careful performance of the work.
+
+The manuscript cooking receipt-book of many an ancient dame shows the
+great care they took in family cooking. English methods of cooking at
+the time of the settlement of this country were very complicated and
+very laborious.
+
+It was a day of hashes, ragouts, soups, hotch-pots, etc. There were no
+great joints served until the time of Charles the First. In almost every
+sixteenth-century receipt for cooking meat, appear some such directions
+as these: "Y-mynce it, smyte them on gobbets, hew them on gobbets, chop
+on gobbets, hew small, dyce them, skern them to dyce, kerf it to dyce,
+grind all to dust, smyte on peces, parcel-hem; hew small on morselyen,
+hack them small, cut them on culpons." Great amounts of spices were
+used, even perfumes; and as there was no preservation of meat by ice,
+perhaps the spices and perfumes were necessary.
+
+Of course the colonists were forced to adopt simpler ways of cooking,
+but as towns and commerce increased there were many kitchen duties which
+made much tedious work. Many pickles, spiced fruits, preserves, candied
+fruits and flowers, and marmalades were made.
+
+Preserving was a very different art from canning fruit to-day. There
+were no hermetically sealed jars, no chemical methods, no quick work
+about it. Vast jars were filled with preserves so rich that there was no
+need of keeping the air from them; they could be opened, that is, the
+paper cover taken off, and used as desired; there was no fear of
+fermentation, souring, or moulding.
+
+The housewives pickled samphire, fennel, purple cabbage,
+nasturtium-buds, green walnuts, lemons, radish-pods, barberries,
+elder-buds, parsley, mushrooms, asparagus, and many kinds of fish and
+fruit. They candied fruits and nuts, made many marmalades and
+quiddonies, and a vast number of fruit wines and cordials. Even their
+cakes, pies, and puddings were most complicated, and humble households
+were lavish in the various kinds they manufactured and ate.
+
+They collared and potted many kinds of fish and game, and they salted
+and soused. Salted meat was eaten, and very little fresh meat; for there
+were no means of keeping meat after it was killed. Every well-to-do
+family had a "powdering-tub," in which meat was "powdered," that is,
+salted and pickled. Many families had a smoke-house, in which beef, ham,
+and bacon were smoked.
+
+Perhaps the busiest month of the year was November,--called "killing
+time." When the chosen day arrived, oxen, cows, and swine which had been
+fattened for the winter's stock were slaughtered early in the morning,
+that the meat might be hard and cold before being put in the pickle.
+Sausages, rolliches, and head-cheese were made, lard tried out, and
+tallow saved.
+
+A curious and quaint domestic implement or utensil found hanging on the
+walls of some kitchens was what was known as a sausage-gun. One here is
+shown with the piston detached, and also ready for use. The sausage-meat
+was forced out through the nozzle into the sausage-cases. A simpler form
+of sausage-stuffer has also been seen, much like a tube-and-piston
+garden-syringe; though I must add a suspicion which has always lingered
+in my mind that the latter utensil was really a syringe-gun, such as
+once was used to disable humming-birds by squirting water upon them.
+
+Sausage-meat was thus prepared in New York farmhouses. The meat was cut
+coarsely into half-inch pieces and thrown into wooden boxes about three
+feet long and ten inches deep. Then its first chopping was by men using
+spades which had been ground to a sharp edge.
+
+There were many families that found all their supply of sweetening in
+maple sugar and honey; but housewives of dignity and elegance desired to
+have some supply of sugar, certainly to offer visitors for their dish of
+tea. This sugar was always loaf-sugar, and truly loaf-sugar; for it was
+purchased ever in great loaves or cones which averaged in weight about
+nine to ten pounds apiece. One cone would last thrifty folk for a year.
+This pure clear sugar-cone always came wrapped in a deep blue-purple
+paper, of such unusual and beautiful tint and so color-laden that in
+country homes it was carefully saved and soaked, to supply a dye for a
+small amount of the finest wool, which was used when spun and dyed for
+some specially choice purpose. The cutting of this cone of sugar into
+lumps of equal size and regular shape was distinctly the work of the
+mistress and daughters of the house. It was too exact and too dainty a
+piece of work to be intrusted to clumsy or wasteful servants. Various
+simply shaped sugar-shears or sugar-cutters were used. An ordinary form
+is shown in the illustration. I well recall the only family in which I
+ever saw this solemn function of sugar-cutting take place--it was about
+thirty years ago. An old Boston East India merchant, one of the last to
+cling to a residence in what is known now as the "Burnt District,"
+always desired (and his desire was law) to use these loaves of sugar in
+his household. I don't know where he got them so long after every one
+else had apparently ceased buying them--he may have specially imported
+them; at any rate he had them, and to the end of her life it was the
+morning duty of his wife "to cut the sugar." I can see my old cousin
+still in what she termed her breakfast room, dressed very handsomely,
+standing before a bare mahogany table on which a maid placed the
+considerable array of a silver salver without legs, which was set on a
+folded cloth and held the sugar-loaf and the sugar-cutter; and another
+salver with legs that bore various bowls and one beautiful silver
+sugar-box which was kept filled high for her husband's toddy. It seemed
+an interminably tedious work to me and a senseless one, as I chafingly
+waited for the delightful morning drive in delightful Boston. It was in
+this household that I encountered the sweetest thing of my whole life; I
+have written elsewhere its praises in full; a barrel, a small one, to be
+sure, but still a whole teak-wood barrel full of long strings of
+glistening rock-candy. I had my fill of it at will, though it was not
+kept as a sweetmeat, but was a kitchen store having a special use in
+the manufacture of rich brandy sauces for plum puddings, and of a kind
+of marchepane ornamentation for desserts.
+
+All the spices used in the household were also ground at home, in
+spice-mortars and spice-mills. These were of various sizes, including
+the pepper-mills, which were set on the table at meal-times, and the
+tiny ornamental graters which were carried in the pocket.
+
+The entire food of a household was the possible production of a farm. In
+a paper published in the American Museum in 1787 an old farmer says:--
+
+     "At this time my farm gave me and my whole family a good living on
+     the produce of it, and left me one year with another one hundred
+     and fifty silver dollars, for I never spent more than ten dollars a
+     year which was for salt, nails, and the like. Nothing to eat, drink
+     or wear was bought, as my farm provided all."
+
+The farm food was not varied, it is true, as to-day; for articles of
+luxury came by importation. The products of tropical countries, such as
+sugar, molasses, tea, coffee, spices, found poor substitutes in home
+food-products. Dried pumpkin was a poor sweetening instead of molasses;
+maple sugar and honey were not esteemed as was sugar; tea was
+ill-replaced by raspberry leaves, loosestrife, hardhack, goldenrod,
+dittany, blackberry leaves, yeopon, sage, and a score of other herbs;
+coffee was better than parched rye and chestnuts; spices could not be
+compensated for or remotely imitated by any substitutes.
+
+So though there was ample quantity of food, the quality, save in the
+town, was not such as English housewives had been accustomed to; there
+were many deprivations in their kitchens which tried them sorely. The
+better cooks they were, the more trying were the limitations. Every
+woman with a love for her fellow-woman must feel a thrill of keen
+sympathy for the goodwife of Newport, New Hampshire, who had to make her
+Thanksgiving mince-pies with a filling of bear's meat and dried
+pumpkins, sweetened with maple sugar, and her crust of corn-meal. Her
+husband loyally recorded that they were the best mince-pies he ever ate.
+
+As years passed on and great wealth came to individuals, the tables of
+the opulent, especially in the Middle colonies, rivalled the luxury of
+English and French houses of wealth. It is surprising to read in Dr.
+Cutler's diary that when he dined with Colonel Duer in New York in 1787,
+there were fifteen kinds of wine served besides cider, beer, and porter.
+
+John Adams probably lived as well as any New Englander of similar
+position and means. A Sunday dinner at his house was thus described by
+a visitor: the first course was a pudding of Indian meal, molasses, and
+butter; then came a course of veal and bacon, neck of mutton, and
+vegetables. When the New Englander went to Philadelphia, his eyes opened
+wide at the luxury and extravagance of fare. He has given in his diary
+some accounts of the lavishness of the Philadelphia larder. Such entries
+as these are found:--
+
+     (Of the home of Miers Fisher, a young Quaker lawyer.) "This plain
+     Friend, with his plain but pretty wife with her Thees and Thous,
+     had provided us a costly entertainment; ducks, hams, chickens,
+     beef, pig, tarts, creams, custards, jellies, fools, trifles,
+     floating islands, beer, porter, punch, wine and a long, etc."
+
+     (At the home of Chief Justice Chew.) "About four o'clock we were
+     called to dinner. Turtle and every other thing, flummery, jellies,
+     sweetmeats of twenty sorts, trifles, whipped sillabubs, floating
+     islands, fools, etc., with a dessert of fruits, raisins, almonds,
+     pears, peaches."
+
+     "A most sinful feast again! everything which could delight the eye
+     or allure the taste; curds and creams, jellies, sweetmeats of
+     various sorts, twenty kinds of tarts, fools, trifles, floating
+     islands, whipped sillabubs, etc. Parmesan cheese, punch, wine,
+     porter, beer."
+
+By which lists may plainly be seen that our second President had
+somewhat of a sweet tooth.
+
+The Dutch were great beer-drinkers and quickly established breweries at
+Albany and New York. But before the century had ended New Englanders had
+abandoned the constant drinking of ale and beer for cider. Cider was
+very cheap; but a few shillings a barrel. It was supplied in large
+amounts to students at college, and even very little children drank it.
+President John Adams was an early and earnest wisher for temperance
+reform; but to the end of his life he drank a large tankard of hard
+cider every morning when he first got up. It was free in every farmhouse
+to all travellers and tramps.
+
+A cider-mill was usually built on a hillside so the building could be
+one story high in front and two in the back. Thus carts could easily
+unload the apples on the upper level and take away the barrels of cider
+on the lower. Standing below on the lower floor you could see two
+upright wooden cylinders, set a little way apart, with knobs, or nuts as
+they were called, on one cylinder which fitted loosely into holes on the
+other. The cylinders worked in opposite directions and drew in and
+crushed the apples poured down between them. The nuts and holes
+frequently clogged with the pomace. Then the mill was stopped and a boy
+scraped out with a stick or hook the crushed apples. A horse walking in
+a small circle moved a lever which turned the motor wheel. It was slow
+work; it took three hours to grind a cart-load of apples; but the
+machinery was efficient and simple. The pomace fell into a large shallow
+vat or tank, and if it could lie in the vat overnight it was a benefit.
+Then the pomace was put in a press. This was simple in construction. At
+the bottom was a platform grooved in channels; a sheaf of clean straw
+was spread on the platform, and with wooden shovels the pomace was
+spread thick over it. Then a layer of straw was laid at right angles
+with the first, and more pomace, and so on till the form was about three
+feet high; the top board was put on as a cover; the screw turned and
+blocks pressed down, usually with a long wooden hand-lever, very slowly
+at first, then harder, until the mass was solid and every drop of juice
+had trickled into the channels of the platform and thence to the pan
+below. Within the last two or three years I have seen those cider-mills
+at work in the country back of old Plymouth and in Narragansett, sending
+afar their sourly fruity odors. And though apple orchards are running
+out, and few new trees are planted, and the apple crop in those
+districts is growing smaller and smaller, yet is the sweet cider of
+country cider-mills as free and plentiful a gift to any passer-by as the
+water from the well or the air we breathe. Perry was made from pears,
+as cider is from apples, and peachy from peaches. Metheglin and mead,
+drinks of the old Druids in England, were made from honey, yeast, and
+water, and were popular everywhere. In Virginia whole plantations of the
+honey-locust furnished locust beans for making metheglin. From
+persimmons, elderberries, juniper berries, pumpkins, corn-stalks,
+hickory nuts, sassafras bark, birch bark, and many other leaves, roots,
+and barks, various light drinks were made. An old song boasted:--
+
+    "Oh, we can make liquor to sweeten our lips
+    Of pumpkins, of parsnips, of walnut-tree chips."
+
+Many other stronger and more intoxicating liquors were made in large
+quantities, among them enormous amounts of rum, which was called often
+"kill-devil." The making of rum aided and almost supported the
+slave-trade in this country. The poor negroes were bought on the coast
+of Africa by New England sea-captains and merchants and paid for with
+barrels of New England rum. These slaves were then carried on
+slave-ships to the West Indies, and sold at a large profit to planters
+and slave-dealers for a cargo of molasses. This was brought to New
+England, distilled into rum, and sent off to Africa. Thus the circle of
+molasses, rum, and slaves was completed. Many slaves were also landed
+in New England, but there was no crop there that needed negroes to raise
+it. So slavery never was as common in New England as in the South, where
+the tropical tobacco and rice fields needed negro labor. But New
+England's share in promoting negro slavery in America was just as great
+as was Virginia's.
+
+Besides all the rum that was sent to Africa, much was drunk by Americans
+at home. At weddings, funerals, christenings, at all public meetings and
+private feasts, New England rum was ever present. In nothing is more
+contrast shown between our present day and colonial times than in the
+habits of liquor-drinking. We cannot be grateful enough for the
+temperance reform, which began at the early part of this century, and
+was so sadly needed.
+
+For many years the colonists had no tea, chocolate, or coffee to drink;
+for those were not in use in England when America was settled. In 1690
+two dealers were licensed to sell tea "in publique" in Boston. Green and
+bohea teas were sold at the Boston apothecaries' in 1712. For many years
+tea was also sold like medicine in England at the apothecaries' and not
+at the grocers'.
+
+Many queer mistakes were made through ignorance of its proper use. Many
+colonists put the tea into water, boiled it for a time, threw the
+liquid away, and ate the tea-leaves. In Salem they did not find the
+leaves very attractive, so they put butter and salt on them.
+
+In 1670 a Boston woman was licensed to sell coffee and chocolate, and
+soon coffee-houses were established there. Some did not know how to cook
+coffee any more than tea, but boiled the whole coffee-beans in water,
+ate them, and drank the liquid; and naturally this was not very good
+either to eat or drink.
+
+At the time of the Stamp Act, when patriotic Americans threw the tea
+into Boston harbor, Americans were just as great tea-drinkers as the
+English. Now it is not so. The English drink much more tea than we do;
+and the habit of coffee-drinking, first acquired in the Revolution, has
+descended from generation to generation, and we now drink more coffee
+than tea. This is one of the differences in our daily life caused by the
+Revolution.
+
+Many home-grown substitutes were used in Revolutionary times for tea:
+ribwort was a favorite one; strawberry and currant leaves, sage,
+thorough-wort, and "Liberty Tea," made from the four-leaved loosestrife.
+"Hyperion tea" was raspberry leaves, and was said by good patriots to be
+"very delicate and most excellent."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+FLAX CULTURE AND SPINNING
+
+
+In recounting the various influences which assisted the Americans to
+success in the War for Independence, such as the courage and integrity
+of the American generals, the generosity of the American people, the
+skill of Americans in marksmanship, their powers of endurance, their
+acclimatization, their confidence and faith, etc., we must never forget
+to add their independence in their own homes of any outside help to give
+them every necessity of life. No farmer or his wife need fear any king
+when on every home farm was found food, drink, medicine, fuel, lighting,
+clothing, shelter. Home-made was an adjective that might be applied to
+nearly every article in the house. Such would not be the case under
+similar stress to-day. In the matter of clothing alone we could not now
+be independent. Few farmers raise flax to make linen; few women can spin
+either wool or flax, or weave cloth; many cannot knit. In early days
+every farmer and his sons raised wool and flax; his wife and daughters
+spun them into thread and yarn, knit these into stockings and mittens,
+or wove them into linen and cloth, and then made them into clothing.
+Even in large cities nearly all women spun yarn and thread, all could
+knit, and many had hand-looms to weave cloth at home. These home
+occupations in the production of clothing have been very happily termed
+the "homespun industries."
+
+Nearly every one has seen one of the pretty foot-wheels for spinning
+flax thread for linen, which may yet be found in the attics of many of
+our farmhouses, as well as in some of our parlors, where, with a bunch
+of flax wound around and tied to the spindle, they have within a few
+years been placed as a relic of the olden times.
+
+If one of these flax-wheels could speak to-day, it would sing a tale of
+the patient industry, of the tiring work of our grandmothers, even when
+they were little children, which ought never to be forgotten.
+
+As soon as the colonists had cleared their farms from stones and stumps,
+they planted a field, or "patch" of flax, and usually one of hemp. The
+seed was sown broadcast like grass-seed in May. Flax is a graceful plant
+with pretty drooping blue flowers; hemp has but a sad-colored blossom.
+
+Thomas Tusser says in his _Book of Housewifery_:--
+
+    "Good flax and good hemp to have of her own,
+    In May a good huswife will see it be sown.
+    And afterwards trim it to serve in a need;
+    The fimble to spin, the card for her seed."
+
+When the flax plants were three or four inches high, they were weeded by
+young women or children who had to work barefoot, as the stalks were
+very tender. If the land had a growth of thistles, the weeders could
+wear three or four pairs of woollen stockings. The children had to step
+facing the wind, so if any plants were trodden down the wind would help
+to blow them back into place. When the flax was ripe, in the last of
+June or in July, it was pulled up by the roots and laid out carefully to
+dry for a day or two, and turned several times in the sun; this work was
+called pulling and spreading, and was usually done by men and boys. It
+then was "rippled." A coarse wooden or heavy iron wire comb with great
+teeth, named a ripple-comb, was fastened on a plank; the stalks of flax
+were drawn through it with a quick stroke to break off the seed-bolles
+or "bobs," which fell on a sheet spread to catch them; these were saved
+for seed for the next crop, or for sale.
+
+Rippling was done in the field. The stalks were then tied in bundles
+called beats or bates and stacked. They were tied only at the seed end,
+and the base of the stalks was spread out forming a tent-shaped stack,
+called a stook. When dry, the stalks were watered to rot the leaves and
+softer fibres. Hemp was watered without rippling. This was done
+preferably in running water, as the rotting flax poisoned fish. Stakes
+were set in the water in the form of a square, called a steep-pool, and
+the bates of flax or hemp were piled in solidly, each alternate layer at
+right angles with the one beneath it. A cover of boards and heavy stones
+was piled on top. In four or five days the bates were taken up and the
+rotted leaves removed. A slower process was termed dew-retting; an old
+author calls it "a vile and naughty way," but it was the way chiefly
+employed in America.
+
+When the flax was cleaned, it was once more dried and tied in bundles.
+Then came work for strong men, to break it on the ponderous flax-brake,
+to separate the fibres and get out from the centre the hard woody "hexe"
+or "bun." Hemp was also broken.
+
+A flax-brake is an implement which is almost impossible to describe. It
+was a heavy log of wood about five feet long, either large enough so the
+flat top was about three feet from the ground, or set on heavy logs to
+bring it to that height. A portion of the top was cut down leaving a
+block at each end, and several long slats were set in lengthwise and
+held firm at each end with edges up, by being set into the end blocks.
+Then a similar set of slats, put in a heavy frame, was made with the
+slats set far enough apart to go into the spaces of the lower slats. The
+flax was laid on the lower slats, the frame and upper slats placed on
+it, and then pounded down with a heavy wooden mallet weighing many
+pounds. Sometimes the upper frame of slats, or knives as they were
+called, were hinged to the big under log at one end, and heavily
+weighted at the other, and thus the blow was given by the fall of the
+weight, not by the force of the farmer's muscle. The tenacity of the
+flax can be seen when it would stand this violent beating; and the cruel
+blow can be imagined, which the farmer's fingers sometimes got when he
+carelessly thrust his hand with the flax too far under the descending
+jaw--a shark's maw was equally gentle.
+
+Flax was usually broken twice, once with an "open-tooth brake," once
+with a "close or strait brake," that is, one where the long, sharp-edge
+strips of wood were set closely together. Then it was scutched or
+swingled with a swingling block and knife, to take out any small
+particles of bark that might adhere. A man could swingle forty pounds
+of flax a day, but it was hard work. All this had to be done in clear
+sunny weather when the flax was as dry as tinder.
+
+The clean fibres were then made into bundles called strikes. The strikes
+were swingled again, and from the refuse called swingle-tree hurds,
+coarse bagging could be spun and woven. After being thoroughly cleaned
+the rolls or strikes were sometimes beetled, that is, pounded in a
+wooden trough with a great pestle-shaped beetle over and over again
+until soft.
+
+Then came the hackling or hetcheling, and the fineness of the flax
+depended upon the number of hacklings, the fineness of the various
+hackles or hetchels or combs, and the dexterity of the operator. In the
+hands of a poor hackler the best of flax would be converted into tow.
+The flax was slightly wetted, taken hold of at one end of the bunch, and
+drawn through the hackle-teeth towards the hetcheller, and thus fibres
+were pulled and laid into continuous threads, while the short fibres
+were combed out. It was dusty, dirty work. The threefold process had to
+be all done at once; the fibres had to be divided to their fine
+filaments, the long threads laid in untangled line, and the tow
+separated and removed. After the first hackle, called a ruffler, six
+other finer hackles were often used. It was one of the surprises of
+flax preparation to see how little good fibre would be left after all
+this hackling, even from a large mass of raw material, but it was
+equally surprising to see how much linen thread could be made from this
+small amount of fine flax. The fibres were sorted according to fineness;
+this was called spreading and drawing. So then after over twenty
+dexterous manipulations the flax was ready for the wheel, for
+spinning,--the most dexterous process of all,--and was wrapped round the
+spindle.
+
+Seated at the small flax-wheel, the spinner placed her foot on the
+treadle, and spun the fibre into a long, even thread. Hung on the wheel
+was a small bone, wood, or earthenware cup, or a gourd-shell, filled
+with water, in which the spinner moistened her fingers as she held the
+twisting flax, which by the movement of the wheel was wound on bobbins.
+When all were filled, the thread was wound off in knots and skeins on a
+reel. A machine called a clock-reel counted the exact number of strands
+in a knot, usually forty, and ticked when the requisite number had been
+wound. Then the spinner would stop and tie the knot. A quaint old ballad
+has the refrain:--
+
+    "And he kissed Mistress Polly when the clock-reel ticked."
+
+That is, the lover seized the rare and propitious moments of Mistress
+Polly's comparative leisure to kiss her.
+
+Usually the knots or lays were of forty threads, and twenty lays made a
+skein or slipping. The number varied, however, with locality. To spin
+two skeins of linen thread was a good day's work; for it a spinner was
+paid eight cents a day and "her keep."
+
+These skeins of thread had to be bleached. They were laid in warm water
+for four days, the water being frequently changed, and the skeins
+constantly wrung out. Then they were washed in the brook till the water
+came from them clear and pure. Then they were "bucked," that is,
+bleached with ashes and hot water, in a bucking-tub, over and over
+again, then laid in clear water for a week, and afterwards came a grand
+seething, rinsing, beating, washing, drying, and winding on bobbins for
+the loom. Sometimes the bleaching was done with slaked lime or with
+buttermilk.
+
+These were not the only bleaching operations the flax went through;
+others will be detailed in the chapter on hand-weaving.
+
+One lucrative product of flax should be mentioned--flaxseed. Flax was
+pulled for spinning when the base of the stalk began to turn yellow,
+which was usually the first of July. An old saying was, "June brings the
+flax." For seed it stood till it was all yellow. The flaxseed was used
+for making oil. Usually the upper chambers of country stores were filled
+a foot deep with flaxseed in the autumn, waiting for good sleighing to
+convey the seed to town.
+
+In New Hampshire in early days, a wheelwright was not a man who made
+wagon-wheels (as such he would have had scant occupation), but one who
+made spinning-wheels. Often he carried them around the country on
+horseback selling them, thus adding another to the many interesting
+itineracies of colonial days. Spinning-wheels would seem clumsy for
+horse-carriage, but they were not set up, and several could be compactly
+carried when taken apart; far more ticklish articles went on
+pack-horses,--large barrels, glazed window-sashes, etc. Nor would it
+seem very difficult for a man to carry spinning-wheels on horseback,
+when frequently a woman would jump on horseback in the early morning,
+and with a baby on one arm and a flax-wheel tied behind, would ride
+several miles to a neighbor's to spend the day spinning in cheerful
+companionship. A century ago one of these wheelwrights sold a fine
+spinning-wheel for a dollar, a clock-reel for two dollars, and a
+wool-wheel for two dollars.
+
+Few persons are now living who have ever seen carried on in a country
+home in America any of these old-time processes which have been
+recounted. As an old antiquary wrote:--
+
+     "Few have ever seen a woman hatchel flax or card tow, or heard the
+     buzzing of the foot-wheel, or seen bunches of flaxen yarn hanging
+     in the kitchen, or linen cloth whitening on the grass. The
+     flax-dresser with the shives, fibres, and dirt of flax covering his
+     garments, and his face begrimed with flax-dirt has disappeared; the
+     noise of his brake and swingling knife has ended, and the boys no
+     longer make bonfires of his swingling tow. The sound of the
+     spinning-wheel, the song of the spinster, and the snapping of the
+     clock-reel all have ceased; the warping bars and quill wheel are
+     gone, and the thwack of the loom is heard only in the factory. The
+     spinning woman of King Lemuel cannot be found."
+
+Frequent references are made to flax in the Bible, notably in the Book
+of Proverbs; and the methods of growing and preparing flax by the
+ancient Egyptians were precisely the same as those of the American
+colonist a hundred years ago, of the Finn, Lapp, Norwegian, and Belgian
+flax-growers to-day. This ancient skill was not confined to
+flax-working. Rosselini, the eminent hierologist, says that every modern
+craftsman may see on Egyptian monuments four thousand years old,
+representations of the process of his craft just as it is carried on
+to-day. The paintings in the Grotto of El Kab, shown in Hamilton's
+_Ægyptica_, show the pulling, stocking, tying, and rippling of flax
+going on just as it is done in Egypt now. The four-tooth ripple of the
+Egyptian is improved upon, but it is the same implement. Pliny gives an
+account of the mode of preparing flax: plucking it up by the roots,
+tying it in bundles, drying, watering, beating, and hackling it, or, as
+he says, "combing it with iron hooks." Until the Christian era linen was
+almost the only kind of clothing used in Egypt, and the teeming banks of
+the Nile furnished flax in abundance. The quality of the linen can be
+seen in the bands preserved on mummies. It was not, however, spun on a
+wheel, but on a hand-distaff, called sometimes a rock, on which the
+women in India still spin the very fine thread which is employed in
+making India muslins. The distaff was used in our colonies; it was
+ordered that children and others tending sheep or cattle in the fields
+should also "be set to some other employment withal, such as spinning
+upon the rock, knitting, weaving tape, etc." I heard recently a
+distinguished historian refer in a lecture to this colonial statute, and
+he spoke of the children _sitting upon a rock_ while knitting or
+spinning, etc., evidently knowing naught of the proper signification of
+the word.
+
+The homespun industries have ever been held to have a beneficent and
+peace-bringing influence on women. Wordsworth voiced this sentiment when
+he wrote his series of sonnets beginning:--
+
+    "Grief! thou hast lost an ever-ready friend
+    Now that the cottage spinning-wheel is mute."
+
+Chaucer more cynically says, through the _Wife of Bath_:--
+
+    "Deceite, weepynge, spynnynge God hath give
+    To wymmen kyndely that they may live."
+
+Spinning doubtless was an ever-ready refuge in the monotonous life of
+the early colonist. She soon had plenty of material to work with.
+Everywhere, even in the earliest days, the culture of flax was
+encouraged. By 1640 the Court of Massachusetts passed two orders
+directing the growth of flax, ascertaining what colonists were skilful
+in breaking, spinning, weaving, ordering that boys and girls be taught
+to spin, and offering a bounty for linen grown, spun, and woven in the
+colony. Connecticut passed similar measures. Soon spinning-classes were
+formed, and every family ordered to spin so many pounds of flax a year,
+or to pay a fine. The industry received a fresh impulse through the
+immigration of about one hundred Irish families from Londonderry. They
+settled in New Hampshire on the Merrimac about 1719, and spun and wove
+with far more skill than prevailed among those English settlers who had
+already become Americans. They established a manufactory according to
+Irish methods, and attempts at a similar establishment were made in
+Boston.
+
+There was much public excitement over spinning, and prizes were offered
+for quantity and quality. Women, rich as well as poor, appeared on
+Boston Common with their wheels, thus making spinning a popular holiday
+recreation. A brick building was erected as a spinning-school costing
+£15,000, and a tax was placed on carriages and coaches in 1757 to
+support it. At the fourth anniversary in 1749 of the "Boston Society for
+promoting Industry and Frugality," three hundred "young spinsters" spun
+on their wheels on Boston Common. And a pretty sight it must have been:
+the fair young girls in the quaint and pretty dress of the times, shown
+to us in Hogarth's prints, spinning on the green grass under the great
+trees. In 1754, on a like occasion, a minister preached to the
+"spinsters," and a collection of £453 was taken up. This was in currency
+of depreciated value. At the same time premiums were offered in
+Pennsylvania for weaving linen and spinning thread. Benjamin Franklin
+wrote in his _Poor Richard's Almanac_:--
+
+    "Many estates are spent in the getting,
+    Since women for tea forsook spinning and knitting."
+
+But the German colonists long before this had been famous flax-raisers.
+A Pennsylvania poet in 1692 descanted on the flax-workers of
+Germantown:--
+
+    "Where live High German people and Low Dutch
+    Whose trade in weaving linen cloth is much,
+    There grows the flax as also you may know,
+    That from the same they do divide the tow."
+
+Father Pastorius, their leader, forever commemorated his interest in his
+colony and in the textile arts by his choice for a device for a seal.
+Whittier thus describes it in his _Pennsylvania Pilgrim_:--
+
+    "Still on the town-seal his device is found,
+    Grapes, flax, and thread-spool on a three-foil ground
+    With _Vinum, Linum, et Textrinum_ wound."
+
+Virginia was earlier even in awakening interest in manufacturing flax
+than Massachusetts, for wild flax grew there in profusion, ready for
+gathering. In 1646 two houses were ordered to be erected at Jamestown as
+spinning-schools. These were to be well built and well heated. Each
+county was to send to these schools two poor children, seven or eight
+years old, to be taught carding, spinning, and knitting. Each child was
+to be supplied by the county authorities on admission to the school with
+six barrels of Indian corn, a pig, two hens, clothing, shoes, a bed,
+rug, blanket, two coverlets, a wooden tray, and two pewter dishes or
+cups. This plan was not wholly carried out. Prizes in tobacco (which was
+the current money of Virginia in which everything was paid) were given,
+however, for every pound of flax, every skein of yarn, every yard of
+linen of Virginia production, and soon flax-wheels and spinners were
+plentiful.
+
+Intelligent attempts were made to start these industries in the South.
+Governor Lucas wrote to his daughter, Mrs. Pinckney, in Charleston,
+South Carolina, in 1745:--
+
+     "I send by this Sloop two Irish servants, viz.: a Weaver and a
+     Spinner. I am informed Mr. Cattle hath produced both Flax and Hemp.
+     I pray you will purchase some, and order a loom and spinning-wheel
+     to be made for them, and set them to work. I shall order Flax sent
+     from Philadelphia with seed, that they may not be idle. I pray you
+     will also purchase Wool and sett them to making Negroes clothing
+     which may be sufficient for my own People.
+
+     "As I am afraid one Spinner can't keep a Loom at work, I pray you
+     will order a Sensible Negroe woman or two to learn to spin, and
+     wheels to be made for them; the man Servant will direct the
+     Carpenter in making the loom and the woman will direct the Wheel."
+
+The following year Madam Pinckney wrote to her father that the woman had
+spun all the material they could get, so was idle; that the loom had
+been made, but had no tackling; that she would make the harness for it,
+if two pounds of shoemaker's thread were sent her. The sensible negro
+woman and hundreds of others learned well to spin, and excellent cloth
+has been always woven in the low country of Carolina, as well as in the
+upper districts, till our own time.
+
+In the revolt of feeling caused by the Stamp Act, there was a constant
+social pressure to encourage the manufacture and wearing of goods of
+American manufacture. As one evidence of this movement the president and
+first graduating class of Rhode Island College--now Brown
+University--were clothed in fabrics made in New England. From
+Massachusetts to South Carolina the women of the colonies banded
+together in patriotic societies called Daughters of Liberty, agreeing to
+wear only garments of homespun manufacture, and to drink no tea. In
+many New England towns they gathered together to spin, each bringing her
+own wheel. At one meeting seventy linen-wheels were employed. In Rowley,
+Massachusetts, the meeting of the Daughters is thus described:--
+
+     "A number of thirty-three respectable ladies of the town met at
+     sunrise with their wheels to spend the day at the house of the
+     Rev'd Jedediah Jewell, in the laudable design of a spinning match.
+     At an hour before sunset, the ladies there appearing neatly
+     dressed, principally in homespun, a polite and generous repast of
+     American production was set for their entertainment. After which
+     being present many spectators of both sexes, Mr. Jewell delivered a
+     profitable discourse from Romans xii. 2: "Not slothful in business,
+     fervent in spirit, serving the Lord."
+
+Matters of church and patriotism were never far apart in New England; so
+whenever the spinners gathered at New London, Newbury, Ipswich, or
+Beverly, they always had an appropriate sermon. A favorite text was
+Exodus xxxv. 25: "And all the women that were wise-hearted did spin with
+their hands." When the Northboro women met, they presented the results
+of their day's work to their minister. There were forty-four women and
+they spun 2223 knots of linen and tow, and wove one linen sheet and two
+towels.
+
+By Revolutionary times General Howe thought "Linen and Woollen Goods
+much wanted by the Rebels"; hence when he prepared to evacuate Boston he
+ordered all such goods carried away with him. But he little knew the
+domestic industrial resources of the Americans. Women were then most
+proficient in spinning. In 1777 Miss Eleanor Fry of East Greenwich,
+Rhode Island, spun seven skeins one knot linen yarn in one day, an
+extraordinary amount. This was enough to weave twelve linen
+handkerchiefs. At this time when there were about five or six skeins to
+a pound of flax, the pay for spinning was sixpence a skein. The Abbé
+Robin wondered at the deftness of New England spinners.
+
+In 1789 an outcry was raised against the luxury said to be eating away
+the substance of the new country. The poor financial administration of
+the government seemed deranging everything; and again a social movement
+was instituted in New England to promote "Oeconomy and Household
+Industries." "The Rich and Great strive by example to convince the
+Populace of their error by Growing their own Flax and Wool, having some
+one in the Family to dress it, and all the Females spin, several weave
+and bleach the linen." The old spinning-matches were revived. Again the
+ministers preached to the faithful women "Oeconomists," who thus
+combined religion, patriotism, and industry. Truly it was, as a
+contemporary writer said, "a pleasing Sight: some spinning, some
+reeling, some carding cotton, some combing flax," as they were preached
+to.
+
+Within a few years attempts have been made in England and Ireland to
+encourage flax-growing, as before it is spun it gives employment to
+twenty different classes of laborers, many parts of which work can be
+done by young and unskilled children. In Courtrai, where hand spinning
+and weaving of flax still flourish, the average earnings of a family are
+three pounds a week. In Finland homespun linen still is made in every
+household. The British Spinning and Weaving School in New Bond Street is
+an attempt to revive the vanished industry in England. In our own
+country it is pleasant to record that the National Association of Cotton
+Manufacturers is planning to start on a large scale the culture and
+manufacture of flax in our Eastern states; this is not, however, with
+any thought of reviving either the preparation, spinning, or weaving of
+flax by old-time hand processes.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+WOOL CULTURE AND SPINNING
+
+_With a Postscript on Cotton_
+
+
+The art of spinning was an honorable occupation for women as early as
+the ninth century; and it was so universal that it furnished a legal
+title by which an unmarried woman is known to this day. Spinster is the
+only one of all her various womanly titles that survives; webster,
+shepster, litster, brewster, and baxter are obsolete. The occupations
+are also obsolete save those indicated by shepster and baxter--that is,
+the cutting out of cloth and baking of bread; these are the only duties
+among them all that she still performs.
+
+The wool industry dates back to prehistoric man. The patience, care, and
+skill involved in its manufacture have ever exercised a potent influence
+on civilization. It is, therefore, interesting and gratifying to note
+the intelligent eagerness of our first colonists for wool culture. It
+was quickly and proudly noted of towns and of individuals as a proof of
+their rapid and substantial progress that they could carry on any of the
+steps of the cloth industry. Good Judge Sewall piously exulted when
+Brother Moody started a successful fulling-mill in Boston. Johnson in
+his _Wonder-working Providence_ tells with pride that by 1654 New
+Englanders "have a fulling-mill and caused their little ones to be very
+dilligent in spinning cotton-woole, many of them having been clothiers
+in England." This has ever seemed to me one of the fortunate conditions
+that tended to the marked success of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, that
+so many had been "clothiers" or cloth-workers in England; or had come
+from shires in England where wool was raised and cloth made, and hence
+knew the importance of the industry as well as its practical workings.
+
+As early as 1643 the author of _New England's First Fruits_ wrote: "They
+are making linens, fustians, dimities, and look immediately to woollens
+from their own sheep." Johnson estimated the number of sheep in the
+colony of Massachusetts, about 1644, as three thousand. Soon the great
+wheel was whirring in every New England house. The raising of sheep was
+encouraged in every way. They were permitted to graze on the commons; it
+was forbidden to send them from the colony; no sheep under two years old
+could be killed to sell; if a dog killed a sheep, the dog's owner must
+hang him and pay double the cost of the sheep. All persons who were not
+employed in other ways, as single women, girls, and boys, were required
+to spin. Each family must contain one spinner. These spinners were
+formed into divisions or "squadrons" of ten persons; each division had a
+director. There were no drones in this hive; neither the wealth nor high
+station of parents excused children from this work. Thus all were
+levelled to one kind of labor, and by this levelling all were also
+elevated to independence. When the open expression of revolt came, the
+homespun industries seemed a firm rock for the foundation of liberty.
+People joined in agreements to eat no lamb or mutton, that thus sheep
+might be preserved, and to wear no imported woollen cloth. They gave
+prizes for spinning and weaving.
+
+Great encouragement was given in Virginia in early days to the raising
+and manufacture of wool. The Assembly estimated that five children not
+over thirteen years of age could by their work readily spin and weave
+enough to keep thirty persons clothed. Six pounds of tobacco was paid to
+any one bringing to the county court-house where he resided a yard of
+homespun woollen cloth, made wholly in his family; twelve pounds of
+tobacco were offered for reward for a dozen pair of woollen hose
+knitted at home. Slaves were taught to spin; and wool-wheels and
+wool-cards are found by the eighteenth century on every inventory of
+planters' house furnishings.
+
+The Pennsylvania settlers were early in the encouragement of wool
+manufacture. The present industry of hosiery and knit goods long known
+as Germantown goods began with the earliest settlers of that
+Pennsylvania town. Stocking-weavers were there certainly as early as
+1723; and it is asserted there were knitting-machines. At any rate, one
+Mack, the son of the founder of the Dunkers, made "leg stockings" and
+gloves. Rev. Andrew Burnaby, who was in Germantown in 1759, told of a
+great manufacture of stockings at that date. In 1777 it was said that a
+hundred Germantown stocking-weavers were out of employment through the
+war. Still it was not till 1850 that patents for knitting-machines were
+taken out there.
+
+Among the manufactures of the province of Pennsylvania in 1698 were
+druggets, serges, and coverlets; and among the registered tradesmen were
+dyers, fullers, comb-makers, card-makers, weavers, and spinners. The
+Swedish colony as early as 1673 had the wives and daughters "employing
+themselves in spinning wool and flax and many in weaving." The fairs
+instituted by William Penn for the encouragement of domestic
+manufactures and trade in general, which were fostered by Franklin and
+continued till 1775, briskly stimulated wool and flax manufacture.
+
+In 1765 and in 1775 rebellious Philadelphians banded together with
+promises not to eat or suffer to be eaten in their families any lamb or
+"meat of the mutton kind"; in this the Philadelphia butchers, patriotic
+and self-sacrificing, all joined. A wool-factory was built and fitted up
+and an appeal made to the women to save the state. In a month four
+hundred wool-spinners were at work. But the war cut off the supply of
+raw material, and the manufacture languished. In 1790, after the war,
+fifteen hundred sets of irons for spinning-wheels were sold from one
+shop, and mechanics everywhere were making looms.
+
+New Yorkers were not behindhand in industry. Lord Cornbury wrote home to
+England, in 1705, that he "had seen serge made upon Long Island that any
+man might wear; they make very good linen for common use; as for Woollen
+I think they have brought that to too great perfection."
+
+In Cornbury's phrase, "too great perfection," may be found the key for
+all the extraordinary and apparently stupid prohibitions and
+restrictions placed by the mother-country on colonial wool manufacture.
+The growth of the woollen industry in any colony was regarded at once by
+England with jealous eyes. Wool was the pet industry and principal
+staple of Great Britain; and well it might be, for until the reign of
+Henry VIII. English garments from head to foot were wholly of wool, even
+the shoes. Wool was also received in England as currency. Thomas Fuller
+said, "The wealth of our nation is folded up in broadcloth." Therefore,
+the Crown, aided by the governors of the provinces, sought to maintain
+England's monopoly by regulating and reducing the culture of wool in
+America through prohibiting the exportation to England of any American
+wool or woollen materials. In 1699 all vessels sailing to England from
+the colonies were prohibited taking on board any "Wool, Woolfells,
+Shortlings, Moslings, Wool Flocks, Worsteds, Bays, Bay or Woollen Yarn,
+Cloath, Serge, Kersey, Says, Frizes, Druggets, Shalloons, etc."; and an
+arbitrary law was passed prohibiting the transportation of home-made
+woollens from one American province to another. These laws were never
+fully observed and never checked the culture and manufacture of wool in
+this country. Hence our colonies were spared the cruel fate by which
+England's same policy paralyzed and obliterated in a few years the
+glorious wool industry of Ireland. Luckily for us, it is further across
+the Atlantic Ocean than across St. George's Channel.
+
+The "all-wool goods a yard wide," which we so easily purchase to-day,
+meant to the colonial dame or daughter the work of many weeks and
+months, from the time when the fleeces were first given to her deft
+hands. Fleeces had to be opened with care, and have all pitched or
+tarred locks, dag-locks, brands, and feltings cut out. These cuttings
+were not wasted, but were spun into coarse yarn. The white locks were
+carefully tossed and separated and tied into net bags with tallies to be
+dyed. Another homely saying, "dyed in the wool," showed a process of
+much skill. Blue, in all shades, was the favorite color, and was dyed
+with indigo. So great was the demand for this dye-stuff that
+indigo-pedlers travelled over the country selling it.
+
+Madder, cochineal, and logwood dyed beautiful reds. The bark of red oak
+or hickory made very pretty shades of brown and yellow. Various flowers
+growing on the farm could be used for dyes. The flower of the goldenrod,
+when pressed of its juice, mixed with indigo, and added to alum, made a
+beautiful green. The juice of the pokeberry boiled with alum made
+crimson dye, and a violet juice from the petals of the iris, or
+"flower-de-luce," that blossomed in June meadows, gave a delicate light
+purple tinge to white wool.
+
+The bark of the sassafras was used for dyeing yellow or orange color,
+and the flowers and leaves of the balsam also. Fustic and copperas gave
+yellow dyes. A good black was obtained by boiling woollen cloth with a
+quantity of the leaves of the common field-sorrel, then boiling again
+with logwood and copperas.
+
+In the South there were scores of flowers and leaves that could be used
+for dyes. During the Revolutionary War one enterprising South Carolinian
+got a guinea a pound for a yellow dye he made from the sweet-leaf or
+horse-laurel. The leaves and berries of gall-berry bush made a good
+black much used by hatters and weavers. The root of the barberry gave
+wool a beautiful yellow, as did the leaves of the devil's-bit. The
+petals of Jerusalem artichoke and St.-John's-wort dyed yellow. Yellow
+root is a significant name and reveals its use: oak, walnut, or maple
+bark dyed brown. Often the woven cloth was dyed, not the wool.
+
+The next process was carding; the wool was first greased with rape oil
+or "melted swine's grease," which had to be thoroughly worked in; about
+three pounds of grease were put into ten pounds of wool. Wool-cards were
+rectangular pieces of thin board, with a simple handle on the back or
+at the side; to this board was fastened a smaller rectangle of strong
+leather, set thick with slightly bent wire teeth, like a coarse brush.
+The carder took one card with her left hand, and resting it on her knee,
+drew a tuft of wool across it several times, until a sufficient quantity
+of fibre had been caught upon the wire teeth. She then drew the second
+wool-card, which had to be warmed, across the first several times, until
+the fibres were brushed parallel by all these "tummings." Then by a
+deft and catchy motion the wool was rolled or carded into small fleecy
+rolls which were then ready for spinning.
+
+Wool-combs were shaped like the letter T, with about thirty long steel
+teeth from ten to eighteen inches long set at right angles with the top
+of the T. The wool was carefully placed on one comb, and with careful
+strokes the other comb laid the long staple smooth for hard-twisted
+spinning. It was tedious and slow work, and a more skilful operation
+than carding; and the combs had to be kept constantly heated; but no
+machine-combing ever equalled hand-combing. There was a good deal of
+waste in this combing, that is, large clumps of tangled wool called noil
+were combed out. They were not really wasted, we may be sure, by our
+frugal ancestors, but were spun into coarse yarn.
+
+An old author says: "The action of spinning must be learned by practice,
+not by relation." Sung by the poets, the grace and beauty of the
+occupation has ever shared praise with its utility.
+
+Wool-spinning was truly one of the most flexible and alert series of
+movements in the world, and to its varied and graceful poises our
+grandmothers may owe part of the dignity of carriage that was so
+characteristic of them. The spinner stood slightly leaning forward,
+lightly poised on the ball of the left foot; with her left hand she
+picked up from the platform of the wheel a long slender roll of the soft
+carded wool about as large round as the little finger, and deftly wound
+the end of the fibres on the point of the spindle. She then gave a
+gentle motion to the wheel with a wooden peg held in her right hand,
+and seized with the left the roll at exactly the right distance from the
+spindle to allow for one "drawing." Then the hum of the wheel rose to a
+sound like the echo of wind; she stepped backward quickly, one, two,
+three steps, holding high the long yarn as it twisted and quivered.
+Suddenly she glided forward with even, graceful stride and let the yarn
+wind on the swift spindle. Another pinch of the wool-roll, a new turn of
+the wheel, and _da capo_.
+
+The wooden peg held by the spinner deserves a short description; it
+served the purpose of an elongated finger, and was called a driver,
+wheel-peg, etc. It was about nine inches long, an inch or so in
+diameter; and at about an inch from the end was slightly grooved in
+order that it might surely catch the spoke and thus propel the wheel.
+
+It was a good day's work for a quick, active spinner to spin six skeins
+of yarn a day. It was estimated that to do that with her quick backward
+and forward steps she walked over _twenty miles_.
+
+The yarn might be wound directly upon the wooden spindle as it was spun,
+or at the end of the spindle might be placed a spool or broach which
+twisted with the revolving spindle, and held the new-spun yarn. This
+broach was usually simply a stiff roll of paper, a corn-cob, or a roll
+of corn-husk. When the ball of yarn was as large as the broach would
+hold, the spinner placed wooden pegs in certain holes in the spokes of
+her spinning-wheel and tied the end of the yarn to one peg. Then she
+took off the belt of her wheel and whirred the big wheel swiftly round,
+thus winding the yarn on the pegs into hanks or clews two yards in
+circumference, which were afterwards tied with a loop of yarn into knots
+of forty threads; while seven of these knots made a skein. The
+clock-reel was used for winding yarn, also a triple reel.
+
+The yarn might be wound from the spindle into skeins in another way,--by
+using a hand-reel, an implement which really did exist in every
+farmhouse, though the dictionaries are ignorant of it, as they are of
+its universal folk-name, niddy-noddy. This is fortunately preserved in
+an every-day domestic riddle:--
+
+    "Niddy-noddy, niddy-noddy,
+    Two heads and one body."
+
+The three pieces of these niddy-noddys were set together at curious
+angles, and are here shown rather than described in words. Holding the
+reel in the left hand by seizing the central "body" or rod, the yarn was
+wound from end to end of the reel, by an odd, waving, wobbling motion,
+into knots and skeins of the same size as by the first process
+described. One of these niddy-noddys was owned by Nabby Marshall of
+Deerfield, who lived to be one hundred and four years old. The other
+was brought from Ireland in 1733 by Hugh Maxwell, father of the
+Revolutionary patriot Colonel Maxwell. As it was at a time of English
+prohibitions and restrictions of American manufactures, this
+niddy-noddy, as an accessory and promoter of colonial wool manufacture,
+was smuggled into the country.
+
+Sometimes the woollen yarn was spun twice; especially if a close,
+hard-twisted thread was desired, to be woven into a stiff, wiry cloth.
+When there were two, the first spinning was called a roving. The single
+spinning was usually deemed sufficient to furnish yarn for knitting,
+where softness and warmth were the desired requisites.
+
+It was the pride of a good spinster to spin the finest yarn, and one
+Mistress Mary Prigge spun a pound of wool into fifty hanks of
+eighty-four thousand yards; in all, nearly forty-eight miles. If the
+yarn was to be knitted, it had to be washed and cleansed. The wife of
+Colonel John May, a prominent man in Boston, wrote in her diary for one
+day:--
+
+     "A large kettle of yarn to attend upon. Lucretia and self rinse,
+     scour through many waters, get out, dry, attend to, bring in, do up
+     and sort 110 score of yarn; this with baking and ironing. Then went
+     to hackling flax."
+
+It should be remembered that all those bleaching processes, the wringing
+out and rinsing in various waters, were far more wearisome then than
+they would be to-day, for the water had to be carried laboriously in
+pails and buckets, and drawn with pumps and well-sweeps; there were no
+pipes and conduits. Happy the household that had a running brook near
+the kitchen door.
+
+Of course all these operations and manipulations usually occupied many
+weeks and months, but they could be accomplished in a much shorter time.
+When President Nott of Union College, and his brother Samuel, the famous
+preacher, were boys on a stony farm in Connecticut, one of the brothers
+needed a new suit of clothes, and as the father was sick there was
+neither money nor wool in the house. The mother sheared some half-grown
+fleece from her sheep, and in less than a week the boy wore it as
+clothing. The shivering and generous sheep were protected by wrappings
+of braided straw. During the Revolution, it is said that in a day and a
+night a mother and her daughters in Townsend, Massachusetts, sheared a
+black and a white sheep, carded from the fleece a gray wool, spun, wove,
+cut and made a suit of clothes for a boy to wear off to fight for
+liberty.
+
+The wool industry easily furnished home occupation to an entire family.
+Often by the bright firelight in the early evening every member of the
+household might be seen at work on the various stages of wool
+manufacture or some of its necessary adjuncts, and varied and cheerful
+industrial sounds fill the room. The old grandmother, at light and easy
+work, is carding the wool into fleecy rolls, seated next the fire; for,
+as the ballad says, "she was old and saw right dimly." The mother,
+stepping as lightly as one of her girls, spins the rolls into woollen
+yarn on the great wheel. The oldest daughter sits at the clock-reel,
+whose continuous buzz and occasional click mingles with the humming rise
+and fall of the wool-wheel, and the irritating scratch, scratch, of the
+cards. A little girl at a small wheel is filling quills with woollen
+yarn for the loom, not a skilled work; the irregular sound shows her
+intermittent industry. The father is setting fresh teeth in a wool-card,
+while the boys are whittling hand-reels and loom-spools.
+
+One of the household implements used in wool manufacture, the wool-card,
+deserves a short special history as well as a description. In early days
+the leather back of the wool-card was pierced with an awl by hand; the
+wire teeth were cut off from a length of wire, were slightly bent, and
+set and clinched one by one. These cards were laboriously made by many
+persons at home, for their household use. As early as 1667 wire was made
+in Massachusetts; and its chief use was for wool-cards. By
+Revolutionary times it was realized that the use of wool-cards was
+almost the mainspring of the wool industry, and £100 bounty was offered
+by Massachusetts for card-wire made in the state from iron mined in what
+they called then the "United American States." In 1784 a machine was
+invented by an American which would cut and bend thirty-six thousand
+wire teeth an hour. Another machine pierced the leather backs. This gave
+a new employment to women and children at home and some spending-money.
+They would get boxes of the bent wire teeth and bundles of the leather
+backs from the factories and would set the teeth in the backs while
+sitting around the open fire in the evening. They did this work, too,
+while visiting--spending an afternoon; and it was an unconscious and
+diverting work like knitting; scholars set wool-cards while studying,
+and schoolmistresses while teaching. This method of manufacture was
+superseded fifteen years later by a machine invented by Amos Whittemore,
+which held, cut, and pierced the leather, drew the wire from a reel, cut
+and bent a looped tooth, set it, bent it, fastened the leather on the
+back, and speedily turned out a fully made card. John Randolph said this
+machine had everything but an immortal soul. By this time spinning and
+weaving machinery began to crowd out home work, and the machine-made
+cards were needed to keep up with the increased demand. At last machines
+crowded into every department of cloth manufacture; and after
+carding-machines were invented in England--great rollers set with
+card-teeth--they were set up in many mills throughout the United States.
+
+Families soon sent all their wool to these mills to be carded even when
+it was spun and woven at home. It was sent rolled up in a homespun sheet
+or blanket pinned with thorns; and the carded rolls ready for spinning
+were brought home in the same way, and made a still bigger bundle which
+was light in weight for its size. Sometimes a red-cheeked farmer's lass
+would be seen riding home from the carding-mill, through New England
+woods or along New England lanes, with a bundle of carded wool towering
+up behind her bigger than her horse.
+
+Of the use and manufacture of cotton I will speak very shortly. Our
+greatest, cheapest, most indispensable fibre is also our latest one. It
+never formed one of the homespun industries of the colonies; in fact, it
+was never an article of extended domestic manufacture.
+
+A little cotton was always used in early days for stuffing bedquilts,
+petticoats, warriors' armor, and similar purposes. It was bought by the
+pound, East India cotton, in small quantities; the seeds were picked
+out one by one, by hand; it was carded on wool-cards, and spun into a
+rather intractable yarn which was used as warp for linsey-woolsey and
+rag carpets. Even in England no cotton weft, no all-cotton fabrics, were
+made till after 1760, till Hargreave's time. Sometimes a twisted yarn
+was made of one thread of cotton and one of wool which was knit into
+durable stockings. Cotton sewing-thread was unknown in England.
+Pawtucket women named Wilkinson made the first cotton thread on their
+home spinning-wheels in 1792.
+
+Cotton was planted in America, Bancroft says, in 1621, but MacMaster
+asserts it was never seen growing here till after the Revolution save as
+a garden ornament with garden flowers. This assertion seems oversweeping
+when Jefferson could write in a letter in 1786:--
+
+     "The four southermost States make a great deal of cotton. Their
+     poor are almost entirely clothed with it in winter and summer. In
+     winter they wear shirts of it and outer clothing of cotton and wool
+     mixed. In summer their shirts are linen, but the outer clothing
+     cotton. The dress of the women is almost entirely of cotton,
+     manufactured by themselves, except the richer class, and even many
+     of these wear a great deal of homespun cotton. It is as well
+     manufactured as the calicoes of Europe."
+
+Still cotton was certainly not a staple of consequence. We were the last
+to enter the list of cotton-producing countries and we have surpassed
+them all.
+
+The difficulty of removing the seeds from the staple practically thrust
+cotton out of common use. In India a primitive and cumbersome set of
+rollers called a churka partially cleaned India cotton. A Yankee
+schoolmaster, Eli Whitney, set King Cotton on a throne by his invention
+of the cotton-gin in 1792. This comparatively simple but inestimable
+invention completely revolutionized cloth manufacture in England and
+America. It also changed general commerce, industrial development, and
+the social and economic order of things, for it gave new occupations and
+offered new modes of life to hundreds of thousands of persons. It
+entirely changed and cheapened our dress, and altered rural life both in
+the North and South.
+
+A man could, by hand-picking, clean only about a pound of cotton a day.
+The cotton-gin cleaned as much in a day as had taken the hand-picker a
+year to accomplish. Cotton was at once planted in vast amounts; but it
+certainly was not plentiful till then. Whitney had never seen cotton nor
+cotton seed when he began to plan his invention; nor did he, even in
+Savannah, find cotton to experiment with until after considerable
+search.
+
+After the universal manufacture and use of the cotton-gin, negro women
+wove cotton in Southern houses, sometimes spinning their own cotton
+thread; more frequently buying it mill-spun. But, after all, this was in
+too small amounts to be of importance; it needed the spinning-jennies
+and power-looms of vast mills to use up the profuse supply afforded by
+the gin.
+
+A very interesting account of the domestic manufacture of cotton in
+Tennessee about the year 1850 was written for me by Mrs. James Stuart
+Pilcher, State Regent of the Daughters of the American Revolution in
+Tennessee. A portion of her pleasant story reads:--
+
+     "There were two looms in the loom-room, and two negro women were
+     kept busy all the time weaving; there were eight or ten others who
+     did nothing but spin cotton and woollen thread; others spooled and
+     reeled it into hanks. The spinning was all done on the large wheel,
+     from the raw cotton; a corn-shuck was wrapped tightly around the
+     steel spindle, then the thread was run and spun on this shuck until
+     it was full; then these were reeled off into hanks of thread, then
+     spooled on to corn-cobs with holes burned through them. These were
+     placed in an upright frame, with long slender rods of hickory wood
+     something like a ramrod run through them. The frame held about one
+     hundred of these cob-spools; the end of the cotton thread from
+     each spool was gathered up by an experienced warper who carried all
+     the threads back and forth on the large warping-bars; this was a
+     difficult task; only the brightest negro women were warpers. The
+     thread had been dyed before spooling and the vari-colored
+     cob-spools could be arranged to make stripes lengthwise of the
+     cloth; and the hanks had also been dipped in a boiling-hot sizing
+     made of meal and water. The warp-threads were carefully taken from
+     the bars and rolled upon the wooden beam of the loom, the ends
+     passed through the sley and tied. The weaver then began her work.
+     The thread for the filling (called the woof by the negroes) was
+     reeled from the hank on the winding-blades, upon small canes about
+     four inches long which, when full, were placed in the wooden
+     shuttles. These women spun and wove all the clothing worn by the
+     negroes on the plantation; cotton cloth for women and men in the
+     summer time; and jeans for the men; linsey-woolsey for the women
+     and children for winter. All were well clothed. The women taught us
+     to spin, but the weavers were cross and would not let us touch the
+     loom, for they said we broke the threads in the warp. My
+     grandmother never interfered with them when they were careful in
+     their work. We would say, 'Please make Aunt Rhody let me weave!'
+     She answered, 'No, she is managing the loom; if she is willing,
+     very well; if not, you must not worry her.' We thought it great fun
+     to try to weave, but generally had to pay Aunt Rhody for our
+     meddling by giving her cake, ribbons, or candy."
+
+The colonists were constantly trying to find new materials for spinning,
+and also used many makeshifts. Parkman, in his _Old Régime_, tells that
+in the year 1704, when a ship was lost that was to bring cloth and wool
+to Quebec, a Madame de Rèpentigny, one of the aristocrats of the
+French-Canadian colony, spun and wove coarse blankets of nettle and
+linden bark. Similar experiments were made by the English colonists.
+Coarse thread was spun out of nettle-fibre by pioneers in western New
+York. Levi Beardsley, in his _Reminiscences_, tells of his mother at the
+close of the last century, in her frontier home at Richfield Springs,
+weaving bags and coarse garments from the nettles which grew so rankly
+everywhere in that vicinity. Deer hair and even cow's hair was collected
+from the tanners, spun with some wool, and woven into a sort of felted
+blanket.
+
+Silk-grass, a much-vaunted product, was sent back to England on the
+first ships and was everywhere being experimented with. Coarse wicking
+was spun from the down of the milkweed--an airy, feathery material that
+always looks as if it ought to be put to many uses, yet never has seemed
+of much account in any trial that has been made of it.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+HAND-WEAVING
+
+
+Any one who passed through a New England village on a week day a century
+ago, or rode up to the door of a Pennsylvania or Virginia house, would
+probably be greeted with a heavy thwack-thwack from within doors, a
+regular sound which would readily be recognized by every one at that
+time as proceeding from weaving on a hand-loom. The presence of these
+looms was, perhaps, not so universal in every house as that of their
+homespun companions, the great and little wheels, for they required more
+room; but they were found in every house of any considerable size, and
+in many also where they seemed to fill half the building. Many
+households had a loom-room, usually in an ell part of the house; others
+used an attic or a shed-loft as a weaving-room. Every farmer's daughter
+knew how to weave as well as to spin, yet it was not recognized as
+wholly woman's work as was spinning; for there was a trade of
+hand-weaving for men, to which they were apprenticed. Every town had
+professional weavers. They were a universally respected class, and
+became the ancestors of many of the wealthiest and most influential
+citizens to-day. They took in yarn and thread to weave on their looms at
+their own homes at so much a yard; wove their own yarn into stuffs to
+sell; had apprentices to their trade; and also went out working by the
+day at their neighbors' houses, sometimes carrying their looms many
+miles with them.
+
+Weavers were a universally popular element of the community. The
+travelling weaver was, like all other itinerant tradesmen of the day, a
+welcome newsmonger; and the weaver who took in weaving was often a
+stationary gossip, and gathered inquiring groups in his loom-room; even
+children loved to go to his door to beg for bits of colored
+yarn--thrums--which they used in their play, and also tightly braided to
+wear as shoestrings, hair-laces, etc.
+
+The hand-loom used in the colonies, and occasionally still run in
+country towns to-day, is an historic machine, one of great antiquity and
+dignity. It is, perhaps, the most absolute bequest of past centuries
+which we have had, unchanged, in domestic use till the present time. You
+may see a loom like the Yankee one shown here in Giotto's famous fresco
+in the Campanile, painted in 1335; another, still the same, in Hogarth's
+_Idle Apprentice_, painted just four hundred years later. Many tribes
+and nations have hand-looms resembling our own; but these are exactly
+like it. Hundreds of thousands of men and women of the generations of
+these seven centuries since Giotto's day have woven on just such looms
+as our grandparents had in their homes.
+
+This loom consists of a frame of four square timber posts, about seven
+feet high, set about as far apart as the posts of a tall four-post
+bedstead, and connected at top and bottom by portions of a frame. From
+post to post across one end, which may be called the back part of the
+loom, is the yarn-beam, about six inches in diameter. Upon it are wound
+the warp-threads, which stretch in close parallels from it to the
+cloth-beam at the front of the loom. The cloth-beam is about ten inches
+in diameter, and the cloth is wound as the weaving proceeds.
+
+The yarn-beam or yarn-roll or warp-beam was ever a very important part
+of the loom. It should be made of close-grained, well-seasoned wood. The
+iron axle should be driven in before the beam is turned. If the beam is
+ill-turned and irregular in shape, no even, perfect woof can come from
+it. The slightest variation in its dimensions makes the warp run off
+unevenly, and the web never "sets" well, but has some loose threads.
+
+We have seen the homespun yarn, whether linen or woollen, left in
+carefully knotted skeins after being spun and cleaned, bleached, or
+dyed. To prepare it for use on the loom a skein is placed on the swift,
+an ingenious machine, a revolving cylindrical frame made of strips of
+wood arranged on the principle of the lazy-tongs so the size can be
+increased or diminished at pleasure, and thus take on and hold firmly
+any sized skein of yarn. This cylinder is supported on a centre shaft
+that revolves in a socket, and may be set in a heavy block on the floor
+or fastened to a table or chair. A lightly made, carved swift was a
+frequent lover's gift. I have a beautiful one of whale-ivory,
+mother-of-pearl, and fine white bone which was made on a three years'
+whaling voyage by a Nantucket sea-captain as a gift to his waiting
+bride; it has over two hundred strips of fine white carved bone. Both
+quills for the weft and spools for the warp may be wound from the swift
+by a quilling-wheel, small wheels of various shapes, some being like a
+flax-wheel, but more simple in construction. The quill or bobbin is a
+small reed or quill, pierced from end to end, and when wound is set in
+the recess of the shuttle.
+
+When the piece is to be set, a large number of shuttles and spools are
+filled in advance. The full spools are then placed in a row one above
+the other in a spool-holder, sometimes called a skarne or scarne. As I
+have not found this word in any dictionary, ancient or modern, its
+correct spelling is unknown. Sylvester Judd, in his _Margaret_, spells
+it skan. Skean and skayn have also been seen. Though ignored by
+lexicographers, it was an article and word in established and universal
+use in the colonies. I have seen it in newspaper advertisements of
+weavers' materials, and in inventories of weavers' estates, spelled _ad
+libitum_; and elderly country folk, both in the North and South, who
+remember old-time weaving, know it to-day.
+
+It seems to me impossible to explain clearly in words, though it is
+simple enough in execution, the laying of the piece, the orderly placing
+the warp on the warp-beam. The warping-bars are entirely detached from
+the loom, are an accessory, not a part of it. They are two upright bars
+of wood, each holding a number of wooden pins set at right angles to
+the bars, and held together by crosspieces. Let forty full spools be
+placed in the skarne, one above the other. The free ends of threads from
+the spools are gathered in the hand, and fastened to a pin at the top of
+the warping-bars. The group of threads then are carried from side to
+side of the bars, passing around a pin on one bar, then around a pin on
+the opposite bar, to the extreme end; then back again in the same way,
+the spools revolving on wires and freely playing out the warp-threads,
+till a sufficient length of threads are stretched on the bars. Weavers
+of olden days could calculate exactly and skilfully the length of the
+threads thus wound. You take off twenty yards of threads if you want to
+weave twenty yards of cloth. Forty warp-threads make what was called a
+bout or section. A warp of two hundred threads was designated as a warp
+of five bouts, and the bars had to be filled five times to set it unless
+a larger skarne with more spools was used. From the warping-bars these
+bouts are carefully wound on the warp-beam.
+
+Without attempting to explain farther, let us consider the yarn-beam
+neatly wound with these warp-threads and set in the loom--that the
+"warping" and "beaming" are finished. The "drawing" or "entering" comes
+next; the end of each warp-thread in regular order is "thumbed" or drawn
+in with a warping-needle through the eye or "mail" of the harness, or
+heddle.
+
+The heddle is a row of twines, cords, or wires called leashes, which are
+stretched vertically between two horizontal bars or rods, placed about a
+foot apart. One rod is suspended by a pulley at the top of the loom; and
+to the lower rod is hitched the foot-treadle. In the middle of each
+length of twine or wire is the loop or eye, through which a warp-thread
+is passed. In ordinary weaving there are two heddles, each fastened to a
+foot-treadle.
+
+There is a removable loom attachment which when first shown to me was
+called a raddle. It is not necessary in weaving, but a convenience and
+help in preparing to weave. It is a wooden bar with a row of closely
+set, fine, wooden pegs. This is placed in the loom, and used only during
+the setting of the warp to keep the warp of proper width; the pegs keep
+the bouts or sections of the warp disentangled during the "thumbing in"
+of the threads through the heddle-eyes. This attachment is also called a
+ravel or raivel; and folk-names for it (not in the dictionary) were
+wrathe and rake; the latter a very good descriptive title.
+
+The warp-threads next are drawn through the interspaces between two
+dents or strips of the sley or reed. This is done with a wire hook
+called a sley-hook or reed-hook. Two warp-threads are drawn in each
+space.
+
+The sley or reed is composed of a row of short and very thin parallel
+strips of cane or metal, somewhat like comb-teeth, called dents, fixed
+at both ends closely in two long, strong, parallel bars of wood set two
+or three or even four inches apart. There may be fifty or sixty of these
+dents to one inch, for weaving very fine linen; usually there are about
+twenty, which gives a "bier"--a counting out of forty warp-threads to
+each inch. Sleys were numbered according to the number of biers they
+held. The number of dents to an inch determined the "set of the web,"
+the fineness of the piece. This reed is placed in a groove on the lower
+edge of a heavy batten (or lay or lathe). This batten hangs by two
+swords or side bars and swings from an axle or "rocking tree" at the top
+of the loom. As the heavy batten swings on its axle, the reed forces
+with a sharp blow every newly placed thread of the weft into its proper
+place close to the previously woven part of the texture. This is the
+heavy thwacking sound heard in hand-weaving.
+
+On the accurate poise of the batten depends largely the evenness of the
+completed woof. If the material is heavy, the batten should be swung
+high, thus having a good sweep and much force in its blow. The batten
+should be so poised as to swing back itself into place after each blow.
+
+The weaver, with foot on treadle, sits on a narrow, high bench, which is
+fastened from post to post of the loom. James Maxwell, the weaver-poet,
+wrote under his portrait in his _Weaver's Meditations_, printed in
+1756:--
+
+    "Lo! here 'twixt Heaven and Earth I swing,
+      And whilst the Shuttle swiftly flies,
+    With cheerful heart I work and sing
+      And envy none beneath the skies."
+
+There are three motions in hand-weaving. First: by the action of one
+foot-treadle one harness or heddle, holding every alternate warp-thread,
+is depressed from the level of the entire expanse of warp-threads.
+
+The separation of the warp-threads by this depression of one harness is
+called a shed. Some elaborate patterns have six harnesses. In such a
+piece there are ten different sheds, or combinations of openings of the
+warp-threads. In a four-harness piece there are six different sheds.
+
+Room is made by this shed for the shuttle, which, by the second motion,
+is thrown from one side of the loom to the other by the weaver's hand,
+and thus goes over every alternate thread. The revolving quill within
+the shuttle lets the weft-thread play out during this side-to-side
+motion of the shuttle. The shuttle must not be thrown too sharply else
+it will rebound and make a slack thread in the weft. By the third motion
+the batten crowds this weft-thread into place. Then the motion of the
+other foot-treadle forces down the other warp-threads which pass through
+the second set of harnesses, the shuttle is thrown back through this
+shed, and so on.
+
+In order to show the amount of work, the number of separate motions in a
+day's work in weaving of close woollen cloth like broadcloth (which was
+only about three yards), we must remember that the shuttle was thrown
+over three thousand times, and the treadles pressed down and batten
+swung the same number of times.
+
+A simple but clear description of the process of weaving is given in
+Ovid's _Metamorphoses_, thus Englished in 1724:--
+
+                        "The piece prepare
+    And order every slender thread with care;
+    The web enwraps the beam, the reed divides
+    While through the widening space the shuttle glides,
+    Which their swift hands receive, then poised with lead
+    The swinging weight strikes close the inserted thread."
+
+A loom attachment which I puzzled over was a tomble or tumble, the word
+being seen in eighteenth-century lists, etc., yet absolutely
+untraceable. I at last inferred, and a weaver confirmed my inference,
+that it was a corruption of temple, an attachment made of flat, narrow
+strips of wood as long as the web is wide, with hooks or pins at the end
+to catch into the selvage of the cloth, and keep the cloth stretched
+firmly an even width while the reed beats the weft-thread into place.
+
+There were many other simple yet effective attachments to the loom.
+Their names have been upon the lips of scores of thousands of
+English-speaking people, and the words are used in all treatises on
+weaving; yet our dictionaries are dumb and ignorant of their existence.
+There was the pace-weight, which kept the warp even; and the bore-staff,
+which tightened the warp. When a sufficient length of woof had been
+woven (it was usually a few inches), the weaver proceeded to do what was
+called drawing a bore or a sink. He shifted the temple forward; rolled
+up the cloth on the cloth bar, which had a crank-handle and ratchets;
+unwound the warp a few inches, shifted back the rods and heddles, and
+started afresh.
+
+Looms and their appurtenances were usually made by local carpenters; and
+it can plainly be seen that thus constant work was furnished to many
+classes of workmen in every community,--wood-turners, beam-makers,
+timber-sawyers, and others. The various parts of the looms were in
+unceasing demand, though apparently they never wore out. The sley was
+the most delicate part of the mechanism. Good sley-makers could always
+command high prices for their sleys. I have seen one whole and good,
+which has been in general use for weaving rag carpets ever since the War
+of 1812, for which a silver dollar was paid. Spools were turned and
+marked with the maker's initials. There were choice and inexplicable
+lines in the shape of a shuttle as there are in a boat's hull. When a
+shuttle was carefully shaped, scraped, hollowed out, tipped with steel,
+and had the maker's initials burnt in it, it was a proper piece of
+work, of which any craftsman might be proud. Apple-wood and boxwood were
+the choice for shuttles.
+
+Smaller looms, called tape-looms, braid-looms, belt-looms, garter-looms,
+or "gallus-frames," were seen in many American homes, and useful they
+were in days when linen, cotton, woollen, or silk tapes, bobbins, and
+webbings or ribbons were not common and cheap as to-day. Narrow bands
+such as tapes, none-so-pretty's, ribbons, caddises, ferretings,
+inkles, were woven on these looms for use for garters, points,
+glove-ties, hair-laces, shoestrings, belts, hat-bands, stay-laces,
+breeches-suspenders, etc.
+
+These tape-looms are a truly ancient form of appliance for the
+hand-weaving of narrow bands,--a heddle-frame. They are rudely primitive
+in shape, but besides serving well the colonists in all our original
+states, are still in use among the Indian tribes in New Mexico and in
+Lapland, Italy, and northern Germany. They are scarcely more than a
+slightly shaped board so cut in slits that the centre of the board is a
+row of narrow slats. These slats are pierced in a row by means of a
+heated wire and the warp-threads are passed through the holes.
+
+A common form of braid-loom was one that was laid upon a table. A still
+simpler form was held upright on the lap, the knees being firmly
+pressed into semicircular indentations cut for the purpose on either
+side of the board which formed the lower part of the loom. The top of
+the loom was steadied by being tied with a band to the top of a chair,
+or a hook in the wall. It was such light and pretty work that it seemed
+merely an industrial amusement, and girls carried their tape-looms to a
+neighbor's house for an afternoon's work, just as they did their
+knitting-needles and ball of yarn. A fringe-loom might also be
+occasionally found, for weaving decorative fringes; these were more
+common in the Hudson River valley than elsewhere.
+
+I have purposely given minute, but I trust not tiresome, details of the
+operation of weaving on a hand-loom, because a few years more will see
+the last of those who know the operation and the terms used. The fact
+that so many terms are now obsolete proves how quickly disuse brings
+oblivion. When in a country crowded full of weavers, as was England
+until about 1845, the knowledge has so suddenly disappeared, need we
+hope for much greater memory or longer life here? When what is termed
+the Westmoreland Revival of domestic industries was begun eight or ten
+years ago, the greatest difficulty was found in obtaining a hand-loom.
+No one knew how to set it up, and it was a long time before a weaver
+could be found to run it and teach others its use.
+
+The first half of this century witnessed a vital struggle in England,
+and to an extent in America, between hand and power machinery, and an
+interesting race between spinning and weaving. Under old-time conditions
+it was calculated that it took the work of four spinners, who spun
+swiftly and constantly, to supply one weaver. As spinning was ever what
+was known as a by-industry,--that is, one that chiefly was done by being
+caught up at odd moments,--the supply both in England and America did
+not equal the weavers' demands, and ten spinners had to be calculated to
+supply yarn for one weaver. Hence weavers never had to work very hard;
+as a rule, they could have one holiday in the week. What with Sundays,
+wakes, and fairs, Irish weavers worked only two hundred days in the
+year. In England the weaver often had to spend one day out of the six
+hunting around the country for yarn for weft. So inventive wits were set
+at work to enlarge the supply of yarn, and spinning machinery was the
+result. Thereafter the looms and weavers were pushed hard and had to
+turn to invention. The shuttle had always simply been passed from one
+hand to the other of the weaver on either side of the web. The
+fly-shuttle was now invented, which by a simple piece of machinery,
+worked by one hand, threw the shuttle swiftly backward and forward, and
+the loom was ahead in the race. Then came the spinning-jenny, which spun
+yarn with a hundred spindles on each machine. But this was for weft
+yarns, and did not make strong warps. Finally Arkwright supplied this
+lack in water-twist or "throstle-spun" yarn. All these inventions again
+overcrowded the weavers; all attempts at hand-spinning of cotton had
+become quickly extinct. Wool-spinning lingered longer. Five Tomlinson
+sisters,--the youngest forty years old,--with two pair of wool-cards and
+five hand-wheels, paid the rent of their farm, kept three cows, one
+horse, had a ploughed field, and made prime butter and eggs. One sister
+clung to her spinning till 1822. Power-looms were invented to try to use
+up the jenny's supply of yarn, but these did not crowd out hand-looms.
+Weavers never had so good wages. It was the Golden Age of Cotton. Some
+families earned six pounds a week; good clothes, even to the extent of
+ruffled shirts, good furniture, even to silver spoons, good food,
+plentiful ale and beer, entered every English cottage with the weaving
+of cotton and wool. A far more revolutionary and more hated machine than
+the power-loom was the combing-machine called Big Ben.
+
+    "Come all ye Master Combers, and hear of our Big Ben.
+    He'll comb more wool than fifty of your men
+    With their hand-combs, and comb-pots, and such old-fashioned way."
+
+Flax-spinning and linen-weaving by power machinery were slower in being
+established. Englishmen were halting in perfecting these machines.
+Napoleon offered in 1810 a million francs for a flax-spinning machine. A
+clever Frenchman claimed to have invented one in response in a single
+day, but similar clumsy machines had then been running in England for
+twenty years. By 1850 men, women, and children--combers, spinners, and
+weavers--were no longer individual workers; they had become part of that
+great monster, the mill-machinery. Riots and misery were the first
+result of the passing of hand weaving and spinning.
+
+In the _Vision of Piers Ploughman_ (1360) are these lines:--
+
+    "Cloth that cometh fro the wevyng
+    Is nought comly to were
+    Till it be fulled under foot
+    Or in fullyng stokkes
+    Wasshen wel with water
+    And with taseles cracched,
+    Y-touked and y-tented
+    And under taillours hande."
+
+Just so in the colonies four centuries later, cloth that came from the
+weaving was not comely to wear till it was fulled under foot or in
+fulling-stocks, washed well in water, scratched and dressed with
+teazels, dyed and tented, and put in the tailor's hands. Nor did the
+roll of centuries bring a change in the manner of proceeding. If grease
+had been put on the wool when it was carded, or sizing in the warp for
+the weaving, it was washed out by good rinsing from the woven cloth.
+This became now somewhat uneven and irregular in appearance, and full of
+knots and fuzzes which were picked out with hand-tweezers by burlers
+before it was fulled or milled, as it was sometimes called. The
+fulling-stocks were a trough in which an enormous oaken hammer was made
+to pound up and down, while the cloth was kept thoroughly wet with warm
+soap and water, or fullers' earth and water. Naturally this thickened
+the web much and reduced it in length. It was then teazelled; that is, a
+nap or rough surface was raised all over it by scratching it with
+weavers' teazels or thistles. Many wire brushes and metal substitutes
+have been tried to take the place of nature's gift to the cloth-worker,
+the teazel, but nothing has been invented to replace with full
+satisfaction that wonderful scratcher. For the slender recurved bracts
+of the teazel heads are stiff and prickly enough to roughen thoroughly
+the nap of the cloth, yet they yield at precisely the right point to
+keep from injuring the fabric.
+
+If the cloth were to be "y-touked," that is, dyed, it was done at this
+period, and it was then "y-tented," spread on the tenter-field and
+caught on tenter-hooks, to shrink and dry.
+
+Nowadays, we sometimes cut or crop the nap with long shears, and boil
+the web to give it a lustre, and ink it to color any ill-dyed fibres,
+and press it between hot plates before it goes to the tailor's hands;
+but these injurious processes were omitted in olden times. Worsted
+stuffs were not fulled, but were woven of hand-combed wool.
+
+Linen webs after they were woven had even more manipulations to come to
+them than woollen stuffs. In spite of all the bleaching of the linen
+thread, it still was light brown in color, and it had to go through at
+least twoscore other processes, of bucking, possing, rinsing, drying,
+and bleaching on the grass. Sometimes it was stretched out on pegs with
+loops sewed on the selvage edge. This bleaching was called crofting in
+England, and grassing in America. Often it was thus spread on the grass
+for weeks, and was slightly wetted several times a day; but not too wet,
+else it would mildew. In all, over forty bleaching operations were
+employed upon "light linens." Sometimes they were "soured" in buttermilk
+to make them purely white. Thus at least sixteen months had passed since
+the flaxseed had been sown, in which, truly, the spinster had not eaten
+the bread of idleness. In the winter months the fine, white, strong
+linen was made into "board cloths" or tablecloths, sheets, pillow-biers,
+aprons, shifts, shirts, petticoats, short gowns, gloves, cut from the
+spinner's own glove pattern, and a score of articles for household use.
+These were carefully marked, and sometimes embroidered with home-dyed
+crewels, as were also splendid sets of bed-hangings, valances, and
+testers for four-post bedsteads.
+
+The homespun linens that were thus spun and woven and bleached were one
+of the most beautiful expressions and types of old-time home life. Firm,
+close-woven, and pure, their designs were not greatly varied, nor was
+their woof as symmetrical and perfect as modern linens--but thus were
+the lives of those who made them; firm, close-woven in neighborly
+kindness, with the simplicity both of innocence and ignorance; their
+days had little variety, and life was not altogether easy, and, like the
+web they wove, it was sometimes narrow. I am always touched when
+handling these homespun linens with a consciousness of nearness to the
+makers; with a sense of the energy and strength of those enduring women
+who were so full of vitality, of unceasing action, that it does not seem
+to me they can be dead.
+
+The strong, firm linen woven in many struggling country homes was too
+valuable and too readily exchangeable and salable to be kept wholly for
+farm use, especially when there were so few salable articles produced on
+the farm. It was sold or more frequently exchanged at the village store
+for any desired commodity, such as calico, salt, sugar, spices, or tea.
+It readily sold for forty-two cents a yard. Therefore the boys and even
+the fathers did not always have linen shirts to wear. From the tow
+which had been hatchelled out from harl a coarse thread was spun and
+cloth was woven which was made chiefly into shirts and smocks and tow
+"tongs" or "skilts," which were loose flapping summer trousers which
+ended almost half-way from the knee to the ankle. This tow stuff was
+never free from prickling spines, and it proved, so tradition states, an
+absolute instrument of torture to the wearer, until frequent washings
+had worn it out and thus subdued its knots and spines.
+
+A universal stuff woven in New Hampshire by the Scotch-Irish
+linen-weavers who settled there, and who influenced husbandry and
+domestic manufactures and customs all around them, was what was known as
+striped frocking. It was worn also to a considerable extent in
+Connecticut and Massachusetts. The warp was strong white cotton or tow
+thread, the weft of blue and white stripes made by weaving alternately a
+shuttleful of indigo-dyed homespun yarn and one of white wool or tow.
+Many boys grew to manhood never wearing, except on Sundays, any kind of
+coat save a long, loose, shapeless jacket or smock of this striped
+frocking, known everywhere as a long-short. The history of the old town
+of Charmingfare tells of the farmers in that vicinity tying tight the
+two corners of this long-short at the waist and thus making a sort of
+loose bag in which various articles could be carried. Sylvester Judd, in
+his _Margaret_, the classic of old New England life, has his country
+women dressed also in long-shorts, and tells of the same fabric.
+
+Another material which was universal in country districts had a flax or
+tow warp, and a coarser slack-twisted cotton or tow filling. This cloth
+was dyed and pressed and was called fustian. It was worth a shilling a
+yard in 1640. It was named in the earliest colonial accounts, and was in
+truth the ancient fustian, worn throughout Europe in the Middle Ages for
+monks' robes and laborers' dress, not the stuff to-day called fustian.
+We read in _The Squier of Low Degree_, "Your blanketts shall be of
+fustayne."
+
+Another coarse cloth made in New England, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and
+the Carolinas was crocus. The stuff is obsolete and the name is
+forgotten save in a folk-saying which lingers in Virginia--"as coarse as
+crocus." Homespun stuff for the wear of negroes was known and sold as
+"Virginia cloth." Vast quantities of homespun cloth was made on
+Virginian plantations, thousands of yards annually at Mount Vernon for
+slave-wear, and for the house-mistress as well.
+
+It is told of Martha Washington that she always carefully dyed all her
+worn silk gowns and silk scraps to a desired shade, ravelled them with
+care, wound them on bobbins, and had them woven into chair and
+cushion covers. Sometimes she changed the order of things. To a group of
+visitors she at one time displayed a dress of red and white striped
+material of which the white stripes were cotton, and the red, ravelled
+chair covers and silk from the General's worn-out stockings.
+
+Checked linen, with bars of red or blue, was much used for bedticks,
+pillow-cases, towelling, aprons, and even shirts and summer trousers. In
+all the Dutch communities in New York it was woven till this century.
+When Benjamin Tappan first attended meeting in Northampton,
+Massachusetts, in 1769, he was surprised to find that all the men in the
+church but four or five wore checked shirts. Worcester County men always
+wore white shirts, and deemed a checked shirt the mark of a Connecticut
+River man.
+
+It is impossible to overestimate the durability of homespun materials. I
+have "flannel sheets" a hundred years old, the lightest, most healthful,
+and agreeable summer covering for children's beds that ever any one was
+blessed with. Cradle sheets of this thin, closely woven, white worsted
+stuff are not slimsy like thin flannel, yet are softer than flannel.
+Years of use with many generations of children have left them firm and
+white.
+
+Grain-bags have been seen that have been in constant and hard use for
+seventy years, homespun from coarse flax and hemp. I have several
+delightful bags about four feet long and two feet wide, of rather
+closely woven pure white homespun linen, not as heavy, however, as
+crash. They have the date of their manufacture, 1789, and the initials
+of the weaver, and have linen tapes woven in at each side. They are used
+every spring--packed with furs and blankets and placed in cedar chests,
+and with such usage will easily round out another century.
+
+The product of these hand-looms which has lingered longest in country
+use, especially in the Northern states, and which is the sole product of
+all the hand-looms that I know to be set up and in use in New England
+(except one notable example to which I will refer hereafter), is the rag
+carpet. It is still in constant demand and esteem on farms and in small
+villages and towns, and is an economical and thrifty, and may be a
+comely floor-covering. The accompanying illustration of a woman weaving
+rag carpet on an old hand-loom is from a fine photograph taken by Mrs.
+Arthur Sewall of Bath, Maine, and gives an excellent presentment of the
+machine and the process.
+
+The warp of these carpets was, in olden times, a strong, heavy flaxen
+thread. To-day it is a heavy cotton twine bought machine-spun in balls
+or hanks. The weft or rilling is narrow strips of all the clean and
+vari-colored rags that accumulate in a household.
+
+The preparing of this filling requires considerable judgment. Heavy
+woollen cloth should be cut in strips about half an inch wide. If there
+were sewn with these strips of light cotton stuff of equal width, the
+carpet would prove a poor thing, heavy in spots and slimsy in others.
+Hence lighter stuffs should be cut in wider strips, as they can then be
+crowded down by the batten of the loom to the same width and substance
+as the heavy wools. Calicoes, cottons, all-wool delaines, and lining
+cambrics should be cut in strips at least an inch wide. These strips, of
+whatever length they chance to be, are sewn into one continuous strip,
+which is rolled into a hard ball weighing about a pound and a quarter.
+It is calculated that one of these balls will weave about a yard of
+carpeting. The joining must be strongly and neatly done and should not
+be bunchy. An aged weaver who had woven many thousand yards of carpeting
+assured me the prettiest carpets were always those in which every
+alternate strip was white or very light in color. Another thrifty way of
+using old material is the cutting into inch-wide strips of woven ingrain
+or three-ply carpet. This, through the cotton warp, makes a really
+artistic monochrome floor-covering.
+
+In one of the most romantic and beautiful spots in old Narragansett
+lives the last of the old-time weavers; not a weaver who desultorily
+weaves a run of rag carpeting to earn a little money in the intervals of
+other work, or to please some importunate woman-neighbor who has saved
+up her rags; but a weaver whose lifelong occupation, whose only means of
+livelihood, has always been, and is still, hand-weaving. I have told his
+story at some length in my book, _Old Narragansett_,--of his kin, his
+life, his work. His home is at the cross-roads where three townships
+meet, a cross-roads where has often taken place that curious and
+senseless survival of old-time tradition and superstition--shift
+marriages. A widow, a cousin of the Weaver Rose's father, was the last
+to undergo this ordeal; clad only in her shift, she thrice crossed the
+King's Highway and was thus married to avoid payment of her first
+husband's debts. It is not far from the old Church Foundation of St.
+Paul's of Narragansett, and the tumble-down house of Sexton Martin Read,
+the prince of Narragansett weavers in ante-Revolutionary days. Weaver
+Rose learned to weave from his grandfather, who was an apprentice of
+Weaver Read.
+
+In the loom-room of Weaver Rose a veritable atmosphere of the past still
+lingers. Everything appertaining to the manufacture of homespun
+materials may there be found. Wheels, skarnes, sleys, warping-bars,
+clock-reels, swifts, quilling-wheels, vast bales of yarns and
+thread--for he no longer spins his thread and yarn. There are piles of
+old and new bed coverlets woven in those fanciful geometric designs,
+which are just as the ancient Gauls wove them in the Bronze Age, and
+which formed a favorite bed-covering of our ancestors, and of country
+folk to-day. These coverlets the weaver calls by the good old English
+name of hap-harlot, a name now obsolete in England, which I have never
+seen used in text of later date than Holinshead's _Survey of London_,
+written four hundred years ago. His manuscript pattern-book is over a
+hundred years old, and has the rules for setting the harnesses. They
+bear many pretty and odd names, such as "Rosy Walk," "Baltimore
+Beauty," "Girl's Love," "Queen's Fancy," "Devil's Fancy," "Everybody's
+Beauty," "Four Snow Balls," "Five Snow Balls," "Bricks and Blocks,"
+"Gardener's Note," "Green Vails," "Rose in Bloom," "Pansies and Roses in
+the Wilderness," "Flag-Work," "Royal Beauty," "Indian March," "Troy's
+Beauty," "Primrose and Diamonds," "Crown and Diamonds," "Jay's Fancy,"
+"In Summer and Winter," "Boston Beauty," and "Indian War." One named
+"Bony Part's March" was very pretty, as was "Orange Peel," and "Orange
+Trees"; "Dog Tracks" was even checkerwork, "Blazing Star," a
+herring-bone design. "Perry's Victory" and "Lady Washington's Delight"
+show probably the date of their invention, and were handsome designs,
+while the "Whig Rose from Georgia," which had been given to the weaver
+by an old lady a hundred years old, had proved a poor and ugly thing.
+"Kapa's Diaper" was a complicated design which took "five harnesses" to
+make. "Rattlesnake's Trail," "Wheels of Fancy," "Chariot Wheels and
+Church Windows," and "Bachelor's Fancy" were all exceptionally fine
+designs.
+
+Sometimes extremely elaborate patterns were woven in earlier days. An
+exquisitely woven coverlet as fine as linen sheeting, a corner of which
+is here shown, has an elaborate border of patriotic and Masonic
+emblems, patriotic inscriptions, and the name of the maker, a Red Hook,
+Hudson valley, dame of a century ago, who wove this beautiful bedspread
+as the crowning treasure of her bridal outfit. The "setting-up" of such
+a design as this is entirely beyond my skill as a weaver to explain or
+even comprehend. But it is evident that the border must have been woven
+by taking up a single warp-thread at a time, with a wire needle, not by
+passing a shuttle, as it is far too complicated and varied for any
+treadle-harness to be able to make a shed for a shuttle.
+
+Hand-weaving in Weaver Rose's loom-room to-day is much simplified in
+many of its preparatory details by the employment of machine-made
+materials. The shuttles and spools are made by machinery; and more
+important still, both warp and weft is purchased ready-spun from mills.
+The warp is simply a stout cotton twine or coarse thread bought in balls
+or hanks; while various cheap mill-yarns or what is known as worsteds or
+coarse crewels are used as filling. These, of course, are cheap, but
+alas! are dyed with fleeting or garish aniline dyes. No new blue yarn
+can equal either in color or durability the old indigo-dyed, homespun,
+hard-twisted yarn made on a spinning-wheel. Germantown, early in the
+field in American wool manufacture, still supplies nearly all the yarn
+for his hand-looms.
+
+The transition half a century or more ago from what Horace Bushnell
+called "mother and daughter power to water and steam power," was a
+complete revolution in domestic life, and indeed of social manners as
+well. When a people spin and weave and make their own dress, you have in
+this very fact the assurance that they are home-bred, home-living,
+home-loving people. You are sure, also, that the lives of the women are
+home-centred. The chief cause for women's intercourse with any of the
+outside world except neighborly acquaintance, her chief knowledge of
+trade and exchange, is in shopping, dressmaking, etc. These causes
+scarcely existed in country communities a century ago. The daughters who
+in our days of factories leave the farm for the cotton-mill, where they
+perform but one of the many operations in cloth manufacture, can never
+be as good home-makers or as helpful mates as the homespun girls of our
+grandmothers' days; nor can they be such co-workers in great public
+movements.
+
+In the summer of 1775, when all the preparations for the War of the
+Revolution were in a most unsettled and depressing condition, especially
+the supplies for the Continental army, the Provincial Congress made a
+demand on the people for thirteen thousand warm coats to be ready for
+the soldiers by cold weather. There were no great contractors then as
+now to supply the cloth and make the garments, but by hundreds of
+hearthstones throughout the country wool-wheels and hand-looms were
+started eagerly at work, and the order was filled by the handiwork of
+patriotic American women. In the record book of some New England towns
+may still be found the lists of the coat-makers. In the inside of each
+coat was sewed the name of the town and the maker. Every soldier
+volunteering for eight months' service was given one of these homespun,
+home-made, all-wool coats as a bounty. So highly were these "Bounty
+Coats" prized, that the heirs of soldiers who were killed at Bunker Hill
+before receiving their coats were given a sum of money instead. The list
+of names of soldiers who then enlisted is known to this day as the "Coat
+Roll," and the names of the women who made the coats might form another
+roll of honor. The English sneeringly called Washington's army the
+"Homespuns." It was a truthful nickname, but there was deeper power in
+the title than the English scoffers knew.
+
+The starting up of power-looms and the wonderful growth of woollen
+manufacture did not crowd out homespun as speedily in America as in
+England. When the poet Whittier set out from the Quaker farmhouse to go
+to Boston to seek his fortune, he wore a homespun suit every part of
+which, even the horn buttons, was of domestic manufacture. Many a man
+born since Whittier has grown to manhood clothed for every-day wear
+wholly with homespun; and many a boy is living who was sent to college
+dressed wholly in a "full-cloth" suit, with horn buttons or buttons made
+of discs of heavy leather.
+
+During the Civil War spinning and weaving were revived arts in the
+Confederate cities; and, as ever in earlier days, proved a most valuable
+economic resource under restricted conditions. In the home of a friend
+in Charleston, South Carolina, an old, worm-eaten loom was found in a
+garret where it had lain since the embargo in 1812. It was set up in
+1863, and plantation carpenters made many like it for neighbors and
+fellow-citizens. All women in the mountain districts knew how to use the
+loom, and taught weaving to many others, both white and black. A portion
+of the warp, which was cotton, was spun at home; more was bought from a
+cotton-factory. My friend sacrificed a great number of excellent
+wool-mattresses; this wool was spun into yarn and used for weft, and
+formed a most grateful and dignified addition to the varied, grotesque,
+and interesting makeshifts of the wardrobe of the Southern Confederacy.
+
+Though weaving on hand-looms in our Northern and Middle states is
+practically extinct, save as to the weaving of rag carpets (and that
+only in few communities), in the South all is different. In all the
+mountain and remote regions of Kentucky, Tennessee, Georgia, the
+Carolinas, and I doubt not in Alabama, both among the white and negro
+mountain-dwellers, hand-weaving is still a household art. The
+descendants of the Acadians in Louisiana still weave and wear homespun.
+The missions in the mountains encourage spinning and weaving; and it is
+pleasant to learn that many women not only pursue these handicrafts for
+their home use, but some secure a good living by hand-weaving, earning
+ten cents a yard in weaving rag carpets. The coverlet patterns resemble
+the ones already described. Names from Waynesville, North Carolina, are
+"Washington's Diamond Ring," "Nine Chariot Wheels"; from Pinehurst come
+"Flowery Vine," "Double Table," "Cat Track," "Snow Ball and Dew Drop,"
+"Snake Shed," "Flowers in the Mountains." At Pinehurst the old settlers,
+of sturdy Scotch stock, all weave. They make cloth, all cotton; cloth of
+cotton warp and wool filling called drugget; dimity, a heavy cotton used
+for coverlets; a yarn jean which has wool warp and filling, and cotton
+jean which is cotton warp and wool filling; homespun is a heavy cloth,
+of cotton and wool mixed. All buy cotton warp or "chain," as they call
+it, ready-spun from the mills. This is known by the name of
+bunch-thread. These Pinehurst weavers still use home-made dyes. Cotton
+is dyed black with dye made by steeping the bark of the "Black Jack" or
+scrub-oak mixed with red maple bark. Wool is dyed black with a mixture
+of gall-berry leaves and sumac berries; for red they use a moss which
+they find growing on the rocks, and which may be the lichen _Roccella
+tinctoria_ or dyer's-moss; also madder root, and sassafras bark. Yellow
+is dyed with laurel leaves, or "dye-flower," a yellow flower of the
+sunflower tribe; laurel leaves and "dye-flower" together made
+orange-red. Blue is obtained from the plentiful wild indigo; and for
+green, the cloth or yarn is first dyed blue with indigo, then boiled in
+a decoction of hickory bark and laurel leaves. A bright yellow is
+obtained from a clay which abounds in that neighborhood, probably like a
+red ferruginous limestone found in Tennessee, which gives a splendid,
+fast color; when the clay is baked and ground it gives a fine, artistic,
+dull red. Purple dye comes from cedar tops and lilac leaves; brown from
+an extract of walnut hulls.
+
+The affectionate regard which all good workmen have for their tools and
+implements in handcrafts is found among these Southern weavers. One
+assures me that her love for her loom is as for a human companion. The
+machines are usually family heirlooms that have been owned for several
+generations, and are treasured like relics.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+GIRLS' OCCUPATIONS
+
+
+Hatchelling and carding, spinning and reeling, weaving and bleaching,
+cooking, candle and cheese making, were not the only household
+occupations of our busy grandmothers when they were young; a score of
+domestic duties kept ever busy their ready hands.
+
+Some notion of the qualifications of a housekeeper over a century ago
+may be obtained from this advertisement in the _Pennsylvania Packet_ of
+September 23, 1780:
+
+     "Wanted at a Seat about half a day's journey from Philadelphia, on
+     which are good improvements and domestics, A single Woman of
+     unsullied Reputation, an affable, cheerful, active and amiable
+     Disposition; cleanly, industrious, perfectly qualified to direct
+     and manage the female Concerns of country business, as raising
+     small stock, dairying, marketing, combing, carding, spinning,
+     knitting, sewing, pickling, preserving, etc., and occasionally to
+     instruct two young Ladies in those Branches of Oeconomy, who, with
+     their father, compose the Family. Such a person will be treated
+     with respect and esteem, and meet with every encouragement due to
+     such a character."
+
+Respect and esteem, forsooth! and due encouragement to such a miracle of
+saintliness and capacity; light terms indeed to apply to such a
+character.
+
+There is, in the library of the Connecticut Historical Society, a diary
+written by a young girl of Colchester, Connecticut, in the year 1775.
+Her name was Abigail Foote. She set down her daily work, and the entries
+run like this:--
+
+     "Fix'd gown for Prude,--Mend Mother's Riding-hood,--Spun short
+     thread,--Fix'd two gowns for Welsh's girls,--Carded tow,--Spun
+     linen,--Worked on Cheese-basket,--Hatchel'd flax with Hannah, we
+     did 51 lbs. apiece,--Pleated and ironed,--Read a Sermon of
+     Doddridge's,--Spooled a piece,--Milked the cows,--Spun linen, did
+     50 knots,--Made a Broom of Guinea wheat straw,--Spun thread to
+     whiten,--Set a Red dye,--Had two Scholars from Mrs. Taylor's,--I
+     carded two pounds of whole wool and felt Nationly,--Spun harness
+     twine,--Scoured the pewter."
+
+She tells also of washing, cooking, knitting, weeding the garden,
+picking geese, etc., and of many visits to her friends. She dipped
+candles in the spring, and made soap in the autumn. This latter was a
+trying and burdensome domestic duty, but the soft soap was important for
+home use.
+
+All the refuse grease from cooking, butchering, etc., was stored through
+the winter, as well as wood-ashes from the great fireplaces. The first
+operation was to make the lye, to "set the leach." Many families owned a
+strongly made leach-barrel; others made a sort of barrel from a section
+of the bark of the white birch. This barrel was placed on bricks or set
+at a slight angle on a circular groove in a wood or stone base; then
+filled with ashes; water was poured in till the lye trickled or leached
+out through an outlet cut in the groove, into a small wooden tub or
+bucket. The water and ashes were frequently replenished as they wasted,
+and the lye accumulated in a large tub or kettle. If the lye was not
+strong enough, it was poured over fresh ashes. An old-time receipt
+says:--
+
+     "The great Difficulty in making Soap come is the want of Judgment
+     of the Strength of the Lye. If your Lye will bear up an Egg or a
+     Potato so you can see a piece of the Surface as big as a Ninepence
+     it is just strong enough."
+
+The grease and lye were then boiled together in a great pot over a fire
+out of doors. It took about six bushels of ashes and twenty-four pounds
+of grease to make a barrel of soap. The soft soap made by this process
+seemed like a clean jelly, and showed no trace of the repulsive grease
+that helped to form it. A hard soap also was made with the tallow of the
+bayberry, and was deemed especially desirable for toilet use. But little
+hard soap was purchased, even in city homes.
+
+It was a common saying: "We had bad luck with our soap," or good luck.
+The soap was always carefully stirred one way. The "Pennsylvania Dutch"
+used a sassafras stick to stir it. A good smart worker could make a
+barrel of soap in a day, and have time to sit and rest in the afternoon
+and talk her luck over, before getting supper.
+
+This soft soap was used in the great monthly washings which, for a
+century after the settlement of the colonies, seem to have been the
+custom. The household wash was allowed to accumulate, and the washing
+done once a month, or in some households once in three months.
+
+Thomas Tusser's rhymed instructions to good housekeepers as to the
+washing contain chiefly warnings to the housekeeper against thieves,
+thus:--
+
+              "Dry sun, dry wind,
+              Safe bind, safe find.
+    Go wash well, saith summer, with sun I shall dry;
+    Go wring well, saith winter, with wind so shall I.
+    To trust without heed is to venture a joint,
+    Give tale and take count is a housewifely point."
+
+Abigail Foote wrote of making a broom of Guinea wheat. This was not
+broom-corn, for that useful plant was not grown in Connecticut for the
+purpose of broom-making till twenty years or more after she wrote her
+diary. Brooms and brushes were made of it in Italy nearly two centuries
+ago. Benjamin Franklin, who was ever quick to use and develop anything
+that would benefit his native country, and was ever ready to take a
+hint, noted a few seeds of broom-corn hanging on an imported brush. He
+planted these seeds and raised some of the corn; and Thomas Jefferson
+placed broom-corn among the productions of Virginia in 1781. By this
+time many had planted it, but no systematic plan of raising broom-corn
+abundantly for the manufacture of brooms was planned till 1798, when
+Levi Dickenson, a Yankee farmer of Hadley, Massachusetts, planted half
+an acre. From this he made between one and two hundred brooms which he
+peddled in a horse-cart in neighboring towns. The following year he
+planted an acre; and the tall broom-corn with its spreading panicles
+attracted much attention. Though he was thought visionary when he
+predicted that broom manufacture would be the greatest industry in the
+county, and though he was sneeringly told that only Indians ought to
+make brooms, he persevered; and his neighbors finally planted and made
+brooms also. He carried brooms soon to Pittsfield, to New London, and in
+1805 to Albany and Boston. So rapid was the increase of manufacture that
+in 1810 seventy thousand brooms were made in the county. Since then
+millions of dollars' worth have gone forth from the farms and villages
+in his neighborhood.
+
+Mr. Dickenson at first scraped the seed from the brush with a knife;
+then he used a sort of hoe; then a coarse comb like a ripple-comb. He
+tied each broom by hand, with the help of a negro servant. Much of this
+work could be done by little girls, who soon gave great help in broom
+manufacture; though the final sewing (when the needle was pressed
+through with a leather "palm" such as sailors use) had to be done by the
+strong hands of grown women and men.
+
+Doubtless Abigail Foote made many an "Indian broom," as well as her
+brooms of Guinea wheat, which may have been a special home manufacture
+of her neighborhood; for many fibres, leaves, and straws were used
+locally in broom-making.
+
+Another duty of the women of the old-time household was the picking of
+domestic geese. Geese were raised for their feathers more than as food.
+In some towns every family had a flock, and their clanking was heard all
+day and sometimes all night. They roamed the streets all summer, eating
+grass by the highways and wallowing in the puddles. Sometimes they were
+yoked with a goose-yoke made of a shingle with a hole in it. In
+midwinter they were kept in barnyards, but the rest of the year they
+spent the night in the street, each flock near the home of its owner. It
+is said that one old goose of each flock always kept awake and stood
+watch; and it was told in Hadley, Massachusetts, that if a young man
+chanced to be out late, as for instance a-courting, his return home
+wakened the geese throughout the village, who sounded the unseasonable
+hour with a terrible clamor. They made so much noise on summer Sundays
+that they seriously disturbed church services; and became such nuisances
+that at last the boys killed whole flocks.
+
+Goose-picking was cruel work. Three or four times a year were the
+feathers stripped from the live birds. A stocking was pulled over the
+bird's head to keep it from biting. Sometimes the head was thrust into a
+goose basket. The pickers had to wear old clothes and tie covers over
+the hair, as the down flew everywhere. The quills, used for pens, were
+never pulled but once from a goose. Palladius, _On Husbondrie_, written
+in the fourth century, and Englished in the fifteenth century, tells of
+goose-picking:--
+
+    "Twice a yere deplumed may they be,
+    In spryngen tyme and harvest tyme."
+
+The old Latin and English times for picking were followed in the New
+World. Among the Dutch, geese were everywhere raised; for feather-beds
+were, if possible, more desired by the Dutch than the English.
+
+In a work entitled _Good Order established in Pennsylvania and New
+Jersey_, written by a Quaker in 1685, he urges that schools be provided
+where girls could be instructed in "the spinning of flax, sewing, and
+making all sorts of useful needle work, knitting of gloves and
+stockings, making of straw-works, as hats, baskets, etc., or any other
+useful art or mystery." It was a century before his "making of
+straw-works" was carried out, not till larger importations of straw hats
+and bonnets came to this country.
+
+When the beautiful and intricate straw bonnets of Italian braid,
+Genoese, Leghorn, and others, were brought here, they were too costly
+for many to purchase; and many attempts, especially by country-bred
+girls, were made to plait at home straw braids to imitate these envied
+bonnets. Many towns claim the first American straw bonnet; in fact, the
+attempts were almost simultaneous. To Betsey Metcalf of Providence,
+Rhode Island, is usually accorded the honor of starting the straw-hat
+business in America. The earliest recorded effort to manufacture straw
+head-wear is shown in a patent given to Mrs. Sibylla Masters of
+Philadelphia, for using palmetto and straw for hats. This Mrs. Masters
+was the first American, man or woman, ever awarded a patent in England.
+The first patent issued by the United States to a woman was also for an
+invention in straw-plaiting. A Connecticut girl, Miss Sophia Woodhouse,
+was given a prize for "leghorn hats" which she had plaited; and she took
+out a patent in 1821 for a new material for bonnets. It was the stalks,
+above the upper joint, of spear-grass and redtop grass growing so
+profusely in Weathersfield. From this she had a national reputation,
+and a prize of twenty guineas was given her the same year by the London
+Society of Arts. The wife of President John Quincy Adams wore one of
+these bonnets, to the great pride of her husband.
+
+When the bonnet was braided and sewed into shape, it had to be bleached,
+for it was the dark natural straw. I don't know the domestic process in
+general use, but an ingenious family of sisters in Newburyport thus
+accomplished their bleaching. They bored holes in the head of a barrel;
+tied strings to each new bonnet; passed the strings through the holes
+and carefully plugged the openings with wood. This left the bonnets
+hanging inside the barrel, which was set over an old-fashioned
+foot-stove filled with hot coals on which sulphur had been placed. The
+fumes of the burning sulphur arose and filled the barrel, and were
+closely retained by quilts wrapped around it. When the bonnets were
+taken out, they were clear and white. The base of a lignum-vitæ mortar
+made into the proper shape with layers of pasteboard formed the mould on
+which the bonnet crown was pressed.
+
+Even before they could spin girls were taught to knit, as soon as their
+little hands could hold the needles. Sometimes girls four years of age
+could knit stockings. Boys had to knit their own suspenders. All the
+stockings and mittens for the family, and coarse socks and mittens for
+sale, were made in large numbers. Much fine knitting was done, with many
+intricate and elaborate stitches; those known as the "herring-bone" and
+"fox and geese" were great favorites. By the use of curious stitches
+initials could be knit into mittens; and it is said that one young New
+Hampshire girl, using fine flaxen yarn, knit the whole alphabet and a
+verse of poetry into a pair of mittens; which I think must have been
+long-armed mitts for ladies' wear, to have space enough for the poetry.
+
+To knit a pair of double mittens was a sharp and long day's work. Nancy
+Peabody's brother of Shelburne, New Hampshire, came home one night and
+said he had lost his mittens while chopping in the woods. Nancy ran to a
+bundle of wool in the garret, carded and spun a big hank of yarn that
+night. It was soaked and scoured the next morning, and in twenty-four
+hours from the time the brother announced his loss he had a fine new
+pair of double mittens. A pair of double hooked and pegged mittens would
+last for years. Pegging, I am told, was heavy crocheting.
+
+An elaborate and much-admired form of knitting was the bead bags and
+purses which were so fashionable in the early years of this century,
+though I have seen some knitted bags of colonial days.
+
+Great variety and ingenuity were shown in these bags and purses. Some
+bore landscapes and figures; others were memorials done in black and
+white and purple beads, having so-called "mourning designs," such as
+weeping willows, gravestones, urns, etc., with the name of the deceased
+person and date of death. Beautiful bags were knitted to match
+wedding-gowns. Knitted purses were a favorite token and gift from fair
+hands to husband or lover. Watch chains were more unusual; they were
+knit in a geometrical design, were about a yard long and about
+three-eighths of an inch in diameter. One I saw had in tiny letters in
+gilt beads the date and the words "Remember the Giver." In all these
+knitted and crocheted bags the beads had to be strung by a rule in
+advance; in an elaborate pattern of many colors it may easily be seen
+that the mistake of a single bead in the stringing would spoil the
+entire design. They were therefore never a cheap form of decorative
+work. Five dollars was often paid for knitting a single bag. A varied
+group from the collection of Mr. J. Howard Swift of Chicago is here
+shown.
+
+Netting was another decorative handiwork. Netted fringes for edging the
+coverlets, curtains, testers, and valances of high-post bedsteads
+were usually made of cotton thread or twine, and when tufted or
+tasselled were a pretty finish. A finer silk or cotton netting was used
+for trimming sacks and petticoats. A letter written by Mrs. Carrington
+from Mount Vernon in 1799 says of Mrs. President Washington:--
+
+     "Her netting is a source of great amusement to her and is so neatly
+     done that all the younger part of the family are proud of trimming
+     their dresses with it, and have furnished me with a whole suit so
+     that I shall appear 'a la domestique' at the first party we have
+     when I get home."
+
+Netted purses and work-bags also were made similar to the knitted ones.
+A homelier and heavier netting of twine was often done at home for small
+fishing-nets.
+
+Previous to the Revolution there was a boarding-school kept in
+Philadelphia in Second Street near Walnut, by a Mrs. Sarah Wilson. She
+thus advertised:--
+
+     "Young ladies may be educated in a genteel manner, and pains taken
+     to teach them in regard to their behaviour, on reasonable terms.
+     They may be taught all sorts fine needlework, viz., working on
+     catgut or flowering muslin, sattin stitch, quince stitch, tent
+     stitch, cross-stitch, open work, tambour, embroidering curtains or
+     chairs, writing and cyphering. Likewise waxwork in all its several
+     branches, never as yet particularly taught here; also how to take
+     profiles in wax, to make wax flowers and fruits and pin-baskets."
+
+There was no limit to the beauty and delicacy of the embroidery of those
+days. I have seen the beautiful needlework cap and skirt worn by
+Governor Thomas Johnson of Maryland, when he was christened. The coat of
+arms of both the Lux and Johnson families, the name Agnes Lux and Anne
+Johnson, and the words "God bless the Babe" are embroidered upon them in
+most delicate fairy stitches. The babe grew up to be the governor of his
+state in Revolutionary times.
+
+In an old book printed in 1821, a set of rules is given for teaching
+needlework, and it is doubtless exactly what had been the method for a
+century. The girls were first shown how to turn a hem on a piece of
+waste paper; then they proceeded to the various stitches in this order:
+to hem, to sew and fell a seam, to draw threads and hemstitch, to gather
+and sew on gathers, to make buttonholes, to sew on buttons, to do
+herring-bone stitch, to darn, to mark, to tuck, whip, and sew on a
+frill. There is also a long and tedious set of questions and answers
+like a catechism, explaining the various stitches.
+
+There was one piece of needlework which was done by every little girl
+who was carefully brought up: she sewed a sampler. These were worked in
+various beautiful and difficult stitches in colored silks and wool on a
+strong, loosely woven canvas.
+
+In English collections, the oblong samplers, long and narrow, are as a
+rule older than the square samplers; and it is safe to believe the same
+of American samplers. Fortunately, many of them are dated, but this
+ancient one from the Quincy family has no date. The oldest sampler I
+have ever seen is in the collection of antique articles now in Pilgrim
+Hall at Plymouth. It was made by a daughter of the Pilgrims. The verse
+embroidered on it reads:--
+
+    "Lorea Standish is My Name.
+      Lord Guide my Heart that I may do thy Will,
+      And fill my Hands with such convenient skill
+    As will conduce to Virtue void of Shame,
+    And I will give the Glory to thy Name."
+
+Similar verses, and portions of hymns, are often found on these
+samplers. A favorite rhyme was:--
+
+    "When I was young and in my Prime,
+    You see how well I spent my Time.
+    And by my sampler you may see
+    What care my Parents took of me."
+
+A very spirited verse is:--
+
+    "You'll mend your life to-morrow still you cry.
+    In what far Country does To-morrow lie?
+    It stays so long, is fetch'd so far, I fear
+    'Twill prove both very old, and very dear."
+
+Strange trees and fruits and birds and beasts, wonderful vines and
+flowers, were embroidered on these domestic tapestries.
+
+In the hands of a skilful worker, the sampler might become a thing of
+beauty and historical interest; and the stitches learned and practised
+on it might be used on more ambitious pieces of work, which often took
+the shape of the family coat of arms. Such was the work of Mary Salter
+(Mrs. Henry Quincy), who was born in 1726, and died in 1755. It is the
+arms of Salter and Bryan party per pale upon a shield. Rich in embossed
+work in gold and silver thread, it is a beautiful testimonial to the
+deft and proficient hand of the young needlewoman who embroidered it.
+
+Sometimes pretentious pictures representing events in public or family
+history, were embroidered in crewels on sampler linen. The largest and
+funniest one I have ever seen was the boarding-school climax of glory
+of Miss Hannah Otis, sister of the patriot James Otis. It is a view of
+the Hancock House, Boston Common, and vicinity, as they appeared from
+1755 to 1760. Across its expanse Governor Hancock rides triumphantly;
+and the fair maid looking over the garden wall at the Charles River is
+Dorothy Quincy, afterwards Madam Hancock. This triumph of school-girl
+affection and needle-craft, wholly devoid of perspective or proportion,
+made a great sensation in Boston, in its day.
+
+Another large piece of similar work is here represented. The original is
+in the library of the American Antiquarian Society at Worcester,
+Massachusetts. It is a view of the Old South Church, Boston; and with
+its hooped dames and coach and footman, has a certain value as
+indicating the costume of the times. It is dated 1756.
+
+Familiar to the descendants of old New England families, are the
+embroidered mourning pieces. These are seldom more than a century old.
+On them weeping willows and urns, tombs and mourning figures, names of
+departed friends with dates of their deaths, and epitaphs were worked
+with vast skill, and were so much admired and were such a delightful
+home decoration, that it is no unusual thing to find these elaborate
+memento moris with empty spaces for names and dates, waiting for some
+one to die, and still unfilled, unfinished, blankly commemorative of no
+one, while the industrious embroiderer has long since gone to the tomb
+she so deftly and eagerly pictured, and her name, too, is forgotten.
+
+Tambour work was a favorite form of embroidery. In 1788 Madam Hesselius
+wrote thus in jest of her daughter, a Philadelphia miss:--
+
+    "To tambour on crape she has a great passion,
+    Because here of late it has been much the fashion.
+    The shades are dis-sorted, the spangles are scattered
+    And for want of due care the crape has got tattered."
+
+Tambouring with various stitches on different kinds of net made pretty
+laces; and these were apparently the laces usually worked and worn. In
+the form of rich veils and collars scores of intricate and beautiful
+stitches were used, and exquisite articles of wear were manufactured.
+
+A strip of net footing pinned and sewn to paper, with reels of fine
+linen thread and threaded needle attached, is shown in the accompanying
+illustration just as it was left by the deft and industrious hands that
+have been folded for a century in the dust. The pattern and stitches in
+this design are simple; the design was first pricked in outline with a
+pin, then worked in. Other stitches and patterns, none of them the most
+elaborate and difficult, are shown in the infant's cap and collars, and
+the strips of lace and "modesty-piece."
+
+In the seventeenth century lace-making with bobbins was taught; it is
+referred to in Judge Sewall's diary; and a friend has shown me the
+cushion and bobbins used by her far-away grandmother who learned the
+various stitches in London at a guinea a stitch.
+
+The feminine love of color, the longing for decoration, as well as pride
+in skill of needle-craft, found riotous expansion in quilt-piecing. A
+thrifty economy, too, a desire to use up all the fragments and bits of
+stuffs which were necessarily cut out in the shaping, chiefly of women's
+and children's garments, helped to make the patchwork a satisfaction.
+The amount of labor, of careful fitting, neat piecing, and elaborate
+quilting, the thousands of stitches that went into one of these
+patchwork quilts, are to-day almost painful to regard. Women revelled in
+intricate and difficult patchwork; they eagerly exchanged patterns with
+one another; they talked over the designs, and admired pretty bits of
+calico, and pondered what combinations to make, with far more zest than
+women ever discuss art or examine high art specimens together to-day.
+There was one satisfactory condition in the work, and that was the
+quality of the cottons and linens of which the patchwork was made. They
+were none of the slimsy, composition-filled, aniline-dyed calicoes of
+to-day. A piece of "chaney," "patch," or "copper-plate" a hundred years
+old will be as fresh to-day as when woven. Real India chintzes and
+palampours are found in these quilts, beautiful and artistic stuffs, and
+the firm, unyielding, high-priced, "real" French calicoes.
+
+A sense of the idealization of quilt-piecing is given also by the quaint
+descriptive names applied to the various patterns. Of those the
+"Rising-sun," "Log Cabin," and "Job's Trouble" are perhaps the most
+familiar. "Job's Trouble" was simply honeycomb or hexagonal blocks. "To
+set a Job's Trouble," was to cut out an exact hexagon for a pattern
+(preferably from tin, otherwise from firm cardboard); to cut out from
+this many hexagons in stiff brown paper or letter paper. These were
+covered with the bits of calico with the edges turned under; the sides
+were sewed carefully together over and over, till a firm expanse
+permitted the removal of the papers.
+
+The name of the pattern seldom gave an expression of its character.
+"Dove in the Window," "Rob Peter to Pay Paul," "Blue Brigade,"
+"Fan-mill," "Crow's Foot," "Chinese Puzzle," "Fly-wheel," "Love-knot,"
+"Sugar-bowl," are simply whims of fancy. Floral names, such as "Dutch
+Tulip," "Sunflower," "Rose of Sharon," "Bluebells," "World's Rose,"
+might suggest a love of flowers. Sometimes designs are appliqued on with
+some regard for coloring. I once saw a quilt that was a miracle of
+tedious work. The squares of white cotton each held a slender stem with
+two leaves of green or light brown calico, surmounted by a four-petalled
+flower of high-colored calico,--pink, red, blue, etc. This design was
+all carefully hemmed down. The effect was surprisingly Oriental.
+
+When the patchwork was completed, it was laid flatly on the lining
+(often another expanse of patchwork), with layers of wool or cotton
+wadding between, and the edges were basted all around. Four bars of
+wood, about ten feet long, "the quiltin'-frame," were placed at the four
+edges, the quilt was sewed to them with stout thread, the bars crossed
+and tied firmly at corners, and the whole raised on chairs or tables to
+a convenient height. Thus around the outstretched quilt a dozen quilters
+could sit running the whole together with fanciful set designs of
+stitching. When about a foot on either side was wholly quilted, it was
+rolled upon its bar, and the work went on; thus the visible quilt
+diminished, like Balzac's Peau de Chagrin, in a united and truly
+sociable work that required no special attention, in which all were
+facing together and all drawing closer together as the afternoon passed
+in intimate gossip. Sometimes several quilts were set up. I know of a
+ten days' quilting-bee in Narragansett in 1752.
+
+In early days calicoes were not common, but every one had woollen
+garments and pieces, and the quilts made of these were of grateful
+warmth in bleak New England. All kinds of commonplace garments and
+remnants of decayed gentility were pressed into service in these quilts:
+portions of the moth-eaten and discarded uniforms of militia-men,
+worn-out flannel sheets dyed with some brilliant home-dye, old coat and
+cloak linings, well-worn petticoats. A magnificent scarlet cloak worn by
+a lord mayor of London and brought to America by a member of the Merritt
+family of Salisbury, Massachusetts, went through a series of adventures
+and migrations, and ended its days as small bits of vivid color casting
+a grateful glory and variety on a patchwork quilt in the Saco valley of
+Maine. To this day at vendues or sales of old country households in New
+England, there will be handed out great rolls of woollen pieces to be
+used for patchwork quilts or rag carpets, and they find purchasers.
+
+These woollen quilts had a thin wadding, and were usually very closely
+quilted, so they were quite flat. They were called "pressed quilts." An
+old farm wife said to me in New Hampshire, "Girls won't take the trouble
+to make pressed quilts nowadays, it's as much as they'll do to tack a
+puff," that is, make a light quilt with thick wadding only tacked
+together from front to back, at regular intervals. A pressed quilt which
+I saw was quilted in inch squares. Another had a fan-pattern with
+sunflower leaf border; another was quilted in the elaborate pattern
+known as "feather-work."
+
+As much ingenuity was exercised in the design of the quilting as in the
+pattern of the patchwork, and the marking for the quilt design was
+exceedingly tedious, since, of course, no drawings could be used. I
+remember seeing one quilt marked by chalking strings which were
+stretched tightly across at the desired intervals, and held up and
+snapped smartly down on the quilt, leaving a faint chalky line to guide
+the eye and needle. Another simple design was to quilt in rounds, using
+a saucer or plate to form a perfect circle.
+
+The most elaborate quilt I know of is of silk containing portions of the
+wedding-dress of Esther Powel, granddaughter of Gabriel Bernon; she was
+married to James Helme in 1738. When her granddaughter was married in
+1795, the quilt was still unfinished, and a woman was hired who worked
+on it for six months, putting a miracle of fine stitches in the
+quilting. I think she must have been very old and very slow, for the
+wages paid her were but twenty cents a week and "her keep," which was
+very small pay even in that day of small wages. When Washington came to
+Newport, this splendid quilt was sent to grace the bed upon which the
+hero slept.
+
+I said a few summers ago to a farmer's wife who lived on the outskirts
+of a small New England hill-village: "Your home is very beautiful. From
+every window the view is perfect." She answered quickly: "Yes, but it's
+awful lonely for me, for I was born in Worcester; still I don't mind as
+long as we have plenty of quiltings." In answer to my questions she told
+me that the previous winter she had "kept count," and she had helped at
+twenty-eight "regular" quiltings, besides her own home patchwork and
+quilt-making, and much informal help of neighbors on plain quilts. Any
+one who has attended a county fair (one not too modernized and spoiled)
+and seen the display of intricate patchwork and quilting still made in
+country homes, can see that it is not an obsolete accomplishment.
+
+A form of decorative work in which many women took great delight and
+became astonishingly skilful was what was known, or at any rate
+advertised, by the ambitious title of Papyrotamia. It was simply the
+cutting out of stiff paper of various decorative and ornamental designs
+with scissors. At the time of the Revolution it was evidently deemed a
+very high accomplishment, and the best pieces of work were carefully
+cherished, mounted on black paper, framed and glazed, and given to
+friends or bequeathed by will. One old lady is remembered as using her
+scissors with extraordinary deftness, and amusing herself and delighting
+her friends by occupying the hours of every afternoon visit with cutting
+out entirely by her trained eye various pretty and curious designs.
+Valentines in exceedingly delicate and appropriate patterns, wreaths and
+baskets of varied flowers, marine views, religious symbols, landscapes,
+all were accomplished. Coats of arms and escutcheons cut in black paper
+and mounted on white were highly prized. Portrait silhouettes were cut
+with the aid of a machine which marked and reduced mechanically a sharp
+shadow cast by the sitter's profile through candle-light on a sheet of
+white paper. Mrs. Lydia H. Sigourney wrote in rhyme of a revered friend
+of her youth, Mrs. Lathrop, of a period about a century ago:--
+
+    "Thy dextrous scissors ready to produce
+    The flying squirrel or the long-neck'd goose,
+    Or dancing girls with hands together join'd,
+    Or tall spruce-trees with wreaths of roses twin'd,
+    The well-dress'd dolls whose paper form display'd,
+    Thy penknife's labor and thy pencil's shade."
+
+I once found in an old lacquered box in a cupboard a paper packet
+containing all the cut-paper designs mentioned in this rhyme--and many
+more. The workmanship of the "spruce-trees with wreaths of roses twin'd"
+was specially marvellous. I plainly saw in that design a derivative of
+the English Maypole and encircling wreaths. This package was marked with
+the name of the paper-cutter, a Revolutionary dame who died at the
+beginning of this century. Her home was remote from the Norwich home of
+Mrs. Lathrop, and I know she never visited in Connecticut, yet she made
+precisely the same designs and indeed all the designs. This is but a
+petty proof among many other more decided ones of the fact that even in
+those days of scant communication and infrequent and contracted travel,
+there were as in our own times waves of feminine fancy work, of attempts
+at artistic expression, which flooded every home, and receding, left
+behind much decorative silt of varying but nearly universal uselessness
+and laborious commonplaceness.
+
+One of the cut-paper landscapes of Madam Deming, a Boston lady who was a
+famous "papyrotamist," is here shown. It is now owned by James F. Trott,
+Esq., of Niagara Falls. It is a view of Boston streets just previous to
+the Revolution. In that handsome volume, the _Ten Broeck Genealogical
+Record_, are reproductions of some of the landscape views by Albertina
+Ten Broeck at the same date. They show the house and farm surroundings
+of the old Ten Broeck "Bouwerie," the ancestral home in New York, and
+give a wonderfully good idea of it. These are not in dead silhouette,
+for an appearance of shading is afforded by finely cut lines and
+intervening spaces. The highest form of cut-paper reproduction and
+decoration ever reached was by the English woman, Mrs. Delaney, who died
+in 1788, the friend of the Duchess of Portland, and intimate of George
+III. and his queen. She reproduced in colored paper, in what she called
+"paper mosaics," the entire flora of the United Kingdom, and it is said
+it was impossible at first sight to distinguish these flowers from the
+real ones.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+DRESS OF THE COLONISTS
+
+
+At the time America was settled, rich dress was almost universal in
+Europe among persons of any wealth or station. The dress of plain people
+also, such as yeomen and small farmers and work-people, was plentiful
+and substantial, and even peasants had good and ample clothing.
+Materials were strongly and honestly made, clothing was sewed by hand,
+and lasted long. The fashions did not change from year to year, and the
+rich or stout clothes of one generation were bequeathed by will and worn
+by a second and even a third and fourth generation.
+
+In England extravagance in dress in court circles, and grotesqueness in
+dress among all educated folk, had become abhorrent to that class of
+persons who were called Puritans; and as an expression of their dislike
+they wore plainer garments, and cut off their flowing locks, and soon
+were called Roundheads. The Massachusetts settlers who were Puritans
+determined to discourage extravagance in dress in the New World, and
+attempted to control the fashions.
+
+The Massachusetts magistrates were reminded of their duties in this
+direction by sanctimonious spurring from gentlemen and ministers in
+England. One such meddler wrote to Governor Winthrop in 1636: "Many in
+your plantacions discover too much pride." Another stern moralist
+reproved the colonists for writing to England "for cut work coifes, for
+deep stammel dyes," to be sent to them in America. Others, prohibited
+from wearing broad laces, were criticised for ordering narrow ones, for
+"going as farr as they may."
+
+In 1634 the Massachusetts General Court passed restricting sumptuary
+laws. These laws forbade the purchase of woollen, silk, or linen
+garments, with silver, gold, silk, or thread lace on them. Two years
+later a narrow binding of lace was permitted on linen garments. The
+colonists were ordered not to make or buy any slashed clothes, except
+those with one slash in each sleeve and another slash in the back. "Cut
+works, imbroidd or needle or capps bands & rayles," and gold or silver
+girdles, hat-bands, belts, ruffs, and beaver hats were forbidden.
+Liberty was thriftily given, however, to the colonists to wear out any
+garments they chanced to have unless in the form of inordinately slashed
+apparel, immoderate great sleeves and rails, and long wings, which could
+not possibly be endured.
+
+In 1639 men's attire was approached and scanned, and "immoderate great
+breeches" were tabooed; also broad shoulder-bands, double ruffles and
+capes, and silk roses, which latter adornment were worn on the shoes.
+
+In 1651 the Court again expressed its "utter detestation that men and
+women of meane condition, education, and calling, should take vppon them
+the garbe of gentlemen by wearinge of gold or silver lace, or buttons or
+poynts at their knees, or walke in great boots, or women of the same
+ranke to wear silke or tiffany hoods or scarfs."
+
+Many persons were "presented" under this law, men boot-wearers as well
+as women hood-wearers. In Salem, in 1652, a man was presented for
+"excess in bootes, ribonds, gould and silver lace."
+
+In Newbury, in 1653, two women were brought up for wearing silk hoods
+and scarfs, but they were discharged on proof that their husbands were
+worth £200 each. In Northampton, in the year 1676, a wholesale attempt
+was made by the magistrates to abolish "wicked apparell." Thirty-eight
+women of the Connecticut valley were presented at one time for various
+degrees of finery, and as of too small estate to wear silk. A young girl
+named Hannah Lyman was presented for "wearing silk in a fflaunting
+manner, in an offensive way and garb not only before but when she stood
+presented." Thirty young men were also presented for silk-wearing, long
+hair, and other extravagances. The calm flaunting of her silk in the
+very eyes of the Court by sixteen-year-old Hannah was premonitory of the
+waning power of the magistrates, for similar prosecutions at a later
+date were quashed. By 1682 the tables were turned and we find the Court
+arraigning the selectmen of five towns for not prosecuting offenders
+against these laws as in previous years. In 1675 the town of Dedham had
+been similarly warned and threatened, but apparently was never
+prosecuted. Connecticut called to its aid in repressing extravagant
+dress the economic power of taxation by ordering that whoever wore gold
+or silver lace, gold or silver buttons, silk ribbons, silk scarfs, or
+bone lace worth over three shillings a yard should be taxed as worth
+£150.
+
+Virginia fussed a little over "excess in cloathes." Sir Francis Wyatt
+was enjoined not to permit any but the Council and the heads of Hundreds
+to wear gold on their clothes, or to wear silk till they made it--which
+was intended more to encourage silk-making than to discourage
+silk-wearing. And it provided that unmarried men should be assessed
+according to their apparel, and married men according to that of their
+family. In 1660 Virginia colonists were ordered to import no "silke
+stuffe in garments or in peeces except for whoods and scarfs, nor silver
+or gold lace, nor bone lace of silk or threads, nor ribbands wrought
+with gold or silver in them."
+
+The ministers did not fail in their duty in attempting to march with the
+magistrates in the restriction and simplification of dress. They
+preached often against "intolerable pride in clothes and hair." Even
+when the Pilgrims were in Holland the preachers had been deeply
+disturbed over the dress of their minister's wife, Madam Johnson, who
+wore "lawn coives" and busks, and a velvet hood, and "whalebones in her
+petticoat bodice," and worst of all, "a topish hat." One of the earliest
+interferences of Roger Williams was when he instructed the women of
+Salem parish always to wear veils in public. But John Cotton preached to
+them the next Sunday, and he proved to the dames and goodwives that
+veils were a sign and symbol of undue subjection to their husbands, and
+Salem women soon proved their rights by coming barefaced to meeting.
+
+Mr. Davenport preached about men's head-gear, that men must take off
+their hats, and stand up at the announcement of the text. And if New
+Haven men wore their hats in meeting, I can't see why they fussed so
+over the Quakers' broadbrims.
+
+After a while the whole church interfered. In 1769 the church at Andover
+put it to vote whether "the parish Disapprove of the female sex sitting
+with their Hats on in the Meeting-house in time of Divine Service as
+being Indecent." In the town of Abington, in 1775, it was voted that it
+was "an indecent way that the female sex do sit with their hats and
+bonnets on to worship God." Still another town voted that it was the
+"Town's Mind" that the women should take their bonnets off in meeting
+and hang them "on the peggs." We do not know positively, but I suspect
+that the bonnets continued to grace the heads instead of the pegs in
+Andover, Abington, and other towns.
+
+To know how the colonists were dressed, we have to learn from the lists
+of their clothing which they left by will, which lists are still
+preserved in court records; from the inventories of the garments
+furnished to each settler who came by contract; from the orders sent
+back to England for new clothing; from a few crude portraits, and from
+some articles of ancient clothing which are still preserved.
+
+When Salem was settled the Massachusetts Bay Company furnished clothes
+to all the men who emigrated and settled that town. Every man had four
+pairs of shoes, four pairs of stockings, a pair of Norwich garters, four
+shirts, two suits of doublet and hose of leather lined with oiled skin,
+a woollen suit lined with leather, four bands, two handkerchiefs, a
+green cotton waistcoat, a leather belt, a woollen cap, a black hat, two
+red knit caps, two pairs of gloves, a mandillion or cloak lined with
+cotton, and an extra pair of breeches. Little boys just as soon as they
+could walk wore clothes made precisely like their fathers': doublets
+which were warm double jackets, leather knee-breeches, leather belts,
+knit caps. The outfit for the Virginia planters was not so liberal, for
+the company was not so wealthy. It was called a "Particular of
+Apparell." It had only three bands, three pairs stockings, and three
+shirts instead of four. The suits were of canvas, frieze, and cloth. The
+clothing was doubtless lighter, because the climate of Virginia was
+warmer. There were no gloves, no handkerchiefs, no hat, no red knit
+caps, no mandillion, no extra pair of breeches. They had "a dozen
+points," which were simply tapes to hold up the clothing and fasten it
+together. The clothing of the Piscataquay planters varied but little
+from the others. They had scarlet waistcoats and cassocks of cloth, not
+of leather. We are apt to think of the Puritan settlers of New England
+as sombre in attire, wearing "sad-colored" garments, but green and
+scarlet waistcoats and scarlet caps certainly afforded a gay touch of
+color.
+
+A young boy, about ten years old, named John Livingstone, was sent from
+New York to school in New England at the latter part of the seventeenth
+century. An "account of his new linen and clothes" has been preserved,
+and it gives an excellent idea of the clothing of a son of wealthy
+people at that time. It reads thus, in the old spelling:--
+
+     "Eleven new shirts,
+     4 pair laced sleves,
+     8 Plane Cravats,
+     4 Cravats with Lace,
+     4 Stripte Wastecoats with black buttons,
+     1 Flowered Wastecoat,
+     4 New osenbrig britches,
+     1 Gray hat with a black ribbon,
+     1 Gray hat with a blew ribbon,
+     1 Dousin black buttons,
+     1 Dousin coloured buttons,
+     3 Pair gold buttons,
+     3 Pair silver buttons,
+     2 Pair Fine blew Stockings,
+     1 Pair Fine red Stockings,
+     4 White Handkerchiefs,
+     2 Speckled Handkerchiefs,
+     5 Pair Gloves,
+     1 Stuff Coat with black buttons,
+     1 Cloth Coat,
+     1 Pair blew plush britches,
+     1 Pair Serge britches,
+     2 Combs,
+     1 Pair new Shooes,
+     Silk & Thred to mend his Cloathes."
+
+Osenbrig was a heavy, strong linen. This would seem to be a summer
+outfit, and scarcely warm enough for New England winters. Other
+schoolboys at that date had deerskin breeches.
+
+Leather was much used, especially in the form of tanned buckskin
+breeches and the deerskin hunters' jackets, which have always and
+deservedly been a favorite wear, since they are one of the most
+appropriate, useful, comfortable, and picturesque garments ever worn by
+men in any active outdoor life.
+
+Soon in the larger cities and among wealthy folk a much more elaborate
+and varied style of dress became fashionable. The dress of little girls
+in families of wealth was certainly almost as formal and elegant as the
+dress of their mammas, and it was a very hampering and stiff dress. They
+wore vast hoop-petticoats, heavy stays, and high-heeled shoes. Their
+complexions were objects of special care; they wore masks of cloth or
+velvet to protect them from the tanning rays of the sun, and long-armed
+gloves. Little Dolly Payne, who afterwards became the wife of President
+Madison, went to school wearing "a white linen mask to keep every ray of
+sunshine from the complexion, a sunbonnet sewed on her head every
+morning by her careful mother, and long gloves covering the hands and
+arms." Our present love of outdoor life, of athletic sports, and our
+indifference to being sunburned, makes such painstaking vanity seem most
+unbearably tiresome.
+
+In 1737 Colonel John Lewis sent from Virginia to England for a wardrobe
+for a young miss, a school-girl, who was his ward. The list reads
+thus:--
+
+     "A cap ruffle and tucker, the lace 5 shillings per Yard,
+     1 pair White Stays,
+     8 pair White Kid gloves,
+     2 pair coloured kid gloves,
+     2 pair worsted hose,
+     3 pair thread hose,
+     1 pair silk shoes laced,
+     1 pair morocco shoes,
+     1 Hoop Coat,
+     1 Hat,
+     4 pair plain Spanish shoes,
+     2 pair calf shoes,
+     1 mask,
+     1 fan,
+     1 necklace,
+     1 Girdle and buckle,
+     1 piece fashionable Calico,
+     4 yards ribbon for knots,
+     1½ yard Cambric,
+     A mantua and coat of lute-string."
+
+In the middle of the century George Washington also sent to England for
+an outfit for his stepdaughter, Miss Custis. She was four years old, and
+he ordered for her, pack-thread stays, stiff coats of silk, masks, caps,
+bonnets, bibs, ruffles, necklaces, fans, silk and calamanco shoes, and
+leather pumps. There were also eight pairs of kid mitts and four pairs
+of gloves; these with the masks show that this little girl's complexion
+was also to be well guarded.
+
+A little New England Miss Huntington, when twelve years old, was sent
+from Norwich, Connecticut, to be "finished" in a Boston boarding-school.
+She had twelve silk gowns, but her teacher wrote home that she must have
+another gown of "a recently imported rich fabric," which was at once
+bought for her because it was "suitable for her rank and station."
+
+Through the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries there was a constant
+succession of rich and gay fashions; for American dress was carefully
+modelled upon European, especially English modes. Men's wear was as rich
+as women's. An English traveller said that Boston women and men in 1740
+dressed as gay every day as courtiers in England at a coronation. But
+with all the richness there was no wastefulness. The sister of the rich
+Boston merchant, Peter Faneuil, who built Faneuil Hall, sent her gowns
+to London to be turned and dyed, and her old ribbons and gowns to be
+sold. But her gowns, which are still preserved, are of magnificent
+stuffs.
+
+New Yorkers were dressed in gauzes, silks, and laces; even women Quakers
+in Pennsylvania had to be warned against wearing hoop-petticoats,
+scarlet shoes, and puffed and rolled hair.
+
+The family of so frugal a man as Benjamin Franklin did not escape a
+slight infection of the prevailing love for gay dress. In the
+_Pennsylvania Gazette_ this advertisement appeared in 1750:--
+
+     "Whereas on Saturday night last the house of Benjamin Franklin of
+     this city, Printer, was broken open, and the following things
+     feloniously taken away, viz., a double necklace of gold beads, a
+     womans long scarlet cloak almost new, with a double cape, a womans
+     gown, of printed cotton of the sort called brocade print, very
+     remarkable, the ground dark, with large red roses, and other large
+     and yellow flowers, with blue in some of the flowers, with many
+     green leaves; a pair of womens stays covered with white tabby
+     before, and dove colour'd tabby behind, with two large steel hooks
+     and sundry other goods, etc."
+
+Southern dames, especially of Annapolis, Baltimore, and Charleston, were
+said to have the richest brocades and damasks that could be bought in
+London. Every sailing-vessel that came from Europe brought boxes of
+splendid clothing. The heroes of the Revolution had a high regard for
+dress. The patriot, John Hancock, was seen at noonday wearing a scarlet
+velvet cap, a blue damask gown lined with velvet, white satin
+embroidered waistcoat, black satin small-clothes, white silk stockings,
+and red morocco slippers. George Washington was most precise in his
+orders for his clothing, and wore the richest silk and velvet suits.
+
+A true description of a Boston printer just after the Revolution shows
+his style of dress:--
+
+     "He wore a pea-green coat, white vest, nankeen small clothes, white
+     silk stockings, and pumps fastened with silver buckles which
+     covered at least half the foot from instep to toe. His small
+     clothes were tied at the knees with ribbon of the same colour in
+     double bows, the ends reaching down to the ancles. His hair in
+     front was well loaded with pomatum, frizzled or craped and
+     powdered. Behind, his natural hair was augmented by the addition of
+     a large queue called vulgarly a false tail, which, enrolled in some
+     yards of black ribbon, hung half-way down his back."
+
+Many letters still exist written by prominent citizens of colonial times
+ordering clothing, chiefly from Europe. Rich laces, silk materials,
+velvet, and fine cloth of light and gay colors abound. Frequently they
+ordered nightgowns of silk and damask. These nightgowns were not a
+garment worn at night, but a sort of dressing-gown. Harvard students
+were in 1754 forbidden to wear them. Under the name of banyan they
+became very fashionable, and men had their portraits painted in them,
+for instance the portrait of Nicholas Boylston, now in Harvard Memorial
+Hall.
+
+With the increase of trade with China many Chinese and East Indian goods
+became fashionable, with hundreds of different names. A few were of silk
+or linen, but far more of cotton; among them nankeens were the most
+imported and even for winter wear.
+
+Both men and women wore for many years great cloaks or capes, known by
+various names, such as roquelaures, capuchins, pelisses, etc. Women's
+shoes were of very thin materials, and paper-soled. They wore to protect
+these frail shoes, when walking on the ill-paved streets, various forms
+of overshoes, known as goloe-shoes, clogs, pattens, etc. When riding,
+women in the colonies wore, as did Queen Elizabeth, a safeguard, a long
+over-petticoat to protect the gown from mud and rain. This was sometimes
+called a foot-mantle, also a weather-skirt. A traveller tells of seeing
+a row of horses tied to a fence outside a Quaker meeting. Some carried
+side saddles, some men's saddles and pillions. On the fence hung the
+muddy safeguards the Quaker dames had worn outside their drab
+petticoats. Men wore sherry-vallies or spatter-dashes to protect their
+gay breeches.
+
+There was one fashion which lasted for a century and a half which was so
+untidy, so uncomfortable, so costly, and so ridiculous that we can only
+wonder that it was endured for a single season--I mean the fashion of
+wig-wearing by men. The first colonists wore their own natural hair. The
+Cavaliers had long and perfumed love-locks; and though the Puritans had
+been called Roundheads, their hair waved, also, over the band or collar,
+and often hung over the shoulder. The Quakers, also, wore long locks, as
+the lovely portrait of William Penn shows. But by 1675 wigs had become
+common enough to be denounced by the Massachusetts government, and to be
+preached against by many ministers; while other ministers proudly wore
+them. Wigs were called horrid bushes of vanity, and hundreds of other
+disparaging names, which seemed to make them more popular. They varied
+from year to year; sometimes they swelled out at the sides, or rose in
+great puffs, or turned under in heavy rolls, or hung in braids and curls
+and pig-tails; they were made of human hair, of horsehair, goat's-hair,
+calves' and cows' tails, of thread, silk, and mohair. They had scores of
+silly and meaningless names, such as "grave full-bottom," "giddy
+feather-top," "long-tail," "fox-tail," "drop-wig," etc. They were bound
+and braided with pink, green, red, and purple ribbons, sometimes all
+these colors on one wig. They were very heavy, and very hot, and very
+expensive, often costing what would be equal to a hundred dollars
+to-day. The care of them was a great item, often ten pounds a year for a
+single wig, and some gentlemen owned eight or ten wigs. Little children
+wore them. I have seen the bill for a wig for William Freeman, dated
+1754; he was a child seven years old. His father paid nine pounds for
+it, and the same for wigs for his other boys of nine and ten. Even
+servants wore them; I read in the _Massachusetts Gazette_ of a runaway
+negro slave who "wore off a curl of hair tied around his head with a
+string to imitate a wig," which must have been a comical sight. After
+wigs had become unfashionable, the natural hair was powdered, and was
+tied in a queue in the back. This was an untidy, troublesome fashion,
+which ruined the clothes; for the hair was soaked with oil or pomatum to
+make the powder stick.
+
+Comparatively little jewellery was worn. A few men had gold or silver
+sleeve-buttons; a few women had bracelets or lockets; nearly all of any
+social standing had rings, which were chiefly mourning-rings. As these
+gloomy ornaments were given to all the chief mourners at funerals, it
+can be seen that a man of large family connections, or of prominent
+social standing, might acquire a great many of them. The minister and
+doctor usually had a ring at every funeral they attended. It is told of
+an old Salem doctor, who died in 1758, that he had a tankard full of
+mourning-rings which he had secured at funerals. Men sometimes wore
+thumb-rings, which seems no queerer than the fact that they carried
+muffs. Old Dr. Prince of Boston carried an enormous bearskin muff.
+
+Gloves also were gifts at funerals, sometimes in large numbers. At the
+funeral of the wife of Governor Belcher, in 1738, over a thousand pairs
+were given away. Rev. Andrew Eliot, who was pastor of the North Church
+in Boston, had twenty-nine hundred pair of gloves given him in
+thirty-two years; many of these he sold. In all the colonies, whether
+settled by Dutch, English, French, German, or Swedes, gloves were
+universally given at funerals.
+
+The early watches were clumsy affairs, often globose in shape, with a
+detached outer case.
+
+To show how few of the first colonists owned either watches or clocks,
+we have the contemporary evidence of Roger Williams. When he rowed
+thirty miles down the bay, and disputed with the "Foxians" at Newport in
+1672, it was agreed that each party should be heard in turn for a
+quarter of an hour. But no clock was available in Newport; and among the
+whole population that flocked to the debate, there was not a single
+watch. Williams says, "unless we had Clocks and Watches and Quarter
+Glasses (as in some Ships) it was impossible to be exactly punctual," so
+they guessed at the time.
+
+Sun-dials were often set in the street in front of houses; and
+noon-marks on the threshold of the front door or window-sill helped to
+show the hour of the day.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+JACK-KNIFE INDUSTRIES
+
+
+Chepa Rose was one of those old-time chap-men known throughout New
+England as "trunk pedlers." Bearing on his back by means of a harness of
+stout hempen webbing two oblong trunks of thin metal,--probably
+tin,--for forty-eight years he had appeared at every considerable
+farmhouse throughout Narragansett and eastern Connecticut, at intervals
+as regular as the action and appearance of the sun, moon, and tides; and
+everywhere was he greeted with an eager welcome.
+
+Chepa was, as he said, "half Injun, half French, and half Yankee." From
+his Indian half he had his love of tramping which made him choose the
+wandering trade of trunk pedler; his French half made him a good trader
+and talker; while his Yankee half endowed him with a universal Yankee
+trait, a "handiness," which showed in scores of gifts and
+accomplishments and knacks that made him as warmly greeted everywhere
+as were his attractive trunks.
+
+He was a famous medicine-brewer; from the roots and herbs and barks that
+he gathered as he tramped along the country roads he manufactured a
+cough medicine that was twice as effective and twice as bitter as old
+Dr. Greene's; he made famous plasters, of two kinds,--plasters to stick
+and plasters to crawl, the latter to follow the course of the disease or
+pain; he concocted wonderful ink; he showed Jenny Greene how to bleach
+her new straw bonnet with sulphur fumes; he mended umbrellas, harnesses,
+and tinware; he made glorious teetotums which the children looked for as
+eagerly and unfailingly as they did for his tops and marbles, his
+ribbons and Gibraltars.
+
+One day he came through the woods to John Helme's house carrying in his
+hand a stout birchen staff or small tree-trunk, which he laid down on
+the flat millstone imbedded in the grass at the back door, while he
+displayed and sold his wares and had his dinner. He then went out to the
+dooryard with little Johnny Helme, sat down on the millstone, lighted
+his pipe, opened his jack-knife, and discoursed thus:--
+
+     "Johnny, I'm going to tell you how to make an Injun broom. Fust,
+     you must find a big birch-tree. There ain't so many big ones now
+     of any kind as there useter be when we made canoes and plates and
+     cradles, and water spouts, and troughs, and furnitoor out of the
+     bark. But you must get a yallow birch-tree as straight as H and
+     edzactly five inch acrost. Now, how kin ye tell how fur it is
+     acrost a tree afore ye cut it off? I kin tell by the light of my
+     eye, but that's Injun larnin'. Lemme tell you by book-larnin'.
+     Measure it round, and make the string in three parts, and one
+     part'll be what it is acrost. If it's nine inch round, it'll be
+     three inch acrost, and so on. Now don't you forgit that. Wal! you
+     must get a straight birch-tree five inch acrost where you cut it
+     off, just like this one. Then make the stick six foot long. Then
+     one foot and two inch from the big end cut a ring round the bark;
+     wal! say two inch wide just like this. Then you take off all the
+     bark below that ring. Then you begin a-slivering with a sharp
+     jack-knife, leetle teeny flat slivers way up to the bark ring. When
+     it's all slivered up thin and flat there'll be a leetle hard core
+     left inside at the top, and you must cut it out careful. Then you
+     take off the bark above the ring and begin slivering down. Leave a
+     stick just big enough for a handle. Then tie this last lot of
+     slivers down tight over the others with a hard-twisted tow string,
+     and trim 'em off even. Then whittle off and scrape off a good
+     smooth handle with a hole in the top to put a loop of cowhide in,
+     to hang it up by orderly.
+
+     "Yes, Johnny, I've got just enough Injun in me to make a good
+     broom; not enough to be ashamed of and not enough to be proud of.
+     But you mustn't forgit this; a moccasin's the best cover a man
+     ever had on his feet in the woods; the easiest to get stuff for,
+     the easiest to make, the easiest to wear. And a birch-bark canoe's
+     the best boat a man can have on the river. It's the easiest to get
+     stuff for, easiest to carry, the fastest to paddle. And a
+     snowshoe's the best help a man can have in the winter. It's the
+     easiest to get stuff for, the easiest to walk on, the easiest to
+     carry. And just so a birch broom is the best broom a man or at any
+     rate a woman can have; four best things and all of 'em is Injun.
+     Now you just slip in and take that broom to Phillis. I see her the
+     last time I was here a-using a mizrable store broom to clean her
+     oven--and just ask her if I can't have a mug of apple-jack afore I
+     go to bed."
+
+If this scene had been laid in New Hampshire or Vermont instead of
+Narragansett, the Indian broom would have been no novelty to any boy or
+house-servant. For in the northern New England states, heavily wooded
+with yellow birch, every boy knew how to make the Indian brooms, and
+every household in country or town had them. There was a constant demand
+in Boston for them, and sometimes country stores had several hundred of
+the brooms at a time. Throughout Vermont seventy years ago the uniform
+price paid for making one of these brooms was six cents; and if the
+splints were very fine and the handle scraped with glass, it took
+nearly three evenings to finish it. Indian squaws peddled them
+throughout the country for ninepence apiece. Major Robert Randolph told
+in fashionable London circles about the year 1750, that when he was a
+boy in New Hampshire he earned his only spending-money by making these
+brooms and carrying them on his back ten miles to town to sell them.
+Girls could whittle as well as boys, and often exchanged the birch
+brooms they made for a bit of ribbon or lace.
+
+A simpler and less durable broom was made of hemlock branches. A local
+rhyme says of them:--
+
+    "Driving at twilight the waiting cows,
+    With arms full-laden with hemlock boughs,
+    To be traced on a broom ere the coming day
+    From its eastern chambers should dance away."
+
+The hemlock broom was simply a bunch of close-growing, full-foliaged
+hemlock branches tied tightly together and wound around with hempen
+twine, "traced," the rhyme says, with a sharply pointed handle, which
+the boys had shaped and whittled, driven well into the bound portion.
+This making of brooms for domestic use is but an example of one of the
+many score of useful domestic and farm articles which were furnished by
+the natural resources of every wood-lot, adapted by the Yankee
+jack-knife and a few equally simple tools, of which the gimlet might
+take the second place.
+
+It was so emphatically a wooden age in colonial days that it seemed
+almost that there were no hard metals used for any articles which to-day
+seem so necessarily of metal. Ploughs were of wood, and harrows;
+cart-wheels were often wholly of wood without tires, though sometimes
+iron plates called strakes held the felloes together, being fastened to
+them by long clinch-pins. The dish-turner and cooper were artisans of
+importance in those days; piggins, noggins, runlets, keelers, firkins,
+buckets, churns, dye-tubs, cowles, powdering-tubs, were made with chary
+or no use of metal.
+
+The forests were the wealth of the colonies in more ways than one; and
+it may be said that they furnished both domestic winter employment and
+toys for the boys. The New England forests were full of richly varied kinds
+of wood, suitable for varied uses, with varied qualities--pliability,
+stiffness, durability, weight, strength; and it is surprising to see how
+quickly the woods were assigned to fixed uses, even for toys; in every
+state pop-guns were made from elder; bows and arrows of hemlock; whistles
+of chestnut or willow.
+
+The Rev. John Pierpont wrote thus of the whittling of his childhood
+days:--
+
+    "The Yankee boy before he's sent to school
+    Well knows the mysteries of that magic tool--
+    The pocket-knife. To that his wistful eye
+    Turns, while he hears his mother's lullaby.
+    And in the education of the lad,
+    No little part that implement hath had.
+    His pocket-knife to the young whittler brings
+    A growing knowledge of material things,
+    Projectiles, music, and the sculptor's art.
+    His chestnut whistle, and his shingle dart,
+    His elder pop-gun with its hickory rod,
+    Its sharp explosion and rebounding wad,
+    His corn-stalk fiddle, and the deeper tone
+    That murmurs from his pumpkin-leaf trombone
+    Conspire to teach the boy. To these succeed
+    His bow, his arrow of a feathered reed,
+    His windmill raised the passing breeze to win,
+    His water-wheel that turns upon a pin.
+    Thus by his genius and his jack-knife driven
+    Ere long he'll solve you any problem given;
+    Make you a locomotive or a clock,
+    Cut a canal or build a floating dock:
+    Make anything in short for sea or shore,
+    From a child's rattle to a seventy-four.
+    Make it, said I--ay, when he undertakes it,
+    He'll make the thing and make the thing that makes it."
+
+The boy's jack-knife was a possession so highly desired, so closely
+treasured in those days when boys had so few belongings, that it is
+pathetic to read of many a farm lad's struggles and long hours of weary
+work to obtain a good knife. Barlow knives were the most highly prized
+for certainly sixty years, and had, I am told, a vast popularity for
+over a century. May they forever rest in glorious memory, as they lived
+the happiest of lots! To be the best beloved of a century of Yankee
+boys is indeed an enviable destiny. A few battered old soldiers of this
+vast army of Barlow jack-knives still linger to show us the homely
+features borne by the century's well beloved: the Smithsonian
+Institution cherishes some of colonial days; and from Deerfield Memorial
+Hall are shown three Barlow knives whose picture should appear to every
+American something more than the presentment of dull bits of wood and
+rusted metal. These Yankee jack-knives were, said Daniel Webster, the
+direct forerunners of the cotton-gin and thousands of noble American
+inventions; the New England boy's whittling was his alphabet of
+mechanics.
+
+In this connection, let us note the skilful and utilitarian adaptation
+not only of natural materials for domestic and farm use, but also
+natural forms. The farmer and his wife both turned to Nature for
+implements and utensils, or for parts adapted to shape readily into the
+implements and utensils of every-day life. When we read of the first
+Boston settlers that "the dainty Indian maize was eat with clam-shells
+out of wooden trays," we learn of a primitive spoon, a clam-shell set in
+a split stick, which has been used till this century. Large flat
+clam-shells were used and highly esteemed by housewives, as
+skimming-shells in the dairy, to skim cream from the milk. Gourd-shells
+made capital bowls, skimmers, dippers, and bottles; pumpkin-shells, good
+seed and grain holders. Turkey-wings made an ever-ready hearth-brush. In
+the forests were many "crooked sticks" that were more useful than any
+straight ones could be. When the mower wanted a new snathe or snead, as
+he called it, for his scythe, he found in the woods a deformed sapling
+that had grown under a log or twisted around a rock in a double bend,
+which made it the exact shape desired. He then whittled it, dressed it
+with a draw-shave, fastened the nebs with a neb-wedge, hung it with an
+iron ring, and was ready for the mowing-field.
+
+Sled-runners were made from saplings bent at the root. The best thills
+for a cart were those naturally shaped by growth. The curved pieces of
+wood in the harness of a draught-horse, called the hames, to which the
+traces are fastened, could be found in twisted growths, as could also
+portions of ox-yokes. The gambrels used in slaughtering times,
+hay-hooks, long-handled pothooks for brick ovens, could all be cut
+ready-shaped.
+
+The smaller underbrush and saplings had many uses. Sled and cart stakes
+were cut from some; long bean-poles from others; specially straight
+clean sticks were saved for whip-stocks. Sections of birch bark could be
+bottomed and served for baskets, or for potash cans, while capital
+feed-boxes could be made in the same way of sections cut from a hollow
+hemlock. Elm rind and portions of brown ash butts were natural
+materials for chair-seats and baskets, as were flags for door-mats.
+Forked branches made geese and hog yokes. Hogs that ran at large had to
+wear yokes. It was ordered that these yokes should measure as long as
+twice and a half times the depth of the neck, while the bottom piece was
+three times the width of the neck.
+
+In the shaping of heavy and large vessels such as salt-mortars, pig
+troughs, maple-sap troughs, the jack-knife was abandoned and the methods
+of the Indians adopted. These vessels were burnt and scraped out of a
+single log, and thus had a weighty stability and permanence. Wooden
+bread troughs were also made from a single piece of wood. These were
+oblong, trencher-shaped bowls about eighteen inches long; across the
+trough ran lengthwise a stick or rod on which rested the sieve, searse,
+or temse, when flour was sifted into the trough. The saying "set the
+Thames (or temse) on fire," meant that hard work and active friction
+would set the wooden temse on fire.
+
+Sometimes the mould for an ox-bow was dug out of a log of wood. Oftener
+a plank of wood was cut into the desired shape as a frame or mould, and
+fastened to a heavy backboard. The ox-bow was steamed, placed in the
+bow-mould, pinned in, and then carefully seasoned.
+
+The boys whittled cheese-ladders, cheese-hoops, and red-cherry
+butter-paddles for their mothers' dairy; also many parts of
+cheese-presses and churns. To the toys enumerated by Rev. Mr. Pierpont,
+they added box-traps and "figure 4" traps of various sizes for catching
+vari-sized animals.
+
+Many farm implements other than those already named were made, and many
+portions of tools and implements; among them were shovels,
+swingling-knives, sled-neaps, stanchions, handles for spades and
+bill-hooks, rake-stales, fork-stales, flails. A group of old farm
+implements from Memorial Hall, at Deerfield, is here given. The
+handleless scythe-snathe is said to have come over on the _Mayflower_.
+
+The making of flails was an important and useful work. Many were broken
+and worn out during a great threshing. Both parts, the staff or handle,
+and the swingle or swiple, were carefully shaped from well-chosen wood,
+to be joined together later by an eelskin or leather strap.
+
+The flail is little seen on farms to-day. Threshing and winnowing
+machines have taken its place. The father of Robert Burns declared
+threshing with a flail to be the only degrading and stultifying work on
+a farm; but I never knew another farmer who deemed it so, though it was
+certainly hard work. Last autumn I visited the "Poor Farm" on Quonsett
+Point in old Narragansett. In the vast barn of that beautiful and
+sparsely occupied country home, two powerful men, picturesque in blue
+jeans tucked in heavy boots, in scarlet shirts and great straw hats,
+were threshing out grain with flails. Both men were blind, one wholly,
+the other partially so--and were "Town Poor." Their strong, bare arms
+swung the long flails in alternate strokes with the precision of
+clockwork, bringing each blow down on the piled-up wheat-straw which
+covered the barn-floor, as they advanced, one stepping backward while
+the other stepped forward, and then receded with mechanical and rhythmic
+regularity, a step and a blow, from one end of the long barn to the
+other. The half-blind thresher could see the outline of the open door
+against the sunlight, and his steps and voice guided his sightless
+fellow-worker. Thus healthful and useful employment was given to two
+stricken waifs through the use of primitive methods, which no modern
+machine could ever have afforded; and the blue sky and bay, with
+autumnal sunshine on the piled-up golden wheat on floor and in rack,
+idealized and even made of the threshers, paupers though they were, a
+beautiful picture of old-time farm-life.
+
+Wood for axe-helves was carefully chosen, sawed, split, and whittled
+into shape. These were then scraped as smooth as ivory with broken
+glass. Some men had a knack that was almost genius in shaping these
+axe-helves and selecting the wood for them. In a country where the
+broad-axe was so important an implement--used every day by every farmer;
+where lumbermen and loggers and shipwrights swung the axe the entire day
+for many months, men were ready to pay double price for a well-made
+helve, so shaped as to let the heavy blow jar as little as possible the
+hand holding the helve. One Maine farmer boasted that he had made and
+sold five hundred axe-helves, and received a good price for them all;
+that some had gone five hundred miles out west, others a hundred miles
+"up country"; and of no one of them which he had set had it ever been
+said, as of the axe in Deuteronomy, "When a man goeth into the wood to
+hew wood, and his hand fetcheth a stroke with the axe to cut down a
+tree, then the head slippeth from the helve."
+
+A little money might be earned by cutting heel-pegs for shoemakers.
+These were made of a maple trunk sawed across the grain, making the
+circular board thin enough--a half inch or so--for the correct length of
+the pegs. The end was then marked in parallel lines, then grooved across
+at right angles, then split as marked into pegs with knife and mallet. A
+story is told of a farmer named Meigs, who, on the winter ride to
+market in company with a score or more of his neighbors, stole out at
+night from the tavern fireside where all were gathered to the barn where
+the horses were put up. There he took an oat-bag out of a neighbor's
+sleigh and poured out a good feed for his own horse. In the morning it
+was found that his horse had not relished the shoe-pegs that had been
+put in his manger; and their telltale presence plainly pointed out the
+thief. These shoe-pegs were a venture of two farmer boys which their
+father was taking to town to sell for them, and in indignation the boys
+thrust on the thief the name of Shoe-pegs Meigs, which he carried to the
+end of his life.
+
+When the boys had learned to use a few other tools besides their
+jack-knives, as they quickly did, they could get sawed staves from the
+sawmills and make up shooks of staves bound with hoops of red oak, for
+molasses hogsheads. These would be shipped to the West Indies, and form
+an important link in the profitable rum and slave round of traffic that
+bound Africa, New England, and the West Indies so closely together in
+those days. A constant occupation for men and boys was making rived or
+shaved shingles. They were split with a beetle and wedge. A smart
+workman could by sharp work make a thousand a day. There may still be
+occasionally found in what were well-wooded pine regions, in shed or
+barn-lofts, or in old wood-houses, a stout oaken frame or rack such as
+was at one time found in nearly every house. It was known as a
+bundling-mould or shingling-mould. At the bottom of this strong frame
+were laid straight sticks and twisted withes which extended up the
+sides. Upon these were evenly packed the shingles, two hundred and fifty
+in number, known as a "quarter." The withes or "binders" were twisted
+strongly around when the number was full. The mould held them firmly in
+place while being tied. These were sealed by law and shipped. Cullers of
+staves were regularly appointed town officers. The dimensions of the
+shingles were given by law and rule; fifteen inches was the length for
+one period of time, and the bundling-mould conformed to it.
+
+Daniel Leake of Salisbury, New Hampshire, made during his lifetime and
+was paid for a million shingles. During the years he was accomplishing
+this colossal work he cleared three hundred acres of land, tapped for
+twenty years at least six hundred maple-trees, making sometimes four
+thousand pounds of sugar a year. He could mow six acres a day, giving
+nine tons of hay; his strong, long arms cut a swath twelve feet wide.
+_In his spare time_ he worked as a cooper, and he was a famous
+drum-maker. Truly there were giants in those days. I love to read of
+such vigorous, powerful lives; they seem to be of a race entirely
+different from our own. Still, among our New England forbears I doubt
+not many of us had some such giants, who conquered for us the earth and
+forests.
+
+One mark the shingling industry left on the household. In the sawing of
+blocks there would always be some too knotty or gnarled to split into
+shingles. These were what were known in the vernacular as
+"on-marchantable shingle-bolts." They formed in many a pioneer's home
+and in many a pioneer school-house good solid seats for children and
+even grown people to sit on. And even in pioneer meeting-houses these
+blocks could sometimes be seen.
+
+Other fittings for the house were whittled out. Long, heavy, wooden
+hinges were cut from horn-beam for cupboard and closet doors; even shed
+doors were hung on wooden hinges as were house doors in the earliest
+colonial days. Door-latches were made of wood, also oblong buttons to
+fasten chamber and cupboard doors.
+
+New England housekeepers prized the smooth, close-grained bowls which
+the Indians made from the veined and mottled knots of maple-wood. They
+were valued at what seems high prices for wooden utensils and were often
+named and bequeathed in wills. Maple-wood has been used and esteemed by
+many nations for cups and bowls. The old English and German vessel known
+as a mazer was made of maple-wood, often bound and tipped with silver.
+Spenser speaks in his _Shepheard's Calendar_ of "a mazer yrought of the
+maple wood." A well-known specimen in England bears the legend in Gothic
+text:--
+
+    "In the Name of the Trinitie
+    Fille the kup and drinke to me."
+
+Sometimes a specially skilful Yankee would rival the Indians in shaping
+and whittling out these bowls. I have seen two really beautiful ones
+carved with double initials, and one with a Scriptural reference, said
+to be the work of a lover for his bride. Another token of affection and
+skill from the whittler were carved busks, which were the broad and
+strong strips of wood placed in corsets or stays to help to form and
+preserve the long-waisted, stiff figure then fashionable. One carved
+busk bears initials and an appropriately sentimental design of arrows
+and hearts.
+
+On the rim of spinning-wheels, on shuttles, swifts, and on niddy-noddys
+or hand-reels I have seen lettering by the hands of rustic lovers. A
+finely carved legend on a hand-reel reads:--
+
+    "POLLY GREENE, HER REEL.
+      Count your threads right
+      If you reel in the night
+      When I am far away.
+                          June, 1777."
+
+Perhaps some Revolutionary soldier gave this as a parting gift to his
+sweetheart on the eve of battle.
+
+On his powder-horn the rustic carver bestowed his best and daintiest
+work. Emblem both of war and of sport, it seemed worthy of being shaped
+into the highest expression of his artistic longing. A chapter, even a
+book, might be filled with the romantic history and representations of
+American powder-horns; patriotism, sentiment, and adventure shed equal
+halos over them. Months of the patient work of every spare moment was
+spent in beautifying them, and their quaintness, variety, and
+individuality are a never-ceasing delight to the antiquary. Maps, plans,
+legends, verses, portraits, landscapes, family history, crests, dates of
+births, marriages, and deaths, lists of battles, patriotic and religious
+sentiments, all may be found on powder-horns. They have in many cases
+proved valuable historical records, and have sometimes been the only
+records of events. Mr. Rufus A. Grider, of Canajoharie, has made colored
+drawings of about five hundred of these powder-horns, and of canteens or
+drinking-horns. It is unfortunate that the ordinary processes of
+book-illustration give too scant suggestion of the variety, beauty, and
+delicacy of their decoration, to permit the reproduction of some of
+these powder-horns in these pages.
+
+These habits of employing the spare moments of farm-life in the
+manufacture from wood of farm implements and various aids to domestic
+comfort, were not peculiar to New England farmers, nor invented by them.
+The old English farmer-author, Thomas Tusser, in his rhymed book, _Five
+Hundred Points of Good Husbandry_, written in the sixteenth century
+(which Southey declared to be one of the most curious and formerly one
+of the most popular books in our language), was careful to give
+instructions in his "remembrances" and "doings" as to similar industries
+on the English farm and manor house. He says:--
+
+    "Yokes, forks, and such other let bailie spy out
+    And gather the same as he walketh about;
+    And after, at leisure, let this be his hire,
+    To beath them and trim them at home by the fire."
+
+_To beath_ is to heat unseasoned wood to harden and straighten it.
+
+    "If hop-yard or orchard ye mean for to have,
+    For hop-poles and crotches in lopping go save.
+
+    "Save elm, ash, and crab tree for cart and for plow,
+    Save step for a stile of the crotch of a bough;
+    Save hazel for forks, save sallow for rake:
+    Save hulver and thorn, thereof flail for to make."
+
+The Massachusetts Bay settlers came chiefly from the vicinity, many from
+the same county, where Tusser lived and farmed, and where his points of
+good husbandry were household words; so they had in their English homes
+as had their grandfathers before them, the knowledge and habit of saving
+and utilizing the various woods on the farm, and of occupying every
+spare minute with the useful jack-knife. The varied and bountiful trees
+of the New World stimulated and emphasized the whittling habit until it
+became universally accepted as a distinguishing New England
+characteristic, a Yankee trait.
+
+This constant employment of every moment of the waking hours contributed
+to impart to New Englanders a regard and method of life which is spoken
+of by many outsiders with contempt, namely, a closely girded and
+invariable habit of economy. Children brought up in this way knew the
+value of everything in the household, knew the time it took to produce
+it, for they had labored themselves, and they grew to take care of small
+things, not to squander and waste what they had been so long at work on.
+This, instead of being a thing to sneer at, is one of the very best
+elements in a community, one of the best securities of character. For
+sudden leaps to fortune are given to but few, and are seldom lasting,
+and the results of sudden inflations are more disastrous even to a
+community than to isolated individuals, as may be abundantly proved by
+the early history of Virginia. It was not meanness that made the wiry
+New England farmer so cautious and exacting in trade, when the pennies
+he saved sent his son through college. It was not meanness which made
+him refuse to spend money; he had no money to spend, and it was a high
+sense of honor that kept him from running in debt. It was not meanness
+which so justly ordered conditions and cared for the unfortunate that
+even in those days of horrible drunkenness often there would not be a
+pauper in the entire village. It has been a reproach that in some towns
+the few town poor were vendued out to be cared for; the mode was harsh
+in its wording, and unfeeling in method, but in reality the pauper found
+a home. I have known cases where the pauper was not only supported but
+cherished in the families to whose lot she fell.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+TRAVEL, TRANSPORTATION, AND TAVERNS
+
+
+Wherever the earliest colonists settled in America, they had to adopt
+the modes of travel and the ways of getting from place to place of their
+predecessors and new neighbors, the Indians. These were first--and
+generally--to walk on their own stout legs; second, to go wherever they
+could by water, in boats. In Maryland and Virginia, where for a long
+time nearly all settlers tried to build their homes on the banks of the
+rivers and bays, the travel was almost entirely by boats; as it was
+between settlements on all the great rivers, the Hudson, Connecticut,
+and Merrimac.
+
+Between the large settlements in Massachusetts--Boston, Salem, and
+Plymouth--travel was preferably, when the weather permitted, in boats.
+The colonists went in canoes, or pinnaces, shaped and made exactly like
+the birch-bark canoes of the Canadian Indians to-day; and in dugouts,
+which were formed from hollowed pine-logs, usually about twenty feet
+long and two or three feet wide; both of these were made for them by the
+Indians. It was said that one Indian, working alone, felling the
+pine-tree by the primitive way of burning and scraping off the charred
+parts with a stone tool called a celt (for the Indians had no iron or
+steel axes), then cutting off the top in the same manner, then burning
+out part of the interior, then burning and scraping and shaping it
+without and within, could make one of these dugouts in three weeks. The
+Indians at Onondaga still make the wooden mortars they use in the same
+tedious way.
+
+When the white men came to America in great ships, the Indians marvelled
+much at the size, thinking they were hollowed out of tree-trunks as were
+the dugouts, and wondered where such vast trees grew.
+
+The Swedish scientific traveller, Kalm, who was in America in 1748, was
+delighted with the Indian canoes and dugouts. He found the Swede
+settlers using them constantly to go long distances to market. He
+said:--
+
+     "They usually carry six persons who however by no means must be
+     unruly, but sit at the bottom of the canoe in the quietest manner
+     possible lest the boat upset. They are narrow, round below, have no
+     keel and may be easily overset. So when the wind is brisk the
+     people make for the land. Larger dugouts were made for war-canoes
+     which would carry thirty or forty savages."
+
+These boats usually kept close to the shore, both in calm and windy
+weather, though the natives were not afraid to go many miles out to sea
+in the dugouts.
+
+The lightness of the birch-bark canoe made it specially desirable where
+there were such frequent overland transfers. It was and is a beautiful
+and perfect expression of natural and wild life; as Longfellow wrote:--
+
+        "... the forest's life was in it,
+    All its mystery and magic,
+    All the lightness of the birch tree,
+    All the toughness of the cedar,
+    All the larch's supple sinews,
+    And it floated on the river
+    Like a yellow leaf in autumn."
+
+The French governor and missionaries all saw and admired these
+birch-bark canoes. Father Charlevoix wrote a beautiful and vivid
+description of them. All the early travellers noted their ticklish
+balance. Wood, writing in 1634, said, "In these cockling fly-boats an
+Englishman can scarce sit without a fearful tottering," and Madam
+Knights a century later said in her vivid English of a trip in one:--
+
+     "The Cannoo was very small and shallow, which greatly terrify'd me
+     and caused me to be very circumspect, sitting with my hands fast on
+     each side, my eyes steady, not daring so much as to lodge my tongue
+     a hair's bredth more on one side of my mouth than tother, nor so
+     much as think on Lott's wife, for a very thought would have
+     oversett our wherry."
+
+When boats and vessels were built by the colonists, they were in forms
+or had names but little used to-day. Shallop, ketch, pink, and snow are
+rarely heard. Sloops were early built, but schooner is a modern term.
+Batteau and periagua still are used; and the gundalow, picturesque with
+its lateen sail, still is found on our northern New England shores.
+
+The Indians had narrow foot-paths in many places through the woods. On
+them foot-travel was possible, though many estuaries and rivers
+intersected the coast; for the narrow streams could be crossed on
+natural ford-ways, or on rude bridges of fallen trees, which the English
+government ordered to be put in place.
+
+As late as 1631 Governor Endicott would not go from Salem to Boston to
+visit Governor Winthrop because he was not strong enough to wade across
+the fords. He might have done as Governor Winthrop did the next year
+when he went to Plymouth to visit Governor Bradford (and it took him two
+days to get there); he might have been carried across the fords
+pickaback by an Indian guide.
+
+The Indian paths were good, though only two or three feet wide, and in
+many places the savages kept the woods clear from underbrush by burning
+over large tracts. When King Philip's War took place, all the land
+around the Indian settlements in Narragansett and eastern Massachusetts
+was so free of brush that horsemen could ride everywhere freely through
+the woods. Some of the old paths are famous in our history. The most so
+was the Bay Path, which ran from Cambridge through Marlborough,
+Worcester, Oxford, Brookfield, and on to Springfield and the Connecticut
+River. Holland's beautiful story called by the name of the path gives
+its history, its sentiment, and much that happened on it in olden times.
+
+When new paths were cut through the forests, the settlers "blazed" the
+trees, that is, they chopped a piece of the bark off tree after tree
+standing on the side of the way. Thus the "blazes" stood out clear and
+white in the dark shadows of the forests, like welcome guide-posts,
+showing the traveller his way. In Maryland roads turning off to a church
+were marked by slips or blazes cut near the ground.
+
+In Maryland and Virginia what were known as, and indeed are still
+called, rolling-roads were cut through the forest. They were narrow
+roads adown which hogsheads of tobacco, fitted with axles, could be
+drawn or rolled from inland plantations to the river or bay side;
+sometimes the hogsheads were simply rolled by human propulsion, not
+dragged on these roads.
+
+The broader rivers soon had canoe-ferries. The first regular
+Massachusetts ferry from Charlestown to Boston was in 1639. It carried
+passengers for threepence apiece. From Chelsea to Boston was fourpence.
+In 1636 the Cambridge ferryman charged but half a penny, as so many
+wished to attend the Thursday lecture in the Boston churches. We learn
+from the Massachusetts Laws that often a rider had to let his horse
+cross by swimming over, being guided from the ferry-boat; he then paid
+no ferriage for the horse. After wheeled vehicles were used, these
+ferries were not large enough to carry them properly. Often the carriage
+had to be taken apart, or towed over, while the horse had his fore feet
+in one canoe-ferry and his hind feet in another, the two canoes being
+lashed together. The rope-ferry lingered till our own day, and was ever
+a picturesque sight on the river. As soon as roads were built there
+were, of course, bridges and cart-ways, but these were only between the
+closely neighboring towns. Usually the bridges were merely
+"horse-bridges" with a railing on but one side.
+
+After the period of walking and canoe-riding had had its day, nearly all
+land travel for a century was on horseback, just as it was in England at
+that date. In 1672 there were only six stage-coaches in the whole of
+Great Britain; and a man wrote a pamphlet protesting that they
+encouraged too much travel. Boston then had one private coach. Women and
+children usually rode seated on a pillion behind a man. A pillion was a
+padded cushion with straps which sometimes had on one side a sort of
+platform-stirrup. One way of progress which would help four persons ride
+part of their journey was what was called the ride-and-tie system. Two
+of the four persons who were travelling started on their road on foot;
+two mounted on the saddle and pillion, rode about a mile, dismounted,
+tied the horse, and walked on. When the two who had started on foot
+reached the waiting horse, they mounted, rode on past the other couple
+for a mile or so, dismounted, tied, and walked on; and so on. It was
+also a universal and courteous as it was a pleasant custom for friends
+to ride out on the road a few miles with any departing guest or friend,
+and then bid them God speed agatewards.
+
+In 1704 a Boston schoolmistress named Madam Knights rode from Boston to
+New York on horseback. She was probably the first woman to make the
+journey, and it was a great and daring undertaking. She had as a
+companion the "post." This was the mail-carrier, who also rode on
+horseback. One of his duties was to assist and be kind to all persons
+who cared to journey in his company. The first regular mail started from
+New York to Boston on January 1, 1673. The postman carried two
+"portmantles," which were crammed with letters and parcels. He did not
+change horses till he reached Hartford. He was ordered to look out and
+report the condition of all ferries, fords, and roads. He had to be
+"active, stout, indefatigable, and honest." When he delivered his mail
+it was laid on a table at an inn, and any one who wished looked over all
+the letters, then took and paid the postage (which was very high) on any
+addressed to himself. It was usually about a month from this setting out
+of "the post" in winter, till his return. As late certainly as 1730 the
+mail was carried from New York to Albany in the winter by a "foot-post."
+He went up the Hudson River, and lonely enough it must have been;
+probably he skated up when the ice was good. This mail was only sent at
+irregular intervals.
+
+In 1760 there were but eight mails a year from Philadelphia to the
+Potomac River, and even then the post-rider need not start till he had
+received enough letters to pay the expenses of the trip. It was not till
+postal affairs were placed in the capable and responsible hands of
+Benjamin Franklin that there were any regular or trustworthy mails.
+
+The journal and report of Hugh Finlay, a post-office surveyor in 1773 of
+the mail service from Quebec to St. Augustine, Florida, tells of the
+vicissitudes of mail-matter even at that later day. In some places the
+deputy, as the postmaster was called, had no office, so his family rooms
+were constantly invaded. Occasionally a tavern served as post-office;
+letters were thrown down on a table and if the weather was bad, or
+smallpox raged, or the deputy were careless, they were not forwarded for
+many days. Letters that arrived might lie on the table or bar-counter
+for days for any one to pull over, until the owner chanced to arrive and
+claim them. Good service could scarcely be expected from any deputy, for
+his salary was paid according to the number of letters coming to his
+office; and as private mail-carriage constantly went on, though
+forbidden by British law, the deputy suffered. "If an information were
+lodg'd but an informer wou'd get tar'd and feather'd, no jury wou'd find
+the fact." The government-riders were in truth the chief offenders. Any
+ship's captain, or wagon-driver, or post-rider could carry merchandise;
+therefore small sham bundles of paper, straw, or chips would be tied to
+a large sealed packet of letter, and both be exempt from postage paid to
+the Crown.
+
+The post-rider between Boston and Newport loaded his carriage with
+bundles real and sham, which delayed him long in delivery. He bought and
+sold on commission along this road; and in violation of law he carried
+many letters to his own profit. He took twenty-six hours to go eighty
+miles. Had the Newport deputy dared to complain, he would have incurred
+much odium and been declared a "friend of slavery and oppression."
+
+"Old Herd," the rider from Saybrook to New York, had been in the service
+forty-six years and had made a good estate. He coolly took postage of
+all way-letters as his perquisite; was a money carrier and transferrer,
+all advantage to his own pocket; carried merchandise; returned horses
+for travellers; and when Finlay saw him he was waiting for a yoke of
+oxen he was paid for fetching along some miles. A Pennsylvania
+post-rider, an aged man, occupied himself as he slowly jogged along by
+knitting mittens and stockings. Not always were mail portmanteaux
+properly locked; hence many letters were lost and the pulling in and out
+of bundles defaced the letters.
+
+Of course so much horseback riding made it necessary to have
+horse-blocks in front of nearly all houses. In course of time stones
+were set every mile on the principal roads to tell the distance from
+town to town. Benjamin Franklin set milestones the entire way on the
+post-road from Boston to Philadelphia. He rode in a chaise over the
+road; and a machine which he had invented was attached to the chaise;
+and it was certainly the first cyclometer that went on that road, over
+which so many cyclometers have passed during the last five years. It
+measured the miles as he travelled. When he had ridden a mile he
+stopped; from a heavy cart loaded with milestones, which kept alongside
+the chaise, a stone was dropped which was afterwards set by a gang of
+men.
+
+A number of old colonial milestones are still standing. There is one in
+Worcester, on what was the "New Connecticut Path"; one in Springfield on
+the "Bay Path," and there are several of Benjamin Franklin's setting,
+one being at Stratford, Connecticut.
+
+The inland transportation of freight was carried on in the colonies just
+as it was in Europe, on the backs of pack-horses. Very interesting
+historical evidence in relation to the methods of transportation in the
+middle of the eighteenth century may be found in the ingenious
+advertisement and address with which Benjamin Franklin raised
+transportation facilities for Braddock's army in 1755. This is one of
+his most characteristic literary productions. Braddock's appeals to the
+Philadelphia Assembly for a rough wagon-road and wagons for the army
+succeeded in raising only twenty-five wagons. Franklin visited him in
+his desolate plight and agreed to assist him, and appealed to the public
+to send to him for the use of the army a hundred and fifty wagons and
+fifteen hundred pack-horses; for the latter Franklin offered to pay two
+shillings a day each, as long as used, if provided with a pack-saddle.
+Twenty horses were sent with their loads to the camp as gifts to the
+British officers. As a good and definite list of the load one of these
+pack-horses was expected to carry (as well as a record of the kind of
+provisions grateful to an officer of that day) let me give an
+inventory:--
+
+     Six pounds loaf-sugar,
+     Six pounds muscovado sugar,
+     One pound green tea,
+     One pound bohea tea,
+     Six pounds ground coffee,
+     Six pounds chocolate,
+     One-half chest best white biscuit,
+     One-half pound pepper,
+     One quart white vinegar,
+     Two dozen bottles old Madeira wine,
+     Two gallons Jamaica spirits,
+     One bottle flour of mustard,
+     Two well-cured hams,
+     One-half dozen cured tongues,
+     Six pounds rice,
+     Six pounds raisins,
+     One Gloucester cheese,
+     One keg containing 20 lbs. best butter.
+
+The wagons and horses were all lost after Braddock's defeat, or were
+seized by the French and Indians, and Franklin had many anxious months
+of responsibility for damages from the owners; but I am confident the
+officers got all the provisions. Franklin gathered the wagons in York
+and Lancaster; no two English shires could have done better at that time
+than did these Pennsylvania counties.
+
+In Pennsylvania, western Virginia, and Ohio, pack-horses long were used,
+and a pretty picture is drawn by Doddridge and many other local
+historians of the trains of these horses with their gay collars and
+stuffed bells, as, laden with furs, ginseng, and snakeroot, they filed
+down the mountain roads to the towns, and came home laden with salt,
+nails, tea, pewter plates, etc. At night the horses were hobbled, and
+the clappers of their bells were loosened; the ringing prevented the
+horses being lost. The animals started on their journey with two hundred
+pounds' burden, of which part was provender for horse and man, which was
+left at convenient relays to be taken up on the way home. Two men could
+manage fifteen pack-horses, which were tethered successively each to the
+pack-saddle of the one in front of him. One man led the foremost horse,
+and the driver followed the file to watch the packs and urge on the
+laggards. Their numbers were vast; five hundred were counted at one time
+in Carlisle, Pennsylvania, going westward. It was a costly method of
+transportation. Mr. Howland says that in 1784 the expense of carrying a
+ton's weight from Philadelphia to Erie by pack-horses was $249. It is
+interesting to note that the routes taken by those men, skilled only in
+humble woodcraft, were the same ones followed in later years by the
+engineers of the turnpikes and railroads.
+
+As the roads were somewhat better in Pennsylvania than in some other
+provinces, and more needed, so wagons soon were far greater in number;
+indeed, during the Revolution nearly all the wagons and horses used by
+the army came from that state. There was developed in Pennsylvania by
+the soft soil of these many roads, as well as by various topographical
+conditions, a splendid example of a true American vehicle, one which was
+for a long time the highest type of a commodious freight-carrier in this
+or any other country--the Conestoga wagon, "the finest wagon the world
+has ever known." They were first used in any considerable number about
+1760. They had broad wheel-tires, and one of the peculiarities was a
+decided curve in the bottom, analogous to that of a galley or canoe,
+which made it specially fitted for traversing mountain roads; for this
+curved bottom prevented freight from slipping too far at either end when
+going up or down hill. This body was universally painted a bright blue,
+and furnished with sideboards of an equally vivid red. The wagon-bodies
+were arched over with six or eight stately bows, of which the middle
+ones were the lowest, and the others rose gradually to front and rear
+till the end bows were nearly of equal height. Over them all was
+stretched a strong, white, hempen cover, well corded down at the sides
+and ends. These wagons could be loaded up to the bows, and could carry
+four to six tons in weight. The rates between Philadelphia and
+Pittsburgh were about two dollars a hundred pounds. The horses, four to
+seven in number, were magnificent, often matched throughout; some were
+all dapple-gray, or all bay. The harnesses, of best materials and
+appearance, were costly; each horse had a large housing of deerskin or
+heavy bearskin trimmed with deep scarlet fringe; while the head-stall
+was tied with bunches of gay ribbons. Bell-teams were common; each horse
+except the saddle-horse then had a full set of bells tied with
+high-colored ribbons.
+
+The horses were highly fed; and when the driver, seated on the
+saddle-horse, drew rein on the prancing leader and flourished his fine
+bull-hide London whip, making the silk snap and tingle round the
+leader's ears, every horse started off with the ponderous load with a
+grace and ease that was beautiful to see.
+
+The wagons were first used in the Conestoga valley, and most extensively
+used there; and the sleek powerful draught-horses known as the Conestoga
+breed were attached to them, hence their name. These teams were objects
+of pride to their owners, objects of admiration and attention wherever
+they appeared, and are objects of historical interest and satisfaction
+to-day.
+
+Often a prosperous teamster would own several Conestoga wagons, and
+driving the leading and handsomest team himself would start off his
+proud procession. From twenty to a hundred would follow in close row.
+Large numbers were constantly passing. At one time ten thousand ran from
+Philadelphia to other towns. Josiah Quincy told of the road at
+Lancaster being lined with them. The scene on the road between the
+Cumberland valley and Greensburg, where there are five distinct and
+noble mountain ranges,--Tuscarora, Rays Hill, Alleghany, Laurel Hills,
+and Chestnut Ridge,--when a long train of white-topped Conestoga wagons
+appeared and wound along the mountain sides, was picturesque and
+beautiful with a charm unparalleled to-day.
+
+        "----Many a fleet of them
+    In one long upward winding row.
+    It ever was a noble sight
+    As from the distant mountain height
+        Or quiet valley far below,
+    Their snow-white covers looked like sail."
+
+There were two classes of Conestoga wagons and wagoners. The "Regulars,"
+or men who made it their constant and only business; and "Militia." A
+local poet thus describes these outfits:--
+
+    "Militia-men drove narrow treads,
+    Four horses and plain red Dutch beds,
+       And always carried grub and feed."
+
+They were farmers or common teamsters who made occasional trips, usually
+in winter time, and did some carriage for others, and drove but four
+horses with their wagons. The "Regulars" had broad tires, carried no
+feed for horses nor food for themselves, but both classes of teamsters
+carried coarse mattresses and blankets, which they spread side by side,
+and row after row, on the bar-room floor of the tavern at which they
+"put up." Their horses when unharnessed fed from long troughs hitched to
+the wagon-pole. The wagons that plied between the Delaware and the small
+city of Pittsburgh were called Pitt-teams.
+
+The life of the Conestoga wagon did not end even with the establishment
+of railroads in the Eastern states; farther and farther west it
+penetrated, ever chosen by emigrants and travellers to the frontiers;
+and at last in its old age it had an equal career of usefulness as the
+"prairie-schooner," in which vast numbers of families safely crossed the
+prairies of our far West. The white tilts of the wagons thus passed and
+repassed till our own day.
+
+Four-wheeled wagons were but little used in New England till after the
+War of 1812. Two-wheeled carts and sleds carried inland freight, which
+was chiefly transported over the snow in the winter.
+
+The Conestoga wagon of the past century was far ahead of anything in
+England at that date; indeed Mr. C. W. Ernst, the best authority I know
+on the subject, says we had in every way far better traffic facilities
+at that time than England. In other ways we excelled. Though Finlay
+found many defects in the postal service in 1773, he also found the
+Stavers mail-coach plying between Boston and Portsmouth long before
+England had such a thing. Mr. Ernst says: "The Stavers mail-coach was
+stunning; used six horses when roads were bad, and never was late. They
+had no mail-coaches in England till after the Revolution, and I believe
+Massachusetts men introduced the idea in England."
+
+We are apt to grow retrospectively sentimental over the delights,
+æsthetic and physical, of ancient stage-coach days. Those days are not
+so ancient as many fancy. The first stage-coach which ran directly from
+Philadelphia to New York in 1766--and primitive enough it was--was
+called "the flying-machine, a good stage-wagon set on springs." Its
+swift trip occupied two days in good weather. It was but a year later
+than the original stage-coach between Edinburgh and Glasgow. At that
+time, in favorable weather, the coach between London and Edinburgh made
+the trip in thirteen days. The London mail-coach in its palmiest days
+could make this trip in forty-three hours and a half. As early as 1718
+Jonathan Wardwell advertised that he would run a stage to Rhode Island.
+In 1767 a stage-coach was run during the summer months between Boston
+and Providence; in 1770 a stage-chaise started between Salem and Boston
+and a post-chaise between Boston and Portsmouth the following year. As
+early as 1732 some common-carrier lines had wagons which would carry a
+few passengers. Let us hear the testimony of some travellers as to the
+glorious pleasure of stage-coach travelling. Describing a trip between
+Boston and New York towards the end of the last century President Quincy
+of Harvard College said:--
+
+     "The carriages were old and the shackling and much of the harness
+     made of ropes. One pair of horses carried us eighteen miles. We
+     generally reached our resting-place for the night if no accident
+     intervened, at ten o'clock, and after a frugal supper went to bed,
+     with a notice that we should be called at three next morning, which
+     generally proved to be half-past two, and then, whether it snowed
+     or rained, the traveller must rise and make ready, by the help of a
+     horn-lantern and a farthing candle, and proceed on his way over bad
+     roads, sometimes getting out to help the coachman lift the coach
+     out of a quagmire or rut, and arrived in New York after a week's
+     hard travelling, wondering at the ease as well as the expedition
+     with which our journey was effected."
+
+The _Columbia Centinel_ of April 24, 1793, advertised a new line of
+"small genteel and easy stage-carriages" from Boston to New York with
+four inside passengers, and smart horses. Many of the announcements of
+the day have pictures of the coaches. They usually resemble market
+wagons with round, canvas-covered tops, and the driver is seated outside
+the body of the wagon with his feet on the foot-board. Trunks were
+small, covered with deerskin or pigskin, studded with brass nails; and
+each traveller took his trunk under his seat and feet.
+
+The poet, Moore, gives in rhyme his testimony of Virginia roads in
+1800:--
+
+    "Dear George, though every bone is aching
+            After the shaking
+    I've had this week over ruts and ridges,
+            And bridges
+    Made of a few uneasy planks,
+            In open ranks,
+    Over rivers of mud whose names alone
+    Would make knock the knees of stoutest man."
+
+The traveller Weld, in 1795, gave testimony that the bridges were so
+poor that the driver had always to stop and arrange the loose planks ere
+he dared cross, and he adds:--
+
+     "The driver frequently had to call to the passengers in the stage
+     to lean out of the carriage first on one side then on the other, to
+     prevent it from oversetting in the deep roads with which the road
+     abounds. 'Now, gentlemen, to the right,' upon which the passengers
+     all stretched their bodies half-way out of the carriage to balance
+     on that side. 'Now, gentlemen, to the left,' and so on."
+
+The coach in which this pleasure trip was taken is shown in the
+illustration entitled "American Stage-wagon." It is copied from a first
+edition of _Weld's Travels_.
+
+Ann Warder, in her journey from Philadelphia to New York in 1759, notes
+two overturned and abandoned stage-wagons at Perth Amboy; and many other
+travellers give similar testimony. In 1796 the trip from Philadelphia to
+Baltimore took five days.
+
+The growth in stage-coaches and travel came with the turnpike at the
+beginning of this century. In transportation and travel, improvement of
+roadways is ever associated with improvement of vehicles. The first
+extensive turnpike was the one between Philadelphia and Lancaster, built
+in 1792. The growth and the cost of these roads may be briefly mentioned
+by quoting a statement from the annual message of the governor of
+Pennsylvania in 1838, that that commonwealth then had two thousand five
+hundred miles of turnpikes which had cost $37,000,000.
+
+Many of these turnpikes were beautiful and splendid roads; for instance,
+the "Mohawk and Hudson Turnpike," which ran in a straight line from
+Albany to Schenectady, was ornamented and shaded with two rows of the
+quickly growing and fashionable poplar-trees and thickly punctuated with
+taverns. On one turnpike there were sixty-five taverns in sixty miles.
+The dashing stage-coach accorded well with this fine thoroughfare.
+
+With the splendid turnpikes came the glorious coaching days. In 1827 the
+Traveller's Register reported eight hundred stage-coaches arriving, and
+as many leaving Boston each week. The forty-mile road from Boston to
+Providence sometimes saw twenty coaches going each way. The editor of
+the _Providence Gazette_ wrote: "We were rattled from Boston to
+Providence in four hours and fifty minutes--if any one wants to go
+faster he may go to Kentucky and charter a streak of lightning." There
+were four rival lines on the Cumberland road,--the National, Good
+Intent, Pioneer, and June Bug. Some spirited races the old stage-road
+witnessed between the rival lines. The distance from Wheeling to
+Cumberland, one hundred and thirty-two miles, was regularly accomplished
+in twenty-four hours. No heavy luggage was carried and but nine
+passengers; fourteen coaches rolled off together--one was a mail-coach
+with a horn. Relays were every ten miles; teams were changed before the
+coach ceased rocking; one driver boasted of changing and harnessing his
+four horses in four minutes. Lady travellers were quickly thrust in the
+open door and their bandboxes after them. Scant time was there for
+refreshment, save by uncorking of bottles. The keen test and acute
+rivalry between drivers came in the delivery of the President's Message.
+Dan Gordon carried the message thirty-two miles in two hours and thirty
+minutes, changing horses three times. Bill Noble carried the message
+from Wheeling to Hagerstown, a hundred and eighty-five miles, in fifteen
+and a half hours.
+
+In 1818 the Eastern Stage Company was chartered in the state of New
+Hampshire. The route was this: a stage started from Portsmouth at 9 A.M.;
+passengers dined at Topsfield; thence through Danvers and Salem;
+back the following day, dining at Newburyport. The capital stock was
+four hundred and twenty-five shares at a hundred dollars par. In 1834
+the stock was worth two hundred dollars a share. The company owned
+several hundred horses. It was on a coach of this line that Henry Clay
+rode from Pleasant Street, Salem, to Tremont House, Boston, in exactly
+an hour; and on the route extended to Portland, Daniel Webster was
+carried at the rate of sixteen English miles an hour from Boston to
+Portland to sign the Ashburton Treaty.
+
+The middle of the century saw the beginning of the end of coaching in
+all the states that had been colonies. Further west the old stage-coach
+had to trundle in order to exist at all: Ohio, Indiana, Missouri, across
+the plains, and then over the Rocky Mountains to Salt Lake. The road
+from Carson to Plainville gave the crack ride, and the driver wore
+yellow kid gloves. The coach known as the Concord wagon, drawn by six
+horses, still makes cheerful the out-of-the-way roads of our Western
+states, and recalls the life of olden times. The story of spirited and
+gay life still exists in the Wells Fargo Express. The usefulness of the
+Concord coach is not limited to the western nor the northern portion of
+our continent; in South America it flourishes, banishing all rivals.
+
+Canal travel and transportation were proposed at the close of provincial
+days, and a few short canals were built. Benjamin Franklin was early
+awake to their practicability and value. Among the stock-owners of the
+Dismal Swamp Canal was George Washington, and he was equally interested
+in the Potomac Canal.
+
+The Erie Canal, first proposed to the New York legislature in 1768, was
+completed in 1825. There was considerable passenger travel on this canal
+at "a cent and a half a mile, a mile and a half an hour." Horace Greeley
+has given an excellent picture of this leisurely travel; it was asserted
+by some that stage-coaches were doomed by the canal-boat, but they
+continued to exist till they encountered a more formidable rival.
+
+Until turnpike days all small carriages were two-wheeled; chaises,
+chairs, and sulkies were those generally used. The chaise and harness
+used by Jonathan Trumbull--"Brother Jonathan"--are here shown. With
+regard to private conveyances, whether coaches, chaises, or chairs, the
+colonies kept close step from earliest days with the mother-countries.
+Randolph noted with envy the Boston coaches of the seventeenth century.
+Parson Thatcher was accused and reprehended in 1675 for making visits
+with a coach and four. Coaches were taxed both in England and America;
+so we know exactly how plentiful they were. There were as many in
+Massachusetts in 1750 in proportion to the number of inhabitants as
+there were in England in 1830. Judge Sewall's diary often refers to
+private coaches; and one of the most amusing scenes it depicts is his
+continued and ingenious argument when wooing Madam Winthrop for his
+third wife, when she stipulated that he should keep a coach, and his
+frugal mind disposed him not to do it.
+
+Coach-building prospered in the colonies; Lucas and Paddock in Boston,
+Ross in New York, made beautiful and rich coaches. Materials were ample
+and varied in the New World for carriage-building; horseflesh--not
+over-choice, to be sure--became over-plentiful; it was said that no man
+ever walked in America save a vagabond or a fool. A coach made for Madam
+Angelica Campbell of Schenectady, New York, by coach-builder Ross, in
+1790, is here shown. It is now owned by Mr. John D. Campbell of
+Rotterdam, New York.
+
+Sleighs were common in New York a half-century before they were in
+Boston. Madam Knights noted the fast racing in sleighs in New York when
+she was there in 1704.
+
+One other curious conveyance of colonial days should be spoken of,--a
+sedan-chair. This was a strong covered chair fastened on two bars with
+handles like a litter, and might be carried by two or four persons. When
+sedan-chairs were so much used in England, they were sure to be somewhat
+used in cities in America. One was presented to Governor Winthrop as
+early as 1646, portion of a capture from a Spanish galleon. Judge Sewall
+wrote in 1706, "Five Indians carried Mr. Bromfield in a chair." This was
+in the country, down on Cape Cod, and doubtless four Indians carried him
+while one rested. As late as 1789 Eliza Quincy saw Dr. Franklin riding
+in a sedan-chair in Philadelphia.
+
+The establishment and building of roads, bridges, and opening of inns
+show that mutual interest which marks civilization, and separates us
+from the lonely, selfish life of a savage. Soon inns were found
+everywhere in the Northern colonies. In New England, New York, and
+Pennsylvania an inn was called an ordinary, a victualling, a cook-shop,
+or a tavern before we had our modern word hotel.
+
+Board was not very high at early inns; the prices were regulated by the
+different towns. In 1633 the Salem innkeeper could only have sixpence
+for a meal. This was at the famous Anchor Tavern, which was kept as a
+hostelry for nearly two centuries. At the Ship Tavern, board, lodging,
+wine at dinner, and beer between meals cost three shillings a day. Great
+care was taken by the magistrates to choose responsible men and women to
+keep taverns, and they would not permit too many taverns in one town. At
+first the tavern-keeper could not sell sack (which was sherry), nor
+stronger intoxicating liquor to travellers, but he could sell beer,
+provided it was good, for a penny a quart. Nor could he sell cakes or
+buns except at a wedding or funeral. He could not allow games to be
+played, nor singing or dancing to take place.
+
+We know from Shakespeare's plays that the different rooms in English
+inns had names. This was also the custom in New England. The Star
+Chamber, Rose and Sun Chamber, Blue Chamber, Jerusalem Chamber, were
+some of them. Many of the taverns of Revolutionary days and some of
+colonial times are still standing. A few have even been taverns since
+first built; others have served many other uses. A well-preserved old
+house, built in 1690 in Sudbury, Massachusetts, was originally known as
+the Red Horse Tavern, but has acquired greater fame as the Wayside Inn
+of Longfellow's Tales. Its tap-room with raftered ceiling and cage-like
+bar with swinging gate is a picturesque room, and is one of the few old
+tap-rooms left unaltered in New England.
+
+Every inn had a name, usually painted on its swinging sign-board, with
+some significant emblem. These names were simply repetitions of old
+English tavern-signs until Revolutionary days, when patriotic landlords
+eagerly invented and adopted names significant of the new nation. The
+scarlet coat of King George became the blue and buff of George
+Washington; and the eagle of the United States took the place of the
+British lion.
+
+The sign-board was an interesting survival of feudal times, and with its
+old-time carved and forged companions, such as vanes and weathercocks,
+doorknockers and figureheads, formed a picturesque element of decoration
+and symbolism. Many chapters might be written on historic,
+commemorative, emblematic, heraldic, biblical, humorous, or significant
+signs, nearly all of which have vanished from public gaze, as has
+disappeared also the general incapacity to read, which made pictorial
+devices a necessity. Gilders, painter-stainers, smiths, and joiners all
+helped to make the tavern-sign a thing of varied workmanship if not of
+art. It is said that Philadelphia excelled in the quantity and quality
+of her sign-boards. With fair roads for colonial days, the best and
+amplest system of transportation, and the splendid Conestoga wagons,
+great inns multiplied throughout Pennsylvania. In Baltimore both taverns
+and signs were many and varied, from the Three Loggerheads to the Indian
+Queen with its "two hundred guest-rooms with a bell in every room," and
+the Fountain Inn built around a shady court, with galleries on every
+story, like the Tabard Inn at Southwark.
+
+The swinging sign-board of John Nash's Tavern at Amherst, Massachusetts,
+is here reproduced from the _History of Amherst_. It is a good type of
+the ordinary sign-board which was found hanging in front of every tavern
+a century ago.
+
+In Virginia and the Carolinas taverns were not so plentiful nor so
+necessary; for a traveller might ride from Maryland to Georgia, and be
+sure of a welcome at every private house on the way. Some planters,
+eager for company and news, stationed negroes at the gate to invite
+passers-by on the post-road to come into the house and be entertained.
+Berkeley, in his _History of Virginia_, wrote:--
+
+     "The inhabitants are very courteous to travellers, who need no
+     other recommendation than being human creatures. A stranger has no
+     more to do but to inquire upon the road where any gentleman or
+     good housekeeper lives, and then he may depend upon being received
+     with hospitality. This good-nature is so general among their
+     people, that the gentry, when they go abroad, order their principal
+     servants to entertain all visitors with everything the plantation
+     affords; and the poor planters who have but one bed, will often sit
+     up, or lie upon a form or couch all night, to make room for a weary
+     traveller to repose himself after his journey."
+
+So universal was this custom of free entertainment that it was a law in
+Virginia that unless there had been a distinct agreement to pay for
+board and shelter, no pay could be claimed from any guest, no matter how
+long he remained. In the few taverns that existed prices were low, about
+a shilling a dinner; and it was ordered that the meal must be wholesome
+and good.
+
+The governor of New Netherlands at first entertained all visitors to New
+Amsterdam at his house in the fort. But as commerce increased he found
+this hospitality burdensome, and a Harberg or tavern was built; it was
+later used as a city hall.
+
+In England throughout the seventeenth century, and indeed much later,
+traversing the great cities by night was a matter of some danger. The
+streets were ill-lighted, were full of holes and mud and filth, and were
+infested with thieves. Worse still, groups of drunken and dissipated
+young men of wealth, calling themselves Mohocks, Scourers, and other
+names, roamed the dark streets armed with swords and bludgeons,
+assaulting, tormenting, and injuring every one whom they met, who had
+the ill fortune to be abroad at night.
+
+There was nothing of that sort known in American cities; there was
+little noise or roistering, no highway robbery, comparatively little
+petty stealing. The streets were ill-paved and dirty, but not foul with
+the accumulated dirt of centuries as in London. The streets in nearly
+all cities were unlighted. In 1697 New Yorkers were ordered to have a
+lantern and candle hung out on a pole from every seventh house. And as
+the watchman walked around he called out, "Lanthorn, and a whole
+candell-light. Hang out your lights." The watchman was called a
+rattle-watch, and carried a long staff and a lantern and a large rattle
+or klopper, which he struck to frighten away thieves. And all night long
+he called out each hour, and told the weather. For instance, he called
+out, "Past midnight, and all's well"; "One o'clock and fair winds," or
+"Five o'clock and cloudy skies." Thus one could lie safe in bed and if
+he chanced to waken could know that the friendly rattle-watch was near
+at hand, and what was the weather and the time of night. In 1658 New
+York had in all ten watchmen, who were like our modern police; to-day it
+has many thousands.
+
+In New England the constables and watch were all carefully appointed by
+law. They carried black staves six feet long, tipped with brass, and
+hence were called tipstaves. The night watch was called a bell-man. He
+looked out for fire and thieves and other disorders, and called the time
+of the night, and the weather. The pay was small, often but a shilling a
+night, and occasionally a "coat of kersey." In large towns, as Boston
+and Salem, thirteen "sober, honest men and householders" were the night
+watch. The highest in the community, even the magistrates, took their
+turn at the watch, and were ordered to walk two together, a young man
+with "one of the soberer sort."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+SUNDAY IN THE COLONIES
+
+
+The first building used as a church at the Plymouth colony was the fort,
+and to it the Pilgrim fathers and mothers and children walked on Sunday
+reverently and gravely, three in a row, the men fully armed with swords
+and guns, till they built a meeting-house in 1648. In other New England
+settlements, the first services were held in tents, under trees, or
+under any shelter. The settler who had a roomy house often had also the
+meeting. The first Boston meeting-house had mud walls, a thatched roof,
+and earthen floor. It was used till 1640, and some very thrilling and
+inspiring scenes were enacted within its humble walls. Usually the
+earliest meeting-houses were log houses, with clay-filled chinks, and
+roofs thatched with reeds and long grass, like the dwelling-houses. At
+Salem is still preserved one of the early churches. The second and more
+dignified form of New England meeting-house was usually a square wooden
+building with a truncated pyramidal roof, surmounted often with a
+belfry, which served as a lookout station and held a bell, from which
+the bell-rope hung down to the floor in the centre of the church aisle.
+The old church at Hingham, Massachusetts, still standing and still used,
+is a good specimen of this shape. It was built in 1681, and is known as
+the "Old Ship," and is a comely and dignified building. As more elegant
+and costly dwelling-houses were built, so were better meeting-houses;
+and the third form with lofty wooden steeple at one end, in the style
+of architecture invented by Sir Christopher Wren, after the great fire
+of London, multiplied and increased until every town was graced with an
+example. In all these the main body of the edifice remained as bare,
+prosaic, and undecorated as were the preceding churches, while all the
+ambition of both builders and congregation spent itself in the steeple.
+These were so varied and at times so beautiful that a chapter might be
+written on New England steeples. The Old South Church of Boston is a
+good example of this school of ecclesiastical architecture, and is a
+well-known historic building as well.
+
+The earliest meeting-houses had oiled paper in the windows, and when
+glass came it was not set with putty, but was nailed in. The windows had
+what were termed "heavy current side-shutters." The outside of the
+meeting-house was not "colored," or "stained" as it was then termed, but
+was left to turn gray and weather-stained, and sometimes moss-covered
+with the dampness of the great shadowing hemlock and fir trees which
+were usually planted around New England churches. The first
+meeting-houses were often decorated in a very singular and grotesque
+manner. Rewards were paid by all the early towns for killing wolves; and
+any person who killed a wolf brought the head to the meeting-house and
+nailed it to the outer wall; the fierce grinning heads and splashes of
+blood made a grim and horrible decoration. All kinds of notices were
+also nailed to the meeting-house door where all of the congregation
+might readily see them,--notices of town-meetings, of sales of cattle or
+farms, lists of town-officers, prohibitions from selling guns to the
+Indians, notices of intended marriages, vendues, etc. It was the only
+meeting-place, the only method of advertisement. In front of the church
+was usually a row of stepping-stones or horse-blocks, for nearly all
+came on horseback; and often on the meeting-house green stood the
+stocks, pillory, and whipping-post.
+
+A verse from an old-fashioned hymn reads thus:
+
+    "New England's Sabbath day
+      Is heaven-like, still, and pure,
+    When Israel walks the way
+      Up to the temple's door.
+    The time we tell
+      When there to come,
+      By beat of drum,
+    Or sounding shell."
+
+The first church at Jamestown, Virginia, gathered the congregation by
+beat of drum; but while attendants of the Episcopal, Roman Catholic,
+and Dutch Reformed churches in the New World were in general being
+summoned to divine service by the ringing of a bell hung either over the
+church or in the branches of a tree by its side, New England Puritans
+were summoned, as the hymn relates, by drum, or horn, or shell. The
+shell was a great conch-shell, and a man was hired to blow it--a
+mournful sound--at the proper time, which was usually nine o'clock in
+the morning. In Stockbridge, Massachusetts, the church-shell was
+afterwards used for many years as a signal to begin and stop work in the
+haying field. In Windsor, Connecticut, a man walked up and down on a
+platform on the top of the meeting-house and blew a trumpet to summon
+worshippers. Many churches had a church drummer, who stood on the roof
+or in the belfry and drummed; a few raised a flag as a summons, or fired
+a gun.
+
+Within the meeting-house all was simple enough: raftered walls, puncheon
+and sanded or earthen floors, rows of benches, a few pews, all of
+unpainted wood, and a pulpit which was usually a high desk overhung by a
+heavy sounding-board, which was fastened to the roof by a slender metal
+rod. The pulpit was sometimes called a scaffold. When pews were built
+they were square, with high partition walls, and had narrow,
+uncomfortable seats round three sides. The word was always spelled
+"pue"; and they were sometimes called "pits." A little girl in the
+middle of this century attended a service in an old church which still
+retained the old-fashioned square pews; she exclaimed, in a loud voice,
+"What! must I be shut in a closet and sit on a shelf?" These narrow,
+shelf-like seats were usually hung on hinges and could be turned up
+against the pew-walls during the long psalm-tunes and prayers; so the
+members of the congregation could lean against the pew-walls for support
+as they stood. When the seats were let down, they fell with a heavy slam
+that could be heard half a mile away in the summer time, when the
+windows of the meeting-house were open. Lines from an old poem read:--
+
+    "And when at last the loud Amen
+    Fell from aloft, how quickly then
+    The seats came down with heavy rattle,
+    Like musketry in fiercest battle."
+
+A few of the old-time meeting-houses, with high pulpit, square pews, and
+deacons' seats, still remain in New England. The interior of the Rocky
+Hill meeting-house at Salisbury, Massachusetts, is here shown. It fully
+illustrates the words of the poet:--
+
+    "Old house of Puritanic wood
+      Through whose unpainted windows streamed
+    On seats as primitive and rude
+      As Jacob's pillow when he dreamed,
+    The white and undiluted day--"
+
+The seats were carefully and thoughtfully assigned by a church committee
+called the Seating Committee, the best seats being given to older
+persons of wealth and dignity who attended the church. Whittier wrote of
+this custom:--
+
+    "In the goodly house of worship, where in order due and fit,
+    As by public vote directed, classed and ranked the people sit.
+    Mistress first and good wife after, clerkly squire before the clown,
+    From the brave coat lace-embroidered to the gray coat shading down."
+
+Many of the plans for "seating the meeting-house" have been preserved;
+the pews and their assigned occupants are clearly designated. A copy is
+shown of one now in Deerfield Memorial Hall.
+
+In the early meeting-houses men and women sat on separate sides of the
+meeting-house, as in Quaker meetings till our own time. Sometimes a
+group of young women or of young men were permitted to sit in the
+gallery together. Little girls sat beside their mothers or on footstools
+at their feet, or sometimes on the gallery stairs; and I have heard of a
+little cage or frame to hold Puritan babies in meeting. Boys did not sit
+with their families, but were in groups by themselves, usually on the
+pulpit and gallery stairs, where tithing-men watched over them. In
+Salem, in 1676, it was ordered by the town that "all ye boyes of ye
+towne are appointed to sitt upon ye three paire of stairs in ye
+meeting-house, and Wm. Lord is appointed to look after ye boys upon ye
+pulpitt stairs."
+
+In Stratford the tithing-man was ordered to "watch over youths of
+disorderly carriage, and see they behave themselves comelie, and use
+such raps and blows as is in his discretion meet." In Durham any
+misbehaving boy was punished publicly after the service was over. We
+would nowadays scarcely seat twenty or thirty active boys together in
+church if we wished them to be models of attention and dignified
+behavior; but after the boys' seats were removed from the pulpit stairs
+they were all turned in together in a "boys' pew" in the gallery. There
+was a boys' pew in Windsor, Connecticut, as late as 1845, and pretty
+noisy it usually was. A certain small boy in Connecticut misbehaved
+himself on Sunday, and his wickedness was specified by the justice of
+peace as follows:--
+
+     "A Rude and Idel Behaver in the meeting hous. Such as Smiling and
+     Larfing and Intiseing others to the Same Evil. Such as Larfing or
+     Smiling or puling the hair of his nayber Benoni Simkins in the time
+     of Publick Worship. Such as throwing Sister Penticost Perkins on
+     the Ice, it being Saboth day, between the meeting hous and his
+     plaes of abode."
+
+I can picture well the wicked scene; poor, meek little Benoni Simpkins
+trying to behave well in meeting, and not cry out when the young "wanton
+gospeller" pulled her hair, and unfortunate Sister Perkins tripped up on
+the ice by the young rascal.
+
+Another vain youth in Andover, Massachusetts, was brought up before the
+magistrate, and it was charged that he "sported and played, and by
+Indecent gestures and wry faces caused laughter and misbehavior in the
+beholders." The girls were just as wicked; they slammed down the
+pew-seats. Tabatha Morgus of Norwich "prophaned the Lord's daye" by her
+"rude and indecent behavior in Laughing and playing in ye tyme of
+service." On Long Island godless boys "ran raesses" on the Sabbath and
+"talked of vane things," and as for Albany children, they played hookey
+and coasted down hill on Sunday to the scandal of every one evidently,
+except their parents. When the boys were separated and families sat in
+pews together, all became orderly in meeting.
+
+The deacons sat in a "Deacons' Pue" just in front of the pulpit;
+sometimes also there was a "Deaf Pue" in front for those who were hard
+of hearing. After choirs were established the singers' seats were
+usually in the gallery; and high up under the beams in a loft sat the
+negroes and Indians.
+
+If any person seated himself in any place which was not assigned to him,
+he had to pay a fine, usually of several shillings, for each offence.
+But in old Newbury men were fined as high as twenty-seven pounds each
+for persistent and unruly sitting in seats belonging to other members.
+
+The churches were all unheated. Few had stoves until the middle of this
+century. The chill of the damp buildings, never heated from autumn to
+spring, and closed and dark throughout the week, was hard for every one
+to bear. In some of the early log-built meeting-houses, fur bags made of
+wolfskins were nailed to the seats; and in winter church attendants
+thrust their feet into them. Dogs, too, were permitted to enter the
+meeting-house and lie on their masters' feet. Dog-whippers or
+dog-pelters were appointed to control and expel them when they became
+unruly or unbearable. Women and children usually carried foot-stoves,
+which were little pierced metal boxes that stood on wooden legs, and
+held hot coals. During the noon intermission the half-frozen church
+attendants went to a neighboring house or tavern, or to a noon-house to
+get warm. A noon-house or "Sabba-day house," as it was often called, was
+a long low building built near the meeting-house, with horse-stalls at
+one end and a chimney at the other. In it the farmers kept, says one
+church record, "their duds and horses." A great fire of logs was built
+there each Sunday, and before its cheerful blaze noonday luncheons of
+brown bread, doughnuts, or gingerbread were eaten, and foot-stoves were
+filled. Boys and girls were not permitted to indulge in idle talk in
+those noon-houses, much less to play. Often two or three families built
+a noon-house together, or the church built a "Society-house," and there
+the children had a sermon read to them by a deacon during the "nooning";
+sometimes the children had to explain aloud the notes they had taken
+during the sermon in the morning. Thus they throve, as a minister wrote,
+on the "Good Fare of brown Bread and the Gospel." There was no nearer
+approach to a Sunday-school until this century.
+
+The services were not shortened because the churches were uncomfortable.
+By the side of the pulpit stood a brass-bound hour-glass which was
+turned by the tithing-man or clerk, but it did not hasten the closing of
+the sermon. Sermons two or three hours long were customary, and prayers
+from one to two hours in length. When the first church in Woburn was
+dedicated, the minister preached a sermon nearly five hours long. A
+Dutch traveller recorded a prayer four hours long on a Fast Day. Many
+prayers were two hours long. The doors were closed and watched by the
+tithing-man, and none could leave even if tired or restless unless with
+good excuse. The singing of the psalms was tedious and unmusical, just
+as it was in churches of all denominations both in America and England
+at that date. Singing was by ear and very uncertain, and the
+congregation had no notes, and many had no psalm-books, and hence no
+words. So the psalms were "lined" or "deaconed"; that is, a line was
+read by the deacon, and then sung by the congregation. Some psalms when
+lined and sung occupied half an hour, during which the congregation
+stood. There were but eight or nine tunes in general use, and even these
+were often sung incorrectly. There were no church organs to help keep
+the singers together, but sometimes pitch-pipes were used to set the
+key. Bass-viols, clarionets, and flutes were played upon at a later date
+in meeting to help the singing. Violins were too associated with dance
+music to be thought decorous for church music. Still the New England
+churches clung to and loved their poor confused psalm-singing as one of
+their few delights, and whenever a Puritan, even in road or field, heard
+the distant sound of a psalm-tune he removed his hat and bowed his head
+in prayer.
+
+Contributions at first were not collected by the deacons, but the entire
+congregation, one after another, walked up to the deacons' seat and
+placed gifts of money, goods, wampum, or promissory notes in a box. When
+the services were ended, all remained in the pews until the minister and
+his wife had walked up the aisle and out of the church.
+
+The strict observance of Sunday as a holy day was one of the
+characteristics of the Puritans. Any profanation of the day was
+severely punished by fine or whipping. Citizens were forbidden to fish,
+shoot, sail, row, dance, jump, or ride, save to and from church, or to
+perform any work on the farm. An infinite number of examples might be
+given to show how rigidly the laws were enforced. The use of tobacco was
+forbidden near the meeting-house. These laws were held to extend from
+sunset on Saturday to sunset on Sunday; for in the first instructions
+given to Governor Endicott by the company in England, it was ordered
+that all in the colony cease work at three o'clock in the afternoon on
+Saturday. The Puritans found support of this belief in the Scriptural
+words, "The evening and the morning were the first day."
+
+A Sabbath day in the family of Rev. John Cotton was thus described by
+one of his fellow-ministers:--
+
+     "He began the Sabbath at evening, therefore then performed family
+     duty after supper, being longer than ordinary in exposition. After
+     which he catechized his children and servants, and then returned to
+     his study. The morning following, family worship being ended, he
+     retired into his study until the bell called him away. Upon his
+     return from meeting (where he had preached and prayed some hours),
+     he returned again into his study (the place of his labor and
+     prayer), unto his favorite devotion; where having a small repast
+     carried him up for his dinner, he continued until the tolling of
+     the bell. The public service of the afternoon being over, he
+     withdrew for a space to his pre-mentioned oratory for his sacred
+     addresses to God, as in the forenoon, then came down, repeated the
+     sermon in the family, prayed, after supper sang a Psalm, and toward
+     bedtime betaking himself again to his study he closed the day with
+     prayer. Thus he spent the Sabbath continually."
+
+The Virginia Cavaliers were strict Church of England men and the first
+who came to the colony were strict Sunday-keepers. Rules were laid down
+to enforce Sunday observance. Journeys were forbidden, boat-lading was
+prohibited, also all profanation of the day by sports, such as shooting,
+fishing, game-playing, etc. The offender who broke the Sabbath laws had
+to pay a fine and be set in the stocks. When that sturdy watch-dog of
+religion and government--Sir Thomas Dale--came over, he declared absence
+from church should be punishable by death; but this severity never was
+executed. The captain of the watch was made to play the same part as the
+New England tithing-man. Every Sunday, half an hour before service-time,
+at the last tolling of the bell, the captain stationed sentinels, then
+searched all the houses and commanded and forced all (except the sick)
+to go to church. Then, when all were driven churchwards before him, he
+went with his guards to church himself.
+
+Captain John Smith, in his _Pathway to erect a Plantation_, thus vividly
+described the first places of divine worship in Virginia:--
+
+     "Wee did hang an awning, which is an old saile, to three or foure
+     trees to shadow us from the Sunne; our walls were railes of wood;
+     our seats unhewed trees till we cut plankes; our Pulpit a bar of
+     wood nailed to two neighbouring trees. In foul weather we shifted
+     into an old rotten tent; this came by way of adventure for new.
+     This was our Church till we built a homely thing like a barne set
+     upon Cratchets, covered with rafts, sedge, and earth; so also was
+     the walls; the best of our houses were of like curiosity, that
+     could neither well defend from wind nor rain.
+
+     "Yet we had daily Common Prayer morning and evening; every Sunday
+     two sermons; and every three months a holy Communion till our
+     Minister died: but our Prayers daily with an Homily on Sundays we
+     continued two or three years after, till more Preachers came."
+
+A timber church sixty feet long took the place of this mud and clay
+chapel, and this was in turn replaced by the brick one whose ruined
+arches are still standing. The wooden church saw the most pompous
+ceremony of the day when the governor, De La Warre, or Delaware as we
+now call it, in full dress, attended by all his councillors and officers
+and fifty halbert-bearers in scarlet cloaks, filed within its
+flower-decked walls.
+
+This decoration of flowers was significant of the difference between the
+church edifices of the Puritans and of the Cavaliers. The churches of
+the Southern colonies were, as a rule, much more richly furnished. Many
+were modelled in shape after the old English churches and were built of
+stone, though Jonathan Boucher, the colonial clergyman, could write that
+the greater number of the Southern churches were, at the time of the
+Revolution, "composed of wood, without spires, or towers or steeples or
+bells, placed in retired and solitary spots and contiguous to springs or
+wells." Many of the churches and the chapels-of-ease stood by the
+waterside, and to the services came the church attendants in canoes,
+periaugers, dugouts, etc. It made an animated scene upon the water, as
+the boats came rowing in and as they departed after the service.
+
+Sometimes the seats were comfortably cushioned, and they were carefully
+assigned as in the Puritan meetings. In some Virginia churches seats in
+the galleries were deemed the most dignified. There was a pew for the
+magistrates, another for the magistrates' ladies; pews for the
+representatives and church-wardens, vestrymen, etc. Persons crowded into
+pews above their stations, just as in New England, and were promptly
+displaced. Groups of men built pews together, and there were schoolboys'
+galleries and pews.
+
+The first clergyman in Virginia, Robert Hunt, a true man of God, came as
+a missionary, and he and others were men of marked intellect and
+religion, but in the eighteenth century the pay was too small and
+uncertain to attract any great men from the Church of England, and
+church attendance dwindled and became irregular. For in Virginia the
+parish was expected to receive any clergyman sent them from England, a
+rule which often proved unsatisfactory; and deservedly so, since some
+very disreputable offshoots of English families were thrust upon the
+Virginia churches. In the Carolinas, where the church chose its own
+clergyman, harmony and affection prevailed in the parishes as it did
+among the New England Puritans. Though the Virginians did not always
+love their clergymen, still they were ever steadfast in their affection
+to their church, and regarded it as the only church.
+
+Sunday was not observed with as much rigidity in New Netherland as in
+New England, but strict rules and laws were made for enforcing quiet
+during service-time. Fishing, gathering berries or nuts, playing in the
+streets, working, going on pleasure trips, all were forbidden. On Long
+Island shooting of wild fowl, carting of grain, travelling for pleasure,
+all were punished. In Revolutionary times a cage was set up in City Hall
+Park, near the present New York Post-office, in which boys were confined
+who did not properly regard the Sabbath.
+
+Before the Dutch settlers had any churches or domines, as they called
+their ministers, they had _krankbesoeckers_, or visitors of the sick,
+who read sermons to an assembled congregation every Sunday. The first
+church at Albany was much like the Plymouth fort, simply a blockhouse
+with loop-holes through which guns could be fired. The roof was mounted
+with three cannon. It had a seat for the magistrates and one for the
+deacons, and a handsome octagonal pulpit which had been sent from
+Holland, and which still exists. The edifice had a chandelier and candle
+sconces and two low galleries. The first church in New Amsterdam was of
+stone, and was seventy-two feet long.
+
+A favorite form of the Dutch churches was six or eight sided, with a
+high pyramidal roof, topped with a belfry and a weather-vane. Usually
+the windows were so small and of glass so opaque that the church was
+very dark. A few of the churches were poorly heated with high stoves
+perched up on pillars, the Albany and Schenectady churches among them,
+but all the women carried foot-stoves, and some of the men carried
+muffs.
+
+Almost as important as the domine was the _voorleezer_ or chorister, who
+was also generally the bell-ringer, sexton, grave-digger, funeral
+inviter, schoolmaster, and sometimes town clerk. He "tuned the psalm";
+turned the hour-glass; gave out the psalms on a hanging board to the
+congregation; read the Bible; gave up notices to the domine by sticking
+the papers in the end of a cleft stick and holding it up to the high
+pulpit.
+
+The deacons had control of all the church money. In the middle of the
+sermon they collected contributions by passing _sacjes_. These were
+small cloth or velvet bags hung on the end of a pole six or eight feet
+long. A French traveller told that the Dutch deacons passed round "the
+old square hat of the preacher" on the end of a stick for the
+contributions. Usually there was a little bell on the _sacje_ which rung
+when a coin was dropped in.
+
+In many Dutch churches the men sat in a row of pews around the wall
+while the women were seated on chairs in the centre of the church. There
+were also a few benches or pews for persons of special dignity, or for
+the minister's wife.
+
+There were many other colonists of other religious faiths: the Roman
+Catholics in Maryland and the extreme Southern colonies; the Quakers in
+Pennsylvania; the Baptists in Rhode Island; the Huguenots, Lutherans,
+Moravians; but all enjoined an orderly observance of the Sabbath day.
+And it may be counted as one of the great blessings of the settlement of
+America, one of the most ennobling conditions of its colonization, that
+it was made at a time when the deepest religious feeling prevailed
+throughout Europe, when devotion to some religion was found in every
+one, when the Bible was a newly found and deeply loved treasure; when
+the very differences of religious belief and the formation of new sects
+made each cling more lovingly and more earnestly to his own faith.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+COLONIAL NEIGHBORLINESS
+
+
+If the first foundation of New England's strength and growth was
+godliness, its next was neighborliness, and a firm rock it proved to
+build upon. It may seem anomalous to assert that while there was in
+olden times infinitely greater independence in each household than at
+present, yet there was also greater interdependence with surrounding
+households.
+
+It is curious to see how completely social ethics and relations have
+changed since olden days. Aid in our families in times of stress and
+need is not given to us now by kindly neighbors as of yore; we have
+well-arranged systems by which we can buy all that assistance, and pay
+for it, not with affectionate regard, but with current coin. The
+colonist turned to any and all who lived around him, and never turned in
+vain for help in sickness, or at the time of death of members of his
+household; for friendly advice; for culinary aids to a halting appetite;
+for the preparation for feasting an exceptional number of persons; in
+short, in any unusual emergency, as well as in frequent every-day
+coöperation in log-rolling, stone-piling, stump-pulling, wall-building,
+house-raising, etc.,--all the hard and exhausting labor on the farm.
+
+The word "coöperation" is modern, but the thing itself is as old as
+civilization. In a new country where there was much work to be done
+which one man or one family could not do, under the mechanical
+conditions which then existed, a working together, or union of labor was
+necessary for progress, indeed, almost for obtaining a foothold.
+
+The term "log-rolling" is frequently employed in its metaphorical sense
+in politics, both by English and American writers who have vague
+knowledge of the original meaning of the word. A log-rolling in early
+pioneer days, in the Northern colonies and in western Virginia and the
+central states, was a noble example of generous coöperation, where each
+gave of his best--his time, strength, and good will; and where all
+worked to clear the ground in the forest for a home-farm for a neighbor
+who might be newly come and an entire stranger, but who in turn would
+just as cheerfully and energetically give his work for others when it
+was needed.
+
+With the vanishing of the log-rolling, and a score of similar kindly
+usages and customs, has gone from our communities all traces of the
+old-time exalted type of neighborliness. We nowadays have generalized
+our sentiments; we have more philanthropy and less neighborliness; we
+have more love for mankind and less for men. We are independent of our
+neighbors, but infinitely more dependent on the world at large. The
+personal element has been removed to a large extent from our social
+ethics. We buy nursing and catering just as we hire our houses built and
+buy our corn ready ground. Doubtless everything we buy is infinitely
+better; nevertheless, our loss in affectionate zeal is great.
+
+The plantation was the unit in Virginia; in New England it was the town.
+The neighborly helpfulness of the New England settlers extended from
+small to great matters; it formed communal privileges and entered into
+every department of town life. For instance, the town of Gloucester in
+1663 granted a right to a citizen for running a small sawmill for
+twenty-one years. In return for this right the grantee was to sell
+boards to Gloucester men at "one shilling per hundred better cheape than
+to strangers"--and was to receive pay "raised in the towne." Saco and
+Biddeford, in Maine, ordered that fellow-townsmen should have preference
+in every employment. Other towns ordered certain persons to buy
+provisions "of the towns-men in preference." Reading would not sell any
+of its felled timber out of the town. Thus the social compact called a
+town extended itself also into all the small doings of daily life, and
+the mutual helpfulness made mutual interests that proved no small
+element of the force which bound all together in 1776 in a successful
+struggle for independence.
+
+In outlying settlements and districts this feeling of mutual dependence
+and assistance was strong enough to give a name which sometimes lingered
+long. "The Loomis Neighborhood," "The Mason Neighborhood," "The Robinson
+Neighborhood" were names distinctive for half a century, and far more
+distinguishing and individual than the Greenville, Masontown, and
+Longwood that succeeded them.
+
+There was one curious and contradictory aspect of this neighborliness,
+this kindliness, this thought for mutual welfare, and that was its
+narrowness, especially in New England, as regards the limitations of
+space and locality. It is impossible to judge what caused this restraint
+of vision, but it is certain that in generality and almost in
+universality, just as soon as any group of settlers could call
+themselves a town, these colonists' notions of kindliness and
+thoughtfulness for others became distinctly and rigidly limited to their
+own townspeople. The town was their whole world. Without doubt this was
+partly the result of the lack of travelling facilities and ample
+communication, which made townships far more separated and remote from
+each other than states are to-day, and made difficult the possibility of
+speedy or full knowledge of strangers.
+
+This caused a constant suspicion of all newcomers, especially those who
+chanced to enter with scant introduction, and made universal a custom of
+"warning out" all strangers who arrived in any town. This formality was
+gone through with by the sheriff or tithing-man. Thereafter should the
+warned ones prove incapable or unsuccessful or vicious, they could not
+become a charge upon the town, but could be returned whence they came
+with despatch and violence if necessary. By this means, and by various
+attempts to restrict the powers of citizens to sell property to
+newcomers, the town kept a jealous watch over the right of entry into
+the corporation.
+
+Dorchester in 1634 enacted that "no man within the Plantation shall sell
+his house or lott to any man without the Plantation whome they shall
+dislike off." Providence would not permit a proprietor to sell to any
+"but to an Inhabitant" without consent of the town. New Haven would
+neither sell nor let ground to a stranger. Hadley would sell no land to
+any until after three years' occupation, and then only with approval of
+the "Town's Mind." In 1637 the General Court very reasonably questioned
+whether towns could legally restrain individuals from disposal of their
+own property, but the custom was so established, so in touch with the
+narrow exclusiveness of the colonists, that it still prevailed. The
+expression of the town of Watertown when it would sell lots only to
+freemen of the congregation, because it wished no strange neighbors, but
+only "to sitt down there close togither," was the sentiment of all the
+towns. One John Stebbins, who had twice served as a soldier of Watertown
+and lived there seven years, could not get a town lot.
+
+The legal process of warning out of town had an element of the absurd in
+it, and in one case that of mystery, namely: a sheriff appeared before
+the woebegone intruder, and said, half laughing, "I warn you off the
+face of the earth." "Let me get my hat before I go," stammered the
+terrified wanderer, who ran into the house for his hat and was never
+seen by any mortal eye in that town afterwards. It has become a
+tradition of local folk-lore that he literally vanished from the earth
+at the command of the officer of the law.
+
+The harboring of strangers, even of relatives who were not local
+residents, was a frequent source of bickering between citizens and
+magistrates, as well as a constant cause of arbitration between towns. A
+widow in Dorchester was not permitted to entertain her own son-in-law
+from another town, and her neighbor was fined in 1671 "under distress"
+for housing his own daughter. She was a married woman, and alleged she
+could not return to her husband on account of the inclement weather.
+
+As time passed on and immigration continued, freemen clung closely to
+their right to keep out strangers and outsiders. From the Boston Town
+Records of 1714 we find citizens still prohibited from entertaining a
+stranger without giving notice to the town authorities, and a
+description of the stranger and his circumstances. Boston required that
+all coming from Ireland should be registered "lest they become
+chargeable." Warnings and whippings out of town still continued. All
+this was so contrary to the methods of colonies in other countries, such
+as the Barbadoes, Honduras, etc., where extraordinary privileges were
+offered settlers, free and large grants of land, absolvment from past
+debts, etc., that it makes an early example of the curious absorbing and
+assimilating power of American nationality, which ever grew and grew
+even against such clogs and hampering restrictions.
+
+In the Southern colonies the same kindliness existed as in the North,
+but the conditions differed. John Hammond, of Virginia, wrote in 1656,
+in his _Leah and Rachel_:--
+
+     "The Country is not only plentifull, but pleasant and profitable,
+     pleasant in regard of the extraordinary good neighbourhood and
+     loving conversation they have one with another.
+
+     "The inhabitants are generally affable, courteous, and very
+     assistant to Strangers (for what but plenty makes hospitality and
+     good neighbourhood) and no sooner are they settled, but they will
+     be visiting, presenting and advising the strangers how to improve
+     what they have, how to better their way of livelihood."
+
+In summer when fresh meat was killed, the neighbors shared the luxury,
+and in turn gave of their slaughter. Hammond adds:--
+
+     "If any fall sick and cannot compass to follow his crops which
+     would soon be lost, the adjoining neighbour, or upon request more
+     joyn together and work it by spells, until he recovers; and that
+     gratis, so that no man may by sickness loose any part of his year's
+     work.
+
+     "Let any travell, it is without charge and at every house is
+     entertainment as in a hostelry."
+
+It was the same in the Carolinas. Ramsay, the early historian of South
+Carolina, said that hospitality was such a virtue that innkeepers
+complained that their business was not worth carrying on. The doors of
+citizens were open to all decent travellers, and shut to none.
+
+The plantations were in many counties too far apart for any coöperative
+labor, and the planters were not men of such vast strength or so great
+personal industry, even in their own affairs, as were the Yankees. There
+were slaves on each plantation to do all the hard work of lifting, etc.
+But in out-of-the-way settlements the Virginia planters' kindliness was
+shown in a vast and unbounded hospitality, a hospitality so insatiable
+that it watched for and waylaid travellers to expend a welcome and
+lavish attentions upon. Negroes were stationed at the planter's gate
+where it opened on the post-road or turnpike, to hail travellers and
+assure them of a hearty welcome at the "big house up yonder." One writer
+says of the planters:--
+
+     "Their manner of living is most generous and open: strangers are
+     sought after with Greediness to be invited."
+
+The _London Magazine_ of the year 1743 published a series of papers
+entitled _Itinerant Observations in America_. It was written with a
+spirited pen which thus pleasantly describes simple Maryland
+hospitality, not of men of vast wealth but of very poor folk:--
+
+     "With the meaner Sort you find little else to drink but Water
+     amongst them when their Cyder is spent, but the Water is presented
+     you by one of the barefooted Family in a copious Calabash, with an
+     innocent Strain of good Breeding and Heartiness, the Cake baking on
+     the Hearth, and the prodigious Cleanliness of everything around you
+     must needs put you in Mind of the Golden Age, the Times of ancient
+     Frugality and Purity. All over the Colony a universal Hospitality
+     reigns, full Tables and open Doors; the kind Salute, the generous
+     Detention speak somewhat like the roast-Beef Ages of our
+     Forefathers."
+
+There came a time when this Southern hospitality became burdensome. With
+the exhaustion of the soil and competition in tobacco-raising, the great
+wealth of the Virginians was gone. But visitors did not cease; in fact,
+they increased. The generous welcome offered to kinsmen, friends, and
+occasional travellers was sought by curiosity-hunters and tourists who
+wanted to save a tavern-bill. Nothing could be more pathetic than the
+impoverishment of Thomas Jefferson through these impositions. Times and
+conditions had changed, but Jefferson felt bound in honor to himself and
+his state to keep the same open hand and ready welcome as of yore. His
+overseer describes his own hopeless efforts to keep these travelling
+friends and admirers from eating his master out of house and home:--
+
+     "They were there all times of the year; but about the middle of
+     June the travel would commence from the lower part of the State to
+     the Springs, and then there was a perfect throng of visitors. They
+     travelled in their own carriages and came in gangs, the whole
+     family with carriage and riding horses and servants, sometimes
+     three or four such gangs at a time. We had thirty-six stalls for
+     horses and only used ten of them for the stock we kept there. Very
+     often all the rest were full, and I had to send horses off to
+     another place. I have often sent a wagon-load of hay up to the
+     stable, and the next morning there would not be enough left to make
+     a bird's nest. I have killed a fine beef, and it would all be eaten
+     up in a day or two."
+
+The final extinction of old-time hospitality in Virginia came not from a
+death of hospitable intent, but from an entire vanishing of the means to
+furnish entertainment. And the Civil War drove away even the lingering
+ghost.
+
+Many general customs existed in the early colonies which were simply
+exemplifications of neighborliness put in legal form. Such were the
+systems of common lands and herding. This was an old Aryan custom which
+existed many centuries ago, and has ever been one of the best ways of
+uniting any settlement of people, especially a new settlement; for it
+makes the interest of one the interest of all, and promotes union rather
+than selfishness. Common lands were set off and common herds existed in
+many of the Northern colonies; cowherds or "cow-keeps" were appointed
+and paid by the town to care throughout the summer for all the cattle
+owned by the inhabitants. This was an intelligent provision; for it
+saved much work of individuals during the months when farmers had so
+much hard work to do, and so short a time to do it in. In Albany and New
+York the cowherd and "a chosen proper youngster"--in other words, a
+good, steady boy--went through the town at sunrise sounding a horn,
+which the cattle heard and knew; and they quickly followed him to green
+pastures outside the town. There they lingered till nearly sunset, when
+they were brought home to the church, and the owners were again warned
+by the horn of the safe return of their cattle, and that it was milking
+time. Sometimes the cowherd received part of his pay in butter or
+cheese. In Cambridge, Massachusetts, Cowherd Rice, in 1635, agreed to
+take charge of one hundred cows for three months for ten pounds. The
+town also paid two men or boys to help him the first two weeks, and one
+man a week longer; he kept the cows alone after that, for the
+intelligent cattle had fallen into habits of order and obedience to his
+horn. He had to pay threepence fine each time he failed to bring in all
+the cattle at night.
+
+On Long Island and in Connecticut there were cowherds, calf-keepers, and
+pound-keepers. The calf-keepers' duties were to keep the calves away
+from the cows, water them, protect them, etc. In Virginia and Maryland
+there were cow-pens in early days, and cowherds; but in the South the
+cattle generally roamed wild through the forests, and were known to
+their owners by earmarks. In all communities earmarks and other brands
+of ownership on cattle, horses, sheep, and swine were very important,
+and rigidly regarded where so much value was kept in domestic cattle.
+These earmarks were registered by the town clerk in the town records,
+and were usually described both in words and rude drawings. One of my
+great-great-grandfather's earmarks for his cows was a "swallow-fork slit
+in both ears"; another was a slit under the ear and a "half-penny mark
+on the foreside of the near ear." This custom of herding cattle in
+common lasted in some out-of-the-way places to this century, and even
+lingered long in large cities such as Boston, where cows were allowed to
+feed on Boston Common till about 1840. In Philadelphia until the year
+1795 a cowherd stood every morning at the corner of Dock and Second
+streets, blew his horn, tramped off to a distant pasture followed by all
+the cows of his neighborhood, who had run out to him as soon as they
+heard the familiar sound. He led them back to the same place at night,
+when each returned alone to her own home.
+
+Sheep-herds or shepherds in colonial days also took charge of the sheep
+of many owners in herd-walks, or ranges, by day, and by night in
+sheep-folds built with fences and gates.
+
+Fence-viewers were men who were appointed by the town for common benefit
+to take charge of building and keeping in repair the fences that
+surrounded the "great lotts" or commons; that is, the enclosed fields
+which were the common property of each town, in which all farmers living
+near could place their cattle. The fence-viewers saw that each man
+worked a certain amount each year on these "pales" as the fences were
+called, or paid his share for the work of others. Each farmer or
+cow-owner usually built about twenty feet of fence for each cow which he
+pastured in the "great lotts." The fence-viewers also examined the
+condition of fences around private lands; noted breaks and ordered
+repairs. For if cattle broke through a poorly made fence, and did damage
+to crops, the fence-owner had to stand the loss, while if the fences
+were good and strong, proving the cattle unruly and destructive, the
+owner of the cattle had to pay. All the colonies were watchful over the
+safe-keeping of fences. In 1659 the Dutch rulers of New Amsterdam (now
+New York) ordered that for "stripping fences of rails and posts" the
+offender should be whipped and branded, and for a second offence he
+could be punished by death. This seems cruelly severe, but that year
+there was a great scarcity of grain and other food, and if the fences
+were pulled down, cattle could get into fields and eat up the growing
+crops, and famine and death might result.
+
+Sometimes a common field was fenced in and planted with Indian corn. In
+this case the fence served to keep the cattle out, not in. This was
+always the case in Virginia.
+
+Hay-wards were, as the name indicates, men to keep watchful care over
+the growing hay. For instance, in Hadley, Massachusetts, in 1661,
+Goodman Montague was chosen hay-ward by the town. He was to have
+twelvepence for each cow or hog, two shillings for each horse, and
+twenty pence for each twenty sheep that he found loose in any field or
+meadow, and successfully turned out. The owner of the animal was to pay
+the fine. At a later date these hay-wards were called field-drivers.
+They are still appointed in many towns and cities, among them Boston.
+
+Hog-reeves were men appointed by the citizens to look after their hogs
+that roamed the roads and streets, to see that all those swine had
+rings in their noses, were properly marked, and did not do damage to
+crops. Many towns had hog-reeves till this century; for until seventy
+years ago hogs ran freely everywhere, even in the streets of our great
+cities. It was a favorite jest to appoint a newly married man hog-reeve.
+When Ralph Waldo Emerson was married and became a householder in
+Concord, the young philosopher was appointed to that office. Sometimes a
+single swineherd was hired to take care of the roving swine. The two
+Salem swineherds or swine-keepers in 1640 were to have sixpence for each
+hog they drove daily to pasture from April to November. These and many
+other public offices were simply a form of legalized coöperation; a
+joining together of neighbors for public good.
+
+The neighborly assistance given to new settlers began with the clearing
+of the ground for occupancy. The girdling of trees was easy and speedy,
+but it was discountenanced as dangerous and hideous, and was not
+frequently practised. A chopping-bee was a universal method among
+pioneers of clearing ground in newly settled districts, or even in older
+townships in Vermont, New Hampshire, and Maine, where great tracts of
+land were left for many years in the original growth. Sometimes this bee
+was held to clear land for a newly married man, or a new neighbor, or
+one who had had bad luck; but it was just as freely given to a
+prosperous farmer, though plentiful thanks and plentiful rum were the
+only rewards of the willing workers.
+
+All the strong men of the township repaired at an early hour to the
+tract to be cleared, and with powerful blows attacked the great trees. A
+favorite way of bringing the day's work and the day's excitement to a
+climax was by a "drive." This was made by chopping half-way into the
+trunks of a great group or circle of trees--under-cutting it was
+called--so that by a few powerful and well-driven blows at the monarch
+of the group, and perhaps a few well-concerted pulls on a rope, the
+entire group could be felled together, the leader bringing down with his
+spreading branches in his mighty fall his fellows in front of him, and
+they in turn their neighbors, with a crash that shook the earth and made
+the mountains ring. It was dangerous work; accidents were frequent; the
+records of death at log-rollings are pathetic to read and to think of,
+in a country where the loss of a sturdy man meant so much to some
+struggling household. A heavy and sudden gust of wind might blow down a
+small tree, which had been carelessly "under-cut," and thus give an
+unexpected and premature collapse of the simple machinery of the grand
+finale.
+
+A century ago a New Hampshire woman and her husband went out into the
+forest primeval; he cut down a few trees, made a little clearing termed
+a cut-down wherein a tiny patch of sky and cloud and scant sunlight
+could be seen overhead, but no sunrise or sunset, and built a log house
+of a single room--a home. With the opening spring came one day a group
+of kindly settlers from distant clearings and settlements, some riding
+from ten miles away the previous day. In front of the log house they
+chopped all the morning long with sturdy arms and swinging blows, yet
+felled nothing, till in the afternoon when all was ready for the final
+blow at the towering leader, which by its fall should lay low a great
+sloping tract for a dooryard and home field. As the noble trees fell at
+last to the earth with a resounding crash, lo! in the opening there
+appeared to the startled eyes of the settler's wife, as if rising out of
+heaven, a neighbor in her loneliness--Mount Kearsage, grand, serene, and
+beautiful, crowned with the glories of the setting sun, standing guard
+over a smiling lake at its foot. And every day through her long and
+happy life till ninety-six years old, as she looked at the splendid
+mountain, standing as it will till time shall be no more, did she thank
+God for His gift, for that noble companionship which came so suddenly,
+so inspiringly, upon the cramped horizon of her lonely forest home.
+
+After the trees were all felled, it was no longer a "cut-down" but an
+"opening." This was made preferably in the spring. The fallen trees were
+left some months on the ground to dry in the summer sun, while the
+farmer turned to other work on his farm, or, if he were starting in
+life, hired out for the summer. In the autumn the tops were set on fire,
+and the lighter limbs usually burned out, leaving the great charred
+tree-trunks. Then came what was known as a piling-bee, a perfect riot of
+hard work, cinders, and dirt. Usually the half-burned tree-trunks were
+"niggered off" in Indian fashion, by burning across with a smaller stick
+of wood till the long log was in lengths which could be dragged by the
+farmers with their oxen and horses into vast piles and again set on
+fire. Another treat of rum accompanied this day's work. The word
+"log-rolling" was often applied to the latter bee, and occasionally the
+felling of trees and dragging into piles for firing was done in a single
+log-rolling.
+
+Sometimes before the opening was cleared it was planted. The spring
+rains and melting snows carried the fertilizing ashes deep into the
+soil. Corn was planted and "dug in"; rye was sowed and "hacked in." The
+crops were astonishing; the grain grew among the fallen logs and stumps
+in rioting luxuriance. A stump-pulling was another occasion for a
+friendly bee, to clear off and put into comely shape the new field.
+
+Another exhibition of coöperation was in a stone-hauling or a stone-bee.
+Some of the rocky fields of hard New England would defy a lifetime of
+work of one man and a single yoke of oxen. With judicious blasting, many
+oxen, strong arms, and willing hearts the boulders and ledges were
+tamed. Stone walls eight feet wide, such as may be seen in Hopkinton,
+New Hampshire, stand as monuments of the patience, strength, skill, and
+coöperation of our forbears.
+
+To show the struggle and hard work willingly done for a home, let me
+give the statement in 1870 of a respected citizen, the historian of
+Norridgewock, Maine, when he was over ninety years old. He served an
+apprenticeship of eight years till he was twenty-one, then bought on
+credit a tract of fifty acres in the primeval woods. On eight acres he
+felled the trees and left them through the winter. In April, 1801, he
+spent three weeks in burning off the logs and clearing as well as
+possible by handwork three acres. These he sowed with wheat and rye,
+buying the seed on credit. He hired a yoke of oxen for one day and did
+what harrowing he could in that short time, grubbing around the stumps
+with a hoe for two more days. The crop grew, as did all others on
+similar soil, amazingly. The two bushels of seed-wheat yielded fifty-two
+bushels, the bushel of rye thirty bushels. On his other five acres among
+the fallen trees he planted corn, and raised a hundred and twenty-eight
+bushels. He adds:--
+
+     "When I could leave my work on my new land I worked out haying and
+     other work. I made shoes in the Fall, taught school in the Winter,
+     paid for my board and some clothing, but husbanded my resources to
+     pay for my land. At the end of the year found myself worth two
+     hundred dollars. I continued to clear up four acres each year till
+     I had cleared the fifty acres, planted an orchard and erected
+     suitable farm buildings and fences."
+
+Six years later he married and prospered. In eleven years he was worth
+two thousand dollars; he filled, during his long life, many, positions
+of trust and of profit, and did many and varied good deeds; he continued
+in active life till he was ninety years old. At his death he left a
+considerable fortune. It is an interesting picture of the value of
+honorable economy and thrift; a typical New England picture, with a
+certain vigor and stimulus about it that makes it pleasing.
+
+A "raising" might be of a church or a school-house, or of a house or
+barn for a neighbor. All the strong men far and near turned out to help,
+tools were lent, and many strong hands and arms made quick work. Often
+the frame of a whole side of a house--the broadside--was fastened
+together on the ground. After it was laid out and pinned together,
+shores of long poles were attached to the plates with ox-chains, and it
+was literally lifted into place by the united strength of the entire
+band of men and boys. Sometimes women pulled on the rope to express
+their good will and helpfulness. Then the other sides were put up, and
+the cross-beams, braces, and studding all pinned and nailed into place.
+Afterwards the huge rafters were raised for the roof. Each man was
+assigned in the beginning to his place and work, and worked faithfully
+when his turn came. When the ridge-pole was put in place, the building
+was christened, as it was called, by breaking over it a bottle of rum.
+Often the house was literally given a name. Sitting astride the
+ridge-pole, one poet sang:--
+
+    "Here's a mighty fine frame
+    Which desarves a good name,
+    Say what shall we call it?
+    The timbers all straight,
+    And was hewed fust rate,
+    The frame is well put together.
+    It is a good frame
+    That desarves a good name,
+    Say! what shall we name it?"
+
+Another, a Rochester, New Hampshire, frame was celebrated in verse which
+closed thus:--
+
+    "The Flower of the Plain is the name of this Frame,
+    We've had exceeding good Luck in raising the Same."
+
+It was not luck that made these raisings a success, it was skill and
+strength; skill and powers of endurance which could overcome and
+surmount even the quantity of vile New England rum with which the
+workmen were plied throughout the day. Accidents were frequent, and
+often fatal. A great frame of a meeting-house, or a vast barn with forty
+or fifty men at work on it, could not collapse without loss of life and
+much injury of limb.
+
+In the work of these raisings the highest as well as the humblest
+citizens took part. Truly a man could glow with the warmth of home even
+in a bare and scantily furnished house, at the thought that the walls
+and rafters were held in place by the kind wishes and deeds of all his
+friends and neighbors.
+
+There is nothing in nature so unnatural, so singular in quality, as the
+glittering artificiality of the early morning in the country the day
+after a heavy, drifting, New England snowstorm. For a day and a night
+the wildly whirling snow that "driving o'er the fields seems nowhere to
+alight" has restrained the outlook, and every one has turned depressed
+from that outside life of loneliness and gloom. The following morning
+always opens with an excessively bright and dazzling sunshine which is
+not like any other sunshine in any place or season, but is wholly
+artificial, like the lime-light of a theatre. We always run eagerly to
+the window to greet once more the signs of life and cheerfulness; but
+the landscape is more devoid of life and reality than during any storm
+of wind and snow and sleet, no matter how dark and lowering. There is a
+changed aspect in everything; it is metallic, and everything is made of
+the same horrible white metal. Nothing seems familiar; not only are the
+wonted forms and outlines vanished, and all their varied textures and
+materials and beautiful diversity of color gone also, but there is a
+steely immobility restraining everything which is so complete that it
+seems as if it were a shell that could never be broken.
+
+    "We look upon a world unknown,
+    On nothing we can call our own."
+
+It is no longer a real landscape but an artificial encircling diorama of
+meaningless objects made of vast unshaded sheets of white glazed
+Bristol-board, painted with white enamel, warranted not to crack; with
+the garish high-lights put in crystallized alum or possibly powdered
+glass. It is without life, or atmosphere, or reality; it has nothing but
+the million reflections of that artificial and repellent sunshine. In a
+quarter of an hour, even in a few minutes, it is agonizingly monotonous
+to the spirit as it is painful to the eye; then, like a veritable oasis
+of color and motion in an unmovable glittering white desert, a sound and
+sight of beautiful and active life appears. Around the bend of the road
+comes slow and straining down the hill, as has come through the glaring
+artificial sunlight after every heavy snowstorm for over a century past,
+a long train of oxen with a snow-plough "breaking out" the old
+post-road. Beautiful emblems of patient and docile strength, these
+splendid creatures are never so grateful to the sight as now. Their slow
+progress down the hill has many elements to make it interesting; it is
+historic. Ever since the township was thickly settled enough for
+families to have any winter communication with each other, whether for
+school, church, mail, or doctor, this road has been broken out in
+precisely this same way.
+
+In nearly all scattered townships in New England the custom prevails
+to-day just as it did a century and more ago even in large towns, and a
+description of the present "breaking out" is that of the past also. The
+work is now usually done in charge of road-surveyors or the
+road-masters, who are often appointed from the remote points of the
+township. There is, therefore, much friendly rivalry to see which
+surveyor will first reach the centre of the town--and the tavern.
+Beginning at sunrise with his own yoke of oxen hitched to a snow-plough,
+each road-master breaks through the drift to the nearest neighbor, who
+adds his yoke to the other, and so from neighbor to neighbor till
+sometimes fifteen or twenty yoke of oxen are hitched in a long line to
+the plough. Sometimes a pair of wild young steers are hitched, plunging
+and kicking, with the sober elders. By this time the first yoke often
+begins to show signs of distress by lolling out the tongue, a sure
+symptom of overwork in oxen, and they are left at some farmer's barn to
+cool down.
+
+Whittier thus describes the scene of breaking out the winter roads in
+his _Snow-Bound_:--
+
+    "Next morn we wakened with the shout
+    Of merry voices high and clear;
+    And saw the teamsters drawing near
+    To break the drifted highways out.
+    Down the long hillside treading slow
+    We saw the half-buried oxen go,
+    Shaking the snow from heads uptost,
+    Their straining nostrils white with frost.
+    Before our door the straggling train
+    Drew up, an added team to gain.
+    The elders threshed their hands a-cold,
+    Passed, with the cider mug, their jokes
+    From lip to lip."
+
+Thus are the white snow-waste and the drifted roads turned by cheerful
+coöperation into a midwinter visiting where every neighbor can exchange
+greetings with the other, young and old. For of course school does not
+keep, and the boys crowd on the snow-plough or try their new snowshoes,
+and the men of the various families who do not go with the oxen hitch up
+the sleighs, pods, and pungs and follow the snow-plough, and the young
+men send a volley of snowballs against every house where any fair maid
+lives. And at the tavern in the afternoon is a great sight, greater in
+ante-temperance days than now: scores of yoke of oxen at the door, the
+horse-sheds full of horses and sleighs, all the lads and men of the
+township within. There is rivalry in the method of breaking. One
+road-master always used a snow-plough; another lashed an ordinary plough
+on either side of a narrow ox-sled; a third used a coarse harrow
+weighted down with a group of standing boys. This broke up the drifts in
+a wonderful manner. The deeper drifts often have to be shovelled out
+partly by hand. After the road to the tavern is broken, the road to the
+school-house, the doctor's house, and the meeting-house come next.
+
+The roads thus made were not permitted in former days to be cut up idly
+by careless use; many townships forbade by law the use of narrow sleds
+and sleighs. The roads were narrow at best; often when two sleighs met
+the horses had to be unharnessed, and the sleighs lifted past over each
+other. On lonely hill-roads or straight turnpikes, where teamsters could
+see some distance ahead, turnouts were made where one sleigh could wait
+for another to pass.
+
+After there had been a heavy fall of snow and the roads were well
+broken, the time was always chosen where any logging was done to haul
+logs to the sawmill on ox-sleds. An interesting sled was used which had
+an interesting name,--chebobbin. One writer called it a cross between a
+tree and a bobsled. It was made by a close and ingenious adaptation of
+natural forms of wood, which made excellent runners, cross-bars, etc.;
+they were fastened together so loosely that they readily adjusted
+themselves to the inequalities of the wood-roads. The word and article
+are now almost obsolete. In some localities chebobbin became tebobbin
+and tarboggin, all three being adaptations in nomenclature, as they
+were in form, of the Indian toboggan or moose-sled,--a sledge with
+runners or flat bottom of wood or bark, upon which the red men drew
+heavy loads over the snow. This sledge has become familiar to us in the
+light and strong Canadian form now used for the delightful winter sport
+of tobogganing.
+
+On these chebobbins great logs were hitched together by chains, and
+dragged down from the upland wood-lots. Under these mighty loads the
+snow-tracks got an almost icy polish, prime sledding for country
+sleighing parties. Sometimes a logging-bee was made to clear a special
+lot for a neighbor, and a band of wood-choppers worked all day together.
+It was cheerful work, though the men had to stand all day in the snow,
+and the thermometer was below zero. But there was no cutting wind in the
+forest, and the exercise kept the blood warm. Many a time a hearty man
+would drop his axe to wipe the sweat from his brow. Loose woollen
+frocks, or long-shorts, two or three over each other, were warm as are
+the overlapping feathers of a bird; a few had buckskin or sheepskin
+waistcoats; their hands were warmly covered with home-knit mittens. In
+later days all had heavy well-greased boots, but in the early years of
+such pioneer settlements, as the towns of New Hampshire and Vermont,
+all could not afford to wear boots. Their place was well supplied by
+heavy woollen stockings, shoes, and an over-covering of old stockings,
+or cloth soaked in neat's-foot oil; this was deemed a positive
+preventive of frozen feet.
+
+It was the custom both among men and women to join forces on a smaller
+scale and have a little neighborly visiting by what was called
+"change-work." For instance, if two neighbors both were to make soap, or
+both to make apple-butter, or both to make up a rag carpet, instead of
+each woman sitting at home alone sewing and fitting the carpet, one
+would take her thimble and go to spend the day, and the two would sew
+all day long, finish and lay the carpet at one house. In a few days the
+visit would be returned, and the second carpet be finished. Sometimes
+the work was easier when two worked together. One man could load logs
+and sled them down to the sawmill alone, but two by "change-work" could
+accomplish the task much more rapidly and with less strain.
+
+Even those evil days of New England households, the annual
+house-cleaning, were robbed of some of their dismal terrors by what was
+known as a "whang," a gathering of a few friendly women neighbors to
+assist one another in that dire time, and thus speed and shorten the
+hours of misery.
+
+For any details of domestic life of colonial days the reader has ever to
+turn to the diary of Judge Samuel Sewall of Boston, just as the student
+of English life of the same date turns to the diary of Samuel Pepys.
+Sewall was a Puritan of the narrow type of the later days of Puritanism;
+and there is little of warmth or beauty in his pages, save that
+throughout them there shines with gentle radiance the unconscious record
+of a pure and never-dying neighborliness, the neighborliness of an
+upright and reserved but deeply tender Christian. No thoughtful person
+can read the simple and meagre, but wholly self-forgetful entries which
+reveal this trait of character without a feeling of profound respect and
+even affection for Sewall. He was the richest man in town, and one of
+the most dignified of citizens, a busy man full of many cares and plans.
+But he watched by the bedside of his sick and dying neighbors, those of
+humble station as well as his friends and kinsfolk, nursing them with
+tender care, praying with them, bringing appetizing gifts, and also
+giving pecuniary aid to the household. He afforded even more homely
+examples of neighborly feeling; he sent "tastes of his dinner" many
+times to friends and neighbors. This pleasant custom lingered till the
+present day in New England; I saw last summer, several times, covered
+treasures of housewifery being carried in petty amounts, literally "a
+taste," to tempt tired appetites or lonely diners. The gift of a portion
+of the over-bountiful supply for the supper of a wedding, a reception,
+etc., went by the expressive name of "cold party."
+
+In rural Pennsylvania a charming and friendly custom prevailed among
+country folk of all nationalities--the "metzel-soup," the "taste" of
+sausage-making. This is the anglicized form of _Metzelsuppe_; _metzeln_
+means to kill and cut to pieces--especially for sausage meat. When each
+farmer butchered and made sausage, a great dish heaped with eight or ten
+pounds of the new sausages was sent to each intimate friend. The
+recipient would in turn send metzel-soup when his family killed and made
+sausage. If the metzel-soup were not returned, the minister promptly
+learned of it and set at work to effect a reconciliation between the
+offended parties. The custom is dying out, and in many towns is wholly
+vanished.
+
+Sewall seemed to regard it as a duty, and doubtless it was also a
+pleasure, to pray for and with dying friends. His is not the only
+old-time diary that I have read in which those long prayers are
+recorded, nor are his surprised occasional records of the impatience of
+dying friends the only ones I have seen. A very sick man, even though he
+were a Puritan, might occasionally tire of the prayers of laymen.
+
+Sewall was ever ready to signify his good will and interest in his
+neighbors' advancing fortunes, by driving a nail at a ship-building or a
+pin at a house-raising, by laying a stone in a wall or a foundation of a
+house, the latter, apparently, in the case of some very humble homes.
+He, the Judge of the Supreme Court, served on the watch, walking and
+guarding the streets and his neighbors' safety just as faithfully as did
+the humblest citizen.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+OLD-TIME FLOWER GARDENS
+
+
+Adjoining the street through which I always, in my childhood, walked
+slowly each Sunday, on my way to and from church, was a spot to detain
+lingering footsteps--a beautiful garden laid out and tenanted like the
+gardens of colonial days, and serene with the atmosphere of a worthy old
+age; a garden which had been tended for over half a century by a
+withered old man and his wife, whose golden wedding was spent in the
+house they had built, and in the garden they had planted when they were
+bride and groom. His back was permanently bowed with constant weeding
+and pruning and planting and hoeing, and his hands and face were brown
+as the soil he cultivated. The "hot-glowing" crimson peonies, seedlings
+which the wife had sown in her youth, had become great shrubs, fifteen
+or twenty feet in circumference. The flowering shrubs were trees.
+Vigorous borders of box crowded across the paths and towered on either
+side, till one could scarcely walk through them. There were beautiful
+fairy groves of fox gloves "gloriously freckled, purple, and white," and
+tall Canterbury bells; and at stiffly regular intervals were set
+flowering almonds, St. Peter's wreath, Persian lilacs, "Moses in the
+burning bush," which shrub was rare in our town, and "laburnums rich in
+streaming gold, syringas ivory pure." At the lower ends of the flower
+borders were rows of "honey-blob" gooseberries, and aged currant bushes,
+gray with years, overhung by a few patriarchal quince and crab-apple
+trees, in whose low-spreading gnarled branches I spent many a summer
+afternoon, a happy visitor, though my own home garden was just as
+beautiful, old-fashioned, and flower-filled.
+
+The varying grades of city streets had gradually risen around the garden
+until it lay depressed several feet below the level of the adjoining
+streets, a pleasant valley,--like Avalon,--
+
+    "Deep-meadowed, happy, fair, with orchard lawns,
+    And bowery hollows crown'd with summer seas."
+
+A flight of stone steps led down to it,--steps very steep, narrow, and
+slippery with green moss, and ladies'-delights that crowded and
+blossomed in every crack and crevice of the stones. On each side arose
+terraces to the street, and in the spring these terraces flushed a mass
+of vivid, glowing rose-color from blooming moss-pink, forming such a
+glory that pious church-going folk from the other end of the town did
+not think it wicked to walk thither, on a Sunday morn in May, to look at
+the rosy banks that sloped to the valleyed garden, as they had walked
+there in February or March to see
+
+      "Winter, slumbering in the open air,
+    Wear on his smiling face a dream of spring,"
+
+in the shape of the first crocuses and snowdrops that opened beside a
+snow-drift still lingering on a shaded bank; and to watch the first
+benumbed honey-bees who greeted every flower that bloomed in that
+cherished spot, and who buzzed in bleak March winds over the purple
+crocus and "blue flushing" grape-hyacinth as cheerfully as though they
+were sipping the scarlet poppies in sunny August.
+
+The garden edges and the street were overhung by graceful larches and by
+thorny honey-locust trees that bore on their trunks great clusters of
+powerful spines and sheltered in their branches an exceedingly
+unpleasant species of fat, fuzzy caterpillars, which always chose Sunday
+to drop on my garments as I walked to church, and to go with me to
+meeting, and in the middle of the long prayer to parade on my neck, to
+my startled disgust and agitated whisking away, and consequent reproof
+for being noisy in meeting.
+
+What fragrances arose from that old garden, and were wafted out to
+passers-by! The ever-present, pungent, dry aroma of box was overcome or
+tempered, through the summer months, by a succession of delicate
+flower-scents that hung over the garden-vale like an imperceptible mist;
+perhaps the most perfect and clear among memory's retrospective
+treasures was that of the pale fringed "snow-pink," and later, "sweet
+william with its homely cottage smell." Phlox and ten-weeks stock were
+there, as everywhere, the last sweet-scented flowers of autumn.
+
+At no time was this old garden sweeter than in the twilight, the
+eventide, when all the great clumps of snowy phlox, night-rockets, and
+luminous evening primrose, and all the tangles of pale yellow and white
+honeysuckle shone irradiated; when,
+
+    "In puffs of balm the night air blows
+    The burden which the day foregoes,"
+
+and scents far richer than any of the day--the "spiced air of
+night"--floated out in the dusky gloaming.
+
+Though the old garden had many fragrant leaves and flowers, their
+delicate perfume was sometimes fairly deadened by an almost mephitic
+aroma that came from an ancient blossom, a favorite in Shakespeare's
+day--the jewelled bell of the noxious crown-imperial. This stately
+flower, with its rich color and pearly drops, has through its evil scent
+been firmly banished from our garden borders.
+
+One of the most cheerful flowers of this and of my mother's garden was
+the happy-faced little pansy that under various fanciful folk-names has
+ever been loved. Like Montgomery's daisy, it "blossomed everywhere." Its
+Italian name means "idle thoughts"; the German, "little stepmother."
+Spenser called it "pawnce." Shakespeare said maidens called it
+"love-in-idleness," and Drayton named it "heartsease." Dr. Prior gives
+these names--"Herb Trinity, Three Faces under a Hood, Fancy Flamy, Kiss
+Me, Pull Me, Cuddle Me unto You, Tickle my Fancy, Kiss Me ere I Rise,
+Jump Up and Kiss Me, Kiss Me at the Garden Gate, Pink of my Joan." To
+these let me add the New England folk-names--bird's-eye, garden-gate,
+johnny-jump-up, kit-run-about, none-so-pretty, and ladies'-delight. All
+these testify to the affectionate and intimate friendship felt for this
+laughing and fairly speaking little garden face, not the least of whose
+endearing qualities was that, after a half-warm, snow-melting week in
+January or February, this bright-some little "delight" often opened a
+tiny blossom to greet and cheer us--a true "jump-up-and-kiss-me," and
+proved by its blooming the truth of the graceful Chinese verse,--
+
+    "Ere man is aware
+    That the spring is here
+    The plants have found it out."
+
+Another dearly loved spring flower was the daffodil, the favorite also
+of old English dramatists and poets, and of modern authors as well, when
+we find that Keats names a daffodil as, the thing of beauty that is a
+joy forever. Perhaps the happiest and most poetic picture of daffodils
+is that of Dora Wordsworth, when she speaks of them as "gay and
+glancing, and laughing with the wind." Perdita, in _The Winter's Tale_,
+thus describes them in her ever-quoted list: "Daffodils that come before
+the swallow dares and take the winds of March with beauty." Most
+cheerful and sunny of all our spring flowers, they have never lost their
+old-time popularity, and they still laugh at our bleak March winds.
+
+Bouncing-bet and her comely hearty cousins of the pink family made
+delightsome many a corner of our home garden. The pinks were Jove's own
+flowers, and the carthusian pink, china pink, clove pink, snow pink,
+plumed pink, mullein pink, sweet william, maltese cross, ragged robin,
+catch-fly, and campion, all made gay and sweet the summer. The clove
+pink was the ancestor of all the carnations.
+
+The richest autumnal glory came from the cheerful marigold, the "golde"
+of Chaucer, and "mary-bud" of Shakespeare. This flower, beloved of all
+the old writers, as deeply suggestive and emblematic, has been coldly
+neglected by modern poets, as for a while it was banished from modern
+town gardens; but it may regain its popularity in verse as it has in
+cultivation. In farm gardens it has always flourished, and every autumn
+has "gone to bed with the sun and with him risen weeping," and has
+given forth in the autumn air its acrid odor, which to me is not
+disagreeable, though my old herbal calls its "a very naughty smell."
+
+A favorite shrub in our garden, as in every country dooryard, was
+southernwood, or lad's-love. A sprig of it was carried to meeting each
+summer Sunday by many old ladies, and with its finely dissected,
+bluish-green foliage, and clean pungent scent, it was pleasant to see in
+the meeting-house, and pleasant to sniff at. The "virtues of flowers"
+took a prominent place in the descriptions in old-time botanies. The
+southernwood had strong medicinal qualities, and was used to cure
+"vanityes of the head."
+
+     "Take a quantitye of Suthernwood and put it upon kindled coales to
+     burn and being made into powder mix it with the oyle of radishes
+     and anoynt a balde place and you shall see great experiences."
+
+It was of power as a love charm. If you placed a sprig in each shoe and
+wore it through the day when you were in love, you would then also in
+some way "see great experiences."
+
+In the tender glamour of happy association, all flowers in the old
+garden seem to have been loved save the garish petunias, whose sickish
+odor grew more offensive and more powerful at nightfall and made me long
+to tear them away from their dainty garden-fellows, and the portulaca
+with its fleshy, worm-like stems and leaves, and its aggressively
+pushing habits, "never would be missed." Perhaps its close relation to
+the "pusley," most hated of weeds, makes us eye it askance.
+
+There was one attribute of the old-time garden, one part of nature's
+economy, which added much to its charm--it was the crowding abundance,
+the over-fulness of leaf, bud, and blossom. Nature there displayed no
+bare expanses of naked soil, as in some too-carefully-kept modern
+parterres; the dull earth was covered with a tangle of ready-growing,
+self-sowing, lowly flowers, that filled every space left unoccupied by
+statelier garden favorites, and crowded every corner with cheerful,
+though unostentatious, bloom. And the close juxtaposition, and even
+intermingling, of flowers with herbs, vegetables, and fruits gave a
+sense of homely simplicity and usefulness, as well as of beauty. The
+soft, purple eyes of the mourning-bride were no less lovely to us in
+"our garden" because they opened under the shade of currant and
+gooseberry bushes; and the sweet alyssum and candytuft were no less
+honey-sweet. The delicate, pinky-purple hues of the sweet peas were not
+dimmed by their vivid neighbors at the end of the row of poles--the
+scarlet runners. The adlumia, or mountain fringe, was a special vine of
+our own and known by a special name--virgin's bower. With its delicate
+leaves, almost as beautiful as a maidenhair fern, and its dainty pink
+flower, it festooned the ripening corn as wantonly and luxuriantly as it
+encircled the snowball and lilac bushes.
+
+Though "colored herbs" were cultivated in England in the seventeenth and
+eighteenth centuries as carefully as were flowers,--striped hollies,
+variegated myrtles, and bays being the gardener's pride,--yet in our old
+American gardens few plants were grown for their variegated or
+odd-colored foliage. The familiar and ever-present ribbon-grass, also
+called striped grass, canary grass, and gardener's garters,--whose
+pretty expanded panicles formed an almost tropical effect at the base of
+the garden hedge; the variegated wandering jew, the striped leaves of
+some varieties of day-lilies; the dusty-miller, with its "frosty pow"
+(which was properly a house plant), fill the short list. The box was the
+sole evergreen.
+
+And may I not enter here a plea for the preservation of the box-edgings
+of our old garden borders? I know they are almost obsolete--have been
+winter-killed and sunburned--and are even in sorry disrepute as having a
+graveyard association, and as being harborers of unpleasant and
+unwelcome garden visitors. One lover of old ways thus indignantly
+mourns their passing:--
+
+     "I spoke of box-edgings. We used to see them in little country
+     gardens, with paths of crude earth. Nowadays, it has been
+     discovered that box harbours slugs, and we are beginning to have
+     beds with tiled borders, while the walks are of asphalt. For a
+     pleasure-ground in Dante's _Inferno_ such materials might be
+     suitable."
+
+For its beauty in winter alone, the box should still find a place in our
+gardens. It grows to great size. Bushes of box in the deserted garden at
+Vaucluse in Newport, Rhode Island, are fifteen feet in height, and over
+them spread the branches of forest trees that have sprung up in the
+garden beds since that neglected pleasaunce was planted, over a century
+ago. The beautiful border and hedges of box at Mount Vernon, the home of
+Washington, plead for fresh popularity for this old-time favorite.
+
+Our mothers and grandmothers came honestly by their love of gardens.
+They inherited this affection from their Puritan, Quaker, or Dutch
+forbears, perhaps from the days when the famous hanging gardens of
+Babylon were made for a woman. Bacon says: "A garden is the purest of
+human pleasures, it is the greatest refreshment to the spirits of man."
+A garden was certainly the greatest refreshment to the spirits of a
+woman in the early colonial days, and the purest of her pleasures--too
+often her only pleasure.
+
+Quickly, in tender memory of her fair English home, the homesick
+goodwife, trying to create a semblance of the birthplace she still
+loved, planted the seeds and roots of homely English flowers and herbs
+that grew and blossomed under bleak New England skies, and on rocky New
+England shores, as sturdily and cheerfully as they had sprung up and
+bloomed by the green hedgerows and door-sides in the home beyond the
+sea.
+
+In the year 1638, and again in 1663, an English gentleman named John
+Josselyn came to New England. He published, in 1672, an account of
+these two visits. He was a man of polite reading and of culture, and as
+was the high fashion for gentlemen of his day, had a taste for gardening
+and botany. He made interesting lists of plants which he noted in
+America under these heads:--
+
+     "1. Such plants as are common with us in England.
+
+     "2. Such plants as are proper to the country.
+
+     "3. Such plants as are proper to the country and have no names.
+
+     "4. Such plants as have sprung up since the English planted and
+     kept cattle in New England.
+
+     "5. Such Garden-Herbs among us as do thrive there and of such as do
+     not."
+
+This last division is the one that specially interests us, since it is
+the earliest and the fullest account of the gardens of our forefathers,
+after they had tamed the rugged shores of the New World, and made them
+obey the rule of English husbandry. They had "good store of garden
+vegetables and herbs; lettuce, sorrel, parsley, mallows, chevril,
+burnet, summer savory, winter savory, thyme, sage, carrots, parsnips,
+beets, radishes, purslain, beans"; "cabbidge growing exceeding well;
+pease of all sorts and the best in the world; sparagus thrives
+exceedingly, musk mellons, cucumbers, and pompions." For grains there
+were wheat, rye, barley, and oats. There were other garden herbs and
+garden flowers: spearmint, pennyroyal, ground-ivy, coriander, dill,
+tansy; "feverfew prospereth exceedingly; white sattin groweth pretty
+well, and so doth lavender-cotton; gillyflowers will continue two years;
+horse-leek prospereth notably; hollyhocks; comferie with white flowers;
+clary lasts but one summer; sweet-bryer or eglantine; celandine but
+slowly; blood-wort but sorrily, but patience and English roses very
+pleasantly."
+
+Patience and English roses very pleasantly in truth must have shown
+their fair English faces to English women in the strange land. Dearly
+loved had these brier-roses or dog-roses been in England, where, says
+the old herbalist, Gerard, "children with delight make chains and pretty
+gewgawes of the fruit; and cookes and gentlewomen make tarts and
+suchlike dishes for pleasure thereof." Hollyhocks, feverfew, and
+gillyflowers must have made a sunshine in the shady places in the new
+home. Many of these garden herbs are now common weeds or roadside
+blossoms. Celandine, even a century ago, was "common by fences and among
+rubbish." Tansy and elecampane grow everywhere. Sweet-brier is at home
+in New England pastures and roadsides. Spearmint edges our brooks.
+Ground-ivy is a naturalized citizen. It is easy to note that the
+flowers and herbs beloved in gardens and medicinal waters and kitchens
+"at home" were the ones transplanted here. "Clary-water" was a favorite
+tonic of Englishmen of that day.
+
+The list of "such plants as have sprung up since the English planted"
+should be of interest to every one who has any sense of the sentiment of
+association, or interest in laws of succession. The Spanish proverb
+says:--
+
+    "More in the garden grows
+    Than the gardener sows."
+
+The plantain has a history full of romance; its old Northern
+names--_Wegetritt_ in German, _Weegbree_ in Dutch, _Viebred_ in Danish,
+and _Weybred_ in Old English, all indicating its presence in the
+much-trodden paths of man--were not lost in its new home, nor were its
+characteristics overlooked by the nature-noting and plant-knowing red
+man. It was called by the Indian "the Englishman's foot," says Josselyn,
+and by Kalm also, a later traveller in 1740; "for they say where an
+Englishman trod, there grew a plantain in each footstep." Not less
+closely did such old garden weeds as motherwort, groundsel, chickweed,
+and wild mustard cling to the white man. They are old colonists, brought
+over by the first settlers, and still thrive and triumph in every
+kitchen garden and back yard in the land. Mullein and nettle, henbane
+and wormwood, all are English emigrants.
+
+The Puritans were not the only flower-lovers in the new land. The
+Pennsylvania Quakers and Mennonites were quick to plant gardens.
+Pastorius encouraged all the Germantown settlers to raise flowers as
+well as fruit. Whittier says of him in his _Pennsylvania Pilgrim_:--
+
+                      "The flowers his boyhood knew
+    Smiled at his door, the same in form and hue,
+    And on his vines the Rhenish clusters grew."
+
+It gives one a pleasant notion of the old Quaker, George Fox, to read
+his bequest by will of a tract of land near Philadelphia "for a
+playground for the children of the town to play on and for a garden to
+plant with physical plants, for lads and lassies to know simples, and
+learn to make oils and ointments."
+
+Among Pennsylvanians the art of gardening reached the highest point. The
+landscape gardening was a reproduction of the best in England. Our
+modern country places cannot equal in this respect the colonial country
+seats near Philadelphia. Woodlands and Bush Hill, the homes of the
+Hamiltons, Cliveden, of Chief Justice Chew, Fair Hill, Belmont, the
+estate of Judge Peters, were splendid examples. An ecstatic account of
+the glories and wonders of some of them was written just after the
+Revolution by a visitor who fully understood their treasures, the Rev.
+Manasseh Cutler, the clergyman, statesman, and botanist.
+
+In Newport, Rhode Island, where flowers ever seem to thrive with
+extraordinary luxuriance, there were handsome gardens in the eighteenth
+century. A description of Mr. Bowler's garden during the Revolution
+reads thus:--
+
+     "It contains four acres and has a grand aisle in the middle. Near
+     the middle is an oval surrounded with espaliers of fruit-trees, in
+     the centre of which is a pedestal, on which is an armillary sphere
+     with an equatorial dial. On one side of the front is a hot-house
+     containing orange-trees, some ripe, some green, some blooms, and
+     various other fruit-trees of the exotic kind and curious flowers.
+     At the lower end of the aisle is a large summer-house, a long
+     square containing three rooms, the middle paved with marble and
+     hung with landscapes. On the right is a large private library
+     adorned with curious carvings. There are espaliers of fruit-trees
+     at each end of the garden and curious flowering shrubs. The room on
+     the left is beautifully designed for music and contains a spinnet.
+     But the whole garden discovered the desolations of war."
+
+In the Southern colonies men of wealth soon had beautiful gardens. In an
+early account of South Carolina, written in 1682, we find:--
+
+     "Their Gardens are supplied with such European Plants and Herbs as
+     are necessary for the Kitchen, and they begin to be beautiful and
+     adorned with such Flowers as to the Smell or Eye are pleasing or
+     agreeable, viz.: the Rose, Tulip, Carnation, Lilly, etc."
+
+By the middle of the century many exquisite gardens could be seen in
+Charleston, and they were the pride of Southern colonial dames. Those of
+Mrs. Lamboll, Mrs. Hopton, and Mrs. Logan were the largest. The latter
+flower-lover in 1779, when seventy years old, wrote a treatise on
+flower-raising called _The Gardener's Kalendar_, which was read and
+used for many years. Mrs. Laurens had another splendid garden. Those
+Southern ladies and their gardeners constantly sent specimens to
+England, and received others in return. The letters of the day,
+especially those of Eliza Lucas Pinckney, ever interested in
+floriculture and arboriculture, show a constant exchange with English
+flower-lovers.
+
+Beverley wrote of Virginia, in 1720: "A garden is nowhere sooner made
+than there." William Byrd and other travellers, a few years later, saw
+many beautiful terraced gardens in Virginian homes. Mrs. Anne Grant
+writes at length of the love and care the Dutch women of the past
+century had for flowers:--
+
+     "The care of plants such as needed peculiar care or skill to rear
+     them, was the female province. Every one in town or country had a
+     garden. Into the garden no foot of man intruded after it was dug in
+     the spring. I think I see yet what I have so often beheld--a
+     respectable mistress of a family going out to her garden, in an
+     April morning, with her great calash, her little painted basket of
+     seeds, and her rake over her shoulders, to her garden of labours. A
+     woman in very easy circumstances and abundantly gentle in form and
+     manners would sow and plant and rake incessantly."
+
+In New York, before the Revolution, were many beautiful gardens, such
+as that of Madam Alexander on Broad Street, where in their proper season
+grew "paus bloemen of all hues, laylocks and tall May roses and
+snowballs intermixed with choice vegetables and herbs all bounded and
+hemmed in by huge rows of neatly clipped box edgings." We have a pretty
+picture also, in the letters of Catharine Rutherfurd, of an entire
+company gathering rose-leaves in June in Madam Clark's garden, and
+setting the rose-still at work to turn their sweet-scented spoils into
+rose-water.
+
+A trade in flower and vegetable seeds formed a lucrative and popular
+means by which women could earn a livelihood in colonial days. I have
+seen in one of the dingy little newspaper sheets of those days, in the
+large total of nine advertisements, contained therein, the
+announcements, by five Boston seedswomen, of lists of their wares.
+
+The earliest list of names of flower-seeds which I have chanced to note
+was in the _Boston Evening Post_ of March, 1760, and is of much interest
+as showing to us with exactness the flowers beloved and sought for at
+that time. They were "holly-hook, purple Stock, white Lewpins, Africans,
+blew Lewpins, candy-tuff, cyanus, pink, wall-flower, double larkin-spur,
+venus navelwort, brompton flock, princess feather, balsam, sweet-scented
+pease, carnation, sweet williams, annual stock, sweet feabus, yellow
+lewpins, sunflower, convolus minor, catch-fly, ten week stock, globe
+thistle, globe amaranthus, nigella, love-lies-bleeding, casent hamen,
+polianthus, canterbury bells, carnation poppy, india pink, convolus
+major, Queen Margrets." This is certainly a very pretty list of flowers,
+nearly all of which are still loved, though sometimes under other
+names--thus the Queen Margrets are our asters. And the homely old
+English names seem to bring the flowers to our very sight, for we do not
+seem to be on very friendly intimacy, on very sociable terms with
+flowers, unless they have what Miss Mitford calls "decent, well-wearing
+English names"; we can have no flower memories, no affections that
+cling to botanical nomenclature. Yet nothing is more fatal to an exact
+flower knowledge, to an acquaintance that shall ever be more than local,
+than a too confident dependence on the folk-names of flowers. Our
+bachelor's-buttons are ragged sailors in a neighboring state; they are
+corn-pinks in Plymouth, ragged ladies in another town, blue bottles in
+England, but cyanus everywhere. Ragged robin is, in the garden of one
+friend, a pink, in another it flaunts as London-pride, while the true
+glowing London-pride has half a dozen pseudonyms in as many different
+localities, and only really recognizes itself in the botany. An American
+cowslip is not an English cowslip, an American primrose is no English
+primrose, and the English daisy is no country friend of ours in America.
+
+What cheerful and appropriate furnishings the old-time gardens had;
+benches full of straw beeskepes and wooden beehives, those homelike and
+busy dwelling-places; frequently, also, a well-filled dove-cote.
+Sometimes was seen a sun-dial--once the every-day friend and suggestive
+monitor of all who wandered among the flowers of an hour; now known,
+alas! only to the antiquary. Sentiment and even spirituality seem
+suggested by the sun-dial, yet few remain to cast their instructive
+shadow before our sight.
+
+One stood for years in the old box-bordered garden at Homogansett Farm,
+at Wickford, in old Narragansett. Governor Endicott's dial is in the
+Essex Institute, at Salem; and my forbear, Jacob Fairbanks, had one
+dated 1650, which is now in the rooms of the Dedham Historical Society.
+Dr. Bowditch, of Boston, had a sun-dial which was thus inscribed:--
+
+    "With warning hand I mark Times rapid flight
+    From life's glad morning to its solemn night.
+    And like God's love I also show
+    Theres light above me, by the shade below."
+
+Another garden dial thus gives, "in long, lean letters," its warning
+word:--
+
+    "You'll mend your Ways To-morrow
+          When blooms that budded Flour?
+    Mortall! Lern to your Sorrow
+    Death may creep with his Arrow
+    And pierce yo'r vitall Marrow
+    Long ere my warning Shadow
+          Can mark that Hour."
+
+These dials are all of heavy metal, usually lead; sometimes with gnomon
+of brass. But I have heard of one which was unique; it was cut in box.
+
+At the edge of the farm garden often stood the well-sweep, one of the
+most picturesque adjuncts of the country dooryard. Its successor, the
+roofed well with bucket, stone, and chain, and even the homely
+long-handled pump, had a certain appropriateness as part of the garden
+furnishings.
+
+So many thoughts crowd upon us in regard to the old garden; one is the
+age of its flowers. We have no older inhabitants than these garden
+plants; they are old settlers. Clumps of flower-de-luce, double
+buttercups, peonies, yellow day-lilies, are certainly seventy-five years
+old. Many lilac bushes a century old still bloom in New England, and
+syringas and flowering currants are as old as the elms and locusts that
+shade them.
+
+This established constancy and yearly recurrence of bloom is one of the
+garden's many charms. To those who have known and loved an old garden in
+which,
+
+    "There grow no strange flowers every year,
+    But when spring winds blow o'er the pleasant places,
+    The same dear things lift up the same fair faces,"
+
+and faithfully tell and retell the story of the changing seasons by
+their growth, blossom, and decay, nothing can seem more artificial than
+the modern show-beds of full-grown plants which are removed by assiduous
+gardeners as soon as they have flowered, to be replaced by others, only
+in turn to bloom and disappear. These seem to form a real garden no more
+than does a child's posy-bed stuck with short-stemmed flowers to wither
+in a morning.
+
+And the tiresome, tasteless ribbon-beds of our day were preceded in
+earlier centuries by figured beds of diverse-colored earths--and of both
+we can say with Bacon, "they be but toys, you may see as good sights
+many times in tarts."
+
+The promise to Noah, "while the earth remaineth seed-time and harvest
+shall not cease," when heeded in the garden, brings various interests.
+The seed-time, the springing-up of familiar favorites, and the
+cherishing of these favorites through their in-gathering of seeds or
+bulbs or roots for another year, bring pleasure as much as does their
+inflorescence.
+
+Another pathetic trait of many of the old-time flowers should not be
+overlooked--their persistent clinging to life after they had been exiled
+from the trim garden borders where they first saw the chill sun of a New
+England spring. You see them growing and blooming outside the garden
+fence, against old stone walls, where their up-torn roots have been
+thrown to make places for new and more popular favorites. You find them
+cheerfully spreading, pushing along the foot-paths, turning into
+vagrants, becoming flaunting weeds. You see them climbing here and
+there, trying to hide the deserted chimneys of their early homes, or
+wandering over and hiding the untrodden foot-paths of other days. A
+vivid imagination can shape many a story of their life in the interval
+between their first careful planting in colonial gardens and their
+neglected exile to highways and byways, where the poor bits of
+depauperated earth can grow no more lucrative harvest.
+
+The sites of colonial houses which are now destroyed, the trend, almost
+the exact line of old roads, can be traced by the cheerful faces of
+these garden-strays. The situation of old Fort Nassau, in Pennsylvania,
+so long a matter of uncertainty, is said to have been definitely
+determined by the familiar garden flowers found growing on one of these
+disputed sites. It is a tender thought that this indelible mark is left
+upon the face of our native land through the affection of our forbears
+for their gardens.
+
+The botany tells us that bouncing-bet has "escaped from
+cultivation"--she has been thrust out, but unresentfully lives and
+smiles; opening her tender pinky-opalescent flowers adown the dusty
+roadsides, and even on barren gravel-beds in railroad cuts.
+Butter-and-eggs, tansy, chamomile, spiked loosestrife, velvet-leaf,
+bladder-campion, cypress spurge, live-for-ever, star of Bethlehem,
+money-vine,--all have seen better days, but now are flower-tramps. Even
+the larkspur, beloved of children, the moss-pink, and the grape-hyacinth
+may sometimes be seen growing in country fields and byways. The homely
+and cheerful blossoms of the orange-tawny ephemeral lily, and the
+spotted tiger-lily, whose gaudy colors glow with the warmth of far
+Cathay--their early home--now make gay many of our roadsides and crowd
+upon the sweet cinnamon roses of our grandmothers, which also are
+undaunted garden exiles.
+
+Driving once along a country road, I saw on the edge of a field an
+expanse of yellow bloom which seemed to be an unfamiliar field-tint. It
+proved to be a vast bed of coreopsis, self-sown from year to year; and
+the blackened outlines of an old cellar wall in its midst showed that in
+that field once stood a home, once there a garden smiled.
+
+I am always sure when I see bouncing-bet, butter-and-eggs, and tawny
+lilies growing in a tangle together that in their midst may be found an
+untrodden door-stone, a fallen chimney, or a filled-in well.
+
+Still broader field expanses are filled with old-country plants. In June
+a golden glory of bud and blossom covers the hills and fields of Essex
+County in Massachusetts from Lynn to Danvers, and Ryal Side to Beverly;
+it is the English gorse or woad-wax, and by tradition it was first
+brought to this country in spray and seed as a packing for some of the
+household belongings of Governor Endicott. Thrown out in friendly soil,
+the seeds took root and there remain in the vicinity of their first
+American homes. It is a stubborn squatter, yielding only to scythe,
+plough, and hoe combined.
+
+Chicory or blue weed was, it is said, brought from England by Governor
+Bowdoin as food for his sheep. It has spread till its extended presence
+has been a startling surprise to all English visiting botanists. It
+hurts no one's fields, for it invades chiefly waste and neglected
+land--the "dear common flower"--and it has redeemed many a city suburb
+of vacant lots, many a railroad ash heap from the abomination of
+desolation.
+
+Whiteweed or ox-eye daisy, a far greater pest than gorse or chicory, has
+been carried intentionally to many a township by homesick settlers whose
+descendants to-day rue the sentiment of their ancestors.
+
+While the vallied garden of our old neighbors was sweet with blossoms,
+my mother's garden bore a still fresher fragrance--that of green growing
+things; of "posies," lemon-balm, rose geranium, mint, and sage. I always
+associate with it in spring the scent of the strawberry bush, or
+calycanthus, and in summer of the fraxinella, which, with its tall stem
+of larkspur-like flowers, its still more graceful seed-vessels and its
+shining ash-like leaves, grew there in rich profusion and gave forth
+from leaf, stem, blossom, and seed a pure, a memory-sweet perfume half
+like lavender, half like anise.
+
+Truly, much of our tenderest love of flowers comes from association, and
+many are lovingly recalled solely by their odors. Balmier breath than
+was ever borne by blossom is to me the pure pungent perfume of ambrosia,
+rightly named, as fit for the gods. Not the miserable weed ambrosia of
+the botany, but a lowly herb that grew throughout the entire summer
+everywhere in "our garden"; sowing its seeds broadcast from year to
+year; springing up unchecked in every unoccupied corner, and under every
+shrub and bushy plant; giving out from serrated leaf and irregular
+raceme of tiny pale-green flowers, a spicy aromatic fragrance if we
+brushed past it, or pulled a weed from amongst it as we strolled down
+the garden walk. And it is our very own--I have never seen it elsewhere
+than at my old home, and in the gardens of neighbors to whom its seeds
+were given by the gentle hand that planted "our garden" and made it a
+delight. Goethe says, "Some flowers are lovely to the eye, but others
+are lovely to the heart." Ambrosia is lovely to my heart, for it was my
+mother's favorite.
+
+And as each "spring comes slowly up the way," I say in the words of
+Solomon, "Awake, O north wind; and come, thou south; blow upon my
+garden, that the spices thereof may flow out"--that the balm and mint,
+the thyme and southernwood, the sweetbrier and ambrosia, may spring
+afresh and shed their tender incense to the memory of my mother, who
+planted them and loved their pure fragrance, and at whose presence, as
+at that of Eve, flowers ever sprung--
+
+    "And touched by her fair tendance gladlier grew."
+
+
+
+
+Index
+
+
+Abington, church vote in, 286.
+
+Acrelius, Dr., quoted, 146.
+
+Adams, Abigail, garden of, 435.
+
+Adams, John, quoted, 71, 160;
+  Sunday dinner of, 159-160;
+  cider-drinking of, 161.
+
+Adams, John Quincy, Mrs., straw bonnet of, 261.
+
+Adams family, homes of, 22.
+
+Albany, houses at, 9;
+  deer in, 109;
+  beer at, 161;
+  bad boys in, 374-375;
+  first church in, 385;
+  cow-herding in, 399.
+
+Alchymy, 88.
+
+Alewives, in New England waters, 120.
+
+Ambrosia, a flower, 450.
+
+Ames, quoted, 136.
+
+Amherst, sign-board at, 360.
+
+Andirons, 62.
+
+Andover, church vote in, 286;
+  bad boy in, 373.
+
+Annapolis, dress in, 293.
+
+Apostle spoons, 90.
+
+Apples, culture of, 145;
+  plenty in Maryland, 145;
+  modes of cooking, 146;
+  in pies, 146.
+
+Apple-butter, 146-147.
+
+Apple-paring, 146-147.
+
+Apple-sauce, 146-147.
+
+Architecture, of churches, 364 _et seq._, 385 _et seq._
+
+Arkamy, 88.
+
+Axe-helves, 314-315.
+
+
+Back-bar of fireplace, description, 53.
+
+Bacon, quoted, 431.
+
+Bagging, from coarse flax, 172.
+
+Bake-kettle, 66.
+
+Bake-shops, 147.
+
+Ballots, of corn and beans, 141.
+
+Balsam, as dye, 194.
+
+Baltimore, dress in, 293;
+  taverns in, 359.
+
+Banyan, 294.
+
+Barberry, root as dye, 194.
+
+Basins, 106.
+
+Bass, in New England waters, 120-121.
+
+Bass-viols, in meeting, 378.
+
+Bates of flax, 169.
+
+Batteau, 329.
+
+Batten, of loom, 220-221.
+
+Baxter, 187.
+
+Bayberry, description, 39;
+  candles of, 39;
+  wax of, 40;
+  laws about, 40;
+  soap from, 255.
+
+Bead bags, 263.
+
+Beam. See Warp-beam.
+
+Beaming, in weaving, 218.
+
+Beans, as ballots, 141;
+  mode of cooking, 145.
+
+Bed coverlet. See Coverlet.
+
+Bedstead, alcove, 55;
+  turn-up, 55-56.
+
+Beer, among Dutch, 161.
+
+Bees, called English flies, 111.
+
+Beehives, 442.
+
+Beetling of flax, 172.
+
+Bell, as summons to meeting, 368.
+
+Belt-loom. See Tape-loom.
+
+Bennet, quoted, 123.
+
+Berkeley, Gov., quoted, 111, 360-361.
+
+Berries, 145.
+
+Betty lamps, 43-44.
+
+Beverages. See Drinks.
+
+Bible, references to flax in, 177.
+
+Biddeford, communal privileges in, 390.
+
+Bier, in weaving, 220.
+
+Birch-bark, doors of, 6;
+  plates of, 83;
+  baskets of, cans of, 253, 310.
+
+Birch broom, making of, 301-303;
+  price of, 302.
+
+Blackjacks, 95-96.
+
+Blazing, of trees, 330.
+
+Bleaching, of flax thread, 175;
+  of linen, 234;
+  of straw bonnets, 261.
+
+Bleeding-basins, 86.
+
+Block-houses, 26.
+
+Boards, scarcity of, 76.
+
+Board cloth, 76-77.
+
+Boardman Hill House, 22.
+
+Bobbins, for weaving. See Quills.
+
+Bobs, of flax, 168.
+
+Bombards, 96.
+
+Books of etiquette, 79.
+
+Bore-staff of loom, 224.
+
+Boston, fire-engine in, 19;
+  early houses of, 19, 27;
+  first fork in, 77;
+  pigeons in, 110;
+  fish in, 123;
+  tea in, 164-165;
+  coffee in, 165;
+  chocolate in, 165;
+  spinning schools in, 180;
+  fulling-mill in, 187;
+  dress in, 292-294;
+  coach in, 331;
+  stage-travel from, 350-351;
+  night watch in, 363;
+  meeting-houses in, 364, 366;
+  restrictions of settlement in, 394;
+  cows in, 400.
+
+Bottles, of wood, 82;
+  of pewter, 85;
+  of glass, 92-93;
+  of leather, 95.
+
+Boucher, Jonathan, quoted, 382.
+
+Bouncing-bet, 427, 447.
+
+Bounty coats, 248.
+
+Bouts, in weaving, 218.
+
+Box-borders, a plea for, 430-431.
+
+Boxing, of maple trees, 112.
+
+Boylston, Nicholas, banyan of, 294.
+
+Boys, clothing of, 287-288;
+  wigs of, 297;
+  seats in meeting for, 372 _et seq._;
+  misbehavior of, 372-373;
+  in church, 384.
+
+Braid-loom. See Tape-loom.
+
+Bradford, Governor, quoted, 129-130.
+
+Bread, white, 147;
+  rye and Indian, 147
+
+Bread-peel, 67.
+
+Breadtrough, 311.
+
+Breakfast, or bread and milk, 148.
+
+Breaking, of flax, 169-170;
+  of hemp, 170.
+
+Breaking out the winter roads, 412 _et seq._
+
+Breweries, in New York, 161.
+
+Brewster, Elder, quoted, 117.
+
+Brick, imported, 21.
+
+British spinning and weaving school, 186.
+
+Broach, 198.
+
+Brooklyn, oysters in, 118-119;
+  salting shad in, 124-125.
+
+Brooms, of broom-corn, 256-257;
+  of birch, 301-304;
+  of hemlock, 304-305.
+
+Broom-corn, 256-257.
+
+Brown University, dress of first graduating class, 183.
+
+Bucking, of flax thread, 175;
+  of linen, 234.
+
+Bull's-eye lamp, 45.
+
+Bun, of flax, 169.
+
+Bunch-thread, 251.
+
+Bundling-mould. See Shingling-mould.
+
+Burlers, in weaving, 252.
+
+Bushnell, Horace, quoted, 246.
+
+Busks, carved, 320.
+
+Butter, price of, 149.
+
+Buttermilk, for bleaching, 175.
+
+
+Caches, for corn, 138.
+
+Cage, for babies, 372;
+  for bad boys, 385.
+
+Calash, 289.
+
+Calf-keeper, duties of, 400.
+
+Cambridge, cow-herding in, 399.
+
+Campbell, Madam Angelica, coach of, 335.
+
+Candles, cost of, 34;
+  making of, 35-37;
+  materials for, 38-39, 42.
+
+Candle-arms, 42.
+
+Candle-beams, 42.
+
+Candle-box, 38.
+
+Candle-dipping, 36.
+
+Candle-moulds, 36-37.
+
+Candle-prongs, 42.
+
+Candle-rods, 36.
+
+Candle-sticks, 42.
+
+Candle-wood, 32.
+
+Canoes, 323-327.
+
+Canteens, of horn, 321.
+
+Captain of the watch, duties of, 380.
+
+Cards. See Wool-cards.
+
+Carding described, 194-196.
+
+Carding-machines, 206.
+
+Card-setting. See Wool-cards.
+
+Capuchins, 295.
+
+Carolinas, sweet potatoes in, 145;
+  hand-weaving in, 249-251;
+  gardens in, 438-439.
+
+Carpet. See Rag carpet.
+
+Carrots, 145.
+
+Carving, terms in, 104-105;
+  of wood, 320;
+  of horn, 321-322.
+
+Caves, description of, 2;
+  for corn, 138.
+
+Cave-dwellers, 1.
+
+Cedar tops, for dyeing, 251.
+
+Cellar of Dutch houses, 10.
+
+Chain in weaving, 250.
+
+Chair-seats, 310-311.
+
+Chaise of Brother Jonathan, 353.
+
+"Change-work," 417.
+
+Chap-men, 300.
+
+Chargers, 80, 84.
+
+Charleston, flax manufacture in, 182-183;
+  dress in, 293;
+  gardens in, 438-439.
+
+Charlevoix, Father, on canoes, 327.
+
+Chaucer, quoted, on spinning, 179.
+
+Chebobbin, 415.
+
+Cheese, making of, 150.
+
+Cheese-basket, 150-151.
+
+Cheese-hoop, 312.
+
+Cheese-ladder, 150-151, 312.
+
+Cheese-press, 150-151, 312.
+
+Chesapeake, turkeys on, 109;
+  wild fowl on, 125.
+
+Chicory, introduction of, 449.
+
+Children, at table, 101-102;
+  occupations of, 179-180, 182, 188-189, 203-204, 261-262;
+  dress of, 287;
+  in meeting, 372 _et seq._;
+  in noon-house, 376.
+
+Chimney, catted, 15, 53;
+  size of, 52, 68;
+  description, 53;
+  in Dutch houses, 55.
+
+China, early use of, 100;
+  importation of, 100-101.
+
+Chinese stuffs, 294.
+
+Chinking walls, 5.
+
+Chopping-bee, 403 _et seq._
+
+Chorister, in Dutch churches, 386.
+
+Churches, in Virginia, 381-383;
+  in Albany, 385.
+  See also Meeting-house.
+
+Churns, few in New England, 149;
+  examples of, 149-150;
+  whittling of, 312.
+
+Cider, use by children, 148-149, 161;
+  use by students, 161;
+  price of, 161;
+  manufacture of, 161-162;
+  generous use of, 161-163.
+
+Clam-shells, use of, 308-309.
+
+Clarionets, in meeting, 378.
+
+Clavell-piece, 54.
+
+Clay, for dyeing, 241.
+
+Clergymen, in Virginia, 384.
+
+Clocks, 299.
+
+Clock-jack, 65.
+
+Clock-reel, 174-175;
+  price of, 177;
+  for yarn, 200.
+
+Clogs, 295.
+
+Cloth, finishing of, 231-233.
+
+Cloth bar, 224.
+
+Clothes, durability of, 281;
+  extravagance in, 281;
+  laws about, 281 _et seq._;
+  of Massachusetts settlers, 286-287;
+  of Virginia planters, 287;
+  of children, 288 _et seq._
+
+Coaches, in Boston, 331, 353-354;
+  in England, 354;
+  Judge Sewall on, 354;
+  in New York, 354-355.
+  See also Stage-coach.
+
+Coat-of-arms, on sampler, 267.
+
+Coat roll, 248.
+
+Cob irons, 62.
+
+Cocoanut-cups, 96-97.
+
+Codfish, early discoverers on, 115-116;
+  plenty of, 115;
+  in New England waters, 120-121;
+  varieties of, 121;
+  for Saturday dinner, 122;
+  price in Boston, 123.
+  See Fish and Fishing.
+
+Coffee, substitutes for, 159;
+  early use of, 165;
+  queer mode of cooking, 165.
+
+Colchester, girls' life in, 253.
+
+Cold houses, 70-71.
+
+Cold party, 419.
+
+Colored herbs, 430.
+
+Coloring, 23.
+
+Combing, description of, 196.
+
+Combing machine, 230.
+
+Combs. See Wool-combs.
+
+Comfortier, 69.
+
+Common crops, 130.
+
+Common herds. See Herding.
+
+Common lands, 398.
+
+Communal privileges, 390 _et seq._
+
+Conch-shell, as summons to meeting, 367-368.
+
+Concord coaches, 352-353.
+
+Concordance, 33.
+
+Conestoga wagon, 339-343;
+  shape of, 339;
+  rates on, 340;
+  great number of, 340.
+
+Connecticut, tar-making in, 33;
+  pumpkin bread in, 143;
+  flax culture in, 179;
+  straw manufacture in, 260.
+
+Contributions in New England meetings, 378;
+  in Dutch churches, 386-387.
+
+Cooking, influence of Indian methods, 131-136;
+  English modes of, 151;
+  spices used in, 152;
+  limitations in, 158-159.
+
+Coöperation in olden times, 389 _et seq._
+
+Corbel roof, 9.
+
+Coreopsis, persistence of, 448.
+
+Corn, influence on colonists' lives, 126;
+  in Virginia, 127-128;
+  price of, 128, 138;
+  scarcity of, 129;
+  mode of cultivating, 130-131;
+  Indian foods from, 131;
+  Indian modes of preparing, 131;
+  modes of cooking, 133-136;
+  as currency, 138;
+  profits on raising, 139;
+  games with, 139;
+  shelling of, 139-140;
+  as ballots, 141;
+  as national flower, 141.
+
+Corn-cobs, use of, 141, 209.
+
+Corn dances, 138.
+
+Corn-husking, description of, 136.
+
+Corn-sheller, 140-141.
+
+Cotton, early use of, 206-207;
+  cultivation of, 207;
+  rarity of, 207-208;
+  domestic manufacture, 209-210;
+  Golden Age of, 230.
+
+Cotton-gin, 208.
+
+Cotton, John, quoted, 148, 285.
+
+Coverlets, in Pennsylvania, 190;
+  in Narragansett, 242-246.
+
+Cows, herding of, 399-401.
+
+Cowherds, duties of, 399-400;
+  pay of, 399.
+
+Cowkeeps, 399.
+
+Cow-pens, 400.
+
+Crabs, in Virginia, 118.
+
+Crane, 53.
+
+Creepers, 62.
+
+Crocus, 237.
+
+Crofting, of linen, 234.
+
+Crown-imperial, 425.
+
+Cups, 85, 90, 93-96.
+
+Currency, corn as, 138.
+
+"Cut-down," of trees, 405.
+
+Cutler, Dr., quoted, 159.
+
+Cut-tails, 122-123.
+
+
+Daffodils, 426-427.
+
+Dale, Sir Thomas, on corn-growing, 127;
+  on Sunday observance, 380.
+
+Danvers, Mass., house in, 30.
+
+Daubing walls, 5.
+
+Daughters of Liberty, 183-184.
+
+Day's work in spinning, 185.
+
+Deacons, in Dutch churches, 386-387.
+
+Deacons' pew, 374.
+
+"Deaconing" the psalm, 378.
+
+Deaf pew, 374.
+
+Dedham, Mass., house in, 22-23.
+
+Deer, abundance of, 108-109;
+  description of, 108.
+
+Deerskin, clothing of, 288-289.
+
+De La Warre, church attendance of, 382.
+
+Delaware, house pie in, 146.
+
+Delft ware, 100.
+
+Dents, of sley, 219-220.
+
+Designs, for weaving, 243-244, 250-251;
+  of ancient Gauls, 242;
+  for quilts, 272-273;
+  for paper-cutting, 278-289.
+
+Dew-retting, 169.
+
+Dimity, 250.
+
+Dinner, serving of, 104;
+  primitive forms, 105-106;
+  for Saturday, 122;
+  in New York, 159;
+  at John Adams' home, 159-160.
+
+Discomforts of temperature, 70-71.
+
+Distaff, in India, 178.
+
+Dogs, in meeting, 374.
+
+Dog-pelter, 374.
+
+Dog-whipper, 374.
+
+Donnison family, fire buckets of, 18.
+
+Door latch, 11, 318.
+
+Dorchester, windmill at, 133;
+  corporation, laws in, 392, 394.
+
+Double string-roaster, 64.
+
+Drawing, in weaving, 219.
+
+Drawing a bore, 224.
+
+Dress. See Clothes.
+
+Dresser, 68.
+
+Drinking-cups, 85-96, 98.
+
+Drinks, from curious materials, 163.
+
+Drinking habits, 93-94, 161, 164.
+
+Drinking-horns, 321.
+
+Driver, 198.
+
+Drugget, 250.
+
+Drum, as summons to meeting, 367, 368.
+
+Duck. See Wild fowl.
+
+Duer, Colonel, dinner of, 159.
+
+Dugouts, 326.
+
+Dunfish, 121-122.
+  Also see Codfish.
+
+Durability of homespun, 238-239.
+
+Durham, church discipline in, 372.
+
+Dutch mode of serving meals, 106.
+
+Dutch oven, 65.
+
+Dyes, domestic, 155, 193-194, 250-251.
+
+Dye-flower, 251.
+
+
+Earmarks, 400.
+
+Eastern Stage Company, 351.
+
+Economy of colonists, 42, 185, 321-324;
+  of Martha Washington, 237-238.
+
+Eddis, quoted, 118.
+
+Eels, method of catching, 117.
+
+Egypt, flax in, 177-178; linen in, 178.
+
+Embroidery. See Needlework.
+
+Emerson, R. W., appointed hog-reeve, 403.
+
+Endicott, Governor, sun-dial of, 443;
+  his introduction of woad-wax, 448.
+
+Entering, in weaving. See Drawing.
+
+Ernst, C. W., quoted, 343, 345.
+
+Etiquette for children, 100-102;
+  of carving, 104-105.
+
+Eye, of harness, 218.
+
+Fairbanks, Jacob, house of, 22-23;
+  sun-dial of, 443.
+
+Fairs, instituted by Penn, 190;
+  encouraged by Franklin, 191.
+
+Faneuil, Miss, dress of, 292.
+
+Fences, different varieties of, 25;
+  common building of, 401-402;
+  laws about, 401-402.
+
+Fence-viewers, 401.
+
+Ferries, by canoe, 330-331.
+
+Finlay, Hugh, postal report of, 333-335.
+
+Fireback, 54.
+
+Fire-buckets, description, 16;
+  use of, 17;
+  of Donnison's, 18;
+  of Quincy's, 18;
+  of Oliver's, 19.
+
+Fire-dogs, 62.
+
+Fire-engine, first in Boston, 19;
+  first in Brooklyn, 19.
+
+Fire-hunting, 108-109.
+
+Fire lanes, 16.
+
+Fire laws, 15.
+
+Fireplace of our fathers, 53.
+
+Fire-plate, 54-55.
+
+Fire-room, 7.
+
+Fire-wardens, 15.
+
+Fish, plenty of, 115-125;
+  varieties of, in New England waters, 117;
+  in Virginia waters, 119;
+  in New York waters, 120;
+  salted, 124-125;
+  as fertilizer, 130;
+  poisoned by flax, 169.
+
+Fishing, King James on, 116;
+  ill-success in, 117;
+  supplies for, 117;
+  in Virginia, 119-120;
+  encouragement of, 121;
+  laws on, 121;
+  division of profit, 122, 123.
+
+Fish-weirs, 121.
+
+Flag, as summons to meeting, 368.
+
+Flails, making of, 312; use of, 313-314.
+
+Flannel sheets, 238.
+
+Flax, patch of, 167;
+  blossom of, 167;
+  growth of, 168;
+  weeding of, 168;
+  ripening of, 168;
+  pulling of, 168;
+  spreading of, 168;
+  rippling of, 168-169;
+  watering of, 169;
+  stacking of, 169;
+  breaking of, 169-170;
+  tenacity of, 171;
+  swingling of, 171-172;
+  beetling of, 172;
+  hetcheling of, 172-173;
+  spreading and drawing, 173;
+  many manipulations of, 173;
+  spinning of, 174;
+  in Bible, 177;
+  in Egypt, 177-178;
+  in New England, 179-181, 186;
+  in Pennsylvania, 181;
+  in Virginia, 181, 182;
+  in South Carolina, 182-183;
+  in Ireland, 186;
+  in Courtrai, 186;
+  in England, 186.
+
+Flax basket, 173.
+
+Flax-brake, 169-170.
+
+Flax hetchels, 172.
+
+Flaxseed, how sown, 167;
+  how gathered, 168, 176;
+  how stored, 176.
+
+Flax-thread, spinning of, 174;
+  knotting of, 175;
+  reeling of, 175;
+  bleaching of, 175;
+  backing of, 175.
+
+Flax-wheel, revival of, 167;
+  use of, 174;
+  price of, 177.
+
+Flint and steel, 48.
+
+Flower, a national, 141.
+
+Flowers, in churches, 383;
+  old-time, 421 _et seq._;
+  folk-names of, 448;
+  age of, 443-445;
+  persistency of, 447;
+  escaped from cultivation, 448.
+
+Flower-seeds, sold by women, 440-441;
+  old list of, 441.
+
+Flutes, in meeting, 378.
+
+Flying-machine, 345.
+
+Fly-shuttle, 228.
+
+Food, from forests, 108-114;
+  from sea and river, 114-125;
+  transportation of, 143;
+  entirely from farm, 158;
+  substitutes, 158-159.
+
+Foot-mantle, 295.
+
+Foot-paths, 329.
+
+Foot-stoves, 375, 385.
+
+Foot-treadle, of loom, 219.
+
+Foot-wheel. See Flax-wheel.
+
+Foote, Abigail, diary of, 253.
+
+Forefathers' Dinner, 129.
+
+Forests, destruction of, 52;
+  riches of, 108-114.
+
+Forms, 101.
+
+Forks, use of, 77;
+  first, 77.
+
+Forts, as churches, 365, 385.
+
+Fox, George, bequest of, 437.
+
+Franklin, quoted, 53, 181;
+  fairs encouraged by, 191;
+  advertisement of, 292-293;
+  as postmaster, 333;
+  set milestones, 335;
+  cyclometer of, 335-336;
+  on canals, 353;
+  in sedan-chair, 356.
+
+Franklin stove, 70.
+
+Fraxinella, 449.
+
+Fringe-loom, 227.
+
+Frocking, striped, 237.
+
+Fulling-mill, in Boston, 188.
+
+Fulling-stocks, 232.
+
+Fulham jugs, 98.
+
+Funerals, rings at, 298;
+  gloves at, 298-299.
+
+Furs, search for, 115.
+
+Fustian, in America, 237;
+  in Europe, 237.
+
+
+Gallows-balke, 53.
+
+Gallows-crooks, 53.
+
+Gallows-frame. See Tape-loom.
+
+Gambrels, 310.
+
+Gambrel roof, description, 22.
+
+Games, with corn, 139.
+
+Garden, an old-time, 419 _et seq._;
+  in New England, 419 _et seq._;
+  in southern colonies, 438-439;
+  in New York, 439-440.
+
+Garnish of pewter, 85.
+
+Garrison house, 26.
+
+Garter-loom. See Tape-loom.
+
+Geese, raising of, 257-258;
+  pickings of, 257-259;
+  noise of, 258.
+
+Georgia, deer in, 109;
+  turkeys in, 110;
+  hand-weaving in, 249-251.
+
+Georgius Rex jug, 99.
+
+Germantown, flax-raising at, 181;
+  flax-workers at, 181;
+  seal of, 181;
+  wool manufacture at, 190.
+
+Gibcrokes, 53.
+
+Gimlet, 305.
+
+Giotto, loom of, 213.
+
+Girdling, of trees, 403.
+
+Girls, dress of, 289-292;
+  seats in meeting for, 372.
+
+Giskins, 96.
+
+Glass, in windows, 23, 366;
+  nailed in, 366;
+  for lamps, 46;
+  early use of, 92.
+
+Gloucester, old house at, 70;
+  fishing at, 122-123;
+  communal privileges in, 390.
+
+Gloves, given at funerals, 298-299.
+
+Going a-leafing, 67.
+
+Goldenrod, as dye, 193.
+
+Goloe-shoes, 295.
+
+Gookin, quoted, 137.
+
+Goose-basket, 258.
+
+Goose-neck andirons, 62.
+
+Goose yoke, 258.
+
+Gorse. See Woad-wax.
+
+Gourds, cups of, 96;
+  utensils of, 309.
+
+Grant, Mrs. Anne, on Dutch gardens, 439.
+
+Grapes, 145.
+
+Grassing, of linen, 234.
+
+Greeley, Horace, on canal-travel, 353.
+
+Gridirons, 61.
+
+Grist-mill, earliest, 133.
+
+Guinea wheat, 129. See Corn.
+
+Gun, as summons to meeting, 368.
+
+Gundalow, 329.
+
+Gutters of houses, 9.
+
+
+Hackling. See Hetcheling.
+
+Hadley, shad in, 123-124;
+  potatoes in, 144;
+  broom-making in, 256-257;
+  restrictions of settlement in, 392-393;
+  hay-ward in, 402.
+
+Hakes, 53.
+
+Half-faced camp, 3.
+
+Hammond, John, quoted, 395.
+
+Hamor, Ralph, quoted, 143.
+
+Hancock House, knocker of, 28;
+  on sampler, 268.
+
+Hancock, John, hatred of pewter, 85;
+  drinking cup of, 97;
+  dress of, 293.
+
+Hand-distaff. See Distaff.
+
+Hand-loom. See Loom.
+
+Hand-reel. See Niddy-noddy.
+
+Hap-harlot, 242.
+
+Harness. See Heddle.
+
+Harvard College, standing salt of, 78-79;
+  trenchers at, 81.
+
+Hasty pudding, 135.
+
+Hats, worn in meeting, 285;
+  church votes about, 286.
+
+Hay-wards, 402.
+
+Heddle of loom, 219.
+
+Heddle-frame. See Tape-loom.
+
+Heel-pegs. See Shoe-pegs.
+
+Hemlock, brooms of, 304-305;
+  boxes of, 310.
+
+Hemp, blossom of, 167;
+  breaking of, 169.
+
+Herding, of cows, 399-401;
+  of sheep, 401;
+  of swine, 403.
+
+Hetcheling of flax, 172.
+
+Hexe, of flax, 169.
+
+Hides, use of, 109;
+  tax on, 109.
+
+Higginson, quoted, 33, 35, 117, 148.
+
+Hind's-foot handle, 90.
+
+Hinges, material of, 9, 318.
+
+Hingham, church at, 365.
+
+Hogarth, loom of, 213-214.
+
+Hogs, as scavengers, 125;
+  yokes of, 311;
+  laws about, 402-403.
+
+Hog-reeves, 402-403.
+
+Homespun industries, 167;
+  beneficent effect of, 179;
+  foundation of liberty, 189.
+
+Hominy, 131.
+
+Honey, plenty of, 111.
+
+Honey-locust, 163.
+
+Horn, spoons of, 88;
+  cups of, 96;
+  as summons to meeting, 368.
+
+Horse-blocks, in front of churches, 367.
+
+Horse-bridges, 331.
+
+Horse-laurel, as dye, 194.
+
+Hose. See Stockings.
+
+Hospitality, in Southern colonies, 395 _et seq._
+
+Hound handle, 100.
+
+Hour-glass, in meeting, 376.
+
+Housekeeper, qualifications of, 252-253.
+
+House pie, 146.
+
+House-raising. See Raising.
+
+Hyperion tea, 165.
+
+
+India china, 100.
+
+Indians, houses of, 3-4;
+  caves of, 138;
+  corn dances of, 138;
+  cultivation of corn by, 126-131;
+  endurance of, 137;
+  mode of cooking corn, 131-135;
+  names of corn foods, 131-137;
+  mode of drying pumpkins, 143;
+  spoons of, 88;
+  mode of cooking beans, 145;
+  brooms of, 301-304;
+  four best things, 304;
+  modes of travel of, 325;
+  boats of, 325;
+  paths of, 329-330.
+
+Indian corn. See Corn.
+
+Indian pudding, 135.
+
+Indigo, as dye, 193.
+
+Inns. See Taverns.
+
+Invention, of cotton-gin, 208;
+  of fly-shuttle, 228;
+  of spinning-jenny, 229;
+  of throstle-spun yarn, 229;
+  of combing-machine, 230;
+  of flax-spinning machine, 230-231.
+
+Ipswich, grist-mill at, 133.
+
+Iris, as dye, 193.
+
+Itineracies, old-time, 176, 300-301.
+
+
+Jack-knife, 307-308.
+
+Jacks, 64.
+
+James I. on fishing, 116.
+
+Jamestown, spinning-schools at, 182;
+  summons to meeting at, 367.
+
+Jeans, 250.
+
+Jefferson, Thomas, quoted, 207, 256;
+  hospitality of, 397;
+  impoverishment of, 397-398.
+
+Jewellery, slight wear of, 297.
+
+Johnson, quoted, 143, 145, 188.
+
+Johnson, Governor, baby clothes of, 265.
+
+Johnny-cakes, 135.
+
+Josselyn, quoted, 117;
+  his list of plants in New England, 432 _et seq._
+
+Judd, Sylvester, quoted, 216, 237.
+
+Jugs, of stoneware, 98.
+
+Jumel, Madame, cave house of, 3.
+
+
+Kalm, quoted, 39-40;
+  on squirrels, 110;
+  on bees, 111;
+  on maize bread, 134;
+  on canoes, 326-327;
+  on the plantain, 436.
+
+Kearsarge, Mount, romance of, 405.
+
+Kentucky, hand-weaving in, 249.
+
+Ketch, 328.
+
+Kill-devil. See Rum.
+
+Killing time, 153.
+
+King Hooper house, 30.
+
+Kitchen, description, 52;
+  in rhyme, 73-75.
+
+Knife. See Jack-knife.
+
+Knife-racks, 68.
+
+Knights, Madame, quoted, 8;
+  on canoes, 327-328;
+  journey of, 332;
+  on sleighs, 355.
+
+Knitting, 190;
+  yarn for, 201;
+  by children, 261-262;
+  elaborate designs, 262.
+
+Knitting machine, 190.
+
+Knives, of flax brake, 170.
+
+Knocker, Hancock house, 28;
+  Winslow house, 29.
+
+Knots, of flax thread, 175.
+
+Krankbesoeckers, 385.
+
+
+Labadist missionaries, quoted, 118-119.
+
+Lad's lore, 428.
+
+Lamps, 43-45.
+
+Lathe. See Batten.
+
+Latten ware, 58.
+
+Laws, about flax culture, 179-180;
+  about dress, 282-284;
+  about ferries, 330-331;
+  about mail, 334;
+  about taverns, 357;
+  on observance of Sunday, 378-379;
+  of warning out, 392 _et seq._;
+  about fences, 401-402.
+
+Lay, of loom. See Batten.
+
+Laying a fire, 74.
+
+Lays, of flax thread, 175.
+
+Lean-to, description, 22.
+
+Leashes, of heddle, 219.
+
+Leather, utensils of, 95-96.
+
+Letters. See Post.
+
+Liberty Tea, 165.
+
+Lincoln, Abraham, early home of, 4;
+  rail-splitting, 25.
+
+Linden, fibre from, 211.
+
+Linen, manipulations of, 234;
+  clothing of, 234;
+  sentiment of, 234;
+  price of, 234;
+  checked, 238.
+
+Lining the psalm, 378.
+
+Litster, 187.
+
+Livingstone, John, clothing of, 288.
+
+Loaf-sugar. See Sugar-cones.
+
+Lobsters, plenty of, 117;
+  vast size of, 118.
+
+Logan, Mrs., on flower-raising, 438.
+
+Log cabin, forms of, 5.
+
+Logging-bee, 416, 417.
+
+Log-rolling, 389, 404, 406.
+
+Longfellow, quoted, 327.
+
+Long Island, bayberries on, 40;
+  samp-mortars on, 133;
+  wool raising on, 191;
+  bad boys on, 373;
+  Sunday observance on, 385;
+  cow-herding on, 400.
+
+Long-short, 236-237.
+
+Loom, antiquity of, 213-214;
+  of Giotto, 213;
+  of Hogarth, 213-214;
+  description of, 214.
+  See Power-loom, Tape-loom.
+
+Loom-room, 212.
+
+Louisiana, corn in, 128;
+  petticoat rebellion in, 128;
+  hand-weaving in, 250.
+
+Lowell, quoted, 73.
+
+Lucas, Governor, quoted, 182-183.
+
+Lug-pole, 53.
+
+Luxury, after the Revolution, 159-160.
+
+Lye, making of, 254.
+
+
+MacMaster, quoted, 207.
+
+Madison, Dolly, dress of, 290.
+
+Mail, of heddle, 219.
+
+Mail. See Post.
+
+Mail coaches, 344, 350.
+
+Maine, windows in, 23;
+  candle-wood in, 32;
+  chums in, 149;
+  axe-making in, 315.
+
+Maize. See Corn.
+
+Mandillion, 287.
+
+Manhattan, bark houses on, 4;
+  palisados on, 24.
+
+Manners. See Etiquette.
+
+Maple sugar, old description of, 111;
+  manufacture of, 111-112.
+
+Maple-wood, bowls of, 82, 318-320.
+
+Marblehead, fishing at, 122-123.
+
+Marigolds, 427.
+
+Marmalades, 152.
+
+Maryland, houses in, 11;
+  wild fowl in, 125;
+  apples in, 145;
+  hospitality in, 396-397.
+
+Masks, 290.
+
+Massachusetts, cave dwellings in, 1;
+  palisados in, 24;
+  venison in, 109;
+  fish in, 123;
+  flax culture in, 179-180;
+  wool-raising in, 188;
+  bounty in, 205;
+  sumptuary laws in, 281-284;
+  outfit for settlers, 286-287;
+  ferries in, 330-331.
+
+Matches, first, 50-51.
+
+Mazer, 319.
+
+Mead, 163.
+
+Meeting-house, in Boston, 364, 366;
+  in Salem, 364;
+  in Hingham, 365;
+  descriptions of, 364, 366-369.
+
+Metheglin, 163.
+
+Metheglin cups, 85.
+
+Metzel-soup, 419.
+
+Milestones, 335-336.
+
+Milford, Conn., palisados in, 24.
+
+Milk, price of, 148; use as food, 148.
+
+Milk pitchers, names of, 106.
+
+Milkweed, for candle wicks, 35, 211.
+
+Mill, Indian, 132.
+
+Mince-pies, pioneer, 159.
+
+Ministers, encourage fisheries, 121.
+
+Mittens, fine knitting of, 262;
+  quick knitting of, 262.
+
+Modesty-piece, 270-271.
+
+Molasses, for New England slave-trade, 163.
+
+Monkey spoons, 90.
+
+Moore, Thomas, quoted, 348.
+
+Mortar, Indian, 132.
+
+Morton, quoted, 120-121.
+
+Moss-pink, 423.
+
+Mount Vernon, description of, 13;
+  weaving at, 237;
+  garden at, 431.
+
+Mourning rings. See Rings.
+
+Mourning samplers, 268-269.
+
+Muffs, worn by men, 298, 386.
+
+Mutton, its disuse previous to Revolution, 189, 191.
+
+Nails, scarcity of, 11.
+
+Napkins, use of, 77.
+
+Narragansett, hand-weaving in, 241-244;
+  shift marriages in, 241-242;
+  old quilt in, 275-276;
+  threshing in, 313-314.
+
+Needlework, stitches in, 264-265;
+  delicacy of, 265;
+  rules for, 265.
+
+Neighborhood, title of settlement, 391.
+
+Neighbors, old-time, 388 _et seq._, 395 _et seq._
+
+Netting, 263-264.
+
+Nettles, fibre spun, 211.
+
+New Amsterdam, first church in, 385;
+  laws about fences in, 401-402.
+
+Newman, Rev. Mr., manner of work, 33.
+
+Newburyport, house at, 27;
+  straw bleaching at, 261;
+  sumptuary laws in, 283;
+  fines in, 374.
+
+New England, houses in, 15;
+  candle-wood in, 32;
+  lobsters in, 117;
+  fisheries in, 117-124;
+  Indian corn in, 127-136;
+  mills in, 131-133;
+  pumpkins in, 142-143;
+  potatoes in, 144;
+  squashes in, 144;
+  milk and ministers in, 148;
+  churns in, 149;
+  cider in, 161-162;
+  rum in, 163-164;
+  slavery in, 164;
+  wool-raising in, 188-189;
+  taverns in, 356-357;
+  watchmen in, 363;
+  meeting-houses in, 365 _et seq._;
+  summons to meeting in, 368;
+  Sunday observance in, 378 _et seq._;
+  "taste of dinner in," 418;
+  old-time gardens in, 421 _et seq._
+
+New Hampshire, candle-wood in, 32;
+  potatoes in, 144;
+  pioneer mince-pies in, 159;
+  wheelwrights in, 176;
+  flax manufacture in, 180, 236;
+  fine knitting in, 269;
+  birch brooms in, 304.
+
+New Haven, restrictions in, 392.
+
+New London, mill at, 133.
+
+Newport, box plants at, 430;
+  garden in, 437-438.
+
+New York, houses in, 8;
+  candle-wood in, 32;
+  first fork in, 78;
+  venison in, 109;
+  lobsters at, 118;
+  fish in, 120;
+  salting shad in, 124-125;
+  suppawn in, 133;
+  ale and beer in, 161;
+  wool-raising in, 191;
+  dress in, 292;
+  turnpikes in, 349-350;
+  coaches in, 354-355;
+  sleighs in, 355;
+  street lighting in, 362;
+  watch in, 363;
+  Sunday observance in, 384;
+  cow-herding in, 399;
+  gardens in, 439-440.
+
+Niddy-noddy, 200-201; carved, 320.
+
+Nightgowns, 294.
+
+Nocake, description of, 137;
+  use of, 137;
+  Eliot's use of word, 137-138.
+
+Noggins, 82.
+
+Noil, 196.
+
+Nokick. See Nocake.
+
+Noon-houses, 374-375.
+
+Noon-marks, 299.
+
+Norridgewock, life-work of a citizen of, 407-408.
+
+Northampton, sumptuary laws in, 283-284.
+
+Northboro, spinning match at, 184.
+
+North Saugus, house in, 21.
+
+Norwich, naughty girl in, 373.
+
+Notices, nailed on church doors, 367.
+
+Nott, President, story of boyhood, 202-203.
+
+
+Occamy, 88.
+
+Occupations, of children, 179, 180, 182, 186, 437;
+  of women, 187.
+
+Oiled paper for windows, 23, 366.
+
+Old South Church, on sampler, 268.
+
+Old Ship, 365.
+
+Old South, 366.
+
+Opening in land, clearing, 406.
+
+Ordinary, name for tavern, 356.
+
+Osenbrigs, 288.
+
+Otis, Hannah, sampler of, 268.
+
+Overhang, in walls, 19-20.
+
+Ovens, 67.
+
+Ox-bows, 311.
+
+Oxen, sign of distress in, 413.
+
+Oysters, in Brooklyn, 118-119;
+  in Virginia, 119;
+  vast size of, 119.
+
+
+Pace-weight, of loom, 224.
+
+Pack-horses, use of, 336-339;
+  pay for, 337;
+  load of, 337-338.
+
+Pails, early, 58.
+
+Paint, not used, 23.
+
+Pales. See Fences.
+
+Palfrey, quoted, 122.
+
+Palisado, description of, 24.
+
+Pansy, folk-names of, 425-426.
+
+Paper-cutting. See Papyrotamia.
+
+Papyrotamia, 277-278.
+
+Parley, Peter, reminiscence of, 140.
+
+Parsnips, 145.
+
+Pastorius, Father, his choice for seal, 181;
+  his encouragement of gardening, 436.
+
+Patchwork. See Quilt-piecing.
+
+Patent, first to Americans, 138-139, 260.
+
+Pattens, 295.
+
+Paupers, in Narragansett, 313;
+  treatment of, in New England, 324.
+
+Pawn, 55.
+
+Pawtucket, cotton thread in, 207.
+
+Pay, for spinning, 185;
+  for weaving, 230, 250;
+  for cow-herding, 399;
+  of swineherds, 403.
+
+Peabody, Francis, house of, 31.
+
+Peachy, 163.
+
+Peas, 145.
+
+Peel, 67.
+
+Pegging, 262.
+
+Pelisses, 295.
+
+Penn, William, fairs instituted by, 190.
+
+Pennsylvania, cave-dwellers in, 2;
+  stoves in, 69;
+  squirrels in, 110;
+  wool manufacture in, 190;
+  dress in, 292-293;
+  mail in, 333;
+  post-rider, 335;
+  transportation in, 335-344;
+  roads in, 339;
+  turnpikes in, 349;
+  coaching in, 350-351;
+  metzel-soup in, 419;
+  gardens in, 436-437.
+
+Peonies, 421.
+
+Perfumes, in cooking, 152;
+  of old garden flowers, 424;
+  of sweet-scented leaves, 449 _et seq._
+
+Periagua, 329.
+
+Perry, 163.
+
+Peter, Hugh, encourages fisheries, 121.
+
+Petticoat rebellion, 128.
+
+Petunias, 428.
+
+Pews, described, 368 _et seq._
+
+Pewter, for lamps, 44-45;
+  for utensils, 84-85;
+  on dresser, 68;
+  lids of, 100.
+
+Phoebe-lamps, 44.
+
+Philadelphia, early houses in, 15;
+  luxurious dinners in, 160;
+  straw manufacture in, 260;
+  travel from, 347-350;
+  taverns in, 359;
+  cow-herding in, 400-401.
+
+Pickling, old-time, 152.
+
+Pierce Garrison House, 26.
+
+Pierpont, Rev. John, verses of, 306-307.
+
+Pies, 146.
+
+Pigeons, plenty of, 110;
+  price of, 110.
+
+Pilgrims, starvation of, 129.
+
+Piling-bee, 406.
+
+Pillions, 331-332.
+
+Pillory, location of, 367.
+
+Pinckney, Mrs., exchange of flowers of, 439.
+
+Pinehurst, hand-weaving in, 250-251.
+
+Pine-knots, use of, 32-33.
+
+Pink, name of vessel, 328.
+
+Pinks, varieties of, 427.
+
+Pipe shelves, 68.
+
+Pipe-tongs, 68-69.
+
+Pitch-pipes, in meeting, 378.
+
+Plantain, romance of, 435-436.
+
+Plate-racks, 68.
+
+Plate-warmer, 61.
+
+Plymouth, vacant fields at, 130;
+  sampler at, 266.
+
+Pokeberry, as dye, 193.
+
+Pompion. See Pumpkin.
+
+Pones, 134.
+
+Pop-corn, 135.
+
+Poplar wood, use of, 81-82.
+
+Porcelain. See China.
+
+Porringers, 85-86.
+
+Porter's fluid, 45.
+
+Portsmouth, old house at, 21.
+
+Portulaca, 429.
+
+Posnet, 87.
+
+Possing, of linen, 234.
+
+Post, first, 332; duties of, 332-333;
+  in Virginia, 333;
+  report about, 333-335.
+
+Potatoes, in New England, 144;
+  queer modes of cooking, 144-145.
+  See Sweet potatoes.
+
+Potato-boiler, 57.
+
+Pot-brakes, 53.
+
+Pot-clips, 53.
+
+Pot-crooks, 53.
+
+Pot-hangers, 53.
+
+Pothooks, 53.
+
+Pots, cost of, 56;
+  size of, 56.
+
+Pound-keepers, 400.
+
+Powder-horns, 320-321.
+
+Powdering of hair, 297.
+
+Powdering tub, 153.
+
+Power-loom, 230.
+
+Powhatan, teaches corn-planting, 127.
+
+Prairie-schooner. See Conestoga wagon.
+
+Prayers, length of, 376;
+  with the sick, 419.
+
+Preserving, old-time, 152.
+
+Printer, dress of, 293.
+
+Providence, straw manufacture in, 260;
+  restrictions in, 392.
+
+Psalm-singing, 376 _et seq._
+
+Puddings, of corn, 135.
+
+Pudding-time, 104, 160.
+
+Pue. See Pews.
+
+Pulling of flax, 168.
+
+Pulpits, 368, 385.
+
+Pumpkin, tributes to, 143;
+  modes of cooking, 143;
+  their plenty, 143;
+  shells of, 309.
+
+Puncheon floor, 6.
+
+
+Quakers, dress of, 258, 292.
+
+Quarels, of glass, 9.
+
+Quarnes, 133.
+
+Quiddonies, 152.
+
+Quills, for weaving, 216;
+  from geese, 259.
+
+Quilling-wheel, 216, 229.
+
+Quilts, piecing of, 270-275;
+  materials for, 272-274;
+  patterns for, 272-275;
+  quilting of, 273-274.
+
+Quince drink, 96.
+
+Quincy family, fire-buckets of, 18;
+  samplers of, 266-267.
+
+Quincy, Josiah, quoted, 341-342, 346.
+
+
+Raddle, of loom, 219.
+
+Rag carpet, 239-240.
+
+Rail-fence, 25.
+
+Raising, of a house, 408 _et seq._
+
+Rake. See Raddle.
+
+Ramsay, quoted, 395-396.
+
+Randolph, John, quoted, 205.
+
+Raspberry leaves for tea, 158, 165.
+
+Rattle-watch, 362.
+
+Ravel. See Raddle.
+
+Reading, communal privileges in, 391.
+
+Recons, 53.
+
+Reed. See Sley.
+
+Reed-hook. See Sley-hook.
+
+Reel, triple, 200.
+  See Clock-reel and Niddy-noddy.
+
+Revolution, influences towards success, 166-167, 189.
+
+Rhode Island, stage-coach in, 346.
+
+Rhode Island College. See Brown University.
+
+Ribbon-beds, 445.
+
+Ribbon-grass, 430.
+
+Ride-and-tie system, 332.
+
+Rings, wearing of, 297;
+  at funerals, 298.
+
+Rippling of flax, 168-169;
+  of hemp, 169.
+
+Rippling-comb, 168;
+  of Egyptians, 178.
+
+Roasting ears, 134.
+
+Roasting-kitchens, 65.
+
+Rock for spinning, in Egypt, 178;
+  in India, 178;
+  in New England, 179.
+
+Rock-candy, 157.
+
+Rocking-tree, of loom, 220.
+
+Rochester, house-raising at, 410.
+
+Rolliches, 154.
+
+Rolling-roads, 330.
+
+Rolling-up a house, 6.
+
+Roof, of Dutch houses, 10;
+  gambrel, 22.
+
+Roquelaure, 295.
+
+Rosselini, quoted, 178.
+
+Roving, of yarn, 201.
+
+Rowley, spinning match at, 184.
+
+Ruffler for flax, 172.
+
+Rum, manufacture of, 163;
+  in New England, 163;
+  in slave-trade, 163-164;
+  at house-raisings, 410.
+
+Rush, for scouring, 85.
+
+Rushlight, 38.
+
+Rutland, cave-dwellers in, 3.
+
+
+Sabba-day house. See Noon-house.
+
+Sabin Hall, 14.
+
+Sack, law of sale, 357.
+
+Sacjes, 386-387.
+
+Saco, communal privileges in, 390.
+
+Safeguards, 295.
+
+Salem, coloring houses at, 23;
+  lobsters at, 117;
+  fisheries at, 121;
+  milk in, 148;
+  sumptuary laws in, 283;
+  taverns at, 356-357;
+  night-watch in, 363;
+  meeting-house in, 364;
+  seats for boys at meeting in, 372;
+  swineherds in, 403.
+
+Saler, 78.
+
+Salisbury, meeting-house at, 369.
+
+Salmon, price in Boston, 123;
+  low regard of, 123;
+  fishing for, 124.
+
+Salt-cellar, 78-79.
+
+Salting of fish, 124;
+  of meat, 153.
+
+Samp, mode of preparing, 131-132, 134;
+  porridge of, 134.
+
+Samplers, 265-268.
+
+Samp-mills, 133.
+
+Samp-mortars, 133.
+
+Sap-buckets, 112.
+
+Sap-yoke, 113.
+
+Sassafras, as dye, 194;
+  for soap, 255.
+
+Sausages, making of, 154-155.
+
+Sausage-gun, 154.
+
+Save-alls, 42.
+
+Scaffold, name for pulpit, 368.
+
+Scarne. See Skarne.
+
+Sconces, 42.
+
+Scouring-rush, 85.
+
+Scutching. See Swingling.
+
+Scythe snathe, 309-312.
+
+Seal of Germantown, 181.
+
+Seating the meeting, 370-371.
+
+Seats, at table, 101;
+  in New England meetings, 369;
+  in Virginia churches, 383-384;
+  in Dutch churches, 386-387.
+
+Section. See Bout.
+
+Sedan-chairs, 356.
+
+Sermons, length of, 376.
+
+Sewall, Samuel, quoted, 354-356;
+  character of, 418.
+
+Shad, low regard of, 123-124;
+  price of, 124;
+  fishing for, 124;
+  salting of, 124.
+
+Shallop, 328.
+
+Shed, in weaving, 221.
+
+Sheep, in Massachusetts, 188;
+  laws about, 188, 189;
+  herding of, 409.
+
+Sheep-folds, 401.
+
+Sheep-herds, 401.
+
+Sheep-ranges, 401.
+
+Shelburne, girls work in, 262.
+
+Shepster, 187.
+
+Sherry-vallies, 296.
+
+Shingles, making of, 316-317.
+
+Shingle-bolts, 318.
+
+Shingle-mould, 317.
+
+Shoe-pegs, 315-316.
+
+Shuttles, for loom, 224-225.
+
+Sign-boards, name on, 358-359;
+  historical value of, 359;
+  of Philadelphia, 359;
+  of Baltimore, 359.
+
+Sigourney, Mrs., quoted, 277-278.
+
+Silk-grass, 211.
+
+Silver, use of, 89-92.
+
+Skarne, 216-217.
+
+Skeins, of flax thread, 175.
+
+Skillet, 50.
+
+Skilts, 236.
+
+Slave-kitchen, 54.
+
+Slave quarters, 14.
+
+Slavery, in New England, 163;
+  in Virginia, 164.
+
+Sleds, 343.
+
+Sleighs, in New York, 355.
+
+Sley, of loom, 219-220;
+  price of, 224.
+
+Slice, 67.
+
+Slippings, of flax thread, 175.
+
+Smith, John, quoted, 115-116;
+  plants corn, 127;
+  description of first Virginia church, 381-382.
+
+Smoke-house, 153.
+
+Smoke-jack, 65.
+
+Smoking tongs, 68-69.
+
+Snake-fence, 25.
+
+Sneak-cups, 106.
+
+Snow, name of vessel, 328.
+
+Snowstorm, in New England, 410 _et seq._
+
+Snuffers, 42.
+
+Snuffers tray, 42.
+
+Soap, making of, 253-255.
+
+Society house, 396.
+
+Sorrel, as dye, 194.
+
+South Carolina. See Carolinas.
+
+Southernwood, 428.
+
+Spatter-dashes, 296.
+
+Spelling, varied, of squashes, 144.
+
+Spenser, quoted, 319.
+
+Spermaceti, 42.
+
+Spices, in cooking, 153;
+  ground at home, 158.
+
+Spice-mills, 158.
+
+Spice-mortars, 158.
+
+Spinning, of flax, 174, 230;
+  pay for, 175;
+  in Egypt, 178;
+  in India, 178;
+  in New England, 179-180;
+  in Pennsylvania, 181;
+  in France, 230-231;
+  day's work in, 185;
+  in modern times, 186;
+  of wool, 196-198, 229-230;
+  new materials for, 211;
+  race between weaving and, 228-229;
+  a by-industry, 228.
+
+Spinning classes, 180.
+
+Spinning-cup, 174.
+
+Spinning-jenny, 229.
+
+Spinning-matches, 184-185.
+
+Spinning-school, 180, 182.
+
+Spinning-wheel. See Flax-wheel and Wool-wheel.
+
+Spinster, legal title of women, 187.
+
+Splint brooms. See Birch brooms.
+
+Spool-holder. See Skarne.
+
+Spoons, use of, 87;
+  material of, 87-88;
+  types of, 89-90.
+
+Spoon-moulds, 87-88.
+
+Spoon-racks, 68.
+
+Spreading of flax, 168.
+
+Spunks, 50.
+
+Squadrons, of spinners, 189.
+
+Squanto, teaches fishing, 117;
+  teaches corn-planting, 130.
+
+Squashes, varied names of, 144.
+
+Squirrels, abundance of, 110;
+  premium on, 110.
+
+Stage-coaches, in Great Britain, 331, 345-346;
+  in America, 345-346.
+
+Stage-wagon, 345.
+
+Staircases, 27.
+
+Standing salt, 78-79.
+
+Standish, Lorea, sampler of, 266.
+
+Starting a fire, 48-50.
+
+Starving times, in Virginia, 127;
+  in New England, 129.
+
+Staves, 316.
+
+Stays, 291.
+
+Steeples, 366.
+
+Steep-pool, for flax, 169.
+
+Stepping-stones. See Horse-blocks.
+
+Stitches, names of, 264-265.
+
+St.-John's-wort, as dye, 194.
+
+Stockings, knitting of, 190, 262-263;
+  weaving of, 190.
+
+Stocks, location of, 367.
+
+Stone-bee, 407.
+
+Stone-hauling, 407.
+
+Stone walls, 407.
+
+Stoves, first, 69;
+  in Dutch churches, 385.
+
+Strachey, quoted, 119.
+
+Strangers, harboring of, forbidden in New England, 393-394.
+
+Stratford, tithing-man in, 372.
+
+Straw manufacture, 259-261.
+
+Streets, condition of, 362;
+  lighting of, 362;
+  washing of, 363.
+
+Strikes, of flax, 172.
+
+Striking a light, 47.
+
+Stump-pulling, 407.
+
+Sturgeon, great catch of, 120;
+  in New York, 120.
+
+Substitutes for imported foods, 158-159.
+
+Succotash, 134.
+
+Sudbury, tavern at, 357-358.
+
+Sugar, substitutes for, 110, 111, 147, 157, 158;
+  cutting of, 155-156.
+
+Sugar-bowls, names for, 106.
+
+Sugar-cones, 155.
+
+Sugar-cutters, 155-156.
+
+Summer-piece, 8.
+
+Sunday, observance of, by Puritans, 378 _et seq._;
+  by Rev. John Cotton, 379;
+  by Virginians, 380;
+  by the Dutch, 384;
+  duration of, 379.
+
+Sun-dials, 299, 442-443;
+  inscriptions on, 443;
+  materials of, 443.
+
+Suppawn, use of, 133.
+
+Sweep and mortar mill, 132.
+
+Sweet potatoes, modes of cooking, 145.
+
+Swifts, 215-216.
+
+Swineherds. See Hog-reeves.
+
+Swingling of flax, 171-172.
+
+Swingling block, 171.
+
+Swingling knives, 171, 312.
+
+Swingle-tree hurds, 172.
+
+Swingling tow, bonfires of, 177.
+
+Swing-sign. See Sign-board.
+
+
+Table, description of, 76.
+
+Table-board, 76, 81.
+
+Table-cloths, 77.
+
+Tallow, lack of, 34.
+
+Tambour work, 269.
+
+Tankards, original meaning, 83;
+  of wood, 83-84;
+  of silver, 99.
+
+Tapping-gauge, 112.
+
+Tape-loom, various names of, 225;
+  described, 225-227.
+
+Tap-room, of Wayside Inn, 357-358.
+
+Tarboggin. See Chebobbin.
+
+Tar-making, 33.
+
+Taste of a dinner, 418.
+
+Tasters, 86-87.
+
+Taverns, establishment of, 356;
+  titles for, 356;
+  prices at, 357;
+  values about, 357;
+  names of rooms at, 357;
+  in southern colonies, 360;
+  in New Netherland, 361.
+
+Tea, substitutes for, 158-159;
+  first sales of, 164;
+  queer mode of cooking, 165.
+
+Teazels, 232.
+
+Teazeling, of cloth, 232.
+
+Temperature, of houses, 70-71;
+  of churches, 374.
+
+Temple, of loom, 223.
+
+Tennessee, hand-weaving in, 249.
+
+Tenting, of cloth, 232.
+
+Terbobbin. See Chebobbin.
+
+Terrapin, 120.
+
+Thatch, for roofs, 15.
+
+Threshing, 313-314.
+
+Thumbing, in weaving, 218.
+
+Thumb-rings, 298.
+
+Tin, slight use of, 58.
+
+Tinder, 48.
+
+Tinder-box, 48.
+
+Tinder-mill, 50.
+
+Tinder-wheel, 49.
+
+Tithing-men, 372, 373.
+
+Titles, old-time, for women, 187.
+
+Toasting-forks, 60.
+
+Tobacco, as currency, 189;
+  use forbidden near meeting-house, 379.
+
+Tomble. See Temple.
+
+Tongs, 236.
+
+Tow, garments of, 235-236.
+
+Town, unit in New England, 390;
+  narrow feeling of, 391.
+
+Townsend, revolutionary story of, 203.
+
+Toys, of wood, 306.
+
+Trammels, 53.
+
+Transportation, on horseback, 176, 336 _et seq._;
+  by wagons, 339 _et seq._
+
+Trees, girdling of, 403;
+  drive of, 404;
+  under-cutting of, 404.
+
+Trenchers, description, 80;
+  material, 82.
+
+Trivets, 60.
+
+Troughs, making of, 311.
+
+Trumbull, Jonathan, chaise of, 353.
+
+Trunks, 348.
+
+Trunk pedler, 300.
+
+Tumble. See Temple.
+
+Tummings, 195.
+
+Turkeys, wild, 109;
+  size of, 109-110;
+  price of, 110.
+
+Turkey wheat, 129.
+  See Corn.
+
+Turkey-wings, 309.
+
+Turnips, 145.
+
+Turnpikes, 349-350.
+
+Turnspit dog, 65.
+
+Tusser, Thomas, quoted, 35, 168, 255, 321-322.
+
+Twifflers, 106.
+
+
+Van der Donck, quoted, 118, 119, 120.
+
+Van Tienhoven, quoted, 2.
+
+Veils, interference about, 285.
+
+Venison. See Deer.
+
+Vermont, candle-wood in, 32;
+  broom-making in, 303.
+
+Victualling, name for tavern, 356.
+
+Violins, in meeting, 378.
+
+Virginia, early houses in, 11;
+  palisados in, 24;
+  candle-wood in, 32;
+  first fork in, 78;
+  silver in, 91;
+  table furnishings in, 104;
+  deer in, 108-109;
+  birds and fowl in, 110;
+  lobsters in, 118;
+  crabs in, 118;
+  oysters in, 119;
+  plenty of fish in, 118-119;
+  corn in, 127;
+  massacre in, 127;
+  windmills in, 133;
+  toll in, 133;
+  starvation in, 127, 144;
+  pumpkins in, 143;
+  locust groves in, 163;
+  flax culture in, 181-182;
+  wool culture in, 189-190;
+  cloths in, 237;
+  broom-corn in, 256;
+  sumptuary laws in, 285;
+  outfit of settlers, 289;
+  roads in, 331;
+  taverns in, 361;
+  Sunday observance in, 380;
+  churches in, 381-382;
+  cows in, 400;
+  fences in, 402.
+
+Virginia fence, 25.
+
+Voiders, 106-107.
+
+Voorleezer, duties of, 386.
+
+
+Waffle-irons, 61.
+
+Wagon. See Conestoga wagon.
+
+Warming-pans, 72.
+
+Warning out, 392;
+  a mystery in, 393.
+
+Warp, 218.
+
+Warp-beam, 214.
+
+Warping, 217-218.
+
+Warping-bars, 217-218.
+
+Warping-needle, 219.
+
+Warp-threads. See Warp.
+
+Washing, domestic, 255.
+
+Washington, George, home of, 13;
+  outfit of his stepdaughter, 291;
+  dress of, 293;
+  as canal promoter, 353.
+
+Washington, Martha, thrift of, 237-238;
+  netting of, 265.
+
+Watches, 299.
+
+Watch-chains, 263.
+
+Water, as beverage, 147.
+
+Watering of flax, 169.
+
+Water-fowl, plenty of, 125;
+  enumerated, 125.
+
+Watertown, windmill at, 133;
+  restrictions of settlement in, 393.
+
+Wax, candles of, 37; bayberry, 39-40.
+
+Waynesville, hand-weaving in, 250.
+
+Wayside Inn, 357-358.
+
+Weather-skirt, 295.
+
+Weavers, status of, 212-213;
+  seat of, 221;
+  working-hours of, 228;
+  in Narragansett, 241-244.
+
+Weaving, noise of, 212, 220;
+  three motions in, 221-222;
+  disappearance of, 227;
+  on tape-looms, 225-227;
+  race between spinning and, 228-230;
+  of linens, 230-231;
+  of rag carpet, 239-240;
+  of coverlets, 242-246;
+  during Civil War, 249.
+  See Loom.
+
+Weaving-room. See Loom-room.
+
+Webster, 187.
+
+Weeds, once garden flowers, 435-436, 447-449.
+
+Weight-timbers, 11.
+
+Weld, quoted, 348-349.
+
+Well-sweep, 443-444.
+
+Westmoreland Revival, 227.
+
+Whale-fishing, 41.
+
+"Whang," 417.
+
+Wheat, planting of, 147.
+
+Wheel. See Flax-wheel and Wool-wheel.
+
+Wheel-peg, 198.
+
+Wheelwrights, early use of wood, 176.
+
+Whipping-post, location of, 367.
+
+White-Ellery House, 19.
+
+Whiteweed, in America, 449.
+
+Whitney, Eli, invention of, 208.
+
+Whittemore, Amos, invention of, 205.
+
+Whittier, quoted, 73-74, 181, 370, 413, 436;
+  homespun attire of, 248.
+
+Whittling, 321-323.
+
+Wicks for candles, 34, 45.
+
+Wigs, wearing of, 296-297;
+  denounced, 296;
+  names of, 296-299;
+  cost of, 297.
+
+Wigwams, 3.
+
+William and Mary College, tax for, 109.
+
+Williams, Roger, quoted, 134, 137, 285.
+
+Windmills, Indian fear of, 130;
+  first erected, 133;
+  of John Winthrop, 133;
+  in Virginia, 133.
+
+Windows, of glass, 23;
+  of oiled paper, 23.
+
+Windsor, boys' pews in, 372.
+
+Wine-taster, 87.
+
+Winslow house, knocker of, 29.
+
+Winthrop, John, fork of, 77;
+  jug of, 98;
+  his use of water as beverage, 148;
+  pick-a-back, 329;
+  sedan-chair of, 356.
+
+Winthrop, John, Jr., quoted, 32; mill of, 133.
+
+Woad-wax, in Massachusetts, 448.
+
+Woburn, long services at, 376.
+
+Wolfskin bags in meeting, 374.
+
+Wolves' heads, nailed on meeting-houses, 364-365.
+
+Wood, trenchers of, 80-81;
+  utensils of, 82;
+  spoons of, 88;
+  for shuttles, 225;
+  unusual uses of, 305;
+  toys of, 306;
+  natural shapes in, 308-311.
+
+Wood, quoted, 32-33, 137.
+
+Wool, an ancient industry, 187;
+  early culture of, 187-193;
+  manufacture of, 187-193;
+  restraints on manufacture, 191-192;
+  in England, 192;
+  preparation of, 193;
+  dyeing of, 193-194;
+  carding of, 194-195;
+  combing of, 196;
+  spinning of, 196-198.
+  See Yarn.
+
+Wool-cards, described, 194-195;
+  history of, 204-206.
+
+Wool-combs, 196.
+
+Wool-wheel, price of, 177.
+
+Wordsworth, quoted, on spinning, 179.
+
+Worsted stuffs, 233.
+
+Wrathe. See Raddle.
+
+
+Yarn, spinning of, 197-198, 201, 229;
+  winding of, 198;
+  skeining of, 199;
+  cleansing of, 202;
+  water-twist, 229.
+
+Yarn beam. See Warp-beam.
+
+Yarn roll. See Warp-beam.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Home Life in Colonial Days, by Alice Morse Earle
+
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+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of Home Life In Colonial Days, by Alice Morse Earle
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+
+Project Gutenberg's Home Life in Colonial Days, by Alice Morse Earle
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Home Life in Colonial Days
+
+Author: Alice Morse Earle
+
+Release Date: September 19, 2007 [EBook #22675]
+
+Language: English
+
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+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOME LIFE IN COLONIAL DAYS ***
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+Produced by Mark C. Orton, Constanze Hofmann and the Online
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+</pre>
+
+<div class="notes">
+<p><b>Transcriber's Note:</b><br />
+This e-text was prepared from the reprint edition published in 1974 by
+Berkshire Traveller Press.  Copyrighted materials from that edition,
+including the modern preface and illustrations, are not included.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<h1>Home Life in
+COLONIAL
+DAYS</h1>
+
+<p class="titlepage">Written by<br />
+ALICE MORSE EARLE<br />
+in the year 1898</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage">THE BERKSHIRE TRAVELLER PRESS<br />
+Stockbridge, Massachusetts</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage"><i>THIS BOOK IS BEGUN<br />
+AS IT IS ENDED<br />
+IN MEMORY OF MY MOTHER</i></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><i>Foreword</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span></h2>
+
+
+<p><i>The illustrations for this book are in every case from real articles
+and scenes, usually from those still in existence&mdash;rare relics of past
+days. The pictures are the symbols of years of careful search, patient
+investigation, and constant watchfulness. Many a curious article as
+nameless and incomprehensible as the totem of an extinct Indian tribe
+has been studied, compared, inquired and written about, and finally
+triumphantly named and placed in the list of obsolete domestic
+appurtenances. From the lofts of woodsheds, under attic eaves, in dairy
+cellars, out of old trunks and sea-chests from mouldering warehouses,
+have strangely shaped bits and combinations of wood, stuff, and metal
+been rescued and recognized. The treasure stores of Deerfield Memorial
+Hall, of the Bostonian Society, of the American Antiquarian Society, and
+many State Historical Societies have been freely searched; and to the
+officers of these societies I give cordial thanks for their co&ouml;peration
+and assistance in my work.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>The artistic and correct photographic representation of many of these
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[viii]</a></span>objects I owe to Mr. William F. Halliday of Boston, Massachusetts, Mr.
+George F. Cook of Richmond, Virginia, and the Misses Allen of Deerfield,
+Massachusetts. To many friends, and many strangers, who have secured for
+me single articles or single photographs, I here repeat the thanks
+already given for their kindness.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>There were two constant obstacles in the path: An article would be
+found and a name given by old-time country folk, but no dictionary
+contained the word, no printed description of its use or purpose could
+be obtained, though a century ago it was in every household. Again, some
+curiously shaped utensil or tool might be displayed and its use
+indicated; but it was nameless, and it took long inquiry and
+deduction,&mdash;the faculty of "taking a hint,"&mdash;to christen it. It is plain
+that different vocations and occupations had not only implements but a
+vocabulary of their own, and all have become almost obsolete; to the
+various terms, phrases, and names, once in general application and use
+in spinning, weaving, and kindred occupations, and now half forgotten,
+might be given the descriptive title, a "homespun vocabulary." By
+definite explanation of these terms many a good old English word and
+phrase has been rescued from disuse.</i></p>
+
+<p class="right"><i>ALICE MORSE EARLE.</i></p>
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="Contents" id="Contents"></a>Contents<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[ix]</a></span></h2>
+
+<div class="divtoc">
+<p><span class="ralign">Page</span><br /></p>
+
+<ul class="toc">
+<li><a href="#CHAPTER_I">Homes of the Colonists</a> <span class="ralign">1</span></li>
+<li><a href="#CHAPTER_II">The Light of Other Days</a> <span class="ralign">32</span></li>
+<li><a href="#CHAPTER_III">The Kitchen Fireside</a> <span class="ralign">52</span></li>
+<li><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">The Serving of Meals</a> <span class="ralign">76</span></li>
+<li><a href="#CHAPTER_V">Food from Forest and Sea</a> <span class="ralign">108</span></li>
+<li><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">Indian Corn</a> <span class="ralign">126</span></li>
+<li><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">Meat and Drink</a> <span class="ralign">142</span></li>
+<li><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">Flax Culture and Spinning</a> <span class="ralign">166</span></li>
+<li><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">Wool Culture and Spinning, with a Postscript on Cotton</a> <span class="ralign">187</span></li>
+<li><a href="#CHAPTER_X">Hand-Weaving</a> <span class="ralign">212</span></li>
+<li><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">Girls' Occupations</a> <span class="ralign">252</span></li>
+<li><a href="#CHAPTER_XII">Dress of the Colonists</a> <span class="ralign">281</span></li>
+<li><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">Jack-knife Industries</a> <span class="ralign">300</span></li>
+<li><a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">Travel, Transportation, and Taverns</a> <span class="ralign">325</span></li>
+<li><a href="#CHAPTER_XV">Sunday in the Colonies</a> <span class="ralign">364</span></li>
+<li><a href="#CHAPTER_XVI">Colonial Neighborliness</a> <span class="ralign">388</span></li>
+<li><a href="#CHAPTER_XVII">Old-time Flower Gardens</a> <span class="ralign">421</span></li>
+<li style="list-style-type: none;"><a href="#Index">Index</a></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<h1>Home Life in Colonial Days<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></h1>
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I<br />
+HOMES OF THE COLONISTS</h2>
+
+
+<p>When the first settlers landed on American shores, the difficulties in
+finding or making shelter must have seemed ironical as well as almost
+unbearable. The colonists found a land magnificent with forest trees of
+every size and variety, but they had no sawmills, and few saws to cut
+boards; there was plenty of clay and ample limestone on every side, yet
+they could have no brick and no mortar; grand boulders of granite and
+rock were everywhere, yet there was not a single facility for cutting,
+drawing, or using stone. These homeless men, so sorely in need of
+immediate shelter, were baffled by pioneer conditions, and had to turn
+to many poor expedients, and be satisfied with rude covering. In
+Pennsylvania, New York, Massachusetts, and, possibly, other states, some
+reverted to an ancient form of shelter: they became cave-dwellers; caves
+were dug in the side<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span> of a hill, and lived in till the settlers could
+have time to chop down and cut up trees for log houses. Cornelis Van
+Tienhoven, Secretary of the Province of New Netherland, gives a
+description of these cave-dwellings, and says that "the wealthy and
+principal men in New England lived in this fashion for two reasons:
+first, not to waste time building; second, not to discourage poorer
+laboring people." It is to be doubted whether wealthy men ever lived in
+them in New England, but Johnson, in his <i>Wonder-working Providence</i>,
+written in 1645, tells of the occasional use of these "smoaky homes."
+They were speedily abandoned, and no records remain of permanent
+cave-homes in New England. In Pennsylvania caves were used by newcomers
+as homes for a long time, certainly half a century. They generally were
+formed by digging into the ground about four feet in depth on the banks
+or low cliffs near the river front. The walls were then built up of sods
+or earth laid on poles or brush; thus half only of the chamber was
+really under ground. If dug into a side hill, the earth formed at least
+two walls. The roofs were layers of tree limbs covered over with sod, or
+bark, or rushes and bark. The chimneys were laid of cobblestone or
+sticks of wood mortared with clay and grass. The settlers were thankful
+even for these poor shelters, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span> declared that they found them
+comfortable. By 1685 many families were still living in caves in
+Pennsylvania, for the Governor's Council then ordered the caves to be
+destroyed and filled in. Sometimes the settler used the cave for a
+cellar for the wooden house which he built over it.</p>
+
+<p>These cave-dwellings were perhaps the poorest houses ever known by any
+Americans, yet pioneers, or poor, or degraded folk have used them for
+homes in America until far more recent days. In one of these miserable
+habitations of earth and sod in the town of Rutland, Massachusetts, were
+passed some of the early years of the girlhood of Madame Jumel, whose
+beautiful house on Washington Heights, New York, still stands to show
+the contrasts that can come in a single life.</p>
+
+<p>The homes of the Indians were copied by the English, being ready
+adaptations of natural and plentiful resources. Wigwams in the South
+were of plaited rush or grass mats; of deerskins pinned on a frame; of
+tree boughs rudely piled into a cover, and in the far South, of layers
+of palmetto leaves. In the mild climate of the Middle and Southern
+states a "half-faced camp," of the Indian form, with one open side,
+which served for windows and door, and where the fire was built, made a
+good temporary home. In such for a time, in his youth, lived Abraham<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span>
+Lincoln. Bark wigwams were the most easily made of all; they could be
+quickly pinned together on a light frame. In 1626 there were thirty
+home-buildings of Europeans on the island of Manhattan, now New York,
+and all but one of them were of bark.</p>
+
+<p>Though the settler had no sawmills, brick kilns, or stone-cutters, he
+had one noble friend,&mdash;a firm rock to stand upon,&mdash;his broad-axe. With
+his axe, and his own strong and willing arms, he could take a long step
+in advance in architecture; he could build a log cabin. These good,
+comfortable, and substantial<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span> houses have ever been built by American
+pioneers, not only in colonial days, but in our Western and Southern
+states to the present time. A typical one like many now standing and
+occupied in the mountains of North Carolina is here shown. Round logs
+were halved together at the corners, and roofed with logs, or with bark
+and thatch on poles; this made a comfortable shelter, especially when
+the cracks between the logs were "chinked" with wedges of wood, and
+"daubed" with clay. Many cabins had at first no chinking or daubing; one
+settler while sleeping was scratched on the head by the sharp teeth of a
+hungry wolf, who thrust his nose into the space between the logs of the
+cabin. Doors were hung on wooden hinges or straps of hide.</p>
+
+<p>A favorite form of a log house for a settler to build in his first "cut
+down" in the virgin forest, was to dig a square trench about two feet
+deep, of dimensions as large as he wished the ground floor of his house,
+then to set upright all around this trench (leaving a space for a
+fireplace, window, and door), a closely placed row of logs all the same
+length, usually fourteen feet long for a single story; if there was a
+loft, eighteen feet long. The earth was filled in solidly around these
+logs, and kept them firmly upright; a horizontal band of puncheons,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span>
+which were split logs smoothed off on the face with the axe, was
+sometimes pinned around within the log walls, to keep them from caving
+in. Over this was placed a bark roof, made of squares of chestnut bark,
+or shingles of overlapping birch-bark. A bark or log shutter was hung at
+the window, and a bark door hung on withe hinges, or, if very luxurious,
+on leather straps, completed the quickly made home. This was called
+rolling-up a house, and the house was called a puncheon and bark house.
+A rough puncheon floor, hewed flat with an axe or adze, was truly a
+luxury. One settler's wife pleaded that the house might be rolled up
+around a splendid flat stump; thus she had a good, firm table. A small
+platform placed about two feet high alongside one wall, and supported at
+the outer edge with strong posts, formed a bedstead. Sometimes hemlock
+boughs were the only bed. The frontier saying was, "A hard day's work
+makes a soft bed." The tired pioneers slept well even on hemlock boughs.
+The chinks of the logs were filled with moss and mud, and in the autumn
+banked up outside with earth for warmth.</p>
+
+<p>These log houses did not satisfy English men and women. They longed to
+have what Roger Williams called English houses, which were, however,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span>
+scarcely different in ground-plan. A single room on the ground, called
+in many old wills the fire-room, had a vast chimney at one end. A
+so-called staircase, usually but a narrow ladder, led to a sleeping-loft
+above. Some of those houses were still made of whole logs, but with
+clapboards nailed over the chinks and cracks. Others were of a lighter
+frame covered with clapboards, or in Delaware with boards pinned on
+perpendicularly. Soon this house was doubled in size and comfort by
+having a room on either side of the chimney.</p>
+
+<p>Each settlement often followed in general outline as well as detail the
+houses to which the owners had become accustomed in Europe, with, of
+course, such variations as were necessary from the new surroundings, new
+climate, and new limitations. New York was settled by the Dutch, and
+therefore naturally the first permanent houses were Dutch in shape, such
+as may be seen in Holland to-day. In the large towns in New Netherland
+the houses were certainly very pretty, as all visitors stated who wrote
+accounts at that day. Madam Knights visited New York in 1704, and wrote
+of the houses,&mdash;I will give her own words, in her own spelling and
+grammar, which were not very good, though she was the teacher of
+Benjamin Franklin, and the friend of Cotton Mather:&mdash;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"The Buildings are Brick Generaly very stately and high: the Bricks
+in some of the houses are of divers Coullers, and laid in Checkers,
+being glazed, look very agreable. The inside of the houses is neat
+to admiration, the wooden work; for only the walls are plaster'd;
+and the Sumers and Gist are planed and kept very white scour'd as
+so is all the partitions if made of Bords."</p></div>
+
+<p>The "sumers and gist" were the heavy timbers of the frame, the
+summer-pieces and joists. The summer-piece was the large middle beam in
+the middle from end to end of the ceiling; the joists were cross-beams.
+These were not covered with plaster as nowadays, but showed in every
+ceiling;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span> and in old houses are sometimes set so curiously and fitted so
+ingeniously, that they are always an entertaining study. Another
+traveller says that New York houses had patterns of colored brick set in
+the front, and also bore the date of building. The Governor's house at
+Albany had two black brick-hearts. Dutch houses were set close to the
+sidewalk with the gable-end to the street; and had the roof notched like
+steps,&mdash;corbel-roof was the name; and these ends were often of brick,
+while the rest of the walls were of wood. The roofs were high in
+proportion to the side walls, and hence steep; they were surmounted
+usually in Holland fashion with weather-vanes in the shape of horses,
+lions, geese, sloops, or fish; a rooster was a favorite Dutch
+weather-vane. There were metal gutters sticking out from every roof
+almost to the middle of the street; this was most annoying to passers-by
+in rainy weather, who were deluged with water from the roofs. The cellar
+windows had small loop-holes with shutters. The windows were always
+small; some had only sliding shutters, others had but two panes or
+quarels of glass, as they were called, which were only six or eight
+inches square. The front doors were cut across horizontally in the
+middle into two parts, and in early days were hung on leather hinges
+instead of iron.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In the upper half of the door were two round bull's-eyes of heavy
+greenish glass, which let faint rays of light enter the hall. The door
+opened with a latch, and often had also a knocker. Every house had a
+porch or "stoep" flanked with benches, which were constantly occupied in
+the summer time; and every evening, in city and village alike, an
+incessant visiting was kept up from stoop to stoop. The Dutch farmhouses
+were a single straight story, with two more stories in the high,
+in-curving roof. They had doors and stoops like the town houses, and all
+the windows had heavy board shutters. The cellar and the garret were the
+most useful rooms in the house; they were store-rooms for all kinds of
+substantial food. In the cellar were great bins of apples, potatoes,
+turnips, beets, and parsnips. There were hogsheads of corned beef,
+barrels of salt pork, tubs of hams being salted in brine, tonnekens of
+salt shad and mackerel, firkins of butter, kegs of pigs' feet, tubs of
+souse, kilderkins of lard. On a long swing-shelf were tumblers of spiced
+fruits, and "rolliches," head-cheese, and strings of sausages&mdash;all Dutch
+delicacies.</p>
+
+<p>In strong racks were barrels of cider and vinegar, and often of beer.
+Many contained barrels of rum and a pipe of Madeira. What a storehouse
+of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> plenty and thrift! What an emblem of Dutch character! In the attic
+by the chimney was the smoke-house, filled with hams, bacon, smoked
+beef, and sausages.</p>
+
+<p>In Virginia and Maryland, where people did not gather into towns, but
+built their houses farther apart, there were at first few sawmills, and
+the houses were universally built of undressed logs. Nails were costly,
+as were all articles manufactured of iron, hence many houses were built
+without iron; wooden pins and pegs were driven in holes cut to receive
+them; hinges were of leather; the shingles on the roof were sometimes
+pinned, or were held in place by "weight-timbers." The doors had latches
+with strings hanging outside; by pulling in the string within-doors the
+house was securely locked. This form of latch was used in all the
+colonies. When persons were leaving houses, they sometimes set them on
+fire in order to gather up the nails from the ashes. To prevent this
+destruction of buildings, the government of Virginia gave to each
+planter who was leaving his house as many nails as the house was
+estimated to have in its frame, provided the owner would not burn the
+house down.</p>
+
+<p>Some years later, when boards could be readily obtained, the favorite
+dwelling-place in the South was a framed building with a great stone or
+log-and-clay<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span> chimney at either end. The house was usually set on sills
+resting on the ground. The partitions were sometimes covered with a
+thick layer of mud which dried into a sort of plaster and was
+whitewashed. The roofs were covered with cypress shingles.</p>
+
+<p>Hammond wrote of these houses in 1656, in his <i>Leah and Rachel</i>,
+"Pleasant in their building, and contrived delightfull; the rooms large,
+daubed and whitelimed, glazed and flowered; and if not glazed windows,
+shutters made pretty and convenient."</p>
+
+<p>When prosperity and wealth came through the speedily profitable crops of
+tobacco, the houses improved. The home-lot or yard of the Southern
+planters showed a pleasant group of buildings, which would seem the most
+cheerful home of the colonies, only that all dearly earned homes are
+cheerful to their owners. There was not only the spacious mansion house
+for the planter with its pleasant porch, but separate buildings in which
+were a kitchen, cabins for the negro servants and the overseer, a
+stable, barn, coach-house, hen-house, smoke-house, dove-cote, and
+milk-room. In many yards a tall pole with a toy house at top was
+erected; in this bird-house bee-martins built their nests, and by
+bravely disconcerting the attacks of hawks and crows, and noisily
+notifying the family and servants<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span> of the approach of the enemy, thus
+served as a guardian for the domestic poultry, whose home stood close
+under this protection. There was seldom an ice-house. The only means for
+the preservation of meats in hot weather was by water constantly pouring
+into and through a box house erected over the spring that flowed near
+the house. Sometimes a brew-house was also found in the yard, for making
+home-brewed beer, and a tool-house for storing tools and farm
+implements. Some farms had a cider-mill, but this was not in the house
+yard. Often there was a spinning-house where servants could spin flax
+and wool. This usually had one room containing a hand-loom on which
+coarse bagging<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> could be woven, and homespun for the use of the negroes.
+A very beautiful example of a splendid and comfortable Southern mansion
+such as was built by wealthy planters in the middle of the eighteenth
+century has been preserved for us at Mount Vernon, the home of George
+Washington.</p>
+
+<p>Mount Vernon was not so fine nor so costly a house as many others built
+earlier in the century, such as Lower Brandon&mdash;two centuries and a half
+old&mdash;and Upper Brandon, the homes of the Harrisons; Westover, the home
+of the Byrds; Shirley, built in 1650, the home of the Carters; Sabin
+Hall, another Carter home, is still standing on the Rappahannock with
+its various and many quarters and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span> outbuildings, and is a splendid
+example of colonial architecture.</p>
+
+<p>As the traveller came north from Virginia through Pennsylvania, "the
+Jerseys," and Delaware, the negro cabins and detached kitchen
+disappeared, and many of the houses were of stone and mortar. A clay
+oven stood by each house. In the cities stone and brick were much used,
+and by 1700 nearly all Philadelphia houses had balconies running the
+entire length of the second story. The stoop before the door was
+universal.</p>
+
+<p>For half a century nearly all New England houses were cottages. Many had
+thatched roofs. Seaside towns set aside for public use certain reedy
+lots between salt-marsh and low-water mark, where thatch could be freely
+cut. The catted chimneys were of logs plastered with clay, or platted,
+that is, made of reeds and mortar; and as wood and hay were stacked in
+the streets, all the early towns suffered much from fires, and soon laws
+were passed forbidding the building of these unsafe chimneys; as brick
+was imported and made, and stone was quarried, there was certainly no
+need to use such danger-filled materials. Fire-wardens were appointed
+who peered around in all the kitchens, hunting for what they called foul
+chimney hearts, and they ordered flag-roofs and wooden chimneys to be
+removed, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span> replaced with stone or brick ones. In Boston every
+housekeeper had to own a fire-ladder; and ladders and buckets were kept
+in the church. Salem kept its "fire-buckets and hook'd poles" in the
+town-house. Soon in all towns each family owned fire-buckets made of
+heavy leather and marked with the owner's name or initials. The entire
+town constituted the fire company, and the method of using the
+fire-buckets was this. As soon as an alarm of fire was given by shouts
+or bell-ringing, every one ran at once towards the scene of the fire.
+All who owned buckets carried them, and if any person was delayed even
+for a few minutes, he flung his fire-buckets from the window into the
+street, where some one in the running crowd seized them and carried them
+on. On reaching the fire, a double line called lanes of persons was made
+from the fire to the river or pond, or a well. A very good
+representation of these lanes is given in this fireman's certificate of
+the year 1800.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The buckets, filled with water, were passed from hand to hand, up one
+line of persons to the fire, while the empty ones went down the other
+line. Boys were stationed on the <i>dry lane</i>. Thus a constant supply of
+water was carried to the fire. If any person attempted to pass through
+the line, or hinder the work, he promptly got a bucketful or two of
+water poured over him. When the fire was over, the fire-warden took
+charge of the buckets; some hours later the owners appeared, each picked
+out his own buckets from the pile, carried them home, and hung them up
+by the front door, ready to be seized again for use at the next alarm of
+fire.</p>
+
+<p>Many of these old fire-buckets are still preserved, and deservedly are
+cherished heirlooms, for they<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span> represent the dignity and importance due
+a house-holding ancestor. They were a valued possession at the time of
+their use, and a costly one, being, made of the best leather. They were
+often painted not only with the name of the owner, but with family
+mottoes, crests, or appropriate inscriptions, sometimes in Latin. The
+leather hand-buckets of the Donnison family of Boston are here shown;
+those of the Quincy family bear the legend <i>Impavadi Flammarium</i>; those
+of the Oliver family, <i>Friend and Public</i>. In these fire-buckets were
+often kept, tightly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span> rolled, strong canvas bags, in which valuables
+could be thrust and carried from the burning building.</p>
+
+<p>The first fire-engine made in this country was for the town of Boston,
+and was made about 1650 by Joseph Jencks, the famous old iron-worker in
+Lynn. It was doubtless very simple in shape, as were its successors
+until well into this century. The first fire-engine used in Brooklyn,
+New York, is here shown. It was made in 1785 by Jacob Boome. Relays of
+men at both handles worked the clumsy pump. The water supply for this
+engine was still only through the lanes of fire-buckets, except in rare
+cases.</p>
+
+<p>By the year 1670 wooden chimneys and log houses of the Plymouth and Bay
+colonies were replaced by more sightly houses of two stories, which were
+frequently built with the second story jutting out a foot or two over
+the first, and sometimes with the attic story still further extending
+over the second story. A few of these are still standing: The
+White-Ellery House, at Gloucester, Massachusetts, in 1707, is here
+shown. This "overhang" is popularly supposed to have been built for the
+purpose of affording a convenient shooting-place from which to repel the
+Indians. This is, however, an historic fable. The overhanging second
+story was a common form of building in England in the time of Queen
+Elizabeth, and the Massachusetts<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> and Rhode Island settlers simply and
+naturally copied their old homes.</p>
+
+<p>The roofs of many of these new houses were steep, and were shingled with
+hand-riven shingles. The walls between the rooms were of clay mixed with
+chopped straw. Sometimes the walls were whitened with a wash made of
+powdered clam-shells. The ground floors were occasionally of earth, but
+puncheon floors were common in the better houses. The well-smoothed
+timbers were sanded in careful designs with cleanly beach sand.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>By 1676 the Royal Commissioners wrote of Boston that the streets were
+crooked, and the houses usually wooden, with a few of brick and stone.
+It is a favorite tradition of brick houses in all the colonies that the
+brick for them was brought from England. As excellent brick was made
+here, I cannot believe all these tales that are told. Occasionally a
+house, such as the splendid Warner Mansion, still standing in
+Portsmouth, New Hampshire, is proved to be of imported brick by the
+bills which are still existing for the purchase and transportation of
+the brick. A later form of many houses was two stories or two stories
+and a half in front, with a peaked roof that sloped down nearly to the
+ground in the back over an ell covering the kitchen,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> added in the shape
+known as a lean-to, or, as it was called by country folk, the linter.
+This sloping roof gave the one element of unconscious picturesqueness
+which redeemed the prosaic ugliness of these bare-walled houses. Many
+lean-to houses are still standing in New England. The Boardman Hill
+House, built at North Saugus, Massachusetts, two centuries and a half
+ago, and the two houses of lean-to form, the birthplaces of President
+John Adams and of President John Quincy Adams, are typical examples.</p>
+
+<p>The next roof-form, built from early colonial days, and popular a
+century ago, was what was known as the gambrel roof. This resembled, on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span>
+two sides, the mansard roof of France in the seventeenth century, but
+was also gabled at two ends. The gambrel roof had a certain grace of
+outline, especially when joined with lean-tos and other additions. The
+house partly built in 1636 in Dedham, Massachusetts, by my far-away
+grandfather, and known as the Fairbanks House, is the oldest
+gambrel-roofed house now standing. It is still occupied by one of his
+descendants in the eighth generation. The rear view of it, here given,
+shows the picturesqueness of roof outlines and the quaintness which
+comes simply from variety. The front of the main building, with its
+eight windows, all of different sizes and set at different heights,
+shows equal diversity. Within, the boards in the wall-panelling vary
+from two to twenty-five inches in width.</p>
+
+<p>The windows of the first houses had oiled paper to admit light. A
+colonist wrote back to England to a friend who was soon to follow,
+"Bring oiled paper for your windows." The minister, Higginson, sent
+promptly in 1629 for glass for windows. This glass was set in the
+windows with nails; the sashes were often narrow and oblong, of
+diamond-shaped panes set in lead, and opening up and down the middle on
+hinges. Long after the large towns and cities had glass windows,
+frontier settlements still had heavy wooden shutters. They were a safer
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span>protection against Indian assault, as well as cheaper. It is asserted
+that in the province of Kennebec, which is now the state of Maine, there
+was not, even as late as 1745, a house that had a square of glass in it.
+Oiled paper was used until this century in pioneer houses for windows
+wherever it was difficult to transport glass.</p>
+
+<p>Few of the early houses in New England were painted, or colored, as it
+was called, either without or within. Painters do not appear in any of
+the early lists of workmen. A Salem citizen, just previous to the
+Revolution, had the woodwork of one of the rooms of his house painted.
+One of a group of friends, discussing this extravagance a few days
+later, said: "Well! Archer has set us a fine example of expense,&mdash;he has
+laid one of his rooms in oil." This sentence shows both the wording and
+ideas of the times.</p>
+
+<p>There was one external and suggestive adjunct of the earliest pioneer's
+home which was found in nearly all the settlements which were built in
+the midst of threatening Indians. Some strong houses were always
+surrounded by a stockade, or "palisado," of heavy, well-fitted logs,
+which thus formed a garrison, or neighborhood resort, in time of danger.
+In the valley of Virginia each settlement was formed of houses set in a
+square, connected from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span> end to end of the outside walls by stockades
+with gates; thus forming a close front. On the James River, on Manhattan
+Island, were stockades. The whole town plot of Milford, Connecticut, was
+enclosed in 1645, and the Indians taunted the settlers by shouting out,
+"White men all same like pigs." At one time in Massachusetts, twenty
+towns proposed an all-surrounding palisade. The progress and condition
+of our settlements can be traced in our fences. As Indians disappeared
+or succumbed, the solid row of pales gave place to a log-fence, which
+served well to keep out depredatory animals. When dangers from Indians
+or wild animals entirely disappeared, boards were still not over-plenty,
+and the strength of the owner could not be over-spent on unnecessary
+fencing. Then came the double-rail fence; two rails, held in place one
+above the other, at each joining, by four crossed sticks. It was a
+boundary, and would keep in cattle. It was said that every fence should
+be horse-high, bull-proof, and pig-tight. Then came stone walls, showing
+a thorough clearing and taming of the land. The succeeding "half-high"
+stone wall&mdash;a foot or two high, with a single rail on top&mdash;showed that
+stones were not as plentiful in the fields as in early days. The
+"snake-fence," or "Virginia fence," so common in the Southern<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span> states,
+utilized the second growth of forest trees. The split-rail fence, four
+or five rails in height, was set at intervals with posts, pierced with
+holes to hold the ends of the rails. These were used to some extent in
+the East; but our Western states were fenced throughout with rails split
+by sturdy pioneer rail-splitters, among them young Abraham Lincoln.
+Board fences showed the day of the sawmill and its plentiful supply; the
+wire fences of to-day equally prove the decrease of our forests and our
+wood, and the growth of our mineral supplies and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span> manufactures of
+metals. Thus even our fences might be called historical monuments.</p>
+
+<p>A few of the old block-houses, or garrison houses, the "defensible
+houses," which were surrounded by these stockades, are still standing.
+The most interesting are the old Garrison at East Haverhill,
+Massachusetts, built in 1670; it has walls of solid oak, and brick a
+foot and a half thick; the Saltonstall House at Ipswich, built in 1633;
+Cradock Old Fort in Medford, Massachusetts, built in 1634 of brick made
+on the spot; an old fort at York, Maine; and the Whitefield Garrison
+House, built in 1639 at Guilford, Connecticut. The one at Newburyport is
+the most picturesque and beautiful of them all.</p>
+
+<p>As social life in Boston took on a little aspect of court life in the
+circle gathered around the royal governors, the pride of the wealthy
+found expression in handsome and stately houses. These were copied and
+added to by men of wealth and social standing in other towns. The
+Province House, built in 1679, the Frankland House in 1735, and the
+Hancock House, all in Boston; the Shirley House in Roxbury, the
+Wentworth Mansion in New Hampshire, are good examples. They were
+dignified and simple in form, and have borne the test of
+centuries,&mdash;they wear well. They never<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span> erred in over-ornamentation,
+being scant of interior decoration, save in two or three principal rooms
+and the hall and staircase. The panelled step ends and soffits, the
+graceful newels and balusters, of those old staircases hold sway as
+models to this day.</p>
+
+<p>The same taste which made the staircase the centre of decoration within,
+made the front door the sole point of ornamentation without; and equal
+beauty is there focused. Worthy of study and reproduction,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span> many of the
+old-time front doors are with their fine panels, graceful, leaded side
+windows, elaborate and pretty fan-lights, and slight but appropriate
+carving. The prettiest leaded windows I ever saw in an American home
+were in a thereby glorified hen-house. They had been taken from the
+discarded front door of a remodelled old Falmouth house. The hens and
+their owner were not of antiquarian tastes, and relinquished the windows
+for a machine-made sash more suited to their plebeian tastes and
+occupations. Many colonial doors had door-latches or knobs of heavy
+brass; nearly all had a knocker of wrought iron or polished brass, a
+cheerful ornament that ever seems to resound a welcome to the visitor as
+well as a notification to the visited.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The knocker from the John Hancock House in Boston and that from the
+Winslow House in Marshfield are here shown; both are now in the custody
+of the Bostonian Society, and may be seen at the Old State House in
+Boston. The latter was given to the society by Dr. Oliver Wendell
+Holmes.</p>
+
+<p>The "King-Hooper" House, still standing in Danvers, Massachusetts,
+closely resembled the Hancock House. This house, built by Robert Hooper
+in 1754, was for a time the refuge of the royal governor of
+Massachusetts&mdash;Governor Gage; and hence is sometimes called General
+Gage's Headquarters. When the minute-men marched past<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span> the house to
+Lexington on April 18, 1775, they stripped the lead from the gate-posts.
+"King Hooper" angrily denounced them, and a minute-man fired at him as
+he entered the house. The bullet passed through the panel of the door,
+and the rent may still be seen. Hence the house has been often called
+The House of the Front Door with the Bullet-Hole. The present owner and
+occupier of the house, Francis Peabody, Esq., has appropriately named it
+The Lindens, from the stately linden trees that grace its gardens and
+lawns.</p>
+
+<p>In riding through those portions of our states that were the early
+settled colonies, it is pleasant to note where any old houses are still
+standing, or where the sites of early colonial houses are known, the
+good taste usually shown by the colonists in the places chosen to build
+their houses. They dearly loved a "sightly location." An old writer
+said: "My consayte is such; I had rather not to builde a mansyon or a
+house than to builde one without a good prospect in it, to it, and from
+it." In Virginia the houses were set on the river slope, where every
+passing boat might see them. The New England colonists painfully climbed
+long, tedious hills, that they might have homes from whence could be had
+a beautiful view, and this was for the double reason, as the old writer
+said, that in their new homes they might both see and be seen.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span><br />
+THE LIGHT OF OTHER DAYS</h2>
+
+
+<p>The first and most natural way of lighting the houses of the American
+colonists, both in the North and South, was by the pine-knots of the fat
+pitch-pine, which, of course, were found everywhere in the greatest
+plenty in the forests. Governor John Winthrop the younger, in his
+communication to the English Royal Society in 1662, said this
+candle-wood was much used for domestic illumination in Virginia, New
+York, and New England. It was doubtless gathered everywhere in new
+settlements, as it has been in pioneer homes till our own day. In Maine,
+New Hampshire, and Vermont it was used till this century. In the
+Southern states the pine-knots are still burned in humble households for
+lighting purposes, and a very good light they furnish.</p>
+
+<p>The historian Wood wrote in 1642, in his <i>New England's Prospect</i>:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Out of these Pines is gotten the Candlewood that is much spoke of,
+which may serve as a shift among poore<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span> folks, but I cannot commend
+it for singular good, because it droppeth a pitchy kind of
+substance where it stands."</p></div>
+
+<p>That pitchy kind of substance was tar, which was one of the most
+valuable trade products of the colonists. So much tar was made by
+burning the pines on the banks of the Connecticut, that as early as 1650
+the towns had to prohibit the using of candle-wood for tar-making if
+gathered within six miles of the Connecticut River, though it could be
+gathered by families for illumination and fuel.</p>
+
+<p>Rev. Mr. Higginson, writing in 1633, said of these pine-knots:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"They are such candles as the Indians commonly use, having no
+other, and they are nothing else but the wood of the pine tree,
+cloven in two little slices, something thin, which are so full of
+the moysture of turpentine and pitch that they burne as cleere as a
+torch."</p></div>
+
+<p>To avoid having smoke in the room, and on account of the pitchy
+droppings, the candle-wood was usually burned in a corner of the
+fireplace, on a flat stone. The knots were sometimes called
+pine-torches. One old Massachusetts minister boasted at the end of his
+life that every sermon of the hundreds he had written, had been copied
+by the light of these torches. Rev. Mr. Newman, of Rehoboth, is said to
+have compiled his vast concordance of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span> Bible wholly by the dancing
+light of this candle-wood. Lighting was an important item of expense in
+any household of so small an income as that of a Puritan minister; and
+the single candle was often frugally extinguished during the long family
+prayers each evening. Every family laid in a good supply of this light
+wood for winter use, and it was said that a prudent New England farmer
+would as soon start the winter without hay in his barn as without
+candle-wood in his woodshed.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Higginson wrote in 1630: "Though New England has no tallow to make
+candles of, yet by abundance of fish thereof it can afford oil for
+lamps." This oil was apparently wholly neglected, though there were few,
+or no domestic animals to furnish tallow; but when cattle increased,
+every ounce of tallow was saved as a precious and useful treasure; and
+as they became plentiful it was one of the household riches of New
+England, which was of value to our own day. When Governor Winthrop
+arrived in Massachusetts, he promptly wrote over to his wife to bring
+candles with her from England when she came. And in 1634 he sent over
+for a large quantity of wicks and tallow. Candles cost fourpence apiece,
+which made them costly luxuries for the thrifty colonists.</p>
+
+<p>Wicks were made of loosely spun hemp or tow,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span> or of cotton; from the
+milkweed which grows so plentifully in our fields and roads to-day the
+children gathered in late summer the silver "silk-down" which was "spun
+grossly into candle wicke." Sometimes the wicks were dipped into
+saltpetre.</p>
+
+<p>Thomas Tusser wrote in England in the sixteenth century in his
+<i>Directions to Housewifes</i>:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i2">"Wife, make thine own candle,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Spare penny to handle.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Provide for thy tallow ere frost cometh in,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And make thine own candle ere winter begin."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Every thrifty housewife in America saved her penny as in England. The
+making of the winter's stock of candles was the special autumnal
+household duty, and a hard one too, for the great kettles were tiresome
+and heavy to handle. An early hour found the work well under way. A good
+fire was started in the kitchen fireplace under two vast kettles, each
+two feet, perhaps, in diameter, which were hung on trammels from the
+lug-pole or crane, and half filled with boiling water and melted tallow,
+which had had two scaldings and skimmings. At the end of the kitchen or
+in an adjoining and cooler room, sometimes in the lean-to, two long
+poles were laid from chair to chair or stool to stool. Across these
+poles were placed at regular intervals, like the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span> rounds of a ladder,
+smaller sticks about fifteen or eighteen inches long, called
+candle-rods. These poles and rods were kept from year to year, either in
+the garret or up on the kitchen beams.</p>
+
+<p>To each candle-rod was attached about six or eight carefully
+straightened candle-wicks. The wicking was twisted strongly one way;
+then doubled; then the loop was slipped over the candle-rod, when the
+two ends, of course, twisted the other way around each other, making a
+firm wick. A rod, with its row of wicks, was dipped in the melted tallow
+in the pot, and returned to its place across the poles. Each row was
+thus dipped in regular turn; each had time to cool and harden between
+the dips, and thus grew steadily in size. If allowed to cool fast, they
+of course grew quickly, but were brittle, and often cracked. Hence a
+good worker dipped slowly, but if the room was fairly cool, could make
+two hundred candles for a day's work. Some could dip two rods at a time.
+The tallow was constantly replenished, as the heavy kettles were used
+alternately to keep the tallow constantly melted, and were swung off and
+on the fire. Boards or sheets of paper were placed under the rods to
+protect the snowy, scoured floors.</p>
+
+<p>Candles were also run in moulds which were groups of metal cylinders,
+usually made of tin or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> pewter. Itinerant candle-makers went from house
+to house, taking charge of candle-making in the household, and carrying
+large candle-moulds with them. One of the larger size, making two dozen
+candles, is here shown; but its companion, the smaller mould, making six
+candles, is such as were more commonly seen. Each wick was attached to a
+wire or a nail placed across the open top of the cylinder, and hung down
+in the centre of each individual mould. The melted tallow was poured in
+carefully around the wicks.</p>
+
+<p>Wax candles also were made. They were often<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span> shaped by hand, by pressing
+bits of heated wax around a wick. Farmers kept hives of bees as much for
+the wax as for the honey, which was of much demand for sweetening, when
+"loaves" of sugar were so high-priced. Deer suet, moose fat, bear's
+grease, all were saved in frontier settlements, and carefully tried into
+tallow for candles. Every particle of grease rescued from pot liquor, or
+fat from meat, was utilized for candle-making. Rushlights were made by
+stripping part of the outer bark from common rushes, thus leaving the
+pith bare, then dipping them in tallow or grease, and letting them
+harden.</p>
+
+<p>The precious candles thus tediously made were taken good care of. They
+were carefully packed in candle-boxes with compartments; were covered
+over, and set in a dark closet, where they would not discolor and turn
+yellow. A metal candle-box, hung<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span> on the edge of the kitchen
+mantel-shelf, always held two or three candles to replenish those which
+burnt out in the candlesticks.</p>
+
+<p>A natural, and apparently inexhaustible, material for candles was found
+in all the colonies in the waxy berries of the bayberry bush, which
+still grows in large quantities on our coasts. In the year 1748 a
+Swedish naturalist, Professor Kalm, came to America, and he wrote an
+account of the bayberry wax which I will quote in full:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"There is a plant here from the berries of which they make a kind
+of wax or tallow, and for that reason the Swedes call it the
+tallow-shrub. The English call the same tree the candle-berry tree
+or bayberry bush; it grows abundantly in a wet soil, and seems to
+thrive particularly well in the neighborhood of the sea. The
+berries look as if flour had been strewed on them. They are
+gathered late in Autumn, being ripe about that time, and are thrown
+into a kettle or pot full of boiling water; by this means their fat
+melts out, floats at the top of the water, and may be skimmed off
+into a vessel; with the skimming they go on till there is no tallow
+left. The tallow, as soon as it is congealed, looks like common
+tallow or wax, but has a dirty green color. By being melted over
+and refined it acquires a fine and transparent green color. This
+tallow is dearer than common tallow, but cheaper than wax. Candles
+of this do not easily bend, nor melt in summer as common candles
+do; they burn better and slower, nor do they cause any<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span> smoke, but
+yield rather an agreeable smell when they are extinguished. In
+Carolina they not only make candles out of the wax of the berries,
+but likewise sealing-wax."</p></div>
+
+<p>Beverley, the historian of Virginia, wrote of the smell of burning
+bayberry tallow:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"If an accident puts a candle out, it yields a pleasant fragrancy
+to all that are in the room; insomuch that nice people often put
+them out on purpose to have the incense of the expiring snuff."</p></div>
+
+<p>Bayberry wax was not only a useful home-product, but an article of
+traffic till this century, and was constantly advertised in the
+newspapers. In 1712, in a letter written to John Winthrop, F.R.S., I
+find:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"I am now to beg one favour of you,&mdash;that you secure for me all the
+bayberry wax you can possibly put your hands on. You must take a
+care they do not put too much tallow among it, being a custom and
+cheat they have got."</p></div>
+
+<p>Bayberries were of enough importance to have some laws made about them.
+Everywhere on Long Island grew the stunted bushes, and everywhere they
+were valued. The town of Brookhaven, in 1687, forbade the gathering of
+the berries before September 15, under penalty of fifteen shillings'
+fine.</p>
+
+<p>The pungent and unique scent of the bayberry,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span> equally strong in leaf
+and berry, is to me one of the elements of the purity and sweetness of
+the air of our New England coast fields in autumn. It grows everywhere,
+green and cheerful, in sun-withered shore pastures, in poor bits of
+earth on our rocky coast, where it has few fellow field-tenants to crowd
+the ground. It is said that the highest efforts of memory are stimulated
+through our sense of smell, by the association of ideas with scents.
+That of bayberry, whenever I pass it, seems to awaken in me an
+hereditary memory, to recall a life of two centuries ago. I recall the
+autumns of trial and of promise in our early history, and the bayberry
+fields are peopled with children in Puritan garb, industriously
+gathering the tiny waxen fruit. Equally full of sentiment is the scent
+of my burning bayberry candles, which were made last autumn in an old
+colony town.</p>
+
+<p>The history of whale-fishing in New England is the history of one of the
+most fascinating commercial industries the world has ever known. It is a
+story with every element of intense interest, showing infinite romance,
+adventure, skill, courage, and fortitude. It brought vast wealth to the
+communities that carried on the fishing, and great independence and
+comfort to the families of the whalers. To the whalemen themselves it
+brought incredible<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span> hardships and dangers, yet they loved the life with
+a love which is strange to view and hard to understand. In the oil made
+from these "royal fish" the colonists found a vast and cheap supply for
+their metal and glass lamps; while the toothed whales had stored in
+their blunt heads a valuable material which was at once used for making
+candles; it is termed, in the most ancient reference I have found to it
+in New England records, Sperma-Coeti.</p>
+
+<p>It was asserted that one of these spermaceti candles gave out more light
+than three tallow candles, and had four times as big a flame. Soon their
+manufacture and sale amounted to large numbers, and materially improved
+domestic illumination.</p>
+
+<p>All candles, whatever their material, were carefully used by the
+economical colonists to the last bit by a little wire frame of pins and
+rings called a save-all. Candle-sticks of various metals and shapes were
+found in every house; and often sconces, which were also called
+candle-arms, or prongs. Candle-beams were rude chandeliers, a metal or
+wooden hoop with candle-holders. Snuffers were always seen, with which
+to trim the candles, and snuffers trays. These were sometimes
+exceedingly richly ornamented, and were often of silver: extinguishers
+often accompanied the snuffers.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Though lamps occasionally appear on early inventories and lists of
+sales, and though there was plenty of whale and fish oil to burn, lamps
+were not extensively used in America for many years. "Betty-lamps,"
+shaped much like antique Roman lamps, were the earliest form. They were
+small, shallow receptacles, two or three inches in diameter and about an
+inch in depth; either rectangular, oval, round, or triangular in shape,
+with a projecting nose or spout an inch or two long. They usually had a
+hook and chain by which they could be hung on a nail in the wall, or on
+the round in the back of a chair; sometimes there was also a smaller
+hook for cleaning out the nose of the lamp. They were filled with
+tallow, grease, or oil, while a piece of cotton rag or coarse wick was
+so placed that, when lighted, the end hung out on the nose. From this
+wick, dripping dirty grease, rose a dull, smoky, ill-smelling flame.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Ph&oelig;be-lamps were similar in shape; though some had double wicks, that
+is, a nose at either side. Three betty-lamps are shown in the
+illustration: all came from old colonial houses. The iron lamp, solid
+with the accumulated grease of centuries, was found in a Virginia cabin;
+the rectangular brass lamp came from a Dutch farmhouse; and the graceful
+oval brass lamp from a New England homestead.</p>
+
+<p>Pewter was a favorite material for lamps, as it was for all other
+domestic utensils. It was specially<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span> in favor for the lamps for whale
+oil and the "Porter's fluid," that preceded our present illuminating
+medium, petroleum. A rare form is the pewter lamp here shown. It is in
+the collection of ancient lamps, lanterns, candlesticks, etc., owned by
+Mrs. Samuel Bowne Duryea, of Brooklyn. It came from a Salem home, where
+it was used as a house-lantern. With its clear bull's-eyes of unusually
+pure glass, it gave what was truly a brilliant light for the century of
+its use. A group of old pewter lamps, of the shapes commonly used in the
+homes of our ancestors a century or so ago, is also given; chosen, not
+because they were unusual or beautiful, but because they were universal
+in their use.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The lamps of Count Rumford's invention were doubtless a great luxury,
+with their clear steady light; but they were too costly to be commonly
+seen in our grandfathers' homes. Nor were Argand burners ever universal.
+Glass lamps of many simple shapes shared popularity for a long time with
+the pewter lamps; and as pewter gradually disappeared from household
+use, these glass lamps monopolized the field. They were rarely of cut or
+colored glass, but were pressed glass of commonplace form and quality. A
+group of them is here<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span> given which were all used in old New England
+houses in the early part of this century.</p>
+
+<p>For many years the methods of striking a light were very primitive, just
+as they were in Europe; many families possessed no adequate means, or
+very imperfect ones. If by ill fortune the fire in the fireplace became
+wholly extinguished through<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span> carelessness at night, some one, usually a
+small boy, was sent to the house of the nearest neighbor, bearing a
+shovel or covered pan, or perhaps a broad strip of green bark, on which
+to bring back coals for relighting the fire. Nearly all families had
+some form of a flint and steel,&mdash;a method of obtaining fire which has
+been used from time immemorial by both civilized and uncivilized
+nations. This always required a flint, a steel, and a tinder of some
+vegetable matter to catch the spark struck by the concussion of flint
+and steel. This spark was then blown into a flame. Among the colonists
+scorched linen was a favorite tinder to catch the spark of fire; and
+till this century all the old cambric handkerchiefs, linen underwear,
+and worn sheets of a household were carefully saved for this purpose.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span>
+The flint, steel, and tinder were usually kept together in a circular
+tinder-box, such as is shown in the accompanying illustration; it was a
+shape universal in England and America. This had an inner flat cover
+with a ring, a flint, a horseshoe-shaped steel, and an upper lid with a
+place to set a candle-end in, to carry the newly acquired light. Though
+I have tried hundreds of times with this tinder-box, I have never yet
+succeeded in striking a light. The sparks fly, but then the operation
+ceases in modern hands. Charles Dickens said if you had good luck, you
+could get a light in half an hour. Soon there was an improvement on this
+tinder-box, by which sparks were obtained by spinning a steel wheel with
+a piece of cord, somewhat like spinning a humming<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span> top, and making the
+wheel strike a flint fixed in the side of a little trough full of
+tinder. This was an infinite advance in convenience on tinder-box No. 1.
+This box was called in the South a mill; one is here shown. Then some
+person invented strips of wood dipped in sulphur and called "spunks."
+These readily caught fire, and retained it, and were handy to carry
+light to a candle or pile of chips.</p>
+
+<p>Another way of starting a fire was by flashing a little powder in the
+pan of an old-fashioned gun; sometimes this fired a twist of tow, which
+in turn started a heap of shavings.</p>
+
+<p>Down to the time of our grandfathers, and in some country homes of our
+fathers, lights were started with these crude elements,&mdash;flint, steel,
+tinder,&mdash;and transferred by the sulphur splint; for fifty years ago
+matches were neither cheap nor common.</p>
+
+<p>Though various processes for lighting in which sulphur was used in a
+match shape, were brought before the public at the beginning of this
+century, they were complicated, expensive, and rarely seen. The first
+practical friction matches were "Congreves," made in England in 1827.
+They were thin strips of wood or cardboard coated with sulphur and
+tipped with a mixture of mucilage, chlorate of potash, and sulphide of
+antimony. Eighty-four of them were sold in a box for twenty-five cents,
+with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span> a piece of "glass-paper" through which the match could be drawn.
+There has been a long step this last fifty years between the tinder-box
+used so patiently for two centuries, and the John Jex Long match-making
+machine of our times, which turns out seventeen million matches a day.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span><br />
+THE KITCHEN FIRESIDE</h2>
+
+
+<p>The kitchen in all the farmhouses of all the colonies was the most
+cheerful, homelike, and picturesque room in the house; indeed, it was in
+town houses as well. The walls were often bare, the rafters dingy; the
+windows were small, the furniture meagre; but the kitchen had a warm,
+glowing heart that spread light and welcome, and made the poor room a
+home. In the houses of the first settlers the chimneys and fireplaces
+were vast in size, sometimes so big that the fore-logs and back-logs for
+the fire had to be dragged in by a horse and a long chain; or a
+hand-sled was kept for the purpose. Often there were seats within the
+chimney on either side. At night children could sit on these seats and
+there watch the sparks fly upward and join the stars which could plainly
+be seen up the great chimney-throat.</p>
+
+<p>But as the forests disappeared under the waste of burning for tar, for
+potash, and through wanton clearing, the fireplaces shrank in size; and
+Benjamin<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span> Franklin, even in his day, could write of "the fireplaces of
+our fathers."</p>
+
+<p>The inflammable catted chimney of logs and clay, hurriedly and readily
+built by the first settlers, soon gave place in all houses to vast
+chimneys of stone, built with projecting inner ledges, on which rested a
+bar about six or seven or even eight feet from the floor, called a
+lug-pole (lug meaning to carry) or a back-bar; this was made of green
+wood, and thus charred slowly&mdash;but it charred surely in the generous
+flames of the great chimney heart. Many annoying, and some fatal
+accidents came from the collapsing of these wooden back-bars. The
+destruction of a dinner sometimes was attended with the loss of a life.
+Later the back-bars were made of iron. On them were hung iron hooks or
+chains with hooks of various lengths called pothooks, trammels, hakes,
+pot-hangers, pot-claws, pot-clips, pot-brakes, pot-crooks. Mr. Arnold
+Talbot, of Providence, Rhode Island, has folding trammels, nine feet
+long, which were found in an old Narragansett chimney heart. Gibcrokes
+and recons were local and less frequent names, and the folks who in
+their dialect called the lug-pole a gallows-balke called the pothooks
+gallows-crooks. On these hooks pots and kettles could be hung at varying
+heights over the fire. The iron swinging-crane was a Yankee invention of
+a century<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span> after the first settlement, and it proved a convenient and
+graceful substitute for the back-bar.</p>
+
+<p>Some Dutch houses had an adaptation of a Southern method of housekeeping
+in the use of a detached house called a slave-kitchen, where the meals
+of the negro house and farm servants were cooked and served. The
+slave-kitchen of the old Bergen homestead stood unaltered till within a
+few years on Third Avenue in Brooklyn. It still exists in a dismantled
+condition. Its picture plainly shows the stone ledges within the
+fireplace, the curved iron lug-pole, and hanging pothooks and trammels.
+With ample fire of hickory logs burning on the hearthstone, and the
+varied array of primitive cooking-vessels steaming with savory fare, a
+circle of laughing, black faces shining with the glowing firelight and
+hungry anticipation, would make a "Dutch interior" of American form and
+shaping as picturesque and artistic as any of Holland. The fireplace
+itself sometimes went by the old English name, clavell-piece, as shown
+by the letters of John Wynter, written from Maine in 1634 to his English
+home. "The Chimney is large, with an oven at each end of him: he is so
+large that wee can place our Cyttle within the Clavell-piece. Wee can
+brew and bake and boyl our Cyttle all at once in him." Often a large
+plate of iron, called the fire-back or fire-plate, was set at the back
+of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span> chimney, where the constant and fierce fire crumbled brick and
+split stone. These iron backs were often cast in a handsome design.</p>
+
+<p>In New York the chimneys and fireplaces were Dutch in shape; the
+description given by a woman traveller at the end of the seventeenth
+century ran thus:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"The chimney-places are very droll-like: they have no jambs nor
+lintell as we have, but a flat grate, and there projects over it a
+lum in the form of the cat-and-clay lum, and commonly a muslin or
+ruffled pawn around it."</p></div>
+
+<p>The "ruffled pawn" was a calico or linen valance which was hung on the
+edge of the mantel-shelf, a pretty and cheerful fashion seen in some
+English as well as Dutch homes.</p>
+
+<p>Another Dutch furnishing, the alcove bedstead, much like a closet, seen
+in many New York kitchens, was replaced in New England farm-kitchens by
+the "turn-up" bedstead. This was a strong frame filled with a network of
+rope which was fastened at the bed-head by hinges to the wall. By night
+the foot of the bed rested on two heavy legs; by day the frame with its
+bed furnishings was hooked up to the wall, and covered with homespun
+curtains or doors. This was the sleeping-place of the master and
+mistress of the house, chosen because the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span> kitchen was the warmest room
+in the house. One of these "turn-up" bedsteads which was used in the
+Sheldon homestead until this century may be seen in Deerfield Memorial
+Hall.</p>
+
+<p>Over the fireplace and across the top of the room were long poles on
+which hung strings of peppers, dried apples, and rings of dried pumpkin.
+And the favorite resting-place for the old queen's-arm or fowling-piece
+was on hooks over the kitchen fireplace.</p>
+
+<p>On the pothooks and trammels hung what formed in some households the
+costliest house-furnishing,&mdash;the pots and kettles. The Indians wished
+their brass kettles buried with them as a precious possession, and the
+settlers equally valued them; often these kettles were worth three
+pounds apiece. In many inventories of the estates of the settlers the
+brass-ware formed an important item. Rev. Thomas Hooker of Hartford had
+brass-ware which, in the equalizing of values to-day, would be worth
+three or four hundred dollars. The great brass and copper kettles often
+held fifteen gallons. The vast iron pot&mdash;desired and beloved of every
+colonist&mdash;sometimes weighed forty pounds, and lasted in daily use for
+many years. All the vegetables were boiled together in these great pots,
+unless some very particular housewife had a wrought-iron potato-boiler<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span>
+to hold potatoes or any single vegetable in place within the vast
+general pot.</p>
+
+<p>Chafing-dishes and skimmers of brass and copper were also cheerful discs
+to reflect the kitchen firelight.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Very little tin was seen, either for kitchen or table utensils. Governor
+Winthrop had a few tin plates, and some Southern planters had tin pans,
+others "tynnen covers." Tin pails were unknown; and the pails they did
+own, either of wood, brass, or other sheet metal, had no bails, but were
+carried by thrusting a stick through little ears on either side of the
+pail. Latten ware was used instead of tin; it was a kind of brass. A
+very good collection of century-old tinware is shown in the
+illustration. By a curious chance this tinware lay unpacked for over
+ninety years in the attic loft of a country warehouse, in the
+packing-box, just as it was delivered from an English ship at the close
+of the Revolution. The pulling down of the warehouse disclosed the box,
+with its dated labels. The tin utensils are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span> more gayly lacquered than
+modern ones, otherwise they differ little from the tinware of to-day.</p>
+
+<p>There was one distinct characteristic in the house-furnishing of olden
+times which is lacking to-day. It was a tendency for the main body of
+everything to set well up, on legs which were strong enough for adequate
+support of the weight, yet were slender in appearance. To-day bureaus,
+bedsteads, cabinets, desks, sideboards, come close to the floor;
+formerly chests of drawers, Chippendale sideboards, four-post bedsteads,
+dressing-cases, were set, often a foot high, in a tidy, cleanly fashion;
+thus they could all be thoroughly swept under. This same peculiarity of
+form extended to cooking-utensils. Pots and kettles had legs, as shown
+in those hanging in the slave-kitchen fireplace; gridirons had legs,
+skillets had legs; and further appliances in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span> shape of trivets,
+which were movable frames, took the place of legs. The necessity for the
+stilting up of cooking-utensils was a very evident one; it was necessary
+to raise the body of the utensil above the ashes and coals of the open
+fireplace. If the bed of coals and burning logs were too deep for the
+skillet or pot-legs, then the utensil must be hung from above by the
+ever-ready trammel.</p>
+
+<p>Often in the corner of the fireplace there stood a group of trivets, or
+three-legged stands, of varying heights, through which the exactly
+desired proximity to the coals could be obtained.</p>
+
+<p>Even toasting-forks, and similar frail utensils of wire or wrought iron,
+stood on tall, spindling legs, or were carefully shaped to be set up on
+trivets. They usually had, also, long, adjustable handles, which helped
+to make endurable the blazing heat of the great logs. All such irons as
+waffle-irons had far longer handles than are seen on any
+cooking-utensils in these days of stoves and ranges, where the flames
+are covered and the housewife shielded.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span> Gridirons had long handles of
+wood or iron, which could be fastened to the shorter stationary handles.
+The two gridirons in the accompanying illustration are a century old.
+The circular one was the oldest form. The oblong ones, with groove to
+collect the gravy, did not vary in shape till our own day. Both have
+indications of fittings for long handles, but the handles have vanished.
+A long-handled frying-pan is seen hanging by the side of the
+slave-kitchen fireplace.</p>
+
+<p>An accompaniment of the kitchen fireplace, found, not in farmhouses, but
+among luxury-loving town-folk, was the plate-warmer. They are seldom
+named in inventories, and I know of but one of Revolutionary days, and
+it is here shown. Similar ones are manufactured to-day; the legs,
+perhaps, are shorter, but the general outline is the same.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>An important furnishing of every fireplace was the andirons. In kitchen
+fireplaces these were usually of iron, and the shape known as goose-neck
+were common. Cob irons were the simplest form, and merely supported the
+spit; sometimes they had hooks to hold a dripping-pan. A common name for
+the kitchen andirons was fire-dogs; and creepers were low, small
+andirons, usually used with the tall fire-dogs. The kitchen andirons
+were simply for use to help hold the logs and cooking-utensils. But
+other fireplaces had handsome fire-dogs of copper, brass, or cut steel,
+cast or wrought in handsome devices. These were a pride and delight to
+the housewife.</p>
+
+<p>A primitive method of roasting a joint of meat or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span> a fowl was by
+suspending it in front of the fire by a strong hempen string tied to a
+peg in the ceiling, while some one&mdash;usually an unwilling
+child&mdash;occasionally turned the roast around. Sometimes the sole
+turnspit<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span> was the housewife, who, every time she basted the roast, gave
+the string a good twist, and thereafter it would untwist, and then twist
+a little again, and so on until the vibration ceased, when she again
+basted and started it. As the juices sometimes ran down in the roast and
+left the upper part too dry, a "double string-roaster" was invented, by
+which the equilibrium of the joint could be shifted. A jack was a
+convenient and magnified edition of the primitive<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span> string, being a metal
+suspensory machine. A still further glorification was the addition of a
+revolving power which ran by clockwork and turned the roast with
+regularity; this was known as a clock-jack. The one here shown hangs in
+the fireplace in Deerfield Memorial Hall. A smoke-jack was run somewhat
+irregularly by the pressure of smoke and the current of hot air in the
+chimney. These were noisy and creaking and not regarded with favor by
+old-fashioned cooks.</p>
+
+<p>We are apt to think of the turnspit dog as a creature of European life,
+but we had them here in America&mdash;little low, bow-legged, patient souls,
+trained to run in a revolving cylinder and keep the roasting joint
+a-turn before the fire. Mine host Clark of the State House Inn in
+Philadelphia in the first half of the eighteenth century advertised in
+Benjamin Franklin's <i>Pennsylvania Gazette</i> that he had for sale "several
+dogs and wheels, much preferable to any jacks for roasting any joints of
+meat." I hope neither he nor any one else had many of these little
+canine slaves.</p>
+
+<p>A frequent accompaniment of the kitchen fireplace in the eighteenth
+century, and a domestic luxury seen in well-to-do homes, was the various
+forms of the "roasting-kitchen," or Dutch oven. These succeeded the
+jacks; they were a box-like<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span> arrangement open on one side which when in
+use was turned to the fire. Like other utensils of the day, they often
+stood up on legs, to bring the open side before the blaze. A little door
+at the back could be opened for convenience in basting the roast. These
+kitchens came in various sizes for roasting birds or joints, and in them
+bread was occasionally baked. The bake-kettle, which in some communities
+was also called a Dutch oven, was preferred for baking bread. It was a
+strong kettle, standing, of course, on stout, stumpy legs, and when in
+use was placed among the hot coals and closely covered with a strong
+metal, convex cover, on which coals were also closely heaped. Such
+perfect rolls, such biscuit, such shortcake, as issued from the
+heaped-up bake-kettle can never be equalled by other methods of cooking.</p>
+
+<p>When the great stone chimney was built, there<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span> was usually placed on one
+side of the kitchen fireplace a brick oven which had a smoke uptake into
+the chimney&mdash;and-an ash-pit below. The great door was of iron. This oven
+was usually heated once a week. A great fire of dry wood, called oven
+wood, was kindled within it and kept burning fiercely for some hours.
+This thoroughly heated all the bricks. The coals and ashes were then
+swept out, the chimney draught closed, and the oven filled with brown
+bread, pies, pots of beans, etc. Sometimes the bread was baked in pans,
+sometimes it was baked in a great mass set on cabbage leaves or oak
+leaves. In some towns an autumn harvest of oak leaves was gathered by
+children to use throughout the winter. The leaves were strung on sticks.
+This gathering was called going a-leafing.</p>
+
+<p>By the oven side was always a long-handled shovel known as a peel or
+slice, which sometimes had a rack or rest to hold it; this implement was
+a necessity in order to place the food well within the glowing oven. The
+peel was sprinkled with meal, great heaps of dough were placed thereon,
+and by a dexterous twist they were thrown on the cabbage or oak leaves.
+A bread peel was a universal gift to a bride; it was significant of
+domestic utility and plenty, and was held to be luck-bearing. On<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span>
+Thanksgiving week the great oven had a fire built in it every morning,
+and every night it was well filled and closed till morning.</p>
+
+<p>On one side of the kitchen often stood a dresser, on which was placed in
+orderly rows the cheerful pewter and scant earthenware of the
+household:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i2">"&mdash;&mdash;the room was bright<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">With glimpses of reflected light,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">From plates that on the dresser shone."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>In Dutch households plate-racks, spoon-racks, knife-racks,&mdash;all hanging
+on the wall,&mdash;took the place of the New England dresser.</p>
+
+<p>In the old Phillips farmhouse at Wickford, Rhode Island, is a splendid
+chimney over twenty feet square. So much room does it occupy that there
+is no central staircase, but little winding stairs ascend at three
+corners of the house. In the vast fireplace an ox could literally have
+been roasted. On each chimney-piece are hooks to hang firearms, and at
+one side curious little drawers are set for pipes and tobacco. In some
+Dutch houses in New York these tobacco shelves are in the entry, over
+the front door, and a narrow flight of three or four steps leads up to
+them. Hanging on a nail alongside the tobacco drawer, or shelf, would
+usually be seen a pipe-tongs, or smoking-tongs. They were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span> slender
+little tongs, usually of iron or steel; with them the smoker lifted a
+coal from the fireplace to light his pipe. The tongs owned and used by
+Captain Joshua Wingate, of Hampton, New Hampshire, who lived from 1679
+to 1769, are here shown. The handle is unlike any other I have seen,
+having one end elongated, knobbed, and ingeniously bent <span class="f">S</span>-shaped into
+convenient form to press down the tobacco into the bowl of the pipe.
+Other old-time pipe-tongs were in the form of lazy-tongs. A companion of
+the pipe-tongs on the kitchen mantel was what was known as a
+comfortier&mdash;a little brazier of metal in which small coals could be
+handed about for pipe-lighting. An unusual luxury was a comfortier of
+silver. These were found among the Dutch settlers.</p>
+
+<p>The Pennsylvania Germans were the first to use stoves. These were of
+various shapes. A curious one, seen in houses and churches, was of
+sheet-metal, box-shaped; three sides were within the house, and the
+fourth, with the stove door, outside<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span> the house. Thus what was really
+the back of the stove projected into the room, and when the fire was fed
+it was necessary for the tender to go out of doors. These German stoves
+and hot-air drums, which heated the second story of the house, were ever
+a fresh wonder to travellers of English birth and descent in
+Pennsylvania. There is no doubt that their evident economy and comfort
+suggested to Benjamin Franklin the "New Pennsylvania Fireplace," which
+he invented in 1742, in which both wood and coal could be used, and
+which was somewhat like the heating apparatus which we now call a
+Franklin stove, or heater.</p>
+
+<p>Thus German settlers had, in respect to heating, the most comfortable
+homes of all the colonies. Among the English settlers the kitchen was,
+too often, the only comfortable room in the house in winter weather.
+Indeed, the discomforts and inconveniences of a colonial home could
+scarcely be endured to-day; of course these culminated in the winter
+time, when icy blasts blew fiercely down the great chimneys, and rattled
+the loosely fitting windows. Children suffered bitterly in these cold
+houses. The rooms were not warm three feet away from the blaze of the
+fire. Cotton Mather and Judge Samuel Sewall both tell, in their diaries,
+of the ink freezing in their pens as they wrote within<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span> the
+chimney-side. One noted that, when a great fire was built on the hearth,
+the sap forced out of the wood by the flames froze into ice at the end
+of the logs. The bedrooms were seldom warmed, and had it not been for
+the deep feather beds and heavy bed-curtains, would have been
+unendurable. In Dutch and some German houses, with alcove bedsteads, and
+sleeping on one feather bed, with another for cover, the Dutch settlers
+could be far warmer than any English settlers, even in four-post
+bedsteads curtained with woollen.</p>
+
+<p>Water froze immediately if left standing in bedrooms. One diary, written
+in Marshfield, Massachusetts, tells of a basin of water standing on the
+bedroom hearth, in front of a blazing fire, in which the water froze
+solid. President John Adams so dreaded the bleak New England winter and
+the ill-warmed houses that he longed to sleep like a dormouse every
+year, from autumn to spring. In the Southern colonies, during the fewer
+cold days of the winter months, the temperature was not so low, but the
+houses were more open and lightly built than in the North, and were
+without cellars, and had fewer fireplaces; hence the discomfort from the
+cold was as great, if not the positive suffering.</p>
+
+<p>The first chilling entrance into the ice-cold bed of a winter bedroom
+was sometimes mitigated by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span> heating the inner sheets with a warming-pan.
+This usually hung by the side of the kitchen fireplace, and when used
+was filled with hot coals, and thrust within the bed, and constantly and
+rapidly moved back and forth to keep from scorching the bed-linen. The
+warming-pan was a circular metal pan about a foot in diameter, four or
+five inches deep, with a long wooden handle and a perforated metal
+cover, usually of copper or brass, which was kept highly polished, and
+formed, as it hung on the wall, one of the cheerful kitchen discs to
+reflect the light of the glowing fire. The warming-pan has been deemed
+of sufficient decorative capacity to make it eagerly sought after by
+collectors, and a great room of one of these collectors is hung entirely
+around the four walls with a frieze of warming-pans.</p>
+
+<p>Many of our New England poets have given us glimpses in rhyme of the
+old-time kitchen. Lowell's well-known lines are vivid enough to bear
+never-dying quotation:&mdash;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"A fireplace filled the rooms one side<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">With half a cord of wood in&mdash;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">There warn't no stoves (tell comfort died)<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">To bake ye to a puddin'.<br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"The wa'nut log shot sparkles out<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Towards the pootiest&mdash;bless her!<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">An' little flames danced all about<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">The chiny on the dresser.<br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Agin the crumbly crooknecks hung,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">An' in amongst 'em rusted<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The old queen's-arm that granther Young<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Fetched back from Concord busted."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>To me the true essence of the old-time fireside is found in Whittier's
+<i>Snow-Bound</i>. The very chimney, fireplace, and hearthstone of which his
+beautiful lines were written, the kitchen of Whittier's boyhood's home,
+at East Haverhill, Massachusetts, is shown in the accompanying
+illustration. It shows a swinging crane. His description of the "laying
+the fire" can never be equalled by any prose:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"We piled with care our nightly stack<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Of wood against the chimney back&mdash;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The oaken log, green, huge, and thick,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And on its top the stout back-stick;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The knotty fore-stick laid apart,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And filled between with curious art<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span><br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The ragged brush; then hovering near,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">We watched the first red blaze appear,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Heard the sharp crackle, caught the gleam<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">On whitewashed wall and sagging beam,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Until the old, rude-furnished room<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Burst, flower-like, into rosy bloom."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>No greater picture of homely contentment could be shown than the
+following lines:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Shut in from all the world without,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">We sat the clean-winged hearth about,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span><br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Content to let the north wind roar<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">In baffled rage at pane and door,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">While the red logs before us beat<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The frost-line back with tropic heat;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And ever, when a louder blast<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Shook beam and rafter as it passed,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The merrier up its roaring draught<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The great throat of the chimney laughed.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The house dog on his paws outspread<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Laid to the fire his drowsy head,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The cat's dark silhouette on the wall<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">A couchant tiger's seemed to fall;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And, for the winter fireside meet,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Between the andirons' straddling feet<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The mug of cider simmered slow,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And apples sputtered in a row.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And, close at hand, the basket stood<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">With nuts from brown October's woods.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">What matter how the night behaved!<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">What matter how the north wind raved!<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Blow high, blow low, not all its snow<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Could quench our hearth-fire's ruddy glow."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Nor can the passing of years dim the ruddy glow of that hearth-fire, nor
+the charm of the poem. The simplicity of metre, the purity of wording,
+the gentle sadness of some of its expressions, make us read between the
+lines the deep and affectionate reminiscence with which it was written.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span><br />
+THE SERVING OF MEALS</h2>
+
+
+<p>Perhaps no greater difference exists between any mode of the olden times
+and that of to-day, than can be seen in the manner of serving the meals
+of the family. In the first place, the very dining-table of the
+colonists was not like our present ones; it was a long and narrow board,
+sometimes but three feet wide, with no legs attached to it. It was laid
+on supports or trestles, shaped usually something like a saw-horse. Thus
+it was literally a board, and was called a table-board, and the linen
+cover used at meals was not called a tablecloth, but a board-cloth or
+board-clothes.</p>
+
+<p>As smoothly sawed and finished boards were not so plentiful at first in
+the colonies as might naturally be thought when we remember the vast
+encircling forests, all such boards were carefully treasured, and used
+many times to avoid sawing others by the tedious and wearying process of
+pit-sawing. Hence portions of packing-boxes, or chests which had carried
+stores from England to the colonies, were made<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span> into table-boards. One
+such oaken table-board, still in existence, has on the under side in
+quaint lettering the name and address of the Boston settler to whom the
+original packing-box was sent in 1638.</p>
+
+<p>The old-time board-cloth was in no way inferior in quality or whiteness
+to our present table-linen; for we know how proud colonial wives and
+daughters were of the linen of their own spinning, weaving, and
+bleaching. The linen tablecloth was either of holland, huckaback,
+dowlas, osnaburg, or lockram&mdash;all heavy and comparatively coarse
+materials&mdash;or of fine damask, just as to-day; some of the handsome
+board-cloths were even trimmed with lace.</p>
+
+<p>The colonists had plenty of napkins; more, as a rule, than families of
+corresponding means and station own to-day. They had need of them, for
+when America was first settled forks were almost unknown to English
+people&mdash;being used for eating in luxurious Italy alone, where travellers
+having seen and found them useful and cleanly, afterwards introduced
+them into England. So hands had to be constantly employed for holding
+food, instead of the forks we now use, and napkins were therefore as
+constantly necessary. The first fork brought to America was for Governor
+John Winthrop, in Boston, in 1633, and it was in a leather case with a
+knife and a bodkin. If the governor ate with a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span> fork at the table, he
+was doubtless the only person in the colony who did so. Thirty or forty
+years later a few two-tined iron and silver forks were brought across
+the water, and used in New York and Virginia, as well as Massachusetts;
+and by the end of the century they had come into scant use at the tables
+of persons of wealth and fashion. The first mention of a fork in
+Virginia is in an inventory dated 1677; this was of a single fork. The
+salt-cellar, or saler, as it was first called, was the centrepiece of
+the table&mdash;"Sett in the myddys of the tabull," says an old treatise on
+laying the table. It was often large and high, of curious device in
+silver, and was then called a standing salt. Guests of honor were seated
+"above the salt," that is, near the end of the table where sat the host
+and hostess side by side; while children and persons who were not of
+much dignity or account as guests were placed "below the salt," that is,
+below the middle of the table.</p>
+
+<p>There is owned by Harvard University, and here<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span> shown in an
+illustration, "a great silver salt" given to the college in 1644, when
+the new seat of learning was but eight years old. At the table it
+divided graduates, the faculty, and such, from the undergraduates. It
+was valued at &pound;5 1<i>s.</i> 3<i>d.</i>, at five shillings an ounce, which was
+equal to a hundred dollars to-day; a rich gift, which shows to me the
+profound affection of the settlers for the new college. It is inscribed
+with the name of the giver, Mr. Richard Harris. It is of simple English
+design well known during that century, and made in various sizes. There
+is no doubt that many of similar pattern, though not so heavy or so
+rich, were seen on the tables of substantial colonists. They are named
+in many wills. Often a small projecting arm was attached to one side,
+over which a folded napkin could be thrown to be used as a cover; for
+the salt-cellar was usually kept covered, not only to preserve
+cleanliness, but in earlier days to prevent the ready introduction of
+poison.</p>
+
+<p>There are some very entertaining and curious old English books which
+were written in the sixteenth century to teach children and young
+rustics correct and elegant manners at the table, and also helpful ways
+in which to serve others. These books are called <i>The Babees Boke</i>, <i>The
+Boke of Nurture</i>, <i>The Boke of Curteseye</i>, etc., and with the exception<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span>
+of variations in the way of serving a dinner, and a few obsolete
+customs, and in the names and shapes and materials of the different
+dishes, plates, etc., used at the table, these books are just as
+instructive and sensible to-day as then. From them we learn that the
+only kind of table furnishings used at that time were cups to drink out
+of; spoons and knives to eat with; chafing-dishes to serve hot food;
+chargers for display and for serving large quantities of food;
+salt-cellars, and trenchers for use as plates. There were very few other
+table appointments used on any English table, either humble or great,
+when the Pilgrims landed at Plymouth.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most important articles for setting the table was the
+trencher. These were made of wood, and often were only a block of wood,
+about ten or twelve inches square and three or four deep, hollowed down
+into a sort of bowl in the middle. In this the food was
+placed,&mdash;porridge, meat, vegetables, etc. Each person did not have even
+one of these simple dishes; usually two children, or a man and his wife,
+ate out of one trencher. This was a custom in England for many years;
+and some very great people, a duke and his wife, not more than a century
+and a half ago, sat side by side at the table and ate out of one plate
+to show their unity<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span> and affection. It is told of an old Connecticut
+settler, a deacon, that as he had a wood-turning mill, he thought he
+would have a trencher apiece for his children. So he turned a sufficient
+number of round trenchers in his mill. For this his neighbors deemed him
+deeply extravagant and putting on too many airs, both as to quantity and
+quality, since square trenchers, one for use by two persons, were good
+enough for any one, even a deacon. So great a warrior and so prominent a
+man in the colony as Miles Standish used wooden trenchers at the table,
+as also did all the early governors. Nor did they disdain to name them
+in their wills, as valued household possessions. For many years college
+boys at Harvard ate out of wooden trenchers at the college mess-table.</p>
+
+<p>I have seen a curious old table top, or table-board, which permitted
+diners seated at it to dispense with trenchers or plates. It was of
+heavy oak about six inches thick, and at intervals of about eighteen
+inches around its edge were scooped out deep, bowl-shaped holes about
+ten inches in diameter, in which each individual's share of the dinner
+was placed. After each meal the top was lifted off the trestles,
+thoroughly washed and dried, and was ready for the next meal.</p>
+
+<p>Poplar-wood is an even, white, and shining wood.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span> Until the middle of
+this century poplar-wood trenchers and plates were used on the table in
+Vermont, and were really attractive dishes. From earliest days the
+Indians made and sold many bowls and trenchers of maple-wood knots. One
+of these bowls, owned by King Philip, is at the rooms of the
+Massachusetts Historical Society in Boston. Old wooden trenchers and
+"Indian bowls" can be seen at the Memorial Hall in Deerfield. Bottles
+were made also of wood, and drinking-cups and "noggins," which were a
+sort of mug with a handle. Wood furnished many articles for the table to
+the colonist, just as it did in later days on our Western frontiers,
+where trenchers of wood<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span> and plates of birch-bark were seen in every
+log-cabin.</p>
+
+<p>The word tankard was originally applied to a heavy and large vessel of
+wood banded with metal, in which to carry water. Smaller wooden drinking
+tankards were subsequently made and used throughout Europe, and were
+occasionally brought here by the colonists. The plainly shaped wooden
+tankard, made of staves and hoops and here shown, is from the collection
+at Deerfield Memorial Hall. It was found in the house of Rev. Eli Moody.
+These commonplace tankards of staves were not so rare as the beautiful
+carved and hooped tankard which is here pictured, and which is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span> in the
+collection of Mrs. Samuel Bowne Duryea, of Brooklyn. I have seen a few
+other quaintly carved ones, black with age, in American families of
+Huguenot descent; these were apparently Swiss carvings.</p>
+
+<p>The chargers, or large round platters found on every dining-table, were
+of pewter. Some were so big and heavy that they weighed five or six
+pounds apiece. Pewter is a metal never seen for modern<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span> table
+furnishing, or domestic use in any form to-day; but in colonial times
+what was called a garnish of pewter, that is, a full set of pewter
+platters, plates, and dishes, was the pride of every good housekeeper,
+and also a favorite wedding gift. It was kept as bright and shining as
+silver. One of the duties of children was to gather a kind of horse-tail
+rush which grew in the marshes, and because it was used to scour pewter,
+was called scouring-rush.</p>
+
+<p>Pewter bottles of various sizes were sent to the Massachusetts Bay
+Colony, in 1629. Governor Endicott had one, but they were certainly far
+from common. Dram cups, wine mugs, and funnels of pewter were also
+occasionally seen, but scarcely formed part of ordinary table
+furnishings. Metheglin cans and drinking-mugs of pewter were found on
+nearly every table. Pewter was used until this century in the wealthiest
+homes, both in the North and South, and was preferred by many who owned
+rich china. Among the pewter-lovers was the Revolutionary patriot, John
+Hancock, who hated the clatter of the porcelain plates.</p>
+
+<p>Porringers of pewter, and occasionally of silver, were much used at the
+table, chiefly for children to eat from. These were a pretty little
+shallow circular dish with a flat-pierced handle. Some had a "fish-tail"
+handle; these are said to be Dutch.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span> These porringers were in many
+sizes, from tiny little ones two inches in diameter to those eight or
+nine inches across. When not in use many housekeepers kept them hanging
+on hooks on the edge of a shelf, where they formed a pretty and cheerful
+decoration. The poet Swift says:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"The porringers that in a row<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Hung high and made a glittering show."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>It should be stated that the word porringer, as used by English
+collectors, usually refers to a deep cup with a cover and two handles,
+while what we call porringers are known to these collectors as
+bleeding-basins or tasters. Here we apply the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span> term taster, or
+wine-taster, to a small, shallow silver cup with bosses in the bottom to
+reflect the light and show the color and quality of wine. I have often
+seen the item wine-taster in colonial inventories and wills, but never
+bleeding-basin; while porringers were almost universal on such lists.
+Some families had a dozen. I have found fifteen in one old New England
+farmhouse. The small porringers are sometimes called posnets, which is
+an old-time word that may originally have referred to a posset-cup.</p>
+
+<p>"Spoons," says the learned arch&aelig;ologist, Laborde, "if not as old as the
+world, are as old as soup." All the colonists had spoons, and certainly
+all needed them, for at that time much of their food was in the form of
+soup and "spoon-meat," such as had to be eaten with spoons when there
+were no forks. Meat was usually made into hashes or ragouts; thick stews
+and soups with chopped vegetables and meats were common, as were
+hotch-pots. The cereal foods, which formed so large a part of English
+fare in the New World, were more frequently boiled in porridge than
+baked in loaves. Many of the spoons were of pewter. Worn-out pewter
+plates and dishes could be recast into new pewter spoons. The moulds
+were of wood or iron. The spoon mould of one of the first settlers of
+Greenfield,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span> Massachusetts, named Martindale, is here shown with a
+pewter spoon. In this mould all his spoons and those of his neighbors
+were cast. It is now in the Deerfield Memorial Hall.</p>
+
+<p>A still more universal spoon material was alchymy, also called occamy,
+alcamy, arkamy, etc., a metal never used now, which was made of a
+mixture of pan-brass and arsenicum. Wooden spoons, too, were always
+seen. In Pennsylvania and New York laurel was called spoonwood, because
+the Indians made pretty white spoons from that wood to sell to the
+colonists. Horn was an appropriate and available material for spoons.
+Many Indian tribes excelled as they do to-day in the making of horn
+spoons. The vulgar affirmation, "By the great horn spoon," has
+perpetuated their familiar use.</p>
+
+<p>Every family of any considerable possessions or owning good household
+furnishings had a few silver spoons; nearly every person owned at least
+one.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span> At the time America was settled the common form of silver spoon in
+England had what was known as a baluster stem and a seal head; the assay
+mark was in the inner part of the bowl. But the fashion was just
+changing, and a new and much altered form was introduced which was made
+in large numbers until the opening reign of George I. This shape was the
+very one without doubt in which many of the spoons of the first
+colonists were made; and wherever such spoons are found, if they are
+genuine antiques, they may safely be assigned a date earlier than 1714.
+The handle was flat and broad at the end, where it was cleft in three
+points which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span> were turned up, that is, not toward the back of the spoon.
+This was known as the "hind's-foot handle." The bowl was a perfectly
+regular ellipse and was strengthened by continuing the handle in a
+narrow tongue or rat-tail, which ran down the back of the bowl. The
+succeeding fashion, in the early part of the eighteenth century, had a
+longer elliptical bowl. The end of the handle was rounded and turned up
+at the end, and it had a high sharp ridge down the middle. This was
+known as the old English shape, and was in common use for half a
+century. About the period of our Revolutionary War a shape nearly like
+the one in ordinary present use became the mode; the bowl became
+egg-shaped, and the end of the handle was turned down instead of up. The
+rat-tail, which extended down the back of the bowl, was shortened into a
+drop. Apostle spoons, and monkey spoons for extraordinary use were
+occasionally made, and a few are still preserved; examples of five types
+of spoons are shown from the collection of Edward Holbrook, Esq., of New
+York.</p>
+
+<p>Families of consequence had usually a few pieces of silver besides their
+spoons and the silver salt. Some kind of a drinking-cup was the usual
+form. Persons of moderate means often owned a silver cup. I have seen in
+early inventories and lists the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span> names of a large variety of silver
+vessels: tankards, beer-bowls, beakers, flagons, wine cups, wine bowls,
+wine cans, tasters, caudle-cups, posset-cups, dram-cups, punch-bowls,
+tumblers, mugs, dram bottles, two-eared cups, and flasks. Virginians and
+Marylanders in the seventeenth century had much more silver than New
+Englanders. Some Dutch merchants<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span> had ample amounts. It was deemed a
+good and safe investment for spare money. Bread-baskets, salvers,
+muffineers, chafing-dishes, casters, milk pitchers, sugar boxes,
+candlesticks, appear in inventories at the end of the century. A tankard
+or flagon, even if heavy and handsome, would be placed on the table for
+every-day use; the other pieces were usually set on the cupboard's head
+for ornament.</p>
+
+<p>The handsome silver tankard owned by Sarah Jansen de Rapelje is here
+shown. She was the first child of European parents born in New
+Netherland. The tankard was a wedding gift from her husband, and a Dutch
+wedding scene is graven on the lid.</p>
+
+<p>There was a great desire for glass, a rare novelty to many persons at
+the date of colonization. The English were less familiar with its use
+than settlers who came from Continental Europe. The establishment of
+glass factories was attempted in early days in several places, chiefly
+to manufacture sheet-glass, but with slight success. Little glass was
+owned in the shape of drinking-vessels, none used generally on the
+table, I think, during the first few years. Glass bottles were certainly
+a great rarity, and were bequeathed with special mention in wills, and
+they are the only form of glass vessel named. The earliest glass for
+table use was greenish in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span> color, like coarse bottle glass, and poor in
+quality, sometimes decorated in crude designs in a few colors. Bristol
+glass, in the shape of mugs and plates, was next seen. It was opaque, a
+milky white color, and was coarsely decorated with vitrifiable colors in
+a few lines of red, green, yellow, or black, occasionally with initials,
+dates, or Scriptural references.</p>
+
+<p>Though shapes were varied, and the number was generally plentiful, there
+was no attempt made to give separate drinking-cups of any kind to each
+individual at the table. Blissfully ignorant of the existence or
+presence of microbes, germs, and bacteria, our sturdy and unsqueamish
+forbears drank contentedly in succession from a single vessel,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span> which
+was passed from hand to hand, and lip to lip, around the board. Even
+when tumbler-shaped glasses were seen in many houses,&mdash;flip-glasses,
+they were called,&mdash;they were of communal size,&mdash;some held a gallon,&mdash;and
+all drank from the same glass. The great punch-bowl, not a very handy
+vessel to handle when filled with punch, was passed up and down as
+freely as though it were a loving-cup, and all drank from its brim. At
+college tables, and even at tavern boards, where table neighbors might
+be strangers, the flowing bowl and foaming tankard was passed serenely
+from one to another, and replenished to pass again.</p>
+
+<p>Leather was perhaps the most curious material<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span> used. Pitchers, bottles,
+and drinking-cups were made of it. Great jugs of heavy black leather,
+waxed and bound, and tipped with silver, were used to hold metheglin,
+ale, and beer, and were a very substantial, and at times a very handsome
+vessel. The finest examples I have ever seen are here represented. The
+stitches and waxed thread at the base and on the handles can plainly be
+perceived. They are bound with a rich silver band, and have a silver
+shield bearing a date of gift to Samuel Brenton in 1778; but they are
+probably a century older than that date. They are the property by
+inheritance of Miss Rebecca Shaw, aged ninety-six years, of Wickford,
+Rhode Island.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The use of these great leather jacks, in a clumsier form than here
+shown, led to the amusing mistake of a French traveller, that the
+English drank their ale out of their boots. These leather jugs were
+commonly called black jacks, and the larger ones were bombards. Giskin
+was still another and rarer name.</p>
+
+<p>Drinking-cups were sometimes made of horn. A handsome one has been used
+since colonial days on Long Island for "quince drink," a potent mixture
+of hot rum, sugar, and quince marmalade, or preserves. It has a base of
+silver, a rim of silver, and a cover of horn tipped with silver. A
+stirrup-cup of horn, tipped with silver, was used to "speed the parting
+guest." Occasionally the whole horn, in true medi&aelig;val fashion, was used
+as a drinking-cup. Often they were carved with considerable skill, as
+the beautiful ones in the collection of Mr. A. G. Richmond, of
+Canajoharie, New York.</p>
+
+<p>Gourds were plentiful on the farm, and gathered with care, that the
+hard-shelled fruit might be shaped into simple drinking-cups. In
+Elizabeth's time silver cups were made in the shape of these gourds. The
+ships that brought "lemmons and raysins of the sun" from the tropics to
+the colonists, also brought cocoanuts. Since the thirteenth century the
+shells of cocoanuts have been mounted<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span> with silver feet and "covercles"
+in a goblet shape, and been much sought after by Englishmen. Mounted in
+pewter, and sometimes in silver, or simply shaped with a wooden handle
+attached, the shell of the cocoanut was a favorite among the English
+settlers. To this day one of the cocoanut-shell cups, or dippers, is a
+favorite drinking-cup of many. A handsome cocoanut goblet, richly
+mounted in silver, is shown in the accompanying illustration. It was
+once the property of the Revolutionary patriot, John Hancock, and is now
+in the custody of the Bostonian Society, at the Old State House, in
+Boston, Massachusetts.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Popular drinking-mugs of the English, from which specially they drank
+their mead, metheglin, and ale, were the stoneware jugs which were made
+in Germany and England, in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, in
+great numbers. An English writer in 1579, spoke of the English custom of
+drinking from "pots of earth, of sundry colors and moulds, whereof many
+are garnished with silver, or leastwise with pewter." Such a piece of
+stoneware is the oldest authenticated drinking-jug in this country,
+which was brought here and used by English colonists. It was the
+property of Governor John Winthrop, who came to Boston in 1630, and now
+belongs to the American Antiquarian<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span> Society, in Worcester,
+Massachusetts. It stands eight inches in height, is apparently of German
+Gresware, and is heavily mounted in silver. The lid is engraved with a
+quaint design of Adam and Eve and the tempting serpent in the
+apple-tree. It was a gift to John Winthrop's father from his sister,
+Lady Mildmay, in 1607, and was then, and is still now, labelled, "a
+stone Pot tipped and covered with a Silver Lydd." Many other Boston
+colonists had similar "stone juggs," "fflanders juggs," "tipt juggs."
+What were known as "Fulham juggs" were also much prized. The most
+interesting ones are the Georgius Rex jugs, those marked with a crown,
+the initials G. R., or a medallion head of the first of the English
+Georges. I know one of these jugs which has a Revolutionary bullet
+imbedded in its tough old side, and is not<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span> even cracked. Many of them
+had pewter or silver lids, which are now missing. Some have the curious
+hound handle which was so popular with English potters.</p>
+
+<p>There was no china in common use on the table, and little owned even by
+persons of wealth throughout the seventeenth century, either in England
+or America. Delft ware was made in several factories in Holland at the
+time the Dutch settled in New Netherland; but even in the towns of its
+manufacture it was not used for table ware. The pieces were usually of
+large size, what were called state pieces, for cabinet and decorative
+purposes. The Dutch settlers, however, had "purslin cupps" and earthen
+dishes in considerable quantities toward the end of the century. The
+earthen was possibly Delft ware, and the "Purslin" India china, which by
+that time was largely imported to Holland. Some Portuguese and Spanish
+pottery was imported, but was not much desired, as it was ill fired and
+perishable. It was not until Revolutionary times that china was a common
+table furnishing; then it began to crowd out pewter. The sudden and
+enormous growth of East India commerce, and the vast cargoes of Chinese
+pottery and porcelain wares brought to American ports soon gave ample
+china to every housewife. In the Southern colonies<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span> beautiful isolated
+pieces of porcelain, such as vast punch-bowls, often were found in the
+homes of opulent planters; but there, as in the North, the first china
+for general table use was the handleless tea-cups, usually of some
+Canton ware, which crept with the fragrant herb into every woman's
+heart&mdash;both welcome Oriental waifs.</p>
+
+<p>It may well be imagined that this long narrow table&mdash;with a high
+salt-cellar in the middle, with clumsy wooden trenchers for plates, with
+round pewter platters heaped high with the stew of meat and vegetables,
+with a great noggin or two of wood, a can of pewter, or a silver tankard
+to drink from, with leather jacks to hold beer or milk, with many wooden
+or pewter and some silver spoons, but no forks, no glass, no china, no
+covered dishes, no saucers&mdash;did not look much like our dinner tables
+to-day.</p>
+
+<p>Even the seats were different; there were seldom chairs or stools for
+each person. A long narrow bench without a back, called a form, was
+placed on each side of the table. Children in many households were not
+allowed to sit, even on these uncomfortable forms, while eating. Many
+times they had to stand by the side of the table during the entire meal;
+in old-fashioned families that uncomfortable and ungracious custom
+lasted till this century. I<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span> know of children not fifty years ago
+standing thus at all meals at the table of one of the Judges of the
+Supreme Court. He had a bountiful table, was a hospitable entertainer
+and well-known epicure; but children sat not at his board. Each stood at
+his own place and had to behave with decorum and eat in entire silence.
+In some families children stood behind their parents and other grown
+persons, and food was handed back to them from the table&mdash;so we are
+told. This seems closely akin to throwing food to an animal, and must
+have been among people of very low station and social manners.</p>
+
+<p>In other houses they stood at a side-table; and, trencher in hand, ran
+over to the great table to be helped to more food when their first
+supply was eaten.</p>
+
+<p>The chief thought on the behavior of children at the table, which must
+be inferred from all the accounts we have of those times is that they
+were to eat in silence, as fast as possible (regardless of indigestion),
+and leave the table as speedily as might be. In a little book called <i>A
+Pretty Little Pocket Book</i>, printed in America about the time of the
+Revolution, I found a list of rules for the behavior of children at the
+table at that date. They were ordered never to seat themselves at the
+table until after the blessing had been asked, and their parents told
+them to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span> be seated. They were never to ask for anything on the table;
+never to speak unless spoken to; always to break the bread, not to bite
+into a whole slice; never to take salt except with a clean knife; not to
+throw bones under the table. One rule read: "Hold not thy knife upright,
+but sloping; lay it down at right hand of the plate, with end of blade
+on the plate." Another, "Look not earnestly at any other person that is
+eating." When children had eaten all that had been given them, if they
+were "moderately satisfied," they were told to leave at once the table
+and room.</p>
+
+<p>When the table-board described herein was set with snowy linen cloth and
+napkins, and ample fare, it had some compensations for what modern
+luxuries it lacked, some qualifications for inducing contentment
+superior even to our beautiful table-settings. There was nothing
+perishable in its entire furnishing: no frail and costly china or glass,
+whose injury and destruction by clumsy or heedless servants would make
+the heart of the housekeeper ache, and her anger nourish the germs of
+ptomaines within her. There was little of intrinsic value to watch and
+guard and worry about. There was little to make extra and difficult
+work,&mdash;no glass to wash with anxious care, no elaborate silver to
+clean,&mdash;only a few pieces of pewter to polish occasionally.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span> It was all
+so easy and so simple when compared with the complex and varied
+paraphernalia and accompaniments of serving of meals to-day, that it was
+like Arcadian simplicity.</p>
+
+<p>In Virginia the table furnishings were similar to those in New England;
+but there were greater contrasts in table appointments. There was more
+silver, and richer food; but the negro servants were so squalid, clumsy,
+and uncouth that the incongruity made the meals very surprising and, at
+times, repellent.</p>
+
+<p>When dinners of some state were given in the larger towns, the table was
+not set or served like the formal dinner of to-day, for all the sweets,
+pastry, vegetables, and meats were placed on the table together, with a
+grand "conceit" for the ornament in the centre. At one period, when
+pudding was part of the dinner, it was served first. Thus an old-time
+saying is explained, which always seemed rather meaningless, "I came
+early&mdash;in pudding-time." There was considerable formality in portioning
+out the food, especially in carving, which was regarded as much more
+than a polite accomplishment, even as an art. I have seen a list of
+sixty or seventy different terms in carving to be applied with exactness
+to different fish, fowl, and meats. An old author says:&mdash;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"How all must regret to hear some Persons, even of quality say,
+'pray cut up that Chicken or Hen,' or 'Halve that Plover'; not
+considering how indiscreetly they talk, when the proper Terms are,
+'break that Goose,' 'thrust that Chicken,' 'spoil that Hen,'
+'pierce that Plover.' If they are so much out in common Things, how
+much more would they be with Herons, Cranes, and Peacocks."</p></div>
+
+<p>It must have required good judgment and constant watchfulness never to
+say "spoil that Hen," when it was a chicken; or else be thought
+hopelessly ill-bred.</p>
+
+<p>There were few state dinners, however, served in the American colonies,
+even in the large cities; there were few dinners, even, of many courses;
+not always were there many dishes. There were still seen in many homes
+more primitive forms of serving and eating meals, than were indicated by
+the lack of individual drinking-cups, the mutual use of a trencher, or
+even the utilization of the table top as a plate. In some homes an
+abundant dish, such as a vast bowl of suppawn and milk, a pumpkin stewed
+whole in its shell, or a savory and mammoth hotchpot was set, often
+smoking hot, on the table-board; and from this well-filled receptacle
+each hungry soul, armed with a long-handled pewter or wooden spoon,
+helped himself, sometimes ladling his great spoonfuls into a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span> trencher
+or bowl, for more moderate and reserved after-consumption,&mdash;just as
+frequently eating directly from the bountiful dish with a spoon that
+came and went from dish to mouth without reproach, or thought of
+ill-manners. The accounts of travellers in all the colonies frequently
+tell of such repasts; some termed it eating in the fashion of the Dutch.
+The reports of old settlers often recall the general dish; and some very
+distinguished persons joined in the circle around it, and were glad to
+get it. Variety was of little account, compared to quantity and quality.
+A cheerful hospitality and grateful hearts filled the hollow place of
+formality and elegance.</p>
+
+<p>By the time that newspapers began to have advertisements in them&mdash;about
+1750&mdash;we find many more articles for use at the table; but often the
+names were different from those used to-day. Our sugar bowls were called
+sugar boxes and sugar pots; milk pitchers were milk jugs, milk ewers,
+and milk pots. Vegetable dishes were called basins, pudding dishes
+twifflers, small cups were called sneak cups.</p>
+
+<p>We have still to-day a custom much like one of olden times, when we have
+the crumbs removed from our tables after a course at dinner. Then a
+voider was passed around the table near the close of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span> the dinner, and
+into it the persons at the table placed their trenchers, napkins, and
+the crumbs from the table. The voider was a deep wicker, wooden, or
+metal basket. In the <i>Boke of Nurture</i>, written in 1577, are these
+lines:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"When meate is taken quyte awaye<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">And Voyders in presence,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Put you your trenchour in the same<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">and all your resydence.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Take you with your napkin &amp; knyfe<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">the croms that are fore the,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">In the Voyder your Napkin leave<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">for it is a curtesye."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span><br />
+FOOD FROM FOREST AND SEA</h2>
+
+
+<p>Though all the early explorers and travellers came to America eager to
+find precious and useful metals, they did not discover wealth and
+prosperity underground in mines, but on the top of the earth, in the
+woods and fields. To the forests they turned for food, and they did not
+turn in vain. Deer were plentiful everywhere, and venison was offered by
+the Indians to the first who landed from the ships. Some families lived
+wholly on venison for nine months of the year. In Virginia were vast
+numbers of red and fallow deer, the latter like those of England, except
+in the smaller number of branches of the antlers. They were so devoid of
+fear as to remain undisturbed by the approach of men; a writer of that
+day says: "Hard by the Fort two hundred in one herd have been usually
+observed." They were destroyed ruthlessly by a system of fire-hunting,
+in which tracts of forests were burned over, by starting a continuous
+circle of fire miles around, which burnt in toward<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span> the centre of the
+circle; thus the deer were driven into the middle, and hundreds were
+killed. This miserable, wholesale slaughter was not for venison, but for
+the sake of the hides, which were very valuable. They were used to make
+the durable and suitable buckskin breeches and jackets so much worn by
+the settlers; and they were also exported to Europe in large numbers. A
+tax was placed on hides for the support of the beloved William and Mary
+College.</p>
+
+<p>In Georgia, in 1735, the Indians sold a deer for sixpence. Deer were
+just as abundant in the more Northern colonies. At Albany a stag was
+sold readily by the Indians for a jack-knife or a few iron nails. The
+deer in winter came and fed from the hog-pens of Albany swine. Even in
+1695, a quarter of venison could be bought in New York City for
+ninepence. At the first Massachusetts Thanksgiving, in 1621, the Indians
+brought in five deer to the colonists for their feast. That year there
+was also "great store of wild turkies." These beautiful birds of gold
+and purple bronze were at first plentiful everywhere, and were of great
+weight, far larger than our domestic turkeys to-day. They came in flocks
+of a hundred, Evelyn says of three hundred on the Chesapeake, and they
+weighed thirty or forty pounds<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span> each: Josselyn says he saw one weighing
+sixty pounds. William Penn wrote that turkeys weighing thirty pounds
+apiece sold in his day and colony for a shilling only. They were shy
+creatures and fled inland from the white man, and by 1690 were rarely
+shot near the coast of New England, though in Georgia, in 1733, they
+were plentiful enough and cheap enough to sell for fourpence apiece.
+Flights of pigeons darkened the sky, and broke down the limbs of trees
+on which they lighted. From Maine to Virginia these vast flocks were
+seen. Some years pigeons were so plentiful that they were sold for a
+penny a dozen in Boston. Pheasant, partridge, woodcock, and quail
+abounded, plover, snipe, and curlew were in the marsh-woods; in fact, in
+Virginia every bird familiar to Englishmen at home was found save
+peacock and domestic fowl.</p>
+
+<p>Wild hare and squirrels were so many that they became pests, and so much
+grain was eaten by them that bounties were paid in many towns for the
+heads of squirrels. County treasuries were exhausted by these premiums.
+The Swedish traveller, Kalm, said that in Pennsylvania in one year,
+1749, &pound;8000 was paid out for heads of black and gray squirrels, at
+threepence a head, which would show that over six hundred thousand were
+killed.</p>
+
+<p>From the woods came a sweet food-store, one<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span> specially grateful when
+sugar was so scarce and so high-priced,&mdash;wild honey, which the colonists
+eagerly gathered everywhere from hollow tree-trunks. Curiously enough,
+the traveller, Kalm, insisted that bees were not native in America, but
+were brought over by the English; that the Indians had no name for them
+and called them English flies.</p>
+
+<p>Governor Berkeley of Virginia, writing in 1706, called the maple the
+sugar-tree; he said:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"The Sugar-Tree yields a kind of Sap or Juice which by boiling is
+made into Sugar. This Juice is drawn out, by wounding the Trunk of
+the Tree, and placing a Receiver under the Wound. It is said that
+the Indians make one Pound of Sugar out of eight Pounds of the
+Liquor. It is bright and moist with a full large Grain, the
+Sweetness of it being like that of good Muscovada."</p></div>
+
+<p>The sugar-making season was ever hailed with delight by the boys of the
+household in colonial days, who found in this work in the woods a
+wonderful outlet for the love of wild life which was strong in them. It
+had in truth a touch of going a-gypsying, if any work as hard as
+sugaring-off could have anything common with gypsy life. The maple-trees
+were tapped as soon as the sap began to run in the trunk and showed at
+the end of the twigs; this was in late winter if mild, or in the
+earliest<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span> spring. A notch was cut in the trunk of the tree at a
+convenient height from the ground, usually four or five feet, and the
+running sap was guided by setting in the notch a semicircular basswood
+spout cut and set with a special tool called a tapping-gauge. In earlier
+days the trees were "boxed," that is, a great gash cut across the side
+and scooped out and down to gather the sap. This often proved fatal to
+the trees, and was abandoned. A trough, usually made of a butternut log
+about three feet long, was dug out, Indian fashion, and placed under the
+end of the spout. These troughs were made deep enough to hold about ten
+quarts. In later years a hole was bored in the tree with an augur; and
+sap-buckets were used instead of troughs.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes these troughs were left in distant sugar-camps from year to
+year, turned bottom side up, through the summer and winter. It was more
+thrifty and tidy, however, to carry them home and store them. When this
+was done, the men and boys began work by drawing the troughs and spouts
+and provisions to the woods on hand-sleds. Sometimes a mighty man took
+in a load on his back. It is told of John Alexander of Brattleboro,
+Vermont, that he once went into camp <i>upon snowshoes</i> carrying for three
+miles one five-pail iron kettle, two sap-buckets, an axe and trappings,
+a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span> knapsack, four days' provisions, and a gun and ammunition.</p>
+
+<p>The master of ceremonies&mdash;the owner of the camp&mdash;selected the trees and
+drove the spouts, while the boys placed the troughs. Then the snow had
+to be shovelled away on a level spot about eighteen or twenty feet
+square, in which strong forked sticks were set twelve feet apart. Or the
+ground was chosen so that two small low-spreading and strong trees could
+be trimmed and used as forks. A heavy green stick was placed across from
+fork to fork, and the sugaring-off kettles, sometimes five in number,
+hung on it. Then dry wood had to be gathered for the fires; hard work it
+was to keep them constantly supplied. It was often cut a year in
+advance. As the sap collected in the troughs it was gathered in pails or
+buckets which, hung on a sap-yoke across the neck, were brought to the
+kettles and the sap set a-boiling down. When there was a "good run of
+sap," it was usually necessary to stay in the camp over night. Many
+times the campers stayed several nights. As the "good run" meant milder
+weather, a night or two was not a bitter experience; indeed, I have
+never heard any one speak nor seen any account of a night spent in a
+sugar-camp except with keen expressions of delight. If possible, the
+time was chosen during a term of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span> moonlight; the snow still covered the
+fields and its pure shining white light could be seen through the trees.</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"God makes sech nights, so white and still<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Fer's you can look and listen.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Moonlight an' snow, on field and hill,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">All silence and all glisten."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>The great silence, broken only by steady dropping of the sap, the
+crackle of blazing brush, and the occasional hooting of startled owls;
+the stars seen singly overhead through the openings of the trees,
+shining down the dark tunnel as bright as though there were no moon;
+above all, the clearness and sweetness of the first atmosphere of
+spring,&mdash;gave an exaltation of the senses and spirit which the country
+boy felt without understanding, and indeed without any formulated
+consciousness.</p>
+
+<p>If the camp were near enough to any group of farmhouses to have
+visitors, the last afternoon and evening in camp was made a country
+frolic. Great sled-loads of girls came out to taste the new sugar, to
+drop it into the snow to candy, and to have an evening of fun.</p>
+
+<p>Long ere the full riches of the forests were tested the colonists turned
+to another food-supply,&mdash;the treasures of the sea.</p>
+
+<p>The early voyagers and colonists came to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span> coasts of the New World to
+find gold and furs. The gold was not found by them nor their children's
+children in the land which is now the United States, till over two
+centuries had passed from the time of the settlement, and the gold-mines
+of California were opened. The furs were at first found and profitably
+gathered, but the timid fur-bearing animals were soon exterminated near
+the settlements. There was, however, a vast wealth ready for the
+colonists on the coast of the New World which was greater than gold,
+greater than furs; a wealth ever-obtainable, ever-replenished,
+ever-useful, ever-salable; it was <i>fish</i>. The sea, the rivers, the
+lakes, teemed with fish. Not only was there food for the settlers, but
+for the whole world, and all Europe desired fish to eat. The ships of
+the early discoverer, Gosnold, in 1602, were "pestered with cod."
+Captain John Smith, the acute explorer, famous in history as befriended
+by Pocahontas, went to New England, in 1614, to seek for whale, and
+instead he fished for cod. He secured sixty thousand in one month; and
+he wrote to his countrymen, "Let not the meanness of the word <i>fish</i>
+distaste you, for it will afford as good gold as the mines of Guiana or
+Potosi, with less hazard and charge, and more certainty and facility."
+This promise of wealth has proved true a thousandfold. Smith wrote home
+to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span> England full accounts of the fisheries, of the proper equipment of a
+fishing-vessel, of the methods of fishing, the profits, all in a most
+enticing and familiar style. He said in his <i>Description of New
+England</i>:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"What pleasure can be more than to recreate themselves before their
+owne doores in their owne boates, upon the Sea, where man, woman,
+and childe, with a small hooke and line by angling, may take
+diverse sorts of excellent fish, at their pleasure? And is it not
+pretty sport to pull up twopence, sixpence, or twelvepence, as fast
+as you can hale and veare a line? If a man worke but three days in
+seaven hee may get more than hee can spend unless hee will be
+excessive.</p>
+
+<p>"Young boyes and girles, salvages, or any other, be they never such
+idlers may turne, carry, and returne fish without shame or either
+great pain: hee is very idle that is past twelve years of age and
+cannot doe so much: and shee is very old that cannot spin a thread
+to catch them."</p></div>
+
+<p>His accounts and similar ones were so much read in England that when the
+Puritans asked King James of England for permission to come to America,
+and the king asked what profit would be found by their emigration, he
+was at once answered, "Fishing." Whereupon he said in turn, "In truth
+'tis an honest trade; 'twas the apostles' own calling." Yet in spite of
+their intent to fish, the first English<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span> ships came but poorly provided
+for fishing, and the settlers had little success at first even in
+getting fish for their own food. Elder Brewster of Plymouth, who had
+been a courtier in Queen Elizabeth's time, and had seen and eaten many
+rich feasts, had nothing to eat at one time but clams. Yet he could give
+thanks to God that he was "permitted to suck of the abundance of the
+seas and the treasures hid in the sand." The Indian Squanto showed the
+Pilgrims many practical methods of fishing, among them one of treading
+out eels from the brook with his feet and catching them with his hands.
+And every ship brought in either cod-hooks and lines, mackerel-hooks and
+lines, herring-nets, seines, shark-hooks, bass-nets, squid-lines,
+eel-pots, coils of rope and cable, "drails, barbels, pens, gaffs," or
+mussel-hooks.</p>
+
+<p>Josselyn, in his <i>New England's Rarities</i>, written in 1672, enumerated
+over two hundred kinds of fish that were caught in New England waters.</p>
+
+<p>Lobsters certainly were plentiful enough to prevent starvation. The
+minister Higginson, writing of lobsters at Salem, said that many of them
+weighed twenty-five pounds apiece, and that "the least boy in the
+plantation may catch and eat what he will of them." In 1623, when the
+ship <i>Anne</i> arrived from England, bringing many of the wives and
+children<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span> of the Pilgrims who had come in the first ships, the only
+feast of welcome that the poor husbands had to offer the newcomers was
+"a lobster or a piece of fish without bread or anything else but a cup
+of spring water."</p>
+
+<p>Patriarchal lobsters five and six feet long were caught in New York Bay.
+The traveller, Van der Donck, says "those a foot long are better for
+serving at table." Truly a lobster six feet long would seem a little
+awkward to serve on a dinner table. Eddis, in his <i>Letters from
+America</i>, written in 1792, says these vast lobsters were caught in New
+York waters until Revolutionary days, when "since the incessant
+cannonading, they have entirely forsaken the coast; not one having been
+taken or seen since the commencement of hostilities." Beside these great
+shell-fish the giant lobster confined in our New York Aquarium in 1897
+seems but a dwarf. In Virginia waters lobsters were caught, and vast
+crabs, often a foot in length and six inches broad, with a long tail and
+many legs. One of these crabs furnished a sufficient meal for four men.</p>
+
+<p>From the gossiping pages of the Labadist missionaries who came to
+America in 1697 we find hints of good fare in oysters in Brooklyn.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Then was thrown upon the fire, to be roasted, a pail full of
+Gowanes oysters which are the best in the country. They are fully
+as good as those of England, better than those we eat at Falmouth.
+I had to try some of them raw. They are large and full, some of
+them not less than a foot long. Others are young and small. In
+consequence of the great quantities of them everybody keeps the
+shells for the burning of lime. They pickle the oysters in small
+casks and send them to Barbados."</p></div>
+
+<p>Van der Donck corroborates the foot-long oysters seen by the Labadist
+travellers. He says the "large oysters roasted or stewed make a good
+bite,"&mdash;a very good bite, it would seem to us.</p>
+
+<p>Strachey, in his <i>Historie of Travaile into Virginia</i>, says he saw
+oysters in Virginia that were thirteen inches long. Fortunately for the
+starving Virginians, oyster banks rose above the surface at ebb-tide at
+the mouth of the Elizabeth River, and in 1609 a large number of these
+famished Virginia colonists found in these oyster banks a means of
+preservation of life.</p>
+
+<p>As might be expected of any country so intersected with arms of the sea
+and fresh-water streams, Virginia at the time of settlement teemed with
+fish. The Indians killed them in the brooks by striking them with
+sticks, and it is said the colonists scooped them up in frying-pans.
+Horses ridden into the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span> rivers stepped on the fish and killed them. In
+one cast of a seine the governor, Sir Thomas Dale, caught five thousand
+sturgeon as large as cod. Some sturgeon were twelve feet long. The works
+of Captain John Smith, Rolfe's <i>Relation</i>, and other books of early
+travellers, all tell of the enormous amount of fish in Virginia.</p>
+
+<p>The New York rivers were also full of fish, and the bays; their plenty
+in New Netherland inspired the first poet of that colony to rhyming
+enumeration of the various kinds of fish found there; among them were
+sturgeon&mdash;beloved of the Indians and despised of Christians; and
+terrapin&mdash;not despised by any one. "Some persons," wrote the Dutch
+traveller, Van der Donck, in 1656, "prepare delicious dishes from the
+water terrapin, which is luscious food." The Middle and Southern states
+paid equally warm but more tardy tribute to the terrapin's reputation as
+luscious food.</p>
+
+<p>While other fish were used everywhere for food, cod was the great staple
+of the fishing industry. By the year 1633 Dorchester and Marblehead had
+started in the fisheries for trading purposes. Sturgeon also was caught
+at a little later date, and bass and alewives.</p>
+
+<p>Morton, in his <i>New England Canaan</i>, written in 1636, says, "I myself at
+the turning of the tyde have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span> seen such multitudes of sea bass that it
+seemed to me that one might goe over their backs dri-shod."</p>
+
+<p>The regulation of fish-weirs soon became an important matter in all
+towns where streams let alewives up from the sea. The New England
+ministers took a hand in promoting and encouraging the fisheries, as
+they did all positive social movements and commercial benefits. Rev.
+Hugh Peter in Salem gave the fisheries a specially good turn. Fishermen
+were excused from military training, and portions of the common stock of
+corn were assigned to them. The General Court of Massachusetts exempted
+"vessels and stock" from "country charges" (which were taxes) for seven
+years. Seashore towns assigned free lands to each boat to be used for
+stays and flakes for drying. As early as 1640 three hundred thousand
+dried codfish were sent to market from New England.</p>
+
+<p>Codfish consisted of three sorts, "marchantable, middling, and refuse."
+The first grade was sold chiefly to Roman Catholic Europe, to supply the
+constant demands of the fast-days of that religion, and also those of
+the Church of England; the second was consumed at home or in the
+merchant vessels of New England; the third went to the negroes of the
+West Indies, and was often called Jamaica fish. The dun-fish or
+dumb-fish, as the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span> word was sometimes written, were the best; so called
+from the dun-color. Fish was always eaten in New England for a Saturday
+dinner; and Mr. Palfrey, the historian, says that until this century no
+New England dinner on Saturday, even a formal dinner party, was complete
+without dun-fish being served.</p>
+
+<p>Of course the first fishing-vessels had to be built and sent from
+England. Some carried fifty men. They arrived on the coast in early
+spring, and by midsummer sailed home. The crew had for wages one-third
+share of the fish and oil; another third paid for the men's food, the
+salt, nets, hooks, lines, etc.; the other third went to the ship's
+owners for profit.</p>
+
+<p>This system was not carried out in New England. There, each fisherman
+worked on "his own hook"&mdash;and it was literally his own hook; for a tally
+was kept of the fish caught by each man, and the proceeds of the trip
+were divided in proportion to the number of fish each caught. When there
+was a big run of fish, the men never stopped to eat or sleep, but when
+food was held to them gnawed it off while their hands were employed with
+the fish-lines. With every fishing-vessel that left Gloucester and
+Marblehead, the chief centres of the fishing industries, went a boy of
+ten or twelve to learn to be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span> a skilled fisherman. He was called a
+"cut-tail," for he cut a wedge-shaped bit from the tail of every fish he
+caught, and when the fish were sorted out the cut-tails showed the boy's
+share of the profit.</p>
+
+<p>For centuries, fish was plentiful and cheap in New England. The
+traveller Bennet wrote of Boston, in 1740:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Fish is exceedingly cheap. They sell a fine cod, will weigh a
+dozen pounds or more, just taken out of the sea for about twopence
+sterling. They have smelts, too, which they sell as cheap as sprats
+in London. Salmon, too, they have in great plenty, and these they
+sell for about a shilling apiece which will weigh fourteen or
+fifteen pounds."</p></div>
+
+<p>Two kinds of delicious fish, beloved, perhaps, above all others
+to-day,&mdash;salmon and shad,&mdash;seem to have been lightly regarded in
+colonial days. The price of salmon&mdash;less than a penny a pound&mdash;shows the
+low estimation in which it was held in the early years of the eighteenth
+century. It is told that farm-laborers in the vicinity of the
+Connecticut River when engaged to work stipulated that they should have
+salmon for dinner but once a week.</p>
+
+<p>Shad were profoundly despised; it was even held to be somewhat
+disreputable to eat them; and the story is told of a family in Hadley,
+Massachusetts, who were about to dine on shad, that, hearing a knock<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span> at
+the door, they would not open it till the platter holding the obnoxious
+shad had been hidden. At first they were fed chiefly to hogs. Two shad
+for a penny was the ignoble price in 1733, and it was never much higher
+until after the Revolution. After shad and salmon acquired a better
+reputation as food, the falls of various rivers became great resorts for
+American fishermen as they had been for the Indians. Both kinds of fish
+were caught in scoop-nets and seines below the falls. Men came from a
+distance and loaded horses and carts with the fish to carry home. Every
+farmhouse near was filled with visitors. It was estimated that at the
+falls at South Hadley there were fifteen hundred horses in one day.</p>
+
+<p>Salted fish was as carefully prepared and amiably regarded for home use
+in New England and New York as in England and Holland at the same date.
+The ling and herring of the old countries of Europe gave place in
+America to cod, shad, and mackerel. The greatest pains was taken in
+preparing, drying, and salting the plentiful fish. It is said that in
+New York towns, such as New York and Brooklyn, after shad became a
+popular fish, great heaps were left when purchased at each door, and
+that the necessary cleaning and preparation of the shad was done on the
+street. As all housewives purchased shad and salted and packed at about
+the same time,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span> those public scavengers, the domestic hogs who roamed
+the town streets unchecked (and ever welcomed), must have been specially
+useful at shad-time.</p>
+
+<p>Not in the waters, but of it, were the magnificent tribes of marine fowl
+that, undiminished by the feeble weapons and few numbers of the Indians,
+had peopled for centuries the waters of the New World. The Chesapeake
+and its tributaries furnished each autumn vast feeding-grounds of wild
+celery and other aquatic plants to millions of those creatures. The
+firearms of Captain John Smith and his two companions were poor things
+compared with the fowling-pieces of to-day, but with their three shots
+they killed a hundred and forty-eight ducks at one firing. The splendid
+wild swan wheeled and trumpeted in the clear autumn air; the wild geese
+flew there in their beautiful <span class="f">V</span>-shaped flight; duck in all the varieties
+known to modern sportsmen&mdash;canvas-back, mallard, widgeon, redhead,
+oxeye, dottrel&mdash;rested on the Chesapeake waters in vast flocks a mile
+wide and seven miles long. Governor Berkeley named also brant, shell
+drake, teal, and blewings. The sound of their wings was said to be "like
+a great storm coming over the water." For centuries these ducks have
+been killed by the white man, and still they return each autumn to their
+old feeding-places.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span><br />
+INDIAN CORN</h2>
+
+
+<p>A great field of tall Indian corn waving its stately and luxuriant green
+blades, its graceful spindles, and glossy silk under the hot August sun,
+should be not only a beautiful sight to every American, but a suggestive
+one; one to set us thinking of all that Indian corn means to us in our
+history. It was a native of American soil at the settlement of this
+country, and under full and thoroughly intelligent cultivation by the
+Indians, who were also native sons of the New World. Its abundance,
+adaptability, and nourishing qualities not only saved the colonists'
+lives, but altered many of their methods of living, especially their
+manner of cooking and their tastes in food.</p>
+
+<p>One of the first things that every settler in a new land has to learn is
+that he must find food in that land; that he cannot trust long to any
+supplies of food which he has brought with him, or to any fresh supplies
+which he has ordered to be sent after him. He must turn at once to
+hunting, fishing,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span> planting, to furnish him with food grown and found in
+the very place where he is.</p>
+
+<p>This was quickly learned by the colonists in America, except in
+Virginia, where they had sad starving-times before all were convinced
+that corn was a better crop for settlers than silk or any of the many
+hoped-for productions which might be valuable in one sense but which
+could not be eaten. Powhatan, the father of the Indian princess
+Pocahontas, was one of the first to "send some of his People that they
+may teach the English how to sow the Grain of his Country." Captain John
+Smith, ever quick to learn of every one and ever practical, got two
+Indians, in the year 1608, to show him how to break up and plant forty
+acres of corn, which yielded him a good crop. A succeeding governor of
+Virginia, Sir Thomas Dale, equally practical, intelligent, and
+determined, assigned small farms to each colonist, and encouraged and
+enforced the growing of corn. Soon many thousand bushels were raised.
+There was a terrible Indian massacre in 1622, for the careless
+colonists, in order to be free to give their time to the raising of that
+new and exceedingly alluring and high-priced crop, tobacco, had given
+the Indians firearms to go hunting game for them; and the lesson of easy
+killing with powder and shot, when once learned, was turned with havoc<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span>
+upon the white men. The following year comparatively little corn was
+planted, as the luxuriant foliage made a perfect ambush for the close
+approach of the savages to the settlements. There was, of course,
+scarcity and famine as the result; and a bushel of corn-meal became
+worth twenty to thirty shillings, which sum had a value equal to twenty
+to thirty dollars to-day. The planters were each compelled by the
+magistrates the following year to raise an ample amount of corn to
+supply all the families; and to save a certain amount for seed as well.
+There has been no lack of corn since that time in Virginia.</p>
+
+<p>The French colonists in Louisiana, perhaps because they were accustomed
+to more dainty food than the English, fiercely hated corn, as have the
+Irish in our own day. A band of French women settlers fairly raised a
+"petticoat rebellion" in revolt against its daily use. A despatch of the
+governor of Louisiana says of these rebels:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"The men in the colony begin through habit to use corn as an
+article of food; but the women, who are mostly Parisians, have for
+this food a dogged aversion, which has not been subdued. They
+inveigh bitterly against His Grace, the Bishop of Quebec, who, they
+say, has enticed them away from home under pretext of sending them
+to enjoy the milk and honey of the land of promise."</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>This hatred of corn was shared by other races. An old writer says:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Peter Martyr could magnifie the Spaniards, of whom he reports they
+led a miserable life for three days together, with parched grain of
+maize onlie"&mdash;</p></div>
+
+<p>which, when compared with the diet of New England settlers for weeks at
+a time, seems such a bagatelle as to be scarce worth the mention of
+Peter Martyr. By tradition, still commemorated at Forefathers' Dinners,
+the ration of Indian corn supplied to each person in the colony in time
+of famine was but five kernels.</p>
+
+<p>The stores brought over by the Pilgrims were poor and inadequate enough;
+the beef and pork were tainted, the fish rotten, the butter and cheese
+corrupted. European wheat and seeds did not mature well. Soon, as
+Bradford says in his now famous <i>Log-Book</i>, in his picturesque and
+forcible English, "the grim and grizzled face of starvation stared" at
+them. The readiest supply to replenish the scanty larder was fish, but
+the English made surprisingly bungling work over fishing, and soon the
+most unfailing and valuable supply was the native Indian corn, or
+"Guinny wheat," or "Turkie wheat," as it was called by the colonists.</p>
+
+<p>Famine and pestilence had left eastern Massachusetts<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span> comparatively bare
+of inhabitants at the time of the settlement of Plymouth; and the vacant
+cornfields of the dead Indian cultivators were taken and planted by the
+weak and emaciated Plymouth men, who never could have cleared new
+fields. From the teeming sea, in the April run of fish, was found the
+needed fertilizer. Says Governor Bradford:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"In April of the first year they began to plant their corne, in
+which service Squanto stood them in great stead, showing them both
+ye manner how to set it, and after, how to dress and tend it."</p></div>
+
+<p>From this planting sprang not only the most useful food, but the first
+and most pregnant industry of the colonists.</p>
+
+<p>The first fields and crops were communal, and the result was disastrous.
+The third year, at the sight of the paralyzed settlement, Governor
+Bradford wisely decided, as did Governor Dale of Virginia, that "they
+should set corne every man for his owne particuler, furnishing a portion
+for public officers, fishermen, etc., who could not work, and in that
+regard trust to themselves." Thus personal energy succeeded to communal
+inertia; Bradford wrote that women and children cheerfully worked in the
+fields to raise corn which should be their very own.</p>
+
+<p>A field of corn on the coast of Massachusetts or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span> Narragansett or by the
+rivers of Virginia, growing long before any white man had ever been seen
+on these shores, was precisely like the same field planted three hundred
+years later by our American farmers. There was the same planting in
+hills, the same number of stalks in the hill, with pumpkin-vines running
+among the hills, and beans climbing the stalks. The hills of the Indians
+were a trifle nearer together than those of our own day are usually set,
+for the native soil was more fertile.</p>
+
+<p>The Indians taught the colonists much more than the planting and raising
+of corn; they showed also how to grind the corn and cook it in many
+palatable ways. The various foods which we use to-day made from Indian
+corn are all cooked just as the Indians cooked them at the time of the
+settlement of the country; and they are still called with Indian names,
+such as hominy, pone, suppawn, samp, succotash.</p>
+
+<p>The Indian method of preparing maize or corn was to steep or parboil it
+in hot water for twelve hours, then to pound the grain in a mortar or a
+hollowed stone in the field, till it was a coarse meal. It was then
+sifted in a rather closely woven basket, and the large grains which did
+not pass through the sieve were again pounded and sifted.</p>
+
+<p>Samp was often pounded in olden times in a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span> primitive and picturesque
+Indian mortar made of a hollowed block of wood or a stump of a tree,
+which had been cut off about three feet from the ground. The pestle was
+a heavy block of wood shaped like the inside of the mortar, and fitted
+with a handle attached to one side. This block was fastened to the top
+of a young and slender tree, a growing sapling, which was bent over and
+thus gave a sort of spring which pulled the pestle up after being
+pounded down on the corn. This was called a sweep and mortar mill.</p>
+
+<p>They could be heard at a long distance. Two New Hampshire pioneers made
+clearings about a quarter of a mile apart and built houses. There was an
+impenetrable gully and thick woods between the cabins; and the blazed
+path was a long distance around, so the wives of the settlers seldom saw
+each other or any other woman. It was a source of great comfort and
+companionship to them both that they could signal to each other every
+day by pounding on their mortars. And they had an ingenious system of
+communication which one spring morning summoned one to the home of the
+other, where she arrived in time to be the first to welcome fine twin
+babies.</p>
+
+<p>After these simple stump and sapling mortars were abandoned elsewhere
+they were used on Long<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span> Island, and it was jestingly told that sailors
+in a fog could always know on what shore they were, when they could hear
+the pounding of the samp-mortars on Long Island.</p>
+
+<p>Rude hand-mills next were used, which were called quernes, or quarnes.
+Some are still in existence and known as samp-mills. Windmills followed,
+of which the Indians were much afraid, dreading "their long arms and
+great teeth biting the corn in pieces"; and thinking some evil spirit
+turned the arms. As soon as maize was plentiful, English mills for
+grinding meal were started in many towns. There was a windmill at
+Watertown, Massachusetts, in 1631. In 1633 the first water-mill, at
+Dorchester, was built, and in Ipswich a grist-mill was built in 1635.
+The mill built by Governor John Winthrop in New London is still
+standing.</p>
+
+<p>The first windmill erected in America was one built and set up by
+Governor Yeardley in Virginia in 1621. By 1649 there were five
+water-mills, four windmills, and a great number of horse and hand mills
+in Virginia. Millers had one-sixth of the meal they ground for toll.</p>
+
+<p>Suppawn was another favorite of the settlers, and was an Indian dish
+made from Indian corn; it was a thick corn-meal and milk porridge. It
+was soon seen on every Dutch table, for the Dutch were very<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span> fond of all
+foods made from all kinds of grain; and it is spoken of by all
+travellers in early New York, and in the Southern colonies.</p>
+
+<p>Samp and samp porridge were soon abundant dishes. Samp is Indian corn
+pounded to a coarsely ground powder. Roger Williams wrote of it:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Nawsamp is a kind of meal pottage unparched. From this the English
+call their samp, which is the Indian corn beaten and boiled and
+eaten hot or cold with milk and butter, and is a diet exceedingly
+wholesome for English bodies."</p></div>
+
+<p>The Swedish scientist, Professor Kalm, told that the Indians gave him
+"fresh maize-bread, baked in an oblong shape, mixed with dried
+huckleberries, which lay as close in it as raisins in a plum pudding."</p>
+
+<p>Roger Williams said that sukquttahhash was "corn seethed like beans."
+Our word "succotash" we now apply to corn cooked with beans. Pones were
+the red men's appones.</p>
+
+<p>The love of the Indians for "roasting ears" was quickly shared by the
+white man. In Virginia a series of plantings of corn were made from the
+first of April to the last of June, to afford a three months' succession
+of roasting ears.</p>
+
+<p>The traveller, Strachey, writing of the Indians in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span> 1618, said: "They
+lap their corn in rowles within the leaves of the come and so boyle yt
+for a dayntie." This method of cooking we have also retained to the
+present day.</p>
+
+<p>It seemed to me very curious to read in Governor Winthrop's journal,
+written in Boston about 1630, that when corn was "parched," as he called
+it, it turned inside out and was "white and floury within"; and to think
+that then little English children were at that time learning what
+pop-corn was, and how it looked when it was parched, or popped.</p>
+
+<p>Hasty pudding had been made in England of wheat-flour or oatmeal and
+milk, and the name was given to boiled puddings of corn-meal and water.
+It was not a very suitable name, for corn-meal should never be cooked
+hastily, but requires long boiling or baking. The hard Indian pudding
+slightly sweetened and boiled in a bag was everywhere made. It was told
+that many New England families had three hundred and sixty-five such
+puddings in a year.</p>
+
+<p>The virtues of "jonny-cake" have been loudly sung in the interesting
+pages of <i>Shepherd Tom</i>. The way the corn should be carried to the mill,
+the manner in which it should be ground, the way in which the stones
+should revolve, and the kind of stones, receive minute description, as
+does the mixing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span> and the baking, to the latter of which the middle board
+of red oak from the head of a flour-barrel is indispensable as a
+bakeboard, while the fire to bake with must be of walnut logs. Hasty
+pudding, corn dumplings, and corn-meal porridge, so eminently good that
+it was ever mentioned with respect in the plural, as "them porridge,"
+all are described with the exuberant joyousness of a happy, healthful
+old age in remembrance of a happy, high-spirited, and healthful youth.</p>
+
+<p>The harvesting of the corn afforded one of the few scenes of gayety in
+the lives of the colonists. A diary of one Ames, of Dedham,
+Massachusetts, in the year 1767, thus describes a corn-husking, and most
+ungallantly says naught of the red ear and attendant osculation:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Made a husking Entertainm't. Possibly this leafe may last a
+Century and fall into the hands of some inquisitive Person for
+whose Entertainm't I will inform him that now there is a Custom
+amongst us of making an Entertainm't at husking of Indian Corn
+whereto all the neighboring Swains are invited and after the Corn
+is finished they like the Hottentots give three Cheers or huzza's
+but cannot carry in the husks without a Rhum bottle; they feign
+great Exertion but do nothing till Rhum enlivens them, when all is
+done in a trice, then after a hearty Meal about 10 at Night they go
+to their pastimes."</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>There was one way of eating corn which was spoken of by all the early
+writers and travellers which we should not be very well satisfied with
+now, but it shows us how useful and necessary corn was at that time, and
+how much all depended on it. This preparation of corn was called nocake
+or nookick. An old writer named Wood thus defined it:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"It is Indian corn parched in the hot ashes, the ashes being sifted
+from it; it is afterwards beaten to powder and put into a long
+leatherne bag trussed at the Indian's backe like a knapsacke, out
+of which they take three spoonsful a day."</p></div>
+
+<p>It was held to be the most nourishing food known, and in the smallest
+and most condensed form. Both Indians and white men usually carried it
+in a pouch when they went on long journeys, and mixed it with snow in
+the winter and water in summer. Gookin says it was sweet, toothsome, and
+hearty. With only this nourishment the Indians could carry loads "fitter
+for elephants than men." Roger Williams says a spoonful of this meal and
+water made him many a good meal. When we read this we are not surprised
+that the Pilgrims could keep alive on what is said was at one time of
+famine their food for a day,&mdash;five kernels of corn apiece. The apostle<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span>
+Eliot, in his Indian Bible, always used the word nookick for the English
+words flour or meal.</p>
+
+<p>We ought to think of the value of food in those days; and we may be sure
+the governor and his council thought corn of value when they took it for
+taxes and made it a legal currency just like gold and silver, and
+forbade any one to feed it to pigs. If you happen to see the price of
+corn during those years down to Revolutionary times, you will, perhaps,
+be surprised to see how much the price varied. From ten shillings a
+bushel in 1631, to two shillings in 1672, to twenty in 1747, to two in
+1751, and one hundred shillings at the opening of the Revolution. In
+these prices of corn, as in the price of all other articles at this
+time, the difference was in the money, which had a constantly changing
+value, not in the article itself or its usefulness. The corn had a
+steady value, it always furnished just so much food; and really was a
+standard itself rather than measured and valued by the poor and shifting
+money.</p>
+
+<p>There are many other interesting facts connected with the early culture
+of corn: of the finding hidden in caves or "caches" in the ground the
+Indian's corn which he had stored for seed; of the sacred "corn-dances"
+of the Indians; that the first patent granted in England to an American
+was to a Philadelphia<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span> woman for a mill to grind a kind of hominy; of
+the great profit to the colonists in corn-raising, for the careless and
+greedy Indians always ate up all their corn as soon as possible, then
+had to go out and trap beavers in the woods to sell the skins to the
+colonists for corn to keep them from starving. One colonist planted
+about eight bushels of seed-corn. He raised from this eight hundred and
+sixty-four bushels of corn, which he sold to the Indians for beaver
+skins which gave him a profit of &pound;327.</p>
+
+<p>Many games were played with the aid of kernels of corn: fox and geese,
+checkers, "hull gull, how many," and games in which the corn served as
+counters.</p>
+
+<p>The ears of corn were often piled into the attic until the floor was a
+foot deep with them. I once entered an ell bedroom in a Massachusetts
+farmhouse where the walls, rafters, and four-post bedstead were hung
+solid with ears of yellow corn, which truly "made a sunshine in a shady
+place."</p>
+
+<p>Some of the preparation of corn fell upon the boys; it was their regular
+work all winter in the evening firelight to shell corn from the ears by
+scraping them on the iron edge of the wooden shovel or on the fire-peel.
+My father told me that even in his childhood in the first quarter of
+this century many families of moderate means fastened the long-handled<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span>
+frying-pan across a tub and drew the corn ears across the sharp edge of
+the handle of the pan. I note in Peter Parley's reminiscences of his
+childhood a similar use of a frying-pan handle in his home. Other
+farmers set the edge of a knife blade in a piece of wood and scraped on
+the back of the blade. In some households the corn was pounded<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span> into
+hominy in wooden mortars. An old corn-sheller used in western
+Massachusetts is here shown.</p>
+
+<p>When the corn was shelled, the cobs were not carelessly discarded or
+disregarded. They were stored often in a lean-to or loft in the kitchen
+ell; from thence they were brought down in skepes or boxes about a
+bushel at a time; and after being used by the children as playthings to
+build "cob-houses," were employed as light wood for the fire. They had a
+special use in many households for smoking hams; and their smoke was
+deemed to impart a specially delightful flavor to hams and bacon.</p>
+
+<p>One special use of corn should be noted. By order of the government of
+Massachusetts Bay in 1623, it was used as ballots in public voting. At
+annual elections of the governors' assistants in each town, a kernel of
+corn was deposited to signify a favorable vote upon the nominee, while a
+bean signified a negative vote; "and if any free-man shall put in more
+than one Indian corn or bean he shall forfeit for every such offence Ten
+Pounds."</p>
+
+<p>The choice of a national flower or plant is much talked about to-day.
+Aside from the beauty of maize when growing and its wonderful
+adaptability in every part for decoration, would not the noble and
+useful part played by Indian corn in our early history entitle it to be
+our first choice?</p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span><br />
+MEAT AND DRINK</h2>
+
+
+<p>The food brought in ships from Europe to the colonists was naturally
+limited by the imperfect methods of transportation which then existed.
+Nothing like refrigerators were known; no tinned foods were even thought
+of; ways of packing were very crude and careless; so the kinds of
+provisions which would stand the long voyage on a slow sailing-vessel
+were very few. The settlers turned at once, as all settlers in a new
+land should, to the food-supplies found in the new home; of these the
+three most important ones were corn, fish, and game. I have told of
+their plenty, their value, and their use. There were many other
+bountiful and good foods, among them pumpkins or pompions, as they were
+at first called.</p>
+
+<p>The pumpkin has sturdily kept its own place on the New England farm,
+varying in popularity and use, but always of value as easy of growth,
+easy of cooking, and easy to keep in a dried form. Yet the colonists did
+not welcome the pumpkin with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span> eagerness, even in times of great want.
+They were justly rebuked for their indifference and dislike by Johnson
+in his <i>Wonder-working Providence</i>, who called the pumpkin "a fruit
+which the Lord fed his people with till corn and cattle increased"; and
+another pumpkin-lover referred to "the times wherein old Pompion was a
+saint." One colonial poet gives the golden vegetable this tribute:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"We have pumpkins at morning and pumpkins at noon,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">If it were not for pumpkins we should be undone."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>I am very sure were I living on dried corn and scant shell-fish, as the
+Pilgrims were forced to do, I should have turned with delight to
+"pompion-sause" as a change of diet. Stewed pumpkins and pumpkin bread
+were coarse ways of using the fruit for food. Pumpkin bread&mdash;made of
+half Indian meal&mdash;was not very pleasing in appearance. A traveller in
+1704 called it an "awkward food." It is eaten in Connecticut to this
+day. The Indians dried pumpkins and strung them for winter use, and the
+colonists followed the Indian custom.</p>
+
+<p>In Virginia pumpkins were equally plentiful and useful. Ralph Hamor, in
+his <i>True Discourse</i>, says they grew in such abundance that a hundred
+were often observed to spring from one seed. The Virginia Indians boiled
+beans, peas, corn, and pumpkins<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span> together, and the colonists liked the
+dish. In the trying times at "James-Citty," the plentiful pumpkins
+played a great part in providing food-supplies for the starving
+Virginians.</p>
+
+<p>Squashes were also native vegetables. The name is Indian. To show the
+wonderful and varied way in which the English spelt Indian names let me
+tell you that Roger Williams called them askutasquashes; the Puritan
+minister Higginson, squantersquashes; the traveller Josselyn,
+squontorsquashes, and the historian Wood, isquoukersquashes.</p>
+
+<p>Potatoes were known to New Englanders, but were rare and when referred
+to were probably sweet potatoes. It was a long time before they were
+much liked. A farmer at Hadley, Massachusetts, had what he thought a
+very large crop in 1763&mdash;it was eight bushels. It was believed by many
+persons that if a man ate them every day, he could not live seven years.
+In the spring all that were left on hand were carefully burned, for many
+believed that if cattle or horses ate these potatoes they would die.
+They were first called, when carried to England, Virginia potatoes; then
+they became much liked and grown in Ireland; then the Irish settlers in
+New Hampshire brought them back to this continent, and now they are
+called, very senselessly, Irish potatoes. Many persons fancied the balls
+were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span> what should be eaten, and said they "did not much desire them." A
+fashionable way of cooking them was with butter, sugar, and grape-juice;
+this was mixed with dates, lemons, and mace; seasoned with cinnamon,
+nutmeg, and pepper; then covered with a frosting of sugar&mdash;and you had
+to hunt well to find the potato among all these other things.</p>
+
+<p>In the Carolinas the change in English diet was effected by the sweet
+potato. This root was cooked in various ways: it was roasted in the
+ashes, boiled, made into puddings, used as a substitute for bread, made
+into pancakes which a foreigner said tasted as though composed of sweet
+almonds; and in every way it was liked and was so plentiful that even
+the slaves fed upon it.</p>
+
+<p>Beans were abundant, and were baked by the Indians in earthen pots just
+as we bake them to-day. The settlers planted peas, parsnips, turnips,
+and carrots, which grew and thrived. Huckleberries, blackberries,
+strawberries, and grapes grew wild. Apple-trees were planted at once,
+and grew well in New England and the Middle states. Twenty years after
+the Roman Catholic settlement of Maryland the fruitful orchards were
+conspicuously flourishing.</p>
+
+<p>Johnson, writing in 1634, said that all then in New England could have
+apple, pear, and quince<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span> tarts instead of pumpkin-pies. They made
+apple-slump, apple-mose, apple-crowdy, apple-tarts, mess apple-pies, and
+puff apple-pies. The Swedish parson, Dr. Acrelius, writing home in 1758
+an account of the settlement of Delaware, said:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Apple-pie is used through the whole year, and when fresh apples
+are no longer to be had, dried ones are used. It is the evening
+meal of children. House-pie, in country places, is made of apples
+neither peeled nor freed from their cores, and its crust is not
+broken if a wagon wheel goes over it."</p></div>
+
+<p>The making of a portion of the autumn's crop of apples into dried
+apples, apple-sauce, and apple-butter for winter was preceded in many
+country homes by an apple-paring. The cheerful kitchen of a farmhouse
+was set with an array of empty pans, tubs, and baskets; of sharp knives
+and heaped-up barrels of apples. A circle of laughing faces completed
+the scene, and the barrels of apples were quickly emptied by the many
+skilful hands. The apples intended for drying were strung on linen
+thread and hung on the kitchen and attic rafters. The following day the
+stout crane in the open fireplace was hung with brass kettles which were
+filled with the pared apples, sweet and sour in proper proportions, the
+sour at the bottom since they required<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span> more time to cook. If quinces
+could be had, they were added to give flavor, and molasses, or
+boiled-down pungent "apple-molasses," was added for sweetening. As there
+was danger that the sauce would burn over the roaring logs, many
+housewives placed clean straw at the bottom of the kettle to keep the
+apples from the fiercest heat. Days were spent in preparing the winter's
+stock of apple-sauce, but when done and placed in barrels in the cellar,
+it was always ready for use, and when slightly frozen was a keen relish.
+Apple-butter was made of the pared apples boiled down with cider.</p>
+
+<p>Wheat did not at first ripen well, so white bread was for a time rarely
+eaten. Rye grew better, so bread made of "rye-an'-injun," which was half
+rye-meal, half corn-meal, was used instead. Bake-shops were so many in
+number in all the towns that it is evident that housewives in towns and
+villages did not make bread in every home as to-day, but bought it at
+the baker's.</p>
+
+<p>At the time when America was settled, no European peoples drank water as
+we do to-day, for a constant beverage. The English drank ale, the Dutch
+beer, the French and Spanish light wines, for every-day use. Hence it
+seemed to the colonists a great trial and even a very dangerous
+experiment to drink water in the New World. They were forced<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span> to do it,
+however, in many cases; and to their surprise found that it agreed with
+them very well, and that their health improved. Governor Winthrop of
+Massachusetts, who was a most sensible and thoughtful man, soon had
+water used as a constant drink by all in his household.</p>
+
+<p>As cows increased in number and were cared for, milk of course was added
+to the every-day fare. Rev. Mr. Higginson wrote in 1630 that milk cost
+in Salem but a penny a quart; while another minister, John Cotton, said
+that milk and ministers were the only things cheap in New England. At
+that time milk cost but a penny and a quarter a quart in old England.</p>
+
+<p>Milk became a very important part of the food of families in the
+eighteenth century. In 1728 a discussion took place in the Boston
+newspapers as to the expense of keeping a family "of middling figure."
+These writers all named only bread and milk for breakfast and supper.
+Ten years later a minister, calculating the expenses of his family, set
+down bread and milk for both breakfast and supper. Milk and hasty
+pudding, milk and stewed pumpkin, milk and baked apples, milk and
+berries, were variations. In winter, when milk was scarce, sweetened
+cider diluted with water was used instead. Sometimes bread was soaked
+with this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span> mixture. It is said that children were usually very fond of
+it.</p>
+
+<p>As comparatively few New England families in the seventeenth century
+owned churns, I cannot think that many made butter; of course families
+of wealth ate it, but it was not common as to-day. In the inventories of
+the property of the early settlers of Maine there is but one churn
+named. Butter was worth from threepence to sixpence a pound. As cattle
+increased the duties of the dairy grew, and soon were never-ceasing and
+ever-tiring. The care of cream and making of butter was in the
+eighteenth century the duty of every good wife and dame in the country,
+and usually in the town.</p>
+
+<p>Though the shape and ease of action of churns varied, still
+butter-making itself varied little from the same work to-day. Several
+old-time churns<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span> are shown, the revolving one being the most unusual.</p>
+
+<p>Cheese was plentiful and good in all the Northern colonies. It was also
+an unending care from the time the milk was set over the fire to warm
+and then to curdle; through the breaking of the curds in the
+cheese-basket; through shaping into cheeses and pressing in the
+cheese-press, placing them on the cheese-ladders, and constantly turning
+and rubbing them. An old cheese-press, cheese-ladder, and cheese-basket
+from Deerfield Memorial Hall are shown in the illustration.</p>
+
+<p>In all households, even in those of great wealth and many servants,
+assistance was given in all housewifery by the daughters of the
+household. In the South it was chiefly by superintendence and teaching
+through actual exposition the negro slaves; in the North it was by the
+careful performance of the work.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The manuscript cooking receipt-book of many an ancient dame shows the
+great care they took in family cooking. English methods of cooking at
+the time of the settlement of this country were very complicated and
+very laborious.</p>
+
+<p>It was a day of hashes, ragouts, soups, hotch-pots, etc. There were no
+great joints served until the time of Charles the First. In almost every
+sixteenth-century receipt for cooking meat, appear some such directions
+as these: "Y-mynce it, smyte them on gobbets, hew them on gobbets, chop
+on gobbets, hew small, dyce them, skern them to dyce,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span> kerf it to dyce,
+grind all to dust, smyte on peces, parcel-hem; hew small on morselyen,
+hack them small, cut them on culpons." Great amounts of spices were
+used, even perfumes; and as there was no preservation of meat by ice,
+perhaps the spices and perfumes were necessary.</p>
+
+<p>Of course the colonists were forced to adopt simpler ways of cooking,
+but as towns and commerce increased there were many kitchen duties which
+made much tedious work. Many pickles, spiced fruits, preserves, candied
+fruits and flowers, and marmalades were made.</p>
+
+<p>Preserving was a very different art from canning fruit to-day. There
+were no hermetically sealed jars, no chemical methods, no quick work
+about it. Vast jars were filled with preserves so rich that there was no
+need of keeping the air from them; they could be opened, that is, the
+paper cover taken off, and used as desired; there was no fear of
+fermentation, souring, or moulding.</p>
+
+<p>The housewives pickled samphire, fennel, purple cabbage,
+nasturtium-buds, green walnuts, lemons, radish-pods, barberries,
+elder-buds, parsley, mushrooms, asparagus, and many kinds of fish and
+fruit. They candied fruits and nuts, made many marmalades and
+quiddonies, and a vast number of fruit wines and cordials. Even their
+cakes, pies, and puddings<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span> were most complicated, and humble households
+were lavish in the various kinds they manufactured and ate.</p>
+
+<p>They collared and potted many kinds of fish and game, and they salted
+and soused. Salted meat was eaten, and very little fresh meat; for there
+were no means of keeping meat after it was killed. Every well-to-do
+family had a "powdering-tub," in which meat was "powdered," that is,
+salted and pickled. Many families had a smoke-house, in which beef, ham,
+and bacon were smoked.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps the busiest month of the year was November,&mdash;called "killing
+time." When the chosen day arrived, oxen, cows, and swine which had been
+fattened for the winter's stock were slaughtered early in the morning,
+that the meat might be hard and cold before<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span> being put in the pickle.
+Sausages, rolliches, and head-cheese were made, lard tried out, and
+tallow saved.</p>
+
+<p>A curious and quaint domestic implement or utensil found hanging on the
+walls of some kitchens was what was known as a sausage-gun. One here is
+shown with the piston detached, and also ready for use. The sausage-meat
+was forced out through the nozzle into the sausage-cases. A simpler form
+of sausage-stuffer has also been seen, much like a tube-and-piston
+garden-syringe; though I must add a suspicion which has always lingered
+in my mind that the latter utensil was really a syringe-gun, such as
+once was used to disable humming-birds by squirting water upon them.</p>
+
+<p>Sausage-meat was thus prepared in New York farmhouses. The meat was cut
+coarsely into half-inch<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span> pieces and thrown into wooden boxes about three
+feet long and ten inches deep. Then its first chopping was by men using
+spades which had been ground to a sharp edge.</p>
+
+<p>There were many families that found all their supply of sweetening in
+maple sugar and honey; but housewives of dignity and elegance desired to
+have some supply of sugar, certainly to offer visitors for their dish of
+tea. This sugar was always loaf-sugar, and truly loaf-sugar; for it was
+purchased ever in great loaves or cones which averaged in weight about
+nine to ten pounds apiece. One cone would last thrifty folk for a year.
+This pure clear sugar-cone always came wrapped in a deep blue-purple
+paper, of such unusual and beautiful tint and so color-laden that in
+country homes it was carefully saved and soaked, to supply a dye for a
+small amount of the finest wool, which was used when spun and dyed for
+some specially choice purpose. The cutting of this cone of sugar into
+lumps of equal size and regular shape was distinctly the work of the
+mistress and daughters of the house. It was too exact and too dainty a
+piece of work to be intrusted to clumsy or wasteful servants. Various
+simply shaped sugar-shears or sugar-cutters were used. An ordinary form
+is shown in the illustration. I well recall the only family in which I
+ever<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span> saw this solemn function of sugar-cutting take place&mdash;it was about
+thirty years ago. An old Boston East India merchant, one of the last to
+cling to a residence in what is known now as the "Burnt District,"
+always desired (and his desire was law) to use these loaves of sugar in
+his household. I don't know where he got them so long after every one
+else had apparently ceased buying them&mdash;he may have specially imported
+them; at any rate he had them, and to the end of her life it was the
+morning duty of his wife "to cut the sugar." I can see my old cousin
+still in what she termed her breakfast room, dressed very handsomely,
+standing before a bare<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span> mahogany table on which a maid placed the
+considerable array of a silver salver without legs, which was set on a
+folded cloth and held the sugar-loaf and the sugar-cutter; and another
+salver with legs that bore various bowls and one beautiful silver
+sugar-box which was kept filled high for her husband's toddy. It seemed
+an interminably tedious work to me and a senseless one, as I chafingly
+waited for the delightful morning drive in delightful Boston. It was in
+this household that I encountered the sweetest thing of my whole life; I
+have written elsewhere its praises in full; a barrel, a small one, to be
+sure, but still a whole teak-wood barrel full of long strings of
+glistening rock-candy. I had my fill of it at will, though it was not
+kept as a sweetmeat, but was a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span> kitchen store having a special use in
+the manufacture of rich brandy sauces for plum puddings, and of a kind
+of marchepane ornamentation for desserts.</p>
+
+<p>All the spices used in the household were also ground at home, in
+spice-mortars and spice-mills. These were of various sizes, including
+the pepper-mills, which were set on the table at meal-times, and the
+tiny ornamental graters which were carried in the pocket.</p>
+
+<p>The entire food of a household was the possible production of a farm. In
+a paper published in the American Museum in 1787 an old farmer says:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"At this time my farm gave me and my whole family a good living on
+the produce of it, and left me one year with another one hundred
+and fifty silver dollars, for I never spent more than ten dollars a
+year which was for salt, nails, and the like. Nothing to eat, drink
+or wear was bought, as my farm provided all."</p></div>
+
+<p>The farm food was not varied, it is true, as to-day; for articles of
+luxury came by importation. The products of tropical countries, such as
+sugar, molasses, tea, coffee, spices, found poor substitutes in home
+food-products. Dried pumpkin was a poor sweetening instead of molasses;
+maple sugar and honey were not esteemed as was sugar; tea was
+ill-replaced by raspberry leaves, loosestrife, hardhack,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span> goldenrod,
+dittany, blackberry leaves, yeopon, sage, and a score of other herbs;
+coffee was better than parched rye and chestnuts; spices could not be
+compensated for or remotely imitated by any substitutes.</p>
+
+<p>So though there was ample quantity of food, the quality, save in the
+town, was not such as English housewives had been accustomed to; there
+were many deprivations in their kitchens which tried them sorely. The
+better cooks they were, the more trying were the limitations. Every
+woman with a love for her fellow-woman must feel a thrill of keen
+sympathy for the goodwife of Newport, New Hampshire, who had to make her
+Thanksgiving mince-pies with a filling of bear's meat and dried
+pumpkins, sweetened with maple sugar, and her crust of corn-meal. Her
+husband loyally recorded that they were the best mince-pies he ever ate.</p>
+
+<p>As years passed on and great wealth came to individuals, the tables of
+the opulent, especially in the Middle colonies, rivalled the luxury of
+English and French houses of wealth. It is surprising to read in Dr.
+Cutler's diary that when he dined with Colonel Duer in New York in 1787,
+there were fifteen kinds of wine served besides cider, beer, and porter.</p>
+
+<p>John Adams probably lived as well as any New Englander of similar
+position and means. A Sunday<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span> dinner at his house was thus described by
+a visitor: the first course was a pudding of Indian meal, molasses, and
+butter; then came a course of veal and bacon, neck of mutton, and
+vegetables. When the New Englander went to Philadelphia, his eyes opened
+wide at the luxury and extravagance of fare. He has given in his diary
+some accounts of the lavishness of the Philadelphia larder. Such entries
+as these are found:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>(Of the home of Miers Fisher, a young Quaker lawyer.) "This plain
+Friend, with his plain but pretty wife with her Thees and Thous,
+had provided us a costly entertainment; ducks, hams, chickens,
+beef, pig, tarts, creams, custards, jellies, fools, trifles,
+floating islands, beer, porter, punch, wine and a long, etc."</p>
+
+<p>(At the home of Chief Justice Chew.) "About four o'clock we were
+called to dinner. Turtle and every other thing, flummery, jellies,
+sweetmeats of twenty sorts, trifles, whipped sillabubs, floating
+islands, fools, etc., with a dessert of fruits, raisins, almonds,
+pears, peaches."</p>
+
+<p>"A most sinful feast again! everything which could delight the eye
+or allure the taste; curds and creams, jellies, sweetmeats of
+various sorts, twenty kinds of tarts, fools, trifles, floating
+islands, whipped sillabubs, etc. Parmesan cheese, punch, wine,
+porter, beer."</p></div>
+
+<p>By which lists may plainly be seen that our second President had
+somewhat of a sweet tooth.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The Dutch were great beer-drinkers and quickly established breweries at
+Albany and New York. But before the century had ended New Englanders had
+abandoned the constant drinking of ale and beer for cider. Cider was
+very cheap; but a few shillings a barrel. It was supplied in large
+amounts to students at college, and even very little children drank it.
+President John Adams was an early and earnest wisher for temperance
+reform; but to the end of his life he drank a large tankard of hard
+cider every morning when he first got up. It was free in every farmhouse
+to all travellers and tramps.</p>
+
+<p>A cider-mill was usually built on a hillside so the building could be
+one story high in front and two in the back. Thus carts could easily
+unload the apples on the upper level and take away the barrels of cider
+on the lower. Standing below on the lower floor you could see two
+upright wooden cylinders, set a little way apart, with knobs, or nuts as
+they were called, on one cylinder which fitted loosely into holes on the
+other. The cylinders worked in opposite directions and drew in and
+crushed the apples poured down between them. The nuts and holes
+frequently clogged with the pomace. Then the mill was stopped and a boy
+scraped out with a stick or hook the crushed apples. A horse walking in
+a small circle moved a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span> lever which turned the motor wheel. It was slow
+work; it took three hours to grind a cart-load of apples; but the
+machinery was efficient and simple. The pomace fell into a large shallow
+vat or tank, and if it could lie in the vat overnight it was a benefit.
+Then the pomace was put in a press. This was simple in construction. At
+the bottom was a platform grooved in channels; a sheaf of clean straw
+was spread on the platform, and with wooden shovels the pomace was
+spread thick over it. Then a layer of straw was laid at right angles
+with the first, and more pomace, and so on till the form was about three
+feet high; the top board was put on as a cover; the screw turned and
+blocks pressed down, usually with a long wooden hand-lever, very slowly
+at first, then harder, until the mass was solid and every drop of juice
+had trickled into the channels of the platform and thence to the pan
+below. Within the last two or three years I have seen those cider-mills
+at work in the country back of old Plymouth and in Narragansett, sending
+afar their sourly fruity odors. And though apple orchards are running
+out, and few new trees are planted, and the apple crop in those
+districts is growing smaller and smaller, yet is the sweet cider of
+country cider-mills as free and plentiful a gift to any passer-by as the
+water from the well or the air we breathe.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span> Perry was made from pears,
+as cider is from apples, and peachy from peaches. Metheglin and mead,
+drinks of the old Druids in England, were made from honey, yeast, and
+water, and were popular everywhere. In Virginia whole plantations of the
+honey-locust furnished locust beans for making metheglin. From
+persimmons, elderberries, juniper berries, pumpkins, corn-stalks,
+hickory nuts, sassafras bark, birch bark, and many other leaves, roots,
+and barks, various light drinks were made. An old song boasted:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Oh, we can make liquor to sweeten our lips<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Of pumpkins, of parsnips, of walnut-tree chips."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Many other stronger and more intoxicating liquors were made in large
+quantities, among them enormous amounts of rum, which was called often
+"kill-devil." The making of rum aided and almost supported the
+slave-trade in this country. The poor negroes were bought on the coast
+of Africa by New England sea-captains and merchants and paid for with
+barrels of New England rum. These slaves were then carried on
+slave-ships to the West Indies, and sold at a large profit to planters
+and slave-dealers for a cargo of molasses. This was brought to New
+England, distilled into rum, and sent off to Africa. Thus the circle of
+molasses,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span> rum, and slaves was completed. Many slaves were also landed
+in New England, but there was no crop there that needed negroes to raise
+it. So slavery never was as common in New England as in the South, where
+the tropical tobacco and rice fields needed negro labor. But New
+England's share in promoting negro slavery in America was just as great
+as was Virginia's.</p>
+
+<p>Besides all the rum that was sent to Africa, much was drunk by Americans
+at home. At weddings, funerals, christenings, at all public meetings and
+private feasts, New England rum was ever present. In nothing is more
+contrast shown between our present day and colonial times than in the
+habits of liquor-drinking. We cannot be grateful enough for the
+temperance reform, which began at the early part of this century, and
+was so sadly needed.</p>
+
+<p>For many years the colonists had no tea, chocolate, or coffee to drink;
+for those were not in use in England when America was settled. In 1690
+two dealers were licensed to sell tea "in publique" in Boston. Green and
+bohea teas were sold at the Boston apothecaries' in 1712. For many years
+tea was also sold like medicine in England at the apothecaries' and not
+at the grocers'.</p>
+
+<p>Many queer mistakes were made through ignorance of its proper use. Many
+colonists put the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span> tea into water, boiled it for a time, threw the
+liquid away, and ate the tea-leaves. In Salem they did not find the
+leaves very attractive, so they put butter and salt on them.</p>
+
+<p>In 1670 a Boston woman was licensed to sell coffee and chocolate, and
+soon coffee-houses were established there. Some did not know how to cook
+coffee any more than tea, but boiled the whole coffee-beans in water,
+ate them, and drank the liquid; and naturally this was not very good
+either to eat or drink.</p>
+
+<p>At the time of the Stamp Act, when patriotic Americans threw the tea
+into Boston harbor, Americans were just as great tea-drinkers as the
+English. Now it is not so. The English drink much more tea than we do;
+and the habit of coffee-drinking, first acquired in the Revolution, has
+descended from generation to generation, and we now drink more coffee
+than tea. This is one of the differences in our daily life caused by the
+Revolution.</p>
+
+<p>Many home-grown substitutes were used in Revolutionary times for tea:
+ribwort was a favorite one; strawberry and currant leaves, sage,
+thorough-wort, and "Liberty Tea," made from the four-leaved loosestrife.
+"Hyperion tea" was raspberry leaves, and was said by good patriots to be
+"very delicate and most excellent."</p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span><br />
+FLAX CULTURE AND SPINNING</h2>
+
+
+<p>In recounting the various influences which assisted the Americans to
+success in the War for Independence, such as the courage and integrity
+of the American generals, the generosity of the American people, the
+skill of Americans in marksmanship, their powers of endurance, their
+acclimatization, their confidence and faith, etc., we must never forget
+to add their independence in their own homes of any outside help to give
+them every necessity of life. No farmer or his wife need fear any king
+when on every home farm was found food, drink, medicine, fuel, lighting,
+clothing, shelter. Home-made was an adjective that might be applied to
+nearly every article in the house. Such would not be the case under
+similar stress to-day. In the matter of clothing alone we could not now
+be independent. Few farmers raise flax to make linen; few women can spin
+either wool or flax, or weave cloth; many cannot knit. In early days
+every farmer and his sons raised wool and flax; his wife<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span> and daughters
+spun them into thread and yarn, knit these into stockings and mittens,
+or wove them into linen and cloth, and then made them into clothing.
+Even in large cities nearly all women spun yarn and thread, all could
+knit, and many had hand-looms to weave cloth at home. These home
+occupations in the production of clothing have been very happily termed
+the "homespun industries."</p>
+
+<p>Nearly every one has seen one of the pretty foot-wheels for spinning
+flax thread for linen, which may yet be found in the attics of many of
+our farmhouses, as well as in some of our parlors, where, with a bunch
+of flax wound around and tied to the spindle, they have within a few
+years been placed as a relic of the olden times.</p>
+
+<p>If one of these flax-wheels could speak to-day, it would sing a tale of
+the patient industry, of the tiring work of our grandmothers, even when
+they were little children, which ought never to be forgotten.</p>
+
+<p>As soon as the colonists had cleared their farms from stones and stumps,
+they planted a field, or "patch" of flax, and usually one of hemp. The
+seed was sown broadcast like grass-seed in May. Flax is a graceful plant
+with pretty drooping blue flowers; hemp has but a sad-colored blossom.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Thomas Tusser says in his <i>Book of Housewifery</i>:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Good flax and good hemp to have of her own,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">In May a good huswife will see it be sown.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And afterwards trim it to serve in a need;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The fimble to spin, the card for her seed."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>When the flax plants were three or four inches high, they were weeded by
+young women or children who had to work barefoot, as the stalks were
+very tender. If the land had a growth of thistles, the weeders could
+wear three or four pairs of woollen stockings. The children had to step
+facing the wind, so if any plants were trodden down the wind would help
+to blow them back into place. When the flax was ripe, in the last of
+June or in July, it was pulled up by the roots and laid out carefully to
+dry for a day or two, and turned several times in the sun; this work was
+called pulling and spreading, and was usually done by men and boys. It
+then was "rippled." A coarse wooden or heavy iron wire comb with great
+teeth, named a ripple-comb, was fastened on a plank; the stalks of flax
+were drawn through it with a quick stroke to break off the seed-bolles
+or "bobs," which fell on a sheet spread to catch them; these were saved
+for seed for the next crop, or for sale.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Rippling was done in the field. The stalks were then tied in bundles
+called beats or bates and stacked. They were tied only at the seed end,
+and the base of the stalks was spread out forming a tent-shaped stack,
+called a stook. When dry, the stalks were watered to rot the leaves and
+softer fibres. Hemp was watered without rippling. This was done
+preferably in running water, as the rotting flax poisoned fish. Stakes
+were set in the water in the form of a square, called a steep-pool, and
+the bates of flax or hemp were piled in solidly, each alternate layer at
+right angles with the one beneath it. A cover of boards and heavy stones
+was piled on top. In four or five days the bates were taken up and the
+rotted leaves removed. A slower process was termed dew-retting; an old
+author calls it "a vile and naughty way," but it was the way chiefly
+employed in America.</p>
+
+<p>When the flax was cleaned, it was once more dried and tied in bundles.
+Then came work for strong men, to break it on the ponderous flax-brake,
+to separate the fibres and get out from the centre the hard woody "hexe"
+or "bun." Hemp was also broken.</p>
+
+<p>A flax-brake is an implement which is almost impossible to describe. It
+was a heavy log of wood about five feet long, either large enough so the
+flat<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span> top was about three feet from the ground, or set on heavy logs to
+bring it to that height. A portion of the top was cut down leaving a
+block at each end, and several long slats were set in lengthwise and
+held firm at each end with edges up, by being set into the end blocks.
+Then a similar set of slats, put in a heavy frame, was made with the
+slats set far enough apart to go into the spaces of the lower slats. The
+flax was laid on the lower slats, the frame and upper slats placed on
+it, and then pounded down with a heavy wooden mallet weighing many
+pounds. Sometimes the upper frame of slats, or knives as they were
+called, were hinged to the big under log at one end, and heavily
+weighted at the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span> other, and thus the blow was given by the fall of the
+weight, not by the force of the farmer's muscle. The tenacity of the
+flax can be seen when it would stand this violent beating; and the cruel
+blow can be imagined, which the farmer's fingers sometimes got when he
+carelessly thrust his hand with the flax too far under the descending
+jaw&mdash;a shark's maw was equally gentle.</p>
+
+<p>Flax was usually broken twice, once with an "open-tooth brake," once
+with a "close or strait brake," that is, one where the long, sharp-edge
+strips of wood were set closely together. Then it was scutched or
+swingled with a swingling block and knife, to take out any small
+particles of bark that might adhere. A man could<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span> swingle forty pounds
+of flax a day, but it was hard work. All this had to be done in clear
+sunny weather when the flax was as dry as tinder.</p>
+
+<p>The clean fibres were then made into bundles called strikes. The strikes
+were swingled again, and from the refuse called swingle-tree hurds,
+coarse bagging could be spun and woven. After being thoroughly cleaned
+the rolls or strikes were sometimes beetled, that is, pounded in a
+wooden trough with a great pestle-shaped beetle over and over again
+until soft.</p>
+
+<p>Then came the hackling or hetcheling, and the fineness of the flax
+depended upon the number of hacklings, the fineness of the various
+hackles or hetchels or combs, and the dexterity of the operator. In the
+hands of a poor hackler the best of flax would be converted into tow.
+The flax was slightly wetted, taken hold of at one end of the bunch, and
+drawn through the hackle-teeth towards the hetcheller, and thus fibres
+were pulled and laid into continuous threads, while the short fibres
+were combed out. It was dusty, dirty work. The threefold process had to
+be all done at once; the fibres had to be divided to their fine
+filaments, the long threads laid in untangled line, and the tow
+separated and removed. After the first hackle, called a ruffler, six
+other finer hackles were often used. It<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span> was one of the surprises of
+flax preparation to see how little good fibre would be left after all
+this hackling, even from a large mass of raw material, but it was
+equally surprising to see how much linen thread could be made from this
+small amount of fine flax. The fibres were sorted according to fineness;
+this was called spreading and drawing. So then after over twenty
+dexterous manipulations the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span> flax was ready for the wheel, for
+spinning,&mdash;the most dexterous process of all,&mdash;and was wrapped round the
+spindle.</p>
+
+<p>Seated at the small flax-wheel, the spinner placed her foot on the
+treadle, and spun the fibre into a long, even thread. Hung on the wheel
+was a small bone, wood, or earthenware cup, or a gourd-shell, filled
+with water, in which the spinner moistened her fingers as she held the
+twisting flax, which by the movement of the wheel was wound on bobbins.
+When all were filled, the thread was wound off in knots and skeins on a
+reel. A machine called a clock-reel counted the exact number of strands
+in a knot, usually forty, and ticked when the requisite<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span> number had been
+wound. Then the spinner would stop and tie the knot. A quaint old ballad
+has the refrain:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"And he kissed Mistress Polly when the clock-reel ticked."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>That is, the lover seized the rare and propitious moments of Mistress
+Polly's comparative leisure to kiss her.</p>
+
+<p>Usually the knots or lays were of forty threads, and twenty lays made a
+skein or slipping. The number varied, however, with locality. To spin
+two skeins of linen thread was a good day's work; for it a spinner was
+paid eight cents a day and "her keep."</p>
+
+<p>These skeins of thread had to be bleached. They were laid in warm water
+for four days, the water being frequently changed, and the skeins
+constantly wrung out. Then they were washed in the brook till the water
+came from them clear and pure. Then they were "bucked," that is,
+bleached with ashes and hot water, in a bucking-tub, over and over
+again, then laid in clear water for a week, and afterwards came a grand
+seething, rinsing, beating, washing, drying, and winding on bobbins for
+the loom. Sometimes the bleaching was done with slaked lime or with
+buttermilk.</p>
+
+<p>These were not the only bleaching operations the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span> flax went through;
+others will be detailed in the chapter on hand-weaving.</p>
+
+<p>One lucrative product of flax should be mentioned&mdash;flaxseed. Flax was
+pulled for spinning when the base of the stalk began to turn yellow,
+which was usually the first of July. An old saying was, "June brings the
+flax." For seed it stood till it was all yellow. The flaxseed was used
+for making oil. Usually the upper chambers of country stores were filled
+a foot deep with flaxseed in the autumn, waiting for good sleighing to
+convey the seed to town.</p>
+
+<p>In New Hampshire in early days, a wheelwright was not a man who made
+wagon-wheels (as such he would have had scant occupation), but one who
+made spinning-wheels. Often he carried them around the country on
+horseback selling them, thus adding another to the many interesting
+itineracies of colonial days. Spinning-wheels would seem clumsy for
+horse-carriage, but they were not set up, and several could be compactly
+carried when taken apart; far more ticklish articles went on
+pack-horses,&mdash;large barrels, glazed window-sashes, etc. Nor would it
+seem very difficult for a man to carry spinning-wheels on horseback,
+when frequently a woman would jump on horseback in the early morning,
+and with a baby on one arm and a flax-wheel<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span> tied behind, would ride
+several miles to a neighbor's to spend the day spinning in cheerful
+companionship. A century ago one of these wheelwrights sold a fine
+spinning-wheel for a dollar, a clock-reel for two dollars, and a
+wool-wheel for two dollars.</p>
+
+<p>Few persons are now living who have ever seen carried on in a country
+home in America any of these old-time processes which have been
+recounted. As an old antiquary wrote:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Few have ever seen a woman hatchel flax or card tow, or heard the
+buzzing of the foot-wheel, or seen bunches of flaxen yarn hanging
+in the kitchen, or linen cloth whitening on the grass. The
+flax-dresser with the shives, fibres, and dirt of flax covering his
+garments, and his face begrimed with flax-dirt has disappeared; the
+noise of his brake and swingling knife has ended, and the boys no
+longer make bonfires of his swingling tow. The sound of the
+spinning-wheel, the song of the spinster, and the snapping of the
+clock-reel all have ceased; the warping bars and quill wheel are
+gone, and the thwack of the loom is heard only in the factory. The
+spinning woman of King Lemuel cannot be found."</p></div>
+
+<p>Frequent references are made to flax in the Bible, notably in the Book
+of Proverbs; and the methods of growing and preparing flax by the
+ancient Egyptians were precisely the same as those of the American
+colonist a hundred years ago, of the Finn, Lapp,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span> Norwegian, and Belgian
+flax-growers to-day. This ancient skill was not confined to
+flax-working. Rosselini, the eminent hierologist, says that every modern
+craftsman may see on Egyptian monuments four thousand years old,
+representations of the process of his craft just as it is carried on
+to-day. The paintings in the Grotto of El Kab, shown in Hamilton's
+<i>&AElig;gyptica</i>, show the pulling, stocking, tying, and rippling of flax
+going on just as it is done in Egypt now. The four-tooth ripple of the
+Egyptian is improved upon, but it is the same implement. Pliny gives an
+account of the mode of preparing flax: plucking it up by the roots,
+tying it in bundles, drying, watering, beating, and hackling it, or, as
+he says, "combing it with iron hooks." Until the Christian era linen was
+almost the only kind of clothing used in Egypt, and the teeming banks of
+the Nile furnished flax in abundance. The quality of the linen can be
+seen in the bands preserved on mummies. It was not, however, spun on a
+wheel, but on a hand-distaff, called sometimes a rock, on which the
+women in India still spin the very fine thread which is employed in
+making India muslins. The distaff was used in our colonies; it was
+ordered that children and others tending sheep or cattle in the fields
+should also "be set to some other employment withal, such as spinning
+upon<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span> the rock, knitting, weaving tape, etc." I heard recently a
+distinguished historian refer in a lecture to this colonial statute, and
+he spoke of the children <i>sitting upon a rock</i> while knitting or
+spinning, etc., evidently knowing naught of the proper signification of
+the word.</p>
+
+<p>The homespun industries have ever been held to have a beneficent and
+peace-bringing influence on women. Wordsworth voiced this sentiment when
+he wrote his series of sonnets beginning:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Grief! thou hast lost an ever-ready friend<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Now that the cottage spinning-wheel is mute."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Chaucer more cynically says, through the <i>Wife of Bath</i>:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Deceite, weepynge, spynnynge God hath give<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">To wymmen kyndely that they may live."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Spinning doubtless was an ever-ready refuge in the monotonous life of
+the early colonist. She soon had plenty of material to work with.
+Everywhere, even in the earliest days, the culture of flax was
+encouraged. By 1640 the Court of Massachusetts passed two orders
+directing the growth of flax, ascertaining what colonists were skilful
+in breaking, spinning, weaving, ordering that boys and girls be taught
+to spin, and offering a bounty for linen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span> grown, spun, and woven in the
+colony. Connecticut passed similar measures. Soon spinning-classes were
+formed, and every family ordered to spin so many pounds of flax a year,
+or to pay a fine. The industry received a fresh impulse through the
+immigration of about one hundred Irish families from Londonderry. They
+settled in New Hampshire on the Merrimac about 1719, and spun and wove
+with far more skill than prevailed among those English settlers who had
+already become Americans. They established a manufactory according to
+Irish methods, and attempts at a similar establishment were made in
+Boston.</p>
+
+<p>There was much public excitement over spinning, and prizes were offered
+for quantity and quality. Women, rich as well as poor, appeared on
+Boston Common with their wheels, thus making spinning a popular holiday
+recreation. A brick building was erected as a spinning-school costing
+&pound;15,000, and a tax was placed on carriages and coaches in 1757 to
+support it. At the fourth anniversary in 1749 of the "Boston Society for
+promoting Industry and Frugality," three hundred "young spinsters" spun
+on their wheels on Boston Common. And a pretty sight it must have been:
+the fair young girls in the quaint and pretty dress of the times, shown
+to us in Hogarth's prints, spinning on the green grass under<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span> the great
+trees. In 1754, on a like occasion, a minister preached to the
+"spinsters," and a collection of &pound;453 was taken up. This was in currency
+of depreciated value. At the same time premiums were offered in
+Pennsylvania for weaving linen and spinning thread. Benjamin Franklin
+wrote in his <i>Poor Richard's Almanac</i>:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Many estates are spent in the getting,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Since women for tea forsook spinning and knitting."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>But the German colonists long before this had been famous flax-raisers.
+A Pennsylvania poet in 1692 descanted on the flax-workers of
+Germantown:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Where live High German people and Low Dutch<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Whose trade in weaving linen cloth is much,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">There grows the flax as also you may know,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">That from the same they do divide the tow."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Father Pastorius, their leader, forever commemorated his interest in his
+colony and in the textile arts by his choice for a device for a seal.
+Whittier thus describes it in his <i>Pennsylvania Pilgrim</i>:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Still on the town-seal his device is found,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Grapes, flax, and thread-spool on a three-foil ground<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">With <i>Vinum, Linum, et Textrinum</i> wound."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Virginia was earlier even in awakening interest in manufacturing flax
+than Massachusetts, for wild flax<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span> grew there in profusion, ready for
+gathering. In 1646 two houses were ordered to be erected at Jamestown as
+spinning-schools. These were to be well built and well heated. Each
+county was to send to these schools two poor children, seven or eight
+years old, to be taught carding, spinning, and knitting. Each child was
+to be supplied by the county authorities on admission to the school with
+six barrels of Indian corn, a pig, two hens, clothing, shoes, a bed,
+rug, blanket, two coverlets, a wooden tray, and two pewter dishes or
+cups. This plan was not wholly carried out. Prizes in tobacco (which was
+the current money of Virginia in which everything was paid) were given,
+however, for every pound of flax, every skein of yarn, every yard of
+linen of Virginia production, and soon flax-wheels and spinners were
+plentiful.</p>
+
+<p>Intelligent attempts were made to start these industries in the South.
+Governor Lucas wrote to his daughter, Mrs. Pinckney, in Charleston,
+South Carolina, in 1745:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"I send by this Sloop two Irish servants, viz.: a Weaver and a
+Spinner. I am informed Mr. Cattle hath produced both Flax and Hemp.
+I pray you will purchase some, and order a loom and spinning-wheel
+to be made for them, and set them to work. I shall order Flax sent
+from Philadelphia with seed, that they may not be idle. I pray you
+will<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span> also purchase Wool and sett them to making Negroes clothing
+which may be sufficient for my own People.</p>
+
+<p>"As I am afraid one Spinner can't keep a Loom at work, I pray you
+will order a Sensible Negroe woman or two to learn to spin, and
+wheels to be made for them; the man Servant will direct the
+Carpenter in making the loom and the woman will direct the Wheel."</p></div>
+
+<p>The following year Madam Pinckney wrote to her father that the woman had
+spun all the material they could get, so was idle; that the loom had
+been made, but had no tackling; that she would make the harness for it,
+if two pounds of shoemaker's thread were sent her. The sensible negro
+woman and hundreds of others learned well to spin, and excellent cloth
+has been always woven in the low country of Carolina, as well as in the
+upper districts, till our own time.</p>
+
+<p>In the revolt of feeling caused by the Stamp Act, there was a constant
+social pressure to encourage the manufacture and wearing of goods of
+American manufacture. As one evidence of this movement the president and
+first graduating class of Rhode Island College&mdash;now Brown
+University&mdash;were clothed in fabrics made in New England. From
+Massachusetts to South Carolina the women of the colonies banded
+together in patriotic societies called Daughters of Liberty, agreeing to
+wear only garments<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span> of homespun manufacture, and to drink no tea. In
+many New England towns they gathered together to spin, each bringing her
+own wheel. At one meeting seventy linen-wheels were employed. In Rowley,
+Massachusetts, the meeting of the Daughters is thus described:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"A number of thirty-three respectable ladies of the town met at
+sunrise with their wheels to spend the day at the house of the
+Rev'd Jedediah Jewell, in the laudable design of a spinning match.
+At an hour before sunset, the ladies there appearing neatly
+dressed, principally in homespun, a polite and generous repast of
+American production was set for their entertainment. After which
+being present many spectators of both sexes, Mr. Jewell delivered a
+profitable discourse from Romans xii. 2: "Not slothful in business,
+fervent in spirit, serving the Lord."</p></div>
+
+<p>Matters of church and patriotism were never far apart in New England; so
+whenever the spinners gathered at New London, Newbury, Ipswich, or
+Beverly, they always had an appropriate sermon. A favorite text was
+Exodus xxxv. 25: "And all the women that were wise-hearted did spin with
+their hands." When the Northboro women met, they presented the results
+of their day's work to their minister. There were forty-four women and
+they spun 2223 knots of linen and tow, and wove one linen sheet and two
+towels.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>By Revolutionary times General Howe thought "Linen and Woollen Goods
+much wanted by the Rebels"; hence when he prepared to evacuate Boston he
+ordered all such goods carried away with him. But he little knew the
+domestic industrial resources of the Americans. Women were then most
+proficient in spinning. In 1777 Miss Eleanor Fry of East Greenwich,
+Rhode Island, spun seven skeins one knot linen yarn in one day, an
+extraordinary amount. This was enough to weave twelve linen
+handkerchiefs. At this time when there were about five or six skeins to
+a pound of flax, the pay for spinning was sixpence a skein. The Abb&eacute;
+Robin wondered at the deftness of New England spinners.</p>
+
+<p>In 1789 an outcry was raised against the luxury said to be eating away
+the substance of the new country. The poor financial administration of
+the government seemed deranging everything; and again a social movement
+was instituted in New England to promote "Oeconomy and Household
+Industries." "The Rich and Great strive by example to convince the
+Populace of their error by Growing their own Flax and Wool, having some
+one in the Family to dress it, and all the Females spin, several weave
+and bleach the linen." The old spinning-matches were revived. Again the
+ministers preached to the faithful women "Oeconomists," who thus<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span>
+combined religion, patriotism, and industry. Truly it was, as a
+contemporary writer said, "a pleasing Sight: some spinning, some
+reeling, some carding cotton, some combing flax," as they were preached
+to.</p>
+
+<p>Within a few years attempts have been made in England and Ireland to
+encourage flax-growing, as before it is spun it gives employment to
+twenty different classes of laborers, many parts of which work can be
+done by young and unskilled children. In Courtrai, where hand spinning
+and weaving of flax still flourish, the average earnings of a family are
+three pounds a week. In Finland homespun linen still is made in every
+household. The British Spinning and Weaving School in New Bond Street is
+an attempt to revive the vanished industry in England. In our own
+country it is pleasant to record that the National Association of Cotton
+Manufacturers is planning to start on a large scale the culture and
+manufacture of flax in our Eastern states; this is not, however, with
+any thought of reviving either the preparation, spinning, or weaving of
+flax by old-time hand processes.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span><br />
+WOOL CULTURE AND SPINNING<br />
+<i>With a Postscript on Cotton</i></h2>
+
+
+<p>The art of spinning was an honorable occupation for women as early as
+the ninth century; and it was so universal that it furnished a legal
+title by which an unmarried woman is known to this day. Spinster is the
+only one of all her various womanly titles that survives; webster,
+shepster, litster, brewster, and baxter are obsolete. The occupations
+are also obsolete save those indicated by shepster and baxter&mdash;that is,
+the cutting out of cloth and baking of bread; these are the only duties
+among them all that she still performs.</p>
+
+<p>The wool industry dates back to prehistoric man. The patience, care, and
+skill involved in its manufacture have ever exercised a potent influence
+on civilization. It is, therefore, interesting and gratifying to note
+the intelligent eagerness of our first colonists for wool culture. It
+was quickly and proudly noted of towns and of individuals as a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span> proof of
+their rapid and substantial progress that they could carry on any of the
+steps of the cloth industry. Good Judge Sewall piously exulted when
+Brother Moody started a successful fulling-mill in Boston. Johnson in
+his <i>Wonder-working Providence</i> tells with pride that by 1654 New
+Englanders "have a fulling-mill and caused their little ones to be very
+dilligent in spinning cotton-woole, many of them having been clothiers
+in England." This has ever seemed to me one of the fortunate conditions
+that tended to the marked success of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, that
+so many had been "clothiers" or cloth-workers in England; or had come
+from shires in England where wool was raised and cloth made, and hence
+knew the importance of the industry as well as its practical workings.</p>
+
+<p>As early as 1643 the author of <i>New England's First Fruits</i> wrote: "They
+are making linens, fustians, dimities, and look immediately to woollens
+from their own sheep." Johnson estimated the number of sheep in the
+colony of Massachusetts, about 1644, as three thousand. Soon the great
+wheel was whirring in every New England house. The raising of sheep was
+encouraged in every way. They were permitted to graze on the commons; it
+was forbidden to send them from the colony; no sheep under two years old
+could be killed to sell; if a dog<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span> killed a sheep, the dog's owner must
+hang him and pay double the cost of the sheep. All persons who were not
+employed in other ways, as single women, girls, and boys, were required
+to spin. Each family must contain one spinner. These spinners were
+formed into divisions or "squadrons" of ten persons; each division had a
+director. There were no drones in this hive; neither the wealth nor high
+station of parents excused children from this work. Thus all were
+levelled to one kind of labor, and by this levelling all were also
+elevated to independence. When the open expression of revolt came, the
+homespun industries seemed a firm rock for the foundation of liberty.
+People joined in agreements to eat no lamb or mutton, that thus sheep
+might be preserved, and to wear no imported woollen cloth. They gave
+prizes for spinning and weaving.</p>
+
+<p>Great encouragement was given in Virginia in early days to the raising
+and manufacture of wool. The Assembly estimated that five children not
+over thirteen years of age could by their work readily spin and weave
+enough to keep thirty persons clothed. Six pounds of tobacco was paid to
+any one bringing to the county court-house where he resided a yard of
+homespun woollen cloth, made wholly in his family; twelve pounds of
+tobacco were offered for reward for a dozen pair of woollen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span> hose
+knitted at home. Slaves were taught to spin; and wool-wheels and
+wool-cards are found by the eighteenth century on every inventory of
+planters' house furnishings.</p>
+
+<p>The Pennsylvania settlers were early in the encouragement of wool
+manufacture. The present industry of hosiery and knit goods long known
+as Germantown goods began with the earliest settlers of that
+Pennsylvania town. Stocking-weavers were there certainly as early as
+1723; and it is asserted there were knitting-machines. At any rate, one
+Mack, the son of the founder of the Dunkers, made "leg stockings" and
+gloves. Rev. Andrew Burnaby, who was in Germantown in 1759, told of a
+great manufacture of stockings at that date. In 1777 it was said that a
+hundred Germantown stocking-weavers were out of employment through the
+war. Still it was not till 1850 that patents for knitting-machines were
+taken out there.</p>
+
+<p>Among the manufactures of the province of Pennsylvania in 1698 were
+druggets, serges, and coverlets; and among the registered tradesmen were
+dyers, fullers, comb-makers, card-makers, weavers, and spinners. The
+Swedish colony as early as 1673 had the wives and daughters "employing
+themselves in spinning wool and flax and many in weaving." The fairs
+instituted by William Penn for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span> the encouragement of domestic
+manufactures and trade in general, which were fostered by Franklin and
+continued till 1775, briskly stimulated wool and flax manufacture.</p>
+
+<p>In 1765 and in 1775 rebellious Philadelphians banded together with
+promises not to eat or suffer to be eaten in their families any lamb or
+"meat of the mutton kind"; in this the Philadelphia butchers, patriotic
+and self-sacrificing, all joined. A wool-factory was built and fitted up
+and an appeal made to the women to save the state. In a month four
+hundred wool-spinners were at work. But the war cut off the supply of
+raw material, and the manufacture languished. In 1790, after the war,
+fifteen hundred sets of irons for spinning-wheels were sold from one
+shop, and mechanics everywhere were making looms.</p>
+
+<p>New Yorkers were not behindhand in industry. Lord Cornbury wrote home to
+England, in 1705, that he "had seen serge made upon Long Island that any
+man might wear; they make very good linen for common use; as for Woollen
+I think they have brought that to too great perfection."</p>
+
+<p>In Cornbury's phrase, "too great perfection," may be found the key for
+all the extraordinary and apparently stupid prohibitions and
+restrictions placed by the mother-country on colonial wool manufacture.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span>
+The growth of the woollen industry in any colony was regarded at once by
+England with jealous eyes. Wool was the pet industry and principal
+staple of Great Britain; and well it might be, for until the reign of
+Henry VIII. English garments from head to foot were wholly of wool, even
+the shoes. Wool was also received in England as currency. Thomas Fuller
+said, "The wealth of our nation is folded up in broadcloth." Therefore,
+the Crown, aided by the governors of the provinces, sought to maintain
+England's monopoly by regulating and reducing the culture of wool in
+America through prohibiting the exportation to England of any American
+wool or woollen materials. In 1699 all vessels sailing to England from
+the colonies were prohibited taking on board any "Wool, Woolfells,
+Shortlings, Moslings, Wool Flocks, Worsteds, Bays, Bay or Woollen Yarn,
+Cloath, Serge, Kersey, Says, Frizes, Druggets, Shalloons, etc."; and an
+arbitrary law was passed prohibiting the transportation of home-made
+woollens from one American province to another. These laws were never
+fully observed and never checked the culture and manufacture of wool in
+this country. Hence our colonies were spared the cruel fate by which
+England's same policy paralyzed and obliterated in a few years the
+glorious wool industry of Ireland. Luckily<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span> for us, it is further across
+the Atlantic Ocean than across St. George's Channel.</p>
+
+<p>The "all-wool goods a yard wide," which we so easily purchase to-day,
+meant to the colonial dame or daughter the work of many weeks and
+months, from the time when the fleeces were first given to her deft
+hands. Fleeces had to be opened with care, and have all pitched or
+tarred locks, dag-locks, brands, and feltings cut out. These cuttings
+were not wasted, but were spun into coarse yarn. The white locks were
+carefully tossed and separated and tied into net bags with tallies to be
+dyed. Another homely saying, "dyed in the wool," showed a process of
+much skill. Blue, in all shades, was the favorite color, and was dyed
+with indigo. So great was the demand for this dye-stuff that
+indigo-pedlers travelled over the country selling it.</p>
+
+<p>Madder, cochineal, and logwood dyed beautiful reds. The bark of red oak
+or hickory made very pretty shades of brown and yellow. Various flowers
+growing on the farm could be used for dyes. The flower of the goldenrod,
+when pressed of its juice, mixed with indigo, and added to alum, made a
+beautiful green. The juice of the pokeberry boiled with alum made
+crimson dye, and a violet juice from the petals of the iris, or
+"flower-de-luce,"<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span> that blossomed in June meadows, gave a delicate light
+purple tinge to white wool.</p>
+
+<p>The bark of the sassafras was used for dyeing yellow or orange color,
+and the flowers and leaves of the balsam also. Fustic and copperas gave
+yellow dyes. A good black was obtained by boiling woollen cloth with a
+quantity of the leaves of the common field-sorrel, then boiling again
+with logwood and copperas.</p>
+
+<p>In the South there were scores of flowers and leaves that could be used
+for dyes. During the Revolutionary War one enterprising South Carolinian
+got a guinea a pound for a yellow dye he made from the sweet-leaf or
+horse-laurel. The leaves and berries of gall-berry bush made a good
+black much used by hatters and weavers. The root of the barberry gave
+wool a beautiful yellow, as did the leaves of the devil's-bit. The
+petals of Jerusalem artichoke and St.-John's-wort dyed yellow. Yellow
+root is a significant name and reveals its use: oak, walnut, or maple
+bark dyed brown. Often the woven cloth was dyed, not the wool.</p>
+
+<p>The next process was carding; the wool was first greased with rape oil
+or "melted swine's grease," which had to be thoroughly worked in; about
+three pounds of grease were put into ten pounds of wool. Wool-cards were
+rectangular pieces of thin board,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span> with a simple handle on the back or
+at the side; to this board was fastened a smaller rectangle of strong
+leather, set thick with slightly bent wire teeth, like a coarse brush.
+The carder took one card with her left hand, and resting it on her knee,
+drew a tuft of wool across it several times, until a sufficient quantity
+of fibre had been caught upon the wire teeth. She then drew the second
+wool-card, which had to be warmed, across the first several times, until
+the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span> fibres were brushed parallel by all these "tummings." Then by a
+deft and catchy motion the wool was rolled or carded into small fleecy
+rolls which were then ready for spinning.</p>
+
+<p>Wool-combs were shaped like the letter <span class="f">T</span>, with about thirty long steel
+teeth from ten to eighteen inches long set at right angles with the top
+of the <span class="f">T</span>. The wool was carefully placed on one comb, and with careful
+strokes the other comb laid the long staple smooth for hard-twisted
+spinning. It was tedious and slow work, and a more skilful operation
+than carding; and the combs had to be kept constantly heated; but no
+machine-combing ever equalled hand-combing. There was a good deal of
+waste in this combing, that is, large clumps of tangled wool called noil
+were combed out. They were not really wasted, we may be sure, by our
+frugal ancestors, but were spun into coarse yarn.</p>
+
+<p>An old author says: "The action of spinning must be learned by practice,
+not by relation." Sung by the poets, the grace and beauty of the
+occupation has ever shared praise with its utility.</p>
+
+<p>Wool-spinning was truly one of the most flexible and alert series of
+movements in the world, and to its varied and graceful poises our
+grandmothers may owe part of the dignity of carriage that was so
+characteristic of them. The spinner stood slightly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span> leaning forward,
+lightly poised on the ball of the left foot; with her left hand she
+picked up from the platform of the wheel a long slender roll of the soft
+carded wool about as large round as the little finger, and deftly wound
+the end of the fibres on the point of the spindle. She then gave a
+gentle<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span> motion to the wheel with a wooden peg held in her right hand,
+and seized with the left the roll at exactly the right distance from the
+spindle to allow for one "drawing." Then the hum of the wheel rose to a
+sound like the echo of wind; she stepped backward quickly, one, two,
+three steps, holding high the long yarn as it twisted and quivered.
+Suddenly she glided forward with even, graceful stride and let the yarn
+wind on the swift spindle. Another pinch of the wool-roll, a new turn of
+the wheel, and <i>da capo</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The wooden peg held by the spinner deserves a short description; it
+served the purpose of an elongated finger, and was called a driver,
+wheel-peg, etc. It was about nine inches long, an inch or so in
+diameter; and at about an inch from the end was slightly grooved in
+order that it might surely catch the spoke and thus propel the wheel.</p>
+
+<p>It was a good day's work for a quick, active spinner to spin six skeins
+of yarn a day. It was estimated that to do that with her quick backward
+and forward steps she walked over <i>twenty miles</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The yarn might be wound directly upon the wooden spindle as it was spun,
+or at the end of the spindle might be placed a spool or broach which
+twisted with the revolving spindle, and held the new-spun yarn. This
+broach was usually simply a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span> stiff roll of paper, a corn-cob, or a roll
+of corn-husk. When the ball of yarn was as large as the broach would
+hold, the spinner placed wooden pegs in certain holes in the spokes of
+her spinning-wheel<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span> and tied the end of the yarn to one peg. Then she
+took off the belt of her wheel and whirred the big wheel swiftly round,
+thus winding the yarn on the pegs into hanks or clews two yards in
+circumference, which were afterwards tied with a loop of yarn into knots
+of forty threads; while seven of these knots made a skein. The
+clock-reel was used for winding yarn, also a triple reel.</p>
+
+<p>The yarn might be wound from the spindle into skeins in another way,&mdash;by
+using a hand-reel, an implement which really did exist in every
+farmhouse, though the dictionaries are ignorant of it, as they are of
+its universal folk-name, niddy-noddy. This is fortunately preserved in
+an every-day domestic riddle:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Niddy-noddy, niddy-noddy,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Two heads and one body."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>The three pieces of these niddy-noddys were set together at curious
+angles, and are here shown rather than described in words. Holding the
+reel in the left hand by seizing the central "body" or rod, the yarn was
+wound from end to end of the reel, by an odd, waving, wobbling motion,
+into knots and skeins of the same size as by the first process
+described. One of these niddy-noddys was owned by Nabby Marshall of
+Deerfield, who lived to be one hundred<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span> and four years old. The other
+was brought from Ireland in 1733 by Hugh Maxwell, father of the
+Revolutionary patriot Colonel Maxwell. As it was at a time of English
+prohibitions and restrictions of American manufactures, this
+niddy-noddy, as an accessory and promoter of colonial wool manufacture,
+was smuggled into the country.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes the woollen yarn was spun twice; especially if a close,
+hard-twisted thread was desired, to be woven into a stiff, wiry cloth.
+When there were two, the first spinning was called a roving. The single
+spinning was usually deemed sufficient to furnish yarn for knitting,
+where softness and warmth were the desired requisites.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It was the pride of a good spinster to spin the finest yarn, and one
+Mistress Mary Prigge spun a pound of wool into fifty hanks of
+eighty-four thousand yards; in all, nearly forty-eight miles. If the
+yarn was to be knitted, it had to be washed and cleansed. The wife of
+Colonel John May, a prominent man in Boston, wrote in her diary for one
+day:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"A large kettle of yarn to attend upon. Lucretia and self rinse,
+scour through many waters, get out, dry, attend to, bring in, do up
+and sort 110 score of yarn; this with baking and ironing. Then went
+to hackling flax."</p></div>
+
+<p>It should be remembered that all those bleaching processes, the wringing
+out and rinsing in various waters, were far more wearisome then than
+they would be to-day, for the water had to be carried laboriously in
+pails and buckets, and drawn with pumps and well-sweeps; there were no
+pipes and conduits. Happy the household that had a running brook near
+the kitchen door.</p>
+
+<p>Of course all these operations and manipulations usually occupied many
+weeks and months, but they could be accomplished in a much shorter time.
+When President Nott of Union College, and his brother Samuel, the famous
+preacher, were boys on a stony farm in Connecticut, one of the brothers<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span>
+needed a new suit of clothes, and as the father was sick there was
+neither money nor wool in the house. The mother sheared some half-grown
+fleece from her sheep, and in less than a week the boy wore it as
+clothing. The shivering and generous sheep were protected by wrappings
+of braided straw. During the Revolution, it is said that in a day and a
+night a mother and her daughters in Townsend, Massachusetts, sheared a
+black and a white sheep, carded from the fleece a gray wool, spun, wove,
+cut and made a suit of clothes for a boy to wear off to fight for
+liberty.</p>
+
+<p>The wool industry easily furnished home occupation to an entire family.
+Often by the bright firelight in the early evening every member of the
+household might be seen at work on the various stages of wool
+manufacture or some of its necessary adjuncts, and varied and cheerful
+industrial sounds fill the room. The old grandmother, at light and easy
+work, is carding the wool into fleecy rolls, seated next the fire; for,
+as the ballad says, "she was old and saw right dimly." The mother,
+stepping as lightly as one of her girls, spins the rolls into woollen
+yarn on the great wheel. The oldest daughter sits at the clock-reel,
+whose continuous buzz and occasional click mingles with the humming rise
+and fall of the wool-wheel, and the irritating<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span> scratch, scratch, of the
+cards. A little girl at a small wheel is filling quills with woollen
+yarn for the loom, not a skilled work; the irregular sound shows her
+intermittent industry. The father is setting fresh teeth in a wool-card,
+while the boys are whittling hand-reels and loom-spools.</p>
+
+<p>One of the household implements used in wool manufacture, the wool-card,
+deserves a short special history as well as a description. In early days
+the leather back of the wool-card was pierced with an awl by hand; the
+wire teeth were cut off from a length of wire, were slightly bent, and
+set and clinched one by one. These cards were laboriously made by many
+persons at home, for their household use. As early as 1667 wire was made
+in Massachusetts;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span> and its chief use was for wool-cards. By
+Revolutionary times it was realized that the use of wool-cards was
+almost the mainspring of the wool industry, and &pound;100 bounty was offered
+by Massachusetts for card-wire made in the state from iron mined in what
+they called then the "United American States." In 1784 a machine was
+invented by an American which would cut and bend thirty-six thousand
+wire teeth an hour. Another machine pierced the leather backs. This gave
+a new employment to women and children at home and some spending-money.
+They would get boxes of the bent wire teeth and bundles of the leather
+backs from the factories and would set the teeth in the backs while
+sitting around the open fire in the evening. They did this work, too,
+while visiting&mdash;spending an afternoon; and it was an unconscious and
+diverting work like knitting; scholars set wool-cards while studying,
+and schoolmistresses while teaching. This method of manufacture was
+superseded fifteen years later by a machine invented by Amos Whittemore,
+which held, cut, and pierced the leather, drew the wire from a reel, cut
+and bent a looped tooth, set it, bent it, fastened the leather on the
+back, and speedily turned out a fully made card. John Randolph said this
+machine had everything but an immortal soul. By this time spinning and
+weaving<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span> machinery began to crowd out home work, and the machine-made
+cards were needed to keep up with the increased demand. At last machines
+crowded into every department of cloth manufacture; and after
+carding-machines were invented in England&mdash;great rollers set with
+card-teeth&mdash;they were set up in many mills throughout the United States.</p>
+
+<p>Families soon sent all their wool to these mills to be carded even when
+it was spun and woven at home. It was sent rolled up in a homespun sheet
+or blanket pinned with thorns; and the carded rolls ready for spinning
+were brought home in the same way, and made a still bigger bundle which
+was light in weight for its size. Sometimes a red-cheeked farmer's lass
+would be seen riding home from the carding-mill, through New England
+woods or along New England lanes, with a bundle of carded wool towering
+up behind her bigger than her horse.</p>
+
+<p>Of the use and manufacture of cotton I will speak very shortly. Our
+greatest, cheapest, most indispensable fibre is also our latest one. It
+never formed one of the homespun industries of the colonies; in fact, it
+was never an article of extended domestic manufacture.</p>
+
+<p>A little cotton was always used in early days for stuffing bedquilts,
+petticoats, warriors' armor, and similar purposes. It was bought by the
+pound,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span> East India cotton, in small quantities; the seeds were picked
+out one by one, by hand; it was carded on wool-cards, and spun into a
+rather intractable yarn which was used as warp for linsey-woolsey and
+rag carpets. Even in England no cotton weft, no all-cotton fabrics, were
+made till after 1760, till Hargreave's time. Sometimes a twisted yarn
+was made of one thread of cotton and one of wool which was knit into
+durable stockings. Cotton sewing-thread was unknown in England.
+Pawtucket women named Wilkinson made the first cotton thread on their
+home spinning-wheels in 1792.</p>
+
+<p>Cotton was planted in America, Bancroft says, in 1621, but MacMaster
+asserts it was never seen growing here till after the Revolution save as
+a garden ornament with garden flowers. This assertion seems oversweeping
+when Jefferson could write in a letter in 1786:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"The four southermost States make a great deal of cotton. Their
+poor are almost entirely clothed with it in winter and summer. In
+winter they wear shirts of it and outer clothing of cotton and wool
+mixed. In summer their shirts are linen, but the outer clothing
+cotton. The dress of the women is almost entirely of cotton,
+manufactured by themselves, except the richer class, and even many
+of these wear a great deal of homespun cotton. It is as well
+manufactured as the calicoes of Europe."</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Still cotton was certainly not a staple of consequence. We were the last
+to enter the list of cotton-producing countries and we have surpassed
+them all.</p>
+
+<p>The difficulty of removing the seeds from the staple practically thrust
+cotton out of common use. In India a primitive and cumbersome set of
+rollers called a churka partially cleaned India cotton. A Yankee
+schoolmaster, Eli Whitney, set King Cotton on a throne by his invention
+of the cotton-gin in 1792. This comparatively simple but inestimable
+invention completely revolutionized cloth manufacture in England and
+America. It also changed general commerce, industrial development, and
+the social and economic order of things, for it gave new occupations and
+offered new modes of life to hundreds of thousands of persons. It
+entirely changed and cheapened our dress, and altered rural life both in
+the North and South.</p>
+
+<p>A man could, by hand-picking, clean only about a pound of cotton a day.
+The cotton-gin cleaned as much in a day as had taken the hand-picker a
+year to accomplish. Cotton was at once planted in vast amounts; but it
+certainly was not plentiful till then. Whitney had never seen cotton nor
+cotton seed when he began to plan his invention; nor did he, even in
+Savannah, find cotton to experiment with until after considerable
+search.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>After the universal manufacture and use of the cotton-gin, negro women
+wove cotton in Southern houses, sometimes spinning their own cotton
+thread; more frequently buying it mill-spun. But, after all, this was in
+too small amounts to be of importance; it needed the spinning-jennies
+and power-looms of vast mills to use up the profuse supply afforded by
+the gin.</p>
+
+<p>A very interesting account of the domestic manufacture of cotton in
+Tennessee about the year 1850 was written for me by Mrs. James Stuart
+Pilcher, State Regent of the Daughters of the American Revolution in
+Tennessee. A portion of her pleasant story reads:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"There were two looms in the loom-room, and two negro women were
+kept busy all the time weaving; there were eight or ten others who
+did nothing but spin cotton and woollen thread; others spooled and
+reeled it into hanks. The spinning was all done on the large wheel,
+from the raw cotton; a corn-shuck was wrapped tightly around the
+steel spindle, then the thread was run and spun on this shuck until
+it was full; then these were reeled off into hanks of thread, then
+spooled on to corn-cobs with holes burned through them. These were
+placed in an upright frame, with long slender rods of hickory wood
+something like a ramrod run through them. The frame held about one
+hundred of these cob-spools; the end of the cotton<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span> thread from
+each spool was gathered up by an experienced warper who carried all
+the threads back and forth on the large warping-bars; this was a
+difficult task; only the brightest negro women were warpers. The
+thread had been dyed before spooling and the vari-colored
+cob-spools could be arranged to make stripes lengthwise of the
+cloth; and the hanks had also been dipped in a boiling-hot sizing
+made of meal and water. The warp-threads were carefully taken from
+the bars and rolled upon the wooden beam of the loom, the ends
+passed through the sley and tied. The weaver then began her work.
+The thread for the filling (called the woof by the negroes) was
+reeled from the hank on the winding-blades, upon small canes about
+four inches long which, when full, were placed in the wooden
+shuttles. These women spun and wove all the clothing worn by the
+negroes on the plantation; cotton cloth for women and men in the
+summer time; and jeans for the men; linsey-woolsey for the women
+and children for winter. All were well clothed. The women taught us
+to spin, but the weavers were cross and would not let us touch the
+loom, for they said we broke the threads in the warp. My
+grandmother never interfered with them when they were careful in
+their work. We would say, 'Please make Aunt Rhody let me weave!'
+She answered, 'No, she is managing the loom; if she is willing,
+very well; if not, you must not worry her.' We thought it great fun
+to try to weave, but generally had to pay Aunt Rhody for our
+meddling by giving her cake, ribbons, or candy."</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The colonists were constantly trying to find new materials for spinning,
+and also used many makeshifts. Parkman, in his <i>Old R&eacute;gime</i>, tells that
+in the year 1704, when a ship was lost that was to bring cloth and wool
+to Quebec, a Madame de R&egrave;pentigny, one of the aristocrats of the
+French-Canadian colony, spun and wove coarse blankets of nettle and
+linden bark. Similar experiments were made by the English colonists.
+Coarse thread was spun out of nettle-fibre by pioneers in western New
+York. Levi Beardsley, in his <i>Reminiscences</i>, tells of his mother at the
+close of the last century, in her frontier home at Richfield Springs,
+weaving bags and coarse garments from the nettles which grew so rankly
+everywhere in that vicinity. Deer hair and even cow's hair was collected
+from the tanners, spun with some wool, and woven into a sort of felted
+blanket.</p>
+
+<p>Silk-grass, a much-vaunted product, was sent back to England on the
+first ships and was everywhere being experimented with. Coarse wicking
+was spun from the down of the milkweed&mdash;an airy, feathery material that
+always looks as if it ought to be put to many uses, yet never has seemed
+of much account in any trial that has been made of it.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span><br />
+HAND-WEAVING</h2>
+
+
+<p>Any one who passed through a New England village on a week day a century
+ago, or rode up to the door of a Pennsylvania or Virginia house, would
+probably be greeted with a heavy thwack-thwack from within doors, a
+regular sound which would readily be recognized by every one at that
+time as proceeding from weaving on a hand-loom. The presence of these
+looms was, perhaps, not so universal in every house as that of their
+homespun companions, the great and little wheels, for they required more
+room; but they were found in every house of any considerable size, and
+in many also where they seemed to fill half the building. Many
+households had a loom-room, usually in an ell part of the house; others
+used an attic or a shed-loft as a weaving-room. Every farmer's daughter
+knew how to weave as well as to spin, yet it was not recognized as
+wholly woman's work as was spinning; for there was a trade of
+hand-weaving for men, to which they were apprenticed. Every<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span> town had
+professional weavers. They were a universally respected class, and
+became the ancestors of many of the wealthiest and most influential
+citizens to-day. They took in yarn and thread to weave on their looms at
+their own homes at so much a yard; wove their own yarn into stuffs to
+sell; had apprentices to their trade; and also went out working by the
+day at their neighbors' houses, sometimes carrying their looms many
+miles with them.</p>
+
+<p>Weavers were a universally popular element of the community. The
+travelling weaver was, like all other itinerant tradesmen of the day, a
+welcome newsmonger; and the weaver who took in weaving was often a
+stationary gossip, and gathered inquiring groups in his loom-room; even
+children loved to go to his door to beg for bits of colored
+yarn&mdash;thrums&mdash;which they used in their play, and also tightly braided to
+wear as shoestrings, hair-laces, etc.</p>
+
+<p>The hand-loom used in the colonies, and occasionally still run in
+country towns to-day, is an historic machine, one of great antiquity and
+dignity. It is, perhaps, the most absolute bequest of past centuries
+which we have had, unchanged, in domestic use till the present time. You
+may see a loom like the Yankee one shown here in Giotto's famous fresco
+in the Campanile, painted in 1335; another, still the same, in Hogarth's
+<i>Idle Apprentice</i>, painted just four hundred<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span> years later. Many tribes
+and nations have hand-looms resembling our own; but these are exactly
+like it. Hundreds of thousands of men and women of the generations of
+these seven centuries since Giotto's day have woven on just such looms
+as our grandparents had in their homes.</p>
+
+<p>This loom consists of a frame of four square timber posts, about seven
+feet high, set about as far apart as the posts of a tall four-post
+bedstead, and connected at top and bottom by portions of a frame. From
+post to post across one end, which may be called the back part of the
+loom, is the yarn-beam, about six inches in diameter. Upon it are wound
+the warp-threads, which stretch in close parallels from it to the
+cloth-beam at the front of the loom. The cloth-beam is about ten inches
+in diameter, and the cloth is wound as the weaving proceeds.</p>
+
+<p>The yarn-beam or yarn-roll or warp-beam was ever a very important part
+of the loom. It should be made of close-grained, well-seasoned wood. The
+iron axle should be driven in before the beam is turned. If the beam is
+ill-turned and irregular in shape, no even, perfect woof can come from
+it. The slightest variation in its dimensions makes the warp run off
+unevenly, and the web never "sets" well, but has some loose threads.</p>
+
+<p>We have seen the homespun yarn, whether linen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span> or woollen, left in
+carefully knotted skeins after being spun and cleaned, bleached, or
+dyed. To prepare it for use on the loom a skein is placed on the swift,
+an ingenious machine, a revolving cylindrical frame<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span> made of strips of
+wood arranged on the principle of the lazy-tongs so the size can be
+increased or diminished at pleasure, and thus take on and hold firmly
+any sized skein of yarn. This cylinder is supported on a centre shaft
+that revolves in a socket, and may be set in a heavy block on the floor
+or fastened to a table or chair. A lightly made, carved swift was a
+frequent lover's gift. I have a beautiful one of whale-ivory,
+mother-of-pearl, and fine white bone which was made on a three years'
+whaling voyage by a Nantucket sea-captain as a gift to his waiting
+bride; it has over two hundred strips of fine white carved bone. Both
+quills for the weft and spools for the warp may be wound from the swift
+by a quilling-wheel, small wheels of various shapes, some being like a
+flax-wheel, but more simple in construction. The quill or bobbin is a
+small reed or quill, pierced from end to end, and when wound is set in
+the recess of the shuttle.</p>
+
+<p>When the piece is to be set, a large number of shuttles and spools are
+filled in advance. The full spools are then placed in a row one above
+the other in a spool-holder, sometimes called a skarne or scarne. As I
+have not found this word in any dictionary, ancient or modern, its
+correct spelling is unknown. Sylvester Judd, in his <i>Margaret</i>, spells
+it skan. Skean and skayn have also been seen.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span> Though ignored by
+lexicographers, it was an article and word in established and universal
+use in the colonies. I have seen it in newspaper advertisements of
+weavers' materials, and in inventories of weavers' estates, spelled <i>ad
+libitum</i>; and elderly country folk, both in the North and South, who
+remember old-time weaving, know it to-day.</p>
+
+<p>It seems to me impossible to explain clearly in words, though it is
+simple enough in execution, the laying of the piece, the orderly placing
+the warp on the warp-beam. The warping-bars are entirely detached from
+the loom, are an accessory, not a part of it. They are two upright bars
+of wood, each holding a number of wooden pins set at right angles<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span> to
+the bars, and held together by crosspieces. Let forty full spools be
+placed in the skarne, one above the other. The free ends of threads from
+the spools are gathered in the hand, and fastened to a pin at the top of
+the warping-bars. The group of threads then are carried from side to
+side of the bars, passing around a pin on one bar, then around a pin on
+the opposite bar, to the extreme end; then back again in the same way,
+the spools revolving on wires and freely playing out the warp-threads,
+till a sufficient length of threads are stretched on the bars. Weavers
+of olden days could calculate exactly and skilfully the length of the
+threads thus wound. You take off twenty yards of threads if you want to
+weave twenty yards of cloth. Forty warp-threads make what was called a
+bout or section. A warp of two hundred threads was designated as a warp
+of five bouts, and the bars had to be filled five times to set it unless
+a larger skarne with more spools was used. From the warping-bars these
+bouts are carefully wound on the warp-beam.</p>
+
+<p>Without attempting to explain farther, let us consider the yarn-beam
+neatly wound with these warp-threads and set in the loom&mdash;that the
+"warping" and "beaming" are finished. The "drawing" or "entering" comes
+next; the end of each warp-thread in regular order is "thumbed" or drawn
+in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span> with a warping-needle through the eye or "mail" of the harness, or
+heddle.</p>
+
+<p>The heddle is a row of twines, cords, or wires called leashes, which are
+stretched vertically between two horizontal bars or rods, placed about a
+foot apart. One rod is suspended by a pulley at the top of the loom; and
+to the lower rod is hitched the foot-treadle. In the middle of each
+length of twine or wire is the loop or eye, through which a warp-thread
+is passed. In ordinary weaving there are two heddles, each fastened to a
+foot-treadle.</p>
+
+<p>There is a removable loom attachment which when first shown to me was
+called a raddle. It is not necessary in weaving, but a convenience and
+help in preparing to weave. It is a wooden bar with a row of closely
+set, fine, wooden pegs. This is placed in the loom, and used only during
+the setting of the warp to keep the warp of proper width; the pegs keep
+the bouts or sections of the warp disentangled during the "thumbing in"
+of the threads through the heddle-eyes. This attachment is also called a
+ravel or raivel; and folk-names for it (not in the dictionary) were
+wrathe and rake; the latter a very good descriptive title.</p>
+
+<p>The warp-threads next are drawn through the interspaces between two
+dents or strips of the sley or reed. This is done with a wire hook
+called a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span> sley-hook or reed-hook. Two warp-threads are drawn in each
+space.</p>
+
+<p>The sley or reed is composed of a row of short and very thin parallel
+strips of cane or metal, somewhat like comb-teeth, called dents, fixed
+at both ends closely in two long, strong, parallel bars of wood set two
+or three or even four inches apart. There may be fifty or sixty of these
+dents to one inch, for weaving very fine linen; usually there are about
+twenty, which gives a "bier"&mdash;a counting out of forty warp-threads to
+each inch. Sleys were numbered according to the number of biers they
+held. The number of dents to an inch determined the "set of the web,"
+the fineness of the piece. This reed is placed in a groove on the lower
+edge of a heavy batten (or lay or lathe). This batten hangs by two
+swords or side bars and swings from an axle or "rocking tree" at the top
+of the loom. As the heavy batten swings on its axle, the reed forces
+with a sharp blow every newly placed thread of the weft into its proper
+place close to the previously woven part of the texture. This is the
+heavy thwacking sound heard in hand-weaving.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>On the accurate poise of the batten depends largely the evenness of the
+completed woof. If the material is heavy, the batten should be swung
+high, thus having a good sweep and much force in its blow. The batten
+should be so poised as to swing back itself into place after each blow.</p>
+
+<p>The weaver, with foot on treadle, sits on a narrow, high bench, which is
+fastened from post to post of the loom. James Maxwell, the weaver-poet,
+wrote under his portrait in his <i>Weaver's Meditations</i>, printed in
+1756:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Lo! here 'twixt Heaven and Earth I swing,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">And whilst the Shuttle swiftly flies,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">With cheerful heart I work and sing<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">And envy none beneath the skies."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>There are three motions in hand-weaving. First: by the action of one
+foot-treadle one harness or heddle, holding every alternate warp-thread,
+is depressed from the level of the entire expanse of warp-threads.</p>
+
+<p>The separation of the warp-threads by this depression of one harness is
+called a shed. Some elaborate patterns have six harnesses. In such a
+piece there are ten different sheds, or combinations of openings of the
+warp-threads. In a four-harness piece there are six different sheds.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Room is made by this shed for the shuttle, which, by the second motion,
+is thrown from one side of the loom to the other by the weaver's hand,
+and thus goes over every alternate thread. The revolving quill within
+the shuttle lets the weft-thread play out during this side-to-side
+motion of the shuttle. The shuttle must not be thrown too sharply else
+it will rebound and make a slack thread in the weft. By the third motion
+the batten crowds this weft-thread into place. Then the motion of the
+other foot-treadle forces down the other warp-threads which pass through
+the second set of harnesses, the shuttle is thrown back through this
+shed, and so on.</p>
+
+<p>In order to show the amount of work, the number of separate motions in a
+day's work in weaving of close woollen cloth like broadcloth (which was
+only about three yards), we must remember that the shuttle was thrown
+over three thousand times, and the treadles pressed down and batten
+swung the same number of times.</p>
+
+<p>A simple but clear description of the process of weaving is given in
+Ovid's <i>Metamorphoses</i>, thus Englished in 1724:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i10">"The piece prepare<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And order every slender thread with care;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The web enwraps the beam, the reed divides<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span><br /></span>
+<span class="i0">While through the widening space the shuttle glides,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Which their swift hands receive, then poised with lead<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The swinging weight strikes close the inserted thread."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>A loom attachment which I puzzled over was a tomble or tumble, the word
+being seen in eighteenth-century lists, etc., yet absolutely
+untraceable. I at last inferred, and a weaver confirmed my inference,
+that it was a corruption of temple, an attachment made of flat, narrow
+strips of wood as long as the web is wide, with hooks or pins at the end
+to catch into the selvage of the cloth, and keep the cloth stretched
+firmly an even width while the reed beats the weft-thread into place.</p>
+
+<p>There were many other simple yet effective attachments to the loom.
+Their names have been upon the lips of scores of thousands of
+English-speaking people, and the words are used in all treatises on
+weaving; yet our dictionaries are dumb and ignorant<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span> of their existence.
+There was the pace-weight, which kept the warp even; and the bore-staff,
+which tightened the warp. When a sufficient length of woof had been
+woven (it was usually a few inches), the weaver proceeded to do what was
+called drawing a bore or a sink. He shifted the temple forward; rolled
+up the cloth on the cloth bar, which had a crank-handle and ratchets;
+unwound the warp a few inches, shifted back the rods and heddles, and
+started afresh.</p>
+
+<p>Looms and their appurtenances were usually made by local carpenters; and
+it can plainly be seen that thus constant work was furnished to many
+classes of workmen in every community,&mdash;wood-turners, beam-makers,
+timber-sawyers, and others. The various parts of the looms were in
+unceasing demand, though apparently they never wore out. The sley was
+the most delicate part of the mechanism. Good sley-makers could always
+command high prices for their sleys. I have seen one whole and good,
+which has been in general use for weaving rag carpets ever since the War
+of 1812, for which a silver dollar was paid. Spools were turned and
+marked with the maker's initials. There were choice and inexplicable
+lines in the shape of a shuttle as there are in a boat's hull. When a
+shuttle was carefully shaped, scraped, hollowed out, tipped with steel,
+and had the maker's<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span> initials burnt in it, it was a proper piece of
+work, of which any craftsman might be proud. Apple-wood and boxwood were
+the choice for shuttles.</p>
+
+<p>Smaller looms, called tape-looms, braid-looms, belt-looms, garter-looms,
+or "gallus-frames," were seen in many American homes, and useful they
+were in days when linen, cotton, woollen, or silk tapes, bobbins, and
+webbings or ribbons were not common and cheap as to-day. Narrow bands
+such as tapes, none-so-pretty's, ribbons, caddises, ferretings, inkles,
+were woven on these looms for use for garters, points, glove-ties,
+hair-laces, shoestrings, belts, hat-bands, stay-laces,
+breeches-suspenders, etc.</p>
+
+<p>These tape-looms are a truly ancient form of appliance for the
+hand-weaving of narrow bands,&mdash;a heddle-frame. They are rudely primitive
+in shape, but besides serving well the colonists in all our original
+states, are still in use among the Indian tribes in New Mexico and in
+Lapland, Italy, and northern Germany. They are scarcely more than<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span> a
+slightly shaped board so cut in slits that the centre of the board is a
+row of narrow slats. These slats are pierced in a row by means of a
+heated wire and the warp-threads are passed through the holes.</p>
+
+<p>A common form of braid-loom was one that was laid upon a table. A still
+simpler form was held<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span> upright on the lap, the knees being firmly
+pressed into semicircular indentations cut for the purpose on either
+side of the board which formed the lower part of the loom. The top of
+the loom was steadied by being tied with a band to the top of a chair,
+or a hook in the wall. It was such light and pretty work that it seemed
+merely an industrial amusement, and girls carried their tape-looms to a
+neighbor's house for an afternoon's work, just as they did their
+knitting-needles and ball of yarn. A fringe-loom might also be
+occasionally found, for weaving decorative fringes; these were more
+common in the Hudson River valley than elsewhere.</p>
+
+<p>I have purposely given minute, but I trust not tiresome, details of the
+operation of weaving on a hand-loom, because a few years more will see
+the last of those who know the operation and the terms used. The fact
+that so many terms are now obsolete proves how quickly disuse brings
+oblivion. When in a country crowded full of weavers, as was England
+until about 1845, the knowledge has so suddenly disappeared, need we
+hope for much greater memory or longer life here? When what is termed
+the Westmoreland Revival of domestic industries was begun eight or ten
+years ago, the greatest difficulty was found in obtaining a hand-loom.
+No one knew how to set it up, and it was a long<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span> time before a weaver
+could be found to run it and teach others its use.</p>
+
+<p>The first half of this century witnessed a vital struggle in England,
+and to an extent in America, between hand and power machinery, and an
+interesting race between spinning and weaving. Under old-time conditions
+it was calculated that it took the work of four spinners, who spun
+swiftly and constantly, to supply one weaver. As spinning was ever what
+was known as a by-industry,&mdash;that is, one that chiefly was done by being
+caught up at odd moments,&mdash;the supply both in England and America did
+not equal the weavers' demands, and ten spinners had to be calculated to
+supply yarn for one weaver. Hence weavers never had to work very hard;
+as a rule, they could have one holiday in the week. What with Sundays,
+wakes, and fairs, Irish weavers worked only two hundred days in the
+year. In England the weaver often had to spend one day out of the six
+hunting around the country for yarn for weft. So inventive wits were set
+at work to enlarge the supply of yarn, and spinning machinery was the
+result. Thereafter the looms and weavers were pushed hard and had to
+turn to invention. The shuttle had always simply been passed from one
+hand to the other of the weaver on either side of the web. The
+fly-shuttle was now invented,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span> which by a simple piece of machinery,
+worked by one hand, threw the shuttle swiftly backward and forward, and
+the loom was ahead in the race. Then came the spinning-jenny, which spun
+yarn with a hundred spindles on each machine. But this was for weft
+yarns, and did not make strong warps. Finally Arkwright supplied this
+lack in water-twist or "throstle-spun" yarn. All these inventions again
+overcrowded the weavers; all attempts at hand-spinning of cotton had
+become quickly extinct. Wool-spinning lingered<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span> longer. Five Tomlinson
+sisters,&mdash;the youngest forty years old,&mdash;with two pair of wool-cards and
+five hand-wheels, paid the rent of their farm, kept three cows, one
+horse, had a ploughed field, and made prime butter and eggs. One sister
+clung to her spinning till 1822. Power-looms were invented to try to use
+up the jenny's supply of yarn, but these did not crowd out hand-looms.
+Weavers never had so good wages. It was the Golden Age of Cotton. Some
+families earned six pounds a week; good clothes, even to the extent of
+ruffled shirts, good furniture, even to silver spoons, good food,
+plentiful ale and beer, entered every English cottage with the weaving
+of cotton and wool. A far more revolutionary and more hated machine than
+the power-loom was the combing-machine called Big Ben.</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Come all ye Master Combers, and hear of our Big Ben.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">He'll comb more wool than fifty of your men<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">With their hand-combs, and comb-pots, and such old-fashioned way."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Flax-spinning and linen-weaving by power machinery were slower in being
+established. Englishmen were halting in perfecting these machines.
+Napoleon offered in 1810 a million francs for a flax-spinning machine. A
+clever Frenchman claimed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span> to have invented one in response in a single
+day, but similar clumsy machines had then been running in England for
+twenty years. By 1850 men, women, and children&mdash;combers, spinners, and
+weavers&mdash;were no longer individual workers; they had become part of that
+great monster, the mill-machinery. Riots and misery were the first
+result of the passing of hand weaving and spinning.</p>
+
+<p>In the <i>Vision of Piers Ploughman</i> (1360) are these lines:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Cloth that cometh fro the wevyng<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Is nought comly to were<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Till it be fulled under foot<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Or in fullyng stokkes<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Wasshen wel with water<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And with taseles cracched,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Y-touked and y-tented<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And under taillours hande."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Just so in the colonies four centuries later, cloth that came from the
+weaving was not comely to wear till it was fulled under foot or in
+fulling-stocks, washed well in water, scratched and dressed with
+teazels, dyed and tented, and put in the tailor's hands. Nor did the
+roll of centuries bring a change in the manner of proceeding. If grease
+had been put on the wool when it was carded, or sizing in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span> the warp for
+the weaving, it was washed out by good rinsing from the woven cloth.
+This became now somewhat uneven and irregular in appearance, and full of
+knots and fuzzes which were picked out with hand-tweezers by burlers
+before it was fulled or milled, as it was sometimes called. The
+fulling-stocks were a trough in which an enormous oaken hammer was made
+to pound up and down, while the cloth was kept thoroughly wet with warm
+soap and water, or fullers' earth and water. Naturally this thickened
+the web much and reduced it in length. It was then teazelled; that is, a
+nap or rough surface was raised all over it by scratching it with
+weavers' teazels or thistles. Many wire brushes and metal substitutes
+have been tried to take the place of nature's gift to the cloth-worker,
+the teazel, but nothing has been invented to replace with full
+satisfaction that wonderful scratcher. For the slender recurved bracts
+of the teazel heads are stiff and prickly enough to roughen thoroughly
+the nap of the cloth, yet they yield at precisely the right point to
+keep from injuring the fabric.</p>
+
+<p>If the cloth were to be "y-touked," that is, dyed, it was done at this
+period, and it was then "y-tented," spread on the tenter-field and
+caught on tenter-hooks, to shrink and dry.</p>
+
+<p>Nowadays, we sometimes cut or crop the nap<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span> with long shears, and boil
+the web to give it a lustre, and ink it to color any ill-dyed fibres,
+and press it between hot plates before it goes to the tailor's hands;
+but these injurious processes were omitted in olden times. Worsted
+stuffs were not fulled, but were woven of hand-combed wool.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Linen webs after they were woven had even more manipulations to come to
+them than woollen stuffs. In spite of all the bleaching of the linen
+thread, it still was light brown in color, and it had to go through at
+least twoscore other processes, of bucking, possing, rinsing, drying,
+and bleaching on the grass. Sometimes it was stretched out on pegs with
+loops sewed on the selvage edge. This bleaching was called crofting in
+England, and grassing in America. Often it was thus spread on the grass
+for weeks, and was slightly wetted several times a day; but not too wet,
+else it would mildew. In all, over forty bleaching operations were
+employed upon "light linens." Sometimes they were "soured" in buttermilk
+to make them purely white. Thus at least sixteen months had passed since
+the flaxseed had been sown, in which, truly, the spinster had not eaten
+the bread of idleness. In the winter months the fine, white, strong
+linen was made into "board cloths" or tablecloths, sheets, pillow-biers,
+aprons, shifts, shirts, petticoats, short gowns, gloves, cut from the
+spinner's own glove pattern, and a score of articles for household use.
+These were carefully marked, and sometimes embroidered with home-dyed
+crewels, as were also splendid sets of bed-hangings, valances, and
+testers for four-post bedsteads.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The homespun linens that were thus spun and woven and bleached were one
+of the most beautiful expressions and types of old-time home life. Firm,
+close-woven, and pure, their designs were not greatly varied, nor was
+their woof as symmetrical and perfect as modern linens&mdash;but thus were
+the lives of those who made them; firm, close-woven in neighborly
+kindness, with the simplicity both of innocence and ignorance; their
+days had little variety, and life was not altogether easy, and, like the
+web they wove, it was sometimes narrow. I am always touched when
+handling these homespun linens with a consciousness of nearness to the
+makers; with a sense of the energy and strength of those enduring women
+who were so full of vitality, of unceasing action, that it does not seem
+to me they can be dead.</p>
+
+<p>The strong, firm linen woven in many struggling country homes was too
+valuable and too readily exchangeable and salable to be kept wholly for
+farm use, especially when there were so few salable articles produced on
+the farm. It was sold or more frequently exchanged at the village store
+for any desired commodity, such as calico, salt, sugar, spices, or tea.
+It readily sold for forty-two cents a yard. Therefore the boys and even
+the fathers did not always have linen shirts to wear. From the tow<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span>
+which had been hatchelled out from harl a coarse thread was spun and
+cloth was woven which was made chiefly into shirts and smocks and tow
+"tongs" or "skilts," which were loose flapping summer trousers which
+ended almost half-way from the knee to the ankle. This tow stuff was
+never free from prickling spines, and it proved, so tradition states, an
+absolute instrument of torture to the wearer, until frequent washings
+had worn it out and thus subdued its knots and spines.</p>
+
+<p>A universal stuff woven in New Hampshire by the Scotch-Irish
+linen-weavers who settled there, and who influenced husbandry and
+domestic manufactures and customs all around them, was what was known as
+striped frocking. It was worn also to a considerable extent in
+Connecticut and Massachusetts. The warp was strong white cotton or tow
+thread, the weft of blue and white stripes made by weaving alternately a
+shuttleful of indigo-dyed homespun yarn and one of white wool or tow.
+Many boys grew to manhood never wearing, except on Sundays, any kind of
+coat save a long, loose, shapeless jacket or smock of this striped
+frocking, known everywhere as a long-short. The history of the old town
+of Charmingfare tells of the farmers in that vicinity tying tight the
+two corners of this long-short at the waist and thus making a sort of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span>
+loose bag in which various articles could be carried. Sylvester Judd, in
+his <i>Margaret</i>, the classic of old New England life, has his country
+women dressed also in long-shorts, and tells of the same fabric.</p>
+
+<p>Another material which was universal in country districts had a flax or
+tow warp, and a coarser slack-twisted cotton or tow filling. This cloth
+was dyed and pressed and was called fustian. It was worth a shilling a
+yard in 1640. It was named in the earliest colonial accounts, and was in
+truth the ancient fustian, worn throughout Europe in the Middle Ages for
+monks' robes and laborers' dress, not the stuff to-day called fustian.
+We read in <i>The Squier of Low Degree</i>, "Your blanketts shall be of
+fustayne."</p>
+
+<p>Another coarse cloth made in New England, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and
+the Carolinas was crocus. The stuff is obsolete and the name is
+forgotten save in a folk-saying which lingers in Virginia&mdash;"as coarse as
+crocus." Homespun stuff for the wear of negroes was known and sold as
+"Virginia cloth." Vast quantities of homespun cloth was made on
+Virginian plantations, thousands of yards annually at Mount Vernon for
+slave-wear, and for the house-mistress as well.</p>
+
+<p>It is told of Martha Washington that she always carefully dyed all her
+worn silk gowns and silk scraps to a desired shade, ravelled them with
+care,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span> wound them on bobbins, and had them woven into chair and
+cushion covers. Sometimes she changed the order of things. To a group of
+visitors she at one time displayed a dress of red and white striped
+material of which the white stripes were cotton, and the red, ravelled
+chair covers and silk from the General's worn-out stockings.</p>
+
+<p>Checked linen, with bars of red or blue, was much used for bedticks,
+pillow-cases, towelling, aprons, and even shirts and summer trousers. In
+all the Dutch communities in New York it was woven till this century.
+When Benjamin Tappan first attended meeting in Northampton,
+Massachusetts, in 1769, he was surprised to find that all the men in the
+church but four or five wore checked shirts. Worcester County men always
+wore white shirts, and deemed a checked shirt the mark of a Connecticut
+River man.</p>
+
+<p>It is impossible to overestimate the durability of homespun materials. I
+have "flannel sheets" a hundred years old, the lightest, most healthful,
+and agreeable summer covering for children's beds that ever any one was
+blessed with. Cradle sheets of this thin, closely woven, white worsted
+stuff are not slimsy like thin flannel, yet are softer than flannel.
+Years of use with many generations of children have left them firm and
+white.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Grain-bags have been seen that have been in constant and hard use for
+seventy years, homespun from coarse flax and hemp. I have several
+delightful bags about four feet long and two feet wide, of rather
+closely woven pure white homespun linen, not as heavy, however, as
+crash. They have the date of their manufacture, 1789, and the initials
+of the weaver, and have linen tapes woven in at each side. They are used
+every spring&mdash;packed with furs and blankets and placed in cedar chests,
+and with such usage will easily round out another century.</p>
+
+<p>The product of these hand-looms which has lingered longest in country
+use, especially in the Northern states, and which is the sole product of
+all the hand-looms that I know to be set up and in use in New England
+(except one notable example to which I will refer hereafter), is the rag
+carpet. It is still in constant demand and esteem on farms and in small
+villages and towns, and is an economical and thrifty, and may be a
+comely floor-covering. The accompanying illustration of a woman weaving
+rag carpet on an old hand-loom is from a fine photograph taken by Mrs.
+Arthur Sewall of Bath, Maine, and gives an excellent presentment of the
+machine and the process.</p>
+
+<p>The warp of these carpets was, in olden times, a strong, heavy flaxen
+thread. To-day it is a heavy<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span> cotton twine bought machine-spun in balls
+or hanks. The weft or rilling is narrow strips of all the clean and
+vari-colored rags that accumulate in a household.</p>
+
+<p>The preparing of this filling requires considerable judgment. Heavy
+woollen cloth should be cut in strips about half an inch wide. If there
+were sewn with these strips of light cotton stuff of equal width, the
+carpet would prove a poor thing, heavy in spots and slimsy in others.
+Hence lighter stuffs should be cut in wider strips, as they can then be
+crowded down by the batten of the loom to the same width and substance
+as the heavy wools. Calicoes, cottons, all-wool delaines, and lining
+cambrics should be cut in strips at least an inch wide. These strips, of
+whatever length they chance to be,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span> are sewn into one continuous strip,
+which is rolled into a hard ball weighing about a pound and a quarter.
+It is calculated that one of these balls will weave about a yard of
+carpeting. The joining must be strongly and neatly done and should not
+be bunchy. An aged weaver who had woven many thousand yards of carpeting
+assured me the prettiest carpets were always those in which every
+alternate strip was white or very light in color. Another thrifty way of
+using old material is the cutting into inch-wide strips of woven ingrain
+or three-ply carpet. This, through the cotton warp, makes a really
+artistic monochrome floor-covering.</p>
+
+<p>In one of the most romantic and beautiful spots in old Narragansett
+lives the last of the old-time weavers; not a weaver who desultorily
+weaves a run of rag carpeting to earn a little money in the intervals of
+other work, or to please some importunate woman-neighbor who has saved
+up her rags; but a weaver whose lifelong occupation, whose only means of
+livelihood, has always been, and is still, hand-weaving. I have told his
+story at some length in my book, <i>Old Narragansett</i>,&mdash;of his kin, his
+life, his work. His home is at the cross-roads where three townships
+meet, a cross-roads where has often taken place that curious and
+senseless survival of old-time tradition and superstition&mdash;shift<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span>
+marriages. A widow, a cousin of the Weaver Rose's father, was the last
+to undergo this ordeal; clad only in her shift, she thrice crossed the
+King's Highway and was thus married to avoid payment of her first
+husband's debts. It is not far from the old Church Foundation of St.
+Paul's of Narragansett, and the tumble-down house of Sexton Martin Read,
+the prince of Narragansett weavers in ante-Revolutionary days. Weaver
+Rose learned to weave from his grandfather, who was an apprentice of
+Weaver Read.</p>
+
+<p>In the loom-room of Weaver Rose a veritable atmosphere of the past still
+lingers. Everything appertaining to the manufacture of homespun
+materials may there be found. Wheels, skarnes, sleys, warping-bars,
+clock-reels, swifts, quilling-wheels, vast bales of yarns and
+thread&mdash;for he no longer spins his thread and yarn. There are piles of
+old and new bed coverlets woven in those fanciful geometric designs,
+which are just as the ancient Gauls wove them in the Bronze Age, and
+which formed a favorite bed-covering of our ancestors, and of country
+folk to-day. These coverlets the weaver calls by the good old English
+name of hap-harlot, a name now obsolete in England, which I have never
+seen used in text of later date than Holinshead's <i>Survey of London</i>,
+written four hundred<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span> years ago. His manuscript pattern-book is over a
+hundred years old, and has the rules for setting the harnesses. They
+bear many pretty and odd names, such as "Rosy Walk," "Baltimore
+Beauty,"<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span> "Girl's Love," "Queen's Fancy," "Devil's Fancy," "Everybody's
+Beauty," "Four Snow Balls," "Five Snow Balls," "Bricks and Blocks,"
+"Gardener's Note," "Green Vails," "Rose in Bloom," "Pansies and Roses in
+the Wilderness," "Flag-Work," "Royal Beauty," "Indian March," "Troy's
+Beauty," "Primrose and Diamonds," "Crown and Diamonds," "Jay's Fancy,"
+"In Summer and Winter," "Boston Beauty," and "Indian War." One named
+"Bony Part's March" was very pretty, as was "Orange Peel," and "Orange
+Trees"; "Dog Tracks" was even checkerwork, "Blazing Star," a
+herring-bone design. "Perry's Victory" and "Lady Washington's Delight"
+show probably the date of their invention, and were handsome designs,
+while the "Whig Rose from Georgia," which had been given to the weaver
+by an old lady a hundred years old, had proved a poor and ugly thing.
+"Kapa's Diaper" was a complicated design which took "five harnesses" to
+make. "Rattlesnake's Trail," "Wheels of Fancy," "Chariot Wheels and
+Church Windows," and "Bachelor's Fancy" were all exceptionally fine
+designs.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes extremely elaborate patterns were woven in earlier days. An
+exquisitely woven coverlet as fine as linen sheeting, a corner of which
+is here shown, has an elaborate border of patriotic and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span> Masonic
+emblems, patriotic inscriptions, and the name of the maker, a Red Hook,
+Hudson valley, dame of a century ago, who wove this beautiful bedspread
+as the crowning treasure of her bridal outfit. The "setting-up" of such
+a design as this is entirely beyond my skill as a weaver to explain or
+even comprehend. But it is evident that the border must have been woven
+by taking up a single<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span> warp-thread at a time, with a wire needle, not by
+passing a shuttle, as it is far too complicated and varied for any
+treadle-harness to be able to make a shed for a shuttle.</p>
+
+<p>Hand-weaving in Weaver Rose's loom-room to-day is much simplified in
+many of its preparatory details by the employment of machine-made
+materials. The shuttles and spools are made by machinery; and more
+important still, both warp and weft is purchased ready-spun from mills.
+The warp is simply a stout cotton twine or coarse thread bought in balls
+or hanks; while various cheap mill-yarns or what is known as worsteds or
+coarse crewels are used as filling. These, of course, are cheap, but
+alas! are dyed with fleeting or garish aniline dyes. No new blue yarn
+can equal either in color or durability the old indigo-dyed, homespun,
+hard-twisted yarn made on a spinning-wheel. Germantown, early in the
+field in American wool manufacture, still supplies nearly all the yarn
+for his hand-looms.</p>
+
+<p>The transition half a century or more ago from what Horace Bushnell
+called "mother and daughter power to water and steam power," was a
+complete revolution in domestic life, and indeed of social manners as
+well. When a people spin and weave and make their own dress, you have in
+this very<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span> fact the assurance that they are home-bred, home-living,
+home-loving people. You are sure, also, that the lives of the women are
+home-centred. The chief cause for women's intercourse with any of the
+outside world except neighborly acquaintance, her chief knowledge of
+trade and exchange, is in shopping, dressmaking, etc. These causes
+scarcely existed in country communities a century ago. The daughters who
+in our days of factories leave the farm for the cotton-mill, where they
+perform but one of the many operations in cloth manufacture, can never
+be as good home-makers or as helpful mates as the homespun girls of our
+grandmothers' days; nor can they be such co-workers in great public
+movements.</p>
+
+<p>In the summer of 1775, when all the preparations for the War of the
+Revolution were in a most unsettled and depressing condition, especially
+the supplies for the Continental army, the Provincial Congress made a
+demand on the people for thirteen thousand warm coats to be ready for
+the soldiers by cold weather. There were no great contractors then as
+now to supply the cloth and make the garments, but by hundreds of
+hearthstones throughout the country wool-wheels and hand-looms were
+started eagerly at work, and the order was filled by the handiwork of
+patriotic American women. In<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span> the record book of some New England towns
+may still be found the lists of the coat-makers. In the inside of each
+coat was sewed the name of the town and the maker. Every soldier
+volunteering for eight months' service was given one of these homespun,
+home-made, all-wool coats as a bounty. So highly were these "Bounty
+Coats" prized, that the heirs of soldiers who were killed at Bunker Hill
+before receiving their coats were given a sum of money instead. The list
+of names of soldiers who then enlisted is known to this day as the "Coat
+Roll," and the names of the women who made the coats might form another
+roll of honor. The English sneeringly called Washington's army the
+"Homespuns." It was a truthful nickname, but there was deeper power in
+the title than the English scoffers knew.</p>
+
+<p>The starting up of power-looms and the wonderful growth of woollen
+manufacture did not crowd out homespun as speedily in America as in
+England. When the poet Whittier set out from the Quaker farmhouse to go
+to Boston to seek his fortune, he wore a homespun suit every part of
+which, even the horn buttons, was of domestic manufacture. Many a man
+born since Whittier has grown to manhood clothed for every-day wear
+wholly with homespun; and many a boy is living who was sent<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span> to college
+dressed wholly in a "full-cloth" suit, with horn buttons or buttons made
+of discs of heavy leather.</p>
+
+<p>During the Civil War spinning and weaving were revived arts in the
+Confederate cities; and, as ever in earlier days, proved a most valuable
+economic resource under restricted conditions. In the home of a friend
+in Charleston, South Carolina, an old, worm-eaten loom was found in a
+garret where it had lain since the embargo in 1812. It was set up in
+1863, and plantation carpenters made many like it for neighbors and
+fellow-citizens. All women in the mountain districts knew how to use the
+loom, and taught weaving to many others, both white and black. A portion
+of the warp, which was cotton, was spun at home; more was bought from a
+cotton-factory. My friend sacrificed a great number of excellent
+wool-mattresses; this wool was spun into yarn and used for weft, and
+formed a most grateful and dignified addition to the varied, grotesque,
+and interesting makeshifts of the wardrobe of the Southern Confederacy.</p>
+
+<p>Though weaving on hand-looms in our Northern and Middle states is
+practically extinct, save as to the weaving of rag carpets (and that
+only in few communities), in the South all is different. In all the
+mountain and remote regions of Kentucky, Tennessee,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span> Georgia, the
+Carolinas, and I doubt not in Alabama, both among the white and negro
+mountain-dwellers, hand-weaving is still a household art. The
+descendants of the Acadians in Louisiana still weave and wear homespun.
+The missions in the mountains encourage spinning and weaving; and it is
+pleasant to learn that many women not only pursue these handicrafts for
+their home use, but some secure a good living by hand-weaving, earning
+ten cents a yard in weaving rag carpets. The coverlet patterns resemble
+the ones already described. Names from Waynesville, North Carolina, are
+"Washington's Diamond Ring," "Nine Chariot Wheels"; from Pinehurst come
+"Flowery Vine," "Double Table," "Cat Track," "Snow Ball and Dew Drop,"
+"Snake Shed," "Flowers in the Mountains." At Pinehurst the old settlers,
+of sturdy Scotch stock, all weave. They make cloth, all cotton; cloth of
+cotton warp and wool filling called drugget; dimity, a heavy cotton used
+for coverlets; a yarn jean which has wool warp and filling, and cotton
+jean which is cotton warp and wool filling; homespun is a heavy cloth,
+of cotton and wool mixed. All buy cotton warp or "chain," as they call
+it, ready-spun from the mills. This is known by the name of
+bunch-thread. These Pinehurst weavers still use home-made dyes. Cotton
+is dyed black with dye made<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span> by steeping the bark of the "Black Jack" or
+scrub-oak mixed with red maple bark. Wool is dyed black with a mixture
+of gall-berry leaves and sumac berries; for red they use a moss which
+they find growing on the rocks, and which may be the lichen <i>Roccella
+tinctoria</i> or dyer's-moss; also madder root, and sassafras bark. Yellow
+is dyed with laurel leaves, or "dye-flower," a yellow flower of the
+sunflower tribe; laurel leaves and "dye-flower" together made
+orange-red. Blue is obtained from the plentiful wild indigo; and for
+green, the cloth or yarn is first dyed blue with indigo, then boiled in
+a decoction of hickory bark and laurel leaves. A bright yellow is
+obtained from a clay which abounds in that neighborhood, probably like a
+red ferruginous limestone found in Tennessee, which gives a splendid,
+fast color; when the clay is baked and ground it gives a fine, artistic,
+dull red. Purple dye comes from cedar tops and lilac leaves; brown from
+an extract of walnut hulls.</p>
+
+<p>The affectionate regard which all good workmen have for their tools and
+implements in handcrafts is found among these Southern weavers. One
+assures me that her love for her loom is as for a human companion. The
+machines are usually family heirlooms that have been owned for several
+generations, and are treasured like relics.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI"></a>CHAPTER XI<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span><br />
+GIRLS' OCCUPATIONS</h2>
+
+
+<p>Hatchelling and carding, spinning and reeling, weaving and bleaching,
+cooking, candle and cheese making, were not the only household
+occupations of our busy grandmothers when they were young; a score of
+domestic duties kept ever busy their ready hands.</p>
+
+<p>Some notion of the qualifications of a housekeeper over a century ago
+may be obtained from this advertisement in the <i>Pennsylvania Packet</i> of
+September 23, 1780:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Wanted at a Seat about half a day's journey from Philadelphia, on
+which are good improvements and domestics, A single Woman of
+unsullied Reputation, an affable, cheerful, active and amiable
+Disposition; cleanly, industrious, perfectly qualified to direct
+and manage the female Concerns of country business, as raising
+small stock, dairying, marketing, combing, carding, spinning,
+knitting, sewing, pickling, preserving, etc., and occasionally to
+instruct two young Ladies in those Branches of Oeconomy, who, with
+their father, compose the Family. Such a person will be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span> treated
+with respect and esteem, and meet with every encouragement due to
+such a character."</p></div>
+
+<p>Respect and esteem, forsooth! and due encouragement to such a miracle of
+saintliness and capacity; light terms indeed to apply to such a
+character.</p>
+
+<p>There is, in the library of the Connecticut Historical Society, a diary
+written by a young girl of Colchester, Connecticut, in the year 1775.
+Her name was Abigail Foote. She set down her daily work, and the entries
+run like this:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Fix'd gown for Prude,&mdash;Mend Mother's Riding-hood,&mdash;Spun short
+thread,&mdash;Fix'd two gowns for Welsh's girls,&mdash;Carded tow,&mdash;Spun
+linen,&mdash;Worked on Cheese-basket,&mdash;Hatchel'd flax with Hannah, we
+did 51 lbs. apiece,&mdash;Pleated and ironed,&mdash;Read a Sermon of
+Doddridge's,&mdash;Spooled a piece,&mdash;Milked the cows,&mdash;Spun linen, did
+50 knots,&mdash;Made a Broom of Guinea wheat straw,&mdash;Spun thread to
+whiten,&mdash;Set a Red dye,&mdash;Had two Scholars from Mrs. Taylor's,&mdash;I
+carded two pounds of whole wool and felt Nationly,&mdash;Spun harness
+twine,&mdash;Scoured the pewter."</p></div>
+
+<p>She tells also of washing, cooking, knitting, weeding the garden,
+picking geese, etc., and of many visits to her friends. She dipped
+candles in the spring, and made soap in the autumn. This latter was a
+trying and burdensome domestic duty, but the soft soap was important for
+home use.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>All the refuse grease from cooking, butchering, etc., was stored through
+the winter, as well as wood-ashes from the great fireplaces. The first
+operation was to make the lye, to "set the leach." Many families owned a
+strongly made leach-barrel; others made a sort of barrel from a section
+of the bark of the white birch. This barrel was placed on bricks or set
+at a slight angle on a circular groove in a wood or stone base; then
+filled with ashes; water was poured in till the lye trickled or leached
+out through an outlet cut in the groove, into a small wooden tub or
+bucket. The water and ashes were frequently replenished as they wasted,
+and the lye accumulated in a large tub or kettle. If the lye was not
+strong enough, it was poured over fresh ashes. An old-time receipt
+says:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"The great Difficulty in making Soap come is the want of Judgment
+of the Strength of the Lye. If your Lye will bear up an Egg or a
+Potato so you can see a piece of the Surface as big as a Ninepence
+it is just strong enough."</p></div>
+
+<p>The grease and lye were then boiled together in a great pot over a fire
+out of doors. It took about six bushels of ashes and twenty-four pounds
+of grease to make a barrel of soap. The soft soap made by this process
+seemed like a clean jelly, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span> showed no trace of the repulsive grease
+that helped to form it. A hard soap also was made with the tallow of the
+bayberry, and was deemed especially desirable for toilet use. But little
+hard soap was purchased, even in city homes.</p>
+
+<p>It was a common saying: "We had bad luck with our soap," or good luck.
+The soap was always carefully stirred one way. The "Pennsylvania Dutch"
+used a sassafras stick to stir it. A good smart worker could make a
+barrel of soap in a day, and have time to sit and rest in the afternoon
+and talk her luck over, before getting supper.</p>
+
+<p>This soft soap was used in the great monthly washings which, for a
+century after the settlement of the colonies, seem to have been the
+custom. The household wash was allowed to accumulate, and the washing
+done once a month, or in some households once in three months.</p>
+
+<p>Thomas Tusser's rhymed instructions to good housekeepers as to the
+washing contain chiefly warnings to the housekeeper against thieves,
+thus:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i6">"Dry sun, dry wind,<br /></span>
+<span class="i6">Safe bind, safe find.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Go wash well, saith summer, with sun I shall dry;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Go wring well, saith winter, with wind so shall I.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">To trust without heed is to venture a joint,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Give tale and take count is a housewifely point."<br /></span>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span></div></div>
+
+<p>Abigail Foote wrote of making a broom of Guinea wheat. This was not
+broom-corn, for that useful plant was not grown in Connecticut for the
+purpose of broom-making till twenty years or more after she wrote her
+diary. Brooms and brushes were made of it in Italy nearly two centuries
+ago. Benjamin Franklin, who was ever quick to use and develop anything
+that would benefit his native country, and was ever ready to take a
+hint, noted a few seeds of broom-corn hanging on an imported brush. He
+planted these seeds and raised some of the corn; and Thomas Jefferson
+placed broom-corn among the productions of Virginia in 1781. By this
+time many had planted it, but no systematic plan of raising broom-corn
+abundantly for the manufacture of brooms was planned till 1798, when
+Levi Dickenson, a Yankee farmer of Hadley, Massachusetts, planted half
+an acre. From this he made between one and two hundred brooms which he
+peddled in a horse-cart in neighboring towns. The following year he
+planted an acre; and the tall broom-corn with its spreading panicles
+attracted much attention. Though he was thought visionary when he
+predicted that broom manufacture would be the greatest industry in the
+county, and though he was sneeringly told that only Indians ought to
+make brooms, he persevered; and his neighbors<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span> finally planted and made
+brooms also. He carried brooms soon to Pittsfield, to New London, and in
+1805 to Albany and Boston. So rapid was the increase of manufacture that
+in 1810 seventy thousand brooms were made in the county. Since then
+millions of dollars' worth have gone forth from the farms and villages
+in his neighborhood.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Dickenson at first scraped the seed from the brush with a knife;
+then he used a sort of hoe; then a coarse comb like a ripple-comb. He
+tied each broom by hand, with the help of a negro servant. Much of this
+work could be done by little girls, who soon gave great help in broom
+manufacture; though the final sewing (when the needle was pressed
+through with a leather "palm" such as sailors use) had to be done by the
+strong hands of grown women and men.</p>
+
+<p>Doubtless Abigail Foote made many an "Indian broom," as well as her
+brooms of Guinea wheat, which may have been a special home manufacture
+of her neighborhood; for many fibres, leaves, and straws were used
+locally in broom-making.</p>
+
+<p>Another duty of the women of the old-time household was the picking of
+domestic geese. Geese were raised for their feathers more than as food.
+In some towns every family had a flock, and their clanking was heard all
+day and sometimes all<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span> night. They roamed the streets all summer, eating
+grass by the highways and wallowing in the puddles. Sometimes they were
+yoked with a goose-yoke made of a shingle with a hole in it. In
+midwinter they were kept in barnyards, but the rest of the year they
+spent the night in the street, each flock near the home of its owner. It
+is said that one old goose of each flock always kept awake and stood
+watch; and it was told in Hadley, Massachusetts, that if a young man
+chanced to be out late, as for instance a-courting, his return home
+wakened the geese throughout the village, who sounded the unseasonable
+hour with a terrible clamor. They made so much noise on summer Sundays
+that they seriously disturbed church services; and became such nuisances
+that at last the boys killed whole flocks.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Goose-picking was cruel work. Three or four times a year were the
+feathers stripped from the live birds. A stocking was pulled over the
+bird's head to keep it from biting. Sometimes the head was thrust into a
+goose basket. The pickers had to wear old clothes and tie covers over
+the hair, as the down flew everywhere. The quills, used for pens, were
+never pulled but once from a goose. Palladius, <i>On Husbondrie</i>, written
+in the fourth century, and Englished in the fifteenth century, tells of
+goose-picking:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Twice a yere deplumed may they be,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">In spryngen tyme and harvest tyme."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>The old Latin and English times for picking were followed in the New
+World. Among the Dutch, geese were everywhere raised; for feather-beds
+were, if possible, more desired by the Dutch than the English.</p>
+
+<p>In a work entitled <i>Good Order established in Pennsylvania and New
+Jersey</i>, written by a Quaker in 1685, he urges that schools be provided
+where girls could be instructed in "the spinning of flax, sewing, and
+making all sorts of useful needle work, knitting of gloves and
+stockings, making of straw-works, as hats, baskets, etc., or any other
+useful art or mystery." It was a century before his "making of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[260]</a></span>
+straw-works" was carried out, not till larger importations of straw hats
+and bonnets came to this country.</p>
+
+<p>When the beautiful and intricate straw bonnets of Italian braid,
+Genoese, Leghorn, and others, were brought here, they were too costly
+for many to purchase; and many attempts, especially by country-bred
+girls, were made to plait at home straw braids to imitate these envied
+bonnets. Many towns claim the first American straw bonnet; in fact, the
+attempts were almost simultaneous. To Betsey Metcalf of Providence,
+Rhode Island, is usually accorded the honor of starting the straw-hat
+business in America. The earliest recorded effort to manufacture straw
+head-wear is shown in a patent given to Mrs. Sibylla Masters of
+Philadelphia, for using palmetto and straw for hats. This Mrs. Masters
+was the first American, man or woman, ever awarded a patent in England.
+The first patent issued by the United States to a woman was also for an
+invention in straw-plaiting. A Connecticut girl, Miss Sophia Woodhouse,
+was given a prize for "leghorn hats" which she had plaited; and she took
+out a patent in 1821 for a new material for bonnets. It was the stalks,
+above the upper joint, of spear-grass and redtop grass growing so
+profusely in Weathersfield. From this she had a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></span> national reputation,
+and a prize of twenty guineas was given her the same year by the London
+Society of Arts. The wife of President John Quincy Adams wore one of
+these bonnets, to the great pride of her husband.</p>
+
+<p>When the bonnet was braided and sewed into shape, it had to be bleached,
+for it was the dark natural straw. I don't know the domestic process in
+general use, but an ingenious family of sisters in Newburyport thus
+accomplished their bleaching. They bored holes in the head of a barrel;
+tied strings to each new bonnet; passed the strings through the holes
+and carefully plugged the openings with wood. This left the bonnets
+hanging inside the barrel, which was set over an old-fashioned
+foot-stove filled with hot coals on which sulphur had been placed. The
+fumes of the burning sulphur arose and filled the barrel, and were
+closely retained by quilts wrapped around it. When the bonnets were
+taken out, they were clear and white. The base of a lignum-vit&aelig; mortar
+made into the proper shape with layers of pasteboard formed the mould on
+which the bonnet crown was pressed.</p>
+
+<p>Even before they could spin girls were taught to knit, as soon as their
+little hands could hold the needles. Sometimes girls four years of age
+could knit stockings. Boys had to knit their own suspenders.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[262]</a></span> All the
+stockings and mittens for the family, and coarse socks and mittens for
+sale, were made in large numbers. Much fine knitting was done, with many
+intricate and elaborate stitches; those known as the "herring-bone" and
+"fox and geese" were great favorites. By the use of curious stitches
+initials could be knit into mittens; and it is said that one young New
+Hampshire girl, using fine flaxen yarn, knit the whole alphabet and a
+verse of poetry into a pair of mittens; which I think must have been
+long-armed mitts for ladies' wear, to have space enough for the poetry.</p>
+
+<p>To knit a pair of double mittens was a sharp and long day's work. Nancy
+Peabody's brother of Shelburne, New Hampshire, came home one night and
+said he had lost his mittens while chopping in the woods. Nancy ran to a
+bundle of wool in the garret, carded and spun a big hank of yarn that
+night. It was soaked and scoured the next morning, and in twenty-four
+hours from the time the brother announced his loss he had a fine new
+pair of double mittens. A pair of double hooked and pegged mittens would
+last for years. Pegging, I am told, was heavy crocheting.</p>
+
+<p>An elaborate and much-admired form of knitting was the bead bags and
+purses which were so fashionable in the early years of this century,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span>
+though I have seen some knitted bags of colonial days.</p>
+
+<p>Great variety and ingenuity were shown in these bags and purses. Some
+bore landscapes and figures; others were memorials done in black and
+white and purple beads, having so-called "mourning designs," such as
+weeping willows, gravestones, urns, etc., with the name of the deceased
+person and date of death. Beautiful bags were knitted to match
+wedding-gowns. Knitted purses were a favorite token and gift from fair
+hands to husband or lover. Watch chains were more unusual; they were
+knit in a geometrical design, were about a yard long and about
+three-eighths of an inch in diameter. One I saw had in tiny letters in
+gilt beads the date and the words "Remember the Giver." In all these
+knitted and crocheted bags the beads had to be strung by a rule in
+advance; in an elaborate pattern of many colors it may easily be seen
+that the mistake of a single bead in the stringing would spoil the
+entire design. They were therefore never a cheap form of decorative
+work. Five dollars was often paid for knitting a single bag. A varied
+group from the collection of Mr. J. Howard Swift of Chicago is here
+shown.</p>
+
+<p>Netting was another decorative handiwork. Netted fringes for edging the
+coverlets, curtains, testers, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[264]</a></span> valances of high-post bedsteads
+were usually made of cotton thread or twine, and when tufted or
+tasselled were a pretty finish. A finer silk or cotton netting was used
+for trimming sacks and petticoats. A letter written by Mrs. Carrington
+from Mount Vernon in 1799 says of Mrs. President Washington:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Her netting is a source of great amusement to her and is so neatly
+done that all the younger part of the family are proud of trimming
+their dresses with it, and have furnished me with a whole suit so
+that I shall appear 'a la domestique' at the first party we have
+when I get home."</p></div>
+
+<p>Netted purses and work-bags also were made similar to the knitted ones.
+A homelier and heavier netting of twine was often done at home for small
+fishing-nets.</p>
+
+<p>Previous to the Revolution there was a boarding-school kept in
+Philadelphia in Second Street near Walnut, by a Mrs. Sarah Wilson. She
+thus advertised:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Young ladies may be educated in a genteel manner, and pains taken
+to teach them in regard to their behaviour, on reasonable terms.
+They may be taught all sorts fine needlework, viz., working on
+catgut or flowering muslin, sattin stitch, quince stitch, tent
+stitch, cross-stitch, open work, tambour, embroidering curtains or
+chairs, writing and cyphering. Likewise waxwork in all its several
+branches,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[265]</a></span> never as yet particularly taught here; also how to take
+profiles in wax, to make wax flowers and fruits and pin-baskets."</p></div>
+
+<p>There was no limit to the beauty and delicacy of the embroidery of those
+days. I have seen the beautiful needlework cap and skirt worn by
+Governor Thomas Johnson of Maryland, when he was christened. The coat of
+arms of both the Lux and Johnson families, the name Agnes Lux and Anne
+Johnson, and the words "God bless the Babe" are embroidered upon them in
+most delicate fairy stitches. The babe grew up to be the governor of his
+state in Revolutionary times.</p>
+
+<p>In an old book printed in 1821, a set of rules is given for teaching
+needlework, and it is doubtless exactly what had been the method for a
+century. The girls were first shown how to turn a hem on a piece of
+waste paper; then they proceeded to the various stitches in this order:
+to hem, to sew and fell a seam, to draw threads and hemstitch, to gather
+and sew on gathers, to make buttonholes, to sew on buttons, to do
+herring-bone stitch, to darn, to mark, to tuck, whip, and sew on a
+frill. There is also a long and tedious set of questions and answers
+like a catechism, explaining the various stitches.</p>
+
+<p>There was one piece of needlework which was done by every little girl
+who was carefully brought<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[266]</a></span> up: she sewed a sampler. These were worked in
+various beautiful and difficult stitches in colored silks and wool on a
+strong, loosely woven canvas.</p>
+
+<p>In English collections, the oblong samplers, long and narrow, are as a
+rule older than the square samplers; and it is safe to believe the same
+of American samplers. Fortunately, many of them are dated, but this
+ancient one from the Quincy family has no date. The oldest sampler I
+have ever seen is in the collection of antique articles now in Pilgrim
+Hall at Plymouth. It was made by a daughter of the Pilgrims. The verse
+embroidered on it reads:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Lorea Standish is My Name.<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Lord Guide my Heart that I may do thy Will,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">And fill my Hands with such convenient skill<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">As will conduce to Virtue void of Shame,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And I will give the Glory to thy Name."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Similar verses, and portions of hymns, are often found on these
+samplers. A favorite rhyme was:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"When I was young and in my Prime,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">You see how well I spent my Time.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[267]</a></span><br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And by my sampler you may see<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">What care my Parents took of me."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>A very spirited verse is:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"You'll mend your life to-morrow still you cry.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">In what far Country does To-morrow lie?<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">It stays so long, is fetch'd so far, I fear<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">'Twill prove both very old, and very dear."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Strange trees and fruits and birds and beasts, wonderful vines and
+flowers, were embroidered on these domestic tapestries.</p>
+
+<p>In the hands of a skilful worker, the sampler might become a thing of
+beauty and historical interest; and the stitches learned and practised
+on it might be used on more ambitious pieces of work, which often took
+the shape of the family coat of arms. Such was the work of Mary Salter
+(Mrs. Henry Quincy), who was born in 1726, and died in 1755. It is the
+arms of Salter and Bryan party per pale upon a shield. Rich in embossed
+work in gold and silver thread, it is a beautiful testimonial to the
+deft and proficient hand of the young needlewoman who embroidered it.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes pretentious pictures representing events in public or family
+history, were embroidered in crewels on sampler linen. The largest and
+funniest one I have ever seen was the boarding-school<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[268]</a></span> climax of glory
+of Miss Hannah Otis, sister of the patriot James Otis. It is a view of
+the Hancock House, Boston Common, and vicinity, as they appeared from
+1755 to 1760. Across its expanse Governor Hancock rides triumphantly;
+and the fair maid looking over the garden wall at the Charles River is
+Dorothy Quincy, afterwards Madam Hancock. This triumph of school-girl
+affection and needle-craft, wholly devoid of perspective or proportion,
+made a great sensation in Boston, in its day.</p>
+
+<p>Another large piece of similar work is here represented. The original is
+in the library of the American Antiquarian Society at Worcester,
+Massachusetts. It is a view of the Old South Church, Boston; and with
+its hooped dames and coach and footman, has a certain value as
+indicating the costume of the times. It is dated 1756.</p>
+
+<p>Familiar to the descendants of old New England families, are the
+embroidered mourning pieces. These are seldom more than a century old.
+On them weeping willows and urns, tombs and mourning figures, names of
+departed friends with dates of their deaths, and epitaphs were worked
+with vast skill, and were so much admired and were such a delightful
+home decoration, that it is no unusual thing to find these elaborate
+memento moris with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[269]</a></span> empty spaces for names and dates, waiting for some
+one to die, and still unfilled, unfinished, blankly commemorative of no
+one, while the industrious embroiderer has long since gone to the tomb
+she so deftly and eagerly pictured, and her name, too, is forgotten.</p>
+
+<p>Tambour work was a favorite form of embroidery. In 1788 Madam Hesselius
+wrote thus in jest of her daughter, a Philadelphia miss:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"To tambour on crape she has a great passion,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Because here of late it has been much the fashion.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The shades are dis-sorted, the spangles are scattered<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And for want of due care the crape has got tattered."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Tambouring with various stitches on different kinds of net made pretty
+laces; and these were apparently the laces usually worked and worn. In
+the form of rich veils and collars scores of intricate and beautiful
+stitches were used, and exquisite articles of wear were manufactured.</p>
+
+<p>A strip of net footing pinned and sewn to paper, with reels of fine
+linen thread and threaded needle attached, is shown in the accompanying
+illustration just as it was left by the deft and industrious hands that
+have been folded for a century in the dust. The pattern and stitches in
+this design are simple; the design was first pricked in outline with a
+pin,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[270]</a></span> then worked in. Other stitches and patterns, none of them the most
+elaborate and difficult, are shown in the infant's cap and collars, and
+the strips of lace and "modesty-piece."</p>
+
+<p>In the seventeenth century lace-making with bobbins was taught; it is
+referred to in Judge Sewall's diary; and a friend has shown me the
+cushion and bobbins used by her far-away grandmother who learned the
+various stitches in London at a guinea a stitch.</p>
+
+<p>The feminine love of color, the longing for decoration, as well as pride
+in skill of needle-craft, found riotous expansion in quilt-piecing. A
+thrifty economy,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[271]</a></span> too, a desire to use up all the fragments and bits of
+stuffs which were necessarily cut out in the shaping, chiefly of women's
+and children's garments, helped to make the patchwork a satisfaction.
+The amount of labor, of careful fitting, neat piecing, and elaborate
+quilting, the thousands of stitches that went into one of these
+patchwork quilts, are to-day almost painful to regard. Women revelled in
+intricate and difficult patchwork; they eagerly exchanged patterns with
+one another; they talked over the designs, and admired pretty bits of
+calico, and pondered what combinations to make, with far more zest than
+women ever discuss art or examine high art specimens together to-day.
+There was one satisfactory condition in the work, and that was the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[272]</a></span>
+quality of the cottons and linens of which the patchwork was made. They
+were none of the slimsy, composition-filled, aniline-dyed calicoes of
+to-day. A piece of "chaney," "patch," or "copper-plate" a hundred years
+old will be as fresh to-day as when woven. Real India chintzes and
+palampours are found in these quilts, beautiful and artistic stuffs, and
+the firm, unyielding, high-priced, "real" French calicoes.</p>
+
+<p>A sense of the idealization of quilt-piecing is given also by the quaint
+descriptive names applied to the various patterns. Of those the
+"Rising-sun," "Log Cabin," and "Job's Trouble" are perhaps the most
+familiar. "Job's Trouble" was simply honeycomb or hexagonal blocks. "To
+set a Job's Trouble," was to cut out an exact hexagon for a pattern
+(preferably from tin, otherwise from firm cardboard); to cut out from
+this many hexagons in stiff brown paper or letter paper. These were
+covered with the bits of calico with the edges turned under; the sides
+were sewed carefully together over and over, till a firm expanse
+permitted the removal of the papers.</p>
+
+<p>The name of the pattern seldom gave an expression of its character.
+"Dove in the Window," "Rob Peter to Pay Paul," "Blue Brigade,"
+"Fan-mill," "Crow's Foot," "Chinese Puzzle," "Fly-wheel,"<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[273]</a></span> "Love-knot,"
+"Sugar-bowl," are simply whims of fancy. Floral names, such as "Dutch
+Tulip," "Sunflower," "Rose of Sharon," "Bluebells," "World's Rose,"
+might suggest a love of flowers. Sometimes designs are appliqued on with
+some regard for coloring. I once saw a quilt that was a miracle of
+tedious work. The squares of white cotton each held a slender stem with
+two leaves of green or light brown calico, surmounted by a four-petalled
+flower of high-colored calico,&mdash;pink, red, blue, etc. This design was
+all carefully hemmed down. The effect was surprisingly Oriental.</p>
+
+<p>When the patchwork was completed, it was laid flatly on the lining
+(often another expanse of patchwork), with layers of wool or cotton
+wadding between, and the edges were basted all around. Four bars of
+wood, about ten feet long, "the quiltin'-frame," were placed at the four
+edges, the quilt was sewed to them with stout thread, the bars crossed
+and tied firmly at corners, and the whole raised on chairs or tables to
+a convenient height. Thus around the outstretched quilt a dozen quilters
+could sit running the whole together with fanciful set designs of
+stitching. When about a foot on either side was wholly quilted, it was
+rolled upon its bar, and the work went on; thus the visible quilt
+diminished, like Balzac's Peau de Chagrin,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[274]</a></span> in a united and truly
+sociable work that required no special attention, in which all were
+facing together and all drawing closer together as the afternoon passed
+in intimate gossip. Sometimes several quilts were set up. I know of a
+ten days' quilting-bee in Narragansett in 1752.</p>
+
+<p>In early days calicoes were not common, but every one had woollen
+garments and pieces, and the quilts made of these were of grateful
+warmth in bleak New England. All kinds of commonplace garments and
+remnants of decayed gentility were pressed into service in these quilts:
+portions of the moth-eaten and discarded uniforms of militia-men,
+worn-out flannel sheets dyed with some brilliant home-dye, old coat and
+cloak linings, well-worn petticoats. A magnificent scarlet cloak worn by
+a lord mayor of London and brought to America by a member of the Merritt
+family of Salisbury, Massachusetts, went through a series of adventures
+and migrations, and ended its days as small bits of vivid color casting
+a grateful glory and variety on a patchwork quilt in the Saco valley of
+Maine. To this day at vendues or sales of old country households in New
+England, there will be handed out great rolls of woollen pieces to be
+used for patchwork quilts or rag carpets, and they find purchasers.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[275]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>These woollen quilts had a thin wadding, and were usually very closely
+quilted, so they were quite flat. They were called "pressed quilts." An
+old farm wife said to me in New Hampshire, "Girls won't take the trouble
+to make pressed quilts nowadays, it's as much as they'll do to tack a
+puff," that is, make a light quilt with thick wadding only tacked
+together from front to back, at regular intervals. A pressed quilt which
+I saw was quilted in inch squares. Another had a fan-pattern with
+sunflower leaf border; another was quilted in the elaborate pattern
+known as "feather-work."</p>
+
+<p>As much ingenuity was exercised in the design of the quilting as in the
+pattern of the patchwork, and the marking for the quilt design was
+exceedingly tedious, since, of course, no drawings could be used. I
+remember seeing one quilt marked by chalking strings which were
+stretched tightly across at the desired intervals, and held up and
+snapped smartly down on the quilt, leaving a faint chalky line to guide
+the eye and needle. Another simple design was to quilt in rounds, using
+a saucer or plate to form a perfect circle.</p>
+
+<p>The most elaborate quilt I know of is of silk containing portions of the
+wedding-dress of Esther Powel, granddaughter of Gabriel Bernon; she was
+married to James Helme in 1738. When her<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[276]</a></span> granddaughter was married in
+1795, the quilt was still unfinished, and a woman was hired who worked
+on it for six months, putting a miracle of fine stitches in the
+quilting. I think she must have been very old and very slow, for the
+wages paid her were but twenty cents a week and "her keep," which was
+very small pay even in that day of small wages. When Washington came to
+Newport, this splendid quilt was sent to grace the bed upon which the
+hero slept.</p>
+
+<p>I said a few summers ago to a farmer's wife who lived on the outskirts
+of a small New England hill-village: "Your home is very beautiful. From
+every window the view is perfect." She answered quickly: "Yes, but it's
+awful lonely for me, for I was born in Worcester; still I don't mind as
+long as we have plenty of quiltings." In answer to my questions she told
+me that the previous winter she had "kept count," and she had helped at
+twenty-eight "regular" quiltings, besides her own home patchwork and
+quilt-making, and much informal help of neighbors on plain quilts. Any
+one who has attended a county fair (one not too modernized and spoiled)
+and seen the display of intricate patchwork and quilting still made in
+country homes, can see that it is not an obsolete accomplishment.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[277]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>A form of decorative work in which many women took great delight and
+became astonishingly skilful was what was known, or at any rate
+advertised, by the ambitious title of Papyrotamia. It was simply the
+cutting out of stiff paper of various decorative and ornamental designs
+with scissors. At the time of the Revolution it was evidently deemed a
+very high accomplishment, and the best pieces of work were carefully
+cherished, mounted on black paper, framed and glazed, and given to
+friends or bequeathed by will. One old lady is remembered as using her
+scissors with extraordinary deftness, and amusing herself and delighting
+her friends by occupying the hours of every afternoon visit with cutting
+out entirely by her trained eye various pretty and curious designs.
+Valentines in exceedingly delicate and appropriate patterns, wreaths and
+baskets of varied flowers, marine views, religious symbols, landscapes,
+all were accomplished. Coats of arms and escutcheons cut in black paper
+and mounted on white were highly prized. Portrait silhouettes were cut
+with the aid of a machine which marked and reduced mechanically a sharp
+shadow cast by the sitter's profile through candle-light on a sheet of
+white paper. Mrs. Lydia H. Sigourney wrote in rhyme of a revered friend
+of her youth, Mrs. Lathrop, of a period about a century ago:&mdash;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[278]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Thy dextrous scissors ready to produce<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The flying squirrel or the long-neck'd goose,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Or dancing girls with hands together join'd,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Or tall spruce-trees with wreaths of roses twin'd,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The well-dress'd dolls whose paper form display'd,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Thy penknife's labor and thy pencil's shade."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>I once found in an old lacquered box in a cupboard a paper packet
+containing all the cut-paper designs mentioned in this rhyme&mdash;and many
+more. The workmanship of the "spruce-trees with wreaths of roses twin'd"
+was specially marvellous. I plainly saw in that design a derivative of
+the English Maypole and encircling wreaths. This package was marked with
+the name of the paper-cutter, a Revolutionary dame who died at the
+beginning of this century. Her home was remote from the Norwich home of
+Mrs. Lathrop, and I know she never visited in Connecticut, yet she made
+precisely the same designs and indeed all the designs. This is but a
+petty proof among many other more decided ones of the fact that even in
+those days of scant communication and infrequent and contracted travel,
+there were as in our own times waves of feminine fancy work, of attempts
+at artistic expression, which flooded every home, and receding, left
+behind much decorative silt of varying but nearly universal uselessness
+and laborious commonplaceness.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[279]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>One of the cut-paper landscapes of Madam Deming, a Boston lady who was a
+famous "papyrotamist," is here shown. It is now owned by James F. Trott,
+Esq., of Niagara Falls. It is a view of Boston streets just previous to
+the Revolution. In that handsome volume, the <i>Ten Broeck Genealogical
+Record</i>, are reproductions of some of the landscape views by Albertina
+Ten Broeck at the same date.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[280]</a></span> They show the house and farm surroundings
+of the old Ten Broeck "Bouwerie," the ancestral home in New York, and
+give a wonderfully good idea of it. These are not in dead silhouette,
+for an appearance of shading is afforded by finely cut lines and
+intervening spaces. The highest form of cut-paper reproduction and
+decoration ever reached was by the English woman, Mrs. Delaney, who died
+in 1788, the friend of the Duchess of Portland, and intimate of George
+III. and his queen. She reproduced in colored paper, in what she called
+"paper mosaics," the entire flora of the United Kingdom, and it is said
+it was impossible at first sight to distinguish these flowers from the
+real ones.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII"></a>CHAPTER XII<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[281]</a></span><br />
+DRESS OF THE COLONISTS</h2>
+
+
+<p>At the time America was settled, rich dress was almost universal in
+Europe among persons of any wealth or station. The dress of plain people
+also, such as yeomen and small farmers and work-people, was plentiful
+and substantial, and even peasants had good and ample clothing.
+Materials were strongly and honestly made, clothing was sewed by hand,
+and lasted long. The fashions did not change from year to year, and the
+rich or stout clothes of one generation were bequeathed by will and worn
+by a second and even a third and fourth generation.</p>
+
+<p>In England extravagance in dress in court circles, and grotesqueness in
+dress among all educated folk, had become abhorrent to that class of
+persons who were called Puritans; and as an expression of their dislike
+they wore plainer garments, and cut off their flowing locks, and soon
+were called Roundheads. The Massachusetts settlers who were Puritans
+determined to discourage extravagance in dress in the New World, and
+attempted to control the fashions.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[282]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The Massachusetts magistrates were reminded of their duties in this
+direction by sanctimonious spurring from gentlemen and ministers in
+England. One such meddler wrote to Governor Winthrop in 1636: "Many in
+your plantacions discover too much pride." Another stern moralist
+reproved the colonists for writing to England "for cut work coifes, for
+deep stammel dyes," to be sent to them in America. Others, prohibited
+from wearing broad laces, were criticised for ordering narrow ones, for
+"going as farr as they may."</p>
+
+<p>In 1634 the Massachusetts General Court passed restricting sumptuary
+laws. These laws forbade the purchase of woollen, silk, or linen
+garments, with silver, gold, silk, or thread lace on them. Two years
+later a narrow binding of lace was permitted on linen garments. The
+colonists were ordered not to make or buy any slashed clothes, except
+those with one slash in each sleeve and another slash in the back. "Cut
+works, imbroidd or needle or capps bands &amp; rayles," and gold or silver
+girdles, hat-bands, belts, ruffs, and beaver hats were forbidden.
+Liberty was thriftily given, however, to the colonists to wear out any
+garments they chanced to have unless in the form of inordinately slashed
+apparel, immoderate great sleeves and rails, and long wings, which could
+not possibly be endured.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[283]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In 1639 men's attire was approached and scanned, and "immoderate great
+breeches" were tabooed; also broad shoulder-bands, double ruffles and
+capes, and silk roses, which latter adornment were worn on the shoes.</p>
+
+<p>In 1651 the Court again expressed its "utter detestation that men and
+women of meane condition, education, and calling, should take vppon them
+the garbe of gentlemen by wearinge of gold or silver lace, or buttons or
+poynts at their knees, or walke in great boots, or women of the same
+ranke to wear silke or tiffany hoods or scarfs."</p>
+
+<p>Many persons were "presented" under this law, men boot-wearers as well
+as women hood-wearers. In Salem, in 1652, a man was presented for
+"excess in bootes, ribonds, gould and silver lace."</p>
+
+<p>In Newbury, in 1653, two women were brought up for wearing silk hoods
+and scarfs, but they were discharged on proof that their husbands were
+worth &pound;200 each. In Northampton, in the year 1676, a wholesale attempt
+was made by the magistrates to abolish "wicked apparell." Thirty-eight
+women of the Connecticut valley were presented at one time for various
+degrees of finery, and as of too small estate to wear silk. A young girl
+named Hannah Lyman was presented for "wearing silk in a fflaunting
+manner, in an offensive way and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[284]</a></span> garb not only before but when she stood
+presented." Thirty young men were also presented for silk-wearing, long
+hair, and other extravagances. The calm flaunting of her silk in the
+very eyes of the Court by sixteen-year-old Hannah was premonitory of the
+waning power of the magistrates, for similar prosecutions at a later
+date were quashed. By 1682 the tables were turned and we find the Court
+arraigning the selectmen of five towns for not prosecuting offenders
+against these laws as in previous years. In 1675 the town of Dedham had
+been similarly warned and threatened, but apparently was never
+prosecuted. Connecticut called to its aid in repressing extravagant
+dress the economic power of taxation by ordering that whoever wore gold
+or silver lace, gold or silver buttons, silk ribbons, silk scarfs, or
+bone lace worth over three shillings a yard should be taxed as worth
+&pound;150.</p>
+
+<p>Virginia fussed a little over "excess in cloathes." Sir Francis Wyatt
+was enjoined not to permit any but the Council and the heads of Hundreds
+to wear gold on their clothes, or to wear silk till they made it&mdash;which
+was intended more to encourage silk-making than to discourage
+silk-wearing. And it provided that unmarried men should be assessed
+according to their apparel, and married men according to that of their
+family. In 1660 Virginia<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[285]</a></span> colonists were ordered to import no "silke
+stuffe in garments or in peeces except for whoods and scarfs, nor silver
+or gold lace, nor bone lace of silk or threads, nor ribbands wrought
+with gold or silver in them."</p>
+
+<p>The ministers did not fail in their duty in attempting to march with the
+magistrates in the restriction and simplification of dress. They
+preached often against "intolerable pride in clothes and hair." Even
+when the Pilgrims were in Holland the preachers had been deeply
+disturbed over the dress of their minister's wife, Madam Johnson, who
+wore "lawn coives" and busks, and a velvet hood, and "whalebones in her
+petticoat bodice," and worst of all, "a topish hat." One of the earliest
+interferences of Roger Williams was when he instructed the women of
+Salem parish always to wear veils in public. But John Cotton preached to
+them the next Sunday, and he proved to the dames and goodwives that
+veils were a sign and symbol of undue subjection to their husbands, and
+Salem women soon proved their rights by coming barefaced to meeting.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Davenport preached about men's head-gear, that men must take off
+their hats, and stand up at the announcement of the text. And if New
+Haven men wore their hats in meeting, I can't see why they fussed so
+over the Quakers' broadbrims.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[286]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>After a while the whole church interfered. In 1769 the church at Andover
+put it to vote whether "the parish Disapprove of the female sex sitting
+with their Hats on in the Meeting-house in time of Divine Service as
+being Indecent." In the town of Abington, in 1775, it was voted that it
+was "an indecent way that the female sex do sit with their hats and
+bonnets on to worship God." Still another town voted that it was the
+"Town's Mind" that the women should take their bonnets off in meeting
+and hang them "on the peggs." We do not know positively, but I suspect
+that the bonnets continued to grace the heads instead of the pegs in
+Andover, Abington, and other towns.</p>
+
+<p>To know how the colonists were dressed, we have to learn from the lists
+of their clothing which they left by will, which lists are still
+preserved in court records; from the inventories of the garments
+furnished to each settler who came by contract; from the orders sent
+back to England for new clothing; from a few crude portraits, and from
+some articles of ancient clothing which are still preserved.</p>
+
+<p>When Salem was settled the Massachusetts Bay Company furnished clothes
+to all the men who emigrated and settled that town. Every man had four
+pairs of shoes, four pairs of stockings, a pair of Norwich garters, four
+shirts, two suits of doublet<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[287]</a></span> and hose of leather lined with oiled skin,
+a woollen suit lined with leather, four bands, two handkerchiefs, a
+green cotton waistcoat, a leather belt, a woollen cap, a black hat, two
+red knit caps, two pairs of gloves, a mandillion or cloak lined with
+cotton, and an extra pair of breeches. Little boys just as soon as they
+could walk wore clothes made precisely like their fathers': doublets
+which were warm double jackets, leather knee-breeches, leather belts,
+knit caps. The outfit for the Virginia planters was not so liberal, for
+the company was not so wealthy. It was called a "Particular of
+Apparell." It had only three bands, three pairs stockings, and three
+shirts instead of four. The suits were of canvas, frieze, and cloth. The
+clothing was doubtless lighter, because the climate of Virginia was
+warmer. There were no gloves, no handkerchiefs, no hat, no red knit
+caps, no mandillion, no extra pair of breeches. They had "a dozen
+points," which were simply tapes to hold up the clothing and fasten it
+together. The clothing of the Piscataquay planters varied but little
+from the others. They had scarlet waistcoats and cassocks of cloth, not
+of leather. We are apt to think of the Puritan settlers of New England
+as sombre in attire, wearing "sad-colored" garments, but green and
+scarlet waistcoats and scarlet caps certainly afforded a gay touch of
+color.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[288]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>A young boy, about ten years old, named John Livingstone, was sent from
+New York to school in New England at the latter part of the seventeenth
+century. An "account of his new linen and clothes" has been preserved,
+and it gives an excellent idea of the clothing of a son of wealthy
+people at that time. It reads thus, in the old spelling:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">"Eleven new shirts,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">4 pair laced sleves,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">8 Plane Cravats,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">4 Cravats with Lace,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">4 Stripte Wastecoats with black buttons,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">1 Flowered Wastecoat,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">4 New osenbrig britches,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">1 Gray hat with a black ribbon,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">1 Gray hat with a blew ribbon,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">1 Dousin black buttons,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">1 Dousin coloured buttons,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">3 Pair gold buttons,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">3 Pair silver buttons,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">2 Pair Fine blew Stockings,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">1 Pair Fine red Stockings,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">4 White Handkerchiefs,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">2 Speckled Handkerchiefs,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">5 Pair Gloves,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">1 Stuff Coat with black buttons,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">1 Cloth Coat,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">1 Pair blew plush britches,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">1 Pair Serge britches,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">2 Combs,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">1 Pair new Shooes,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Silk &amp; Thred to mend his Cloathes."</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>Osenbrig was a heavy, strong linen. This would seem to be a summer
+outfit, and scarcely warm enough for New England winters. Other
+schoolboys at that date had deerskin breeches.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[289]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Leather was much used, especially in the form of tanned buckskin
+breeches and the deerskin hunters' jackets, which have always and
+deservedly been a favorite wear, since they are one of the most
+appropriate, useful, comfortable, and picturesque garments ever worn by
+men in any active outdoor life.</p>
+
+<p>Soon in the larger cities and among wealthy folk a much more elaborate
+and varied style of dress became fashionable. The dress of little girls
+in families of wealth was certainly almost as formal and elegant as the
+dress of their mammas, and it was a very hampering and stiff dress. They
+wore vast hoop-petticoats, heavy stays, and high-heeled shoes. Their
+complexions<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[290]</a></span> were objects of special care; they wore masks of cloth or
+velvet to protect them from the tanning rays of the sun, and long-armed
+gloves. Little Dolly Payne, who afterwards became the wife of President
+Madison, went to school wearing "a white linen mask to keep every ray of
+sunshine from the complexion, a sunbonnet sewed on her head every
+morning by her careful mother, and long gloves covering the hands and
+arms." Our present love of outdoor life, of athletic sports, and our
+indifference to being sunburned, makes such painstaking vanity seem most
+unbearably tiresome.</p>
+
+<p>In 1737 Colonel John Lewis sent from Virginia to England for a wardrobe
+for a young miss, a school-girl, who was his ward. The list reads
+thus:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">"A cap ruffle and tucker, the lace 5 shillings per Yard,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">1 pair White Stays,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">8 pair White Kid gloves,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">2 pair coloured kid gloves,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">2 pair worsted hose,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">3 pair thread hose,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">1 pair silk shoes laced,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">1 pair morocco shoes,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">1 Hoop Coat,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">1 Hat,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">4 pair plain Spanish shoes,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">2 pair calf shoes,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">1 mask,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">1 fan,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">1 necklace,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">1 Girdle and buckle,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">1 piece fashionable Calico,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">4 yards ribbon for knots,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">1&frac12; yard Cambric,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">A mantua and coat of lute-string."</span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[291]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In the middle of the century George Washington also sent to England for
+an outfit for his stepdaughter, Miss Custis. She was four years old, and
+he ordered for her, pack-thread stays, stiff coats of silk, masks, caps,
+bonnets, bibs, ruffles, necklaces, fans, silk and calamanco shoes, and
+leather pumps. There were also eight pairs of kid mitts and four pairs
+of gloves; these with the masks show that this little girl's complexion
+was also to be well guarded.</p>
+
+<p>A little New England Miss Huntington, when twelve years old, was sent
+from Norwich, Connecticut, to be "finished" in a Boston boarding-school.
+She had twelve silk gowns, but her teacher wrote home that she must have
+another gown of "a recently imported rich fabric," which was at once
+bought<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[292]</a></span> for her because it was "suitable for her rank and station."</p>
+
+<p>Through the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries there was a constant
+succession of rich and gay fashions; for American dress was carefully
+modelled upon European, especially English modes. Men's wear was as rich
+as women's. An English traveller said that Boston women and men in 1740
+dressed as gay every day as courtiers in England at a coronation. But
+with all the richness there was no wastefulness. The sister of the rich
+Boston merchant, Peter Faneuil, who built Faneuil Hall, sent her gowns
+to London to be turned and dyed, and her old ribbons and gowns to be
+sold. But her gowns, which are still preserved, are of magnificent
+stuffs.</p>
+
+<p>New Yorkers were dressed in gauzes, silks, and laces; even women Quakers
+in Pennsylvania had to be warned against wearing hoop-petticoats,
+scarlet shoes, and puffed and rolled hair.</p>
+
+<p>The family of so frugal a man as Benjamin Franklin did not escape a
+slight infection of the prevailing love for gay dress. In the
+<i>Pennsylvania Gazette</i> this advertisement appeared in 1750:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Whereas on Saturday night last the house of Benjamin Franklin of
+this city, Printer, was broken open, and the following things
+feloniously taken away, viz., a double<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[293]</a></span> necklace of gold beads, a
+womans long scarlet cloak almost new, with a double cape, a womans
+gown, of printed cotton of the sort called brocade print, very
+remarkable, the ground dark, with large red roses, and other large
+and yellow flowers, with blue in some of the flowers, with many
+green leaves; a pair of womens stays covered with white tabby
+before, and dove colour'd tabby behind, with two large steel hooks
+and sundry other goods, etc."</p></div>
+
+<p>Southern dames, especially of Annapolis, Baltimore, and Charleston, were
+said to have the richest brocades and damasks that could be bought in
+London. Every sailing-vessel that came from Europe brought boxes of
+splendid clothing. The heroes of the Revolution had a high regard for
+dress. The patriot, John Hancock, was seen at noonday wearing a scarlet
+velvet cap, a blue damask gown lined with velvet, white satin
+embroidered waistcoat, black satin small-clothes, white silk stockings,
+and red morocco slippers. George Washington was most precise in his
+orders for his clothing, and wore the richest silk and velvet suits.</p>
+
+<p>A true description of a Boston printer just after the Revolution shows
+his style of dress:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"He wore a pea-green coat, white vest, nankeen small clothes, white
+silk stockings, and pumps fastened with silver buckles which
+covered at least half the foot from instep to toe. His small
+clothes were tied at the knees<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[294]</a></span> with ribbon of the same colour in
+double bows, the ends reaching down to the ancles. His hair in
+front was well loaded with pomatum, frizzled or craped and
+powdered. Behind, his natural hair was augmented by the addition of
+a large queue called vulgarly a false tail, which, enrolled in some
+yards of black ribbon, hung half-way down his back."</p></div>
+
+<p>Many letters still exist written by prominent citizens of colonial times
+ordering clothing, chiefly from Europe. Rich laces, silk materials,
+velvet, and fine cloth of light and gay colors abound. Frequently they
+ordered nightgowns of silk and damask. These nightgowns were not a
+garment worn at night, but a sort of dressing-gown. Harvard students
+were in 1754 forbidden to wear them. Under the name of banyan they
+became very fashionable, and men had their portraits painted in them,
+for instance the portrait of Nicholas Boylston, now in Harvard Memorial
+Hall.</p>
+
+<p>With the increase of trade with China many Chinese and East Indian goods
+became fashionable, with hundreds of different names. A few were of silk
+or linen, but far more of cotton; among them nankeens were the most
+imported and even for winter wear.</p>
+
+<p>Both men and women wore for many years great cloaks or capes, known by
+various names, such as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[295]</a></span> roquelaures, capuchins, pelisses, etc. Women's
+shoes were of very thin materials, and paper-soled. They wore to protect
+these frail shoes, when walking on the ill-paved streets, various forms
+of overshoes, known as goloe-shoes, clogs, pattens, etc. When riding,
+women in the colonies wore, as did Queen Elizabeth, a safeguard, a long
+over-petticoat to protect the gown from mud and rain. This was sometimes
+called a foot-mantle, also a weather-skirt. A traveller tells of seeing
+a row of horses tied to a fence outside a Quaker meeting. Some carried
+side saddles, some men's saddles and pillions. On the fence hung the
+muddy safeguards the Quaker dames had worn outside their drab
+petticoats. Men wore<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[296]</a></span> sherry-vallies or spatter-dashes to protect their
+gay breeches.</p>
+
+<p>There was one fashion which lasted for a century and a half which was so
+untidy, so uncomfortable, so costly, and so ridiculous that we can only
+wonder that it was endured for a single season&mdash;I mean the fashion of
+wig-wearing by men. The first colonists wore their own natural hair. The
+Cavaliers had long and perfumed love-locks; and though the Puritans had
+been called Roundheads, their hair waved, also, over the band or collar,
+and often hung over the shoulder. The Quakers, also, wore long locks, as
+the lovely portrait of William Penn shows. But by 1675 wigs had become
+common enough to be denounced by the Massachusetts government, and to be
+preached against by many ministers; while other ministers proudly wore
+them. Wigs were called horrid bushes of vanity, and hundreds of other
+disparaging names, which seemed to make them more popular. They varied
+from year to year; sometimes they swelled out at the sides, or rose in
+great puffs, or turned under in heavy rolls, or hung in braids and curls
+and pig-tails; they were made of human hair, of horsehair, goat's-hair,
+calves' and cows' tails, of thread, silk, and mohair. They had scores of
+silly and meaningless names, such as "grave full-bottom," "giddy
+feather-top,"<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[297]</a></span> "long-tail," "fox-tail," "drop-wig," etc. They were bound
+and braided with pink, green, red, and purple ribbons, sometimes all
+these colors on one wig. They were very heavy, and very hot, and very
+expensive, often costing what would be equal to a hundred dollars
+to-day. The care of them was a great item, often ten pounds a year for a
+single wig, and some gentlemen owned eight or ten wigs. Little children
+wore them. I have seen the bill for a wig for William Freeman, dated
+1754; he was a child seven years old. His father paid nine pounds for
+it, and the same for wigs for his other boys of nine and ten. Even
+servants wore them; I read in the <i>Massachusetts Gazette</i> of a runaway
+negro slave who "wore off a curl of hair tied around his head with a
+string to imitate a wig," which must have been a comical sight. After
+wigs had become unfashionable, the natural hair was powdered, and was
+tied in a queue in the back. This was an untidy, troublesome fashion,
+which ruined the clothes; for the hair was soaked with oil or pomatum to
+make the powder stick.</p>
+
+<p>Comparatively little jewellery was worn. A few men had gold or silver
+sleeve-buttons; a few women had bracelets or lockets; nearly all of any
+social standing had rings, which were chiefly mourning-rings. As these
+gloomy ornaments were given to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[298]</a></span> all the chief mourners at funerals, it
+can be seen that a man of large family connections, or of prominent
+social standing, might acquire a great many of them. The minister and
+doctor usually had a ring at every funeral they attended. It is told of
+an old Salem doctor, who died in 1758, that he had a tankard full of
+mourning-rings which he had secured at funerals. Men sometimes wore
+thumb-rings, which seems no queerer than the fact that they carried
+muffs. Old Dr. Prince of Boston carried an enormous bearskin muff.</p>
+
+<p>Gloves also were gifts at funerals, sometimes in large numbers. At the
+funeral of the wife of Governor<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[299]</a></span> Belcher, in 1738, over a thousand pairs
+were given away. Rev. Andrew Eliot, who was pastor of the North Church
+in Boston, had twenty-nine hundred pair of gloves given him in
+thirty-two years; many of these he sold. In all the colonies, whether
+settled by Dutch, English, French, German, or Swedes, gloves were
+universally given at funerals.</p>
+
+<p>The early watches were clumsy affairs, often globose in shape, with a
+detached outer case.</p>
+
+<p>To show how few of the first colonists owned either watches or clocks,
+we have the contemporary evidence of Roger Williams. When he rowed
+thirty miles down the bay, and disputed with the "Foxians" at Newport in
+1672, it was agreed that each party should be heard in turn for a
+quarter of an hour. But no clock was available in Newport; and among the
+whole population that flocked to the debate, there was not a single
+watch. Williams says, "unless we had Clocks and Watches and Quarter
+Glasses (as in some Ships) it was impossible to be exactly punctual," so
+they guessed at the time.</p>
+
+<p>Sun-dials were often set in the street in front of houses; and
+noon-marks on the threshold of the front door or window-sill helped to
+show the hour of the day.</p>
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIII" id="CHAPTER_XIII"></a>CHAPTER XIII<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[300]</a></span><br />
+JACK-KNIFE INDUSTRIES</h2>
+
+
+<p>Chepa Rose was one of those old-time chap-men known throughout New
+England as "trunk pedlers." Bearing on his back by means of a harness of
+stout hempen webbing two oblong trunks of thin metal,&mdash;probably
+tin,&mdash;for forty-eight years he had appeared at every considerable
+farmhouse throughout Narragansett and eastern Connecticut, at intervals
+as regular as the action and appearance of the sun, moon, and tides; and
+everywhere was he greeted with an eager welcome.</p>
+
+<p>Chepa was, as he said, "half Injun, half French, and half Yankee." From
+his Indian half he had his love of tramping which made him choose the
+wandering trade of trunk pedler; his French half made him a good trader
+and talker; while his Yankee half endowed him with a universal Yankee
+trait, a "handiness," which showed in scores of gifts and
+accomplishments and knacks that made<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[301]</a></span> him as warmly greeted everywhere
+as were his attractive trunks.</p>
+
+<p>He was a famous medicine-brewer; from the roots and herbs and barks that
+he gathered as he tramped along the country roads he manufactured a
+cough medicine that was twice as effective and twice as bitter as old
+Dr. Greene's; he made famous plasters, of two kinds,&mdash;plasters to stick
+and plasters to crawl, the latter to follow the course of the disease or
+pain; he concocted wonderful ink; he showed Jenny Greene how to bleach
+her new straw bonnet with sulphur fumes; he mended umbrellas, harnesses,
+and tinware; he made glorious teetotums which the children looked for as
+eagerly and unfailingly as they did for his tops and marbles, his
+ribbons and Gibraltars.</p>
+
+<p>One day he came through the woods to John Helme's house carrying in his
+hand a stout birchen staff or small tree-trunk, which he laid down on
+the flat millstone imbedded in the grass at the back door, while he
+displayed and sold his wares and had his dinner. He then went out to the
+dooryard with little Johnny Helme, sat down on the millstone, lighted
+his pipe, opened his jack-knife, and discoursed thus:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Johnny, I'm going to tell you how to make an Injun broom. Fust,
+you must find a big birch-tree. There ain't<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[302]</a></span> so many big ones now
+of any kind as there useter be when we made canoes and plates and
+cradles, and water spouts, and troughs, and furnitoor out of the
+bark. But you must get a yallow birch-tree as straight as H and
+edzactly five inch acrost. Now, how kin ye tell how fur it is
+acrost a tree afore ye cut it off? I kin tell by the light of my
+eye, but that's Injun larnin'. Lemme tell you by book-larnin'.
+Measure it round, and make the string in three parts, and one
+part'll be what it is acrost. If it's nine inch round, it'll be
+three inch acrost, and so on. Now don't you forgit that. Wal! you
+must get a straight birch-tree five inch acrost where you cut it
+off, just like this one. Then make the stick six foot long. Then
+one foot and two inch from the big end cut a ring round the bark;
+wal! say two inch wide just like this. Then you take off all the
+bark below that ring. Then you begin a-slivering with a sharp
+jack-knife, leetle teeny flat slivers way up to the bark ring. When
+it's all slivered up thin and flat there'll be a leetle hard core
+left inside at the top, and you must cut it out careful. Then you
+take off the bark above the ring and begin slivering down. Leave a
+stick just big enough for a handle. Then tie this last lot of
+slivers down tight over the others with a hard-twisted tow string,
+and trim 'em off even. Then whittle off and scrape off a good
+smooth handle with a hole in the top to put a loop of cowhide in,
+to hang it up by orderly.</p>
+
+<p>"Yes, Johnny, I've got just enough Injun in me to make a good
+broom; not enough to be ashamed of and not enough to be proud of.
+But you mustn't forgit this;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[303]</a></span> a moccasin's the best cover a man
+ever had on his feet in the woods; the easiest to get stuff for,
+the easiest to make, the easiest to wear. And a birch-bark canoe's
+the best boat a man can have on the river. It's the easiest to get
+stuff for, easiest to carry, the fastest to paddle. And a
+snowshoe's the best help a man can have in the winter. It's the
+easiest to get stuff for, the easiest to walk on, the easiest to
+carry. And just so a birch broom is the best broom a man or at any
+rate a woman can have; four best things and all of 'em is Injun.
+Now you just slip in and take that broom to Phillis. I see her the
+last time I was here a-using a mizrable store broom to clean her
+oven&mdash;and just ask her if I can't have a mug of apple-jack afore I
+go to bed."</p></div>
+
+<p>If this scene had been laid in New Hampshire or Vermont instead of
+Narragansett, the Indian broom would have been no novelty to any boy or
+house-servant. For in the northern New England states, heavily wooded
+with yellow birch, every boy knew how to make the Indian brooms, and
+every household in country or town had them. There was a constant demand
+in Boston for them, and sometimes country stores had several hundred of
+the brooms at a time. Throughout Vermont seventy years ago the uniform
+price paid for making one of these brooms was six cents; and if the
+splints were very fine and the handle scraped with glass, it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[304]</a></span> took
+nearly three evenings to finish it. Indian squaws peddled them
+throughout the country for ninepence apiece. Major Robert Randolph told
+in fashionable London circles about the year 1750, that when he was a
+boy in New Hampshire he earned his only spending-money by making these
+brooms and carrying them on his back ten miles to town to sell them.
+Girls could whittle as well as boys, and often exchanged the birch
+brooms they made for a bit of ribbon or lace.</p>
+
+<p>A simpler and less durable broom was made of hemlock branches. A local
+rhyme says of them:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Driving at twilight the waiting cows,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">With arms full-laden with hemlock boughs,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">To be traced on a broom ere the coming day<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">From its eastern chambers should dance away."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>The hemlock broom was simply a bunch of close-growing, full-foliaged
+hemlock branches tied tightly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[305]</a></span> together and wound around with hempen
+twine, "traced," the rhyme says, with a sharply pointed handle, which
+the boys had shaped and whittled, driven well into the bound portion.
+This making of brooms for domestic use is but an example of one of the
+many score of useful domestic and farm articles which were furnished by
+the natural resources of every wood-lot, adapted by the Yankee
+jack-knife and a few equally simple tools, of which the gimlet might
+take the second place.</p>
+
+<p>It was so emphatically a wooden age in colonial days that it seemed
+almost that there were no hard metals used for any articles which to-day
+seem so necessarily of metal. Ploughs were of wood, and harrows;
+cart-wheels were often wholly of wood without tires, though sometimes
+iron plates called strakes held the felloes together, being fastened to
+them by long clinch-pins. The dish-turner and cooper were artisans of
+importance in those days; piggins, noggins, runlets, keelers, firkins,
+buckets, churns, dye-tubs, cowles, powdering-tubs, were made with chary
+or no use of metal.</p>
+
+<p>The forests were the wealth of the colonies in more ways than one; and
+it may be said that they furnished both domestic winter employment and
+toys for the boys. The New England forests were full of richly varied
+kinds of wood, suitable for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[306]</a></span> varied uses, with varied
+qualities&mdash;pliability, stiffness, durability, weight, strength; and it
+is surprising to see how quickly the woods were assigned to fixed uses,
+even for toys; in every state pop-guns were made from elder; bows and
+arrows of hemlock; whistles of chestnut or willow.</p>
+
+<p>The Rev. John Pierpont wrote thus of the whittling of his childhood
+days:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"The Yankee boy before he's sent to school<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Well knows the mysteries of that magic tool&mdash;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The pocket-knife. To that his wistful eye<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Turns, while he hears his mother's lullaby.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And in the education of the lad,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">No little part that implement hath had.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">His pocket-knife to the young whittler brings<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">A growing knowledge of material things,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Projectiles, music, and the sculptor's art.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">His chestnut whistle, and his shingle dart,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">His elder pop-gun with its hickory rod,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Its sharp explosion and rebounding wad,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">His corn-stalk fiddle, and the deeper tone<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">That murmurs from his pumpkin-leaf trombone<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Conspire to teach the boy. To these succeed<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">His bow, his arrow of a feathered reed,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">His windmill raised the passing breeze to win,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">His water-wheel that turns upon a pin.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Thus by his genius and his jack-knife driven<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Ere long he'll solve you any problem given;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[307]</a></span><br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Make you a locomotive or a clock,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Cut a canal or build a floating dock:<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Make anything in short for sea or shore,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">From a child's rattle to a seventy-four.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Make it, said I&mdash;ay, when he undertakes it,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">He'll make the thing and make the thing that makes it."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>The boy's jack-knife was a possession so highly desired, so closely
+treasured in those days when boys had so few belongings, that it is
+pathetic to read of many a farm lad's struggles and long hours of weary
+work to obtain a good knife. Barlow knives were the most highly prized
+for certainly sixty years, and had, I am told, a vast popularity for
+over a century. May they forever rest in glorious memory, as they lived
+the happiest of lots! To be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[308]</a></span> the best beloved of a century of Yankee
+boys is indeed an enviable destiny. A few battered old soldiers of this
+vast army of Barlow jack-knives still linger to show us the homely
+features borne by the century's well beloved: the Smithsonian
+Institution cherishes some of colonial days; and from Deerfield Memorial
+Hall are shown three Barlow knives whose picture should appear to every
+American something more than the presentment of dull bits of wood and
+rusted metal. These Yankee jack-knives were, said Daniel Webster, the
+direct forerunners of the cotton-gin and thousands of noble American
+inventions; the New England boy's whittling was his alphabet of
+mechanics.</p>
+
+<p>In this connection, let us note the skilful and utilitarian adaptation
+not only of natural materials for domestic and farm use, but also
+natural forms. The farmer and his wife both turned to Nature for
+implements and utensils, or for parts adapted to shape readily into the
+implements and utensils of every-day life. When we read of the first
+Boston settlers that "the dainty Indian maize was eat with clam-shells
+out of wooden trays," we learn of a primitive spoon, a clam-shell set in
+a split stick, which has been used till this century. Large flat
+clam-shells were used and highly esteemed by housewives, as
+skimming-shells in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[309]</a></span> dairy, to skim cream from the milk. Gourd-shells
+made capital bowls, skimmers, dippers, and bottles; pumpkin-shells, good
+seed and grain holders. Turkey-wings made an ever-ready hearth-brush. In
+the forests were many "crooked sticks" that were more useful than any
+straight ones could be. When the mower wanted a new snathe or snead, as
+he called it, for his scythe, he found in the woods a deformed sapling
+that had grown under a log or twisted around a rock in a double bend,
+which made it the exact shape desired. He then whittled it, dressed it
+with a draw-shave, fastened the nebs with a neb-wedge, hung it with an
+iron ring, and was ready for the mowing-field.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[310]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Sled-runners were made from saplings bent at the root. The best thills
+for a cart were those naturally shaped by growth. The curved pieces of
+wood in the harness of a draught-horse, called the hames, to which the
+traces are fastened, could be found in twisted growths, as could also
+portions of ox-yokes. The gambrels used in slaughtering times,
+hay-hooks, long-handled pothooks for brick ovens, could all be cut
+ready-shaped.</p>
+
+<p>The smaller underbrush and saplings had many uses. Sled and cart stakes
+were cut from some; long bean-poles from others; specially straight
+clean sticks were saved for whip-stocks. Sections of birch bark could be
+bottomed and served for baskets, or for potash cans, while capital
+feed-boxes could be made in the same way of sections cut from a hollow
+hemlock. Elm rind and portions of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[311]</a></span> brown ash butts were natural
+materials for chair-seats and baskets, as were flags for door-mats.
+Forked branches made geese and hog yokes. Hogs that ran at large had to
+wear yokes. It was ordered that these yokes should measure as long as
+twice and a half times the depth of the neck, while the bottom piece was
+three times the width of the neck.</p>
+
+<p>In the shaping of heavy and large vessels such as salt-mortars, pig
+troughs, maple-sap troughs, the jack-knife was abandoned and the methods
+of the Indians adopted. These vessels were burnt and scraped out of a
+single log, and thus had a weighty stability and permanence. Wooden
+bread troughs were also made from a single piece of wood. These were
+oblong, trencher-shaped bowls about eighteen inches long; across the
+trough ran lengthwise a stick or rod on which rested the sieve, searse,
+or temse, when flour was sifted into the trough. The saying "set the
+Thames (or temse) on fire," meant that hard work and active friction
+would set the wooden temse on fire.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes the mould for an ox-bow was dug out of a log of wood. Oftener
+a plank of wood was cut into the desired shape as a frame or mould, and
+fastened to a heavy backboard. The ox-bow was steamed, placed in the
+bow-mould, pinned in, and then carefully seasoned.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[312]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The boys whittled cheese-ladders, cheese-hoops, and red-cherry
+butter-paddles for their mothers' dairy; also many parts of
+cheese-presses and churns. To the toys enumerated by Rev. Mr. Pierpont,
+they added box-traps and "figure 4" traps of various sizes for catching
+vari-sized animals.</p>
+
+<p>Many farm implements other than those already named were made, and many
+portions of tools and implements; among them were shovels,
+swingling-knives, sled-neaps, stanchions, handles for spades and
+bill-hooks, rake-stales, fork-stales, flails. A group of old farm
+implements from Memorial Hall, at Deerfield, is here given. The
+handleless scythe-snathe is said to have come over on the <i>Mayflower</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The making of flails was an important and useful work. Many were broken
+and worn out during a great threshing. Both parts, the staff or handle,
+and the swingle or swiple, were carefully shaped from well-chosen wood,
+to be joined together later by an eelskin or leather strap.</p>
+
+<p>The flail is little seen on farms to-day. Threshing and winnowing
+machines have taken its place. The father of Robert Burns declared
+threshing with a flail to be the only degrading and stultifying work on
+a farm; but I never knew another farmer who deemed it so, though it was
+certainly hard<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[313]</a></span> work. Last autumn I visited the "Poor Farm" on Quonsett
+Point in old Narragansett. In the vast barn of that beautiful and
+sparsely occupied country home, two powerful men, picturesque in blue
+jeans tucked in heavy boots, in scarlet shirts and great straw hats,
+were threshing out grain with flails. Both men were blind, one wholly,
+the other partially so&mdash;and were "Town Poor." Their strong, bare arms
+swung the long flails in alternate strokes with the precision of
+clockwork, bringing each blow down on the piled-up wheat-straw which
+covered the barn-floor, as they advanced, one stepping backward while
+the other stepped forward, and then receded with mechanical and rhythmic
+regularity, a step and a blow, from one end of the long barn to the
+other.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[314]</a></span> The half-blind thresher could see the outline of the open door
+against the sunlight, and his steps and voice guided his sightless
+fellow-worker. Thus healthful and useful employment was given to two
+stricken waifs through the use of primitive methods, which no modern
+machine could ever have afforded; and the blue sky and bay, with
+autumnal sunshine on the piled-up golden wheat on floor and in rack,
+idealized and even made of the threshers, paupers though they were, a
+beautiful picture of old-time farm-life.</p>
+
+<p>Wood for axe-helves was carefully chosen, sawed, split, and whittled
+into shape. These were then scraped as smooth as ivory with broken
+glass.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[315]</a></span> Some men had a knack that was almost genius in shaping these
+axe-helves and selecting the wood for them. In a country where the
+broad-axe was so important an implement&mdash;used every day by every farmer;
+where lumbermen and loggers and shipwrights swung the axe the entire day
+for many months, men were ready to pay double price for a well-made
+helve, so shaped as to let the heavy blow jar as little as possible the
+hand holding the helve. One Maine farmer boasted that he had made and
+sold five hundred axe-helves, and received a good price for them all;
+that some had gone five hundred miles out west, others a hundred miles
+"up country"; and of no one of them which he had set had it ever been
+said, as of the axe in Deuteronomy, "When a man goeth into the wood to
+hew wood, and his hand fetcheth a stroke with the axe to cut down a
+tree, then the head slippeth from the helve."</p>
+
+<p>A little money might be earned by cutting heel-pegs for shoemakers.
+These were made of a maple trunk sawed across the grain, making the
+circular board thin enough&mdash;a half inch or so&mdash;for the correct length of
+the pegs. The end was then marked in parallel lines, then grooved across
+at right angles, then split as marked into pegs with knife and mallet. A
+story is told of a farmer named<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[316]</a></span> Meigs, who, on the winter ride to
+market in company with a score or more of his neighbors, stole out at
+night from the tavern fireside where all were gathered to the barn where
+the horses were put up. There he took an oat-bag out of a neighbor's
+sleigh and poured out a good feed for his own horse. In the morning it
+was found that his horse had not relished the shoe-pegs that had been
+put in his manger; and their telltale presence plainly pointed out the
+thief. These shoe-pegs were a venture of two farmer boys which their
+father was taking to town to sell for them, and in indignation the boys
+thrust on the thief the name of Shoe-pegs Meigs, which he carried to the
+end of his life.</p>
+
+<p>When the boys had learned to use a few other tools besides their
+jack-knives, as they quickly did, they could get sawed staves from the
+sawmills and make up shooks of staves bound with hoops of red oak, for
+molasses hogsheads. These would be shipped to the West Indies, and form
+an important link in the profitable rum and slave round of traffic that
+bound Africa, New England, and the West Indies so closely together in
+those days. A constant occupation for men and boys was making rived or
+shaved shingles. They were split with a beetle and wedge. A smart
+workman could by sharp work make a thousand a day. There may<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[317]</a></span> still be
+occasionally found in what were well-wooded pine regions, in shed or
+barn-lofts, or in old wood-houses, a stout oaken frame or rack such as
+was at one time found in nearly every house. It was known as a
+bundling-mould or shingling-mould. At the bottom of this strong frame
+were laid straight sticks and twisted withes which extended up the
+sides. Upon these were evenly packed the shingles, two hundred and fifty
+in number, known as a "quarter." The withes or "binders" were twisted
+strongly around when the number was full. The mould held them firmly in
+place while being tied. These were sealed by law and shipped. Cullers of
+staves were regularly appointed town officers. The dimensions of the
+shingles were given by law and rule; fifteen inches was the length for
+one period of time, and the bundling-mould conformed to it.</p>
+
+<p>Daniel Leake of Salisbury, New Hampshire, made during his lifetime and
+was paid for a million shingles. During the years he was accomplishing
+this colossal work he cleared three hundred acres of land, tapped for
+twenty years at least six hundred maple-trees, making sometimes four
+thousand pounds of sugar a year. He could mow six acres a day, giving
+nine tons of hay; his strong, long arms cut a swath twelve feet wide.
+<i>In his spare time</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[318]</a></span> he worked as a cooper, and he was a famous
+drum-maker. Truly there were giants in those days. I love to read of
+such vigorous, powerful lives; they seem to be of a race entirely
+different from our own. Still, among our New England forbears I doubt
+not many of us had some such giants, who conquered for us the earth and
+forests.</p>
+
+<p>One mark the shingling industry left on the household. In the sawing of
+blocks there would always be some too knotty or gnarled to split into
+shingles. These were what were known in the vernacular as
+"on-marchantable shingle-bolts." They formed in many a pioneer's home
+and in many a pioneer school-house good solid seats for children and
+even grown people to sit on. And even in pioneer meeting-houses these
+blocks could sometimes be seen.</p>
+
+<p>Other fittings for the house were whittled out. Long, heavy, wooden
+hinges were cut from horn-beam for cupboard and closet doors; even shed
+doors were hung on wooden hinges as were house doors in the earliest
+colonial days. Door-latches were made of wood, also oblong buttons to
+fasten chamber and cupboard doors.</p>
+
+<p>New England housekeepers prized the smooth, close-grained bowls which
+the Indians made from the veined and mottled knots of maple-wood. They<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[319]</a></span>
+were valued at what seems high prices for wooden utensils and were often
+named and bequeathed in wills. Maple-wood has been used and esteemed by
+many nations for cups and bowls. The old English and German vessel known
+as a mazer was made of maple-wood, often bound and tipped with silver.
+Spenser speaks in his <i>Shepheard's Calendar</i> of "a mazer yrought of the
+maple wood." A well-known specimen in England bears the legend in Gothic
+text:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"In the Name of the Trinitie<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Fille the kup and drinke to me."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Sometimes a specially skilful Yankee would rival the Indians in shaping
+and whittling out these bowls. I have seen two really beautiful ones
+carved<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[320]</a></span> with double initials, and one with a Scriptural reference, said
+to be the work of a lover for his bride. Another token of affection and
+skill from the whittler were carved busks, which were the broad and
+strong strips of wood placed in corsets or stays to help to form and
+preserve the long-waisted, stiff figure then fashionable. One carved
+busk bears initials and an appropriately sentimental design of arrows
+and hearts.</p>
+
+<p>On the rim of spinning-wheels, on shuttles, swifts, and on niddy-noddys
+or hand-reels I have seen lettering by the hands of rustic lovers. A
+finely carved legend on a hand-reel reads:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"<span class="smcap">Polly Greene, Her Reel</span>.<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Count your threads right<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">If you reel in the night<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">When I am far away.<br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i8">June, 1777."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Perhaps some Revolutionary soldier gave this as a parting gift to his
+sweetheart on the eve of battle.</p>
+
+<p>On his powder-horn the rustic carver bestowed his best and daintiest
+work. Emblem both of war and of sport, it seemed worthy of being shaped
+into the highest expression of his artistic longing. A chapter, even a
+book, might be filled with the romantic history and representations of
+American<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[321]</a></span> powder-horns; patriotism, sentiment, and adventure shed equal
+halos over them. Months of the patient work of every spare moment was
+spent in beautifying them, and their quaintness, variety, and
+individuality are a never-ceasing delight to the antiquary. Maps, plans,
+legends, verses, portraits, landscapes, family history, crests, dates of
+births, marriages, and deaths, lists of battles, patriotic and religious
+sentiments, all may be found on powder-horns. They have in many cases
+proved valuable historical records, and have sometimes been the only
+records of events. Mr. Rufus A. Grider, of Canajoharie, has made colored
+drawings of about five hundred of these powder-horns, and of canteens or
+drinking-horns. It is unfortunate that the ordinary processes of
+book-illustration give too scant suggestion of the variety, beauty, and
+delicacy of their decoration, to permit the reproduction of some of
+these powder-horns in these pages.</p>
+
+<p>These habits of employing the spare moments of farm-life in the
+manufacture from wood of farm implements and various aids to domestic
+comfort, were not peculiar to New England farmers, nor invented by them.
+The old English farmer-author, Thomas Tusser, in his rhymed book, <i>Five
+Hundred Points of Good Husbandry</i>, written in the sixteenth<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[322]</a></span> century
+(which Southey declared to be one of the most curious and formerly one
+of the most popular books in our language), was careful to give
+instructions in his "remembrances" and "doings" as to similar industries
+on the English farm and manor house. He says:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Yokes, forks, and such other let bailie spy out<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And gather the same as he walketh about;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And after, at leisure, let this be his hire,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">To beath them and trim them at home by the fire."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><i>To beath</i> is to heat unseasoned wood to harden and straighten it.</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"If hop-yard or orchard ye mean for to have,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">For hop-poles and crotches in lopping go save.<br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Save elm, ash, and crab tree for cart and for plow,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Save step for a stile of the crotch of a bough;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Save hazel for forks, save sallow for rake:<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Save hulver and thorn, thereof flail for to make."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>The Massachusetts Bay settlers came chiefly from the vicinity, many from
+the same county, where Tusser lived and farmed, and where his points of
+good husbandry were household words; so they had in their English homes
+as had their grandfathers before them, the knowledge and habit of saving
+and utilizing the various woods on the farm, and of occupying every
+spare minute with the useful<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[323]</a></span> jack-knife. The varied and bountiful trees
+of the New World stimulated and emphasized the whittling habit until it
+became universally accepted as a distinguishing New England
+characteristic, a Yankee trait.</p>
+
+<p>This constant employment of every moment of the waking hours contributed
+to impart to New Englanders a regard and method of life which is spoken
+of by many outsiders with contempt, namely, a closely girded and
+invariable habit of economy. Children brought up in this way knew the
+value of everything in the household, knew the time it took to produce
+it, for they had labored themselves, and they grew to take care of small
+things, not to squander and waste what they had been so long at work on.
+This, instead of being a thing to sneer at, is one of the very best
+elements in a community, one of the best securities of character. For
+sudden leaps to fortune are given to but few, and are seldom lasting,
+and the results of sudden inflations are more disastrous even to a
+community than to isolated individuals, as may be abundantly proved by
+the early history of Virginia. It was not meanness that made the wiry
+New England farmer so cautious and exacting in trade, when the pennies
+he saved sent his son through college. It was not meanness which made
+him refuse to spend money;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[324]</a></span> he had no money to spend, and it was a high
+sense of honor that kept him from running in debt. It was not meanness
+which so justly ordered conditions and cared for the unfortunate that
+even in those days of horrible drunkenness often there would not be a
+pauper in the entire village. It has been a reproach that in some towns
+the few town poor were vendued out to be cared for; the mode was harsh
+in its wording, and unfeeling in method, but in reality the pauper found
+a home. I have known cases where the pauper was not only supported but
+cherished in the families to whose lot she fell.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIV" id="CHAPTER_XIV"></a>CHAPTER XIV<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[325]</a></span><br />
+TRAVEL, TRANSPORTATION, AND TAVERNS</h2>
+
+
+<p>Wherever the earliest colonists settled in America, they had to adopt
+the modes of travel and the ways of getting from place to place of their
+predecessors and new neighbors, the Indians. These were first&mdash;and
+generally&mdash;to walk on their own stout legs; second, to go wherever they
+could by water, in boats. In Maryland and Virginia, where for a long
+time nearly all settlers tried to build their homes on the banks of the
+rivers and bays, the travel was almost entirely by boats; as it was
+between settlements on all the great rivers, the Hudson, Connecticut,
+and Merrimac.</p>
+
+<p>Between the large settlements in Massachusetts&mdash;Boston, Salem, and
+Plymouth&mdash;travel was preferably, when the weather permitted, in boats.
+The colonists went in canoes, or pinnaces, shaped and made exactly like
+the birch-bark canoes of the Canadian Indians to-day; and in dugouts,
+which were formed from hollowed pine-logs, usually about twenty feet<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[326]</a></span>
+long and two or three feet wide; both of these were made for them by the
+Indians. It was said that one Indian, working alone, felling the
+pine-tree by the primitive way of burning and scraping off the charred
+parts with a stone tool called a celt (for the Indians had no iron or
+steel axes), then cutting off the top in the same manner, then burning
+out part of the interior, then burning and scraping and shaping it
+without and within, could make one of these dugouts in three weeks. The
+Indians at Onondaga still make the wooden mortars they use in the same
+tedious way.</p>
+
+<p>When the white men came to America in great ships, the Indians marvelled
+much at the size, thinking they were hollowed out of tree-trunks as were
+the dugouts, and wondered where such vast trees grew.</p>
+
+<p>The Swedish scientific traveller, Kalm, who was in America in 1748, was
+delighted with the Indian canoes and dugouts. He found the Swede
+settlers using them constantly to go long distances to market. He
+said:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"They usually carry six persons who however by no means must be
+unruly, but sit at the bottom of the canoe in the quietest manner
+possible lest the boat upset. They are narrow, round below, have no
+keel and may be easily overset. So when the wind is brisk the
+people make for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[327]</a></span> the land. Larger dugouts were made for war-canoes
+which would carry thirty or forty savages."</p></div>
+
+<p>These boats usually kept close to the shore, both in calm and windy
+weather, though the natives were not afraid to go many miles out to sea
+in the dugouts.</p>
+
+<p>The lightness of the birch-bark canoe made it specially desirable where
+there were such frequent overland transfers. It was and is a beautiful
+and perfect expression of natural and wild life; as Longfellow wrote:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i2">"... the forest's life was in it,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">All its mystery and magic,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">All the lightness of the birch tree,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">All the toughness of the cedar,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">All the larch's supple sinews,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And it floated on the river<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Like a yellow leaf in autumn."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>The French governor and missionaries all saw and admired these
+birch-bark canoes. Father Charlevoix wrote a beautiful and vivid
+description of them. All the early travellers noted their ticklish
+balance. Wood, writing in 1634, said, "In these cockling fly-boats an
+Englishman can scarce sit without a fearful tottering," and Madam
+Knights a century later said in her vivid English of a trip in one:&mdash;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[328]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"The Cannoo was very small and shallow, which greatly terrify'd me
+and caused me to be very circumspect, sitting with my hands fast on
+each side, my eyes steady, not daring so much as to lodge my tongue
+a hair's bredth more on one side of my mouth than tother, nor so
+much as think on Lott's wife, for a very thought would have
+oversett our wherry."</p></div>
+
+<p>When boats and vessels were built by the colonists, they were in forms
+or had names but little used to-day. Shallop, ketch, pink, and snow are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[329]</a></span>
+rarely heard. Sloops were early built, but schooner is a modern term.
+Batteau and periagua still are used; and the gundalow, picturesque with
+its lateen sail, still is found on our northern New England shores.</p>
+
+<p>The Indians had narrow foot-paths in many places through the woods. On
+them foot-travel was possible, though many estuaries and rivers
+intersected the coast; for the narrow streams could be crossed on
+natural ford-ways, or on rude bridges of fallen trees, which the English
+government ordered to be put in place.</p>
+
+<p>As late as 1631 Governor Endicott would not go from Salem to Boston to
+visit Governor Winthrop because he was not strong enough to wade across
+the fords. He might have done as Governor Winthrop did the next year
+when he went to Plymouth to visit Governor Bradford (and it took him two
+days to get there); he might have been carried across the fords
+pickaback by an Indian guide.</p>
+
+<p>The Indian paths were good, though only two or three feet wide, and in
+many places the savages kept the woods clear from underbrush by burning
+over large tracts. When King Philip's War took place, all the land
+around the Indian settlements in Narragansett and eastern Massachusetts
+was so free of brush that horsemen could ride everywhere<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[330]</a></span> freely through
+the woods. Some of the old paths are famous in our history. The most so
+was the Bay Path, which ran from Cambridge through Marlborough,
+Worcester, Oxford, Brookfield, and on to Springfield and the Connecticut
+River. Holland's beautiful story called by the name of the path gives
+its history, its sentiment, and much that happened on it in olden times.</p>
+
+<p>When new paths were cut through the forests, the settlers "blazed" the
+trees, that is, they chopped a piece of the bark off tree after tree
+standing on the side of the way. Thus the "blazes" stood out clear and
+white in the dark shadows of the forests, like welcome guide-posts,
+showing the traveller his way. In Maryland roads turning off to a church
+were marked by slips or blazes cut near the ground.</p>
+
+<p>In Maryland and Virginia what were known as, and indeed are still
+called, rolling-roads were cut through the forest. They were narrow
+roads adown which hogsheads of tobacco, fitted with axles, could be
+drawn or rolled from inland plantations to the river or bay side;
+sometimes the hogsheads were simply rolled by human propulsion, not
+dragged on these roads.</p>
+
+<p>The broader rivers soon had canoe-ferries. The first regular
+Massachusetts ferry from Charlestown to Boston was in 1639. It carried
+passengers for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[331]</a></span> threepence apiece. From Chelsea to Boston was fourpence.
+In 1636 the Cambridge ferryman charged but half a penny, as so many
+wished to attend the Thursday lecture in the Boston churches. We learn
+from the Massachusetts Laws that often a rider had to let his horse
+cross by swimming over, being guided from the ferry-boat; he then paid
+no ferriage for the horse. After wheeled vehicles were used, these
+ferries were not large enough to carry them properly. Often the carriage
+had to be taken apart, or towed over, while the horse had his fore feet
+in one canoe-ferry and his hind feet in another, the two canoes being
+lashed together. The rope-ferry lingered till our own day, and was ever
+a picturesque sight on the river. As soon as roads were built there
+were, of course, bridges and cart-ways, but these were only between the
+closely neighboring towns. Usually the bridges were merely
+"horse-bridges" with a railing on but one side.</p>
+
+<p>After the period of walking and canoe-riding had had its day, nearly all
+land travel for a century was on horseback, just as it was in England at
+that date. In 1672 there were only six stage-coaches in the whole of
+Great Britain; and a man wrote a pamphlet protesting that they
+encouraged too much travel. Boston then had one private coach. Women and
+children usually rode seated on a pillion<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[332]</a></span> behind a man. A pillion was a
+padded cushion with straps which sometimes had on one side a sort of
+platform-stirrup. One way of progress which would help four persons ride
+part of their journey was what was called the ride-and-tie system. Two
+of the four persons who were travelling started on their road on foot;
+two mounted on the saddle and pillion, rode about a mile, dismounted,
+tied the horse, and walked on. When the two who had started on foot
+reached the waiting horse, they mounted, rode on past the other couple
+for a mile or so, dismounted, tied, and walked on; and so on. It was
+also a universal and courteous as it was a pleasant custom for friends
+to ride out on the road a few miles with any departing guest or friend,
+and then bid them God speed agatewards.</p>
+
+<p>In 1704 a Boston schoolmistress named Madam Knights rode from Boston to
+New York on horseback. She was probably the first woman to make the
+journey, and it was a great and daring undertaking. She had as a
+companion the "post." This was the mail-carrier, who also rode on
+horseback. One of his duties was to assist and be kind to all persons
+who cared to journey in his company. The first regular mail started from
+New York to Boston on January 1, 1673. The postman carried two
+"portmantles," which were crammed with letters<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[333]</a></span> and parcels. He did not
+change horses till he reached Hartford. He was ordered to look out and
+report the condition of all ferries, fords, and roads. He had to be
+"active, stout, indefatigable, and honest." When he delivered his mail
+it was laid on a table at an inn, and any one who wished looked over all
+the letters, then took and paid the postage (which was very high) on any
+addressed to himself. It was usually about a month from this setting out
+of "the post" in winter, till his return. As late certainly as 1730 the
+mail was carried from New York to Albany in the winter by a "foot-post."
+He went up the Hudson River, and lonely enough it must have been;
+probably he skated up when the ice was good. This mail was only sent at
+irregular intervals.</p>
+
+<p>In 1760 there were but eight mails a year from Philadelphia to the
+Potomac River, and even then the post-rider need not start till he had
+received enough letters to pay the expenses of the trip. It was not till
+postal affairs were placed in the capable and responsible hands of
+Benjamin Franklin that there were any regular or trustworthy mails.</p>
+
+<p>The journal and report of Hugh Finlay, a post-office surveyor in 1773 of
+the mail service from Quebec to St. Augustine, Florida, tells of the
+vicissitudes of mail-matter even at that later day. In<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[334]</a></span> some places the
+deputy, as the postmaster was called, had no office, so his family rooms
+were constantly invaded. Occasionally a tavern served as post-office;
+letters were thrown down on a table and if the weather was bad, or
+smallpox raged, or the deputy were careless, they were not forwarded for
+many days. Letters that arrived might lie on the table or bar-counter
+for days for any one to pull over, until the owner chanced to arrive and
+claim them. Good service could scarcely be expected from any deputy, for
+his salary was paid according to the number of letters coming to his
+office; and as private mail-carriage constantly went on, though
+forbidden by British law, the deputy suffered. "If an information were
+lodg'd but an informer wou'd get tar'd and feather'd, no jury wou'd find
+the fact." The government-riders were in truth the chief offenders. Any
+ship's captain, or wagon-driver, or post-rider could carry merchandise;
+therefore small sham bundles of paper, straw, or chips would be tied to
+a large sealed packet of letter, and both be exempt from postage paid to
+the Crown.</p>
+
+<p>The post-rider between Boston and Newport loaded his carriage with
+bundles real and sham, which delayed him long in delivery. He bought and
+sold on commission along this road; and in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[335]</a></span> violation of law he carried
+many letters to his own profit. He took twenty-six hours to go eighty
+miles. Had the Newport deputy dared to complain, he would have incurred
+much odium and been declared a "friend of slavery and oppression."</p>
+
+<p>"Old Herd," the rider from Saybrook to New York, had been in the service
+forty-six years and had made a good estate. He coolly took postage of
+all way-letters as his perquisite; was a money carrier and transferrer,
+all advantage to his own pocket; carried merchandise; returned horses
+for travellers; and when Finlay saw him he was waiting for a yoke of
+oxen he was paid for fetching along some miles. A Pennsylvania
+post-rider, an aged man, occupied himself as he slowly jogged along by
+knitting mittens and stockings. Not always were mail portmanteaux
+properly locked; hence many letters were lost and the pulling in and out
+of bundles defaced the letters.</p>
+
+<p>Of course so much horseback riding made it necessary to have
+horse-blocks in front of nearly all houses. In course of time stones
+were set every mile on the principal roads to tell the distance from
+town to town. Benjamin Franklin set milestones the entire way on the
+post-road from Boston to Philadelphia. He rode in a chaise over the
+road; and a machine which he had invented was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[336]</a></span> attached to the chaise;
+and it was certainly the first cyclometer that went on that road, over
+which so many cyclometers have passed during the last five years. It
+measured the miles as he travelled. When he had ridden a mile he
+stopped; from a heavy cart loaded with milestones, which kept alongside
+the chaise, a stone was dropped which was afterwards set by a gang of
+men.</p>
+
+<p>A number of old colonial milestones are still standing. There is one in
+Worcester, on what was the "New Connecticut Path"; one in Springfield on
+the "Bay Path," and there are several of Benjamin Franklin's setting,
+one being at Stratford, Connecticut.</p>
+
+<p>The inland transportation of freight was carried on in the colonies just
+as it was in Europe, on the backs of pack-horses. Very interesting
+historical evidence in relation to the methods of transportation in the
+middle of the eighteenth century may be found in the ingenious
+advertisement and address with which Benjamin Franklin raised
+transportation facilities for Braddock's army in 1755. This is one of
+his most characteristic literary productions. Braddock's appeals to the
+Philadelphia Assembly for a rough wagon-road and wagons for the army
+succeeded in raising only twenty-five wagons. Franklin visited him in
+his desolate plight and agreed to assist him, and appealed to the public
+to send to him for the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[337]</a></span> use of the army a hundred and fifty wagons and
+fifteen hundred pack-horses; for the latter Franklin offered to pay two
+shillings a day each, as long as used, if provided with a pack-saddle.
+Twenty horses were sent with their loads to the camp as gifts to the
+British officers. As a good and definite list of the load one of these
+pack-horses was expected to carry (as well as a record of the kind of
+provisions grateful to an officer of that day) let me give an
+inventory:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Six pounds loaf-sugar,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Six pounds muscovado sugar,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">One pound green tea,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">One pound bohea tea,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Six pounds ground coffee,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Six pounds chocolate,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">One-half chest best white biscuit,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">One-half pound pepper,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">One quart white vinegar,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Two dozen bottles old Madeira wine,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Two gallons Jamaica spirits,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">One bottle flour of mustard,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Two well-cured hams,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">One-half dozen cured tongues,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Six pounds rice,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Six pounds raisins,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">One Gloucester cheese,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">One keg containing 20 lbs. best butter.</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>The wagons and horses were all lost after Braddock's defeat, or were
+seized by the French and Indians, and Franklin had many anxious months
+of responsibility for damages from the owners; but I am confident the
+officers got all the provisions.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[338]</a></span> Franklin gathered the wagons in York
+and Lancaster; no two English shires could have done better at that time
+than did these Pennsylvania counties.</p>
+
+<p>In Pennsylvania, western Virginia, and Ohio, pack-horses long were used,
+and a pretty picture is drawn by Doddridge and many other local
+historians of the trains of these horses with their gay collars and
+stuffed bells, as, laden with furs, ginseng, and snakeroot, they filed
+down the mountain roads to the towns, and came home laden with salt,
+nails, tea, pewter plates, etc. At night the horses were hobbled, and
+the clappers of their bells were loosened; the ringing prevented the
+horses being lost. The animals started on their journey with two hundred
+pounds' burden, of which part was provender for horse and man, which was
+left at convenient relays to be taken up on the way home. Two men could
+manage fifteen pack-horses, which were tethered successively each to the
+pack-saddle of the one in front of him. One man led the foremost horse,
+and the driver followed the file to watch the packs and urge on the
+laggards. Their numbers were vast; five hundred were counted at one time
+in Carlisle, Pennsylvania, going westward. It was a costly method of
+transportation. Mr. Howland says that in 1784 the expense of carrying a
+ton's weight from Philadelphia to Erie by pack-horses<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[339]</a></span> was $249. It is
+interesting to note that the routes taken by those men, skilled only in
+humble woodcraft, were the same ones followed in later years by the
+engineers of the turnpikes and railroads.</p>
+
+<p>As the roads were somewhat better in Pennsylvania than in some other
+provinces, and more needed, so wagons soon were far greater in number;
+indeed, during the Revolution nearly all the wagons and horses used by
+the army came from that state. There was developed in Pennsylvania by
+the soft soil of these many roads, as well as by various topographical
+conditions, a splendid example of a true American vehicle, one which was
+for a long time the highest type of a commodious freight-carrier in this
+or any other country&mdash;the Conestoga wagon, "the finest wagon the world
+has ever known." They were first used in any considerable number about
+1760. They had broad wheel-tires, and one of the peculiarities was a
+decided curve in the bottom, analogous to that of a galley or canoe,
+which made it specially fitted for traversing mountain roads; for this
+curved bottom prevented freight from slipping too far at either end when
+going up or down hill. This body was universally painted a bright blue,
+and furnished with sideboards of an equally vivid red. The wagon-bodies
+were arched over with six or eight stately<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[340]</a></span> bows, of which the middle
+ones were the lowest, and the others rose gradually to front and rear
+till the end bows were nearly of equal height. Over them all was
+stretched a strong, white, hempen cover, well corded down at the sides
+and ends. These wagons could be loaded up to the bows, and could carry
+four to six tons in weight. The rates between Philadelphia and
+Pittsburgh were about two dollars a hundred pounds. The horses, four to
+seven in number, were magnificent, often matched throughout; some were
+all dapple-gray, or all bay. The harnesses, of best materials and
+appearance, were costly; each horse had a large housing of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[341]</a></span> deerskin or
+heavy bearskin trimmed with deep scarlet fringe; while the head-stall
+was tied with bunches of gay ribbons. Bell-teams were common; each horse
+except the saddle-horse then had a full set of bells tied with
+high-colored ribbons.</p>
+
+<p>The horses were highly fed; and when the driver, seated on the
+saddle-horse, drew rein on the prancing leader and flourished his fine
+bull-hide London whip, making the silk snap and tingle round the
+leader's ears, every horse started off with the ponderous load with a
+grace and ease that was beautiful to see.</p>
+
+<p>The wagons were first used in the Conestoga valley, and most extensively
+used there; and the sleek powerful draught-horses known as the Conestoga
+breed were attached to them, hence their name. These teams were objects
+of pride to their owners, objects of admiration and attention wherever
+they appeared, and are objects of historical interest and satisfaction
+to-day.</p>
+
+<p>Often a prosperous teamster would own several Conestoga wagons, and
+driving the leading and handsomest team himself would start off his
+proud procession. From twenty to a hundred would follow in close row.
+Large numbers were constantly passing. At one time ten thousand ran from
+Philadelphia to other towns. Josiah Quincy told of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[342]</a></span> road at
+Lancaster being lined with them. The scene on the road between the
+Cumberland valley and Greensburg, where there are five distinct and
+noble mountain ranges,&mdash;Tuscarora, Rays Hill, Alleghany, Laurel Hills,
+and Chestnut Ridge,&mdash;when a long train of white-topped Conestoga wagons
+appeared and wound along the mountain sides, was picturesque and
+beautiful with a charm unparalleled to-day.</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i3">"&mdash;&mdash;Many a fleet of them<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">In one long upward winding row.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">It ever was a noble sight<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">As from the distant mountain height<br /></span>
+<span class="i3">Or quiet valley far below,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Their snow-white covers looked like sail."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>There were two classes of Conestoga wagons and wagoners. The "Regulars,"
+or men who made it their constant and only business; and "Militia." A
+local poet thus describes these outfits:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Militia-men drove narrow treads,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Four horses and plain red Dutch beds,<br /></span>
+<span class="i3">And always carried grub and feed."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>They were farmers or common teamsters who made occasional trips, usually
+in winter time, and did some carriage for others, and drove but four
+horses with their wagons. The "Regulars" had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[343]</a></span> broad tires, carried no
+feed for horses nor food for themselves, but both classes of teamsters
+carried coarse mattresses and blankets, which they spread side by side,
+and row after row, on the bar-room floor of the tavern at which they
+"put up." Their horses when unharnessed fed from long troughs hitched to
+the wagon-pole. The wagons that plied between the Delaware and the small
+city of Pittsburgh were called Pitt-teams.</p>
+
+<p>The life of the Conestoga wagon did not end<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[344]</a></span> even with the establishment
+of railroads in the Eastern states; farther and farther west it
+penetrated, ever chosen by emigrants and travellers to the frontiers;
+and at last in its old age it had an equal career of usefulness as the
+"prairie-schooner," in which vast numbers of families safely crossed the
+prairies of our far West. The white tilts of the wagons thus passed and
+repassed till our own day.</p>
+
+<p>Four-wheeled wagons were but little used in New England till after the
+War of 1812. Two-wheeled carts and sleds carried inland freight, which
+was chiefly transported over the snow in the winter.</p>
+
+<p>The Conestoga wagon of the past century was far ahead of anything in
+England at that date; indeed Mr. C. W. Ernst, the best authority I know
+on the subject, says we had in every way far better traffic facilities
+at that time than England. In other ways we excelled. Though Finlay
+found many defects in the postal service in 1773, he also found the
+Stavers mail-coach plying between Boston and Portsmouth long before
+England had such a thing. Mr. Ernst says: "The Stavers mail-coach was
+stunning; used six horses when roads were bad, and never was late. They
+had no mail-coaches in England till after the Revolution, and I believe
+Massachusetts men introduced the idea in England."</p>
+
+<p>We are apt to grow retrospectively sentimental<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[345]</a></span> over the delights,
+&aelig;sthetic and physical, of ancient stage-coach days. Those days are not
+so ancient as many fancy. The first stage-coach which ran directly from
+Philadelphia to New York in 1766&mdash;and primitive enough it was&mdash;was
+called "the flying-machine, a good stage-wagon set on springs." Its
+swift trip occupied two days in good weather. It was but a year later
+than the original stage-coach between Edinburgh and Glasgow. At that
+time, in favorable weather, the coach between London and Edinburgh made
+the trip in thirteen days. The London mail-coach in its palmiest days
+could<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[346]</a></span> make this trip in forty-three hours and a half. As early as 1718
+Jonathan Wardwell advertised that he would run a stage to Rhode Island.
+In 1767 a stage-coach was run during the summer months between Boston
+and Providence; in 1770 a stage-chaise started between Salem and Boston
+and a post-chaise between Boston and Portsmouth the following year. As
+early as 1732 some common-carrier lines had wagons which would carry a
+few passengers. Let us hear the testimony of some travellers as to the
+glorious pleasure of stage-coach travelling. Describing a trip between
+Boston and New York towards the end of the last century President Quincy
+of Harvard College said:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"The carriages were old and the shackling and much of the harness
+made of ropes. One pair of horses carried us eighteen miles. We
+generally reached our resting-place for the night if no accident
+intervened, at ten o'clock, and after a frugal supper went to bed,
+with a notice that we should be called at three next morning, which
+generally proved to be half-past two, and then, whether it snowed
+or rained, the traveller must rise and make ready, by the help of a
+horn-lantern and a farthing candle, and proceed on his way over bad
+roads, sometimes getting out to help the coachman lift the coach
+out of a quagmire or rut, and arrived in New York after a week's
+hard travelling, wondering at the ease as well as the expedition
+with which our journey was effected."</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[347]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The <i>Columbia Centinel</i> of April 24, 1793, advertised a new line of
+"small genteel and easy stage-carriages" from Boston to New York with
+four inside passengers, and smart horses. Many of the announcements of
+the day have pictures of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[348]</a></span> coaches. They usually resemble market
+wagons with round, canvas-covered tops, and the driver is seated outside
+the body of the wagon with his feet on the foot-board. Trunks were
+small, covered with deerskin or pigskin, studded with brass nails; and
+each traveller took his trunk under his seat and feet.</p>
+
+<p>The poet, Moore, gives in rhyme his testimony of Virginia roads in
+1800:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Dear George, though every bone is aching<br /></span>
+<span class="i4">After the shaking<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">I've had this week over ruts and ridges,<br /></span>
+<span class="i4">And bridges<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Made of a few uneasy planks,<br /></span>
+<span class="i4">In open ranks,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Over rivers of mud whose names alone<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Would make knock the knees of stoutest man."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>The traveller Weld, in 1795, gave testimony that the bridges were so
+poor that the driver had always to stop and arrange the loose planks ere
+he dared cross, and he adds:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"The driver frequently had to call to the passengers in the stage
+to lean out of the carriage first on one side then on the other, to
+prevent it from oversetting in the deep roads with which the road
+abounds. 'Now, gentlemen, to the right,' upon which the passengers
+all stretched their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[349]</a></span> bodies half-way out of the carriage to balance
+on that side. 'Now, gentlemen, to the left,' and so on."</p></div>
+
+<p>The coach in which this pleasure trip was taken is shown in the
+illustration entitled "American Stage-wagon." It is copied from a first
+edition of <i>Weld's Travels</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Ann Warder, in her journey from Philadelphia to New York in 1759, notes
+two overturned and abandoned stage-wagons at Perth Amboy; and many other
+travellers give similar testimony. In 1796 the trip from Philadelphia to
+Baltimore took five days.</p>
+
+<p>The growth in stage-coaches and travel came with the turnpike at the
+beginning of this century. In transportation and travel, improvement of
+roadways is ever associated with improvement of vehicles. The first
+extensive turnpike was the one between Philadelphia and Lancaster, built
+in 1792. The growth and the cost of these roads may be briefly mentioned
+by quoting a statement from the annual message of the governor of
+Pennsylvania in 1838, that that commonwealth then had two thousand five
+hundred miles of turnpikes which had cost $37,000,000.</p>
+
+<p>Many of these turnpikes were beautiful and splendid roads; for instance,
+the "Mohawk and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[350]</a></span> Hudson Turnpike," which ran in a straight line from
+Albany to Schenectady, was ornamented and shaded with two rows of the
+quickly growing and fashionable poplar-trees and thickly punctuated with
+taverns. On one turnpike there were sixty-five taverns in sixty miles.
+The dashing stage-coach accorded well with this fine thoroughfare.</p>
+
+<p>With the splendid turnpikes came the glorious coaching days. In 1827 the
+Traveller's Register reported eight hundred stage-coaches arriving, and
+as many leaving Boston each week. The forty-mile road from Boston to
+Providence sometimes saw twenty coaches going each way. The editor of
+the <i>Providence Gazette</i> wrote: "We were rattled from Boston to
+Providence in four hours and fifty minutes&mdash;if any one wants to go
+faster he may go to Kentucky and charter a streak of lightning." There
+were four rival lines on the Cumberland road,&mdash;the National, Good
+Intent, Pioneer, and June Bug. Some spirited races the old stage-road
+witnessed between the rival lines. The distance from Wheeling to
+Cumberland, one hundred and thirty-two miles, was regularly accomplished
+in twenty-four hours. No heavy luggage was carried and but nine
+passengers; fourteen coaches rolled off together&mdash;one was a mail-coach
+with a horn. Relays were every ten miles; teams were changed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[351]</a></span> before the
+coach ceased rocking; one driver boasted of changing and harnessing his
+four horses in four minutes. Lady travellers were quickly thrust in the
+open door and their bandboxes after them. Scant time was there for
+refreshment, save by uncorking of bottles. The keen test and acute
+rivalry between drivers came in the delivery of the President's Message.
+Dan Gordon carried the message thirty-two miles in two hours and thirty
+minutes, changing horses three times. Bill Noble carried the message
+from Wheeling to Hagerstown, a hundred and eighty-five miles, in fifteen
+and a half hours.</p>
+
+<p>In 1818 the Eastern Stage Company was chartered in the state of New
+Hampshire. The route was this: a stage started from Portsmouth at 9&nbsp;<span class="smcap">A.M.</span>;
+passengers dined at Topsfield; thence through Danvers and Salem;
+back the following day, dining at Newburyport. The capital stock was
+four hundred and twenty-five shares at a hundred dollars par. In 1834
+the stock was worth two hundred dollars a share. The company owned
+several hundred horses. It was on a coach of this line that Henry Clay
+rode from Pleasant Street, Salem, to Tremont House, Boston, in exactly
+an hour; and on the route extended to Portland, Daniel Webster was
+carried at the rate of sixteen English miles an hour from Boston to
+Portland to sign the Ashburton Treaty.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[352]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The middle of the century saw the beginning of the end of coaching in
+all the states that had been colonies. Further west the old stage-coach
+had to trundle in order to exist at all: Ohio, Indiana, Missouri, across
+the plains, and then over the Rocky Mountains to Salt Lake. The road
+from Carson to Plainville gave the crack ride, and the driver wore
+yellow kid gloves. The coach known as the Concord wagon, drawn by six
+horses, still makes cheerful the out-of-the-way roads of our Western
+states, and recalls the life of olden times. The story of spirited and
+gay life still exists in the Wells Fargo Express. The usefulness of the
+Concord<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[353]</a></span> coach is not limited to the western nor the northern portion of
+our continent; in South America it flourishes, banishing all rivals.</p>
+
+<p>Canal travel and transportation were proposed at the close of provincial
+days, and a few short canals were built. Benjamin Franklin was early
+awake to their practicability and value. Among the stock-owners of the
+Dismal Swamp Canal was George Washington, and he was equally interested
+in the Potomac Canal.</p>
+
+<p>The Erie Canal, first proposed to the New York legislature in 1768, was
+completed in 1825. There was considerable passenger travel on this canal
+at "a cent and a half a mile, a mile and a half an hour." Horace Greeley
+has given an excellent picture of this leisurely travel; it was asserted
+by some that stage-coaches were doomed by the canal-boat, but they
+continued to exist till they encountered a more formidable rival.</p>
+
+<p>Until turnpike days all small carriages were two-wheeled; chaises,
+chairs, and sulkies were those generally used. The chaise and harness
+used by Jonathan Trumbull&mdash;"Brother Jonathan"&mdash;are here shown. With
+regard to private conveyances, whether coaches, chaises, or chairs, the
+colonies kept close step from earliest days with the mother-countries.
+Randolph noted with envy the Boston<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[354]</a></span> coaches of the seventeenth century.
+Parson Thatcher was accused and reprehended in 1675 for making visits
+with a coach and four. Coaches were taxed both in England and America;
+so we know exactly how plentiful they were. There were as many in
+Massachusetts in 1750 in proportion to the number of inhabitants as
+there were in England in 1830. Judge Sewall's diary often refers to
+private coaches; and one of the most amusing scenes it depicts is his
+continued and ingenious argument when wooing Madam Winthrop for his
+third wife, when she stipulated that he should keep a coach, and his
+frugal mind disposed him not to do it.</p>
+
+<p>Coach-building prospered in the colonies; Lucas and Paddock in Boston,
+Ross in New York, made beautiful and rich coaches. Materials were ample<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[355]</a></span>
+and varied in the New World for carriage-building; horseflesh&mdash;not
+over-choice, to be sure&mdash;became over-plentiful; it was said that no man
+ever walked in America save a vagabond or a fool. A coach made for Madam
+Angelica Campbell of Schenectady, New York, by coach-builder Ross, in
+1790, is here shown. It is now owned by Mr. John D. Campbell of
+Rotterdam, New York.</p>
+
+<p>Sleighs were common in New York a half-century before they were in
+Boston. Madam Knights noted the fast racing in sleighs in New York when
+she was there in 1704.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[356]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>One other curious conveyance of colonial days should be spoken of,&mdash;a
+sedan-chair. This was a strong covered chair fastened on two bars with
+handles like a litter, and might be carried by two or four persons. When
+sedan-chairs were so much used in England, they were sure to be somewhat
+used in cities in America. One was presented to Governor Winthrop as
+early as 1646, portion of a capture from a Spanish galleon. Judge Sewall
+wrote in 1706, "Five Indians carried Mr. Bromfield in a chair." This was
+in the country, down on Cape Cod, and doubtless four Indians carried him
+while one rested. As late as 1789 Eliza Quincy saw Dr. Franklin riding
+in a sedan-chair in Philadelphia.</p>
+
+<p>The establishment and building of roads, bridges, and opening of inns
+show that mutual interest which marks civilization, and separates us
+from the lonely, selfish life of a savage. Soon inns were found
+everywhere in the Northern colonies. In New England, New York, and
+Pennsylvania an inn was called an ordinary, a victualling, a cook-shop,
+or a tavern before we had our modern word hotel.</p>
+
+<p>Board was not very high at early inns; the prices were regulated by the
+different towns. In 1633 the Salem innkeeper could only have sixpence
+for a meal. This was at the famous Anchor Tavern,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">[357]</a></span> which was kept as a
+hostelry for nearly two centuries. At the Ship Tavern, board, lodging,
+wine at dinner, and beer between meals cost three shillings a day. Great
+care was taken by the magistrates to choose responsible men and women to
+keep taverns, and they would not permit too many taverns in one town. At
+first the tavern-keeper could not sell sack (which was sherry), nor
+stronger intoxicating liquor to travellers, but he could sell beer,
+provided it was good, for a penny a quart. Nor could he sell cakes or
+buns except at a wedding or funeral. He could not allow games to be
+played, nor singing or dancing to take place.</p>
+
+<p>We know from Shakespeare's plays that the different rooms in English
+inns had names. This was also the custom in New England. The Star
+Chamber, Rose and Sun Chamber, Blue Chamber, Jerusalem Chamber, were
+some of them. Many of the taverns of Revolutionary days and some of
+colonial times are still standing. A few have even been taverns since
+first built; others have served many other uses. A well-preserved old
+house, built in 1690 in Sudbury, Massachusetts, was originally known as
+the Red Horse Tavern, but has acquired greater fame as the Wayside Inn
+of Longfellow's Tales. Its tap-room with raftered ceiling and cage-like
+bar with swinging gate is a picturesque room,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">[358]</a></span> and is one of the few old
+tap-rooms left unaltered in New England.</p>
+
+<p>Every inn had a name, usually painted on its swinging sign-board, with
+some significant emblem. These names were simply repetitions of old
+English tavern-signs until Revolutionary days, when patriotic landlords
+eagerly invented and adopted names significant of the new nation. The
+scarlet coat of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">[359]</a></span> King George became the blue and buff of George
+Washington; and the eagle of the United States took the place of the
+British lion.</p>
+
+<p>The sign-board was an interesting survival of feudal times, and with its
+old-time carved and forged companions, such as vanes and weathercocks,
+doorknockers and figureheads, formed a picturesque element of decoration
+and symbolism. Many chapters might be written on historic,
+commemorative, emblematic, heraldic, biblical, humorous, or significant
+signs, nearly all of which have vanished from public gaze, as has
+disappeared also the general incapacity to read, which made pictorial
+devices a necessity. Gilders, painter-stainers, smiths, and joiners all
+helped to make the tavern-sign a thing of varied workmanship if not of
+art. It is said that Philadelphia excelled in the quantity and quality
+of her sign-boards. With fair roads for colonial days, the best and
+amplest system of transportation, and the splendid Conestoga wagons,
+great inns multiplied throughout Pennsylvania. In Baltimore both taverns
+and signs were many and varied, from the Three Loggerheads to the Indian
+Queen with its "two hundred guest-rooms with a bell in every room," and
+the Fountain Inn built around a shady court, with galleries on every
+story, like the Tabard Inn at Southwark.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">[360]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The swinging sign-board of John Nash's Tavern at Amherst, Massachusetts,
+is here reproduced from the <i>History of Amherst</i>. It is a good type of
+the ordinary sign-board which was found hanging in front of every tavern
+a century ago.</p>
+
+<p>In Virginia and the Carolinas taverns were not so plentiful nor so
+necessary; for a traveller might ride from Maryland to Georgia, and be
+sure of a welcome at every private house on the way. Some planters,
+eager for company and news, stationed negroes at the gate to invite
+passers-by on the post-road to come into the house and be entertained.
+Berkeley, in his <i>History of Virginia</i>, wrote:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"The inhabitants are very courteous to travellers, who need no
+other recommendation than being human creatures. A stranger has no
+more to do but to inquire upon<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">[361]</a></span> the road where any gentleman or
+good housekeeper lives, and then he may depend upon being received
+with hospitality. This good-nature is so general among their
+people, that the gentry, when they go abroad, order their principal
+servants to entertain all visitors with everything the plantation
+affords; and the poor planters who have but one bed, will often sit
+up, or lie upon a form or couch all night, to make room for a weary
+traveller to repose himself after his journey."</p></div>
+
+<p>So universal was this custom of free entertainment that it was a law in
+Virginia that unless there had been a distinct agreement to pay for
+board and shelter, no pay could be claimed from any guest, no matter how
+long he remained. In the few taverns that existed prices were low, about
+a shilling a dinner; and it was ordered that the meal must be wholesome
+and good.</p>
+
+<p>The governor of New Netherlands at first entertained all visitors to New
+Amsterdam at his house in the fort. But as commerce increased he found
+this hospitality burdensome, and a Harberg or tavern was built; it was
+later used as a city hall.</p>
+
+<p>In England throughout the seventeenth century, and indeed much later,
+traversing the great cities by night was a matter of some danger. The
+streets were ill-lighted, were full of holes and mud and filth, and were
+infested with thieves. Worse still,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">[362]</a></span> groups of drunken and dissipated
+young men of wealth, calling themselves Mohocks, Scourers, and other
+names, roamed the dark streets armed with swords and bludgeons,
+assaulting, tormenting, and injuring every one whom they met, who had
+the ill fortune to be abroad at night.</p>
+
+<p>There was nothing of that sort known in American cities; there was
+little noise or roistering, no highway robbery, comparatively little
+petty stealing. The streets were ill-paved and dirty, but not foul with
+the accumulated dirt of centuries as in London. The streets in nearly
+all cities were unlighted. In 1697 New Yorkers were ordered to have a
+lantern and candle hung out on a pole from every seventh house. And as
+the watchman walked around he called out, "Lanthorn, and a whole
+candell-light. Hang out your lights." The watchman was called a
+rattle-watch, and carried a long staff and a lantern and a large rattle
+or klopper, which he struck to frighten away thieves. And all night long
+he called out each hour, and told the weather. For instance, he called
+out, "Past midnight, and all's well"; "One o'clock and fair winds," or
+"Five o'clock and cloudy skies." Thus one could lie safe in bed and if
+he chanced to waken could know that the friendly rattle-watch was near
+at hand, and what was the weather and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">[363]</a></span> the time of night. In 1658 New
+York had in all ten watchmen, who were like our modern police; to-day it
+has many thousands.</p>
+
+<p>In New England the constables and watch were all carefully appointed by
+law. They carried black staves six feet long, tipped with brass, and
+hence were called tipstaves. The night watch was called a bell-man. He
+looked out for fire and thieves and other disorders, and called the time
+of the night, and the weather. The pay was small, often but a shilling a
+night, and occasionally a "coat of kersey." In large towns, as Boston
+and Salem, thirteen "sober, honest men and householders" were the night
+watch. The highest in the community, even the magistrates, took their
+turn at the watch, and were ordered to walk two together, a young man
+with "one of the soberer sort."</p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XV" id="CHAPTER_XV"></a>CHAPTER XV<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">[364]</a></span><br />
+SUNDAY IN THE COLONIES</h2>
+
+
+<p>The first building used as a church at the Plymouth colony was the fort,
+and to it the Pilgrim fathers and mothers and children walked on Sunday
+reverently and gravely, three in a row, the men fully armed with swords
+and guns, till they built a meeting-house in 1648. In other New England
+settlements, the first services were held in tents, under trees, or
+under any shelter. The settler who had a roomy house often had also the
+meeting. The first Boston meeting-house had mud walls, a thatched roof,
+and earthen floor. It was used till 1640, and some very thrilling and
+inspiring scenes were enacted within its humble walls. Usually the
+earliest meeting-houses were log houses, with clay-filled chinks, and
+roofs thatched with reeds and long grass, like the dwelling-houses. At
+Salem is still preserved one of the early churches. The second and more
+dignified form of New England meeting-house was usually a square wooden
+building<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">[365]</a></span> with a truncated pyramidal roof, surmounted often with a
+belfry, which served as a lookout station and held a bell, from which
+the bell-rope hung down to the floor in the centre of the church aisle.
+The old church at Hingham, Massachusetts, still standing and still used,
+is a good specimen of this shape. It was built in 1681, and is known as
+the "Old Ship," and is a comely and dignified building. As more elegant
+and costly dwelling-houses were built, so were better meeting-houses;
+and the third form with lofty wooden steeple at one end, in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">[366]</a></span> the style
+of architecture invented by Sir Christopher Wren, after the great fire
+of London, multiplied and increased until every town was graced with an
+example. In all these the main body of the edifice remained as bare,
+prosaic, and undecorated as were the preceding churches, while all the
+ambition of both builders and congregation spent itself in the steeple.
+These were so varied and at times so beautiful that a chapter might be
+written on New England steeples. The Old South Church of Boston is a
+good example of this school of ecclesiastical architecture, and is a
+well-known historic building as well.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest meeting-houses had oiled paper in the windows, and when
+glass came it was not set with putty, but was nailed in. The windows had
+what were termed "heavy current side-shutters." The outside of the
+meeting-house was not "colored," or "stained" as it was then termed, but
+was left to turn gray and weather-stained, and sometimes moss-covered
+with the dampness of the great shadowing hemlock and fir trees which
+were usually planted around New England churches. The first
+meeting-houses were often decorated in a very singular and grotesque
+manner. Rewards were paid by all the early towns for killing wolves; and
+any person who killed a wolf brought the head to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">[367]</a></span> meeting-house and
+nailed it to the outer wall; the fierce grinning heads and splashes of
+blood made a grim and horrible decoration. All kinds of notices were
+also nailed to the meeting-house door where all of the congregation
+might readily see them,&mdash;notices of town-meetings, of sales of cattle or
+farms, lists of town-officers, prohibitions from selling guns to the
+Indians, notices of intended marriages, vendues, etc. It was the only
+meeting-place, the only method of advertisement. In front of the church
+was usually a row of stepping-stones or horse-blocks, for nearly all
+came on horseback; and often on the meeting-house green stood the
+stocks, pillory, and whipping-post.</p>
+
+<p>A verse from an old-fashioned hymn reads thus:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"New England's Sabbath day<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Is heaven-like, still, and pure,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">When Israel walks the way<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Up to the temple's door.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The time we tell<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">When there to come,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">By beat of drum,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Or sounding shell."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>The first church at Jamestown, Virginia, gathered the congregation by
+beat of drum; but while attendants of the Episcopal, Roman Catholic,
+and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368">[368]</a></span> Dutch Reformed churches in the New World were in general being
+summoned to divine service by the ringing of a bell hung either over the
+church or in the branches of a tree by its side, New England Puritans
+were summoned, as the hymn relates, by drum, or horn, or shell. The
+shell was a great conch-shell, and a man was hired to blow it&mdash;a
+mournful sound&mdash;at the proper time, which was usually nine o'clock in
+the morning. In Stockbridge, Massachusetts, the church-shell was
+afterwards used for many years as a signal to begin and stop work in the
+haying field. In Windsor, Connecticut, a man walked up and down on a
+platform on the top of the meeting-house and blew a trumpet to summon
+worshippers. Many churches had a church drummer, who stood on the roof
+or in the belfry and drummed; a few raised a flag as a summons, or fired
+a gun.</p>
+
+<p>Within the meeting-house all was simple enough: raftered walls, puncheon
+and sanded or earthen floors, rows of benches, a few pews, all of
+unpainted wood, and a pulpit which was usually a high desk overhung by a
+heavy sounding-board, which was fastened to the roof by a slender metal
+rod. The pulpit was sometimes called a scaffold. When pews were built
+they were square, with high partition walls, and had narrow,
+uncomfortable seats round<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">[369]</a></span> three sides. The word was always spelled
+"pue"; and they were sometimes called "pits." A little girl in the
+middle of this century attended a service in an old church which still
+retained the old-fashioned square pews; she exclaimed, in a loud voice,
+"What! must I be shut in a closet and sit on a shelf?" These narrow,
+shelf-like seats were usually hung on hinges and could be turned up
+against the pew-walls during the long psalm-tunes and prayers; so the
+members of the congregation could lean against the pew-walls for support
+as they stood. When the seats were let down, they fell with a heavy slam
+that could be heard half a mile away in the summer time, when the
+windows of the meeting-house were open. Lines from an old poem read:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"And when at last the loud Amen<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Fell from aloft, how quickly then<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The seats came down with heavy rattle,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Like musketry in fiercest battle."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>A few of the old-time meeting-houses, with high pulpit, square pews, and
+deacons' seats, still remain in New England. The interior of the Rocky
+Hill meeting-house at Salisbury, Massachusetts, is here shown. It fully
+illustrates the words of the poet:&mdash;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">[370]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Old house of Puritanic wood<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Through whose unpainted windows streamed<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">On seats as primitive and rude<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">As Jacob's pillow when he dreamed,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The white and undiluted day&mdash;"<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>The seats were carefully and thoughtfully assigned by a church committee
+called the Seating Committee, the best seats being given to older
+persons of wealth and dignity who attended the church. Whittier wrote of
+this custom:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"In the goodly house of worship, where in order due and fit,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">As by public vote directed, classed and ranked the people sit.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">[371]</a></span><br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Mistress first and good wife after, clerkly squire before the clown,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">From the brave coat lace-embroidered to the gray coat shading down."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Many of the plans for "seating the meeting-house" have been preserved;
+the pews and their assigned occupants are clearly designated. A copy is
+shown of one now in Deerfield Memorial Hall.</p>
+
+<p>In the early meeting-houses men and women sat on separate sides of the
+meeting-house, as in Quaker meetings till our own time. Sometimes a
+group of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">[372]</a></span> young women or of young men were permitted to sit in the
+gallery together. Little girls sat beside their mothers or on footstools
+at their feet, or sometimes on the gallery stairs; and I have heard of a
+little cage or frame to hold Puritan babies in meeting. Boys did not sit
+with their families, but were in groups by themselves, usually on the
+pulpit and gallery stairs, where tithing-men watched over them. In
+Salem, in 1676, it was ordered by the town that "all ye boyes of ye
+towne are appointed to sitt upon ye three paire of stairs in ye
+meeting-house, and Wm. Lord is appointed to look after ye boys upon ye
+pulpitt stairs."</p>
+
+<p>In Stratford the tithing-man was ordered to "watch over youths of
+disorderly carriage, and see they behave themselves comelie, and use
+such raps and blows as is in his discretion meet." In Durham any
+misbehaving boy was punished publicly after the service was over. We
+would nowadays scarcely seat twenty or thirty active boys together in
+church if we wished them to be models of attention and dignified
+behavior; but after the boys' seats were removed from the pulpit stairs
+they were all turned in together in a "boys' pew" in the gallery. There
+was a boys' pew in Windsor, Connecticut, as late as 1845, and pretty
+noisy it usually was. A certain small boy in Connecticut misbehaved
+himself on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373">[373]</a></span> Sunday, and his wickedness was specified by the justice of
+peace as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"A Rude and Idel Behaver in the meeting hous. Such as Smiling and
+Larfing and Intiseing others to the Same Evil. Such as Larfing or
+Smiling or puling the hair of his nayber Benoni Simkins in the time
+of Publick Worship. Such as throwing Sister Penticost Perkins on
+the Ice, it being Saboth day, between the meeting hous and his
+plaes of abode."</p></div>
+
+<p>I can picture well the wicked scene; poor, meek little Benoni Simpkins
+trying to behave well in meeting, and not cry out when the young "wanton
+gospeller" pulled her hair, and unfortunate Sister Perkins tripped up on
+the ice by the young rascal.</p>
+
+<p>Another vain youth in Andover, Massachusetts, was brought up before the
+magistrate, and it was charged that he "sported and played, and by
+Indecent gestures and wry faces caused laughter and misbehavior in the
+beholders." The girls were just as wicked; they slammed down the
+pew-seats. Tabatha Morgus of Norwich "prophaned the Lord's daye" by her
+"rude and indecent behavior in Laughing and playing in ye tyme of
+service." On Long Island godless boys "ran raesses" on the Sabbath and
+"talked of vane things," and as for Albany children, they played hookey
+and coasted down hill on Sunday to the scandal of every one<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374">[374]</a></span> evidently,
+except their parents. When the boys were separated and families sat in
+pews together, all became orderly in meeting.</p>
+
+<p>The deacons sat in a "Deacons' Pue" just in front of the pulpit;
+sometimes also there was a "Deaf Pue" in front for those who were hard
+of hearing. After choirs were established the singers' seats were
+usually in the gallery; and high up under the beams in a loft sat the
+negroes and Indians.</p>
+
+<p>If any person seated himself in any place which was not assigned to him,
+he had to pay a fine, usually of several shillings, for each offence.
+But in old Newbury men were fined as high as twenty-seven pounds each
+for persistent and unruly sitting in seats belonging to other members.</p>
+
+<p>The churches were all unheated. Few had stoves until the middle of this
+century. The chill of the damp buildings, never heated from autumn to
+spring, and closed and dark throughout the week, was hard for every one
+to bear. In some of the early log-built meeting-houses, fur bags made of
+wolfskins were nailed to the seats; and in winter church attendants
+thrust their feet into them. Dogs, too, were permitted to enter the
+meeting-house and lie on their masters' feet. Dog-whippers or
+dog-pelters were appointed to control and expel them when they became
+unruly or unbearable. Women<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_375" id="Page_375">[375]</a></span> and children usually carried foot-stoves,
+which were little pierced metal boxes that stood on wooden legs, and
+held hot coals. During the noon intermission the half-frozen church
+attendants went to a neighboring house or tavern, or to a noon-house to
+get warm. A noon-house or "Sabba-day house," as it was often called, was
+a long low building built near the meeting-house, with horse-stalls at
+one end and a chimney at the other. In it the farmers kept, says one
+church record, "their duds and horses." A great fire of logs was built
+there each Sunday, and before its cheerful blaze noonday luncheons of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_376" id="Page_376">[376]</a></span>
+brown bread, doughnuts, or gingerbread were eaten, and foot-stoves were
+filled. Boys and girls were not permitted to indulge in idle talk in
+those noon-houses, much less to play. Often two or three families built
+a noon-house together, or the church built a "Society-house," and there
+the children had a sermon read to them by a deacon during the "nooning";
+sometimes the children had to explain aloud the notes they had taken
+during the sermon in the morning. Thus they throve, as a minister wrote,
+on the "Good Fare of brown Bread and the Gospel." There was no nearer
+approach to a Sunday-school until this century.</p>
+
+<p>The services were not shortened because the churches were uncomfortable.
+By the side of the pulpit stood a brass-bound hour-glass which was
+turned by the tithing-man or clerk, but it did not hasten the closing of
+the sermon. Sermons two or three hours long were customary, and prayers
+from one to two hours in length. When the first church in Woburn was
+dedicated, the minister preached a sermon nearly five hours long. A
+Dutch traveller recorded a prayer four hours long on a Fast Day. Many
+prayers were two hours long. The doors were closed and watched by the
+tithing-man, and none could leave even if tired or restless unless with
+good excuse. The singing of the psalms was tedious<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_377" id="Page_377">[377]</a></span> and unmusical, just
+as it was in churches of all denominations both in America and England
+at that date. Singing was by ear and very uncertain, and the
+congregation had no notes, and many had no<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_378" id="Page_378">[378]</a></span> psalm-books, and hence no
+words. So the psalms were "lined" or "deaconed"; that is, a line was
+read by the deacon, and then sung by the congregation. Some psalms when
+lined and sung occupied half an hour, during which the congregation
+stood. There were but eight or nine tunes in general use, and even these
+were often sung incorrectly. There were no church organs to help keep
+the singers together, but sometimes pitch-pipes were used to set the
+key. Bass-viols, clarionets, and flutes were played upon at a later date
+in meeting to help the singing. Violins were too associated with dance
+music to be thought decorous for church music. Still the New England
+churches clung to and loved their poor confused psalm-singing as one of
+their few delights, and whenever a Puritan, even in road or field, heard
+the distant sound of a psalm-tune he removed his hat and bowed his head
+in prayer.</p>
+
+<p>Contributions at first were not collected by the deacons, but the entire
+congregation, one after another, walked up to the deacons' seat and
+placed gifts of money, goods, wampum, or promissory notes in a box. When
+the services were ended, all remained in the pews until the minister and
+his wife had walked up the aisle and out of the church.</p>
+
+<p>The strict observance of Sunday as a holy day was one of the
+characteristics of the Puritans. Any<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_379" id="Page_379">[379]</a></span> profanation of the day was
+severely punished by fine or whipping. Citizens were forbidden to fish,
+shoot, sail, row, dance, jump, or ride, save to and from church, or to
+perform any work on the farm. An infinite number of examples might be
+given to show how rigidly the laws were enforced. The use of tobacco was
+forbidden near the meeting-house. These laws were held to extend from
+sunset on Saturday to sunset on Sunday; for in the first instructions
+given to Governor Endicott by the company in England, it was ordered
+that all in the colony cease work at three o'clock in the afternoon on
+Saturday. The Puritans found support of this belief in the Scriptural
+words, "The evening and the morning were the first day."</p>
+
+<p>A Sabbath day in the family of Rev. John Cotton was thus described by
+one of his fellow-ministers:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"He began the Sabbath at evening, therefore then performed family
+duty after supper, being longer than ordinary in exposition. After
+which he catechized his children and servants, and then returned to
+his study. The morning following, family worship being ended, he
+retired into his study until the bell called him away. Upon his
+return from meeting (where he had preached and prayed some hours),
+he returned again into his study (the place of his labor and
+prayer), unto his favorite devotion; where having a small repast
+carried him up for his dinner, he continued until the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_380" id="Page_380">[380]</a></span> tolling of
+the bell. The public service of the afternoon being over, he
+withdrew for a space to his pre-mentioned oratory for his sacred
+addresses to God, as in the forenoon, then came down, repeated the
+sermon in the family, prayed, after supper sang a Psalm, and toward
+bedtime betaking himself again to his study he closed the day with
+prayer. Thus he spent the Sabbath continually."</p></div>
+
+<p>The Virginia Cavaliers were strict Church of England men and the first
+who came to the colony were strict Sunday-keepers. Rules were laid down
+to enforce Sunday observance. Journeys were forbidden, boat-lading was
+prohibited, also all profanation of the day by sports, such as shooting,
+fishing, game-playing, etc. The offender who broke the Sabbath laws had
+to pay a fine and be set in the stocks. When that sturdy watch-dog of
+religion and government&mdash;Sir Thomas Dale&mdash;came over, he declared absence
+from church should be punishable by death; but this severity never was
+executed. The captain of the watch was made to play the same part as the
+New England tithing-man. Every Sunday, half an hour before service-time,
+at the last tolling of the bell, the captain stationed sentinels, then
+searched all the houses and commanded and forced all (except the sick)
+to go to church. Then, when all were driven churchwards before him, he
+went with his guards to church himself.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_381" id="Page_381">[381]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Captain John Smith, in his <i>Pathway to erect a Plantation</i>, thus vividly
+described the first places of divine worship in Virginia:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Wee did hang an awning, which is an old saile, to three or foure
+trees to shadow us from the Sunne; our walls were railes of wood;
+our seats unhewed trees till we cut plankes; our Pulpit a bar of
+wood nailed to two neighbouring trees. In foul weather we shifted
+into an old rotten tent; this came by way of adventure for new.
+This was our Church till we built a homely thing like a barne set
+upon Cratchets, covered with rafts, sedge, and earth; so also was
+the walls; the best of our houses were of like curiosity, that
+could neither well defend from wind nor rain.</p>
+
+<p>"Yet we had daily Common Prayer morning and evening;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_382" id="Page_382">[382]</a></span> every Sunday
+two sermons; and every three months a holy Communion till our
+Minister died: but our Prayers daily with an Homily on Sundays we
+continued two or three years after, till more Preachers came."</p></div>
+
+<p>A timber church sixty feet long took the place of this mud and clay
+chapel, and this was in turn replaced by the brick one whose ruined
+arches are still standing. The wooden church saw the most pompous
+ceremony of the day when the governor, De La Warre, or Delaware as we
+now call it, in full dress, attended by all his councillors and officers
+and fifty halbert-bearers in scarlet cloaks, filed within its
+flower-decked walls.</p>
+
+<p>This decoration of flowers was significant of the difference between the
+church edifices of the Puritans and of the Cavaliers. The churches of
+the Southern colonies were, as a rule, much more richly furnished. Many
+were modelled in shape after the old English churches and were built of
+stone, though Jonathan Boucher, the colonial clergyman, could write that
+the greater number of the Southern churches were, at the time of the
+Revolution, "composed of wood, without spires, or towers or steeples or
+bells, placed in retired and solitary spots and contiguous to springs or
+wells." Many of the churches and the chapels-of-ease stood by the
+waterside, and to the services came the church attendants<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_383" id="Page_383">[383]</a></span> in canoes,
+periaugers, dugouts, etc. It made an animated scene upon the water, as
+the boats came rowing in and as they departed after the service.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes the seats were comfortably cushioned, and they were carefully
+assigned as in the Puritan meetings. In some Virginia churches seats in
+the galleries were deemed the most dignified. There was a pew for the
+magistrates, another for the magistrates' ladies; pews for the
+representatives and church-wardens, vestrymen, etc. Persons crowded into
+pews above their stations, just as in New England,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_384" id="Page_384">[384]</a></span> and were promptly
+displaced. Groups of men built pews together, and there were schoolboys'
+galleries and pews.</p>
+
+<p>The first clergyman in Virginia, Robert Hunt, a true man of God, came as
+a missionary, and he and others were men of marked intellect and
+religion, but in the eighteenth century the pay was too small and
+uncertain to attract any great men from the Church of England, and
+church attendance dwindled and became irregular. For in Virginia the
+parish was expected to receive any clergyman sent them from England, a
+rule which often proved unsatisfactory; and deservedly so, since some
+very disreputable offshoots of English families were thrust upon the
+Virginia churches. In the Carolinas, where the church chose its own
+clergyman, harmony and affection prevailed in the parishes as it did
+among the New England Puritans. Though the Virginians did not always
+love their clergymen, still they were ever steadfast in their affection
+to their church, and regarded it as the only church.</p>
+
+<p>Sunday was not observed with as much rigidity in New Netherland as in
+New England, but strict rules and laws were made for enforcing quiet
+during service-time. Fishing, gathering berries or nuts, playing in the
+streets, working, going on pleasure<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_385" id="Page_385">[385]</a></span> trips, all were forbidden. On Long
+Island shooting of wild fowl, carting of grain, travelling for pleasure,
+all were punished. In Revolutionary times a cage was set up in City Hall
+Park, near the present New York Post-office, in which boys were confined
+who did not properly regard the Sabbath.</p>
+
+<p>Before the Dutch settlers had any churches or domines, as they called
+their ministers, they had <i>krankbesoeckers</i>, or visitors of the sick,
+who read sermons to an assembled congregation every Sunday. The first
+church at Albany was much like the Plymouth fort, simply a blockhouse
+with loop-holes through which guns could be fired. The roof was mounted
+with three cannon. It had a seat for the magistrates and one for the
+deacons, and a handsome octagonal pulpit which had been sent from
+Holland, and which still exists. The edifice had a chandelier and candle
+sconces and two low galleries. The first church in New Amsterdam was of
+stone, and was seventy-two feet long.</p>
+
+<p>A favorite form of the Dutch churches was six or eight sided, with a
+high pyramidal roof, topped with a belfry and a weather-vane. Usually
+the windows were so small and of glass so opaque that the church was
+very dark. A few of the churches were poorly heated with high stoves
+perched up on pillars, the Albany and Schenectady churches among them,
+but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_386" id="Page_386">[386]</a></span> all the women carried foot-stoves, and some of the men carried
+muffs.</p>
+
+<p>Almost as important as the domine was the <i>voorleezer</i> or chorister, who
+was also generally the bell-ringer, sexton, grave-digger, funeral
+inviter, schoolmaster, and sometimes town clerk. He "tuned the psalm";
+turned the hour-glass; gave out the psalms on a hanging board to the
+congregation; read the Bible; gave up notices to the domine by sticking
+the papers in the end of a cleft stick and holding it up to the high
+pulpit.</p>
+
+<p>The deacons had control of all the church money. In the middle of the
+sermon they collected contributions by passing <i>sacjes</i>. These were
+small cloth or velvet<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_387" id="Page_387">[387]</a></span> bags hung on the end of a pole six or eight feet
+long. A French traveller told that the Dutch deacons passed round "the
+old square hat of the preacher" on the end of a stick for the
+contributions. Usually there was a little bell on the <i>sacje</i> which rung
+when a coin was dropped in.</p>
+
+<p>In many Dutch churches the men sat in a row of pews around the wall
+while the women were seated on chairs in the centre of the church. There
+were also a few benches or pews for persons of special dignity, or for
+the minister's wife.</p>
+
+<p>There were many other colonists of other religious faiths: the Roman
+Catholics in Maryland and the extreme Southern colonies; the Quakers in
+Pennsylvania; the Baptists in Rhode Island; the Huguenots, Lutherans,
+Moravians; but all enjoined an orderly observance of the Sabbath day.
+And it may be counted as one of the great blessings of the settlement of
+America, one of the most ennobling conditions of its colonization, that
+it was made at a time when the deepest religious feeling prevailed
+throughout Europe, when devotion to some religion was found in every
+one, when the Bible was a newly found and deeply loved treasure; when
+the very differences of religious belief and the formation of new sects
+made each cling more lovingly and more earnestly to his own faith.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVI" id="CHAPTER_XVI"></a>CHAPTER XVI<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_388" id="Page_388">[388]</a></span><br />
+COLONIAL NEIGHBORLINESS</h2>
+
+
+<p>If the first foundation of New England's strength and growth was
+godliness, its next was neighborliness, and a firm rock it proved to
+build upon. It may seem anomalous to assert that while there was in
+olden times infinitely greater independence in each household than at
+present, yet there was also greater interdependence with surrounding
+households.</p>
+
+<p>It is curious to see how completely social ethics and relations have
+changed since olden days. Aid in our families in times of stress and
+need is not given to us now by kindly neighbors as of yore; we have
+well-arranged systems by which we can buy all that assistance, and pay
+for it, not with affectionate regard, but with current coin. The
+colonist turned to any and all who lived around him, and never turned in
+vain for help in sickness, or at the time of death of members of his
+household; for friendly advice; for culinary aids to a halting appetite;
+for the preparation for feasting an exceptional<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_389" id="Page_389">[389]</a></span> number of persons; in
+short, in any unusual emergency, as well as in frequent every-day
+co&ouml;peration in log-rolling, stone-piling, stump-pulling, wall-building,
+house-raising, etc.,&mdash;all the hard and exhausting labor on the farm.</p>
+
+<p>The word "co&ouml;peration" is modern, but the thing itself is as old as
+civilization. In a new country where there was much work to be done
+which one man or one family could not do, under the mechanical
+conditions which then existed, a working together, or union of labor was
+necessary for progress, indeed, almost for obtaining a foothold.</p>
+
+<p>The term "log-rolling" is frequently employed in its metaphorical sense
+in politics, both by English and American writers who have vague
+knowledge of the original meaning of the word. A log-rolling in early
+pioneer days, in the Northern colonies and in western Virginia and the
+central states, was a noble example of generous co&ouml;peration, where each
+gave of his best&mdash;his time, strength, and good will; and where all
+worked to clear the ground in the forest for a home-farm for a neighbor
+who might be newly come and an entire stranger, but who in turn would
+just as cheerfully and energetically give his work for others when it
+was needed.</p>
+
+<p>With the vanishing of the log-rolling, and a score of similar kindly
+usages and customs, has gone from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_390" id="Page_390">[390]</a></span> our communities all traces of the
+old-time exalted type of neighborliness. We nowadays have generalized
+our sentiments; we have more philanthropy and less neighborliness; we
+have more love for mankind and less for men. We are independent of our
+neighbors, but infinitely more dependent on the world at large. The
+personal element has been removed to a large extent from our social
+ethics. We buy nursing and catering just as we hire our houses built and
+buy our corn ready ground. Doubtless everything we buy is infinitely
+better; nevertheless, our loss in affectionate zeal is great.</p>
+
+<p>The plantation was the unit in Virginia; in New England it was the town.
+The neighborly helpfulness of the New England settlers extended from
+small to great matters; it formed communal privileges and entered into
+every department of town life. For instance, the town of Gloucester in
+1663 granted a right to a citizen for running a small sawmill for
+twenty-one years. In return for this right the grantee was to sell
+boards to Gloucester men at "one shilling per hundred better cheape than
+to strangers"&mdash;and was to receive pay "raised in the towne." Saco and
+Biddeford, in Maine, ordered that fellow-townsmen should have preference
+in every employment. Other towns ordered certain persons to buy
+provisions "of the towns-men in preference."<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_391" id="Page_391">[391]</a></span> Reading would not sell any
+of its felled timber out of the town. Thus the social compact called a
+town extended itself also into all the small doings of daily life, and
+the mutual helpfulness made mutual interests that proved no small
+element of the force which bound all together in 1776 in a successful
+struggle for independence.</p>
+
+<p>In outlying settlements and districts this feeling of mutual dependence
+and assistance was strong enough to give a name which sometimes lingered
+long. "The Loomis Neighborhood," "The Mason Neighborhood," "The Robinson
+Neighborhood" were names distinctive for half a century, and far more
+distinguishing and individual than the Greenville, Masontown, and
+Longwood that succeeded them.</p>
+
+<p>There was one curious and contradictory aspect of this neighborliness,
+this kindliness, this thought for mutual welfare, and that was its
+narrowness, especially in New England, as regards the limitations of
+space and locality. It is impossible to judge what caused this restraint
+of vision, but it is certain that in generality and almost in
+universality, just as soon as any group of settlers could call
+themselves a town, these colonists' notions of kindliness and
+thoughtfulness for others became distinctly and rigidly limited to their
+own townspeople. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_392" id="Page_392">[392]</a></span> town was their whole world. Without doubt this was
+partly the result of the lack of travelling facilities and ample
+communication, which made townships far more separated and remote from
+each other than states are to-day, and made difficult the possibility of
+speedy or full knowledge of strangers.</p>
+
+<p>This caused a constant suspicion of all newcomers, especially those who
+chanced to enter with scant introduction, and made universal a custom of
+"warning out" all strangers who arrived in any town. This formality was
+gone through with by the sheriff or tithing-man. Thereafter should the
+warned ones prove incapable or unsuccessful or vicious, they could not
+become a charge upon the town, but could be returned whence they came
+with despatch and violence if necessary. By this means, and by various
+attempts to restrict the powers of citizens to sell property to
+newcomers, the town kept a jealous watch over the right of entry into
+the corporation.</p>
+
+<p>Dorchester in 1634 enacted that "no man within the Plantation shall sell
+his house or lott to any man without the Plantation whome they shall
+dislike off." Providence would not permit a proprietor to sell to any
+"but to an Inhabitant" without consent of the town. New Haven would
+neither sell nor let ground to a stranger. Hadley would sell<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_393" id="Page_393">[393]</a></span> no land to
+any until after three years' occupation, and then only with approval of
+the "Town's Mind." In 1637 the General Court very reasonably questioned
+whether towns could legally restrain individuals from disposal of their
+own property, but the custom was so established, so in touch with the
+narrow exclusiveness of the colonists, that it still prevailed. The
+expression of the town of Watertown when it would sell lots only to
+freemen of the congregation, because it wished no strange neighbors, but
+only "to sitt down there close togither," was the sentiment of all the
+towns. One John Stebbins, who had twice served as a soldier of Watertown
+and lived there seven years, could not get a town lot.</p>
+
+<p>The legal process of warning out of town had an element of the absurd in
+it, and in one case that of mystery, namely: a sheriff appeared before
+the woebegone intruder, and said, half laughing, "I warn you off the
+face of the earth." "Let me get my hat before I go," stammered the
+terrified wanderer, who ran into the house for his hat and was never
+seen by any mortal eye in that town afterwards. It has become a
+tradition of local folk-lore that he literally vanished from the earth
+at the command of the officer of the law.</p>
+
+<p>The harboring of strangers, even of relatives who<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_394" id="Page_394">[394]</a></span> were not local
+residents, was a frequent source of bickering between citizens and
+magistrates, as well as a constant cause of arbitration between towns. A
+widow in Dorchester was not permitted to entertain her own son-in-law
+from another town, and her neighbor was fined in 1671 "under distress"
+for housing his own daughter. She was a married woman, and alleged she
+could not return to her husband on account of the inclement weather.</p>
+
+<p>As time passed on and immigration continued, freemen clung closely to
+their right to keep out strangers and outsiders. From the Boston Town
+Records of 1714 we find citizens still prohibited from entertaining a
+stranger without giving notice to the town authorities, and a
+description of the stranger and his circumstances. Boston required that
+all coming from Ireland should be registered "lest they become
+chargeable." Warnings and whippings out of town still continued. All
+this was so contrary to the methods of colonies in other countries, such
+as the Barbadoes, Honduras, etc., where extraordinary privileges were
+offered settlers, free and large grants of land, absolvment from past
+debts, etc., that it makes an early example of the curious absorbing and
+assimilating power of American nationality, which ever grew and grew
+even against such clogs and hampering restrictions.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_395" id="Page_395">[395]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In the Southern colonies the same kindliness existed as in the North,
+but the conditions differed. John Hammond, of Virginia, wrote in 1656,
+in his <i>Leah and Rachel</i>:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"The Country is not only plentifull, but pleasant and profitable,
+pleasant in regard of the extraordinary good neighbourhood and
+loving conversation they have one with another.</p>
+
+<p>"The inhabitants are generally affable, courteous, and very
+assistant to Strangers (for what but plenty makes hospitality and
+good neighbourhood) and no sooner are they settled, but they will
+be visiting, presenting and advising the strangers how to improve
+what they have, how to better their way of livelihood."</p></div>
+
+<p>In summer when fresh meat was killed, the neighbors shared the luxury,
+and in turn gave of their slaughter. Hammond adds:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"If any fall sick and cannot compass to follow his crops which
+would soon be lost, the adjoining neighbour, or upon request more
+joyn together and work it by spells, until he recovers; and that
+gratis, so that no man may by sickness loose any part of his year's
+work.</p>
+
+<p>"Let any travell, it is without charge and at every house is
+entertainment as in a hostelry."</p></div>
+
+<p>It was the same in the Carolinas. Ramsay, the early historian of South
+Carolina, said that hospitality was such a virtue that innkeepers
+complained<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_396" id="Page_396">[396]</a></span> that their business was not worth carrying on. The doors of
+citizens were open to all decent travellers, and shut to none.</p>
+
+<p>The plantations were in many counties too far apart for any co&ouml;perative
+labor, and the planters were not men of such vast strength or so great
+personal industry, even in their own affairs, as were the Yankees. There
+were slaves on each plantation to do all the hard work of lifting, etc.
+But in out-of-the-way settlements the Virginia planters' kindliness was
+shown in a vast and unbounded hospitality, a hospitality so insatiable
+that it watched for and waylaid travellers to expend a welcome and
+lavish attentions upon. Negroes were stationed at the planter's gate
+where it opened on the post-road or turnpike, to hail travellers and
+assure them of a hearty welcome at the "big house up yonder." One writer
+says of the planters:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Their manner of living is most generous and open: strangers are
+sought after with Greediness to be invited."</p></div>
+
+<p>The <i>London Magazine</i> of the year 1743 published a series of papers
+entitled <i>Itinerant Observations in America</i>. It was written with a
+spirited pen which thus pleasantly describes simple Maryland
+hospitality, not of men of vast wealth but of very poor folk:&mdash;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_397" id="Page_397">[397]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"With the meaner Sort you find little else to drink but Water
+amongst them when their Cyder is spent, but the Water is presented
+you by one of the barefooted Family in a copious Calabash, with an
+innocent Strain of good Breeding and Heartiness, the Cake baking on
+the Hearth, and the prodigious Cleanliness of everything around you
+must needs put you in Mind of the Golden Age, the Times of ancient
+Frugality and Purity. All over the Colony a universal Hospitality
+reigns, full Tables and open Doors; the kind Salute, the generous
+Detention speak somewhat like the roast-Beef Ages of our
+Forefathers."</p></div>
+
+<p>There came a time when this Southern hospitality became burdensome. With
+the exhaustion of the soil and competition in tobacco-raising, the great
+wealth of the Virginians was gone. But visitors did not cease; in fact,
+they increased. The generous welcome offered to kinsmen, friends, and
+occasional travellers was sought by curiosity-hunters and tourists who
+wanted to save a tavern-bill. Nothing could be more pathetic than the
+impoverishment of Thomas Jefferson through these impositions. Times and
+conditions had changed, but Jefferson felt bound in honor to himself and
+his state to keep the same open hand and ready welcome as of yore. His
+overseer describes his own hopeless efforts to keep these travelling
+friends and admirers from eating his master out of house and home:&mdash;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_398" id="Page_398">[398]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"They were there all times of the year; but about the middle of
+June the travel would commence from the lower part of the State to
+the Springs, and then there was a perfect throng of visitors. They
+travelled in their own carriages and came in gangs, the whole
+family with carriage and riding horses and servants, sometimes
+three or four such gangs at a time. We had thirty-six stalls for
+horses and only used ten of them for the stock we kept there. Very
+often all the rest were full, and I had to send horses off to
+another place. I have often sent a wagon-load of hay up to the
+stable, and the next morning there would not be enough left to make
+a bird's nest. I have killed a fine beef, and it would all be eaten
+up in a day or two."</p></div>
+
+<p>The final extinction of old-time hospitality in Virginia came not from a
+death of hospitable intent, but from an entire vanishing of the means to
+furnish entertainment. And the Civil War drove away even the lingering
+ghost.</p>
+
+<p>Many general customs existed in the early colonies which were simply
+exemplifications of neighborliness put in legal form. Such were the
+systems of common lands and herding. This was an old Aryan custom which
+existed many centuries ago, and has ever been one of the best ways of
+uniting any settlement of people, especially a new settlement; for it
+makes the interest of one the interest of all, and promotes union rather
+than selfishness.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_399" id="Page_399">[399]</a></span> Common lands were set off and common herds existed in
+many of the Northern colonies; cowherds or "cow-keeps" were appointed
+and paid by the town to care throughout the summer for all the cattle
+owned by the inhabitants. This was an intelligent provision; for it
+saved much work of individuals during the months when farmers had so
+much hard work to do, and so short a time to do it in. In Albany and New
+York the cowherd and "a chosen proper youngster"&mdash;in other words, a
+good, steady boy&mdash;went through the town at sunrise sounding a horn,
+which the cattle heard and knew; and they quickly followed him to green
+pastures outside the town. There they lingered till nearly sunset, when
+they were brought home to the church, and the owners were again warned
+by the horn of the safe return of their cattle, and that it was milking
+time. Sometimes the cowherd received part of his pay in butter or
+cheese. In Cambridge, Massachusetts, Cowherd Rice, in 1635, agreed to
+take charge of one hundred cows for three months for ten pounds. The
+town also paid two men or boys to help him the first two weeks, and one
+man a week longer; he kept the cows alone after that, for the
+intelligent cattle had fallen into habits of order and obedience to his
+horn. He had to pay threepence fine each time he failed to bring in all
+the cattle at night.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_400" id="Page_400">[400]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>On Long Island and in Connecticut there were cowherds, calf-keepers, and
+pound-keepers. The calf-keepers' duties were to keep the calves away
+from the cows, water them, protect them, etc. In Virginia and Maryland
+there were cow-pens in early days, and cowherds; but in the South the
+cattle generally roamed wild through the forests, and were known to
+their owners by earmarks. In all communities earmarks and other brands
+of ownership on cattle, horses, sheep, and swine were very important,
+and rigidly regarded where so much value was kept in domestic cattle.
+These earmarks were registered by the town clerk in the town records,
+and were usually described both in words and rude drawings. One of my
+great-great-grandfather's earmarks for his cows was a "swallow-fork slit
+in both ears"; another was a slit under the ear and a "half-penny mark
+on the foreside of the near ear." This custom of herding cattle in
+common lasted in some out-of-the-way places to this century, and even
+lingered long in large cities such as Boston, where cows were allowed to
+feed on Boston Common till about 1840. In Philadelphia until the year
+1795 a cowherd stood every morning at the corner of Dock and Second
+streets, blew his horn, tramped off to a distant pasture followed by all
+the cows of his neighborhood, who had run out to him as soon as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_401" id="Page_401">[401]</a></span> they
+heard the familiar sound. He led them back to the same place at night,
+when each returned alone to her own home.</p>
+
+<p>Sheep-herds or shepherds in colonial days also took charge of the sheep
+of many owners in herd-walks, or ranges, by day, and by night in
+sheep-folds built with fences and gates.</p>
+
+<p>Fence-viewers were men who were appointed by the town for common benefit
+to take charge of building and keeping in repair the fences that
+surrounded the "great lotts" or commons; that is, the enclosed fields
+which were the common property of each town, in which all farmers living
+near could place their cattle. The fence-viewers saw that each man
+worked a certain amount each year on these "pales" as the fences were
+called, or paid his share for the work of others. Each farmer or
+cow-owner usually built about twenty feet of fence for each cow which he
+pastured in the "great lotts." The fence-viewers also examined the
+condition of fences around private lands; noted breaks and ordered
+repairs. For if cattle broke through a poorly made fence, and did damage
+to crops, the fence-owner had to stand the loss, while if the fences
+were good and strong, proving the cattle unruly and destructive, the
+owner of the cattle had to pay. All the colonies were watchful over the
+safe-keeping of fences. In<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_402" id="Page_402">[402]</a></span> 1659 the Dutch rulers of New Amsterdam (now
+New York) ordered that for "stripping fences of rails and posts" the
+offender should be whipped and branded, and for a second offence he
+could be punished by death. This seems cruelly severe, but that year
+there was a great scarcity of grain and other food, and if the fences
+were pulled down, cattle could get into fields and eat up the growing
+crops, and famine and death might result.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes a common field was fenced in and planted with Indian corn. In
+this case the fence served to keep the cattle out, not in. This was
+always the case in Virginia.</p>
+
+<p>Hay-wards were, as the name indicates, men to keep watchful care over
+the growing hay. For instance, in Hadley, Massachusetts, in 1661,
+Goodman Montague was chosen hay-ward by the town. He was to have
+twelvepence for each cow or hog, two shillings for each horse, and
+twenty pence for each twenty sheep that he found loose in any field or
+meadow, and successfully turned out. The owner of the animal was to pay
+the fine. At a later date these hay-wards were called field-drivers.
+They are still appointed in many towns and cities, among them Boston.</p>
+
+<p>Hog-reeves were men appointed by the citizens to look after their hogs
+that roamed the roads and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_403" id="Page_403">[403]</a></span> streets, to see that all those swine had
+rings in their noses, were properly marked, and did not do damage to
+crops. Many towns had hog-reeves till this century; for until seventy
+years ago hogs ran freely everywhere, even in the streets of our great
+cities. It was a favorite jest to appoint a newly married man hog-reeve.
+When Ralph Waldo Emerson was married and became a householder in
+Concord, the young philosopher was appointed to that office. Sometimes a
+single swineherd was hired to take care of the roving swine. The two
+Salem swineherds or swine-keepers in 1640 were to have sixpence for each
+hog they drove daily to pasture from April to November. These and many
+other public offices were simply a form of legalized co&ouml;peration; a
+joining together of neighbors for public good.</p>
+
+<p>The neighborly assistance given to new settlers began with the clearing
+of the ground for occupancy. The girdling of trees was easy and speedy,
+but it was discountenanced as dangerous and hideous, and was not
+frequently practised. A chopping-bee was a universal method among
+pioneers of clearing ground in newly settled districts, or even in older
+townships in Vermont, New Hampshire, and Maine, where great tracts of
+land were left for many years in the original growth. Sometimes this bee
+was held to clear land for a newly married man, or a new<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_404" id="Page_404">[404]</a></span> neighbor, or
+one who had had bad luck; but it was just as freely given to a
+prosperous farmer, though plentiful thanks and plentiful rum were the
+only rewards of the willing workers.</p>
+
+<p>All the strong men of the township repaired at an early hour to the
+tract to be cleared, and with powerful blows attacked the great trees. A
+favorite way of bringing the day's work and the day's excitement to a
+climax was by a "drive." This was made by chopping half-way into the
+trunks of a great group or circle of trees&mdash;under-cutting it was
+called&mdash;so that by a few powerful and well-driven blows at the monarch
+of the group, and perhaps a few well-concerted pulls on a rope, the
+entire group could be felled together, the leader bringing down with his
+spreading branches in his mighty fall his fellows in front of him, and
+they in turn their neighbors, with a crash that shook the earth and made
+the mountains ring. It was dangerous work; accidents were frequent; the
+records of death at log-rollings are pathetic to read and to think of,
+in a country where the loss of a sturdy man meant so much to some
+struggling household. A heavy and sudden gust of wind might blow down a
+small tree, which had been carelessly "under-cut," and thus give an
+unexpected and premature collapse of the simple machinery of the grand
+finale.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_405" id="Page_405">[405]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>A century ago a New Hampshire woman and her husband went out into the
+forest primeval; he cut down a few trees, made a little clearing termed
+a cut-down wherein a tiny patch of sky and cloud and scant sunlight
+could be seen overhead, but no sunrise or sunset, and built a log house
+of a single room&mdash;a home. With the opening spring came one day a group
+of kindly settlers from distant clearings and settlements, some riding
+from ten miles away the previous day. In front of the log house they
+chopped all the morning long with sturdy arms and swinging blows, yet
+felled nothing, till in the afternoon when all was ready for the final
+blow at the towering leader, which by its fall should lay low a great
+sloping tract for a dooryard and home field. As the noble trees fell at
+last to the earth with a resounding crash, lo! in the opening there
+appeared to the startled eyes of the settler's wife, as if rising out of
+heaven, a neighbor in her loneliness&mdash;Mount Kearsage, grand, serene, and
+beautiful, crowned with the glories of the setting sun, standing guard
+over a smiling lake at its foot. And every day through her long and
+happy life till ninety-six years old, as she looked at the splendid
+mountain, standing as it will till time shall be no more, did she thank
+God for His gift, for that noble companionship which came so suddenly,
+so<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_406" id="Page_406">[406]</a></span> inspiringly, upon the cramped horizon of her lonely forest home.</p>
+
+<p>After the trees were all felled, it was no longer a "cut-down" but an
+"opening." This was made preferably in the spring. The fallen trees were
+left some months on the ground to dry in the summer sun, while the
+farmer turned to other work on his farm, or, if he were starting in
+life, hired out for the summer. In the autumn the tops were set on fire,
+and the lighter limbs usually burned out, leaving the great charred
+tree-trunks. Then came what was known as a piling-bee, a perfect riot of
+hard work, cinders, and dirt. Usually the half-burned tree-trunks were
+"niggered off" in Indian fashion, by burning across with a smaller stick
+of wood till the long log was in lengths which could be dragged by the
+farmers with their oxen and horses into vast piles and again set on
+fire. Another treat of rum accompanied this day's work. The word
+"log-rolling" was often applied to the latter bee, and occasionally the
+felling of trees and dragging into piles for firing was done in a single
+log-rolling.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes before the opening was cleared it was planted. The spring
+rains and melting snows carried the fertilizing ashes deep into the
+soil. Corn was planted and "dug in"; rye was sowed and "hacked in." The
+crops were astonishing; the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_407" id="Page_407">[407]</a></span> grain grew among the fallen logs and stumps
+in rioting luxuriance. A stump-pulling was another occasion for a
+friendly bee, to clear off and put into comely shape the new field.</p>
+
+<p>Another exhibition of co&ouml;peration was in a stone-hauling or a stone-bee.
+Some of the rocky fields of hard New England would defy a lifetime of
+work of one man and a single yoke of oxen. With judicious blasting, many
+oxen, strong arms, and willing hearts the boulders and ledges were
+tamed. Stone walls eight feet wide, such as may be seen in Hopkinton,
+New Hampshire, stand as monuments of the patience, strength, skill, and
+co&ouml;peration of our forbears.</p>
+
+<p>To show the struggle and hard work willingly done for a home, let me
+give the statement in 1870 of a respected citizen, the historian of
+Norridgewock, Maine, when he was over ninety years old. He served an
+apprenticeship of eight years till he was twenty-one, then bought on
+credit a tract of fifty acres in the primeval woods. On eight acres he
+felled the trees and left them through the winter. In April, 1801, he
+spent three weeks in burning off the logs and clearing as well as
+possible by handwork three acres. These he sowed with wheat and rye,
+buying the seed on credit. He hired a yoke of oxen for one day and did
+what harrowing he<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_408" id="Page_408">[408]</a></span> could in that short time, grubbing around the stumps
+with a hoe for two more days. The crop grew, as did all others on
+similar soil, amazingly. The two bushels of seed-wheat yielded fifty-two
+bushels, the bushel of rye thirty bushels. On his other five acres among
+the fallen trees he planted corn, and raised a hundred and twenty-eight
+bushels. He adds:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"When I could leave my work on my new land I worked out haying and
+other work. I made shoes in the Fall, taught school in the Winter,
+paid for my board and some clothing, but husbanded my resources to
+pay for my land. At the end of the year found myself worth two
+hundred dollars. I continued to clear up four acres each year till
+I had cleared the fifty acres, planted an orchard and erected
+suitable farm buildings and fences."</p></div>
+
+<p>Six years later he married and prospered. In eleven years he was worth
+two thousand dollars; he filled, during his long life, many, positions
+of trust and of profit, and did many and varied good deeds; he continued
+in active life till he was ninety years old. At his death he left a
+considerable fortune. It is an interesting picture of the value of
+honorable economy and thrift; a typical New England picture, with a
+certain vigor and stimulus about it that makes it pleasing.</p>
+
+<p>A "raising" might be of a church or a school-house,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_409" id="Page_409">[409]</a></span> or of a house or
+barn for a neighbor. All the strong men far and near turned out to help,
+tools were lent, and many strong hands and arms made quick work. Often
+the frame of a whole side of a house&mdash;the broadside&mdash;was fastened
+together on the ground. After it was laid out and pinned together,
+shores of long poles were attached to the plates with ox-chains, and it
+was literally lifted into place by the united strength of the entire
+band of men and boys. Sometimes women pulled on the rope to express
+their good will and helpfulness. Then the other sides were put up, and
+the cross-beams, braces, and studding all pinned and nailed into place.
+Afterwards the huge rafters were raised for the roof. Each man was
+assigned in the beginning to his place and work, and worked faithfully
+when his turn came. When the ridge-pole was put in place, the building
+was christened, as it was called, by breaking over it a bottle of rum.
+Often the house was literally given a name. Sitting astride the
+ridge-pole, one poet sang:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Here's a mighty fine frame<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Which desarves a good name,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Say what shall we call it?<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The timbers all straight,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And was hewed fust rate,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The frame is well put together.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_410" id="Page_410">[410]</a></span><br /></span>
+<span class="i0">It is a good frame<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">That desarves a good name,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Say! what shall we name it?"<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Another, a Rochester, New Hampshire, frame was celebrated in verse which
+closed thus:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"The Flower of the Plain is the name of this Frame,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">We've had exceeding good Luck in raising the Same."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>It was not luck that made these raisings a success, it was skill and
+strength; skill and powers of endurance which could overcome and
+surmount even the quantity of vile New England rum with which the
+workmen were plied throughout the day. Accidents were frequent, and
+often fatal. A great frame of a meeting-house, or a vast barn with forty
+or fifty men at work on it, could not collapse without loss of life and
+much injury of limb.</p>
+
+<p>In the work of these raisings the highest as well as the humblest
+citizens took part. Truly a man could glow with the warmth of home even
+in a bare and scantily furnished house, at the thought that the walls
+and rafters were held in place by the kind wishes and deeds of all his
+friends and neighbors.</p>
+
+<p>There is nothing in nature so unnatural, so singular in quality, as the
+glittering artificiality of the early morning in the country the day
+after a heavy, drifting, New England snowstorm. For a day and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_411" id="Page_411">[411]</a></span> a night
+the wildly whirling snow that "driving o'er the fields seems nowhere to
+alight" has restrained the outlook, and every one has turned depressed
+from that outside life of loneliness and gloom. The following morning
+always opens with an excessively bright and dazzling sunshine which is
+not like any other sunshine in any place or season, but is wholly
+artificial, like the lime-light of a theatre. We always run eagerly to
+the window to greet once more the signs of life and cheerfulness; but
+the landscape is more devoid of life and reality than during any storm
+of wind and snow and sleet, no matter how dark and lowering. There is a
+changed aspect in everything; it is metallic, and everything is made of
+the same horrible white metal. Nothing seems familiar; not only are the
+wonted forms and outlines vanished, and all their varied textures and
+materials and beautiful diversity of color gone also, but there is a
+steely immobility restraining everything which is so complete that it
+seems as if it were a shell that could never be broken.</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"We look upon a world unknown,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">On nothing we can call our own."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>It is no longer a real landscape but an artificial encircling diorama of
+meaningless objects made of vast unshaded sheets of white glazed
+Bristol-board,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_412" id="Page_412">[412]</a></span> painted with white enamel, warranted not to crack; with
+the garish high-lights put in crystallized alum or possibly powdered
+glass. It is without life, or atmosphere, or reality; it has nothing but
+the million reflections of that artificial and repellent sunshine. In a
+quarter of an hour, even in a few minutes, it is agonizingly monotonous
+to the spirit as it is painful to the eye; then, like a veritable oasis
+of color and motion in an unmovable glittering white desert, a sound and
+sight of beautiful and active life appears. Around the bend of the road
+comes slow and straining down the hill, as has come through the glaring
+artificial sunlight after every heavy snowstorm for over a century past,
+a long train of oxen with a snow-plough "breaking out" the old
+post-road. Beautiful emblems of patient and docile strength, these
+splendid creatures are never so grateful to the sight as now. Their slow
+progress down the hill has many elements to make it interesting; it is
+historic. Ever since the township was thickly settled enough for
+families to have any winter communication with each other, whether for
+school, church, mail, or doctor, this road has been broken out in
+precisely this same way.</p>
+
+<p>In nearly all scattered townships in New England the custom prevails
+to-day just as it did a century and more ago even in large towns, and a
+description<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_413" id="Page_413">[413]</a></span> of the present "breaking out" is that of the past also. The
+work is now usually done in charge of road-surveyors or the
+road-masters, who are often appointed from the remote points of the
+township. There is, therefore, much friendly rivalry to see which
+surveyor will first reach the centre of the town&mdash;and the tavern.
+Beginning at sunrise with his own yoke of oxen hitched to a snow-plough,
+each road-master breaks through the drift to the nearest neighbor, who
+adds his yoke to the other, and so from neighbor to neighbor till
+sometimes fifteen or twenty yoke of oxen are hitched in a long line to
+the plough. Sometimes a pair of wild young steers are hitched, plunging
+and kicking, with the sober elders. By this time the first yoke often
+begins to show signs of distress by lolling out the tongue, a sure
+symptom of overwork in oxen, and they are left at some farmer's barn to
+cool down.</p>
+
+<p>Whittier thus describes the scene of breaking out the winter roads in
+his <i>Snow-Bound</i>:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Next morn we wakened with the shout<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Of merry voices high and clear;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And saw the teamsters drawing near<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">To break the drifted highways out.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Down the long hillside treading slow<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">We saw the half-buried oxen go,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_414" id="Page_414">[414]</a></span><br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Shaking the snow from heads uptost,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Their straining nostrils white with frost.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Before our door the straggling train<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Drew up, an added team to gain.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The elders threshed their hands a-cold,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Passed, with the cider mug, their jokes<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">From lip to lip."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Thus are the white snow-waste and the drifted roads turned by cheerful
+co&ouml;peration into a midwinter visiting where every neighbor can exchange
+greetings with the other, young and old. For of course school does not
+keep, and the boys crowd on the snow-plough or try their new snowshoes,
+and the men of the various families who do not go with the oxen hitch up
+the sleighs, pods, and pungs and follow the snow-plough, and the young
+men send a volley of snowballs against every house where any fair maid
+lives. And at the tavern in the afternoon is a great sight, greater in
+ante-temperance days than now: scores of yoke of oxen at the door, the
+horse-sheds full of horses and sleighs, all the lads and men of the
+township within. There is rivalry in the method of breaking. One
+road-master always used a snow-plough; another lashed an ordinary plough
+on either side of a narrow ox-sled; a third used a coarse harrow
+weighted down with a group of standing boys. This broke up the drifts in
+a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_415" id="Page_415">[415]</a></span> wonderful manner. The deeper drifts often have to be shovelled out
+partly by hand. After the road to the tavern is broken, the road to the
+school-house, the doctor's house, and the meeting-house come next.</p>
+
+<p>The roads thus made were not permitted in former days to be cut up idly
+by careless use; many townships forbade by law the use of narrow sleds
+and sleighs. The roads were narrow at best; often when two sleighs met
+the horses had to be unharnessed, and the sleighs lifted past over each
+other. On lonely hill-roads or straight turnpikes, where teamsters could
+see some distance ahead, turnouts were made where one sleigh could wait
+for another to pass.</p>
+
+<p>After there had been a heavy fall of snow and the roads were well
+broken, the time was always chosen where any logging was done to haul
+logs to the sawmill on ox-sleds. An interesting sled was used which had
+an interesting name,&mdash;chebobbin. One writer called it a cross between a
+tree and a bobsled. It was made by a close and ingenious adaptation of
+natural forms of wood, which made excellent runners, cross-bars, etc.;
+they were fastened together so loosely that they readily adjusted
+themselves to the inequalities of the wood-roads. The word and article
+are now almost obsolete. In some localities chebobbin became tebobbin
+and tarboggin, all three<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_416" id="Page_416">[416]</a></span> being adaptations in nomenclature, as they
+were in form, of the Indian toboggan or moose-sled,&mdash;a sledge with
+runners or flat bottom of wood or bark, upon which the red men drew
+heavy loads over the snow. This sledge has become familiar to us in the
+light and strong Canadian form now used for the delightful winter sport
+of tobogganing.</p>
+
+<p>On these chebobbins great logs were hitched together by chains, and
+dragged down from the upland wood-lots. Under these mighty loads the
+snow-tracks got an almost icy polish, prime sledding for country
+sleighing parties. Sometimes a logging-bee was made to clear a special
+lot for a neighbor, and a band of wood-choppers worked all day together.
+It was cheerful work, though the men had to stand all day in the snow,
+and the thermometer was below zero. But there was no cutting wind in the
+forest, and the exercise kept the blood warm. Many a time a hearty man
+would drop his axe to wipe the sweat from his brow. Loose woollen
+frocks, or long-shorts, two or three over each other, were warm as are
+the overlapping feathers of a bird; a few had buckskin or sheepskin
+waistcoats; their hands were warmly covered with home-knit mittens. In
+later days all had heavy well-greased boots, but in the early years of
+such pioneer settlements, as the towns of New Hampshire and Vermont,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_417" id="Page_417">[417]</a></span>
+all could not afford to wear boots. Their place was well supplied by
+heavy woollen stockings, shoes, and an over-covering of old stockings,
+or cloth soaked in neat's-foot oil; this was deemed a positive
+preventive of frozen feet.</p>
+
+<p>It was the custom both among men and women to join forces on a smaller
+scale and have a little neighborly visiting by what was called
+"change-work." For instance, if two neighbors both were to make soap, or
+both to make apple-butter, or both to make up a rag carpet, instead of
+each woman sitting at home alone sewing and fitting the carpet, one
+would take her thimble and go to spend the day, and the two would sew
+all day long, finish and lay the carpet at one house. In a few days the
+visit would be returned, and the second carpet be finished. Sometimes
+the work was easier when two worked together. One man could load logs
+and sled them down to the sawmill alone, but two by "change-work" could
+accomplish the task much more rapidly and with less strain.</p>
+
+<p>Even those evil days of New England households, the annual
+house-cleaning, were robbed of some of their dismal terrors by what was
+known as a "whang," a gathering of a few friendly women neighbors to
+assist one another in that dire time, and thus speed and shorten the
+hours of misery.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_418" id="Page_418">[418]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>For any details of domestic life of colonial days the reader has ever to
+turn to the diary of Judge Samuel Sewall of Boston, just as the student
+of English life of the same date turns to the diary of Samuel Pepys.
+Sewall was a Puritan of the narrow type of the later days of Puritanism;
+and there is little of warmth or beauty in his pages, save that
+throughout them there shines with gentle radiance the unconscious record
+of a pure and never-dying neighborliness, the neighborliness of an
+upright and reserved but deeply tender Christian. No thoughtful person
+can read the simple and meagre, but wholly self-forgetful entries which
+reveal this trait of character without a feeling of profound respect and
+even affection for Sewall. He was the richest man in town, and one of
+the most dignified of citizens, a busy man full of many cares and plans.
+But he watched by the bedside of his sick and dying neighbors, those of
+humble station as well as his friends and kinsfolk, nursing them with
+tender care, praying with them, bringing appetizing gifts, and also
+giving pecuniary aid to the household. He afforded even more homely
+examples of neighborly feeling; he sent "tastes of his dinner" many
+times to friends and neighbors. This pleasant custom lingered till the
+present day in New England; I saw last summer, several times, covered
+treasures<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_419" id="Page_419">[419]</a></span> of housewifery being carried in petty amounts, literally "a
+taste," to tempt tired appetites or lonely diners. The gift of a portion
+of the over-bountiful supply for the supper of a wedding, a reception,
+etc., went by the expressive name of "cold party."</p>
+
+<p>In rural Pennsylvania a charming and friendly custom prevailed among
+country folk of all nationalities&mdash;the "metzel-soup," the "taste" of
+sausage-making. This is the anglicized form of <i>Metzelsuppe</i>; <i>metzeln</i>
+means to kill and cut to pieces&mdash;especially for sausage meat. When each
+farmer butchered and made sausage, a great dish heaped with eight or ten
+pounds of the new sausages was sent to each intimate friend. The
+recipient would in turn send metzel-soup when his family killed and made
+sausage. If the metzel-soup were not returned, the minister promptly
+learned of it and set at work to effect a reconciliation between the
+offended parties. The custom is dying out, and in many towns is wholly
+vanished.</p>
+
+<p>Sewall seemed to regard it as a duty, and doubtless it was also a
+pleasure, to pray for and with dying friends. His is not the only
+old-time diary that I have read in which those long prayers are
+recorded, nor are his surprised occasional records of the impatience of
+dying friends the only ones I have seen. A very sick man, even though he
+were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_420" id="Page_420">[420]</a></span> a Puritan, might occasionally tire of the prayers of laymen.</p>
+
+<p>Sewall was ever ready to signify his good will and interest in his
+neighbors' advancing fortunes, by driving a nail at a ship-building or a
+pin at a house-raising, by laying a stone in a wall or a foundation of a
+house, the latter, apparently, in the case of some very humble homes.
+He, the Judge of the Supreme Court, served on the watch, walking and
+guarding the streets and his neighbors' safety just as faithfully as did
+the humblest citizen.</p>
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVII" id="CHAPTER_XVII"></a>CHAPTER XVII<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_421" id="Page_421">[421]</a></span><br />
+OLD-TIME FLOWER GARDENS</h2>
+
+
+<p>Adjoining the street through which I always, in my childhood, walked
+slowly each Sunday, on my way to and from church, was a spot to detain
+lingering footsteps&mdash;a beautiful garden laid out and tenanted like the
+gardens of colonial days, and serene with the atmosphere of a worthy old
+age; a garden which had been tended for over half a century by a
+withered old man and his wife, whose golden wedding was spent in the
+house they had built, and in the garden they had planted when they were
+bride and groom. His back was permanently bowed with constant weeding
+and pruning and planting and hoeing, and his hands and face were brown
+as the soil he cultivated. The "hot-glowing" crimson peonies, seedlings
+which the wife had sown in her youth, had become great shrubs, fifteen
+or twenty feet in circumference. The flowering shrubs were trees.
+Vigorous borders of box crowded across the paths and towered on either
+side, till one could scarcely walk through<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_422" id="Page_422">[422]</a></span> them. There were beautiful
+fairy groves of fox gloves "gloriously freckled, purple, and white," and
+tall Canterbury bells; and at stiffly regular intervals were set
+flowering almonds, St. Peter's wreath, Persian lilacs, "Moses in the
+burning bush," which shrub was rare in our town, and "laburnums rich in
+streaming gold, syringas ivory pure." At the lower ends of the flower
+borders were rows of "honey-blob" gooseberries, and aged currant bushes,
+gray with years, overhung by a few patriarchal quince and crab-apple
+trees, in whose low-spreading gnarled branches I spent many a summer
+afternoon, a happy visitor, though my own home garden was just as
+beautiful, old-fashioned, and flower-filled.</p>
+
+<p>The varying grades of city streets had gradually risen around the garden
+until it lay depressed several feet below the level of the adjoining
+streets, a pleasant valley,&mdash;like Avalon,&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Deep-meadowed, happy, fair, with orchard lawns,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And bowery hollows crown'd with summer seas."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>A flight of stone steps led down to it,&mdash;steps very steep, narrow, and
+slippery with green moss, and ladies'-delights that crowded and
+blossomed in every crack and crevice of the stones. On each side arose
+terraces to the street, and in the spring<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_423" id="Page_423">[423]</a></span> these terraces flushed a mass
+of vivid, glowing rose-color from blooming moss-pink, forming such a
+glory that pious church-going folk from the other end of the town did
+not think it wicked to walk thither, on a Sunday morn in May, to look at
+the rosy banks that sloped to the valleyed garden, as they had walked
+there in February or March to see</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i2">"Winter, slumbering in the open air,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Wear on his smiling face a dream of spring,"<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>in the shape of the first crocuses and snowdrops that opened beside a
+snow-drift still lingering on a shaded bank; and to watch the first
+benumbed honey-bees who greeted every flower that bloomed in that
+cherished spot, and who buzzed in bleak March winds over the purple
+crocus and "blue flushing" grape-hyacinth as cheerfully as though they
+were sipping the scarlet poppies in sunny August.</p>
+
+<p>The garden edges and the street were overhung by graceful larches and by
+thorny honey-locust trees that bore on their trunks great clusters of
+powerful spines and sheltered in their branches an exceedingly
+unpleasant species of fat, fuzzy caterpillars, which always chose Sunday
+to drop on my garments as I walked to church, and to go with me to
+meeting, and in the middle of the long prayer to parade<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_424" id="Page_424">[424]</a></span> on my neck, to
+my startled disgust and agitated whisking away, and consequent reproof
+for being noisy in meeting.</p>
+
+<p>What fragrances arose from that old garden, and were wafted out to
+passers-by! The ever-present, pungent, dry aroma of box was overcome or
+tempered, through the summer months, by a succession of delicate
+flower-scents that hung over the garden-vale like an imperceptible mist;
+perhaps the most perfect and clear among memory's retrospective
+treasures was that of the pale fringed "snow-pink," and later, "sweet
+william with its homely cottage smell." Phlox and ten-weeks stock were
+there, as everywhere, the last sweet-scented flowers of autumn.</p>
+
+<p>At no time was this old garden sweeter than in the twilight, the
+eventide, when all the great clumps of snowy phlox, night-rockets, and
+luminous evening primrose, and all the tangles of pale yellow and white
+honeysuckle shone irradiated; when,</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"In puffs of balm the night air blows<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The burden which the day foregoes,"<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>and scents far richer than any of the day&mdash;the "spiced air of
+night"&mdash;floated out in the dusky gloaming.</p>
+
+<p>Though the old garden had many fragrant leaves<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_425" id="Page_425">[425]</a></span> and flowers, their
+delicate perfume was sometimes fairly deadened by an almost mephitic
+aroma that came from an ancient blossom, a favorite in Shakespeare's
+day&mdash;the jewelled bell of the noxious crown-imperial. This stately
+flower, with its rich color and pearly drops, has through its evil scent
+been firmly banished from our garden borders.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most cheerful flowers of this and of my mother's garden was
+the happy-faced little pansy that under various fanciful folk-names has
+ever been loved. Like Montgomery's daisy, it "blossomed everywhere." Its
+Italian name means "idle thoughts"; the German, "little stepmother."
+Spenser called it "pawnce." Shakespeare said maidens called it
+"love-in-idleness," and Drayton named it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_426" id="Page_426">[426]</a></span> "heartsease." Dr. Prior gives
+these names&mdash;"Herb Trinity, Three Faces under a Hood, Fancy Flamy, Kiss
+Me, Pull Me, Cuddle Me unto You, Tickle my Fancy, Kiss Me ere I Rise,
+Jump Up and Kiss Me, Kiss Me at the Garden Gate, Pink of my Joan." To
+these let me add the New England folk-names&mdash;bird's-eye, garden-gate,
+johnny-jump-up, kit-run-about, none-so-pretty, and ladies'-delight. All
+these testify to the affectionate and intimate friendship felt for this
+laughing and fairly speaking little garden face, not the least of whose
+endearing qualities was that, after a half-warm, snow-melting week in
+January or February, this bright-some little "delight" often opened a
+tiny blossom to greet and cheer us&mdash;a true "jump-up-and-kiss-me," and
+proved by its blooming the truth of the graceful Chinese verse,&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Ere man is aware<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">That the spring is here<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The plants have found it out."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Another dearly loved spring flower was the daffodil, the favorite also
+of old English dramatists and poets, and of modern authors as well, when
+we find that Keats names a daffodil as, the thing of beauty that is a
+joy forever. Perhaps the happiest and most poetic picture of daffodils
+is that of Dora<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_427" id="Page_427">[427]</a></span> Wordsworth, when she speaks of them as "gay and
+glancing, and laughing with the wind." Perdita, in <i>The Winter's Tale</i>,
+thus describes them in her ever-quoted list: "Daffodils that come before
+the swallow dares and take the winds of March with beauty." Most
+cheerful and sunny of all our spring flowers, they have never lost their
+old-time popularity, and they still laugh at our bleak March winds.</p>
+
+<p>Bouncing-bet and her comely hearty cousins of the pink family made
+delightsome many a corner of our home garden. The pinks were Jove's own
+flowers, and the carthusian pink, china pink, clove pink, snow pink,
+plumed pink, mullein pink, sweet william, maltese cross, ragged robin,
+catch-fly, and campion, all made gay and sweet the summer. The clove
+pink was the ancestor of all the carnations.</p>
+
+<p>The richest autumnal glory came from the cheerful marigold, the "golde"
+of Chaucer, and "mary-bud" of Shakespeare. This flower, beloved of all
+the old writers, as deeply suggestive and emblematic, has been coldly
+neglected by modern poets, as for a while it was banished from modern
+town gardens; but it may regain its popularity in verse as it has in
+cultivation. In farm gardens it has always flourished, and every autumn
+has "gone to bed with the sun and with him risen weeping," and has
+given<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_428" id="Page_428">[428]</a></span> forth in the autumn air its acrid odor, which to me is not
+disagreeable, though my old herbal calls its "a very naughty smell."</p>
+
+<p>A favorite shrub in our garden, as in every country dooryard, was
+southernwood, or lad's-love. A sprig of it was carried to meeting each
+summer Sunday by many old ladies, and with its finely dissected,
+bluish-green foliage, and clean pungent scent, it was pleasant to see in
+the meeting-house, and pleasant to sniff at. The "virtues of flowers"
+took a prominent place in the descriptions in old-time botanies. The
+southernwood had strong medicinal qualities, and was used to cure
+"vanityes of the head."</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Take a quantitye of Suthernwood and put it upon kindled coales to
+burn and being made into powder mix it with the oyle of radishes
+and anoynt a balde place and you shall see great experiences."</p></div>
+
+<p>It was of power as a love charm. If you placed a sprig in each shoe and
+wore it through the day when you were in love, you would then also in
+some way "see great experiences."</p>
+
+<p>In the tender glamour of happy association, all flowers in the old
+garden seem to have been loved save the garish petunias, whose sickish
+odor grew more offensive and more powerful at nightfall and made me long
+to tear them away from their dainty<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_429" id="Page_429">[429]</a></span> garden-fellows, and the portulaca
+with its fleshy, worm-like stems and leaves, and its aggressively
+pushing habits, "never would be missed." Perhaps its close relation to
+the "pusley," most hated of weeds, makes us eye it askance.</p>
+
+<p>There was one attribute of the old-time garden, one part of nature's
+economy, which added much to its charm&mdash;it was the crowding abundance,
+the over-fulness of leaf, bud, and blossom. Nature there displayed no
+bare expanses of naked soil, as in some too-carefully-kept modern
+parterres; the dull earth was covered with a tangle of ready-growing,
+self-sowing, lowly flowers, that filled every space left unoccupied by
+statelier garden favorites, and crowded every corner with cheerful,
+though unostentatious, bloom. And the close juxtaposition, and even
+intermingling, of flowers with herbs, vegetables, and fruits gave a
+sense of homely simplicity and usefulness, as well as of beauty. The
+soft, purple eyes of the mourning-bride were no less lovely to us in
+"our garden" because they opened under the shade of currant and
+gooseberry bushes; and the sweet alyssum and candytuft were no less
+honey-sweet. The delicate, pinky-purple hues of the sweet peas were not
+dimmed by their vivid neighbors at the end of the row of poles&mdash;the
+scarlet runners. The adlumia, or mountain fringe,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_430" id="Page_430">[430]</a></span> was a special vine of
+our own and known by a special name&mdash;virgin's bower. With its delicate
+leaves, almost as beautiful as a maidenhair fern, and its dainty pink
+flower, it festooned the ripening corn as wantonly and luxuriantly as it
+encircled the snowball and lilac bushes.</p>
+
+<p>Though "colored herbs" were cultivated in England in the seventeenth and
+eighteenth centuries as carefully as were flowers,&mdash;striped hollies,
+variegated myrtles, and bays being the gardener's pride,&mdash;yet in our old
+American gardens few plants were grown for their variegated or
+odd-colored foliage. The familiar and ever-present ribbon-grass, also
+called striped grass, canary grass, and gardener's garters,&mdash;whose
+pretty expanded panicles formed an almost tropical effect at the base of
+the garden hedge; the variegated wandering jew, the striped leaves of
+some varieties of day-lilies; the dusty-miller, with its "frosty pow"
+(which was properly a house plant), fill the short list. The box was the
+sole evergreen.</p>
+
+<p>And may I not enter here a plea for the preservation of the box-edgings
+of our old garden borders? I know they are almost obsolete&mdash;have been
+winter-killed and sunburned&mdash;and are even in sorry disrepute as having a
+graveyard association, and as being harborers of unpleasant and
+unwelcome garden<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_431" id="Page_431">[431]</a></span> visitors. One lover of old ways thus indignantly
+mourns their passing:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"I spoke of box-edgings. We used to see them in little country
+gardens, with paths of crude earth. Nowadays, it has been
+discovered that box harbours slugs, and we are beginning to have
+beds with tiled borders, while the walks are of asphalt. For a
+pleasure-ground in Dante's <i>Inferno</i> such materials might be
+suitable."</p></div>
+
+<p>For its beauty in winter alone, the box should still find a place in our
+gardens. It grows to great size. Bushes of box in the deserted garden at
+Vaucluse in Newport, Rhode Island, are fifteen feet in height, and over
+them spread the branches of forest trees that have sprung up in the
+garden beds since that neglected pleasaunce was planted, over a century
+ago. The beautiful border and hedges of box at Mount Vernon, the home of
+Washington, plead for fresh popularity for this old-time favorite.</p>
+
+<p>Our mothers and grandmothers came honestly by their love of gardens.
+They inherited this affection from their Puritan, Quaker, or Dutch
+forbears, perhaps from the days when the famous hanging gardens of
+Babylon were made for a woman. Bacon says: "A garden is the purest of
+human pleasures, it is the greatest refreshment to the spirits of man."
+A garden was certainly the greatest refreshment to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_432" id="Page_432">[432]</a></span> the spirits of a
+woman in the early colonial days, and the purest of her pleasures&mdash;too
+often her only pleasure.</p>
+
+<p>Quickly, in tender memory of her fair English home, the homesick
+goodwife, trying to create a semblance of the birthplace she still
+loved, planted the seeds and roots of homely English flowers and herbs
+that grew and blossomed under bleak New England skies, and on rocky New
+England shores, as sturdily and cheerfully as they had sprung up and
+bloomed by the green hedgerows and door-sides in the home beyond the
+sea.</p>
+
+<p>In the year 1638, and again in 1663, an English gentleman named John
+Josselyn came to New England. He published, in 1672, an account of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_433" id="Page_433">[433]</a></span>
+these two visits. He was a man of polite reading and of culture, and as
+was the high fashion for gentlemen of his day, had a taste for gardening
+and botany. He made interesting lists of plants which he noted in
+America under these heads:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"1. Such plants as are common with us in England.</p>
+
+<p>"2. Such plants as are proper to the country.</p>
+
+<p>"3. Such plants as are proper to the country and have no names.</p>
+
+<p>"4. Such plants as have sprung up since the English planted and
+kept cattle in New England.</p>
+
+<p>"5. Such Garden-Herbs among us as do thrive there and of such as do
+not."</p></div>
+
+<p>This last division is the one that specially interests us, since it is
+the earliest and the fullest account of the gardens of our forefathers,
+after they had tamed the rugged shores of the New World, and made them
+obey the rule of English husbandry. They had "good store of garden
+vegetables and herbs; lettuce, sorrel, parsley, mallows, chevril,
+burnet, summer savory, winter savory, thyme, sage, carrots, parsnips,
+beets, radishes, purslain, beans"; "cabbidge growing exceeding well;
+pease of all sorts and the best in the world; sparagus thrives
+exceedingly, musk mellons, cucumbers, and pompions." For grains there
+were wheat, rye, barley, and oats.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_434" id="Page_434">[434]</a></span> There were other garden herbs and
+garden flowers: spearmint, pennyroyal, ground-ivy, coriander, dill,
+tansy; "feverfew prospereth exceedingly; white sattin groweth pretty
+well, and so doth lavender-cotton; gillyflowers will continue two years;
+horse-leek prospereth notably; hollyhocks; comferie with white flowers;
+clary lasts but one summer; sweet-bryer or eglantine; celandine but
+slowly; blood-wort but sorrily, but patience and English roses very
+pleasantly."</p>
+
+<p>Patience and English roses very pleasantly in truth must have shown
+their fair English faces to English women in the strange land. Dearly
+loved had these brier-roses or dog-roses been in England, where, says
+the old herbalist, Gerard, "children with delight make chains and pretty
+gewgawes of the fruit; and cookes and gentlewomen make tarts and
+suchlike dishes for pleasure thereof." Hollyhocks, feverfew, and
+gillyflowers must have made a sunshine in the shady places in the new
+home. Many of these garden herbs are now common weeds or roadside
+blossoms. Celandine, even a century ago, was "common by fences and among
+rubbish." Tansy and elecampane grow everywhere. Sweet-brier is at home
+in New England pastures and roadsides. Spearmint edges our brooks.
+Ground-ivy is a naturalized citizen. It is easy to note that the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_435" id="Page_435">[435]</a></span>
+flowers and herbs beloved in gardens and medicinal waters and kitchens
+"at home" were the ones transplanted here. "Clary-water" was a favorite
+tonic of Englishmen of that day.</p>
+
+<p>The list of "such plants as have sprung up since the English planted"
+should be of interest to every one who has any sense of the sentiment of
+association, or interest in laws of succession. The Spanish proverb
+says:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"More in the garden grows<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Than the gardener sows."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>The plantain has a history full of romance; its old Northern
+names&mdash;<i>Wegetritt</i> in German, <i>Weegbree</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_436" id="Page_436">[436]</a></span> in Dutch, <i>Viebred</i> in Danish,
+and <i>Weybred</i> in Old English, all indicating its presence in the
+much-trodden paths of man&mdash;were not lost in its new home, nor were its
+characteristics overlooked by the nature-noting and plant-knowing red
+man. It was called by the Indian "the Englishman's foot," says Josselyn,
+and by Kalm also, a later traveller in 1740; "for they say where an
+Englishman trod, there grew a plantain in each footstep." Not less
+closely did such old garden weeds as motherwort, groundsel, chickweed,
+and wild mustard cling to the white man. They are old colonists, brought
+over by the first settlers, and still thrive and triumph in every
+kitchen garden and back yard in the land. Mullein and nettle, henbane
+and wormwood, all are English emigrants.</p>
+
+<p>The Puritans were not the only flower-lovers in the new land. The
+Pennsylvania Quakers and Mennonites were quick to plant gardens.
+Pastorius encouraged all the Germantown settlers to raise flowers as
+well as fruit. Whittier says of him in his <i>Pennsylvania Pilgrim</i>:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i8">"The flowers his boyhood knew<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Smiled at his door, the same in form and hue,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And on his vines the Rhenish clusters grew."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>It gives one a pleasant notion of the old Quaker,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_437" id="Page_437">[437]</a></span> George Fox, to read
+his bequest by will of a tract of land near Philadelphia "for a
+playground for the children of the town to play on and for a garden to
+plant with physical plants, for lads and lassies to know simples, and
+learn to make oils and ointments."</p>
+
+<p>Among Pennsylvanians the art of gardening reached the highest point. The
+landscape gardening was a reproduction of the best in England. Our
+modern country places cannot equal in this respect the colonial country
+seats near Philadelphia. Woodlands and Bush Hill, the homes of the
+Hamiltons, Cliveden, of Chief Justice Chew, Fair Hill, Belmont, the
+estate of Judge Peters, were splendid examples. An ecstatic account of
+the glories and wonders of some of them was written just after the
+Revolution by a visitor who fully understood their treasures, the Rev.
+Manasseh Cutler, the clergyman, statesman, and botanist.</p>
+
+<p>In Newport, Rhode Island, where flowers ever seem to thrive with
+extraordinary luxuriance, there were handsome gardens in the eighteenth
+century. A description of Mr. Bowler's garden during the Revolution
+reads thus:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"It contains four acres and has a grand aisle in the middle. Near
+the middle is an oval surrounded with espaliers of fruit-trees, in
+the centre of which is a pedestal,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_438" id="Page_438">[438]</a></span> on which is an armillary sphere
+with an equatorial dial. On one side of the front is a hot-house
+containing orange-trees, some ripe, some green, some blooms, and
+various other fruit-trees of the exotic kind and curious flowers.
+At the lower end of the aisle is a large summer-house, a long
+square containing three rooms, the middle paved with marble and
+hung with landscapes. On the right is a large private library
+adorned with curious carvings. There are espaliers of fruit-trees
+at each end of the garden and curious flowering shrubs. The room on
+the left is beautifully designed for music and contains a spinnet.
+But the whole garden discovered the desolations of war."</p></div>
+
+<p>In the Southern colonies men of wealth soon had beautiful gardens. In an
+early account of South Carolina, written in 1682, we find:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Their Gardens are supplied with such European Plants and Herbs as
+are necessary for the Kitchen, and they begin to be beautiful and
+adorned with such Flowers as to the Smell or Eye are pleasing or
+agreeable, viz.: the Rose, Tulip, Carnation, Lilly, etc."</p></div>
+
+<p>By the middle of the century many exquisite gardens could be seen in
+Charleston, and they were the pride of Southern colonial dames. Those of
+Mrs. Lamboll, Mrs. Hopton, and Mrs. Logan were the largest. The latter
+flower-lover in 1779, when seventy years old, wrote a treatise on
+flower-raising called <i>The Gardener's Kalendar</i>, which was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_439" id="Page_439">[439]</a></span> read and
+used for many years. Mrs. Laurens had another splendid garden. Those
+Southern ladies and their gardeners constantly sent specimens to
+England, and received others in return. The letters of the day,
+especially those of Eliza Lucas Pinckney, ever interested in
+floriculture and arboriculture, show a constant exchange with English
+flower-lovers.</p>
+
+<p>Beverley wrote of Virginia, in 1720: "A garden is nowhere sooner made
+than there." William Byrd and other travellers, a few years later, saw
+many beautiful terraced gardens in Virginian homes. Mrs. Anne Grant
+writes at length of the love and care the Dutch women of the past
+century had for flowers:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"The care of plants such as needed peculiar care or skill to rear
+them, was the female province. Every one in town or country had a
+garden. Into the garden no foot of man intruded after it was dug in
+the spring. I think I see yet what I have so often beheld&mdash;a
+respectable mistress of a family going out to her garden, in an
+April morning, with her great calash, her little painted basket of
+seeds, and her rake over her shoulders, to her garden of labours. A
+woman in very easy circumstances and abundantly gentle in form and
+manners would sow and plant and rake incessantly."</p></div>
+
+<p>In New York, before the Revolution, were many<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_440" id="Page_440">[440]</a></span> beautiful gardens, such
+as that of Madam Alexander on Broad Street, where in their proper season
+grew "paus bloemen of all hues, laylocks and tall May roses and
+snowballs intermixed with choice vegetables and herbs all bounded and
+hemmed in by huge rows of neatly clipped box edgings." We have a pretty
+picture also, in the letters of Catharine Rutherfurd, of an entire
+company gathering rose-leaves in June in Madam Clark's garden, and
+setting the rose-still at work to turn their sweet-scented spoils into
+rose-water.</p>
+
+<p>A trade in flower and vegetable seeds formed a lucrative and popular
+means by which women could earn a livelihood in colonial days. I have
+seen in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_441" id="Page_441">[441]</a></span> one of the dingy little newspaper sheets of those days, in the
+large total of nine advertisements, contained therein, the
+announcements, by five Boston seedswomen, of lists of their wares.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest list of names of flower-seeds which I have chanced to note
+was in the <i>Boston Evening Post</i> of March, 1760, and is of much interest
+as showing to us with exactness the flowers beloved and sought for at
+that time. They were "holly-hook, purple Stock, white Lewpins, Africans,
+blew Lewpins, candy-tuff, cyanus, pink, wall-flower, double larkin-spur,
+venus navelwort, brompton flock, princess feather, balsam, sweet-scented
+pease, carnation, sweet williams, annual stock, sweet feabus, yellow
+lewpins, sunflower, convolus minor, catch-fly, ten week stock, globe
+thistle, globe amaranthus, nigella, love-lies-bleeding, casent hamen,
+polianthus, canterbury bells, carnation poppy, india pink, convolus
+major, Queen Margrets." This is certainly a very pretty list of flowers,
+nearly all of which are still loved, though sometimes under other
+names&mdash;thus the Queen Margrets are our asters. And the homely old
+English names seem to bring the flowers to our very sight, for we do not
+seem to be on very friendly intimacy, on very sociable terms with
+flowers, unless they have what Miss Mitford calls "decent, well-wearing
+English names"; we<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_442" id="Page_442">[442]</a></span> can have no flower memories, no affections that
+cling to botanical nomenclature. Yet nothing is more fatal to an exact
+flower knowledge, to an acquaintance that shall ever be more than local,
+than a too confident dependence on the folk-names of flowers. Our
+bachelor's-buttons are ragged sailors in a neighboring state; they are
+corn-pinks in Plymouth, ragged ladies in another town, blue bottles in
+England, but cyanus everywhere. Ragged robin is, in the garden of one
+friend, a pink, in another it flaunts as London-pride, while the true
+glowing London-pride has half a dozen pseudonyms in as many different
+localities, and only really recognizes itself in the botany. An American
+cowslip is not an English cowslip, an American primrose is no English
+primrose, and the English daisy is no country friend of ours in America.</p>
+
+<p>What cheerful and appropriate furnishings the old-time gardens had;
+benches full of straw beeskepes and wooden beehives, those homelike and
+busy dwelling-places; frequently, also, a well-filled dove-cote.
+Sometimes was seen a sun-dial&mdash;once the every-day friend and suggestive
+monitor of all who wandered among the flowers of an hour; now known,
+alas! only to the antiquary. Sentiment and even spirituality seem
+suggested by the sun-dial, yet few remain to cast their instructive
+shadow before our sight.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_443" id="Page_443">[443]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>One stood for years in the old box-bordered garden at Homogansett Farm,
+at Wickford, in old Narragansett. Governor Endicott's dial is in the
+Essex Institute, at Salem; and my forbear, Jacob Fairbanks, had one
+dated 1650, which is now in the rooms of the Dedham Historical Society.
+Dr. Bowditch, of Boston, had a sun-dial which was thus inscribed:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"With warning hand I mark Times rapid flight<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">From life's glad morning to its solemn night.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And like God's love I also show<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Theres light above me, by the shade below."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Another garden dial thus gives, "in long, lean letters," its warning
+word:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"You'll mend your Ways To-morrow<br /></span>
+<span class="i4">When blooms that budded Flour?<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Mortall! Lern to your Sorrow<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Death may creep with his Arrow<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And pierce yo'r vitall Marrow<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Long ere my warning Shadow<br /></span>
+<span class="i4">Can mark that Hour."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>These dials are all of heavy metal, usually lead; sometimes with gnomon
+of brass. But I have heard of one which was unique; it was cut in box.</p>
+
+<p>At the edge of the farm garden often stood the well-sweep, one of the
+most picturesque adjuncts of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_444" id="Page_444">[444]</a></span> the country dooryard. Its successor, the
+roofed well with bucket, stone, and chain, and even the homely
+long-handled pump, had a certain appropriateness as part of the garden
+furnishings.</p>
+
+<p>So many thoughts crowd upon us in regard to the old garden; one is the
+age of its flowers. We have no older inhabitants than these garden
+plants; they are old settlers. Clumps of flower-de-luce,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_445" id="Page_445">[445]</a></span> double
+buttercups, peonies, yellow day-lilies, are certainly seventy-five years
+old. Many lilac bushes a century old still bloom in New England, and
+syringas and flowering currants are as old as the elms and locusts that
+shade them.</p>
+
+<p>This established constancy and yearly recurrence of bloom is one of the
+garden's many charms. To those who have known and loved an old garden in
+which,</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"There grow no strange flowers every year,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">But when spring winds blow o'er the pleasant places,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The same dear things lift up the same fair faces,"<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>and faithfully tell and retell the story of the changing seasons by
+their growth, blossom, and decay, nothing can seem more artificial than
+the modern show-beds of full-grown plants which are removed by assiduous
+gardeners as soon as they have flowered, to be replaced by others, only
+in turn to bloom and disappear. These seem to form a real garden no more
+than does a child's posy-bed stuck with short-stemmed flowers to wither
+in a morning.</p>
+
+<p>And the tiresome, tasteless ribbon-beds of our day were preceded in
+earlier centuries by figured beds of diverse-colored earths&mdash;and of both
+we can say with Bacon, "they be but toys, you may see as good sights
+many times in tarts."<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_446" id="Page_446">[446]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The promise to Noah, "while the earth remaineth seed-time and harvest
+shall not cease," when heeded in the garden, brings various interests.
+The seed-time, the springing-up of familiar favorites, and the
+cherishing of these favorites through their in-gathering of seeds or
+bulbs or roots for another year, bring pleasure as much as does their
+inflorescence.</p>
+
+<p>Another pathetic trait of many of the old-time flowers should not be
+overlooked&mdash;their persistent clinging to life after they had been exiled
+from the trim garden borders where they first saw the chill sun of a New
+England spring. You see them growing and blooming outside the garden
+fence, against old stone walls, where their up-torn roots have been
+thrown to make places for new and more popular favorites. You find them
+cheerfully spreading, pushing along the foot-paths, turning into
+vagrants, becoming flaunting weeds. You see them climbing here and
+there, trying to hide the deserted chimneys of their early homes, or
+wandering over and hiding the untrodden foot-paths of other days. A
+vivid imagination can shape many a story of their life in the interval
+between their first careful planting in colonial gardens and their
+neglected exile to highways and byways, where the poor bits of
+depauperated earth can grow no more lucrative harvest.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_447" id="Page_447">[447]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The sites of colonial houses which are now destroyed, the trend, almost
+the exact line of old roads, can be traced by the cheerful faces of
+these garden-strays. The situation of old Fort Nassau, in Pennsylvania,
+so long a matter of uncertainty, is said to have been definitely
+determined by the familiar garden flowers found growing on one of these
+disputed sites. It is a tender thought that this indelible mark is left
+upon the face of our native land through the affection of our forbears
+for their gardens.</p>
+
+<p>The botany tells us that bouncing-bet has "escaped from
+cultivation"&mdash;she has been thrust out, but unresentfully lives and
+smiles; opening her tender pinky-opalescent flowers adown the dusty
+roadsides, and even on barren gravel-beds in railroad cuts.
+Butter-and-eggs, tansy, chamomile, spiked loosestrife, velvet-leaf,
+bladder-campion, cypress spurge, live-for-ever, star of Bethlehem,
+money-vine,&mdash;all have seen better days, but now are flower-tramps. Even
+the larkspur, beloved of children, the moss-pink, and the grape-hyacinth
+may sometimes be seen growing in country fields and byways. The homely
+and cheerful blossoms of the orange-tawny ephemeral lily, and the
+spotted tiger-lily, whose gaudy colors glow with the warmth of far
+Cathay&mdash;their early home&mdash;now make gay many of our roadsides<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_448" id="Page_448">[448]</a></span> and crowd
+upon the sweet cinnamon roses of our grandmothers, which also are
+undaunted garden exiles.</p>
+
+<p>Driving once along a country road, I saw on the edge of a field an
+expanse of yellow bloom which seemed to be an unfamiliar field-tint. It
+proved to be a vast bed of coreopsis, self-sown from year to year; and
+the blackened outlines of an old cellar wall in its midst showed that in
+that field once stood a home, once there a garden smiled.</p>
+
+<p>I am always sure when I see bouncing-bet, butter-and-eggs, and tawny
+lilies growing in a tangle together that in their midst may be found an
+untrodden door-stone, a fallen chimney, or a filled-in well.</p>
+
+<p>Still broader field expanses are filled with old-country plants. In June
+a golden glory of bud and blossom covers the hills and fields of Essex
+County in Massachusetts from Lynn to Danvers, and Ryal Side to Beverly;
+it is the English gorse or woad-wax, and by tradition it was first
+brought to this country in spray and seed as a packing for some of the
+household belongings of Governor Endicott. Thrown out in friendly soil,
+the seeds took root and there remain in the vicinity of their first
+American homes. It is a stubborn squatter, yielding only to scythe,
+plough, and hoe combined.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_449" id="Page_449">[449]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Chicory or blue weed was, it is said, brought from England by Governor
+Bowdoin as food for his sheep. It has spread till its extended presence
+has been a startling surprise to all English visiting botanists. It
+hurts no one's fields, for it invades chiefly waste and neglected
+land&mdash;the "dear common flower"&mdash;and it has redeemed many a city suburb
+of vacant lots, many a railroad ash heap from the abomination of
+desolation.</p>
+
+<p>Whiteweed or ox-eye daisy, a far greater pest than gorse or chicory, has
+been carried intentionally to many a township by homesick settlers whose
+descendants to-day rue the sentiment of their ancestors.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_450" id="Page_450">[450]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>While the vallied garden of our old neighbors was sweet with blossoms,
+my mother's garden bore a still fresher fragrance&mdash;that of green growing
+things; of "posies," lemon-balm, rose geranium, mint, and sage. I always
+associate with it in spring the scent of the strawberry bush, or
+calycanthus, and in summer of the fraxinella, which, with its tall stem
+of larkspur-like flowers, its still more graceful seed-vessels and its
+shining ash-like leaves, grew there in rich profusion and gave forth
+from leaf, stem, blossom, and seed a pure, a memory-sweet perfume half
+like lavender, half like anise.</p>
+
+<p>Truly, much of our tenderest love of flowers comes from association, and
+many are lovingly recalled solely by their odors. Balmier breath than
+was ever borne by blossom is to me the pure pungent perfume of ambrosia,
+rightly named, as fit for the gods. Not the miserable weed ambrosia of
+the botany, but a lowly herb that grew throughout the entire summer
+everywhere in "our garden"; sowing its seeds broadcast from year to
+year; springing up unchecked in every unoccupied corner, and under every
+shrub and bushy plant; giving out from serrated leaf and irregular
+raceme of tiny pale-green flowers, a spicy aromatic fragrance if we
+brushed past it, or pulled a weed from amongst it as we strolled down
+the garden walk. And it is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_451" id="Page_451">[451]</a></span> our very own&mdash;I have never seen it elsewhere
+than at my old home, and in the gardens of neighbors to whom its seeds
+were given by the gentle hand that planted "our garden" and made it a
+delight. Goethe says, "Some flowers are lovely to the eye, but others
+are lovely to the heart." Ambrosia is lovely to my heart, for it was my
+mother's favorite.</p>
+
+<p>And as each "spring comes slowly up the way," I say in the words of
+Solomon, "Awake, O north wind; and come, thou south; blow upon my
+garden, that the spices thereof may flow out"&mdash;that the balm and mint,
+the thyme and southernwood, the sweetbrier and ambrosia, may spring
+afresh and shed their tender incense to the memory of my mother, who
+planted them and loved their pure fragrance, and at whose presence, as
+at that of Eve, flowers ever sprung&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"And touched by her fair tendance gladlier grew."</span>
+</div></div>
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="Index" id="Index"></a>Index<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_453" id="Page_453">[453]</a></span></h2>
+
+
+<ul>
+<li>Abington, church vote in, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li>
+<li>Acrelius, Dr., quoted, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
+<li>Adams, Abigail, garden of, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</li>
+<li>Adams, John, quoted, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>Sunday dinner of, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_160">160</a>;</li>
+  <li>cider-drinking of, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Adams, John Quincy, Mrs., straw bonnet of, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li>
+<li>Adams family, homes of, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Albany, houses at, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>deer in, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</li>
+  <li>beer at, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</li>
+  <li>bad boys in, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_375">375</a>;</li>
+  <li>first church in, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>;</li>
+  <li>cow-herding in, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Alchymy, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Alewives, in New England waters, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ambrosia, a flower, <a href="#Page_450">450</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ames, quoted, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Amherst, sign-board at, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Andirons, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Andover, church vote in, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>bad boy in, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Annapolis, dress in, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Apostle spoons, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Apples, culture of, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>plenty in Maryland, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</li>
+  <li>modes of cooking, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</li>
+  <li>in pies, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Apple-butter, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Apple-paring, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Apple-sauce, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Architecture, of churches, <a href="#Page_364">364</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Arkamy, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Axe-helves, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_315">315</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Back-bar of fireplace, description, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bacon, quoted, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bagging, from coarse flax, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bake-kettle, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bake-shops, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ballots, of corn and beans, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Balsam, as dye, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Baltimore, dress in, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>taverns in, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Banyan, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Barberry, root as dye, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Basins, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bass, in New England waters, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bass-viols, in meeting, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bates of flax, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Batteau, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Batten" id="Batten">Batten</a>, of loom, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Baxter, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bayberry, description, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>candles of, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>;</li>
+  <li>wax of, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</li>
+  <li>laws about, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</li>
+  <li>soap from, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Bead bags, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Beam. See <a href="#Warp-beam">Warp-beam</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Beaming, in weaving, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Beans, as ballots, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>mode of cooking, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Bed coverlet. See <a href="#Coverlet">Coverlet</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bedstead, alcove, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>turn-up, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Beer, among Dutch, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bees, called English flies, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Beehives, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Beetling of flax, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bell, as summons to meeting, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Belt-loom. See <a href="#Tape-loom">Tape-loom</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bennet, quoted, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Berkeley, Gov., quoted, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_361">361</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Berries, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Betty lamps, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Beverages. See <a href="#Drinks">Drinks</a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_454" id="Page_454">[454]</a></span>Bible, references to flax in, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Biddeford, communal privileges in, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bier, in weaving, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Birch-bark, doors of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>plates of, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</li>
+  <li>baskets of, cans of, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li><a name="Birch-brooms" id="Birch-brooms">Birch broom</a>, making of, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_303">303</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>price of, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Blackjacks, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Blazing, of trees, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bleaching, of flax thread, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>of linen, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</li>
+  <li>of straw bonnets, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Bleeding-basins, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Block-houses, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Boards, scarcity of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Board cloth, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Boardman Hill House, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bobbins, for weaving. See <a href="#Quills">Quills</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bobs, of flax, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bombards, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Books of etiquette, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bore-staff of loom, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Boston, fire-engine in, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>early houses of, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</li>
+  <li>first fork in, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</li>
+  <li>pigeons in, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;</li>
+  <li>fish in, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</li>
+  <li>tea in, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</li>
+  <li>coffee in, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</li>
+  <li>chocolate in, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</li>
+  <li>spinning schools in, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>;</li>
+  <li>fulling-mill in, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;</li>
+  <li>dress in, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_294">294</a>;</li>
+  <li>coach in, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>;</li>
+  <li>stage-travel from, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_351">351</a>;</li>
+  <li>night watch in, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>;</li>
+  <li>meeting-houses in, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>;</li>
+  <li>restrictions of settlement in, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>;</li>
+  <li>cows in, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Bottles, of wood, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>of pewter, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</li>
+  <li>of glass, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_93">93</a>;</li>
+  <li>of leather, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Boucher, Jonathan, quoted, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bouncing-bet, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bounty coats, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Bout" id="Bout">Bouts</a>, in weaving, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Box-borders, a plea for, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Boxing, of maple trees, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Boylston, Nicholas, banyan of, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Boys, clothing of, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_288">288</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>wigs of, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>;</li>
+  <li>seats in meeting for, <a href="#Page_372">372</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+  <li>misbehavior of, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_373">373</a>;</li>
+  <li>in church, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Braid-loom. See <a href="#Tape-loom">Tape-loom</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bradford, Governor, quoted, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bread, white, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>rye and Indian, 147</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Bread-peel, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Breadtrough, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Breakfast, or bread and milk, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Breaking, of flax, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_170">170</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>of hemp, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Breaking out the winter roads, <a href="#Page_412">412</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Breweries, in New York, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Brewster, Elder, quoted, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Brick, imported, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
+
+<li>British spinning and weaving school, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Broach, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Brooklyn, oysters in, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_119">119</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>salting shad in, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Brooms, of broom-corn, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_257">257</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>of birch, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_304">304</a>;</li>
+  <li>of hemlock, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_305">305</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Broom-corn, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Brown-University" id="Brown-University">Brown University</a>, dress of first graduating class, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bucking, of flax thread, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>of linen, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Bull's-eye lamp, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bun, of flax, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bunch-thread, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bundling-mould. See <a href="#Shingling-mould">Shingling-mould</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Burlers, in weaving, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bushnell, Horace, quoted, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Busks, carved, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Butter, price of, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Buttermilk, for bleaching, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Caches, for corn, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cage, for babies, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>for bad boys, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Calash, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Calf-keeper, duties of, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cambridge, cow-herding in, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Campbell, Madam Angelica, coach of, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Candles, cost of, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>making of, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</li>
+  <li>materials for, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Candle-arms, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Candle-beams, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Candle-box, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_455" id="Page_455">[455]</a></span>Candle-dipping, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Candle-moulds, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Candle-prongs, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Candle-rods, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Candle-sticks, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Candle-wood, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Canoes, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Canteens, of horn, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Captain of the watch, duties of, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cards. See <a href="#Wool-cards">Wool-cards</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Carding described, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Carding-machines, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Card-setting. See <a href="#Wool-cards">Wool-cards</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Capuchins, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Carolinas" id="Carolinas">Carolinas</a>, sweet potatoes in, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>hand-weaving in, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_251">251</a>;</li>
+  <li>gardens in, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Carpet. See <a href="#Rag-carpet">Rag carpet</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Carrots, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Carving, terms in, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_105">105</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>of wood, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>;</li>
+  <li>of horn, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Caves, description of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>for corn, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Cave-dwellers, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cedar tops, for dyeing, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cellar of Dutch houses, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Chain in weaving, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Chair-seats, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Chaise of Brother Jonathan, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li>
+
+<li>"Change-work," <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Chap-men, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Chargers, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Charleston, flax manufacture in, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_183">183</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>dress in, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>;</li>
+  <li>gardens in, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Charlevoix, Father, on canoes, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Chaucer, quoted, on spinning, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Chebobbin" id="Chebobbin">Chebobbin</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cheese, making of, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cheese-basket, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cheese-hoop, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cheese-ladder, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cheese-press, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Chesapeake, turkeys on, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li><a name="Wild-fowl" id="Wild-fowl">wild fowl</a> on, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Chicory, introduction of, <a href="#Page_449">449</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Children, at table, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_102">102</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>occupations of, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_262">262</a>;</li>
+  <li>dress of, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>;</li>
+  <li>in meeting, <a href="#Page_372">372</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+  <li>in noon-house, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Chimney, catted, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>size of, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</li>
+  <li>description, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</li>
+  <li>in Dutch houses, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li><a name="China" id="China">China</a>, early use of, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>importation of, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Chinese stuffs, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Chinking walls, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Chopping-bee, <a href="#Page_403">403</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Chorister, in Dutch churches, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Churches, in Virginia, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_383">383</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>in Albany, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>.</li>
+  <li>See also <a href="#Meeting-house">Meeting-house</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Churns, few in New England, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>examples of, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</li>
+  <li>whittling of, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Cider, use by children, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>use by students, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</li>
+  <li>price of, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</li>
+  <li>manufacture of, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</li>
+  <li>generous use of, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Clam-shells, use of, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Clarionets, in meeting, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Clavell-piece, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Clay, for dyeing, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Clergymen, in Virginia, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Clocks, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Clock-jack, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Clock-reel" id="Clock-reel">Clock-reel</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_175">175</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>price of, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;</li>
+  <li>for yarn, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Clogs, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cloth, finishing of, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cloth bar, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Clothes" id="Clothes">Clothes</a>, durability of, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>extravagance in, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>;</li>
+  <li>laws about, <a href="#Page_281">281</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+  <li>of Massachusetts settlers, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_287">287</a>;</li>
+  <li>of Virginia planters, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>;</li>
+  <li>of children, <a href="#Page_288">288</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Coaches, in Boston, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_354">354</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>in England, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>;</li>
+  <li>Judge Sewall on, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>;</li>
+  <li>in New York, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li>
+  <li>See also <a href="#Stage-coach">Stage-coach</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Coat-of-arms, on sampler, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Coat roll, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cob irons, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_456" id="Page_456">[456]</a></span>Cocoanut-cups, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Codfish" id="Codfish">Codfish</a>, early discoverers on, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_116">116</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>plenty of, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</li>
+  <li>in New England waters, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_121">121</a>;</li>
+  <li>varieties of, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>;</li>
+  <li>for Saturday dinner, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</li>
+  <li>price in Boston, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li>
+  <li>See  <a href="#Fish">Fish</a> and  <a href="#Fishing">Fishing</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Coffee, substitutes for, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>early use of, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</li>
+  <li>queer mode of cooking, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Colchester, girls' life in, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cold houses, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cold party, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Colored herbs, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Coloring, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Combing, description of, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Combing machine, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Combs. See <a href="#Wool-combs">Wool-combs</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Comfortier, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Common crops, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Common herds. See <a href="#Herding">Herding</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Common lands, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Communal privileges, <a href="#Page_390">390</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Conch-shell, as summons to meeting, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_368">368</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Concord coaches, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Concordance, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Conestoga-wagon" id="Conestoga-wagon">Conestoga wagon</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_343">343</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>shape of, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>;</li>
+  <li>rates on, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>;</li>
+  <li>great number of, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Connecticut, tar-making in, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>pumpkin bread in, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>;</li>
+  <li>flax culture in, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;</li>
+  <li>straw manufacture in, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Contributions in New England meetings, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>in Dutch churches, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Cooking, influence of Indian methods, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_136">136</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>English modes of, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</li>
+  <li>spices used in, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;</li>
+  <li>limitations in, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Co&ouml;peration in olden times, <a href="#Page_389">389</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Corbel roof, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Coreopsis, persistence of, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Corn" id="Corn">Corn</a>, influence on colonists' lives, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>in Virginia, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</li>
+  <li>price of, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</li>
+  <li>scarcity of, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</li>
+  <li>mode of cultivating, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</li>
+  <li>Indian foods from, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</li>
+  <li>Indian modes of preparing, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</li>
+  <li>modes of cooking, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</li>
+  <li>as currency, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</li>
+  <li>profits on raising, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</li>
+  <li>games with, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</li>
+  <li>shelling of, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_140">140</a>;</li>
+  <li>as ballots, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</li>
+  <li>as national flower, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Corn-cobs, use of, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Corn dances, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Corn-husking, description of, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Corn-sheller, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cotton, early use of, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_207">207</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>cultivation of, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>;</li>
+  <li>rarity of, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_208">208</a>;</li>
+  <li>domestic manufacture, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_210">210</a>;</li>
+  <li>Golden Age of, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Cotton-gin, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cotton, John, quoted, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Coverlet" id="Coverlet">Coverlets</a>, in Pennsylvania, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>in Narragansett, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Cows, herding of, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cowherds, duties of, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_400">400</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>pay of, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Cowkeeps, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cow-pens, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Crabs, in Virginia, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Crane, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Creepers, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Crocus, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Crofting, of linen, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Crown-imperial, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cups, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Currency, corn as, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
+
+<li>"Cut-down," of trees, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cutler, Dr., quoted, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cut-tails, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Daffodils, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dale, Sir Thomas, on corn-growing, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>on Sunday observance, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Danvers, Mass., house in, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Daubing walls, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Daughters of Liberty, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Day's work in spinning, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Deacons, in Dutch churches, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Deacons' pew, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</li>
+
+<li>"Deaconing" the psalm, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_457" id="Page_457">[457]</a></span>Deaf pew, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dedham, Mass., house in, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Deer" id="Deer">Deer</a>, abundance of, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_109">109</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>description of, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Deerskin, clothing of, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li>
+
+<li>De La Warre, church attendance of, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Delaware, house pie in, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Delft ware, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dents, of sley, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Designs, for weaving, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_251">251</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>of ancient Gauls, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>;</li>
+  <li>for quilts, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</li>
+  <li>for paper-cutting, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Dew-retting, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dimity, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dinner, serving of, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>primitive forms, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</li>
+  <li>for Saturday, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</li>
+  <li>in New York, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</li>
+  <li>at John Adams' home, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Discomforts of temperature, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Distaff" id="Distaff">Distaff</a>, in India, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dogs, in meeting, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dog-pelter, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dog-whipper, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Donnison family, fire buckets of, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Door latch, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dorchester, windmill at, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>corporation, laws in, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Double string-roaster, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Drawing" id="Drawing">Drawing</a>, in weaving, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Drawing a bore, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dress. See <a href="#Clothes">Clothes</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dresser, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Drinking-cups, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Drinks" id="Drinks">Drinks</a>, from curious materials, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Drinking habits, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Drinking-horns, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Driver, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Drugget, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Drum, as summons to meeting, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Duck. See <a href="#Wild-fowl">Wild fowl</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Duer, Colonel, dinner of, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dugouts, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dunfish, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_122">122</a>.
+  <ul>
+  <li>Also see <a href="#Codfish">Codfish</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Durability of homespun, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Durham, church discipline in, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dutch mode of serving meals, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dutch oven, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dyes, domestic, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dye-flower, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Earmarks, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Eastern Stage Company, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Economy of colonists, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_324">324</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>of Martha Washington, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Eddis, quoted, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Eels, method of catching, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Egypt, flax in, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_178">178</a>; linen in, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Embroidery. See <a href="#Needlework">Needlework</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Emerson, R. W., appointed hog-reeve, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Endicott, Governor, sun-dial of, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>his introduction of woad-wax, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Entering, in weaving. See <a href="#Drawing">Drawing</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ernst, C. W., quoted, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Etiquette" id="Etiquette">Etiquette</a> for children, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_102">102</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>of carving, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Eye, of harness, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fairbanks, Jacob, house of, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_23">23</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>sun-dial of, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Fairs, instituted by Penn, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>encouraged by Franklin, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Faneuil, Miss, dress of, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Fences" id="Fences">Fences</a>, different varieties of, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>common building of, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_402">402</a>;</li>
+  <li>laws about, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Fence-viewers, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ferries, by canoe, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Finlay, Hugh, postal report of, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_335">335</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fireback, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fire-buckets, description, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>use of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</li>
+  <li>of Donnison's, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;</li>
+  <li>of Quincy's, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;</li>
+  <li>of Oliver's, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Fire-dogs, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fire-engine, first in Boston, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>first in Brooklyn, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Fire-hunting, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fire lanes, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fire laws, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fireplace of our fathers, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_458" id="Page_458">[458]</a></span>Fire-plate, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fire-room, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fire-wardens, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Fish" id="Fish">Fish</a>, plenty of, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_125">125</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>varieties of, in New England waters, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</li>
+  <li>in Virginia waters, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;</li>
+  <li>in New York waters, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>;</li>
+  <li>salted, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</li>
+  <li>as fertilizer, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li>
+  <li>poisoned by flax, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li><a name="Fishing" id="Fishing">Fishing</a>, King James on, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>ill-success in, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</li>
+  <li>supplies for, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</li>
+  <li>in Virginia, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_120">120</a>;</li>
+  <li>encouragement of, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>;</li>
+  <li>laws on, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>;</li>
+  <li>division of profit, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Fish-weirs, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Flag, as summons to meeting, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Flails, making of, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>; use of, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Flannel sheets, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Flax, patch of, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>blossom of, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</li>
+  <li>growth of, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;</li>
+  <li>weeding of, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;</li>
+  <li>ripening of, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;</li>
+  <li>pulling of, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;</li>
+  <li>spreading of, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;</li>
+  <li>rippling of, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_169">169</a>;</li>
+  <li>watering of, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>;</li>
+  <li>stacking of, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>;</li>
+  <li>breaking of, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_170">170</a>;</li>
+  <li>tenacity of, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</li>
+  <li>swingling of, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_172">172</a>;</li>
+  <li>beetling of, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;</li>
+  <li>hetcheling of, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_173">173</a>;</li>
+  <li>spreading and drawing, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>;</li>
+  <li>many manipulations of, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>;</li>
+  <li>spinning of, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</li>
+  <li>in Bible, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;</li>
+  <li>in Egypt, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</li>
+  <li>in New England, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</li>
+  <li>in Pennsylvania, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;</li>
+  <li>in Virginia, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</li>
+  <li>in South Carolina, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_183">183</a>;</li>
+  <li>in Ireland, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</li>
+  <li>in Courtrai, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</li>
+  <li>in England, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Flax basket, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Flax-brake, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Flax hetchels, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Flaxseed, how sown, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>how gathered, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</li>
+  <li>how stored, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Flax-thread, spinning of, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>knotting of, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</li>
+  <li>reeling of, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</li>
+  <li>bleaching of, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</li>
+  <li>backing of, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li><a name="Flax-wheel" id="Flax-wheel">Flax-wheel</a>, revival of, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>use of, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</li>
+  <li>price of, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Flint and steel, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Flower, a national, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Flowers, in churches, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>old-time, <a href="#Page_421">421</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+  <li>folk-names of, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>;</li>
+  <li>age of, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_445">445</a>;</li>
+  <li>persistency of, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>;</li>
+  <li>escaped from cultivation, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Flower-seeds, sold by women, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_441">441</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>old list of, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Flutes, in meeting, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Flying-machine, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fly-shuttle, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Food, from forests, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_114">114</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>from sea and river, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</li>
+  <li>transportation of, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>;</li>
+  <li>entirely from farm, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</li>
+  <li>substitutes, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Foot-mantle, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Foot-paths, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Foot-stoves, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Foot-treadle, of loom, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Foot-wheel. See <a href="#Flax-wheel">Flax-wheel</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Foote, Abigail, diary of, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Forefathers' Dinner, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Forests, destruction of, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>riches of, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Forms, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Forks, use of, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>first, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Forts, as churches, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fox, George, bequest of, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Franklin, quoted, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>fairs encouraged by, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</li>
+  <li>advertisement of, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_293">293</a>;</li>
+  <li>as postmaster, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>;</li>
+  <li>set milestones, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>;</li>
+  <li>cyclometer of, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_336">336</a>;</li>
+  <li>on canals, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>;</li>
+  <li>in sedan-chair, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Franklin stove, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fraxinella, <a href="#Page_449">449</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fringe-loom, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Frocking, striped, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fulling-mill, in Boston, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fulling-stocks, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fulham jugs, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Funerals, rings at, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>gloves at, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Furs, search for, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fustian, in America, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>in Europe, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Gallows-balke, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gallows-crooks, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gallows-frame. See <a href="#Tape-loom">Tape-loom</a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_459" id="Page_459">[459]</a></span>Gambrels, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gambrel roof, description, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Games, with corn, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Garden, an old-time, <a href="#Page_419">419</a> <i>et seq.</i>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>in New England, <a href="#Page_419">419</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+  <li>in southern colonies, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_439">439</a>;</li>
+  <li>in New York, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Garnish of pewter, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Garrison house, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Garter-loom. See <a href="#Tape-loom">Tape-loom</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Geese, raising of, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_258">258</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>pickings of, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_259">259</a>;</li>
+  <li>noise of, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Georgia, deer in, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>turkeys in, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;</li>
+  <li>hand-weaving in, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Georgius Rex jug, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Germantown, flax-raising at, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>flax-workers at, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;</li>
+  <li>seal of, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;</li>
+  <li>wool manufacture at, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Gibcrokes, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gimlet, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Giotto, loom of, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Girdling, of trees, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Girls, dress of, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_292">292</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>seats in meeting for, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Giskins, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Glass, in windows, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>nailed in, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>;</li>
+  <li>for lamps, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</li>
+  <li>early use of, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Gloucester, old house at, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>fishing at, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</li>
+  <li>communal privileges in, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Gloves, given at funerals, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Going a-leafing, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Goldenrod, as dye, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Goloe-shoes, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gookin, quoted, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Goose-basket, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Goose-neck andirons, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Goose yoke, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gorse. See <a href="#Woad-wax">Woad-wax</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gourds, cups of, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>utensils of, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Grant, Mrs. Anne, on Dutch gardens, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Grapes, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Grassing, of linen, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Greeley, Horace, on canal-travel, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gridirons, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Grist-mill, earliest, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Guinea wheat, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>. See <a href="#Corn">Corn</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gun, as summons to meeting, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gundalow, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gutters of houses, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Hackling. See <a href="#Hetcheling">Hetcheling</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hadley, shad in, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_124">124</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>potatoes in, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</li>
+  <li>broom-making in, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_257">257</a>;</li>
+  <li>restrictions of settlement in, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_393">393</a>;</li>
+  <li>hay-ward in, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Hakes, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Half-faced camp, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hammond, John, quoted, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hamor, Ralph, quoted, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hancock House, knocker of, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>on sampler, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Hancock, John, hatred of pewter, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>drinking cup of, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</li>
+  <li>dress of, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Hand-distaff. See <a href="#Distaff">Distaff</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hand-loom. See <a href="#Loom">Loom</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hand-reel. See <a href="#Niddy-noddy">Niddy-noddy</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hap-harlot, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Harness. See <a href="#Heddle">Heddle</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Harvard College, standing salt of, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_79">79</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>trenchers at, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Hasty pudding, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hats, worn in meeting, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>church votes about, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Hay-wards, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Heddle" id="Heddle">Heddle</a> of loom, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Heddle-frame. See <a href="#Tape-loom">Tape-loom</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Heel-pegs. See <a href="#Shoe-pegs">Shoe-pegs</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hemlock, brooms of, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_305">305</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>boxes of, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Hemp, blossom of, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>breaking of, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li><a name="Herding" id="Herding">Herding</a>, of cows, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_401">401</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>of sheep, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>;</li>
+  <li>of swine, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li><a name="Hetcheling" id="Hetcheling">Hetcheling</a> of flax, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hexe, of flax, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hides, use of, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>tax on, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Higginson, quoted, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hind's-foot handle, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hinges, material of, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hingham, church at, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_460" id="Page_460">[460]</a></span>Hogarth, loom of, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hogs, as scavengers, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>yokes of, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>;</li>
+  <li>laws about, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li><a name="Hog-reeves" id="Hog-reeves">Hog-reeves</a>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Homespun industries, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>beneficent effect of, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;</li>
+  <li>foundation of liberty, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Hominy, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Honey, plenty of, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Honey-locust, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Horn, spoons of, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>cups of, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</li>
+  <li>as summons to meeting, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li><a name="Horse-blocks" id="Horse-blocks">Horse-blocks</a>, in front of churches, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Horse-bridges, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Horse-laurel, as dye, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hose. See <a href="#Stockings">Stockings</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hospitality, in Southern colonies, <a href="#Page_395">395</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Hound handle, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hour-glass, in meeting, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Housekeeper, qualifications of, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li>
+
+<li>House pie, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
+
+<li>House-raising. See <a href="#Raising">Raising</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hyperion tea, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul>
+<li>India china, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Indians, houses of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_4">4</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>caves of, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</li>
+  <li>corn dances of, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</li>
+  <li>cultivation of corn by, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</li>
+  <li>endurance of, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</li>
+  <li>mode of cooking corn, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</li>
+  <li>names of corn foods, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</li>
+  <li>mode of drying pumpkins, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>;</li>
+  <li>spoons of, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</li>
+  <li>mode of cooking beans, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</li>
+  <li>brooms of, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_304">304</a>;</li>
+  <li>four best things, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;</li>
+  <li>modes of travel of, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>;</li>
+  <li>boats of, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>;</li>
+  <li>paths of, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Indian corn. See <a href="#Corn">Corn</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Indian pudding, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Indigo, as dye, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Inns. See <a href="#Taverns">Taverns</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Invention, of cotton-gin, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>of fly-shuttle, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</li>
+  <li>of spinning-jenny, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>;</li>
+  <li>of throstle-spun yarn, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>;</li>
+  <li>of combing-machine, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>;</li>
+  <li>of flax-spinning machine, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Ipswich, grist-mill at, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Iris, as dye, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Itineracies, old-time, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul>
+<li><a name="Jack-knife" id="Jack-knife">Jack-knife</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Jacks, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li>
+
+<li>James I. on fishing, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Jamestown, spinning-schools at, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>summons to meeting at, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Jeans, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Jefferson, Thomas, quoted, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>hospitality of, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>;</li>
+  <li>impoverishment of, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Jewellery, slight wear of, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Johnson, quoted, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Johnson, Governor, baby clothes of, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Johnny-cakes, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Josselyn, quoted, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>his list of plants in New England, <a href="#Page_432">432</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Judd, Sylvester, quoted, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Jugs, of stoneware, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Jumel, Madame, cave house of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Kalm, quoted, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_40">40</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>on squirrels, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;</li>
+  <li>on bees, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</li>
+  <li>on maize bread, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</li>
+  <li>on canoes, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_327">327</a>;</li>
+  <li>on the plantain, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Kearsarge, Mount, romance of, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Kentucky, hand-weaving in, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ketch, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Kill-devil. See <a href="#Rum">Rum</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Killing time, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
+
+<li>King Hooper house, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Kitchen, description, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>in rhyme, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Knife. See <a href="#Jack-knife">Jack-knife</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Knife-racks, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Knights, Madame, quoted, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>on canoes, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_328">328</a>;</li>
+  <li>journey of, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>;</li>
+  <li>on sleighs, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Knitting, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>yarn for, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</li>
+  <li>by children, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_262">262</a>;</li>
+  <li>elaborate designs, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Knitting machine, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_461" id="Page_461">[461]</a></span>Knives, of flax brake, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Knocker, Hancock house, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>Winslow house, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Knots, of flax thread, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Krankbesoeckers, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Labadist missionaries, quoted, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lad's lore, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lamps, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lathe. See <a href="#Batten">Batten</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Latten ware, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Laws, about flax culture, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_180">180</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>about dress, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_284">284</a>;</li>
+  <li>about ferries, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_331">331</a>;</li>
+  <li>about mail, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>;</li>
+  <li>about taverns, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>;</li>
+  <li>on observance of Sunday, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_379">379</a>;</li>
+  <li>of warning out, <a href="#Page_392">392</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+  <li>about fences, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Lay, of loom. See <a href="#Batten">Batten</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Laying a fire, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lays, of flax thread, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lean-to, description, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Leashes, of heddle, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Leather, utensils of, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Letters. See <a href="#Post">Post</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Liberty Tea, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lincoln, Abraham, early home of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>rail-splitting, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Linden, fibre from, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Linen, manipulations of, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>clothing of, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</li>
+  <li>sentiment of, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</li>
+  <li>price of, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</li>
+  <li>checked, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Lining the psalm, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Litster, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Livingstone, John, clothing of, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Loaf-sugar. See <a href="#Sugar-cones">Sugar-cones</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lobsters, plenty of, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>vast size of, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Logan, Mrs., on flower-raising, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Log cabin, forms of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Logging-bee, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Log-rolling, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Longfellow, quoted, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Long Island, bayberries on, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>samp-mortars on, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</li>
+  <li>wool raising on, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</li>
+  <li>bad boys on, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>;</li>
+  <li>Sunday observance on, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>;</li>
+  <li>cow-herding on, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Long-short, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Loom" id="Loom">Loom</a>, antiquity of, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_214">214</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>of Giotto, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>;</li>
+  <li>of Hogarth, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_214">214</a>;</li>
+  <li>description of, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
+  <li>See  <a href="#Power-loom">Power-loom</a>,  <a href="#Tape-loom">Tape-loom</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li><a name="Loom-room" id="Loom-room">Loom-room</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Louisiana, corn in, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>petticoat rebellion in, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</li>
+  <li>hand-weaving in, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Lowell, quoted, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lucas, Governor, quoted, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lug-pole, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Luxury, after the Revolution, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lye, making of, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul>
+<li>MacMaster, quoted, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Madison, Dolly, dress of, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mail, of heddle, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mail. See <a href="#Post">Post</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mail coaches, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Maine, windows in, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>candle-wood in, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</li>
+  <li>chums in, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;</li>
+  <li>axe-making in, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Maize. See <a href="#Corn">Corn</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mandillion, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Manhattan, bark houses on, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>palisados on, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Manners. See <a href="#Etiquette">Etiquette</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Maple sugar, old description of, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>manufacture of, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Maple-wood, bowls of, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Marblehead, fishing at, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Marigolds, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Marmalades, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Maryland, houses in, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>wild fowl in, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</li>
+  <li>apples in, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</li>
+  <li>hospitality in, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Masks, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Massachusetts, cave dwellings in, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>palisados in, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</li>
+  <li>venison in, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</li>
+  <li>fish in, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</li>
+  <li>flax culture in, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_180">180</a>;</li>
+  <li>wool-raising in, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;</li>
+  <li>bounty in, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</li>
+  <li>sumptuary laws in, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_284">284</a>;</li>
+  <li>outfit for settlers, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_287">287</a>;</li>
+  <li>ferries in, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Matches, first, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_462" id="Page_462">[462]</a></span>Mazer, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mead, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Meeting-house" id="Meeting-house">Meeting-house</a>, in Boston, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>in Salem, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>;</li>
+  <li>in Hingham, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>;</li>
+  <li>descriptions of, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Metheglin, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Metheglin cups, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Metzel-soup, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Milestones, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_336">336</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Milford, Conn., palisados in, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Milk, price of, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>; use as food, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Milk pitchers, names of, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Milkweed, for candle wicks, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mill, Indian, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mince-pies, pioneer, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ministers, encourage fisheries, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mittens, fine knitting of, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>quick knitting of, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Modesty-piece, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Molasses, for New England slave-trade, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Monkey spoons, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Moore, Thomas, quoted, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mortar, Indian, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Morton, quoted, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Moss-pink, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mount Vernon, description of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>weaving at, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>;</li>
+  <li>garden at, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Mourning rings. See <a href="#Rings">Rings</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mourning samplers, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Muffs, worn by men, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mutton, its disuse previous to Revolution, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Nails, scarcity of, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Napkins, use of, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Narragansett, hand-weaving in, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_244">244</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>shift marriages in, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_242">242</a>;</li>
+  <li>old quilt in, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_276">276</a>;</li>
+  <li>threshing in, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li><a name="Needlework" id="Needlework">Needlework</a>, stitches in, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_265">265</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>delicacy of, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;</li>
+  <li>rules for, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Neighborhood, title of settlement, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Neighbors, old-time, <a href="#Page_388">388</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Netting, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Nettles, fibre spun, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li>
+
+<li>New Amsterdam, first church in, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>laws about fences in, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Newman, Rev. Mr., manner of work, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Newburyport, house at, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>straw bleaching at, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>;</li>
+  <li>sumptuary laws in, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>;</li>
+  <li>fines in, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>New England, houses in, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>candle-wood in, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</li>
+  <li>lobsters in, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</li>
+  <li>fisheries in, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_124">124</a>;</li>
+  <li>Indian corn in, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</li>
+  <li>mills in, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</li>
+  <li>pumpkins in, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_143">143</a>;</li>
+  <li>potatoes in, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</li>
+  <li>squashes in, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</li>
+  <li>milk and ministers in, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</li>
+  <li>churns in, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;</li>
+  <li>cider in, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</li>
+  <li>rum in, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</li>
+  <li>slavery in, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</li>
+  <li>wool-raising in, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</li>
+  <li>taverns in, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_357">357</a>;</li>
+  <li>watchmen in, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>;</li>
+  <li>meeting-houses in, <a href="#Page_365">365</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+  <li>summons to meeting in, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>;</li>
+  <li>Sunday observance in, <a href="#Page_378">378</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+  <li>"taste of dinner in," <a href="#Page_418">418</a>;</li>
+  <li>old-time gardens in, <a href="#Page_421">421</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>New Hampshire, candle-wood in, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>potatoes in, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</li>
+  <li>pioneer mince-pies in, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</li>
+  <li>wheelwrights in, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</li>
+  <li>flax manufacture in, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>;</li>
+  <li>fine knitting in, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</li>
+  <li>birch brooms in, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>New Haven, restrictions in, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>.</li>
+
+<li>New London, mill at, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Newport, box plants at, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>garden in, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>New York, houses in, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>candle-wood in, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</li>
+  <li>first fork in, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</li>
+  <li>venison in, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</li>
+  <li>lobsters at, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</li>
+  <li>fish in, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>;</li>
+  <li>salting shad in, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</li>
+  <li>suppawn in, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</li>
+  <li>ale and beer in, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</li>
+  <li>wool-raising in, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</li>
+  <li>dress in, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>;</li>
+  <li>turnpikes in, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_350">350</a>;</li>
+  <li>coaches in, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_355">355</a>;</li>
+  <li>sleighs in, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>;</li>
+  <li>street lighting in, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>;</li>
+  <li>watch in, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>;</li>
+  <li>Sunday observance in, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>;</li>
+  <li>cow-herding in, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>;</li>
+  <li>gardens in, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li><a name="Niddy-noddy" id="Niddy-noddy">Niddy-noddy</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_201">201</a>; carved, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Nightgowns, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Nocake" id="Nocake">Nocake</a>, description of, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>use of, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</li>
+  <li>Eliot's use of word, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_463" id="Page_463">[463]</a></span>Noggins, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Noil, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Nokick. See <a href="#Nocake">Nocake</a>.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Noon-house" id="Noon-house">Noon-houses</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Noon-marks, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Norridgewock, life-work of a citizen of, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Northampton, sumptuary laws in, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Northboro, spinning match at, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+
+<li>North Saugus, house in, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Norwich, naughty girl in, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Notices, nailed on church doors, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Nott, President, story of boyhood, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Occamy, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Occupations, of children, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>of women, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Oiled paper for windows, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Old South Church, on sampler, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Old Ship, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Old South, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Opening in land, clearing, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ordinary, name for tavern, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Osenbrigs, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Otis, Hannah, sampler of, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Overhang, in walls, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ovens, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ox-bows, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Oxen, sign of distress in, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Oysters, in Brooklyn, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_119">119</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>in Virginia, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;</li>
+  <li>vast size of, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Pace-weight, of loom, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pack-horses, use of, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_339">339</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>pay for, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;</li>
+  <li>load of, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_338">338</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Pails, early, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Paint, not used, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pales. See <a href="#Fences">Fences</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Palfrey, quoted, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Palisado, description of, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pansy, folk-names of, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_426">426</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Paper-cutting. See <a href="#Papyrotamia">Papyrotamia</a>.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Papyrotamia" id="Papyrotamia">Papyrotamia</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Parley, Peter, reminiscence of, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Parsnips, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pastorius, Father, his choice for seal, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>his encouragement of gardening, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Patchwork. See <a href="#Quilt-piecing">Quilt-piecing</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Patent, first to Americans, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pattens, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Paupers, in Narragansett, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>treatment of, in New England, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Pawn, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pawtucket, cotton thread in, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pay, for spinning, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>for weaving, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;</li>
+  <li>for cow-herding, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>;</li>
+  <li>of swineherds, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Peabody, Francis, house of, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Peachy, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Peas, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Peel, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pegging, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pelisses, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Penn, William, fairs instituted by, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pennsylvania, cave-dwellers in, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>stoves in, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</li>
+  <li>squirrels in, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;</li>
+  <li>wool manufacture in, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</li>
+  <li>dress in, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_293">293</a>;</li>
+  <li>mail in, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>;</li>
+  <li>post-rider, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>;</li>
+  <li>transportation in, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_344">344</a>;</li>
+  <li>roads in, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>;</li>
+  <li>turnpikes in, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>;</li>
+  <li>coaching in, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_351">351</a>;</li>
+  <li>metzel-soup in, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>;</li>
+  <li>gardens in, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Peonies, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Perfumes, in cooking, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>of old garden flowers, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</li>
+  <li>of sweet-scented leaves, <a href="#Page_449">449</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Periagua, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Perry, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Peter, Hugh, encourages fisheries, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Petticoat rebellion, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Petunias, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Pews" id="Pews">Pews</a>, described, <a href="#Page_368">368</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Pewter, for lamps, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_45">45</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>for utensils, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</li>
+  <li>on dresser, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</li>
+  <li>lids of, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Ph&oelig;be-lamps, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Philadelphia, early houses in, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>luxurious dinners in, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>;</li>
+  <li>straw manufacture in, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>;</li>
+  <li>travel from, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_350">350</a>;</li>
+  <li>taverns in, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>;</li>
+  <li>cow-herding in, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_464" id="Page_464">[464]</a></span>Pickling, old-time, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pierce Garrison House, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pierpont, Rev. John, verses of, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pies, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pigeons, plenty of, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>price of, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Pilgrims, starvation of, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Piling-bee, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pillions, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pillory, location of, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pinckney, Mrs., exchange of flowers of, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pinehurst, hand-weaving in, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pine-knots, use of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pink, name of vessel, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pinks, varieties of, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pipe shelves, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pipe-tongs, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pitch-pipes, in meeting, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Plantain, romance of, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Plate-racks, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Plate-warmer, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Plymouth, vacant fields at, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>sampler at, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Pokeberry, as dye, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pompion. See <a href="#Pumpkin">Pumpkin</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pones, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pop-corn, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Poplar wood, use of, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Porcelain. See <a href="#China">China</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Porringers, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Porter's fluid, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Portsmouth, old house at, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Portulaca, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Posnet, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Possing, of linen, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Post" id="Post">Post</a>, first, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>; duties of, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_333">333</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>in Virginia, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>;</li>
+  <li>report about, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_335">335</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Potatoes, in New England, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>queer modes of cooking, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
+  <li>See Sweet potatoes.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Potato-boiler, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pot-brakes, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pot-clips, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pot-crooks, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pot-hangers, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pothooks, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pots, cost of, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>size of, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Pound-keepers, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Powder-horns, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Powdering of hair, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Powdering tub, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Power-loom" id="Power-loom">Power-loom</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Powhatan, teaches corn-planting, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Prairie-schooner. See <a href="#Conestoga-wagon">Conestoga wagon</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Prayers, length of, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>with the sick, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Preserving, old-time, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Printer, dress of, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Providence, straw manufacture in, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>restrictions in, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Psalm-singing, <a href="#Page_376">376</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Puddings, of corn, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pudding-time, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pue. See <a href="#Pews">Pews</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pulling of flax, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pulpits, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Pumpkin" id="Pumpkin">Pumpkin</a>, tributes to, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>modes of cooking, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>;</li>
+  <li>their plenty, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>;</li>
+  <li>shells of, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Puncheon floor, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Quakers, dress of, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Quarels, of glass, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Quarnes, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Quiddonies, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Quills" id="Quills">Quills</a>, for weaving, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>from geese, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Quilling-wheel, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Quilt-piecing" id="Quilt-piecing">Quilts</a>, piecing of, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_275">275</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>materials for, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_274">274</a>;</li>
+  <li>patterns for, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_275">275</a>;</li>
+  <li>quilting of, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Quince drink, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Quincy family, fire-buckets of, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>samplers of, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Quincy, Josiah, quoted, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul>
+<li><a name="Raddle" id="Raddle">Raddle</a>, of loom, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Rag-carpet" id="Rag-carpet">Rag carpet</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_465" id="Page_465">[465]</a></span>Rail-fence, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Raising" id="Raising">Raising</a>, of a house, <a href="#Page_408">408</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Rake. See <a href="#Raddle">Raddle</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ramsay, quoted, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Randolph, John, quoted, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Raspberry leaves for tea, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rattle-watch, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ravel. See <a href="#Raddle">Raddle</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Reading, communal privileges in, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Recons, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Reed. See <a href="#Sley">Sley</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Reed-hook. See <a href="#Sley">Sley-hook</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Reel, triple, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.
+  <ul>
+  <li>See <a href="#Clock-reel">Clock-reel</a> and <a href="#Niddy-noddy">Niddy-noddy</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Revolution, influences towards success, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rhode Island, stage-coach in, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rhode Island College. See <a href="#Brown-University">Brown University</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ribbon-beds, <a href="#Page_445">445</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ribbon-grass, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ride-and-tie system, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Rings" id="Rings">Rings</a>, wearing of, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>at funerals, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Rippling of flax, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_169">169</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>of hemp, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Rippling-comb, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>of Egyptians, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Roasting ears, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Roasting-kitchens, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rock for spinning, in Egypt, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>in India, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</li>
+  <li>in New England, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Rock-candy, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rocking-tree, of loom, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rochester, house-raising at, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rolliches, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rolling-roads, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rolling-up a house, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Roof, of Dutch houses, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>gambrel, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Roquelaure, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rosselini, quoted, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Roving, of yarn, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rowley, spinning match at, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ruffler for flax, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Rum" id="Rum">Rum</a>, manufacture of, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>in New England, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</li>
+  <li>in slave-trade, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</li>
+  <li>at house-raisings, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Rush, for scouring, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rushlight, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rutland, cave-dwellers in, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Sabba-day house. See <a href="#Noon-house">Noon-house</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sabin Hall, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sack, law of sale, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sacjes, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Saco, communal privileges in, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Safeguards, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Salem, coloring houses at, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>lobsters at, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</li>
+  <li>fisheries at, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>;</li>
+  <li>milk in, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</li>
+  <li>sumptuary laws in, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>;</li>
+  <li>taverns at, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_357">357</a>;</li>
+  <li>night-watch in, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>;</li>
+  <li>meeting-house in, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>;</li>
+  <li>seats for boys at meeting in, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>;</li>
+  <li>swineherds in, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Saler, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Salisbury, meeting-house at, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Salmon, price in Boston, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>low regard of, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</li>
+  <li>fishing for, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Salt-cellar, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Salting of fish, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>of meat, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Samp, mode of preparing, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>porridge of, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Samplers, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Samp-mills, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Samp-mortars, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sap-buckets, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sap-yoke, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sassafras, as dye, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>for soap, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Sausages, making of, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sausage-gun, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Save-alls, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Scaffold, name for pulpit, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Scarne. See <a href="#Skarne">Skarne</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sconces, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Scouring-rush, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Scutching. See <a href="#Swingling">Swingling</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Scythe snathe, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Seal of Germantown, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Seating the meeting, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Seats, at table, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>in New England meetings, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>;</li>
+  <li>in Virginia churches, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_384">384</a>;</li>
+  <li>in Dutch churches, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_466" id="Page_466">[466]</a></span>Section. See <a href="#Bout">Bout</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sedan-chairs, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sermons, length of, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sewall, Samuel, quoted, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_356">356</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>character of, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Shad, low regard of, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_124">124</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>price of, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;</li>
+  <li>fishing for, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;</li>
+  <li>salting of, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Shallop, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Shed, in weaving, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sheep, in Massachusetts, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>laws about, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</li>
+  <li>herding of, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Sheep-folds, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sheep-herds, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sheep-ranges, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Shelburne, girls work in, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Shepster, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sherry-vallies, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Shingles, making of, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Shingle-bolts, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Shingling-mould" id="Shingling-mould">Shingle-mould</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Shoe-pegs" id="Shoe-pegs">Shoe-pegs</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Shuttles, for loom, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Sign-board" id="Sign-board">Sign-boards</a>, name on, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_359">359</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>historical value of, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>;</li>
+  <li>of Philadelphia, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>;</li>
+  <li>of Baltimore, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Sigourney, Mrs., quoted, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Silk-grass, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Silver, use of, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Skarne" id="Skarne">Skarne</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Skeins, of flax thread, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Skillet, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Skilts, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Slave-kitchen, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Slave quarters, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Slavery, in New England, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>in Virginia, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Sleds, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sleighs, in New York, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Sley" id="Sley">Sley</a>, of loom, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_220">220</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>price of, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Slice, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Slippings, of flax thread, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Smith, John, quoted, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_116">116</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>plants corn, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>;</li>
+  <li>description of first Virginia church, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Smoke-house, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Smoke-jack, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Smoking tongs, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Snake-fence, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sneak-cups, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Snow, name of vessel, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Snowstorm, in New England, <a href="#Page_410">410</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Snuffers, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Snuffers tray, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Soap, making of, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Society house, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sorrel, as dye, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
+
+<li>South Carolina. See <a href="#Carolinas">Carolinas</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Southernwood, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Spatter-dashes, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Spelling, varied, of squashes, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Spenser, quoted, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Spermaceti, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Spices, in cooking, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>ground at home, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Spice-mills, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Spice-mortars, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Spinning, of flax, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>pay for, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</li>
+  <li>in Egypt, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</li>
+  <li>in India, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</li>
+  <li>in New England, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_180">180</a>;</li>
+  <li>in Pennsylvania, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;</li>
+  <li>in France, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_231">231</a>;</li>
+  <li>day's work in, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</li>
+  <li>in modern times, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</li>
+  <li>of wool, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_230">230</a>;</li>
+  <li>new materials for, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>;</li>
+  <li>race between weaving and, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_229">229</a>;</li>
+  <li>a by-industry, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Spinning classes, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Spinning-cup, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Spinning-jenny, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Spinning-matches, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Spinning-school, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Spinning-wheel. See <a href="#Flax-wheel">Flax-wheel</a> and  <a href="#Wool-wheel">Wool-wheel</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Spinster, legal title of women, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Splint brooms. See <a href="#Birch-brooms">Birch brooms</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Spool-holder. See <a href="#Skarne">Skarne</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Spoons, use of, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>material of, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</li>
+  <li>types of, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Spoon-moulds, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Spoon-racks, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Spreading of flax, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_467" id="Page_467">[467]</a></span>Spunks, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Squadrons, of spinners, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Squanto, teaches fishing, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>teaches corn-planting, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Squashes, varied names of, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Squirrels, abundance of, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>premium on, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li><a name="Stage-coach" id="Stage-coach">Stage-coach</a>, in Great Britain, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_346">346</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>in America, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Stage-wagon, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Staircases, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Standing salt, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Standish, Lorea, sampler of, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Starting a fire, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Starving times, in Virginia, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>in New England, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Staves, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Stays, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Steeples, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Steep-pool, for flax, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Stepping-stones. See <a href="#Horse-blocks">Horse-blocks</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Stitches, names of, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li>
+
+<li>St.-John's-wort, as dye, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Stockings" id="Stockings">Stockings</a>, knitting of, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_263">263</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>weaving of, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Stocks, location of, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Stone-bee, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Stone-hauling, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Stone walls, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Stoves, first, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>in Dutch churches, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Strachey, quoted, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Strangers, harboring of, forbidden in New England, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Stratford, tithing-man in, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Straw manufacture, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Streets, condition of, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>lighting of, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>;</li>
+  <li>washing of, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Strikes, of flax, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Striking a light, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Stump-pulling, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sturgeon, great catch of, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>in New York, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Substitutes for imported foods, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Succotash, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sudbury, tavern at, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sugar, substitutes for, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>cutting of, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Sugar-bowls, names for, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Sugar-cones" id="Sugar-cones">Sugar-cones</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sugar-cutters, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Summer-piece, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sunday, observance of, by Puritans, <a href="#Page_378">378</a> <i>et seq.</i>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>by Rev. John Cotton, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>;</li>
+  <li>by Virginians, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>;</li>
+  <li>by the Dutch, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>;</li>
+  <li>duration of, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Sun-dials, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_443">443</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>inscriptions on, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>;</li>
+  <li>materials of, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Suppawn, use of, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sweep and mortar mill, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sweet potatoes, modes of cooking, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Swifts, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Swineherds. See <a href="#Hog-reeves">Hog-reeves</a>.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Swingling" id="Swingling">Swingling</a> of flax, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Swingling block, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Swingling knives, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Swingle-tree hurds, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Swingling tow, bonfires of, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Swing-sign. See <a href="#Sign-board">Sign-board</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Table, description of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Table-board, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Table-cloths, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tallow, lack of, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tambour work, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tankards, original meaning, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>of wood, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</li>
+  <li>of silver, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Tapping-gauge, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Tape-loom" id="Tape-loom">Tape-loom</a>, various names of, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>described, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Tap-room, of Wayside Inn, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tarboggin. See <a href="#Chebobbin">Chebobbin</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tar-making, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Taste of a dinner, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tasters, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Taverns" id="Taverns">Taverns</a>, establishment of, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>titles for, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>;</li>
+  <li>prices at, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>;</li>
+  <li>values about, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>;</li>
+  <li>names of rooms at, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>;</li>
+  <li>in southern colonies, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>;</li>
+  <li>in New Netherland, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Tea, substitutes for, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_159">159</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>first sales of, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</li>
+  <li>queer mode of cooking, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Teazels, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_468" id="Page_468">[468]</a></span>Teazeling, of cloth, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Temperature, of houses, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_71">71</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>of churches, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li><a name="Temple" id="Temple">Temple</a>, of loom, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tennessee, hand-weaving in, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tenting, of cloth, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Terbobbin. See <a href="#Chebobbin">Chebobbin</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Terrapin, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Thatch, for roofs, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Threshing, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Thumbing, in weaving, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Thumb-rings, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tin, slight use of, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tinder, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tinder-box, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tinder-mill, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tinder-wheel, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tithing-men, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Titles, old-time, for women, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Toasting-forks, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tobacco, as currency, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>use forbidden near meeting-house, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Tomble. See <a href="#Temple">Temple</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tongs, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tow, garments of, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Town, unit in New England, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>narrow feeling of, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Townsend, revolutionary story of, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Toys, of wood, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Trammels, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Transportation, on horseback, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a> <i>et seq.</i>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>by wagons, <a href="#Page_339">339</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Trees, girdling of, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>drive of, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>;</li>
+  <li>under-cutting of, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Trenchers, description, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>material, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Trivets, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Troughs, making of, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Trumbull, Jonathan, chaise of, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Trunks, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Trunk pedler, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tumble. See <a href="#Temple">Temple</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tummings, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Turkeys, wild, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>size of, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_110">110</a>;</li>
+  <li>price of, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Turkey wheat, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.
+  <ul>
+  <li>See <a href="#Corn">Corn</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Turkey-wings, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Turnips, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Turnpikes, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Turnspit dog, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tusser, Thomas, quoted, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Twifflers, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Van der Donck, quoted, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Van Tienhoven, quoted, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Veils, interference about, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Venison. See <a href="#Deer">Deer</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Vermont, candle-wood in, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>broom-making in, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Victualling, name for tavern, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Violins, in meeting, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Virginia, early houses in, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>palisados in, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</li>
+  <li>candle-wood in, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</li>
+  <li>first fork in, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</li>
+  <li>silver in, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</li>
+  <li>table furnishings in, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</li>
+  <li>deer in, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</li>
+  <li>birds and fowl in, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;</li>
+  <li>lobsters in, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</li>
+  <li>crabs in, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</li>
+  <li>oysters in, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;</li>
+  <li>plenty of fish in, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_119">119</a>;</li>
+  <li>corn in, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>;</li>
+  <li>massacre in, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>;</li>
+  <li>windmills in, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</li>
+  <li>toll in, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</li>
+  <li>starvation in, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</li>
+  <li>pumpkins in, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>;</li>
+  <li>locust groves in, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</li>
+  <li>flax culture in, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</li>
+  <li>wool culture in, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</li>
+  <li>cloths in, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>;</li>
+  <li>broom-corn in, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>;</li>
+  <li>sumptuary laws in, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>;</li>
+  <li>outfit of settlers, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>;</li>
+  <li>roads in, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>;</li>
+  <li>taverns in, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>;</li>
+  <li>Sunday observance in, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>;</li>
+  <li>churches in, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_382">382</a>;</li>
+  <li>cows in, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>;</li>
+  <li>fences in, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Virginia fence, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Voiders, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Voorleezer, duties of, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Waffle-irons, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wagon. See <a href="#Conestoga-wagon">Conestoga wagon</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Warming-pans, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Warning out, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>a mystery in, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li><a name="Warp" id="Warp">Warp</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Warp-beam" id="Warp-beam">Warp-beam</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Warping, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Warping-bars, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Warping-needle, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_469" id="Page_469">[469]</a></span>Warp-threads. See <a href="#Warp">Warp</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Washing, domestic, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Washington, George, home of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>outfit of his stepdaughter, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>;</li>
+  <li>dress of, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>;</li>
+  <li>as canal promoter, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Washington, Martha, thrift of, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_238">238</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>netting of, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Watches, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Watch-chains, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Water, as beverage, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Watering of flax, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Water-fowl, plenty of, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>enumerated, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Watertown, windmill at, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>restrictions of settlement in, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Wax, candles of, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>; bayberry, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Waynesville, hand-weaving in, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wayside Inn, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Weather-skirt, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Weavers, status of, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_213">213</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>seat of, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>;</li>
+  <li>working-hours of, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</li>
+  <li>in Narragansett, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Weaving, noise of, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>three motions in, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_222">222</a>;</li>
+  <li>disappearance of, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</li>
+  <li>on tape-looms, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</li>
+  <li>race between spinning and, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_230">230</a>;</li>
+  <li>of linens, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_231">231</a>;</li>
+  <li>of rag carpet, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_240">240</a>;</li>
+  <li>of coverlets, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_246">246</a>;</li>
+  <li>during Civil War, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li>
+  <li>See <a href="#Loom">Loom</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Weaving-room. See <a href="#Loom-room">Loom-room</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Webster, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Weeds, once garden flowers, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_436">436</a>, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_449">449</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Weight-timbers, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Weld, quoted, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Well-sweep, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_444">444</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Westmoreland Revival, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Whale-fishing, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
+
+<li>"Whang," <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wheat, planting of, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wheel. See <a href="#Flax-wheel">Flax-wheel</a> and <a href="#Wool-wheel">Wool-wheel</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wheel-peg, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wheelwrights, early use of wood, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Whipping-post, location of, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li>
+
+<li>White-Ellery House, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Whiteweed, in America, <a href="#Page_449">449</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Whitney, Eli, invention of, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Whittemore, Amos, invention of, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Whittier, quoted, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>homespun attire of, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Whittling, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wicks for candles, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wigs, wearing of, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_297">297</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>denounced, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>;</li>
+  <li>names of, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_299">299</a>;</li>
+  <li>cost of, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Wigwams, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li>
+
+<li>William and Mary College, tax for, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Williams, Roger, quoted, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Windmills, Indian fear of, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>first erected, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</li>
+  <li>of John Winthrop, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</li>
+  <li>in Virginia, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Windows, of glass, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>of oiled paper, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Windsor, boys' pews in, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wine-taster, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Winslow house, knocker of, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Winthrop, John, fork of, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>jug of, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;</li>
+  <li>his use of water as beverage, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</li>
+  <li>pick-a-back, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>;</li>
+  <li>sedan-chair of, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Winthrop, John, Jr., quoted, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>; mill of, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Woad-wax" id="Woad-wax">Woad-wax</a>, in Massachusetts, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Woburn, long services at, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wolfskin bags in meeting, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wolves' heads, nailed on meeting-houses, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_365">365</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wood, trenchers of, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_81">81</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>utensils of, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</li>
+  <li>spoons of, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</li>
+  <li>for shuttles, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>;</li>
+  <li>unusual uses of, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>;</li>
+  <li>toys of, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>;</li>
+  <li>natural shapes in, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Wood, quoted, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wool, an ancient industry, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>early culture of, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</li>
+  <li>manufacture of, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</li>
+  <li>restraints on manufacture, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li>
+  <li>in England, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li>
+  <li>preparation of, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</li>
+  <li>dyeing of, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</li>
+  <li>carding of, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li>
+  <li>combing of, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>;</li>
+  <li>spinning of, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li>
+  <li>See <a href="#Yarn">Yarn</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li><a name="Wool-cards" id="Wool-cards">Wool-cards</a>, described, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_195">195</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>history of, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_470" id="Page_470">[470]</a></span><a name="Wool-combs" id="Wool-combs">Wool-combs</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Wool-wheel" id="Wool-wheel">Wool-wheel</a>, price of, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wordsworth, quoted, on spinning, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Worsted stuffs, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wrathe. See <a href="#Raddle">Raddle</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul>
+<li><a name="Yarn" id="Yarn">Yarn</a>, spinning of, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>;
+  <ul>
+  <li>winding of, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</li>
+  <li>skeining of, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;</li>
+  <li>cleansing of, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</li>
+  <li>water-twist, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+
+<li>Yarn beam. See <a href="#Warp-beam">Warp-beam</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Yarn roll. See <a href="#Warp-beam">Warp-beam</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Home Life in Colonial Days, by Alice Morse Earle
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+Project Gutenberg's Home Life in Colonial Days, by Alice Morse Earle
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Home Life in Colonial Days
+
+Author: Alice Morse Earle
+
+Release Date: September 19, 2007 [EBook #22675]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOME LIFE IN COLONIAL DAYS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Mark C. Orton, Constanze Hofmann and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note:
+
+This e-text was prepared from the reprint edition published in 1974 by
+Berkshire Traveller Press. Copyrighted materials from that edition,
+including the modern preface and illustrations, are not included.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+Home Life in
+COLONIAL
+DAYS
+
+Written by
+ALICE MORSE EARLE
+in the year 1898
+
+THE BERKSHIRE TRAVELLER PRESS
+Stockbridge, Massachusetts
+
+_THIS BOOK IS BEGUN
+AS IT IS ENDED
+IN MEMORY OF MY MOTHER_
+
+
+
+
+_Foreword_
+
+
+_The illustrations for this book are in every case from real articles
+and scenes, usually from those still in existence--rare relics of past
+days. The pictures are the symbols of years of careful search, patient
+investigation, and constant watchfulness. Many a curious article as
+nameless and incomprehensible as the totem of an extinct Indian tribe
+has been studied, compared, inquired and written about, and finally
+triumphantly named and placed in the list of obsolete domestic
+appurtenances. From the lofts of woodsheds, under attic eaves, in dairy
+cellars, out of old trunks and sea-chests from mouldering warehouses,
+have strangely shaped bits and combinations of wood, stuff, and metal
+been rescued and recognized. The treasure stores of Deerfield Memorial
+Hall, of the Bostonian Society, of the American Antiquarian Society, and
+many State Historical Societies have been freely searched; and to the
+officers of these societies I give cordial thanks for their cooeperation
+and assistance in my work._
+
+_The artistic and correct photographic representation of many of these
+objects I owe to Mr. William F. Halliday of Boston, Massachusetts, Mr.
+George F. Cook of Richmond, Virginia, and the Misses Allen of Deerfield,
+Massachusetts. To many friends, and many strangers, who have secured for
+me single articles or single photographs, I here repeat the thanks
+already given for their kindness._
+
+_There were two constant obstacles in the path: An article would be
+found and a name given by old-time country folk, but no dictionary
+contained the word, no printed description of its use or purpose could
+be obtained, though a century ago it was in every household. Again, some
+curiously shaped utensil or tool might be displayed and its use
+indicated; but it was nameless, and it took long inquiry and
+deduction,--the faculty of "taking a hint,"--to christen it. It is plain
+that different vocations and occupations had not only implements but a
+vocabulary of their own, and all have become almost obsolete; to the
+various terms, phrases, and names, once in general application and use
+in spinning, weaving, and kindred occupations, and now half forgotten,
+might be given the descriptive title, a "homespun vocabulary." By
+definite explanation of these terms many a good old English word and
+phrase has been rescued from disuse._
+
+                                        _ALICE MORSE EARLE._
+
+
+
+
+Contents
+
+
+                                                                    Page
+
+   I. Homes of the Colonists                                           1
+
+  II. The Light of Other Days                                         32
+
+ III. The Kitchen Fireside                                            52
+
+  IV. The Serving of Meals                                            76
+
+   V. Food from Forest and Sea                                       108
+
+  VI. Indian Corn                                                    126
+
+ VII. Meat and Drink                                                 142
+
+VIII. Flax Culture and Spinning                                      166
+
+  IX. Wool Culture and Spinning, with a Postscript on Cotton         187
+
+   X. Hand-Weaving                                                   212
+
+  XI. Girls' Occupations                                             252
+
+ XII. Dress of the Colonists                                         281
+
+XIII. Jack-knife Industries                                          300
+
+ XIV. Travel, Transportation, and Taverns                            325
+
+  XV. Sunday in the Colonies                                         364
+
+ XVI. Colonial Neighborliness                                        388
+
+XVII. Old-time Flower Gardens                                        421
+
+
+
+
+Home Life in Colonial Days
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+HOMES OF THE COLONISTS
+
+
+When the first settlers landed on American shores, the difficulties in
+finding or making shelter must have seemed ironical as well as almost
+unbearable. The colonists found a land magnificent with forest trees of
+every size and variety, but they had no sawmills, and few saws to cut
+boards; there was plenty of clay and ample limestone on every side, yet
+they could have no brick and no mortar; grand boulders of granite and
+rock were everywhere, yet there was not a single facility for cutting,
+drawing, or using stone. These homeless men, so sorely in need of
+immediate shelter, were baffled by pioneer conditions, and had to turn
+to many poor expedients, and be satisfied with rude covering. In
+Pennsylvania, New York, Massachusetts, and, possibly, other states, some
+reverted to an ancient form of shelter: they became cave-dwellers; caves
+were dug in the side of a hill, and lived in till the settlers could
+have time to chop down and cut up trees for log houses. Cornelis Van
+Tienhoven, Secretary of the Province of New Netherland, gives a
+description of these cave-dwellings, and says that "the wealthy and
+principal men in New England lived in this fashion for two reasons:
+first, not to waste time building; second, not to discourage poorer
+laboring people." It is to be doubted whether wealthy men ever lived in
+them in New England, but Johnson, in his _Wonder-working Providence_,
+written in 1645, tells of the occasional use of these "smoaky homes."
+They were speedily abandoned, and no records remain of permanent
+cave-homes in New England. In Pennsylvania caves were used by newcomers
+as homes for a long time, certainly half a century. They generally were
+formed by digging into the ground about four feet in depth on the banks
+or low cliffs near the river front. The walls were then built up of sods
+or earth laid on poles or brush; thus half only of the chamber was
+really under ground. If dug into a side hill, the earth formed at least
+two walls. The roofs were layers of tree limbs covered over with sod, or
+bark, or rushes and bark. The chimneys were laid of cobblestone or
+sticks of wood mortared with clay and grass. The settlers were thankful
+even for these poor shelters, and declared that they found them
+comfortable. By 1685 many families were still living in caves in
+Pennsylvania, for the Governor's Council then ordered the caves to be
+destroyed and filled in. Sometimes the settler used the cave for a
+cellar for the wooden house which he built over it.
+
+These cave-dwellings were perhaps the poorest houses ever known by any
+Americans, yet pioneers, or poor, or degraded folk have used them for
+homes in America until far more recent days. In one of these miserable
+habitations of earth and sod in the town of Rutland, Massachusetts, were
+passed some of the early years of the girlhood of Madame Jumel, whose
+beautiful house on Washington Heights, New York, still stands to show
+the contrasts that can come in a single life.
+
+The homes of the Indians were copied by the English, being ready
+adaptations of natural and plentiful resources. Wigwams in the South
+were of plaited rush or grass mats; of deerskins pinned on a frame; of
+tree boughs rudely piled into a cover, and in the far South, of layers
+of palmetto leaves. In the mild climate of the Middle and Southern
+states a "half-faced camp," of the Indian form, with one open side,
+which served for windows and door, and where the fire was built, made a
+good temporary home. In such for a time, in his youth, lived Abraham
+Lincoln. Bark wigwams were the most easily made of all; they could be
+quickly pinned together on a light frame. In 1626 there were thirty
+home-buildings of Europeans on the island of Manhattan, now New York,
+and all but one of them were of bark.
+
+Though the settler had no sawmills, brick kilns, or stone-cutters, he
+had one noble friend,--a firm rock to stand upon,--his broad-axe. With
+his axe, and his own strong and willing arms, he could take a long step
+in advance in architecture; he could build a log cabin. These good,
+comfortable, and substantial houses have ever been built by American
+pioneers, not only in colonial days, but in our Western and Southern
+states to the present time. A typical one like many now standing and
+occupied in the mountains of North Carolina is here shown. Round logs
+were halved together at the corners, and roofed with logs, or with bark
+and thatch on poles; this made a comfortable shelter, especially when
+the cracks between the logs were "chinked" with wedges of wood, and
+"daubed" with clay. Many cabins had at first no chinking or daubing; one
+settler while sleeping was scratched on the head by the sharp teeth of a
+hungry wolf, who thrust his nose into the space between the logs of the
+cabin. Doors were hung on wooden hinges or straps of hide.
+
+A favorite form of a log house for a settler to build in his first "cut
+down" in the virgin forest, was to dig a square trench about two feet
+deep, of dimensions as large as he wished the ground floor of his house,
+then to set upright all around this trench (leaving a space for a
+fireplace, window, and door), a closely placed row of logs all the same
+length, usually fourteen feet long for a single story; if there was a
+loft, eighteen feet long. The earth was filled in solidly around these
+logs, and kept them firmly upright; a horizontal band of puncheons,
+which were split logs smoothed off on the face with the axe, was
+sometimes pinned around within the log walls, to keep them from caving
+in. Over this was placed a bark roof, made of squares of chestnut bark,
+or shingles of overlapping birch-bark. A bark or log shutter was hung at
+the window, and a bark door hung on withe hinges, or, if very luxurious,
+on leather straps, completed the quickly made home. This was called
+rolling-up a house, and the house was called a puncheon and bark house.
+A rough puncheon floor, hewed flat with an axe or adze, was truly a
+luxury. One settler's wife pleaded that the house might be rolled up
+around a splendid flat stump; thus she had a good, firm table. A small
+platform placed about two feet high alongside one wall, and supported at
+the outer edge with strong posts, formed a bedstead. Sometimes hemlock
+boughs were the only bed. The frontier saying was, "A hard day's work
+makes a soft bed." The tired pioneers slept well even on hemlock boughs.
+The chinks of the logs were filled with moss and mud, and in the autumn
+banked up outside with earth for warmth.
+
+These log houses did not satisfy English men and women. They longed to
+have what Roger Williams called English houses, which were, however,
+scarcely different in ground-plan. A single room on the ground, called
+in many old wills the fire-room, had a vast chimney at one end. A
+so-called staircase, usually but a narrow ladder, led to a sleeping-loft
+above. Some of those houses were still made of whole logs, but with
+clapboards nailed over the chinks and cracks. Others were of a lighter
+frame covered with clapboards, or in Delaware with boards pinned on
+perpendicularly. Soon this house was doubled in size and comfort by
+having a room on either side of the chimney.
+
+Each settlement often followed in general outline as well as detail the
+houses to which the owners had become accustomed in Europe, with, of
+course, such variations as were necessary from the new surroundings, new
+climate, and new limitations. New York was settled by the Dutch, and
+therefore naturally the first permanent houses were Dutch in shape, such
+as may be seen in Holland to-day. In the large towns in New Netherland
+the houses were certainly very pretty, as all visitors stated who wrote
+accounts at that day. Madam Knights visited New York in 1704, and wrote
+of the houses,--I will give her own words, in her own spelling and
+grammar, which were not very good, though she was the teacher of
+Benjamin Franklin, and the friend of Cotton Mather:--
+
+     "The Buildings are Brick Generaly very stately and high: the Bricks
+     in some of the houses are of divers Coullers, and laid in Checkers,
+     being glazed, look very agreable. The inside of the houses is neat
+     to admiration, the wooden work; for only the walls are plaster'd;
+     and the Sumers and Gist are planed and kept very white scour'd as
+     so is all the partitions if made of Bords."
+
+The "sumers and gist" were the heavy timbers of the frame, the
+summer-pieces and joists. The summer-piece was the large middle beam in
+the middle from end to end of the ceiling; the joists were cross-beams.
+These were not covered with plaster as nowadays, but showed in every
+ceiling; and in old houses are sometimes set so curiously and fitted so
+ingeniously, that they are always an entertaining study. Another
+traveller says that New York houses had patterns of colored brick set in
+the front, and also bore the date of building. The Governor's house at
+Albany had two black brick-hearts. Dutch houses were set close to the
+sidewalk with the gable-end to the street; and had the roof notched like
+steps,--corbel-roof was the name; and these ends were often of brick,
+while the rest of the walls were of wood. The roofs were high in
+proportion to the side walls, and hence steep; they were surmounted
+usually in Holland fashion with weather-vanes in the shape of horses,
+lions, geese, sloops, or fish; a rooster was a favorite Dutch
+weather-vane. There were metal gutters sticking out from every roof
+almost to the middle of the street; this was most annoying to passers-by
+in rainy weather, who were deluged with water from the roofs. The cellar
+windows had small loop-holes with shutters. The windows were always
+small; some had only sliding shutters, others had but two panes or
+quarels of glass, as they were called, which were only six or eight
+inches square. The front doors were cut across horizontally in the
+middle into two parts, and in early days were hung on leather hinges
+instead of iron.
+
+In the upper half of the door were two round bull's-eyes of heavy
+greenish glass, which let faint rays of light enter the hall. The door
+opened with a latch, and often had also a knocker. Every house had a
+porch or "stoep" flanked with benches, which were constantly occupied in
+the summer time; and every evening, in city and village alike, an
+incessant visiting was kept up from stoop to stoop. The Dutch farmhouses
+were a single straight story, with two more stories in the high,
+in-curving roof. They had doors and stoops like the town houses, and all
+the windows had heavy board shutters. The cellar and the garret were the
+most useful rooms in the house; they were store-rooms for all kinds of
+substantial food. In the cellar were great bins of apples, potatoes,
+turnips, beets, and parsnips. There were hogsheads of corned beef,
+barrels of salt pork, tubs of hams being salted in brine, tonnekens of
+salt shad and mackerel, firkins of butter, kegs of pigs' feet, tubs of
+souse, kilderkins of lard. On a long swing-shelf were tumblers of spiced
+fruits, and "rolliches," head-cheese, and strings of sausages--all Dutch
+delicacies.
+
+In strong racks were barrels of cider and vinegar, and often of beer.
+Many contained barrels of rum and a pipe of Madeira. What a storehouse
+of plenty and thrift! What an emblem of Dutch character! In the attic
+by the chimney was the smoke-house, filled with hams, bacon, smoked
+beef, and sausages.
+
+In Virginia and Maryland, where people did not gather into towns, but
+built their houses farther apart, there were at first few sawmills, and
+the houses were universally built of undressed logs. Nails were costly,
+as were all articles manufactured of iron, hence many houses were built
+without iron; wooden pins and pegs were driven in holes cut to receive
+them; hinges were of leather; the shingles on the roof were sometimes
+pinned, or were held in place by "weight-timbers." The doors had latches
+with strings hanging outside; by pulling in the string within-doors the
+house was securely locked. This form of latch was used in all the
+colonies. When persons were leaving houses, they sometimes set them on
+fire in order to gather up the nails from the ashes. To prevent this
+destruction of buildings, the government of Virginia gave to each
+planter who was leaving his house as many nails as the house was
+estimated to have in its frame, provided the owner would not burn the
+house down.
+
+Some years later, when boards could be readily obtained, the favorite
+dwelling-place in the South was a framed building with a great stone or
+log-and-clay chimney at either end. The house was usually set on sills
+resting on the ground. The partitions were sometimes covered with a
+thick layer of mud which dried into a sort of plaster and was
+whitewashed. The roofs were covered with cypress shingles.
+
+Hammond wrote of these houses in 1656, in his _Leah and Rachel_,
+"Pleasant in their building, and contrived delightfull; the rooms large,
+daubed and whitelimed, glazed and flowered; and if not glazed windows,
+shutters made pretty and convenient."
+
+When prosperity and wealth came through the speedily profitable crops of
+tobacco, the houses improved. The home-lot or yard of the Southern
+planters showed a pleasant group of buildings, which would seem the most
+cheerful home of the colonies, only that all dearly earned homes are
+cheerful to their owners. There was not only the spacious mansion house
+for the planter with its pleasant porch, but separate buildings in which
+were a kitchen, cabins for the negro servants and the overseer, a
+stable, barn, coach-house, hen-house, smoke-house, dove-cote, and
+milk-room. In many yards a tall pole with a toy house at top was
+erected; in this bird-house bee-martins built their nests, and by
+bravely disconcerting the attacks of hawks and crows, and noisily
+notifying the family and servants of the approach of the enemy, thus
+served as a guardian for the domestic poultry, whose home stood close
+under this protection. There was seldom an ice-house. The only means for
+the preservation of meats in hot weather was by water constantly pouring
+into and through a box house erected over the spring that flowed near
+the house. Sometimes a brew-house was also found in the yard, for making
+home-brewed beer, and a tool-house for storing tools and farm
+implements. Some farms had a cider-mill, but this was not in the house
+yard. Often there was a spinning-house where servants could spin flax
+and wool. This usually had one room containing a hand-loom on which
+coarse bagging could be woven, and homespun for the use of the negroes.
+A very beautiful example of a splendid and comfortable Southern mansion
+such as was built by wealthy planters in the middle of the eighteenth
+century has been preserved for us at Mount Vernon, the home of George
+Washington.
+
+Mount Vernon was not so fine nor so costly a house as many others built
+earlier in the century, such as Lower Brandon--two centuries and a half
+old--and Upper Brandon, the homes of the Harrisons; Westover, the home
+of the Byrds; Shirley, built in 1650, the home of the Carters; Sabin
+Hall, another Carter home, is still standing on the Rappahannock with
+its various and many quarters and outbuildings, and is a splendid
+example of colonial architecture.
+
+As the traveller came north from Virginia through Pennsylvania, "the
+Jerseys," and Delaware, the negro cabins and detached kitchen
+disappeared, and many of the houses were of stone and mortar. A clay
+oven stood by each house. In the cities stone and brick were much used,
+and by 1700 nearly all Philadelphia houses had balconies running the
+entire length of the second story. The stoop before the door was
+universal.
+
+For half a century nearly all New England houses were cottages. Many had
+thatched roofs. Seaside towns set aside for public use certain reedy
+lots between salt-marsh and low-water mark, where thatch could be freely
+cut. The catted chimneys were of logs plastered with clay, or platted,
+that is, made of reeds and mortar; and as wood and hay were stacked in
+the streets, all the early towns suffered much from fires, and soon laws
+were passed forbidding the building of these unsafe chimneys; as brick
+was imported and made, and stone was quarried, there was certainly no
+need to use such danger-filled materials. Fire-wardens were appointed
+who peered around in all the kitchens, hunting for what they called foul
+chimney hearts, and they ordered flag-roofs and wooden chimneys to be
+removed, and replaced with stone or brick ones. In Boston every
+housekeeper had to own a fire-ladder; and ladders and buckets were kept
+in the church. Salem kept its "fire-buckets and hook'd poles" in the
+town-house. Soon in all towns each family owned fire-buckets made of
+heavy leather and marked with the owner's name or initials. The entire
+town constituted the fire company, and the method of using the
+fire-buckets was this. As soon as an alarm of fire was given by shouts
+or bell-ringing, every one ran at once towards the scene of the fire.
+All who owned buckets carried them, and if any person was delayed even
+for a few minutes, he flung his fire-buckets from the window into the
+street, where some one in the running crowd seized them and carried them
+on. On reaching the fire, a double line called lanes of persons was made
+from the fire to the river or pond, or a well. A very good
+representation of these lanes is given in this fireman's certificate of
+the year 1800.
+
+The buckets, filled with water, were passed from hand to hand, up one
+line of persons to the fire, while the empty ones went down the other
+line. Boys were stationed on the _dry lane_. Thus a constant supply of
+water was carried to the fire. If any person attempted to pass through
+the line, or hinder the work, he promptly got a bucketful or two of
+water poured over him. When the fire was over, the fire-warden took
+charge of the buckets; some hours later the owners appeared, each picked
+out his own buckets from the pile, carried them home, and hung them up
+by the front door, ready to be seized again for use at the next alarm of
+fire.
+
+Many of these old fire-buckets are still preserved, and deservedly are
+cherished heirlooms, for they represent the dignity and importance due
+a house-holding ancestor. They were a valued possession at the time of
+their use, and a costly one, being, made of the best leather. They were
+often painted not only with the name of the owner, but with family
+mottoes, crests, or appropriate inscriptions, sometimes in Latin. The
+leather hand-buckets of the Donnison family of Boston are here shown;
+those of the Quincy family bear the legend _Impavadi Flammarium_; those
+of the Oliver family, _Friend and Public_. In these fire-buckets were
+often kept, tightly rolled, strong canvas bags, in which valuables
+could be thrust and carried from the burning building.
+
+The first fire-engine made in this country was for the town of Boston,
+and was made about 1650 by Joseph Jencks, the famous old iron-worker in
+Lynn. It was doubtless very simple in shape, as were its successors
+until well into this century. The first fire-engine used in Brooklyn,
+New York, is here shown. It was made in 1785 by Jacob Boome. Relays of
+men at both handles worked the clumsy pump. The water supply for this
+engine was still only through the lanes of fire-buckets, except in rare
+cases.
+
+By the year 1670 wooden chimneys and log houses of the Plymouth and Bay
+colonies were replaced by more sightly houses of two stories, which were
+frequently built with the second story jutting out a foot or two over
+the first, and sometimes with the attic story still further extending
+over the second story. A few of these are still standing: The
+White-Ellery House, at Gloucester, Massachusetts, in 1707, is here
+shown. This "overhang" is popularly supposed to have been built for the
+purpose of affording a convenient shooting-place from which to repel the
+Indians. This is, however, an historic fable. The overhanging second
+story was a common form of building in England in the time of Queen
+Elizabeth, and the Massachusetts and Rhode Island settlers simply and
+naturally copied their old homes.
+
+The roofs of many of these new houses were steep, and were shingled with
+hand-riven shingles. The walls between the rooms were of clay mixed with
+chopped straw. Sometimes the walls were whitened with a wash made of
+powdered clam-shells. The ground floors were occasionally of earth, but
+puncheon floors were common in the better houses. The well-smoothed
+timbers were sanded in careful designs with cleanly beach sand.
+
+By 1676 the Royal Commissioners wrote of Boston that the streets were
+crooked, and the houses usually wooden, with a few of brick and stone.
+It is a favorite tradition of brick houses in all the colonies that the
+brick for them was brought from England. As excellent brick was made
+here, I cannot believe all these tales that are told. Occasionally a
+house, such as the splendid Warner Mansion, still standing in
+Portsmouth, New Hampshire, is proved to be of imported brick by the
+bills which are still existing for the purchase and transportation of
+the brick. A later form of many houses was two stories or two stories
+and a half in front, with a peaked roof that sloped down nearly to the
+ground in the back over an ell covering the kitchen, added in the shape
+known as a lean-to, or, as it was called by country folk, the linter.
+This sloping roof gave the one element of unconscious picturesqueness
+which redeemed the prosaic ugliness of these bare-walled houses. Many
+lean-to houses are still standing in New England. The Boardman Hill
+House, built at North Saugus, Massachusetts, two centuries and a half
+ago, and the two houses of lean-to form, the birthplaces of President
+John Adams and of President John Quincy Adams, are typical examples.
+
+The next roof-form, built from early colonial days, and popular a
+century ago, was what was known as the gambrel roof. This resembled, on
+two sides, the mansard roof of France in the seventeenth century, but
+was also gabled at two ends. The gambrel roof had a certain grace of
+outline, especially when joined with lean-tos and other additions. The
+house partly built in 1636 in Dedham, Massachusetts, by my far-away
+grandfather, and known as the Fairbanks House, is the oldest
+gambrel-roofed house now standing. It is still occupied by one of his
+descendants in the eighth generation. The rear view of it, here given,
+shows the picturesqueness of roof outlines and the quaintness which
+comes simply from variety. The front of the main building, with its
+eight windows, all of different sizes and set at different heights,
+shows equal diversity. Within, the boards in the wall-panelling vary
+from two to twenty-five inches in width.
+
+The windows of the first houses had oiled paper to admit light. A
+colonist wrote back to England to a friend who was soon to follow,
+"Bring oiled paper for your windows." The minister, Higginson, sent
+promptly in 1629 for glass for windows. This glass was set in the
+windows with nails; the sashes were often narrow and oblong, of
+diamond-shaped panes set in lead, and opening up and down the middle on
+hinges. Long after the large towns and cities had glass windows,
+frontier settlements still had heavy wooden shutters. They were a safer
+protection against Indian assault, as well as cheaper. It is asserted
+that in the province of Kennebec, which is now the state of Maine, there
+was not, even as late as 1745, a house that had a square of glass in it.
+Oiled paper was used until this century in pioneer houses for windows
+wherever it was difficult to transport glass.
+
+Few of the early houses in New England were painted, or colored, as it
+was called, either without or within. Painters do not appear in any of
+the early lists of workmen. A Salem citizen, just previous to the
+Revolution, had the woodwork of one of the rooms of his house painted.
+One of a group of friends, discussing this extravagance a few days
+later, said: "Well! Archer has set us a fine example of expense,--he has
+laid one of his rooms in oil." This sentence shows both the wording and
+ideas of the times.
+
+There was one external and suggestive adjunct of the earliest pioneer's
+home which was found in nearly all the settlements which were built in
+the midst of threatening Indians. Some strong houses were always
+surrounded by a stockade, or "palisado," of heavy, well-fitted logs,
+which thus formed a garrison, or neighborhood resort, in time of danger.
+In the valley of Virginia each settlement was formed of houses set in a
+square, connected from end to end of the outside walls by stockades
+with gates; thus forming a close front. On the James River, on Manhattan
+Island, were stockades. The whole town plot of Milford, Connecticut, was
+enclosed in 1645, and the Indians taunted the settlers by shouting out,
+"White men all same like pigs." At one time in Massachusetts, twenty
+towns proposed an all-surrounding palisade. The progress and condition
+of our settlements can be traced in our fences. As Indians disappeared
+or succumbed, the solid row of pales gave place to a log-fence, which
+served well to keep out depredatory animals. When dangers from Indians
+or wild animals entirely disappeared, boards were still not over-plenty,
+and the strength of the owner could not be over-spent on unnecessary
+fencing. Then came the double-rail fence; two rails, held in place one
+above the other, at each joining, by four crossed sticks. It was a
+boundary, and would keep in cattle. It was said that every fence should
+be horse-high, bull-proof, and pig-tight. Then came stone walls, showing
+a thorough clearing and taming of the land. The succeeding "half-high"
+stone wall--a foot or two high, with a single rail on top--showed that
+stones were not as plentiful in the fields as in early days. The
+"snake-fence," or "Virginia fence," so common in the Southern states,
+utilized the second growth of forest trees. The split-rail fence, four
+or five rails in height, was set at intervals with posts, pierced with
+holes to hold the ends of the rails. These were used to some extent in
+the East; but our Western states were fenced throughout with rails split
+by sturdy pioneer rail-splitters, among them young Abraham Lincoln.
+Board fences showed the day of the sawmill and its plentiful supply; the
+wire fences of to-day equally prove the decrease of our forests and our
+wood, and the growth of our mineral supplies and manufactures of
+metals. Thus even our fences might be called historical monuments.
+
+A few of the old block-houses, or garrison houses, the "defensible
+houses," which were surrounded by these stockades, are still standing.
+The most interesting are the old Garrison at East Haverhill,
+Massachusetts, built in 1670; it has walls of solid oak, and brick a
+foot and a half thick; the Saltonstall House at Ipswich, built in 1633;
+Cradock Old Fort in Medford, Massachusetts, built in 1634 of brick made
+on the spot; an old fort at York, Maine; and the Whitefield Garrison
+House, built in 1639 at Guilford, Connecticut. The one at Newburyport is
+the most picturesque and beautiful of them all.
+
+As social life in Boston took on a little aspect of court life in the
+circle gathered around the royal governors, the pride of the wealthy
+found expression in handsome and stately houses. These were copied and
+added to by men of wealth and social standing in other towns. The
+Province House, built in 1679, the Frankland House in 1735, and the
+Hancock House, all in Boston; the Shirley House in Roxbury, the
+Wentworth Mansion in New Hampshire, are good examples. They were
+dignified and simple in form, and have borne the test of
+centuries,--they wear well. They never erred in over-ornamentation,
+being scant of interior decoration, save in two or three principal rooms
+and the hall and staircase. The panelled step ends and soffits, the
+graceful newels and balusters, of those old staircases hold sway as
+models to this day.
+
+The same taste which made the staircase the centre of decoration within,
+made the front door the sole point of ornamentation without; and equal
+beauty is there focused. Worthy of study and reproduction, many of the
+old-time front doors are with their fine panels, graceful, leaded side
+windows, elaborate and pretty fan-lights, and slight but appropriate
+carving. The prettiest leaded windows I ever saw in an American home
+were in a thereby glorified hen-house. They had been taken from the
+discarded front door of a remodelled old Falmouth house. The hens and
+their owner were not of antiquarian tastes, and relinquished the windows
+for a machine-made sash more suited to their plebeian tastes and
+occupations. Many colonial doors had door-latches or knobs of heavy
+brass; nearly all had a knocker of wrought iron or polished brass, a
+cheerful ornament that ever seems to resound a welcome to the visitor as
+well as a notification to the visited.
+
+The knocker from the John Hancock House in Boston and that from the
+Winslow House in Marshfield are here shown; both are now in the custody
+of the Bostonian Society, and may be seen at the Old State House in
+Boston. The latter was given to the society by Dr. Oliver Wendell
+Holmes.
+
+The "King-Hooper" House, still standing in Danvers, Massachusetts,
+closely resembled the Hancock House. This house, built by Robert Hooper
+in 1754, was for a time the refuge of the royal governor of
+Massachusetts--Governor Gage; and hence is sometimes called General
+Gage's Headquarters. When the minute-men marched past the house to
+Lexington on April 18, 1775, they stripped the lead from the gate-posts.
+"King Hooper" angrily denounced them, and a minute-man fired at him as
+he entered the house. The bullet passed through the panel of the door,
+and the rent may still be seen. Hence the house has been often called
+The House of the Front Door with the Bullet-Hole. The present owner and
+occupier of the house, Francis Peabody, Esq., has appropriately named it
+The Lindens, from the stately linden trees that grace its gardens and
+lawns.
+
+In riding through those portions of our states that were the early
+settled colonies, it is pleasant to note where any old houses are still
+standing, or where the sites of early colonial houses are known, the
+good taste usually shown by the colonists in the places chosen to build
+their houses. They dearly loved a "sightly location." An old writer
+said: "My consayte is such; I had rather not to builde a mansyon or a
+house than to builde one without a good prospect in it, to it, and from
+it." In Virginia the houses were set on the river slope, where every
+passing boat might see them. The New England colonists painfully climbed
+long, tedious hills, that they might have homes from whence could be had
+a beautiful view, and this was for the double reason, as the old writer
+said, that in their new homes they might both see and be seen.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+THE LIGHT OF OTHER DAYS
+
+
+The first and most natural way of lighting the houses of the American
+colonists, both in the North and South, was by the pine-knots of the fat
+pitch-pine, which, of course, were found everywhere in the greatest
+plenty in the forests. Governor John Winthrop the younger, in his
+communication to the English Royal Society in 1662, said this
+candle-wood was much used for domestic illumination in Virginia, New
+York, and New England. It was doubtless gathered everywhere in new
+settlements, as it has been in pioneer homes till our own day. In Maine,
+New Hampshire, and Vermont it was used till this century. In the
+Southern states the pine-knots are still burned in humble households for
+lighting purposes, and a very good light they furnish.
+
+The historian Wood wrote in 1642, in his _New England's Prospect_:--
+
+     "Out of these Pines is gotten the Candlewood that is much spoke of,
+     which may serve as a shift among poore folks, but I cannot commend
+     it for singular good, because it droppeth a pitchy kind of
+     substance where it stands."
+
+That pitchy kind of substance was tar, which was one of the most
+valuable trade products of the colonists. So much tar was made by
+burning the pines on the banks of the Connecticut, that as early as 1650
+the towns had to prohibit the using of candle-wood for tar-making if
+gathered within six miles of the Connecticut River, though it could be
+gathered by families for illumination and fuel.
+
+Rev. Mr. Higginson, writing in 1633, said of these pine-knots:--
+
+     "They are such candles as the Indians commonly use, having no
+     other, and they are nothing else but the wood of the pine tree,
+     cloven in two little slices, something thin, which are so full of
+     the moysture of turpentine and pitch that they burne as cleere as a
+     torch."
+
+To avoid having smoke in the room, and on account of the pitchy
+droppings, the candle-wood was usually burned in a corner of the
+fireplace, on a flat stone. The knots were sometimes called
+pine-torches. One old Massachusetts minister boasted at the end of his
+life that every sermon of the hundreds he had written, had been copied
+by the light of these torches. Rev. Mr. Newman, of Rehoboth, is said to
+have compiled his vast concordance of the Bible wholly by the dancing
+light of this candle-wood. Lighting was an important item of expense in
+any household of so small an income as that of a Puritan minister; and
+the single candle was often frugally extinguished during the long family
+prayers each evening. Every family laid in a good supply of this light
+wood for winter use, and it was said that a prudent New England farmer
+would as soon start the winter without hay in his barn as without
+candle-wood in his woodshed.
+
+Mr. Higginson wrote in 1630: "Though New England has no tallow to make
+candles of, yet by abundance of fish thereof it can afford oil for
+lamps." This oil was apparently wholly neglected, though there were few,
+or no domestic animals to furnish tallow; but when cattle increased,
+every ounce of tallow was saved as a precious and useful treasure; and
+as they became plentiful it was one of the household riches of New
+England, which was of value to our own day. When Governor Winthrop
+arrived in Massachusetts, he promptly wrote over to his wife to bring
+candles with her from England when she came. And in 1634 he sent over
+for a large quantity of wicks and tallow. Candles cost fourpence apiece,
+which made them costly luxuries for the thrifty colonists.
+
+Wicks were made of loosely spun hemp or tow, or of cotton; from the
+milkweed which grows so plentifully in our fields and roads to-day the
+children gathered in late summer the silver "silk-down" which was "spun
+grossly into candle wicke." Sometimes the wicks were dipped into
+saltpetre.
+
+Thomas Tusser wrote in England in the sixteenth century in his
+_Directions to Housewifes_:--
+
+      "Wife, make thine own candle,
+      Spare penny to handle.
+    Provide for thy tallow ere frost cometh in,
+    And make thine own candle ere winter begin."
+
+Every thrifty housewife in America saved her penny as in England. The
+making of the winter's stock of candles was the special autumnal
+household duty, and a hard one too, for the great kettles were tiresome
+and heavy to handle. An early hour found the work well under way. A good
+fire was started in the kitchen fireplace under two vast kettles, each
+two feet, perhaps, in diameter, which were hung on trammels from the
+lug-pole or crane, and half filled with boiling water and melted tallow,
+which had had two scaldings and skimmings. At the end of the kitchen or
+in an adjoining and cooler room, sometimes in the lean-to, two long
+poles were laid from chair to chair or stool to stool. Across these
+poles were placed at regular intervals, like the rounds of a ladder,
+smaller sticks about fifteen or eighteen inches long, called
+candle-rods. These poles and rods were kept from year to year, either in
+the garret or up on the kitchen beams.
+
+To each candle-rod was attached about six or eight carefully
+straightened candle-wicks. The wicking was twisted strongly one way;
+then doubled; then the loop was slipped over the candle-rod, when the
+two ends, of course, twisted the other way around each other, making a
+firm wick. A rod, with its row of wicks, was dipped in the melted tallow
+in the pot, and returned to its place across the poles. Each row was
+thus dipped in regular turn; each had time to cool and harden between
+the dips, and thus grew steadily in size. If allowed to cool fast, they
+of course grew quickly, but were brittle, and often cracked. Hence a
+good worker dipped slowly, but if the room was fairly cool, could make
+two hundred candles for a day's work. Some could dip two rods at a time.
+The tallow was constantly replenished, as the heavy kettles were used
+alternately to keep the tallow constantly melted, and were swung off and
+on the fire. Boards or sheets of paper were placed under the rods to
+protect the snowy, scoured floors.
+
+Candles were also run in moulds which were groups of metal cylinders,
+usually made of tin or pewter. Itinerant candle-makers went from house
+to house, taking charge of candle-making in the household, and carrying
+large candle-moulds with them. One of the larger size, making two dozen
+candles, is here shown; but its companion, the smaller mould, making six
+candles, is such as were more commonly seen. Each wick was attached to a
+wire or a nail placed across the open top of the cylinder, and hung down
+in the centre of each individual mould. The melted tallow was poured in
+carefully around the wicks.
+
+Wax candles also were made. They were often shaped by hand, by pressing
+bits of heated wax around a wick. Farmers kept hives of bees as much for
+the wax as for the honey, which was of much demand for sweetening, when
+"loaves" of sugar were so high-priced. Deer suet, moose fat, bear's
+grease, all were saved in frontier settlements, and carefully tried into
+tallow for candles. Every particle of grease rescued from pot liquor, or
+fat from meat, was utilized for candle-making. Rushlights were made by
+stripping part of the outer bark from common rushes, thus leaving the
+pith bare, then dipping them in tallow or grease, and letting them
+harden.
+
+The precious candles thus tediously made were taken good care of. They
+were carefully packed in candle-boxes with compartments; were covered
+over, and set in a dark closet, where they would not discolor and turn
+yellow. A metal candle-box, hung on the edge of the kitchen
+mantel-shelf, always held two or three candles to replenish those which
+burnt out in the candlesticks.
+
+A natural, and apparently inexhaustible, material for candles was found
+in all the colonies in the waxy berries of the bayberry bush, which
+still grows in large quantities on our coasts. In the year 1748 a
+Swedish naturalist, Professor Kalm, came to America, and he wrote an
+account of the bayberry wax which I will quote in full:--
+
+     "There is a plant here from the berries of which they make a kind
+     of wax or tallow, and for that reason the Swedes call it the
+     tallow-shrub. The English call the same tree the candle-berry tree
+     or bayberry bush; it grows abundantly in a wet soil, and seems to
+     thrive particularly well in the neighborhood of the sea. The
+     berries look as if flour had been strewed on them. They are
+     gathered late in Autumn, being ripe about that time, and are thrown
+     into a kettle or pot full of boiling water; by this means their fat
+     melts out, floats at the top of the water, and may be skimmed off
+     into a vessel; with the skimming they go on till there is no tallow
+     left. The tallow, as soon as it is congealed, looks like common
+     tallow or wax, but has a dirty green color. By being melted over
+     and refined it acquires a fine and transparent green color. This
+     tallow is dearer than common tallow, but cheaper than wax. Candles
+     of this do not easily bend, nor melt in summer as common candles
+     do; they burn better and slower, nor do they cause any smoke, but
+     yield rather an agreeable smell when they are extinguished. In
+     Carolina they not only make candles out of the wax of the berries,
+     but likewise sealing-wax."
+
+Beverley, the historian of Virginia, wrote of the smell of burning
+bayberry tallow:--
+
+     "If an accident puts a candle out, it yields a pleasant fragrancy
+     to all that are in the room; insomuch that nice people often put
+     them out on purpose to have the incense of the expiring snuff."
+
+Bayberry wax was not only a useful home-product, but an article of
+traffic till this century, and was constantly advertised in the
+newspapers. In 1712, in a letter written to John Winthrop, F.R.S., I
+find:--
+
+     "I am now to beg one favour of you,--that you secure for me all the
+     bayberry wax you can possibly put your hands on. You must take a
+     care they do not put too much tallow among it, being a custom and
+     cheat they have got."
+
+Bayberries were of enough importance to have some laws made about them.
+Everywhere on Long Island grew the stunted bushes, and everywhere they
+were valued. The town of Brookhaven, in 1687, forbade the gathering of
+the berries before September 15, under penalty of fifteen shillings'
+fine.
+
+The pungent and unique scent of the bayberry, equally strong in leaf
+and berry, is to me one of the elements of the purity and sweetness of
+the air of our New England coast fields in autumn. It grows everywhere,
+green and cheerful, in sun-withered shore pastures, in poor bits of
+earth on our rocky coast, where it has few fellow field-tenants to crowd
+the ground. It is said that the highest efforts of memory are stimulated
+through our sense of smell, by the association of ideas with scents.
+That of bayberry, whenever I pass it, seems to awaken in me an
+hereditary memory, to recall a life of two centuries ago. I recall the
+autumns of trial and of promise in our early history, and the bayberry
+fields are peopled with children in Puritan garb, industriously
+gathering the tiny waxen fruit. Equally full of sentiment is the scent
+of my burning bayberry candles, which were made last autumn in an old
+colony town.
+
+The history of whale-fishing in New England is the history of one of the
+most fascinating commercial industries the world has ever known. It is a
+story with every element of intense interest, showing infinite romance,
+adventure, skill, courage, and fortitude. It brought vast wealth to the
+communities that carried on the fishing, and great independence and
+comfort to the families of the whalers. To the whalemen themselves it
+brought incredible hardships and dangers, yet they loved the life with
+a love which is strange to view and hard to understand. In the oil made
+from these "royal fish" the colonists found a vast and cheap supply for
+their metal and glass lamps; while the toothed whales had stored in
+their blunt heads a valuable material which was at once used for making
+candles; it is termed, in the most ancient reference I have found to it
+in New England records, Sperma-Coeti.
+
+It was asserted that one of these spermaceti candles gave out more light
+than three tallow candles, and had four times as big a flame. Soon their
+manufacture and sale amounted to large numbers, and materially improved
+domestic illumination.
+
+All candles, whatever their material, were carefully used by the
+economical colonists to the last bit by a little wire frame of pins and
+rings called a save-all. Candle-sticks of various metals and shapes were
+found in every house; and often sconces, which were also called
+candle-arms, or prongs. Candle-beams were rude chandeliers, a metal or
+wooden hoop with candle-holders. Snuffers were always seen, with which
+to trim the candles, and snuffers trays. These were sometimes
+exceedingly richly ornamented, and were often of silver: extinguishers
+often accompanied the snuffers.
+
+Though lamps occasionally appear on early inventories and lists of
+sales, and though there was plenty of whale and fish oil to burn, lamps
+were not extensively used in America for many years. "Betty-lamps,"
+shaped much like antique Roman lamps, were the earliest form. They were
+small, shallow receptacles, two or three inches in diameter and about an
+inch in depth; either rectangular, oval, round, or triangular in shape,
+with a projecting nose or spout an inch or two long. They usually had a
+hook and chain by which they could be hung on a nail in the wall, or on
+the round in the back of a chair; sometimes there was also a smaller
+hook for cleaning out the nose of the lamp. They were filled with
+tallow, grease, or oil, while a piece of cotton rag or coarse wick was
+so placed that, when lighted, the end hung out on the nose. From this
+wick, dripping dirty grease, rose a dull, smoky, ill-smelling flame.
+
+Phoebe-lamps were similar in shape; though some had double wicks, that
+is, a nose at either side. Three betty-lamps are shown in the
+illustration: all came from old colonial houses. The iron lamp, solid
+with the accumulated grease of centuries, was found in a Virginia cabin;
+the rectangular brass lamp came from a Dutch farmhouse; and the graceful
+oval brass lamp from a New England homestead.
+
+Pewter was a favorite material for lamps, as it was for all other
+domestic utensils. It was specially in favor for the lamps for whale
+oil and the "Porter's fluid," that preceded our present illuminating
+medium, petroleum. A rare form is the pewter lamp here shown. It is in
+the collection of ancient lamps, lanterns, candlesticks, etc., owned by
+Mrs. Samuel Bowne Duryea, of Brooklyn. It came from a Salem home, where
+it was used as a house-lantern. With its clear bull's-eyes of unusually
+pure glass, it gave what was truly a brilliant light for the century of
+its use. A group of old pewter lamps, of the shapes commonly used in the
+homes of our ancestors a century or so ago, is also given; chosen, not
+because they were unusual or beautiful, but because they were universal
+in their use.
+
+The lamps of Count Rumford's invention were doubtless a great luxury,
+with their clear steady light; but they were too costly to be commonly
+seen in our grandfathers' homes. Nor were Argand burners ever universal.
+Glass lamps of many simple shapes shared popularity for a long time with
+the pewter lamps; and as pewter gradually disappeared from household
+use, these glass lamps monopolized the field. They were rarely of cut or
+colored glass, but were pressed glass of commonplace form and quality. A
+group of them is here given which were all used in old New England
+houses in the early part of this century.
+
+For many years the methods of striking a light were very primitive, just
+as they were in Europe; many families possessed no adequate means, or
+very imperfect ones. If by ill fortune the fire in the fireplace became
+wholly extinguished through carelessness at night, some one, usually a
+small boy, was sent to the house of the nearest neighbor, bearing a
+shovel or covered pan, or perhaps a broad strip of green bark, on which
+to bring back coals for relighting the fire. Nearly all families had
+some form of a flint and steel,--a method of obtaining fire which has
+been used from time immemorial by both civilized and uncivilized
+nations. This always required a flint, a steel, and a tinder of some
+vegetable matter to catch the spark struck by the concussion of flint
+and steel. This spark was then blown into a flame. Among the colonists
+scorched linen was a favorite tinder to catch the spark of fire; and
+till this century all the old cambric handkerchiefs, linen underwear,
+and worn sheets of a household were carefully saved for this purpose.
+The flint, steel, and tinder were usually kept together in a circular
+tinder-box, such as is shown in the accompanying illustration; it was a
+shape universal in England and America. This had an inner flat cover
+with a ring, a flint, a horseshoe-shaped steel, and an upper lid with a
+place to set a candle-end in, to carry the newly acquired light. Though
+I have tried hundreds of times with this tinder-box, I have never yet
+succeeded in striking a light. The sparks fly, but then the operation
+ceases in modern hands. Charles Dickens said if you had good luck, you
+could get a light in half an hour. Soon there was an improvement on this
+tinder-box, by which sparks were obtained by spinning a steel wheel with
+a piece of cord, somewhat like spinning a humming top, and making the
+wheel strike a flint fixed in the side of a little trough full of
+tinder. This was an infinite advance in convenience on tinder-box No. 1.
+This box was called in the South a mill; one is here shown. Then some
+person invented strips of wood dipped in sulphur and called "spunks."
+These readily caught fire, and retained it, and were handy to carry
+light to a candle or pile of chips.
+
+Another way of starting a fire was by flashing a little powder in the
+pan of an old-fashioned gun; sometimes this fired a twist of tow, which
+in turn started a heap of shavings.
+
+Down to the time of our grandfathers, and in some country homes of our
+fathers, lights were started with these crude elements,--flint, steel,
+tinder,--and transferred by the sulphur splint; for fifty years ago
+matches were neither cheap nor common.
+
+Though various processes for lighting in which sulphur was used in a
+match shape, were brought before the public at the beginning of this
+century, they were complicated, expensive, and rarely seen. The first
+practical friction matches were "Congreves," made in England in 1827.
+They were thin strips of wood or cardboard coated with sulphur and
+tipped with a mixture of mucilage, chlorate of potash, and sulphide of
+antimony. Eighty-four of them were sold in a box for twenty-five cents,
+with a piece of "glass-paper" through which the match could be drawn.
+There has been a long step this last fifty years between the tinder-box
+used so patiently for two centuries, and the John Jex Long match-making
+machine of our times, which turns out seventeen million matches a day.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+THE KITCHEN FIRESIDE
+
+
+The kitchen in all the farmhouses of all the colonies was the most
+cheerful, homelike, and picturesque room in the house; indeed, it was in
+town houses as well. The walls were often bare, the rafters dingy; the
+windows were small, the furniture meagre; but the kitchen had a warm,
+glowing heart that spread light and welcome, and made the poor room a
+home. In the houses of the first settlers the chimneys and fireplaces
+were vast in size, sometimes so big that the fore-logs and back-logs for
+the fire had to be dragged in by a horse and a long chain; or a
+hand-sled was kept for the purpose. Often there were seats within the
+chimney on either side. At night children could sit on these seats and
+there watch the sparks fly upward and join the stars which could plainly
+be seen up the great chimney-throat.
+
+But as the forests disappeared under the waste of burning for tar, for
+potash, and through wanton clearing, the fireplaces shrank in size; and
+Benjamin Franklin, even in his day, could write of "the fireplaces of
+our fathers."
+
+The inflammable catted chimney of logs and clay, hurriedly and readily
+built by the first settlers, soon gave place in all houses to vast
+chimneys of stone, built with projecting inner ledges, on which rested a
+bar about six or seven or even eight feet from the floor, called a
+lug-pole (lug meaning to carry) or a back-bar; this was made of green
+wood, and thus charred slowly--but it charred surely in the generous
+flames of the great chimney heart. Many annoying, and some fatal
+accidents came from the collapsing of these wooden back-bars. The
+destruction of a dinner sometimes was attended with the loss of a life.
+Later the back-bars were made of iron. On them were hung iron hooks or
+chains with hooks of various lengths called pothooks, trammels, hakes,
+pot-hangers, pot-claws, pot-clips, pot-brakes, pot-crooks. Mr. Arnold
+Talbot, of Providence, Rhode Island, has folding trammels, nine feet
+long, which were found in an old Narragansett chimney heart. Gibcrokes
+and recons were local and less frequent names, and the folks who in
+their dialect called the lug-pole a gallows-balke called the pothooks
+gallows-crooks. On these hooks pots and kettles could be hung at varying
+heights over the fire. The iron swinging-crane was a Yankee invention of
+a century after the first settlement, and it proved a convenient and
+graceful substitute for the back-bar.
+
+Some Dutch houses had an adaptation of a Southern method of housekeeping
+in the use of a detached house called a slave-kitchen, where the meals
+of the negro house and farm servants were cooked and served. The
+slave-kitchen of the old Bergen homestead stood unaltered till within a
+few years on Third Avenue in Brooklyn. It still exists in a dismantled
+condition. Its picture plainly shows the stone ledges within the
+fireplace, the curved iron lug-pole, and hanging pothooks and trammels.
+With ample fire of hickory logs burning on the hearthstone, and the
+varied array of primitive cooking-vessels steaming with savory fare, a
+circle of laughing, black faces shining with the glowing firelight and
+hungry anticipation, would make a "Dutch interior" of American form and
+shaping as picturesque and artistic as any of Holland. The fireplace
+itself sometimes went by the old English name, clavell-piece, as shown
+by the letters of John Wynter, written from Maine in 1634 to his English
+home. "The Chimney is large, with an oven at each end of him: he is so
+large that wee can place our Cyttle within the Clavell-piece. Wee can
+brew and bake and boyl our Cyttle all at once in him." Often a large
+plate of iron, called the fire-back or fire-plate, was set at the back
+of the chimney, where the constant and fierce fire crumbled brick and
+split stone. These iron backs were often cast in a handsome design.
+
+In New York the chimneys and fireplaces were Dutch in shape; the
+description given by a woman traveller at the end of the seventeenth
+century ran thus:--
+
+     "The chimney-places are very droll-like: they have no jambs nor
+     lintell as we have, but a flat grate, and there projects over it a
+     lum in the form of the cat-and-clay lum, and commonly a muslin or
+     ruffled pawn around it."
+
+The "ruffled pawn" was a calico or linen valance which was hung on the
+edge of the mantel-shelf, a pretty and cheerful fashion seen in some
+English as well as Dutch homes.
+
+Another Dutch furnishing, the alcove bedstead, much like a closet, seen
+in many New York kitchens, was replaced in New England farm-kitchens by
+the "turn-up" bedstead. This was a strong frame filled with a network of
+rope which was fastened at the bed-head by hinges to the wall. By night
+the foot of the bed rested on two heavy legs; by day the frame with its
+bed furnishings was hooked up to the wall, and covered with homespun
+curtains or doors. This was the sleeping-place of the master and
+mistress of the house, chosen because the kitchen was the warmest room
+in the house. One of these "turn-up" bedsteads which was used in the
+Sheldon homestead until this century may be seen in Deerfield Memorial
+Hall.
+
+Over the fireplace and across the top of the room were long poles on
+which hung strings of peppers, dried apples, and rings of dried pumpkin.
+And the favorite resting-place for the old queen's-arm or fowling-piece
+was on hooks over the kitchen fireplace.
+
+On the pothooks and trammels hung what formed in some households the
+costliest house-furnishing,--the pots and kettles. The Indians wished
+their brass kettles buried with them as a precious possession, and the
+settlers equally valued them; often these kettles were worth three
+pounds apiece. In many inventories of the estates of the settlers the
+brass-ware formed an important item. Rev. Thomas Hooker of Hartford had
+brass-ware which, in the equalizing of values to-day, would be worth
+three or four hundred dollars. The great brass and copper kettles often
+held fifteen gallons. The vast iron pot--desired and beloved of every
+colonist--sometimes weighed forty pounds, and lasted in daily use for
+many years. All the vegetables were boiled together in these great pots,
+unless some very particular housewife had a wrought-iron potato-boiler
+to hold potatoes or any single vegetable in place within the vast
+general pot.
+
+Chafing-dishes and skimmers of brass and copper were also cheerful discs
+to reflect the kitchen firelight.
+
+Very little tin was seen, either for kitchen or table utensils. Governor
+Winthrop had a few tin plates, and some Southern planters had tin pans,
+others "tynnen covers." Tin pails were unknown; and the pails they did
+own, either of wood, brass, or other sheet metal, had no bails, but were
+carried by thrusting a stick through little ears on either side of the
+pail. Latten ware was used instead of tin; it was a kind of brass. A
+very good collection of century-old tinware is shown in the
+illustration. By a curious chance this tinware lay unpacked for over
+ninety years in the attic loft of a country warehouse, in the
+packing-box, just as it was delivered from an English ship at the close
+of the Revolution. The pulling down of the warehouse disclosed the box,
+with its dated labels. The tin utensils are more gayly lacquered than
+modern ones, otherwise they differ little from the tinware of to-day.
+
+There was one distinct characteristic in the house-furnishing of olden
+times which is lacking to-day. It was a tendency for the main body of
+everything to set well up, on legs which were strong enough for adequate
+support of the weight, yet were slender in appearance. To-day bureaus,
+bedsteads, cabinets, desks, sideboards, come close to the floor;
+formerly chests of drawers, Chippendale sideboards, four-post bedsteads,
+dressing-cases, were set, often a foot high, in a tidy, cleanly fashion;
+thus they could all be thoroughly swept under. This same peculiarity of
+form extended to cooking-utensils. Pots and kettles had legs, as shown
+in those hanging in the slave-kitchen fireplace; gridirons had legs,
+skillets had legs; and further appliances in the shape of trivets,
+which were movable frames, took the place of legs. The necessity for the
+stilting up of cooking-utensils was a very evident one; it was necessary
+to raise the body of the utensil above the ashes and coals of the open
+fireplace. If the bed of coals and burning logs were too deep for the
+skillet or pot-legs, then the utensil must be hung from above by the
+ever-ready trammel.
+
+Often in the corner of the fireplace there stood a group of trivets, or
+three-legged stands, of varying heights, through which the exactly
+desired proximity to the coals could be obtained.
+
+Even toasting-forks, and similar frail utensils of wire or wrought iron,
+stood on tall, spindling legs, or were carefully shaped to be set up on
+trivets. They usually had, also, long, adjustable handles, which helped
+to make endurable the blazing heat of the great logs. All such irons as
+waffle-irons had far longer handles than are seen on any
+cooking-utensils in these days of stoves and ranges, where the flames
+are covered and the housewife shielded. Gridirons had long handles of
+wood or iron, which could be fastened to the shorter stationary handles.
+The two gridirons in the accompanying illustration are a century old.
+The circular one was the oldest form. The oblong ones, with groove to
+collect the gravy, did not vary in shape till our own day. Both have
+indications of fittings for long handles, but the handles have vanished.
+A long-handled frying-pan is seen hanging by the side of the
+slave-kitchen fireplace.
+
+An accompaniment of the kitchen fireplace, found, not in farmhouses, but
+among luxury-loving town-folk, was the plate-warmer. They are seldom
+named in inventories, and I know of but one of Revolutionary days, and
+it is here shown. Similar ones are manufactured to-day; the legs,
+perhaps, are shorter, but the general outline is the same.
+
+An important furnishing of every fireplace was the andirons. In kitchen
+fireplaces these were usually of iron, and the shape known as goose-neck
+were common. Cob irons were the simplest form, and merely supported the
+spit; sometimes they had hooks to hold a dripping-pan. A common name for
+the kitchen andirons was fire-dogs; and creepers were low, small
+andirons, usually used with the tall fire-dogs. The kitchen andirons
+were simply for use to help hold the logs and cooking-utensils. But
+other fireplaces had handsome fire-dogs of copper, brass, or cut steel,
+cast or wrought in handsome devices. These were a pride and delight to
+the housewife.
+
+A primitive method of roasting a joint of meat or a fowl was by
+suspending it in front of the fire by a strong hempen string tied to a
+peg in the ceiling, while some one--usually an unwilling
+child--occasionally turned the roast around. Sometimes the sole
+turnspit was the housewife, who, every time she basted the roast, gave
+the string a good twist, and thereafter it would untwist, and then twist
+a little again, and so on until the vibration ceased, when she again
+basted and started it. As the juices sometimes ran down in the roast and
+left the upper part too dry, a "double string-roaster" was invented, by
+which the equilibrium of the joint could be shifted. A jack was a
+convenient and magnified edition of the primitive string, being a metal
+suspensory machine. A still further glorification was the addition of a
+revolving power which ran by clockwork and turned the roast with
+regularity; this was known as a clock-jack. The one here shown hangs in
+the fireplace in Deerfield Memorial Hall. A smoke-jack was run somewhat
+irregularly by the pressure of smoke and the current of hot air in the
+chimney. These were noisy and creaking and not regarded with favor by
+old-fashioned cooks.
+
+We are apt to think of the turnspit dog as a creature of European life,
+but we had them here in America--little low, bow-legged, patient souls,
+trained to run in a revolving cylinder and keep the roasting joint
+a-turn before the fire. Mine host Clark of the State House Inn in
+Philadelphia in the first half of the eighteenth century advertised in
+Benjamin Franklin's _Pennsylvania Gazette_ that he had for sale "several
+dogs and wheels, much preferable to any jacks for roasting any joints of
+meat." I hope neither he nor any one else had many of these little
+canine slaves.
+
+A frequent accompaniment of the kitchen fireplace in the eighteenth
+century, and a domestic luxury seen in well-to-do homes, was the various
+forms of the "roasting-kitchen," or Dutch oven. These succeeded the
+jacks; they were a box-like arrangement open on one side which when in
+use was turned to the fire. Like other utensils of the day, they often
+stood up on legs, to bring the open side before the blaze. A little door
+at the back could be opened for convenience in basting the roast. These
+kitchens came in various sizes for roasting birds or joints, and in them
+bread was occasionally baked. The bake-kettle, which in some communities
+was also called a Dutch oven, was preferred for baking bread. It was a
+strong kettle, standing, of course, on stout, stumpy legs, and when in
+use was placed among the hot coals and closely covered with a strong
+metal, convex cover, on which coals were also closely heaped. Such
+perfect rolls, such biscuit, such shortcake, as issued from the
+heaped-up bake-kettle can never be equalled by other methods of cooking.
+
+When the great stone chimney was built, there was usually placed on one
+side of the kitchen fireplace a brick oven which had a smoke uptake into
+the chimney--and-an ash-pit below. The great door was of iron. This oven
+was usually heated once a week. A great fire of dry wood, called oven
+wood, was kindled within it and kept burning fiercely for some hours.
+This thoroughly heated all the bricks. The coals and ashes were then
+swept out, the chimney draught closed, and the oven filled with brown
+bread, pies, pots of beans, etc. Sometimes the bread was baked in pans,
+sometimes it was baked in a great mass set on cabbage leaves or oak
+leaves. In some towns an autumn harvest of oak leaves was gathered by
+children to use throughout the winter. The leaves were strung on sticks.
+This gathering was called going a-leafing.
+
+By the oven side was always a long-handled shovel known as a peel or
+slice, which sometimes had a rack or rest to hold it; this implement was
+a necessity in order to place the food well within the glowing oven. The
+peel was sprinkled with meal, great heaps of dough were placed thereon,
+and by a dexterous twist they were thrown on the cabbage or oak leaves.
+A bread peel was a universal gift to a bride; it was significant of
+domestic utility and plenty, and was held to be luck-bearing. On
+Thanksgiving week the great oven had a fire built in it every morning,
+and every night it was well filled and closed till morning.
+
+On one side of the kitchen often stood a dresser, on which was placed in
+orderly rows the cheerful pewter and scant earthenware of the
+household:--
+
+      "----the room was bright
+    With glimpses of reflected light,
+    From plates that on the dresser shone."
+
+In Dutch households plate-racks, spoon-racks, knife-racks,--all hanging
+on the wall,--took the place of the New England dresser.
+
+In the old Phillips farmhouse at Wickford, Rhode Island, is a splendid
+chimney over twenty feet square. So much room does it occupy that there
+is no central staircase, but little winding stairs ascend at three
+corners of the house. In the vast fireplace an ox could literally have
+been roasted. On each chimney-piece are hooks to hang firearms, and at
+one side curious little drawers are set for pipes and tobacco. In some
+Dutch houses in New York these tobacco shelves are in the entry, over
+the front door, and a narrow flight of three or four steps leads up to
+them. Hanging on a nail alongside the tobacco drawer, or shelf, would
+usually be seen a pipe-tongs, or smoking-tongs. They were slender
+little tongs, usually of iron or steel; with them the smoker lifted a
+coal from the fireplace to light his pipe. The tongs owned and used by
+Captain Joshua Wingate, of Hampton, New Hampshire, who lived from 1679
+to 1769, are here shown. The handle is unlike any other I have seen,
+having one end elongated, knobbed, and ingeniously bent S-shaped into
+convenient form to press down the tobacco into the bowl of the pipe.
+Other old-time pipe-tongs were in the form of lazy-tongs. A companion of
+the pipe-tongs on the kitchen mantel was what was known as a
+comfortier--a little brazier of metal in which small coals could be
+handed about for pipe-lighting. An unusual luxury was a comfortier of
+silver. These were found among the Dutch settlers.
+
+The Pennsylvania Germans were the first to use stoves. These were of
+various shapes. A curious one, seen in houses and churches, was of
+sheet-metal, box-shaped; three sides were within the house, and the
+fourth, with the stove door, outside the house. Thus what was really
+the back of the stove projected into the room, and when the fire was fed
+it was necessary for the tender to go out of doors. These German stoves
+and hot-air drums, which heated the second story of the house, were ever
+a fresh wonder to travellers of English birth and descent in
+Pennsylvania. There is no doubt that their evident economy and comfort
+suggested to Benjamin Franklin the "New Pennsylvania Fireplace," which
+he invented in 1742, in which both wood and coal could be used, and
+which was somewhat like the heating apparatus which we now call a
+Franklin stove, or heater.
+
+Thus German settlers had, in respect to heating, the most comfortable
+homes of all the colonies. Among the English settlers the kitchen was,
+too often, the only comfortable room in the house in winter weather.
+Indeed, the discomforts and inconveniences of a colonial home could
+scarcely be endured to-day; of course these culminated in the winter
+time, when icy blasts blew fiercely down the great chimneys, and rattled
+the loosely fitting windows. Children suffered bitterly in these cold
+houses. The rooms were not warm three feet away from the blaze of the
+fire. Cotton Mather and Judge Samuel Sewall both tell, in their diaries,
+of the ink freezing in their pens as they wrote within the
+chimney-side. One noted that, when a great fire was built on the hearth,
+the sap forced out of the wood by the flames froze into ice at the end
+of the logs. The bedrooms were seldom warmed, and had it not been for
+the deep feather beds and heavy bed-curtains, would have been
+unendurable. In Dutch and some German houses, with alcove bedsteads, and
+sleeping on one feather bed, with another for cover, the Dutch settlers
+could be far warmer than any English settlers, even in four-post
+bedsteads curtained with woollen.
+
+Water froze immediately if left standing in bedrooms. One diary, written
+in Marshfield, Massachusetts, tells of a basin of water standing on the
+bedroom hearth, in front of a blazing fire, in which the water froze
+solid. President John Adams so dreaded the bleak New England winter and
+the ill-warmed houses that he longed to sleep like a dormouse every
+year, from autumn to spring. In the Southern colonies, during the fewer
+cold days of the winter months, the temperature was not so low, but the
+houses were more open and lightly built than in the North, and were
+without cellars, and had fewer fireplaces; hence the discomfort from the
+cold was as great, if not the positive suffering.
+
+The first chilling entrance into the ice-cold bed of a winter bedroom
+was sometimes mitigated by heating the inner sheets with a warming-pan.
+This usually hung by the side of the kitchen fireplace, and when used
+was filled with hot coals, and thrust within the bed, and constantly and
+rapidly moved back and forth to keep from scorching the bed-linen. The
+warming-pan was a circular metal pan about a foot in diameter, four or
+five inches deep, with a long wooden handle and a perforated metal
+cover, usually of copper or brass, which was kept highly polished, and
+formed, as it hung on the wall, one of the cheerful kitchen discs to
+reflect the light of the glowing fire. The warming-pan has been deemed
+of sufficient decorative capacity to make it eagerly sought after by
+collectors, and a great room of one of these collectors is hung entirely
+around the four walls with a frieze of warming-pans.
+
+Many of our New England poets have given us glimpses in rhyme of the
+old-time kitchen. Lowell's well-known lines are vivid enough to bear
+never-dying quotation:--
+
+    "A fireplace filled the rooms one side
+      With half a cord of wood in--
+    There warn't no stoves (tell comfort died)
+      To bake ye to a puddin'.
+
+    "The wa'nut log shot sparkles out
+      Towards the pootiest--bless her!
+    An' little flames danced all about
+      The chiny on the dresser.
+
+    "Agin the crumbly crooknecks hung,
+      An' in amongst 'em rusted
+    The old queen's-arm that granther Young
+      Fetched back from Concord busted."
+
+To me the true essence of the old-time fireside is found in Whittier's
+_Snow-Bound_. The very chimney, fireplace, and hearthstone of which his
+beautiful lines were written, the kitchen of Whittier's boyhood's home,
+at East Haverhill, Massachusetts, is shown in the accompanying
+illustration. It shows a swinging crane. His description of the "laying
+the fire" can never be equalled by any prose:--
+
+    "We piled with care our nightly stack
+    Of wood against the chimney back--
+    The oaken log, green, huge, and thick,
+    And on its top the stout back-stick;
+    The knotty fore-stick laid apart,
+    And filled between with curious art
+    The ragged brush; then hovering near,
+    We watched the first red blaze appear,
+    Heard the sharp crackle, caught the gleam
+    On whitewashed wall and sagging beam,
+    Until the old, rude-furnished room
+    Burst, flower-like, into rosy bloom."
+
+No greater picture of homely contentment could be shown than the
+following lines:--
+
+    "Shut in from all the world without,
+    We sat the clean-winged hearth about,
+    Content to let the north wind roar
+    In baffled rage at pane and door,
+    While the red logs before us beat
+    The frost-line back with tropic heat;
+    And ever, when a louder blast
+    Shook beam and rafter as it passed,
+    The merrier up its roaring draught
+    The great throat of the chimney laughed.
+    The house dog on his paws outspread
+    Laid to the fire his drowsy head,
+    The cat's dark silhouette on the wall
+    A couchant tiger's seemed to fall;
+    And, for the winter fireside meet,
+    Between the andirons' straddling feet
+    The mug of cider simmered slow,
+    And apples sputtered in a row.
+    And, close at hand, the basket stood
+    With nuts from brown October's woods.
+    What matter how the night behaved!
+    What matter how the north wind raved!
+    Blow high, blow low, not all its snow
+    Could quench our hearth-fire's ruddy glow."
+
+Nor can the passing of years dim the ruddy glow of that hearth-fire, nor
+the charm of the poem. The simplicity of metre, the purity of wording,
+the gentle sadness of some of its expressions, make us read between the
+lines the deep and affectionate reminiscence with which it was written.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+THE SERVING OF MEALS
+
+
+Perhaps no greater difference exists between any mode of the olden times
+and that of to-day, than can be seen in the manner of serving the meals
+of the family. In the first place, the very dining-table of the
+colonists was not like our present ones; it was a long and narrow board,
+sometimes but three feet wide, with no legs attached to it. It was laid
+on supports or trestles, shaped usually something like a saw-horse. Thus
+it was literally a board, and was called a table-board, and the linen
+cover used at meals was not called a tablecloth, but a board-cloth or
+board-clothes.
+
+As smoothly sawed and finished boards were not so plentiful at first in
+the colonies as might naturally be thought when we remember the vast
+encircling forests, all such boards were carefully treasured, and used
+many times to avoid sawing others by the tedious and wearying process of
+pit-sawing. Hence portions of packing-boxes, or chests which had carried
+stores from England to the colonies, were made into table-boards. One
+such oaken table-board, still in existence, has on the under side in
+quaint lettering the name and address of the Boston settler to whom the
+original packing-box was sent in 1638.
+
+The old-time board-cloth was in no way inferior in quality or whiteness
+to our present table-linen; for we know how proud colonial wives and
+daughters were of the linen of their own spinning, weaving, and
+bleaching. The linen tablecloth was either of holland, huckaback,
+dowlas, osnaburg, or lockram--all heavy and comparatively coarse
+materials--or of fine damask, just as to-day; some of the handsome
+board-cloths were even trimmed with lace.
+
+The colonists had plenty of napkins; more, as a rule, than families of
+corresponding means and station own to-day. They had need of them, for
+when America was first settled forks were almost unknown to English
+people--being used for eating in luxurious Italy alone, where travellers
+having seen and found them useful and cleanly, afterwards introduced
+them into England. So hands had to be constantly employed for holding
+food, instead of the forks we now use, and napkins were therefore as
+constantly necessary. The first fork brought to America was for Governor
+John Winthrop, in Boston, in 1633, and it was in a leather case with a
+knife and a bodkin. If the governor ate with a fork at the table, he
+was doubtless the only person in the colony who did so. Thirty or forty
+years later a few two-tined iron and silver forks were brought across
+the water, and used in New York and Virginia, as well as Massachusetts;
+and by the end of the century they had come into scant use at the tables
+of persons of wealth and fashion. The first mention of a fork in
+Virginia is in an inventory dated 1677; this was of a single fork. The
+salt-cellar, or saler, as it was first called, was the centrepiece of
+the table--"Sett in the myddys of the tabull," says an old treatise on
+laying the table. It was often large and high, of curious device in
+silver, and was then called a standing salt. Guests of honor were seated
+"above the salt," that is, near the end of the table where sat the host
+and hostess side by side; while children and persons who were not of
+much dignity or account as guests were placed "below the salt," that is,
+below the middle of the table.
+
+There is owned by Harvard University, and here shown in an
+illustration, "a great silver salt" given to the college in 1644, when
+the new seat of learning was but eight years old. At the table it
+divided graduates, the faculty, and such, from the undergraduates. It
+was valued at L5 1s. 3d., at five shillings an ounce, which was
+equal to a hundred dollars to-day; a rich gift, which shows to me the
+profound affection of the settlers for the new college. It is inscribed
+with the name of the giver, Mr. Richard Harris. It is of simple English
+design well known during that century, and made in various sizes. There
+is no doubt that many of similar pattern, though not so heavy or so
+rich, were seen on the tables of substantial colonists. They are named
+in many wills. Often a small projecting arm was attached to one side,
+over which a folded napkin could be thrown to be used as a cover; for
+the salt-cellar was usually kept covered, not only to preserve
+cleanliness, but in earlier days to prevent the ready introduction of
+poison.
+
+There are some very entertaining and curious old English books which
+were written in the sixteenth century to teach children and young
+rustics correct and elegant manners at the table, and also helpful ways
+in which to serve others. These books are called _The Babees Boke_, _The
+Boke of Nurture_, _The Boke of Curteseye_, etc., and with the exception
+of variations in the way of serving a dinner, and a few obsolete
+customs, and in the names and shapes and materials of the different
+dishes, plates, etc., used at the table, these books are just as
+instructive and sensible to-day as then. From them we learn that the
+only kind of table furnishings used at that time were cups to drink out
+of; spoons and knives to eat with; chafing-dishes to serve hot food;
+chargers for display and for serving large quantities of food;
+salt-cellars, and trenchers for use as plates. There were very few other
+table appointments used on any English table, either humble or great,
+when the Pilgrims landed at Plymouth.
+
+One of the most important articles for setting the table was the
+trencher. These were made of wood, and often were only a block of wood,
+about ten or twelve inches square and three or four deep, hollowed down
+into a sort of bowl in the middle. In this the food was
+placed,--porridge, meat, vegetables, etc. Each person did not have even
+one of these simple dishes; usually two children, or a man and his wife,
+ate out of one trencher. This was a custom in England for many years;
+and some very great people, a duke and his wife, not more than a century
+and a half ago, sat side by side at the table and ate out of one plate
+to show their unity and affection. It is told of an old Connecticut
+settler, a deacon, that as he had a wood-turning mill, he thought he
+would have a trencher apiece for his children. So he turned a sufficient
+number of round trenchers in his mill. For this his neighbors deemed him
+deeply extravagant and putting on too many airs, both as to quantity and
+quality, since square trenchers, one for use by two persons, were good
+enough for any one, even a deacon. So great a warrior and so prominent a
+man in the colony as Miles Standish used wooden trenchers at the table,
+as also did all the early governors. Nor did they disdain to name them
+in their wills, as valued household possessions. For many years college
+boys at Harvard ate out of wooden trenchers at the college mess-table.
+
+I have seen a curious old table top, or table-board, which permitted
+diners seated at it to dispense with trenchers or plates. It was of
+heavy oak about six inches thick, and at intervals of about eighteen
+inches around its edge were scooped out deep, bowl-shaped holes about
+ten inches in diameter, in which each individual's share of the dinner
+was placed. After each meal the top was lifted off the trestles,
+thoroughly washed and dried, and was ready for the next meal.
+
+Poplar-wood is an even, white, and shining wood. Until the middle of
+this century poplar-wood trenchers and plates were used on the table in
+Vermont, and were really attractive dishes. From earliest days the
+Indians made and sold many bowls and trenchers of maple-wood knots. One
+of these bowls, owned by King Philip, is at the rooms of the
+Massachusetts Historical Society in Boston. Old wooden trenchers and
+"Indian bowls" can be seen at the Memorial Hall in Deerfield. Bottles
+were made also of wood, and drinking-cups and "noggins," which were a
+sort of mug with a handle. Wood furnished many articles for the table to
+the colonist, just as it did in later days on our Western frontiers,
+where trenchers of wood and plates of birch-bark were seen in every
+log-cabin.
+
+The word tankard was originally applied to a heavy and large vessel of
+wood banded with metal, in which to carry water. Smaller wooden drinking
+tankards were subsequently made and used throughout Europe, and were
+occasionally brought here by the colonists. The plainly shaped wooden
+tankard, made of staves and hoops and here shown, is from the collection
+at Deerfield Memorial Hall. It was found in the house of Rev. Eli Moody.
+These commonplace tankards of staves were not so rare as the beautiful
+carved and hooped tankard which is here pictured, and which is in the
+collection of Mrs. Samuel Bowne Duryea, of Brooklyn. I have seen a few
+other quaintly carved ones, black with age, in American families of
+Huguenot descent; these were apparently Swiss carvings.
+
+The chargers, or large round platters found on every dining-table, were
+of pewter. Some were so big and heavy that they weighed five or six
+pounds apiece. Pewter is a metal never seen for modern table
+furnishing, or domestic use in any form to-day; but in colonial times
+what was called a garnish of pewter, that is, a full set of pewter
+platters, plates, and dishes, was the pride of every good housekeeper,
+and also a favorite wedding gift. It was kept as bright and shining as
+silver. One of the duties of children was to gather a kind of horse-tail
+rush which grew in the marshes, and because it was used to scour pewter,
+was called scouring-rush.
+
+Pewter bottles of various sizes were sent to the Massachusetts Bay
+Colony, in 1629. Governor Endicott had one, but they were certainly far
+from common. Dram cups, wine mugs, and funnels of pewter were also
+occasionally seen, but scarcely formed part of ordinary table
+furnishings. Metheglin cans and drinking-mugs of pewter were found on
+nearly every table. Pewter was used until this century in the wealthiest
+homes, both in the North and South, and was preferred by many who owned
+rich china. Among the pewter-lovers was the Revolutionary patriot, John
+Hancock, who hated the clatter of the porcelain plates.
+
+Porringers of pewter, and occasionally of silver, were much used at the
+table, chiefly for children to eat from. These were a pretty little
+shallow circular dish with a flat-pierced handle. Some had a "fish-tail"
+handle; these are said to be Dutch. These porringers were in many
+sizes, from tiny little ones two inches in diameter to those eight or
+nine inches across. When not in use many housekeepers kept them hanging
+on hooks on the edge of a shelf, where they formed a pretty and cheerful
+decoration. The poet Swift says:--
+
+    "The porringers that in a row
+    Hung high and made a glittering show."
+
+It should be stated that the word porringer, as used by English
+collectors, usually refers to a deep cup with a cover and two handles,
+while what we call porringers are known to these collectors as
+bleeding-basins or tasters. Here we apply the term taster, or
+wine-taster, to a small, shallow silver cup with bosses in the bottom to
+reflect the light and show the color and quality of wine. I have often
+seen the item wine-taster in colonial inventories and wills, but never
+bleeding-basin; while porringers were almost universal on such lists.
+Some families had a dozen. I have found fifteen in one old New England
+farmhouse. The small porringers are sometimes called posnets, which is
+an old-time word that may originally have referred to a posset-cup.
+
+"Spoons," says the learned archaeologist, Laborde, "if not as old as the
+world, are as old as soup." All the colonists had spoons, and certainly
+all needed them, for at that time much of their food was in the form of
+soup and "spoon-meat," such as had to be eaten with spoons when there
+were no forks. Meat was usually made into hashes or ragouts; thick stews
+and soups with chopped vegetables and meats were common, as were
+hotch-pots. The cereal foods, which formed so large a part of English
+fare in the New World, were more frequently boiled in porridge than
+baked in loaves. Many of the spoons were of pewter. Worn-out pewter
+plates and dishes could be recast into new pewter spoons. The moulds
+were of wood or iron. The spoon mould of one of the first settlers of
+Greenfield, Massachusetts, named Martindale, is here shown with a
+pewter spoon. In this mould all his spoons and those of his neighbors
+were cast. It is now in the Deerfield Memorial Hall.
+
+A still more universal spoon material was alchymy, also called occamy,
+alcamy, arkamy, etc., a metal never used now, which was made of a
+mixture of pan-brass and arsenicum. Wooden spoons, too, were always
+seen. In Pennsylvania and New York laurel was called spoonwood, because
+the Indians made pretty white spoons from that wood to sell to the
+colonists. Horn was an appropriate and available material for spoons.
+Many Indian tribes excelled as they do to-day in the making of horn
+spoons. The vulgar affirmation, "By the great horn spoon," has
+perpetuated their familiar use.
+
+Every family of any considerable possessions or owning good household
+furnishings had a few silver spoons; nearly every person owned at least
+one. At the time America was settled the common form of silver spoon in
+England had what was known as a baluster stem and a seal head; the assay
+mark was in the inner part of the bowl. But the fashion was just
+changing, and a new and much altered form was introduced which was made
+in large numbers until the opening reign of George I. This shape was the
+very one without doubt in which many of the spoons of the first
+colonists were made; and wherever such spoons are found, if they are
+genuine antiques, they may safely be assigned a date earlier than 1714.
+The handle was flat and broad at the end, where it was cleft in three
+points which were turned up, that is, not toward the back of the spoon.
+This was known as the "hind's-foot handle." The bowl was a perfectly
+regular ellipse and was strengthened by continuing the handle in a
+narrow tongue or rat-tail, which ran down the back of the bowl. The
+succeeding fashion, in the early part of the eighteenth century, had a
+longer elliptical bowl. The end of the handle was rounded and turned up
+at the end, and it had a high sharp ridge down the middle. This was
+known as the old English shape, and was in common use for half a
+century. About the period of our Revolutionary War a shape nearly like
+the one in ordinary present use became the mode; the bowl became
+egg-shaped, and the end of the handle was turned down instead of up. The
+rat-tail, which extended down the back of the bowl, was shortened into a
+drop. Apostle spoons, and monkey spoons for extraordinary use were
+occasionally made, and a few are still preserved; examples of five types
+of spoons are shown from the collection of Edward Holbrook, Esq., of New
+York.
+
+Families of consequence had usually a few pieces of silver besides their
+spoons and the silver salt. Some kind of a drinking-cup was the usual
+form. Persons of moderate means often owned a silver cup. I have seen in
+early inventories and lists the names of a large variety of silver
+vessels: tankards, beer-bowls, beakers, flagons, wine cups, wine bowls,
+wine cans, tasters, caudle-cups, posset-cups, dram-cups, punch-bowls,
+tumblers, mugs, dram bottles, two-eared cups, and flasks. Virginians and
+Marylanders in the seventeenth century had much more silver than New
+Englanders. Some Dutch merchants had ample amounts. It was deemed a
+good and safe investment for spare money. Bread-baskets, salvers,
+muffineers, chafing-dishes, casters, milk pitchers, sugar boxes,
+candlesticks, appear in inventories at the end of the century. A tankard
+or flagon, even if heavy and handsome, would be placed on the table for
+every-day use; the other pieces were usually set on the cupboard's head
+for ornament.
+
+The handsome silver tankard owned by Sarah Jansen de Rapelje is here
+shown. She was the first child of European parents born in New
+Netherland. The tankard was a wedding gift from her husband, and a Dutch
+wedding scene is graven on the lid.
+
+There was a great desire for glass, a rare novelty to many persons at
+the date of colonization. The English were less familiar with its use
+than settlers who came from Continental Europe. The establishment of
+glass factories was attempted in early days in several places, chiefly
+to manufacture sheet-glass, but with slight success. Little glass was
+owned in the shape of drinking-vessels, none used generally on the
+table, I think, during the first few years. Glass bottles were certainly
+a great rarity, and were bequeathed with special mention in wills, and
+they are the only form of glass vessel named. The earliest glass for
+table use was greenish in color, like coarse bottle glass, and poor in
+quality, sometimes decorated in crude designs in a few colors. Bristol
+glass, in the shape of mugs and plates, was next seen. It was opaque, a
+milky white color, and was coarsely decorated with vitrifiable colors in
+a few lines of red, green, yellow, or black, occasionally with initials,
+dates, or Scriptural references.
+
+Though shapes were varied, and the number was generally plentiful, there
+was no attempt made to give separate drinking-cups of any kind to each
+individual at the table. Blissfully ignorant of the existence or
+presence of microbes, germs, and bacteria, our sturdy and unsqueamish
+forbears drank contentedly in succession from a single vessel, which
+was passed from hand to hand, and lip to lip, around the board. Even
+when tumbler-shaped glasses were seen in many houses,--flip-glasses,
+they were called,--they were of communal size,--some held a gallon,--and
+all drank from the same glass. The great punch-bowl, not a very handy
+vessel to handle when filled with punch, was passed up and down as
+freely as though it were a loving-cup, and all drank from its brim. At
+college tables, and even at tavern boards, where table neighbors might
+be strangers, the flowing bowl and foaming tankard was passed serenely
+from one to another, and replenished to pass again.
+
+Leather was perhaps the most curious material used. Pitchers, bottles,
+and drinking-cups were made of it. Great jugs of heavy black leather,
+waxed and bound, and tipped with silver, were used to hold metheglin,
+ale, and beer, and were a very substantial, and at times a very handsome
+vessel. The finest examples I have ever seen are here represented. The
+stitches and waxed thread at the base and on the handles can plainly be
+perceived. They are bound with a rich silver band, and have a silver
+shield bearing a date of gift to Samuel Brenton in 1778; but they are
+probably a century older than that date. They are the property by
+inheritance of Miss Rebecca Shaw, aged ninety-six years, of Wickford,
+Rhode Island.
+
+The use of these great leather jacks, in a clumsier form than here
+shown, led to the amusing mistake of a French traveller, that the
+English drank their ale out of their boots. These leather jugs were
+commonly called black jacks, and the larger ones were bombards. Giskin
+was still another and rarer name.
+
+Drinking-cups were sometimes made of horn. A handsome one has been used
+since colonial days on Long Island for "quince drink," a potent mixture
+of hot rum, sugar, and quince marmalade, or preserves. It has a base of
+silver, a rim of silver, and a cover of horn tipped with silver. A
+stirrup-cup of horn, tipped with silver, was used to "speed the parting
+guest." Occasionally the whole horn, in true mediaeval fashion, was used
+as a drinking-cup. Often they were carved with considerable skill, as
+the beautiful ones in the collection of Mr. A. G. Richmond, of
+Canajoharie, New York.
+
+Gourds were plentiful on the farm, and gathered with care, that the
+hard-shelled fruit might be shaped into simple drinking-cups. In
+Elizabeth's time silver cups were made in the shape of these gourds. The
+ships that brought "lemmons and raysins of the sun" from the tropics to
+the colonists, also brought cocoanuts. Since the thirteenth century the
+shells of cocoanuts have been mounted with silver feet and "covercles"
+in a goblet shape, and been much sought after by Englishmen. Mounted in
+pewter, and sometimes in silver, or simply shaped with a wooden handle
+attached, the shell of the cocoanut was a favorite among the English
+settlers. To this day one of the cocoanut-shell cups, or dippers, is a
+favorite drinking-cup of many. A handsome cocoanut goblet, richly
+mounted in silver, is shown in the accompanying illustration. It was
+once the property of the Revolutionary patriot, John Hancock, and is now
+in the custody of the Bostonian Society, at the Old State House, in
+Boston, Massachusetts.
+
+Popular drinking-mugs of the English, from which specially they drank
+their mead, metheglin, and ale, were the stoneware jugs which were made
+in Germany and England, in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, in
+great numbers. An English writer in 1579, spoke of the English custom of
+drinking from "pots of earth, of sundry colors and moulds, whereof many
+are garnished with silver, or leastwise with pewter." Such a piece of
+stoneware is the oldest authenticated drinking-jug in this country,
+which was brought here and used by English colonists. It was the
+property of Governor John Winthrop, who came to Boston in 1630, and now
+belongs to the American Antiquarian Society, in Worcester,
+Massachusetts. It stands eight inches in height, is apparently of German
+Gresware, and is heavily mounted in silver. The lid is engraved with a
+quaint design of Adam and Eve and the tempting serpent in the
+apple-tree. It was a gift to John Winthrop's father from his sister,
+Lady Mildmay, in 1607, and was then, and is still now, labelled, "a
+stone Pot tipped and covered with a Silver Lydd." Many other Boston
+colonists had similar "stone juggs," "fflanders juggs," "tipt juggs."
+What were known as "Fulham juggs" were also much prized. The most
+interesting ones are the Georgius Rex jugs, those marked with a crown,
+the initials G. R., or a medallion head of the first of the English
+Georges. I know one of these jugs which has a Revolutionary bullet
+imbedded in its tough old side, and is not even cracked. Many of them
+had pewter or silver lids, which are now missing. Some have the curious
+hound handle which was so popular with English potters.
+
+There was no china in common use on the table, and little owned even by
+persons of wealth throughout the seventeenth century, either in England
+or America. Delft ware was made in several factories in Holland at the
+time the Dutch settled in New Netherland; but even in the towns of its
+manufacture it was not used for table ware. The pieces were usually of
+large size, what were called state pieces, for cabinet and decorative
+purposes. The Dutch settlers, however, had "purslin cupps" and earthen
+dishes in considerable quantities toward the end of the century. The
+earthen was possibly Delft ware, and the "Purslin" India china, which by
+that time was largely imported to Holland. Some Portuguese and Spanish
+pottery was imported, but was not much desired, as it was ill fired and
+perishable. It was not until Revolutionary times that china was a common
+table furnishing; then it began to crowd out pewter. The sudden and
+enormous growth of East India commerce, and the vast cargoes of Chinese
+pottery and porcelain wares brought to American ports soon gave ample
+china to every housewife. In the Southern colonies beautiful isolated
+pieces of porcelain, such as vast punch-bowls, often were found in the
+homes of opulent planters; but there, as in the North, the first china
+for general table use was the handleless tea-cups, usually of some
+Canton ware, which crept with the fragrant herb into every woman's
+heart--both welcome Oriental waifs.
+
+It may well be imagined that this long narrow table--with a high
+salt-cellar in the middle, with clumsy wooden trenchers for plates, with
+round pewter platters heaped high with the stew of meat and vegetables,
+with a great noggin or two of wood, a can of pewter, or a silver tankard
+to drink from, with leather jacks to hold beer or milk, with many wooden
+or pewter and some silver spoons, but no forks, no glass, no china, no
+covered dishes, no saucers--did not look much like our dinner tables
+to-day.
+
+Even the seats were different; there were seldom chairs or stools for
+each person. A long narrow bench without a back, called a form, was
+placed on each side of the table. Children in many households were not
+allowed to sit, even on these uncomfortable forms, while eating. Many
+times they had to stand by the side of the table during the entire meal;
+in old-fashioned families that uncomfortable and ungracious custom
+lasted till this century. I know of children not fifty years ago
+standing thus at all meals at the table of one of the Judges of the
+Supreme Court. He had a bountiful table, was a hospitable entertainer
+and well-known epicure; but children sat not at his board. Each stood at
+his own place and had to behave with decorum and eat in entire silence.
+In some families children stood behind their parents and other grown
+persons, and food was handed back to them from the table--so we are
+told. This seems closely akin to throwing food to an animal, and must
+have been among people of very low station and social manners.
+
+In other houses they stood at a side-table; and, trencher in hand, ran
+over to the great table to be helped to more food when their first
+supply was eaten.
+
+The chief thought on the behavior of children at the table, which must
+be inferred from all the accounts we have of those times is that they
+were to eat in silence, as fast as possible (regardless of indigestion),
+and leave the table as speedily as might be. In a little book called _A
+Pretty Little Pocket Book_, printed in America about the time of the
+Revolution, I found a list of rules for the behavior of children at the
+table at that date. They were ordered never to seat themselves at the
+table until after the blessing had been asked, and their parents told
+them to be seated. They were never to ask for anything on the table;
+never to speak unless spoken to; always to break the bread, not to bite
+into a whole slice; never to take salt except with a clean knife; not to
+throw bones under the table. One rule read: "Hold not thy knife upright,
+but sloping; lay it down at right hand of the plate, with end of blade
+on the plate." Another, "Look not earnestly at any other person that is
+eating." When children had eaten all that had been given them, if they
+were "moderately satisfied," they were told to leave at once the table
+and room.
+
+When the table-board described herein was set with snowy linen cloth and
+napkins, and ample fare, it had some compensations for what modern
+luxuries it lacked, some qualifications for inducing contentment
+superior even to our beautiful table-settings. There was nothing
+perishable in its entire furnishing: no frail and costly china or glass,
+whose injury and destruction by clumsy or heedless servants would make
+the heart of the housekeeper ache, and her anger nourish the germs of
+ptomaines within her. There was little of intrinsic value to watch and
+guard and worry about. There was little to make extra and difficult
+work,--no glass to wash with anxious care, no elaborate silver to
+clean,--only a few pieces of pewter to polish occasionally. It was all
+so easy and so simple when compared with the complex and varied
+paraphernalia and accompaniments of serving of meals to-day, that it was
+like Arcadian simplicity.
+
+In Virginia the table furnishings were similar to those in New England;
+but there were greater contrasts in table appointments. There was more
+silver, and richer food; but the negro servants were so squalid, clumsy,
+and uncouth that the incongruity made the meals very surprising and, at
+times, repellent.
+
+When dinners of some state were given in the larger towns, the table was
+not set or served like the formal dinner of to-day, for all the sweets,
+pastry, vegetables, and meats were placed on the table together, with a
+grand "conceit" for the ornament in the centre. At one period, when
+pudding was part of the dinner, it was served first. Thus an old-time
+saying is explained, which always seemed rather meaningless, "I came
+early--in pudding-time." There was considerable formality in portioning
+out the food, especially in carving, which was regarded as much more
+than a polite accomplishment, even as an art. I have seen a list of
+sixty or seventy different terms in carving to be applied with exactness
+to different fish, fowl, and meats. An old author says:--
+
+     "How all must regret to hear some Persons, even of quality say,
+     'pray cut up that Chicken or Hen,' or 'Halve that Plover'; not
+     considering how indiscreetly they talk, when the proper Terms are,
+     'break that Goose,' 'thrust that Chicken,' 'spoil that Hen,'
+     'pierce that Plover.' If they are so much out in common Things, how
+     much more would they be with Herons, Cranes, and Peacocks."
+
+It must have required good judgment and constant watchfulness never to
+say "spoil that Hen," when it was a chicken; or else be thought
+hopelessly ill-bred.
+
+There were few state dinners, however, served in the American colonies,
+even in the large cities; there were few dinners, even, of many courses;
+not always were there many dishes. There were still seen in many homes
+more primitive forms of serving and eating meals, than were indicated by
+the lack of individual drinking-cups, the mutual use of a trencher, or
+even the utilization of the table top as a plate. In some homes an
+abundant dish, such as a vast bowl of suppawn and milk, a pumpkin stewed
+whole in its shell, or a savory and mammoth hotchpot was set, often
+smoking hot, on the table-board; and from this well-filled receptacle
+each hungry soul, armed with a long-handled pewter or wooden spoon,
+helped himself, sometimes ladling his great spoonfuls into a trencher
+or bowl, for more moderate and reserved after-consumption,--just as
+frequently eating directly from the bountiful dish with a spoon that
+came and went from dish to mouth without reproach, or thought of
+ill-manners. The accounts of travellers in all the colonies frequently
+tell of such repasts; some termed it eating in the fashion of the Dutch.
+The reports of old settlers often recall the general dish; and some very
+distinguished persons joined in the circle around it, and were glad to
+get it. Variety was of little account, compared to quantity and quality.
+A cheerful hospitality and grateful hearts filled the hollow place of
+formality and elegance.
+
+By the time that newspapers began to have advertisements in them--about
+1750--we find many more articles for use at the table; but often the
+names were different from those used to-day. Our sugar bowls were called
+sugar boxes and sugar pots; milk pitchers were milk jugs, milk ewers,
+and milk pots. Vegetable dishes were called basins, pudding dishes
+twifflers, small cups were called sneak cups.
+
+We have still to-day a custom much like one of olden times, when we have
+the crumbs removed from our tables after a course at dinner. Then a
+voider was passed around the table near the close of the dinner, and
+into it the persons at the table placed their trenchers, napkins, and
+the crumbs from the table. The voider was a deep wicker, wooden, or
+metal basket. In the _Boke of Nurture_, written in 1577, are these
+lines:--
+
+    "When meate is taken quyte awaye
+      And Voyders in presence,
+    Put you your trenchour in the same
+      and all your resydence.
+    Take you with your napkin & knyfe
+      the croms that are fore the,
+    In the Voyder your Napkin leave
+      for it is a curtesye."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+FOOD FROM FOREST AND SEA
+
+
+Though all the early explorers and travellers came to America eager to
+find precious and useful metals, they did not discover wealth and
+prosperity underground in mines, but on the top of the earth, in the
+woods and fields. To the forests they turned for food, and they did not
+turn in vain. Deer were plentiful everywhere, and venison was offered by
+the Indians to the first who landed from the ships. Some families lived
+wholly on venison for nine months of the year. In Virginia were vast
+numbers of red and fallow deer, the latter like those of England, except
+in the smaller number of branches of the antlers. They were so devoid of
+fear as to remain undisturbed by the approach of men; a writer of that
+day says: "Hard by the Fort two hundred in one herd have been usually
+observed." They were destroyed ruthlessly by a system of fire-hunting,
+in which tracts of forests were burned over, by starting a continuous
+circle of fire miles around, which burnt in toward the centre of the
+circle; thus the deer were driven into the middle, and hundreds were
+killed. This miserable, wholesale slaughter was not for venison, but for
+the sake of the hides, which were very valuable. They were used to make
+the durable and suitable buckskin breeches and jackets so much worn by
+the settlers; and they were also exported to Europe in large numbers. A
+tax was placed on hides for the support of the beloved William and Mary
+College.
+
+In Georgia, in 1735, the Indians sold a deer for sixpence. Deer were
+just as abundant in the more Northern colonies. At Albany a stag was
+sold readily by the Indians for a jack-knife or a few iron nails. The
+deer in winter came and fed from the hog-pens of Albany swine. Even in
+1695, a quarter of venison could be bought in New York City for
+ninepence. At the first Massachusetts Thanksgiving, in 1621, the Indians
+brought in five deer to the colonists for their feast. That year there
+was also "great store of wild turkies." These beautiful birds of gold
+and purple bronze were at first plentiful everywhere, and were of great
+weight, far larger than our domestic turkeys to-day. They came in flocks
+of a hundred, Evelyn says of three hundred on the Chesapeake, and they
+weighed thirty or forty pounds each: Josselyn says he saw one weighing
+sixty pounds. William Penn wrote that turkeys weighing thirty pounds
+apiece sold in his day and colony for a shilling only. They were shy
+creatures and fled inland from the white man, and by 1690 were rarely
+shot near the coast of New England, though in Georgia, in 1733, they
+were plentiful enough and cheap enough to sell for fourpence apiece.
+Flights of pigeons darkened the sky, and broke down the limbs of trees
+on which they lighted. From Maine to Virginia these vast flocks were
+seen. Some years pigeons were so plentiful that they were sold for a
+penny a dozen in Boston. Pheasant, partridge, woodcock, and quail
+abounded, plover, snipe, and curlew were in the marsh-woods; in fact, in
+Virginia every bird familiar to Englishmen at home was found save
+peacock and domestic fowl.
+
+Wild hare and squirrels were so many that they became pests, and so much
+grain was eaten by them that bounties were paid in many towns for the
+heads of squirrels. County treasuries were exhausted by these premiums.
+The Swedish traveller, Kalm, said that in Pennsylvania in one year,
+1749, L8000 was paid out for heads of black and gray squirrels, at
+threepence a head, which would show that over six hundred thousand were
+killed.
+
+From the woods came a sweet food-store, one specially grateful when
+sugar was so scarce and so high-priced,--wild honey, which the colonists
+eagerly gathered everywhere from hollow tree-trunks. Curiously enough,
+the traveller, Kalm, insisted that bees were not native in America, but
+were brought over by the English; that the Indians had no name for them
+and called them English flies.
+
+Governor Berkeley of Virginia, writing in 1706, called the maple the
+sugar-tree; he said:--
+
+     "The Sugar-Tree yields a kind of Sap or Juice which by boiling is
+     made into Sugar. This Juice is drawn out, by wounding the Trunk of
+     the Tree, and placing a Receiver under the Wound. It is said that
+     the Indians make one Pound of Sugar out of eight Pounds of the
+     Liquor. It is bright and moist with a full large Grain, the
+     Sweetness of it being like that of good Muscovada."
+
+The sugar-making season was ever hailed with delight by the boys of the
+household in colonial days, who found in this work in the woods a
+wonderful outlet for the love of wild life which was strong in them. It
+had in truth a touch of going a-gypsying, if any work as hard as
+sugaring-off could have anything common with gypsy life. The maple-trees
+were tapped as soon as the sap began to run in the trunk and showed at
+the end of the twigs; this was in late winter if mild, or in the
+earliest spring. A notch was cut in the trunk of the tree at a
+convenient height from the ground, usually four or five feet, and the
+running sap was guided by setting in the notch a semicircular basswood
+spout cut and set with a special tool called a tapping-gauge. In earlier
+days the trees were "boxed," that is, a great gash cut across the side
+and scooped out and down to gather the sap. This often proved fatal to
+the trees, and was abandoned. A trough, usually made of a butternut log
+about three feet long, was dug out, Indian fashion, and placed under the
+end of the spout. These troughs were made deep enough to hold about ten
+quarts. In later years a hole was bored in the tree with an augur; and
+sap-buckets were used instead of troughs.
+
+Sometimes these troughs were left in distant sugar-camps from year to
+year, turned bottom side up, through the summer and winter. It was more
+thrifty and tidy, however, to carry them home and store them. When this
+was done, the men and boys began work by drawing the troughs and spouts
+and provisions to the woods on hand-sleds. Sometimes a mighty man took
+in a load on his back. It is told of John Alexander of Brattleboro,
+Vermont, that he once went into camp _upon snowshoes_ carrying for three
+miles one five-pail iron kettle, two sap-buckets, an axe and trappings,
+a knapsack, four days' provisions, and a gun and ammunition.
+
+The master of ceremonies--the owner of the camp--selected the trees and
+drove the spouts, while the boys placed the troughs. Then the snow had
+to be shovelled away on a level spot about eighteen or twenty feet
+square, in which strong forked sticks were set twelve feet apart. Or the
+ground was chosen so that two small low-spreading and strong trees could
+be trimmed and used as forks. A heavy green stick was placed across from
+fork to fork, and the sugaring-off kettles, sometimes five in number,
+hung on it. Then dry wood had to be gathered for the fires; hard work it
+was to keep them constantly supplied. It was often cut a year in
+advance. As the sap collected in the troughs it was gathered in pails or
+buckets which, hung on a sap-yoke across the neck, were brought to the
+kettles and the sap set a-boiling down. When there was a "good run of
+sap," it was usually necessary to stay in the camp over night. Many
+times the campers stayed several nights. As the "good run" meant milder
+weather, a night or two was not a bitter experience; indeed, I have
+never heard any one speak nor seen any account of a night spent in a
+sugar-camp except with keen expressions of delight. If possible, the
+time was chosen during a term of moonlight; the snow still covered the
+fields and its pure shining white light could be seen through the trees.
+
+    "God makes sech nights, so white and still
+      Fer's you can look and listen.
+    Moonlight an' snow, on field and hill,
+      All silence and all glisten."
+
+The great silence, broken only by steady dropping of the sap, the
+crackle of blazing brush, and the occasional hooting of startled owls;
+the stars seen singly overhead through the openings of the trees,
+shining down the dark tunnel as bright as though there were no moon;
+above all, the clearness and sweetness of the first atmosphere of
+spring,--gave an exaltation of the senses and spirit which the country
+boy felt without understanding, and indeed without any formulated
+consciousness.
+
+If the camp were near enough to any group of farmhouses to have
+visitors, the last afternoon and evening in camp was made a country
+frolic. Great sled-loads of girls came out to taste the new sugar, to
+drop it into the snow to candy, and to have an evening of fun.
+
+Long ere the full riches of the forests were tested the colonists turned
+to another food-supply,--the treasures of the sea.
+
+The early voyagers and colonists came to the coasts of the New World to
+find gold and furs. The gold was not found by them nor their children's
+children in the land which is now the United States, till over two
+centuries had passed from the time of the settlement, and the gold-mines
+of California were opened. The furs were at first found and profitably
+gathered, but the timid fur-bearing animals were soon exterminated near
+the settlements. There was, however, a vast wealth ready for the
+colonists on the coast of the New World which was greater than gold,
+greater than furs; a wealth ever-obtainable, ever-replenished,
+ever-useful, ever-salable; it was _fish_. The sea, the rivers, the
+lakes, teemed with fish. Not only was there food for the settlers, but
+for the whole world, and all Europe desired fish to eat. The ships of
+the early discoverer, Gosnold, in 1602, were "pestered with cod."
+Captain John Smith, the acute explorer, famous in history as befriended
+by Pocahontas, went to New England, in 1614, to seek for whale, and
+instead he fished for cod. He secured sixty thousand in one month; and
+he wrote to his countrymen, "Let not the meanness of the word _fish_
+distaste you, for it will afford as good gold as the mines of Guiana or
+Potosi, with less hazard and charge, and more certainty and facility."
+This promise of wealth has proved true a thousandfold. Smith wrote home
+to England full accounts of the fisheries, of the proper equipment of a
+fishing-vessel, of the methods of fishing, the profits, all in a most
+enticing and familiar style. He said in his _Description of New
+England_:--
+
+     "What pleasure can be more than to recreate themselves before their
+     owne doores in their owne boates, upon the Sea, where man, woman,
+     and childe, with a small hooke and line by angling, may take
+     diverse sorts of excellent fish, at their pleasure? And is it not
+     pretty sport to pull up twopence, sixpence, or twelvepence, as fast
+     as you can hale and veare a line? If a man worke but three days in
+     seaven hee may get more than hee can spend unless hee will be
+     excessive.
+
+     "Young boyes and girles, salvages, or any other, be they never such
+     idlers may turne, carry, and returne fish without shame or either
+     great pain: hee is very idle that is past twelve years of age and
+     cannot doe so much: and shee is very old that cannot spin a thread
+     to catch them."
+
+His accounts and similar ones were so much read in England that when the
+Puritans asked King James of England for permission to come to America,
+and the king asked what profit would be found by their emigration, he
+was at once answered, "Fishing." Whereupon he said in turn, "In truth
+'tis an honest trade; 'twas the apostles' own calling." Yet in spite of
+their intent to fish, the first English ships came but poorly provided
+for fishing, and the settlers had little success at first even in
+getting fish for their own food. Elder Brewster of Plymouth, who had
+been a courtier in Queen Elizabeth's time, and had seen and eaten many
+rich feasts, had nothing to eat at one time but clams. Yet he could give
+thanks to God that he was "permitted to suck of the abundance of the
+seas and the treasures hid in the sand." The Indian Squanto showed the
+Pilgrims many practical methods of fishing, among them one of treading
+out eels from the brook with his feet and catching them with his hands.
+And every ship brought in either cod-hooks and lines, mackerel-hooks and
+lines, herring-nets, seines, shark-hooks, bass-nets, squid-lines,
+eel-pots, coils of rope and cable, "drails, barbels, pens, gaffs," or
+mussel-hooks.
+
+Josselyn, in his _New England's Rarities_, written in 1672, enumerated
+over two hundred kinds of fish that were caught in New England waters.
+
+Lobsters certainly were plentiful enough to prevent starvation. The
+minister Higginson, writing of lobsters at Salem, said that many of them
+weighed twenty-five pounds apiece, and that "the least boy in the
+plantation may catch and eat what he will of them." In 1623, when the
+ship _Anne_ arrived from England, bringing many of the wives and
+children of the Pilgrims who had come in the first ships, the only
+feast of welcome that the poor husbands had to offer the newcomers was
+"a lobster or a piece of fish without bread or anything else but a cup
+of spring water."
+
+Patriarchal lobsters five and six feet long were caught in New York Bay.
+The traveller, Van der Donck, says "those a foot long are better for
+serving at table." Truly a lobster six feet long would seem a little
+awkward to serve on a dinner table. Eddis, in his _Letters from
+America_, written in 1792, says these vast lobsters were caught in New
+York waters until Revolutionary days, when "since the incessant
+cannonading, they have entirely forsaken the coast; not one having been
+taken or seen since the commencement of hostilities." Beside these great
+shell-fish the giant lobster confined in our New York Aquarium in 1897
+seems but a dwarf. In Virginia waters lobsters were caught, and vast
+crabs, often a foot in length and six inches broad, with a long tail and
+many legs. One of these crabs furnished a sufficient meal for four men.
+
+From the gossiping pages of the Labadist missionaries who came to
+America in 1697 we find hints of good fare in oysters in Brooklyn.
+
+     "Then was thrown upon the fire, to be roasted, a pail full of
+     Gowanes oysters which are the best in the country. They are fully
+     as good as those of England, better than those we eat at Falmouth.
+     I had to try some of them raw. They are large and full, some of
+     them not less than a foot long. Others are young and small. In
+     consequence of the great quantities of them everybody keeps the
+     shells for the burning of lime. They pickle the oysters in small
+     casks and send them to Barbados."
+
+Van der Donck corroborates the foot-long oysters seen by the Labadist
+travellers. He says the "large oysters roasted or stewed make a good
+bite,"--a very good bite, it would seem to us.
+
+Strachey, in his _Historie of Travaile into Virginia_, says he saw
+oysters in Virginia that were thirteen inches long. Fortunately for the
+starving Virginians, oyster banks rose above the surface at ebb-tide at
+the mouth of the Elizabeth River, and in 1609 a large number of these
+famished Virginia colonists found in these oyster banks a means of
+preservation of life.
+
+As might be expected of any country so intersected with arms of the sea
+and fresh-water streams, Virginia at the time of settlement teemed with
+fish. The Indians killed them in the brooks by striking them with
+sticks, and it is said the colonists scooped them up in frying-pans.
+Horses ridden into the rivers stepped on the fish and killed them. In
+one cast of a seine the governor, Sir Thomas Dale, caught five thousand
+sturgeon as large as cod. Some sturgeon were twelve feet long. The works
+of Captain John Smith, Rolfe's _Relation_, and other books of early
+travellers, all tell of the enormous amount of fish in Virginia.
+
+The New York rivers were also full of fish, and the bays; their plenty
+in New Netherland inspired the first poet of that colony to rhyming
+enumeration of the various kinds of fish found there; among them were
+sturgeon--beloved of the Indians and despised of Christians; and
+terrapin--not despised by any one. "Some persons," wrote the Dutch
+traveller, Van der Donck, in 1656, "prepare delicious dishes from the
+water terrapin, which is luscious food." The Middle and Southern states
+paid equally warm but more tardy tribute to the terrapin's reputation as
+luscious food.
+
+While other fish were used everywhere for food, cod was the great staple
+of the fishing industry. By the year 1633 Dorchester and Marblehead had
+started in the fisheries for trading purposes. Sturgeon also was caught
+at a little later date, and bass and alewives.
+
+Morton, in his _New England Canaan_, written in 1636, says, "I myself at
+the turning of the tyde have seen such multitudes of sea bass that it
+seemed to me that one might goe over their backs dri-shod."
+
+The regulation of fish-weirs soon became an important matter in all
+towns where streams let alewives up from the sea. The New England
+ministers took a hand in promoting and encouraging the fisheries, as
+they did all positive social movements and commercial benefits. Rev.
+Hugh Peter in Salem gave the fisheries a specially good turn. Fishermen
+were excused from military training, and portions of the common stock of
+corn were assigned to them. The General Court of Massachusetts exempted
+"vessels and stock" from "country charges" (which were taxes) for seven
+years. Seashore towns assigned free lands to each boat to be used for
+stays and flakes for drying. As early as 1640 three hundred thousand
+dried codfish were sent to market from New England.
+
+Codfish consisted of three sorts, "marchantable, middling, and refuse."
+The first grade was sold chiefly to Roman Catholic Europe, to supply the
+constant demands of the fast-days of that religion, and also those of
+the Church of England; the second was consumed at home or in the
+merchant vessels of New England; the third went to the negroes of the
+West Indies, and was often called Jamaica fish. The dun-fish or
+dumb-fish, as the word was sometimes written, were the best; so called
+from the dun-color. Fish was always eaten in New England for a Saturday
+dinner; and Mr. Palfrey, the historian, says that until this century no
+New England dinner on Saturday, even a formal dinner party, was complete
+without dun-fish being served.
+
+Of course the first fishing-vessels had to be built and sent from
+England. Some carried fifty men. They arrived on the coast in early
+spring, and by midsummer sailed home. The crew had for wages one-third
+share of the fish and oil; another third paid for the men's food, the
+salt, nets, hooks, lines, etc.; the other third went to the ship's
+owners for profit.
+
+This system was not carried out in New England. There, each fisherman
+worked on "his own hook"--and it was literally his own hook; for a tally
+was kept of the fish caught by each man, and the proceeds of the trip
+were divided in proportion to the number of fish each caught. When there
+was a big run of fish, the men never stopped to eat or sleep, but when
+food was held to them gnawed it off while their hands were employed with
+the fish-lines. With every fishing-vessel that left Gloucester and
+Marblehead, the chief centres of the fishing industries, went a boy of
+ten or twelve to learn to be a skilled fisherman. He was called a
+"cut-tail," for he cut a wedge-shaped bit from the tail of every fish he
+caught, and when the fish were sorted out the cut-tails showed the boy's
+share of the profit.
+
+For centuries, fish was plentiful and cheap in New England. The
+traveller Bennet wrote of Boston, in 1740:--
+
+     "Fish is exceedingly cheap. They sell a fine cod, will weigh a
+     dozen pounds or more, just taken out of the sea for about twopence
+     sterling. They have smelts, too, which they sell as cheap as sprats
+     in London. Salmon, too, they have in great plenty, and these they
+     sell for about a shilling apiece which will weigh fourteen or
+     fifteen pounds."
+
+Two kinds of delicious fish, beloved, perhaps, above all others
+to-day,--salmon and shad,--seem to have been lightly regarded in
+colonial days. The price of salmon--less than a penny a pound--shows the
+low estimation in which it was held in the early years of the eighteenth
+century. It is told that farm-laborers in the vicinity of the
+Connecticut River when engaged to work stipulated that they should have
+salmon for dinner but once a week.
+
+Shad were profoundly despised; it was even held to be somewhat
+disreputable to eat them; and the story is told of a family in Hadley,
+Massachusetts, who were about to dine on shad, that, hearing a knock at
+the door, they would not open it till the platter holding the obnoxious
+shad had been hidden. At first they were fed chiefly to hogs. Two shad
+for a penny was the ignoble price in 1733, and it was never much higher
+until after the Revolution. After shad and salmon acquired a better
+reputation as food, the falls of various rivers became great resorts for
+American fishermen as they had been for the Indians. Both kinds of fish
+were caught in scoop-nets and seines below the falls. Men came from a
+distance and loaded horses and carts with the fish to carry home. Every
+farmhouse near was filled with visitors. It was estimated that at the
+falls at South Hadley there were fifteen hundred horses in one day.
+
+Salted fish was as carefully prepared and amiably regarded for home use
+in New England and New York as in England and Holland at the same date.
+The ling and herring of the old countries of Europe gave place in
+America to cod, shad, and mackerel. The greatest pains was taken in
+preparing, drying, and salting the plentiful fish. It is said that in
+New York towns, such as New York and Brooklyn, after shad became a
+popular fish, great heaps were left when purchased at each door, and
+that the necessary cleaning and preparation of the shad was done on the
+street. As all housewives purchased shad and salted and packed at about
+the same time, those public scavengers, the domestic hogs who roamed
+the town streets unchecked (and ever welcomed), must have been specially
+useful at shad-time.
+
+Not in the waters, but of it, were the magnificent tribes of marine fowl
+that, undiminished by the feeble weapons and few numbers of the Indians,
+had peopled for centuries the waters of the New World. The Chesapeake
+and its tributaries furnished each autumn vast feeding-grounds of wild
+celery and other aquatic plants to millions of those creatures. The
+firearms of Captain John Smith and his two companions were poor things
+compared with the fowling-pieces of to-day, but with their three shots
+they killed a hundred and forty-eight ducks at one firing. The splendid
+wild swan wheeled and trumpeted in the clear autumn air; the wild geese
+flew there in their beautiful V-shaped flight; duck in all the varieties
+known to modern sportsmen--canvas-back, mallard, widgeon, redhead,
+oxeye, dottrel--rested on the Chesapeake waters in vast flocks a mile
+wide and seven miles long. Governor Berkeley named also brant, shell
+drake, teal, and blewings. The sound of their wings was said to be "like
+a great storm coming over the water." For centuries these ducks have
+been killed by the white man, and still they return each autumn to their
+old feeding-places.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+INDIAN CORN
+
+
+A great field of tall Indian corn waving its stately and luxuriant green
+blades, its graceful spindles, and glossy silk under the hot August sun,
+should be not only a beautiful sight to every American, but a suggestive
+one; one to set us thinking of all that Indian corn means to us in our
+history. It was a native of American soil at the settlement of this
+country, and under full and thoroughly intelligent cultivation by the
+Indians, who were also native sons of the New World. Its abundance,
+adaptability, and nourishing qualities not only saved the colonists'
+lives, but altered many of their methods of living, especially their
+manner of cooking and their tastes in food.
+
+One of the first things that every settler in a new land has to learn is
+that he must find food in that land; that he cannot trust long to any
+supplies of food which he has brought with him, or to any fresh supplies
+which he has ordered to be sent after him. He must turn at once to
+hunting, fishing, planting, to furnish him with food grown and found in
+the very place where he is.
+
+This was quickly learned by the colonists in America, except in
+Virginia, where they had sad starving-times before all were convinced
+that corn was a better crop for settlers than silk or any of the many
+hoped-for productions which might be valuable in one sense but which
+could not be eaten. Powhatan, the father of the Indian princess
+Pocahontas, was one of the first to "send some of his People that they
+may teach the English how to sow the Grain of his Country." Captain John
+Smith, ever quick to learn of every one and ever practical, got two
+Indians, in the year 1608, to show him how to break up and plant forty
+acres of corn, which yielded him a good crop. A succeeding governor of
+Virginia, Sir Thomas Dale, equally practical, intelligent, and
+determined, assigned small farms to each colonist, and encouraged and
+enforced the growing of corn. Soon many thousand bushels were raised.
+There was a terrible Indian massacre in 1622, for the careless
+colonists, in order to be free to give their time to the raising of that
+new and exceedingly alluring and high-priced crop, tobacco, had given
+the Indians firearms to go hunting game for them; and the lesson of easy
+killing with powder and shot, when once learned, was turned with havoc
+upon the white men. The following year comparatively little corn was
+planted, as the luxuriant foliage made a perfect ambush for the close
+approach of the savages to the settlements. There was, of course,
+scarcity and famine as the result; and a bushel of corn-meal became
+worth twenty to thirty shillings, which sum had a value equal to twenty
+to thirty dollars to-day. The planters were each compelled by the
+magistrates the following year to raise an ample amount of corn to
+supply all the families; and to save a certain amount for seed as well.
+There has been no lack of corn since that time in Virginia.
+
+The French colonists in Louisiana, perhaps because they were accustomed
+to more dainty food than the English, fiercely hated corn, as have the
+Irish in our own day. A band of French women settlers fairly raised a
+"petticoat rebellion" in revolt against its daily use. A despatch of the
+governor of Louisiana says of these rebels:--
+
+     "The men in the colony begin through habit to use corn as an
+     article of food; but the women, who are mostly Parisians, have for
+     this food a dogged aversion, which has not been subdued. They
+     inveigh bitterly against His Grace, the Bishop of Quebec, who, they
+     say, has enticed them away from home under pretext of sending them
+     to enjoy the milk and honey of the land of promise."
+
+This hatred of corn was shared by other races. An old writer says:--
+
+     "Peter Martyr could magnifie the Spaniards, of whom he reports they
+     led a miserable life for three days together, with parched grain of
+     maize onlie"--
+
+which, when compared with the diet of New England settlers for weeks at
+a time, seems such a bagatelle as to be scarce worth the mention of
+Peter Martyr. By tradition, still commemorated at Forefathers' Dinners,
+the ration of Indian corn supplied to each person in the colony in time
+of famine was but five kernels.
+
+The stores brought over by the Pilgrims were poor and inadequate enough;
+the beef and pork were tainted, the fish rotten, the butter and cheese
+corrupted. European wheat and seeds did not mature well. Soon, as
+Bradford says in his now famous _Log-Book_, in his picturesque and
+forcible English, "the grim and grizzled face of starvation stared" at
+them. The readiest supply to replenish the scanty larder was fish, but
+the English made surprisingly bungling work over fishing, and soon the
+most unfailing and valuable supply was the native Indian corn, or
+"Guinny wheat," or "Turkie wheat," as it was called by the colonists.
+
+Famine and pestilence had left eastern Massachusetts comparatively bare
+of inhabitants at the time of the settlement of Plymouth; and the vacant
+cornfields of the dead Indian cultivators were taken and planted by the
+weak and emaciated Plymouth men, who never could have cleared new
+fields. From the teeming sea, in the April run of fish, was found the
+needed fertilizer. Says Governor Bradford:--
+
+     "In April of the first year they began to plant their corne, in
+     which service Squanto stood them in great stead, showing them both
+     ye manner how to set it, and after, how to dress and tend it."
+
+From this planting sprang not only the most useful food, but the first
+and most pregnant industry of the colonists.
+
+The first fields and crops were communal, and the result was disastrous.
+The third year, at the sight of the paralyzed settlement, Governor
+Bradford wisely decided, as did Governor Dale of Virginia, that "they
+should set corne every man for his owne particuler, furnishing a portion
+for public officers, fishermen, etc., who could not work, and in that
+regard trust to themselves." Thus personal energy succeeded to communal
+inertia; Bradford wrote that women and children cheerfully worked in the
+fields to raise corn which should be their very own.
+
+A field of corn on the coast of Massachusetts or Narragansett or by the
+rivers of Virginia, growing long before any white man had ever been seen
+on these shores, was precisely like the same field planted three hundred
+years later by our American farmers. There was the same planting in
+hills, the same number of stalks in the hill, with pumpkin-vines running
+among the hills, and beans climbing the stalks. The hills of the Indians
+were a trifle nearer together than those of our own day are usually set,
+for the native soil was more fertile.
+
+The Indians taught the colonists much more than the planting and raising
+of corn; they showed also how to grind the corn and cook it in many
+palatable ways. The various foods which we use to-day made from Indian
+corn are all cooked just as the Indians cooked them at the time of the
+settlement of the country; and they are still called with Indian names,
+such as hominy, pone, suppawn, samp, succotash.
+
+The Indian method of preparing maize or corn was to steep or parboil it
+in hot water for twelve hours, then to pound the grain in a mortar or a
+hollowed stone in the field, till it was a coarse meal. It was then
+sifted in a rather closely woven basket, and the large grains which did
+not pass through the sieve were again pounded and sifted.
+
+Samp was often pounded in olden times in a primitive and picturesque
+Indian mortar made of a hollowed block of wood or a stump of a tree,
+which had been cut off about three feet from the ground. The pestle was
+a heavy block of wood shaped like the inside of the mortar, and fitted
+with a handle attached to one side. This block was fastened to the top
+of a young and slender tree, a growing sapling, which was bent over and
+thus gave a sort of spring which pulled the pestle up after being
+pounded down on the corn. This was called a sweep and mortar mill.
+
+They could be heard at a long distance. Two New Hampshire pioneers made
+clearings about a quarter of a mile apart and built houses. There was an
+impenetrable gully and thick woods between the cabins; and the blazed
+path was a long distance around, so the wives of the settlers seldom saw
+each other or any other woman. It was a source of great comfort and
+companionship to them both that they could signal to each other every
+day by pounding on their mortars. And they had an ingenious system of
+communication which one spring morning summoned one to the home of the
+other, where she arrived in time to be the first to welcome fine twin
+babies.
+
+After these simple stump and sapling mortars were abandoned elsewhere
+they were used on Long Island, and it was jestingly told that sailors
+in a fog could always know on what shore they were, when they could hear
+the pounding of the samp-mortars on Long Island.
+
+Rude hand-mills next were used, which were called quernes, or quarnes.
+Some are still in existence and known as samp-mills. Windmills followed,
+of which the Indians were much afraid, dreading "their long arms and
+great teeth biting the corn in pieces"; and thinking some evil spirit
+turned the arms. As soon as maize was plentiful, English mills for
+grinding meal were started in many towns. There was a windmill at
+Watertown, Massachusetts, in 1631. In 1633 the first water-mill, at
+Dorchester, was built, and in Ipswich a grist-mill was built in 1635.
+The mill built by Governor John Winthrop in New London is still
+standing.
+
+The first windmill erected in America was one built and set up by
+Governor Yeardley in Virginia in 1621. By 1649 there were five
+water-mills, four windmills, and a great number of horse and hand mills
+in Virginia. Millers had one-sixth of the meal they ground for toll.
+
+Suppawn was another favorite of the settlers, and was an Indian dish
+made from Indian corn; it was a thick corn-meal and milk porridge. It
+was soon seen on every Dutch table, for the Dutch were very fond of all
+foods made from all kinds of grain; and it is spoken of by all
+travellers in early New York, and in the Southern colonies.
+
+Samp and samp porridge were soon abundant dishes. Samp is Indian corn
+pounded to a coarsely ground powder. Roger Williams wrote of it:--
+
+     "Nawsamp is a kind of meal pottage unparched. From this the English
+     call their samp, which is the Indian corn beaten and boiled and
+     eaten hot or cold with milk and butter, and is a diet exceedingly
+     wholesome for English bodies."
+
+The Swedish scientist, Professor Kalm, told that the Indians gave him
+"fresh maize-bread, baked in an oblong shape, mixed with dried
+huckleberries, which lay as close in it as raisins in a plum pudding."
+
+Roger Williams said that sukquttahhash was "corn seethed like beans."
+Our word "succotash" we now apply to corn cooked with beans. Pones were
+the red men's appones.
+
+The love of the Indians for "roasting ears" was quickly shared by the
+white man. In Virginia a series of plantings of corn were made from the
+first of April to the last of June, to afford a three months' succession
+of roasting ears.
+
+The traveller, Strachey, writing of the Indians in 1618, said: "They
+lap their corn in rowles within the leaves of the come and so boyle yt
+for a dayntie." This method of cooking we have also retained to the
+present day.
+
+It seemed to me very curious to read in Governor Winthrop's journal,
+written in Boston about 1630, that when corn was "parched," as he called
+it, it turned inside out and was "white and floury within"; and to think
+that then little English children were at that time learning what
+pop-corn was, and how it looked when it was parched, or popped.
+
+Hasty pudding had been made in England of wheat-flour or oatmeal and
+milk, and the name was given to boiled puddings of corn-meal and water.
+It was not a very suitable name, for corn-meal should never be cooked
+hastily, but requires long boiling or baking. The hard Indian pudding
+slightly sweetened and boiled in a bag was everywhere made. It was told
+that many New England families had three hundred and sixty-five such
+puddings in a year.
+
+The virtues of "jonny-cake" have been loudly sung in the interesting
+pages of _Shepherd Tom_. The way the corn should be carried to the mill,
+the manner in which it should be ground, the way in which the stones
+should revolve, and the kind of stones, receive minute description, as
+does the mixing and the baking, to the latter of which the middle board
+of red oak from the head of a flour-barrel is indispensable as a
+bakeboard, while the fire to bake with must be of walnut logs. Hasty
+pudding, corn dumplings, and corn-meal porridge, so eminently good that
+it was ever mentioned with respect in the plural, as "them porridge,"
+all are described with the exuberant joyousness of a happy, healthful
+old age in remembrance of a happy, high-spirited, and healthful youth.
+
+The harvesting of the corn afforded one of the few scenes of gayety in
+the lives of the colonists. A diary of one Ames, of Dedham,
+Massachusetts, in the year 1767, thus describes a corn-husking, and most
+ungallantly says naught of the red ear and attendant osculation:--
+
+     "Made a husking Entertainm't. Possibly this leafe may last a
+     Century and fall into the hands of some inquisitive Person for
+     whose Entertainm't I will inform him that now there is a Custom
+     amongst us of making an Entertainm't at husking of Indian Corn
+     whereto all the neighboring Swains are invited and after the Corn
+     is finished they like the Hottentots give three Cheers or huzza's
+     but cannot carry in the husks without a Rhum bottle; they feign
+     great Exertion but do nothing till Rhum enlivens them, when all is
+     done in a trice, then after a hearty Meal about 10 at Night they go
+     to their pastimes."
+
+There was one way of eating corn which was spoken of by all the early
+writers and travellers which we should not be very well satisfied with
+now, but it shows us how useful and necessary corn was at that time, and
+how much all depended on it. This preparation of corn was called nocake
+or nookick. An old writer named Wood thus defined it:--
+
+     "It is Indian corn parched in the hot ashes, the ashes being sifted
+     from it; it is afterwards beaten to powder and put into a long
+     leatherne bag trussed at the Indian's backe like a knapsacke, out
+     of which they take three spoonsful a day."
+
+It was held to be the most nourishing food known, and in the smallest
+and most condensed form. Both Indians and white men usually carried it
+in a pouch when they went on long journeys, and mixed it with snow in
+the winter and water in summer. Gookin says it was sweet, toothsome, and
+hearty. With only this nourishment the Indians could carry loads "fitter
+for elephants than men." Roger Williams says a spoonful of this meal and
+water made him many a good meal. When we read this we are not surprised
+that the Pilgrims could keep alive on what is said was at one time of
+famine their food for a day,--five kernels of corn apiece. The apostle
+Eliot, in his Indian Bible, always used the word nookick for the English
+words flour or meal.
+
+We ought to think of the value of food in those days; and we may be sure
+the governor and his council thought corn of value when they took it for
+taxes and made it a legal currency just like gold and silver, and
+forbade any one to feed it to pigs. If you happen to see the price of
+corn during those years down to Revolutionary times, you will, perhaps,
+be surprised to see how much the price varied. From ten shillings a
+bushel in 1631, to two shillings in 1672, to twenty in 1747, to two in
+1751, and one hundred shillings at the opening of the Revolution. In
+these prices of corn, as in the price of all other articles at this
+time, the difference was in the money, which had a constantly changing
+value, not in the article itself or its usefulness. The corn had a
+steady value, it always furnished just so much food; and really was a
+standard itself rather than measured and valued by the poor and shifting
+money.
+
+There are many other interesting facts connected with the early culture
+of corn: of the finding hidden in caves or "caches" in the ground the
+Indian's corn which he had stored for seed; of the sacred "corn-dances"
+of the Indians; that the first patent granted in England to an American
+was to a Philadelphia woman for a mill to grind a kind of hominy; of
+the great profit to the colonists in corn-raising, for the careless and
+greedy Indians always ate up all their corn as soon as possible, then
+had to go out and trap beavers in the woods to sell the skins to the
+colonists for corn to keep them from starving. One colonist planted
+about eight bushels of seed-corn. He raised from this eight hundred and
+sixty-four bushels of corn, which he sold to the Indians for beaver
+skins which gave him a profit of L327.
+
+Many games were played with the aid of kernels of corn: fox and geese,
+checkers, "hull gull, how many," and games in which the corn served as
+counters.
+
+The ears of corn were often piled into the attic until the floor was a
+foot deep with them. I once entered an ell bedroom in a Massachusetts
+farmhouse where the walls, rafters, and four-post bedstead were hung
+solid with ears of yellow corn, which truly "made a sunshine in a shady
+place."
+
+Some of the preparation of corn fell upon the boys; it was their regular
+work all winter in the evening firelight to shell corn from the ears by
+scraping them on the iron edge of the wooden shovel or on the fire-peel.
+My father told me that even in his childhood in the first quarter of
+this century many families of moderate means fastened the long-handled
+frying-pan across a tub and drew the corn ears across the sharp edge of
+the handle of the pan. I note in Peter Parley's reminiscences of his
+childhood a similar use of a frying-pan handle in his home. Other
+farmers set the edge of a knife blade in a piece of wood and scraped on
+the back of the blade. In some households the corn was pounded into
+hominy in wooden mortars. An old corn-sheller used in western
+Massachusetts is here shown.
+
+When the corn was shelled, the cobs were not carelessly discarded or
+disregarded. They were stored often in a lean-to or loft in the kitchen
+ell; from thence they were brought down in skepes or boxes about a
+bushel at a time; and after being used by the children as playthings to
+build "cob-houses," were employed as light wood for the fire. They had a
+special use in many households for smoking hams; and their smoke was
+deemed to impart a specially delightful flavor to hams and bacon.
+
+One special use of corn should be noted. By order of the government of
+Massachusetts Bay in 1623, it was used as ballots in public voting. At
+annual elections of the governors' assistants in each town, a kernel of
+corn was deposited to signify a favorable vote upon the nominee, while a
+bean signified a negative vote; "and if any free-man shall put in more
+than one Indian corn or bean he shall forfeit for every such offence Ten
+Pounds."
+
+The choice of a national flower or plant is much talked about to-day.
+Aside from the beauty of maize when growing and its wonderful
+adaptability in every part for decoration, would not the noble and
+useful part played by Indian corn in our early history entitle it to be
+our first choice?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+MEAT AND DRINK
+
+
+The food brought in ships from Europe to the colonists was naturally
+limited by the imperfect methods of transportation which then existed.
+Nothing like refrigerators were known; no tinned foods were even thought
+of; ways of packing were very crude and careless; so the kinds of
+provisions which would stand the long voyage on a slow sailing-vessel
+were very few. The settlers turned at once, as all settlers in a new
+land should, to the food-supplies found in the new home; of these the
+three most important ones were corn, fish, and game. I have told of
+their plenty, their value, and their use. There were many other
+bountiful and good foods, among them pumpkins or pompions, as they were
+at first called.
+
+The pumpkin has sturdily kept its own place on the New England farm,
+varying in popularity and use, but always of value as easy of growth,
+easy of cooking, and easy to keep in a dried form. Yet the colonists did
+not welcome the pumpkin with eagerness, even in times of great want.
+They were justly rebuked for their indifference and dislike by Johnson
+in his _Wonder-working Providence_, who called the pumpkin "a fruit
+which the Lord fed his people with till corn and cattle increased"; and
+another pumpkin-lover referred to "the times wherein old Pompion was a
+saint." One colonial poet gives the golden vegetable this tribute:--
+
+    "We have pumpkins at morning and pumpkins at noon,
+    If it were not for pumpkins we should be undone."
+
+I am very sure were I living on dried corn and scant shell-fish, as the
+Pilgrims were forced to do, I should have turned with delight to
+"pompion-sause" as a change of diet. Stewed pumpkins and pumpkin bread
+were coarse ways of using the fruit for food. Pumpkin bread--made of
+half Indian meal--was not very pleasing in appearance. A traveller in
+1704 called it an "awkward food." It is eaten in Connecticut to this
+day. The Indians dried pumpkins and strung them for winter use, and the
+colonists followed the Indian custom.
+
+In Virginia pumpkins were equally plentiful and useful. Ralph Hamor, in
+his _True Discourse_, says they grew in such abundance that a hundred
+were often observed to spring from one seed. The Virginia Indians boiled
+beans, peas, corn, and pumpkins together, and the colonists liked the
+dish. In the trying times at "James-Citty," the plentiful pumpkins
+played a great part in providing food-supplies for the starving
+Virginians.
+
+Squashes were also native vegetables. The name is Indian. To show the
+wonderful and varied way in which the English spelt Indian names let me
+tell you that Roger Williams called them askutasquashes; the Puritan
+minister Higginson, squantersquashes; the traveller Josselyn,
+squontorsquashes, and the historian Wood, isquoukersquashes.
+
+Potatoes were known to New Englanders, but were rare and when referred
+to were probably sweet potatoes. It was a long time before they were
+much liked. A farmer at Hadley, Massachusetts, had what he thought a
+very large crop in 1763--it was eight bushels. It was believed by many
+persons that if a man ate them every day, he could not live seven years.
+In the spring all that were left on hand were carefully burned, for many
+believed that if cattle or horses ate these potatoes they would die.
+They were first called, when carried to England, Virginia potatoes; then
+they became much liked and grown in Ireland; then the Irish settlers in
+New Hampshire brought them back to this continent, and now they are
+called, very senselessly, Irish potatoes. Many persons fancied the balls
+were what should be eaten, and said they "did not much desire them." A
+fashionable way of cooking them was with butter, sugar, and grape-juice;
+this was mixed with dates, lemons, and mace; seasoned with cinnamon,
+nutmeg, and pepper; then covered with a frosting of sugar--and you had
+to hunt well to find the potato among all these other things.
+
+In the Carolinas the change in English diet was effected by the sweet
+potato. This root was cooked in various ways: it was roasted in the
+ashes, boiled, made into puddings, used as a substitute for bread, made
+into pancakes which a foreigner said tasted as though composed of sweet
+almonds; and in every way it was liked and was so plentiful that even
+the slaves fed upon it.
+
+Beans were abundant, and were baked by the Indians in earthen pots just
+as we bake them to-day. The settlers planted peas, parsnips, turnips,
+and carrots, which grew and thrived. Huckleberries, blackberries,
+strawberries, and grapes grew wild. Apple-trees were planted at once,
+and grew well in New England and the Middle states. Twenty years after
+the Roman Catholic settlement of Maryland the fruitful orchards were
+conspicuously flourishing.
+
+Johnson, writing in 1634, said that all then in New England could have
+apple, pear, and quince tarts instead of pumpkin-pies. They made
+apple-slump, apple-mose, apple-crowdy, apple-tarts, mess apple-pies, and
+puff apple-pies. The Swedish parson, Dr. Acrelius, writing home in 1758
+an account of the settlement of Delaware, said:--
+
+     "Apple-pie is used through the whole year, and when fresh apples
+     are no longer to be had, dried ones are used. It is the evening
+     meal of children. House-pie, in country places, is made of apples
+     neither peeled nor freed from their cores, and its crust is not
+     broken if a wagon wheel goes over it."
+
+The making of a portion of the autumn's crop of apples into dried
+apples, apple-sauce, and apple-butter for winter was preceded in many
+country homes by an apple-paring. The cheerful kitchen of a farmhouse
+was set with an array of empty pans, tubs, and baskets; of sharp knives
+and heaped-up barrels of apples. A circle of laughing faces completed
+the scene, and the barrels of apples were quickly emptied by the many
+skilful hands. The apples intended for drying were strung on linen
+thread and hung on the kitchen and attic rafters. The following day the
+stout crane in the open fireplace was hung with brass kettles which were
+filled with the pared apples, sweet and sour in proper proportions, the
+sour at the bottom since they required more time to cook. If quinces
+could be had, they were added to give flavor, and molasses, or
+boiled-down pungent "apple-molasses," was added for sweetening. As there
+was danger that the sauce would burn over the roaring logs, many
+housewives placed clean straw at the bottom of the kettle to keep the
+apples from the fiercest heat. Days were spent in preparing the winter's
+stock of apple-sauce, but when done and placed in barrels in the cellar,
+it was always ready for use, and when slightly frozen was a keen relish.
+Apple-butter was made of the pared apples boiled down with cider.
+
+Wheat did not at first ripen well, so white bread was for a time rarely
+eaten. Rye grew better, so bread made of "rye-an'-injun," which was half
+rye-meal, half corn-meal, was used instead. Bake-shops were so many in
+number in all the towns that it is evident that housewives in towns and
+villages did not make bread in every home as to-day, but bought it at
+the baker's.
+
+At the time when America was settled, no European peoples drank water as
+we do to-day, for a constant beverage. The English drank ale, the Dutch
+beer, the French and Spanish light wines, for every-day use. Hence it
+seemed to the colonists a great trial and even a very dangerous
+experiment to drink water in the New World. They were forced to do it,
+however, in many cases; and to their surprise found that it agreed with
+them very well, and that their health improved. Governor Winthrop of
+Massachusetts, who was a most sensible and thoughtful man, soon had
+water used as a constant drink by all in his household.
+
+As cows increased in number and were cared for, milk of course was added
+to the every-day fare. Rev. Mr. Higginson wrote in 1630 that milk cost
+in Salem but a penny a quart; while another minister, John Cotton, said
+that milk and ministers were the only things cheap in New England. At
+that time milk cost but a penny and a quarter a quart in old England.
+
+Milk became a very important part of the food of families in the
+eighteenth century. In 1728 a discussion took place in the Boston
+newspapers as to the expense of keeping a family "of middling figure."
+These writers all named only bread and milk for breakfast and supper.
+Ten years later a minister, calculating the expenses of his family, set
+down bread and milk for both breakfast and supper. Milk and hasty
+pudding, milk and stewed pumpkin, milk and baked apples, milk and
+berries, were variations. In winter, when milk was scarce, sweetened
+cider diluted with water was used instead. Sometimes bread was soaked
+with this mixture. It is said that children were usually very fond of
+it.
+
+As comparatively few New England families in the seventeenth century
+owned churns, I cannot think that many made butter; of course families
+of wealth ate it, but it was not common as to-day. In the inventories of
+the property of the early settlers of Maine there is but one churn
+named. Butter was worth from threepence to sixpence a pound. As cattle
+increased the duties of the dairy grew, and soon were never-ceasing and
+ever-tiring. The care of cream and making of butter was in the
+eighteenth century the duty of every good wife and dame in the country,
+and usually in the town.
+
+Though the shape and ease of action of churns varied, still
+butter-making itself varied little from the same work to-day. Several
+old-time churns are shown, the revolving one being the most unusual.
+
+Cheese was plentiful and good in all the Northern colonies. It was also
+an unending care from the time the milk was set over the fire to warm
+and then to curdle; through the breaking of the curds in the
+cheese-basket; through shaping into cheeses and pressing in the
+cheese-press, placing them on the cheese-ladders, and constantly turning
+and rubbing them. An old cheese-press, cheese-ladder, and cheese-basket
+from Deerfield Memorial Hall are shown in the illustration.
+
+In all households, even in those of great wealth and many servants,
+assistance was given in all housewifery by the daughters of the
+household. In the South it was chiefly by superintendence and teaching
+through actual exposition the negro slaves; in the North it was by the
+careful performance of the work.
+
+The manuscript cooking receipt-book of many an ancient dame shows the
+great care they took in family cooking. English methods of cooking at
+the time of the settlement of this country were very complicated and
+very laborious.
+
+It was a day of hashes, ragouts, soups, hotch-pots, etc. There were no
+great joints served until the time of Charles the First. In almost every
+sixteenth-century receipt for cooking meat, appear some such directions
+as these: "Y-mynce it, smyte them on gobbets, hew them on gobbets, chop
+on gobbets, hew small, dyce them, skern them to dyce, kerf it to dyce,
+grind all to dust, smyte on peces, parcel-hem; hew small on morselyen,
+hack them small, cut them on culpons." Great amounts of spices were
+used, even perfumes; and as there was no preservation of meat by ice,
+perhaps the spices and perfumes were necessary.
+
+Of course the colonists were forced to adopt simpler ways of cooking,
+but as towns and commerce increased there were many kitchen duties which
+made much tedious work. Many pickles, spiced fruits, preserves, candied
+fruits and flowers, and marmalades were made.
+
+Preserving was a very different art from canning fruit to-day. There
+were no hermetically sealed jars, no chemical methods, no quick work
+about it. Vast jars were filled with preserves so rich that there was no
+need of keeping the air from them; they could be opened, that is, the
+paper cover taken off, and used as desired; there was no fear of
+fermentation, souring, or moulding.
+
+The housewives pickled samphire, fennel, purple cabbage,
+nasturtium-buds, green walnuts, lemons, radish-pods, barberries,
+elder-buds, parsley, mushrooms, asparagus, and many kinds of fish and
+fruit. They candied fruits and nuts, made many marmalades and
+quiddonies, and a vast number of fruit wines and cordials. Even their
+cakes, pies, and puddings were most complicated, and humble households
+were lavish in the various kinds they manufactured and ate.
+
+They collared and potted many kinds of fish and game, and they salted
+and soused. Salted meat was eaten, and very little fresh meat; for there
+were no means of keeping meat after it was killed. Every well-to-do
+family had a "powdering-tub," in which meat was "powdered," that is,
+salted and pickled. Many families had a smoke-house, in which beef, ham,
+and bacon were smoked.
+
+Perhaps the busiest month of the year was November,--called "killing
+time." When the chosen day arrived, oxen, cows, and swine which had been
+fattened for the winter's stock were slaughtered early in the morning,
+that the meat might be hard and cold before being put in the pickle.
+Sausages, rolliches, and head-cheese were made, lard tried out, and
+tallow saved.
+
+A curious and quaint domestic implement or utensil found hanging on the
+walls of some kitchens was what was known as a sausage-gun. One here is
+shown with the piston detached, and also ready for use. The sausage-meat
+was forced out through the nozzle into the sausage-cases. A simpler form
+of sausage-stuffer has also been seen, much like a tube-and-piston
+garden-syringe; though I must add a suspicion which has always lingered
+in my mind that the latter utensil was really a syringe-gun, such as
+once was used to disable humming-birds by squirting water upon them.
+
+Sausage-meat was thus prepared in New York farmhouses. The meat was cut
+coarsely into half-inch pieces and thrown into wooden boxes about three
+feet long and ten inches deep. Then its first chopping was by men using
+spades which had been ground to a sharp edge.
+
+There were many families that found all their supply of sweetening in
+maple sugar and honey; but housewives of dignity and elegance desired to
+have some supply of sugar, certainly to offer visitors for their dish of
+tea. This sugar was always loaf-sugar, and truly loaf-sugar; for it was
+purchased ever in great loaves or cones which averaged in weight about
+nine to ten pounds apiece. One cone would last thrifty folk for a year.
+This pure clear sugar-cone always came wrapped in a deep blue-purple
+paper, of such unusual and beautiful tint and so color-laden that in
+country homes it was carefully saved and soaked, to supply a dye for a
+small amount of the finest wool, which was used when spun and dyed for
+some specially choice purpose. The cutting of this cone of sugar into
+lumps of equal size and regular shape was distinctly the work of the
+mistress and daughters of the house. It was too exact and too dainty a
+piece of work to be intrusted to clumsy or wasteful servants. Various
+simply shaped sugar-shears or sugar-cutters were used. An ordinary form
+is shown in the illustration. I well recall the only family in which I
+ever saw this solemn function of sugar-cutting take place--it was about
+thirty years ago. An old Boston East India merchant, one of the last to
+cling to a residence in what is known now as the "Burnt District,"
+always desired (and his desire was law) to use these loaves of sugar in
+his household. I don't know where he got them so long after every one
+else had apparently ceased buying them--he may have specially imported
+them; at any rate he had them, and to the end of her life it was the
+morning duty of his wife "to cut the sugar." I can see my old cousin
+still in what she termed her breakfast room, dressed very handsomely,
+standing before a bare mahogany table on which a maid placed the
+considerable array of a silver salver without legs, which was set on a
+folded cloth and held the sugar-loaf and the sugar-cutter; and another
+salver with legs that bore various bowls and one beautiful silver
+sugar-box which was kept filled high for her husband's toddy. It seemed
+an interminably tedious work to me and a senseless one, as I chafingly
+waited for the delightful morning drive in delightful Boston. It was in
+this household that I encountered the sweetest thing of my whole life; I
+have written elsewhere its praises in full; a barrel, a small one, to be
+sure, but still a whole teak-wood barrel full of long strings of
+glistening rock-candy. I had my fill of it at will, though it was not
+kept as a sweetmeat, but was a kitchen store having a special use in
+the manufacture of rich brandy sauces for plum puddings, and of a kind
+of marchepane ornamentation for desserts.
+
+All the spices used in the household were also ground at home, in
+spice-mortars and spice-mills. These were of various sizes, including
+the pepper-mills, which were set on the table at meal-times, and the
+tiny ornamental graters which were carried in the pocket.
+
+The entire food of a household was the possible production of a farm. In
+a paper published in the American Museum in 1787 an old farmer says:--
+
+     "At this time my farm gave me and my whole family a good living on
+     the produce of it, and left me one year with another one hundred
+     and fifty silver dollars, for I never spent more than ten dollars a
+     year which was for salt, nails, and the like. Nothing to eat, drink
+     or wear was bought, as my farm provided all."
+
+The farm food was not varied, it is true, as to-day; for articles of
+luxury came by importation. The products of tropical countries, such as
+sugar, molasses, tea, coffee, spices, found poor substitutes in home
+food-products. Dried pumpkin was a poor sweetening instead of molasses;
+maple sugar and honey were not esteemed as was sugar; tea was
+ill-replaced by raspberry leaves, loosestrife, hardhack, goldenrod,
+dittany, blackberry leaves, yeopon, sage, and a score of other herbs;
+coffee was better than parched rye and chestnuts; spices could not be
+compensated for or remotely imitated by any substitutes.
+
+So though there was ample quantity of food, the quality, save in the
+town, was not such as English housewives had been accustomed to; there
+were many deprivations in their kitchens which tried them sorely. The
+better cooks they were, the more trying were the limitations. Every
+woman with a love for her fellow-woman must feel a thrill of keen
+sympathy for the goodwife of Newport, New Hampshire, who had to make her
+Thanksgiving mince-pies with a filling of bear's meat and dried
+pumpkins, sweetened with maple sugar, and her crust of corn-meal. Her
+husband loyally recorded that they were the best mince-pies he ever ate.
+
+As years passed on and great wealth came to individuals, the tables of
+the opulent, especially in the Middle colonies, rivalled the luxury of
+English and French houses of wealth. It is surprising to read in Dr.
+Cutler's diary that when he dined with Colonel Duer in New York in 1787,
+there were fifteen kinds of wine served besides cider, beer, and porter.
+
+John Adams probably lived as well as any New Englander of similar
+position and means. A Sunday dinner at his house was thus described by
+a visitor: the first course was a pudding of Indian meal, molasses, and
+butter; then came a course of veal and bacon, neck of mutton, and
+vegetables. When the New Englander went to Philadelphia, his eyes opened
+wide at the luxury and extravagance of fare. He has given in his diary
+some accounts of the lavishness of the Philadelphia larder. Such entries
+as these are found:--
+
+     (Of the home of Miers Fisher, a young Quaker lawyer.) "This plain
+     Friend, with his plain but pretty wife with her Thees and Thous,
+     had provided us a costly entertainment; ducks, hams, chickens,
+     beef, pig, tarts, creams, custards, jellies, fools, trifles,
+     floating islands, beer, porter, punch, wine and a long, etc."
+
+     (At the home of Chief Justice Chew.) "About four o'clock we were
+     called to dinner. Turtle and every other thing, flummery, jellies,
+     sweetmeats of twenty sorts, trifles, whipped sillabubs, floating
+     islands, fools, etc., with a dessert of fruits, raisins, almonds,
+     pears, peaches."
+
+     "A most sinful feast again! everything which could delight the eye
+     or allure the taste; curds and creams, jellies, sweetmeats of
+     various sorts, twenty kinds of tarts, fools, trifles, floating
+     islands, whipped sillabubs, etc. Parmesan cheese, punch, wine,
+     porter, beer."
+
+By which lists may plainly be seen that our second President had
+somewhat of a sweet tooth.
+
+The Dutch were great beer-drinkers and quickly established breweries at
+Albany and New York. But before the century had ended New Englanders had
+abandoned the constant drinking of ale and beer for cider. Cider was
+very cheap; but a few shillings a barrel. It was supplied in large
+amounts to students at college, and even very little children drank it.
+President John Adams was an early and earnest wisher for temperance
+reform; but to the end of his life he drank a large tankard of hard
+cider every morning when he first got up. It was free in every farmhouse
+to all travellers and tramps.
+
+A cider-mill was usually built on a hillside so the building could be
+one story high in front and two in the back. Thus carts could easily
+unload the apples on the upper level and take away the barrels of cider
+on the lower. Standing below on the lower floor you could see two
+upright wooden cylinders, set a little way apart, with knobs, or nuts as
+they were called, on one cylinder which fitted loosely into holes on the
+other. The cylinders worked in opposite directions and drew in and
+crushed the apples poured down between them. The nuts and holes
+frequently clogged with the pomace. Then the mill was stopped and a boy
+scraped out with a stick or hook the crushed apples. A horse walking in
+a small circle moved a lever which turned the motor wheel. It was slow
+work; it took three hours to grind a cart-load of apples; but the
+machinery was efficient and simple. The pomace fell into a large shallow
+vat or tank, and if it could lie in the vat overnight it was a benefit.
+Then the pomace was put in a press. This was simple in construction. At
+the bottom was a platform grooved in channels; a sheaf of clean straw
+was spread on the platform, and with wooden shovels the pomace was
+spread thick over it. Then a layer of straw was laid at right angles
+with the first, and more pomace, and so on till the form was about three
+feet high; the top board was put on as a cover; the screw turned and
+blocks pressed down, usually with a long wooden hand-lever, very slowly
+at first, then harder, until the mass was solid and every drop of juice
+had trickled into the channels of the platform and thence to the pan
+below. Within the last two or three years I have seen those cider-mills
+at work in the country back of old Plymouth and in Narragansett, sending
+afar their sourly fruity odors. And though apple orchards are running
+out, and few new trees are planted, and the apple crop in those
+districts is growing smaller and smaller, yet is the sweet cider of
+country cider-mills as free and plentiful a gift to any passer-by as the
+water from the well or the air we breathe. Perry was made from pears,
+as cider is from apples, and peachy from peaches. Metheglin and mead,
+drinks of the old Druids in England, were made from honey, yeast, and
+water, and were popular everywhere. In Virginia whole plantations of the
+honey-locust furnished locust beans for making metheglin. From
+persimmons, elderberries, juniper berries, pumpkins, corn-stalks,
+hickory nuts, sassafras bark, birch bark, and many other leaves, roots,
+and barks, various light drinks were made. An old song boasted:--
+
+    "Oh, we can make liquor to sweeten our lips
+    Of pumpkins, of parsnips, of walnut-tree chips."
+
+Many other stronger and more intoxicating liquors were made in large
+quantities, among them enormous amounts of rum, which was called often
+"kill-devil." The making of rum aided and almost supported the
+slave-trade in this country. The poor negroes were bought on the coast
+of Africa by New England sea-captains and merchants and paid for with
+barrels of New England rum. These slaves were then carried on
+slave-ships to the West Indies, and sold at a large profit to planters
+and slave-dealers for a cargo of molasses. This was brought to New
+England, distilled into rum, and sent off to Africa. Thus the circle of
+molasses, rum, and slaves was completed. Many slaves were also landed
+in New England, but there was no crop there that needed negroes to raise
+it. So slavery never was as common in New England as in the South, where
+the tropical tobacco and rice fields needed negro labor. But New
+England's share in promoting negro slavery in America was just as great
+as was Virginia's.
+
+Besides all the rum that was sent to Africa, much was drunk by Americans
+at home. At weddings, funerals, christenings, at all public meetings and
+private feasts, New England rum was ever present. In nothing is more
+contrast shown between our present day and colonial times than in the
+habits of liquor-drinking. We cannot be grateful enough for the
+temperance reform, which began at the early part of this century, and
+was so sadly needed.
+
+For many years the colonists had no tea, chocolate, or coffee to drink;
+for those were not in use in England when America was settled. In 1690
+two dealers were licensed to sell tea "in publique" in Boston. Green and
+bohea teas were sold at the Boston apothecaries' in 1712. For many years
+tea was also sold like medicine in England at the apothecaries' and not
+at the grocers'.
+
+Many queer mistakes were made through ignorance of its proper use. Many
+colonists put the tea into water, boiled it for a time, threw the
+liquid away, and ate the tea-leaves. In Salem they did not find the
+leaves very attractive, so they put butter and salt on them.
+
+In 1670 a Boston woman was licensed to sell coffee and chocolate, and
+soon coffee-houses were established there. Some did not know how to cook
+coffee any more than tea, but boiled the whole coffee-beans in water,
+ate them, and drank the liquid; and naturally this was not very good
+either to eat or drink.
+
+At the time of the Stamp Act, when patriotic Americans threw the tea
+into Boston harbor, Americans were just as great tea-drinkers as the
+English. Now it is not so. The English drink much more tea than we do;
+and the habit of coffee-drinking, first acquired in the Revolution, has
+descended from generation to generation, and we now drink more coffee
+than tea. This is one of the differences in our daily life caused by the
+Revolution.
+
+Many home-grown substitutes were used in Revolutionary times for tea:
+ribwort was a favorite one; strawberry and currant leaves, sage,
+thorough-wort, and "Liberty Tea," made from the four-leaved loosestrife.
+"Hyperion tea" was raspberry leaves, and was said by good patriots to be
+"very delicate and most excellent."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+FLAX CULTURE AND SPINNING
+
+
+In recounting the various influences which assisted the Americans to
+success in the War for Independence, such as the courage and integrity
+of the American generals, the generosity of the American people, the
+skill of Americans in marksmanship, their powers of endurance, their
+acclimatization, their confidence and faith, etc., we must never forget
+to add their independence in their own homes of any outside help to give
+them every necessity of life. No farmer or his wife need fear any king
+when on every home farm was found food, drink, medicine, fuel, lighting,
+clothing, shelter. Home-made was an adjective that might be applied to
+nearly every article in the house. Such would not be the case under
+similar stress to-day. In the matter of clothing alone we could not now
+be independent. Few farmers raise flax to make linen; few women can spin
+either wool or flax, or weave cloth; many cannot knit. In early days
+every farmer and his sons raised wool and flax; his wife and daughters
+spun them into thread and yarn, knit these into stockings and mittens,
+or wove them into linen and cloth, and then made them into clothing.
+Even in large cities nearly all women spun yarn and thread, all could
+knit, and many had hand-looms to weave cloth at home. These home
+occupations in the production of clothing have been very happily termed
+the "homespun industries."
+
+Nearly every one has seen one of the pretty foot-wheels for spinning
+flax thread for linen, which may yet be found in the attics of many of
+our farmhouses, as well as in some of our parlors, where, with a bunch
+of flax wound around and tied to the spindle, they have within a few
+years been placed as a relic of the olden times.
+
+If one of these flax-wheels could speak to-day, it would sing a tale of
+the patient industry, of the tiring work of our grandmothers, even when
+they were little children, which ought never to be forgotten.
+
+As soon as the colonists had cleared their farms from stones and stumps,
+they planted a field, or "patch" of flax, and usually one of hemp. The
+seed was sown broadcast like grass-seed in May. Flax is a graceful plant
+with pretty drooping blue flowers; hemp has but a sad-colored blossom.
+
+Thomas Tusser says in his _Book of Housewifery_:--
+
+    "Good flax and good hemp to have of her own,
+    In May a good huswife will see it be sown.
+    And afterwards trim it to serve in a need;
+    The fimble to spin, the card for her seed."
+
+When the flax plants were three or four inches high, they were weeded by
+young women or children who had to work barefoot, as the stalks were
+very tender. If the land had a growth of thistles, the weeders could
+wear three or four pairs of woollen stockings. The children had to step
+facing the wind, so if any plants were trodden down the wind would help
+to blow them back into place. When the flax was ripe, in the last of
+June or in July, it was pulled up by the roots and laid out carefully to
+dry for a day or two, and turned several times in the sun; this work was
+called pulling and spreading, and was usually done by men and boys. It
+then was "rippled." A coarse wooden or heavy iron wire comb with great
+teeth, named a ripple-comb, was fastened on a plank; the stalks of flax
+were drawn through it with a quick stroke to break off the seed-bolles
+or "bobs," which fell on a sheet spread to catch them; these were saved
+for seed for the next crop, or for sale.
+
+Rippling was done in the field. The stalks were then tied in bundles
+called beats or bates and stacked. They were tied only at the seed end,
+and the base of the stalks was spread out forming a tent-shaped stack,
+called a stook. When dry, the stalks were watered to rot the leaves and
+softer fibres. Hemp was watered without rippling. This was done
+preferably in running water, as the rotting flax poisoned fish. Stakes
+were set in the water in the form of a square, called a steep-pool, and
+the bates of flax or hemp were piled in solidly, each alternate layer at
+right angles with the one beneath it. A cover of boards and heavy stones
+was piled on top. In four or five days the bates were taken up and the
+rotted leaves removed. A slower process was termed dew-retting; an old
+author calls it "a vile and naughty way," but it was the way chiefly
+employed in America.
+
+When the flax was cleaned, it was once more dried and tied in bundles.
+Then came work for strong men, to break it on the ponderous flax-brake,
+to separate the fibres and get out from the centre the hard woody "hexe"
+or "bun." Hemp was also broken.
+
+A flax-brake is an implement which is almost impossible to describe. It
+was a heavy log of wood about five feet long, either large enough so the
+flat top was about three feet from the ground, or set on heavy logs to
+bring it to that height. A portion of the top was cut down leaving a
+block at each end, and several long slats were set in lengthwise and
+held firm at each end with edges up, by being set into the end blocks.
+Then a similar set of slats, put in a heavy frame, was made with the
+slats set far enough apart to go into the spaces of the lower slats. The
+flax was laid on the lower slats, the frame and upper slats placed on
+it, and then pounded down with a heavy wooden mallet weighing many
+pounds. Sometimes the upper frame of slats, or knives as they were
+called, were hinged to the big under log at one end, and heavily
+weighted at the other, and thus the blow was given by the fall of the
+weight, not by the force of the farmer's muscle. The tenacity of the
+flax can be seen when it would stand this violent beating; and the cruel
+blow can be imagined, which the farmer's fingers sometimes got when he
+carelessly thrust his hand with the flax too far under the descending
+jaw--a shark's maw was equally gentle.
+
+Flax was usually broken twice, once with an "open-tooth brake," once
+with a "close or strait brake," that is, one where the long, sharp-edge
+strips of wood were set closely together. Then it was scutched or
+swingled with a swingling block and knife, to take out any small
+particles of bark that might adhere. A man could swingle forty pounds
+of flax a day, but it was hard work. All this had to be done in clear
+sunny weather when the flax was as dry as tinder.
+
+The clean fibres were then made into bundles called strikes. The strikes
+were swingled again, and from the refuse called swingle-tree hurds,
+coarse bagging could be spun and woven. After being thoroughly cleaned
+the rolls or strikes were sometimes beetled, that is, pounded in a
+wooden trough with a great pestle-shaped beetle over and over again
+until soft.
+
+Then came the hackling or hetcheling, and the fineness of the flax
+depended upon the number of hacklings, the fineness of the various
+hackles or hetchels or combs, and the dexterity of the operator. In the
+hands of a poor hackler the best of flax would be converted into tow.
+The flax was slightly wetted, taken hold of at one end of the bunch, and
+drawn through the hackle-teeth towards the hetcheller, and thus fibres
+were pulled and laid into continuous threads, while the short fibres
+were combed out. It was dusty, dirty work. The threefold process had to
+be all done at once; the fibres had to be divided to their fine
+filaments, the long threads laid in untangled line, and the tow
+separated and removed. After the first hackle, called a ruffler, six
+other finer hackles were often used. It was one of the surprises of
+flax preparation to see how little good fibre would be left after all
+this hackling, even from a large mass of raw material, but it was
+equally surprising to see how much linen thread could be made from this
+small amount of fine flax. The fibres were sorted according to fineness;
+this was called spreading and drawing. So then after over twenty
+dexterous manipulations the flax was ready for the wheel, for
+spinning,--the most dexterous process of all,--and was wrapped round the
+spindle.
+
+Seated at the small flax-wheel, the spinner placed her foot on the
+treadle, and spun the fibre into a long, even thread. Hung on the wheel
+was a small bone, wood, or earthenware cup, or a gourd-shell, filled
+with water, in which the spinner moistened her fingers as she held the
+twisting flax, which by the movement of the wheel was wound on bobbins.
+When all were filled, the thread was wound off in knots and skeins on a
+reel. A machine called a clock-reel counted the exact number of strands
+in a knot, usually forty, and ticked when the requisite number had been
+wound. Then the spinner would stop and tie the knot. A quaint old ballad
+has the refrain:--
+
+    "And he kissed Mistress Polly when the clock-reel ticked."
+
+That is, the lover seized the rare and propitious moments of Mistress
+Polly's comparative leisure to kiss her.
+
+Usually the knots or lays were of forty threads, and twenty lays made a
+skein or slipping. The number varied, however, with locality. To spin
+two skeins of linen thread was a good day's work; for it a spinner was
+paid eight cents a day and "her keep."
+
+These skeins of thread had to be bleached. They were laid in warm water
+for four days, the water being frequently changed, and the skeins
+constantly wrung out. Then they were washed in the brook till the water
+came from them clear and pure. Then they were "bucked," that is,
+bleached with ashes and hot water, in a bucking-tub, over and over
+again, then laid in clear water for a week, and afterwards came a grand
+seething, rinsing, beating, washing, drying, and winding on bobbins for
+the loom. Sometimes the bleaching was done with slaked lime or with
+buttermilk.
+
+These were not the only bleaching operations the flax went through;
+others will be detailed in the chapter on hand-weaving.
+
+One lucrative product of flax should be mentioned--flaxseed. Flax was
+pulled for spinning when the base of the stalk began to turn yellow,
+which was usually the first of July. An old saying was, "June brings the
+flax." For seed it stood till it was all yellow. The flaxseed was used
+for making oil. Usually the upper chambers of country stores were filled
+a foot deep with flaxseed in the autumn, waiting for good sleighing to
+convey the seed to town.
+
+In New Hampshire in early days, a wheelwright was not a man who made
+wagon-wheels (as such he would have had scant occupation), but one who
+made spinning-wheels. Often he carried them around the country on
+horseback selling them, thus adding another to the many interesting
+itineracies of colonial days. Spinning-wheels would seem clumsy for
+horse-carriage, but they were not set up, and several could be compactly
+carried when taken apart; far more ticklish articles went on
+pack-horses,--large barrels, glazed window-sashes, etc. Nor would it
+seem very difficult for a man to carry spinning-wheels on horseback,
+when frequently a woman would jump on horseback in the early morning,
+and with a baby on one arm and a flax-wheel tied behind, would ride
+several miles to a neighbor's to spend the day spinning in cheerful
+companionship. A century ago one of these wheelwrights sold a fine
+spinning-wheel for a dollar, a clock-reel for two dollars, and a
+wool-wheel for two dollars.
+
+Few persons are now living who have ever seen carried on in a country
+home in America any of these old-time processes which have been
+recounted. As an old antiquary wrote:--
+
+     "Few have ever seen a woman hatchel flax or card tow, or heard the
+     buzzing of the foot-wheel, or seen bunches of flaxen yarn hanging
+     in the kitchen, or linen cloth whitening on the grass. The
+     flax-dresser with the shives, fibres, and dirt of flax covering his
+     garments, and his face begrimed with flax-dirt has disappeared; the
+     noise of his brake and swingling knife has ended, and the boys no
+     longer make bonfires of his swingling tow. The sound of the
+     spinning-wheel, the song of the spinster, and the snapping of the
+     clock-reel all have ceased; the warping bars and quill wheel are
+     gone, and the thwack of the loom is heard only in the factory. The
+     spinning woman of King Lemuel cannot be found."
+
+Frequent references are made to flax in the Bible, notably in the Book
+of Proverbs; and the methods of growing and preparing flax by the
+ancient Egyptians were precisely the same as those of the American
+colonist a hundred years ago, of the Finn, Lapp, Norwegian, and Belgian
+flax-growers to-day. This ancient skill was not confined to
+flax-working. Rosselini, the eminent hierologist, says that every modern
+craftsman may see on Egyptian monuments four thousand years old,
+representations of the process of his craft just as it is carried on
+to-day. The paintings in the Grotto of El Kab, shown in Hamilton's
+_AEgyptica_, show the pulling, stocking, tying, and rippling of flax
+going on just as it is done in Egypt now. The four-tooth ripple of the
+Egyptian is improved upon, but it is the same implement. Pliny gives an
+account of the mode of preparing flax: plucking it up by the roots,
+tying it in bundles, drying, watering, beating, and hackling it, or, as
+he says, "combing it with iron hooks." Until the Christian era linen was
+almost the only kind of clothing used in Egypt, and the teeming banks of
+the Nile furnished flax in abundance. The quality of the linen can be
+seen in the bands preserved on mummies. It was not, however, spun on a
+wheel, but on a hand-distaff, called sometimes a rock, on which the
+women in India still spin the very fine thread which is employed in
+making India muslins. The distaff was used in our colonies; it was
+ordered that children and others tending sheep or cattle in the fields
+should also "be set to some other employment withal, such as spinning
+upon the rock, knitting, weaving tape, etc." I heard recently a
+distinguished historian refer in a lecture to this colonial statute, and
+he spoke of the children _sitting upon a rock_ while knitting or
+spinning, etc., evidently knowing naught of the proper signification of
+the word.
+
+The homespun industries have ever been held to have a beneficent and
+peace-bringing influence on women. Wordsworth voiced this sentiment when
+he wrote his series of sonnets beginning:--
+
+    "Grief! thou hast lost an ever-ready friend
+    Now that the cottage spinning-wheel is mute."
+
+Chaucer more cynically says, through the _Wife of Bath_:--
+
+    "Deceite, weepynge, spynnynge God hath give
+    To wymmen kyndely that they may live."
+
+Spinning doubtless was an ever-ready refuge in the monotonous life of
+the early colonist. She soon had plenty of material to work with.
+Everywhere, even in the earliest days, the culture of flax was
+encouraged. By 1640 the Court of Massachusetts passed two orders
+directing the growth of flax, ascertaining what colonists were skilful
+in breaking, spinning, weaving, ordering that boys and girls be taught
+to spin, and offering a bounty for linen grown, spun, and woven in the
+colony. Connecticut passed similar measures. Soon spinning-classes were
+formed, and every family ordered to spin so many pounds of flax a year,
+or to pay a fine. The industry received a fresh impulse through the
+immigration of about one hundred Irish families from Londonderry. They
+settled in New Hampshire on the Merrimac about 1719, and spun and wove
+with far more skill than prevailed among those English settlers who had
+already become Americans. They established a manufactory according to
+Irish methods, and attempts at a similar establishment were made in
+Boston.
+
+There was much public excitement over spinning, and prizes were offered
+for quantity and quality. Women, rich as well as poor, appeared on
+Boston Common with their wheels, thus making spinning a popular holiday
+recreation. A brick building was erected as a spinning-school costing
+L15,000, and a tax was placed on carriages and coaches in 1757 to
+support it. At the fourth anniversary in 1749 of the "Boston Society for
+promoting Industry and Frugality," three hundred "young spinsters" spun
+on their wheels on Boston Common. And a pretty sight it must have been:
+the fair young girls in the quaint and pretty dress of the times, shown
+to us in Hogarth's prints, spinning on the green grass under the great
+trees. In 1754, on a like occasion, a minister preached to the
+"spinsters," and a collection of L453 was taken up. This was in currency
+of depreciated value. At the same time premiums were offered in
+Pennsylvania for weaving linen and spinning thread. Benjamin Franklin
+wrote in his _Poor Richard's Almanac_:--
+
+    "Many estates are spent in the getting,
+    Since women for tea forsook spinning and knitting."
+
+But the German colonists long before this had been famous flax-raisers.
+A Pennsylvania poet in 1692 descanted on the flax-workers of
+Germantown:--
+
+    "Where live High German people and Low Dutch
+    Whose trade in weaving linen cloth is much,
+    There grows the flax as also you may know,
+    That from the same they do divide the tow."
+
+Father Pastorius, their leader, forever commemorated his interest in his
+colony and in the textile arts by his choice for a device for a seal.
+Whittier thus describes it in his _Pennsylvania Pilgrim_:--
+
+    "Still on the town-seal his device is found,
+    Grapes, flax, and thread-spool on a three-foil ground
+    With _Vinum, Linum, et Textrinum_ wound."
+
+Virginia was earlier even in awakening interest in manufacturing flax
+than Massachusetts, for wild flax grew there in profusion, ready for
+gathering. In 1646 two houses were ordered to be erected at Jamestown as
+spinning-schools. These were to be well built and well heated. Each
+county was to send to these schools two poor children, seven or eight
+years old, to be taught carding, spinning, and knitting. Each child was
+to be supplied by the county authorities on admission to the school with
+six barrels of Indian corn, a pig, two hens, clothing, shoes, a bed,
+rug, blanket, two coverlets, a wooden tray, and two pewter dishes or
+cups. This plan was not wholly carried out. Prizes in tobacco (which was
+the current money of Virginia in which everything was paid) were given,
+however, for every pound of flax, every skein of yarn, every yard of
+linen of Virginia production, and soon flax-wheels and spinners were
+plentiful.
+
+Intelligent attempts were made to start these industries in the South.
+Governor Lucas wrote to his daughter, Mrs. Pinckney, in Charleston,
+South Carolina, in 1745:--
+
+     "I send by this Sloop two Irish servants, viz.: a Weaver and a
+     Spinner. I am informed Mr. Cattle hath produced both Flax and Hemp.
+     I pray you will purchase some, and order a loom and spinning-wheel
+     to be made for them, and set them to work. I shall order Flax sent
+     from Philadelphia with seed, that they may not be idle. I pray you
+     will also purchase Wool and sett them to making Negroes clothing
+     which may be sufficient for my own People.
+
+     "As I am afraid one Spinner can't keep a Loom at work, I pray you
+     will order a Sensible Negroe woman or two to learn to spin, and
+     wheels to be made for them; the man Servant will direct the
+     Carpenter in making the loom and the woman will direct the Wheel."
+
+The following year Madam Pinckney wrote to her father that the woman had
+spun all the material they could get, so was idle; that the loom had
+been made, but had no tackling; that she would make the harness for it,
+if two pounds of shoemaker's thread were sent her. The sensible negro
+woman and hundreds of others learned well to spin, and excellent cloth
+has been always woven in the low country of Carolina, as well as in the
+upper districts, till our own time.
+
+In the revolt of feeling caused by the Stamp Act, there was a constant
+social pressure to encourage the manufacture and wearing of goods of
+American manufacture. As one evidence of this movement the president and
+first graduating class of Rhode Island College--now Brown
+University--were clothed in fabrics made in New England. From
+Massachusetts to South Carolina the women of the colonies banded
+together in patriotic societies called Daughters of Liberty, agreeing to
+wear only garments of homespun manufacture, and to drink no tea. In
+many New England towns they gathered together to spin, each bringing her
+own wheel. At one meeting seventy linen-wheels were employed. In Rowley,
+Massachusetts, the meeting of the Daughters is thus described:--
+
+     "A number of thirty-three respectable ladies of the town met at
+     sunrise with their wheels to spend the day at the house of the
+     Rev'd Jedediah Jewell, in the laudable design of a spinning match.
+     At an hour before sunset, the ladies there appearing neatly
+     dressed, principally in homespun, a polite and generous repast of
+     American production was set for their entertainment. After which
+     being present many spectators of both sexes, Mr. Jewell delivered a
+     profitable discourse from Romans xii. 2: "Not slothful in business,
+     fervent in spirit, serving the Lord."
+
+Matters of church and patriotism were never far apart in New England; so
+whenever the spinners gathered at New London, Newbury, Ipswich, or
+Beverly, they always had an appropriate sermon. A favorite text was
+Exodus xxxv. 25: "And all the women that were wise-hearted did spin with
+their hands." When the Northboro women met, they presented the results
+of their day's work to their minister. There were forty-four women and
+they spun 2223 knots of linen and tow, and wove one linen sheet and two
+towels.
+
+By Revolutionary times General Howe thought "Linen and Woollen Goods
+much wanted by the Rebels"; hence when he prepared to evacuate Boston he
+ordered all such goods carried away with him. But he little knew the
+domestic industrial resources of the Americans. Women were then most
+proficient in spinning. In 1777 Miss Eleanor Fry of East Greenwich,
+Rhode Island, spun seven skeins one knot linen yarn in one day, an
+extraordinary amount. This was enough to weave twelve linen
+handkerchiefs. At this time when there were about five or six skeins to
+a pound of flax, the pay for spinning was sixpence a skein. The Abbe
+Robin wondered at the deftness of New England spinners.
+
+In 1789 an outcry was raised against the luxury said to be eating away
+the substance of the new country. The poor financial administration of
+the government seemed deranging everything; and again a social movement
+was instituted in New England to promote "Oeconomy and Household
+Industries." "The Rich and Great strive by example to convince the
+Populace of their error by Growing their own Flax and Wool, having some
+one in the Family to dress it, and all the Females spin, several weave
+and bleach the linen." The old spinning-matches were revived. Again the
+ministers preached to the faithful women "Oeconomists," who thus
+combined religion, patriotism, and industry. Truly it was, as a
+contemporary writer said, "a pleasing Sight: some spinning, some
+reeling, some carding cotton, some combing flax," as they were preached
+to.
+
+Within a few years attempts have been made in England and Ireland to
+encourage flax-growing, as before it is spun it gives employment to
+twenty different classes of laborers, many parts of which work can be
+done by young and unskilled children. In Courtrai, where hand spinning
+and weaving of flax still flourish, the average earnings of a family are
+three pounds a week. In Finland homespun linen still is made in every
+household. The British Spinning and Weaving School in New Bond Street is
+an attempt to revive the vanished industry in England. In our own
+country it is pleasant to record that the National Association of Cotton
+Manufacturers is planning to start on a large scale the culture and
+manufacture of flax in our Eastern states; this is not, however, with
+any thought of reviving either the preparation, spinning, or weaving of
+flax by old-time hand processes.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+WOOL CULTURE AND SPINNING
+
+_With a Postscript on Cotton_
+
+
+The art of spinning was an honorable occupation for women as early as
+the ninth century; and it was so universal that it furnished a legal
+title by which an unmarried woman is known to this day. Spinster is the
+only one of all her various womanly titles that survives; webster,
+shepster, litster, brewster, and baxter are obsolete. The occupations
+are also obsolete save those indicated by shepster and baxter--that is,
+the cutting out of cloth and baking of bread; these are the only duties
+among them all that she still performs.
+
+The wool industry dates back to prehistoric man. The patience, care, and
+skill involved in its manufacture have ever exercised a potent influence
+on civilization. It is, therefore, interesting and gratifying to note
+the intelligent eagerness of our first colonists for wool culture. It
+was quickly and proudly noted of towns and of individuals as a proof of
+their rapid and substantial progress that they could carry on any of the
+steps of the cloth industry. Good Judge Sewall piously exulted when
+Brother Moody started a successful fulling-mill in Boston. Johnson in
+his _Wonder-working Providence_ tells with pride that by 1654 New
+Englanders "have a fulling-mill and caused their little ones to be very
+dilligent in spinning cotton-woole, many of them having been clothiers
+in England." This has ever seemed to me one of the fortunate conditions
+that tended to the marked success of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, that
+so many had been "clothiers" or cloth-workers in England; or had come
+from shires in England where wool was raised and cloth made, and hence
+knew the importance of the industry as well as its practical workings.
+
+As early as 1643 the author of _New England's First Fruits_ wrote: "They
+are making linens, fustians, dimities, and look immediately to woollens
+from their own sheep." Johnson estimated the number of sheep in the
+colony of Massachusetts, about 1644, as three thousand. Soon the great
+wheel was whirring in every New England house. The raising of sheep was
+encouraged in every way. They were permitted to graze on the commons; it
+was forbidden to send them from the colony; no sheep under two years old
+could be killed to sell; if a dog killed a sheep, the dog's owner must
+hang him and pay double the cost of the sheep. All persons who were not
+employed in other ways, as single women, girls, and boys, were required
+to spin. Each family must contain one spinner. These spinners were
+formed into divisions or "squadrons" of ten persons; each division had a
+director. There were no drones in this hive; neither the wealth nor high
+station of parents excused children from this work. Thus all were
+levelled to one kind of labor, and by this levelling all were also
+elevated to independence. When the open expression of revolt came, the
+homespun industries seemed a firm rock for the foundation of liberty.
+People joined in agreements to eat no lamb or mutton, that thus sheep
+might be preserved, and to wear no imported woollen cloth. They gave
+prizes for spinning and weaving.
+
+Great encouragement was given in Virginia in early days to the raising
+and manufacture of wool. The Assembly estimated that five children not
+over thirteen years of age could by their work readily spin and weave
+enough to keep thirty persons clothed. Six pounds of tobacco was paid to
+any one bringing to the county court-house where he resided a yard of
+homespun woollen cloth, made wholly in his family; twelve pounds of
+tobacco were offered for reward for a dozen pair of woollen hose
+knitted at home. Slaves were taught to spin; and wool-wheels and
+wool-cards are found by the eighteenth century on every inventory of
+planters' house furnishings.
+
+The Pennsylvania settlers were early in the encouragement of wool
+manufacture. The present industry of hosiery and knit goods long known
+as Germantown goods began with the earliest settlers of that
+Pennsylvania town. Stocking-weavers were there certainly as early as
+1723; and it is asserted there were knitting-machines. At any rate, one
+Mack, the son of the founder of the Dunkers, made "leg stockings" and
+gloves. Rev. Andrew Burnaby, who was in Germantown in 1759, told of a
+great manufacture of stockings at that date. In 1777 it was said that a
+hundred Germantown stocking-weavers were out of employment through the
+war. Still it was not till 1850 that patents for knitting-machines were
+taken out there.
+
+Among the manufactures of the province of Pennsylvania in 1698 were
+druggets, serges, and coverlets; and among the registered tradesmen were
+dyers, fullers, comb-makers, card-makers, weavers, and spinners. The
+Swedish colony as early as 1673 had the wives and daughters "employing
+themselves in spinning wool and flax and many in weaving." The fairs
+instituted by William Penn for the encouragement of domestic
+manufactures and trade in general, which were fostered by Franklin and
+continued till 1775, briskly stimulated wool and flax manufacture.
+
+In 1765 and in 1775 rebellious Philadelphians banded together with
+promises not to eat or suffer to be eaten in their families any lamb or
+"meat of the mutton kind"; in this the Philadelphia butchers, patriotic
+and self-sacrificing, all joined. A wool-factory was built and fitted up
+and an appeal made to the women to save the state. In a month four
+hundred wool-spinners were at work. But the war cut off the supply of
+raw material, and the manufacture languished. In 1790, after the war,
+fifteen hundred sets of irons for spinning-wheels were sold from one
+shop, and mechanics everywhere were making looms.
+
+New Yorkers were not behindhand in industry. Lord Cornbury wrote home to
+England, in 1705, that he "had seen serge made upon Long Island that any
+man might wear; they make very good linen for common use; as for Woollen
+I think they have brought that to too great perfection."
+
+In Cornbury's phrase, "too great perfection," may be found the key for
+all the extraordinary and apparently stupid prohibitions and
+restrictions placed by the mother-country on colonial wool manufacture.
+The growth of the woollen industry in any colony was regarded at once by
+England with jealous eyes. Wool was the pet industry and principal
+staple of Great Britain; and well it might be, for until the reign of
+Henry VIII. English garments from head to foot were wholly of wool, even
+the shoes. Wool was also received in England as currency. Thomas Fuller
+said, "The wealth of our nation is folded up in broadcloth." Therefore,
+the Crown, aided by the governors of the provinces, sought to maintain
+England's monopoly by regulating and reducing the culture of wool in
+America through prohibiting the exportation to England of any American
+wool or woollen materials. In 1699 all vessels sailing to England from
+the colonies were prohibited taking on board any "Wool, Woolfells,
+Shortlings, Moslings, Wool Flocks, Worsteds, Bays, Bay or Woollen Yarn,
+Cloath, Serge, Kersey, Says, Frizes, Druggets, Shalloons, etc."; and an
+arbitrary law was passed prohibiting the transportation of home-made
+woollens from one American province to another. These laws were never
+fully observed and never checked the culture and manufacture of wool in
+this country. Hence our colonies were spared the cruel fate by which
+England's same policy paralyzed and obliterated in a few years the
+glorious wool industry of Ireland. Luckily for us, it is further across
+the Atlantic Ocean than across St. George's Channel.
+
+The "all-wool goods a yard wide," which we so easily purchase to-day,
+meant to the colonial dame or daughter the work of many weeks and
+months, from the time when the fleeces were first given to her deft
+hands. Fleeces had to be opened with care, and have all pitched or
+tarred locks, dag-locks, brands, and feltings cut out. These cuttings
+were not wasted, but were spun into coarse yarn. The white locks were
+carefully tossed and separated and tied into net bags with tallies to be
+dyed. Another homely saying, "dyed in the wool," showed a process of
+much skill. Blue, in all shades, was the favorite color, and was dyed
+with indigo. So great was the demand for this dye-stuff that
+indigo-pedlers travelled over the country selling it.
+
+Madder, cochineal, and logwood dyed beautiful reds. The bark of red oak
+or hickory made very pretty shades of brown and yellow. Various flowers
+growing on the farm could be used for dyes. The flower of the goldenrod,
+when pressed of its juice, mixed with indigo, and added to alum, made a
+beautiful green. The juice of the pokeberry boiled with alum made
+crimson dye, and a violet juice from the petals of the iris, or
+"flower-de-luce," that blossomed in June meadows, gave a delicate light
+purple tinge to white wool.
+
+The bark of the sassafras was used for dyeing yellow or orange color,
+and the flowers and leaves of the balsam also. Fustic and copperas gave
+yellow dyes. A good black was obtained by boiling woollen cloth with a
+quantity of the leaves of the common field-sorrel, then boiling again
+with logwood and copperas.
+
+In the South there were scores of flowers and leaves that could be used
+for dyes. During the Revolutionary War one enterprising South Carolinian
+got a guinea a pound for a yellow dye he made from the sweet-leaf or
+horse-laurel. The leaves and berries of gall-berry bush made a good
+black much used by hatters and weavers. The root of the barberry gave
+wool a beautiful yellow, as did the leaves of the devil's-bit. The
+petals of Jerusalem artichoke and St.-John's-wort dyed yellow. Yellow
+root is a significant name and reveals its use: oak, walnut, or maple
+bark dyed brown. Often the woven cloth was dyed, not the wool.
+
+The next process was carding; the wool was first greased with rape oil
+or "melted swine's grease," which had to be thoroughly worked in; about
+three pounds of grease were put into ten pounds of wool. Wool-cards were
+rectangular pieces of thin board, with a simple handle on the back or
+at the side; to this board was fastened a smaller rectangle of strong
+leather, set thick with slightly bent wire teeth, like a coarse brush.
+The carder took one card with her left hand, and resting it on her knee,
+drew a tuft of wool across it several times, until a sufficient quantity
+of fibre had been caught upon the wire teeth. She then drew the second
+wool-card, which had to be warmed, across the first several times, until
+the fibres were brushed parallel by all these "tummings." Then by a
+deft and catchy motion the wool was rolled or carded into small fleecy
+rolls which were then ready for spinning.
+
+Wool-combs were shaped like the letter T, with about thirty long steel
+teeth from ten to eighteen inches long set at right angles with the top
+of the T. The wool was carefully placed on one comb, and with careful
+strokes the other comb laid the long staple smooth for hard-twisted
+spinning. It was tedious and slow work, and a more skilful operation
+than carding; and the combs had to be kept constantly heated; but no
+machine-combing ever equalled hand-combing. There was a good deal of
+waste in this combing, that is, large clumps of tangled wool called noil
+were combed out. They were not really wasted, we may be sure, by our
+frugal ancestors, but were spun into coarse yarn.
+
+An old author says: "The action of spinning must be learned by practice,
+not by relation." Sung by the poets, the grace and beauty of the
+occupation has ever shared praise with its utility.
+
+Wool-spinning was truly one of the most flexible and alert series of
+movements in the world, and to its varied and graceful poises our
+grandmothers may owe part of the dignity of carriage that was so
+characteristic of them. The spinner stood slightly leaning forward,
+lightly poised on the ball of the left foot; with her left hand she
+picked up from the platform of the wheel a long slender roll of the soft
+carded wool about as large round as the little finger, and deftly wound
+the end of the fibres on the point of the spindle. She then gave a
+gentle motion to the wheel with a wooden peg held in her right hand,
+and seized with the left the roll at exactly the right distance from the
+spindle to allow for one "drawing." Then the hum of the wheel rose to a
+sound like the echo of wind; she stepped backward quickly, one, two,
+three steps, holding high the long yarn as it twisted and quivered.
+Suddenly she glided forward with even, graceful stride and let the yarn
+wind on the swift spindle. Another pinch of the wool-roll, a new turn of
+the wheel, and _da capo_.
+
+The wooden peg held by the spinner deserves a short description; it
+served the purpose of an elongated finger, and was called a driver,
+wheel-peg, etc. It was about nine inches long, an inch or so in
+diameter; and at about an inch from the end was slightly grooved in
+order that it might surely catch the spoke and thus propel the wheel.
+
+It was a good day's work for a quick, active spinner to spin six skeins
+of yarn a day. It was estimated that to do that with her quick backward
+and forward steps she walked over _twenty miles_.
+
+The yarn might be wound directly upon the wooden spindle as it was spun,
+or at the end of the spindle might be placed a spool or broach which
+twisted with the revolving spindle, and held the new-spun yarn. This
+broach was usually simply a stiff roll of paper, a corn-cob, or a roll
+of corn-husk. When the ball of yarn was as large as the broach would
+hold, the spinner placed wooden pegs in certain holes in the spokes of
+her spinning-wheel and tied the end of the yarn to one peg. Then she
+took off the belt of her wheel and whirred the big wheel swiftly round,
+thus winding the yarn on the pegs into hanks or clews two yards in
+circumference, which were afterwards tied with a loop of yarn into knots
+of forty threads; while seven of these knots made a skein. The
+clock-reel was used for winding yarn, also a triple reel.
+
+The yarn might be wound from the spindle into skeins in another way,--by
+using a hand-reel, an implement which really did exist in every
+farmhouse, though the dictionaries are ignorant of it, as they are of
+its universal folk-name, niddy-noddy. This is fortunately preserved in
+an every-day domestic riddle:--
+
+    "Niddy-noddy, niddy-noddy,
+    Two heads and one body."
+
+The three pieces of these niddy-noddys were set together at curious
+angles, and are here shown rather than described in words. Holding the
+reel in the left hand by seizing the central "body" or rod, the yarn was
+wound from end to end of the reel, by an odd, waving, wobbling motion,
+into knots and skeins of the same size as by the first process
+described. One of these niddy-noddys was owned by Nabby Marshall of
+Deerfield, who lived to be one hundred and four years old. The other
+was brought from Ireland in 1733 by Hugh Maxwell, father of the
+Revolutionary patriot Colonel Maxwell. As it was at a time of English
+prohibitions and restrictions of American manufactures, this
+niddy-noddy, as an accessory and promoter of colonial wool manufacture,
+was smuggled into the country.
+
+Sometimes the woollen yarn was spun twice; especially if a close,
+hard-twisted thread was desired, to be woven into a stiff, wiry cloth.
+When there were two, the first spinning was called a roving. The single
+spinning was usually deemed sufficient to furnish yarn for knitting,
+where softness and warmth were the desired requisites.
+
+It was the pride of a good spinster to spin the finest yarn, and one
+Mistress Mary Prigge spun a pound of wool into fifty hanks of
+eighty-four thousand yards; in all, nearly forty-eight miles. If the
+yarn was to be knitted, it had to be washed and cleansed. The wife of
+Colonel John May, a prominent man in Boston, wrote in her diary for one
+day:--
+
+     "A large kettle of yarn to attend upon. Lucretia and self rinse,
+     scour through many waters, get out, dry, attend to, bring in, do up
+     and sort 110 score of yarn; this with baking and ironing. Then went
+     to hackling flax."
+
+It should be remembered that all those bleaching processes, the wringing
+out and rinsing in various waters, were far more wearisome then than
+they would be to-day, for the water had to be carried laboriously in
+pails and buckets, and drawn with pumps and well-sweeps; there were no
+pipes and conduits. Happy the household that had a running brook near
+the kitchen door.
+
+Of course all these operations and manipulations usually occupied many
+weeks and months, but they could be accomplished in a much shorter time.
+When President Nott of Union College, and his brother Samuel, the famous
+preacher, were boys on a stony farm in Connecticut, one of the brothers
+needed a new suit of clothes, and as the father was sick there was
+neither money nor wool in the house. The mother sheared some half-grown
+fleece from her sheep, and in less than a week the boy wore it as
+clothing. The shivering and generous sheep were protected by wrappings
+of braided straw. During the Revolution, it is said that in a day and a
+night a mother and her daughters in Townsend, Massachusetts, sheared a
+black and a white sheep, carded from the fleece a gray wool, spun, wove,
+cut and made a suit of clothes for a boy to wear off to fight for
+liberty.
+
+The wool industry easily furnished home occupation to an entire family.
+Often by the bright firelight in the early evening every member of the
+household might be seen at work on the various stages of wool
+manufacture or some of its necessary adjuncts, and varied and cheerful
+industrial sounds fill the room. The old grandmother, at light and easy
+work, is carding the wool into fleecy rolls, seated next the fire; for,
+as the ballad says, "she was old and saw right dimly." The mother,
+stepping as lightly as one of her girls, spins the rolls into woollen
+yarn on the great wheel. The oldest daughter sits at the clock-reel,
+whose continuous buzz and occasional click mingles with the humming rise
+and fall of the wool-wheel, and the irritating scratch, scratch, of the
+cards. A little girl at a small wheel is filling quills with woollen
+yarn for the loom, not a skilled work; the irregular sound shows her
+intermittent industry. The father is setting fresh teeth in a wool-card,
+while the boys are whittling hand-reels and loom-spools.
+
+One of the household implements used in wool manufacture, the wool-card,
+deserves a short special history as well as a description. In early days
+the leather back of the wool-card was pierced with an awl by hand; the
+wire teeth were cut off from a length of wire, were slightly bent, and
+set and clinched one by one. These cards were laboriously made by many
+persons at home, for their household use. As early as 1667 wire was made
+in Massachusetts; and its chief use was for wool-cards. By
+Revolutionary times it was realized that the use of wool-cards was
+almost the mainspring of the wool industry, and L100 bounty was offered
+by Massachusetts for card-wire made in the state from iron mined in what
+they called then the "United American States." In 1784 a machine was
+invented by an American which would cut and bend thirty-six thousand
+wire teeth an hour. Another machine pierced the leather backs. This gave
+a new employment to women and children at home and some spending-money.
+They would get boxes of the bent wire teeth and bundles of the leather
+backs from the factories and would set the teeth in the backs while
+sitting around the open fire in the evening. They did this work, too,
+while visiting--spending an afternoon; and it was an unconscious and
+diverting work like knitting; scholars set wool-cards while studying,
+and schoolmistresses while teaching. This method of manufacture was
+superseded fifteen years later by a machine invented by Amos Whittemore,
+which held, cut, and pierced the leather, drew the wire from a reel, cut
+and bent a looped tooth, set it, bent it, fastened the leather on the
+back, and speedily turned out a fully made card. John Randolph said this
+machine had everything but an immortal soul. By this time spinning and
+weaving machinery began to crowd out home work, and the machine-made
+cards were needed to keep up with the increased demand. At last machines
+crowded into every department of cloth manufacture; and after
+carding-machines were invented in England--great rollers set with
+card-teeth--they were set up in many mills throughout the United States.
+
+Families soon sent all their wool to these mills to be carded even when
+it was spun and woven at home. It was sent rolled up in a homespun sheet
+or blanket pinned with thorns; and the carded rolls ready for spinning
+were brought home in the same way, and made a still bigger bundle which
+was light in weight for its size. Sometimes a red-cheeked farmer's lass
+would be seen riding home from the carding-mill, through New England
+woods or along New England lanes, with a bundle of carded wool towering
+up behind her bigger than her horse.
+
+Of the use and manufacture of cotton I will speak very shortly. Our
+greatest, cheapest, most indispensable fibre is also our latest one. It
+never formed one of the homespun industries of the colonies; in fact, it
+was never an article of extended domestic manufacture.
+
+A little cotton was always used in early days for stuffing bedquilts,
+petticoats, warriors' armor, and similar purposes. It was bought by the
+pound, East India cotton, in small quantities; the seeds were picked
+out one by one, by hand; it was carded on wool-cards, and spun into a
+rather intractable yarn which was used as warp for linsey-woolsey and
+rag carpets. Even in England no cotton weft, no all-cotton fabrics, were
+made till after 1760, till Hargreave's time. Sometimes a twisted yarn
+was made of one thread of cotton and one of wool which was knit into
+durable stockings. Cotton sewing-thread was unknown in England.
+Pawtucket women named Wilkinson made the first cotton thread on their
+home spinning-wheels in 1792.
+
+Cotton was planted in America, Bancroft says, in 1621, but MacMaster
+asserts it was never seen growing here till after the Revolution save as
+a garden ornament with garden flowers. This assertion seems oversweeping
+when Jefferson could write in a letter in 1786:--
+
+     "The four southermost States make a great deal of cotton. Their
+     poor are almost entirely clothed with it in winter and summer. In
+     winter they wear shirts of it and outer clothing of cotton and wool
+     mixed. In summer their shirts are linen, but the outer clothing
+     cotton. The dress of the women is almost entirely of cotton,
+     manufactured by themselves, except the richer class, and even many
+     of these wear a great deal of homespun cotton. It is as well
+     manufactured as the calicoes of Europe."
+
+Still cotton was certainly not a staple of consequence. We were the last
+to enter the list of cotton-producing countries and we have surpassed
+them all.
+
+The difficulty of removing the seeds from the staple practically thrust
+cotton out of common use. In India a primitive and cumbersome set of
+rollers called a churka partially cleaned India cotton. A Yankee
+schoolmaster, Eli Whitney, set King Cotton on a throne by his invention
+of the cotton-gin in 1792. This comparatively simple but inestimable
+invention completely revolutionized cloth manufacture in England and
+America. It also changed general commerce, industrial development, and
+the social and economic order of things, for it gave new occupations and
+offered new modes of life to hundreds of thousands of persons. It
+entirely changed and cheapened our dress, and altered rural life both in
+the North and South.
+
+A man could, by hand-picking, clean only about a pound of cotton a day.
+The cotton-gin cleaned as much in a day as had taken the hand-picker a
+year to accomplish. Cotton was at once planted in vast amounts; but it
+certainly was not plentiful till then. Whitney had never seen cotton nor
+cotton seed when he began to plan his invention; nor did he, even in
+Savannah, find cotton to experiment with until after considerable
+search.
+
+After the universal manufacture and use of the cotton-gin, negro women
+wove cotton in Southern houses, sometimes spinning their own cotton
+thread; more frequently buying it mill-spun. But, after all, this was in
+too small amounts to be of importance; it needed the spinning-jennies
+and power-looms of vast mills to use up the profuse supply afforded by
+the gin.
+
+A very interesting account of the domestic manufacture of cotton in
+Tennessee about the year 1850 was written for me by Mrs. James Stuart
+Pilcher, State Regent of the Daughters of the American Revolution in
+Tennessee. A portion of her pleasant story reads:--
+
+     "There were two looms in the loom-room, and two negro women were
+     kept busy all the time weaving; there were eight or ten others who
+     did nothing but spin cotton and woollen thread; others spooled and
+     reeled it into hanks. The spinning was all done on the large wheel,
+     from the raw cotton; a corn-shuck was wrapped tightly around the
+     steel spindle, then the thread was run and spun on this shuck until
+     it was full; then these were reeled off into hanks of thread, then
+     spooled on to corn-cobs with holes burned through them. These were
+     placed in an upright frame, with long slender rods of hickory wood
+     something like a ramrod run through them. The frame held about one
+     hundred of these cob-spools; the end of the cotton thread from
+     each spool was gathered up by an experienced warper who carried all
+     the threads back and forth on the large warping-bars; this was a
+     difficult task; only the brightest negro women were warpers. The
+     thread had been dyed before spooling and the vari-colored
+     cob-spools could be arranged to make stripes lengthwise of the
+     cloth; and the hanks had also been dipped in a boiling-hot sizing
+     made of meal and water. The warp-threads were carefully taken from
+     the bars and rolled upon the wooden beam of the loom, the ends
+     passed through the sley and tied. The weaver then began her work.
+     The thread for the filling (called the woof by the negroes) was
+     reeled from the hank on the winding-blades, upon small canes about
+     four inches long which, when full, were placed in the wooden
+     shuttles. These women spun and wove all the clothing worn by the
+     negroes on the plantation; cotton cloth for women and men in the
+     summer time; and jeans for the men; linsey-woolsey for the women
+     and children for winter. All were well clothed. The women taught us
+     to spin, but the weavers were cross and would not let us touch the
+     loom, for they said we broke the threads in the warp. My
+     grandmother never interfered with them when they were careful in
+     their work. We would say, 'Please make Aunt Rhody let me weave!'
+     She answered, 'No, she is managing the loom; if she is willing,
+     very well; if not, you must not worry her.' We thought it great fun
+     to try to weave, but generally had to pay Aunt Rhody for our
+     meddling by giving her cake, ribbons, or candy."
+
+The colonists were constantly trying to find new materials for spinning,
+and also used many makeshifts. Parkman, in his _Old Regime_, tells that
+in the year 1704, when a ship was lost that was to bring cloth and wool
+to Quebec, a Madame de Repentigny, one of the aristocrats of the
+French-Canadian colony, spun and wove coarse blankets of nettle and
+linden bark. Similar experiments were made by the English colonists.
+Coarse thread was spun out of nettle-fibre by pioneers in western New
+York. Levi Beardsley, in his _Reminiscences_, tells of his mother at the
+close of the last century, in her frontier home at Richfield Springs,
+weaving bags and coarse garments from the nettles which grew so rankly
+everywhere in that vicinity. Deer hair and even cow's hair was collected
+from the tanners, spun with some wool, and woven into a sort of felted
+blanket.
+
+Silk-grass, a much-vaunted product, was sent back to England on the
+first ships and was everywhere being experimented with. Coarse wicking
+was spun from the down of the milkweed--an airy, feathery material that
+always looks as if it ought to be put to many uses, yet never has seemed
+of much account in any trial that has been made of it.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+HAND-WEAVING
+
+
+Any one who passed through a New England village on a week day a century
+ago, or rode up to the door of a Pennsylvania or Virginia house, would
+probably be greeted with a heavy thwack-thwack from within doors, a
+regular sound which would readily be recognized by every one at that
+time as proceeding from weaving on a hand-loom. The presence of these
+looms was, perhaps, not so universal in every house as that of their
+homespun companions, the great and little wheels, for they required more
+room; but they were found in every house of any considerable size, and
+in many also where they seemed to fill half the building. Many
+households had a loom-room, usually in an ell part of the house; others
+used an attic or a shed-loft as a weaving-room. Every farmer's daughter
+knew how to weave as well as to spin, yet it was not recognized as
+wholly woman's work as was spinning; for there was a trade of
+hand-weaving for men, to which they were apprenticed. Every town had
+professional weavers. They were a universally respected class, and
+became the ancestors of many of the wealthiest and most influential
+citizens to-day. They took in yarn and thread to weave on their looms at
+their own homes at so much a yard; wove their own yarn into stuffs to
+sell; had apprentices to their trade; and also went out working by the
+day at their neighbors' houses, sometimes carrying their looms many
+miles with them.
+
+Weavers were a universally popular element of the community. The
+travelling weaver was, like all other itinerant tradesmen of the day, a
+welcome newsmonger; and the weaver who took in weaving was often a
+stationary gossip, and gathered inquiring groups in his loom-room; even
+children loved to go to his door to beg for bits of colored
+yarn--thrums--which they used in their play, and also tightly braided to
+wear as shoestrings, hair-laces, etc.
+
+The hand-loom used in the colonies, and occasionally still run in
+country towns to-day, is an historic machine, one of great antiquity and
+dignity. It is, perhaps, the most absolute bequest of past centuries
+which we have had, unchanged, in domestic use till the present time. You
+may see a loom like the Yankee one shown here in Giotto's famous fresco
+in the Campanile, painted in 1335; another, still the same, in Hogarth's
+_Idle Apprentice_, painted just four hundred years later. Many tribes
+and nations have hand-looms resembling our own; but these are exactly
+like it. Hundreds of thousands of men and women of the generations of
+these seven centuries since Giotto's day have woven on just such looms
+as our grandparents had in their homes.
+
+This loom consists of a frame of four square timber posts, about seven
+feet high, set about as far apart as the posts of a tall four-post
+bedstead, and connected at top and bottom by portions of a frame. From
+post to post across one end, which may be called the back part of the
+loom, is the yarn-beam, about six inches in diameter. Upon it are wound
+the warp-threads, which stretch in close parallels from it to the
+cloth-beam at the front of the loom. The cloth-beam is about ten inches
+in diameter, and the cloth is wound as the weaving proceeds.
+
+The yarn-beam or yarn-roll or warp-beam was ever a very important part
+of the loom. It should be made of close-grained, well-seasoned wood. The
+iron axle should be driven in before the beam is turned. If the beam is
+ill-turned and irregular in shape, no even, perfect woof can come from
+it. The slightest variation in its dimensions makes the warp run off
+unevenly, and the web never "sets" well, but has some loose threads.
+
+We have seen the homespun yarn, whether linen or woollen, left in
+carefully knotted skeins after being spun and cleaned, bleached, or
+dyed. To prepare it for use on the loom a skein is placed on the swift,
+an ingenious machine, a revolving cylindrical frame made of strips of
+wood arranged on the principle of the lazy-tongs so the size can be
+increased or diminished at pleasure, and thus take on and hold firmly
+any sized skein of yarn. This cylinder is supported on a centre shaft
+that revolves in a socket, and may be set in a heavy block on the floor
+or fastened to a table or chair. A lightly made, carved swift was a
+frequent lover's gift. I have a beautiful one of whale-ivory,
+mother-of-pearl, and fine white bone which was made on a three years'
+whaling voyage by a Nantucket sea-captain as a gift to his waiting
+bride; it has over two hundred strips of fine white carved bone. Both
+quills for the weft and spools for the warp may be wound from the swift
+by a quilling-wheel, small wheels of various shapes, some being like a
+flax-wheel, but more simple in construction. The quill or bobbin is a
+small reed or quill, pierced from end to end, and when wound is set in
+the recess of the shuttle.
+
+When the piece is to be set, a large number of shuttles and spools are
+filled in advance. The full spools are then placed in a row one above
+the other in a spool-holder, sometimes called a skarne or scarne. As I
+have not found this word in any dictionary, ancient or modern, its
+correct spelling is unknown. Sylvester Judd, in his _Margaret_, spells
+it skan. Skean and skayn have also been seen. Though ignored by
+lexicographers, it was an article and word in established and universal
+use in the colonies. I have seen it in newspaper advertisements of
+weavers' materials, and in inventories of weavers' estates, spelled _ad
+libitum_; and elderly country folk, both in the North and South, who
+remember old-time weaving, know it to-day.
+
+It seems to me impossible to explain clearly in words, though it is
+simple enough in execution, the laying of the piece, the orderly placing
+the warp on the warp-beam. The warping-bars are entirely detached from
+the loom, are an accessory, not a part of it. They are two upright bars
+of wood, each holding a number of wooden pins set at right angles to
+the bars, and held together by crosspieces. Let forty full spools be
+placed in the skarne, one above the other. The free ends of threads from
+the spools are gathered in the hand, and fastened to a pin at the top of
+the warping-bars. The group of threads then are carried from side to
+side of the bars, passing around a pin on one bar, then around a pin on
+the opposite bar, to the extreme end; then back again in the same way,
+the spools revolving on wires and freely playing out the warp-threads,
+till a sufficient length of threads are stretched on the bars. Weavers
+of olden days could calculate exactly and skilfully the length of the
+threads thus wound. You take off twenty yards of threads if you want to
+weave twenty yards of cloth. Forty warp-threads make what was called a
+bout or section. A warp of two hundred threads was designated as a warp
+of five bouts, and the bars had to be filled five times to set it unless
+a larger skarne with more spools was used. From the warping-bars these
+bouts are carefully wound on the warp-beam.
+
+Without attempting to explain farther, let us consider the yarn-beam
+neatly wound with these warp-threads and set in the loom--that the
+"warping" and "beaming" are finished. The "drawing" or "entering" comes
+next; the end of each warp-thread in regular order is "thumbed" or drawn
+in with a warping-needle through the eye or "mail" of the harness, or
+heddle.
+
+The heddle is a row of twines, cords, or wires called leashes, which are
+stretched vertically between two horizontal bars or rods, placed about a
+foot apart. One rod is suspended by a pulley at the top of the loom; and
+to the lower rod is hitched the foot-treadle. In the middle of each
+length of twine or wire is the loop or eye, through which a warp-thread
+is passed. In ordinary weaving there are two heddles, each fastened to a
+foot-treadle.
+
+There is a removable loom attachment which when first shown to me was
+called a raddle. It is not necessary in weaving, but a convenience and
+help in preparing to weave. It is a wooden bar with a row of closely
+set, fine, wooden pegs. This is placed in the loom, and used only during
+the setting of the warp to keep the warp of proper width; the pegs keep
+the bouts or sections of the warp disentangled during the "thumbing in"
+of the threads through the heddle-eyes. This attachment is also called a
+ravel or raivel; and folk-names for it (not in the dictionary) were
+wrathe and rake; the latter a very good descriptive title.
+
+The warp-threads next are drawn through the interspaces between two
+dents or strips of the sley or reed. This is done with a wire hook
+called a sley-hook or reed-hook. Two warp-threads are drawn in each
+space.
+
+The sley or reed is composed of a row of short and very thin parallel
+strips of cane or metal, somewhat like comb-teeth, called dents, fixed
+at both ends closely in two long, strong, parallel bars of wood set two
+or three or even four inches apart. There may be fifty or sixty of these
+dents to one inch, for weaving very fine linen; usually there are about
+twenty, which gives a "bier"--a counting out of forty warp-threads to
+each inch. Sleys were numbered according to the number of biers they
+held. The number of dents to an inch determined the "set of the web,"
+the fineness of the piece. This reed is placed in a groove on the lower
+edge of a heavy batten (or lay or lathe). This batten hangs by two
+swords or side bars and swings from an axle or "rocking tree" at the top
+of the loom. As the heavy batten swings on its axle, the reed forces
+with a sharp blow every newly placed thread of the weft into its proper
+place close to the previously woven part of the texture. This is the
+heavy thwacking sound heard in hand-weaving.
+
+On the accurate poise of the batten depends largely the evenness of the
+completed woof. If the material is heavy, the batten should be swung
+high, thus having a good sweep and much force in its blow. The batten
+should be so poised as to swing back itself into place after each blow.
+
+The weaver, with foot on treadle, sits on a narrow, high bench, which is
+fastened from post to post of the loom. James Maxwell, the weaver-poet,
+wrote under his portrait in his _Weaver's Meditations_, printed in
+1756:--
+
+    "Lo! here 'twixt Heaven and Earth I swing,
+      And whilst the Shuttle swiftly flies,
+    With cheerful heart I work and sing
+      And envy none beneath the skies."
+
+There are three motions in hand-weaving. First: by the action of one
+foot-treadle one harness or heddle, holding every alternate warp-thread,
+is depressed from the level of the entire expanse of warp-threads.
+
+The separation of the warp-threads by this depression of one harness is
+called a shed. Some elaborate patterns have six harnesses. In such a
+piece there are ten different sheds, or combinations of openings of the
+warp-threads. In a four-harness piece there are six different sheds.
+
+Room is made by this shed for the shuttle, which, by the second motion,
+is thrown from one side of the loom to the other by the weaver's hand,
+and thus goes over every alternate thread. The revolving quill within
+the shuttle lets the weft-thread play out during this side-to-side
+motion of the shuttle. The shuttle must not be thrown too sharply else
+it will rebound and make a slack thread in the weft. By the third motion
+the batten crowds this weft-thread into place. Then the motion of the
+other foot-treadle forces down the other warp-threads which pass through
+the second set of harnesses, the shuttle is thrown back through this
+shed, and so on.
+
+In order to show the amount of work, the number of separate motions in a
+day's work in weaving of close woollen cloth like broadcloth (which was
+only about three yards), we must remember that the shuttle was thrown
+over three thousand times, and the treadles pressed down and batten
+swung the same number of times.
+
+A simple but clear description of the process of weaving is given in
+Ovid's _Metamorphoses_, thus Englished in 1724:--
+
+                        "The piece prepare
+    And order every slender thread with care;
+    The web enwraps the beam, the reed divides
+    While through the widening space the shuttle glides,
+    Which their swift hands receive, then poised with lead
+    The swinging weight strikes close the inserted thread."
+
+A loom attachment which I puzzled over was a tomble or tumble, the word
+being seen in eighteenth-century lists, etc., yet absolutely
+untraceable. I at last inferred, and a weaver confirmed my inference,
+that it was a corruption of temple, an attachment made of flat, narrow
+strips of wood as long as the web is wide, with hooks or pins at the end
+to catch into the selvage of the cloth, and keep the cloth stretched
+firmly an even width while the reed beats the weft-thread into place.
+
+There were many other simple yet effective attachments to the loom.
+Their names have been upon the lips of scores of thousands of
+English-speaking people, and the words are used in all treatises on
+weaving; yet our dictionaries are dumb and ignorant of their existence.
+There was the pace-weight, which kept the warp even; and the bore-staff,
+which tightened the warp. When a sufficient length of woof had been
+woven (it was usually a few inches), the weaver proceeded to do what was
+called drawing a bore or a sink. He shifted the temple forward; rolled
+up the cloth on the cloth bar, which had a crank-handle and ratchets;
+unwound the warp a few inches, shifted back the rods and heddles, and
+started afresh.
+
+Looms and their appurtenances were usually made by local carpenters; and
+it can plainly be seen that thus constant work was furnished to many
+classes of workmen in every community,--wood-turners, beam-makers,
+timber-sawyers, and others. The various parts of the looms were in
+unceasing demand, though apparently they never wore out. The sley was
+the most delicate part of the mechanism. Good sley-makers could always
+command high prices for their sleys. I have seen one whole and good,
+which has been in general use for weaving rag carpets ever since the War
+of 1812, for which a silver dollar was paid. Spools were turned and
+marked with the maker's initials. There were choice and inexplicable
+lines in the shape of a shuttle as there are in a boat's hull. When a
+shuttle was carefully shaped, scraped, hollowed out, tipped with steel,
+and had the maker's initials burnt in it, it was a proper piece of
+work, of which any craftsman might be proud. Apple-wood and boxwood were
+the choice for shuttles.
+
+Smaller looms, called tape-looms, braid-looms, belt-looms, garter-looms,
+or "gallus-frames," were seen in many American homes, and useful they
+were in days when linen, cotton, woollen, or silk tapes, bobbins, and
+webbings or ribbons were not common and cheap as to-day. Narrow bands
+such as tapes, none-so-pretty's, ribbons, caddises, ferretings,
+inkles, were woven on these looms for use for garters, points,
+glove-ties, hair-laces, shoestrings, belts, hat-bands, stay-laces,
+breeches-suspenders, etc.
+
+These tape-looms are a truly ancient form of appliance for the
+hand-weaving of narrow bands,--a heddle-frame. They are rudely primitive
+in shape, but besides serving well the colonists in all our original
+states, are still in use among the Indian tribes in New Mexico and in
+Lapland, Italy, and northern Germany. They are scarcely more than a
+slightly shaped board so cut in slits that the centre of the board is a
+row of narrow slats. These slats are pierced in a row by means of a
+heated wire and the warp-threads are passed through the holes.
+
+A common form of braid-loom was one that was laid upon a table. A still
+simpler form was held upright on the lap, the knees being firmly
+pressed into semicircular indentations cut for the purpose on either
+side of the board which formed the lower part of the loom. The top of
+the loom was steadied by being tied with a band to the top of a chair,
+or a hook in the wall. It was such light and pretty work that it seemed
+merely an industrial amusement, and girls carried their tape-looms to a
+neighbor's house for an afternoon's work, just as they did their
+knitting-needles and ball of yarn. A fringe-loom might also be
+occasionally found, for weaving decorative fringes; these were more
+common in the Hudson River valley than elsewhere.
+
+I have purposely given minute, but I trust not tiresome, details of the
+operation of weaving on a hand-loom, because a few years more will see
+the last of those who know the operation and the terms used. The fact
+that so many terms are now obsolete proves how quickly disuse brings
+oblivion. When in a country crowded full of weavers, as was England
+until about 1845, the knowledge has so suddenly disappeared, need we
+hope for much greater memory or longer life here? When what is termed
+the Westmoreland Revival of domestic industries was begun eight or ten
+years ago, the greatest difficulty was found in obtaining a hand-loom.
+No one knew how to set it up, and it was a long time before a weaver
+could be found to run it and teach others its use.
+
+The first half of this century witnessed a vital struggle in England,
+and to an extent in America, between hand and power machinery, and an
+interesting race between spinning and weaving. Under old-time conditions
+it was calculated that it took the work of four spinners, who spun
+swiftly and constantly, to supply one weaver. As spinning was ever what
+was known as a by-industry,--that is, one that chiefly was done by being
+caught up at odd moments,--the supply both in England and America did
+not equal the weavers' demands, and ten spinners had to be calculated to
+supply yarn for one weaver. Hence weavers never had to work very hard;
+as a rule, they could have one holiday in the week. What with Sundays,
+wakes, and fairs, Irish weavers worked only two hundred days in the
+year. In England the weaver often had to spend one day out of the six
+hunting around the country for yarn for weft. So inventive wits were set
+at work to enlarge the supply of yarn, and spinning machinery was the
+result. Thereafter the looms and weavers were pushed hard and had to
+turn to invention. The shuttle had always simply been passed from one
+hand to the other of the weaver on either side of the web. The
+fly-shuttle was now invented, which by a simple piece of machinery,
+worked by one hand, threw the shuttle swiftly backward and forward, and
+the loom was ahead in the race. Then came the spinning-jenny, which spun
+yarn with a hundred spindles on each machine. But this was for weft
+yarns, and did not make strong warps. Finally Arkwright supplied this
+lack in water-twist or "throstle-spun" yarn. All these inventions again
+overcrowded the weavers; all attempts at hand-spinning of cotton had
+become quickly extinct. Wool-spinning lingered longer. Five Tomlinson
+sisters,--the youngest forty years old,--with two pair of wool-cards and
+five hand-wheels, paid the rent of their farm, kept three cows, one
+horse, had a ploughed field, and made prime butter and eggs. One sister
+clung to her spinning till 1822. Power-looms were invented to try to use
+up the jenny's supply of yarn, but these did not crowd out hand-looms.
+Weavers never had so good wages. It was the Golden Age of Cotton. Some
+families earned six pounds a week; good clothes, even to the extent of
+ruffled shirts, good furniture, even to silver spoons, good food,
+plentiful ale and beer, entered every English cottage with the weaving
+of cotton and wool. A far more revolutionary and more hated machine than
+the power-loom was the combing-machine called Big Ben.
+
+    "Come all ye Master Combers, and hear of our Big Ben.
+    He'll comb more wool than fifty of your men
+    With their hand-combs, and comb-pots, and such old-fashioned way."
+
+Flax-spinning and linen-weaving by power machinery were slower in being
+established. Englishmen were halting in perfecting these machines.
+Napoleon offered in 1810 a million francs for a flax-spinning machine. A
+clever Frenchman claimed to have invented one in response in a single
+day, but similar clumsy machines had then been running in England for
+twenty years. By 1850 men, women, and children--combers, spinners, and
+weavers--were no longer individual workers; they had become part of that
+great monster, the mill-machinery. Riots and misery were the first
+result of the passing of hand weaving and spinning.
+
+In the _Vision of Piers Ploughman_ (1360) are these lines:--
+
+    "Cloth that cometh fro the wevyng
+    Is nought comly to were
+    Till it be fulled under foot
+    Or in fullyng stokkes
+    Wasshen wel with water
+    And with taseles cracched,
+    Y-touked and y-tented
+    And under taillours hande."
+
+Just so in the colonies four centuries later, cloth that came from the
+weaving was not comely to wear till it was fulled under foot or in
+fulling-stocks, washed well in water, scratched and dressed with
+teazels, dyed and tented, and put in the tailor's hands. Nor did the
+roll of centuries bring a change in the manner of proceeding. If grease
+had been put on the wool when it was carded, or sizing in the warp for
+the weaving, it was washed out by good rinsing from the woven cloth.
+This became now somewhat uneven and irregular in appearance, and full of
+knots and fuzzes which were picked out with hand-tweezers by burlers
+before it was fulled or milled, as it was sometimes called. The
+fulling-stocks were a trough in which an enormous oaken hammer was made
+to pound up and down, while the cloth was kept thoroughly wet with warm
+soap and water, or fullers' earth and water. Naturally this thickened
+the web much and reduced it in length. It was then teazelled; that is, a
+nap or rough surface was raised all over it by scratching it with
+weavers' teazels or thistles. Many wire brushes and metal substitutes
+have been tried to take the place of nature's gift to the cloth-worker,
+the teazel, but nothing has been invented to replace with full
+satisfaction that wonderful scratcher. For the slender recurved bracts
+of the teazel heads are stiff and prickly enough to roughen thoroughly
+the nap of the cloth, yet they yield at precisely the right point to
+keep from injuring the fabric.
+
+If the cloth were to be "y-touked," that is, dyed, it was done at this
+period, and it was then "y-tented," spread on the tenter-field and
+caught on tenter-hooks, to shrink and dry.
+
+Nowadays, we sometimes cut or crop the nap with long shears, and boil
+the web to give it a lustre, and ink it to color any ill-dyed fibres,
+and press it between hot plates before it goes to the tailor's hands;
+but these injurious processes were omitted in olden times. Worsted
+stuffs were not fulled, but were woven of hand-combed wool.
+
+Linen webs after they were woven had even more manipulations to come to
+them than woollen stuffs. In spite of all the bleaching of the linen
+thread, it still was light brown in color, and it had to go through at
+least twoscore other processes, of bucking, possing, rinsing, drying,
+and bleaching on the grass. Sometimes it was stretched out on pegs with
+loops sewed on the selvage edge. This bleaching was called crofting in
+England, and grassing in America. Often it was thus spread on the grass
+for weeks, and was slightly wetted several times a day; but not too wet,
+else it would mildew. In all, over forty bleaching operations were
+employed upon "light linens." Sometimes they were "soured" in buttermilk
+to make them purely white. Thus at least sixteen months had passed since
+the flaxseed had been sown, in which, truly, the spinster had not eaten
+the bread of idleness. In the winter months the fine, white, strong
+linen was made into "board cloths" or tablecloths, sheets, pillow-biers,
+aprons, shifts, shirts, petticoats, short gowns, gloves, cut from the
+spinner's own glove pattern, and a score of articles for household use.
+These were carefully marked, and sometimes embroidered with home-dyed
+crewels, as were also splendid sets of bed-hangings, valances, and
+testers for four-post bedsteads.
+
+The homespun linens that were thus spun and woven and bleached were one
+of the most beautiful expressions and types of old-time home life. Firm,
+close-woven, and pure, their designs were not greatly varied, nor was
+their woof as symmetrical and perfect as modern linens--but thus were
+the lives of those who made them; firm, close-woven in neighborly
+kindness, with the simplicity both of innocence and ignorance; their
+days had little variety, and life was not altogether easy, and, like the
+web they wove, it was sometimes narrow. I am always touched when
+handling these homespun linens with a consciousness of nearness to the
+makers; with a sense of the energy and strength of those enduring women
+who were so full of vitality, of unceasing action, that it does not seem
+to me they can be dead.
+
+The strong, firm linen woven in many struggling country homes was too
+valuable and too readily exchangeable and salable to be kept wholly for
+farm use, especially when there were so few salable articles produced on
+the farm. It was sold or more frequently exchanged at the village store
+for any desired commodity, such as calico, salt, sugar, spices, or tea.
+It readily sold for forty-two cents a yard. Therefore the boys and even
+the fathers did not always have linen shirts to wear. From the tow
+which had been hatchelled out from harl a coarse thread was spun and
+cloth was woven which was made chiefly into shirts and smocks and tow
+"tongs" or "skilts," which were loose flapping summer trousers which
+ended almost half-way from the knee to the ankle. This tow stuff was
+never free from prickling spines, and it proved, so tradition states, an
+absolute instrument of torture to the wearer, until frequent washings
+had worn it out and thus subdued its knots and spines.
+
+A universal stuff woven in New Hampshire by the Scotch-Irish
+linen-weavers who settled there, and who influenced husbandry and
+domestic manufactures and customs all around them, was what was known as
+striped frocking. It was worn also to a considerable extent in
+Connecticut and Massachusetts. The warp was strong white cotton or tow
+thread, the weft of blue and white stripes made by weaving alternately a
+shuttleful of indigo-dyed homespun yarn and one of white wool or tow.
+Many boys grew to manhood never wearing, except on Sundays, any kind of
+coat save a long, loose, shapeless jacket or smock of this striped
+frocking, known everywhere as a long-short. The history of the old town
+of Charmingfare tells of the farmers in that vicinity tying tight the
+two corners of this long-short at the waist and thus making a sort of
+loose bag in which various articles could be carried. Sylvester Judd, in
+his _Margaret_, the classic of old New England life, has his country
+women dressed also in long-shorts, and tells of the same fabric.
+
+Another material which was universal in country districts had a flax or
+tow warp, and a coarser slack-twisted cotton or tow filling. This cloth
+was dyed and pressed and was called fustian. It was worth a shilling a
+yard in 1640. It was named in the earliest colonial accounts, and was in
+truth the ancient fustian, worn throughout Europe in the Middle Ages for
+monks' robes and laborers' dress, not the stuff to-day called fustian.
+We read in _The Squier of Low Degree_, "Your blanketts shall be of
+fustayne."
+
+Another coarse cloth made in New England, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and
+the Carolinas was crocus. The stuff is obsolete and the name is
+forgotten save in a folk-saying which lingers in Virginia--"as coarse as
+crocus." Homespun stuff for the wear of negroes was known and sold as
+"Virginia cloth." Vast quantities of homespun cloth was made on
+Virginian plantations, thousands of yards annually at Mount Vernon for
+slave-wear, and for the house-mistress as well.
+
+It is told of Martha Washington that she always carefully dyed all her
+worn silk gowns and silk scraps to a desired shade, ravelled them with
+care, wound them on bobbins, and had them woven into chair and
+cushion covers. Sometimes she changed the order of things. To a group of
+visitors she at one time displayed a dress of red and white striped
+material of which the white stripes were cotton, and the red, ravelled
+chair covers and silk from the General's worn-out stockings.
+
+Checked linen, with bars of red or blue, was much used for bedticks,
+pillow-cases, towelling, aprons, and even shirts and summer trousers. In
+all the Dutch communities in New York it was woven till this century.
+When Benjamin Tappan first attended meeting in Northampton,
+Massachusetts, in 1769, he was surprised to find that all the men in the
+church but four or five wore checked shirts. Worcester County men always
+wore white shirts, and deemed a checked shirt the mark of a Connecticut
+River man.
+
+It is impossible to overestimate the durability of homespun materials. I
+have "flannel sheets" a hundred years old, the lightest, most healthful,
+and agreeable summer covering for children's beds that ever any one was
+blessed with. Cradle sheets of this thin, closely woven, white worsted
+stuff are not slimsy like thin flannel, yet are softer than flannel.
+Years of use with many generations of children have left them firm and
+white.
+
+Grain-bags have been seen that have been in constant and hard use for
+seventy years, homespun from coarse flax and hemp. I have several
+delightful bags about four feet long and two feet wide, of rather
+closely woven pure white homespun linen, not as heavy, however, as
+crash. They have the date of their manufacture, 1789, and the initials
+of the weaver, and have linen tapes woven in at each side. They are used
+every spring--packed with furs and blankets and placed in cedar chests,
+and with such usage will easily round out another century.
+
+The product of these hand-looms which has lingered longest in country
+use, especially in the Northern states, and which is the sole product of
+all the hand-looms that I know to be set up and in use in New England
+(except one notable example to which I will refer hereafter), is the rag
+carpet. It is still in constant demand and esteem on farms and in small
+villages and towns, and is an economical and thrifty, and may be a
+comely floor-covering. The accompanying illustration of a woman weaving
+rag carpet on an old hand-loom is from a fine photograph taken by Mrs.
+Arthur Sewall of Bath, Maine, and gives an excellent presentment of the
+machine and the process.
+
+The warp of these carpets was, in olden times, a strong, heavy flaxen
+thread. To-day it is a heavy cotton twine bought machine-spun in balls
+or hanks. The weft or rilling is narrow strips of all the clean and
+vari-colored rags that accumulate in a household.
+
+The preparing of this filling requires considerable judgment. Heavy
+woollen cloth should be cut in strips about half an inch wide. If there
+were sewn with these strips of light cotton stuff of equal width, the
+carpet would prove a poor thing, heavy in spots and slimsy in others.
+Hence lighter stuffs should be cut in wider strips, as they can then be
+crowded down by the batten of the loom to the same width and substance
+as the heavy wools. Calicoes, cottons, all-wool delaines, and lining
+cambrics should be cut in strips at least an inch wide. These strips, of
+whatever length they chance to be, are sewn into one continuous strip,
+which is rolled into a hard ball weighing about a pound and a quarter.
+It is calculated that one of these balls will weave about a yard of
+carpeting. The joining must be strongly and neatly done and should not
+be bunchy. An aged weaver who had woven many thousand yards of carpeting
+assured me the prettiest carpets were always those in which every
+alternate strip was white or very light in color. Another thrifty way of
+using old material is the cutting into inch-wide strips of woven ingrain
+or three-ply carpet. This, through the cotton warp, makes a really
+artistic monochrome floor-covering.
+
+In one of the most romantic and beautiful spots in old Narragansett
+lives the last of the old-time weavers; not a weaver who desultorily
+weaves a run of rag carpeting to earn a little money in the intervals of
+other work, or to please some importunate woman-neighbor who has saved
+up her rags; but a weaver whose lifelong occupation, whose only means of
+livelihood, has always been, and is still, hand-weaving. I have told his
+story at some length in my book, _Old Narragansett_,--of his kin, his
+life, his work. His home is at the cross-roads where three townships
+meet, a cross-roads where has often taken place that curious and
+senseless survival of old-time tradition and superstition--shift
+marriages. A widow, a cousin of the Weaver Rose's father, was the last
+to undergo this ordeal; clad only in her shift, she thrice crossed the
+King's Highway and was thus married to avoid payment of her first
+husband's debts. It is not far from the old Church Foundation of St.
+Paul's of Narragansett, and the tumble-down house of Sexton Martin Read,
+the prince of Narragansett weavers in ante-Revolutionary days. Weaver
+Rose learned to weave from his grandfather, who was an apprentice of
+Weaver Read.
+
+In the loom-room of Weaver Rose a veritable atmosphere of the past still
+lingers. Everything appertaining to the manufacture of homespun
+materials may there be found. Wheels, skarnes, sleys, warping-bars,
+clock-reels, swifts, quilling-wheels, vast bales of yarns and
+thread--for he no longer spins his thread and yarn. There are piles of
+old and new bed coverlets woven in those fanciful geometric designs,
+which are just as the ancient Gauls wove them in the Bronze Age, and
+which formed a favorite bed-covering of our ancestors, and of country
+folk to-day. These coverlets the weaver calls by the good old English
+name of hap-harlot, a name now obsolete in England, which I have never
+seen used in text of later date than Holinshead's _Survey of London_,
+written four hundred years ago. His manuscript pattern-book is over a
+hundred years old, and has the rules for setting the harnesses. They
+bear many pretty and odd names, such as "Rosy Walk," "Baltimore
+Beauty," "Girl's Love," "Queen's Fancy," "Devil's Fancy," "Everybody's
+Beauty," "Four Snow Balls," "Five Snow Balls," "Bricks and Blocks,"
+"Gardener's Note," "Green Vails," "Rose in Bloom," "Pansies and Roses in
+the Wilderness," "Flag-Work," "Royal Beauty," "Indian March," "Troy's
+Beauty," "Primrose and Diamonds," "Crown and Diamonds," "Jay's Fancy,"
+"In Summer and Winter," "Boston Beauty," and "Indian War." One named
+"Bony Part's March" was very pretty, as was "Orange Peel," and "Orange
+Trees"; "Dog Tracks" was even checkerwork, "Blazing Star," a
+herring-bone design. "Perry's Victory" and "Lady Washington's Delight"
+show probably the date of their invention, and were handsome designs,
+while the "Whig Rose from Georgia," which had been given to the weaver
+by an old lady a hundred years old, had proved a poor and ugly thing.
+"Kapa's Diaper" was a complicated design which took "five harnesses" to
+make. "Rattlesnake's Trail," "Wheels of Fancy," "Chariot Wheels and
+Church Windows," and "Bachelor's Fancy" were all exceptionally fine
+designs.
+
+Sometimes extremely elaborate patterns were woven in earlier days. An
+exquisitely woven coverlet as fine as linen sheeting, a corner of which
+is here shown, has an elaborate border of patriotic and Masonic
+emblems, patriotic inscriptions, and the name of the maker, a Red Hook,
+Hudson valley, dame of a century ago, who wove this beautiful bedspread
+as the crowning treasure of her bridal outfit. The "setting-up" of such
+a design as this is entirely beyond my skill as a weaver to explain or
+even comprehend. But it is evident that the border must have been woven
+by taking up a single warp-thread at a time, with a wire needle, not by
+passing a shuttle, as it is far too complicated and varied for any
+treadle-harness to be able to make a shed for a shuttle.
+
+Hand-weaving in Weaver Rose's loom-room to-day is much simplified in
+many of its preparatory details by the employment of machine-made
+materials. The shuttles and spools are made by machinery; and more
+important still, both warp and weft is purchased ready-spun from mills.
+The warp is simply a stout cotton twine or coarse thread bought in balls
+or hanks; while various cheap mill-yarns or what is known as worsteds or
+coarse crewels are used as filling. These, of course, are cheap, but
+alas! are dyed with fleeting or garish aniline dyes. No new blue yarn
+can equal either in color or durability the old indigo-dyed, homespun,
+hard-twisted yarn made on a spinning-wheel. Germantown, early in the
+field in American wool manufacture, still supplies nearly all the yarn
+for his hand-looms.
+
+The transition half a century or more ago from what Horace Bushnell
+called "mother and daughter power to water and steam power," was a
+complete revolution in domestic life, and indeed of social manners as
+well. When a people spin and weave and make their own dress, you have in
+this very fact the assurance that they are home-bred, home-living,
+home-loving people. You are sure, also, that the lives of the women are
+home-centred. The chief cause for women's intercourse with any of the
+outside world except neighborly acquaintance, her chief knowledge of
+trade and exchange, is in shopping, dressmaking, etc. These causes
+scarcely existed in country communities a century ago. The daughters who
+in our days of factories leave the farm for the cotton-mill, where they
+perform but one of the many operations in cloth manufacture, can never
+be as good home-makers or as helpful mates as the homespun girls of our
+grandmothers' days; nor can they be such co-workers in great public
+movements.
+
+In the summer of 1775, when all the preparations for the War of the
+Revolution were in a most unsettled and depressing condition, especially
+the supplies for the Continental army, the Provincial Congress made a
+demand on the people for thirteen thousand warm coats to be ready for
+the soldiers by cold weather. There were no great contractors then as
+now to supply the cloth and make the garments, but by hundreds of
+hearthstones throughout the country wool-wheels and hand-looms were
+started eagerly at work, and the order was filled by the handiwork of
+patriotic American women. In the record book of some New England towns
+may still be found the lists of the coat-makers. In the inside of each
+coat was sewed the name of the town and the maker. Every soldier
+volunteering for eight months' service was given one of these homespun,
+home-made, all-wool coats as a bounty. So highly were these "Bounty
+Coats" prized, that the heirs of soldiers who were killed at Bunker Hill
+before receiving their coats were given a sum of money instead. The list
+of names of soldiers who then enlisted is known to this day as the "Coat
+Roll," and the names of the women who made the coats might form another
+roll of honor. The English sneeringly called Washington's army the
+"Homespuns." It was a truthful nickname, but there was deeper power in
+the title than the English scoffers knew.
+
+The starting up of power-looms and the wonderful growth of woollen
+manufacture did not crowd out homespun as speedily in America as in
+England. When the poet Whittier set out from the Quaker farmhouse to go
+to Boston to seek his fortune, he wore a homespun suit every part of
+which, even the horn buttons, was of domestic manufacture. Many a man
+born since Whittier has grown to manhood clothed for every-day wear
+wholly with homespun; and many a boy is living who was sent to college
+dressed wholly in a "full-cloth" suit, with horn buttons or buttons made
+of discs of heavy leather.
+
+During the Civil War spinning and weaving were revived arts in the
+Confederate cities; and, as ever in earlier days, proved a most valuable
+economic resource under restricted conditions. In the home of a friend
+in Charleston, South Carolina, an old, worm-eaten loom was found in a
+garret where it had lain since the embargo in 1812. It was set up in
+1863, and plantation carpenters made many like it for neighbors and
+fellow-citizens. All women in the mountain districts knew how to use the
+loom, and taught weaving to many others, both white and black. A portion
+of the warp, which was cotton, was spun at home; more was bought from a
+cotton-factory. My friend sacrificed a great number of excellent
+wool-mattresses; this wool was spun into yarn and used for weft, and
+formed a most grateful and dignified addition to the varied, grotesque,
+and interesting makeshifts of the wardrobe of the Southern Confederacy.
+
+Though weaving on hand-looms in our Northern and Middle states is
+practically extinct, save as to the weaving of rag carpets (and that
+only in few communities), in the South all is different. In all the
+mountain and remote regions of Kentucky, Tennessee, Georgia, the
+Carolinas, and I doubt not in Alabama, both among the white and negro
+mountain-dwellers, hand-weaving is still a household art. The
+descendants of the Acadians in Louisiana still weave and wear homespun.
+The missions in the mountains encourage spinning and weaving; and it is
+pleasant to learn that many women not only pursue these handicrafts for
+their home use, but some secure a good living by hand-weaving, earning
+ten cents a yard in weaving rag carpets. The coverlet patterns resemble
+the ones already described. Names from Waynesville, North Carolina, are
+"Washington's Diamond Ring," "Nine Chariot Wheels"; from Pinehurst come
+"Flowery Vine," "Double Table," "Cat Track," "Snow Ball and Dew Drop,"
+"Snake Shed," "Flowers in the Mountains." At Pinehurst the old settlers,
+of sturdy Scotch stock, all weave. They make cloth, all cotton; cloth of
+cotton warp and wool filling called drugget; dimity, a heavy cotton used
+for coverlets; a yarn jean which has wool warp and filling, and cotton
+jean which is cotton warp and wool filling; homespun is a heavy cloth,
+of cotton and wool mixed. All buy cotton warp or "chain," as they call
+it, ready-spun from the mills. This is known by the name of
+bunch-thread. These Pinehurst weavers still use home-made dyes. Cotton
+is dyed black with dye made by steeping the bark of the "Black Jack" or
+scrub-oak mixed with red maple bark. Wool is dyed black with a mixture
+of gall-berry leaves and sumac berries; for red they use a moss which
+they find growing on the rocks, and which may be the lichen _Roccella
+tinctoria_ or dyer's-moss; also madder root, and sassafras bark. Yellow
+is dyed with laurel leaves, or "dye-flower," a yellow flower of the
+sunflower tribe; laurel leaves and "dye-flower" together made
+orange-red. Blue is obtained from the plentiful wild indigo; and for
+green, the cloth or yarn is first dyed blue with indigo, then boiled in
+a decoction of hickory bark and laurel leaves. A bright yellow is
+obtained from a clay which abounds in that neighborhood, probably like a
+red ferruginous limestone found in Tennessee, which gives a splendid,
+fast color; when the clay is baked and ground it gives a fine, artistic,
+dull red. Purple dye comes from cedar tops and lilac leaves; brown from
+an extract of walnut hulls.
+
+The affectionate regard which all good workmen have for their tools and
+implements in handcrafts is found among these Southern weavers. One
+assures me that her love for her loom is as for a human companion. The
+machines are usually family heirlooms that have been owned for several
+generations, and are treasured like relics.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+GIRLS' OCCUPATIONS
+
+
+Hatchelling and carding, spinning and reeling, weaving and bleaching,
+cooking, candle and cheese making, were not the only household
+occupations of our busy grandmothers when they were young; a score of
+domestic duties kept ever busy their ready hands.
+
+Some notion of the qualifications of a housekeeper over a century ago
+may be obtained from this advertisement in the _Pennsylvania Packet_ of
+September 23, 1780:
+
+     "Wanted at a Seat about half a day's journey from Philadelphia, on
+     which are good improvements and domestics, A single Woman of
+     unsullied Reputation, an affable, cheerful, active and amiable
+     Disposition; cleanly, industrious, perfectly qualified to direct
+     and manage the female Concerns of country business, as raising
+     small stock, dairying, marketing, combing, carding, spinning,
+     knitting, sewing, pickling, preserving, etc., and occasionally to
+     instruct two young Ladies in those Branches of Oeconomy, who, with
+     their father, compose the Family. Such a person will be treated
+     with respect and esteem, and meet with every encouragement due to
+     such a character."
+
+Respect and esteem, forsooth! and due encouragement to such a miracle of
+saintliness and capacity; light terms indeed to apply to such a
+character.
+
+There is, in the library of the Connecticut Historical Society, a diary
+written by a young girl of Colchester, Connecticut, in the year 1775.
+Her name was Abigail Foote. She set down her daily work, and the entries
+run like this:--
+
+     "Fix'd gown for Prude,--Mend Mother's Riding-hood,--Spun short
+     thread,--Fix'd two gowns for Welsh's girls,--Carded tow,--Spun
+     linen,--Worked on Cheese-basket,--Hatchel'd flax with Hannah, we
+     did 51 lbs. apiece,--Pleated and ironed,--Read a Sermon of
+     Doddridge's,--Spooled a piece,--Milked the cows,--Spun linen, did
+     50 knots,--Made a Broom of Guinea wheat straw,--Spun thread to
+     whiten,--Set a Red dye,--Had two Scholars from Mrs. Taylor's,--I
+     carded two pounds of whole wool and felt Nationly,--Spun harness
+     twine,--Scoured the pewter."
+
+She tells also of washing, cooking, knitting, weeding the garden,
+picking geese, etc., and of many visits to her friends. She dipped
+candles in the spring, and made soap in the autumn. This latter was a
+trying and burdensome domestic duty, but the soft soap was important for
+home use.
+
+All the refuse grease from cooking, butchering, etc., was stored through
+the winter, as well as wood-ashes from the great fireplaces. The first
+operation was to make the lye, to "set the leach." Many families owned a
+strongly made leach-barrel; others made a sort of barrel from a section
+of the bark of the white birch. This barrel was placed on bricks or set
+at a slight angle on a circular groove in a wood or stone base; then
+filled with ashes; water was poured in till the lye trickled or leached
+out through an outlet cut in the groove, into a small wooden tub or
+bucket. The water and ashes were frequently replenished as they wasted,
+and the lye accumulated in a large tub or kettle. If the lye was not
+strong enough, it was poured over fresh ashes. An old-time receipt
+says:--
+
+     "The great Difficulty in making Soap come is the want of Judgment
+     of the Strength of the Lye. If your Lye will bear up an Egg or a
+     Potato so you can see a piece of the Surface as big as a Ninepence
+     it is just strong enough."
+
+The grease and lye were then boiled together in a great pot over a fire
+out of doors. It took about six bushels of ashes and twenty-four pounds
+of grease to make a barrel of soap. The soft soap made by this process
+seemed like a clean jelly, and showed no trace of the repulsive grease
+that helped to form it. A hard soap also was made with the tallow of the
+bayberry, and was deemed especially desirable for toilet use. But little
+hard soap was purchased, even in city homes.
+
+It was a common saying: "We had bad luck with our soap," or good luck.
+The soap was always carefully stirred one way. The "Pennsylvania Dutch"
+used a sassafras stick to stir it. A good smart worker could make a
+barrel of soap in a day, and have time to sit and rest in the afternoon
+and talk her luck over, before getting supper.
+
+This soft soap was used in the great monthly washings which, for a
+century after the settlement of the colonies, seem to have been the
+custom. The household wash was allowed to accumulate, and the washing
+done once a month, or in some households once in three months.
+
+Thomas Tusser's rhymed instructions to good housekeepers as to the
+washing contain chiefly warnings to the housekeeper against thieves,
+thus:--
+
+              "Dry sun, dry wind,
+              Safe bind, safe find.
+    Go wash well, saith summer, with sun I shall dry;
+    Go wring well, saith winter, with wind so shall I.
+    To trust without heed is to venture a joint,
+    Give tale and take count is a housewifely point."
+
+Abigail Foote wrote of making a broom of Guinea wheat. This was not
+broom-corn, for that useful plant was not grown in Connecticut for the
+purpose of broom-making till twenty years or more after she wrote her
+diary. Brooms and brushes were made of it in Italy nearly two centuries
+ago. Benjamin Franklin, who was ever quick to use and develop anything
+that would benefit his native country, and was ever ready to take a
+hint, noted a few seeds of broom-corn hanging on an imported brush. He
+planted these seeds and raised some of the corn; and Thomas Jefferson
+placed broom-corn among the productions of Virginia in 1781. By this
+time many had planted it, but no systematic plan of raising broom-corn
+abundantly for the manufacture of brooms was planned till 1798, when
+Levi Dickenson, a Yankee farmer of Hadley, Massachusetts, planted half
+an acre. From this he made between one and two hundred brooms which he
+peddled in a horse-cart in neighboring towns. The following year he
+planted an acre; and the tall broom-corn with its spreading panicles
+attracted much attention. Though he was thought visionary when he
+predicted that broom manufacture would be the greatest industry in the
+county, and though he was sneeringly told that only Indians ought to
+make brooms, he persevered; and his neighbors finally planted and made
+brooms also. He carried brooms soon to Pittsfield, to New London, and in
+1805 to Albany and Boston. So rapid was the increase of manufacture that
+in 1810 seventy thousand brooms were made in the county. Since then
+millions of dollars' worth have gone forth from the farms and villages
+in his neighborhood.
+
+Mr. Dickenson at first scraped the seed from the brush with a knife;
+then he used a sort of hoe; then a coarse comb like a ripple-comb. He
+tied each broom by hand, with the help of a negro servant. Much of this
+work could be done by little girls, who soon gave great help in broom
+manufacture; though the final sewing (when the needle was pressed
+through with a leather "palm" such as sailors use) had to be done by the
+strong hands of grown women and men.
+
+Doubtless Abigail Foote made many an "Indian broom," as well as her
+brooms of Guinea wheat, which may have been a special home manufacture
+of her neighborhood; for many fibres, leaves, and straws were used
+locally in broom-making.
+
+Another duty of the women of the old-time household was the picking of
+domestic geese. Geese were raised for their feathers more than as food.
+In some towns every family had a flock, and their clanking was heard all
+day and sometimes all night. They roamed the streets all summer, eating
+grass by the highways and wallowing in the puddles. Sometimes they were
+yoked with a goose-yoke made of a shingle with a hole in it. In
+midwinter they were kept in barnyards, but the rest of the year they
+spent the night in the street, each flock near the home of its owner. It
+is said that one old goose of each flock always kept awake and stood
+watch; and it was told in Hadley, Massachusetts, that if a young man
+chanced to be out late, as for instance a-courting, his return home
+wakened the geese throughout the village, who sounded the unseasonable
+hour with a terrible clamor. They made so much noise on summer Sundays
+that they seriously disturbed church services; and became such nuisances
+that at last the boys killed whole flocks.
+
+Goose-picking was cruel work. Three or four times a year were the
+feathers stripped from the live birds. A stocking was pulled over the
+bird's head to keep it from biting. Sometimes the head was thrust into a
+goose basket. The pickers had to wear old clothes and tie covers over
+the hair, as the down flew everywhere. The quills, used for pens, were
+never pulled but once from a goose. Palladius, _On Husbondrie_, written
+in the fourth century, and Englished in the fifteenth century, tells of
+goose-picking:--
+
+    "Twice a yere deplumed may they be,
+    In spryngen tyme and harvest tyme."
+
+The old Latin and English times for picking were followed in the New
+World. Among the Dutch, geese were everywhere raised; for feather-beds
+were, if possible, more desired by the Dutch than the English.
+
+In a work entitled _Good Order established in Pennsylvania and New
+Jersey_, written by a Quaker in 1685, he urges that schools be provided
+where girls could be instructed in "the spinning of flax, sewing, and
+making all sorts of useful needle work, knitting of gloves and
+stockings, making of straw-works, as hats, baskets, etc., or any other
+useful art or mystery." It was a century before his "making of
+straw-works" was carried out, not till larger importations of straw hats
+and bonnets came to this country.
+
+When the beautiful and intricate straw bonnets of Italian braid,
+Genoese, Leghorn, and others, were brought here, they were too costly
+for many to purchase; and many attempts, especially by country-bred
+girls, were made to plait at home straw braids to imitate these envied
+bonnets. Many towns claim the first American straw bonnet; in fact, the
+attempts were almost simultaneous. To Betsey Metcalf of Providence,
+Rhode Island, is usually accorded the honor of starting the straw-hat
+business in America. The earliest recorded effort to manufacture straw
+head-wear is shown in a patent given to Mrs. Sibylla Masters of
+Philadelphia, for using palmetto and straw for hats. This Mrs. Masters
+was the first American, man or woman, ever awarded a patent in England.
+The first patent issued by the United States to a woman was also for an
+invention in straw-plaiting. A Connecticut girl, Miss Sophia Woodhouse,
+was given a prize for "leghorn hats" which she had plaited; and she took
+out a patent in 1821 for a new material for bonnets. It was the stalks,
+above the upper joint, of spear-grass and redtop grass growing so
+profusely in Weathersfield. From this she had a national reputation,
+and a prize of twenty guineas was given her the same year by the London
+Society of Arts. The wife of President John Quincy Adams wore one of
+these bonnets, to the great pride of her husband.
+
+When the bonnet was braided and sewed into shape, it had to be bleached,
+for it was the dark natural straw. I don't know the domestic process in
+general use, but an ingenious family of sisters in Newburyport thus
+accomplished their bleaching. They bored holes in the head of a barrel;
+tied strings to each new bonnet; passed the strings through the holes
+and carefully plugged the openings with wood. This left the bonnets
+hanging inside the barrel, which was set over an old-fashioned
+foot-stove filled with hot coals on which sulphur had been placed. The
+fumes of the burning sulphur arose and filled the barrel, and were
+closely retained by quilts wrapped around it. When the bonnets were
+taken out, they were clear and white. The base of a lignum-vitae mortar
+made into the proper shape with layers of pasteboard formed the mould on
+which the bonnet crown was pressed.
+
+Even before they could spin girls were taught to knit, as soon as their
+little hands could hold the needles. Sometimes girls four years of age
+could knit stockings. Boys had to knit their own suspenders. All the
+stockings and mittens for the family, and coarse socks and mittens for
+sale, were made in large numbers. Much fine knitting was done, with many
+intricate and elaborate stitches; those known as the "herring-bone" and
+"fox and geese" were great favorites. By the use of curious stitches
+initials could be knit into mittens; and it is said that one young New
+Hampshire girl, using fine flaxen yarn, knit the whole alphabet and a
+verse of poetry into a pair of mittens; which I think must have been
+long-armed mitts for ladies' wear, to have space enough for the poetry.
+
+To knit a pair of double mittens was a sharp and long day's work. Nancy
+Peabody's brother of Shelburne, New Hampshire, came home one night and
+said he had lost his mittens while chopping in the woods. Nancy ran to a
+bundle of wool in the garret, carded and spun a big hank of yarn that
+night. It was soaked and scoured the next morning, and in twenty-four
+hours from the time the brother announced his loss he had a fine new
+pair of double mittens. A pair of double hooked and pegged mittens would
+last for years. Pegging, I am told, was heavy crocheting.
+
+An elaborate and much-admired form of knitting was the bead bags and
+purses which were so fashionable in the early years of this century,
+though I have seen some knitted bags of colonial days.
+
+Great variety and ingenuity were shown in these bags and purses. Some
+bore landscapes and figures; others were memorials done in black and
+white and purple beads, having so-called "mourning designs," such as
+weeping willows, gravestones, urns, etc., with the name of the deceased
+person and date of death. Beautiful bags were knitted to match
+wedding-gowns. Knitted purses were a favorite token and gift from fair
+hands to husband or lover. Watch chains were more unusual; they were
+knit in a geometrical design, were about a yard long and about
+three-eighths of an inch in diameter. One I saw had in tiny letters in
+gilt beads the date and the words "Remember the Giver." In all these
+knitted and crocheted bags the beads had to be strung by a rule in
+advance; in an elaborate pattern of many colors it may easily be seen
+that the mistake of a single bead in the stringing would spoil the
+entire design. They were therefore never a cheap form of decorative
+work. Five dollars was often paid for knitting a single bag. A varied
+group from the collection of Mr. J. Howard Swift of Chicago is here
+shown.
+
+Netting was another decorative handiwork. Netted fringes for edging the
+coverlets, curtains, testers, and valances of high-post bedsteads
+were usually made of cotton thread or twine, and when tufted or
+tasselled were a pretty finish. A finer silk or cotton netting was used
+for trimming sacks and petticoats. A letter written by Mrs. Carrington
+from Mount Vernon in 1799 says of Mrs. President Washington:--
+
+     "Her netting is a source of great amusement to her and is so neatly
+     done that all the younger part of the family are proud of trimming
+     their dresses with it, and have furnished me with a whole suit so
+     that I shall appear 'a la domestique' at the first party we have
+     when I get home."
+
+Netted purses and work-bags also were made similar to the knitted ones.
+A homelier and heavier netting of twine was often done at home for small
+fishing-nets.
+
+Previous to the Revolution there was a boarding-school kept in
+Philadelphia in Second Street near Walnut, by a Mrs. Sarah Wilson. She
+thus advertised:--
+
+     "Young ladies may be educated in a genteel manner, and pains taken
+     to teach them in regard to their behaviour, on reasonable terms.
+     They may be taught all sorts fine needlework, viz., working on
+     catgut or flowering muslin, sattin stitch, quince stitch, tent
+     stitch, cross-stitch, open work, tambour, embroidering curtains or
+     chairs, writing and cyphering. Likewise waxwork in all its several
+     branches, never as yet particularly taught here; also how to take
+     profiles in wax, to make wax flowers and fruits and pin-baskets."
+
+There was no limit to the beauty and delicacy of the embroidery of those
+days. I have seen the beautiful needlework cap and skirt worn by
+Governor Thomas Johnson of Maryland, when he was christened. The coat of
+arms of both the Lux and Johnson families, the name Agnes Lux and Anne
+Johnson, and the words "God bless the Babe" are embroidered upon them in
+most delicate fairy stitches. The babe grew up to be the governor of his
+state in Revolutionary times.
+
+In an old book printed in 1821, a set of rules is given for teaching
+needlework, and it is doubtless exactly what had been the method for a
+century. The girls were first shown how to turn a hem on a piece of
+waste paper; then they proceeded to the various stitches in this order:
+to hem, to sew and fell a seam, to draw threads and hemstitch, to gather
+and sew on gathers, to make buttonholes, to sew on buttons, to do
+herring-bone stitch, to darn, to mark, to tuck, whip, and sew on a
+frill. There is also a long and tedious set of questions and answers
+like a catechism, explaining the various stitches.
+
+There was one piece of needlework which was done by every little girl
+who was carefully brought up: she sewed a sampler. These were worked in
+various beautiful and difficult stitches in colored silks and wool on a
+strong, loosely woven canvas.
+
+In English collections, the oblong samplers, long and narrow, are as a
+rule older than the square samplers; and it is safe to believe the same
+of American samplers. Fortunately, many of them are dated, but this
+ancient one from the Quincy family has no date. The oldest sampler I
+have ever seen is in the collection of antique articles now in Pilgrim
+Hall at Plymouth. It was made by a daughter of the Pilgrims. The verse
+embroidered on it reads:--
+
+    "Lorea Standish is My Name.
+      Lord Guide my Heart that I may do thy Will,
+      And fill my Hands with such convenient skill
+    As will conduce to Virtue void of Shame,
+    And I will give the Glory to thy Name."
+
+Similar verses, and portions of hymns, are often found on these
+samplers. A favorite rhyme was:--
+
+    "When I was young and in my Prime,
+    You see how well I spent my Time.
+    And by my sampler you may see
+    What care my Parents took of me."
+
+A very spirited verse is:--
+
+    "You'll mend your life to-morrow still you cry.
+    In what far Country does To-morrow lie?
+    It stays so long, is fetch'd so far, I fear
+    'Twill prove both very old, and very dear."
+
+Strange trees and fruits and birds and beasts, wonderful vines and
+flowers, were embroidered on these domestic tapestries.
+
+In the hands of a skilful worker, the sampler might become a thing of
+beauty and historical interest; and the stitches learned and practised
+on it might be used on more ambitious pieces of work, which often took
+the shape of the family coat of arms. Such was the work of Mary Salter
+(Mrs. Henry Quincy), who was born in 1726, and died in 1755. It is the
+arms of Salter and Bryan party per pale upon a shield. Rich in embossed
+work in gold and silver thread, it is a beautiful testimonial to the
+deft and proficient hand of the young needlewoman who embroidered it.
+
+Sometimes pretentious pictures representing events in public or family
+history, were embroidered in crewels on sampler linen. The largest and
+funniest one I have ever seen was the boarding-school climax of glory
+of Miss Hannah Otis, sister of the patriot James Otis. It is a view of
+the Hancock House, Boston Common, and vicinity, as they appeared from
+1755 to 1760. Across its expanse Governor Hancock rides triumphantly;
+and the fair maid looking over the garden wall at the Charles River is
+Dorothy Quincy, afterwards Madam Hancock. This triumph of school-girl
+affection and needle-craft, wholly devoid of perspective or proportion,
+made a great sensation in Boston, in its day.
+
+Another large piece of similar work is here represented. The original is
+in the library of the American Antiquarian Society at Worcester,
+Massachusetts. It is a view of the Old South Church, Boston; and with
+its hooped dames and coach and footman, has a certain value as
+indicating the costume of the times. It is dated 1756.
+
+Familiar to the descendants of old New England families, are the
+embroidered mourning pieces. These are seldom more than a century old.
+On them weeping willows and urns, tombs and mourning figures, names of
+departed friends with dates of their deaths, and epitaphs were worked
+with vast skill, and were so much admired and were such a delightful
+home decoration, that it is no unusual thing to find these elaborate
+memento moris with empty spaces for names and dates, waiting for some
+one to die, and still unfilled, unfinished, blankly commemorative of no
+one, while the industrious embroiderer has long since gone to the tomb
+she so deftly and eagerly pictured, and her name, too, is forgotten.
+
+Tambour work was a favorite form of embroidery. In 1788 Madam Hesselius
+wrote thus in jest of her daughter, a Philadelphia miss:--
+
+    "To tambour on crape she has a great passion,
+    Because here of late it has been much the fashion.
+    The shades are dis-sorted, the spangles are scattered
+    And for want of due care the crape has got tattered."
+
+Tambouring with various stitches on different kinds of net made pretty
+laces; and these were apparently the laces usually worked and worn. In
+the form of rich veils and collars scores of intricate and beautiful
+stitches were used, and exquisite articles of wear were manufactured.
+
+A strip of net footing pinned and sewn to paper, with reels of fine
+linen thread and threaded needle attached, is shown in the accompanying
+illustration just as it was left by the deft and industrious hands that
+have been folded for a century in the dust. The pattern and stitches in
+this design are simple; the design was first pricked in outline with a
+pin, then worked in. Other stitches and patterns, none of them the most
+elaborate and difficult, are shown in the infant's cap and collars, and
+the strips of lace and "modesty-piece."
+
+In the seventeenth century lace-making with bobbins was taught; it is
+referred to in Judge Sewall's diary; and a friend has shown me the
+cushion and bobbins used by her far-away grandmother who learned the
+various stitches in London at a guinea a stitch.
+
+The feminine love of color, the longing for decoration, as well as pride
+in skill of needle-craft, found riotous expansion in quilt-piecing. A
+thrifty economy, too, a desire to use up all the fragments and bits of
+stuffs which were necessarily cut out in the shaping, chiefly of women's
+and children's garments, helped to make the patchwork a satisfaction.
+The amount of labor, of careful fitting, neat piecing, and elaborate
+quilting, the thousands of stitches that went into one of these
+patchwork quilts, are to-day almost painful to regard. Women revelled in
+intricate and difficult patchwork; they eagerly exchanged patterns with
+one another; they talked over the designs, and admired pretty bits of
+calico, and pondered what combinations to make, with far more zest than
+women ever discuss art or examine high art specimens together to-day.
+There was one satisfactory condition in the work, and that was the
+quality of the cottons and linens of which the patchwork was made. They
+were none of the slimsy, composition-filled, aniline-dyed calicoes of
+to-day. A piece of "chaney," "patch," or "copper-plate" a hundred years
+old will be as fresh to-day as when woven. Real India chintzes and
+palampours are found in these quilts, beautiful and artistic stuffs, and
+the firm, unyielding, high-priced, "real" French calicoes.
+
+A sense of the idealization of quilt-piecing is given also by the quaint
+descriptive names applied to the various patterns. Of those the
+"Rising-sun," "Log Cabin," and "Job's Trouble" are perhaps the most
+familiar. "Job's Trouble" was simply honeycomb or hexagonal blocks. "To
+set a Job's Trouble," was to cut out an exact hexagon for a pattern
+(preferably from tin, otherwise from firm cardboard); to cut out from
+this many hexagons in stiff brown paper or letter paper. These were
+covered with the bits of calico with the edges turned under; the sides
+were sewed carefully together over and over, till a firm expanse
+permitted the removal of the papers.
+
+The name of the pattern seldom gave an expression of its character.
+"Dove in the Window," "Rob Peter to Pay Paul," "Blue Brigade,"
+"Fan-mill," "Crow's Foot," "Chinese Puzzle," "Fly-wheel," "Love-knot,"
+"Sugar-bowl," are simply whims of fancy. Floral names, such as "Dutch
+Tulip," "Sunflower," "Rose of Sharon," "Bluebells," "World's Rose,"
+might suggest a love of flowers. Sometimes designs are appliqued on with
+some regard for coloring. I once saw a quilt that was a miracle of
+tedious work. The squares of white cotton each held a slender stem with
+two leaves of green or light brown calico, surmounted by a four-petalled
+flower of high-colored calico,--pink, red, blue, etc. This design was
+all carefully hemmed down. The effect was surprisingly Oriental.
+
+When the patchwork was completed, it was laid flatly on the lining
+(often another expanse of patchwork), with layers of wool or cotton
+wadding between, and the edges were basted all around. Four bars of
+wood, about ten feet long, "the quiltin'-frame," were placed at the four
+edges, the quilt was sewed to them with stout thread, the bars crossed
+and tied firmly at corners, and the whole raised on chairs or tables to
+a convenient height. Thus around the outstretched quilt a dozen quilters
+could sit running the whole together with fanciful set designs of
+stitching. When about a foot on either side was wholly quilted, it was
+rolled upon its bar, and the work went on; thus the visible quilt
+diminished, like Balzac's Peau de Chagrin, in a united and truly
+sociable work that required no special attention, in which all were
+facing together and all drawing closer together as the afternoon passed
+in intimate gossip. Sometimes several quilts were set up. I know of a
+ten days' quilting-bee in Narragansett in 1752.
+
+In early days calicoes were not common, but every one had woollen
+garments and pieces, and the quilts made of these were of grateful
+warmth in bleak New England. All kinds of commonplace garments and
+remnants of decayed gentility were pressed into service in these quilts:
+portions of the moth-eaten and discarded uniforms of militia-men,
+worn-out flannel sheets dyed with some brilliant home-dye, old coat and
+cloak linings, well-worn petticoats. A magnificent scarlet cloak worn by
+a lord mayor of London and brought to America by a member of the Merritt
+family of Salisbury, Massachusetts, went through a series of adventures
+and migrations, and ended its days as small bits of vivid color casting
+a grateful glory and variety on a patchwork quilt in the Saco valley of
+Maine. To this day at vendues or sales of old country households in New
+England, there will be handed out great rolls of woollen pieces to be
+used for patchwork quilts or rag carpets, and they find purchasers.
+
+These woollen quilts had a thin wadding, and were usually very closely
+quilted, so they were quite flat. They were called "pressed quilts." An
+old farm wife said to me in New Hampshire, "Girls won't take the trouble
+to make pressed quilts nowadays, it's as much as they'll do to tack a
+puff," that is, make a light quilt with thick wadding only tacked
+together from front to back, at regular intervals. A pressed quilt which
+I saw was quilted in inch squares. Another had a fan-pattern with
+sunflower leaf border; another was quilted in the elaborate pattern
+known as "feather-work."
+
+As much ingenuity was exercised in the design of the quilting as in the
+pattern of the patchwork, and the marking for the quilt design was
+exceedingly tedious, since, of course, no drawings could be used. I
+remember seeing one quilt marked by chalking strings which were
+stretched tightly across at the desired intervals, and held up and
+snapped smartly down on the quilt, leaving a faint chalky line to guide
+the eye and needle. Another simple design was to quilt in rounds, using
+a saucer or plate to form a perfect circle.
+
+The most elaborate quilt I know of is of silk containing portions of the
+wedding-dress of Esther Powel, granddaughter of Gabriel Bernon; she was
+married to James Helme in 1738. When her granddaughter was married in
+1795, the quilt was still unfinished, and a woman was hired who worked
+on it for six months, putting a miracle of fine stitches in the
+quilting. I think she must have been very old and very slow, for the
+wages paid her were but twenty cents a week and "her keep," which was
+very small pay even in that day of small wages. When Washington came to
+Newport, this splendid quilt was sent to grace the bed upon which the
+hero slept.
+
+I said a few summers ago to a farmer's wife who lived on the outskirts
+of a small New England hill-village: "Your home is very beautiful. From
+every window the view is perfect." She answered quickly: "Yes, but it's
+awful lonely for me, for I was born in Worcester; still I don't mind as
+long as we have plenty of quiltings." In answer to my questions she told
+me that the previous winter she had "kept count," and she had helped at
+twenty-eight "regular" quiltings, besides her own home patchwork and
+quilt-making, and much informal help of neighbors on plain quilts. Any
+one who has attended a county fair (one not too modernized and spoiled)
+and seen the display of intricate patchwork and quilting still made in
+country homes, can see that it is not an obsolete accomplishment.
+
+A form of decorative work in which many women took great delight and
+became astonishingly skilful was what was known, or at any rate
+advertised, by the ambitious title of Papyrotamia. It was simply the
+cutting out of stiff paper of various decorative and ornamental designs
+with scissors. At the time of the Revolution it was evidently deemed a
+very high accomplishment, and the best pieces of work were carefully
+cherished, mounted on black paper, framed and glazed, and given to
+friends or bequeathed by will. One old lady is remembered as using her
+scissors with extraordinary deftness, and amusing herself and delighting
+her friends by occupying the hours of every afternoon visit with cutting
+out entirely by her trained eye various pretty and curious designs.
+Valentines in exceedingly delicate and appropriate patterns, wreaths and
+baskets of varied flowers, marine views, religious symbols, landscapes,
+all were accomplished. Coats of arms and escutcheons cut in black paper
+and mounted on white were highly prized. Portrait silhouettes were cut
+with the aid of a machine which marked and reduced mechanically a sharp
+shadow cast by the sitter's profile through candle-light on a sheet of
+white paper. Mrs. Lydia H. Sigourney wrote in rhyme of a revered friend
+of her youth, Mrs. Lathrop, of a period about a century ago:--
+
+    "Thy dextrous scissors ready to produce
+    The flying squirrel or the long-neck'd goose,
+    Or dancing girls with hands together join'd,
+    Or tall spruce-trees with wreaths of roses twin'd,
+    The well-dress'd dolls whose paper form display'd,
+    Thy penknife's labor and thy pencil's shade."
+
+I once found in an old lacquered box in a cupboard a paper packet
+containing all the cut-paper designs mentioned in this rhyme--and many
+more. The workmanship of the "spruce-trees with wreaths of roses twin'd"
+was specially marvellous. I plainly saw in that design a derivative of
+the English Maypole and encircling wreaths. This package was marked with
+the name of the paper-cutter, a Revolutionary dame who died at the
+beginning of this century. Her home was remote from the Norwich home of
+Mrs. Lathrop, and I know she never visited in Connecticut, yet she made
+precisely the same designs and indeed all the designs. This is but a
+petty proof among many other more decided ones of the fact that even in
+those days of scant communication and infrequent and contracted travel,
+there were as in our own times waves of feminine fancy work, of attempts
+at artistic expression, which flooded every home, and receding, left
+behind much decorative silt of varying but nearly universal uselessness
+and laborious commonplaceness.
+
+One of the cut-paper landscapes of Madam Deming, a Boston lady who was a
+famous "papyrotamist," is here shown. It is now owned by James F. Trott,
+Esq., of Niagara Falls. It is a view of Boston streets just previous to
+the Revolution. In that handsome volume, the _Ten Broeck Genealogical
+Record_, are reproductions of some of the landscape views by Albertina
+Ten Broeck at the same date. They show the house and farm surroundings
+of the old Ten Broeck "Bouwerie," the ancestral home in New York, and
+give a wonderfully good idea of it. These are not in dead silhouette,
+for an appearance of shading is afforded by finely cut lines and
+intervening spaces. The highest form of cut-paper reproduction and
+decoration ever reached was by the English woman, Mrs. Delaney, who died
+in 1788, the friend of the Duchess of Portland, and intimate of George
+III. and his queen. She reproduced in colored paper, in what she called
+"paper mosaics," the entire flora of the United Kingdom, and it is said
+it was impossible at first sight to distinguish these flowers from the
+real ones.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+DRESS OF THE COLONISTS
+
+
+At the time America was settled, rich dress was almost universal in
+Europe among persons of any wealth or station. The dress of plain people
+also, such as yeomen and small farmers and work-people, was plentiful
+and substantial, and even peasants had good and ample clothing.
+Materials were strongly and honestly made, clothing was sewed by hand,
+and lasted long. The fashions did not change from year to year, and the
+rich or stout clothes of one generation were bequeathed by will and worn
+by a second and even a third and fourth generation.
+
+In England extravagance in dress in court circles, and grotesqueness in
+dress among all educated folk, had become abhorrent to that class of
+persons who were called Puritans; and as an expression of their dislike
+they wore plainer garments, and cut off their flowing locks, and soon
+were called Roundheads. The Massachusetts settlers who were Puritans
+determined to discourage extravagance in dress in the New World, and
+attempted to control the fashions.
+
+The Massachusetts magistrates were reminded of their duties in this
+direction by sanctimonious spurring from gentlemen and ministers in
+England. One such meddler wrote to Governor Winthrop in 1636: "Many in
+your plantacions discover too much pride." Another stern moralist
+reproved the colonists for writing to England "for cut work coifes, for
+deep stammel dyes," to be sent to them in America. Others, prohibited
+from wearing broad laces, were criticised for ordering narrow ones, for
+"going as farr as they may."
+
+In 1634 the Massachusetts General Court passed restricting sumptuary
+laws. These laws forbade the purchase of woollen, silk, or linen
+garments, with silver, gold, silk, or thread lace on them. Two years
+later a narrow binding of lace was permitted on linen garments. The
+colonists were ordered not to make or buy any slashed clothes, except
+those with one slash in each sleeve and another slash in the back. "Cut
+works, imbroidd or needle or capps bands & rayles," and gold or silver
+girdles, hat-bands, belts, ruffs, and beaver hats were forbidden.
+Liberty was thriftily given, however, to the colonists to wear out any
+garments they chanced to have unless in the form of inordinately slashed
+apparel, immoderate great sleeves and rails, and long wings, which could
+not possibly be endured.
+
+In 1639 men's attire was approached and scanned, and "immoderate great
+breeches" were tabooed; also broad shoulder-bands, double ruffles and
+capes, and silk roses, which latter adornment were worn on the shoes.
+
+In 1651 the Court again expressed its "utter detestation that men and
+women of meane condition, education, and calling, should take vppon them
+the garbe of gentlemen by wearinge of gold or silver lace, or buttons or
+poynts at their knees, or walke in great boots, or women of the same
+ranke to wear silke or tiffany hoods or scarfs."
+
+Many persons were "presented" under this law, men boot-wearers as well
+as women hood-wearers. In Salem, in 1652, a man was presented for
+"excess in bootes, ribonds, gould and silver lace."
+
+In Newbury, in 1653, two women were brought up for wearing silk hoods
+and scarfs, but they were discharged on proof that their husbands were
+worth L200 each. In Northampton, in the year 1676, a wholesale attempt
+was made by the magistrates to abolish "wicked apparell." Thirty-eight
+women of the Connecticut valley were presented at one time for various
+degrees of finery, and as of too small estate to wear silk. A young girl
+named Hannah Lyman was presented for "wearing silk in a fflaunting
+manner, in an offensive way and garb not only before but when she stood
+presented." Thirty young men were also presented for silk-wearing, long
+hair, and other extravagances. The calm flaunting of her silk in the
+very eyes of the Court by sixteen-year-old Hannah was premonitory of the
+waning power of the magistrates, for similar prosecutions at a later
+date were quashed. By 1682 the tables were turned and we find the Court
+arraigning the selectmen of five towns for not prosecuting offenders
+against these laws as in previous years. In 1675 the town of Dedham had
+been similarly warned and threatened, but apparently was never
+prosecuted. Connecticut called to its aid in repressing extravagant
+dress the economic power of taxation by ordering that whoever wore gold
+or silver lace, gold or silver buttons, silk ribbons, silk scarfs, or
+bone lace worth over three shillings a yard should be taxed as worth
+L150.
+
+Virginia fussed a little over "excess in cloathes." Sir Francis Wyatt
+was enjoined not to permit any but the Council and the heads of Hundreds
+to wear gold on their clothes, or to wear silk till they made it--which
+was intended more to encourage silk-making than to discourage
+silk-wearing. And it provided that unmarried men should be assessed
+according to their apparel, and married men according to that of their
+family. In 1660 Virginia colonists were ordered to import no "silke
+stuffe in garments or in peeces except for whoods and scarfs, nor silver
+or gold lace, nor bone lace of silk or threads, nor ribbands wrought
+with gold or silver in them."
+
+The ministers did not fail in their duty in attempting to march with the
+magistrates in the restriction and simplification of dress. They
+preached often against "intolerable pride in clothes and hair." Even
+when the Pilgrims were in Holland the preachers had been deeply
+disturbed over the dress of their minister's wife, Madam Johnson, who
+wore "lawn coives" and busks, and a velvet hood, and "whalebones in her
+petticoat bodice," and worst of all, "a topish hat." One of the earliest
+interferences of Roger Williams was when he instructed the women of
+Salem parish always to wear veils in public. But John Cotton preached to
+them the next Sunday, and he proved to the dames and goodwives that
+veils were a sign and symbol of undue subjection to their husbands, and
+Salem women soon proved their rights by coming barefaced to meeting.
+
+Mr. Davenport preached about men's head-gear, that men must take off
+their hats, and stand up at the announcement of the text. And if New
+Haven men wore their hats in meeting, I can't see why they fussed so
+over the Quakers' broadbrims.
+
+After a while the whole church interfered. In 1769 the church at Andover
+put it to vote whether "the parish Disapprove of the female sex sitting
+with their Hats on in the Meeting-house in time of Divine Service as
+being Indecent." In the town of Abington, in 1775, it was voted that it
+was "an indecent way that the female sex do sit with their hats and
+bonnets on to worship God." Still another town voted that it was the
+"Town's Mind" that the women should take their bonnets off in meeting
+and hang them "on the peggs." We do not know positively, but I suspect
+that the bonnets continued to grace the heads instead of the pegs in
+Andover, Abington, and other towns.
+
+To know how the colonists were dressed, we have to learn from the lists
+of their clothing which they left by will, which lists are still
+preserved in court records; from the inventories of the garments
+furnished to each settler who came by contract; from the orders sent
+back to England for new clothing; from a few crude portraits, and from
+some articles of ancient clothing which are still preserved.
+
+When Salem was settled the Massachusetts Bay Company furnished clothes
+to all the men who emigrated and settled that town. Every man had four
+pairs of shoes, four pairs of stockings, a pair of Norwich garters, four
+shirts, two suits of doublet and hose of leather lined with oiled skin,
+a woollen suit lined with leather, four bands, two handkerchiefs, a
+green cotton waistcoat, a leather belt, a woollen cap, a black hat, two
+red knit caps, two pairs of gloves, a mandillion or cloak lined with
+cotton, and an extra pair of breeches. Little boys just as soon as they
+could walk wore clothes made precisely like their fathers': doublets
+which were warm double jackets, leather knee-breeches, leather belts,
+knit caps. The outfit for the Virginia planters was not so liberal, for
+the company was not so wealthy. It was called a "Particular of
+Apparell." It had only three bands, three pairs stockings, and three
+shirts instead of four. The suits were of canvas, frieze, and cloth. The
+clothing was doubtless lighter, because the climate of Virginia was
+warmer. There were no gloves, no handkerchiefs, no hat, no red knit
+caps, no mandillion, no extra pair of breeches. They had "a dozen
+points," which were simply tapes to hold up the clothing and fasten it
+together. The clothing of the Piscataquay planters varied but little
+from the others. They had scarlet waistcoats and cassocks of cloth, not
+of leather. We are apt to think of the Puritan settlers of New England
+as sombre in attire, wearing "sad-colored" garments, but green and
+scarlet waistcoats and scarlet caps certainly afforded a gay touch of
+color.
+
+A young boy, about ten years old, named John Livingstone, was sent from
+New York to school in New England at the latter part of the seventeenth
+century. An "account of his new linen and clothes" has been preserved,
+and it gives an excellent idea of the clothing of a son of wealthy
+people at that time. It reads thus, in the old spelling:--
+
+     "Eleven new shirts,
+     4 pair laced sleves,
+     8 Plane Cravats,
+     4 Cravats with Lace,
+     4 Stripte Wastecoats with black buttons,
+     1 Flowered Wastecoat,
+     4 New osenbrig britches,
+     1 Gray hat with a black ribbon,
+     1 Gray hat with a blew ribbon,
+     1 Dousin black buttons,
+     1 Dousin coloured buttons,
+     3 Pair gold buttons,
+     3 Pair silver buttons,
+     2 Pair Fine blew Stockings,
+     1 Pair Fine red Stockings,
+     4 White Handkerchiefs,
+     2 Speckled Handkerchiefs,
+     5 Pair Gloves,
+     1 Stuff Coat with black buttons,
+     1 Cloth Coat,
+     1 Pair blew plush britches,
+     1 Pair Serge britches,
+     2 Combs,
+     1 Pair new Shooes,
+     Silk & Thred to mend his Cloathes."
+
+Osenbrig was a heavy, strong linen. This would seem to be a summer
+outfit, and scarcely warm enough for New England winters. Other
+schoolboys at that date had deerskin breeches.
+
+Leather was much used, especially in the form of tanned buckskin
+breeches and the deerskin hunters' jackets, which have always and
+deservedly been a favorite wear, since they are one of the most
+appropriate, useful, comfortable, and picturesque garments ever worn by
+men in any active outdoor life.
+
+Soon in the larger cities and among wealthy folk a much more elaborate
+and varied style of dress became fashionable. The dress of little girls
+in families of wealth was certainly almost as formal and elegant as the
+dress of their mammas, and it was a very hampering and stiff dress. They
+wore vast hoop-petticoats, heavy stays, and high-heeled shoes. Their
+complexions were objects of special care; they wore masks of cloth or
+velvet to protect them from the tanning rays of the sun, and long-armed
+gloves. Little Dolly Payne, who afterwards became the wife of President
+Madison, went to school wearing "a white linen mask to keep every ray of
+sunshine from the complexion, a sunbonnet sewed on her head every
+morning by her careful mother, and long gloves covering the hands and
+arms." Our present love of outdoor life, of athletic sports, and our
+indifference to being sunburned, makes such painstaking vanity seem most
+unbearably tiresome.
+
+In 1737 Colonel John Lewis sent from Virginia to England for a wardrobe
+for a young miss, a school-girl, who was his ward. The list reads
+thus:--
+
+     "A cap ruffle and tucker, the lace 5 shillings per Yard,
+     1 pair White Stays,
+     8 pair White Kid gloves,
+     2 pair coloured kid gloves,
+     2 pair worsted hose,
+     3 pair thread hose,
+     1 pair silk shoes laced,
+     1 pair morocco shoes,
+     1 Hoop Coat,
+     1 Hat,
+     4 pair plain Spanish shoes,
+     2 pair calf shoes,
+     1 mask,
+     1 fan,
+     1 necklace,
+     1 Girdle and buckle,
+     1 piece fashionable Calico,
+     4 yards ribbon for knots,
+     11/2 yard Cambric,
+     A mantua and coat of lute-string."
+
+In the middle of the century George Washington also sent to England for
+an outfit for his stepdaughter, Miss Custis. She was four years old, and
+he ordered for her, pack-thread stays, stiff coats of silk, masks, caps,
+bonnets, bibs, ruffles, necklaces, fans, silk and calamanco shoes, and
+leather pumps. There were also eight pairs of kid mitts and four pairs
+of gloves; these with the masks show that this little girl's complexion
+was also to be well guarded.
+
+A little New England Miss Huntington, when twelve years old, was sent
+from Norwich, Connecticut, to be "finished" in a Boston boarding-school.
+She had twelve silk gowns, but her teacher wrote home that she must have
+another gown of "a recently imported rich fabric," which was at once
+bought for her because it was "suitable for her rank and station."
+
+Through the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries there was a constant
+succession of rich and gay fashions; for American dress was carefully
+modelled upon European, especially English modes. Men's wear was as rich
+as women's. An English traveller said that Boston women and men in 1740
+dressed as gay every day as courtiers in England at a coronation. But
+with all the richness there was no wastefulness. The sister of the rich
+Boston merchant, Peter Faneuil, who built Faneuil Hall, sent her gowns
+to London to be turned and dyed, and her old ribbons and gowns to be
+sold. But her gowns, which are still preserved, are of magnificent
+stuffs.
+
+New Yorkers were dressed in gauzes, silks, and laces; even women Quakers
+in Pennsylvania had to be warned against wearing hoop-petticoats,
+scarlet shoes, and puffed and rolled hair.
+
+The family of so frugal a man as Benjamin Franklin did not escape a
+slight infection of the prevailing love for gay dress. In the
+_Pennsylvania Gazette_ this advertisement appeared in 1750:--
+
+     "Whereas on Saturday night last the house of Benjamin Franklin of
+     this city, Printer, was broken open, and the following things
+     feloniously taken away, viz., a double necklace of gold beads, a
+     womans long scarlet cloak almost new, with a double cape, a womans
+     gown, of printed cotton of the sort called brocade print, very
+     remarkable, the ground dark, with large red roses, and other large
+     and yellow flowers, with blue in some of the flowers, with many
+     green leaves; a pair of womens stays covered with white tabby
+     before, and dove colour'd tabby behind, with two large steel hooks
+     and sundry other goods, etc."
+
+Southern dames, especially of Annapolis, Baltimore, and Charleston, were
+said to have the richest brocades and damasks that could be bought in
+London. Every sailing-vessel that came from Europe brought boxes of
+splendid clothing. The heroes of the Revolution had a high regard for
+dress. The patriot, John Hancock, was seen at noonday wearing a scarlet
+velvet cap, a blue damask gown lined with velvet, white satin
+embroidered waistcoat, black satin small-clothes, white silk stockings,
+and red morocco slippers. George Washington was most precise in his
+orders for his clothing, and wore the richest silk and velvet suits.
+
+A true description of a Boston printer just after the Revolution shows
+his style of dress:--
+
+     "He wore a pea-green coat, white vest, nankeen small clothes, white
+     silk stockings, and pumps fastened with silver buckles which
+     covered at least half the foot from instep to toe. His small
+     clothes were tied at the knees with ribbon of the same colour in
+     double bows, the ends reaching down to the ancles. His hair in
+     front was well loaded with pomatum, frizzled or craped and
+     powdered. Behind, his natural hair was augmented by the addition of
+     a large queue called vulgarly a false tail, which, enrolled in some
+     yards of black ribbon, hung half-way down his back."
+
+Many letters still exist written by prominent citizens of colonial times
+ordering clothing, chiefly from Europe. Rich laces, silk materials,
+velvet, and fine cloth of light and gay colors abound. Frequently they
+ordered nightgowns of silk and damask. These nightgowns were not a
+garment worn at night, but a sort of dressing-gown. Harvard students
+were in 1754 forbidden to wear them. Under the name of banyan they
+became very fashionable, and men had their portraits painted in them,
+for instance the portrait of Nicholas Boylston, now in Harvard Memorial
+Hall.
+
+With the increase of trade with China many Chinese and East Indian goods
+became fashionable, with hundreds of different names. A few were of silk
+or linen, but far more of cotton; among them nankeens were the most
+imported and even for winter wear.
+
+Both men and women wore for many years great cloaks or capes, known by
+various names, such as roquelaures, capuchins, pelisses, etc. Women's
+shoes were of very thin materials, and paper-soled. They wore to protect
+these frail shoes, when walking on the ill-paved streets, various forms
+of overshoes, known as goloe-shoes, clogs, pattens, etc. When riding,
+women in the colonies wore, as did Queen Elizabeth, a safeguard, a long
+over-petticoat to protect the gown from mud and rain. This was sometimes
+called a foot-mantle, also a weather-skirt. A traveller tells of seeing
+a row of horses tied to a fence outside a Quaker meeting. Some carried
+side saddles, some men's saddles and pillions. On the fence hung the
+muddy safeguards the Quaker dames had worn outside their drab
+petticoats. Men wore sherry-vallies or spatter-dashes to protect their
+gay breeches.
+
+There was one fashion which lasted for a century and a half which was so
+untidy, so uncomfortable, so costly, and so ridiculous that we can only
+wonder that it was endured for a single season--I mean the fashion of
+wig-wearing by men. The first colonists wore their own natural hair. The
+Cavaliers had long and perfumed love-locks; and though the Puritans had
+been called Roundheads, their hair waved, also, over the band or collar,
+and often hung over the shoulder. The Quakers, also, wore long locks, as
+the lovely portrait of William Penn shows. But by 1675 wigs had become
+common enough to be denounced by the Massachusetts government, and to be
+preached against by many ministers; while other ministers proudly wore
+them. Wigs were called horrid bushes of vanity, and hundreds of other
+disparaging names, which seemed to make them more popular. They varied
+from year to year; sometimes they swelled out at the sides, or rose in
+great puffs, or turned under in heavy rolls, or hung in braids and curls
+and pig-tails; they were made of human hair, of horsehair, goat's-hair,
+calves' and cows' tails, of thread, silk, and mohair. They had scores of
+silly and meaningless names, such as "grave full-bottom," "giddy
+feather-top," "long-tail," "fox-tail," "drop-wig," etc. They were bound
+and braided with pink, green, red, and purple ribbons, sometimes all
+these colors on one wig. They were very heavy, and very hot, and very
+expensive, often costing what would be equal to a hundred dollars
+to-day. The care of them was a great item, often ten pounds a year for a
+single wig, and some gentlemen owned eight or ten wigs. Little children
+wore them. I have seen the bill for a wig for William Freeman, dated
+1754; he was a child seven years old. His father paid nine pounds for
+it, and the same for wigs for his other boys of nine and ten. Even
+servants wore them; I read in the _Massachusetts Gazette_ of a runaway
+negro slave who "wore off a curl of hair tied around his head with a
+string to imitate a wig," which must have been a comical sight. After
+wigs had become unfashionable, the natural hair was powdered, and was
+tied in a queue in the back. This was an untidy, troublesome fashion,
+which ruined the clothes; for the hair was soaked with oil or pomatum to
+make the powder stick.
+
+Comparatively little jewellery was worn. A few men had gold or silver
+sleeve-buttons; a few women had bracelets or lockets; nearly all of any
+social standing had rings, which were chiefly mourning-rings. As these
+gloomy ornaments were given to all the chief mourners at funerals, it
+can be seen that a man of large family connections, or of prominent
+social standing, might acquire a great many of them. The minister and
+doctor usually had a ring at every funeral they attended. It is told of
+an old Salem doctor, who died in 1758, that he had a tankard full of
+mourning-rings which he had secured at funerals. Men sometimes wore
+thumb-rings, which seems no queerer than the fact that they carried
+muffs. Old Dr. Prince of Boston carried an enormous bearskin muff.
+
+Gloves also were gifts at funerals, sometimes in large numbers. At the
+funeral of the wife of Governor Belcher, in 1738, over a thousand pairs
+were given away. Rev. Andrew Eliot, who was pastor of the North Church
+in Boston, had twenty-nine hundred pair of gloves given him in
+thirty-two years; many of these he sold. In all the colonies, whether
+settled by Dutch, English, French, German, or Swedes, gloves were
+universally given at funerals.
+
+The early watches were clumsy affairs, often globose in shape, with a
+detached outer case.
+
+To show how few of the first colonists owned either watches or clocks,
+we have the contemporary evidence of Roger Williams. When he rowed
+thirty miles down the bay, and disputed with the "Foxians" at Newport in
+1672, it was agreed that each party should be heard in turn for a
+quarter of an hour. But no clock was available in Newport; and among the
+whole population that flocked to the debate, there was not a single
+watch. Williams says, "unless we had Clocks and Watches and Quarter
+Glasses (as in some Ships) it was impossible to be exactly punctual," so
+they guessed at the time.
+
+Sun-dials were often set in the street in front of houses; and
+noon-marks on the threshold of the front door or window-sill helped to
+show the hour of the day.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+JACK-KNIFE INDUSTRIES
+
+
+Chepa Rose was one of those old-time chap-men known throughout New
+England as "trunk pedlers." Bearing on his back by means of a harness of
+stout hempen webbing two oblong trunks of thin metal,--probably
+tin,--for forty-eight years he had appeared at every considerable
+farmhouse throughout Narragansett and eastern Connecticut, at intervals
+as regular as the action and appearance of the sun, moon, and tides; and
+everywhere was he greeted with an eager welcome.
+
+Chepa was, as he said, "half Injun, half French, and half Yankee." From
+his Indian half he had his love of tramping which made him choose the
+wandering trade of trunk pedler; his French half made him a good trader
+and talker; while his Yankee half endowed him with a universal Yankee
+trait, a "handiness," which showed in scores of gifts and
+accomplishments and knacks that made him as warmly greeted everywhere
+as were his attractive trunks.
+
+He was a famous medicine-brewer; from the roots and herbs and barks that
+he gathered as he tramped along the country roads he manufactured a
+cough medicine that was twice as effective and twice as bitter as old
+Dr. Greene's; he made famous plasters, of two kinds,--plasters to stick
+and plasters to crawl, the latter to follow the course of the disease or
+pain; he concocted wonderful ink; he showed Jenny Greene how to bleach
+her new straw bonnet with sulphur fumes; he mended umbrellas, harnesses,
+and tinware; he made glorious teetotums which the children looked for as
+eagerly and unfailingly as they did for his tops and marbles, his
+ribbons and Gibraltars.
+
+One day he came through the woods to John Helme's house carrying in his
+hand a stout birchen staff or small tree-trunk, which he laid down on
+the flat millstone imbedded in the grass at the back door, while he
+displayed and sold his wares and had his dinner. He then went out to the
+dooryard with little Johnny Helme, sat down on the millstone, lighted
+his pipe, opened his jack-knife, and discoursed thus:--
+
+     "Johnny, I'm going to tell you how to make an Injun broom. Fust,
+     you must find a big birch-tree. There ain't so many big ones now
+     of any kind as there useter be when we made canoes and plates and
+     cradles, and water spouts, and troughs, and furnitoor out of the
+     bark. But you must get a yallow birch-tree as straight as H and
+     edzactly five inch acrost. Now, how kin ye tell how fur it is
+     acrost a tree afore ye cut it off? I kin tell by the light of my
+     eye, but that's Injun larnin'. Lemme tell you by book-larnin'.
+     Measure it round, and make the string in three parts, and one
+     part'll be what it is acrost. If it's nine inch round, it'll be
+     three inch acrost, and so on. Now don't you forgit that. Wal! you
+     must get a straight birch-tree five inch acrost where you cut it
+     off, just like this one. Then make the stick six foot long. Then
+     one foot and two inch from the big end cut a ring round the bark;
+     wal! say two inch wide just like this. Then you take off all the
+     bark below that ring. Then you begin a-slivering with a sharp
+     jack-knife, leetle teeny flat slivers way up to the bark ring. When
+     it's all slivered up thin and flat there'll be a leetle hard core
+     left inside at the top, and you must cut it out careful. Then you
+     take off the bark above the ring and begin slivering down. Leave a
+     stick just big enough for a handle. Then tie this last lot of
+     slivers down tight over the others with a hard-twisted tow string,
+     and trim 'em off even. Then whittle off and scrape off a good
+     smooth handle with a hole in the top to put a loop of cowhide in,
+     to hang it up by orderly.
+
+     "Yes, Johnny, I've got just enough Injun in me to make a good
+     broom; not enough to be ashamed of and not enough to be proud of.
+     But you mustn't forgit this; a moccasin's the best cover a man
+     ever had on his feet in the woods; the easiest to get stuff for,
+     the easiest to make, the easiest to wear. And a birch-bark canoe's
+     the best boat a man can have on the river. It's the easiest to get
+     stuff for, easiest to carry, the fastest to paddle. And a
+     snowshoe's the best help a man can have in the winter. It's the
+     easiest to get stuff for, the easiest to walk on, the easiest to
+     carry. And just so a birch broom is the best broom a man or at any
+     rate a woman can have; four best things and all of 'em is Injun.
+     Now you just slip in and take that broom to Phillis. I see her the
+     last time I was here a-using a mizrable store broom to clean her
+     oven--and just ask her if I can't have a mug of apple-jack afore I
+     go to bed."
+
+If this scene had been laid in New Hampshire or Vermont instead of
+Narragansett, the Indian broom would have been no novelty to any boy or
+house-servant. For in the northern New England states, heavily wooded
+with yellow birch, every boy knew how to make the Indian brooms, and
+every household in country or town had them. There was a constant demand
+in Boston for them, and sometimes country stores had several hundred of
+the brooms at a time. Throughout Vermont seventy years ago the uniform
+price paid for making one of these brooms was six cents; and if the
+splints were very fine and the handle scraped with glass, it took
+nearly three evenings to finish it. Indian squaws peddled them
+throughout the country for ninepence apiece. Major Robert Randolph told
+in fashionable London circles about the year 1750, that when he was a
+boy in New Hampshire he earned his only spending-money by making these
+brooms and carrying them on his back ten miles to town to sell them.
+Girls could whittle as well as boys, and often exchanged the birch
+brooms they made for a bit of ribbon or lace.
+
+A simpler and less durable broom was made of hemlock branches. A local
+rhyme says of them:--
+
+    "Driving at twilight the waiting cows,
+    With arms full-laden with hemlock boughs,
+    To be traced on a broom ere the coming day
+    From its eastern chambers should dance away."
+
+The hemlock broom was simply a bunch of close-growing, full-foliaged
+hemlock branches tied tightly together and wound around with hempen
+twine, "traced," the rhyme says, with a sharply pointed handle, which
+the boys had shaped and whittled, driven well into the bound portion.
+This making of brooms for domestic use is but an example of one of the
+many score of useful domestic and farm articles which were furnished by
+the natural resources of every wood-lot, adapted by the Yankee
+jack-knife and a few equally simple tools, of which the gimlet might
+take the second place.
+
+It was so emphatically a wooden age in colonial days that it seemed
+almost that there were no hard metals used for any articles which to-day
+seem so necessarily of metal. Ploughs were of wood, and harrows;
+cart-wheels were often wholly of wood without tires, though sometimes
+iron plates called strakes held the felloes together, being fastened to
+them by long clinch-pins. The dish-turner and cooper were artisans of
+importance in those days; piggins, noggins, runlets, keelers, firkins,
+buckets, churns, dye-tubs, cowles, powdering-tubs, were made with chary
+or no use of metal.
+
+The forests were the wealth of the colonies in more ways than one; and
+it may be said that they furnished both domestic winter employment and
+toys for the boys. The New England forests were full of richly varied kinds
+of wood, suitable for varied uses, with varied qualities--pliability,
+stiffness, durability, weight, strength; and it is surprising to see how
+quickly the woods were assigned to fixed uses, even for toys; in every
+state pop-guns were made from elder; bows and arrows of hemlock; whistles
+of chestnut or willow.
+
+The Rev. John Pierpont wrote thus of the whittling of his childhood
+days:--
+
+    "The Yankee boy before he's sent to school
+    Well knows the mysteries of that magic tool--
+    The pocket-knife. To that his wistful eye
+    Turns, while he hears his mother's lullaby.
+    And in the education of the lad,
+    No little part that implement hath had.
+    His pocket-knife to the young whittler brings
+    A growing knowledge of material things,
+    Projectiles, music, and the sculptor's art.
+    His chestnut whistle, and his shingle dart,
+    His elder pop-gun with its hickory rod,
+    Its sharp explosion and rebounding wad,
+    His corn-stalk fiddle, and the deeper tone
+    That murmurs from his pumpkin-leaf trombone
+    Conspire to teach the boy. To these succeed
+    His bow, his arrow of a feathered reed,
+    His windmill raised the passing breeze to win,
+    His water-wheel that turns upon a pin.
+    Thus by his genius and his jack-knife driven
+    Ere long he'll solve you any problem given;
+    Make you a locomotive or a clock,
+    Cut a canal or build a floating dock:
+    Make anything in short for sea or shore,
+    From a child's rattle to a seventy-four.
+    Make it, said I--ay, when he undertakes it,
+    He'll make the thing and make the thing that makes it."
+
+The boy's jack-knife was a possession so highly desired, so closely
+treasured in those days when boys had so few belongings, that it is
+pathetic to read of many a farm lad's struggles and long hours of weary
+work to obtain a good knife. Barlow knives were the most highly prized
+for certainly sixty years, and had, I am told, a vast popularity for
+over a century. May they forever rest in glorious memory, as they lived
+the happiest of lots! To be the best beloved of a century of Yankee
+boys is indeed an enviable destiny. A few battered old soldiers of this
+vast army of Barlow jack-knives still linger to show us the homely
+features borne by the century's well beloved: the Smithsonian
+Institution cherishes some of colonial days; and from Deerfield Memorial
+Hall are shown three Barlow knives whose picture should appear to every
+American something more than the presentment of dull bits of wood and
+rusted metal. These Yankee jack-knives were, said Daniel Webster, the
+direct forerunners of the cotton-gin and thousands of noble American
+inventions; the New England boy's whittling was his alphabet of
+mechanics.
+
+In this connection, let us note the skilful and utilitarian adaptation
+not only of natural materials for domestic and farm use, but also
+natural forms. The farmer and his wife both turned to Nature for
+implements and utensils, or for parts adapted to shape readily into the
+implements and utensils of every-day life. When we read of the first
+Boston settlers that "the dainty Indian maize was eat with clam-shells
+out of wooden trays," we learn of a primitive spoon, a clam-shell set in
+a split stick, which has been used till this century. Large flat
+clam-shells were used and highly esteemed by housewives, as
+skimming-shells in the dairy, to skim cream from the milk. Gourd-shells
+made capital bowls, skimmers, dippers, and bottles; pumpkin-shells, good
+seed and grain holders. Turkey-wings made an ever-ready hearth-brush. In
+the forests were many "crooked sticks" that were more useful than any
+straight ones could be. When the mower wanted a new snathe or snead, as
+he called it, for his scythe, he found in the woods a deformed sapling
+that had grown under a log or twisted around a rock in a double bend,
+which made it the exact shape desired. He then whittled it, dressed it
+with a draw-shave, fastened the nebs with a neb-wedge, hung it with an
+iron ring, and was ready for the mowing-field.
+
+Sled-runners were made from saplings bent at the root. The best thills
+for a cart were those naturally shaped by growth. The curved pieces of
+wood in the harness of a draught-horse, called the hames, to which the
+traces are fastened, could be found in twisted growths, as could also
+portions of ox-yokes. The gambrels used in slaughtering times,
+hay-hooks, long-handled pothooks for brick ovens, could all be cut
+ready-shaped.
+
+The smaller underbrush and saplings had many uses. Sled and cart stakes
+were cut from some; long bean-poles from others; specially straight
+clean sticks were saved for whip-stocks. Sections of birch bark could be
+bottomed and served for baskets, or for potash cans, while capital
+feed-boxes could be made in the same way of sections cut from a hollow
+hemlock. Elm rind and portions of brown ash butts were natural
+materials for chair-seats and baskets, as were flags for door-mats.
+Forked branches made geese and hog yokes. Hogs that ran at large had to
+wear yokes. It was ordered that these yokes should measure as long as
+twice and a half times the depth of the neck, while the bottom piece was
+three times the width of the neck.
+
+In the shaping of heavy and large vessels such as salt-mortars, pig
+troughs, maple-sap troughs, the jack-knife was abandoned and the methods
+of the Indians adopted. These vessels were burnt and scraped out of a
+single log, and thus had a weighty stability and permanence. Wooden
+bread troughs were also made from a single piece of wood. These were
+oblong, trencher-shaped bowls about eighteen inches long; across the
+trough ran lengthwise a stick or rod on which rested the sieve, searse,
+or temse, when flour was sifted into the trough. The saying "set the
+Thames (or temse) on fire," meant that hard work and active friction
+would set the wooden temse on fire.
+
+Sometimes the mould for an ox-bow was dug out of a log of wood. Oftener
+a plank of wood was cut into the desired shape as a frame or mould, and
+fastened to a heavy backboard. The ox-bow was steamed, placed in the
+bow-mould, pinned in, and then carefully seasoned.
+
+The boys whittled cheese-ladders, cheese-hoops, and red-cherry
+butter-paddles for their mothers' dairy; also many parts of
+cheese-presses and churns. To the toys enumerated by Rev. Mr. Pierpont,
+they added box-traps and "figure 4" traps of various sizes for catching
+vari-sized animals.
+
+Many farm implements other than those already named were made, and many
+portions of tools and implements; among them were shovels,
+swingling-knives, sled-neaps, stanchions, handles for spades and
+bill-hooks, rake-stales, fork-stales, flails. A group of old farm
+implements from Memorial Hall, at Deerfield, is here given. The
+handleless scythe-snathe is said to have come over on the _Mayflower_.
+
+The making of flails was an important and useful work. Many were broken
+and worn out during a great threshing. Both parts, the staff or handle,
+and the swingle or swiple, were carefully shaped from well-chosen wood,
+to be joined together later by an eelskin or leather strap.
+
+The flail is little seen on farms to-day. Threshing and winnowing
+machines have taken its place. The father of Robert Burns declared
+threshing with a flail to be the only degrading and stultifying work on
+a farm; but I never knew another farmer who deemed it so, though it was
+certainly hard work. Last autumn I visited the "Poor Farm" on Quonsett
+Point in old Narragansett. In the vast barn of that beautiful and
+sparsely occupied country home, two powerful men, picturesque in blue
+jeans tucked in heavy boots, in scarlet shirts and great straw hats,
+were threshing out grain with flails. Both men were blind, one wholly,
+the other partially so--and were "Town Poor." Their strong, bare arms
+swung the long flails in alternate strokes with the precision of
+clockwork, bringing each blow down on the piled-up wheat-straw which
+covered the barn-floor, as they advanced, one stepping backward while
+the other stepped forward, and then receded with mechanical and rhythmic
+regularity, a step and a blow, from one end of the long barn to the
+other. The half-blind thresher could see the outline of the open door
+against the sunlight, and his steps and voice guided his sightless
+fellow-worker. Thus healthful and useful employment was given to two
+stricken waifs through the use of primitive methods, which no modern
+machine could ever have afforded; and the blue sky and bay, with
+autumnal sunshine on the piled-up golden wheat on floor and in rack,
+idealized and even made of the threshers, paupers though they were, a
+beautiful picture of old-time farm-life.
+
+Wood for axe-helves was carefully chosen, sawed, split, and whittled
+into shape. These were then scraped as smooth as ivory with broken
+glass. Some men had a knack that was almost genius in shaping these
+axe-helves and selecting the wood for them. In a country where the
+broad-axe was so important an implement--used every day by every farmer;
+where lumbermen and loggers and shipwrights swung the axe the entire day
+for many months, men were ready to pay double price for a well-made
+helve, so shaped as to let the heavy blow jar as little as possible the
+hand holding the helve. One Maine farmer boasted that he had made and
+sold five hundred axe-helves, and received a good price for them all;
+that some had gone five hundred miles out west, others a hundred miles
+"up country"; and of no one of them which he had set had it ever been
+said, as of the axe in Deuteronomy, "When a man goeth into the wood to
+hew wood, and his hand fetcheth a stroke with the axe to cut down a
+tree, then the head slippeth from the helve."
+
+A little money might be earned by cutting heel-pegs for shoemakers.
+These were made of a maple trunk sawed across the grain, making the
+circular board thin enough--a half inch or so--for the correct length of
+the pegs. The end was then marked in parallel lines, then grooved across
+at right angles, then split as marked into pegs with knife and mallet. A
+story is told of a farmer named Meigs, who, on the winter ride to
+market in company with a score or more of his neighbors, stole out at
+night from the tavern fireside where all were gathered to the barn where
+the horses were put up. There he took an oat-bag out of a neighbor's
+sleigh and poured out a good feed for his own horse. In the morning it
+was found that his horse had not relished the shoe-pegs that had been
+put in his manger; and their telltale presence plainly pointed out the
+thief. These shoe-pegs were a venture of two farmer boys which their
+father was taking to town to sell for them, and in indignation the boys
+thrust on the thief the name of Shoe-pegs Meigs, which he carried to the
+end of his life.
+
+When the boys had learned to use a few other tools besides their
+jack-knives, as they quickly did, they could get sawed staves from the
+sawmills and make up shooks of staves bound with hoops of red oak, for
+molasses hogsheads. These would be shipped to the West Indies, and form
+an important link in the profitable rum and slave round of traffic that
+bound Africa, New England, and the West Indies so closely together in
+those days. A constant occupation for men and boys was making rived or
+shaved shingles. They were split with a beetle and wedge. A smart
+workman could by sharp work make a thousand a day. There may still be
+occasionally found in what were well-wooded pine regions, in shed or
+barn-lofts, or in old wood-houses, a stout oaken frame or rack such as
+was at one time found in nearly every house. It was known as a
+bundling-mould or shingling-mould. At the bottom of this strong frame
+were laid straight sticks and twisted withes which extended up the
+sides. Upon these were evenly packed the shingles, two hundred and fifty
+in number, known as a "quarter." The withes or "binders" were twisted
+strongly around when the number was full. The mould held them firmly in
+place while being tied. These were sealed by law and shipped. Cullers of
+staves were regularly appointed town officers. The dimensions of the
+shingles were given by law and rule; fifteen inches was the length for
+one period of time, and the bundling-mould conformed to it.
+
+Daniel Leake of Salisbury, New Hampshire, made during his lifetime and
+was paid for a million shingles. During the years he was accomplishing
+this colossal work he cleared three hundred acres of land, tapped for
+twenty years at least six hundred maple-trees, making sometimes four
+thousand pounds of sugar a year. He could mow six acres a day, giving
+nine tons of hay; his strong, long arms cut a swath twelve feet wide.
+_In his spare time_ he worked as a cooper, and he was a famous
+drum-maker. Truly there were giants in those days. I love to read of
+such vigorous, powerful lives; they seem to be of a race entirely
+different from our own. Still, among our New England forbears I doubt
+not many of us had some such giants, who conquered for us the earth and
+forests.
+
+One mark the shingling industry left on the household. In the sawing of
+blocks there would always be some too knotty or gnarled to split into
+shingles. These were what were known in the vernacular as
+"on-marchantable shingle-bolts." They formed in many a pioneer's home
+and in many a pioneer school-house good solid seats for children and
+even grown people to sit on. And even in pioneer meeting-houses these
+blocks could sometimes be seen.
+
+Other fittings for the house were whittled out. Long, heavy, wooden
+hinges were cut from horn-beam for cupboard and closet doors; even shed
+doors were hung on wooden hinges as were house doors in the earliest
+colonial days. Door-latches were made of wood, also oblong buttons to
+fasten chamber and cupboard doors.
+
+New England housekeepers prized the smooth, close-grained bowls which
+the Indians made from the veined and mottled knots of maple-wood. They
+were valued at what seems high prices for wooden utensils and were often
+named and bequeathed in wills. Maple-wood has been used and esteemed by
+many nations for cups and bowls. The old English and German vessel known
+as a mazer was made of maple-wood, often bound and tipped with silver.
+Spenser speaks in his _Shepheard's Calendar_ of "a mazer yrought of the
+maple wood." A well-known specimen in England bears the legend in Gothic
+text:--
+
+    "In the Name of the Trinitie
+    Fille the kup and drinke to me."
+
+Sometimes a specially skilful Yankee would rival the Indians in shaping
+and whittling out these bowls. I have seen two really beautiful ones
+carved with double initials, and one with a Scriptural reference, said
+to be the work of a lover for his bride. Another token of affection and
+skill from the whittler were carved busks, which were the broad and
+strong strips of wood placed in corsets or stays to help to form and
+preserve the long-waisted, stiff figure then fashionable. One carved
+busk bears initials and an appropriately sentimental design of arrows
+and hearts.
+
+On the rim of spinning-wheels, on shuttles, swifts, and on niddy-noddys
+or hand-reels I have seen lettering by the hands of rustic lovers. A
+finely carved legend on a hand-reel reads:--
+
+    "POLLY GREENE, HER REEL.
+      Count your threads right
+      If you reel in the night
+      When I am far away.
+                          June, 1777."
+
+Perhaps some Revolutionary soldier gave this as a parting gift to his
+sweetheart on the eve of battle.
+
+On his powder-horn the rustic carver bestowed his best and daintiest
+work. Emblem both of war and of sport, it seemed worthy of being shaped
+into the highest expression of his artistic longing. A chapter, even a
+book, might be filled with the romantic history and representations of
+American powder-horns; patriotism, sentiment, and adventure shed equal
+halos over them. Months of the patient work of every spare moment was
+spent in beautifying them, and their quaintness, variety, and
+individuality are a never-ceasing delight to the antiquary. Maps, plans,
+legends, verses, portraits, landscapes, family history, crests, dates of
+births, marriages, and deaths, lists of battles, patriotic and religious
+sentiments, all may be found on powder-horns. They have in many cases
+proved valuable historical records, and have sometimes been the only
+records of events. Mr. Rufus A. Grider, of Canajoharie, has made colored
+drawings of about five hundred of these powder-horns, and of canteens or
+drinking-horns. It is unfortunate that the ordinary processes of
+book-illustration give too scant suggestion of the variety, beauty, and
+delicacy of their decoration, to permit the reproduction of some of
+these powder-horns in these pages.
+
+These habits of employing the spare moments of farm-life in the
+manufacture from wood of farm implements and various aids to domestic
+comfort, were not peculiar to New England farmers, nor invented by them.
+The old English farmer-author, Thomas Tusser, in his rhymed book, _Five
+Hundred Points of Good Husbandry_, written in the sixteenth century
+(which Southey declared to be one of the most curious and formerly one
+of the most popular books in our language), was careful to give
+instructions in his "remembrances" and "doings" as to similar industries
+on the English farm and manor house. He says:--
+
+    "Yokes, forks, and such other let bailie spy out
+    And gather the same as he walketh about;
+    And after, at leisure, let this be his hire,
+    To beath them and trim them at home by the fire."
+
+_To beath_ is to heat unseasoned wood to harden and straighten it.
+
+    "If hop-yard or orchard ye mean for to have,
+    For hop-poles and crotches in lopping go save.
+
+    "Save elm, ash, and crab tree for cart and for plow,
+    Save step for a stile of the crotch of a bough;
+    Save hazel for forks, save sallow for rake:
+    Save hulver and thorn, thereof flail for to make."
+
+The Massachusetts Bay settlers came chiefly from the vicinity, many from
+the same county, where Tusser lived and farmed, and where his points of
+good husbandry were household words; so they had in their English homes
+as had their grandfathers before them, the knowledge and habit of saving
+and utilizing the various woods on the farm, and of occupying every
+spare minute with the useful jack-knife. The varied and bountiful trees
+of the New World stimulated and emphasized the whittling habit until it
+became universally accepted as a distinguishing New England
+characteristic, a Yankee trait.
+
+This constant employment of every moment of the waking hours contributed
+to impart to New Englanders a regard and method of life which is spoken
+of by many outsiders with contempt, namely, a closely girded and
+invariable habit of economy. Children brought up in this way knew the
+value of everything in the household, knew the time it took to produce
+it, for they had labored themselves, and they grew to take care of small
+things, not to squander and waste what they had been so long at work on.
+This, instead of being a thing to sneer at, is one of the very best
+elements in a community, one of the best securities of character. For
+sudden leaps to fortune are given to but few, and are seldom lasting,
+and the results of sudden inflations are more disastrous even to a
+community than to isolated individuals, as may be abundantly proved by
+the early history of Virginia. It was not meanness that made the wiry
+New England farmer so cautious and exacting in trade, when the pennies
+he saved sent his son through college. It was not meanness which made
+him refuse to spend money; he had no money to spend, and it was a high
+sense of honor that kept him from running in debt. It was not meanness
+which so justly ordered conditions and cared for the unfortunate that
+even in those days of horrible drunkenness often there would not be a
+pauper in the entire village. It has been a reproach that in some towns
+the few town poor were vendued out to be cared for; the mode was harsh
+in its wording, and unfeeling in method, but in reality the pauper found
+a home. I have known cases where the pauper was not only supported but
+cherished in the families to whose lot she fell.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+TRAVEL, TRANSPORTATION, AND TAVERNS
+
+
+Wherever the earliest colonists settled in America, they had to adopt
+the modes of travel and the ways of getting from place to place of their
+predecessors and new neighbors, the Indians. These were first--and
+generally--to walk on their own stout legs; second, to go wherever they
+could by water, in boats. In Maryland and Virginia, where for a long
+time nearly all settlers tried to build their homes on the banks of the
+rivers and bays, the travel was almost entirely by boats; as it was
+between settlements on all the great rivers, the Hudson, Connecticut,
+and Merrimac.
+
+Between the large settlements in Massachusetts--Boston, Salem, and
+Plymouth--travel was preferably, when the weather permitted, in boats.
+The colonists went in canoes, or pinnaces, shaped and made exactly like
+the birch-bark canoes of the Canadian Indians to-day; and in dugouts,
+which were formed from hollowed pine-logs, usually about twenty feet
+long and two or three feet wide; both of these were made for them by the
+Indians. It was said that one Indian, working alone, felling the
+pine-tree by the primitive way of burning and scraping off the charred
+parts with a stone tool called a celt (for the Indians had no iron or
+steel axes), then cutting off the top in the same manner, then burning
+out part of the interior, then burning and scraping and shaping it
+without and within, could make one of these dugouts in three weeks. The
+Indians at Onondaga still make the wooden mortars they use in the same
+tedious way.
+
+When the white men came to America in great ships, the Indians marvelled
+much at the size, thinking they were hollowed out of tree-trunks as were
+the dugouts, and wondered where such vast trees grew.
+
+The Swedish scientific traveller, Kalm, who was in America in 1748, was
+delighted with the Indian canoes and dugouts. He found the Swede
+settlers using them constantly to go long distances to market. He
+said:--
+
+     "They usually carry six persons who however by no means must be
+     unruly, but sit at the bottom of the canoe in the quietest manner
+     possible lest the boat upset. They are narrow, round below, have no
+     keel and may be easily overset. So when the wind is brisk the
+     people make for the land. Larger dugouts were made for war-canoes
+     which would carry thirty or forty savages."
+
+These boats usually kept close to the shore, both in calm and windy
+weather, though the natives were not afraid to go many miles out to sea
+in the dugouts.
+
+The lightness of the birch-bark canoe made it specially desirable where
+there were such frequent overland transfers. It was and is a beautiful
+and perfect expression of natural and wild life; as Longfellow wrote:--
+
+        "... the forest's life was in it,
+    All its mystery and magic,
+    All the lightness of the birch tree,
+    All the toughness of the cedar,
+    All the larch's supple sinews,
+    And it floated on the river
+    Like a yellow leaf in autumn."
+
+The French governor and missionaries all saw and admired these
+birch-bark canoes. Father Charlevoix wrote a beautiful and vivid
+description of them. All the early travellers noted their ticklish
+balance. Wood, writing in 1634, said, "In these cockling fly-boats an
+Englishman can scarce sit without a fearful tottering," and Madam
+Knights a century later said in her vivid English of a trip in one:--
+
+     "The Cannoo was very small and shallow, which greatly terrify'd me
+     and caused me to be very circumspect, sitting with my hands fast on
+     each side, my eyes steady, not daring so much as to lodge my tongue
+     a hair's bredth more on one side of my mouth than tother, nor so
+     much as think on Lott's wife, for a very thought would have
+     oversett our wherry."
+
+When boats and vessels were built by the colonists, they were in forms
+or had names but little used to-day. Shallop, ketch, pink, and snow are
+rarely heard. Sloops were early built, but schooner is a modern term.
+Batteau and periagua still are used; and the gundalow, picturesque with
+its lateen sail, still is found on our northern New England shores.
+
+The Indians had narrow foot-paths in many places through the woods. On
+them foot-travel was possible, though many estuaries and rivers
+intersected the coast; for the narrow streams could be crossed on
+natural ford-ways, or on rude bridges of fallen trees, which the English
+government ordered to be put in place.
+
+As late as 1631 Governor Endicott would not go from Salem to Boston to
+visit Governor Winthrop because he was not strong enough to wade across
+the fords. He might have done as Governor Winthrop did the next year
+when he went to Plymouth to visit Governor Bradford (and it took him two
+days to get there); he might have been carried across the fords
+pickaback by an Indian guide.
+
+The Indian paths were good, though only two or three feet wide, and in
+many places the savages kept the woods clear from underbrush by burning
+over large tracts. When King Philip's War took place, all the land
+around the Indian settlements in Narragansett and eastern Massachusetts
+was so free of brush that horsemen could ride everywhere freely through
+the woods. Some of the old paths are famous in our history. The most so
+was the Bay Path, which ran from Cambridge through Marlborough,
+Worcester, Oxford, Brookfield, and on to Springfield and the Connecticut
+River. Holland's beautiful story called by the name of the path gives
+its history, its sentiment, and much that happened on it in olden times.
+
+When new paths were cut through the forests, the settlers "blazed" the
+trees, that is, they chopped a piece of the bark off tree after tree
+standing on the side of the way. Thus the "blazes" stood out clear and
+white in the dark shadows of the forests, like welcome guide-posts,
+showing the traveller his way. In Maryland roads turning off to a church
+were marked by slips or blazes cut near the ground.
+
+In Maryland and Virginia what were known as, and indeed are still
+called, rolling-roads were cut through the forest. They were narrow
+roads adown which hogsheads of tobacco, fitted with axles, could be
+drawn or rolled from inland plantations to the river or bay side;
+sometimes the hogsheads were simply rolled by human propulsion, not
+dragged on these roads.
+
+The broader rivers soon had canoe-ferries. The first regular
+Massachusetts ferry from Charlestown to Boston was in 1639. It carried
+passengers for threepence apiece. From Chelsea to Boston was fourpence.
+In 1636 the Cambridge ferryman charged but half a penny, as so many
+wished to attend the Thursday lecture in the Boston churches. We learn
+from the Massachusetts Laws that often a rider had to let his horse
+cross by swimming over, being guided from the ferry-boat; he then paid
+no ferriage for the horse. After wheeled vehicles were used, these
+ferries were not large enough to carry them properly. Often the carriage
+had to be taken apart, or towed over, while the horse had his fore feet
+in one canoe-ferry and his hind feet in another, the two canoes being
+lashed together. The rope-ferry lingered till our own day, and was ever
+a picturesque sight on the river. As soon as roads were built there
+were, of course, bridges and cart-ways, but these were only between the
+closely neighboring towns. Usually the bridges were merely
+"horse-bridges" with a railing on but one side.
+
+After the period of walking and canoe-riding had had its day, nearly all
+land travel for a century was on horseback, just as it was in England at
+that date. In 1672 there were only six stage-coaches in the whole of
+Great Britain; and a man wrote a pamphlet protesting that they
+encouraged too much travel. Boston then had one private coach. Women and
+children usually rode seated on a pillion behind a man. A pillion was a
+padded cushion with straps which sometimes had on one side a sort of
+platform-stirrup. One way of progress which would help four persons ride
+part of their journey was what was called the ride-and-tie system. Two
+of the four persons who were travelling started on their road on foot;
+two mounted on the saddle and pillion, rode about a mile, dismounted,
+tied the horse, and walked on. When the two who had started on foot
+reached the waiting horse, they mounted, rode on past the other couple
+for a mile or so, dismounted, tied, and walked on; and so on. It was
+also a universal and courteous as it was a pleasant custom for friends
+to ride out on the road a few miles with any departing guest or friend,
+and then bid them God speed agatewards.
+
+In 1704 a Boston schoolmistress named Madam Knights rode from Boston to
+New York on horseback. She was probably the first woman to make the
+journey, and it was a great and daring undertaking. She had as a
+companion the "post." This was the mail-carrier, who also rode on
+horseback. One of his duties was to assist and be kind to all persons
+who cared to journey in his company. The first regular mail started from
+New York to Boston on January 1, 1673. The postman carried two
+"portmantles," which were crammed with letters and parcels. He did not
+change horses till he reached Hartford. He was ordered to look out and
+report the condition of all ferries, fords, and roads. He had to be
+"active, stout, indefatigable, and honest." When he delivered his mail
+it was laid on a table at an inn, and any one who wished looked over all
+the letters, then took and paid the postage (which was very high) on any
+addressed to himself. It was usually about a month from this setting out
+of "the post" in winter, till his return. As late certainly as 1730 the
+mail was carried from New York to Albany in the winter by a "foot-post."
+He went up the Hudson River, and lonely enough it must have been;
+probably he skated up when the ice was good. This mail was only sent at
+irregular intervals.
+
+In 1760 there were but eight mails a year from Philadelphia to the
+Potomac River, and even then the post-rider need not start till he had
+received enough letters to pay the expenses of the trip. It was not till
+postal affairs were placed in the capable and responsible hands of
+Benjamin Franklin that there were any regular or trustworthy mails.
+
+The journal and report of Hugh Finlay, a post-office surveyor in 1773 of
+the mail service from Quebec to St. Augustine, Florida, tells of the
+vicissitudes of mail-matter even at that later day. In some places the
+deputy, as the postmaster was called, had no office, so his family rooms
+were constantly invaded. Occasionally a tavern served as post-office;
+letters were thrown down on a table and if the weather was bad, or
+smallpox raged, or the deputy were careless, they were not forwarded for
+many days. Letters that arrived might lie on the table or bar-counter
+for days for any one to pull over, until the owner chanced to arrive and
+claim them. Good service could scarcely be expected from any deputy, for
+his salary was paid according to the number of letters coming to his
+office; and as private mail-carriage constantly went on, though
+forbidden by British law, the deputy suffered. "If an information were
+lodg'd but an informer wou'd get tar'd and feather'd, no jury wou'd find
+the fact." The government-riders were in truth the chief offenders. Any
+ship's captain, or wagon-driver, or post-rider could carry merchandise;
+therefore small sham bundles of paper, straw, or chips would be tied to
+a large sealed packet of letter, and both be exempt from postage paid to
+the Crown.
+
+The post-rider between Boston and Newport loaded his carriage with
+bundles real and sham, which delayed him long in delivery. He bought and
+sold on commission along this road; and in violation of law he carried
+many letters to his own profit. He took twenty-six hours to go eighty
+miles. Had the Newport deputy dared to complain, he would have incurred
+much odium and been declared a "friend of slavery and oppression."
+
+"Old Herd," the rider from Saybrook to New York, had been in the service
+forty-six years and had made a good estate. He coolly took postage of
+all way-letters as his perquisite; was a money carrier and transferrer,
+all advantage to his own pocket; carried merchandise; returned horses
+for travellers; and when Finlay saw him he was waiting for a yoke of
+oxen he was paid for fetching along some miles. A Pennsylvania
+post-rider, an aged man, occupied himself as he slowly jogged along by
+knitting mittens and stockings. Not always were mail portmanteaux
+properly locked; hence many letters were lost and the pulling in and out
+of bundles defaced the letters.
+
+Of course so much horseback riding made it necessary to have
+horse-blocks in front of nearly all houses. In course of time stones
+were set every mile on the principal roads to tell the distance from
+town to town. Benjamin Franklin set milestones the entire way on the
+post-road from Boston to Philadelphia. He rode in a chaise over the
+road; and a machine which he had invented was attached to the chaise;
+and it was certainly the first cyclometer that went on that road, over
+which so many cyclometers have passed during the last five years. It
+measured the miles as he travelled. When he had ridden a mile he
+stopped; from a heavy cart loaded with milestones, which kept alongside
+the chaise, a stone was dropped which was afterwards set by a gang of
+men.
+
+A number of old colonial milestones are still standing. There is one in
+Worcester, on what was the "New Connecticut Path"; one in Springfield on
+the "Bay Path," and there are several of Benjamin Franklin's setting,
+one being at Stratford, Connecticut.
+
+The inland transportation of freight was carried on in the colonies just
+as it was in Europe, on the backs of pack-horses. Very interesting
+historical evidence in relation to the methods of transportation in the
+middle of the eighteenth century may be found in the ingenious
+advertisement and address with which Benjamin Franklin raised
+transportation facilities for Braddock's army in 1755. This is one of
+his most characteristic literary productions. Braddock's appeals to the
+Philadelphia Assembly for a rough wagon-road and wagons for the army
+succeeded in raising only twenty-five wagons. Franklin visited him in
+his desolate plight and agreed to assist him, and appealed to the public
+to send to him for the use of the army a hundred and fifty wagons and
+fifteen hundred pack-horses; for the latter Franklin offered to pay two
+shillings a day each, as long as used, if provided with a pack-saddle.
+Twenty horses were sent with their loads to the camp as gifts to the
+British officers. As a good and definite list of the load one of these
+pack-horses was expected to carry (as well as a record of the kind of
+provisions grateful to an officer of that day) let me give an
+inventory:--
+
+     Six pounds loaf-sugar,
+     Six pounds muscovado sugar,
+     One pound green tea,
+     One pound bohea tea,
+     Six pounds ground coffee,
+     Six pounds chocolate,
+     One-half chest best white biscuit,
+     One-half pound pepper,
+     One quart white vinegar,
+     Two dozen bottles old Madeira wine,
+     Two gallons Jamaica spirits,
+     One bottle flour of mustard,
+     Two well-cured hams,
+     One-half dozen cured tongues,
+     Six pounds rice,
+     Six pounds raisins,
+     One Gloucester cheese,
+     One keg containing 20 lbs. best butter.
+
+The wagons and horses were all lost after Braddock's defeat, or were
+seized by the French and Indians, and Franklin had many anxious months
+of responsibility for damages from the owners; but I am confident the
+officers got all the provisions. Franklin gathered the wagons in York
+and Lancaster; no two English shires could have done better at that time
+than did these Pennsylvania counties.
+
+In Pennsylvania, western Virginia, and Ohio, pack-horses long were used,
+and a pretty picture is drawn by Doddridge and many other local
+historians of the trains of these horses with their gay collars and
+stuffed bells, as, laden with furs, ginseng, and snakeroot, they filed
+down the mountain roads to the towns, and came home laden with salt,
+nails, tea, pewter plates, etc. At night the horses were hobbled, and
+the clappers of their bells were loosened; the ringing prevented the
+horses being lost. The animals started on their journey with two hundred
+pounds' burden, of which part was provender for horse and man, which was
+left at convenient relays to be taken up on the way home. Two men could
+manage fifteen pack-horses, which were tethered successively each to the
+pack-saddle of the one in front of him. One man led the foremost horse,
+and the driver followed the file to watch the packs and urge on the
+laggards. Their numbers were vast; five hundred were counted at one time
+in Carlisle, Pennsylvania, going westward. It was a costly method of
+transportation. Mr. Howland says that in 1784 the expense of carrying a
+ton's weight from Philadelphia to Erie by pack-horses was $249. It is
+interesting to note that the routes taken by those men, skilled only in
+humble woodcraft, were the same ones followed in later years by the
+engineers of the turnpikes and railroads.
+
+As the roads were somewhat better in Pennsylvania than in some other
+provinces, and more needed, so wagons soon were far greater in number;
+indeed, during the Revolution nearly all the wagons and horses used by
+the army came from that state. There was developed in Pennsylvania by
+the soft soil of these many roads, as well as by various topographical
+conditions, a splendid example of a true American vehicle, one which was
+for a long time the highest type of a commodious freight-carrier in this
+or any other country--the Conestoga wagon, "the finest wagon the world
+has ever known." They were first used in any considerable number about
+1760. They had broad wheel-tires, and one of the peculiarities was a
+decided curve in the bottom, analogous to that of a galley or canoe,
+which made it specially fitted for traversing mountain roads; for this
+curved bottom prevented freight from slipping too far at either end when
+going up or down hill. This body was universally painted a bright blue,
+and furnished with sideboards of an equally vivid red. The wagon-bodies
+were arched over with six or eight stately bows, of which the middle
+ones were the lowest, and the others rose gradually to front and rear
+till the end bows were nearly of equal height. Over them all was
+stretched a strong, white, hempen cover, well corded down at the sides
+and ends. These wagons could be loaded up to the bows, and could carry
+four to six tons in weight. The rates between Philadelphia and
+Pittsburgh were about two dollars a hundred pounds. The horses, four to
+seven in number, were magnificent, often matched throughout; some were
+all dapple-gray, or all bay. The harnesses, of best materials and
+appearance, were costly; each horse had a large housing of deerskin or
+heavy bearskin trimmed with deep scarlet fringe; while the head-stall
+was tied with bunches of gay ribbons. Bell-teams were common; each horse
+except the saddle-horse then had a full set of bells tied with
+high-colored ribbons.
+
+The horses were highly fed; and when the driver, seated on the
+saddle-horse, drew rein on the prancing leader and flourished his fine
+bull-hide London whip, making the silk snap and tingle round the
+leader's ears, every horse started off with the ponderous load with a
+grace and ease that was beautiful to see.
+
+The wagons were first used in the Conestoga valley, and most extensively
+used there; and the sleek powerful draught-horses known as the Conestoga
+breed were attached to them, hence their name. These teams were objects
+of pride to their owners, objects of admiration and attention wherever
+they appeared, and are objects of historical interest and satisfaction
+to-day.
+
+Often a prosperous teamster would own several Conestoga wagons, and
+driving the leading and handsomest team himself would start off his
+proud procession. From twenty to a hundred would follow in close row.
+Large numbers were constantly passing. At one time ten thousand ran from
+Philadelphia to other towns. Josiah Quincy told of the road at
+Lancaster being lined with them. The scene on the road between the
+Cumberland valley and Greensburg, where there are five distinct and
+noble mountain ranges,--Tuscarora, Rays Hill, Alleghany, Laurel Hills,
+and Chestnut Ridge,--when a long train of white-topped Conestoga wagons
+appeared and wound along the mountain sides, was picturesque and
+beautiful with a charm unparalleled to-day.
+
+        "----Many a fleet of them
+    In one long upward winding row.
+    It ever was a noble sight
+    As from the distant mountain height
+        Or quiet valley far below,
+    Their snow-white covers looked like sail."
+
+There were two classes of Conestoga wagons and wagoners. The "Regulars,"
+or men who made it their constant and only business; and "Militia." A
+local poet thus describes these outfits:--
+
+    "Militia-men drove narrow treads,
+    Four horses and plain red Dutch beds,
+       And always carried grub and feed."
+
+They were farmers or common teamsters who made occasional trips, usually
+in winter time, and did some carriage for others, and drove but four
+horses with their wagons. The "Regulars" had broad tires, carried no
+feed for horses nor food for themselves, but both classes of teamsters
+carried coarse mattresses and blankets, which they spread side by side,
+and row after row, on the bar-room floor of the tavern at which they
+"put up." Their horses when unharnessed fed from long troughs hitched to
+the wagon-pole. The wagons that plied between the Delaware and the small
+city of Pittsburgh were called Pitt-teams.
+
+The life of the Conestoga wagon did not end even with the establishment
+of railroads in the Eastern states; farther and farther west it
+penetrated, ever chosen by emigrants and travellers to the frontiers;
+and at last in its old age it had an equal career of usefulness as the
+"prairie-schooner," in which vast numbers of families safely crossed the
+prairies of our far West. The white tilts of the wagons thus passed and
+repassed till our own day.
+
+Four-wheeled wagons were but little used in New England till after the
+War of 1812. Two-wheeled carts and sleds carried inland freight, which
+was chiefly transported over the snow in the winter.
+
+The Conestoga wagon of the past century was far ahead of anything in
+England at that date; indeed Mr. C. W. Ernst, the best authority I know
+on the subject, says we had in every way far better traffic facilities
+at that time than England. In other ways we excelled. Though Finlay
+found many defects in the postal service in 1773, he also found the
+Stavers mail-coach plying between Boston and Portsmouth long before
+England had such a thing. Mr. Ernst says: "The Stavers mail-coach was
+stunning; used six horses when roads were bad, and never was late. They
+had no mail-coaches in England till after the Revolution, and I believe
+Massachusetts men introduced the idea in England."
+
+We are apt to grow retrospectively sentimental over the delights,
+aesthetic and physical, of ancient stage-coach days. Those days are not
+so ancient as many fancy. The first stage-coach which ran directly from
+Philadelphia to New York in 1766--and primitive enough it was--was
+called "the flying-machine, a good stage-wagon set on springs." Its
+swift trip occupied two days in good weather. It was but a year later
+than the original stage-coach between Edinburgh and Glasgow. At that
+time, in favorable weather, the coach between London and Edinburgh made
+the trip in thirteen days. The London mail-coach in its palmiest days
+could make this trip in forty-three hours and a half. As early as 1718
+Jonathan Wardwell advertised that he would run a stage to Rhode Island.
+In 1767 a stage-coach was run during the summer months between Boston
+and Providence; in 1770 a stage-chaise started between Salem and Boston
+and a post-chaise between Boston and Portsmouth the following year. As
+early as 1732 some common-carrier lines had wagons which would carry a
+few passengers. Let us hear the testimony of some travellers as to the
+glorious pleasure of stage-coach travelling. Describing a trip between
+Boston and New York towards the end of the last century President Quincy
+of Harvard College said:--
+
+     "The carriages were old and the shackling and much of the harness
+     made of ropes. One pair of horses carried us eighteen miles. We
+     generally reached our resting-place for the night if no accident
+     intervened, at ten o'clock, and after a frugal supper went to bed,
+     with a notice that we should be called at three next morning, which
+     generally proved to be half-past two, and then, whether it snowed
+     or rained, the traveller must rise and make ready, by the help of a
+     horn-lantern and a farthing candle, and proceed on his way over bad
+     roads, sometimes getting out to help the coachman lift the coach
+     out of a quagmire or rut, and arrived in New York after a week's
+     hard travelling, wondering at the ease as well as the expedition
+     with which our journey was effected."
+
+The _Columbia Centinel_ of April 24, 1793, advertised a new line of
+"small genteel and easy stage-carriages" from Boston to New York with
+four inside passengers, and smart horses. Many of the announcements of
+the day have pictures of the coaches. They usually resemble market
+wagons with round, canvas-covered tops, and the driver is seated outside
+the body of the wagon with his feet on the foot-board. Trunks were
+small, covered with deerskin or pigskin, studded with brass nails; and
+each traveller took his trunk under his seat and feet.
+
+The poet, Moore, gives in rhyme his testimony of Virginia roads in
+1800:--
+
+    "Dear George, though every bone is aching
+            After the shaking
+    I've had this week over ruts and ridges,
+            And bridges
+    Made of a few uneasy planks,
+            In open ranks,
+    Over rivers of mud whose names alone
+    Would make knock the knees of stoutest man."
+
+The traveller Weld, in 1795, gave testimony that the bridges were so
+poor that the driver had always to stop and arrange the loose planks ere
+he dared cross, and he adds:--
+
+     "The driver frequently had to call to the passengers in the stage
+     to lean out of the carriage first on one side then on the other, to
+     prevent it from oversetting in the deep roads with which the road
+     abounds. 'Now, gentlemen, to the right,' upon which the passengers
+     all stretched their bodies half-way out of the carriage to balance
+     on that side. 'Now, gentlemen, to the left,' and so on."
+
+The coach in which this pleasure trip was taken is shown in the
+illustration entitled "American Stage-wagon." It is copied from a first
+edition of _Weld's Travels_.
+
+Ann Warder, in her journey from Philadelphia to New York in 1759, notes
+two overturned and abandoned stage-wagons at Perth Amboy; and many other
+travellers give similar testimony. In 1796 the trip from Philadelphia to
+Baltimore took five days.
+
+The growth in stage-coaches and travel came with the turnpike at the
+beginning of this century. In transportation and travel, improvement of
+roadways is ever associated with improvement of vehicles. The first
+extensive turnpike was the one between Philadelphia and Lancaster, built
+in 1792. The growth and the cost of these roads may be briefly mentioned
+by quoting a statement from the annual message of the governor of
+Pennsylvania in 1838, that that commonwealth then had two thousand five
+hundred miles of turnpikes which had cost $37,000,000.
+
+Many of these turnpikes were beautiful and splendid roads; for instance,
+the "Mohawk and Hudson Turnpike," which ran in a straight line from
+Albany to Schenectady, was ornamented and shaded with two rows of the
+quickly growing and fashionable poplar-trees and thickly punctuated with
+taverns. On one turnpike there were sixty-five taverns in sixty miles.
+The dashing stage-coach accorded well with this fine thoroughfare.
+
+With the splendid turnpikes came the glorious coaching days. In 1827 the
+Traveller's Register reported eight hundred stage-coaches arriving, and
+as many leaving Boston each week. The forty-mile road from Boston to
+Providence sometimes saw twenty coaches going each way. The editor of
+the _Providence Gazette_ wrote: "We were rattled from Boston to
+Providence in four hours and fifty minutes--if any one wants to go
+faster he may go to Kentucky and charter a streak of lightning." There
+were four rival lines on the Cumberland road,--the National, Good
+Intent, Pioneer, and June Bug. Some spirited races the old stage-road
+witnessed between the rival lines. The distance from Wheeling to
+Cumberland, one hundred and thirty-two miles, was regularly accomplished
+in twenty-four hours. No heavy luggage was carried and but nine
+passengers; fourteen coaches rolled off together--one was a mail-coach
+with a horn. Relays were every ten miles; teams were changed before the
+coach ceased rocking; one driver boasted of changing and harnessing his
+four horses in four minutes. Lady travellers were quickly thrust in the
+open door and their bandboxes after them. Scant time was there for
+refreshment, save by uncorking of bottles. The keen test and acute
+rivalry between drivers came in the delivery of the President's Message.
+Dan Gordon carried the message thirty-two miles in two hours and thirty
+minutes, changing horses three times. Bill Noble carried the message
+from Wheeling to Hagerstown, a hundred and eighty-five miles, in fifteen
+and a half hours.
+
+In 1818 the Eastern Stage Company was chartered in the state of New
+Hampshire. The route was this: a stage started from Portsmouth at 9 A.M.;
+passengers dined at Topsfield; thence through Danvers and Salem;
+back the following day, dining at Newburyport. The capital stock was
+four hundred and twenty-five shares at a hundred dollars par. In 1834
+the stock was worth two hundred dollars a share. The company owned
+several hundred horses. It was on a coach of this line that Henry Clay
+rode from Pleasant Street, Salem, to Tremont House, Boston, in exactly
+an hour; and on the route extended to Portland, Daniel Webster was
+carried at the rate of sixteen English miles an hour from Boston to
+Portland to sign the Ashburton Treaty.
+
+The middle of the century saw the beginning of the end of coaching in
+all the states that had been colonies. Further west the old stage-coach
+had to trundle in order to exist at all: Ohio, Indiana, Missouri, across
+the plains, and then over the Rocky Mountains to Salt Lake. The road
+from Carson to Plainville gave the crack ride, and the driver wore
+yellow kid gloves. The coach known as the Concord wagon, drawn by six
+horses, still makes cheerful the out-of-the-way roads of our Western
+states, and recalls the life of olden times. The story of spirited and
+gay life still exists in the Wells Fargo Express. The usefulness of the
+Concord coach is not limited to the western nor the northern portion of
+our continent; in South America it flourishes, banishing all rivals.
+
+Canal travel and transportation were proposed at the close of provincial
+days, and a few short canals were built. Benjamin Franklin was early
+awake to their practicability and value. Among the stock-owners of the
+Dismal Swamp Canal was George Washington, and he was equally interested
+in the Potomac Canal.
+
+The Erie Canal, first proposed to the New York legislature in 1768, was
+completed in 1825. There was considerable passenger travel on this canal
+at "a cent and a half a mile, a mile and a half an hour." Horace Greeley
+has given an excellent picture of this leisurely travel; it was asserted
+by some that stage-coaches were doomed by the canal-boat, but they
+continued to exist till they encountered a more formidable rival.
+
+Until turnpike days all small carriages were two-wheeled; chaises,
+chairs, and sulkies were those generally used. The chaise and harness
+used by Jonathan Trumbull--"Brother Jonathan"--are here shown. With
+regard to private conveyances, whether coaches, chaises, or chairs, the
+colonies kept close step from earliest days with the mother-countries.
+Randolph noted with envy the Boston coaches of the seventeenth century.
+Parson Thatcher was accused and reprehended in 1675 for making visits
+with a coach and four. Coaches were taxed both in England and America;
+so we know exactly how plentiful they were. There were as many in
+Massachusetts in 1750 in proportion to the number of inhabitants as
+there were in England in 1830. Judge Sewall's diary often refers to
+private coaches; and one of the most amusing scenes it depicts is his
+continued and ingenious argument when wooing Madam Winthrop for his
+third wife, when she stipulated that he should keep a coach, and his
+frugal mind disposed him not to do it.
+
+Coach-building prospered in the colonies; Lucas and Paddock in Boston,
+Ross in New York, made beautiful and rich coaches. Materials were ample
+and varied in the New World for carriage-building; horseflesh--not
+over-choice, to be sure--became over-plentiful; it was said that no man
+ever walked in America save a vagabond or a fool. A coach made for Madam
+Angelica Campbell of Schenectady, New York, by coach-builder Ross, in
+1790, is here shown. It is now owned by Mr. John D. Campbell of
+Rotterdam, New York.
+
+Sleighs were common in New York a half-century before they were in
+Boston. Madam Knights noted the fast racing in sleighs in New York when
+she was there in 1704.
+
+One other curious conveyance of colonial days should be spoken of,--a
+sedan-chair. This was a strong covered chair fastened on two bars with
+handles like a litter, and might be carried by two or four persons. When
+sedan-chairs were so much used in England, they were sure to be somewhat
+used in cities in America. One was presented to Governor Winthrop as
+early as 1646, portion of a capture from a Spanish galleon. Judge Sewall
+wrote in 1706, "Five Indians carried Mr. Bromfield in a chair." This was
+in the country, down on Cape Cod, and doubtless four Indians carried him
+while one rested. As late as 1789 Eliza Quincy saw Dr. Franklin riding
+in a sedan-chair in Philadelphia.
+
+The establishment and building of roads, bridges, and opening of inns
+show that mutual interest which marks civilization, and separates us
+from the lonely, selfish life of a savage. Soon inns were found
+everywhere in the Northern colonies. In New England, New York, and
+Pennsylvania an inn was called an ordinary, a victualling, a cook-shop,
+or a tavern before we had our modern word hotel.
+
+Board was not very high at early inns; the prices were regulated by the
+different towns. In 1633 the Salem innkeeper could only have sixpence
+for a meal. This was at the famous Anchor Tavern, which was kept as a
+hostelry for nearly two centuries. At the Ship Tavern, board, lodging,
+wine at dinner, and beer between meals cost three shillings a day. Great
+care was taken by the magistrates to choose responsible men and women to
+keep taverns, and they would not permit too many taverns in one town. At
+first the tavern-keeper could not sell sack (which was sherry), nor
+stronger intoxicating liquor to travellers, but he could sell beer,
+provided it was good, for a penny a quart. Nor could he sell cakes or
+buns except at a wedding or funeral. He could not allow games to be
+played, nor singing or dancing to take place.
+
+We know from Shakespeare's plays that the different rooms in English
+inns had names. This was also the custom in New England. The Star
+Chamber, Rose and Sun Chamber, Blue Chamber, Jerusalem Chamber, were
+some of them. Many of the taverns of Revolutionary days and some of
+colonial times are still standing. A few have even been taverns since
+first built; others have served many other uses. A well-preserved old
+house, built in 1690 in Sudbury, Massachusetts, was originally known as
+the Red Horse Tavern, but has acquired greater fame as the Wayside Inn
+of Longfellow's Tales. Its tap-room with raftered ceiling and cage-like
+bar with swinging gate is a picturesque room, and is one of the few old
+tap-rooms left unaltered in New England.
+
+Every inn had a name, usually painted on its swinging sign-board, with
+some significant emblem. These names were simply repetitions of old
+English tavern-signs until Revolutionary days, when patriotic landlords
+eagerly invented and adopted names significant of the new nation. The
+scarlet coat of King George became the blue and buff of George
+Washington; and the eagle of the United States took the place of the
+British lion.
+
+The sign-board was an interesting survival of feudal times, and with its
+old-time carved and forged companions, such as vanes and weathercocks,
+doorknockers and figureheads, formed a picturesque element of decoration
+and symbolism. Many chapters might be written on historic,
+commemorative, emblematic, heraldic, biblical, humorous, or significant
+signs, nearly all of which have vanished from public gaze, as has
+disappeared also the general incapacity to read, which made pictorial
+devices a necessity. Gilders, painter-stainers, smiths, and joiners all
+helped to make the tavern-sign a thing of varied workmanship if not of
+art. It is said that Philadelphia excelled in the quantity and quality
+of her sign-boards. With fair roads for colonial days, the best and
+amplest system of transportation, and the splendid Conestoga wagons,
+great inns multiplied throughout Pennsylvania. In Baltimore both taverns
+and signs were many and varied, from the Three Loggerheads to the Indian
+Queen with its "two hundred guest-rooms with a bell in every room," and
+the Fountain Inn built around a shady court, with galleries on every
+story, like the Tabard Inn at Southwark.
+
+The swinging sign-board of John Nash's Tavern at Amherst, Massachusetts,
+is here reproduced from the _History of Amherst_. It is a good type of
+the ordinary sign-board which was found hanging in front of every tavern
+a century ago.
+
+In Virginia and the Carolinas taverns were not so plentiful nor so
+necessary; for a traveller might ride from Maryland to Georgia, and be
+sure of a welcome at every private house on the way. Some planters,
+eager for company and news, stationed negroes at the gate to invite
+passers-by on the post-road to come into the house and be entertained.
+Berkeley, in his _History of Virginia_, wrote:--
+
+     "The inhabitants are very courteous to travellers, who need no
+     other recommendation than being human creatures. A stranger has no
+     more to do but to inquire upon the road where any gentleman or
+     good housekeeper lives, and then he may depend upon being received
+     with hospitality. This good-nature is so general among their
+     people, that the gentry, when they go abroad, order their principal
+     servants to entertain all visitors with everything the plantation
+     affords; and the poor planters who have but one bed, will often sit
+     up, or lie upon a form or couch all night, to make room for a weary
+     traveller to repose himself after his journey."
+
+So universal was this custom of free entertainment that it was a law in
+Virginia that unless there had been a distinct agreement to pay for
+board and shelter, no pay could be claimed from any guest, no matter how
+long he remained. In the few taverns that existed prices were low, about
+a shilling a dinner; and it was ordered that the meal must be wholesome
+and good.
+
+The governor of New Netherlands at first entertained all visitors to New
+Amsterdam at his house in the fort. But as commerce increased he found
+this hospitality burdensome, and a Harberg or tavern was built; it was
+later used as a city hall.
+
+In England throughout the seventeenth century, and indeed much later,
+traversing the great cities by night was a matter of some danger. The
+streets were ill-lighted, were full of holes and mud and filth, and were
+infested with thieves. Worse still, groups of drunken and dissipated
+young men of wealth, calling themselves Mohocks, Scourers, and other
+names, roamed the dark streets armed with swords and bludgeons,
+assaulting, tormenting, and injuring every one whom they met, who had
+the ill fortune to be abroad at night.
+
+There was nothing of that sort known in American cities; there was
+little noise or roistering, no highway robbery, comparatively little
+petty stealing. The streets were ill-paved and dirty, but not foul with
+the accumulated dirt of centuries as in London. The streets in nearly
+all cities were unlighted. In 1697 New Yorkers were ordered to have a
+lantern and candle hung out on a pole from every seventh house. And as
+the watchman walked around he called out, "Lanthorn, and a whole
+candell-light. Hang out your lights." The watchman was called a
+rattle-watch, and carried a long staff and a lantern and a large rattle
+or klopper, which he struck to frighten away thieves. And all night long
+he called out each hour, and told the weather. For instance, he called
+out, "Past midnight, and all's well"; "One o'clock and fair winds," or
+"Five o'clock and cloudy skies." Thus one could lie safe in bed and if
+he chanced to waken could know that the friendly rattle-watch was near
+at hand, and what was the weather and the time of night. In 1658 New
+York had in all ten watchmen, who were like our modern police; to-day it
+has many thousands.
+
+In New England the constables and watch were all carefully appointed by
+law. They carried black staves six feet long, tipped with brass, and
+hence were called tipstaves. The night watch was called a bell-man. He
+looked out for fire and thieves and other disorders, and called the time
+of the night, and the weather. The pay was small, often but a shilling a
+night, and occasionally a "coat of kersey." In large towns, as Boston
+and Salem, thirteen "sober, honest men and householders" were the night
+watch. The highest in the community, even the magistrates, took their
+turn at the watch, and were ordered to walk two together, a young man
+with "one of the soberer sort."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+SUNDAY IN THE COLONIES
+
+
+The first building used as a church at the Plymouth colony was the fort,
+and to it the Pilgrim fathers and mothers and children walked on Sunday
+reverently and gravely, three in a row, the men fully armed with swords
+and guns, till they built a meeting-house in 1648. In other New England
+settlements, the first services were held in tents, under trees, or
+under any shelter. The settler who had a roomy house often had also the
+meeting. The first Boston meeting-house had mud walls, a thatched roof,
+and earthen floor. It was used till 1640, and some very thrilling and
+inspiring scenes were enacted within its humble walls. Usually the
+earliest meeting-houses were log houses, with clay-filled chinks, and
+roofs thatched with reeds and long grass, like the dwelling-houses. At
+Salem is still preserved one of the early churches. The second and more
+dignified form of New England meeting-house was usually a square wooden
+building with a truncated pyramidal roof, surmounted often with a
+belfry, which served as a lookout station and held a bell, from which
+the bell-rope hung down to the floor in the centre of the church aisle.
+The old church at Hingham, Massachusetts, still standing and still used,
+is a good specimen of this shape. It was built in 1681, and is known as
+the "Old Ship," and is a comely and dignified building. As more elegant
+and costly dwelling-houses were built, so were better meeting-houses;
+and the third form with lofty wooden steeple at one end, in the style
+of architecture invented by Sir Christopher Wren, after the great fire
+of London, multiplied and increased until every town was graced with an
+example. In all these the main body of the edifice remained as bare,
+prosaic, and undecorated as were the preceding churches, while all the
+ambition of both builders and congregation spent itself in the steeple.
+These were so varied and at times so beautiful that a chapter might be
+written on New England steeples. The Old South Church of Boston is a
+good example of this school of ecclesiastical architecture, and is a
+well-known historic building as well.
+
+The earliest meeting-houses had oiled paper in the windows, and when
+glass came it was not set with putty, but was nailed in. The windows had
+what were termed "heavy current side-shutters." The outside of the
+meeting-house was not "colored," or "stained" as it was then termed, but
+was left to turn gray and weather-stained, and sometimes moss-covered
+with the dampness of the great shadowing hemlock and fir trees which
+were usually planted around New England churches. The first
+meeting-houses were often decorated in a very singular and grotesque
+manner. Rewards were paid by all the early towns for killing wolves; and
+any person who killed a wolf brought the head to the meeting-house and
+nailed it to the outer wall; the fierce grinning heads and splashes of
+blood made a grim and horrible decoration. All kinds of notices were
+also nailed to the meeting-house door where all of the congregation
+might readily see them,--notices of town-meetings, of sales of cattle or
+farms, lists of town-officers, prohibitions from selling guns to the
+Indians, notices of intended marriages, vendues, etc. It was the only
+meeting-place, the only method of advertisement. In front of the church
+was usually a row of stepping-stones or horse-blocks, for nearly all
+came on horseback; and often on the meeting-house green stood the
+stocks, pillory, and whipping-post.
+
+A verse from an old-fashioned hymn reads thus:
+
+    "New England's Sabbath day
+      Is heaven-like, still, and pure,
+    When Israel walks the way
+      Up to the temple's door.
+    The time we tell
+      When there to come,
+      By beat of drum,
+    Or sounding shell."
+
+The first church at Jamestown, Virginia, gathered the congregation by
+beat of drum; but while attendants of the Episcopal, Roman Catholic,
+and Dutch Reformed churches in the New World were in general being
+summoned to divine service by the ringing of a bell hung either over the
+church or in the branches of a tree by its side, New England Puritans
+were summoned, as the hymn relates, by drum, or horn, or shell. The
+shell was a great conch-shell, and a man was hired to blow it--a
+mournful sound--at the proper time, which was usually nine o'clock in
+the morning. In Stockbridge, Massachusetts, the church-shell was
+afterwards used for many years as a signal to begin and stop work in the
+haying field. In Windsor, Connecticut, a man walked up and down on a
+platform on the top of the meeting-house and blew a trumpet to summon
+worshippers. Many churches had a church drummer, who stood on the roof
+or in the belfry and drummed; a few raised a flag as a summons, or fired
+a gun.
+
+Within the meeting-house all was simple enough: raftered walls, puncheon
+and sanded or earthen floors, rows of benches, a few pews, all of
+unpainted wood, and a pulpit which was usually a high desk overhung by a
+heavy sounding-board, which was fastened to the roof by a slender metal
+rod. The pulpit was sometimes called a scaffold. When pews were built
+they were square, with high partition walls, and had narrow,
+uncomfortable seats round three sides. The word was always spelled
+"pue"; and they were sometimes called "pits." A little girl in the
+middle of this century attended a service in an old church which still
+retained the old-fashioned square pews; she exclaimed, in a loud voice,
+"What! must I be shut in a closet and sit on a shelf?" These narrow,
+shelf-like seats were usually hung on hinges and could be turned up
+against the pew-walls during the long psalm-tunes and prayers; so the
+members of the congregation could lean against the pew-walls for support
+as they stood. When the seats were let down, they fell with a heavy slam
+that could be heard half a mile away in the summer time, when the
+windows of the meeting-house were open. Lines from an old poem read:--
+
+    "And when at last the loud Amen
+    Fell from aloft, how quickly then
+    The seats came down with heavy rattle,
+    Like musketry in fiercest battle."
+
+A few of the old-time meeting-houses, with high pulpit, square pews, and
+deacons' seats, still remain in New England. The interior of the Rocky
+Hill meeting-house at Salisbury, Massachusetts, is here shown. It fully
+illustrates the words of the poet:--
+
+    "Old house of Puritanic wood
+      Through whose unpainted windows streamed
+    On seats as primitive and rude
+      As Jacob's pillow when he dreamed,
+    The white and undiluted day--"
+
+The seats were carefully and thoughtfully assigned by a church committee
+called the Seating Committee, the best seats being given to older
+persons of wealth and dignity who attended the church. Whittier wrote of
+this custom:--
+
+    "In the goodly house of worship, where in order due and fit,
+    As by public vote directed, classed and ranked the people sit.
+    Mistress first and good wife after, clerkly squire before the clown,
+    From the brave coat lace-embroidered to the gray coat shading down."
+
+Many of the plans for "seating the meeting-house" have been preserved;
+the pews and their assigned occupants are clearly designated. A copy is
+shown of one now in Deerfield Memorial Hall.
+
+In the early meeting-houses men and women sat on separate sides of the
+meeting-house, as in Quaker meetings till our own time. Sometimes a
+group of young women or of young men were permitted to sit in the
+gallery together. Little girls sat beside their mothers or on footstools
+at their feet, or sometimes on the gallery stairs; and I have heard of a
+little cage or frame to hold Puritan babies in meeting. Boys did not sit
+with their families, but were in groups by themselves, usually on the
+pulpit and gallery stairs, where tithing-men watched over them. In
+Salem, in 1676, it was ordered by the town that "all ye boyes of ye
+towne are appointed to sitt upon ye three paire of stairs in ye
+meeting-house, and Wm. Lord is appointed to look after ye boys upon ye
+pulpitt stairs."
+
+In Stratford the tithing-man was ordered to "watch over youths of
+disorderly carriage, and see they behave themselves comelie, and use
+such raps and blows as is in his discretion meet." In Durham any
+misbehaving boy was punished publicly after the service was over. We
+would nowadays scarcely seat twenty or thirty active boys together in
+church if we wished them to be models of attention and dignified
+behavior; but after the boys' seats were removed from the pulpit stairs
+they were all turned in together in a "boys' pew" in the gallery. There
+was a boys' pew in Windsor, Connecticut, as late as 1845, and pretty
+noisy it usually was. A certain small boy in Connecticut misbehaved
+himself on Sunday, and his wickedness was specified by the justice of
+peace as follows:--
+
+     "A Rude and Idel Behaver in the meeting hous. Such as Smiling and
+     Larfing and Intiseing others to the Same Evil. Such as Larfing or
+     Smiling or puling the hair of his nayber Benoni Simkins in the time
+     of Publick Worship. Such as throwing Sister Penticost Perkins on
+     the Ice, it being Saboth day, between the meeting hous and his
+     plaes of abode."
+
+I can picture well the wicked scene; poor, meek little Benoni Simpkins
+trying to behave well in meeting, and not cry out when the young "wanton
+gospeller" pulled her hair, and unfortunate Sister Perkins tripped up on
+the ice by the young rascal.
+
+Another vain youth in Andover, Massachusetts, was brought up before the
+magistrate, and it was charged that he "sported and played, and by
+Indecent gestures and wry faces caused laughter and misbehavior in the
+beholders." The girls were just as wicked; they slammed down the
+pew-seats. Tabatha Morgus of Norwich "prophaned the Lord's daye" by her
+"rude and indecent behavior in Laughing and playing in ye tyme of
+service." On Long Island godless boys "ran raesses" on the Sabbath and
+"talked of vane things," and as for Albany children, they played hookey
+and coasted down hill on Sunday to the scandal of every one evidently,
+except their parents. When the boys were separated and families sat in
+pews together, all became orderly in meeting.
+
+The deacons sat in a "Deacons' Pue" just in front of the pulpit;
+sometimes also there was a "Deaf Pue" in front for those who were hard
+of hearing. After choirs were established the singers' seats were
+usually in the gallery; and high up under the beams in a loft sat the
+negroes and Indians.
+
+If any person seated himself in any place which was not assigned to him,
+he had to pay a fine, usually of several shillings, for each offence.
+But in old Newbury men were fined as high as twenty-seven pounds each
+for persistent and unruly sitting in seats belonging to other members.
+
+The churches were all unheated. Few had stoves until the middle of this
+century. The chill of the damp buildings, never heated from autumn to
+spring, and closed and dark throughout the week, was hard for every one
+to bear. In some of the early log-built meeting-houses, fur bags made of
+wolfskins were nailed to the seats; and in winter church attendants
+thrust their feet into them. Dogs, too, were permitted to enter the
+meeting-house and lie on their masters' feet. Dog-whippers or
+dog-pelters were appointed to control and expel them when they became
+unruly or unbearable. Women and children usually carried foot-stoves,
+which were little pierced metal boxes that stood on wooden legs, and
+held hot coals. During the noon intermission the half-frozen church
+attendants went to a neighboring house or tavern, or to a noon-house to
+get warm. A noon-house or "Sabba-day house," as it was often called, was
+a long low building built near the meeting-house, with horse-stalls at
+one end and a chimney at the other. In it the farmers kept, says one
+church record, "their duds and horses." A great fire of logs was built
+there each Sunday, and before its cheerful blaze noonday luncheons of
+brown bread, doughnuts, or gingerbread were eaten, and foot-stoves were
+filled. Boys and girls were not permitted to indulge in idle talk in
+those noon-houses, much less to play. Often two or three families built
+a noon-house together, or the church built a "Society-house," and there
+the children had a sermon read to them by a deacon during the "nooning";
+sometimes the children had to explain aloud the notes they had taken
+during the sermon in the morning. Thus they throve, as a minister wrote,
+on the "Good Fare of brown Bread and the Gospel." There was no nearer
+approach to a Sunday-school until this century.
+
+The services were not shortened because the churches were uncomfortable.
+By the side of the pulpit stood a brass-bound hour-glass which was
+turned by the tithing-man or clerk, but it did not hasten the closing of
+the sermon. Sermons two or three hours long were customary, and prayers
+from one to two hours in length. When the first church in Woburn was
+dedicated, the minister preached a sermon nearly five hours long. A
+Dutch traveller recorded a prayer four hours long on a Fast Day. Many
+prayers were two hours long. The doors were closed and watched by the
+tithing-man, and none could leave even if tired or restless unless with
+good excuse. The singing of the psalms was tedious and unmusical, just
+as it was in churches of all denominations both in America and England
+at that date. Singing was by ear and very uncertain, and the
+congregation had no notes, and many had no psalm-books, and hence no
+words. So the psalms were "lined" or "deaconed"; that is, a line was
+read by the deacon, and then sung by the congregation. Some psalms when
+lined and sung occupied half an hour, during which the congregation
+stood. There were but eight or nine tunes in general use, and even these
+were often sung incorrectly. There were no church organs to help keep
+the singers together, but sometimes pitch-pipes were used to set the
+key. Bass-viols, clarionets, and flutes were played upon at a later date
+in meeting to help the singing. Violins were too associated with dance
+music to be thought decorous for church music. Still the New England
+churches clung to and loved their poor confused psalm-singing as one of
+their few delights, and whenever a Puritan, even in road or field, heard
+the distant sound of a psalm-tune he removed his hat and bowed his head
+in prayer.
+
+Contributions at first were not collected by the deacons, but the entire
+congregation, one after another, walked up to the deacons' seat and
+placed gifts of money, goods, wampum, or promissory notes in a box. When
+the services were ended, all remained in the pews until the minister and
+his wife had walked up the aisle and out of the church.
+
+The strict observance of Sunday as a holy day was one of the
+characteristics of the Puritans. Any profanation of the day was
+severely punished by fine or whipping. Citizens were forbidden to fish,
+shoot, sail, row, dance, jump, or ride, save to and from church, or to
+perform any work on the farm. An infinite number of examples might be
+given to show how rigidly the laws were enforced. The use of tobacco was
+forbidden near the meeting-house. These laws were held to extend from
+sunset on Saturday to sunset on Sunday; for in the first instructions
+given to Governor Endicott by the company in England, it was ordered
+that all in the colony cease work at three o'clock in the afternoon on
+Saturday. The Puritans found support of this belief in the Scriptural
+words, "The evening and the morning were the first day."
+
+A Sabbath day in the family of Rev. John Cotton was thus described by
+one of his fellow-ministers:--
+
+     "He began the Sabbath at evening, therefore then performed family
+     duty after supper, being longer than ordinary in exposition. After
+     which he catechized his children and servants, and then returned to
+     his study. The morning following, family worship being ended, he
+     retired into his study until the bell called him away. Upon his
+     return from meeting (where he had preached and prayed some hours),
+     he returned again into his study (the place of his labor and
+     prayer), unto his favorite devotion; where having a small repast
+     carried him up for his dinner, he continued until the tolling of
+     the bell. The public service of the afternoon being over, he
+     withdrew for a space to his pre-mentioned oratory for his sacred
+     addresses to God, as in the forenoon, then came down, repeated the
+     sermon in the family, prayed, after supper sang a Psalm, and toward
+     bedtime betaking himself again to his study he closed the day with
+     prayer. Thus he spent the Sabbath continually."
+
+The Virginia Cavaliers were strict Church of England men and the first
+who came to the colony were strict Sunday-keepers. Rules were laid down
+to enforce Sunday observance. Journeys were forbidden, boat-lading was
+prohibited, also all profanation of the day by sports, such as shooting,
+fishing, game-playing, etc. The offender who broke the Sabbath laws had
+to pay a fine and be set in the stocks. When that sturdy watch-dog of
+religion and government--Sir Thomas Dale--came over, he declared absence
+from church should be punishable by death; but this severity never was
+executed. The captain of the watch was made to play the same part as the
+New England tithing-man. Every Sunday, half an hour before service-time,
+at the last tolling of the bell, the captain stationed sentinels, then
+searched all the houses and commanded and forced all (except the sick)
+to go to church. Then, when all were driven churchwards before him, he
+went with his guards to church himself.
+
+Captain John Smith, in his _Pathway to erect a Plantation_, thus vividly
+described the first places of divine worship in Virginia:--
+
+     "Wee did hang an awning, which is an old saile, to three or foure
+     trees to shadow us from the Sunne; our walls were railes of wood;
+     our seats unhewed trees till we cut plankes; our Pulpit a bar of
+     wood nailed to two neighbouring trees. In foul weather we shifted
+     into an old rotten tent; this came by way of adventure for new.
+     This was our Church till we built a homely thing like a barne set
+     upon Cratchets, covered with rafts, sedge, and earth; so also was
+     the walls; the best of our houses were of like curiosity, that
+     could neither well defend from wind nor rain.
+
+     "Yet we had daily Common Prayer morning and evening; every Sunday
+     two sermons; and every three months a holy Communion till our
+     Minister died: but our Prayers daily with an Homily on Sundays we
+     continued two or three years after, till more Preachers came."
+
+A timber church sixty feet long took the place of this mud and clay
+chapel, and this was in turn replaced by the brick one whose ruined
+arches are still standing. The wooden church saw the most pompous
+ceremony of the day when the governor, De La Warre, or Delaware as we
+now call it, in full dress, attended by all his councillors and officers
+and fifty halbert-bearers in scarlet cloaks, filed within its
+flower-decked walls.
+
+This decoration of flowers was significant of the difference between the
+church edifices of the Puritans and of the Cavaliers. The churches of
+the Southern colonies were, as a rule, much more richly furnished. Many
+were modelled in shape after the old English churches and were built of
+stone, though Jonathan Boucher, the colonial clergyman, could write that
+the greater number of the Southern churches were, at the time of the
+Revolution, "composed of wood, without spires, or towers or steeples or
+bells, placed in retired and solitary spots and contiguous to springs or
+wells." Many of the churches and the chapels-of-ease stood by the
+waterside, and to the services came the church attendants in canoes,
+periaugers, dugouts, etc. It made an animated scene upon the water, as
+the boats came rowing in and as they departed after the service.
+
+Sometimes the seats were comfortably cushioned, and they were carefully
+assigned as in the Puritan meetings. In some Virginia churches seats in
+the galleries were deemed the most dignified. There was a pew for the
+magistrates, another for the magistrates' ladies; pews for the
+representatives and church-wardens, vestrymen, etc. Persons crowded into
+pews above their stations, just as in New England, and were promptly
+displaced. Groups of men built pews together, and there were schoolboys'
+galleries and pews.
+
+The first clergyman in Virginia, Robert Hunt, a true man of God, came as
+a missionary, and he and others were men of marked intellect and
+religion, but in the eighteenth century the pay was too small and
+uncertain to attract any great men from the Church of England, and
+church attendance dwindled and became irregular. For in Virginia the
+parish was expected to receive any clergyman sent them from England, a
+rule which often proved unsatisfactory; and deservedly so, since some
+very disreputable offshoots of English families were thrust upon the
+Virginia churches. In the Carolinas, where the church chose its own
+clergyman, harmony and affection prevailed in the parishes as it did
+among the New England Puritans. Though the Virginians did not always
+love their clergymen, still they were ever steadfast in their affection
+to their church, and regarded it as the only church.
+
+Sunday was not observed with as much rigidity in New Netherland as in
+New England, but strict rules and laws were made for enforcing quiet
+during service-time. Fishing, gathering berries or nuts, playing in the
+streets, working, going on pleasure trips, all were forbidden. On Long
+Island shooting of wild fowl, carting of grain, travelling for pleasure,
+all were punished. In Revolutionary times a cage was set up in City Hall
+Park, near the present New York Post-office, in which boys were confined
+who did not properly regard the Sabbath.
+
+Before the Dutch settlers had any churches or domines, as they called
+their ministers, they had _krankbesoeckers_, or visitors of the sick,
+who read sermons to an assembled congregation every Sunday. The first
+church at Albany was much like the Plymouth fort, simply a blockhouse
+with loop-holes through which guns could be fired. The roof was mounted
+with three cannon. It had a seat for the magistrates and one for the
+deacons, and a handsome octagonal pulpit which had been sent from
+Holland, and which still exists. The edifice had a chandelier and candle
+sconces and two low galleries. The first church in New Amsterdam was of
+stone, and was seventy-two feet long.
+
+A favorite form of the Dutch churches was six or eight sided, with a
+high pyramidal roof, topped with a belfry and a weather-vane. Usually
+the windows were so small and of glass so opaque that the church was
+very dark. A few of the churches were poorly heated with high stoves
+perched up on pillars, the Albany and Schenectady churches among them,
+but all the women carried foot-stoves, and some of the men carried
+muffs.
+
+Almost as important as the domine was the _voorleezer_ or chorister, who
+was also generally the bell-ringer, sexton, grave-digger, funeral
+inviter, schoolmaster, and sometimes town clerk. He "tuned the psalm";
+turned the hour-glass; gave out the psalms on a hanging board to the
+congregation; read the Bible; gave up notices to the domine by sticking
+the papers in the end of a cleft stick and holding it up to the high
+pulpit.
+
+The deacons had control of all the church money. In the middle of the
+sermon they collected contributions by passing _sacjes_. These were
+small cloth or velvet bags hung on the end of a pole six or eight feet
+long. A French traveller told that the Dutch deacons passed round "the
+old square hat of the preacher" on the end of a stick for the
+contributions. Usually there was a little bell on the _sacje_ which rung
+when a coin was dropped in.
+
+In many Dutch churches the men sat in a row of pews around the wall
+while the women were seated on chairs in the centre of the church. There
+were also a few benches or pews for persons of special dignity, or for
+the minister's wife.
+
+There were many other colonists of other religious faiths: the Roman
+Catholics in Maryland and the extreme Southern colonies; the Quakers in
+Pennsylvania; the Baptists in Rhode Island; the Huguenots, Lutherans,
+Moravians; but all enjoined an orderly observance of the Sabbath day.
+And it may be counted as one of the great blessings of the settlement of
+America, one of the most ennobling conditions of its colonization, that
+it was made at a time when the deepest religious feeling prevailed
+throughout Europe, when devotion to some religion was found in every
+one, when the Bible was a newly found and deeply loved treasure; when
+the very differences of religious belief and the formation of new sects
+made each cling more lovingly and more earnestly to his own faith.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+COLONIAL NEIGHBORLINESS
+
+
+If the first foundation of New England's strength and growth was
+godliness, its next was neighborliness, and a firm rock it proved to
+build upon. It may seem anomalous to assert that while there was in
+olden times infinitely greater independence in each household than at
+present, yet there was also greater interdependence with surrounding
+households.
+
+It is curious to see how completely social ethics and relations have
+changed since olden days. Aid in our families in times of stress and
+need is not given to us now by kindly neighbors as of yore; we have
+well-arranged systems by which we can buy all that assistance, and pay
+for it, not with affectionate regard, but with current coin. The
+colonist turned to any and all who lived around him, and never turned in
+vain for help in sickness, or at the time of death of members of his
+household; for friendly advice; for culinary aids to a halting appetite;
+for the preparation for feasting an exceptional number of persons; in
+short, in any unusual emergency, as well as in frequent every-day
+cooeperation in log-rolling, stone-piling, stump-pulling, wall-building,
+house-raising, etc.,--all the hard and exhausting labor on the farm.
+
+The word "cooeperation" is modern, but the thing itself is as old as
+civilization. In a new country where there was much work to be done
+which one man or one family could not do, under the mechanical
+conditions which then existed, a working together, or union of labor was
+necessary for progress, indeed, almost for obtaining a foothold.
+
+The term "log-rolling" is frequently employed in its metaphorical sense
+in politics, both by English and American writers who have vague
+knowledge of the original meaning of the word. A log-rolling in early
+pioneer days, in the Northern colonies and in western Virginia and the
+central states, was a noble example of generous cooeperation, where each
+gave of his best--his time, strength, and good will; and where all
+worked to clear the ground in the forest for a home-farm for a neighbor
+who might be newly come and an entire stranger, but who in turn would
+just as cheerfully and energetically give his work for others when it
+was needed.
+
+With the vanishing of the log-rolling, and a score of similar kindly
+usages and customs, has gone from our communities all traces of the
+old-time exalted type of neighborliness. We nowadays have generalized
+our sentiments; we have more philanthropy and less neighborliness; we
+have more love for mankind and less for men. We are independent of our
+neighbors, but infinitely more dependent on the world at large. The
+personal element has been removed to a large extent from our social
+ethics. We buy nursing and catering just as we hire our houses built and
+buy our corn ready ground. Doubtless everything we buy is infinitely
+better; nevertheless, our loss in affectionate zeal is great.
+
+The plantation was the unit in Virginia; in New England it was the town.
+The neighborly helpfulness of the New England settlers extended from
+small to great matters; it formed communal privileges and entered into
+every department of town life. For instance, the town of Gloucester in
+1663 granted a right to a citizen for running a small sawmill for
+twenty-one years. In return for this right the grantee was to sell
+boards to Gloucester men at "one shilling per hundred better cheape than
+to strangers"--and was to receive pay "raised in the towne." Saco and
+Biddeford, in Maine, ordered that fellow-townsmen should have preference
+in every employment. Other towns ordered certain persons to buy
+provisions "of the towns-men in preference." Reading would not sell any
+of its felled timber out of the town. Thus the social compact called a
+town extended itself also into all the small doings of daily life, and
+the mutual helpfulness made mutual interests that proved no small
+element of the force which bound all together in 1776 in a successful
+struggle for independence.
+
+In outlying settlements and districts this feeling of mutual dependence
+and assistance was strong enough to give a name which sometimes lingered
+long. "The Loomis Neighborhood," "The Mason Neighborhood," "The Robinson
+Neighborhood" were names distinctive for half a century, and far more
+distinguishing and individual than the Greenville, Masontown, and
+Longwood that succeeded them.
+
+There was one curious and contradictory aspect of this neighborliness,
+this kindliness, this thought for mutual welfare, and that was its
+narrowness, especially in New England, as regards the limitations of
+space and locality. It is impossible to judge what caused this restraint
+of vision, but it is certain that in generality and almost in
+universality, just as soon as any group of settlers could call
+themselves a town, these colonists' notions of kindliness and
+thoughtfulness for others became distinctly and rigidly limited to their
+own townspeople. The town was their whole world. Without doubt this was
+partly the result of the lack of travelling facilities and ample
+communication, which made townships far more separated and remote from
+each other than states are to-day, and made difficult the possibility of
+speedy or full knowledge of strangers.
+
+This caused a constant suspicion of all newcomers, especially those who
+chanced to enter with scant introduction, and made universal a custom of
+"warning out" all strangers who arrived in any town. This formality was
+gone through with by the sheriff or tithing-man. Thereafter should the
+warned ones prove incapable or unsuccessful or vicious, they could not
+become a charge upon the town, but could be returned whence they came
+with despatch and violence if necessary. By this means, and by various
+attempts to restrict the powers of citizens to sell property to
+newcomers, the town kept a jealous watch over the right of entry into
+the corporation.
+
+Dorchester in 1634 enacted that "no man within the Plantation shall sell
+his house or lott to any man without the Plantation whome they shall
+dislike off." Providence would not permit a proprietor to sell to any
+"but to an Inhabitant" without consent of the town. New Haven would
+neither sell nor let ground to a stranger. Hadley would sell no land to
+any until after three years' occupation, and then only with approval of
+the "Town's Mind." In 1637 the General Court very reasonably questioned
+whether towns could legally restrain individuals from disposal of their
+own property, but the custom was so established, so in touch with the
+narrow exclusiveness of the colonists, that it still prevailed. The
+expression of the town of Watertown when it would sell lots only to
+freemen of the congregation, because it wished no strange neighbors, but
+only "to sitt down there close togither," was the sentiment of all the
+towns. One John Stebbins, who had twice served as a soldier of Watertown
+and lived there seven years, could not get a town lot.
+
+The legal process of warning out of town had an element of the absurd in
+it, and in one case that of mystery, namely: a sheriff appeared before
+the woebegone intruder, and said, half laughing, "I warn you off the
+face of the earth." "Let me get my hat before I go," stammered the
+terrified wanderer, who ran into the house for his hat and was never
+seen by any mortal eye in that town afterwards. It has become a
+tradition of local folk-lore that he literally vanished from the earth
+at the command of the officer of the law.
+
+The harboring of strangers, even of relatives who were not local
+residents, was a frequent source of bickering between citizens and
+magistrates, as well as a constant cause of arbitration between towns. A
+widow in Dorchester was not permitted to entertain her own son-in-law
+from another town, and her neighbor was fined in 1671 "under distress"
+for housing his own daughter. She was a married woman, and alleged she
+could not return to her husband on account of the inclement weather.
+
+As time passed on and immigration continued, freemen clung closely to
+their right to keep out strangers and outsiders. From the Boston Town
+Records of 1714 we find citizens still prohibited from entertaining a
+stranger without giving notice to the town authorities, and a
+description of the stranger and his circumstances. Boston required that
+all coming from Ireland should be registered "lest they become
+chargeable." Warnings and whippings out of town still continued. All
+this was so contrary to the methods of colonies in other countries, such
+as the Barbadoes, Honduras, etc., where extraordinary privileges were
+offered settlers, free and large grants of land, absolvment from past
+debts, etc., that it makes an early example of the curious absorbing and
+assimilating power of American nationality, which ever grew and grew
+even against such clogs and hampering restrictions.
+
+In the Southern colonies the same kindliness existed as in the North,
+but the conditions differed. John Hammond, of Virginia, wrote in 1656,
+in his _Leah and Rachel_:--
+
+     "The Country is not only plentifull, but pleasant and profitable,
+     pleasant in regard of the extraordinary good neighbourhood and
+     loving conversation they have one with another.
+
+     "The inhabitants are generally affable, courteous, and very
+     assistant to Strangers (for what but plenty makes hospitality and
+     good neighbourhood) and no sooner are they settled, but they will
+     be visiting, presenting and advising the strangers how to improve
+     what they have, how to better their way of livelihood."
+
+In summer when fresh meat was killed, the neighbors shared the luxury,
+and in turn gave of their slaughter. Hammond adds:--
+
+     "If any fall sick and cannot compass to follow his crops which
+     would soon be lost, the adjoining neighbour, or upon request more
+     joyn together and work it by spells, until he recovers; and that
+     gratis, so that no man may by sickness loose any part of his year's
+     work.
+
+     "Let any travell, it is without charge and at every house is
+     entertainment as in a hostelry."
+
+It was the same in the Carolinas. Ramsay, the early historian of South
+Carolina, said that hospitality was such a virtue that innkeepers
+complained that their business was not worth carrying on. The doors of
+citizens were open to all decent travellers, and shut to none.
+
+The plantations were in many counties too far apart for any cooeperative
+labor, and the planters were not men of such vast strength or so great
+personal industry, even in their own affairs, as were the Yankees. There
+were slaves on each plantation to do all the hard work of lifting, etc.
+But in out-of-the-way settlements the Virginia planters' kindliness was
+shown in a vast and unbounded hospitality, a hospitality so insatiable
+that it watched for and waylaid travellers to expend a welcome and
+lavish attentions upon. Negroes were stationed at the planter's gate
+where it opened on the post-road or turnpike, to hail travellers and
+assure them of a hearty welcome at the "big house up yonder." One writer
+says of the planters:--
+
+     "Their manner of living is most generous and open: strangers are
+     sought after with Greediness to be invited."
+
+The _London Magazine_ of the year 1743 published a series of papers
+entitled _Itinerant Observations in America_. It was written with a
+spirited pen which thus pleasantly describes simple Maryland
+hospitality, not of men of vast wealth but of very poor folk:--
+
+     "With the meaner Sort you find little else to drink but Water
+     amongst them when their Cyder is spent, but the Water is presented
+     you by one of the barefooted Family in a copious Calabash, with an
+     innocent Strain of good Breeding and Heartiness, the Cake baking on
+     the Hearth, and the prodigious Cleanliness of everything around you
+     must needs put you in Mind of the Golden Age, the Times of ancient
+     Frugality and Purity. All over the Colony a universal Hospitality
+     reigns, full Tables and open Doors; the kind Salute, the generous
+     Detention speak somewhat like the roast-Beef Ages of our
+     Forefathers."
+
+There came a time when this Southern hospitality became burdensome. With
+the exhaustion of the soil and competition in tobacco-raising, the great
+wealth of the Virginians was gone. But visitors did not cease; in fact,
+they increased. The generous welcome offered to kinsmen, friends, and
+occasional travellers was sought by curiosity-hunters and tourists who
+wanted to save a tavern-bill. Nothing could be more pathetic than the
+impoverishment of Thomas Jefferson through these impositions. Times and
+conditions had changed, but Jefferson felt bound in honor to himself and
+his state to keep the same open hand and ready welcome as of yore. His
+overseer describes his own hopeless efforts to keep these travelling
+friends and admirers from eating his master out of house and home:--
+
+     "They were there all times of the year; but about the middle of
+     June the travel would commence from the lower part of the State to
+     the Springs, and then there was a perfect throng of visitors. They
+     travelled in their own carriages and came in gangs, the whole
+     family with carriage and riding horses and servants, sometimes
+     three or four such gangs at a time. We had thirty-six stalls for
+     horses and only used ten of them for the stock we kept there. Very
+     often all the rest were full, and I had to send horses off to
+     another place. I have often sent a wagon-load of hay up to the
+     stable, and the next morning there would not be enough left to make
+     a bird's nest. I have killed a fine beef, and it would all be eaten
+     up in a day or two."
+
+The final extinction of old-time hospitality in Virginia came not from a
+death of hospitable intent, but from an entire vanishing of the means to
+furnish entertainment. And the Civil War drove away even the lingering
+ghost.
+
+Many general customs existed in the early colonies which were simply
+exemplifications of neighborliness put in legal form. Such were the
+systems of common lands and herding. This was an old Aryan custom which
+existed many centuries ago, and has ever been one of the best ways of
+uniting any settlement of people, especially a new settlement; for it
+makes the interest of one the interest of all, and promotes union rather
+than selfishness. Common lands were set off and common herds existed in
+many of the Northern colonies; cowherds or "cow-keeps" were appointed
+and paid by the town to care throughout the summer for all the cattle
+owned by the inhabitants. This was an intelligent provision; for it
+saved much work of individuals during the months when farmers had so
+much hard work to do, and so short a time to do it in. In Albany and New
+York the cowherd and "a chosen proper youngster"--in other words, a
+good, steady boy--went through the town at sunrise sounding a horn,
+which the cattle heard and knew; and they quickly followed him to green
+pastures outside the town. There they lingered till nearly sunset, when
+they were brought home to the church, and the owners were again warned
+by the horn of the safe return of their cattle, and that it was milking
+time. Sometimes the cowherd received part of his pay in butter or
+cheese. In Cambridge, Massachusetts, Cowherd Rice, in 1635, agreed to
+take charge of one hundred cows for three months for ten pounds. The
+town also paid two men or boys to help him the first two weeks, and one
+man a week longer; he kept the cows alone after that, for the
+intelligent cattle had fallen into habits of order and obedience to his
+horn. He had to pay threepence fine each time he failed to bring in all
+the cattle at night.
+
+On Long Island and in Connecticut there were cowherds, calf-keepers, and
+pound-keepers. The calf-keepers' duties were to keep the calves away
+from the cows, water them, protect them, etc. In Virginia and Maryland
+there were cow-pens in early days, and cowherds; but in the South the
+cattle generally roamed wild through the forests, and were known to
+their owners by earmarks. In all communities earmarks and other brands
+of ownership on cattle, horses, sheep, and swine were very important,
+and rigidly regarded where so much value was kept in domestic cattle.
+These earmarks were registered by the town clerk in the town records,
+and were usually described both in words and rude drawings. One of my
+great-great-grandfather's earmarks for his cows was a "swallow-fork slit
+in both ears"; another was a slit under the ear and a "half-penny mark
+on the foreside of the near ear." This custom of herding cattle in
+common lasted in some out-of-the-way places to this century, and even
+lingered long in large cities such as Boston, where cows were allowed to
+feed on Boston Common till about 1840. In Philadelphia until the year
+1795 a cowherd stood every morning at the corner of Dock and Second
+streets, blew his horn, tramped off to a distant pasture followed by all
+the cows of his neighborhood, who had run out to him as soon as they
+heard the familiar sound. He led them back to the same place at night,
+when each returned alone to her own home.
+
+Sheep-herds or shepherds in colonial days also took charge of the sheep
+of many owners in herd-walks, or ranges, by day, and by night in
+sheep-folds built with fences and gates.
+
+Fence-viewers were men who were appointed by the town for common benefit
+to take charge of building and keeping in repair the fences that
+surrounded the "great lotts" or commons; that is, the enclosed fields
+which were the common property of each town, in which all farmers living
+near could place their cattle. The fence-viewers saw that each man
+worked a certain amount each year on these "pales" as the fences were
+called, or paid his share for the work of others. Each farmer or
+cow-owner usually built about twenty feet of fence for each cow which he
+pastured in the "great lotts." The fence-viewers also examined the
+condition of fences around private lands; noted breaks and ordered
+repairs. For if cattle broke through a poorly made fence, and did damage
+to crops, the fence-owner had to stand the loss, while if the fences
+were good and strong, proving the cattle unruly and destructive, the
+owner of the cattle had to pay. All the colonies were watchful over the
+safe-keeping of fences. In 1659 the Dutch rulers of New Amsterdam (now
+New York) ordered that for "stripping fences of rails and posts" the
+offender should be whipped and branded, and for a second offence he
+could be punished by death. This seems cruelly severe, but that year
+there was a great scarcity of grain and other food, and if the fences
+were pulled down, cattle could get into fields and eat up the growing
+crops, and famine and death might result.
+
+Sometimes a common field was fenced in and planted with Indian corn. In
+this case the fence served to keep the cattle out, not in. This was
+always the case in Virginia.
+
+Hay-wards were, as the name indicates, men to keep watchful care over
+the growing hay. For instance, in Hadley, Massachusetts, in 1661,
+Goodman Montague was chosen hay-ward by the town. He was to have
+twelvepence for each cow or hog, two shillings for each horse, and
+twenty pence for each twenty sheep that he found loose in any field or
+meadow, and successfully turned out. The owner of the animal was to pay
+the fine. At a later date these hay-wards were called field-drivers.
+They are still appointed in many towns and cities, among them Boston.
+
+Hog-reeves were men appointed by the citizens to look after their hogs
+that roamed the roads and streets, to see that all those swine had
+rings in their noses, were properly marked, and did not do damage to
+crops. Many towns had hog-reeves till this century; for until seventy
+years ago hogs ran freely everywhere, even in the streets of our great
+cities. It was a favorite jest to appoint a newly married man hog-reeve.
+When Ralph Waldo Emerson was married and became a householder in
+Concord, the young philosopher was appointed to that office. Sometimes a
+single swineherd was hired to take care of the roving swine. The two
+Salem swineherds or swine-keepers in 1640 were to have sixpence for each
+hog they drove daily to pasture from April to November. These and many
+other public offices were simply a form of legalized cooeperation; a
+joining together of neighbors for public good.
+
+The neighborly assistance given to new settlers began with the clearing
+of the ground for occupancy. The girdling of trees was easy and speedy,
+but it was discountenanced as dangerous and hideous, and was not
+frequently practised. A chopping-bee was a universal method among
+pioneers of clearing ground in newly settled districts, or even in older
+townships in Vermont, New Hampshire, and Maine, where great tracts of
+land were left for many years in the original growth. Sometimes this bee
+was held to clear land for a newly married man, or a new neighbor, or
+one who had had bad luck; but it was just as freely given to a
+prosperous farmer, though plentiful thanks and plentiful rum were the
+only rewards of the willing workers.
+
+All the strong men of the township repaired at an early hour to the
+tract to be cleared, and with powerful blows attacked the great trees. A
+favorite way of bringing the day's work and the day's excitement to a
+climax was by a "drive." This was made by chopping half-way into the
+trunks of a great group or circle of trees--under-cutting it was
+called--so that by a few powerful and well-driven blows at the monarch
+of the group, and perhaps a few well-concerted pulls on a rope, the
+entire group could be felled together, the leader bringing down with his
+spreading branches in his mighty fall his fellows in front of him, and
+they in turn their neighbors, with a crash that shook the earth and made
+the mountains ring. It was dangerous work; accidents were frequent; the
+records of death at log-rollings are pathetic to read and to think of,
+in a country where the loss of a sturdy man meant so much to some
+struggling household. A heavy and sudden gust of wind might blow down a
+small tree, which had been carelessly "under-cut," and thus give an
+unexpected and premature collapse of the simple machinery of the grand
+finale.
+
+A century ago a New Hampshire woman and her husband went out into the
+forest primeval; he cut down a few trees, made a little clearing termed
+a cut-down wherein a tiny patch of sky and cloud and scant sunlight
+could be seen overhead, but no sunrise or sunset, and built a log house
+of a single room--a home. With the opening spring came one day a group
+of kindly settlers from distant clearings and settlements, some riding
+from ten miles away the previous day. In front of the log house they
+chopped all the morning long with sturdy arms and swinging blows, yet
+felled nothing, till in the afternoon when all was ready for the final
+blow at the towering leader, which by its fall should lay low a great
+sloping tract for a dooryard and home field. As the noble trees fell at
+last to the earth with a resounding crash, lo! in the opening there
+appeared to the startled eyes of the settler's wife, as if rising out of
+heaven, a neighbor in her loneliness--Mount Kearsage, grand, serene, and
+beautiful, crowned with the glories of the setting sun, standing guard
+over a smiling lake at its foot. And every day through her long and
+happy life till ninety-six years old, as she looked at the splendid
+mountain, standing as it will till time shall be no more, did she thank
+God for His gift, for that noble companionship which came so suddenly,
+so inspiringly, upon the cramped horizon of her lonely forest home.
+
+After the trees were all felled, it was no longer a "cut-down" but an
+"opening." This was made preferably in the spring. The fallen trees were
+left some months on the ground to dry in the summer sun, while the
+farmer turned to other work on his farm, or, if he were starting in
+life, hired out for the summer. In the autumn the tops were set on fire,
+and the lighter limbs usually burned out, leaving the great charred
+tree-trunks. Then came what was known as a piling-bee, a perfect riot of
+hard work, cinders, and dirt. Usually the half-burned tree-trunks were
+"niggered off" in Indian fashion, by burning across with a smaller stick
+of wood till the long log was in lengths which could be dragged by the
+farmers with their oxen and horses into vast piles and again set on
+fire. Another treat of rum accompanied this day's work. The word
+"log-rolling" was often applied to the latter bee, and occasionally the
+felling of trees and dragging into piles for firing was done in a single
+log-rolling.
+
+Sometimes before the opening was cleared it was planted. The spring
+rains and melting snows carried the fertilizing ashes deep into the
+soil. Corn was planted and "dug in"; rye was sowed and "hacked in." The
+crops were astonishing; the grain grew among the fallen logs and stumps
+in rioting luxuriance. A stump-pulling was another occasion for a
+friendly bee, to clear off and put into comely shape the new field.
+
+Another exhibition of cooeperation was in a stone-hauling or a stone-bee.
+Some of the rocky fields of hard New England would defy a lifetime of
+work of one man and a single yoke of oxen. With judicious blasting, many
+oxen, strong arms, and willing hearts the boulders and ledges were
+tamed. Stone walls eight feet wide, such as may be seen in Hopkinton,
+New Hampshire, stand as monuments of the patience, strength, skill, and
+cooeperation of our forbears.
+
+To show the struggle and hard work willingly done for a home, let me
+give the statement in 1870 of a respected citizen, the historian of
+Norridgewock, Maine, when he was over ninety years old. He served an
+apprenticeship of eight years till he was twenty-one, then bought on
+credit a tract of fifty acres in the primeval woods. On eight acres he
+felled the trees and left them through the winter. In April, 1801, he
+spent three weeks in burning off the logs and clearing as well as
+possible by handwork three acres. These he sowed with wheat and rye,
+buying the seed on credit. He hired a yoke of oxen for one day and did
+what harrowing he could in that short time, grubbing around the stumps
+with a hoe for two more days. The crop grew, as did all others on
+similar soil, amazingly. The two bushels of seed-wheat yielded fifty-two
+bushels, the bushel of rye thirty bushels. On his other five acres among
+the fallen trees he planted corn, and raised a hundred and twenty-eight
+bushels. He adds:--
+
+     "When I could leave my work on my new land I worked out haying and
+     other work. I made shoes in the Fall, taught school in the Winter,
+     paid for my board and some clothing, but husbanded my resources to
+     pay for my land. At the end of the year found myself worth two
+     hundred dollars. I continued to clear up four acres each year till
+     I had cleared the fifty acres, planted an orchard and erected
+     suitable farm buildings and fences."
+
+Six years later he married and prospered. In eleven years he was worth
+two thousand dollars; he filled, during his long life, many, positions
+of trust and of profit, and did many and varied good deeds; he continued
+in active life till he was ninety years old. At his death he left a
+considerable fortune. It is an interesting picture of the value of
+honorable economy and thrift; a typical New England picture, with a
+certain vigor and stimulus about it that makes it pleasing.
+
+A "raising" might be of a church or a school-house, or of a house or
+barn for a neighbor. All the strong men far and near turned out to help,
+tools were lent, and many strong hands and arms made quick work. Often
+the frame of a whole side of a house--the broadside--was fastened
+together on the ground. After it was laid out and pinned together,
+shores of long poles were attached to the plates with ox-chains, and it
+was literally lifted into place by the united strength of the entire
+band of men and boys. Sometimes women pulled on the rope to express
+their good will and helpfulness. Then the other sides were put up, and
+the cross-beams, braces, and studding all pinned and nailed into place.
+Afterwards the huge rafters were raised for the roof. Each man was
+assigned in the beginning to his place and work, and worked faithfully
+when his turn came. When the ridge-pole was put in place, the building
+was christened, as it was called, by breaking over it a bottle of rum.
+Often the house was literally given a name. Sitting astride the
+ridge-pole, one poet sang:--
+
+    "Here's a mighty fine frame
+    Which desarves a good name,
+    Say what shall we call it?
+    The timbers all straight,
+    And was hewed fust rate,
+    The frame is well put together.
+    It is a good frame
+    That desarves a good name,
+    Say! what shall we name it?"
+
+Another, a Rochester, New Hampshire, frame was celebrated in verse which
+closed thus:--
+
+    "The Flower of the Plain is the name of this Frame,
+    We've had exceeding good Luck in raising the Same."
+
+It was not luck that made these raisings a success, it was skill and
+strength; skill and powers of endurance which could overcome and
+surmount even the quantity of vile New England rum with which the
+workmen were plied throughout the day. Accidents were frequent, and
+often fatal. A great frame of a meeting-house, or a vast barn with forty
+or fifty men at work on it, could not collapse without loss of life and
+much injury of limb.
+
+In the work of these raisings the highest as well as the humblest
+citizens took part. Truly a man could glow with the warmth of home even
+in a bare and scantily furnished house, at the thought that the walls
+and rafters were held in place by the kind wishes and deeds of all his
+friends and neighbors.
+
+There is nothing in nature so unnatural, so singular in quality, as the
+glittering artificiality of the early morning in the country the day
+after a heavy, drifting, New England snowstorm. For a day and a night
+the wildly whirling snow that "driving o'er the fields seems nowhere to
+alight" has restrained the outlook, and every one has turned depressed
+from that outside life of loneliness and gloom. The following morning
+always opens with an excessively bright and dazzling sunshine which is
+not like any other sunshine in any place or season, but is wholly
+artificial, like the lime-light of a theatre. We always run eagerly to
+the window to greet once more the signs of life and cheerfulness; but
+the landscape is more devoid of life and reality than during any storm
+of wind and snow and sleet, no matter how dark and lowering. There is a
+changed aspect in everything; it is metallic, and everything is made of
+the same horrible white metal. Nothing seems familiar; not only are the
+wonted forms and outlines vanished, and all their varied textures and
+materials and beautiful diversity of color gone also, but there is a
+steely immobility restraining everything which is so complete that it
+seems as if it were a shell that could never be broken.
+
+    "We look upon a world unknown,
+    On nothing we can call our own."
+
+It is no longer a real landscape but an artificial encircling diorama of
+meaningless objects made of vast unshaded sheets of white glazed
+Bristol-board, painted with white enamel, warranted not to crack; with
+the garish high-lights put in crystallized alum or possibly powdered
+glass. It is without life, or atmosphere, or reality; it has nothing but
+the million reflections of that artificial and repellent sunshine. In a
+quarter of an hour, even in a few minutes, it is agonizingly monotonous
+to the spirit as it is painful to the eye; then, like a veritable oasis
+of color and motion in an unmovable glittering white desert, a sound and
+sight of beautiful and active life appears. Around the bend of the road
+comes slow and straining down the hill, as has come through the glaring
+artificial sunlight after every heavy snowstorm for over a century past,
+a long train of oxen with a snow-plough "breaking out" the old
+post-road. Beautiful emblems of patient and docile strength, these
+splendid creatures are never so grateful to the sight as now. Their slow
+progress down the hill has many elements to make it interesting; it is
+historic. Ever since the township was thickly settled enough for
+families to have any winter communication with each other, whether for
+school, church, mail, or doctor, this road has been broken out in
+precisely this same way.
+
+In nearly all scattered townships in New England the custom prevails
+to-day just as it did a century and more ago even in large towns, and a
+description of the present "breaking out" is that of the past also. The
+work is now usually done in charge of road-surveyors or the
+road-masters, who are often appointed from the remote points of the
+township. There is, therefore, much friendly rivalry to see which
+surveyor will first reach the centre of the town--and the tavern.
+Beginning at sunrise with his own yoke of oxen hitched to a snow-plough,
+each road-master breaks through the drift to the nearest neighbor, who
+adds his yoke to the other, and so from neighbor to neighbor till
+sometimes fifteen or twenty yoke of oxen are hitched in a long line to
+the plough. Sometimes a pair of wild young steers are hitched, plunging
+and kicking, with the sober elders. By this time the first yoke often
+begins to show signs of distress by lolling out the tongue, a sure
+symptom of overwork in oxen, and they are left at some farmer's barn to
+cool down.
+
+Whittier thus describes the scene of breaking out the winter roads in
+his _Snow-Bound_:--
+
+    "Next morn we wakened with the shout
+    Of merry voices high and clear;
+    And saw the teamsters drawing near
+    To break the drifted highways out.
+    Down the long hillside treading slow
+    We saw the half-buried oxen go,
+    Shaking the snow from heads uptost,
+    Their straining nostrils white with frost.
+    Before our door the straggling train
+    Drew up, an added team to gain.
+    The elders threshed their hands a-cold,
+    Passed, with the cider mug, their jokes
+    From lip to lip."
+
+Thus are the white snow-waste and the drifted roads turned by cheerful
+cooeperation into a midwinter visiting where every neighbor can exchange
+greetings with the other, young and old. For of course school does not
+keep, and the boys crowd on the snow-plough or try their new snowshoes,
+and the men of the various families who do not go with the oxen hitch up
+the sleighs, pods, and pungs and follow the snow-plough, and the young
+men send a volley of snowballs against every house where any fair maid
+lives. And at the tavern in the afternoon is a great sight, greater in
+ante-temperance days than now: scores of yoke of oxen at the door, the
+horse-sheds full of horses and sleighs, all the lads and men of the
+township within. There is rivalry in the method of breaking. One
+road-master always used a snow-plough; another lashed an ordinary plough
+on either side of a narrow ox-sled; a third used a coarse harrow
+weighted down with a group of standing boys. This broke up the drifts in
+a wonderful manner. The deeper drifts often have to be shovelled out
+partly by hand. After the road to the tavern is broken, the road to the
+school-house, the doctor's house, and the meeting-house come next.
+
+The roads thus made were not permitted in former days to be cut up idly
+by careless use; many townships forbade by law the use of narrow sleds
+and sleighs. The roads were narrow at best; often when two sleighs met
+the horses had to be unharnessed, and the sleighs lifted past over each
+other. On lonely hill-roads or straight turnpikes, where teamsters could
+see some distance ahead, turnouts were made where one sleigh could wait
+for another to pass.
+
+After there had been a heavy fall of snow and the roads were well
+broken, the time was always chosen where any logging was done to haul
+logs to the sawmill on ox-sleds. An interesting sled was used which had
+an interesting name,--chebobbin. One writer called it a cross between a
+tree and a bobsled. It was made by a close and ingenious adaptation of
+natural forms of wood, which made excellent runners, cross-bars, etc.;
+they were fastened together so loosely that they readily adjusted
+themselves to the inequalities of the wood-roads. The word and article
+are now almost obsolete. In some localities chebobbin became tebobbin
+and tarboggin, all three being adaptations in nomenclature, as they
+were in form, of the Indian toboggan or moose-sled,--a sledge with
+runners or flat bottom of wood or bark, upon which the red men drew
+heavy loads over the snow. This sledge has become familiar to us in the
+light and strong Canadian form now used for the delightful winter sport
+of tobogganing.
+
+On these chebobbins great logs were hitched together by chains, and
+dragged down from the upland wood-lots. Under these mighty loads the
+snow-tracks got an almost icy polish, prime sledding for country
+sleighing parties. Sometimes a logging-bee was made to clear a special
+lot for a neighbor, and a band of wood-choppers worked all day together.
+It was cheerful work, though the men had to stand all day in the snow,
+and the thermometer was below zero. But there was no cutting wind in the
+forest, and the exercise kept the blood warm. Many a time a hearty man
+would drop his axe to wipe the sweat from his brow. Loose woollen
+frocks, or long-shorts, two or three over each other, were warm as are
+the overlapping feathers of a bird; a few had buckskin or sheepskin
+waistcoats; their hands were warmly covered with home-knit mittens. In
+later days all had heavy well-greased boots, but in the early years of
+such pioneer settlements, as the towns of New Hampshire and Vermont,
+all could not afford to wear boots. Their place was well supplied by
+heavy woollen stockings, shoes, and an over-covering of old stockings,
+or cloth soaked in neat's-foot oil; this was deemed a positive
+preventive of frozen feet.
+
+It was the custom both among men and women to join forces on a smaller
+scale and have a little neighborly visiting by what was called
+"change-work." For instance, if two neighbors both were to make soap, or
+both to make apple-butter, or both to make up a rag carpet, instead of
+each woman sitting at home alone sewing and fitting the carpet, one
+would take her thimble and go to spend the day, and the two would sew
+all day long, finish and lay the carpet at one house. In a few days the
+visit would be returned, and the second carpet be finished. Sometimes
+the work was easier when two worked together. One man could load logs
+and sled them down to the sawmill alone, but two by "change-work" could
+accomplish the task much more rapidly and with less strain.
+
+Even those evil days of New England households, the annual
+house-cleaning, were robbed of some of their dismal terrors by what was
+known as a "whang," a gathering of a few friendly women neighbors to
+assist one another in that dire time, and thus speed and shorten the
+hours of misery.
+
+For any details of domestic life of colonial days the reader has ever to
+turn to the diary of Judge Samuel Sewall of Boston, just as the student
+of English life of the same date turns to the diary of Samuel Pepys.
+Sewall was a Puritan of the narrow type of the later days of Puritanism;
+and there is little of warmth or beauty in his pages, save that
+throughout them there shines with gentle radiance the unconscious record
+of a pure and never-dying neighborliness, the neighborliness of an
+upright and reserved but deeply tender Christian. No thoughtful person
+can read the simple and meagre, but wholly self-forgetful entries which
+reveal this trait of character without a feeling of profound respect and
+even affection for Sewall. He was the richest man in town, and one of
+the most dignified of citizens, a busy man full of many cares and plans.
+But he watched by the bedside of his sick and dying neighbors, those of
+humble station as well as his friends and kinsfolk, nursing them with
+tender care, praying with them, bringing appetizing gifts, and also
+giving pecuniary aid to the household. He afforded even more homely
+examples of neighborly feeling; he sent "tastes of his dinner" many
+times to friends and neighbors. This pleasant custom lingered till the
+present day in New England; I saw last summer, several times, covered
+treasures of housewifery being carried in petty amounts, literally "a
+taste," to tempt tired appetites or lonely diners. The gift of a portion
+of the over-bountiful supply for the supper of a wedding, a reception,
+etc., went by the expressive name of "cold party."
+
+In rural Pennsylvania a charming and friendly custom prevailed among
+country folk of all nationalities--the "metzel-soup," the "taste" of
+sausage-making. This is the anglicized form of _Metzelsuppe_; _metzeln_
+means to kill and cut to pieces--especially for sausage meat. When each
+farmer butchered and made sausage, a great dish heaped with eight or ten
+pounds of the new sausages was sent to each intimate friend. The
+recipient would in turn send metzel-soup when his family killed and made
+sausage. If the metzel-soup were not returned, the minister promptly
+learned of it and set at work to effect a reconciliation between the
+offended parties. The custom is dying out, and in many towns is wholly
+vanished.
+
+Sewall seemed to regard it as a duty, and doubtless it was also a
+pleasure, to pray for and with dying friends. His is not the only
+old-time diary that I have read in which those long prayers are
+recorded, nor are his surprised occasional records of the impatience of
+dying friends the only ones I have seen. A very sick man, even though he
+were a Puritan, might occasionally tire of the prayers of laymen.
+
+Sewall was ever ready to signify his good will and interest in his
+neighbors' advancing fortunes, by driving a nail at a ship-building or a
+pin at a house-raising, by laying a stone in a wall or a foundation of a
+house, the latter, apparently, in the case of some very humble homes.
+He, the Judge of the Supreme Court, served on the watch, walking and
+guarding the streets and his neighbors' safety just as faithfully as did
+the humblest citizen.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+OLD-TIME FLOWER GARDENS
+
+
+Adjoining the street through which I always, in my childhood, walked
+slowly each Sunday, on my way to and from church, was a spot to detain
+lingering footsteps--a beautiful garden laid out and tenanted like the
+gardens of colonial days, and serene with the atmosphere of a worthy old
+age; a garden which had been tended for over half a century by a
+withered old man and his wife, whose golden wedding was spent in the
+house they had built, and in the garden they had planted when they were
+bride and groom. His back was permanently bowed with constant weeding
+and pruning and planting and hoeing, and his hands and face were brown
+as the soil he cultivated. The "hot-glowing" crimson peonies, seedlings
+which the wife had sown in her youth, had become great shrubs, fifteen
+or twenty feet in circumference. The flowering shrubs were trees.
+Vigorous borders of box crowded across the paths and towered on either
+side, till one could scarcely walk through them. There were beautiful
+fairy groves of fox gloves "gloriously freckled, purple, and white," and
+tall Canterbury bells; and at stiffly regular intervals were set
+flowering almonds, St. Peter's wreath, Persian lilacs, "Moses in the
+burning bush," which shrub was rare in our town, and "laburnums rich in
+streaming gold, syringas ivory pure." At the lower ends of the flower
+borders were rows of "honey-blob" gooseberries, and aged currant bushes,
+gray with years, overhung by a few patriarchal quince and crab-apple
+trees, in whose low-spreading gnarled branches I spent many a summer
+afternoon, a happy visitor, though my own home garden was just as
+beautiful, old-fashioned, and flower-filled.
+
+The varying grades of city streets had gradually risen around the garden
+until it lay depressed several feet below the level of the adjoining
+streets, a pleasant valley,--like Avalon,--
+
+    "Deep-meadowed, happy, fair, with orchard lawns,
+    And bowery hollows crown'd with summer seas."
+
+A flight of stone steps led down to it,--steps very steep, narrow, and
+slippery with green moss, and ladies'-delights that crowded and
+blossomed in every crack and crevice of the stones. On each side arose
+terraces to the street, and in the spring these terraces flushed a mass
+of vivid, glowing rose-color from blooming moss-pink, forming such a
+glory that pious church-going folk from the other end of the town did
+not think it wicked to walk thither, on a Sunday morn in May, to look at
+the rosy banks that sloped to the valleyed garden, as they had walked
+there in February or March to see
+
+      "Winter, slumbering in the open air,
+    Wear on his smiling face a dream of spring,"
+
+in the shape of the first crocuses and snowdrops that opened beside a
+snow-drift still lingering on a shaded bank; and to watch the first
+benumbed honey-bees who greeted every flower that bloomed in that
+cherished spot, and who buzzed in bleak March winds over the purple
+crocus and "blue flushing" grape-hyacinth as cheerfully as though they
+were sipping the scarlet poppies in sunny August.
+
+The garden edges and the street were overhung by graceful larches and by
+thorny honey-locust trees that bore on their trunks great clusters of
+powerful spines and sheltered in their branches an exceedingly
+unpleasant species of fat, fuzzy caterpillars, which always chose Sunday
+to drop on my garments as I walked to church, and to go with me to
+meeting, and in the middle of the long prayer to parade on my neck, to
+my startled disgust and agitated whisking away, and consequent reproof
+for being noisy in meeting.
+
+What fragrances arose from that old garden, and were wafted out to
+passers-by! The ever-present, pungent, dry aroma of box was overcome or
+tempered, through the summer months, by a succession of delicate
+flower-scents that hung over the garden-vale like an imperceptible mist;
+perhaps the most perfect and clear among memory's retrospective
+treasures was that of the pale fringed "snow-pink," and later, "sweet
+william with its homely cottage smell." Phlox and ten-weeks stock were
+there, as everywhere, the last sweet-scented flowers of autumn.
+
+At no time was this old garden sweeter than in the twilight, the
+eventide, when all the great clumps of snowy phlox, night-rockets, and
+luminous evening primrose, and all the tangles of pale yellow and white
+honeysuckle shone irradiated; when,
+
+    "In puffs of balm the night air blows
+    The burden which the day foregoes,"
+
+and scents far richer than any of the day--the "spiced air of
+night"--floated out in the dusky gloaming.
+
+Though the old garden had many fragrant leaves and flowers, their
+delicate perfume was sometimes fairly deadened by an almost mephitic
+aroma that came from an ancient blossom, a favorite in Shakespeare's
+day--the jewelled bell of the noxious crown-imperial. This stately
+flower, with its rich color and pearly drops, has through its evil scent
+been firmly banished from our garden borders.
+
+One of the most cheerful flowers of this and of my mother's garden was
+the happy-faced little pansy that under various fanciful folk-names has
+ever been loved. Like Montgomery's daisy, it "blossomed everywhere." Its
+Italian name means "idle thoughts"; the German, "little stepmother."
+Spenser called it "pawnce." Shakespeare said maidens called it
+"love-in-idleness," and Drayton named it "heartsease." Dr. Prior gives
+these names--"Herb Trinity, Three Faces under a Hood, Fancy Flamy, Kiss
+Me, Pull Me, Cuddle Me unto You, Tickle my Fancy, Kiss Me ere I Rise,
+Jump Up and Kiss Me, Kiss Me at the Garden Gate, Pink of my Joan." To
+these let me add the New England folk-names--bird's-eye, garden-gate,
+johnny-jump-up, kit-run-about, none-so-pretty, and ladies'-delight. All
+these testify to the affectionate and intimate friendship felt for this
+laughing and fairly speaking little garden face, not the least of whose
+endearing qualities was that, after a half-warm, snow-melting week in
+January or February, this bright-some little "delight" often opened a
+tiny blossom to greet and cheer us--a true "jump-up-and-kiss-me," and
+proved by its blooming the truth of the graceful Chinese verse,--
+
+    "Ere man is aware
+    That the spring is here
+    The plants have found it out."
+
+Another dearly loved spring flower was the daffodil, the favorite also
+of old English dramatists and poets, and of modern authors as well, when
+we find that Keats names a daffodil as, the thing of beauty that is a
+joy forever. Perhaps the happiest and most poetic picture of daffodils
+is that of Dora Wordsworth, when she speaks of them as "gay and
+glancing, and laughing with the wind." Perdita, in _The Winter's Tale_,
+thus describes them in her ever-quoted list: "Daffodils that come before
+the swallow dares and take the winds of March with beauty." Most
+cheerful and sunny of all our spring flowers, they have never lost their
+old-time popularity, and they still laugh at our bleak March winds.
+
+Bouncing-bet and her comely hearty cousins of the pink family made
+delightsome many a corner of our home garden. The pinks were Jove's own
+flowers, and the carthusian pink, china pink, clove pink, snow pink,
+plumed pink, mullein pink, sweet william, maltese cross, ragged robin,
+catch-fly, and campion, all made gay and sweet the summer. The clove
+pink was the ancestor of all the carnations.
+
+The richest autumnal glory came from the cheerful marigold, the "golde"
+of Chaucer, and "mary-bud" of Shakespeare. This flower, beloved of all
+the old writers, as deeply suggestive and emblematic, has been coldly
+neglected by modern poets, as for a while it was banished from modern
+town gardens; but it may regain its popularity in verse as it has in
+cultivation. In farm gardens it has always flourished, and every autumn
+has "gone to bed with the sun and with him risen weeping," and has
+given forth in the autumn air its acrid odor, which to me is not
+disagreeable, though my old herbal calls its "a very naughty smell."
+
+A favorite shrub in our garden, as in every country dooryard, was
+southernwood, or lad's-love. A sprig of it was carried to meeting each
+summer Sunday by many old ladies, and with its finely dissected,
+bluish-green foliage, and clean pungent scent, it was pleasant to see in
+the meeting-house, and pleasant to sniff at. The "virtues of flowers"
+took a prominent place in the descriptions in old-time botanies. The
+southernwood had strong medicinal qualities, and was used to cure
+"vanityes of the head."
+
+     "Take a quantitye of Suthernwood and put it upon kindled coales to
+     burn and being made into powder mix it with the oyle of radishes
+     and anoynt a balde place and you shall see great experiences."
+
+It was of power as a love charm. If you placed a sprig in each shoe and
+wore it through the day when you were in love, you would then also in
+some way "see great experiences."
+
+In the tender glamour of happy association, all flowers in the old
+garden seem to have been loved save the garish petunias, whose sickish
+odor grew more offensive and more powerful at nightfall and made me long
+to tear them away from their dainty garden-fellows, and the portulaca
+with its fleshy, worm-like stems and leaves, and its aggressively
+pushing habits, "never would be missed." Perhaps its close relation to
+the "pusley," most hated of weeds, makes us eye it askance.
+
+There was one attribute of the old-time garden, one part of nature's
+economy, which added much to its charm--it was the crowding abundance,
+the over-fulness of leaf, bud, and blossom. Nature there displayed no
+bare expanses of naked soil, as in some too-carefully-kept modern
+parterres; the dull earth was covered with a tangle of ready-growing,
+self-sowing, lowly flowers, that filled every space left unoccupied by
+statelier garden favorites, and crowded every corner with cheerful,
+though unostentatious, bloom. And the close juxtaposition, and even
+intermingling, of flowers with herbs, vegetables, and fruits gave a
+sense of homely simplicity and usefulness, as well as of beauty. The
+soft, purple eyes of the mourning-bride were no less lovely to us in
+"our garden" because they opened under the shade of currant and
+gooseberry bushes; and the sweet alyssum and candytuft were no less
+honey-sweet. The delicate, pinky-purple hues of the sweet peas were not
+dimmed by their vivid neighbors at the end of the row of poles--the
+scarlet runners. The adlumia, or mountain fringe, was a special vine of
+our own and known by a special name--virgin's bower. With its delicate
+leaves, almost as beautiful as a maidenhair fern, and its dainty pink
+flower, it festooned the ripening corn as wantonly and luxuriantly as it
+encircled the snowball and lilac bushes.
+
+Though "colored herbs" were cultivated in England in the seventeenth and
+eighteenth centuries as carefully as were flowers,--striped hollies,
+variegated myrtles, and bays being the gardener's pride,--yet in our old
+American gardens few plants were grown for their variegated or
+odd-colored foliage. The familiar and ever-present ribbon-grass, also
+called striped grass, canary grass, and gardener's garters,--whose
+pretty expanded panicles formed an almost tropical effect at the base of
+the garden hedge; the variegated wandering jew, the striped leaves of
+some varieties of day-lilies; the dusty-miller, with its "frosty pow"
+(which was properly a house plant), fill the short list. The box was the
+sole evergreen.
+
+And may I not enter here a plea for the preservation of the box-edgings
+of our old garden borders? I know they are almost obsolete--have been
+winter-killed and sunburned--and are even in sorry disrepute as having a
+graveyard association, and as being harborers of unpleasant and
+unwelcome garden visitors. One lover of old ways thus indignantly
+mourns their passing:--
+
+     "I spoke of box-edgings. We used to see them in little country
+     gardens, with paths of crude earth. Nowadays, it has been
+     discovered that box harbours slugs, and we are beginning to have
+     beds with tiled borders, while the walks are of asphalt. For a
+     pleasure-ground in Dante's _Inferno_ such materials might be
+     suitable."
+
+For its beauty in winter alone, the box should still find a place in our
+gardens. It grows to great size. Bushes of box in the deserted garden at
+Vaucluse in Newport, Rhode Island, are fifteen feet in height, and over
+them spread the branches of forest trees that have sprung up in the
+garden beds since that neglected pleasaunce was planted, over a century
+ago. The beautiful border and hedges of box at Mount Vernon, the home of
+Washington, plead for fresh popularity for this old-time favorite.
+
+Our mothers and grandmothers came honestly by their love of gardens.
+They inherited this affection from their Puritan, Quaker, or Dutch
+forbears, perhaps from the days when the famous hanging gardens of
+Babylon were made for a woman. Bacon says: "A garden is the purest of
+human pleasures, it is the greatest refreshment to the spirits of man."
+A garden was certainly the greatest refreshment to the spirits of a
+woman in the early colonial days, and the purest of her pleasures--too
+often her only pleasure.
+
+Quickly, in tender memory of her fair English home, the homesick
+goodwife, trying to create a semblance of the birthplace she still
+loved, planted the seeds and roots of homely English flowers and herbs
+that grew and blossomed under bleak New England skies, and on rocky New
+England shores, as sturdily and cheerfully as they had sprung up and
+bloomed by the green hedgerows and door-sides in the home beyond the
+sea.
+
+In the year 1638, and again in 1663, an English gentleman named John
+Josselyn came to New England. He published, in 1672, an account of
+these two visits. He was a man of polite reading and of culture, and as
+was the high fashion for gentlemen of his day, had a taste for gardening
+and botany. He made interesting lists of plants which he noted in
+America under these heads:--
+
+     "1. Such plants as are common with us in England.
+
+     "2. Such plants as are proper to the country.
+
+     "3. Such plants as are proper to the country and have no names.
+
+     "4. Such plants as have sprung up since the English planted and
+     kept cattle in New England.
+
+     "5. Such Garden-Herbs among us as do thrive there and of such as do
+     not."
+
+This last division is the one that specially interests us, since it is
+the earliest and the fullest account of the gardens of our forefathers,
+after they had tamed the rugged shores of the New World, and made them
+obey the rule of English husbandry. They had "good store of garden
+vegetables and herbs; lettuce, sorrel, parsley, mallows, chevril,
+burnet, summer savory, winter savory, thyme, sage, carrots, parsnips,
+beets, radishes, purslain, beans"; "cabbidge growing exceeding well;
+pease of all sorts and the best in the world; sparagus thrives
+exceedingly, musk mellons, cucumbers, and pompions." For grains there
+were wheat, rye, barley, and oats. There were other garden herbs and
+garden flowers: spearmint, pennyroyal, ground-ivy, coriander, dill,
+tansy; "feverfew prospereth exceedingly; white sattin groweth pretty
+well, and so doth lavender-cotton; gillyflowers will continue two years;
+horse-leek prospereth notably; hollyhocks; comferie with white flowers;
+clary lasts but one summer; sweet-bryer or eglantine; celandine but
+slowly; blood-wort but sorrily, but patience and English roses very
+pleasantly."
+
+Patience and English roses very pleasantly in truth must have shown
+their fair English faces to English women in the strange land. Dearly
+loved had these brier-roses or dog-roses been in England, where, says
+the old herbalist, Gerard, "children with delight make chains and pretty
+gewgawes of the fruit; and cookes and gentlewomen make tarts and
+suchlike dishes for pleasure thereof." Hollyhocks, feverfew, and
+gillyflowers must have made a sunshine in the shady places in the new
+home. Many of these garden herbs are now common weeds or roadside
+blossoms. Celandine, even a century ago, was "common by fences and among
+rubbish." Tansy and elecampane grow everywhere. Sweet-brier is at home
+in New England pastures and roadsides. Spearmint edges our brooks.
+Ground-ivy is a naturalized citizen. It is easy to note that the
+flowers and herbs beloved in gardens and medicinal waters and kitchens
+"at home" were the ones transplanted here. "Clary-water" was a favorite
+tonic of Englishmen of that day.
+
+The list of "such plants as have sprung up since the English planted"
+should be of interest to every one who has any sense of the sentiment of
+association, or interest in laws of succession. The Spanish proverb
+says:--
+
+    "More in the garden grows
+    Than the gardener sows."
+
+The plantain has a history full of romance; its old Northern
+names--_Wegetritt_ in German, _Weegbree_ in Dutch, _Viebred_ in Danish,
+and _Weybred_ in Old English, all indicating its presence in the
+much-trodden paths of man--were not lost in its new home, nor were its
+characteristics overlooked by the nature-noting and plant-knowing red
+man. It was called by the Indian "the Englishman's foot," says Josselyn,
+and by Kalm also, a later traveller in 1740; "for they say where an
+Englishman trod, there grew a plantain in each footstep." Not less
+closely did such old garden weeds as motherwort, groundsel, chickweed,
+and wild mustard cling to the white man. They are old colonists, brought
+over by the first settlers, and still thrive and triumph in every
+kitchen garden and back yard in the land. Mullein and nettle, henbane
+and wormwood, all are English emigrants.
+
+The Puritans were not the only flower-lovers in the new land. The
+Pennsylvania Quakers and Mennonites were quick to plant gardens.
+Pastorius encouraged all the Germantown settlers to raise flowers as
+well as fruit. Whittier says of him in his _Pennsylvania Pilgrim_:--
+
+                      "The flowers his boyhood knew
+    Smiled at his door, the same in form and hue,
+    And on his vines the Rhenish clusters grew."
+
+It gives one a pleasant notion of the old Quaker, George Fox, to read
+his bequest by will of a tract of land near Philadelphia "for a
+playground for the children of the town to play on and for a garden to
+plant with physical plants, for lads and lassies to know simples, and
+learn to make oils and ointments."
+
+Among Pennsylvanians the art of gardening reached the highest point. The
+landscape gardening was a reproduction of the best in England. Our
+modern country places cannot equal in this respect the colonial country
+seats near Philadelphia. Woodlands and Bush Hill, the homes of the
+Hamiltons, Cliveden, of Chief Justice Chew, Fair Hill, Belmont, the
+estate of Judge Peters, were splendid examples. An ecstatic account of
+the glories and wonders of some of them was written just after the
+Revolution by a visitor who fully understood their treasures, the Rev.
+Manasseh Cutler, the clergyman, statesman, and botanist.
+
+In Newport, Rhode Island, where flowers ever seem to thrive with
+extraordinary luxuriance, there were handsome gardens in the eighteenth
+century. A description of Mr. Bowler's garden during the Revolution
+reads thus:--
+
+     "It contains four acres and has a grand aisle in the middle. Near
+     the middle is an oval surrounded with espaliers of fruit-trees, in
+     the centre of which is a pedestal, on which is an armillary sphere
+     with an equatorial dial. On one side of the front is a hot-house
+     containing orange-trees, some ripe, some green, some blooms, and
+     various other fruit-trees of the exotic kind and curious flowers.
+     At the lower end of the aisle is a large summer-house, a long
+     square containing three rooms, the middle paved with marble and
+     hung with landscapes. On the right is a large private library
+     adorned with curious carvings. There are espaliers of fruit-trees
+     at each end of the garden and curious flowering shrubs. The room on
+     the left is beautifully designed for music and contains a spinnet.
+     But the whole garden discovered the desolations of war."
+
+In the Southern colonies men of wealth soon had beautiful gardens. In an
+early account of South Carolina, written in 1682, we find:--
+
+     "Their Gardens are supplied with such European Plants and Herbs as
+     are necessary for the Kitchen, and they begin to be beautiful and
+     adorned with such Flowers as to the Smell or Eye are pleasing or
+     agreeable, viz.: the Rose, Tulip, Carnation, Lilly, etc."
+
+By the middle of the century many exquisite gardens could be seen in
+Charleston, and they were the pride of Southern colonial dames. Those of
+Mrs. Lamboll, Mrs. Hopton, and Mrs. Logan were the largest. The latter
+flower-lover in 1779, when seventy years old, wrote a treatise on
+flower-raising called _The Gardener's Kalendar_, which was read and
+used for many years. Mrs. Laurens had another splendid garden. Those
+Southern ladies and their gardeners constantly sent specimens to
+England, and received others in return. The letters of the day,
+especially those of Eliza Lucas Pinckney, ever interested in
+floriculture and arboriculture, show a constant exchange with English
+flower-lovers.
+
+Beverley wrote of Virginia, in 1720: "A garden is nowhere sooner made
+than there." William Byrd and other travellers, a few years later, saw
+many beautiful terraced gardens in Virginian homes. Mrs. Anne Grant
+writes at length of the love and care the Dutch women of the past
+century had for flowers:--
+
+     "The care of plants such as needed peculiar care or skill to rear
+     them, was the female province. Every one in town or country had a
+     garden. Into the garden no foot of man intruded after it was dug in
+     the spring. I think I see yet what I have so often beheld--a
+     respectable mistress of a family going out to her garden, in an
+     April morning, with her great calash, her little painted basket of
+     seeds, and her rake over her shoulders, to her garden of labours. A
+     woman in very easy circumstances and abundantly gentle in form and
+     manners would sow and plant and rake incessantly."
+
+In New York, before the Revolution, were many beautiful gardens, such
+as that of Madam Alexander on Broad Street, where in their proper season
+grew "paus bloemen of all hues, laylocks and tall May roses and
+snowballs intermixed with choice vegetables and herbs all bounded and
+hemmed in by huge rows of neatly clipped box edgings." We have a pretty
+picture also, in the letters of Catharine Rutherfurd, of an entire
+company gathering rose-leaves in June in Madam Clark's garden, and
+setting the rose-still at work to turn their sweet-scented spoils into
+rose-water.
+
+A trade in flower and vegetable seeds formed a lucrative and popular
+means by which women could earn a livelihood in colonial days. I have
+seen in one of the dingy little newspaper sheets of those days, in the
+large total of nine advertisements, contained therein, the
+announcements, by five Boston seedswomen, of lists of their wares.
+
+The earliest list of names of flower-seeds which I have chanced to note
+was in the _Boston Evening Post_ of March, 1760, and is of much interest
+as showing to us with exactness the flowers beloved and sought for at
+that time. They were "holly-hook, purple Stock, white Lewpins, Africans,
+blew Lewpins, candy-tuff, cyanus, pink, wall-flower, double larkin-spur,
+venus navelwort, brompton flock, princess feather, balsam, sweet-scented
+pease, carnation, sweet williams, annual stock, sweet feabus, yellow
+lewpins, sunflower, convolus minor, catch-fly, ten week stock, globe
+thistle, globe amaranthus, nigella, love-lies-bleeding, casent hamen,
+polianthus, canterbury bells, carnation poppy, india pink, convolus
+major, Queen Margrets." This is certainly a very pretty list of flowers,
+nearly all of which are still loved, though sometimes under other
+names--thus the Queen Margrets are our asters. And the homely old
+English names seem to bring the flowers to our very sight, for we do not
+seem to be on very friendly intimacy, on very sociable terms with
+flowers, unless they have what Miss Mitford calls "decent, well-wearing
+English names"; we can have no flower memories, no affections that
+cling to botanical nomenclature. Yet nothing is more fatal to an exact
+flower knowledge, to an acquaintance that shall ever be more than local,
+than a too confident dependence on the folk-names of flowers. Our
+bachelor's-buttons are ragged sailors in a neighboring state; they are
+corn-pinks in Plymouth, ragged ladies in another town, blue bottles in
+England, but cyanus everywhere. Ragged robin is, in the garden of one
+friend, a pink, in another it flaunts as London-pride, while the true
+glowing London-pride has half a dozen pseudonyms in as many different
+localities, and only really recognizes itself in the botany. An American
+cowslip is not an English cowslip, an American primrose is no English
+primrose, and the English daisy is no country friend of ours in America.
+
+What cheerful and appropriate furnishings the old-time gardens had;
+benches full of straw beeskepes and wooden beehives, those homelike and
+busy dwelling-places; frequently, also, a well-filled dove-cote.
+Sometimes was seen a sun-dial--once the every-day friend and suggestive
+monitor of all who wandered among the flowers of an hour; now known,
+alas! only to the antiquary. Sentiment and even spirituality seem
+suggested by the sun-dial, yet few remain to cast their instructive
+shadow before our sight.
+
+One stood for years in the old box-bordered garden at Homogansett Farm,
+at Wickford, in old Narragansett. Governor Endicott's dial is in the
+Essex Institute, at Salem; and my forbear, Jacob Fairbanks, had one
+dated 1650, which is now in the rooms of the Dedham Historical Society.
+Dr. Bowditch, of Boston, had a sun-dial which was thus inscribed:--
+
+    "With warning hand I mark Times rapid flight
+    From life's glad morning to its solemn night.
+    And like God's love I also show
+    Theres light above me, by the shade below."
+
+Another garden dial thus gives, "in long, lean letters," its warning
+word:--
+
+    "You'll mend your Ways To-morrow
+          When blooms that budded Flour?
+    Mortall! Lern to your Sorrow
+    Death may creep with his Arrow
+    And pierce yo'r vitall Marrow
+    Long ere my warning Shadow
+          Can mark that Hour."
+
+These dials are all of heavy metal, usually lead; sometimes with gnomon
+of brass. But I have heard of one which was unique; it was cut in box.
+
+At the edge of the farm garden often stood the well-sweep, one of the
+most picturesque adjuncts of the country dooryard. Its successor, the
+roofed well with bucket, stone, and chain, and even the homely
+long-handled pump, had a certain appropriateness as part of the garden
+furnishings.
+
+So many thoughts crowd upon us in regard to the old garden; one is the
+age of its flowers. We have no older inhabitants than these garden
+plants; they are old settlers. Clumps of flower-de-luce, double
+buttercups, peonies, yellow day-lilies, are certainly seventy-five years
+old. Many lilac bushes a century old still bloom in New England, and
+syringas and flowering currants are as old as the elms and locusts that
+shade them.
+
+This established constancy and yearly recurrence of bloom is one of the
+garden's many charms. To those who have known and loved an old garden in
+which,
+
+    "There grow no strange flowers every year,
+    But when spring winds blow o'er the pleasant places,
+    The same dear things lift up the same fair faces,"
+
+and faithfully tell and retell the story of the changing seasons by
+their growth, blossom, and decay, nothing can seem more artificial than
+the modern show-beds of full-grown plants which are removed by assiduous
+gardeners as soon as they have flowered, to be replaced by others, only
+in turn to bloom and disappear. These seem to form a real garden no more
+than does a child's posy-bed stuck with short-stemmed flowers to wither
+in a morning.
+
+And the tiresome, tasteless ribbon-beds of our day were preceded in
+earlier centuries by figured beds of diverse-colored earths--and of both
+we can say with Bacon, "they be but toys, you may see as good sights
+many times in tarts."
+
+The promise to Noah, "while the earth remaineth seed-time and harvest
+shall not cease," when heeded in the garden, brings various interests.
+The seed-time, the springing-up of familiar favorites, and the
+cherishing of these favorites through their in-gathering of seeds or
+bulbs or roots for another year, bring pleasure as much as does their
+inflorescence.
+
+Another pathetic trait of many of the old-time flowers should not be
+overlooked--their persistent clinging to life after they had been exiled
+from the trim garden borders where they first saw the chill sun of a New
+England spring. You see them growing and blooming outside the garden
+fence, against old stone walls, where their up-torn roots have been
+thrown to make places for new and more popular favorites. You find them
+cheerfully spreading, pushing along the foot-paths, turning into
+vagrants, becoming flaunting weeds. You see them climbing here and
+there, trying to hide the deserted chimneys of their early homes, or
+wandering over and hiding the untrodden foot-paths of other days. A
+vivid imagination can shape many a story of their life in the interval
+between their first careful planting in colonial gardens and their
+neglected exile to highways and byways, where the poor bits of
+depauperated earth can grow no more lucrative harvest.
+
+The sites of colonial houses which are now destroyed, the trend, almost
+the exact line of old roads, can be traced by the cheerful faces of
+these garden-strays. The situation of old Fort Nassau, in Pennsylvania,
+so long a matter of uncertainty, is said to have been definitely
+determined by the familiar garden flowers found growing on one of these
+disputed sites. It is a tender thought that this indelible mark is left
+upon the face of our native land through the affection of our forbears
+for their gardens.
+
+The botany tells us that bouncing-bet has "escaped from
+cultivation"--she has been thrust out, but unresentfully lives and
+smiles; opening her tender pinky-opalescent flowers adown the dusty
+roadsides, and even on barren gravel-beds in railroad cuts.
+Butter-and-eggs, tansy, chamomile, spiked loosestrife, velvet-leaf,
+bladder-campion, cypress spurge, live-for-ever, star of Bethlehem,
+money-vine,--all have seen better days, but now are flower-tramps. Even
+the larkspur, beloved of children, the moss-pink, and the grape-hyacinth
+may sometimes be seen growing in country fields and byways. The homely
+and cheerful blossoms of the orange-tawny ephemeral lily, and the
+spotted tiger-lily, whose gaudy colors glow with the warmth of far
+Cathay--their early home--now make gay many of our roadsides and crowd
+upon the sweet cinnamon roses of our grandmothers, which also are
+undaunted garden exiles.
+
+Driving once along a country road, I saw on the edge of a field an
+expanse of yellow bloom which seemed to be an unfamiliar field-tint. It
+proved to be a vast bed of coreopsis, self-sown from year to year; and
+the blackened outlines of an old cellar wall in its midst showed that in
+that field once stood a home, once there a garden smiled.
+
+I am always sure when I see bouncing-bet, butter-and-eggs, and tawny
+lilies growing in a tangle together that in their midst may be found an
+untrodden door-stone, a fallen chimney, or a filled-in well.
+
+Still broader field expanses are filled with old-country plants. In June
+a golden glory of bud and blossom covers the hills and fields of Essex
+County in Massachusetts from Lynn to Danvers, and Ryal Side to Beverly;
+it is the English gorse or woad-wax, and by tradition it was first
+brought to this country in spray and seed as a packing for some of the
+household belongings of Governor Endicott. Thrown out in friendly soil,
+the seeds took root and there remain in the vicinity of their first
+American homes. It is a stubborn squatter, yielding only to scythe,
+plough, and hoe combined.
+
+Chicory or blue weed was, it is said, brought from England by Governor
+Bowdoin as food for his sheep. It has spread till its extended presence
+has been a startling surprise to all English visiting botanists. It
+hurts no one's fields, for it invades chiefly waste and neglected
+land--the "dear common flower"--and it has redeemed many a city suburb
+of vacant lots, many a railroad ash heap from the abomination of
+desolation.
+
+Whiteweed or ox-eye daisy, a far greater pest than gorse or chicory, has
+been carried intentionally to many a township by homesick settlers whose
+descendants to-day rue the sentiment of their ancestors.
+
+While the vallied garden of our old neighbors was sweet with blossoms,
+my mother's garden bore a still fresher fragrance--that of green growing
+things; of "posies," lemon-balm, rose geranium, mint, and sage. I always
+associate with it in spring the scent of the strawberry bush, or
+calycanthus, and in summer of the fraxinella, which, with its tall stem
+of larkspur-like flowers, its still more graceful seed-vessels and its
+shining ash-like leaves, grew there in rich profusion and gave forth
+from leaf, stem, blossom, and seed a pure, a memory-sweet perfume half
+like lavender, half like anise.
+
+Truly, much of our tenderest love of flowers comes from association, and
+many are lovingly recalled solely by their odors. Balmier breath than
+was ever borne by blossom is to me the pure pungent perfume of ambrosia,
+rightly named, as fit for the gods. Not the miserable weed ambrosia of
+the botany, but a lowly herb that grew throughout the entire summer
+everywhere in "our garden"; sowing its seeds broadcast from year to
+year; springing up unchecked in every unoccupied corner, and under every
+shrub and bushy plant; giving out from serrated leaf and irregular
+raceme of tiny pale-green flowers, a spicy aromatic fragrance if we
+brushed past it, or pulled a weed from amongst it as we strolled down
+the garden walk. And it is our very own--I have never seen it elsewhere
+than at my old home, and in the gardens of neighbors to whom its seeds
+were given by the gentle hand that planted "our garden" and made it a
+delight. Goethe says, "Some flowers are lovely to the eye, but others
+are lovely to the heart." Ambrosia is lovely to my heart, for it was my
+mother's favorite.
+
+And as each "spring comes slowly up the way," I say in the words of
+Solomon, "Awake, O north wind; and come, thou south; blow upon my
+garden, that the spices thereof may flow out"--that the balm and mint,
+the thyme and southernwood, the sweetbrier and ambrosia, may spring
+afresh and shed their tender incense to the memory of my mother, who
+planted them and loved their pure fragrance, and at whose presence, as
+at that of Eve, flowers ever sprung--
+
+    "And touched by her fair tendance gladlier grew."
+
+
+
+
+Index
+
+
+Abington, church vote in, 286.
+
+Acrelius, Dr., quoted, 146.
+
+Adams, Abigail, garden of, 435.
+
+Adams, John, quoted, 71, 160;
+  Sunday dinner of, 159-160;
+  cider-drinking of, 161.
+
+Adams, John Quincy, Mrs., straw bonnet of, 261.
+
+Adams family, homes of, 22.
+
+Albany, houses at, 9;
+  deer in, 109;
+  beer at, 161;
+  bad boys in, 374-375;
+  first church in, 385;
+  cow-herding in, 399.
+
+Alchymy, 88.
+
+Alewives, in New England waters, 120.
+
+Ambrosia, a flower, 450.
+
+Ames, quoted, 136.
+
+Amherst, sign-board at, 360.
+
+Andirons, 62.
+
+Andover, church vote in, 286;
+  bad boy in, 373.
+
+Annapolis, dress in, 293.
+
+Apostle spoons, 90.
+
+Apples, culture of, 145;
+  plenty in Maryland, 145;
+  modes of cooking, 146;
+  in pies, 146.
+
+Apple-butter, 146-147.
+
+Apple-paring, 146-147.
+
+Apple-sauce, 146-147.
+
+Architecture, of churches, 364 _et seq._, 385 _et seq._
+
+Arkamy, 88.
+
+Axe-helves, 314-315.
+
+
+Back-bar of fireplace, description, 53.
+
+Bacon, quoted, 431.
+
+Bagging, from coarse flax, 172.
+
+Bake-kettle, 66.
+
+Bake-shops, 147.
+
+Ballots, of corn and beans, 141.
+
+Balsam, as dye, 194.
+
+Baltimore, dress in, 293;
+  taverns in, 359.
+
+Banyan, 294.
+
+Barberry, root as dye, 194.
+
+Basins, 106.
+
+Bass, in New England waters, 120-121.
+
+Bass-viols, in meeting, 378.
+
+Bates of flax, 169.
+
+Batteau, 329.
+
+Batten, of loom, 220-221.
+
+Baxter, 187.
+
+Bayberry, description, 39;
+  candles of, 39;
+  wax of, 40;
+  laws about, 40;
+  soap from, 255.
+
+Bead bags, 263.
+
+Beam. See Warp-beam.
+
+Beaming, in weaving, 218.
+
+Beans, as ballots, 141;
+  mode of cooking, 145.
+
+Bed coverlet. See Coverlet.
+
+Bedstead, alcove, 55;
+  turn-up, 55-56.
+
+Beer, among Dutch, 161.
+
+Bees, called English flies, 111.
+
+Beehives, 442.
+
+Beetling of flax, 172.
+
+Bell, as summons to meeting, 368.
+
+Belt-loom. See Tape-loom.
+
+Bennet, quoted, 123.
+
+Berkeley, Gov., quoted, 111, 360-361.
+
+Berries, 145.
+
+Betty lamps, 43-44.
+
+Beverages. See Drinks.
+
+Bible, references to flax in, 177.
+
+Biddeford, communal privileges in, 390.
+
+Bier, in weaving, 220.
+
+Birch-bark, doors of, 6;
+  plates of, 83;
+  baskets of, cans of, 253, 310.
+
+Birch broom, making of, 301-303;
+  price of, 302.
+
+Blackjacks, 95-96.
+
+Blazing, of trees, 330.
+
+Bleaching, of flax thread, 175;
+  of linen, 234;
+  of straw bonnets, 261.
+
+Bleeding-basins, 86.
+
+Block-houses, 26.
+
+Boards, scarcity of, 76.
+
+Board cloth, 76-77.
+
+Boardman Hill House, 22.
+
+Bobbins, for weaving. See Quills.
+
+Bobs, of flax, 168.
+
+Bombards, 96.
+
+Books of etiquette, 79.
+
+Bore-staff of loom, 224.
+
+Boston, fire-engine in, 19;
+  early houses of, 19, 27;
+  first fork in, 77;
+  pigeons in, 110;
+  fish in, 123;
+  tea in, 164-165;
+  coffee in, 165;
+  chocolate in, 165;
+  spinning schools in, 180;
+  fulling-mill in, 187;
+  dress in, 292-294;
+  coach in, 331;
+  stage-travel from, 350-351;
+  night watch in, 363;
+  meeting-houses in, 364, 366;
+  restrictions of settlement in, 394;
+  cows in, 400.
+
+Bottles, of wood, 82;
+  of pewter, 85;
+  of glass, 92-93;
+  of leather, 95.
+
+Boucher, Jonathan, quoted, 382.
+
+Bouncing-bet, 427, 447.
+
+Bounty coats, 248.
+
+Bouts, in weaving, 218.
+
+Box-borders, a plea for, 430-431.
+
+Boxing, of maple trees, 112.
+
+Boylston, Nicholas, banyan of, 294.
+
+Boys, clothing of, 287-288;
+  wigs of, 297;
+  seats in meeting for, 372 _et seq._;
+  misbehavior of, 372-373;
+  in church, 384.
+
+Braid-loom. See Tape-loom.
+
+Bradford, Governor, quoted, 129-130.
+
+Bread, white, 147;
+  rye and Indian, 147
+
+Bread-peel, 67.
+
+Breadtrough, 311.
+
+Breakfast, or bread and milk, 148.
+
+Breaking, of flax, 169-170;
+  of hemp, 170.
+
+Breaking out the winter roads, 412 _et seq._
+
+Breweries, in New York, 161.
+
+Brewster, Elder, quoted, 117.
+
+Brick, imported, 21.
+
+British spinning and weaving school, 186.
+
+Broach, 198.
+
+Brooklyn, oysters in, 118-119;
+  salting shad in, 124-125.
+
+Brooms, of broom-corn, 256-257;
+  of birch, 301-304;
+  of hemlock, 304-305.
+
+Broom-corn, 256-257.
+
+Brown University, dress of first graduating class, 183.
+
+Bucking, of flax thread, 175;
+  of linen, 234.
+
+Bull's-eye lamp, 45.
+
+Bun, of flax, 169.
+
+Bunch-thread, 251.
+
+Bundling-mould. See Shingling-mould.
+
+Burlers, in weaving, 252.
+
+Bushnell, Horace, quoted, 246.
+
+Busks, carved, 320.
+
+Butter, price of, 149.
+
+Buttermilk, for bleaching, 175.
+
+
+Caches, for corn, 138.
+
+Cage, for babies, 372;
+  for bad boys, 385.
+
+Calash, 289.
+
+Calf-keeper, duties of, 400.
+
+Cambridge, cow-herding in, 399.
+
+Campbell, Madam Angelica, coach of, 335.
+
+Candles, cost of, 34;
+  making of, 35-37;
+  materials for, 38-39, 42.
+
+Candle-arms, 42.
+
+Candle-beams, 42.
+
+Candle-box, 38.
+
+Candle-dipping, 36.
+
+Candle-moulds, 36-37.
+
+Candle-prongs, 42.
+
+Candle-rods, 36.
+
+Candle-sticks, 42.
+
+Candle-wood, 32.
+
+Canoes, 323-327.
+
+Canteens, of horn, 321.
+
+Captain of the watch, duties of, 380.
+
+Cards. See Wool-cards.
+
+Carding described, 194-196.
+
+Carding-machines, 206.
+
+Card-setting. See Wool-cards.
+
+Capuchins, 295.
+
+Carolinas, sweet potatoes in, 145;
+  hand-weaving in, 249-251;
+  gardens in, 438-439.
+
+Carpet. See Rag carpet.
+
+Carrots, 145.
+
+Carving, terms in, 104-105;
+  of wood, 320;
+  of horn, 321-322.
+
+Caves, description of, 2;
+  for corn, 138.
+
+Cave-dwellers, 1.
+
+Cedar tops, for dyeing, 251.
+
+Cellar of Dutch houses, 10.
+
+Chain in weaving, 250.
+
+Chair-seats, 310-311.
+
+Chaise of Brother Jonathan, 353.
+
+"Change-work," 417.
+
+Chap-men, 300.
+
+Chargers, 80, 84.
+
+Charleston, flax manufacture in, 182-183;
+  dress in, 293;
+  gardens in, 438-439.
+
+Charlevoix, Father, on canoes, 327.
+
+Chaucer, quoted, on spinning, 179.
+
+Chebobbin, 415.
+
+Cheese, making of, 150.
+
+Cheese-basket, 150-151.
+
+Cheese-hoop, 312.
+
+Cheese-ladder, 150-151, 312.
+
+Cheese-press, 150-151, 312.
+
+Chesapeake, turkeys on, 109;
+  wild fowl on, 125.
+
+Chicory, introduction of, 449.
+
+Children, at table, 101-102;
+  occupations of, 179-180, 182, 188-189, 203-204, 261-262;
+  dress of, 287;
+  in meeting, 372 _et seq._;
+  in noon-house, 376.
+
+Chimney, catted, 15, 53;
+  size of, 52, 68;
+  description, 53;
+  in Dutch houses, 55.
+
+China, early use of, 100;
+  importation of, 100-101.
+
+Chinese stuffs, 294.
+
+Chinking walls, 5.
+
+Chopping-bee, 403 _et seq._
+
+Chorister, in Dutch churches, 386.
+
+Churches, in Virginia, 381-383;
+  in Albany, 385.
+  See also Meeting-house.
+
+Churns, few in New England, 149;
+  examples of, 149-150;
+  whittling of, 312.
+
+Cider, use by children, 148-149, 161;
+  use by students, 161;
+  price of, 161;
+  manufacture of, 161-162;
+  generous use of, 161-163.
+
+Clam-shells, use of, 308-309.
+
+Clarionets, in meeting, 378.
+
+Clavell-piece, 54.
+
+Clay, for dyeing, 241.
+
+Clergymen, in Virginia, 384.
+
+Clocks, 299.
+
+Clock-jack, 65.
+
+Clock-reel, 174-175;
+  price of, 177;
+  for yarn, 200.
+
+Clogs, 295.
+
+Cloth, finishing of, 231-233.
+
+Cloth bar, 224.
+
+Clothes, durability of, 281;
+  extravagance in, 281;
+  laws about, 281 _et seq._;
+  of Massachusetts settlers, 286-287;
+  of Virginia planters, 287;
+  of children, 288 _et seq._
+
+Coaches, in Boston, 331, 353-354;
+  in England, 354;
+  Judge Sewall on, 354;
+  in New York, 354-355.
+  See also Stage-coach.
+
+Coat-of-arms, on sampler, 267.
+
+Coat roll, 248.
+
+Cob irons, 62.
+
+Cocoanut-cups, 96-97.
+
+Codfish, early discoverers on, 115-116;
+  plenty of, 115;
+  in New England waters, 120-121;
+  varieties of, 121;
+  for Saturday dinner, 122;
+  price in Boston, 123.
+  See Fish and Fishing.
+
+Coffee, substitutes for, 159;
+  early use of, 165;
+  queer mode of cooking, 165.
+
+Colchester, girls' life in, 253.
+
+Cold houses, 70-71.
+
+Cold party, 419.
+
+Colored herbs, 430.
+
+Coloring, 23.
+
+Combing, description of, 196.
+
+Combing machine, 230.
+
+Combs. See Wool-combs.
+
+Comfortier, 69.
+
+Common crops, 130.
+
+Common herds. See Herding.
+
+Common lands, 398.
+
+Communal privileges, 390 _et seq._
+
+Conch-shell, as summons to meeting, 367-368.
+
+Concord coaches, 352-353.
+
+Concordance, 33.
+
+Conestoga wagon, 339-343;
+  shape of, 339;
+  rates on, 340;
+  great number of, 340.
+
+Connecticut, tar-making in, 33;
+  pumpkin bread in, 143;
+  flax culture in, 179;
+  straw manufacture in, 260.
+
+Contributions in New England meetings, 378;
+  in Dutch churches, 386-387.
+
+Cooking, influence of Indian methods, 131-136;
+  English modes of, 151;
+  spices used in, 152;
+  limitations in, 158-159.
+
+Cooeperation in olden times, 389 _et seq._
+
+Corbel roof, 9.
+
+Coreopsis, persistence of, 448.
+
+Corn, influence on colonists' lives, 126;
+  in Virginia, 127-128;
+  price of, 128, 138;
+  scarcity of, 129;
+  mode of cultivating, 130-131;
+  Indian foods from, 131;
+  Indian modes of preparing, 131;
+  modes of cooking, 133-136;
+  as currency, 138;
+  profits on raising, 139;
+  games with, 139;
+  shelling of, 139-140;
+  as ballots, 141;
+  as national flower, 141.
+
+Corn-cobs, use of, 141, 209.
+
+Corn dances, 138.
+
+Corn-husking, description of, 136.
+
+Corn-sheller, 140-141.
+
+Cotton, early use of, 206-207;
+  cultivation of, 207;
+  rarity of, 207-208;
+  domestic manufacture, 209-210;
+  Golden Age of, 230.
+
+Cotton-gin, 208.
+
+Cotton, John, quoted, 148, 285.
+
+Coverlets, in Pennsylvania, 190;
+  in Narragansett, 242-246.
+
+Cows, herding of, 399-401.
+
+Cowherds, duties of, 399-400;
+  pay of, 399.
+
+Cowkeeps, 399.
+
+Cow-pens, 400.
+
+Crabs, in Virginia, 118.
+
+Crane, 53.
+
+Creepers, 62.
+
+Crocus, 237.
+
+Crofting, of linen, 234.
+
+Crown-imperial, 425.
+
+Cups, 85, 90, 93-96.
+
+Currency, corn as, 138.
+
+"Cut-down," of trees, 405.
+
+Cutler, Dr., quoted, 159.
+
+Cut-tails, 122-123.
+
+
+Daffodils, 426-427.
+
+Dale, Sir Thomas, on corn-growing, 127;
+  on Sunday observance, 380.
+
+Danvers, Mass., house in, 30.
+
+Daubing walls, 5.
+
+Daughters of Liberty, 183-184.
+
+Day's work in spinning, 185.
+
+Deacons, in Dutch churches, 386-387.
+
+Deacons' pew, 374.
+
+"Deaconing" the psalm, 378.
+
+Deaf pew, 374.
+
+Dedham, Mass., house in, 22-23.
+
+Deer, abundance of, 108-109;
+  description of, 108.
+
+Deerskin, clothing of, 288-289.
+
+De La Warre, church attendance of, 382.
+
+Delaware, house pie in, 146.
+
+Delft ware, 100.
+
+Dents, of sley, 219-220.
+
+Designs, for weaving, 243-244, 250-251;
+  of ancient Gauls, 242;
+  for quilts, 272-273;
+  for paper-cutting, 278-289.
+
+Dew-retting, 169.
+
+Dimity, 250.
+
+Dinner, serving of, 104;
+  primitive forms, 105-106;
+  for Saturday, 122;
+  in New York, 159;
+  at John Adams' home, 159-160.
+
+Discomforts of temperature, 70-71.
+
+Distaff, in India, 178.
+
+Dogs, in meeting, 374.
+
+Dog-pelter, 374.
+
+Dog-whipper, 374.
+
+Donnison family, fire buckets of, 18.
+
+Door latch, 11, 318.
+
+Dorchester, windmill at, 133;
+  corporation, laws in, 392, 394.
+
+Double string-roaster, 64.
+
+Drawing, in weaving, 219.
+
+Drawing a bore, 224.
+
+Dress. See Clothes.
+
+Dresser, 68.
+
+Drinking-cups, 85-96, 98.
+
+Drinks, from curious materials, 163.
+
+Drinking habits, 93-94, 161, 164.
+
+Drinking-horns, 321.
+
+Driver, 198.
+
+Drugget, 250.
+
+Drum, as summons to meeting, 367, 368.
+
+Duck. See Wild fowl.
+
+Duer, Colonel, dinner of, 159.
+
+Dugouts, 326.
+
+Dunfish, 121-122.
+  Also see Codfish.
+
+Durability of homespun, 238-239.
+
+Durham, church discipline in, 372.
+
+Dutch mode of serving meals, 106.
+
+Dutch oven, 65.
+
+Dyes, domestic, 155, 193-194, 250-251.
+
+Dye-flower, 251.
+
+
+Earmarks, 400.
+
+Eastern Stage Company, 351.
+
+Economy of colonists, 42, 185, 321-324;
+  of Martha Washington, 237-238.
+
+Eddis, quoted, 118.
+
+Eels, method of catching, 117.
+
+Egypt, flax in, 177-178; linen in, 178.
+
+Embroidery. See Needlework.
+
+Emerson, R. W., appointed hog-reeve, 403.
+
+Endicott, Governor, sun-dial of, 443;
+  his introduction of woad-wax, 448.
+
+Entering, in weaving. See Drawing.
+
+Ernst, C. W., quoted, 343, 345.
+
+Etiquette for children, 100-102;
+  of carving, 104-105.
+
+Eye, of harness, 218.
+
+Fairbanks, Jacob, house of, 22-23;
+  sun-dial of, 443.
+
+Fairs, instituted by Penn, 190;
+  encouraged by Franklin, 191.
+
+Faneuil, Miss, dress of, 292.
+
+Fences, different varieties of, 25;
+  common building of, 401-402;
+  laws about, 401-402.
+
+Fence-viewers, 401.
+
+Ferries, by canoe, 330-331.
+
+Finlay, Hugh, postal report of, 333-335.
+
+Fireback, 54.
+
+Fire-buckets, description, 16;
+  use of, 17;
+  of Donnison's, 18;
+  of Quincy's, 18;
+  of Oliver's, 19.
+
+Fire-dogs, 62.
+
+Fire-engine, first in Boston, 19;
+  first in Brooklyn, 19.
+
+Fire-hunting, 108-109.
+
+Fire lanes, 16.
+
+Fire laws, 15.
+
+Fireplace of our fathers, 53.
+
+Fire-plate, 54-55.
+
+Fire-room, 7.
+
+Fire-wardens, 15.
+
+Fish, plenty of, 115-125;
+  varieties of, in New England waters, 117;
+  in Virginia waters, 119;
+  in New York waters, 120;
+  salted, 124-125;
+  as fertilizer, 130;
+  poisoned by flax, 169.
+
+Fishing, King James on, 116;
+  ill-success in, 117;
+  supplies for, 117;
+  in Virginia, 119-120;
+  encouragement of, 121;
+  laws on, 121;
+  division of profit, 122, 123.
+
+Fish-weirs, 121.
+
+Flag, as summons to meeting, 368.
+
+Flails, making of, 312; use of, 313-314.
+
+Flannel sheets, 238.
+
+Flax, patch of, 167;
+  blossom of, 167;
+  growth of, 168;
+  weeding of, 168;
+  ripening of, 168;
+  pulling of, 168;
+  spreading of, 168;
+  rippling of, 168-169;
+  watering of, 169;
+  stacking of, 169;
+  breaking of, 169-170;
+  tenacity of, 171;
+  swingling of, 171-172;
+  beetling of, 172;
+  hetcheling of, 172-173;
+  spreading and drawing, 173;
+  many manipulations of, 173;
+  spinning of, 174;
+  in Bible, 177;
+  in Egypt, 177-178;
+  in New England, 179-181, 186;
+  in Pennsylvania, 181;
+  in Virginia, 181, 182;
+  in South Carolina, 182-183;
+  in Ireland, 186;
+  in Courtrai, 186;
+  in England, 186.
+
+Flax basket, 173.
+
+Flax-brake, 169-170.
+
+Flax hetchels, 172.
+
+Flaxseed, how sown, 167;
+  how gathered, 168, 176;
+  how stored, 176.
+
+Flax-thread, spinning of, 174;
+  knotting of, 175;
+  reeling of, 175;
+  bleaching of, 175;
+  backing of, 175.
+
+Flax-wheel, revival of, 167;
+  use of, 174;
+  price of, 177.
+
+Flint and steel, 48.
+
+Flower, a national, 141.
+
+Flowers, in churches, 383;
+  old-time, 421 _et seq._;
+  folk-names of, 448;
+  age of, 443-445;
+  persistency of, 447;
+  escaped from cultivation, 448.
+
+Flower-seeds, sold by women, 440-441;
+  old list of, 441.
+
+Flutes, in meeting, 378.
+
+Flying-machine, 345.
+
+Fly-shuttle, 228.
+
+Food, from forests, 108-114;
+  from sea and river, 114-125;
+  transportation of, 143;
+  entirely from farm, 158;
+  substitutes, 158-159.
+
+Foot-mantle, 295.
+
+Foot-paths, 329.
+
+Foot-stoves, 375, 385.
+
+Foot-treadle, of loom, 219.
+
+Foot-wheel. See Flax-wheel.
+
+Foote, Abigail, diary of, 253.
+
+Forefathers' Dinner, 129.
+
+Forests, destruction of, 52;
+  riches of, 108-114.
+
+Forms, 101.
+
+Forks, use of, 77;
+  first, 77.
+
+Forts, as churches, 365, 385.
+
+Fox, George, bequest of, 437.
+
+Franklin, quoted, 53, 181;
+  fairs encouraged by, 191;
+  advertisement of, 292-293;
+  as postmaster, 333;
+  set milestones, 335;
+  cyclometer of, 335-336;
+  on canals, 353;
+  in sedan-chair, 356.
+
+Franklin stove, 70.
+
+Fraxinella, 449.
+
+Fringe-loom, 227.
+
+Frocking, striped, 237.
+
+Fulling-mill, in Boston, 188.
+
+Fulling-stocks, 232.
+
+Fulham jugs, 98.
+
+Funerals, rings at, 298;
+  gloves at, 298-299.
+
+Furs, search for, 115.
+
+Fustian, in America, 237;
+  in Europe, 237.
+
+
+Gallows-balke, 53.
+
+Gallows-crooks, 53.
+
+Gallows-frame. See Tape-loom.
+
+Gambrels, 310.
+
+Gambrel roof, description, 22.
+
+Games, with corn, 139.
+
+Garden, an old-time, 419 _et seq._;
+  in New England, 419 _et seq._;
+  in southern colonies, 438-439;
+  in New York, 439-440.
+
+Garnish of pewter, 85.
+
+Garrison house, 26.
+
+Garter-loom. See Tape-loom.
+
+Geese, raising of, 257-258;
+  pickings of, 257-259;
+  noise of, 258.
+
+Georgia, deer in, 109;
+  turkeys in, 110;
+  hand-weaving in, 249-251.
+
+Georgius Rex jug, 99.
+
+Germantown, flax-raising at, 181;
+  flax-workers at, 181;
+  seal of, 181;
+  wool manufacture at, 190.
+
+Gibcrokes, 53.
+
+Gimlet, 305.
+
+Giotto, loom of, 213.
+
+Girdling, of trees, 403.
+
+Girls, dress of, 289-292;
+  seats in meeting for, 372.
+
+Giskins, 96.
+
+Glass, in windows, 23, 366;
+  nailed in, 366;
+  for lamps, 46;
+  early use of, 92.
+
+Gloucester, old house at, 70;
+  fishing at, 122-123;
+  communal privileges in, 390.
+
+Gloves, given at funerals, 298-299.
+
+Going a-leafing, 67.
+
+Goldenrod, as dye, 193.
+
+Goloe-shoes, 295.
+
+Gookin, quoted, 137.
+
+Goose-basket, 258.
+
+Goose-neck andirons, 62.
+
+Goose yoke, 258.
+
+Gorse. See Woad-wax.
+
+Gourds, cups of, 96;
+  utensils of, 309.
+
+Grant, Mrs. Anne, on Dutch gardens, 439.
+
+Grapes, 145.
+
+Grassing, of linen, 234.
+
+Greeley, Horace, on canal-travel, 353.
+
+Gridirons, 61.
+
+Grist-mill, earliest, 133.
+
+Guinea wheat, 129. See Corn.
+
+Gun, as summons to meeting, 368.
+
+Gundalow, 329.
+
+Gutters of houses, 9.
+
+
+Hackling. See Hetcheling.
+
+Hadley, shad in, 123-124;
+  potatoes in, 144;
+  broom-making in, 256-257;
+  restrictions of settlement in, 392-393;
+  hay-ward in, 402.
+
+Hakes, 53.
+
+Half-faced camp, 3.
+
+Hammond, John, quoted, 395.
+
+Hamor, Ralph, quoted, 143.
+
+Hancock House, knocker of, 28;
+  on sampler, 268.
+
+Hancock, John, hatred of pewter, 85;
+  drinking cup of, 97;
+  dress of, 293.
+
+Hand-distaff. See Distaff.
+
+Hand-loom. See Loom.
+
+Hand-reel. See Niddy-noddy.
+
+Hap-harlot, 242.
+
+Harness. See Heddle.
+
+Harvard College, standing salt of, 78-79;
+  trenchers at, 81.
+
+Hasty pudding, 135.
+
+Hats, worn in meeting, 285;
+  church votes about, 286.
+
+Hay-wards, 402.
+
+Heddle of loom, 219.
+
+Heddle-frame. See Tape-loom.
+
+Heel-pegs. See Shoe-pegs.
+
+Hemlock, brooms of, 304-305;
+  boxes of, 310.
+
+Hemp, blossom of, 167;
+  breaking of, 169.
+
+Herding, of cows, 399-401;
+  of sheep, 401;
+  of swine, 403.
+
+Hetcheling of flax, 172.
+
+Hexe, of flax, 169.
+
+Hides, use of, 109;
+  tax on, 109.
+
+Higginson, quoted, 33, 35, 117, 148.
+
+Hind's-foot handle, 90.
+
+Hinges, material of, 9, 318.
+
+Hingham, church at, 365.
+
+Hogarth, loom of, 213-214.
+
+Hogs, as scavengers, 125;
+  yokes of, 311;
+  laws about, 402-403.
+
+Hog-reeves, 402-403.
+
+Homespun industries, 167;
+  beneficent effect of, 179;
+  foundation of liberty, 189.
+
+Hominy, 131.
+
+Honey, plenty of, 111.
+
+Honey-locust, 163.
+
+Horn, spoons of, 88;
+  cups of, 96;
+  as summons to meeting, 368.
+
+Horse-blocks, in front of churches, 367.
+
+Horse-bridges, 331.
+
+Horse-laurel, as dye, 194.
+
+Hose. See Stockings.
+
+Hospitality, in Southern colonies, 395 _et seq._
+
+Hound handle, 100.
+
+Hour-glass, in meeting, 376.
+
+Housekeeper, qualifications of, 252-253.
+
+House pie, 146.
+
+House-raising. See Raising.
+
+Hyperion tea, 165.
+
+
+India china, 100.
+
+Indians, houses of, 3-4;
+  caves of, 138;
+  corn dances of, 138;
+  cultivation of corn by, 126-131;
+  endurance of, 137;
+  mode of cooking corn, 131-135;
+  names of corn foods, 131-137;
+  mode of drying pumpkins, 143;
+  spoons of, 88;
+  mode of cooking beans, 145;
+  brooms of, 301-304;
+  four best things, 304;
+  modes of travel of, 325;
+  boats of, 325;
+  paths of, 329-330.
+
+Indian corn. See Corn.
+
+Indian pudding, 135.
+
+Indigo, as dye, 193.
+
+Inns. See Taverns.
+
+Invention, of cotton-gin, 208;
+  of fly-shuttle, 228;
+  of spinning-jenny, 229;
+  of throstle-spun yarn, 229;
+  of combing-machine, 230;
+  of flax-spinning machine, 230-231.
+
+Ipswich, grist-mill at, 133.
+
+Iris, as dye, 193.
+
+Itineracies, old-time, 176, 300-301.
+
+
+Jack-knife, 307-308.
+
+Jacks, 64.
+
+James I. on fishing, 116.
+
+Jamestown, spinning-schools at, 182;
+  summons to meeting at, 367.
+
+Jeans, 250.
+
+Jefferson, Thomas, quoted, 207, 256;
+  hospitality of, 397;
+  impoverishment of, 397-398.
+
+Jewellery, slight wear of, 297.
+
+Johnson, quoted, 143, 145, 188.
+
+Johnson, Governor, baby clothes of, 265.
+
+Johnny-cakes, 135.
+
+Josselyn, quoted, 117;
+  his list of plants in New England, 432 _et seq._
+
+Judd, Sylvester, quoted, 216, 237.
+
+Jugs, of stoneware, 98.
+
+Jumel, Madame, cave house of, 3.
+
+
+Kalm, quoted, 39-40;
+  on squirrels, 110;
+  on bees, 111;
+  on maize bread, 134;
+  on canoes, 326-327;
+  on the plantain, 436.
+
+Kearsarge, Mount, romance of, 405.
+
+Kentucky, hand-weaving in, 249.
+
+Ketch, 328.
+
+Kill-devil. See Rum.
+
+Killing time, 153.
+
+King Hooper house, 30.
+
+Kitchen, description, 52;
+  in rhyme, 73-75.
+
+Knife. See Jack-knife.
+
+Knife-racks, 68.
+
+Knights, Madame, quoted, 8;
+  on canoes, 327-328;
+  journey of, 332;
+  on sleighs, 355.
+
+Knitting, 190;
+  yarn for, 201;
+  by children, 261-262;
+  elaborate designs, 262.
+
+Knitting machine, 190.
+
+Knives, of flax brake, 170.
+
+Knocker, Hancock house, 28;
+  Winslow house, 29.
+
+Knots, of flax thread, 175.
+
+Krankbesoeckers, 385.
+
+
+Labadist missionaries, quoted, 118-119.
+
+Lad's lore, 428.
+
+Lamps, 43-45.
+
+Lathe. See Batten.
+
+Latten ware, 58.
+
+Laws, about flax culture, 179-180;
+  about dress, 282-284;
+  about ferries, 330-331;
+  about mail, 334;
+  about taverns, 357;
+  on observance of Sunday, 378-379;
+  of warning out, 392 _et seq._;
+  about fences, 401-402.
+
+Lay, of loom. See Batten.
+
+Laying a fire, 74.
+
+Lays, of flax thread, 175.
+
+Lean-to, description, 22.
+
+Leashes, of heddle, 219.
+
+Leather, utensils of, 95-96.
+
+Letters. See Post.
+
+Liberty Tea, 165.
+
+Lincoln, Abraham, early home of, 4;
+  rail-splitting, 25.
+
+Linden, fibre from, 211.
+
+Linen, manipulations of, 234;
+  clothing of, 234;
+  sentiment of, 234;
+  price of, 234;
+  checked, 238.
+
+Lining the psalm, 378.
+
+Litster, 187.
+
+Livingstone, John, clothing of, 288.
+
+Loaf-sugar. See Sugar-cones.
+
+Lobsters, plenty of, 117;
+  vast size of, 118.
+
+Logan, Mrs., on flower-raising, 438.
+
+Log cabin, forms of, 5.
+
+Logging-bee, 416, 417.
+
+Log-rolling, 389, 404, 406.
+
+Longfellow, quoted, 327.
+
+Long Island, bayberries on, 40;
+  samp-mortars on, 133;
+  wool raising on, 191;
+  bad boys on, 373;
+  Sunday observance on, 385;
+  cow-herding on, 400.
+
+Long-short, 236-237.
+
+Loom, antiquity of, 213-214;
+  of Giotto, 213;
+  of Hogarth, 213-214;
+  description of, 214.
+  See Power-loom, Tape-loom.
+
+Loom-room, 212.
+
+Louisiana, corn in, 128;
+  petticoat rebellion in, 128;
+  hand-weaving in, 250.
+
+Lowell, quoted, 73.
+
+Lucas, Governor, quoted, 182-183.
+
+Lug-pole, 53.
+
+Luxury, after the Revolution, 159-160.
+
+Lye, making of, 254.
+
+
+MacMaster, quoted, 207.
+
+Madison, Dolly, dress of, 290.
+
+Mail, of heddle, 219.
+
+Mail. See Post.
+
+Mail coaches, 344, 350.
+
+Maine, windows in, 23;
+  candle-wood in, 32;
+  chums in, 149;
+  axe-making in, 315.
+
+Maize. See Corn.
+
+Mandillion, 287.
+
+Manhattan, bark houses on, 4;
+  palisados on, 24.
+
+Manners. See Etiquette.
+
+Maple sugar, old description of, 111;
+  manufacture of, 111-112.
+
+Maple-wood, bowls of, 82, 318-320.
+
+Marblehead, fishing at, 122-123.
+
+Marigolds, 427.
+
+Marmalades, 152.
+
+Maryland, houses in, 11;
+  wild fowl in, 125;
+  apples in, 145;
+  hospitality in, 396-397.
+
+Masks, 290.
+
+Massachusetts, cave dwellings in, 1;
+  palisados in, 24;
+  venison in, 109;
+  fish in, 123;
+  flax culture in, 179-180;
+  wool-raising in, 188;
+  bounty in, 205;
+  sumptuary laws in, 281-284;
+  outfit for settlers, 286-287;
+  ferries in, 330-331.
+
+Matches, first, 50-51.
+
+Mazer, 319.
+
+Mead, 163.
+
+Meeting-house, in Boston, 364, 366;
+  in Salem, 364;
+  in Hingham, 365;
+  descriptions of, 364, 366-369.
+
+Metheglin, 163.
+
+Metheglin cups, 85.
+
+Metzel-soup, 419.
+
+Milestones, 335-336.
+
+Milford, Conn., palisados in, 24.
+
+Milk, price of, 148; use as food, 148.
+
+Milk pitchers, names of, 106.
+
+Milkweed, for candle wicks, 35, 211.
+
+Mill, Indian, 132.
+
+Mince-pies, pioneer, 159.
+
+Ministers, encourage fisheries, 121.
+
+Mittens, fine knitting of, 262;
+  quick knitting of, 262.
+
+Modesty-piece, 270-271.
+
+Molasses, for New England slave-trade, 163.
+
+Monkey spoons, 90.
+
+Moore, Thomas, quoted, 348.
+
+Mortar, Indian, 132.
+
+Morton, quoted, 120-121.
+
+Moss-pink, 423.
+
+Mount Vernon, description of, 13;
+  weaving at, 237;
+  garden at, 431.
+
+Mourning rings. See Rings.
+
+Mourning samplers, 268-269.
+
+Muffs, worn by men, 298, 386.
+
+Mutton, its disuse previous to Revolution, 189, 191.
+
+Nails, scarcity of, 11.
+
+Napkins, use of, 77.
+
+Narragansett, hand-weaving in, 241-244;
+  shift marriages in, 241-242;
+  old quilt in, 275-276;
+  threshing in, 313-314.
+
+Needlework, stitches in, 264-265;
+  delicacy of, 265;
+  rules for, 265.
+
+Neighborhood, title of settlement, 391.
+
+Neighbors, old-time, 388 _et seq._, 395 _et seq._
+
+Netting, 263-264.
+
+Nettles, fibre spun, 211.
+
+New Amsterdam, first church in, 385;
+  laws about fences in, 401-402.
+
+Newman, Rev. Mr., manner of work, 33.
+
+Newburyport, house at, 27;
+  straw bleaching at, 261;
+  sumptuary laws in, 283;
+  fines in, 374.
+
+New England, houses in, 15;
+  candle-wood in, 32;
+  lobsters in, 117;
+  fisheries in, 117-124;
+  Indian corn in, 127-136;
+  mills in, 131-133;
+  pumpkins in, 142-143;
+  potatoes in, 144;
+  squashes in, 144;
+  milk and ministers in, 148;
+  churns in, 149;
+  cider in, 161-162;
+  rum in, 163-164;
+  slavery in, 164;
+  wool-raising in, 188-189;
+  taverns in, 356-357;
+  watchmen in, 363;
+  meeting-houses in, 365 _et seq._;
+  summons to meeting in, 368;
+  Sunday observance in, 378 _et seq._;
+  "taste of dinner in," 418;
+  old-time gardens in, 421 _et seq._
+
+New Hampshire, candle-wood in, 32;
+  potatoes in, 144;
+  pioneer mince-pies in, 159;
+  wheelwrights in, 176;
+  flax manufacture in, 180, 236;
+  fine knitting in, 269;
+  birch brooms in, 304.
+
+New Haven, restrictions in, 392.
+
+New London, mill at, 133.
+
+Newport, box plants at, 430;
+  garden in, 437-438.
+
+New York, houses in, 8;
+  candle-wood in, 32;
+  first fork in, 78;
+  venison in, 109;
+  lobsters at, 118;
+  fish in, 120;
+  salting shad in, 124-125;
+  suppawn in, 133;
+  ale and beer in, 161;
+  wool-raising in, 191;
+  dress in, 292;
+  turnpikes in, 349-350;
+  coaches in, 354-355;
+  sleighs in, 355;
+  street lighting in, 362;
+  watch in, 363;
+  Sunday observance in, 384;
+  cow-herding in, 399;
+  gardens in, 439-440.
+
+Niddy-noddy, 200-201; carved, 320.
+
+Nightgowns, 294.
+
+Nocake, description of, 137;
+  use of, 137;
+  Eliot's use of word, 137-138.
+
+Noggins, 82.
+
+Noil, 196.
+
+Nokick. See Nocake.
+
+Noon-houses, 374-375.
+
+Noon-marks, 299.
+
+Norridgewock, life-work of a citizen of, 407-408.
+
+Northampton, sumptuary laws in, 283-284.
+
+Northboro, spinning match at, 184.
+
+North Saugus, house in, 21.
+
+Norwich, naughty girl in, 373.
+
+Notices, nailed on church doors, 367.
+
+Nott, President, story of boyhood, 202-203.
+
+
+Occamy, 88.
+
+Occupations, of children, 179, 180, 182, 186, 437;
+  of women, 187.
+
+Oiled paper for windows, 23, 366.
+
+Old South Church, on sampler, 268.
+
+Old Ship, 365.
+
+Old South, 366.
+
+Opening in land, clearing, 406.
+
+Ordinary, name for tavern, 356.
+
+Osenbrigs, 288.
+
+Otis, Hannah, sampler of, 268.
+
+Overhang, in walls, 19-20.
+
+Ovens, 67.
+
+Ox-bows, 311.
+
+Oxen, sign of distress in, 413.
+
+Oysters, in Brooklyn, 118-119;
+  in Virginia, 119;
+  vast size of, 119.
+
+
+Pace-weight, of loom, 224.
+
+Pack-horses, use of, 336-339;
+  pay for, 337;
+  load of, 337-338.
+
+Pails, early, 58.
+
+Paint, not used, 23.
+
+Pales. See Fences.
+
+Palfrey, quoted, 122.
+
+Palisado, description of, 24.
+
+Pansy, folk-names of, 425-426.
+
+Paper-cutting. See Papyrotamia.
+
+Papyrotamia, 277-278.
+
+Parley, Peter, reminiscence of, 140.
+
+Parsnips, 145.
+
+Pastorius, Father, his choice for seal, 181;
+  his encouragement of gardening, 436.
+
+Patchwork. See Quilt-piecing.
+
+Patent, first to Americans, 138-139, 260.
+
+Pattens, 295.
+
+Paupers, in Narragansett, 313;
+  treatment of, in New England, 324.
+
+Pawn, 55.
+
+Pawtucket, cotton thread in, 207.
+
+Pay, for spinning, 185;
+  for weaving, 230, 250;
+  for cow-herding, 399;
+  of swineherds, 403.
+
+Peabody, Francis, house of, 31.
+
+Peachy, 163.
+
+Peas, 145.
+
+Peel, 67.
+
+Pegging, 262.
+
+Pelisses, 295.
+
+Penn, William, fairs instituted by, 190.
+
+Pennsylvania, cave-dwellers in, 2;
+  stoves in, 69;
+  squirrels in, 110;
+  wool manufacture in, 190;
+  dress in, 292-293;
+  mail in, 333;
+  post-rider, 335;
+  transportation in, 335-344;
+  roads in, 339;
+  turnpikes in, 349;
+  coaching in, 350-351;
+  metzel-soup in, 419;
+  gardens in, 436-437.
+
+Peonies, 421.
+
+Perfumes, in cooking, 152;
+  of old garden flowers, 424;
+  of sweet-scented leaves, 449 _et seq._
+
+Periagua, 329.
+
+Perry, 163.
+
+Peter, Hugh, encourages fisheries, 121.
+
+Petticoat rebellion, 128.
+
+Petunias, 428.
+
+Pews, described, 368 _et seq._
+
+Pewter, for lamps, 44-45;
+  for utensils, 84-85;
+  on dresser, 68;
+  lids of, 100.
+
+Phoebe-lamps, 44.
+
+Philadelphia, early houses in, 15;
+  luxurious dinners in, 160;
+  straw manufacture in, 260;
+  travel from, 347-350;
+  taverns in, 359;
+  cow-herding in, 400-401.
+
+Pickling, old-time, 152.
+
+Pierce Garrison House, 26.
+
+Pierpont, Rev. John, verses of, 306-307.
+
+Pies, 146.
+
+Pigeons, plenty of, 110;
+  price of, 110.
+
+Pilgrims, starvation of, 129.
+
+Piling-bee, 406.
+
+Pillions, 331-332.
+
+Pillory, location of, 367.
+
+Pinckney, Mrs., exchange of flowers of, 439.
+
+Pinehurst, hand-weaving in, 250-251.
+
+Pine-knots, use of, 32-33.
+
+Pink, name of vessel, 328.
+
+Pinks, varieties of, 427.
+
+Pipe shelves, 68.
+
+Pipe-tongs, 68-69.
+
+Pitch-pipes, in meeting, 378.
+
+Plantain, romance of, 435-436.
+
+Plate-racks, 68.
+
+Plate-warmer, 61.
+
+Plymouth, vacant fields at, 130;
+  sampler at, 266.
+
+Pokeberry, as dye, 193.
+
+Pompion. See Pumpkin.
+
+Pones, 134.
+
+Pop-corn, 135.
+
+Poplar wood, use of, 81-82.
+
+Porcelain. See China.
+
+Porringers, 85-86.
+
+Porter's fluid, 45.
+
+Portsmouth, old house at, 21.
+
+Portulaca, 429.
+
+Posnet, 87.
+
+Possing, of linen, 234.
+
+Post, first, 332; duties of, 332-333;
+  in Virginia, 333;
+  report about, 333-335.
+
+Potatoes, in New England, 144;
+  queer modes of cooking, 144-145.
+  See Sweet potatoes.
+
+Potato-boiler, 57.
+
+Pot-brakes, 53.
+
+Pot-clips, 53.
+
+Pot-crooks, 53.
+
+Pot-hangers, 53.
+
+Pothooks, 53.
+
+Pots, cost of, 56;
+  size of, 56.
+
+Pound-keepers, 400.
+
+Powder-horns, 320-321.
+
+Powdering of hair, 297.
+
+Powdering tub, 153.
+
+Power-loom, 230.
+
+Powhatan, teaches corn-planting, 127.
+
+Prairie-schooner. See Conestoga wagon.
+
+Prayers, length of, 376;
+  with the sick, 419.
+
+Preserving, old-time, 152.
+
+Printer, dress of, 293.
+
+Providence, straw manufacture in, 260;
+  restrictions in, 392.
+
+Psalm-singing, 376 _et seq._
+
+Puddings, of corn, 135.
+
+Pudding-time, 104, 160.
+
+Pue. See Pews.
+
+Pulling of flax, 168.
+
+Pulpits, 368, 385.
+
+Pumpkin, tributes to, 143;
+  modes of cooking, 143;
+  their plenty, 143;
+  shells of, 309.
+
+Puncheon floor, 6.
+
+
+Quakers, dress of, 258, 292.
+
+Quarels, of glass, 9.
+
+Quarnes, 133.
+
+Quiddonies, 152.
+
+Quills, for weaving, 216;
+  from geese, 259.
+
+Quilling-wheel, 216, 229.
+
+Quilts, piecing of, 270-275;
+  materials for, 272-274;
+  patterns for, 272-275;
+  quilting of, 273-274.
+
+Quince drink, 96.
+
+Quincy family, fire-buckets of, 18;
+  samplers of, 266-267.
+
+Quincy, Josiah, quoted, 341-342, 346.
+
+
+Raddle, of loom, 219.
+
+Rag carpet, 239-240.
+
+Rail-fence, 25.
+
+Raising, of a house, 408 _et seq._
+
+Rake. See Raddle.
+
+Ramsay, quoted, 395-396.
+
+Randolph, John, quoted, 205.
+
+Raspberry leaves for tea, 158, 165.
+
+Rattle-watch, 362.
+
+Ravel. See Raddle.
+
+Reading, communal privileges in, 391.
+
+Recons, 53.
+
+Reed. See Sley.
+
+Reed-hook. See Sley-hook.
+
+Reel, triple, 200.
+  See Clock-reel and Niddy-noddy.
+
+Revolution, influences towards success, 166-167, 189.
+
+Rhode Island, stage-coach in, 346.
+
+Rhode Island College. See Brown University.
+
+Ribbon-beds, 445.
+
+Ribbon-grass, 430.
+
+Ride-and-tie system, 332.
+
+Rings, wearing of, 297;
+  at funerals, 298.
+
+Rippling of flax, 168-169;
+  of hemp, 169.
+
+Rippling-comb, 168;
+  of Egyptians, 178.
+
+Roasting ears, 134.
+
+Roasting-kitchens, 65.
+
+Rock for spinning, in Egypt, 178;
+  in India, 178;
+  in New England, 179.
+
+Rock-candy, 157.
+
+Rocking-tree, of loom, 220.
+
+Rochester, house-raising at, 410.
+
+Rolliches, 154.
+
+Rolling-roads, 330.
+
+Rolling-up a house, 6.
+
+Roof, of Dutch houses, 10;
+  gambrel, 22.
+
+Roquelaure, 295.
+
+Rosselini, quoted, 178.
+
+Roving, of yarn, 201.
+
+Rowley, spinning match at, 184.
+
+Ruffler for flax, 172.
+
+Rum, manufacture of, 163;
+  in New England, 163;
+  in slave-trade, 163-164;
+  at house-raisings, 410.
+
+Rush, for scouring, 85.
+
+Rushlight, 38.
+
+Rutland, cave-dwellers in, 3.
+
+
+Sabba-day house. See Noon-house.
+
+Sabin Hall, 14.
+
+Sack, law of sale, 357.
+
+Sacjes, 386-387.
+
+Saco, communal privileges in, 390.
+
+Safeguards, 295.
+
+Salem, coloring houses at, 23;
+  lobsters at, 117;
+  fisheries at, 121;
+  milk in, 148;
+  sumptuary laws in, 283;
+  taverns at, 356-357;
+  night-watch in, 363;
+  meeting-house in, 364;
+  seats for boys at meeting in, 372;
+  swineherds in, 403.
+
+Saler, 78.
+
+Salisbury, meeting-house at, 369.
+
+Salmon, price in Boston, 123;
+  low regard of, 123;
+  fishing for, 124.
+
+Salt-cellar, 78-79.
+
+Salting of fish, 124;
+  of meat, 153.
+
+Samp, mode of preparing, 131-132, 134;
+  porridge of, 134.
+
+Samplers, 265-268.
+
+Samp-mills, 133.
+
+Samp-mortars, 133.
+
+Sap-buckets, 112.
+
+Sap-yoke, 113.
+
+Sassafras, as dye, 194;
+  for soap, 255.
+
+Sausages, making of, 154-155.
+
+Sausage-gun, 154.
+
+Save-alls, 42.
+
+Scaffold, name for pulpit, 368.
+
+Scarne. See Skarne.
+
+Sconces, 42.
+
+Scouring-rush, 85.
+
+Scutching. See Swingling.
+
+Scythe snathe, 309-312.
+
+Seal of Germantown, 181.
+
+Seating the meeting, 370-371.
+
+Seats, at table, 101;
+  in New England meetings, 369;
+  in Virginia churches, 383-384;
+  in Dutch churches, 386-387.
+
+Section. See Bout.
+
+Sedan-chairs, 356.
+
+Sermons, length of, 376.
+
+Sewall, Samuel, quoted, 354-356;
+  character of, 418.
+
+Shad, low regard of, 123-124;
+  price of, 124;
+  fishing for, 124;
+  salting of, 124.
+
+Shallop, 328.
+
+Shed, in weaving, 221.
+
+Sheep, in Massachusetts, 188;
+  laws about, 188, 189;
+  herding of, 409.
+
+Sheep-folds, 401.
+
+Sheep-herds, 401.
+
+Sheep-ranges, 401.
+
+Shelburne, girls work in, 262.
+
+Shepster, 187.
+
+Sherry-vallies, 296.
+
+Shingles, making of, 316-317.
+
+Shingle-bolts, 318.
+
+Shingle-mould, 317.
+
+Shoe-pegs, 315-316.
+
+Shuttles, for loom, 224-225.
+
+Sign-boards, name on, 358-359;
+  historical value of, 359;
+  of Philadelphia, 359;
+  of Baltimore, 359.
+
+Sigourney, Mrs., quoted, 277-278.
+
+Silk-grass, 211.
+
+Silver, use of, 89-92.
+
+Skarne, 216-217.
+
+Skeins, of flax thread, 175.
+
+Skillet, 50.
+
+Skilts, 236.
+
+Slave-kitchen, 54.
+
+Slave quarters, 14.
+
+Slavery, in New England, 163;
+  in Virginia, 164.
+
+Sleds, 343.
+
+Sleighs, in New York, 355.
+
+Sley, of loom, 219-220;
+  price of, 224.
+
+Slice, 67.
+
+Slippings, of flax thread, 175.
+
+Smith, John, quoted, 115-116;
+  plants corn, 127;
+  description of first Virginia church, 381-382.
+
+Smoke-house, 153.
+
+Smoke-jack, 65.
+
+Smoking tongs, 68-69.
+
+Snake-fence, 25.
+
+Sneak-cups, 106.
+
+Snow, name of vessel, 328.
+
+Snowstorm, in New England, 410 _et seq._
+
+Snuffers, 42.
+
+Snuffers tray, 42.
+
+Soap, making of, 253-255.
+
+Society house, 396.
+
+Sorrel, as dye, 194.
+
+South Carolina. See Carolinas.
+
+Southernwood, 428.
+
+Spatter-dashes, 296.
+
+Spelling, varied, of squashes, 144.
+
+Spenser, quoted, 319.
+
+Spermaceti, 42.
+
+Spices, in cooking, 153;
+  ground at home, 158.
+
+Spice-mills, 158.
+
+Spice-mortars, 158.
+
+Spinning, of flax, 174, 230;
+  pay for, 175;
+  in Egypt, 178;
+  in India, 178;
+  in New England, 179-180;
+  in Pennsylvania, 181;
+  in France, 230-231;
+  day's work in, 185;
+  in modern times, 186;
+  of wool, 196-198, 229-230;
+  new materials for, 211;
+  race between weaving and, 228-229;
+  a by-industry, 228.
+
+Spinning classes, 180.
+
+Spinning-cup, 174.
+
+Spinning-jenny, 229.
+
+Spinning-matches, 184-185.
+
+Spinning-school, 180, 182.
+
+Spinning-wheel. See Flax-wheel and Wool-wheel.
+
+Spinster, legal title of women, 187.
+
+Splint brooms. See Birch brooms.
+
+Spool-holder. See Skarne.
+
+Spoons, use of, 87;
+  material of, 87-88;
+  types of, 89-90.
+
+Spoon-moulds, 87-88.
+
+Spoon-racks, 68.
+
+Spreading of flax, 168.
+
+Spunks, 50.
+
+Squadrons, of spinners, 189.
+
+Squanto, teaches fishing, 117;
+  teaches corn-planting, 130.
+
+Squashes, varied names of, 144.
+
+Squirrels, abundance of, 110;
+  premium on, 110.
+
+Stage-coaches, in Great Britain, 331, 345-346;
+  in America, 345-346.
+
+Stage-wagon, 345.
+
+Staircases, 27.
+
+Standing salt, 78-79.
+
+Standish, Lorea, sampler of, 266.
+
+Starting a fire, 48-50.
+
+Starving times, in Virginia, 127;
+  in New England, 129.
+
+Staves, 316.
+
+Stays, 291.
+
+Steeples, 366.
+
+Steep-pool, for flax, 169.
+
+Stepping-stones. See Horse-blocks.
+
+Stitches, names of, 264-265.
+
+St.-John's-wort, as dye, 194.
+
+Stockings, knitting of, 190, 262-263;
+  weaving of, 190.
+
+Stocks, location of, 367.
+
+Stone-bee, 407.
+
+Stone-hauling, 407.
+
+Stone walls, 407.
+
+Stoves, first, 69;
+  in Dutch churches, 385.
+
+Strachey, quoted, 119.
+
+Strangers, harboring of, forbidden in New England, 393-394.
+
+Stratford, tithing-man in, 372.
+
+Straw manufacture, 259-261.
+
+Streets, condition of, 362;
+  lighting of, 362;
+  washing of, 363.
+
+Strikes, of flax, 172.
+
+Striking a light, 47.
+
+Stump-pulling, 407.
+
+Sturgeon, great catch of, 120;
+  in New York, 120.
+
+Substitutes for imported foods, 158-159.
+
+Succotash, 134.
+
+Sudbury, tavern at, 357-358.
+
+Sugar, substitutes for, 110, 111, 147, 157, 158;
+  cutting of, 155-156.
+
+Sugar-bowls, names for, 106.
+
+Sugar-cones, 155.
+
+Sugar-cutters, 155-156.
+
+Summer-piece, 8.
+
+Sunday, observance of, by Puritans, 378 _et seq._;
+  by Rev. John Cotton, 379;
+  by Virginians, 380;
+  by the Dutch, 384;
+  duration of, 379.
+
+Sun-dials, 299, 442-443;
+  inscriptions on, 443;
+  materials of, 443.
+
+Suppawn, use of, 133.
+
+Sweep and mortar mill, 132.
+
+Sweet potatoes, modes of cooking, 145.
+
+Swifts, 215-216.
+
+Swineherds. See Hog-reeves.
+
+Swingling of flax, 171-172.
+
+Swingling block, 171.
+
+Swingling knives, 171, 312.
+
+Swingle-tree hurds, 172.
+
+Swingling tow, bonfires of, 177.
+
+Swing-sign. See Sign-board.
+
+
+Table, description of, 76.
+
+Table-board, 76, 81.
+
+Table-cloths, 77.
+
+Tallow, lack of, 34.
+
+Tambour work, 269.
+
+Tankards, original meaning, 83;
+  of wood, 83-84;
+  of silver, 99.
+
+Tapping-gauge, 112.
+
+Tape-loom, various names of, 225;
+  described, 225-227.
+
+Tap-room, of Wayside Inn, 357-358.
+
+Tarboggin. See Chebobbin.
+
+Tar-making, 33.
+
+Taste of a dinner, 418.
+
+Tasters, 86-87.
+
+Taverns, establishment of, 356;
+  titles for, 356;
+  prices at, 357;
+  values about, 357;
+  names of rooms at, 357;
+  in southern colonies, 360;
+  in New Netherland, 361.
+
+Tea, substitutes for, 158-159;
+  first sales of, 164;
+  queer mode of cooking, 165.
+
+Teazels, 232.
+
+Teazeling, of cloth, 232.
+
+Temperature, of houses, 70-71;
+  of churches, 374.
+
+Temple, of loom, 223.
+
+Tennessee, hand-weaving in, 249.
+
+Tenting, of cloth, 232.
+
+Terbobbin. See Chebobbin.
+
+Terrapin, 120.
+
+Thatch, for roofs, 15.
+
+Threshing, 313-314.
+
+Thumbing, in weaving, 218.
+
+Thumb-rings, 298.
+
+Tin, slight use of, 58.
+
+Tinder, 48.
+
+Tinder-box, 48.
+
+Tinder-mill, 50.
+
+Tinder-wheel, 49.
+
+Tithing-men, 372, 373.
+
+Titles, old-time, for women, 187.
+
+Toasting-forks, 60.
+
+Tobacco, as currency, 189;
+  use forbidden near meeting-house, 379.
+
+Tomble. See Temple.
+
+Tongs, 236.
+
+Tow, garments of, 235-236.
+
+Town, unit in New England, 390;
+  narrow feeling of, 391.
+
+Townsend, revolutionary story of, 203.
+
+Toys, of wood, 306.
+
+Trammels, 53.
+
+Transportation, on horseback, 176, 336 _et seq._;
+  by wagons, 339 _et seq._
+
+Trees, girdling of, 403;
+  drive of, 404;
+  under-cutting of, 404.
+
+Trenchers, description, 80;
+  material, 82.
+
+Trivets, 60.
+
+Troughs, making of, 311.
+
+Trumbull, Jonathan, chaise of, 353.
+
+Trunks, 348.
+
+Trunk pedler, 300.
+
+Tumble. See Temple.
+
+Tummings, 195.
+
+Turkeys, wild, 109;
+  size of, 109-110;
+  price of, 110.
+
+Turkey wheat, 129.
+  See Corn.
+
+Turkey-wings, 309.
+
+Turnips, 145.
+
+Turnpikes, 349-350.
+
+Turnspit dog, 65.
+
+Tusser, Thomas, quoted, 35, 168, 255, 321-322.
+
+Twifflers, 106.
+
+
+Van der Donck, quoted, 118, 119, 120.
+
+Van Tienhoven, quoted, 2.
+
+Veils, interference about, 285.
+
+Venison. See Deer.
+
+Vermont, candle-wood in, 32;
+  broom-making in, 303.
+
+Victualling, name for tavern, 356.
+
+Violins, in meeting, 378.
+
+Virginia, early houses in, 11;
+  palisados in, 24;
+  candle-wood in, 32;
+  first fork in, 78;
+  silver in, 91;
+  table furnishings in, 104;
+  deer in, 108-109;
+  birds and fowl in, 110;
+  lobsters in, 118;
+  crabs in, 118;
+  oysters in, 119;
+  plenty of fish in, 118-119;
+  corn in, 127;
+  massacre in, 127;
+  windmills in, 133;
+  toll in, 133;
+  starvation in, 127, 144;
+  pumpkins in, 143;
+  locust groves in, 163;
+  flax culture in, 181-182;
+  wool culture in, 189-190;
+  cloths in, 237;
+  broom-corn in, 256;
+  sumptuary laws in, 285;
+  outfit of settlers, 289;
+  roads in, 331;
+  taverns in, 361;
+  Sunday observance in, 380;
+  churches in, 381-382;
+  cows in, 400;
+  fences in, 402.
+
+Virginia fence, 25.
+
+Voiders, 106-107.
+
+Voorleezer, duties of, 386.
+
+
+Waffle-irons, 61.
+
+Wagon. See Conestoga wagon.
+
+Warming-pans, 72.
+
+Warning out, 392;
+  a mystery in, 393.
+
+Warp, 218.
+
+Warp-beam, 214.
+
+Warping, 217-218.
+
+Warping-bars, 217-218.
+
+Warping-needle, 219.
+
+Warp-threads. See Warp.
+
+Washing, domestic, 255.
+
+Washington, George, home of, 13;
+  outfit of his stepdaughter, 291;
+  dress of, 293;
+  as canal promoter, 353.
+
+Washington, Martha, thrift of, 237-238;
+  netting of, 265.
+
+Watches, 299.
+
+Watch-chains, 263.
+
+Water, as beverage, 147.
+
+Watering of flax, 169.
+
+Water-fowl, plenty of, 125;
+  enumerated, 125.
+
+Watertown, windmill at, 133;
+  restrictions of settlement in, 393.
+
+Wax, candles of, 37; bayberry, 39-40.
+
+Waynesville, hand-weaving in, 250.
+
+Wayside Inn, 357-358.
+
+Weather-skirt, 295.
+
+Weavers, status of, 212-213;
+  seat of, 221;
+  working-hours of, 228;
+  in Narragansett, 241-244.
+
+Weaving, noise of, 212, 220;
+  three motions in, 221-222;
+  disappearance of, 227;
+  on tape-looms, 225-227;
+  race between spinning and, 228-230;
+  of linens, 230-231;
+  of rag carpet, 239-240;
+  of coverlets, 242-246;
+  during Civil War, 249.
+  See Loom.
+
+Weaving-room. See Loom-room.
+
+Webster, 187.
+
+Weeds, once garden flowers, 435-436, 447-449.
+
+Weight-timbers, 11.
+
+Weld, quoted, 348-349.
+
+Well-sweep, 443-444.
+
+Westmoreland Revival, 227.
+
+Whale-fishing, 41.
+
+"Whang," 417.
+
+Wheat, planting of, 147.
+
+Wheel. See Flax-wheel and Wool-wheel.
+
+Wheel-peg, 198.
+
+Wheelwrights, early use of wood, 176.
+
+Whipping-post, location of, 367.
+
+White-Ellery House, 19.
+
+Whiteweed, in America, 449.
+
+Whitney, Eli, invention of, 208.
+
+Whittemore, Amos, invention of, 205.
+
+Whittier, quoted, 73-74, 181, 370, 413, 436;
+  homespun attire of, 248.
+
+Whittling, 321-323.
+
+Wicks for candles, 34, 45.
+
+Wigs, wearing of, 296-297;
+  denounced, 296;
+  names of, 296-299;
+  cost of, 297.
+
+Wigwams, 3.
+
+William and Mary College, tax for, 109.
+
+Williams, Roger, quoted, 134, 137, 285.
+
+Windmills, Indian fear of, 130;
+  first erected, 133;
+  of John Winthrop, 133;
+  in Virginia, 133.
+
+Windows, of glass, 23;
+  of oiled paper, 23.
+
+Windsor, boys' pews in, 372.
+
+Wine-taster, 87.
+
+Winslow house, knocker of, 29.
+
+Winthrop, John, fork of, 77;
+  jug of, 98;
+  his use of water as beverage, 148;
+  pick-a-back, 329;
+  sedan-chair of, 356.
+
+Winthrop, John, Jr., quoted, 32; mill of, 133.
+
+Woad-wax, in Massachusetts, 448.
+
+Woburn, long services at, 376.
+
+Wolfskin bags in meeting, 374.
+
+Wolves' heads, nailed on meeting-houses, 364-365.
+
+Wood, trenchers of, 80-81;
+  utensils of, 82;
+  spoons of, 88;
+  for shuttles, 225;
+  unusual uses of, 305;
+  toys of, 306;
+  natural shapes in, 308-311.
+
+Wood, quoted, 32-33, 137.
+
+Wool, an ancient industry, 187;
+  early culture of, 187-193;
+  manufacture of, 187-193;
+  restraints on manufacture, 191-192;
+  in England, 192;
+  preparation of, 193;
+  dyeing of, 193-194;
+  carding of, 194-195;
+  combing of, 196;
+  spinning of, 196-198.
+  See Yarn.
+
+Wool-cards, described, 194-195;
+  history of, 204-206.
+
+Wool-combs, 196.
+
+Wool-wheel, price of, 177.
+
+Wordsworth, quoted, on spinning, 179.
+
+Worsted stuffs, 233.
+
+Wrathe. See Raddle.
+
+
+Yarn, spinning of, 197-198, 201, 229;
+  winding of, 198;
+  skeining of, 199;
+  cleansing of, 202;
+  water-twist, 229.
+
+Yarn beam. See Warp-beam.
+
+Yarn roll. See Warp-beam.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Home Life in Colonial Days, by Alice Morse Earle
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